DRAFT
DEVELOPMENT DOCUMENT FOR
EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS GUIDELINES
AND NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS
MISCELLANEOUS FOODS AND BEVERAGES
POINT SOURCE CATEGORY
PART I
EFFLUENT GUIDELINES DIVISION
OFFICE OF WATER AND HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
WASHINGTON, D.C. 20460
MARCH 1975
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NOTICE
The attached document is a DRAFT CONTRACTOR'S REPORT. It includes tech-
nical information and recommendations submitted by the Contractor to the
United States Environmental Protection Agency ("EPA") regarding the sub-
ject industry. It is being distributed for review and ccs!mant~only. Ths
report is not an official EPA publication and it has not been review^ by
the Agency.
The report, including the recommendations, will be undergoing extensive
review by EPA, Federal and State agencies, public interest organizations
and other interested groups and persons during the coming weeks. The
report and in particular the contractor's recommended effluent guiaeliiui
and standards of performance is subject to change in any and all-resptcts.
The regulations to be published by EPA under Sections 304(b) and 306 of
the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, as'amended, will be based tc a
large extent on the report and the comments received on it. However,
pursuant to Sections 304(b) and 306 of the Act, EPA will also consider
additional pertinent technical and economic information wh.ich is developed
in the course of review of this report by the public and within EPA. EPA
is currently performing an economic impact analysis regarding the subject
industry, which will be taken into account as part of the review of the
report. Upon completion of the review process, and prior to final pro-
mulgation of regulations, an EPA report will be issued setting forth EPA:s
conclusions regarding the subject industry, effluent limitations guide-
lines and standards of performance applicable to such industry. Judgements
necessary to promulgation of regulations under Sections 304(b) and 306 of
the Act, of course, remain the responsibility of EPA. Subject to these
limitations, EPA is making this draft contractor's report available in
order to encourage the widest possible participation of interested per-
sons in the decision making process at the earliest possible time.
The report shall have standing in any EPA proceeding or court proceed ing
only to the extent that it represents the views of the Contractor who
studied the subject industry and prepared the information and recommenda-
tions. It cannot be cited, referenced, or represented in any respect in
any such proceedings as a statement of EPA's views regarding the subject
industry.
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Water and Hazardous Materials
Effluent Guidelines Division
Washington, D. C. 20460
Please note: Because of the volume of this report, it has been printed
in the following manner: "Miscellaneous Foods and Beverages."
Part I Pgs. 1-292 Section I-IV
Part II Pgs. 293-500 Section V-VI
Part III Pgs. 501-840 Section VII
Part IV Pgs. 841-1196 Section VIII (partial)
Part V Pgs. 1197-1548 Section VIII(cont.) - XIV
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ERRATA
The following corrections should be made to Part I to this draft
document.
A. Page 8, Subcategory Al through A15 (Vegetable Oil Processing and
Refining)
Table 1A Recommended Effluent Limitations Guidelines should read
as follows for New Source Performance Standards (NSPS):
BOD5_
Max 30- Max daily
SS ' O&G
Max 30- Max daily Max 30- Max daily
Subcategory
Al NSPS
/
A5 NSPS
A6 NSPS
A7 NSPS
A8 NSPS
A9 NSPS
AID NSPS
All NSPS
A12 NSPS
A13 NSPS
A14 NSPS
Cav Ava.
0.0054
0.028
0.051
0.103
0.076
0.101
0.072
0.118
0.09
0.045
0.043
Avq.
0.014
0.069
0.129
0.26
0.199
*
0.26 •
0.18
0.29
0.23
0,113
0.028
Day Avq.
0.0068
0.025
0.046
0.097
0.076
0.101
0.083
0.129
0.106
0.056
0.043
Avq.
0.017
0.065
0.112
0.24
0.199
0.26
0.21
0.33
0.27
0.131
0.028
Day Avcj.
0.0041
0.011
0.018
0.038
0.031
0.045
0.036
0.052
0.045
0.056
0.006
• Avg .
0.011
0.026
0.044
0.096
0.075
0.107
0.09
0.129
0.113
0 . 1 3.1
0.018
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B. Page 9(a) Subcategory *A20 - Wineries Without Stills
Table 1A Recommended Effluent Limitations Guidelines should read
as follows with respect to BOD criteria:
BOD
BPCTCA
BATEA
NSPS
Max 30 -Day
Avg.
C.077
0.038
0.023
Max
Avg.
C.23C
0.110
0.069-
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DRAFT
ABSTRACT
This document presents the findings of an extensive study of the
Miscellaneous Foods and Beverages Point Source Category by Environ-
mental Science and Engineering, Inc., SCS Engineers, Inc., and Environ-
mental Associates, Inc., for the purpose of presenting recommendations
to the United States Environmental Protection Agency for Effluent
Limitations Guidelines, Standards of Performance, and Pretreatment
Standards for the industry for the purpose of implementing Sections
304, 306, and 307 of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, as
ammended.
Effluent Limitation Guidelines recommended herein set forth the degree
of effluent reduction attainable through the application of the Best
Practicable Control Technology Currently Available (BPCTCA) and the
degree of effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
Best Available Technology Economically Achievable (BATEA) which must
be achieved by existing point sources by July 1, 1977, and July 1, 1983,
respectively. The Standards of Performance for New Sources (NSPS) re-
commended herein set forth the degree of effluent reduction which is
achievable through the application of the Best Available Demonstrated
Control Technology, Processes, Operating Methods, or other alternatives.
Supportive data and rationale for subcategorization of the Miscellaneous
Foods and Beverages Industry and for development of recommended Effluent
Limitations Guidelines and Standards of Performance are contained in
this document.
NOTICE: THl-SE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
n 1
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DRAFT
TABLE OF CONTENTS
SECTION PAGE
I CONCLUSIONS 1
II RECOMMENDATIONS
III INTRODUCTION 11
Purpose and Authority 11
Summary of Methods Used 11
Definition of the Industry 13
SIC 2017 Egg Processing 23
SIC 5144 Shell Eggs 29
SIC 2034 Dehydrated Soups - 31
SIC 2038 Frozen Specialties 32
SIC 2047 Pet Foods 44
SIC 2051 Bakery Products 59
SIC 2052 Cookies and Crackers 75
SIC 2065 Confectionery Products 80
SIC 2066 Chocolate and Cocoa Products 100
SIC 2067 Chewing Gum 105
SIC 2074, 2075, 2076 Vegetable Oil Mills 110
SIC 2079 Edible Fats and Oils 131
SIC 2082 Malt Beverages 149
SIC 2083 Malt 155
SIC 2084 Wine, Brandy, Brandy Spirits 157
SIC 2085 Distilled, Rectified, Blended Liquors 169
SIC 5182 Bottling, Blending of Wines, Distilled
Liquors 181
SIC 2086 Soft Drinks 181
SIC 2087 Non-Synthetic Flavoring Extracts and
Syrups 187
SIC 2095 Coffee 196
SIC 2097 Manufactured Ice 204
SIC 2098 Macaroni, Spaghetti, Noodles 210
SIC 2099 Miscellaneous Products 214
Almond Paste 214
Baking Powder 214
Bouillon 216
Bread Crumbs 218
Chicory 221
Chili Pepper and Paprika 223-
Desserts, Ready to Mix 226
Honey 228
Molasses and Sweetening Syrups 230
Non-Dairy Coffee Creamer 236
Peanut Butter 240
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UKMr i
TABLE OF CONTENTS
(CONTINUED)
SECTION PAGE
Pectin 243
Popcorn 247
Spices 247
Tea 249
Prepackaged Sandwiches 253
Vinegar 255
Yeast 258
IV INDUSTRY CATEGORIZATION 261
Process Variations 261
Vegetable Oil Processing and Refining 271
Beverages 274
Bakery and Confectionery Products 277
Pet Foods 278
Miscellaneous and Specialty Products 279
Raw Material Variations 282
Vegetable Oil Processing and Refining 282
Beverages 284
Bakery and Confectionery Products 284
Pet Foods 285
Miscellaneous and Specialty Products 286
Plant Age . 289
Plant Size 289
Plant Location 290
Products and By-Products 291
Climatic Influences 291
Seasonal Variations 291
V WASTEWATER CHARACTERISTICS 293
Vegetable Oil Processing and Refining
Subcategory A 1 - Oilseed Crushing, Except Olive
Oil for Direct Solvent Extraction and Prepress
Solvent Extraction Operations 297
Subcategory A 2 - Oilseed Crushing, Except Olive
Oil, By Mechanical Screw Press Operations 305
Subcategory A 3 - Olive Oil Extraction By
Hydraulic Pressing and Solvent Extraction 306
Subcategory A 4 - Olive Oil Extraction By
Mechanical Screw Pressing 306
VI
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DRAFT
TABLE OF CONTENTS
(CONTINUED)
SECTION PAGE
Subcategory A 5 - Processing of Edible Oil By
Caustic Refining Methods Only ' 308
Subcategory A 6 - Processing of Edible Oils By
Caustic Refining and Acidulation Methods 316
Subcategory A 7 - Processing of Edible Oils. By
Caustic Refining, Acidulation, Oil Processing, and
Deodorization Methods 320
Subcategory A 8 - Processing of Edible Oils
Utilizing Caustic Refining, Oil Processing, and
Deodorization 322
Subcategory A 9 - Processing of Edible Oils
Utilizing Caustic Refining, Acidulation, Oil Pro-
cessing, Deodorization Methods, and the Production
of Shortening and Table Oils 324
Subcategory 10 - Processing of Edible Oils by
Caustic Refining, Oil Processing, Deodorization
Methods, and the Plasticizing and Packaging of
Shortening and Table Oils 325
Subcategory A 11 - Processing of Edible Oils by
Caustic Refining, Acidulation, Oil Processing,
Deodorization Methods, and the Plasticizing and
Packaging of Shortening, Table Oils, and Margarine . 326
Subcategory 12 - Processing of Edible Oils by
Caustic Refinery, Oil Processing Method, and
the Plasticization and Packaging of Shortening,
Table Oils, and Margarine 327
Subcategory 13 - Plasticizing and Packaging
of Margarine 327
Subcategory 14 - Plasticizing and Packaging
of Shortening and Table Oils .328
Subcategory 15 - Olive Oil Refining 334
Subcategory A 16 - New Large Malt Beverage
Breweries 334
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DRAFT
TABLE OF CONTENTS
(CONTINUED)
SECTION PAGE
Subcategory A 17 - Old Large Malt Beverage
Breweries 348
Subcategory A 18 - All Other Malt Beverage
Breweries 355
Subcategory A 19 - Malt 355
Subcategory A 20 - Hineries Without Stills 369
Subcategory A 21 - Wineries With Stills 373
Subcategory A 22 - Grain Distillers Operating
Still age Recovery Systems 378
Subcategory A 23 - Grain Distillers 389
Subcategory A 24 - Molasses Distillers 390
Subcategory A 25 - Bottling and Blending of
Beverage Alcohol . 396
Subcategory A 26 - Soft Drink Canners 399
Subcategory A 27 - Soft Drink Bottling or Combined
Bottling/Canning 402
Subcategory A 28 - Beverage Base and/or Concen-
trates 403
Subcategory A 30 - Instant Tea 407
Subcategory C 8 - Coffee Roasting Utilizing
Roaster Wet Scrubbers 412
Subcategory C 9 - Decaffeination of Coffee 414
Subcategory C 10 - Soluble Coffee 416
Subcategory C 1 - Bakery and Confectionery
Products 419
Subcategory C 2 - Cakes, Pies, Doughnuts, and
Sweet Yeast Goods Not Utilizing Pan Washing 421
Subcategory C 3 - Bread and Buns 425
vm
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DRAFT
TABLE OF CONTENTS
(CONTINUED)
SECTION PAGE
Subcategory C 7 - Cookie and Cracker Manufacturing 427
Subcategory C 12 - Sandwiches
Subcategory D 1 - Candy and Confectionary 430
Subcategory D 2 - Chewing Gum 432
Subcategory D 3 - Gum Base 434
Subcategories D 5 and D 6 - Chocolate 436
Subcategory B 5 - Low Meat Canned Pet Food 439
Subcategory B 6 - High Meat Canned Pet Food 440
Subcategory B 7 - Dry Pet Foods 444
Subcategory B 8 - Soft-Moist Pet Food 446
Subcategory A 29 - The. Production of Finished
Flavors by the Blending of Flavoring Extracts,
Acids, and Colors 448
Subcategory A 31 - Bouillon Products 451
Subcategory A 32 - Non-Dairy Creamer 453
Subcategory A 33 - Yeast - 453
Subcategory A 34 - Peanut Butter Plants With
Jar Washing 453
Subcategory A 35 - Peanut Butter Plants Without
Jar Washing 455
Subcategory A 36 - Pectin . 453
Subcategory A 37 - Processing of Almond Paste 472
Subcategory B 1 - Frozen Prepared Dinners 473
Subcategory B 2 - Breaded and Battered Frozen
Products 474
Subcategory B 3 - Frozen Bakery Desserts 477
Subcategory B 4 - Tomato-Cheese-Starch Combinations 479
Subcategory B 9 - Paprika and Chili Pepper
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DRAFT
TABLE OF CONTENTS
(CONTINUED)
SECTION PAGE
Subcategory C 4 - Egg Processing 482
Subcategory C 5 - Shell Eggs 433
Subcategory C 6 - Manufactured Ice 437
Subcategory D 4 - Vinegar 490
Subcategories E 1 (Molasses, Honey, and Syrups),
E 2 (Popcorn), and E 3 (Prepared Gelatin Desserts),
E 4 (Spices), E 5 (Spices), E 5 (Dehydrated Soup),
and E 6 (Macaroni, Spaghetti, Vermicelli, and . 492
Noodles) '
Subcategories F 2 (Baking Powder), F 3 (Chicory),
and F 4 (Bread Crumbs Not Produced in Bakeries) 492
VI SELECTION OF POLLUTANT PARAMETERS 493
Wastewater Parameters of Pollutional Significance 493
Rational For Selection of Identified Parameters 493
Organics 493
Suspended Solids 494
Oil and Grease 494
pH 495
Nickel 495
Alkalinity 495
Total Dissolved Solids 496
Nutrients 496
Color 496
Chlorides 497
Temperature 497
Methods of Analysis 497
Solids 497
pH and Temperature 498
Nitrogen and Phosphorus 498
Oil and Grease 498
BOD 498
COD 498
Color 498
NH3 498
Chloride 499
TOC TOC 499
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DRAFT
SECTION
TABLE OF CONTENTS
(CONTINUED)
VII CONTROL AND TREATMENT TECHNOLOGY
Subcategory A 1 - Oilseed Crushing, Except Olive
Oil for Direct Solvent Extraction and Prepress
Solvent Extraction Operations 518
Subcategory A 2 - Oilseed Crushing, Except Olive
Oil, By Mechanical Screw Press Operations 524
Subcategory A 3 - Olive Oil Extraction By
Hydraulic Pressing and Solvent Extraction 529
Subcategory A 4 - Olive Oil Extraction By
Mechanical Screw Pressing 531
Subcategory A 5 - Processing of Edible Oil By
Caustic Refining Methods Only 533
Subcategory A 6 - Processing of Edible Oils By
Caustic Refining and Acidulation Methods 543
Subcategory A 7 - Processing of Edible Oils. By
Caustic Refining, Acidulation, Oil Processing, and
Deodorization Methods 547
Subcategory A 8 - Processing of Edible Oils
Utilizing Caustic Refining, Oil Processing, and
Deodorization 552
Subcategory A 9 - Processing of Edible Oils
Utilizing Caustic Refining, Acidulation, Oil Pro-
cessing, Deodorization Methods, and the Production
of Shortening and Table Oils 559
Subcategory 10 - Processing of Edible Oils by
Caustic Refining, Oil Processing, Deodorization
Methods, and the Plasticizing and Packaging of
Shortening and Table Oils 561
Subcategory A 11 - Processing of Edible Oils by
Caustic Refining, Acidulation, Oil Processing,
Deodorization Methods, and the Plasticizing and
Packaging of Shortening, Table Oils, and Margarine 565
xv
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DRAFT
TABLE OF CONTENTS
(CONTINUED)
SECTION PAGE
Subcategory 12 - Processing of Edible Oils by
Caustic Refinery, Oil Processing Method, and
the Plasticization and Packaging of Shortening,
Table Oils, and Margarine 572
Subcategory 13 - Plasticizing and Packaging
of Margarine 574
Subcategory 14 - Plasticizing and Packaging
of Shortening and Table Oils 580
Subcategory 15 - Olive Oil Refining 582
Subcategory A 16 - New Large Malt Beverage
Breweries 586
Subcategory A 17 - Old Large Malt Beverage
Breweries 600
Subcategory A 18 - All Other Malt Beverage
Breweries 605
Subcategory A 19 - Malt 610
Subcategory A 20 - Wineries Without Stills 616
Subcategory A 21 - Wineries With Stills 630
Subcategory A 22 - Grain Distillers Operating
Still age Recovery Systems 632
Subcategory A 23 - Grain Distillers 650
Subcategory A 24 - Molasses Distillers 654
Subcategory A 25 - Bottling and Blending of
Beverage Alcohol 663
Subcategory A 26 - Soft Drink Canners 664
Subcategory A 27 - Soft Drink Bottling or Combined
Bottling/Canning 669
Subcategory A 28 - Beverage Base and/or Concen-
trates 677
xii
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DRAFT
TABLE OF CONTENTS
(CONTINUED)
SECTION PAGE
Subcategory A 30 - Instant Tea 683
Subcategory C 8 - Coffee Roasting Utilizing
Roaster Wet Scrubbers 690
Subcategory C 9 - Decaffeination of Coffee 692
Subcategory C 10 - Soluble Coffee 698
Subcategory C 1 - Bakery and Confectionery
Products 702
Subcategory C 2 - Cakes, Pies, Doughnuts, and
Sweet Yeast Goods Not Utilizing Pan Washing 708
Subcategory C 3 - Bread and Buns 715
Subcategory C 7 - Cookie and Cracker Manufacturing 721
Subcategory C 12 - Sandwiches 722
Subcategory D 1 - Candy and Confectionary 726
Subcategory D 2 - Chewing Gum 730
Subcategory D 3 - Gum Base 732
Subcategories D 5 and D 6 - Chocolate 736
Subcategory B 5 - Low Meat Canned Pet Food 741
Subcategory B 6 - High Meat Canned Pet Food 744
Subcategory B 7 - Dry Pet Foods 749
Subcategory B 8 - Soft-Moist Pet Food 752
Subcategory A 29 - The Production of Finished
Flavors by the Blending of Flavoring Extracts,
Acids, and Colors 754
Subcategory A 31 - Bouillon Products 761
Subcategory A 32 - Non-Dairy Creamer 766
xm
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DRAFT
TABLE OF CONTENTS
(CONTINUED)
SECTION PAGE
Subcategory A 33 - Yeast 771
Subcategory A 34 - Peanut Butter Plants With
Jar Washing 793
Subcategory A 35 - Peanut Butter Plants Without
Jar Washing 795
Subcategory A 36 - Pectin 795
Subcategory A 37 - Processing of Almond Paste 801
Subcategory B 1 - Frozen Prepared Dinners 802
Subcategory B 2 - Breaded and Battered Frozen
Products 808
Subcategory B 3 - Frozen Bakery Desserts 811
Subcategory B 4 - Tomato-Cheese-Starch Combinations 819
Subcategory B 9 - Paprika and Chili Pepper 822
Subcategory C 4 - Egg Processing 824
Subcategory C 5 - Shell Eggs 829
Subcategory C 6 - Manufactured Ice 835
Subcategory D 4 - Vinegar 837
Subcategories E 1 (Molasses, Honey, and Syrups),
E 2 (Popcorn), and E 3 (Prepared Gelatin Desserts),
E 4 (Spices), E 5 (Spices), E 5 (Dehydrated Soup),
and E 6 (Macaroni, Spaghetti, Vermicelli, and
Noodles) 840
Subcategories F 2 (Baking Powder), F 3 (Chicory),
and F 4 (Bread Crumbs Not Produced in Bakeries) 840
VIII COST, ENERGY AND NON-WATER QUALITY ASPECTS 841
Cost and Reduction Benefits of Alternative Treat-
ment and Control Technologies 841
xiv
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DRAFT
TABLE OF CONTENTS
(CONTINUED)
SECTION , PAGE
Subcategory A 1 - Oilseed Crushing, Except Olive
Oil for Direct Solvent Extraction and Prepress
Solvent Extraction Operations 843
Subcategory A 2 - Oilseed Crushing, Except Olive
Oil, By Mechanical Screw Press Operations 853
Subcategory A 3 - Olive Oil Extraction By
Hydraulic Pressing and Solvent Extraction 858
Subcategory A 4 - Olive Oil Extraction By
Mechanical Screw Pressing 860
Subcategory A 5 - Processing of Edible Oil By
Caustic Refining Methods Only 863
Subcategory A 6 - Processing of Edible Oils By
Caustic Refining and Acidulation Methods 879
Subcategory A 7 - Processing of Edible Oils. By
Caustic Refining, Acidulation, Oil Processing, and
Deodorization Methods 890
Subcategory A 8 - Processing of Edible Oils
Utilizing Caustic Refining, Oil Processing, and
Deodorization 901
Subcategory A 9 - Processing of Edible Oils
Utilizing Caustic Refining, Acidulation, Oil Pro-
cessing, Deodorization Methods, and the Production
of Shortening and Table Oils
.7IO
Subcategory 10 - Processing of Edible Oils by
Caustic Refining, Oil Processing, Deodorization
Methods, and the Plasticizing and Packaging of
Shortening and Table Oils
Subcategory A 11 - Processing of Edible Oils by
Caustic Refining, Acidulation, Oil Processing,
Deodorization Methods, and the Plasticizing and
Packaging of Shortening, Table Oils, and Margarine 936
924
xv
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DRAFT
TABLE OF CONTENTS
(CONTINUED)
SECTION PAGE
Subcategory 12 - Processing of Edible Oils by
Caustic Refinery, Oil Processing Method, and
the Plasticization and Packaging of Shortening,
Table Oils, and Margarine 950
Subcategory 13 - Plasticizing and Packaging
of Margarine 962
Subcategory 14 - Plasticizing and Packaging
of Shortening and Table Oils 974
Subcategory 15 - Olive Oil Refining 981
Subcategory A 16 - New Large Malt Beverage
Breweries . 988
Subcategory A 17 - Old Large Malt Beverage
Breweries 1005
Subcategory A 18 - All Other Malt Beverage
Breweries 1024
Subcategory A 19 - Malt 1040
Subcategory A 20 - Wineries Without Stills 1053
Subcategory A 21 - Wineries With Stills 1070
Subcategory A 22 - Grain Distillers Operating
Still age Recovery Systems 1°73
Subcategory A 23 - Grain Distillers 1105
Subcategory A 24 - Molasses Distillers H°9
Subcategory A 25 - Bottling and Blending of
Beverage Alcohol 1123
Subcategory A 26 - Soft Drink Canners H30
Subcategory A 27 - Soft Drink Bottling or Combined
Bottling/Canning 1138
Subcategory A 28 - Beverage Base and/or Concen-
trates 1153
xvi
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DRAFT
TABLE OF CONTENTS
(CONTINUED)
SECTION PAGE
Subcategory A 30 - Instant Tea 1172
Subcategory C 8 - Coffee Roasting Utilizing
Roaster Wet Scrubbers 1188
Subcategory C 9 - Decaffeination of Coffee 1197
Subcategory CIO- Soluble Coffee 1200
Subcategory C 1 - Bakery and Confectionery
Products 1203
Subcategory C 2 - Cakes, Pies, Doughnuts, and
Sweet Yeast Goods Not Utilizing Pan Washing 1212
Subcategory C 3 - Bread and Buns 1224
Subcategory C 7 - Cookie and Cracker Manufacturing 1227
Subcategory C 12 - Sandwiches 1448
Subcategory D 1 - Candy and Confectionary I23-
Subcategory D 2 - Chewing Gum 1243
Subcategory D 3 - Gum Base 1258
Subcategories D 5 and D 6 - Chocolate !267
Subcategory B 5 - Low Meat Canned Pet Food 1295
Subcategory B 6 - High Meat Canned Pet Food 1297
Subcategory B 7 - Dry Pet Foods 130^
Subcategory B 8 - Soft-Moist Pet Food
Subcategory A 29 - The Production of Finished
Flavors by the Blending of Flavoring Extracts,
Acids, and Colors
Subcategory A 31 - Bouillon Products
Subcategory A 32 - Non-Dairy Creamer * 1343
xvn
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
(CONTINUED)
SECTION PAGE
Subcategory A 33 - Yeast 1357
Subcategory A 34 - Peanut Butter Plants With
Jar Washing 1384
Subcategory A 35 - Peanut Butter Plants Without
Jar Washing 1392
Subcategory A 36 - Pectin 1394
Subcategory A 37 - Processing of Almond Paste
Subcategory B 1 - Frozen Prepared Dinners 1407
Subcategory B 2 - Breaded and Battered Frozen
Products 1417
Subcategory B 3 - Frozen Bakery Desserts .1419
Subcategory B 4 - Tomato-Cheese-Starch Combinations 1427
Subcategory B 9 - Paprika and Chili Pepper 1430
Subcategory C 4 - Egg Processing 1434
Subcategory C 5 - Shell Eggs 1444
Subcategory C 6 - Manufactured Ice
Subcategory D 4 - Vinegar 1452
Related Energy Requirements of Alternative Treat-
ment Technologies
Non-Water Quality Aspects 1464
xviii
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DRAFT
TABLE OF CONTENTS
(CONT'D)
SECTION PAGE
IX EFFLUENT REDUCTION ATTAINABLE THROUGH THE APPLICATION
OF THE BEST PRACTICABLE CONTROL TECHNOLOGY CURRENTLY
AVAILABLE—EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS GUIDELINES 1475
Effluent Reductions Attinable Through the Application
