United States Office of Marine EPA Region 1
Environmental Protection and Estuarine Protection Boston MA
Agency Washington DC 20460
Water EPA 503/4-88-001 . September 1988
«>EPA Bacteriological Monitoring in
Buttermilk Bay
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BACTERIOLOGICAL MONITORING
IN BUTTERMILK BAY
George R. Heufelder
Barnstable County Health
&
Environmental Department
BBP-88-03
The Buzzards Bay Project is sponsored by The
US Environmental Protection Agency and The Massachusetts
Executive Office of Environmental Affairs
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THE BUZZARDS BAY PROJECT
US Environmental Protection Agency Massachusetts Executive Office of
WQP-2100 Environmental Affairs
John F. Kennedy Federal Building 100 Cambridge Street
Boston, MA 02203 Boston, MA 02202
FOREWORD
In 1984, Buzzards Bay was one of four estuaries in the country
chosen to be part of the National Estuary Program. The Buzzards
Bay Project was initiated in 1985 to protect water quality and
the health of living resources in the bay by identifying resource
management problems, investigating the causes of these problems,
and recommending actions that will protect valuable resources
from further environmental degradation. This multi-year project,
jointly managed by United States Environmental Protection Agency
and the Massachusetts Executive Office of Environmental Affairs,
utilizes the efforts of local, state, and federal agencies, the
academic community and local interest groups in developing a
Master Plan that will ensure an acceptable and sustainable level
of environmental quality for Buzzards Bay.
The Buzzards Bay Project is focusing on three priority problems:
closure of shellfish beds, contamination of fish and shellfish by
toxic metals and organic compounds, and high nutrient input and
the potential pollutant effects. By early 1990, the Buzzards Bay
Project will develop a Comprehensive Conservation and Management
Plan to address the Project's overall objectives: to develop
recommendations for regional water quality management that are
based on sound information, to define the regulatory and
management structure necessary to implement the recommendations,
and to educate and involve the public in formulating and
implementing these recommendations.
The Buzzards Bay Project has funded a variety of tasks that are
intended to improve our understanding of the input, fate and
effects of contaminants in coastal waters. The Project will
identify and evaluate historic information as well as generate
new data to fill information gaps. The results of these Project
tasks are published in this Technical Series on Buzzards Bay.
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This report represents the technical results of an investigation
funded by the Buzzards Bay Project. The results and conclusions
contained herein are those of the author(s). These conclusions
have been reviewed by competent outside reviewers and found to be
reasonable and legitimate based on the available data. The
Management Committee of the Buzzards Bay Project accepts this
report as technically sound and complete. The conclusions do not
necessarily represent the recommendations of the Buzzards Bay
Project. Final recommendations for resource management actions
will be based upon the results of this and other investigations.
David Fierra, Chairman, Management Committee
Environmental Protection Agency
Thomas Bigford
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
Steve Bliven
Massachusetts Office of Coastal Zone Management
Leigh Bridges
Massachusetts Division of Marine Fisheries
Jack Clarke
Cape Cod Planning and Economic Development Commission
Richard Delaney
Massachusetts Office of Coastal Zone Management
Meriel Hardin
Massachusetts Department of Environmental Quality
Engineering
Dr. Russell Isaac
Massachusetts Division of Water Pollution Control
Dr. Susan Peterson
President, Coalition for Buzzards Bay
Dr. Don Phelps
Environmental Protection Agency
Ted Pratt
Chairman, Buzzards Bay Citizens Advisory Committee
Stephen Smith
Southeast Regional Planning and Economic Development District
Bruce Tripp
Massachusetts Executive Office of Environmental Affairs
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
LIST OF FIGURES iii
LIST OF TABLES V
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS vi
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1
INTRODUCTION 5
STUDY AREA 5
APPROACH AND METHODOLOGY 7
RESULTS
STORMWATER 12
Impacts from stormwater discharges and
overland runoff 14
Release from protected reservoirs 24
Impacts from surcharge with contaminated
groundwater 27
SEPTIC SYSTEMS 29
WILDLIFE 33
BOATS AND MARINAS 39
FRESHWATER INPUTS 41
POINT DISCHARGES 43
FURTHER CONSIDERATIONS 43
USE OF ALTERNATE BACTERIAL INDICATORS 52
Escherichia coli 53
Clostridium perfringens 55
FECAL STREPTOCOCCUS 60
ENTEROCOCCUS 60
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (CONT.)
VIRUSES - A LITERATURE REVIEW OF PERTINENT ISSUES.... 63
Entrainment of viruses in groundwater 65
Predicting the movement of viruses in
groundwater entering Buttermilk Bay 70
SURVIVAL OF VIRUSES IN MARINE SYSTEMS 71
GENERAL SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 73
APPENDIX I 75
APPENDIX II 82
REFERENCES 85
ii
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
1 Buttermilk Bay Study Area 6
2 Location of Stormdrains and Approximate
Areas of Service 8
3 Location of Routine Bacteriological
Monitoring Stations 11
4 Fecal Coliform Densities Observed at Selected
Sampling Stations During a Joint FDA -DEQE
Survey of Buttermilk Bay in July 1985 13
5 Geometric Mean Fecal Coliform Densities at
Stormdrains Entering Buttermilk Bay During
1986 (Six Drains Combined) 15
6 Fecal Coliform Densities Observed at Selected
Stormdrains in Buttermilk Bay During 1986 .... 16
7 Summary of Rainfall Events in the
Buttermilk Bay Area During 1986 20
8 Location of Groundwater Sampling Stations
in Buttermilk Bay Area 28
9 Septic System Survey Results - System I 31
10 Septic System Survey Results - System II 32
11 Average Monthly Waterfowl Census for
Buttermilk Bay in 1986 36
12 Locations of Marinas Sampled During 1986
Survey 40
13 Fecal Coliform Die-off With Time - Results
of Preliminary Experiments in Buttermilk
Bay to Determine the Effect of Solar
Radiation on Fecal Coliform 44
14 Comparison of U-V Light Absorbance Among
Selected Stations in Buttermilk Bay 47
15 Comparison of Sediment-Protected Fecal
Coliform vs. Light Exposed Samples 49
16 Growth of Fecal Coliform in the Presence of
Indigenous Algae at 20 C tinder Laboratory
Conditions '. 51
111
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LIST OF FIGURES (CONTINUED)
Figure Page
17 Relationship Between Fecal Coliform and
E. coli Densities in Samples Collected
at Routine Sampling Stations in Buttermilk
Bay During 1986 Survey 54
18 Relationship Between Fecal Coliform and
Clostridium perfringens Densities in
Samples Collected at Routine Sampling
Stations in Buttermilk Bay During 1986
Survey 57
19 Relationship Between Fecal Coliform and
Fecal Streptococci Densities in Samples
Collected at Routine Sampling Stations
in Buttermilk Bay During 1986 Survey 59
20 Relationship Between Fecal Coliform and
Enterococci Densities in Samples
Collected at Routine Sampling Stations
in Buttermilk Bay During 1986 Survey 62
IV
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LIST OP TABLES
Table Page
1 Overlying Water - Suspended Sediment Fecal
Coliform Densities From Selected Sites
in Buttermilk Bay 25
2 Fecal Coliform Densities in Rainwater Percolate
of Decaying Eelgrass Found at Selected Sites in
Buttermilk Bay 27
3 Summary of Groundwater Analyses in Buttermilk
Bay 33
4 Summary of Fecal Coliform and E. coli
Densities at Routing Sampling Stations in
Buttermilk Bay in 1986 35
5 Summary of Fecal Coliform and E. coli
Densities from a Fish Market DTs~charge Pipe
Entering Buttermilk Bay on Selected Dates
in 1986 43
6 Summary of Clostridia perfringens Densities
at Routine Sampling Stations in Buttermilk Bay
in 1986 56
7 Summary of Fecal Streptococci Densities at
Routine Sampling Stations in Buttermilk Bay
in 1986 58
8 Summary of Enterococci Densities at Routine
Sampling Stations in Buttermilk Bay in 1986 ... 61
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The completion of this report required the behind-the-scenes
assistance of a number of individuals whose help was greatly
appreciated. Quality assurance and bacteriological analyses were
aided to a large degree by the effort of Donna McCaffery, our
staff bacteriologist. Her technical review and comments on the
manuscript were also appreciated. Administrative assistance and
support of Stetson Hall, County Health Officer, and Norma Jean
Peck provided for an efficiently run field investigation.
Laboratory Analysts Sue Williams, Susan Rask and Laurie Canning
are thanked for their help during the often-unfortuitous
occurrences of rain events.
Joseph Costa of Boston University Marine Program is thanked
for his computer assistance. Craig Fish of Boston University,
Geology Department is thanked for providing water parcel
trajectory maps which helped in understanding the possible fate
of contaminants from stormwater discharge pipes. A special
thanks is extended to the staff of the Southeast Region of the
Massachusetts Department of Environmental Engineering, Shellfish
Sanitation Branch for their assistance in obtaining and
interpreting historical bacteriological data from the study area
and technical assistance throughout the study.
vi
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Water quality in Buttermilk Bay, southeastern Massachusetts
was historically perceived as very good until March, 1984 when
the entire area of the bay was closed to shellfishing. A year-
long study of the bacteriological quality of the bay and all
potential sources of contamination was initiated in September,
1985. Fecal coliform, the currently-accepted index of water
quality, was used in the study. In nearly all cases, further
differentiation of the fecal coliform group indicated that the
organisms were Escherichia coli, a normal inhabitant in the
intestinal tract of warm-blooded animals. Investigations
centered around six possible sources of contamination:
stormwater, septic systems, wildlife, marinas, freshwater inputs
and point discharges. '
Stormwater
Our investigations suggest that stormwater discharges are
the most important factor causing the periodic reclassification
of the area as unsuitable for shellfish harvesting. Maximum
contamination levels in Buttermilk Bay coincide with rain events,
a period in which samples are taken for the purpose of
classification of the area under presently-accepted practice
(sampling during "worst hydrographic conditions"). The level of
fecal coliform contamination at discharge points is shown to be
related to three main factors. The extent of residential
development is shown to be positively related to fecal coliform
levels, with highest levels observed at the western shore where
housing density approximates 20 units per ha (8 units per acre).
Frequency of rain events was negatively correlated with fecal
coliform densities at discharge points, presumably due to a
shorter period available for fecal material to accumulate on
surfaces drained. In agreement with National Urban Runoff
Program studies, a seasonal effect on coliform densities at
discharge points was noted with minimum values observed during
winter sampling. To place coliform loadings from discharge pipes
in perspective, the amount of water required to dilute the
discharge to 14 FC/1QO ml was calculated and compared with the
tidal prism (2.5 x 106 cu. m). Between 18%, during colder months
sampled, and 440 % ,during warmer months, of the tidal prism
would be required for this dilution. A survey of each surface
drainage area during dry periods suggests that the source of the
fecal coliform during discharge events is not sanitary wastes.
Domestic dogs and wildlife are implicated as over 100 dogs
inhabit areas served by drains. Use of in-situ measured fecal
loadings from dog wastes indicate that the predicted volume of
dog waste necessary to account for the overall geometric mean
value of fecal coliform in discharged water could be accounted
for by a 2-3 day accumulation.
In addition to direct discharges, storm events cause a
release of fecal indicators from sediments and other protected
reservoirs into the water column. The extent of this release
could not be quantified, however measurements of fecal coliform
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from these protected reservoirs indicate that the effect may be
substantial. Scavengers and waterfowl, particularly Canada geese,
are strongly implicated as being the source of high fecal
coliform (>1/000 FC/gram) in strand line deposits.
Septic Systems
Groundwater sampling in the Buttermilk Bay watershed
presented conflicting indications regarding fecal coliform
entrainment. General sampling indicated groundwater
contamination at distances at least 35 m from the nearest
suspected source, however a more intensive sampling scheme
performed near two septic systems indicated limited mobility of
fecal indicators in this area's soil. While the entrainment of
bacterial indicators appears to be limited, the issue of
pathogenic virus entrainment remains unresolved after the present
study. A review of pertinent published studies regarding virus
entrainment is presented and suggests a lateral entrainment of
viruses to at least 67.05 m (220 ft) in soil types similar to the
study area. It is concluded that, regarding the entrainment of
pathogenic organisms in groundwater, a major public health
threat, the viruses, is probably not adequately assessed with the
indicator system used.
Wildlife
A waterfowl survey was conducted weekly to determine the use
of Buttermilk Bay by migrating waterfowl and to determine the
resulting bacteriological impact. Following techniques employed
by Hussong et al. (1979), theoretical loadings were compared with
actual field values. Predicted estimates generally coincided
with field measurements and indicate that, except in certain
areas, the use of the bay by waterfowl had fairly minimal direct
impact on water quality. A long-term cumulative impact on water
quality due to the fecal deposits in the beach areas, however, is
indicated due to the maintenance of fecal material in a protected
area. These wastes accumulate and can be released in a slow
diffuse pattern, and can result in considerable local degradation
of water quality. The release of these fecal indicators during
certain hydrographic and meteorological events (ie. high tides
and rainfall events) can expect to significantly impact the water
quality, the extent of which will be determined by a number of
variables to include circulation, water temperature, etc..
Marinas
Utilizing two sampling approaches, no measurable impact on
the bacteriological quality of water was observed as a result of
marina operation. These results should be interpreted with
caution however, since the nature of the suspected wastes would
necessitate extremely fortuitous circumstances in order to
determine the actual impact of an overall operation. In addition,
the marinas studied should be considered atypical due to inherent
restrictions on boat size in one case, and the presence of pump
out facilities in the other case. It is concluded that the
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extent of impact of marina operations will be determined by the
level of convenience and cost associated with the proper handing
of sanitary wastes at each facility. Studies documenting the
effect of marinas are reviewed herein and indicate that in more
"normal11 situations, the impact of marina operations can be
significantly adverse.
Freshwater Inputs
The review of historical data as well as investigations
presented herein confirm that the freshwater drainage into
Buttermilk Bay is a consistent source of fecal coliform. In the
case of Red Brook, no point sources were located. It is
concluded that two possibilities exist for the consistently
higher fecal coliform densities observed. Although limited
groundwater sampling failed to reveal this as an input, it is
possible that septic plumes are entering the brook at
Undiscovered locations. In addition, investigations reviewed
herein and small scale experiments suggest that the extensive
marsh area near Red Brook, and possibly the marshes and bogs
within the watersheds of other freshwater inputs to Buttermilk
Bay are sources of "natural" fecal coliform (those fecal coliform
surviving and possibly multiplying outside a warm-blooded animal
host). It is certain that each of the marshes surrounding and
draining into Buttermilk Bay contain a variety of wildlife
species which additionally will act as a diffuse but significant
source.
Point Discharges
Only one point discharge was discovered (not including
stormdrains) in the present study. This consisted of a discharge
pipe located at a local fish market. The location of this
discharge in Cohasset Narrows probably minimizes its impact,
however during certain tidal stages (incoming tide) the impact
may be quite substantial and extend more into the bay.
Other Considerations
Small scale experiments verified that solar radiation is a
prime determinant of fecal coliform die-off in surface layers of
Buttermilk Bay. Comparison of bay water sampled at different
locations suggests that in areas coincident with higher nutrient
influents, the ultraviolet light penetration is attenuated which
may cause an increased persistence of fecal coliform or a
modification of the die-off rate in these areas. In addition to
modifying the mortality rate of fecal coliform, nutrient
additions may allow for maintenance and limited growth of fecal
coliform and pathogens as implied by laboratory experiments. In
addition to the direct utilization of effluent nutrients,
laboratory investigations using water and algae collected in
Buttermilk Bay suggest that algal growth, which results from
nutrient inputs, may additionally supply fecal indicators, and
likely pathogens, with complex nutrients, resulting in fecal
indicator growth. These initial small-scale experiments
collectively suggest a link between nutrient enrichment through
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on-site sewage disposal practices and bacteriological
1 10n °f Buttermilk BaY which should be researched
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INTRODUCTION
The United States Census Bureau (Carter, 1980) indicates a
strong preference of people to live in coastal regions. If the
present trends continue, by the year 1990, 75 percent of the
population of the United States will live within 50 miles of
tidal waters and the Great Lakes. This demographic shift toward
coastal environments will undoubtedly result in the inability of
many coastal areas to absorb the human wastes generated, and will
prevent these areas from being used for many of the activities
generally associated with good water quality (ie. shellfish
harvesting and swimming). In southeastern Massachusetts, where
unprecedented growth has occurred in the last decade, there has
been a 28 % increase in the number of areas closed to shellfish
harvesting between the years 1983 and 1985, and in 1984,
formerly-pristine areas such as the Westport, North and South
Rivers were closed due to bacterial contamination (Massachusetts
Division of Marine Fisheries, 1985).
The issues involved in bacterial contamination of surface
waters are complex and cover both point- and nonpoint sources of
contamination. For the most part, nonpoint sources of pollution
have played the major role in affecting the majority of shellfish
area closures in recent years. Nonpoint pollution refers to
certain categories of natural sources of wastes or wastes from
activity of man which are dispersed or diffused (Furfari, 1979).
While many of the issues and questions regarding point source
pollution problems can be easily addressed, the nature of
nonpoint source pollution (being dispersed and diffuse) has
precluded many successful attempts at abatement. Paramount to
controlling nonpoint source pollution is an understanding of the
mechanisms by which nonpoint sources affect the nearshore marine
resource in each situation. While many advances have been made
in understanding nonpoint pollution, there is general agreement
that many of the mechanisms resulting in coastal degradation of
water quality are poorly understood. The purpose of the study
described herein is to clarify the sources and mechanisms
involved in the contamination of Buttermilk Bay, southeastern
Massachusetts with fecal coliform, the generally-accepted
indicator of water quality for purposes of shellfish harvesting
and recreational contact (swimming, wading etc.).