of Best Practicable Control Technology Currently
Available for the Miscellaneous Foods and Beverages
Point Source Categories 1476
Identification of The Best Practical Control
Technology Currently Available ' 1476
Engineering Aspects of Control Technology Costs
of Application . 1485
Non-Water Quality Environmental Impact 1485
Factors to be Considered in Applying Effluent
Guidelines 1485
X EFFLUENT REDUCTION ATTAINABLE THROUGH THE APPLICA-
TION OF THE BEST AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGY ECONOMICALLY
ACHIEVABLE—EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS GUIDELINES 1489
Effluent Limitations Attainable Through the
Application of the Best Available Technology
Economically Achievable 1490
Identification of the Best Available Technology
Economically Achievable 1490
Engineering Aspects of Control Technology Costs
of Application 1490
Non-Water Quality Environmental Impact 1490
Factors to be Considered in Applying Effluent
Guidelines 1490
XI NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS 1501
New Source Performance Standards for the Miscel-
laneous Foods and Beverages Point Source Category 1501
Pretreatment Considerations 1502
xix
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DRAFT
TABLE OF CONTENTS
(CONT'D)
SECTION PAGE
XII ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 1505
XIII REFERENCES 1509
XIV GLOSSARY 1529
Conversion Table 1545
Appendix A - Telephone Survey Form 1547
Appendix B - Plant Visitation Form 1549
Appendix C - Data Handling System 1556
xx
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DRAFT
FIGURES
NUMBER PAGE
1 Egg Processing Process Flow Diagram 25
2 Shell Egg Process Flow Diagram 30
3 Process Flow Diagram For Dehydrated Soups 34
4 Prepared Dinner Plant Simplified Process Flow
Diagram 39
5 Plant G Frozen Bakery Products Plant Simplified
Process Flow Diagram 41
6 Breaded Fish and Shellfish Plant Simplified
Process Flow Diagram 43
7 Process Flow Diagram For Extruded Soft-Moist
Pet Foods 47
8 Process Flow Diagram For Expanded Soft-Moist
Pet Foods 48
9 Process Flow Diagram For Canned Pet Food Ration
Type 52
10 Process Flow Diagram For Canned Pet Food Gourmet
Type 53
11 Process Flow Diagram For Canned Pet Food High
Meat/Fish Type 55
12 Process Flow Diagram For Dry Pet Food 58
13 Bread - Conventional Mix Method Process Flow
Diagram 61
14 Bread - Continuous Mix Method Process Flow
Diagram 64
15 Snack Cake Process Flow Diagram 66
16 Cake Process Flow Diagram 67
17 Snack Pies Process Flow Diagram 69
18 Pies Process Flow Diagram 71
xxi
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DRAM
FIGURES
(CONTINUED)
NUMBER PAGE
19 Donuts - Cake Type Process Flow Diagram 73
20 Donuts - Yeast Type Process Flow Diagram 74
21 Cookie & Crackers Process Flow Diagram 77
22 Candy Bar Process 81
23 Chewy Candies 84
24 Hard Candy (Hard-Boiled Sugar) 87
25 Cold Pan Candy 89
26 Hot Pan Candy 90
27 Marshmallow Process 92
28 Lozenges 94
29 Candy Tablets 96
30 Popcorn Balls and Treated Popcorn Products 97
31 Glazed Fruit 99
32 Chocolate 102
33 Gum Base 107
34 Chewing Gum 108
35 A Simplified Flow Diagram For Oilseed Preparation
Before Extraction For A Variety of Oilseeds 119
36 A Simplified Flow Diagram of a Direct Solvent
Extraction Process 121
37 A Schematic Diagram of a Typical Degumming
Operation 123
38 A Simplified Flow Diagram of Mechanical Screw Press
Extraction 125
xxi i
-------
DRAFT
FIGURES
(CONTINUED)
NUMBER PAGE
39 Screw Pressing Process For Recovery of Olive Oil 127
40 Hydraulic Pressing Process For Recovery of
Olive Oil 129
41 Olive Oil Solvent Extraction Process 130
42 Process Flow Diagram of a Typical Edible Oil
Refinery 136
43 A Schematic Diagram of a Continuous Process For
Caustic Refining and Recovery of Acidulation
Soapstock 137
44 General Chemical Reactions Associated With the
Caustic Refining and Acidulation Processes 138
45 A Schematic Diagram for Bleaching Refined Oils 140
46 A Schematic Diagram of a Continuous Hydrogenation
Process 142
47 A Schematic Diagram for a Continuous "Winterization"
Process 143
48 A Schematic Diagram for Edible Oil Deodorizing 145
49 A Schematic Diagram for Edible Oil Refinery
Plasticizing and Packaging Operations 147
50 A Schematic Diagram of a Continuous Margarine
Plasticizing and Packaging Operation 148
51 Process Flow Diagram Malt Beverage Brewery 150
52 Packaging Flow Diagram Malt Beverage Brewery 152
53 Spent Grains Recovery Malt Beverage Brewery 154
54 Flow Diagram Malting Process 156
55 Distribution of U.S. Wine Production 1972 158
56 Process Flow Diagram Red Table Wine Production
Without Recovery of Distilling Material 160
xxi n
-------
DKAFT
FIGURES
(CONTINUED)
NUMBER PAGE
57 Process Flow Diagram White Table Wine Production
Without Recovery of Distilling Material 162
58 Process Flow Diagram Sparkling Wine Production 164
59 Process Flow Diagram Dessert Wine Production 165
60 Process Flow Diagram Eastern U.S. Winery Operations 166
61 Process Flow Diagram Beverage Brandy and Wine Spirits
Production With Complete Recovery of Distilling
Material 168
62 Domestic Distilled Spirits Bottled Output 170
63 Process Flow Diagram Whiskey Distillery 171
64 Process Flow Diagram High Proof Spirits Production 174
65 Process Flow Diagram Feed Recovery System 175
66 Process Flow Diagram Molasses Distillery 177
67 Container Mix in the Soft Drink Industry 179
68 Process Flow Diagram Soft Drink Bottling and
Canning Plant 181
69 Flow Diagram Soft Drink Bottle Washing Machine 183
70 Process Flow Diagram Bulk Filling Soft Drink Plant 185
71 Standard, Terpeneless and Concentrated Natural
Flavoring Extract Process 187
72 Natural Vanilla Extract Manufacturing Process 189
73 Natural Flavoring Concentrates and Powders
Manufacturing Process 190
74 Beverage Concentrate and Syrup Manufacturing Process 192
75 Coffee Roasting Process Flow Diagram 194
xxiv
-------
DRAFT
FIGURES
(CONTINUED)
NUMBER PAGE
76 Organic Solvent Contact Decaffeinating Process
Flow Diagram 195
77 Liquid/Liquid Extraction Decaffeination Process
Flow Diagram 197
78 Soluble Coffee Process Flow Diagram 199
79 Freeze Drying Process Flow Diagram 200
80 Process Flow Diagram Block Ice 203
81 Process Flow Diagram Fragmentary Ice 206
82 Process Flow Diagram For Macaroni, Spaghetti,
and Noodles 208
83 A Schematic Diagram of Almond Paste Processing 212
84 Baking Powder Process Flow Diagram 214
85 Bouillon Product Manufacturing Process 216
86 Bread Crumbs, Not Made In Bakeries Process Flow
Diagram 217
87 Chicory Process Flow Diagram 219
88 Process Flow Diagram For Paprika Chili Peppers 221
89 Prepared Gelatin Dessert Process Flow Diagram 224
90 Honey Process 226
91 Molasses 229
92 Maple Syrup 230
93 Pancake Syrup Process 232
94 Sorghum Syrup 233
95 Liquid Non-Dairy Creamer Manufacturing Process 235
xxv
-------
DRAFT
FIGURES
(CONTINUED)
NUMBER PAGE
96 Powdered Non-Dairy Creamer Manufacturing Process 237
97 Process Flow Diagram Manufacture of Peanut Butter 239
98 Pectin Manufacturing Process By Alcohol Precip-
itation 242
99 Pectin Recovery By Aluminum Compound Precipitation 244
100 Popcorn Process 246
101 Spice Process Flow Diagram 248
102 Instant Tea Process Diagram 250
103 Sandwich Process Flow Diagram 252
104 Vinegar Process 254
105 Process Flow Diagram Dried Food Yeast 258
107 A Linear Regression Plot of Flow (MGD) Versus Pro-
duction (Ton/Day) For Process Wastewaters Discharged
From Oilseed Solvent Extraction Plants, Subcategory
Al 301
108 A Scatter Diagram Plotting BOD Concentration Versus
Production (Ton/Day) For The Process Wastewaters
Generated From Oilseed Solvent Extraction Plants,
Subcategory Al . 302
109 A Scatter Diagram Plotting COD Concentrations Versus
Production (Ton/Day) For The Process Wastes From
Oilseed Solvent Extraction Plants, Subcategory Al 303
110 A Scatter Diagram Plotting Concentrations Of Oil
And Grease Versus Daily Production (Ton/Day) For
The Process Wastewaters Discharged From Oilseed
Solvent Extraction Plants, Subcategory Al 304
111 Subcateqory A15, Olive Oil Caustic Refining
Process Model Plant 335
112 Subcategory A16, Flow vs Capacity 339
113 Subcategory A16, BOD vs Capacity 340
xxvi
-------
DRAFT
FIGURES
(CONTINUED)
NUMBER PAGE
114 Subcategory A16, Suspended Solids vs Capacity 341
115 Subcategory A16, Flow Probability Diagram 342
116 Subcategory A16, BOD Probability Diagram 343
117 Subcategory A16, Suspended Solids Probability
Diagram 344
118 Daily Flow Variability Plant 82A43 345
119 Daily BOD Variability Plant 82A43 346
120 Daily Suspended Solids Variability 347
121 Subcategory A17, Flow vs Capacity 350
122 Subcategory A17, BOD vs Capacity 351
123 Subcategory A17, Suspended Solids vs Capacity 352
124 Subcategory A17, Flow Probability Diagram 353
125 Subcategory A17, BOD Probability Diagram 354
126 Subcategory A17, Suspended Solids Probability
Diagram 355
127 Subcategory A18, Flow vs Capacity 359
128 Subcategory A18, BOD vs Capacity 360
129 Subcategory A18, Suspended Solids vs Capacity 361
130 Subcategory A18, Flow Probability Diagram 362
131 Subcategory A18, BOD Probability Diagram 363
132 Subcategory A18, Suspended Solids Probability
Diagram 364
133 Model Plant For Beverage Concentrate And .Syrup
Manufacturing Process 408
134 Model Plant For Subcategory A30,Instant Tea
Manufacturing Process 411
135 Model Plant For Subcategory A29, Flavoring
Extracts 452
xxvn
-------
DRAFT
FIGURES
(CONTINUED)
NUMBER PAGE
136 Subcategory A3! -Model Plant, Bouillon Manu-
facturing Process 454
137 Subcategory A32 - Model Plant, Non-Dairy Creamer
Manufacturing 457
138 Pumping Station 505
139 Clarifier Module Plan View 506
140 Clarifier Module Elevation View 507
141 Neutralization System 508
142 Nitrogen Addition System 509
143 Phosphorus Addition System 510
144 Activated Sludge System 511
145 Thick Surface Aerator 513
146 Aerated Lagoon Cross Section 514
147 Aerobic: Digestion Basin , 516
148 Vacuum Sludge Filtration 517
149 Flow Measurement Systems 519
150 Sump Decanter System 520
151 Subcategory A 1 - Treatment Alternatives II-III 525
152 Subcategory A 1 - Treatment Alternatives IV-V 526
153 Subcategory A 1 - Treatment Alternatives VI-VII 527
154 Subcategory A 1 - Treatment Alternatives VI-VIII 528
155 Subcategory A 5 - Treatment Alternatives II
Through V 544
156 Subcategory A 5 - Treatment Alternatives VI
Through VIII 545
xxvm
-------
DRAFT
FIGURES
(CONTINUED)
NUMBER
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
Subcategory A 6 -
Through V
Subcategory A 6 -
Through VIII
Subcategory A 7 -
Through V
Subcategory A 7 -
Through VII
Subcategory A 8 -
Through V
Subcategory A 8 -
Through VIII
Subcategory A 9 -
Through V
Subcategory A 9 -
Through VIII
Subcategory A 10 -
Through V
Subcategory A 10 -
Through VIII
Subcategory A 11 -
Through V
Subcategory A 11 -
Through VIII
Subcategory A 12 -
Through V
Subcategory A 12 -
Through VIII
Subcategory A 13 -
Through IV
Subcategory A 13 -
Through VI
Treatment Alternatives II
Treatment Alternatives VI
Treatment Alternatives II
Treatment Alternatives VI
Treatment Alternatives II
Treatment Alternatives VI
Treatment Alternatives II
Treatment Alternatives VI
Treatment Alternatives II
Treatment Alternatives VI
Treatment Alternatives II
Treatment Alternatives VI
Treatment Alternatives II
Treatment Alternatives VI
Treatment Alternatives II
Treatment Alternatives V
PAGE
548
549
553
554
557
558
562
563
566
567
570
571
575
576
579
581
XXIX
-------
DRAFT
FIGURES
(CONTINUED)
NUMBER PAGE
173 Subcategory A 14 - Treatment Alternatives II
Through IV 584
174 Subcategory A 14 - Treatment Alternatives V
Through VII 585
175 Control and Treatment Plant 82A43 589
176 Control and Treatment Plant 82A16 594
177 Subcategory A 16 - Treatment Alternatives II
Through IV 597
178 Subcategory A 16 - Treatment Alternatives A 16-V
Through A 16-XIII 598
179 Subcategory A 17 - Treatment Alternatives II
Through IV 602
180 Subcategory A 17 - Treatment Alternatives V
Through XIII 603
181 Subcategory A 18 - Treatment Alternatives II
Through IV 607
182 Subcategory A 18 - Treatment Alternatives V
Through VIII 608
183 Control and Treatment Plant 83A13 611
184 Subcategory A 19 - Treatment Alternatives II
and III 514
185 Subcategory A 19 - Treatment Alternatives IV
VII 615
186 Control and Treatment Plant 84*10 618
187 Control and Treatment Plant 84*09 619
188 Control and Treatment Plant 84*03 620
189 Control and Treatment Plant 84C01 621
XXX
-------
DRAFT
FIGURES
(CONTINUED)
NUMBER PAGE
190 Control and Treatment Plant 84*02 622
191 Control and Treatment Plant 84*04 623
192 Subcategory A 20 - Treatment Alternatives II
Through VII 627
193 Subcategory A 20 - Treatment Alternatives VIII
Through X 628
194 Control and Treatment Plant 85A01 635
195 Control and Treatment Plant 85A02 636
196 Control and Treatment Plant 85A05 637
197 Control and Treatment Plant 85A07 638
198 Control and Treatment Plant 85A15 639
199 Control and Treatment Plant 85A22 640
200 Control and Treatment Plant 85A27 641
201 Control and Treatment Plant 85A29 642
202 Subcategory A 22A - Treatment Alternatives II
and III 644
203 Subcategory A 22A - Treatment Alternatives IV
Through IX 645
204 Subcategory A 22B - Treatment Alternatives II
and III 646
205 Subcategory A 22B - Treatment Alternatives IV
Through IX 647
206 Subcategory A 23 - Treatment Alternatives II
Through IV 653
207 Control and Treatment Plant 85C43 657
208 Control and Treatment Plant 85C44 658
xxxi
-------
DRAFT
NUMBER
209
210
211
212
213
214
215
216
217
218
219
220
221
222
223
224
225
FIGURES
(CONTINUED)
Subcategory A 24 - Treatment Alternatives II
Through IV
Subcategory A 24 - Treatment Alternatives VIII
Through IX
Subcategory A 26 - Treatment Alternatives II
Through V
Subcategory A 26 - Treatment Alternatives VI
and VII
Control and Treatment Plant 86A16
Control and Treatment Plant 86A32
Control and Treatment Plant 86A29
Subcategory A 27 - Treatment Alternatives II
Through V
Subcategory A 27 - Treatment Alternatives VI
and VII
Subcategory A 28 - Treatment Alternatives I, V,
and IX
Subcategory A 28 - Treatment Alternatives 1 1- IV,
VI-VIII, and X-XII
Secondary Treatment of Instant Tea Process Waste-
water Plant 99T01
Subcategory A 30 - Treatment Alternatives II, III,
V, and VI
Subcategory A 30 - Treatment Alternatives IV and
VII
Subcategory C 8 - Treatment Alternatives II and III
Subcategory C 8 - Treatment Alternatives IV and V
Subcategory C 9 - Treatment Alternatives II
PAGE
661
662
667
668
670
671
672
675
676
680
681
685
688
689
692
694
Through IV 697
xxx 11
-------
DRAFT
FIGURES
(CONTINUED)
NUMBER
226
227
228
229
230
231
232
233
234
235
236
237
238
239
240
241
242
Subcategory C 10 - Treatment Alternatives II
and IV
Subcategory C 10 -
Physical -Chemical
Subcategory C 2
Subcategory C 1 -
and IV
Treatment Alternative III
Treatment of Bakery Wastes
Treatment Alternatives III
Existing Treatment Technology - Subcategory C 2
Subcategory C 2 -
Through V
Subcategory C 2 -
and VIII
Subcategory C 3 r
III
Subcategory C 3 -
Subcategory C 7 -
Subcategory C 7 -
and VI
Subcategory B 5 -
Through IV
Subcategory B 6 -
Through V
Subcategory B 7 -
Through IV
Subcategory B 8 -
Through IV
Subcategory A 29 -
IV, VI, VII, IX,
Subcategory A 29 -
Treatment Alternatives II
Treatment Alternatives VII
Treatment Alternatives II and
Treatment Alternative IV
Treatment Alternative III
Treatment Alternatives II, V,
Treatment Alternatives I
Treatment Alternatives I
Treatment Alternatives I
Treatment Alternatives I
Treatment Alternatives III,
X
Treatment Alternatives V, VIII,
PAGE
701
703
705
709
711
714
716
719
720
724
725
745
748
751
755
759
XI 760
xxx m
-------
DRAFT
NUMBER
243
244
245
246
247
248
249
250
251
252
253
254
255
256
257
258
FIGURES
(CONTINUED)
Subcategory A 31 - Treatment Alternatives II, III,
V, and VI
Subcategory A 31 - Treatment Alternatives IV and
VII
Subcategory A 32 - Treatment Alternatives II and
V
Subcategory A 32 - Treatment Alternatives III and
VI
Slagelse, Denmark Yeast Plant Treatment System
Control and Treatment Plant 99Y24
Control and Treatment Plant 99Y25
Yeast Plant 99Y20 - Simplified Wastewater Flow
Diagram
Yeast Plant 99Y20 - By-Product Recovery Using
Evaporation
Yeast Plant 99Y20 - Biological Treatment and
Control
Subcategory A 33 - Treatment Alternatives V
Through X, XIV Through XIX
Subcategory A 33 - Treatment Alternatives II
Through IV, XI Through XIII
Subcategory A 36 - Treatment Alternatives III, IV,
V, VII, VIII, IX
Subcategory A 36 - Treatment Alternatives VI
and X
Subcategory B 1 - Treatment Alternatives I
Through IV
Subcategory B 2 - Treatment Alternatives I
Through IV
PAGE
764
765
769
770
778
779
781
782
783
784
789
790
799
800
810
813
XXXIV
-------
DRAFT
NUMBER
259
260
261
262
263
264
265
266
267
268
269
270
271
272
273
274
275
FIGURES
(CONTINUED)
Subcategory B 3 - Treatment Alternatives I
Through IV
Subcategory B 4 - Treatment Alternatives I
Through III
Subcategory C 4 - Treatment Alternative III
Subcategory C 4 - Treatment Alternative V
Subcategory C 5 - Treatment Alternatives II and
III
Subcategory C 5 - Treatment Alternatives IV and
V
Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 1 ,
Alt. II, III
Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 1 ,
Alt. IV, V
Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 1 ,
Alt. VI, VII
Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 1,
Alt. VIII
Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 5,
Alt. II, V
Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 5,
Alt. VI, VIII
Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 6,
Alt. II, V
Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 6
Alt. VI, VIII
Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 7
AH. II, V
Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 7
Alt. VI, VIII
Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 8
Alt. II, V
PAGE
818
821
830
831
834
836
847
851
855
857
873
878
885
891
898
903
910
XXXV
-------
DRAFT
NUMBER
276
277
278
279
279
280
281
282
283
284
285
286
287
288
289
290
291
292
FIGURES
(CONTINUED)
Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 8
Alt. II, VII
Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 9
Alt. II, V
Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 9
Alt. II, VIII
Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 10
Alt. II, V
Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 10
Alt. II, VIII
Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 11
Alt. II, V
Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 11
Alt. II, VIII
Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 12
Alt. II, V
Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 12
Alt. II, VIII
Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 13
Alt. II, IV
Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 13
Alt; II, V, VI
Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 14
Alt. II, IV
Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 14
Alt. V, VII
Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 16
Alt. IV
Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 16
Alt. VII
Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 16
Alt. X
Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 16
PAGE
914
922
927
934
939
946
952
959
964
970
973
979
984
993
998
1003
Alt. XIII 1008
xxxvi
-------
DRAFT
FIGURES
(CONTINUED)
NUMBER PAGE
293 Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 17
Alt. IV 1013
294 Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 17
Alt. VII 1018
295 Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 17
Alt. X 1023
296 Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 18
Alt. IV 1029
297 Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 18
Alt. VII 1034
298 Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 18
Alt. X 1039
299 Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 18
Alt. XIII 1044
300 Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 19
Alt. Ill 1049
301 Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 19
Alt. V 1052
302 Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 19
Alt. VII 1056
303 Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 20
Alt. IV 1062
304 Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 20
Alt. VII 1067
305 Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 20
Alt. X 1072
306 Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 22-A
Alt. Ill 1078
307 Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 22-A
Alt. V 1082
308 Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 22-A
Alt. VII 1085
xxxvii
-------
DRAFT
FIGURES
(CONTINUED)
NUMBER PAGE
309 Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 22-A
Alt. IX 1089
310 Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 22-B
Alt. Ill 1093
311 Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 22-B
Alt. IV 1097
312 Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 22-B
Alt. VII 1101
313 Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 22-B
Alt. VII 1104
314 Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 23
Alt. Ill 1108
315 Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 23
Alt. IV 1111
316 Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 24
Alt. Ill 1115
317 Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 24
Alt. V 1119
318 Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 24
Alt. VII 1122
319 Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 24
Alt. IX 1126
320 Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 26
Alt. Ill 1136
321 Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 26
Alt. V 1140
322 Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 26
Alt. VII 1143
323 Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 27
Alt. Ill 1147
324 Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 27
Alt. V 1151
325 Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 27
Alt. VII 1155
xxxviii
-------
DRAFT
NUMBER
326
327
328
329
330
331
332
333
334
335
336
337
338
339
340
341
FIGURES
(CONTINUED)
Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 28
Alt. IX
Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 28
Alt. X
Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 28
Alt. XI
Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 28
Alt. XII
Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 30
Alt. V
Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 30
Alt. VI
Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 30
Alt. IV
Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory C 8
Alt. Ill
Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory C 8
Alt. V
Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory C 9
Alt. Ill
Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory C 10
Alt. IV
Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory C 1
Alt. IV
Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory C 2
Alt. V
Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory C 2
Alt. VI
Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory C 2
Alt. VIII
Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory C 3
PAGE
1168
1170
1173
1175
1183
1185
1187
1193
1196
1201
1206
1211
1218
1221
1225
AH. Ill 1229
xxxi x
-------
DRAFT
NUMBER
342
343
344
345
346
347
348
349
350
351
352
353
354
355
356
357
FIGURES
(CONTINUED) .
Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory C 7
Alt. IV
Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory C 7
Alt. VI
Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory D 1
Alt. V
Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory D 1
Alt. VI
Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory D 2
Alt. V
Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory D 2
Alt. VI
Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory D 2
Alt. VII
Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory D 3
Alt. V
Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory D 3
Alt. VI
Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory D 3
.Alt. VII
Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory D 5
Alt. VII
Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory D 6
Alt. VII
Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory D 6
Alt. VIII
Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory B 5
Alt. IV
Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory B 6
Alt. V
Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory B 7
Alt. IV
PAGE
1236
1239
1246
1248
1255
1257
1260
1266
1269
1271
1281
1292
1294
1300
1307
1312
XL
-------
DRAFT
FIGURES
(CONTINUED)
NUMBER PAGE
358 Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory B 8
Alt. IV 1318
359 Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 29
Alt. IX 1330
360 Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 29
Alt. X 1332
361 Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 29
Alt. XI 1334
362A Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 31
Alt. V 1342
362B Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 31
Alt. VI 1345
363 Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 31
Alt. VII 1347
364 Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 32
Alt. IV 1354
365 Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 32
Alt. V 1356
366 Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 33
Alt. IV 1362
367 Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 33
Alt. VII 1367
368 Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 33
Alt. X 1372
369 Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 33
Alt. VIII 1376
370 Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 33
Alt. XVI 1382
371 Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 33
Alt. XIX 1387
372 Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 36
Alt. VII 1404
XLI
-------
DRAFT
NUMBER
373
374
375
376
377
378
379
380
381
382
383
384
385
386
387
FIGURES
(CONTINUED)
Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 36
Alt. VIII
Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 36
Alt. IX
Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory A 36
Alt. X
Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory B 1
Alt. IV
Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory B 2
Alt. IV
Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory B 3
Alt. IV
Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory B 4
Alt. Ill
Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory B 9
Alt. Ill
Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory C 4
Alt. Ill
Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory C 4
Alt. V
Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory C 5
Alt. Ill
Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory C 5
Alt. V
Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory D 4
Alt. V
Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory D 4
Alt. VI
Investment and Yearly Costs For Subcategory D 4
Alt. VII
PAGE
1406
1409
1411
1416
1422
1428
1432
1436
1440
1443
1447
1451
1459
1461
1463
XLII
-------
DRAFT
LIST OF TABLES
NUMBER PAGE
1 Miscellaneous Foods and Beverages Industry
Defined By SIC Code 14
2 Egg Products Under Federal Inspection 24
3 Production Of Frozen Food Specialties 33
4 Pet Food Volume 45
5 Constituents of Cocoa Nibs 103
6 The Number of Companies and Establishments
Processing Oilseeds From 1954 To 1974 112
7 Cottonseed Milling Operations By State and Types
of Extractor Methods Utilized 1974 114
8 Extraction of Oil From Oilseeds by Various Processes 117
9 U.S. Domestic Disappearance of Fats and Oils In
Food Products, By Type of Fat or Oil, 1950-72,
I/(Mi 11 ion Metric Tons) 132
10 Production of Major Crude Vegetable Oil In the
United States From 1959-1973 133
11 A Summary of the Number of Edible Oil Refineries
In The United States Listed By State 134
12 Classification of the Miscellaneous Food and
Beverages Industry By Standard Industrial Classi-
fication Codes 262
13 Recommended Subcategorization of the Miscellaneous
Foods and Beverages Point Source Category 263
14 Edible Oil Process Units 273
15 Process Integration in the Edible Oil Refining
Industry 274
16 Process Units Employed For The Miscellaneous Foods
and Beverages 294
17 Summary of Unit Process Raw Data on Edible Oil
Refinery Wastewater Characteristics 298
XLIII
-------
DRAFT
TABLES
(CONTINUED)
NUMBER PAGE
18 A Statistical Description of the Wastewater
Characteristics for Solvent Extraction Process
Wastewater 300
19 A Statistical Description of the Wastewater
Characteristics for The Edible Oil Caustic
Refinery Process 309
20 Pollutant Loadings for Caustic Refining Wash Waters 310
21 A Statistical Description of the Wastewater
Characteristics for Edible Oil Refinery Tank Car
Cleaning Operations 312
22 Pollutant Waste Loadings for Edible Oil Refinery
Tank Car Cleaning 313
23 A Statistical Description of the Wastewater
Characteristics for Edible Oil Refinery Storage
and Handling Operations 314
24 Sample Calculations for Determing Total Waste
Loadings for Subcategory A 5 Plants 317
25 A Statistical Descriptions of the Wastewater
Characteristics for the Edible Oil Refinery Soap-
stock Acidulation Process 318
26 Pollutant Waste Loadings for the Edible Oil
Refinery Acidulation Process 319
27 A Statistical Description of the Wastewater
Characteristics for Edible Oil Refinery Contact
Cooling Tower Slowdown From Barometric Condensers 321
28 A Statistical Description of the Wastewater
Characteristics for Edible Oil Refinery Oil
Processing 323
29 A Statistical Description of the Wastewater
Characteristics for Margarine Processing 329
30 Pollutant Waste Loadings for the Processing
of Margarine 330
XLIV
-------
DRAFT
TABLES
(CONTINUED)
NUMBER PAGE
31 A Statistical Description of the Wastewater
Characteristics for Shortening and Table Oil
Packaging Operations 332
32 Pollutant Waste Loadings for Shortening and
Table Oil Processing 333
33 Wastewater Characteristics, Subcategory A 16
(New Large Breweries) 338
35 Wastewater Characteristics, Subcategory A 17
(Old Large Breweries) 349
36 Wastewater Characteristics, Subcategory A 18 357
37 Analyses of Malting Steep Water Wastes 366
38 Results of Malt Industry Wastewater Survey 367
39 Daily Variability of Malt Waste 368
40 Raw Waste Characteristics During Crushing,
Wineries Without Stills 371
41 Raw Waste Characteristics During Processing,
Wineries Without Stills 372
42 Still age Characteristics 375
43 Distilling Material Produced Per Ton of Grapes
Crushed 376
44 Still age Characteristics 377
45 Process Waste Streams - Grain Distillers With
Still age Recovery 379
46 Variability in BOD Concentration of Grain Distillery
Evaporator Condensate 381
47 Analysis of Grain Distillery Evaporator Condensate 382
48 Balance Sheet For Grain Neutral Spirits Unit,
Grain Distillery, Subcategory A 22 384
XLV
-------
DRAFT
TABLES
(CONTINUED)
NUMBER PAGE
49 Pollution Load From Week-End Cleanups, Grain
Distillery, Subcategory A 22 385
50 Wastewater Characteristics - Grain Distillery,
Subcategory A 22 387
51 Daily Variations in Raw Waste - Grain Distillery,
Subcategory A 22 388
52 Molasses Distillery Waste Streams 391
53 Variability of Molasses Still age 392
54 Chemical Characteristics of Molasses Stillage 393
55 Ionic Composition of Molasses Stillage 394
56 Raw Waste Characteristics - Rum Distillers 397
57 Daily Waste Characteristics - Soft Drink Canning,
Plant 86A27 401
58 Raw Waste Characteristics, Subcategory A 27 404
59 Summary of Wastewater Characteristics, Subcategory
A 28 406
60 Subcategory A 30 - Summary of Wastewater Character-
istics 410
61 Raw Waste Summary, Subcategory C 8 - Coffee
Roasting 413
62 Raw Waste Summary Subcategory C 9 - Decaffeination
of Coffee 415
63 Raw Waste Summary, Subcategory C 10 - Soluble
Coffee 418
64 Raw Waste Summary - Cakes, Pies, Doughnuts, and
Sweet Yeast Goods Utilizing Pan Washing 422
65 Raw Waste Summary, Subcategory C 2 - Cakes, Pies,
Doughnuts, and Sweet Yeast Goods Not Utilizing
Pan Washing 424
XLVI
-------
DRAFT
TABLES
(CONTINUED)
NUMBER PAGE
66 Raw Waste Summary - Bread and Buns 426
67 Raw Waste Summary - Cookies and Crackers 429
68 Raw Waste Summary - Candy and Confectionery 431
69 Raw Waste Summary - Chewing Gum 433
70 Raw Waste Summary - Chewing Gum Base 435
71 Raw Waste Summary - Chocolate, With Milk Condensory 437
72 Raw Waste Summary - Chocolate, Without Milk Con-
densory 438
73 Raw Waste Summary - Low Meat Canned Pet Food 441
74 Raw Waste Summary - High Meat Canned Dog and Cat
Food 443
75 Raw Waste Summary - Dry Dog and Cat Food 445
76 Raw Waste Summary - Soft Moist Dog and Cat Food 447
77 Yeast Plant 99Y03 - Unit Operations Wastewater
Characteristics 459
78 Yeast Dewatering Effluent Characteristics,
Plant 99Y03 460
79 Water Usage and Wastewater Characteristics -
Yeast Plants Recycling Separation Water-Plants
99Y01 and 99Y05 461
80 Approximate Water Usage Per Operating Day For
Peanut Butter Processing Plant 99P21 464
81 Jar Washer Wastewater Characteristics Plant 99P20 465
82 Occasional Cleanup Wastewater Discharged -
Plant 99P21 467
83 Wastewater Characteristics of Individual Waste
Streams at Plant 99K01 469
XLVII
-------
DRAFT
TABLES
(CONTINUED)
NUMBER PAGE
84 Wastewater Characteristics of Individual Waste
Streams at Plant 99K02 470
85 Summary of Wastewater Characteristics, Subcate-
gory A 36 - Pectin 471
86 Raw Waste Summary - Frozen Prepared Dinners 475
87 Raw Waste Summary - Frozen Battered and Breaded
Specialties 476
88 Raw Waste Summary - Frozen Bakery Products 478
89 Raw Waste Summary - Frozen Tomato-Cheese-Starch
Dishes 480
90 Raw Waste Summary - Chili Peppers and Paprika 481
91 Raw Waste Summary - Egg Processing 484
92 Raw Waste Summary - Shell Eggs 485
93 Raw Waste Summary - Manufactured Ice 489
94 Raw Waste Summary - Vinegar 491
95 Wastewater Treatment Units Used in Treatment Train
Alternatives 502
96 Final Discharge Data for Treatment Systems Handling
Solvent Extraction Process Wastes 522
97 Summary of Treatment Train Alternatives for Sub-
category A 1 523
98 Summary of Present. In-Plant Control and Treatment
Technology for the Edible Oil Refining Industry 534
99 Existing Treatment Chain and Major Design Factors
of Plant 75F-10 for the Biological Treatment
of Edible Oil Refinery Wastes 538
100 Existing Treatment Chain and Major Design Factors
For the Edible Oils-Margarine, Salad Dressing
and Cheese Pretreatment Facilities at Champaign,
Illinois 540
XLVIII
-------
UIVAT i
TABLES
(CONTINUED)
NUMBER PAGE
101 Summary of Treatment Train Alternatives 542
102 Summary of Treatment Train Alternatives for
Subcategory A 6 546
103 Summary of Treatment Train Alternatives for
Subcategory A 7 551
104 Summary of Treatment Train Alternatives for
Subcategory A 8 556
105 Summary of Treatment Train Alternatives for
Subcategory A 9 560
106 Summary of Treatment Train Alternatives for
Subcategory A 10 564
107 Summary of Treatment Train Alternatives for
Subcategory All 569
108 Summary of Treatment Train Alternatives for
Subcategory A 12 573
109 Summary of Treatment Train Alternatives for
Subcategory A 13 578
110 Summary of Treatment Train Alternatives 583
111 Waste Treatment Plants Handling Brewery Wastes 590
112 Treatment Plant Design Unit Loadings 593
113 Summary of Treatment Train Alternatives for
Subcategory A 16 596
114 Summary of Treatment Train Alternatives for
Subcategory A 17 601
115 Summary of Treatment Train Alternatives for
Subcategory A 18 606
116 Summary of Treatment Train Alternatives for
Subcategory A 19 613
117 Summary of Treatment Train Alternatives for
Subcategory A 20 625
XLIX
-------
DRAFT
TABLES
(CONTINUED)
NUMBER . PAGE
118 Summary of Treatment Train Alternatives for
Subcategory A 20 (Non-Crushing Season) 626
119 Treatment System Summary for Subcategory A 22 634
120 Summary of Treatment Alternatives for Subcategory
A 22-A 648
121 Summary of Treatment Train Alternatives for
Subcategory A 22-B 649
122 Summary of Treatment Train Alternatives for
Subcategory A 23 652
123 Summary of Treatment Train Alternatives for
Subcategory A 24 660
124 Summary of Treatment Train Alternatives for
Subcategory A 26 666
125 Summary of Treatment Train Alternatives for
Subcategory A 27 674
126 Summary of Treatment Alternatives - Beverage Base
Syrups and/or Concentrates 679
127 Summary of Treatment Train Alternatives - Sub-
category A 30 687
128 Summary of Treatment Train Alternatives 691
129 Summary of Treatment Train Alternatives 696
130 Summary of Treatment Train Alternatives 700
131 Summary of Treatment Train Alternatives -
Subcategory C 1 707
132 Summary of Treatment Train Alternatives
Subcategory C 2 713
133 Summary of Treatment Train Alternatives 718
134 Summary of Treatment Train Alternatives 723
-------
DRAFT
NUMBER
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
TABLES
(CONTINUED)
Summary of Treatment Train Alternatives
Subcategory D 1
Summary of Treatment Train Alternatives
Subcategory D 2
Summary of Treatment Train Alternatives
Subcategory D 3
Summary of Treatment Train Alternatives
Subcategory D 5
Summary of Treatment Train Alternatives
Subcategory D 6
Summary of Treatment Alternatives for Subcategory
B 5
Summary of Treatment Alternatives for Subcategory
B 6
Summary of Treatment Alternatives for Subcategory
B 7
Summary of Treatment Alternatives for Subcategory
B 8
Summary of Treatment Train Alternatives for
Subcategory A 29
Summary of Treatment Train Alternatives for
Subcategory A 31
Summary of Treatment Train Alternatives for
Subcategory A 32
Comparison of Wastewater Characteristics and
Spent Beer Reuse
Summary of In-Plant Control and Treatment Technology
for Subcategory A 33
Summary of End-of-Line Treatment and Control
Summary of Treatment Alternatives for Subcategory
A 33
PAGE
729
733
735
738
740
743
746
750
753
758
763
768
773
775
776
787
LI
-------
DRAFT
TABLES
(CONTINUED)
NUMBER PAGE
151 Summary of Treatment Train Alternatives for
Subcategory A 36 - Pectin 798
152 Treatment Unit Chain and Major Design Factors for
Existing Treatment Plant Treating Wastewater from
Frozen Prepared Dinners and Other Specialty Foods 804
153 Reported Performance for Treatment Units Described 807
154 Summary of Treatment Train Alternatives for Sub-
category B 1 809
155 Summary of Treatment Train Alternatives for
Subcategory B 2 812
156 Treatment Unit Chain and Major Design Factors for
Existing Pre-treatment Plant Treating Wastewater
From Frozen Bakery Products 814
157 Summary of Treatment Train Alternatives for Sub-
category B 3 817
'158 Summary of Treatment Train Alternatives for Sub-
category B 4 820
159 Model Treatment Module Chain and Estimated Pollutant
Removals - Subcategory B 9 825
160 Summary of Treatment Train Alternatives 828
161 Summary of Treatment Chain Alternatives 833
162 Summary of Treatment Train Alternatives for Sub-
category D 4 839
163 Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 1
Alt. II 845
164 Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 1
Alt. Ill 846
165 Itemized Cost Summary For Subcategory A 1
Alt. IV 848
166 Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 1
Alt. V 850
167 Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 1
Alt. VI 852
LII
-------
DRAFT
NUMBER
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
TABLES
(CONTINUED)
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 1
Alt. VII
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 1
Alt. VIII
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 3
Alt. I
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 3
Alt. II
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 3
Alt. Ill
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 4
Alt. I
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 4
Alt. II
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 4
Alt. Ill
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 5
Alt. II
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 5
Alt. Ill
Itemized Cost Summary For Subcategory A 5
Alt. IV
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 5
Alt. V
Itemized Cost Summary For Subcategory A 5
Alt. VI
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 5
Alt. VII
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 5
Alt. VIII
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 6
Alt. II
PAGE
854
856
859
861
862
864
865
866
868
869
871
872
875
876
877
880
LIII
-------
DRAFT
NUMBER
184
185
186
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
TABLES
(CONTINUED)
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 6
Alt. Ill ;
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 6
Alt. IV
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 6
Alt. V
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 6
Alt. I/I
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 6
Alt. VII
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 6
Alt. VIII
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 7
Alt. II
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 7
Alt. Ill
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 7
Alt. IV
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 7
Alt. V
Itemized Cost Summary For Subcategory A 7
Alt. VI
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 7
Alt. VII
Itemized Cost Summary For Subcategory A 7
Alt. VIII
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 8
Alt. II
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 8
Alt. Ill
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 8
Alt. IV
PAGE
882
883
884
887
888
889
892
894
895
897
899
900
902
904
906
907
LIV
-------
DRAFT
NUMBER
200
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
210
211
212
213
214
215
TABLES
(CONTINUED)
Itemized Cost Summary for SubcategoryA 8
Alt. V
Itemized Cost Summary for SubcategoryA 8
Alt. VI .
Itemized Cost Summary for SubcategoryA 8
Alt. VII
Itemized Cost Summary for SubcategoryA 8
AH. VIII
Itemized Cost Summary for SubcategoryA 9
Alt. II
Itemized Cost Summary for SubcategoryA 9
Alt. Ill
Itemized Cost Summary for SubcategoryA 9
Alt. IV
Itemized Cost Summary for SubcategoryA 9
Alt. V
Itemized Cost Summary for SubcategoryA 9
Alt. VI
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 9
Alt. VII
Itemized Cost Summary For SubcategoryA 9
Alt. VIII
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 10
Alt. II
Itemized Cost Summary For Subcategory A 10
Alt. Ill
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 10
Alt. IV
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 10
Alt. V
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 10
Alt. VI
PAGE
909
911
912
915
917
918
919
921
923
925
926
929
930
932
933
935
LV
-------
DRAFT
TABLES
(CONTINUED)
NUMBER PAGE
216 Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 10
Alt. VII , 937
217 Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 10
Alt. VIII 938
218 Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory All 941
Alt. II
219 Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 11
Alt. Ill 943
220 Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory .A 11
Alt. IV 944
221 Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory All
Alt. V 945
»
222 Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 11
Alt. VI 948
223 Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 11
Alt. VII 949
224 Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 11
Alt. VIII 951
225 Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 12
Alt. II 954
226 Itemized Cost Summary For Subcategory A 12
Alt. Ill . 955
227 Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 12
Alt. IV 956
228 Itemized Cost Summary For Subcategory A 12
Alt. V 958
229 Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 12
Alt. VI 960
230 Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 12
Alt. VII y
231 Itemized Cost Summary for Subcateqorv A 12
Alt. VIII y y
961
963
LVI
-------
DRAFT
NUMBER
232
233
234
235
236
237
238
239
240
241
242
243
244
245
246
247
TABLES
(CONTINUED)
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 13
Alt. II
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 13
Alt. Ill
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 13
Alt. IV
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 13
Alt.V
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 13
Alt. VI
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 14
Alt. II
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 14
Alt. Ill
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 14
Alt. IV
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 14
Alt.V
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 14
Alt. VI
Itemized Cost Summary For Subcategory A 14
Alt. VII
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 15
Alt. I
Itemized Cost Summary For Subcategory A 15
Alt. II
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 16
Alt. II
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 16
Alt. HI
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 16
Alt. IV
PAGE
966
967
969
971
972
975
977
978
980
982
983
986
987
989
991
992
LVII
-------
DRAFT
NUMBER
248
249
250
251
252
253
254
255
256
257
258
259
260
261
262
263
TABLES
(CONTINUED)
Itemized Cost Summary for SubcategoryA 16
Alt.V
Itemized Cost Summary for SubcategoryA 16
Alt. VI
Itemized Cost Summary for SubcategoryA 16
Alt. VII
Itemized Cost Summary for SubcategoryA 16
Alt. VIII
Itemized Cost Summary for SubcategoryA 16
Alt. IX
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 16
Alt. X
Itemized Cost Summary for SubcategoryA 16
Alt. XI
Itemized Cost Summary for SubcategoryA 16
Alt. XII
Itemized Cost Summary for SubcategoryA 16
Alt. XIII
Itemized Cost Summary for SubcategoryA 17
Alt. II
Itemized Cost Summary For Subcategory A 17
Alt. HI
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 17
Alt. IV
Itemized Cost Summary For Subcategory A 17
Alt. V
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 17
Alt. VI
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 17
Alt. VII
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 1?