STUDY AREA
Buttermilk Bay is a small embayment in the northern section
of Buzzards Bay, southeastern Massachusetts (Figure 1.). Our
study area included Little Buttermilk Bay ( 0.43 km2 at mean low
tide) and Buttermilk Bay proper ( 1.71 km2 at mean low tide). In
addition, freshwater surface inputs and their watersheds were
investigated for coliform sources.
Land use within the watershed of Buttermilk Bay ranges from
intense residential use (0.05 ha - 0.115 acre lots) on the
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o\
Fig. 1 Study area - Buttermilk Bay, southeastern
Massachusetts
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western and northern shores to lower density residential use on
the eastern shore. In addition, stormwater inputs from a
commercial area along Cranberry Highway (Routes 6-28) impact the
bay along the southern shoreline. There are over 20 direct
stormwater discharges into the bay for a combined drainage from
impervious surfaces of approximately 80,620 sq. m (867,800
square feet ) (Figure 2). Descriptions of all known direct
discharge pipes with associated drainage areas are presented in
Appendix I.
Until 1983, the area of Buttermilk Bay was perceived as
having good water quality for both shellfish harvesting and other
recreational uses. In October of that year, a portion of the bay
near "Byron's Landing" in Wareham was reclassified as
"Prohibited" under MGL Chapter 130, Section 74 A. Following a
review of the existing data, the entire area of Buttermilk and
Little Buttermilk Bay was closed to shellfish harvesting on March
13f 1984. Although the problem of high coliform counts was
perceived as being recent to the 1984 closure, historic data
indicate that high coliform and fecal coliform were evident as
far back as 1973. Data collected by the Southeastern Regional
Office of D.E.Q.E. indicate continued sporadic contamination
problems from 1973 to date. Certain areas in the bay were opened
for seasonal harvest of shellfish in October, 1986 when it was
determined that the data supported this type of classification.
In July, 1985 a resurvey of the area was conducted by the
Southeastern Office of D.E.Q.E. and the United States Public
Health Service, Food and Drug Administration. The results of
this study are unavailable at this point in time.
APPROACH AND METHODOLOGY
Investigations reported herein centered around the following
six possible sources of fecal coliform in the bay which serve as
an outline for presentation:
1) Stormwater
2) Septic Systems
3) Wildlife (to include waterfowl)
4) Boats and Marinas
5) Freshwater Inputs
6) Point Source Discharge
In addition to source delineation, certain aspects of the
ecology of the indicator organism were investigated, particularly
in relation to possible links with nutrient enrichment. These
later studies, although small in scale, point to the need for
further study to determine possible links between eutrophication
and the ecology of pathogens in embayments.
Analytical Procedures
Fecal coliform densities were determined using two methods.
7
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CD
Buttermilk
Bay
Approximate drainage areas
0.5 KM
Fig. 2 Locations of stormwater discharges in Buttermilk Bay, southeastern Massachusetts
with approximate drainage areas served.
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The primary method used for comparability with data collected by
D.E.Q.E. was the "Modified A-l" test (APHA, 1985). A 5-tube, 3,
4 or 5 dilution series (5-dilution series was used for stormwater
analyses) was performed with results obtained from a standard
MPN table. In addition to fecal coliform density determination,
the presence of Escherichia coli was determined by adding 4-
Methylumbelliferyl-beta-D-glucuronide (MUG) to the nutrient
broth. E. coli produces glucuronidase, an enzyme that hydrolyzes
MUG to yTeld a fluorogenic product. The presence of E. coli was
determined by observing for fluorescence using a hand-held long-
wave ultraviolet light following the determination of fecal
coliform. Tests for fecal coliform using MFC Agar (Difco) were
also performed for comparison with A-l methodology as well as for
the purpose of supplemental sampling where freshwater fecal
coliform densities were to be determined. In addition to fecal
coliform tests, in certain situations, enterococci, fecal
streptococci and Cj^os^rj^di^um p_erfri^ngens densities were
determined in order to evaluate theTr" utiTIty in determining
contamination sources. Enterococci media was prepared after Levin
et al. (1975) and Cabelli (personal communication). Streptococci
were determined using Difco media and incubated in accordance
with Standard Methods (APHA, 1985). Media and methods for the
determination of Clostridium perfringens spores were performed
after Bisson and Cabelli (1979).
Six stormdrains representative of various land usages were
chosen for monitoring during eight storm events. Samples were
taken by immersing a sterile sampling bottle in the discharge
flow from the pipes at discharge points for the drains
designated as Electric Ave (Code #3)., State (Code #27),
Jefferson Shores (Code #26), Red Brook Drain (Code # 16), and
Puritan Ave (Code #8) (APPENDIX 1). Due to the normal occurrence
of a tide which submerged the drain at the discharge point, the
Wychunus drain (Code #17) was sampled at the distal-most road
drainage basin. A rain gauge was placed at the mouth of Red Brook
and served as a indicator as to time of sampling.
During the initial two storms (5/22/86 and 7/2/86), sampling
was conducted during the "first flush" period (within 30 minutes
from the beginning of the rain event), and following at least
0.64 cm (0.25 inches) of precipitation. Since there was no
consistent first flush effect as described by Whipple et al.
(1983), it was decided to that the first flush sampling effort
would be discontinued and effort would be realigned to include
additional rain events (a total of eight). Subsequent sampling
at discharge points on 7/21, 7/30, 8/11, 10/2, 11/5, and 12/19
was performed as soon after 0.64 cm of precipitation as possible.
For the purpose of estimating the fecal coliform loading from
stormdrains, the volume of runoff entering the bay from
impervious surfaces was estimated. The impervious surface area
serviced by each stormdrain was first calculated by walking the
area with an odometer calibrated to the nearest linear foot and
measuring the width of each road section. Stormwater volume was
then calculated using the formula:
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V = A x P(100)
where V = the volume of stormwater from each drain (cu. meters),
A = the impervious surface serviced by each drain ( sq. meters)
and P = the amount of precipitation in cm. The geometric mean
fecal coliform densities of the six drains combined (fecal
coliform/100 ml x 104 ) were used to calculate the fecal coliform
loadings for each rain event monitored.
Eleven routine sampling stations throughout the bay (Figure
3.) were chosen for monthly monitoring from September, 1985-
October, 1986. Samples were taken during the mid phase of the
outgoing tide with the prerequisite of having no significant
rainfall during the prior 72 hrs. Samples were taken by wading
or means of boat where the bottom depth was at least 1 meter.
The sampling distance from the surface of the water was 30-40 cm
with the exception of samples taken near the mouth of Red Brook
where a stratified sampling design was used. At this station, 1
sample was taken approximately 15 cm from the surface and a
second sample was taken 60-90 cm from the surface. Mid-bay
sampling stations were omitted during winter months due to
navigational difficulties associated with ice cover.
Groundwater samples were taken using a shallow well-point
sampler with a slotted well point. Using a vacuum pump,
approximately one liter of water was evacuated from the well into
a sacrificial bottle. Following this procedure, a sterile bottle
was connected to the device and a sample was withdrawn and
analyzed.
Sediment samples were taken using two methods. For a
comparison of sediment vs. overlying water vs. shellfish meat,
approximately 1 m2 of bottom was disturbed and a sample was taken
within the turbid water boil. Following MPN analyses, a
determination of the amount of sediment suspended per 100 mis of
sample was made by filtering a well shaken sample through a
weighed filter for the determination of sediment weight and
subsequent translation of results into number of fecal
coliform/gram of sediment. For analyses of bottom sediments near
marinas sediment samples were taken using a ponar dredge . Upon
bringing the sample to the surface and depositing it in a
sampling tray, approximately the top 2 millimeters were scraped
off with a sterile tongue depressor and placed in a solution of
sterile phosphate buffered water for analyses. Determination of
fecal coliform per gram of sediment was made using the method
previously described.
All samples were stored in ice following collection and were
analyzed within six hours of collection.
To determine the use of the bay by waterfowl, eight shore
observation sites were chosen which allowed for a complete
waterfowl census of the bay. Waterfowl counts were generally
conducted between 0700 h and 1000 h on a weekly basis.
10
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LITTLE
BUTTERMILK
BAY
Indian
Heights
Jefferson
Shores
Fig. 3 Location of routine bacteriological
and nutrient sampling in Buttermilk Bay,
southeastern Massachusetts, September 1985-
October 1986.
* Station 5.9 sampled at two depths
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Waterfowl were separated into the categories of ducks, geese and
swans for the purpose of estimating fecal coliform loadings.
Viability of various animal feces deposited in the area was
approximated using two methods. Initially, the location of waste
deposits were marked and subsampled at various intervals. One
gram samples were placed in 99 mis of sterile buffered water and
samples were processed using the MPN technique previously
described. Fecal coliform content in organisms per gram were
thus determined. In addition, during autumn, 1986, fresh goose
feces was placed in the strand line in anchored nylon mesh bags
(365 micron mesh) and subsampled at selected intervals.
RESULTS
STORMWATER
The presence of large numbers of bacteriological indicators
and pathogenic organisms in stormwater runoff is well documented
(Olivieri et al. 1977). As shown in Long Island, New York, the
impact of this type of bacteriological contamination in
recreational-use areas is often substantial (Koppelman and
Tanenbaum 1982). In what is perhaps the most comparable portion
of the National Urban Runoff Program (NURP), these investigators
have concluded that, in Long Island, stormwater runoff is
"generally the single most significant source of pollution,
especially bacterial pollution, affecting the fresh surface
waters and nearshore marine environment". Runoff to estuarine
waters of Nassau County, New York has been implicated as the
primary source of bacterial loading to all but one of the nine
embayments.
Although the mechanisms responsible for increased fecal
coliform levels in receiving waters following rain events are not
fully understood, the negative affect of stormwater runoff on
Buttermilk Bay is unquestionable. A summary of selected "open
water" stations sampled prior to, during and following a rain
event (FDA-DEQE, 1985) clearly shows increased fecal coliform
levels in response to rainfall (Fig. 4). This phenomena has been
observed elsewhere (Gerba and Shaiberger 1973, Hill and Grimes
1984, Schillinger and Gannon 1985, Koppelman and Tanenbaum 1982)
and is the primary reason for a number of areas in Massachusetts
being classified as unacceptable for shellfish harvesting
(D.E.Q.E, S.E.R.O. - personal communication). Stormwater
impacts on receiving waters can be classified into three main
categories which are discussed separately:
1.) Impacts from direct stormwater discharges and overland
runoff.
2.) Release of coliform from protected reservoirs.
3.) Surcharge of receiving waters with contaminated
groundwater.
12
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3.0-n
74FC/100 MLS
7/8 7/8 7/9
AM RM AM
7/9
PM
7/11 7/12
DATE
7/15 7/16 7/16 7/17
AM PM AM
7/17 7/18 7/19
PM
Figure 4. Fecal coliform densities observed at selected sampling stations during a joint
FDA - DEQE survey of Buttermilk Bay, southeastern Massachusetts, July 1985.
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Impacts from stormwater discharges and overland runoff
The area around Buttermilk Bay is serviced by at least 20
drains discharging directly into the surface waters. The
impervious surfaces (primarily roadways) amount to approximately
80,620 sq. m (867,800 sq. ft). Following a 2.54 cm (one-inch)
rain, approximately 2050 cu. m of stormwater is directed to the
bay from man-made conduits. Using geometric mean fecal coliform
densities observed during 1985 (Figure 5), volumes of water
between 4.6 x 105 cu. m and 1.1 x 10' cu. m would be required
to dilute the incoming stormwater runoff from impervious surfaces
to a level of 14 fecal coliform/ 100 ml following a 2.54 cm rain
(these values are only used as a reference). To place these
coliform loading values in perspective, assuming that the tidal
prism for Buttermilk Bay is 2.5 x 106 cu. m, the incoming
stormwater entering the bay from impervious surfaces during a
2.54 cm rain event would require between 18 % and 440 % of the
tidal prism for dilution to the 14 FC/ 100 ml standard. In
reality, using this simplistic approach to predict the number of
tidal exchange volumes necessary to dilute the incoming
stormwater to acceptable level is likely invalid. Simple water-
parcel transport computer models supplied by the Boston
University Geology Department (APPENDIX II) indicate that the
extent of penetration of contamination from drains near the mouth
of Buttermilk Bay (such as the Electric Avenue Drain) and hence
the ultimate passage of contamination back out of the bay, is
highly dependent on the stage of tide during which the
contamination is introduced.
In all instances where fecal coliform were isolated from
stormwater, further differentiation using MUG indicated that the
fecal coliform involved was E._ coli. Reference throughout this
section, however, is retained as "fecal coliform" for clarity in
comparison with the standard used in classifying shellfish
harvesting areas.
Geometric mean fecal coliform densities (all drains combined)
observed in Buttermilk Bay drains (Figure 5) generally compare
with values observed elsewhere ( Whipple et al. 1983). While the
variability of the data is considerable (Figure 6), some
generalization can be made relative to coliform loading and land
use. In general, fecal coliform densities observed at the
"State" drain, typical of commercial-use land, were lower than
those observed at drains servicing residential areas (all other
drains sampled). Among the remaining drains monitored which
serviced residential areas, the highest fecal coliform densities
were observed at the "Wychunus" and "Red Brook" drains compared
with the "Electric Ave.", "Jefferson Shores" and "Puritan Ave."
Concomitantly, the areas serviced by the Wychunus and Red Brook
drains are more intensively developed (ca. 20 units/ha or 8
dwelling units/ acre) compared with areas serviced by the
-------
ALL DRAINS COMBIMED
7-t
6-
$••
L
L I
0 F
G 0 *
10B
M
E 0^
C 0
A
L M
L 2
S
1-
Townhouse/Garden Apts. (8-22 DU/Acre)
Suburban Shopping Center
Large lot residential (.1-2 DU/Acre)
Medium Density Residential
(2.0 -8.0 DU/Acre).
DU = dwelling units
Source
5/32 7/2 7/31 7/30 8/11
RAIN EVENTS
10/2
11/5
12/19
Occoquan/Four Mile Run Nonpoint
Source Correlation Study - Final
Report Northern Virginia Planning
District Commission and Virginia
Polytechnic Institute and State
University. 1978.
(as cited in Whipple et al. 1983)
Figure 5. Geometric mean fecal coliform densities in stormwater entering Buttermilk Bay, southeastern
Massachusetts from six selected drains. Fecal coliform were further differentiated and
identified as Escherichia coll.
-------
PURITAN AVENUE
5-
C
0
L 4-
L I
0 F
6 0
10 R
F 1
E 0
C 0
A
L M
L
S
5/22
7/2
7/21 7/30 B/ll 10/2
RAIN EVENTS
ELECTRIC AVENUE
11/5
IS/19
5-
C
0
L 4-
L I
0 F
°»S
7"
F 1
E 0
C 0
A z.
L
S
1-
5/22 7/2 7/21 7/30 B/ll 10/2 11/5 12/18
RAIN EVENTS
Figure 6 Fecal coliform densities observed at selected stormwater
discharge points in Buttermilk Bay during 1986. All
fecal coliform were further differentiated as Escherichia
coll.
16
-------
STATE DRAIN
4-
C
0
L
L I
0 F 3
G 0
10 R
II
A
L II
L
S
I
5/22 7/2 7/21 7/30 B/ll 10/2 11/S IE/19
RAIN EVENTS
JEFFERSON SHORES
5-
C
0
L 4-
L I
0 F
6 0
IQg
7"
F 1
E 0
C 0
A 2
L M2
L
S
•
1
•
i
1-
5/28 7/2 7/21
Figure 6 - continued
7/30 e/11
RAIN EVENTS
10/2
ii/a
12/19
17
-------
RED BROOK DRAIN
5-
C
0
L 4
L I
0 F
G 0
10 j{
M3-J
E 0
C 0
A
L M
L
S
2-
> 5.2
> 5.2
5/22 7/2 7/21 7/30 8/11 10/2 11/5 12/10
RAIN EVENTS
WYCHUNUS AVENUE
8-1
5-
C
0
L 4
L I
0 F
6 0
10R
F 1
E 0
C 0
A
L M
L
S
2-
1-
5/22 7/2 7/21
Figure 6 - continued
7/30 8/11 10/2 11/5 12/19
RAIN EVENTS
18
-------
remaining "residential" drains which are less intensively
developed « 20 units/ha). These findings are supported by the
Northern Virginia Planning Commission and Virginia Polytechnic
Institute and State University (as reported in Whipple et al.
1983) and data summarized by the North Carolina Division of
Environmental Management (1986) and suggest that the degree of
residential development directly affects fecal coliform
contamination within areas serviced by surface drains (Figure 6).
In addition to intensity of land use in areas serviced by a
drainage system, two additional factors were identified which
also affect the fecal coliform loading of surface drains. In
five of the six drains sampled on August 11, 1986, coliform
densities had decreased compared with the prior sampling date
(July 30). Meteorological data for the prior ten days indicated
that total rain in excess of 3.5 cm had fallen on three dates
during this period (Figure 7). These data suggest that the time
required for accumulation of fecal coliform source material (pet,
rodent, bird feces etc.) was considerably less than the other
dates sampled, resulting in decreased fecal coliform densities
during the August 11 rain event. Converse to the situation where
numerous rain events in succession prevent the excessive
accumulation of source material in areas serviced by surface
drains, samples collected on October 2, 1986 at all six drains
sampled showed higher fecal coliform densities than during either
of the two prior rain events (July 30 and August 11). An
examination of meteorological data for September indicates that
only one significant rainfall had occurred during the entire
month (1.7 cm on September 16- Figure 7) prior to the October 2
sampling date. In addition, rainfall for the entire month of
September did not exceed one inch. These data suggest that the
fecal coliform densities at discharge points for surface drains
will depend, in part, on the interval of time since the previous
rain.
In addition to the the frequency of rain events, data
collected during a December 19 rain event suggest that decreased
air temperatures may serve to reduce the fecal coliform loading
from surface drains. Although there were two substantial rain
events within two weeks prior to sampling (1.6 cm on December 10
and 1.3 cm on December 12), we feel that the degree of
attenuation on this date exceeded what would be expected from the
single attenuating effect of preceding rain events. For
comparison, data collected during two July rain events indicate
fecal coliform densities more than one order of magnitude greater
than those of December 19, this despite a greater amount of
rainfall (Figure 7) on dates more approximate to those of the
December 19 rain event.