Alt. VIII
PAGE
994
996
997
999
1001
1002
1004
1006
1007
1010
1011
1012
1015
1016
1017
1020
LVIII
-------
DRAFT
NUMBER
264
265
266
267
268
269
270
271
272
273
274
275
276
277
278
279
TABLES
(CONTINUED)
Itemized Cost Summary for SubcategoryA 17
Alt. IX
Itemized Cost Summary for SubcategoryA 17
Alt.X
Itemized Cost Summary for SubcategoryA 18
Alt. II
Itemized Cost Summary for SubcategoryA 18
Alt. HI
Itemized Cost Summary for SubcategoryA 18
Alt. IV
Itemized Cost Summary for SubcategoryA 18
Alt.V
Itemized Cost Summary for SubcategoryA 18
Alt. VI
Itemized Cost Summary for SubcategoryA 18
Alt. VII
Itemized Cost Summary for SubcategoryA 18
Alt. VIII
Itemized Cost Summary for SubcategoryA 18
Alt. IX
Itemized Cost Summary For Subcategory A 18
AH. X
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 18
Alt. XI
Itemized Cost Summary For Subcategory A 18
Alt. XII
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 18
Alt. XIII
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 19
Alt. II
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 19
Alt. Ill
PAGE
1021
1022
1026
1027
1028
1031
1032
1033
1036
1037
1038
1041
1042
1043
1046
1047
Lix
-------
DRAFT
NUMBER
280
281
282
283
284
285
286
287
288
289
290
291
292
293
294
295
TABLES
(CONTINUED)
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 19
AH. IV
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 19
Alt.V
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 19
AH. VI
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 19
Alt. VII
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 20
Alt. II
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 20
AH. HI
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 20
Alt. IV
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 20
'Alt. V
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 20
AH. VI
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 20
AH. VII
Itemized Cost Summary For Subcategory A 20
Alt; VIII
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 20
AH. IX
Itemized Cost Summary For Subcategory A 20
Alt. X
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 21
Alt. II
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 22-A
Alt. II
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 22-A
AH. Ill
PAGE
1050
1051
1054
1055
1058
1059
1061
1063
1064
1066
1068
1069
1071
1074
1075
1077
LX
-------
DRAFT
NUMBER
296
297
298
299
300
301
302
303
304
305
306
307
308
309
310
311
TABLES
(CONTINUED)
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 22-A
Alt. IV
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 22-A
Alt. V
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 22-A
Alt. VI
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 22-A
Alt. VII
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 22-A
Alt. VIII
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 22-A
Alt. IX
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 22-B
Alt. II
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 22-B
Alt. Ill
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 22-B
Alt. IV
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 22-B
Alt. V
Itemized Cost Summary For Subcategory A 22-B
Alt. VI
Itemized Cost Summary 'for Subcategory A 22-B
Alt. VII
Itemized Cost Summary For Subcategory A 22-B
Alt. VIII
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 22-B
Alt. IX
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 23
Alt. II
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 23
Alt. Ill
PAGE
1079
1080
1083
1084
1087
1088
1091
1092
1094
1096
1098
1100
1102
1103
1106
1107
LXI
-------
DRAFT
NUMBER
312
313
314
315
316
317
318
319
320
321
322
323
324
325
326
327
TABLES
(CONTINUED)
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 23
Alt. IV
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 24
Alt. II
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 23
Alt. Ill
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 24
Alt. IV
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 24
Alt. V
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 24
Alt. VI
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 24
Alt. VII
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 24
Alt. VIII
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 24
Alt. IX
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 25-A
Alt. II
Itemized Cost Summary For Subcategory A 25^-A
Alt. Ill
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 25-B
Alt. II
Itemized Cost Summary For Subcategory A 25-B
AH. II
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 26
Alt. II
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 26
Alt. Ill
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 26
Alt. IV
PAGE
1.110
1113
1114
1116
1118
1120
1121
1124
1125
1128
1129
1131
1132
1134
1135
1137
LXII
-------
DRAFT
NUMBER
328
329
330
331
332
333
334
335
336
337
338
339
340
341
342
343
TABLES
(CONTINUED)
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 26
Alt. V
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 26
Alt. VI
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 26
Alt. VII
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 27
Alt. II
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 27
Alt. HI
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 27
Alt. IV
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 27
Alt, V
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 27
Alt. VI
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 27
Alt. VII
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 28
Alt. I
Itemized Cost Summary For Subcategory A 28
Alt. II
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 28
Alt. Ill
Itemized Cost Summary For Subcateqory A 28
AH. IV
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 28
Alt. V
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcateqory A 28
AH. VI y
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 28
AH. VII
PAGE
1139
1141
1142
1145
1146
1149
1150
1152
1154
1156
1158
1159
1160
1162
1163
1164
LXIII
-------
DftAPT
NUMBER
344
345
346
347
348
349
350
351
352
353
354
355
356
357
358
359
TABLES
(CONTINUED)
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 28
Alt. VIII
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 28
Alt. IX
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 28
Alt. X
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 28
Alt. XI
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 28
Alt. XII
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 28
Alt. XIII
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 30
AH. II
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 30
Alt. HI
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 30
AH. IV
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 30
Alt. V '
Itemized Cost Summary For Subcategory A 30
Alt. VI
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 30
AH. VII
Itemized Cost Summary For Subcategory A 30
AH. VIII
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory C 8
Alt. II
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory C 8
Alt. Ill
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory C 8
AH. IV
PAGE
1155
1167
1169
1171
1174
1176
1178
1179
1180
1182
1184
1186
1189
1190
1192
1194
LXIV
-------
DRAFT
NUMBER
360
361
362
363
364
365
366
367
368
369
370
371
372
373
374
375
TABLES
(CONTINUED)
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory C 8
Alt. V
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory C 9
Alt. II
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory C 9
Alt. Ill
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory C 10
Alt. II
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory C 10
Alt. Ill
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory C 10
Alt. IV
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory C 1
AH. II
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory C 1
Alt. Ill
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory C 1
Alt. IV
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory C 2
Alt. II
Itemized Cost 'Summary For Subcategory C 2
Alt: HI
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory C 2
Alt. IV
Itemized Cost Summary For Subcategory C 2
Alt. V
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory C 2
Alt. VI
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory C 2
Alt. VII
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory C 2
Alt. VIII
PAGE
1195
1198
1199
1202
1204
1205
1208
1209
1210
1213
1215
1216
1217
1220
1222
1223
LXV
-------
DRAFT
TABLES
(CONTINUED)
NUMBER PAGE
376 Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory C 3
Alt. II 1226
377 Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory C 3
Alt. Ill 1228
378 Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory C 3
Alt. IV 1230
379 Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory C 7
Alt. II 1232
380 Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory C 7
Alt. HI 1233
381 Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory C 7
AH. IV 1234
382 Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory C 7
AH. V 1237
383 Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory C 7
AH. VI 1238
384 Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory D 1
AH. II 1241
385 Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory D 1
Alt. Ill 1242
386 Itemized Cost Summary For Subcategory D 1
AH. IV 1244
387 Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory D 1
AH. V 1245
388 Itemized Cost Summary For Subcategory D 1
Alt. VI 1247
389 Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory D 2
Alt. II 1250
390 Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory D 2
AH. Ill • 1251
391 Itemized Cost Surrjnary for Subcategory D 2
Alt. IV 1253
LXVI
-------
DRAFT
NUMBER
392
393
394
395
396
397
398
399
400
401
402
403
404
405
406
407
TABLES
(CONTINUED)
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcatcgory D 2
AH. V
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory D 2
Alt. VI
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory D 2
Alt. VII
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory D 3
Alt. II
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory D 3
Alt. HI
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory D 3
Alt. IV
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory D 3
Alt. V
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory D 3
Alt. VI
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory D 3
AH. VII
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory D 5
AH. II
Itemized Cost Summary For Subcategory D 5
AH. Ill .
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory D 5
AH. IV
Itemized Cost Summary For Subcategory D 5
AH. V
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcatogory D 5
Alt. VI
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory D 5
Alt. VII
Itemized Cost Suraiary for Subcategory D 5
AH. VIII
PAGE
1254
1256
1259
1261
1263
1264
1265
1268
1270
1273
1274
1275
1277
1278
1279
1282
LXVII
-------
DRAFT
NUMBER
408
409
410
411
412
413
414
415
416
417
418
419
420
421
422
423
TABLES
(CONTINUED)
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory D 6
AH. II
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory D 6
Alt. HI
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory D 6
Alt. IV
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory D 6
Alt. V
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory D 6
Alt. VI
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory D 6
AH. VII
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory D 6
AH. VIII
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory B 5
AH. II
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory B 5
AH. Ill
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory B 5
AH. IV
Itemized Cost Summary For Subcategory B 6
AH. II
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory B 6
AH. HI
Itemized Cost Summary For Subcategory B 6
AH. IV
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory B 6
AH. V
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory B 7
AH. II
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory B 7
AH. Ill
PAGE
1284
1285
1286
1288
1289
1290
1293
1296
1298
1299
1302
1303
1304
1306
1309
1310
LXVIII
-------
DRAFT
NUMBER
424
425
426
427
428
429
430
431
432
433
434
435
436
437
438
439
TABLES
(CONTINUED)
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcatogory B 7
AH. IV
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory B 8
Alt. II
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory B 8
Alt. HI
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory B 8
Alt. IV
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 29
Alt. II
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 29
Alt. HI
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 29
Alt. IV
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 29
Alt. V
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 29
Alt. VI
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 29
Alt. VII
Itemized Cost Summary For Subcategory A 29
Alt. VIII
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 29
AH. IX
Itemized Cost Summary For Subcategory A 29
AH. X
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 29
AH. XI
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 31
AH. I
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 31
AH. II
PAGE
1311
1314
1315
1317
1319
1321
1322
1323
1325
1326
1327
1329
1331
1333
1336
1337
LXIX
-------
DRAFT
NUMBER
440
441
442
443
444
445
446
447
448
449
450
451
452
453
454
455
TABLES
(CONTINUED)
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 31
Alt. Ill
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 31
Alt. IV
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 31
AH. V
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 31
Alt. VI
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 31
Alt. VII
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 32
Alt. I
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 32
Alt. II
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 32
Alt. Ill
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 32
Alt. IV
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 32
AH. V
Itemized Cost Summary For Subcategory A 33
Alt. II
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 33
AH. Ill
Itemized Cost Summary For Subcateqory A 33
AH. IV
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 33
Alt. V
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcateqory A 33
AH. VI
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcateqory A33
AH. VII
PAGE
1339
1340
1341
1344
1346
1349
1350
1352
1353
1355
1358
1360
1361
1363
1365
1366
LXX
-------
DRAFT
NUMBER
456
457
458
459
460
461
462
463
464
465
466
467
468
469
470
471
TABUS
(CONTINUED)
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 33
Alt. VIII
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 33
Alt. IX
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 33
Alt. X
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 33
Alt. XI
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 33
Alt. XII
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 33
AH. XIII
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 33
Alt. XIV
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 33
Alt. XV
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 33
Alt. XVI
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 33
AH. XVII
Itemized Cost Summary For Subcategory A 33
AH. XVIII
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 33
AH. XIX
Itemized Cost Summary For Subcategory A 33
AH. XX
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 34
AH. II
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 34
AH. Ill
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcatogory A 35
AH. II
PAGE
1368
1370
1371
1373
1375
1377
1378
1380
1381
1383
1385
1386
1388
1390
1391
'1393
LXXI
-------
DRAFT
NUMBER
472
473
474
475
476
477
478
479
480
481
482
483
484
485
486
487
TABUS
(COIITIHUED)
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcatcgory A 35
AH. Ill
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 36
Alt. II
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 36
Alt. HI
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 36
Alt. IV
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 36
Alt. V
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 36
AH. VI
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 36
Alt. VII
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 36
AH. VIII
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 36
AH. IX
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory A 36
Alt. X
Itemized Cost Summary For Subcategory B 1
AH. II
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory B 1
AH. Ill
Itemized Cost Summary For Subcategory B 1
AH. IV
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcatogory B 2
AH. II
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory B 2
AH. Ill
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory B 2
AH. IV
PAGE
1395
1396
1398
1399
1400
1402
1403
1405
1408
1410
1413
1414
1415
1418
1420
1421
LXXII
-------
DRAFT
NUMBER
488
489
490
491
492
493
494
495
496
497
498
499
500
501
502
503
TABLES
(CONTINUED)
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory B 3
AH. II
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory B 3
AH. Ill
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory B 3
AH. IV
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory B 4
AH. II
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory B 4
AH. HI
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory B 9
AH. II
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory B 9
AH. HI
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory C 4
AH. II
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory C 4
AH. Ill
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory C 4
AH. IV
Itemized Cost Summary For Subcategory C 4
Alt. V
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory C 5
AH. II
Itemized Cost Summary For Subcategory C 5
AH. HI
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcatcgory C 5
AH. IV
Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory C 5
AH. V
Itemized Cost Sunsnary for Subcategory C 12
Alt. II
PAGE
1424
1425
1426
1429
1431
1433
1435
1437
1439
1441
1442
1445
1446
1449
1450
1453
LXXIII
-------
DRAFT
TABLES
(CONTINUED)
NUMBER PAGE
504 Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory D 4
AH. II 1454
505 Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory D 4
Alt. Ill 1456
506 Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory D 4
Alt. IV 1457.
507 Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory D 4
Alt. V 1458
508 Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory D 4
Alt. VI 1460
509 Itemized Cost Summary for Subcategory D 4
Alt. VII 1462
510 Yearly Electrical Use and Cost Associated
With Alternative Treatment Designs 1465
511 Recommended Effluent Limitations Guidelines (BPCTCA)
For Vegetable Oil Processing and Refining 1477
512 Recommended Effluent Limitations Guidelines (BPCTCA)
For Beverages 1478
513 Recommended Effluent Limitations Guidelines (BPCTCA)
For Bakery and Confectionery Products 1479
514 Recommended Effluent Limitations Guidelines (BPCTCA)
For Pet Foods 1480
515 Recommended Effluent Limitations Guidelines (BPCTCA)
For Miscellaneous and Specialty Products 1481
516 Summary of Investment and Yearly Costs For Treatment
Alternatives (BPCTCA) 1486
517 Recommended Effluent Limitations Guidelines (BATEA)
For Vegetable Oil Processing and Refining 1491
518 Recommended Effluent Limitations Guidelines (BATEA)
For Beverages 1492
519 Recommended Effluent Limitations Guidelines (BATEA)
For Bakery and Confectionery Products 1494
LXXIV
-------
DRAFT
TABLE OF CONTENTS
(CONTINUED)
SECTION PAGE
520 Recommended Effluent Limitations Guidelines (BATEA)
For Pet Food 1495
521 Recommended Effluent Limitations Guidelines (BATEA)
For Miscellaneous and Specialty Products 1496
522 Summary of Investment and Yearly Costs for Treatment
Alternatives (BATEA) 1498
LXXV
-------
SECTION I
CONCLUSIONS
For the purpose of developing recommended Effluent Limitations Guide-
lines, this study subcategorizes the industry as follows:
VEGETABLE OIL PROCESSING AND REFINING
Al Establishments primarily engaged in the production of
unrefined vegetable oils and by-product cake and meal
from soybeans, cottonseed, flaxseed, peanuts, safflower
seed, sesame seed, sunflower seed by mechanical screw
press operations.
A2 Establishments primarily engaged in the production of
unrefined vegetable oils and by-product cake and meal
from soybeans, cottonseed, flaxseed, peanuts, safflower
seed, sesame seed, sunflower seed by direct solvent
extraction or prepress solvent extraction techniques.
A3 Establishments primarily engaged in the production of
olive oil and by-product cake or meal from raw olives
by hydraulic press and solvent extraction methods.
A4 Establishments primarily engaged in the production of
olive oil and by-product cake or meal from raw olives
by mechanical screw press methods.
A5 Establishments primarily engaged in the processing of
edible oils by the use of caustic refining methods
only.
A6 Establishments primarily engaged in the processing of
edible oils by the use of caustic refining and acidu-
lation refining methods.
A7 Establishments primarily engaged in the processing of
edible oils utilizing the following refining methods:
caustic refining, acidulation, bleaching, deodorization,
winterizing, and hydrogenation.
A8 Establishments primarily engaged in the processing of
edible oils utilizing the following refining methods:
caustic refining, bleaching, deodorization, winterizing,
and hydrogenation.
NOTICE: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
-------
A9 Establishments primarily engaged in the processing of
edible oils utilizing the following refining methods:
caustic refining, acidulation, bleaching, deodorization,
and the production of shortening and table oils.
A10 Establishments primarily engaged in the processing
of edible oils utilizing the following refinery
methods: caustic refining, bleaching, deodorization,
winterizing, hydrogenation, and the plasticizing and
packaging of shortening and table oils.
All Establishments primarily engaged in the processing of
edible oils utilizing the following refining methods:
caustic refining, acidulation, bleaching, deodorization,
winterizing, hydrogenation, and the plasticizing and
packaging of shortening, table oils, and margarine.
A12 Establishments primarily engaged in the processing of
edible oils utilizing the following refining methods:
caustic refining, bleaching, deodorization, winterizing,
hydrogenation, and the plasticizing and packaging of
shortening, table oils, and margarine.
A13 Establishments primarily engaged in the processing of
edible oils into margarine.
A14 Establishments primarily engaged in the processing of
edible oils into shortening and table oils.
A15 Establishments primarily engaged in the refining of
olive oil.
BEVERAGES
A16 Production of malt beverages by breweries constructed
since January 1, 1950,and with a production capacity
in excess of 800 cubic meters per day. In addition,
this subcategory includes plant 82A16.
A17 Production of malt beverages by breweries constructed
before January 1, 1900,and with a production capacity
in excess of 2000 cubic meters per day.
A18 Production of malt beverages by breweries not included
in subcategories A16 and A17.
A19 Installations primarily engaged in the production of
malt and malt by-products.
A20 Wineries primarily engaged in the production of wine,
brandy, or brandy spirits, and not operating stills.
NOTICE: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
-------
A21 Wineries primarily engaged in the production of wine,
brandy, or brandy spirits, and operating stills.
A22 Distilleries primarily engaged in the production of
beverage alcohol from grains and operating stillage
recovery systems.
A23 Distilleries primarily engaged in the production of
beverage alcohol from grains and not operating stillage
recovery systems.
A24 Distilleries primarily engaged in the production of
beverage alcohol by distillation of molasses.
A25 Installations primarily engaged in the blending and
bottling of purchased wines of spirits.
A26 Installations primarily engaged in the production of
soft drinks; and which package exclusively in cans.
A27 Installations primarily engaged in the production of
soft drinks; and which are not included in Subcategory A26.
A28 Installations primarily engaged in the production of
beverage base syrups, all types
A30 Installations primarily engaged in the production of
instant tea.
C8 Installations primarily engaged in the production of
roasted coffee.
C9 Installations primarily engaged in the decaffeination
of coffee.
CIO Installations primarily engaged in the production of
soluble coffee.
Fl Installations primarily engaged in the blending of tea.
BAKERY AND CONFECTIONERY PRODUCTS
Cl Production of cakes, pies, doughnuts, or sweet yeast
goods, separately or in any combination, by facilities
using pan washing.
C2 Production of cakes, pies, doughnuts, or sweet yeast
goods separately or in any combination by facilities
not using pan washing.
NOTICE: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
-------
C3 Installations primarily engaged in the production of
bread related products
C7 Installations primarily engaged in the production of
cookies or crackers separately or in any combination.
CIS Installations primarily engaged in the production of
bread and buns in any combination.
C14 Installations primarily engaged in the production of
bread and snack items, in any combination.
Dl Installations primarily engaged in the production of
candy or confectionery products separately or in any
combination, except glazed fruits.
D2 Installations primarily engaged in the production of
chewing gum.
D3 Installations primarily engaged in the production of
chewing gum base.
D5 Installations primarily engaged in the production of
milk chocolate with condensory processing.
D6 Installations primarily engaged in the production of
milk chocolate without condensory processing.
PET FOODS
B5 Installations primarily engaged in the production of
canned pet food, low meat.
B6 Installations primarily engaged in the production of
canned pet food, high meat.
B7 Installations primarily engaged in the production of
pet food, dry.
B8 Installations primarily engaged in the production of
pet food, soft moist.
MISCELLANEOUS AND SPECIALTY PRODUCTS
A29 Installations primarily engaged in the production of
flavorings, or extracts, separately or in any combination,
A31 Installations primarily engaged in the production of
bouillon products.
NOTICE: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
-------
DRAFT
A32 Installations primarily engaged in the production of
non-dairy creamer.
A33 Installations primarily engaged in the production of
yeast and by-product molasses, if recovered.
A34 The production of peanut butter by facilities using
jar washing.
A35 The production of peanut butter by facilities not
using jar washing.
A36 Installations primarily engaged in the production of
pectin and peel by-products, if recovered.
A37 Installations primarily engaged in the production of
almond paste.
Bl Installations primarily engaged in the production of
frozen prepared dinners.
B2 Installations primarily engaged in the production of
frozen breaded or battered specialty items, separately
or in any combination.
B3 Installations primarily engaged in the production of
frozen bakery products.
B4 Installations primarily engaged in the production of
tomato-cheese-starch products.
B9 Installations primarily engaged in the production of
chili pepper and paparika, in combination.
C4 Installations primarily engaged in the processing of
eggs.
C5 Installations primarily engaged in the production of
shell eggs.
C6 Installations primarily engaged in the production of
manufactured ice.
C12 Installations primarily engaged in the production of
prepared sandwiches.
D5 Installations primarily engaged in the production of
vinegar.
NOTICE: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
-------
El Installations primarily engaged in the production of
molasses, honey, glazed fruit, or syrups, separately
or in any combination.
E2 Installations primarily engaged in the production of
popcorn.
E3 Installations primarily engaged in the production of
ready-mix desserts or gelatin desserts, separately
or in any combination.
E4 Installations primarily engaged in the production of
spices.
E5 Installations primarily engaged in the production of
dehydrated soup.
E6 Installations primarily engaged in the production of
macaroni, spaghetti, vermicelli, or noodles, separately
or in any combination.
F2 Installations primarily engaged in the production of
baking powder.
F3 Installations primarily engaged in the production of
chicory.
F4 Installations primarily engaged in the production of
bread crumbs.
The main criteria for subcategorization include differences in wastewater
characteristics, treatability, and cost of treatment due to process vari-
ations, raw material variations, and plant size and age. It is concluded
that no further subcategorization of the industry is necessary. Factors
such as climatic variations and by-product variations, while contribu-
ting to the subcategorization as secondary influences, are not in them-
selves justification for further subcategorization.
Wastewater parameters of major significance for the industry include
organics; suspended solids; and fats, oils, and greases. Minor param-
eters include pH, nickel, alkalinity, total dissolved solids, nutrients
(forms of nitrogen and phosphorus),col or, chlorides, and temperature.
These parameters can be adequately controlled by the control of BOD;
suspended solids; fats, oils, and grease; and nickel.