Intensity of rainfall was not shown to correlate with
geometric mean fecal coliform densities observed at stormdrains,
however, confounding influences imparted by seasonal effects,
and the frequency and proximity of previous rainfalls may
preclude a definite statement regarding the effect of this
factor. Fecal coliform densities during the July 21 rain event,
19
-------
ro
o
3.0,
2.0-
INCHES
53
M 1.0.
J
CK
Sj
I
ll
1
i
JAN
1
III
FEE
* = Date
Mi
J
MAR
on which stormwater sampling
.1
II
APR
*
II.. L 1
I ,
1 MAY
1 986
*
1 It
JM
was performed
*
*
I
1
JUL
*
L
In
L.
AUG I SEP
*
I
i
OCT
*
|
J
NOV
*
DEC
Figure 7 Summary of precipitation near theBittermilk Bay study area Southeastern Massachusetts,
as recorded (in inches) at the Cranberry Experimental Station, Wareham, Massachusetts.
* indicates dates on which samples were collected at selected stormwater discharge
points in the bay.
-------
when the rainfall was 0.1 cm/h (as determined by the rain gauge
at the mouth of Red Brook) were higher than those observed on May
22 and July 2 when the rate of rainfall was 0.48 and 0.69 cm/h
respectively. Conversely there were other dates such as August 11
(0.1 cm/h) and December 19 (0.2 cm/h) on which lower
precipitation rates resulted in lower geometric mean fecal
coliform densities in discharge water.
Substantial seasonal differences in fecal coliform counts in
stormdrains have been observed elsewhere (EPA 1983). NURP
studies report that coliform densities in urban runoff during
warmer periods of the year are approximately 20 times greater
than runoff during during colder periods. As in our study, the
observed seasonal differences could not be related to comparable
seasonal variations in land use. Two drains chosen (Electric
Ave. and Puritan) have comparable occupancy of dwellings
throughout the year, yet still exhibited seasonal variation in
fecal coliform densities.
Despite numerous studies nationwide under the National Urban
Runoff Program and others (Olivieri et al. 1977 and Van Donsel et
al. 1967), there still remain many unanswered questions regarding
the actual source of fecal coliform in runoff. Although in the
Buttermilk Bay area, the possibility of direct connection of
sanitary waste lines with stormwater conduits can not be
completely discounted, two observations strongly suggest that if
sanitary waste does make its way into the collection system it is
by less overt means (ie. surcharging of drainage basins by
adjacent septic systems). Firstly, all storm drains were
observed during peak land use periods (June - August), which were
concurrently dry periods, for the presence of running water. The
inspection was systematic and involved all surface drains from
the distal to proximate portions of the surface drainage areas.
With few exceptions, which were verified by bacteriological
examination not to be due to sanitary waste, all drainage basins
remained dry during dry weather. In addition, all collection
pipes generally exhibited little or no flow within approximately
two hours following the cessation of rain. If direct discharges
of sanitary wastes were present, we would expect at least some
continual flow into the collection system; this phenomena was not
observed.
Comparison of fecal coliform values observed in our area
with those reported by Olivieri et al. (1977) gives support to
our contention that direct input of sanitary wastes via
subterranean pipes would not be necessary to account for the
fecal coliform values observed from discharge pipes in our study
area. In this author's report of two drainage basins in which
"no sewage overflows are known to be located", geometric mean
densities (MPN) of 8..S x 104 Fecal Coliform/ 100 mis ("Bush
Street") and 6.9 x 103 fecal coliform/ 100 mis ("Northwood") were
reported. These levels of fecal coliform contamination are quite
comparable to those levels observed in our study area (Figure 5).
Further, this author's summary of stormwater samples taken in a
21
-------
North Carolina stormwater drainage basins indicate that,
independent of sanitary wastes from sewage systems, fecal
coliform contamination of rainwater can occur quite quickly after
contact with the earth's surface . Fecal coliform values
observed at a roof downspout (trees overhanging) approximated 740
fecal coliform/ 100 mis, and levels approximating 25,000 - 58,000
fecal coliform/ 100 mis of sample were observed from overland
flow through a residential area (Betson and Buckingham 1969 as
cited in Olivieri et al. 1977). Collectively, these studies
suggest that although fecal coliform contamination at stormwater
discharge points in Buttermilk Bay may appear substantial, these
levels do not necessarily indicate the presence of direct
connections between subsurface on-site systems and stormwater
collection systems or the input of sanitary wastes via
subsurface surcharging of drainage basins with sanitary wastes.
It is still possible, however, that some septic systems installed
prior to present regulations included a connecting overflow which
functions only during rain events, which remained beyond our
detection.
Although no in-depth studies have been performed to detail
sources of fecal coliform in stormwater runoff in areas where
sanitary connections are not suspected, certainly animals
residing in the surface watershed are implicated. In excess of
100 dogs live within the surface watershed of Buttermilk Bay
(based on July 1986 survey). In-situ investigations of the
viability of dog feces in July- August 1986 indicated that at 1
week, 2 weeks and 30 days, the viabilities of dog feces deposited
near the beach in overgrown areas were not significantly
different. In each instance the MPN fecal coliform densities
were 106 fecal coliform/gram of feces. Thus, the cumulative
affect of just dog wastes can be quite substantial. To place the
possible effect of dog wastes in perspective, an overall
geometric mean fecal coliform concentration in stormwater (all
dates, all drains combined) was calculated and the amount of
canine fecal waste necessary to account for this value was
calculated. Considering an overall geometric mean fecal coliform
concentration of 7,349 PC/ 100 mis and the resulting input of
fecal coliform to the bay of 1.5 x 1011 during a 2.54 cm (1
inch) rain, the amount of dog wastes necessary to account for the
loading would approximate 150 kg (331 Ibs.). It is conceivable
that this amount of waste could be deposited by the resident dog
population in 2-3 days, assuming a 454 gram/dog/day deposit from
the estimated 100 dogs residing in the areas serviced by
stormdrains.
The ability to predict fecal coliform loadings from domestic
dogs, using these values is precluded by the complexities of the
factors affecting the actual transport of viable organisms to the
bay. The extent to which adjacent animal populations impact a
water body are controlled by at least two factors: the
probability of the wastes becoming entrained in stormwater
entering the bay, and the survival characteristic of the waste
following deposition. Regarding the probability that animal
wastes are entrained in stormwater, the primary intermediating
22
-------
factor is the percent of impervious area in the drainage basin
(paved surfaces) as well as the drainage characteristics of the
remaining "natural" area (primarily lawn and landscaped sites of
residential areas). Residential properties serviced by stormdrain
systems surrounding the bay for the most part have their drainage
patterns modified in such a way as to increase the probability
that surface-deposited wastes will be entrained in stormwater
entering the bay. These practices include landscaping which
slopes from the house to the street, a sloping of driveways
toward the street, and in some instances the diversion of rooftop
drainage into the paved roadways. While these practices have
beneficial purpose and prevent the flooding of properties, they
concurrently allow for a more expedient pathway of surface-
deposited wastes into the receiving waters.
Another essential element determining the impact of animal
populations on adjacent water bodies is the survival
characteristic of the wastes following deposit. The extended
survival of fecal indicators observed in the present study and
elsewhere (Temple et al. 1980, Edmonds 1976), suggests the
possibility of substantial cumulative effects which must be
considered in attempts to predict the fecal coliform loading from
domestic dogs and other wildlife inhabiting the surface drainage
basin of Buttermilk Bay ( rodents, birds, rabbits etc.). The
factors controlling the survival rate of indicator organisms in
surface-deposited wastes are solar radiation (Bell 1976, Bell et
al. 1976, Van Donsel et al. 1967), temperature (Boyd and Boyd
1962, Edmonds 1976, Van Donsel et al. 1967, Weiser and Osterud
1945 ) and moisture (Brown et al. 1979, Weiser and Osterud 1945).
While for the most part these factors are beyond man's influence,
the drainage system itself does provide a man-made environment
for the protection of deposited wastes as well as possible
habitat for additional wildlife such as rodents.
The effect of temperature on the survival of fecal coliforms
noted by various authors may provide insight to the apparent
dramatic decrease in stormwater contamination observed in
December as well as decreases in stormwater loading during winter
months observed elsewhere (Faust et al. 1975). While frozen
ground generally decreases infiltration and would be expected
to increase stormwater loading (Crane et al. 1983), field
experiments conducted in the present study, as well as
investigation elsewhere (Van Donsel et al. 1967, Weiser and
Osterud 1945) suggests that numerous freeze-thaw cycles
significantly alter the survival of surface-deposited wastes and
hence would attenuate cumulative effects of waste deposit during
winter months. In the present study, fecal coliform in goose
feces lost viability after 4-5 days on the beach area in winter
months, whereas survival exceeding 20 days was indicated in goose
wastes during warmer months. Although not quantified, rapid
mortality in winter months appeared also to be related to the
moisture content of the fecal pellet, with moister pellets
exhibiting more rapid die off during the freeze thaw cycles.
This would support the conclusions of Weiser and Osterlud (1945)
and Kibbey et al. (1978) who hypothesized that extracellular ice
23
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damage was the mechanism involved in mortality of JS^ coli at
freezing temperatures.
Thus, it appears plausible that the fecal coliform levels
observed at discharge points in Buttermilk Bay are the result of
a resident pet and wildlife animal population, although no
conclusions could be drawn regarding which of these was the major
contributor. The effects of the resident animal population are
emphasized by an extensive drainage system which opens
considerable surface deposit area to direct discharge to the bay.
This effect is further accented by land use practices necessary
for the prevention of excessive flooding of residential areas.
These contentions appear to be substantiated by study elsewhere
under the National Urban Runoff Program and others which found
that intensity of land use in a surrounding watershed has a
negative impact on stormwater quality, often unrelated to actual
input of human sanitary wastes. Although it is known that
failing subsurface sewage disposal systems (failing to the point
where septage is on top of the ground) have occurred in the past
( Carl Wakefield, Wareham Board of Health - personal
communication) and that these wastes may contribute sporadically
to the overland or pipe discharge, in general public awareness
and the nuisance aspect of odor associated with these system
failures compels their immediate repair.
Release of fecal colifora from protected reservoirs
Within Buttermilk Bay both the sediments and decaying eel
grass and other debris remaining after the tide ebbs (henceforth
referred to as "wrack") have been determined to act as protected
reservoirs and accumulators of fecal coliform. The second major
category of stormwater impact to this marine system is the
dislodging or elution of fecal coliform contained in these
protected reservoirs, which causes their return to the water
column and a compromising of the water quality in the area.
The accumulation of fecal coliform in marine sediments has
been observed by many investigators (Rittenburg et al. 1958,
Sayler et al. 1975, Van Donsel and Geldreich 1971, Volterra et
al. 1985, Gerba and McLeod 1976, Erkenbrecher 1981, LaLiberte and
Grimes 1982), and was supported by preliminary observations in
our study area. Sediment-overlying water samples from selected
cites in Buttermilk Bay (Table 1) taken by disrupting the
sediments in a 1 sq. m and sampling in the boil suggest two
conclusions. Foremost, it appears that certain areas of the bay
contain sediments with the capacity to accumulate fecal
indicators, and secondly, these fecal coliform can return to the
water column by physically disrupting the sediments.
Qualitative observations at the time of sampling suggest that
accumulation of fecal coliform in the sediments of Buttermilk Bay
was related to two factors: the organic content of the sediment,
and the proximity of the area to a contamination source. Samples
taken at Electric Ave. (public beach), Sewell Cove and Gibbs
-------
Narrows (in the cut) showed very little organic matter or "fluff"
following disruption of the bottom; these samples concurrently
showed little difference between the overlying water before
disruption of the sediments and after. Samples in the Red Brook
area, the area near Hideaway Creek and Station 4 contained light
fluffy sediments and concurrently contained higher fecal coliform
concentrations in the boil (turbid water sampled after sediment
disruption). Proximity to a source as an important factor in
determining the fecal coliform content of sediments as was
demonstrated by the Gibbs Narrows samples of 8/29/86 and 9/11/86.
Although these samples were taken at approximately the same
locations, it was noted that on 9/11/86 a large flock of seagulls
was feeding on exposed clams in the area during the time prior to
sampling. This site had an intermediate degree of organic
material in the sediment.
TABLE 1. Overlying water - suspended sediment fecal coliform
densities (MPN fecal coliform/ 100 ml sample) from selected
sites around the perimeter of Buttermilk Bay, southeastern
Massachusetts. All fecal coliform were further differentiated
and identified as E. coli.
Sample Date Location Fecal Coliform Fecal Coliform
per 100 ml per 100 ml
Overlying Water Water + Sediment
3/05/86 Hideaway Creek <2 33 *
3/05/86 Red Brook (Tidal
pool) 13 350 *
3/05/86 Electric Ave. <2 <2
3/05/86 Sewell Cove <2 <2
3/05/86 Gibbs Narrows <2 5
3/05/86 Station 4 11 79 *
8/29/86 Gibbs Narrows 5 2
8/29/86 Red Brook Mouth 49 79
8/29/86 Miller Cove 4 21 *
9/11/86 Gibbs Narrows 8 240 *
9/11/86 Red Brook Mouth 27 110 *
9/11/86 Miller Cove 8 2
* Sediment + water sample value outside the 95% confidence limit
of the water value as defined by a standard MPN table.
The organic content of the suspending medium has been shown
to be an important factor in prolonging the survival of various
enteric organisms in marine (Orlob 1956, Vaccaro et al. 1950, Won
and Ross 1973), freshwater (Sinclair and Alexander 1984), and
terrestrial systems (Mailman and Litsky 1951, Tate 1978). Some
investigators, notably Gerba and McLeod (1976), Hendricks (1970)
and Hendricks and Morrison (1967) have demonstrated the ability
of enteric organisms, including E. coli, to utilize nutrients
extracted from sediments for growth. Thus is appears that, not
25
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only do sediments have the potential for protecting and
accumulating fecal coliforms, but they may also support their
growth in proportion to the available nutrients. This mechanism
gives an added implication to the input of nutrients from on-site
subsurface septic waste disposal. While this practice may not
result in the actual input of enteric organisms to the bay (see
section on Septic Systems)/ the input of nutrients from this
practice which was evidenced (Valiela et al. 1987), may result in
the multiplication of enteric organisms, to include pathogens, in
the receiving sediments.
The accumulation of fecal coliform in sediments may result in
their resuspension during rainfall events (Schillinger and Gannon
1985, Roper and Marshall 1974). Although the mechanism is
unclear, mechanical disruption of the sediments at discharge
points for stormwater as well as a more generalized changing of
the adsorptive capacity of sediments for bacteria in response to
a sudden influx of freshwater is suspected. The ability of fecal
coliform to become resuspended following physical disruption has
been demonstrated in our study and is supported by Grimes (1975).
This may have additional implication for hydraulic clamming
operations in areas where the sediments are laden with excessive
fecal indicators. A single set of samples taken in October, 1968
amidst a hydraulic clamming operation in Gibbs Narrows indicated
that in this case, the sediments were not accumulating fecal
coliform.
In addition to sediments, deposits left with the receding
tide (wrack) which were primarily dead and decaying ellgrass
(Zostera marina) were examined for fecal coliform. Large
deposits approximating 5-10 kg per meter of beach were common
throughout the summer months. Subsampling one gram portions of
eel grass by placing it in sterile buffered water and performing
tests for fecal coliform (MPN) showed an extremely high degree of
variability ranging from below the detectable limit to > 24,000
FC/100 gram. No obvious correlations with area were noted with
the exception of very high (>1,000 FC/gram) values which were
generally noted in areas where waterfowl, primarily Canada geese,
had been observed in days prior to sampling. During the rain
event of November 6, 1986 subsamples of approximately 2 kg were
taken from six sites (concurrent with stormwater drain sampling)
and placed in a sterile tray. The samples were then squeezed to
extract the rainwater they had collected and the resulting sample
was cultured with MPN methodology. The results are presented in
Table 2.
These results suggest that in addition to serving as a
protective reservoir for fecal coliform, decaying eelgrass and
other matter in the wrack line serve as a diffuse source of
bacteria following the percolation of rainwater through it. It
is likely that during the following inundating tide, fecal
coliform will be released to the bay from this source, possibly
resulting in severe degradation of water quality in addition to
that imparted by the existing stormdrains. Although the
hypothesis has not been tested, it is likely that even under dry
26
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conditions, the inundation of contaminated wrack results in some
degradation of water quality in the immediate area.
Table 2. Fecal coliform densities in rainwater extract from
decaying eelgrass found at selected locations in Buttermilk Bay,
southeastern Massachusetts, 1986. Numbers are expressed as fecal
coliform per 100 mis of extract.
Location Fecal coliform/ 100 ml extract
Electric Avenue Beach 13,000
Mouth of Red Brook 2,300
Approximately 30 m from mouth
of Red Brook >16,000
Hideaway Cove >16,000
Little Buttermilk Bay, at Old
Head of Bay Rd. >16,000
Puritan Avenue (near stormdrain) 16,000
Although the source of fecal coliform in dead and decaying
eelgrass is not definitely know^n, wastes from both waterfowl and
scavenging animals is strongly suspected. In conjunction with
weekly bird census collection discussed later, weekly counts of
animal scats on selected sections of beach indicated on an
average of 2 dog scats per 100 m of shoreline and an abundance
of Canada goose feces (during their presence in winter months and
late summer). This fecal matter when rolled into the decaying
eelgrass by water motion on the incoming tide is apparently
afforded a protected site where fecal indicators can survive for
extended periods and possibly multiply.
Due to the variability of the data, no attempt has been made
to determine the actual fecal coliform loading from dead and
decaying wrack, however it does appear that in certain situations
the effect may be considerable.
Impacts from surcharge with contaminated groundwater
Although not specifically studied within the confines of the
present study, local increases in groundwater flow velocities
associated with rainfall, must be addressed as to their possible
implications to bacterial contamination within the bay. Sampling
groundwater at selected sites around Buttermilk Bay (Figure 8,
Table 3) indicates that groundwater entering the bay does
occasionally entrain fecal indicator organisms, although the
sources of these organisms were not determined. Since the
mortality of fecal coliform released from any source is a
function of time, all factors affecting the residence time of
fecal coliform in groundwater prior to the release into the
surface water must be considered as important in defining the
overall impact of contaminated groundwater to the bay. The
increased entrainment distance of fecal indicator organisms
27
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Indian
Heights
Jefferson
Shores
*'*;•&''->v• ^$]C^ W^g^J-;
•.' '*!i ^';^\^^"$^XmorvBourps^ra^
•feAi^of.VO&•.;-%' k^j^^^ •/'dem^iJi
B
Fig. 8 A) Approximate locations of groundwater sampling stations
in Buttermilk Bay, southeastern Massachusetts 1986.
B) Reference map to indicate relative development. Source
USGS, 1979.
28
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following rainfall has been demonstrated elsewhere (Bouwer et al.
1974 and Hagerdon et al. 1978, Bitton and Gerba 1984).
The mechanism by which rainfall expedites the transport of
bacterial organisms in groundwater is likely twofold. A primary
consideration in bacterial entrainment, as well as virus
entrainment discussed later, is the distance of travel of
bacteria through an unsaturated vadose zone. Saturated conditions
are generally more conducive to bacterial entrainment to
groundwater (Moore and Beehier 1984). Under certain recharge or
rainfall events, the areas beneath the most probable source of
fecal coliform (septic systems) may approach conditions of
saturated flow in some situations. If this becomes the case
increased numbers of fecal coliform reaching the groundwater,
coupled with increased lateral flow velocity of groundwater,
could result in more enteric organisms reaching the breakout
point in the bay. In addition to the passive role of moving
more fecal organisms in a shorter time frame, the flooding of a
subsurface system with rainwater, which would have a different
ionic characteristic than septic effluent, may cause the elution
or desorption of bacteria from the soil matrix as has been
observed to occur with viruses (Lance et al. 1976 and Landry et
al. 1979).
Thus it appears from studies elsewhere that transport of
fecal coliform and other enteric organisms in groundwater is
facilitated by recharge events. This phenomena may, in part,
account -for some of the water degradation observed in Buttermilk
Bay following rain events, however results discussed later in
this report (see Septic Systems) suggests that this impact is
comparatively minimal.
SEPTIC SYSTEMS
Evidence that septic system effluent affects the
bacteriological quality of groundwater, often for considerable
distances, has been presented from a variety of studies conducted
elsewhere. Studies summarized by Hagedorn (1984) indicate the
entrainment of various enteric organisms for distances of 0.6-830
m (2-2723 ft) and survival times to 27 weeks. The major factor
affecting the entrainment distance of enteric organisms is the
soil type. Factors most important in determining the survival of
enteric organisms in subsurface soil systems are defined as
moisture content, moisture holding capacity, temperature, pH,
organic matter and competition/antagonism from soil flora (Gerba
and Bitton 1984).
In general, these investigators conclude that the greatest
survival of enteric organisms in soil systems occurs in
conditions of moist soils with good moisture-holding capability
at low temperatures in more alkaline soils (pH above 5) that are
devoid of normal flora. In addition, there is evidence that when
sufficient amounts of organic matter are present, increased
survival and possible regrowth can occur.
29
-------
Groundwater sampling in the Buttermilk Bay watershed during
1986 presented conflicting indications regarding the entrainment
of bacterial indicators in groundwater entering the bay. The
sporadic occurrence of fecal indicators from selected sites
around the bay (Table 3, Fig 8.) gave initial indication that
organisms can be entrained in lateral flow for at least the
distance from the point of discovery to the nearest septic system
(ca. 35 m). In some situations, however, where septic systems
were less than 5 m upgradient from the sample withdrawal point,
no fecal indicators were isolated from samples taken. Further
indication of very limited mobility of fecal indicators in soil
came from an in-depth study of a septic system located in a
periodically-saturated flow situation and a septic system located
located within 70 cm of groundwater. The first septic system
was chosen due to the fact that during a portion of the tidal
cycle, the zone surrounding a portion of the system was
saturated, and thus would be most conducive to indicator organism
entrainment in groundwater. The system would be classified as
"operating" even though at the time of our study it was under
administrative orders for repair due to the potential for
contamination of the bay. The fluid level in the second leaching
element of this system was near the top of the element
suggesting that aging of the system had significantly impaired
its leaching ability. Nutrient analyses (Valiela et al. 1987)
were used to confirm the sampling locations as being within the
boundries of a septic plume.
Sampling at this first site on two dates (Table 3, Figure 9)
indicates very efficient removal of fecal indicators by soil
(>99.99 % removal) within 7 m of lateral flow, with further
indication that the major removal takes place within 2 m. The
limited entrainment of fecal indicators has been reported
elsewhere utilizing various soil types. Using soils of 80%, 41%
and 7.6 % sand, Brown et al. (1979) observed that, on only a few
occasions were fecal indicators isolated from effluent 120 cm
below septic leaching lines. Under saturated conditions,
Hagedorn et al. (1978) indicated that wells 3,000 cm downgradient
from a fecal coliform source did not show the entrainment of this
indicator. In what is perhaps the most comparable study design
to the area of Buttermilk Bay, Vaughn et al. (1983) only rarely
detected coliform at lateral distances greater than 1.52 m from a
leaching pool having coliform densities of 10 5 - 108
organisms/ 100 ml. Collectively, these studies suggest that sand,
even of very low clay content is an efficient restrictor of
bacterial indicator entrainment.
The second septic system investigated was located on the
western shore of Buttermilk Bay and again only showed limited
entrainment of indicator bacteria (Figure 10).
In light of data indicating both very limited entrainment of
bacterial indicators as well as entrainment to distances of 35 m
or more, we can only conclude that site specific information on a
more substantial number of septic systems in the area would be
30
-------
SEPTIC SYSTEM SURVEY
approx. mean high-water table
. water table at time of sample
SCALE (le et )
/-^-Sampling location and observed value (or:
Fecal Conform/WO mis
p 3 6,0 00
approx. mean high-water table
appj-ox. water tab^e_at_time <^f_sa_mpl_e_
o
-------
SURFACE ELEVATION
RETAINING WALL
o » o. e> a.
o o o a f,
fl e »» o »
o c- e> t>
t> O o t> o
GROUNDWATER ELEVATION
V
< 2
O < 2
O 22
O < 2
O < 2 O < 2
Sampling location and observed value for:
O < 2
r* < 2
SCALE (feet)
Fecal Conform / 10O mis
SURFACE ELEVATION
V
RETAINING WALL
o » a o a-
o «> o a t.
0 to e> ^ ^
B * O o o o
. • ^_____
GROUNDWATER ELEVATION
V
o
-------
necessary in order to assess the overall effect that on-site
subsurface sewage disposal practices have on the area as a whole.
It is our general conclusion that the direct contribution of
fecal bacterial indicators from subsurface systems via the
groundwater route is fairly minimal. In contrast, however, the
effect of on-site sewage disposal in relation to virus and
nutrient contribution in groundwater, discussed later in this
report, likely has the more substantial negative impact on
surface water quality in the bay not suggested by the traditional
fecal indicator system. Study is presently underway which will
sample a larger number of septic systems, which should refine our
assessment of impact from this type of source.
Table 3. Summary of groundwater analyses performed in Buttermilk
Bay, southeastern Massachusetts, 1986. Samples were taken near
the high-water mark using a shallow-well point sampler at a depth
of approximately 1 m. All fecal coliform densities reported as
number per 100 mis of sample. For Locations refer to Figure 8.
Log10
Location Date Sample High Value Number of Mean Nearest
size observed positive value suspect
FC/100 ml tests source
A
A
B
C
D
A
H
I
B
E
F
D
F
G
B
5/20
6/9
6/23
6/24
6/24
6/25
6/25
6/25
8/13
8/13
8/13
8/13
9/3
9/22
V
9
9
8
8
3
4
4
4
8
1
2
2
6
12
15
130
110
7
11
279
0
3
3
0
>160
3
2
4
0
0
1
0
0
4
0
1
1
0
0
13
14
15
3
0
0
11
0
0
31
0
3
3
0
0
ca.
ca.
ca.
ca.
ca.
ca.
ca.
ca.
ca.
ca.
ca.
ca.
ca.
5-5
25
25
35
25
10
25
25
15
35
35
1
5
1
0
m
m
m
m
m
m
m
m
m
m
m
m
m
m
ca. 35 m
WILDLIFE
The most obvious source of fecal coliform in the Buttermilk
Bay system is the indigenous wildlife. Fecal coliform are
present in the intestinal tract of a variety of warm-blooded
animals (Geldreich et al. 1962) which inhabit the area, and have
also been reported to occur in some fishes (Geldreich and Clark
1962). The implications of this source are substantial since
fecal waste from wildlife often enters the system unabated by any
land treatment. In general, fecal coliform loading from wildlife
has two main components: direct fecal deposits resulting from use
of the bay by aquatic-oriented species and fecal matter which
results from terrestrial deposition, which subsequently u~
washes
33
-------
into the bay with stormwater. This latter component could be
expected to receive some treatment in its overland passage to the
bay, however, there is evidence that some land-deposited wastes
contribute to and maintain a protected reservoir of fecal
coliform which acts as a diffuse source under certain
hydrographic conditions (see "Release of fecal coliform from
protected reservoirs").
Following techniques employed by Hussong et al. (1979),
theoretical values for coliform inputs from waterfowl on a 24-hr
basis were calculated based on weekly waterfowl census data
collected from December, 1985 to November, 1986 (Figurell). Per
capita, per diem estimates of 1Q7 fecal coliform per goose, 10y
fecal coliform per swan and 109 fecal coliform per duck were
used based on Hussong et al.(1979) and Koppelman and Tanenbaum
(1982). Estimated daily fecal coliform loadings varied f^0111 8 X
10' during the month of June to a maximum of 3.1 x 10iu fecal
coliform during January when maximum use of the bay by waterfowl
was observed. To place these values in perspective, a projected
resultant fecal coliform density in receiving water was
calculated. To perform this calculation, certain assumptions
were made to include the availability of two tidal prism volumes
(2.5 x 106 cu. m x 2 or 5.0 x 106 cu. m) for dilution.
Simplistically, this volume represents the dilution volume
available during the 24-hr period (2 tidal cycles), which is used
in conjunction with the fecal coliform load per bird per 24-hr
period. Based on these calculations, at no time would the
predicted fecal coliform density in a uniformly-mixed bay exceed
2 FC/100 ml.
Although the assumption of uniform mixing is inappropriate,
generally our field measurements of fecal coliform densities
concurrent with waterfowl usage of the area (Table 4) coincided
closely with the predicted estimates for more "open water"
stations (Stations 1, 16, 10.3, 15, 4a and 14). As might be
expected, fecal coliform densities tended to be higher at
locations which concurrently tended to concentrate waterfowl in
less exchanged situations (Station 3.5,12a, 6H2 and Red Brook
Stations 5.9S and 5.9B). Although some of the fecal coliform
observed at these later stations may have been related to the
increased presence of waterfowl, it should be noted that other
effects were also responsible, as evidenced by their continued
tendency to exhibit higher fecal coliform densities than open
water stations during times of little or no waterfowl usage (ie.
June and July).
Thus, in general, it appears that in well-exchanged, open
waters of Buttermilk Bay, predictive estimates of fecal coliform
loading from waterfowl approximate observed values and indicate
little compromise of the water quality. However, since the
distribution of waterfowl in the bay is not uniform, and since
the flushing of the bay with tidal water also fails to exhibit a
uniform pattern throughout the bay, local degradation of water
quality due, in part, to concentration of waterfowl in sheltered
shoreline areas should be expected. In contrast to the apparent
-------
Table. *f . Summary of fecal coliform and Escherichia coli densities at routine monitoring
stations in Buttermilk Bay, southeastern Massachusetts, March - October 1986. For
locations of stations see Figure 3. All densities expressed as number of organisms / 100
mis. Note that analyses from January to October, 1986 differentiated E. coli from among
other fecal coliforms. E. coli densities are expressed parenthetically beneath the fecal
coliform densities.
STATION
Date 1
09/05/85 3
09/25/85 10
12/16/85 7
01/13/86 2
02/19/86 11
03/05/86 <2
3/17/86 <2
4/15/86 <2
05/08/86 <2
6/04/86 2
6/19/86 2
7/24/86 <2
8/27/86 <2
10/01/86 14
(2) (5)
(above 6H2 at bog 230 FC/lOOml"
ND= No data
* Analyses performed was a membrane filtration method and values observed were within the
95% confidence limit of the MPN technique employed on the routine sample. These data
suggest that on these dates that there was no significant upstream-downstream effect.
16
<10
ND
2
8
23
(18)
10.3
1
27
<2
27
<2
15
<10
20
<2
<2
2
12a
ND
ND
2
<2
2
6H2
ND
ND
<2
<2
23
(8)
5.9S
88
70
8
<2
30
(18)
5.9B
13
<10
4
5
8
(Upstream of 6H2 at
<2
<2
<2
2
<2
5
<2
4
4
(2)
<2
<2
<2
13
<2
2
<2
5
13
(5)
<2
<2
<2
<2
<2
2
<2
4
2
ND
2
<2
<2
180
79
34
240
540
ND
<2
<2
110
130
49
>2400
920
(above
170
ND
2
49
79
22
240
49
170
6H2 at bog
240
(130)
ND
2
<2
<2
22
49
70
20
1490
50
4a
<10
<10
<2
<2
41
bog - <2
11
<2
8
(5)
8
(5)
<2
<2
2
•A1
FC/100ml
7
(2),
3.5
7
<10
<2
11
19
FC/100
ND
11
5
(2)
13
17
5
2
8
(5)
4
(2)
14
ND
ND
<2
ND
ND
ml)
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
<2
ND
14
2
-------
30
-------
minimal effects of fecal matter directly deposited into the bay,
there is increasing evidence that the shoreline deposits provide
the opportunity of fecal wastes to exhibit cumulative effects.
The extent of this cumulative effect is related to the
association of the wastes with protective elements such as
decaying eelgrass and other debris, temperature and moisture
content. The implications of fecal matter accumulation and
extended survival of fecal indicators directly relates to the
probability of their reintroduction to the water of the bay.
Again, it appears that hydrographic conditions are the main
determinant of this reintroduction. If terrestrially-deposited
wastes are stranded above the high tide mark for a period
exceeding the major mortality period of fecal coliform, then
their reintroduction has little significance. If, however,
spring tides in conjunction with rainfall cause fecal coliform
dissociation in conjunction with inundation of the wastes, we
would expect diffusion of the wastes from the source proportional
to its volume and resultant degradation of water quality. In
situ experiments to determine the viability of goose feces
(See APPROACH AND METHODOLOGY) suggest that during the spring and
autumn, fecal coliform maintain their viability essentially
unaltered for 2- 3 weeks. During winter months a viability of 1-
10 days is likely.
Our investigations of fecal coliform inputs to Buttermilk
Bay from wildlife, particularly waterfowl, are perhaps the most
controversial aspect of the overall investigation. Due to the
assumption that large concentrations of waterfowl, occupying
strategic areas with respect to shellfish or recreational-use
areas, can result in severe degradation of water quality, a
number of municipalities have instituted bans on the artificial
feeding of waterfowl. These regulations have drawn varying
degrees of criticism from various groups which generally contend
that the regulations are not warranted and constitute an undue
measure which deprives the public of the pleasure of feeding the
birds and observing them at close range, and deprives the
waterfowl of an available food source to sustain them through
times when food is scarce . The purpose of this portion of our
investigation was to clarify the role of wildlife, primarily
Waterfowl, in contributing to the fecal coliform loading into
Buttermilk Bay. Although it is evident from fecal coliform
loading rates of various waterfowl that the potential for
immediate as well as cumulative impacts on water quality exists,
it was not within the scope of work or our ability to determine
what percentage of the observed waterfowl were present due to
artificial feeding practices. It is evident from our
investigations that waterfowl concentrations do negatively impact
the water quality in receiving waters. Therefore, any effort to
curb the practice of artificially encouraging increased residence
time of waterfowl would appear to be justified.
In addition to the controversy surrounding the feeding of
waterfowl, there has been increasing concern whether the impact
of waterfowl waste should have public health significance
attached to it. This issue can be dissected into two basic
37
-------
questions which are as follows:
1) Do waterfowl harbor pathogens transmissible to humans ?
and
2) Are there currently available cost-effective methods
for the determination of waterfowl vs. human wastes ?
Both of these questions have been periodically embroiled in
controversy. Numerous investigators have indicated the presence
of Salmonella in avian feces ( Berg and Anderson 1972, Faddoul
and Fellows 1966, Mitchell and Ridgwell 1971) however, other
investigators (Hussong et al. 1979) have suggested that this
pathogen is not ubiquitous in waterfowl. These later
investigators additionally failed to isolate Shigella spp. from
migratory waterfowl in Chesapeake Bay, however enteropathogenic
E._ coli was isolated in a limited number of waterfowl from this
area. In an attempt to determine the incidence of Campylobacter
jepuni in waterfowl, Hill and Grimes (1984) failed to isolate
this pathogen from cecal, water and sediment samples in a flyway
in Wisconsin, however the literature review presented therein
indicated that this pathogen had been isolated from waterfowl
elsewhere. Thus it appears that certain bacterial pathogens are
carried in waterfowl, and hence the possibility of transferring
the pathogen to the receiving water via the fecal route appears-
to exist. It should be noted that there are a number of unknowns
regarding the transmittance of human pathogens via avian wastes
which have not been investigated. In light of the lack of
information, it appears prudent to assume t.hat fecal wastes
deposited from waterfowl do have public health significance.