It was determined that the Best Practicable Control Technology (BPCT)
Currently Available for the Miscellaneous Foods and Beverages Industry
is in most cases the equivalent of secondary biological treatment; that
the Best Available Technology Economically Available (BATEA) is in most
cases the equivalent of tertiary treatment; and that the technology
available for new sources is in most cases the technology for BATEA.
NOTICE: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
-------
DRAFT
SECTION II
RECOMMENDATIONS
It is recommended that the effluent limitations to be applied as the
Best Practicable Control Technology Currently Available (BPCTCA) which
must be achieved by existing point sources by July 1, 1977; the Best
Available Technology Economically Achievable (BATEA) which must be
achieved by existing point sources by July 1, 1983; and the Standards
of Performance for New Sources (NSPS) be as listed in Table 1 (a).
The values for Subcategories A 1 through A 12, A 19, A 22, A 23, B 9,
C4,C5,C8,C9, and C 10 are in terms of kilograms of pollutant
per metric ton of raw material; Subcategories A 16, A 17, A 18, A 26,
A 27, A 28, and A 29 are in terms of kilograms of pollutant per cubic
meter of finished product; Subcategory A 24 is in terms of kilograms
of pollutant per thousand proof gallon of spirits produced; Subcategories
A 20 and A 21 are in terms of kilograms of pollutant per metric ton of
grapes crushed during crushing and in terms of kilograms of pollutant
per cubic meter of wine produced during processing; and all other sub-
categories in terms of kilograms of pollutant per metric ton of finished
product. To convert kg/kkg to Ib/ton, multiply by 0.5; to convert
kg/cu m to Ib/gal, multiply by 0.008346; and to convert kg/thousand
proof gallon to Ib/thousand proof gallon, multiply by 2.205.
It is further recommended that for all cases in which discharge of
wastewaters is allowed, the pH of the wastewaters be required to be
in the range of 6.0 to 9.0; that no visable floating oil and grease
be allowed; and, for Subcategories A 7-12, a concentration of nickel
no greater than 0.02 mg/1 be allowed.
NOTICE: THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON
INFORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA.
7
-------
TABLE 1A
RECOMMENDED EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS
GUIDELINES
-a
O -n
z p
o :
o
m o —I
co
i co
00
m — i 3=.
o :r 73
m I-H m
i— i co
< —I
m 73 m
o m z
T3 -i
D>0 >
Z 73 -H
73 O 73
-I m
a: la o
m 73 o
73 m 2
i— i co m
z c: z
— t CO C3
rn c_, 3>
73 m — I
z o *-<
3> — I O
i— z
—I co
73 O
m DO
<= o 3>
i— i 3: co
m j» m
s: z o
«D
co m c=
-< -o
oo o
m S» z
-o co
j» m
BOD
SUBCATEGORY
BPCTCA
Al BATEA -
NSPS
BPCTCA
A2 BATEA
NSPS
BPCTCA
A3 BATEA
NSPS
BPCTCA '
A4 BATEA
NSPS
BPCTCA
A5 BATEA
NSPS
BPCTCA
A6 BATEA
. NSPS
BPCTCA
A7 BATEA
NSPS
BPCTCA
A8 BATEA
NSPS
BPCTCA
A9 BATEA
NSPS
BPCTCA
AM BATEA
NSPS
SS
0 & G
Max. Max. Max.
30-Day Max. 30-Day Max. 30-Day
Ave. Day Ave. Day Ave.
(VEGETABLE OIL PROCESSING AND REFINING)
0.0072 0.018 0.0090 0.023 0.0054
0.0036 0.090 0.0045 0.011 0.0027 -
0.0072 0.018 0.0090 0.023 0.0054
.0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.035
0.021
0.035
0.067
0.035
0.067
0.13
0.076
0.13
0.10
0.051
0.10
0.13
0.073
0.13
0.097
0.048
0.097
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.087
0.052
0.087
0.17
0.087
0.17
0.32 ~
0.19
0.32
0.26
0.137
0.26
0.33
0.18
0.33
0.24
0.12
0.24
0.0
0.0
0.0
OvO
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.035
0.017
0.035
0.061
0.030
0.061
0.13
0.063
0.13
0.10
0.051
0.10
0.13
0.073
0.13
0.11
0.056
0.11
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.087
0.043
0.087
0.15
0.075
0.15
0.32
0.16
0.32
0.26
0.137
0.26
0.33
0.18
0.33
0.27
0.14
0.27
0.0
0.0
0.0 .
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0 •
0.0
0.0
0.014
0.0070
0.014
0.023
0.012
0.023
0.051
0.025
0.051
0.041
0.020
0.041
0.058
0.029
0.058
0.048
0.024
0.048
Max.
Day
0.014
0.0070
0.014
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.035
0.017
0.035
0.057
0.030
0.057
0.13
0.062
0.13
0.10
0.050
0.10
0.14
0.073
0,14
0.12
0.060
0.12
SUBCATEGORY
BPCTCA
Al 1 BATEA
NSPS
BPCTCA
A12 BATEA
NSPS
BPCTCA
A13 BATEA
NSPS
BPCTCA
A14 BATEA
NSPS
BPCTCA
A15 BATEA
NSPS
BPCTCA
A16 BATEA
NSPS
BPCTCA
A17 BATEA
NSPS
BPCTCA
A18 BATEA
NSPS
BPCTCA
A19 BATEA
NSPS
BOD •
Max.
. 30-Day
Ave.
0.16
0.076
0.16
0.12
0.060
0.12
0.060
0.030
0.060
0.015
0.0080
0.015
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.28
0.14
0.070
0.55
0.27
NA
0.48
0.24
NA
0.22
0.11
0.11
Max.
Day
0.39
0.19
0.39
0.30
0.15
0.30
0.15
0.075
0.15
0.037
0.020
0.037
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.70
0.35
0.17
1.37
0.67
NA
1.20
0.60
NA
0.55
0.27
0.27
SS
Max.
30-Day
Ave.
0.17
0.087
0.17
0.14
0.072
0.14
0.075
0.037
0.075
0.015
0.0080
0.015
0.0
0.0
0.0
(BEVERAGES)
0.39
0.19
0.097
0.76
0.38
NA
0.68
0.34
NA
0.13
0.065
0.065
0 & G
Max.
Day
0.44
0.22
0.44
0.36
0.18
0.36
0.19
0.092
0.19
0.037
0.02
0.037
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.97
0.48
0.24
1.90
0.95
NA
1.70
0.85
NA
0.32
0.16
0.16
Max.
30-Day
Ave.
0.069
0.035 .
0.059
0.060
0.030
0.060
0.075
0.037
0.075
0.0080
0.0040
0.0080
0.0
0.0
0.0
-
-
-
Max.
Day
0.17
0.087
0.17
0.15^
0.075
0.15
0.19
0.092
0.19
0.024
0.012
0.024
0.0
0.0
0.0
:"
-
-
-------
TABLE 1A (CONT'D)
RECOMMENDED EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS
GUIDELINES
vo
-o
o -n
z o
73
m o — i
•z. -z. ic
—I m
oo i— i co
c-> i xi
m HH m
1-1 co
< —i
m ?o m
o m z
-a -H
3> o :e>
z x) — i
o — i •— i
<=
~n J» m
o
o
i— i co m
z c z
— i co o
m c-i >
po m -H
Z O i— i
3a — I O
r- z
—I CO
73 O
m co
< o 3=
i— i n: co
m js m
s: z o
en m c:
-< -o
oo o
m > z
-o co
3> m
• o
BOD
SUBCATEGORY
BPCTCA
Dl BATEA
NSPS
BPCTCA
D2 BATEA
NSPS
BPCTCA
03 BATEA
NSPS
BPCTCA
05 BATEA
NSPS
BPCTCA
D6 BATEA
NSPS
BPCTCA
B5 BATEA
NSPS
BPCTCA
B6 BATEA
NSPS
BPCTCA.
B7 BATEA
NSPS
Max.
30- Day
Ave.
0.15
0.075
0.075
0.12
0.080
0.080
0.085
0.030
0.030
0.37
0.075
0.075
0.23
0.045
0.045
0.18
0.09
0.09
0.51
0.26
0.26
0.0046
0.0023
0.0023
Max.
Day
0.45
0.22
0.22
0.36
0.24
0.24
0.24
0.090
0.090
1.1
0.22
0.22
0.69
0.13
0.13
(PET
0.45
0.23
0.23
1.28
0.64
0.64
0.012
0.0060
0.0060
SS
Max.
30- Day
Ave.
0.075
0.040
0.040
0.090
0.015
0.045
0.085
0.035
0.035
0.25
0.035
0.035
0.23
0.05
0.06
FOODS)
0.18
0.09
0.09
0.51
0.26
0.26
0.0046
0.0023
0.0023
Max.
Day
0.22
0.12
0.12
0.27
0.13
0.13
0.24
0.10
0.10
0.75
0.10
0.10
0.69
0.18
0.18
0.45
0.23
0.23
1.28
0.64
0.64
0.012
0.0060
0.0060
0 &
Max.
30- Day
Ave.
-
-
-
0.070
0.010
0.010
0.11
0.010
0.010
0.065
0.033
0.033
0.51
0.26
0.26
0.0031
0.0016
0.0016
G
Max.
Day SUBCATEGORY
BPCTCA
B8 BATEA
NSPS
BPCTCA
A29 BATEA
NSPS
BPCTCA
0.21 A31 BATEA
0.03 NSPS
0.03 BPCTCA
0.33 " A32 BATEA
0.03 NSPS
0.03 BPCTCA
A33 BATEA
NSPS
BPCTCA
0.17 A34 BATEA
0.085 NSPS
0.085 PCTCA
1.28 A3b BATEA
0.64 NSPS
0.64 BPCTCA
0.0080 A3b BAJEA
0.0040 NSPS
0.0040
BOD
Max.
30-Day Max.
Ave. Day
0.18 0.45
0.090 0.23
0.090 0.23
(MISCELLANEOUS
0.041 0.10
0.02. -0.05
0.012 0.03
2.34 5.85
1.09 2.73
1.09 2.73
0.025 0.063
0.106 0.265
0.106 0.265
3.23 6.46
1.62 3.24
1,62 3.24
0.0 0.0
0.0 0.0
0.0 0.0
0.0 0.0
0.0 0.0
0.0 0.0
208 417
104 209
104 209
SS
Max.
30-Day
Ave.
0.18
0.090
0.090
AND SPECIAl
0.012
0.0062
0.0040
0.63
0.31
0.31
0.071
0.014
0.014
1.62
0.81
0.81
0.0
0.0
0.0 •
0.0
0.0
.0.0 '•'.
175.1
83.4
83.4
Max.
Day
0.45
0.23
0.23
.ITY PROC
0.030
0.016
0.010
1.58
0.76
0.78
0.18
0.035
0.035
3.24
1.62
1.62
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
• 0.0
0.0
350
167
167
0 &
Max.
30-Day
Ave.
0.028
0.014
0.014
IUCTS)
0.63
0.31
0.31
0.043
0.014
0.014
-
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
-
G
Max.
Day
0.075
0.038
0.038
1.26
0.62
0.62
0.086
0.028
0.026
-
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
-
-------
TABLE 1A (CONT'D)
RECOMMENDED EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS
GUIDELINES
o -n
z o
O
O
O
m o — I
z z :c
—I m
00 >-i 00
z m
m — I n»
o 3C po
m HH m
i— i 00
< -H
m 73 m
o m z
-o —I
Ja O D>
Z 73 -H
O -1 1-1
TI 3> m
c: z
z > o
m 73 o
;o m 2
-H co o
m c_i >
70 m —I
z o H-I
3> —I o
(— z
-H oo
70 O
m oo
< O 3>
i—i 3: oo
m j» m
Ł Z O
CTJ
oo m c
-< -o
oo o
m 3» z
-o oo
BOD
SUBCATEGORY
*A20 BPCTCA
BATEA
NSPS
BPCTCA
*A20 BATEA
NSPS
BPCTCA
A21 BATEA
NSPS
BPCTCA
A22 BATEA
NSPS
BPCTCA
A23 BATEA
NSPS
BPCTCA
A24 BATEA
NSPS
BPCTCA
A25 BATEA
NSPS
BPCTCA
A26 BATEA
NSPS
PCTCA
A27 BATEA
NSPS
BPCTCA '
A28 BATEA
NSPS
Max.
30-Day
Ave.
0.77
0.38
0.23
0.28
0.14
0.083
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.26
0.13
0 13
0.054
0.027
0.027
1.2
0.58
0.58
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.052
0.026
0.026
0.24
0.12
0.12
0.0050
0.0025
0.0025
Max.
Day.
2.30
1.10
0.69
0.83
0.41
0.25
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.65
0.32
0.32
0.14
0.62
0.62
3.0
1.5
1.5
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.13
0.065
0.065
0.60
0.30
0.30
0.013
0.0063
0.0063
SS
Max.
30-Day
Ave.
0.11
0.054
0.031
0.41
0.19
0.11
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.32
0.16
0.16
0.072
0.036
0.036
0.69
0.35
0.35
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.030
0.015
0.015
0.14
0.070
0.070
0.0010
0.00050
0.0005
0
Max.
Max. 30-Day
Day Ave.
0.34
0.16
0.093
1.20
0.58
0.33
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.80
0.40
0.40
0.18
0.090
0.090
1.7
0.86
0.86
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.075
0.037
0.037
0.35
0.17
0.17
0.0025
0.0013
0.0013
& G
Max.
Day SUBCATEGORY
BPCTCA
A30 BATEA
NSPS
BPCTCA
C8 BATEA
NSPS
_ BPCTcA
C9 BATEA
NSPS
~ BPCTCA
CIO BATEA
NSPS
— — DKLIUA
FT BATEA
NSPS
- ~ BPCTCA
Cl BATEA
NSPS
— ^— brLILA
C2 BATEA
NSPS
. M T BPCTCA
C3 BATEA
NSPS
^— BrLTCA
C7 BATEA
NSPS
BOD
Max.
30-Day
Ave.
2.00
1.0
1.0
0.070
0.030
0.030
0.19
0.10
0.10
0.95
0.25
0.25
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.50
0.25
0.25
U.ObU
0.030
0.030
0.060
0.030
0.030
0.10
0.050
0.050
Max. i
Day_
5.0
2.5
2.5
0.21
0.09
0.09
0.48
0.25
0.25
2.4
0.60
0.60
.0
0.0
0.0
(BAKERY AND
1.3
0.65
0.65
. Ib
0.090
0.090
0.18 '
0.090
0.090
0.25
0.13
0.13
.SS
Max.
30-Day
Ave.
5.5
1.0
1 .0
0.070
0.030
0.030
0.19
0.10
0.10
0.95
0.25
0.25
0 fl n
Max.
Day
13.0
2.5
2.5
0.21
0.09
0.09
0.48
0.25
0.25
- 2.4
0.60
0.60
Max.
30-Day
Ave.
0.040
0.020
0.020
0.10
0.05
0.05
0.16
0.16
0.16
.0 u.u u.u
0.0 0.0 0.0
0.0 0.0 0.0
CONFECTIONERY PRODUCTS)
0.50 1.3 0.11
0.25 0.65 0.04
0.25 0.65 0.04
.05
0.03
0.03
0.060
0.030
0.030
. 10
0.050
0.050
U. ID
0.09
0.09
0.18
0.090
0.090
.25
0.13
0.13
U.UJU
0.020
0.020
0.040
0.020
0.020
0.050
0.030
0.030
Max.
Day
0.12
0.06
0.06
0.25
0.13
0.13
0.40
0.40
0.40
.0
0.0
0.0
0.28
0.10
0.10
0.090
0.060
0.060
0.12
0.060
0.060
o.'n
0.080
0.080
* Crushing Season
** Processing Season
-------
TABLE 1A (CONT'D)
RECOMMENDED EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS
GUIDELINES
13
o :
o;
O
m
m o -H
—I m
oo i—i oo
•z. m
m —i >
o a: TO
m i-i m
HH OO
<= —I
m 73 m
o m z.
-a —I
>o>
•Z. 73 —I
a —i >-•
~n ?> m
c: z.
73 0 73
-\ m
3C 3> O
m jo o
73 m 2
i—i oo m
•z. <=. z
—I 00 O
m c-i 3>
TO m —I
Z. O HH
3> —I O
i— z.
—I 00
300
m oo
-c o 3»
>-H :n oo
m :c» m
•Ł. -z. a
Ł75
oo m cz
-< -o
oo o
m 3> z.
-o oo
3» m
BOD
SUBCATEGORY
B1 BPCTCA
BATEA
NSPS
B2
B3
B4
B9
C4
C5
C12
D4
BPCTCA
BATEA
NSPS
BPCTCA
BATEA
NSPS
BPCtCA
BATEA
NSPS
BPCTCA
BATEA
NSPS
BPCTCA
BATEA
NSPS
BPCTCA
BATEA
NSPS
BPCTCA
BATEA
NSPS
BPCTCA
BATEA
NSPS •
Max.
30-Day
Ave.
0.78
0.39
0.39
0.81
0.41
0.41
1.1
0.54
0.54
2.4
1.2
1.2
0.65
0.33
0.33
1.3
0.21
0.21
0.080
0.030
0.030
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.060
0.040
0.040
Max.
Day
1.95
0.98
0.98
2.0
1.0
1.0
2.7
1.3
1.3
5.9
3.0
3.0
1.6
0.8
0.8
3.9
0.63
0.63
0.24
0.090
0.090
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.18
0.12
0.12
SS
Max.
30-Day
Ave.
0.78
0.39
0.39
0.81
0.41
0.41
1.1
0.54
0.54
2.4
1.2
1.2
0.65
0.33
0.33
1.3
0.21
0.21
0.080
0.030
0.030
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.030
0.020
0.020
Max.
Day
2.0
0.98
0.98
2.
1.
1.
2.
1.
1.
b.
3.
3.
1.
0.
0.
3.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0
0
0
7
3
3
94
0
0
6
8
8
9
63
63
24
090
090
0
0
0
090
060
060
0 & G
Max.
30-Day
Ave.
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
u
0
0
1
0
0
u
0
0
0
0
0
.29
!l5
.23
.12
.12
.46
.23
.23
.59
.80
.80
.43
.22
.22
.3
.07
.07
.020
.010
.010
.0
.0
.0
-
M
D
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
4
2
2
1
0
0
U
0
0
u
0
0
0
0
0
BOD
"Max.
ax. 30-Day
ay SUBCATEGORY Ave.
.73 BPCTCA 0.0
•37 El -6 BATEA 0.0
•37 NSPS 0.0
•57 BPCTCA 0.0
•29 F2-4 BATEA 0.0
•29 NSPS n.O
!57
.57
.0
.0
.0
.1
.54
.54
.39
.21
.21
.066
.030
.030
.0
.0
.0
-
SS 0 & G
Max. Max.
Max. 30-Day Max. 30-Day Max.
Day Ave. Day Ave. Day
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
-------
DRAFT
SECTION III
INTRODUCTION
PURPOSE AND AUTHORITY
Section.301(b) of the Act requires the achievement by not later than
July 1, 1977, of effluent limitations for point sources, other than
publicly owned treatment works, which are based on the application of
the best practicable control technology currently available as defined
by the Administrator pursuant to Section 304(b) of the Act. Section 301
(b) also requires the achievement by not later than July 1, 1983, of
effluent limitations for point sources, other than publicly owned
treatment works, which are based on the application of the best available
technology economically achievable which will result in reasonable
further progress towards the national goal of eliminating the discharge
of all pollutants, and which reflect the greatest degree of effluent
reduction which the Administrator determines to be achievable through
the application of the best available demonstrated control technology,
processes, operating methods, or other alternatives, including where
practicable a standard permitting no discharge of pollutants.
Section 304 (b) of the Act requires the Administrator to publish regula-
tions providing guidelines for effluent limitations setting forth the
degree of effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best practicable control technology currently available and the degree
of effluent reduction attainable through the application of the best
control and procedure innovations, operation methods, and other alter-
natives. The regulations proposed herein set forth effluent limitations
guidelines pursuant to Section 304(b) of the Act for the Miscellaneous
Food and Beverages Industry. Section 306 of the Act requires the Admin-
istrator to propose regulations establishing Federal Standards of per-
formances for new sources.
SUMMARY OF METHODS USED FOR DEVELOPMENT OF THE EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS
GUIDELINES
The effluent limitations and standards of performance recommended
in this document were developed in the following manner:
1. An exhaustive review of available literature was conducted.
This included searches at the University of Florida, Oregon
State University, University of Tennessee, University of
California, University of Nebraska, and California State
University libraries; the in-house libraries of Environmental
Science and Engineering, Inc., SCS Engineers, Inc., and
Environmental Associates, Inc.; and the libraries of the
Department of the Interior and the Environmental Protection
11
-------
DRAFT
Agency in Washington. Additional literature was obtained
from the California Wine Institute, the National Association
of Chewing Gum Manufacturers, The William Wrigley, Jr.
Company, and from various individuals throughout the mis-
cellaneous foods and beverages industry. Literature searches
were also conducted through the following Federal systems:
Compendex, Environ/Prog, SWIRS, WRSIC, MTIS/GRA, and SSIE.
A list of references is contained in Section XIII of this
document.
2. Telephone surveys were conducted for 839 plants, and in-
formation concerning production, wastewater characteristics,
and control and treatment technology was obtained. A copy
of the telephone survey form is contained in Appendix A.
3. Information was obtained from questionnaires submitted to
336 plants by various trade associations.
4. On-site inspections were conducted at 264 plants and de-
tailed information concerning process flows, related water
usage, water management practices, and control and treatment
technology was obtained. A copy of the visitation question-
naire form is contained in Appendix B.
5. Sampling programs were conducted at 104 plants to verify the
accumulated data. Sampling procedures were generally con-
ducted in accordance with the methods set forth in the
Handbook For Monitoring Industrial Wastewater ( 1 ).
6. The data base was handled and summarized on a computerized
system. A discussion of the data handling and reduction
system and a detailed explanation of the algorithms used are
presented in Appendix C.
The reviews, analyses, and evaluations were coordinated and applied to
the following:
1. An identification of distinguishing features that could
potentially provide a basis for subcategorization of the
industry. These features included the nature of raw mater-
ials utilized, plant size and age, the nature of processes,
and others as discussed in Section IV.
2. A determination of the water usage and wastewater character-
istics for each subcategory, as discussed in Section V,
including volume of water used, sources of pollution, and
the type and quantity of constituents in the wastewater.
3. An identification of those wastewater constituents, as dis-
cussed in Section VI, which are characteristic of the industry
12
-------
DRAFT
and were determined to be pollutants subject to effluent
limitations guidelines and standards of performance.
4. An identification of the control and treatment technologies
presently employed or capable of being employed by the
industry, as discussed in Section VII, including the effluent
level attainable and associated treatment efficiency related
to each technology.
5. An evaluation of the cost associated with the application
of each control and treatment technology, as discussed in
Section VIII.
This document is the result of intensive data collection and analysis
conducted over a six month period. It is probably the most compre-
hensive coverage of wastewater and wastewater control and treatment
technology existing for the miscellaneous foods and beverages industry.
But it must be noted that the conclusions and recommendations presented
herein are based on the information available to the study, and in many
instances on information made available by industry. The amount of
information available was found to be extensive for several of the sub-
categories defined in Section IV and less extensive for others. In all
cases strong efforts were made to obtain the cooperation of and input
by. industry and other interested parties.