Since specific information does not exist to characterize these
wastes, application of the presently accepted standards .for fecal
coliform indicators appears justified.
If it was concluded that fecal wastes from waterfowl should
be considered less of a public health risk, there would still
remain the question of source differentiation. With investigation
by Geldreich and Kenner (1969) there has been popular use of the
fecal coliform/fecal streptococcus ratio to attempt source
differentiation. In general, if the ratio is greater than 4, the
source is generally considered human. If the ratio is less than
0.7 then the higher fecal streptococcus values indicate an animal
source. Underlying the employment of this ratio is the assumption
that the sample is withdrawn at a point that would not allow
differential die off the indicators. Numerous investigators have
made comment regarding the differential die off of these
indicators in various situations (Ostrolenk et al. 1947,
Van Donsel et al. 1967, Davenport et al. 1976 and Borrego et al.
1983). In general, it is popularly believe that sources may be
differentiated if sampled within 24 hours of the source.
The question of whether the fecal coliform/fecal
streptococcus ratio can be used to differentiate waterfowl wastes
was specifically addressed by Hussong et al. (1979). Data
presented by these investigators using wild waterfowl migrating
through the Chesapeake Bay area suggests that it is not possible
38
-------
to separate avian fecal contamination from human wastes based on
this ratio. These investigators suggested that diet was the
determining factor in controlling the fecal coliform/fecal
streptococcus ratio. Wild feeding ducks exhibited ratios typical
of human enteric flora. It thus appears that should waterfowl
waste be determined to have less public health significance, the
presently-accepted means for differentiation has been shown to be
unreliable. Although typing of fecal streptococci for the
purpose of determining more definitely the source of
contamination is possible, to date, cost-effective timely methods
have not been developed and incorporated into routine sampling
schemes.
BOATS AND MARINAS
The effect of boating activities and marinas on the
bacteriological quality of water can be segregated into two
general categories, the actual input of sanitary wastes and the
secondary effects of resuspension of coliform-laden sediments
into the water column. Both of these effects are, by nature,
extremely variable and intermittent making assessment of impacts
on a study area difficult. While it is generally believed that
a release of sanitary wastes in the vicinity of shellfishing or
recreational waters is an unacceptable practice, circumstances
can often come into play which compel a marine craft owner to
disregard or occasionally violate this common sense intuition.
In general it can be assumed that the actual input of sanitary
wastes by marine craft into the nearshore marine environment near
shellfish harvesting or recreational waters will bear direct
relationship to the level of convenience or cost associated with
disposing of the wastes properly. The majority of marinas do not
have convenient means of disposing of sanitary wastes.
In an attempt to assess the impact of marine craft/marinas
on the bacteriological quality of the water in Buttermilk Bay,
two sampling designs were employed. Since fecal coliform
generally survive for longer periods in sediment, and thus
sediments might act to integrate water quality over an expanded
time frame (as opposed to a grab sample of overlying water)
sediment samples were taken at various locations in the Bourne
Marina (Fig. 12). Sediment and overlying water samples failed to
indicate any measurable impact on the bacteriological quality of
the water or the sediments by marina operation. In addition to
this study, a sampling team responding to a complaint of "feces
in the water" near Fries' Marina sampled upstream of the tidal
flow, various points below the boats in the marina and downstream
of the tidal flow. Again, these samples failed to show any
measurable impact of marina operation or marine craft discharge.
In interpreting these results it should be noted that by its
nature waste disposal from marine craft would occur only
intermittently and in a covert manner. Present regulations
prohibit this practice in coastal waters of Massachusetts.
Therefore to actually observe this practice and measure its
effect would necessitate extremely fortuitous circumstances as
39
-------
Indian
Heights
LITTLE
BUTTERMILK
BAI
Fig. 12 Locations of marinas sampled during
1986 in Buttermilk Bay, southeastern
Massachusetts.
BOURNE
ARINA
-------
have been reported to occur in other portions of Buzzards Bay
(Beskinis - Personal communication). A second consideration to be
made prior to drawing conclusions regarding marina operation from
the present study is the nature of the two marinas studied.
Fries' marina primarily services small day-trip boats, the size
of which is restricted by the height of the Route 6 bridge
restricting ocean access. The Bourne Marina is atypical due to
the pump-out facilities which are not common among marinas and
which would allow owners to properly dispose of sanitary wastes.
It is concluded that, in general, marina operation will
periodically result in the bacteriological degradation of the
surrounding water in direct relationship to the inconvenience
imposed by boat operators to dispose of their wastes by proper
means. Other investigators, notably Faust (1978) and Garreis et
al. (1979) have observed significant measurable impact due to
recreational marine craft, to include increase in indicator
organisms.
In relation to the impact of marine craft operation and the
resulting turbulence and resuspension of coliform-laden
sediments, the impact in Buttermilk Bay would appear to be
minimal. Most marina operations are of an adequate depth to
ensure that propeller turbulence does not cause resuspension of
sediments.
FRESHWATER INPUTS
There are five significant freshwater surface inputs to
Buttermilk and Little Buttermilk Bay which have continual flow
throughout the year . Generally, these provide continual inputs
of fecal coliform, the importance of each dependent on its
relative flow.
Red Brook enters Buttermilk Bay at its eastern shore and
comprises the most substantial surface freshwater input to the
Bay. Its headwaters are White Island Pond in Plymouth County.
The primary portion of its surface watershed is relatively
undeveloped, comprised mainly of a series of cranberry bogs. A
survey of the area indicated no direct discharges with the
exception of runoff from Head of the Bay Road. Fecal coliform
densities taken at the point where Red Brook passes under Head of
the Bay Road have shown continually high (>14 FC/100 ml) values
as least as early as 1973. Samples taken by regulating officials
on 10/25/73 and 11/02/73 indicated densities of 280 Total
Coliform/36 Fecal Coliform per 100 ml and 750 Total Coliform/36
Fecal Coliform per 100 ml sample respectively (D.E.Q.E. - data
files). The sources within the watershed of this brook are
evidently too diffuse for identification. A comparison of
surface samples taken near the mouth of Red Brook with
concurrently-taken lower strata samples (Table 4) indicates that
a surface plume emanates from Red Brook on the surface, as would
be expected, with the freshwater flow. Thus, the extent
laterally in the bay to which the effect of Red Brook could be
increasing the fecal coliform densities, will be highly dependent
on the mixing and dilution characteristics encountered when
-------
entering the bay.
We believe that there are at least two factors leading to the
contamination of this brook with fecal coliform. Initially a
considerable wildlife population as evidenced by animal tracks
and droppings probably provides a considerable fecal input which
enters the brook essentially untreated. To accent the effect of
animal droppings, the floodplain of this brook is periodically
flooded due to tidal action, thus washing the surface load of
contaminants into the brook. Several other factors likely
contribute to generally-higher fecal coliform densities in Red
Brook to include the protective nature of the Marsh (from
destructive effect of light), the nutrient availability, and the
moisture retaining characteristic of the soils. Many studies
have shown that the natural fecal coliform background levels are
high and extremely variable in many freshwater wetlands (Kadlec
and Tilton 1979).
Two additional freshwater surface inputs, one from cranberry
bogs to the north of Head of the Bay Road near Hideaway Village
and one on the eastern shore of Little Buttermilk Bay entering
near the end of Little Bay Lane in Bourne both have similar
characteristics of fecal coliform contamination as interpreted
from data of D.E.Q.E.- F.D.A.. Again, we believe that the
productive watershed operates much in the same way as described
for Red Brook, however, these flows are generally less
substantial than Red Brook and have a more local impact. The
flow in both of these streams can be restricted by artificial
means to accommodate the needs of cranberry culture. In one
instance, the flow of Hideaway Creek was negligible due to this
practice. A restriction of flow and consequent flooding of the
bogs may alter the resultant fecal coliform loading, but this
effect could not be measured in the present study.
In the course of the present study, a small stream with
headwaters in Goat Pasture Pond in Bourne was investigated for
fecal coliform inputs. The relative seasonal changes in fecal
coliform inputs generally followed similar trend as the stream in
the vicinity of Hideaway Creek. No overt discharges were
observed in the watershed of this stream-pond system however it
was noted that this area was used as a nesting area for waterfowl
which may, in part, account for the values observed.
A small stream entering Little Buttermilk Bay via a culvert
under Old Head of the Bay Road was periodically measured for
fecal coliform. The surface drainage area of this small stream
contains a corral in which at least one horse was observed during
each monthly sampling. This, in part, may explain the
sporadically high coliform densities observed at the point of
discharge. No other overt discharges were observed.
In summary, it was evident that all freshwater surface inputs
to the Buttermilk Bay System contain fecal coliform on a
continual basis. In the case of Red Brook, the volume input is
substantial and may be the cause of unacceptable fecal coliform
-------
densities along the path of travel (generally along the western
shore). Input from the Hideaway Creek stream enters the bay in a
restricted cove with considerable sediment build up. This,
coupled with a high nutrient load are likely the reasons for the
consistent local degradation of water quality. In addition, a
joint DEQE-FDA study during 1985 found significant increases in
total and fecal coliform below the Hideaway Village development
which may suggest contribution by adjacent septic systems via the
groundwater. The remaining three freshwater inlets would be
expected to exhibit even more localized effect due to the lower
volumes of flow.
POINT DISCHARGES
Only one point discharge into Buttermilk Bay was discovered
in the course of our investigations., the 10 inch diameter
concrete pipe discharges from lobster holding tanks of the
adjacent fish market. Samples taken from this discharge on 5
dates (Table 5) showed fecal coliform densities ranging from 172
- > 16,000 FC/100 mis. Sampling adjacent water on 15 July, 1986
indicated that within ca. 15 m in all directions from the pipe,
levels were reduced from 1300 FC/100 mis at point of discharge to
13-33 FC/100 mis. It is difficult to determine whether values
observed in adjacent water were totally the result of the pipe
discharge. A substantial rodent population living in the
adjacent rip-rap could also be a fecal coliform source.
Table 5. Fecal coliform densities of discharge water from
concrete pipe adjacent to fish market.
Date Fecal Coliform/100 ml sample
6/9/86 172
6/11/86 > 16,000
7/8/86 > 1,600
7/15/86 1300
7/17/86 240
FURTHER CONSIDERATIONS
In the process of interpreting fecal coliform data and
estimating fecal coliform loading from various sources, it became
apparent that small scale experiments were necessary to verify
the applicability of published studies in reference to mortality
rates of indicator organisms. An intimate knowledge of all
factors affecting mortality of fecal coliforms is paramount to
determining the significance of organism density measured in the
field. The purpose of this portion of our study was to
determine, in a preliminary way, whether factors existed in
Buttermilk Bay which would invalidate comparison with other
studies (Rittenberg et al.1958, Borrego et al. 1983, Gerba et al.
1977, Bellair et al. 1977 and others).
-------
3-0-
£
o
VJ
IS
u
QJ
2.0-
1.0—
A Fresh water Exposed
A Fresh water Control
O Saltwater Exposed
• Salt water Control
-r = 0.92
-r = 0.97
20
40 60
time
\
80
100
(minutes )
120
140
160
Figure 13 Fecal coliform die-off with time in freshwater and saltwater samples immersed in
1-2 mm. of water in Buttermilk Bay, July 17, 1986.
-------
Upon entering an estuary or receiving water, coliform bacteria
are influenced by a number of factors which tend to limit
population growth and induce mortality. A typical mortality
curve for Escherichia coli, indicates up to 90% mortality in 3-5
days (Mitchell 1968, Canale et al. 1973). A number of factors,
summarized below, have shown to act in a regulatory manner to
coliforra in marine environments:
1) Solar Radiation (light)
2) Temperature
3) State of association with sediments
4) Availability of nutrients
While certain aspects of these factors have been previously
discussed and will not be reviewed here, what follows is a
summary of small scale experiments designed to explore very site-
specific possibilities regarding the ecology and hence mortality
factors of fecal coliform in Buttermilk Bay. In addition,
pertinent literature is presented regarding the effect of
temperature on fecal coliform survival in order to fill in gaps
of understanding regarding season effects on fecal coliform
growth.
The effect of solar radiation
Perhaps the most influential factor exhibiting adverse
effect on coliform organisms is solar radiation. Kapuscinski and
Mitchell (1983) relating their in vitro mortality rates for a
pure culture of E. coli exposed to sunlight (T90 < 4.9 h) with
those of FoxwortEy and Keeling (1969) (T90 < 5.5 h) suggested
that solar radiation is the principal determinant of microbial
mortality in seawater. While some reviews have minimized the
effect of solar radiation (Hendricks 1978) or neglected it
altogether (Mitchell 1968), other authors (Fujioka et al. 1981,
Bellair et al. 1977 and Garaeson and Saxon 1967) have indicated
substantial bactericidal effects of sunlight penetrating to
depths of 4m. Kapuscinski and Mitchell (1983) reviewing studies
of Webb and Baker (1979) and others indicated that wavelengths of
solar radiation shown to induce the highest mortality of E. coli
are reduced by only 10 fold at ca. 2 m in enriched seawater.
Preliminary experiments in our study area conducted during sunny
days with both fresh and salt water show close agreement with
work of Fujioka et al. (1981), and indicate a substantial
bactericidal effect of sunlight for fecal coliform (Figure 13).
These data strongly implicate sunlight as a major factor in the
decay of fecal coliform populations in openwater areas of
Buttermilk Bay. This contention is supported by Chamberlain and
Mitchell (1978) who provided convincing argument based on work of
other authors (notably Gameson and Gould 1975 and Foxworthy and
Kneeling 1969) that the variability in coliform decay rates in
seawater can be primarily attributed to the variability of
surface light intensity and other factors influencing the depth
-------
profile of light intensity and bacterial concentration.
Preliminary investigation at selected sites in Buttermilk
Bay indicate that at certain locations, notably Hideaway Creek
and Red Brook, where fecal coliform densities are generally at
unacceptable levels for shellfish harvesting, the ultraviolet
light penetration is attenuated in comparison to open-water
stations (Figure 14). Although the reason for this attenuation
is not known, it is correlated with a comparatively higher
nutrient content (Valiela et al. 1987). In addition to nutrients,
natural products of plant decomposition (tannins etc.) or
extracellular products of algae may be providing the ultraviolet
light absorbing compounds. Excretion of such compounds from
marine algae has been reported (Craigie and McLachlan 1964).
These data initially suggest that nutrient addition may alter the
ultraviolet absorbing characteristic of receiving water in
certain situations which may result in an attenuation of the
fecal indicator mortality. This may explain in part, the
generally higher fecal coliform densities at these two sites.
Our initial experiments suggest that, in areas of high
nutrient input, the ultraviolet light absorbance characteristic
of the receiving water is modified to allow greater survival of
indicator organisms, and likely pathogens as well. This adds to
the implication of nutrient inputs from septic systems in
affecting the overall microbiological quality of the receiving
water.
The effect of temperature
While it is generally believed that there is increased
survival of fecal coliform at lower temperatures and conversely
that mortality increases with temperature (Vasconcelos and Swartz
1976) work by other investigators, notably Hendrichs (1972) and
Won and Ross (1973) suggests that this relationship is highly
dependent on ambient nutrient levels. Hendricks (1972) observed
that below a sewage effluent, maximum growth of enteric bacteria
was observed at 30 C. Won and Ross (1973) observed that mortality
rate decreased at 22 C depending on the concentration of nutrient
to include extract from autoclaved feces. Vaccaro et al. (1950)
found that nutrient addition extended the survival time of E^_
coli threefold at higher temperatures compared with raw water. It
thus appears that nutrient rich water may exert a second
attenuating effect on the mortality of fecal coliform by
providing the nutrients for cell maintenance and growth. We are
unsure at what temperature nutrient enrichment has no effect on
fecal coliform growth, however Shaw et al. (1971) has suggested
that the minimal temperature for growth in glucose minimal medium
was between 7.5 and 7.8 C.
The effect of state of_ association with sediments
Many investigators have indicated that bacterial survival is
enhanced by association with sediments, however the mechanism for
1*6
-------
MAXIMUM CELLULAR DAMAGE
200
Figure
250 300
Wavelength (millimicrons)
350
Companian of ultraviolet light absorption among selected
stations in Buttermilk Bay. Open water stations were
represented by station 1, 3.5, 14, 16, 10.3 and Station 15,
(Figure 3) Hideaway Creek was sampled at Station GH2.
-------
this protection is not fully understood (See "release of coliform
from protected reservoirs"). An experiment conducted on August
11, 1986 in which contaminated water samples were buried beneath
approximately l-2mm of sediment in plastic bags confirms that at
least one of the protective mechanisms of sediment is the
screening of light (Figure 15). Samples concurrently placed
beneath 1-2 mm of water experienced complete fecal coliform die
off within 2 h, whereas samples buried in the sediment
experienced significantly less die off over the same time period.
Variables such as dissolved oxygen and temperature remained
constant over the 2 h period.
In addition to protection from antagonistic factors such as
light , sediments can apparently offer a media for growth
depending upon the nutrient availability. Hendricks and Morrison
(1967) found that E^ cpli. growth was supported at 16 C on
extract from bottom sediment. Gerba and McLeod (1976) observed
growth in fecal coliform from sediments in areas receiving sewage
effluents as well as areas free from such inputs.
There are two major implications of these findings to the
Buttermilk Bay system. If, as noted by Schillinger and Gannon
(1985), a significant portion (16-47 %) of bacteria in stormwater
runoff become associated with sediment, the nutrient level of the
receiving sediments becomes an important factor in estimating the
significance of this portion of the stormwater bacterial loading.
For instance, if stormwater pipes are located as to discharge in
an area receiving substantial nutrients through the groundwater,
increased bacterial survival and perhaps growth of settled
bacteria increases the significance of the stormwater discharge
by prolonging its negative impact. In addition to stormwater, all
other sources such as waterfowl feces, groundwater inputs etc.
from which fecal coliform settle out into the sediments may also
utilize nutrients in sediments and hence have their effect
prolonged.