DEFINITION OF THE INDUSTRY
The Miscellaneous Foods and Beverages Industry includes establishments
engaged in the processing of distilled, fermented beverages, nonalcoholic
beverages, confectioner products, vegetable oils, and food preparations.
More specifically, the industry may be defined as that listed in Table 1.
It can be seen that the industry includes an extremely wide range of
products from bagels to beer, from chocolate candy and popcorn balls
to soybean oil. Early in the study several products were eliminated
from further consideration for various reasons. These included the
following:
1. Castor oil and pomace. It was established that castor oil
is not manufactured as a vegetable oil or by-product cake
and meal in the United States.
2. Coconut, oiticica, palm and palm kernel oil. It was estab-
lished that these oils are not .produced in the United States.
3. Tung oil and walnut oil. These oils are neither foods nor
beverages, and no processing plants could be located in the
United States.
13
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DRAFT
TABLE 1
MISCELLANEOUS FOODS AND BEVERAGES INDUSTRY DEFINED BY SIC CODE
SIC 2017 Egg processing
Establishments primarily engaged in the drying, freezing,
and breaking of eggs.
Egg albumen
Eggs: canned, dehydrated, desiccated, frozen, processed
Eggs: drying, freezing, and breaking
SIC 5144 Egg Packing
Establishments primarily engaged in the cleaning, oil
treating, packing, and grading of eggs.
SIC 2034 Dehydrated Soups
SIC 2038 Frozen Specialities
Establishments primarily engaged in freezing and cold pack-
ing (freezing) food specialities, such as frozen dinners and
frozen pizza.
Baked goods, frozen: "Native" foods, frozen
except bread and Pies, frozen
bread-type rolls Pizza, frozen
Dinners, frozen: packaged Soups, frozen: except
Food specialities, frozen seafood soups
Frozen dinners, packaged Spaghetti and meat balls,
Meals, frozen frozen
Waffles, frozen
SIC 2047 Dog, Cat and Other Pet Food
Establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing dog, cat
and other pet food from cereal, meat, and other ingredients.
These preparations may be canned, frozen, or dry. This indus-
try also includes establishments slaughtering animals for pet
food. Establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing feed
for animals, other than pets, are classified in Industry 2048.
Bird food, prepared Pet food: canned, frozen,
Dog and cat food dry
Horse meat: canned, fresh, Slaughtering of nonfood
or frozen animals
14
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DRAFT
TABLE 1 (CONT'D)
SIC 2051 Bread and Other Bakery Products, Except Cookies and Crackers
Establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing bread, cakes,
and other "perishable" baker products. Establishments manufac-
turing bakery products for sale primarily for home service de-
livery, or through one or more non-baking retail outlets, are
included in this industry. Establishments primarily engaged
in producing "dry" baker products, such as biscuits, crackers,
and cookies are classified in Industry 2052. Establishments
producing bakery products primarily for direct sale on the
premises to household consumers are classified in Retail Trade,
Industry 5462.
Bagels Bakeries: wholesale,
Bakeries, manufacturing for wholesale and retail
home-service delivery combined
Bakery products "perishable": Bakery products, partially
bread, cakes doughnuts, cooked (not frozen)
pastries, etc. Crullers
Biscuits baked: baking Knishes
powder and raised Pastries: Danish, French,
Bread, brown: Boston and etc.
other—canned Pies, except meat pies
Charlotte Russe (bakery Rolls (baker products)
product) Sponge goods (bakery
products)
Sweet yeast goods
SIC 2052 Cookies and Crackers
Establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing cookies,
crackers, pretzels, and similar "dry" bakery products. Estab-
lishments primarily engaged in producing "perishable" bakery
products are classified in Industry 2051.
Baker products, "dry": Cracker meal and crumbs
biscuits, crackers, Crackers: graham, soda, etc.
pretzels, etc. Matzoths
Biscuits, baked: dry, except Rusk, machine-made
baking powder and raised Sal tines
biscuit Zwieback, machine-made
Communion wafers
Cones, ice cream
Cookies
SIC 2065 Candy and Other Confectionery Products
Establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing candy, includ-
ing chocolate candy, salted nuts, other confections and related
15
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DRAFT
TABLE 1 (CONT'D)
products. Establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing
solid chocolate bars are classified in Industry 2066 and chew-
ing gum in Industry 2067. Establishments primarily engaged in
manufacturing confectionery for direct sale on the premises
are classified in Industry 5441, and those primarily engaged
in shelling and roasting nuts are classified in Industry 5145.
Bars, candy: including choc- Fruits: candied, glazed
olate covered bars and crystallized
Cake ornaments, confectionery Fudge (candy)
Candy, except solid chocolate Halvah
Chewing candy (not chewing Licorice candy
gum) Lozenges, candy: non-
Chocolate candy, except solid medicated
chocolate Marshmallows
Confectionery Marzipan
Cough drops, except pharma- Nuts, glace
ceutical preparations Nuts, salted or candy-
Dates: chocolate covered, covered: packaged
sugared, and stuffed Popcorn balls and other
Fruit peel products: candied, treated popcorn products
glazed, glace, and crystal- packaged
1 i zed
SIC 2066 Chocolate and Cocoa Products
Establishments primarily engaged in shelling, roasting, and
grinding cacao beans for the purpose of making chocolate
liquor, from which cocoa powder and cocoa butter are derived,
and in the further manufacture of solid chocolate bars and choco-
late coatings. Establishments primarily engaged in manufactur-
ing products, except candy, from purchased chocolate and cocoa
are classified in Industry 2099, and chocolate candy in Industry
2065.
Baking chocolate Chocolate liquor
Bars, candy: solid choco- Chocolate, sweetened or
late unsweetened
Cacao bean products: choco- Cocoa butter
late, cocoa butter, and Cocoa, powdered: mixed
cocoa with other substances--
Cacao beans: shelling, made in chocolate plants
roasting and grinding
for making chocolate
liquor
Candy, solid chocolate
Chocolate bars
Chocolate coatings and syrups,
made in chocolate plants
16
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DRAFT
TABLE 1 (CONT'D)
SIC 2067 Chewing Gum
Establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing chewing gum
or chewing gum base.
Chewing gum Chewing gum base
SIC 2074 Cottonseed Oil Mills
Establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing cottonseed
oil, and by-product cake, meal, and linters. Establishments
primarily engaged in refining cottonseed oil into edible cook-
ing oils are classified in Industry 2079.
Cottonseed oil, cake and
meal: made in cottonseed
oil mills
SIC 2075 Soybean Oil Mills
Establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing soybean oil,
and by-product cake and meal. Establishments primarily engaged
in refining soybean oil into edible cooking oils are classified
in Industry 2079.
Lecithin Soybean oil, cake and meal
SIC 2076 Vegetable Oil Mills, Except Corn, Cottonseed, and Soybean
Establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing vegetable
oils and by-prod'uct cake and meal, except corn, cottonseed, and
soybean. Establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing
corn oil and its by-products are classified in Industry 2046,
those which are refining vegetable oils into edible cooking
oils are classified in Industry 2079, and those refining these
oils for medicinal purposes in Industry 2833.
Castor oil and pomace Peanut oil, cake and meal:
Coconut oil made in peanut oil mills
Linseed oil, cake and Safflower oil
meal Tallow vegetable
Oils, vegetable: except Tung oil
corn, cottonseed, and Walnut oil, except artists'
soybean materials
Oiticica oil
Palm kernel oil
SIC 2079 Shortening, Table Oils, Margarine and Other Edible Fats and
Oils, Not Elsewhere Classified
17
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DRAFT
TABLE 1 (CONT'D)
Establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing shortening,
table oils, margarine, and other edible fats and oils, not else-
where classified, by further processing of purchased animal
and vegetable oils. Establishments primarily engaged in produc-
ing corn oil are classified in Industry 2046.
Butterine
Cottonseed oil, refined:
not made in cottonseed
oil mills
Margarine
Nut margarine
Oleomargarine
Olive oil
Peanut oil, refined: not
made in peanut oil mills
Shortenings, compound and
vegetable
Vegetable cooking and salad
oils, except corn oil:
refined
SIC 2082 Malt Beverages
Establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing all kinds
of malt beverages. Establishments primarily engaged in bottl-
ing purchased malt beverages are classified in Industry 5181.
Ale
Beer (alcoholic beverage)
Breweries
Brewers' grain
Liquors, malt
Malt extract, liquors and
syrups
Near beer
Porter (alcoholic beverage)
Stout (alcoholic beverage)
SIC 2083 Malt
Establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing malt or malt
by-products from barley or other grains.
Malt: barley, rye, wheat,
and corn
Malt by-products
SIC 2084 Wines, Brandy, and Brandy Spirits
Malthouses
Sprouts, made
in malthouses
Establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing wines, brandy,
and brandy spirits. This industry also includes bonded store-
rooms which are engaged in blending wines. Establishments pri-
marily bottling purchased wines, brandy, and brandy spirits,
but which do not manufacture wines and brandy, are classified
in Industry 5182.
18
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DRAFT
TABLE 1 (CONT'D)
Brandy Wines: still, sparkling and
Brandy spirits artifically carbonated
Storerooms, bended:
engaged in blending
wines
SIC 2085 Distilled, Rectified, and Blended Liquors
Establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing alcoholic
liquors by distillation and rectification, and in manufacturing
cordials, and alcoholic cocktails by blending processes or by
mixing liquors and other ingredients. Establishments primarily
engaged in manufacturing industrial alcohol are classified in
Industry 2869, and those only bottling purchased liquors in
Industry 5182.
Applejack Liquors: Distilled,
Cocktails (alcoholic beverages) rectified, and blended-
Cordjals, alcoholic except brandy
Distillers dried grains Rum
and solubles Spirits, neutral except
Ethyl alcohol for medicinal fruit: for beverage
and beverage purposes purposes
Gin (alcoholic beverage) Vodka
Grain alcohol for medicinal Whiskey: Bourbon, rye,
and beverage purposes scotch type, and corn
SIC 5182 Bottling Purchased Wines, Brandy, Brandy Spirits, and Liquors
SIC 2086 Bottled and Canned Soft Drinks and Carbonated Waters
Establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing soft drinks
(nonalcoholic beverages) and carbonated waters. Establishments
primarily engaged in manufacturing fruit and vegetable juices
are classified in Group 203, fruit syrups for flavoring in
Industry 2087, and cider in Industry 2099. Establishments primarily
engaged in bottling natural spring waters are classified in
Industry 5149.
Beer, birch and root: bottled Non-alcoholic beverages,
or canned bottled or canned
Beverages,non-alcoholic: bot- Soft drinks, bottled or
tied or canned canned
Carbonated beverages, non-alcoho- Still beverages, non-alcoho-
lic: bottled or canned holic: bottled or canned
Drinks, fresh fruit: bottled Water, pasteurized:
or canned bottled or canned
Ginger ale, bottled or canned
Mineral water, carbonated:
bottled or canned
19
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DRAFT
TABLE 1 (CONT'D)
SIC 2087 Flavoring Extracts and Flavoring Syrups, Not Elsewhere Classified
Establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing flavoring
extracts, syrups, and fruit juices, not elsewhere classified,
for soda fountain use or for the manufacture of soft drinks,
and colors for bakers' and confectioners' use. Establishments
primarily engaged in manufacturing chocolate syrup are classified
in Industry 2066 if from cacao beans and in Industry 2099 if from
purchased chocolate.
Beverage bases
Bitters (flavoring concen-
trates)
Burnt sugar (food color)
Coffee flavorings and syrups
Colors for bakers, and
confectioners; use, except
synthetic
Cordials, non-alcoholic
Drink powders and concen-
trates
Flavoring concentrates
Flavoring extracts, pastes,
powders, and syrups
Food colorings, except
synthetic
Food glace for glazing
foods (cozeen)
Fruit juices, concentrated:
for fountain use
Fruits, crushed: for
soda fountain use
SIC 2095 Roasted Coffee
Establishments primarily engaged in roasting coffee, and in
manufacturing coffee concentrates and extracts in powdered,
liquid or frozen form, including freeze-dried.
Coffee extracts
Coffee roasting, except by
wholesale grocers
Coffee, instant and freeze-
dried
SIC 2097 Manufactured Ice
Establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing ice for sale.
Ice plants operated by public utility companies are included
in this industry when separate reports are available. When
separate reports are not available, they should be classified
in Major Group 49. Establishments primarily engaged in manu-
facturing dry ice are classified in Industry 2813.
SIC 2098 Macaroni, Spaghetti, Vermicelli, and Noodles
Establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing dry macaroni,
spaghetti, vermicelli, and noodles. Establishments primarily
engaged in manufacturing canned macaroni, spaghetti, etc., are
classified in Industry 2032.
20
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DRAFT
TABLE 1 (CONCLUDED)
Macaroni and products, dry:
including alphabets, rings,
seashells, etc.
Noodles: egg, plain, and
water
Spaghetti, except canned
Vermicelli
SIC 2099 Food Preparations, Not Elsewhere Classified
Establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing prepared foods
and miscellaneous food specialties, not elsewhere classified,
such as baking powder, yeast and other leavening compounds;
chocolate and cocoa products except confectionery, made from
purchase materials; peanut butter; packaged tea including instant;
ground spices; potato, corn and other chips; and vinegar and
cider.
Almond pastes
Bakers' malt
Baking powder
Beans, baked: except
canned
Bouillon cubes
Box lunches, for sale off
premises
Bread crumbs, not made in
bakeries
Butter, ladle
Butter, renovated and
processed
Chicory root, dried
Chili pepper or powder
Chocolate, instant, mfpm
Chocolate syrup; mfpm
Cider
Cocoa, instant; mfpm
Coconut, desiccated and
shredded
Cole slaw, in bulk
Desserts, ready-to-mix
Emulsifiers food
Fillings, cake or pie: except
fruits, vegetables and meat
Gelatin dessert preparations
Honey, strained and bottled
Jelly corncob (gelatin)
Leavening compounds, prepared
Marshmallow creme
Meat seasonings, except
sauces
Molasses, mixed or blended;
mfpm
Pancake syrup, blended and
mi xed
Peanut butter
Pectin
Pepper, chili
Pizza, refrigerated: not
frozen
Popcorn, packaged but not
popped
Pork and beans, except canned
Potato chips
Sandwiches, assembled and
packaged: for wholesale
market
Syrups, sweetening: honey,
maple syrup, sorghum
Sorghum, including custom
refining
Spices, including grinding
Sugar grinding
Sugar, industrial maple:
made in plants producing
maple syrup
Sugar, powdered: mfpm
Tea blending
Tortillas, in bulk
Vegetables, peeled for the trade
Vinegar
Yeast
21
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DRAFT
4. Non-synthetic food colorings. It was established that guide-
lines for the manufacture of food colorings had been developed
in the organic chemicals guidelines, Phase II.
5. Baker's Malt. The only known producer of Baker's Malt dis-
continued manufacturing the product several years ago.
6. Food emulsifiers processed by organic chemical plants.
Guidelines for these facilities were developed by the
Organic Chemical Industry, Guideline , Phase II. Therefore,
this document will develop recommended guidelines only for
food emulsifiers processed by edible oil refining facilities.
7. Butter (ladle, renovated and processed). These products were
determined to have been the subject of effluent guidelines
previously developed for the dairy industry.
8. Baked beans, cole slaw, vegetables peeled for the trade,
corn and potato chips, cider, and pork and beans. These
products were established to have been the subject of effluent
guidelines previously developed for the fruit and vegetable
industry.
9. Jelly corncob (gelatin) and box lunches. These products
could not be established as active industries in the
United States.
10. Sugar grinding. Other than in sugar refineries which were
subject to previously established guidelines, sugar grinding
could not be defined as an industry in the United States.
To the original industry scope as defined by the Environmental Protection
Agency were added several products considered closely related to the
miscellaneous foods and beverages industry. These additional products
were the following:
1. SIC 5144 Egg Packing. Establishments primarily engaged in
the washing, inspecting, grading, and packaging of eggs
purchased from laying farms or independent farmers.
2. SIC 2034 Dehydrated soups. The blending and packaging of
dehydrated soups, and the combining at previously dehydrated
vegetables with various flavorings and protein bases.
3. SIC 2099 Non-Dairy Coffee Creamer.
4. SIC 5182 Bottling purchased wines, brandy, brandy spirits, and
liquors.
22
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DRAFT
At the conclusion of the current study it is tentatively planned to
develop recommended effluent limitations guidelines for the pro-
duction of blended flour and hydrolyzed plant protein (hydrolysate)
as an addendum to this document.
SIC 2017 - Egg Processing
General - According to the U.S. Department of Commerce ( 2 ), about
12 to 15 percent of this country's total egg output is processed
into egg products, and the demand is increasing as the use of specialty
and convenience foods increases. These products are whole eggs, whites,
or yolks and are in liquid, dried, or frozen form. These egg products
are used directly or in the production of other foods such as in
bakeries. Egg breaking and subsequent processing occurs in approximately
150 plants in 41 states. Nearly one-half of the total annual production
of 393,000 kkg (433,000 tons) occurs in the north central states.
Egg processing occurs in a variety of scales. Plants have from 1 to
at least 13 breaker lines and produce from 5 kkg (6 tons) to 140 kkg
(154 tons) of liquid egg per day. Some processing plants also produce
shell eggs (graded) and some plants receive only liquid egg for further
processing. In plants which break and grade eggs, the majority of the
waste load from the plants is from breaking. In plants which receive
liquid egg for processing, the waste load is significantly lower than
in the plants where the breaking is done.
USDA inspectors are present on a full-time basis of egg breaking plants
to inspect the sanitation practices of the production. It should be
noted that some USDA health regulations, such as frequent cleaning
requirements, add to the waste load of the plant.
Egg processing operations usually operate on an 8 or 24 hour per day
work schedule, 5 or 6 days a week. Egg processing occurs year-round,
but more eggs are broken during the spring and summer months when the
wholesale prices are the lowest.
Table 2(3) shows the distribution among frozen, dried, and liquid product
produced of the total of shell eggs broken. The large majority of the
dried product is produced by a few plants in the north central region.
The liquid and frozen products are produced by the majority of producers
in all geographical regions.
Description of Process - Eggs for processing (breaking stock) come from
several sources. Those noted at shell egg handling operations with
cracked, checked, thin, stained, or rough shells are sold to egg
processors, or are transferred to the breaking line if the plant does
both operations. Another source of breaking stock is supermarkets.
Fresh eggs can only be heV for sale for a limited time; unsold eggs
are often sold to egg processors as breaking stock. Some breaking
stock is purchased directly from egg laying farms. The s'4.ei>«. in
processing are outlined below and illustrated in Figure 5 .
23
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DRAFT
TABLE 2
Egg Products under Federal Inspection ( 3 )
Period
Item
Total shell eggs broken
Edible liquid from shell eggs
broken
Inedible liquid from shell eggs
broken
Liquid egg used in processing*
Whole
White
Yolk
Total
Liquid product produced
Frozen product produced
Dried product produced
6/1/72-
5/30/73
(1,000
kkg)
393
306
16.6
187
117
68
373
118
153
30
(1,000
. ,tons)
433
337
18.3
206
129
75
411
131
169
33
6/1/73-
5/30/74
(1,000
kkg)
433
341
17.7
211
131
72
414
137
166
33
(1,000
tons)
477
376
19.5
233
144
79
456
151
183
36
* Includes frozen eggs used for processing.
24
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DRAFT
CLEANUP I
_ ,|
CONTINUOUS Ł. CLEANUP J
C ONTINUOUS (, CLEANUP
I
-1
, «.
WHOLE EC
5GS OR YOLKS
PASTEUR i ZING|
1
•
DRYING
FILLING 1
BLENDING
(OPTIONAL )
_ r~
i
| CANNED EGGS
SIFTING
'
PACKAGING
J
COOL OR COLD
STORAGE
FREEZING
1
STORAGE
J
SHIPPING
i
COOL OR COLD
STORAGE
1
SHIPPING
CLE_ANUP
PURE EGG WHITES
>
PASTEURIZATION
( OPT IONAL )
i
DESUGARING \— '
i
SPRAY OR
PAN DRYING
HEAT TREATMENT
1
FIL
•
L ING
FREEZING
-,
STORAGE
.
SHIPPING
-
H
J
M
SHIPPING
STORAGE
I
[ SHIPPING |
WASTEWATER
FIGURE 1
EGG PROCESSING PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
25
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DRAFT
Delivery and Storage: Delivery of breaking stock and outgoing shipments
of processed eggs are normally made by truck. Since the quality and
product life.of eggs is quite temperature dependent, the trucks used
for incoming as well as outgoing shipments are usually refrigerated and
the storage areas are always refrigerated (10° to 13°C). Relative
humidity is controlled at 70 to 80 percent in some plants. In many
plants, the loading areas are also refrigerated. Incoming nest run
eggs are usually in cases containing 30 dozen eggs. The cases are
stored on pallets, although some contract shipments utilize steel racks
for shipment and storage of eggs.
Loading and Washing: Flats holding 30 eggs are unpacked from the 30
dozen cases manually. The eggs are inspected as they are unpacked and
cracked or leaking eggs are put in buckets to be sold as inedibles.
In most plants, the eggs are then automatically vacuum loaded onto a
conveyor which passes through washing machinery. Some small plants
transfer the eggs manually onto a conveyor, but this method results in
increased egg breakage. In the washer, the eggs are sprayed, and
sometimes scrubbed by brushes, with a recirculating disinfectant and
detergent solution, the concentration of which is automatically maintained,
Candling follows washing. The eggs are passed over a light source, and
visually inspected. Blood spotted or other inedible eggs are manually
removed. It should be noted that one plant visited did not candle their
eggs before breaking. Some plants reverse these processes, contending
that candling can result in the removal of cracked eggs that would
break in the washer'.
Sources of wastewater prior to the breaking of the eggs are:
1. Cleaning of egg handling equipment
2. Cleaning of floors
3. Overflow and dumping of the egg washwater
Since the shells of breaking stock are less sound than those at shell
egg handling plants, eggs are sometimes broken during unloading, washing,
and candling. Unloading and candling equipment is normally equipped
to catch these broken eggs which then may be sold as inedibles. However,
some eggs fall to the floor where they must be scraped or mopped up or
hosed into a floor drain. A significant number of eggs are broken during
washing and these go into the washwater, and subsequently into the sewer.
Egg washing equipment is normally of the recirculating type. The same
washwater is used over and over with a small quantity of constant over-
flow and make-up. This make-up comes from the water used to rinse the
detergent from the washed eggs.
Breaking and Pasteurizing: Egg breaking is usually accomplished auto-
matically by machines, normally capable of breaking 0.64 kkg (0.7 tons)
per hour. The eggs are transferred .mechanically from candling to the
breakers where the liquid yolks and whites are collected separately or
the whole egg is collected. Visual inspection of the broken eggs is
also done to eliminate inedibles. The broken shells are conveyed from
the breaking room to a disposal vehicle by a conveyor such as an auger.
26
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DRAFT
The liquid egg is conveyed from the breakers into an inspection tank
where odor is periodically checked. Next, the liquid is pumped through
a chiller and then into refrigerated holding tanks. Hhen a holding tank
has been filled with egg yolk or whole egg, the contents are pasteurized.
Conditions used in pasteurizing vary according to the product. For
example, liquid whole eggs are heated for at least 3.5 minutes at not
less than 60°C (140°F) and then rechilled. Due to the heat sensitive
nature of egg whites, they must be pasteurized at about 56°C (134°F) or
52°C (126°F) using hydrogen peroxide injection. (4)
The sources of most of the waste load from egg processing plants is the
cleaning of the liquid egg handling equipment. Egg breaking machines
are continually washed with a fine spray. The pumps, piping, pasteurizer,
and tanks used in conveying and processing the liquid product are
completely flushed and cleaned every 4 hours. Similarly, equipment used
for the canning, freezing, and drying of eggs is water cleaned and
thus contributes to the waste stream. Effluent from these cleaning
operations contains the liquid egg product in varying concentrations
plus detergents and disinfectants.
Some egg processing plants receive liquid egg in tank trucks for blending,
freezing, canning, or drying. The wastewater generation in this type
of plant comes only from cleaning the blending equipment, the tank
trucks, and the holding tanks.
Blending: Some industrial consumers of processed eggs prefer to
purchase blended frozen or dried egg products. Blending occurs before
pasteurization and redlining. The liquid whole egg or egg yolk, or
both, are transferred to blending vats where the percent solids is
adjusted. Sugar, corn syrup, occasionally salt, and various other
additives are combined with the liquid egg in assorted combinations
and quantities. After completion of the blending, the product is
transferred to a holding tank and then to the pasteurizer.
Canning and Freezing: If the final product is to be in liquid or
frozen form, the pasteurized liquid yolk, whole egg, or blend is
rechilled and packaged mechanically in 2,3 kg (5 lb) or 4.6 kg (10 lb)
milk-type cartons or 14 kg (30 lb) cans. The packaging room is equipped
with positive flow filtered ventilation to prevent contamination of
the pasteurized product. After packaging, the liquid egg may be stored
at 2 to 5°C for up to 1 month before use. Wastewater from the canning
process is normally only generated by the cleanup of the egg dispensing
equipment.
About one half of the total liquid egg production is frozen. Egg whites,
yolks, whole egg, and blends are frozen, normally in 14 kg (30 lb) cans
or 2.3 kg (5 lb) cartons. Freezing causes major changes in the texture
of some egg products and some reduction in bacterial count. However,
the functional characteristics are only slightly affected. Some egg
products are adversely affected by slow rates of freezing; therefore
some producers of frozen products utilize air blast freezing at
27
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DRAFT
temperatures as low as -4CTC (-40°F). Subsequent storage of the frozen
product is usually at -18° to -23°C (0° to -10°F),
Egg Drying; Dehydrated albumen (egg whites) must be prepared from
desugared liquid egg to prevent loss of solubility, formation of off-
color and objectionable flavor, and decreased versatility of the dried
product during storage. Bacterial fermentation is the most widely
employed method of glucose removal from eggs. Controlled bacterial
fermentation is a process in which a tank of liquid egg white is
inoculated with a culture.. After 12 to 24 hours, the albumen is
completely desugared and is transferred to the drier. Other methods
of desugaring include the use of glucose oxidase enzyme or yeast
fermentation. Since the product is to be dried, almost all of the
liquid egg white can be rinsed from the tank into the drier. As a
result, the waste load from this process is quite low.
Egg whites can be either pan or spray dried. Pan drying is a procedure
in which 0.15 sq m (1.5 sq ft) aluminum trays are covered with a thin
layer of liquid egg white, placed on racks, and run through a heated
tunnel for 24 hours or longer. The resulting egg white solids are
packaged as a flake or granular product or ground and packaged as a
powder. Pasteurization is accomplished by storage of the dried and
packaged product for at least one week at 60°C (140°F).
The majority of all dried egg products are produced by spray drying.
In this process, the liquid egg is atomized into a stream of hot air.
The air used for drying is filtered and heated to between 120° and 189°C
(250° and 375°F). Because atomization creates a great deal of surface
area, water evaporation is very rapid. The powder formed separates
from the air in the drying chamber and in a separating device. The
dried product is removed mechanically from the dryer, sometimes cooled,
and normally sifted before packaging in 2 or 5 kg boxes, or 45, 70 or
90 kg drums. Dried egg white needs no temperature control during
storage, but other dried egg products are normally refrigerated during
storage. Egg drying equipment is normally cleaned semi-annually or
when required by a change in product (for example, egg yolk to egg white
production).
Inedible Eggs: Eggs classed as inedibles such as blood spots, cracks,
leaks, and stained eggs are processed separately. Eggs which break on
the floor or grading machinery are normally recovered and also classed
as inedibles. Egg albumen is sometimes recovered by centrifuging from
the shells and is included in the product sold as inedible egg. Inedible
eggs are normally frozen in 14 kg cans or dried at plants specializing
in inedible egg processing. Inedibles are normally sold to pet food
processors to be used as ingredients in their products,
Egg Shells: Egg shells are a significant source of solid waste from
egg breaking plants. These shells are normally spread on fields as
fertilizer, if the location is such that odors do not cause a problem,
28
-------
UKHM
or in a landfill. Experiments have been conducted in the utilization
of egg shell wastes as feed for chickens. Despite the high protein
content, a satisfactory method of processing egg shells into feed has
not been developed.
SIC 5144 - ShelT"Eggs"~
' General - The fresh eggs available at the wholesale and retail level have
been washed, inspected, graded and packaged by shell egg handling firms.
Eggs from processor's laying farms or purchased from independent farmers
are the raw materials for this industry.
In 1972, the total volume of shell egg production was 50 million kkg
(70 billion eggs). The gross income of the industry was $1,8 toil lion.
According to the Bureau of the Census (2 ), an estimated 9,500 shell
egg producers are currently operating. They range in size from family
businesses to automated operations producing 20 to 80 kkg (several
thousand 30-dozen cases) daily. The top ten egg producing states account
for slightly over one-half of the total shell egg production. California
is the largest producing state with 12 percent of the national total,
and Georgia is second with 8 percent. Six of the top ten states are
located in the south and two are in the midwest.
Description of the Process - Shell egg grading plants are normally not
located at egg laying farms.
Since cool temperatures improve egg life, the trucks used for hauling
incoming and outgoing eggs are normally refrigerated. Storage areas are
always refrigerated (10° to 13°C, 50° to 55°F) and sometimes humidity
controlled. In some plants, loading areas are also refrigerated.
Eggs delivered to a grading plant are usually packed in reuseable
corrugated cases which hold 30 dozen eggs. In some plants which have
contracted suppliers, the eggs are shipped and stored on steel racks.
The eggs in storage are transported on pallets to the loading area of
the process room. The flats of eggs are unpacked manually from the
corrugated cases and inspected. Broken and obviously damaged eggs are
removed and the sound eggs are normally automatically vacuum loaded
onto a roller conveyor (see Figure 2). On the conveyor, the eggs are
moved through the washer in which they are sprayed, and sometimes
scrubbed by brushes, with a warm (50°C) recirculating detergent and
disinfectant solution, the concentration of which is automatically
maintained. As the eggs leave the washer they are dried, given a light
oil spray to strengthen and prevent drying of the shell during storage,
and candled. The eggs are passed over a high intensity light source
and visually inspected. Blood spots or other inedible eggs are removed
manually.
Sources of wastewater prior to the grading of the eggs are as follows:
1. Cleaning of the egg handling equipment
2. Cleaning of floors
-------
DRAFT
INEDIBLE EGGS
INEDIBLE EGGS
. TMFDTBl
SOLID
WASTE
RECEIVING COOLER
MACHINE LOADING
WASHING
OILING
CANDLING
GRADING
PACKING - ONE
DOZEN CARTONS
CLEANUP
J
aU3_flyERr_|
FLOW AND DUMPING i
CLEANUP
PACKING - SHIPPING
CASES
OUT GOING
COOLER
CLEANUP
WASTEWATER
FIGURE 2
SHELL EGG PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
30
-------
DRAFT
3. Overflow and dumping of the egg washwater
Eggs are sometimes broken during unloading, washing, and candling. Un-
loading and candling equipment is normally equipped to catch these
broken eggs which then may be sold as inedibles. However, some eggs
fall to the floor where they must be scraped or mopped up or hosed
into a floor drain. Eggs broken during washing go into the washwater,
and subsequently, into the sewer. Egg washing equipment is normally
of the recirculating type. The same washwater is used over and over
with a small quantity of constant overflow and make-up. This make-up
comes from the water used to rinse the detergent from the washed eggs.
After candling, the eggs are graded by weight and packed, usually
mechanically, into cartons containing one dozen eggs. The cartons
are manually closed and loaded into a shipping container (usually
a 24 or 30 dozen case or a 15 dozen wire basket) and stacked on
pallets, The pallets are transferred to the outgoing refrigerated
storage area and from there are loaded onto trucks.
Wastewater generated during grading and packing comes from cleaning up
broken eggs and equipment cleaning. Some eggs fall to the floor where
they must be scraped or mopped up or washed into a floor drain. Waste-
water is also generated from the cleaning of the equipment.
Solid waste at shell egg plants is primarily inedible eggs. Eggs classed
as inedibles such as blood spots, cracks, leaks, and stained eggs are
processed separately. Eggs which break on the floor or in grading
machinery are normally recovered and also classed as inedibles. Inedible
eggs are normally put in covered plastic buckets, dyed with a food color
to identify them as inedible eggs, and sold to processors. Inedible
eggs are also frozen in 14 kg (30 Ib) cans and sold directly to pet food
processors to be used as ingredients in their products, ,or dried at
plants specializing in inedible egg processing and sold for general animal
feed applications.
SIC Code 2034 - Dehydrated Soups
Dehydrated soups are a minor but important part of the dehydrated
vegetable industry. Typically, they are a combination of previously
dehydrated vegetables with various flavorings and protein "bases"
added.
The industry is dominated by two large corporations which account
for the bulk of all production. Additionally, there are some small
operations which blend and package regional brands.
Dehydrated soup manufacturers use as principal ingredients various
vegetables that have been previously dehydrated. Typically, these
are potatoes, carrots, onions, garlic, bell peppers, celery, and parsley,
but spinach, green onion tops, green beans, etc., may also be included.
Various flavorings are used and normally incorporated in a sugar or
salt carrier. Sugar and/or salt itself may be a significant ingredient.
31
-------
DRAFT
Also incorporated into most blends are various types of soup bases;
e.g., hydrolyzed vegetable protein. One processor was observed to
manufacture its own soup base and also to dehydrate from fresh vegetables
a small portion of its vegetable needs. All other processors contacted
used only ingredients preprocessed elsewhere.
Process Description. Figure 3 shows a process flow diagram for
a typical dehydrated soup operation. The manufacturing of dry soups
is essentially a dry ingredients blending and packaging operation.
All the various dehydrated ingredients (preprocessed elsewhere) are
taken from dry storage and carefully weighed as per specific formulation.
The ingredients are dumped directly into a blender (typically a ribbon
type) and mixed until the dry blend is homogeneous. Alternately,
some soups, such as onion soup, premix the dehydrated onions and soup
base separately to prevent breakage of the onion flakes.
The premixed soup formulation or base mix is transferred to a filling
hopper on a packaging machine. The soup mix (other than onion soup)
is automatically filled (by weight) into pouches, sealed, cased, and
sent to storage. Onion soup, however, is filled in two steps: base
and onion flakes are filled separately to minimize breaking of the
dried onion pieces and to assure a consistent ratio of onion to base.
The packages are then sealed, cased, and stored.
Clean-up throughout an operating shift consists of dry methods—sweeping,
brushing, vacuuming. At the end of daily operations, the ribbon blenders
are normally rinsed clean.
The daily effluent is of a low volume, typically less than several
hundred gallons. Packaging equipment may be steam-cleaned, vacuumed,
or both, but never washed with water. No other water is used in any
aspects of dehydrated soup manufacturing.
SIC Code 2038 Frozen Specialties
Frozen specialties include such specialties as frozen baked goods,
frozen dinners, frozen pizzas, and other frozen specialties. It does
not include frozen meats, fish, vegetables and fruit except as they
appear as ingredients to prepared dinners or other frozen specialties.
Since production value of frozen specialties has increased 214 percent
since 1967 and currently constitutes 49 percent of the 1974 value
of all frozen food production, these products were removed from SIC
2037 and given a new industry identification, SIC 2038. The value
of production of frozen food specialties in 1974 rose to over two
billion dollars. In 1975, frozen specialties are forecast to increase
16 percent over the 1974 production as illustrated in Table 3 .
The Department of Commerce Census of Manufactures, 1972, estimates
there are 436 plants nationwide that process frozen specialties.
The North Central states lead the nation with 140 establishments.
The Northeast is next with 110 plants, followed by 94 plants in the
32
-------
DRAFT
TABLE 3
PRODUCTION OF FROZEN FOOD SPECIALTIES
Year Production in Million Dollars % Increase
1967 947
1970 1401 48
1971 1397 -2
1972 1617 16
1973 1779 10
1974 2028 14
1975 2352 16
33
-------
DRAFT
DEHYDRATED SOUP FLAVORINGS SALT/SUGAR
VEGETABLES BASE
ONIONS, CARROTS
PEPPERS, CELERY,
GARLIC, PARSLEY,
ETC. . .
OTHER
ADDITIVES
BLENDER RINSE
DRY FRAGMENTS
SPICES, ==
POWDERS
FIGURE 3
PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM FOR
DEHYDRATED SOUPS
34
-------
DRAFT
South and 92 in the West. This location pattern is due to the fact
that frozen specialty plants desire convenient distribution to major
consumer populations. The major producing states are California,
Illinois, Pennsylvania, New York, Arkansas, and Ohio.
For simplicity, frozen T.V. dinners, meat pies, and other frozen dinners
and main courses may be designated as "Frozen Prepared Dinners."
Frozen prepared dinners represent a substantial sales volume in America's
supermarkets. Specific sales information is lacking, but the American
Frozen Food Institute (1974) informally estimates that at least three
million T.V. dinners and other frozen main course specialties are
sold daily. The number of processing plants is estimated to be between
40 and 60. This number was derived through analysis of industry organiza-
tion directories and the Standard and Poor index.
The industry is dominated by about six large corporations. Geographical
distribution of plants is generally in accordance with population
distribution; e.g., plants tend to be located in small communities
because a large force of cheap labor is required to do the hand work
needed in the preparation of ingredients and assembly of the prepared
dinners.
Ingredients usually include meat, fowl, or fish; vegetables; gravies;
and minor additives. In addition, there may be added starches (such
as noodles), grains (such as rice), and a_yariety of small dessert
dishes. These ingredients are usually pre-prepared elsewhere and are
then further processed, cooked, assembled, packaged, and frozen at the
prepared dinner plant. The bulk of the wastes generated originates
from preparation of the ingredients.
"Frozen Bakery Desserts" is defined to include frozen cakes, pies,
brownies, cookies, waffles, breakfast coffee cakes, turnovers, and
other desserts. This segment does not include bread or bread-like
rolls. The plants are generally large-scale kitchens and most have
national distribution. The magnitude of this industry in terms of
sales and number of plants is not known with exactness. It is estimated
that there are between five and ten million frozen bakery desserts
sold daily in the United States, and that there are approximately
50 to 70 plants manufacturing the bulk of these products. The latter
figure is derived primarily from an analysis of industry organization
yearbooks and Standard and Poor's index. The industry is dominated
by six to eight large corporations whose brand names are household
words.
Frozen "Tomato-Cheese-Starch Combinations" include frozen pizza, lasagna,
ravioli, and other "Italian" specialties made with a tomato, starch,
and cheese base. The magnitude of this segment of the industry is
not known in terms of total production or sales. It is believed that
there may be over 100 plants of various sizes manufacturing frozen
pizza. All those identified discharge wastewater into municipal systems.
35
-------
DRAFT
"Battered and Breaded Frozen Specialties" include many frozen meats,
fish, chicken, and vegetables which are battered and/or breaded.
Onion rings are the most common vegetable item in this segment. Shrimp
and other seafood are also commonly prepared in this fashion, as is
chicken. Generally, the seafood is thawed, washed, dried, dipped
in batter, and frozen without pre-cooking. Vegetables and chicken
follow the same procedure but are cooked before freezing.
As with the other individual segments of frozen specialty items, there
are no accurate data available defining production volumes and number
of plants manufacturing these items. Battered and breaded frozen
specialties do, however, occupy a prominent place in the freezer section
of the average supermarket, and it is likely that at least several
million pounds a day are sold. All plants identified in this study
that manufacture these items discharge into municipal systems. Two
plants were investigated, one processing primarily shrimp, and the
other processing primarily onion rings.
Process Description for Frozen Prepared Dinners. In many ways, the
unit processes of a prepared dinner plant can be compared to the activities
of an ordinary housewife as she prepares the evening meal for her
family, the only difference being one of scale. Just as the housewife
goes through different steps with each of her ingredients, of cutting,
thawing, cooking, adding spices, etc., and finally assembling them
on the plate to form a complete dinner, the prepared dinner plant
goes through similar steps and finally assembles the dinner on an
aluminum tray for packaging and freezing. The housewife generates
the majority of her wastewater when she discards cooking liquids and
cleans her pots and pans. Similarly, the majority of the wastes from
a prepared dinner plant originates from clean-up of the vats, kettles,
fryers, mixers, piping, etc., which are used during preparation of
the various components of the final dinner. The major processes as
they are conducted in a typical prepared dinner plant are described
in the following paragraphs.
Turkeys and chickens arrive plucked, viscerated, and washed. The
birds are placed on overhead meat hooks which travel down a dismantling
line operation. The deskinning of the birds is accomplished by the
manual hypodermic injection of air and subsequent expansion and separation
of the skin away from the flesh. The skin is then peeled off, and
various pieces are cut from the bird as it continues down the line.
The pieces are placed in movable vats and either frozen and stored
for later processing, or moved directly to the inspection, sorting,
and deboning operation. The chicken is then floured and fried as
whole pieces for later use in prepared chicken dinners or cooked.
If cooked, the cooking operation (for both chicken and turkey) is
followed by hand trimming from the bone and slicing for later addition
to meat pies or dinners.
Following the hand trimming operation, the bones with adhering flesh
are run through a rotating drum that scrapes and tumbles the meat
36
-------
DRAFT
from the bones. The meat is collected, stuffed into skin (sausage
like), cooked, frozen, and then sliced, making a uniform section of
meat.
Beef and other meat normally arrive at the plant in frozen chunks
and are air thawed, sliced (for dinners) or diced (for Pies), cooked,
and then moved directly to the assembly area, or they are frozen for
later use. An alternate preparation involves the grinding of the
beef and pressing into hamburger or Salisbury steak patties. Veal
patties are floured. The partial cooking of the meat is usually
accomplished by passing the slices or patties through a long line
of infra-red lamps installed in the roof of the cooking tunnels.
Both sides are cooked by inverting the meat segment half way through
the tunnel. As the pieces emerge from the broilers, they fall off
the belt into trays and are carried to the assembly area.
The juices from the meat cooking operations are combined with flour
and milk to produce the various types of gravies. The gravy is then
pumped to the assembly area, where it is held ready to be sprayed
onto the appropriate section of the T.V. dinner tray as the tray passes
underneath the nozzle.
Vegetables, other than potatoes, usually arrive frozen in bulk, are
thawed, run through cluster busters, and are then brought to the assembly
area. The vegetables are placed in "hand pocket fillers" which rotate--
keeping the individual pieces from sticking together—and held until
needed for addition to the tray. Exceptions to the above are those
vegetables which require longer cooking times, e.g., carrots, which
may be partially precooked prior to being brought to the assembly
area. Potatoes are usually prepared from dehydrated potato products.
Water is added to the potato flakes which are then cooked in steam
jacketed kettles, mashed, pumped to stainless steel movable carts,
and wheeled to the assembly area. Other potato varieties, such as
French fries, normally arrive frozen and partially precooked—ready
to assemble without further processing at the frozen prepared dinner
plant.
"Mexican" prepared dinners utilize tortillas, which are normally made
at the plant. The rendering of corn into flat, pliable sheets involves
pumping whole kernels from a storage silo to a grinder which reduces
the corn to the consistency of paste. The paste is then extruded
and rolled into flat sheets, mechanically cut to size and cooked in
vegetable oil. The tortillas are then rolled, stuffed with meat,
and transferred to the assembly area.
Assembly of the commodities that make up the finished product is perform-
ed along a moving belt assembly line. A hopper, placed at the start
of the line, holds the aluminum trays and drops them one at a time
onto the moving belt. Meat pieces, such as hot dogs, veal patties,
37
-------
DRAFT
chicken pieces, etc., are placed on the tray by hand counting the
number of pieces necessary to make up the correct weight. Portions
such as slices or smaller pieces are first hand weighed on scales
placed next to the moving belt and then placed on the tray by hand.
The tortilla products, e.g., tacos, are similarly added to the trays.
Vegetables are added by hand packed fillers which are mechanically
cued to drop a measured portion onto the moving trays. Mashed potatoes
are pumped from their movable carts and are gun injected, from overhead
extruders, onto the proper section of the tray. The addition of gravies
and butter to the tray is performed by overhead "guns" which spray
a preset volume of the liquid onto the vegetables, meat, and potato
portions.
When the complete dinner has been assembled, the trays are mechanically
covered with foil, sealed, packaged, and transferred to the freezers.
The dinners are then frozen, cased, and stored in refrigerated warehouses
for shipment to customers.
Figure 4 schematically illustrates the processes described in manufac-
turing frozen prepared dinners. Of course, there are many kinds of
frozen prepared dinner products on the market, and undoubtedly, some
are prepared and assembled differently than the foregoing description.
The reader, however, should have gained a general feel for how most
prepared dinners are processed.
Process Description for Frozen Bakery Desserts. Under the process
description for frozen prepared dinners, the analogy was made between
the housewife cooking and baking in her kitchen and the activities
of the large manufacturing plant. The analogy is equally valid for
the frozen bakery dessert industry. Rich ingredients, e.g., butter,
sugar, cream, etc., are purchased in bulk, received, blended under
controlled conditions, further assembled in the final product form,
sometimes baked, packaged, and frozen. All this is accomplished using
large equipment under sanitary conditions with a high degree of quality
control exercised. Just as the housewife may use and "dirty" many
bowls, pans, and utensils on her baking day, so also the frozen bakery
dessert plant must thoroughly clean with hot water all the many mixing
vats, cooking kettles, measuring devices, pumps, piping, etc., which
have come in contact with the ingredients and product. This clean-
up is continuous during the shift as different products are manufactured;
e.g., a section of the plant may run several different kinds of pies
during a shift, and reaches a peak during the massive final clean-
up at the end of each day's operations.
The process wastewaters thus consist of a mixture of water and the
product ingredients. In this industry the ingredients are very "rich,"
e.g., high in carbohydrates, fats, etc., and the resulting waste is
high in BOD, grease and oil, etc.
38
-------
DRAFT
PBBPMAT10M
»«««• V
MSATUW
VEAL
FLOUB MILK
UWWVAH •«
-P
PQTATPIf1
,1 —
1
NED
FIGURE 4
PREPARED DINNER PLANT
SIMPLIFIED PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
39
-------
DRAFT
Since health standards are strictly enforced, there appears to be
no alternative to the extensive clean-up requirements of these plants
or the resulting strong wastes.
In-plant waste generation can be reduced, however, by separate disposal
as solid waste of spilled material and sub-standard ingredients.