Availability of nutrients
Numerous studies have thus far been reviewed suggesting that
fecal coliform can utilize nutrients in the water column and the
sediments. These studies will not be reviewed here. Although the
origin of the nutrients has not been documented, the
possibilities include natural decomposition, septic system wastes
via groundwater, nutrients from fecal wastes deposited directly
in the water and stormwater runoff. What began as an incidental
experiment in conjunction with study of nutrient enrichment and
algal succession (Costa - Boston University Marine Program) gives
initial indication of an additional source of nutrients for fecal
coliform, that of algal products. As part of an experimental
design to examine algal growth in response to nutrient gradients,
acetate strips were left in the bay at various locations in
respect to a nutrient source (Red Brook) to assess algal growth.
Concurrent with the collection of the strips for chlorophyll
analyses, 10 cm x 1 cm strips were removed and placed in sterile
-------
o
\
E
v*
O
TJ
VJ
QJ
U,
10
I
15
30
45
I
60
90
sediment
control
exposed
120
ISO
TIME (minutes)
Figure 15 - Fecal coliform die-off with time in samples buried to a depth of 1-2 mm
of sediment compared with samples immersed in 1-2 mm of water in
Buttermilk Bay, August 11, 1986.
-------
phosphate buffered water. Concurrent water samples were also
taken. The samples were taken to the lab and processed using MPN
methodology previously described. The samples were then stored
at 20 C under subdued natural light (laboratory ambient light).
After 7 days, the density of fecal coliform was again measured in
all samples. The results (Figure 16) showed that those samples
containing the acetate strips with algae growth experienced 1-3
log 10 increases in population of fecal coliform, while those
water samples taken from the same areas without the algal strip
cultures experienced at least 90 % mortality. These data
suggest that the algae were providing nutrients capable of
supporting growth of fecal coliform. The excretion of organic
compounds by various species of marine and freshwater algae has
been reported (Hellebust 1965, Larsson and Hagstrom
1982,McFeters et al. 1978, Nalewajko et al. 1980). These later
investigators reported that the doubling time for Pseudomonas
fluorescens was reduced from 2-19 days to 2 hours in mixed
culture with Chlorella sp. This algal genus was also the
subject of study by McFeters et al. (1978) who observed that the
supernatant from cultures supported growth of fecal coliform. In
general it appears plausible from our investigations as well as
published studies that at least some species of marine algae
produce extracellular products which can support growth of fecal
coliform.
The implications of this "secondary" effect of nutrient
enrichment in Buttermilk Bay are uncertain. It appears plausible
that in certain situations where water exchange is limited and
nutrients concentrate in amounts that support algal growth, fecal
coliform may derive nutrients capable of maintenance and possibly
growth. Collectively, these issues of the implications of
nutrient enrichment and its effect on the bacteriological quality
of the receiving water warrant further research.
50
-------
— 5.0
E
o
o
4.0
N.
5
Q
U
•— 2.0
VJ
0)
Cl
Q
WATER
• WATER + ALGAE
-_ 5.0-
e
o
S 4.0.
3.0H
Q
vj
~. 2.0-
VJ
01
u.
en
o
WATER
• WATER + ALGAE
— 5.0-
€
2 4.0.
s
V.
3.0
1J
u
Oj
u.
Cl
Q
— WATER
-— WATER + ALGAE
DAY
DAY
7
Figure 16- Growth of fecal coliform in the presence of
indiginenous algae at 20°C under laboratory
conditions.
-------
USE OF ALTERNATE BACTERIAL INDICATORS TO EVALUATE SOURCES AND
DEGREE OF BACTERIAL CONTAMINATION
Almost since the acceptance of the total and fecal coliform
standard, researchers and health officials have searched for
alternate indicator organisms for the classification of
recreational waters which would more accurately reflect the
public health risks. The problems associated with the
development of an indicator organism system fall into two
categories:
1) Cost effective methods for analysis must be developed,
and
2) It must be demonstrated that under "average conditions"
the organism(s) is(are) consistently correlated with
the occurrence of human pathogenic organisms which
produce an observable effect (ie. waterbourne disease
outbreak).
The search for alternative indicator organisms for
recreational waters basically stems from the fact that it is not
possible to analyze water for the myriad of pathogens which could
be present. In addition, methods for direct measurement of some
pathogens, notably the viruses, have not been developed.
With the exception of the enterococci, which has gained some
acceptance as an indicator of public health risk in contact
recreational waters, other bacteria, although not incorporated
into a defined indicator organism scheme, have found use as
diagnostic tools in evaluating contamination sources. In the
course of the present study, certain alternate bacterial
indicators were investigated to assess their utility in
determining contamination sources. Among those indicators chosen
was Escherichia coli (a subset of the fecal coliform group),
Clostridium perfringens, fecal streptococcus , and a subgroup of
the fecal streptococcus group which includes strains of
Streptococcus faecalis and Streptococcus faecium called the
enterococci.The following summarizes this author's experience
with each of these alternate indicator organisms, with an
analysis of how each organism's density patterns related to the
presently-employed standard for the evaluation of shellfish
harvesting areas, the fecal coliform group. For regression
analyses, data were first Iog10 -transformed.
In general, all of the indicators investigated have been
shown in various situations to have sanitary significance. The
difficulties in applying results from one study area to another
however, are numerous since the variability in characteristics of
each study site are often substantial. Generally, the shallow
closed embayment served by subsurface sewage systems has not been
widely studied. Thus, it is questionable whether data collected
in the majority of published studies relating to sewage outfalls
in more open, exchanged areas is applicable to our study area in
52
-------
Buttermilk Bay. At minimum, however, it can be stated that
alternate indicators are useful tools in the whole arsenal of
public health officials which, if interpreted in light of
specific situations, can possibly serve to delineate
contamination sources.
Escherichia coli
One of the most useful alternate indicator organisms
investigated was Escherichia coli. This subset of the fecal
coliform group is generally considered more fecal specific, since
the fecal coliform system includes the genus Klebsiella, an
organism which is not fecal specific. Although Klebsiella is
infrequently present in human feces, a substantial number of
extra-enteral sources have been noted (Seidel et al. 1977, Dufour
and Cabelli 1976). In addition to the the existence of extra-
enteral sources, it should be noted that there is no
epidemiological link implicating the transmission of Klebsiella
infections via the waterbourne route, further negating its use as
a bacteriological standard for recreational water. The
persistence of use of the fecal coliform system in spite of the
shortcomings of one of its components appears to be the result of
historical misconceptions (Cabelli et al. 1983) and lack of
definitive investigations relative to alternative indicator
systems.
The usefulness of fecal coliform differentiation in our study
area was diagnostic. Since there is indication from published
studies that Klebsiella sp. can multiply outside of a warm-
blooded hosts^Tt was beneficial to rule out extra-enteral
sources of a non-fecal specific "fecal coliform" (Klebsiella)
such as decomposing marsh situations which are common in the
Buttermilk Bay watershed.
In all but seven cases during monitoring at routine sampling
stations, fecal coliform in samples were comprised entirely of
Escherichia coli (Table 4). This accounts for the high degree of
correlation between fecal coliform and E.coli densities (r= 0.98)
in routine samples (Fig. 17). In addition, all fecal coliform
observed in stormwater samples were further differentiated as E.
coli.
Although, as stated, E._ coli is considered more fecal
specific, our investigations and published studies reviewed
elsewhere herein, do suggest the possibility of extra-enteral
sources of E. coli. If this is the case, the usefulness of
differentiating members of the fecal coliform system is reduced
to determining whether Klebsiella is a component of the fecal
coliform densities being observed. In the event that Klebsiella
is the major component in any situation, this information may
redirect effort away from investigations of human sources, which
are often quite expensive and time-intensive. In the event that
E. coli is the major component of the fecal coliform densities
observed, the indication is less definitive and leaves the
53
-------
o
o
100
LU
10
Y = X ± .lit
R = .98
D
DD D
D
10 100
Fecal coliform (#/100 ml)
Figure 17 - Relationship between fecal coliform and E. coli
densities in samples collected at routine
sampling stations in Buttermilk Bay during
1986. Data were log-,n transformed.
-------
possibility of either contamination of sanitary significance or
significant contribution by extra-enteral sources.
Clostridium perfringens
Despite the fact that Clostridium perfringens is consistently
associated with human wastes(Akama and Otani 1970, Haenal 1970
and Drasar et al. 1975 as cited in Cabelli 1980), it is presently
not incorporated into a definite fecal indicator system.
Although densities of this organism were generally low at routine
sampling stations in the present study (Table 6), some general
patterns did emerge. With the exception of one sampling date,
Clostridium perfringens showed highest densities at Station 6H2
near the Hideaway Village development. This may suggest the
input from septic system leachate in the area, since it has been
shown elsewhere herein (See SEPTIC SYSTEMS) that C._ perfringens
is found in septic system leachate in densities exceeding 103.
The poor correlation between this indicator and fecal coliforra
(r=.099) is somewhat expected (Figure 18). The culture technique
used in this study enumerates the spore of this organism, which
is resistive to adverse environmental conditions. It is thus a
conservative tracer which would indicate a contamination source
long after the fecal coliform experienced die off.
In addition to station 6H2, the occurrence of C._ perfringens
was consistent at the mouth of Red Brook (Station 5.9) and in the
inner portion of Miller Cove (Station 3.5). While the occurrence
of £._ perfringens at Miller Cove may again indicate contamination
from groundwater sources (ie. septic systems), since 50% of the
groundwater samples taken in this area on 6/23/86 were positive
for £._ perfringens, there is no direct evidence for this source
from groundwater samples taken at the mouth of Red Brook.
Another possible source of this indicator could be waterfowl
and pet fecal material deposited near or at the shoreline. A
survey of the wrack on July 25 at ten selected sites around the
bay indicated £._ perfringens at densities ranging from <10
organisms/gram of wrack (observed at one station) to over 600
organisms/gram. There was no correlation between C. perfringens
and fecal coliform densities in the wrack at thTs time.the
occurrence at 9 of the ten stations sampled however, suggests
that the organism may be somewhat ubiquitous in the strand or
wrack material, with waterfowl and domestic animals as the likely
source. Geldreich (1977) for instance reported that dog waste
contained 2.51 x 108 C^ perfringens per gram of feces.
Thus it appears that there are two sources of C perfringens
entering the bay, surface deposit by pets and waterfowl, and
groundwater inputs from septic systems. While the groundwater
observations may point to areas of septic effluent inputs, the
lack of correlation with the currently-used standard (fecal
coliform) brings into question the role of this source in the
classification of the bay for shellfish harvesting.
55
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Table. 6 . Summary of Clostridium perfringens densities at routine monitoring stations in
VJl
Os
Buttermilk Bay/ southeastern Massachusetts, March - October 1986. For locatior
stations see Figure 3. All densities expressed as number of organisms/100 mis.
STATION
Date 1
3/17/86 <10
4/15/86 <3
05/08/86 6
6/19/86 <3
7/24/86 <3
8/27/86 <10
10/01/86 <10
16 10.3 15
<10 <10 <10
<3 <3 <3
6 <3 <3
<3 3 <3
<3 <3 <3
<10 <10 <10
10 <10 <10
12a
20
7
<3
3
<3
<10
6H2
40
10
30
3
63
129
12
5.9S
10
7
6
3
<3
18
(upstream
5.9B 4a
<10 <10
7 <3
10 13
6 <3
<3 <3
9 <3
of 6H2 at bog)
3.5
40
3
33
<3
<3
<3
14
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
10
ND= No data
-------
O
O
CD
cz
CD
CD
C
c_
CD
0.
CD
00
O
I — 1
CJ
100
L
10
D
-
-n
a
a
a
D a
a
a D
D a a
DO m
. .... i
ODD
D D D
D
D
10
100
Figure 18 -
Fecal coliform (#/100 ml)
Relationship between fecal coliform and Clostridia perfringens
densities in samples collected at routine sampling stations
in Buttermilk Bay during 1986. Data were Iog10 transformed.
D — in
R = .10.
57
-------
VJ1
CD
Table. 7 . Summary of fecal streptococci densities at routine monitoring stations in
Buttermilk Bay, southeastern Massachusetts, March - October 1986. For locations of
stations see Figure 3. All densities expressed as number of organisms /100 mis.
STATION
Date 1
3/17/86 <10
4/15/86 <3
6/19/86 <10
7/24/86 <10
8/27/86 <10
10/01/86 <10
16 10.3 15
<10 <10 <10
<3 <3 <3
<10 <10 <10
<10 <10 <10
10 20 10
<10 10 <10
12a
20
270
240
200
540
60
6H2
10
27
120
TNTC
600
950
5.9S
10
40
20
30
300
310
5.9B
10
3
30
290
60
10
4a
10
3.5
<3
30
-------
o
o
CD
13
U
U
O
U
o
4->
Q.
O)
c_
4-J
CO
fD
U
-------
FECAL STREPTOCOCCUS
Within the context of recreational waters;> the fecal
streptococcus group is generally used in a diagnostic manner to
determine sources of fecal contamination. A discussion of the
use of the fecal coliform/fecal streptococcus ratio is presented
elsewhere (see WILDLIFE section). This indicator group generally
contains members with limited sanitary significance which has
restricted its use as a fecal indicator (Geldreich and Kenner
1969). In our study area/ their occurrence was most consistent
at points of surface freshwater inputs (Stations 12a,6H2, and
5.9- Table 7). Their significance could not be determined due to
studies questioning the utility of the fecal coliform/fecal
streptococcus ratio, however there was some correlation between
these two indicator groups (r= .70 - Figure 19). Other studies
being conducted in Buzzards Bay (Larry Gil, DEQE, Div. W.ater
Pollution Control - personal communication) suggested that a high
percentage of colonies growing on the K-F Strep media were false
positives as determined by confirmatory tests for fecal
streptococcus.
ENTEROCOCCUS
The use of this fecal indicator group has received much
attention in recent years as an indicator of risk in using
recreational waters, particularly for contact purposes. Cabelli
(1983) reports a high correlation between enterococci densities
and gastrointestinal disorders among bathers at New York Beaches.
As a result of that author's findings, some states have adopted
this standard for use at bathing beaches.
During the present study, the occurrence of enterococci
paralleled that of streptococcus as expected since it is a subset
of this group (Table 8).
Two main problems arise when attempting to interpret our
enterococci data. Firstly, study by Cabelli (1983) was performed
in relation to situations receiving large point discharges.
Since these situations typically are in more open, exchanged
areas, the numerous factors present in a closed shallow embayment
receiving smaller point and non-point discharges, such as
Buttermilk Bay, have not been addressed. In addition to the
question of applicability, some difficulty was experienced
counting the colonies due to the growth of atypical colonies on
the media used. This was particularly true for areas where there
were bordering wetlands. In general it was observed that
enterococci showed little correlation with the fecal indicator
group (r= .46 - Figure 20). Due to the lack of epidemiological
data from comparable sites, the sanitary significance of
enterococci densities observed could not be determined.
60
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Table. 8 . Summary of enterococci densities at routine monitoring st
Bay, southeastern Massachusetts, March - October 1986. For locations
Figure 3. All enterococci densities expressed as number of organisms
STATION
Date 1 16
3/17/86 <10 <10
4/15/86 <3 37
6/19/86 <10 <10
7/24/86 30 <10
8/27/86 70 <10
10/01/86 <10 <10
10.3
36
<3
<10
10
160
20
15
20
7
<10
<10
30
<10
12a
<10
3
70
50
550
30
6H2
<10
<3
30
TNTC
280
140
5.9S
82
53
<10
<10
80
310
5.9B
10
<3
10
40
110
500
-------
o
CD
100 .
CO
13
O
C_>
o
o
o
c_
cu
c
LU
10 .
1 .
D
D
D
D
D DD DD
10 100
Fecal coliform (#/100 ml)
Figure 20
- Relationship between fecal eoliform and enterococci
densities in samples collected at routine sampling
stations in Buttermilk Bay during 1986. Data were
transformed.
62
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VIRUSES - A LITERATURE REVIEW OF PERTINENT ISSUES
While the issue of fecal coliform presence in Buttermilk
Bay has been addressed in the course of the present study, it
should be understood that the presence of an additional
biological component of domestic sewage, the viruses, also has
public health implications. Due to the constraints of the
present study, the impact from viruses entering Buttermilk Bay
could not be evaluated directly, however, what follows is a
comprehensive review of published studies relating to virus
entrainment in groundwater and persistence in the nearshore
environment, with comment on the applicability of these studies'
results to our area.
More than 110 different viruses are known to be excreted in
human feces (Goyal 1984). While the number of viruses shed from
individuals varies .greatly depending on the infection status of
the host, 10b to 107 virus particles per gram of feces has been
reported by this author as an average. A review of the
literature leaves little doubt that human pathogens, notably
enteric viruses are neither inactivated nor removed in
conventional wastewater treatment systems (Dubois et al 1979).
Since on-site subsurface sewage disposal units receive no
chemical treatment, with the possible exception of limited
disinfection as a result of residual chemicals from laundry and
cleaning wastes, it is imperative to ensure that system location
practices allow for adequate means of pathogen removal by means
of filtration, adsorption and retaining the waste until
pathogenic organisms lose their ability to enter routes where
they will allow exposure to a human host in an infective state.
In order to ensure this, a sound understanding of the process
and factors involved in pathogen travel and survival in
groundwater as well as the persistence in the marine environment
is essential. What follows is a discussion of these factors from
the published literature regarding viruses.
At the outset, it should be understood that, to date, there
have been no comprehensive studies documenting the impact of
bacteria or virus originating in on-site subsurface septic
facilities on adjacent surface waters. With few exceptions,
therefore, much of the inferences made herein relative to on-site
systems originate from data collected in association with
alternate land disposal techniques such as rapid or slow sand
filtration beds, septic lagoons or irrigation practices. Since
collectively these alternatives as well as the on-site
alternative have as their basic component waste application into
soils, an extrapolation of data gathered with respect to pathogen
entrainment and survival from alternate methodology into on-site
application situations appears justified.
With respect to the threat of compromising water quality of
adjacent surface waters with on-site septic system practices, the
issue can be broken down into three basic questions which will
63
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serve as the outline for the following discussion and literature
summary.
(1) Do viral pathogens have the ability to become entrained
in groundwater which recharges surface water?
(2) Can these pathogens survive for extended periods in
groundwater?
(3) Can viral pathogens remain viable for extended periods
in the marine environment ?
A number of obstacles immediately present themselves when
trying to answer these basic questions, particularly in reference
to viral pathogens. In 1983, Vaughn and Landry (1983) indicated
that the field of environmental virology was in its "embryonic"
state. To draw upon this same analogy, it can be stated that due
to technical problems associated with various aspects of virus
culture and monitoring the field to this date remains in its
infancy.
Although there is no epidemiological evidence linking on-
site subsurface disposal practices with disease outbreaks from
adjacent recreational water usage, the evidence of water-related
disease outbreaks involving consumed water (see Gerba et al 1985
for a review of the literature relating to waterbourne
gastroenteritis and hepatitis) is considerable. Thus,
investigation into the disease-transmission possibilities
involving recreational usage of water receiving septic leachate,
particularly in areas where edible products such as shellfish are
harvested appear quite warranted. Within the confines of a
properly operating on-site subsurface system, groundwater
entrainment is the only vector by which pathogens migrate from
the disposal site.
Groundwater recharge enters adjacent surface waters by one
of two modes. In most situations, recharge enters the surface
water laterally at some point beneath the surface of the water.
At this point, biological contaminants entrained in groundwater
must "survive" the passage through the sediment-water interface
or survive containment in those sediments. It is the lack of
understanding of the processes in this sediment-water interface
which calls into question the validity of applying information
collected in most published groundwater microbiology studies
toward resulting surface water pollution. Simply stated,
extended entrainment/survival of pathogens in groundwater may
have reduced implication to surface water pollution if the
pathogens are unable to "survive" the passage into the surface
water. For this purpose, the later portion of this report
summarizes the available data on the survival of certain
pathogens in marine sediments.
A second mode by which biological contamination in
groundwater can reach surface waters is commonly referred to as
seepage or "breakout". In this situation, hydrographic
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conditions such as an ebbing tide, rain or snowmelt recharge etc.
increase the hydraulic head or gradient to the point where
groundwater seeps or breaks through the surface of the soil
adjacent to the body of water and completes its path to the
surface water by way of an overland route. During these
situations, biological contaminants entrained must survive a
different, typically more variable set of environmental
conditions, during its overland passage to be considered a
possible threat to the public health. For this purpose,
additional environmental factors and their effect on the survival
of various pathogens is also reviewed.
ENTRAPMENT OF VIRUSES IB GROUNDWATER
In their review of recent literature Keswick and Gerba
(1980) reported that various studies indicated that viruses could
be entrained in groundwater to distances up to 408 m from their
point of application. It should be noted, however, that reports
of lateral entrainment of viruses in excess of 70 m are rare in
the literature. The majority of investigations relative to virus
entrainment and survival in groundwater have been in regard to
land application of domestic wastes and have indicated limited
mobility of viruses in soils. Duboise et al (1976) in laboratory
studies using soil columns indicated that viruses migrated at
least 10 cm. In Eustis fine sand, Bitton et al (1984) noted that
virus migration following sludge application was less than 33 cm.
McConnell et al (1984) reported that, applying seeded river water
at an application rate of 0.2m/h through soils containing higher
than 98% sand, reovirus were noted to be retained within a
distance of 1.22 m. Gerba and Lance (1978) applying primary
sewage effluent to soil columns of loamy sand soil indicated that
only on one occasion were viruses detected at the 250 cm. depth.
Laboratory experiments of Dubois et al (1974) using sandy forest
soil indicated a 98.6% removal of Polio I and 99.6% removal of T
7 Virus within 19.5 cm. of sandy forest soil. In other
laboratory experiments Wang et al (1981) comparing 4 soil types
and using Polio I and Echo I viruses found that with the
exception of Rubicon Sand, in which there was a penetration of at
least 87 cm., other soils tested removed at least 98% of the
viruses within 67 cm. While laboratory experiments of Lance and
Gerba (1984) indicated virus movement of 160 cm. under saturated
conditions, this author noted considerably less entrainment
distances (40 cm) when unsaturated conditions were tested.
In apparent contrast to these studies, field investigations
indicate a more extensive entrainment of viruses. Mack et al
(1972) isolated Poliovirus Type 2 from a 30.5 m-deep well located
91.5 m from the edge of a wastewater drain field. Wellings et
al.(1975) describing the penetration and entrainment of viruses
following application of secondary sewage to a cypress dome
indicated from a single isolation of virus that lateral
entrainment was 38 m from the source at a depth movement to 3 m.
Vaughn et al (1983) in what is likely the most pertinent
investigation to our study area of Buttermilk Bay, investigating
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leachate from septic tanks in a shallow sandy soil aquifer
observed virus to be entrained to aquifer depths of 18 m and
lateral movement to a distance of 67.05 m. This author, citing
additional work by himself and coauthors also noted lateral
entrainment 45.7 m downgradient from recharge basins receiving
effluent following tertiary treatment. Further work cited by
these authors reported a single isolation of coxsackievirus from
an observation well 402 m downgradient from a sanitary landfill.
Using a tracer virus (coliphage f2), Schaub and Sorber (1977)
have demonstrated lateral entrainment of virus to 182.8 m at a
site used for rapid infiltration of wastewater.
Not all field studies indicate extensive lateral movement of
viruses. Brown et al (1979) concluded from studies using
coliphage that 120 cm. was adequate to minimize the possibility
of groundwater contamination. Gilbert et al (1976) observed that
when secondary sewage effluent was applied to sandy-loam soil
99.99% of the viruses were removed within 9 m of passage.
There are many possible reasons for the variability noted in
the previously cited studies regarding the mobility of virus
within the soil column. Foremost/ it should be understood that
the field of environmental virology, to include sampling
methodology and isolation techniques has undergone significant
changes in the past two decades. Thus, there are significant
differences in the detectability limits in many of the studies
reviewed. Perhaps more important, however, in accounting for the
variability in entrainment values are differences among the
studies in the many variables affecting the movement of viruses
in groundwater. Keswick and Gerba (1980) in reviewing those
factors affecting the entrainment and survival of viruses in
groundwater have listed numerous specific factors under three
broad categories of hydrogeologica1, biological and
meteorological. While each of the specific factors affecting
virus retention in soil are discussed under separate headings in
the following discussion, the reader should realize that no one
factor can be singled out as the most influencing factor in
survival or entrainment of viruses in groundwater. In a given
situation, it is likely that many factors operate in complex
concert to cause an observed level of entrainment or survival.
In addition, it should be understood that soil systems are
dynamic systems in which many influencing factors undergo
periodic changes which in turn alter survival and entrainment
characteristics of pathogens.
Factors Affecting the Survival and Bntrainment of Viruses in
Groundwater
Temperature
Similar to what has been reported for bacterial indicators,
temperature has been reported to exert a primary influence on the
persistence of viruses in groundwater. A review of investigations
in this area (Duboise et al. 1979) generally indicates an
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inverse relationship between virus survival and soil temperature.
Dubois et al. (1976) found that survival at 4 C was greatly
prolonged over 20 C. During investigation of sludge amended soil,
Tierney et al. (1977) found maximum survival ( at least 96 days)
during winter compared with survival of only 11 days during
summer months. Under winter conditions Damgaard-Larsen et al.
(1977) observed the survival of coxsackievirus to persist for 23
weeks. Yates et al. (1985) found that poliovirus underwent a 1-
log reduction in titer in 3-5 days at 26 C as opposed to 28.8
days at "lower" temperatures. Hurst et al. (1980 b) concluded
that temperature was one of the most important factors affecting
virus survival in soil systems.
Moisture Content of Soil
Numerous studies summarized by Vaughn and Landry (1983)
strongly support the role of soil moisture in virus survival.
These studies generally suggest that losses in soil moisture
result in higher inactivation rates for viruses and suggest that
on-site subsurface sewage disposal systems situated where drying
cycles could be achieved will exhibit the more optimal virus
inactivation as opposed to systems situated where soils
underlying the leaching facility retains adequate moisture on a
continuing basis (such as near or in the saturated zone).
Distance to Groundwater
The likelihood that viral pathogens will be entrained in
groundwater and carried significant distances from the site of
deposition is directly related to the underlying conditions which
facilitate the travel of the virus to the groundwater table. The
two factors integrally involved in this process are distance and
time. If the velocity of an effluent is kept constant, the
probability that a virus particle will reach the groundwater
table is negatively correlated with the depth of the vadose zone.
In close conjunction with the soil depth, however, the rate of
recharge is clearly shown to positively affect the penetration of
viruses into the vadose zone (Wang et al. 1981 and Vaughn et al.
1981). In short, higher recharge rates generally cause further
movement of viruses toward the groundwater table, and in some
cases the virus may reach the saturated zone. Thus a lower
recharge rate in some situations may determine whether viruses
become entrained in groundwater or get retained in the vadose
zone.
Due to the electrochemical nature of virus particles, the pH
of both the sewage effluent and the soil microenvironment
strongly influence the adsorption of virus. Although an in-depth
discussion of the electrochemical double layer (ECDL) of viruses
and the various reactions of this layer is outside the scope of
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this paper, it is sufficient to say that, in general, lower pH
ranges tended to increase adsorption of viruses in studies
reviewed. Goyal and Gerba (1979) using nine different soils
concluded that soil pH was the single most important factor
influencing virus adsorption to soil. Burge and Enkiri (1978)
noted an increased adsorption of a bacteriophage at decreased
pH. Schaub and Sagik (1975) additionally observed increased
adsorption at lower pH using 2 Encephalomyocarditis viruses.
Conducting a study using 34 minerals and soils, however, Moore et
al (1981) did not demonstrate significant correlation of polio
virus type 2 with pH alone.
Since each virus has a specific surface charge
characteristic and since the pH and ionic strength of the aqueous
environment has a key role in determining the overall strength of
the charge (and hence its mobility in soil), it is likely virus
type (discussed later) is an important factor in determining the
effect pH has on virus entrainment. In addition to this two
factor interaction, Sobsey et al (1980) indicated that soil type
can also modify the correlation of pH and virus adsorption. In
general, however, it does appear that lower pH environments do
enhance adsorption. This author additionally reported that, even
in soils with low adsorptive capability (i.e. sands) an
enhancement of the limited ability can be achieved by lowering
the pH.
Type of Soil
The majority studies reviewed dealing with adsorptive
capacity of soils indicate soil type is extremely important in
governing the mobility of viruses in applied effluent. In
general, one of the key characteristics of soil determining its
adsorptive capacity is the clay content. Sandy and organic soils
are poor adsorbers of virus (hence would allow for more extensive
entrainment), whereas clay soils are good adsorbers (Keswick and
Gerba 1980). This condition is supported in study by Sobsey et
al (1980), Schaub and Sagik (1975) and others. Conversely,
however, Schaub and Sorber (1977) demonstrated extensive
migration (ca. 183 m) of viruses in "silty, sandy gravel".
Two additional factors reported by Vaughn and Landry (1984)
that are closely related to overall clay content are cation
exchange capacity (CEC) and specific surface area (SSA). In
general, these two factors are positively correlated with clay
content. Burge and Enkiri (1978) specifically mentioned these
factors noting that adsorption of a bacteriophage increased as
these two factors increased. Findings of Funderburg et al (1981)
using this same bacteriophage as well as poliovirus 1 and
reovirus 3 correspond well with findings of Burge and Enkiri
(1978). While correlation with these specific soil
characteristics (CEC and SSA) and adsorption was not observed by
Goyal and Gerba (1979) these authors do concur that soil type is
a major factor affecting adsorption of viruses,'reporting that
clay in soil enhances adsorption.
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In addition to clay components, insoluble organic components
in soil have been shown to affect adsorption. Natural soil
organic matter has been shown to be a weak adsorber of viruses
(Moore et al 1981). Studies conducted using septic sludge,
however, seems to indicate the ability of this organic matter to
retain viruses in upper soil layers (Bitton et al. 1984 and
Damgaard-Larson et al.(1977). Pancorbo (1981) reported that
viruses had more affinity toward aerobically digested sludge than
anaerobically digested sludge.
Dissolved Solids
Many studies have been published relating to the various
affects of dissolved solids on virus adsorption to soils. As
mentioned previously, those materials affecting the pH of the
system can have appreciable affect by modifying the overall
surface charge of the virus particle (see pH), and hence its
mobility in groundwater. In addition, there are some indications
in the literature, notably study of Schaub and Sagik (1975) and
Carlson et al (1968) that the metallic cation concentration
positively correlated with virus adsorption. The later authors
noted that divalent cations affected virus adsorption more
positively than equal molar strength solutions of monovalent
cations. In subsequent study Bitton et al (1975) determined that
trivalent aluminum cations were more effective in enhancing
adsorption than divalent ions. Lefler and Kott (1974) found
differential adsorptive enhancement abilities of soil columns
dependent on the concentration of the divalent calcium cation.
Studies by both Schaub and Sagik (1975), Moore et al.(1981)
and Scheuerman et al (1979) suggest that dissolved organic
material negatively affects virus adsorption. In an experiment
designed to separate out the affects of the water-soluble
organics from the insoluble components in "muck" soil, the later
authors concluded that the "Humic substances" within the muck
soil interfered with the adsorptive capacity. Lo and Sproul
(1977) using dissolved proteinaceous organic materials found
that not only did the substances compete for adsorption sites on
silicate minerals, but caused viruses to desorb and become mobile
in the soil column. It was apparently this type of interaction
that Sobsey et al (1980) observed when he found nutrient broth to
be the most effective treatment to elute viruses. These findings
stand in apparent conflict with other studies by Gerba and Lance
(1978) who found that organics present in primary on secondary
effluent did not affect virus adsorption and Goyal and Gerba
(1979) who found no consistent pattern of affect relative to %
organic matter in applied effluent. In addition to the prior
mentioned surfactants have been shown to diminish the adsorptive
capacity of soils (Dizer et al. 1984).
It thus appears that in general an increase in total
dissolved solids enhances virus adsorption with the possible
exception of high molecular weight organic fractions which may
compete for binding sites in some situations. Di and tri-valent
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cations show consistent enhancement of adsorption capabilities in
studies reviewed.
Virus Type
It is generally believed that adsorption of viruses is the
primary mechanism for removal in on-site subsurface wastewater
systems. Since adsorption, in part, is governed by the overall
electrochemical nature of the virus, which is a unique
characteristic, it is expected that different viruses would
exhibit differential entrainment potential in similar soil.
Numerous investigators have verified this contention (Landry et
al. 1979, Gerba et al. 1980, Schaub et al 1980, Funderburg et al.
1981, Goyal and Gerba 1979, Hurst et al. 1980, Lance et al.
1982). The overwhelming conclusion which emerges following review
of these studies is that, to this date, a virus type which could
serve as a predictive model for all virus movement in soil
systems has not yet been identified.
Meteorological Events
Virus particles adsorbed onto soil beneath a septic system
by in large are of little public health significance so as long
as they are not entrained in groundwater and moved from the site
to proximity to a susceptible host. Despite the enormous
adsorptive capacity of some soils, numerous studies have shown
that the virus-soil particle association is not necessarily a
permanent one which endures until the virus is deactivated. A
number of factors have been shown to cause desorption or elution
of the viruses from adsorption sites.
The most common occurrence which results in the desorption
of viruses in wastewater systems is rainfall. Sobsey et al (1980)
and Landry et al. (1979) found that considerable quantities of
retained viruses were washed from soil columns of sandy and
organic materials by simulated rainfall. This phenomena was not
observed in columns containing more clayey soils. Using
deionized water, Lance et al. (1976) observed that viruses were
desorbed and moved more readily through soil columns. The
elution of viruses from sludge disposal sites with rain was
observed by Damgaard-Larsen et al. (1977).
Predicting the Movement of Viruses in Groundwater Entering
Buttermilk Bay
It is evident from the previously presented review that the
movement of viruses in groundwater is subject to a myriad of
variables acting in complex concert. Although the site- specific
information necessary for prediction of virus entrainment in
Buttermilk Bay has not been developed, a review of the surficial
geology of the Buttermilk Bay study area (Moog, 1987 and Weiskel
1986) does suggest that soil characteristics are quite comparable
to those encountered by Vaughn et al. (1983) in the Long Island,
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New York area. This author noted that, in a shallow sandy-soil
aquifer, similar to our area, viruses were entrained laterally to
distances of least 67.05 m and to depths in the aquifer of 18
m. Despite the lack of more site-specific data ( soil CEC, ph,
organic content etc.) it appears feasible to expect similar
entrainment in our area.
SURVIVAL OF VIRUSES IK MARINE SYSTEMS
In the event that viruses are entrained for distances which
would allow their passage into surface waters, it then becomes
important to have an understanding of the factors affecting the
survival in the receiving water. For this purpose, the following
is a review of literature regarding the survival of viruses in
marine systems.
Many factors affecting the persistence of human enteric
viruses in the marine environment are similar to those factors
affecting survival of enteric bacteria. Among these factors,
association with sediments, temperature, and solar radiation are
the most important determining the persistence in the marine
environment. In addition, some authors (Akin et al. 1976 and
Fujioka et al. 1980) have suggested the presence of a virus-
deactivating compound in seawater.
Association with Sediments
Numerous other authors have reported the accumulation and
persistence of viruses in sediments (Smith 1978, Metcalf and
Stiles 1968, Landry et al. 1983, LaBelle and Gerba 1979 and 1982,
and others). In comparing persistence rates between raw seawater
and sediments Roa et al. (1984) indicated that Polio and
rotaviruses retained their infectivity for 19 days in association
with sediment compared with a loss of infectivity after 9 days
when freely suspended. Similar results indicating the
stabilization of viruses associated with sediments were obtained
by LaBelle and Gerba (1980) and Liew and Gerba (1980) using Polio
1 and Echo 1 viruses. Generally, therefore it can be stated that
viruses can accumulate in sediments and experience prolonged
persistence due to their protective effect.
Temperature
There is general agreement that in marine environments, as
in groundwater, virus persistence is inversely related to
temperature. Goyal et al. (1984) suggested that the extended (17
months) survival of viruses at a sewage sludge ocean disposal
site was due not only to protective sludge-sediment matrix but
also due to the generally low (ca. 7 C) temperatures.
Poliovirus and coxsackieviruses in unassociated state were found
to be more stable at lower temperatures (Obrien and Newman 1977).
In addition to unassociated and sediment-associated viruses,
viruses in shellfish, in particular oysters, have been shown to
persist for 120 days at 7C (Metcalf and Stiles 1965). A
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comprehensive review of literature in regard to this aspect was
presented by Melnick and Gerba (1980).
Solar Radiation
The negative effect of solar radiation in surface waters has
been noted by a number of investigators (Bitton et al. 1979,
Kapuscinski and Mitchell 1983). A number of factors govern the
photinactivation process to include association with sediments,
depth in the water column, and presence of blue-green algae
(Bitton et al. 1979). Although this author suggested that light
inactivation was less important at depths exceeding 6 inches,
Kapuscinski and Mitchell (1983) have suggested that light
wavelengths exceeding 370 nm can cause mortality and that these
wavelengths can penetrate to depths of 5 m and experience only a
10-fold reduction in intensity.
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GENERAL SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
The causes for the bacteriological contamination of
Buttermilk Bay can be separated into two categories: continual
inputs and inputs related to storm or rain events. It is the
later category which plays the major role in the classification
of Buttermilk Bay for shellfishing purposes and to a great extent
has determined the public's perception of water quality in the
bay in general. The primary sources of fecal coliform during
rain events are discharge pipes serving an extensive drainage
area in the surface watershed of the bay. The degree of
contamination from any one pipe is related to the intensity of
land use within its service area, periodicity of rain events and
season of year. In general the drain servicing the most
intensively used land during summer months in which rain events
are infrequent will exhibit the highest contamination levels
during rain events. Although the sources of fecal coliform in
discharges could not be positively identified, a large pet and
wildlife population in the area is implicated. Comparison of
this study's values with nationwide observations under the
National Urban Runoff Program suggests that fecal coliform values
observed at discharges are not necessarily caused by direct
sanitary waste input to the discharge systems. An intensive
survey of the areas serviced by all surface drains failed to
disclose any cross connections with the drainage system.
In addition to stormwater discharges, the release of coliform
from protected reservoirs, such as the strand line and sediments,
also contributes to the increased fecal coliform levels during
rain events. Although the fecal coliform loading from these
factors could not be determined, data presented do indicate the
effect may, in certain situations, be substantial.
During periods of little precipitation, water quality in the
bay is generally good with the exceptions of areas around
constant inputs. These constant inputs include freshwater
streams as well as one intermittent point discharge. Regarding
the freshwater inputs, historic comparisons showing high fecal
coliform values as far back as 1973 in the case of Red Brook
suggest that encroaching development is not entirely responsible
for values observed just prior to and during the recent shellfish
closures. Point sources within this watershed and the four
remaining were not located, suggesting fecal coliform of a
diffuse source, possibly natural in origin. Nutrient levels as
well as protective characteristics of the drainage basins suggest
the possibility that indicator organisms are subject to
significant modification to its mortality rate. The single point
source discharge located near a local fish market can be expected
to impact the immediate area, the extent of which will be
determined by the local mixing conditions.
The effect of waterfowl use on the bacteriological quality of
water was found to have two components. Direct fecal deposit
into the bay was shown to have minimal effect in most situations,
while beach deposition was shown to have the potential for
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significant cumulative effects.
The total effect of septic systems on the bacteriological
quality of Buttermilk Bay could not assessed, but three main
possibilities for impact were suggested. Initially/ there is
some indication that fecal coliform can be entrained in
groundwater near the bay to distances of approximately 35 m. In
addition to bacteria, an extensive review of published studies
indicates that viral pathogens are entrained to greater distances
in groundwater. Using published studies which are most
applicable to our study area, it is possible that viral pathogens
can be entrained for lateral distances of at least 67 m, even in
situations where the subsurface septic system of origin is
properly located in accordance with present regulation. The
variety of variables involved in predicting virus movement in
groundwater, however, precludes using this value as a definitive
guideline.
Small scale laboratory and in-situ experiments suggest the
possibility that nutrient inputs, some of which can be traced
to septic systems, affect the bacteriological quality of the
water additionally by altering the mortality rates of organisms
in the receiving waters. Two major mechanisms are suggested to
include an altering of the ultraviolet light penetration of the
water and providing nutrients for maintenance and possibly growth
of indicator organisms and pathogens.
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APPENDIX I
DESCRIPTION OF DISCHARGES ENTERING BUTTERMILK BAY
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APPENDIX ±
Descriptions of_ Discharges into Buttermilk Bay
Preliminary notes; All drains have been observed during dry
conditions. With the exception of locations referenced as # 10
(Marsh Stream), # 11 (Groundwater recharge at Old Head of Bay), #
17 (Wychunus St. Drain),# 21 (Inner Miller's Cove) and # 29
(Lobster tank and drains from fish market), all drains exhibited
no flow. Flow observed at # 17 and # 19 are considered to be
from tidally influenced groundwater. Additionally, with the
exception of those aforementioned drains, flow at the other
stormdrains ceases within approximately 2 hours following rain
events.
The following is a summary of the drains and discharges
located in Buttermilk Bay. Impervious surface drainage area was
estimated based on drainage area walks using a Rolotape and
calculating area.
Reference Code: t 1
Location: East side of Cohasset Narrows draining highway.
Description: 45.7 cm (18 inch) diameter steel pipe discharging
above high water line.
Approximate Impervious-Surface Drainage Area in Sq.M.: 8,046
(86,570 Sq.Ft.)
Characteristics of Drainage Basin: Commercial (Craft Shop,
Diner, Restaurant and Gas Station)
Reference Code: t 2
Location: Electric Avenue Boat Ramp.
Description: Boat ramp with bermed paved surface to direct
drainage.
Approximate Impervious-Surface Drainage Area in Sq.M.: 2091
(22,500 Sq.Ft.)
Characteristics of Drainage Basin: Residential, Boat ramp and
some beach parking.
Reference Code: f 3
Location: Public Beach near Electric Ave.
Description: Corrugated Pipe with discharge below high water
line.
Approximate Impervious-Surface Drainage Area in Sq.M.: 5980
(64,340 Sq.Ft.)
Characteristics of Drainage Basin: Residential, Beach Parking,
light commercial. Bermed to direct drainage.
Reference Code: f 4
Location: Brom Dutcher Rd.
Description: Open Ditch emptying at edge of bay above hiah water
line.
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Approximate Impervious-Surface Drainage Area in Sq.M.: 325 (3500
Sq.Ft.) plus approximately 372 Sq.M. (4,000 Sq.Ft.) semi-pervious
roadbed.
Characteristics of Drainage Basin: Residential
Reference Code: f 5
Location: Brom Dutcher Rd.
Description: Pipe corrugated-galvanized -installed 1986.
Approximate Impervious-Surface Drainage Area in Sq.M.: 325 (3,500
Sq.Ft.)
Characteristics of Drainage Basin: Residential
Reference Code: t 6
Location: Vanderdonk Rd.
Description: Concrete Pipe with approximately 6.1 M of vegetative
buffer between discharge point and waterline.
Approximate Impervious-Surface Drainage Area in Sq.M.: 1905
(20,500 Sq.Ft.)
Characteristics of Drainage Basin: Residential with the majority
of road bermed to direct drainage.
Reference Code: t 7
Location: End of Quamhasset Rd.
Description: Small Collection Basin with Pipe and at least 30.5 M
vegetated buffer between discharge and bay.
Approximate Impervious-Surface Drainage Area in Sq.M.: 465 (5,000
Sq.Ft.)
Characteristics of Drainage Basin: Residential
Reference Code: t 8
Location: Puritan Rd. near Quamhasset Rd.
Description: Two Corrugated Pipes discharging above high water
mark, but not accessible at high tide.
Approximate Impervious-Surface Drainage Area in Sq.M.: 9812
(105,572 Sq.Ft.)
Measured value was multiplied by 1.1 to estimate paved driveways
Characteristics of Drainage Basin: Residential. Much of surface
is bermed to direct drainage. Basins located on Puritan Ave
south of Erin Lane may be leaching basins alone.
Reference Code: I 9
Location: Little Bay Lane .
Description: Collection basin with discharge pipe into Spartina
patens (short chordgrass) marsh. Approximately 22.9 M of buffer
exists between discharge point and bay.
Approximate Impervious-Surface Drainage Area in Sq.M.: 2/u»
(30,000 Sq.Ft.)
Characteristics of Drainage Basin: Residential. Bermed surfaces
to direct drainage.
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Reference Code: f 10
Location: End of Little Bay Lane
Description: Termed "Marsh Stream" by D.E.Q.E.. Has Clapper Valve
and drains an old bog and marsh.
Approximate Impervious-Surface Drainage Area in Sq.M. N/A
Characteristics of Drainage Basin: Marsh with stormdrain entering
in at Puritan Rd.
Reference Code: f 11
Location: Old Head of Bay Rd.
Description: Stream resulting from groundwater recharge. Culvert
under Rd. discharges into bay at high water mark.
Approximate Impervious-Surface Drainage Area in Sq.M. N/A
Characteristics of Drainage Basin: Private Property, farmlike.
Two horses kept on property.
Reference Code: I 12
Location: Corner of Old Head of Bay and Head of Bay Rd.
Description: Pipe not located (although a discharge pipe
direction can be seen in the adjacent drain). May be just a
road-cut discharge.
Approximate Impervious-Surface Drainage Area in Sq.M.: 4294
(46,200 Sq.Ft.)
Characteristics of Drainage Basin: Not bermed, steep slope.
Residential area. Very pervious surface both sides of road.
Reference Code: f 13
Location: In Hid-saway Village
Description: Concrete Pipe emerging from rip rap
Approximate Impervious-Surface Drainage Area in Sq.M. Not
Determined but less than 93 (1,000 Sq.Ft.) impervious.
Characteristics of Drainage Basin: Intensely developed
residential.
Reference Code: i 14
Location: Near the stream behind hideaway village.
Description: Road berm into Hideaway Village Stream. Road bermed
on one side only.
Approximate Impervious-Surface Drainage Area in Sq.M.: 1626
(17,500 Sq.Ft.)
Characteristics of Drainage Basin: Residential and agricultural.
Cranberry Bog stream which passes under Head of the Bay Road.
Thus drainage is primarily from bog.
Reference Code: i 15
Location: Bayhead Shores
Description: Corrugated Pipe discharging above the high water
mark.
Approximate Impervious-Surface Drainage Area in Sq.M.: 1413
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(15,200 Sq.Ft.)
Characteristics of Drainage Basin: Residential
Reference Code: I 16
Location: Red Brook at Head of Bay Rd.
Description: Included here are two discharges, one concrete pipe
discharging above the water line on the west side of the creek,
and a bermed discharge on the east side.
Approximate Impervious-Surface Drainage Area in Sq.M.
West side pipe - 8,643 (93,000 Sq.Ft.)
East side cut - 3,764 (40,500 Sq.Ft.)
Characteristics of Drainage Basin: primarily residential with the
exception of the north side of Head of the Bay Rd. which is an
undeveloped parcel of privately-owned and municipally-owned land.
Reference Code: f 17
Location: Wychunus Ave in Wareham, Mouth of Red Brook
Description: Corrugated pipe discharging below the high water
mark.
Approximate Impervious-Surface Drainage Area in Sq.M.: 10,855
(116,800 Sq.Ft.)
Characteristics of Drainage Basin: Residential, lot sizes
approximately 465 Sq.M. (5,000 Sq.Ft)- primarily year-round
residences.
Reference Code: t 18
Location: Town Landing in Wareham
Description: 16 ft x 1 ft. grate receiving runoff from road.
Located on beach.
Approximate Impervious-Surface Drainage Area in Sq.M.: 1631
(17,650 Sq.Ft.)
Characteristics of Drainage Basin: residential. Lots
approximately 465 Sq.M. (5,000 Sq. Ft.). Mix of seasonal and
year-round homes (mostly year-round).
Reference Code: f 19
Location: Between 55 and 51 Cleveland Way, Wareham.
Description: 38.1 cm (15 in) diameter corrugated pipe discharging
below the high water mark.
Approximate Impervious-Surface Drainage Area in Sq.M.: 1631
(17,550 Sq.Ft.)
Characteristics of Drainage Basin: Residential with approximately
465 Sq.M. (5,000 Sq.Ft) lots. High percentage of seasonal
cottages. The drained area is split about evenly between paved
surface and semi-pervious hardpan. This drain has been observed
after rains and appears to stop draining prior to other drains.
Reference Code: i 20
Location: The end of Chippewa Drive, Wareham
Description: 38.1 cm (15 in) diameter corrugated pipe discharging
79
-------
generally below the sand surface, below the high water mark.
Approximate Impervious-Surface Drainage Area in Sq.M.: 2035
(21,900 Sq.Ft.)
Characteristics of Drainage Basin: Residential with approximately
465 Sq.M. (5000 Sq.Ft.) lots. Higher percentage of seasonal
cottages in the drainage basin. 725 Sq.M. (7800 Sq. Ft.) of basin
is composed of semipervious hardpan.
Reference Code: §21
Location: Discharge into inner Miller's Cove
Description: Corrugated pipe discharging below high water mark.
Approximate Impervious-Surface Drainage Area in Sq.M.: 279 (3,000
Sq.Ft.)
Characteristics of Drainage Basin: Residential
Reference Code: §22
Location: Between two end houses on Jefferson Road.
Description: 25.4 cm (10 in) diameter cement pipe with
approximately 4.6 M of grass buffer between point of discharge
and bay.
Approximate Impervious-Surface Drainage Area in Sq.M.: 1115
(12,000 Sq.Ft.)
Characteristics of Drainage Basin: Residential
Reference Code: § 23
Location: Between # 61 and # 63 Jefferson Rd.
Description: 15.2 cm (6 in) pipe discharging above high water
mark.
Approximate Impervious-Surface Drainage Area in Sq.M.: 537 (5775
Sq.Ft.)
Characteristics of Drainage Basin: Residential
Reference Code: § 24
Location: Beside I 37 Jefferson Rd.
Description: 30.5 cm (12 in) concrete pipe discharging below the
high water mark.
Approximate Impervious-Surface Drainage Area in Sq.M.: 1004
(10,800 Sq.Ft.)
Characteristics of Drainage Basin: Residential. 372-744 Sq.M.
lots (4,000-8,000 Sq.Ft.) lots.
Reference Code: § 25
Location: Near # 23 Jefferson Rd.
Description: Corrugated 25.4 cm (10 in) pipe discharging below
the high water mark.
Approximate Impervious-Surface Drainage Area in Sq.M.: 1338
(14,400 Sq.Ft.)
Characteristics of Drainage Basin: Residential, 465-1208 Sq.M.
80
-------
(5,000-13,000 Sq. Ft. lots. Primarily year-round.
Reference Code: f 26
Location: Between f 15 and f 17
Description: Two corrugated 25.4 cm (10 in) diameter pipes
discharging below the high water mark.
Approximate Impervious-Surface Drainage Area in Sq.M.: 3399
(36,575 Sq.Ft.)
Characteristics of Drainage Basin: Residential. 372-744 Sq.M.
(4,000-8,000 Sq. Ft.lots, primarily year-round residences.
Reference Code: f 27
Location: On Route 28 By Boatyard
Description: 45.7 cm (18 in) concrete pipe draining highway.
Discharge at high water mark.
Approximate Impervious-Surface Drainage Area in Sq.M.: 7026
(75,600 Sq.Ft.)
Characteristics of Drainage Basin: Commercial (Professional
Building, Restaurant, Boatyard, Realty, Hotel)
Reference Code: f 28
Location: By Captain Harris Fish Market
Description: 30.5 cm (12 in) steel pipe draining highway.
Discharges below high water mark.
Approximate Impervious-Surface Drainage Area in Sq.M.:4740
(51,000 Sq.Ft.)
Characteristics of Drainage Basin: Commercial (Fish Market,
Liquor Store, Antique Shop, Bait and Tackle). Highway.
Reference Code: t 29
Location: By Captain Harris Fish Market
Description: 25.4 cm (10 in) concrete pipe
Approximate Impervious-Surface Drainage Area in Sq.M. N/A -
apparently ties in to lobster tank and floor drains.
Characteristics of Drainage Basin: see above
81
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APPENDIX II
PARTICLE TRAJECTORY MODEL REPRESENTATION FOR SIMULATING THE FATE
OF BACTERIOLOGICAL CONTAMINANTS ENTERING DISCHARGE POINTS IN
BUTTERMILK BAY
Note: These particle trajectories are based on entry at the
specified tidal stages and were obtained using TEA, a finite
element computer model developed by the Massachusetts Institute
of Technology, Energy Laboratory. They have been provided
compliments of Craig Fish, Boston University Geology Department.
82
-------
TIDAL STAGE: Approximately 3 hr after high tide
oo
uo
•::•>*:
Red Brook ..•.'.*
"
Little Buttermilk Bay
Queen Sewell Cove
..
^::'\ Water Parcel Trajectory Map
500
iooo m
Cohassef Narrows
-------
TIDAL STAGE: beginning of outgoing tide
Red Brook
Little Buttermilk Bay
Queen Sewell Cove
Water Parcel Trajectory Map
o 500 1000 m
Cohasset Narrows
-------
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