Employees must be educated to refrain from discharging such wastes
to the sewer. Figure 5 shows a simplified diagram of unit process
steps in a frozen bakery dessert plant.
Process Description for Frozen Tomato-Cheese-Starch Combinations -
All major ingredients are preprocessed elsewhere and arrive at the
manufacturing plant in bulk containers. These ingredients include
tomato paste, cheese, flour, milk, oil, noodles, seasonings, and meat.
Onions and green pepper may be peeled and sliced at the plant, but
the processing of these vegetables is a negligible wastewater generator.
Manufacturing processes consist basically of blending ingredients,
assembling the end product, and packaging and freezing it. Occasionally,
the product may be precooked or baked prior to freezing. Differences
between plants are mainly a function of degree of automation used
versus hand labor. As might be expected, the larger the plant production,
generally the greater the degree of automation.
In pizza manufacturing, the dough is mixed separately by combining
flour, baking powder, salt, and sufficient water in large mixing vats
to make an elastic dough. The dough is allowed to sit for several
minutes, and then repeatedly machine kneaded. Finally, the dough
is extruded flat on a belt to uniform thickness, and mechanically
cut into the typical round shape. Meanwhile, the tomato sauce and
spices are being heated and mixed in a separate vat, and the cheese
sauce heated in still another vat. The ingredients are then combined
mechanically on a moving belt assembly line by use of automatic spray
dispensers which place a measured quantity of tomato and cheese sauce
on each circular dough segment. Topping ingredients such as meat,
onions, green peppers, etc., are then added by hand or machine. The
assembled pizza is wrapped, packaged, and frozen.
Wastewater is generated primarily by clean-up of equipment and spills.
Refrigeration water is generally recycled, but, if not recycled, contributes
a significant volume of clean water to the wastewater. Because process
wastewater is primarily generated by clean-up, it follows that the
wastewater contents consist of the major ingredients used.
40
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INGREDIENTS
STORAGE !
SCALING
MIXING
DEPOSITING
BAKING
COOLING
FINISHING
PACKAGING
FREEZING
; PLANT
CLEANUP
SHIPPING
FIGURE 5
PLANT G
FROZEN BAKERY PRODUCTS PLANT
SIMPLIFIED PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
41
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DRAFT
An efficient plant can hold its waste of ingredients to under one
percent of the incoming ingredient weight, e.g., loss of less than
one pound of tomato paste for every hundred pounds of tomato paste
used.
Process Description for Battered and Breaded Frozen Specialties
Generally, the food item to be battered and breaded has been pre-
processed to some extent prior to arrival at the plant. Typical
preprocessing is as follows:
Shrimp - washed and frozen
Fish - eviscerated, heads and tails removed,
washed and frozen
Meat - slaughtered, dressed, and frozen
Chicken - dressed and frozen
Onions and Mushrooms - washed
Since shrimp is the "worst case" for non-vegetable items, processing
of shrimp is described below.and illustrated in Figure 6.
Frozen shrimp are bought in bulk, thawed overnight, and processed
the next day. Thawing produces a substantial waste volume since it
is followed by thorough washing. The shrimp is then shelled, ends
removed, deveined, and washed again. There is equipment to automatically
perform these steps, but in smaller plants they are done manually
by skilled workers. The shrimp are then dried, "butterflyed" by machine,
spread on a belt, and conveyed through egg batter. Following battering,
the shrimp are tumbled through a breading machine which coats the
exteriors with bread crumbs and flour. Finally the shrimp is boxed
and quick frozen.
Waste generation results from the thawing water, subsequent washings,
and clean-up of equipment and spills. If the shells, heads, and tails
are included in the wastewater, they constitute a major organic load
and should be removed as solid waste.
Frozen onion rings are by far the major item in battered and breaded
vegetable specialties. A typical production has the onions arriving
washed in 23-46 kg (50 or 100 Ib) bags. They are then machine peeled
with the peels handled dry, e.g., air conveyed from the peeler. Next,
the onions are machine sliced, automatically arranged on a mesh belt,
and conveyed through egg batter. Following the batter, the onion
rings are machine dipped in bread crumbs and flour, packaged, and
frozen. They are sometimes precooked before being frozen.
Wastewater generation results from clean-up of equipment and spills,
and juices from the onion slicing operation. The batter is very high
in organic strength, and the clean-up wastes are correspondingly strong.
42
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DRAFT
FROZEN FISH
OR SHELLFISH
THAWING
WASHING
CUTTING
WASHING
BATTER
APPLICATION
BREADING
PACKAGING
FROZEN
STORAGE
PLANT
CLEAN-UP
FIGURE 6
BREADED FISH AND SHELLFISH PLANT
SIMPLIFIED PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
43
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DRAFT
SIC Code 2047 - Dog and Cat Foods
General - Food products for dogs and cats represent virtually all
of what is generally referred to as the pet food industry. Of the
two major pet foods, cat food represents approximately 20 percent
of the industry tonnage and 30 percent of the retail dollars. Dog
food contributes the remaining 80 percent of tonnage and 70 percent
of retail dollars.
The 1972 Census of Manufacture '(2) counts 204 pet food manufacturing
establishments nationwide. California leads the nation with 26 pet
food plants. The Midwest also manufactures a good portion of the
nation's pet food.
At least 90 percent of the dollar sales of pet foods are produced
by plants owned by a few major corporations; many small, family-owned
pet food operations make up the remaining 10 percent of the industry.
Table 4 shows pet food production by sales dollars, and pounds sold
from 1969 through 1974 (estimated). This table shows the trend toward
greater production of dry pet food for both cats and dogs and a general
trend toward increased production of all pet food.
Raw Ingredients - Pet foods are generally made up of meat and meat
by-products, fish and fish by-products, cereals, and other nutritional
ingredients which may be received at the plant in the form of wet,
dry, or semi-dry products. Proteins and carbohydrates are principal
constituents, and other diet balancing components are present in varying
concentrations and ratios. The final product is marketed in three
major styles: canned, dry, and semi-moist.
The variety, style, and form of raw ingredients used in pet foods
are numerous.
Meats are delivered to the plants fresh in barrels or frozen, typically
in 23 to 46 kg (50 to 100 Ib) blocks. The meat may be whole cuts, chopped,
or comminuted to a particular desired piece size. The meats commonly
used are beef, pork, sheep, horse, poultry, and various types of fish.
These cuts can be either striated muscle tissue or "by-products" (lungs,
tripe, esophagus, gullets.,_etc.). Poultry products normally are
either finely ground whole carcasses or by-products. Fish may be
fresh whole, frozen whole, fresh by-products, or frozen by-products.
Other ingredients used by pet food processors are typically derived
from soybeans, corn, wheat, barley, and oats. Storage is normally
in silos for the larger processors but may also be accomplished in
23 to 46' kg (50 to 100 Ib) paper or cloth bags. Size reduction is normally
performed prior to delivery, but grains may also be milled or screened
by the pet food plants. Particle sizes utilized include whole grains,
cracked grains, grits, mids, flakes, and flour.
44
-------
TABLE 4
PET FOOD VOLUME
RETAIL DOLLAR SALES (MILLIONS) THROUGH U.S. FOOD STORES
-Ł»
cn
TYPE
Dog food, dry
Dog food, wet
Dog food, send
Cat food,dry
TOTALS
1974*
1973
1972
1971
1970
TYPE
Dog food, dry
Dog food, wet
Dog food, sem:
Cat food, dry
TOTALS (in Ibs)
[canned]
•moist
[canned]
•moist
RETAIL
[canned]
•moist
[canned]
•moist
$ 675
> 565
265
160
l 400
70
$2,135
POUND SALES
1974*
3,220
i 2,120
500
420
\ 960
90
$ 531
523
214
129
343
44
$1,784
(MILLIONS)
1973
2,902
2,254
477
390
963
58
$ 397
471
174
101
308
30
$1,481
THROUGH
1972
2,591
2,216
407
347
907
40
$ 355
458
152
90
296
14
$1,365
U.S. FOOD
1971
2,332
2,254
356
309
909
17
$ 297
421
128
75
270
1
$1,192
STORES
1970
2,065
2,254
310
265
873
1
1969
> 259
385
108
61
237
$1,050
1969^
1,848
2,155
265
217
813
7,310
7,044
6,508
6,177 5,768 5,298
* estimated
-------
DRAFT
Formulations dictate what style, type, and amount of raw ingredients
are used. Other additives used in these formulations cover a wide
and descriptive field; for example, fresh onions, frozen carrots,
dried vegetables, gums and food starches, colors, flavorings, milk-
base products, preservatives, humectants, emulsifiers, sugars and
syrups, vitamins and minerals, and yeasts are often added. In most
cases, these additives are prepared elsewhere, but in certain circum-
stances some degree of processing may be needed to prepare ingredients
for a particular formulation.
Process Description for Soft-Moist Pet Food - There are two styles
of soft-moist pet food, extruded and expanded, each one requiring
a different processing approach. Figures 7 and 8 show typical
soft-moist pet food process flow diagrams for both of the above styles.
The extruded chunk and patty forms can be of similar or identical
formulation. Each contains from ten to thirty percent meat and meat
by-products. Only the package size, shape, and individual product
form are different among the different brands.
The six basic ingredients in extruded chunk and patty-formed products
are soybean meal (and other grains), sugar, fresh meat by-products,
animal fat, preservatives, and humectants. Additionally, minor ingre-
dients such as vitamins, minerals, flavorings, and colorings are normally
used for various reasons (nutritional balance, final product identity,
etc.). All of these materials are typically handled through automatic
mix cycles.
Soybean meal, sugar, fat, propylene glycol, and sorbitol are usually
stored in bulk. Each of the bulk-stored ingredients is located so
that conventional conveying and pumping equipment are used to convey
the ingredients to a weighscale hopper located above the batch mixer.
Extruded soft-moist can be made in two ways. These are shown as A.
and B. on Figure 7, The first method involves pre-cooking a meat-
preservatives-additives slurry, milling and subsequent addition and
mixing of grains, cooking of the mixture, extruding, further cooling,
and packaging. The second method involves the mixing of all ingredients,
a combination cooking-expanding-extruding step, cooling, and packaging.
In the first method, known as the meat-slurry method, a selection
of meats and meat by-products (fresh or frozen) is ground through
a .635 cm (% in) or smaller plate and conveyed to a cooking tank where
a measured amount of water, sugar, and other additives are brought
together in a specific formulation. The entire slurry is heated with
agitation for a predetermined length of time and at a predetermined
temperature. The heated meat slurry is usually run through a mill
to further reduce particle size and is introduced into a continuous-
type mixer. Weighed and blended grains are then added to the continuous
mixer. Following thorough mixing, the mass is conveyed through a
46
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DRAFT
A.
MEATS
B.
OKiINU
BATCH
— i
bKAlNS
PRESERVATIVES
MIX
STEAM.
_L
FORM
ADDITIVES
MEATS
GRIND
_L
FORM
ADDITIVES.
OTHER
ADDITIVES
EXTRUDE
PACKAGE
COOLING
WATER
CLEAN-UP
STORAGE
SPILLAGE
COOK
PRESERVATIVES
OTHER
ADDITIVES
MILL
MIX
GRAINS
COOL/TEMPER
EXTRUDE
COOLING WATER
PACKAGE
STORAGE
FIGURE 7
PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM FOR
EXTRUDED SOFT-MOIST PET FOODS
I
EFFLUENT
47
-------
DRAFT
MEATS
GRIND
MIX
STEAM
GRAINS
ANIMAL
FAT
EXTRUDE-
EXPAND
ANIMAL FAT
COOL
PACKAGE
STORAGE
PRESERVATIVES
OTHER
ADDITIVES
FORM
•ADDITIVES
CLEAN-UP I
SPILLAGE
EFFLUENT
FIGURE 8
PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM FOR
EXPANDED SOFT-MOIST PET FOOD
48
-------
DRAFT
heat exchanger (for cooling) and extruded into the desired size, shape,
and length. Additional forming (patties, burgers, etc.) is accomplished
after extruding but prior to further cooling.
The extruded and formed product is cooled in a continuous cooler,
wrapped, and packaged.
The second method, shown as B. on Figure 7 , uses a continuous batching
system. This system is considered the most desirable for soft-moist
processing because less labor is used, and the interlocking systems
reduce human error. A typical .45 kkg (one-ton) batch makeup system
for soft-moist consists of:
1. A hopper bin scale which is equipped with a gate
for weighing and collecting all dry ingredients.
2. • Hopper bin scale especially designed for weighing
and discharging ground meats.
3. 0.45 kkg (one-ton) stainless steel paddle-type
batch mixer designed for proper mixing of soft-moist
ingredients.
4. An agitated holding bin below the batch mixer to
serve as a surge bin and assure a constant and
uninterrupted flow of material to the extruder
feeder screw.
A typical batch cycle is as follows: soybean meal, sugar, flavorings,
color, and micro-ingredients are fed into the hopper scale, each to
the desired weight, and transferred into the batch mixer below. Pro-
pylene glycol, sorbitol, and fat from storage are then pumped through
meters into the batch mixer. The meters are preset for the desired
volume and stop the pump when the desired volumes in pounds have been
reached. The meat products are then pumped or screw conveyed to the
meat hopper scale above the mixer, where they are weighed and dropped
slowly into the batch mixer.
The mixture becomes very doughy and somewhat sticky. The mixture
is continuously fed into the extruder barrel where live steam is
injected into the mix. The heated mixture is forced through the ex-
truder head under pressure, resulting in:
1. Gelatinization of raw starch.
2. Further reduction of coarse meat fibers, improving
product appearance and texture.
3. Production of a well-blended, homogeneous chunk
with a meaty appearance.
49
-------
DRAFT
4. Cooking and pasteurization of the products.
5. Final formation of desired piece size and shape.
Since soft-moist becomes quite soft when heated
and extruded, various techniques in die design must
be used to produce smooth, uniform product shapes.
Product temperature varies from 52°C to 163°C (125°F to 325°F).
The extruded product may be further shaped into patties, burgers,
etc., as desired. The final product is cooled in a continuous
coolerL wrapped, jind packaged.
The second type is an expanded soft-moist which contains little or
no meat, but instead is high in cereals (soy, wheat, corn, oats, etc.)
which have been cooked during the processing cycle. After cooking,
extruding, and expanding, the product is coated with fat in a revolving
reel prior to the cooler. This finished product will vary in density
and weight, depending upon ingredients used and formulation.
Figure 8 shows a typical expanded soft-moist manufacturing process.
The ingredients are weighed and mixed in a batch mixer in a manner
similar to that described previously for extruded soft-moist. Propy-
lene glycol and sorbitol can either be injected into the mix at the
batch mixer or can be pumped continuously at a prescribed percentage
into a mixing cylinder which is a part of the extruder-expander.
From the mixer, the product is typically fed into an extruder barrel
with live steam injection. The steam under pressure moistens and
pasteurizes the product which is in turn expanded while being ex-
truded. No drying of the extruded product is necessary since the
final moisture content is governed by the amount of water added
in the extruder.
Since fat is not added to the mix prior to extrusion, fat and other
liquids are applied to the product externally in a rotary fat appli-
cation reel prior to the cooling process.
When the hot extruded product leaves the extruder/expander and is
in the atmosphere a few minutes, its temperature will drop to approx-
imately 66°C (150°F). From this temperature the product is further
reduced to approximately 27°C (80°F) or lower for optimum packaging
and handling qualities. This final cooling is typically accomplished
in a horizontal continuous cooler. The product enters the cooler
and is spread uniformly to the desired depth over the entire width
of a wire mesh belt. Air drawn into the cooler flows up and around
the chunks or patties, cooling them. Product retention time within
the cooler is regulated by changing the speed of the wire mesh belt.
After proper cooling the product is ready for packaging.
50
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DRAFT
The preservation of both extruded and expanded semi-moist pet food
is basically accomplished through a reduction of water activity.
Water activity (Aw) is defined as the ratio of the vapor pressure
(P) of water in tFe food to the vapor pressure of pure water (Po_)
at the same temperature. That is, Aw = P/Po.. Within the range favors-
able to the growth of mesophilTic micro-organisms Aw is practically
independent of temperature. By incorporating an effective anti-micotic,
heating to destroy vegetative organisms, ana adjusting to an Aw_ level
of 0.85 or lower, pet food packaged in various types of plastic wrapping
has proved to have excellent stability.
Process Description for Canned Pet Food - Canned dog and cat food
covers a large variety of styles.Essentially, however, there are
three major styles of canned pet foods—ration, gourmet, and high
meat/fish. Typically, canned ration pet food is characterized by
its "meat-loaf" appearance. It is usually a blend of meats, meat
by-products, and cereals. Additionally, vegetables and various vitamins
and minerals are added to provide desired levels of animal nutrition.
Figure 9 shows a typical process flow diagram for canned ration
pet food. Meat (fish) and meat (fish) by-products, fresh or frozen,
are taken from storage and ground to a desired piece size. Fresh
bones (usually beef) are run through a disintegrator. These are weighed
and conveyed to large agitating cooker-blenders. Additionally, freshly
ground vegetables (onions, carrots, etc.) and other minor ingredients
may be added to the blender. A measured quantity of water is added,
and the entire mixture is agitated while being heated by steam (indirect
or "live" injection). Measured quantities of various grains including
soybean meal, ground corn, wheat, barley, milo, or oats are added
to the cooker-blender, and the mixture is heated. The product is
pumped to fillers, and the cans are filled, seamed, washed, retorted,
cooled, and packaged.
Canned gourmet pet food is characterized by the presence of "pre-formed"
chunks, patties, or meatballs mixed with varying types of gravies
or sauces. Additionally, in some cases, vegetables, "biscuits," or
specialized "bits" may be incorporated. The mix is formulated to
provide a nutritionally balanced diet for dogs or cats, or for a particu-
lar subgrouping by age or condition; e.g., puppies, adult dogs, lactating
bitches, etc. Figure 10 shows a typical process flow diagram for
canned gourmet pet food. Meat (fish) and meat (fish) by-products,
fresh or frozen, are taken from cold storage and ground to the desired
piece size. These are conveyed to a large mixer. Pre-weighed amounts
of grains and minor ingredients are similarly conveyed into the mixer.
The mass is mixed for a predetermined length of time resulting in
a product consistency closely resembling "dough." This "dough" is
dumped into an extruder storage bin and the "dough" is extruded as
per specific product requirements. Alternately, steam may be injected
into the extruder head, and the product may be "expanded." The resultant
pieces are conveyed directly through drying ovens (drying temperature
51
-------
DRAFT
MEAT
STORAGE
GRIND
MINOR
INGREDIENTS
WATER
DISINTEGRATE
WATER
SPILLAGE
CLEAN-UP
GRAINS, PARTICLES
COOLING
WATER
FIGURE 9
PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM FOR
CANNED PET FOOD
RATION TYPE
52
-------
DRAFT
MINOR
INGREDIENTS
MINOR
INGREDIENTS
STARCH
WATER
MINOR INGREDIENTSi
COLORS
FLAVORS
VEGETABLES
(OPTIONAL)
SPILLAGE
CLEAN-UP
GRAVY
^-COOLING WATER
FIGURE 10
PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM FOR
CANNED PET FOOD
GOURMET TYPE
53
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DRAFT
may be as high as 316°C (600°F). The dried chunks are tumble-filled
into cans, frozen or dehydrated vegetables may be added, and the
containers are topped with hot gravy (starch-water-flavoring-color-
ing mistures). The cans are seamed, washed, retorted, cooled, and
packaged.
Meat (fish) and meat (fish) by-products, fresh or frozen, are taken
from cold storage and ground to the desired piece size and conveyed
to a mixer-blender. Similarly, fresh bone may be disintegrated and
added to the blender. Minor ingredients such as vitamins, minerals,
and flavorings are added as well as any desired slurries of starches
or gums (for thickening) or grains (textured soy products). Typically,
at least 50 percent of the weight is meat and/or fish. The entire
meat mixture may be filled cold at this point or it may be heated
with steam to produce different product characteristics. If the products
are filled "cold," steam-flow must be used on the seamers to achieve
adequate package vacuum. The product is pumped to the filler, and
the cans are filled, seamed, washed, retorted, cooled, and packaged.
All of the canned styles described above are typically pre-cooked
to some extent before being filled, and they are consequently filled
into cans at temperatures above 66°C (150°F). Stew products, how-
ever, are sometimes "cold-filled" so that cooking and sterilization
are both achieved in the retorting cycle.
The lethal effect of heat oh bacteria is a function of the time and
temperature of heating and the bacterial population of the product.
To design or evaluate an in-package heat process, it is necessary
to know the heating characteristics of the slowest heating portion
of the container (normally called the cold zone), the spoilage organism
present, and the thermal resistance characteristic of the spoilage
organisms. The various methods of retorting, cooking, and subsequent
cooling utilize various principles to achieve commercially sterile
products. One of the simplest applications of heating food in containers
is sterilization of cans in a still retort; that is, the cans remain
still while they are being heated. In this type of retort,
temperatures above 121°C (250°F) generally may not be used or foods
cook against the can walls. This is especially true of solid-type
products which do not circulate within the cans by convection, but
it also can be a problem with liquid products. Because of the temperature
limit and because there is relatively little movement in the cans,
the heating time to bring the cold point to sterilizing temperature
is relatively long; for a small can it is about 40 minutes. The cooling
cycle may be accomplished by either carefully flooding the chambers
with cool water or air or by placing the cans in cooling canals.
The sterilization time can be markedly reduced by shaking or agitating
the cans during heating, especially with liquid or semi-liquid type
products. Not only is processing time shortened, but product quality
is improved. This is accomplished with various kinds of agitating
54
-------
DRAFT
MEAT/FISH
STORAGE
GRIND
GUMS,
STARCHES
WATER
GRAINS
MINOR
INGREDIENTS
DISINTEGRATE
•WATER
SPILLAGE
CLEAN-UP
PARTICLES
COOLING WATER
FIGURE 11
PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM FOR
CANNED PET FOOD
HIGH MEAT/FISH TYPE
55
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DRAFT
retorts. The cans rest in reels which rotate and thereby stir the
contents. Forced convection within cans also depends upon degree
of can filling, since some free headspace within cans is necessary
for optimum food turnover within the cans. In addition to faster
heating, since the can contents are in motion, there is less chance
for the product to cook onto the can walls. This permits the use
of higher temperatures than the 121°C (250°F) upper limit for a still
retort and decreases heating times.
Agitation may be of more than one type; for example, cans may be made
to turn end over end or to spin in an axial fashion with their length.
Depending upon the physical properties of the product, one or another
method may be more effective. These substantial reductions in time
with associated quality advantages are not realized in foods that
heat primarily by conduction. These cookers all have as a last step
a cooling chamber which slowly exposes the container to either cool
water or air or both until desired final temperature is achieved.
Continuous retorts (usually of the agitating type) are pressure-tight
and built with special valves and locks for admitting and removing
cans from the sterilizing chamber. Without these, pressure conditions
would not be held constant, and sterilizing temperatures could not
be closely controlled. Another type of continuous pressure retort
which is open to the atmosphere at the inlet and outlet ends is the
hydrostatic pressure cooker.
This type of heating equipment consists essentially of a "U" tube
with an enlarged lower section. Steam is admitted to the enlarged
section, and hot water fills one of the legs of the "U" while cool
water fills the other leg. Cans are carried by chain conveyor down
the hot water leg, through the steam zone which may involve an undulating
path to increase residence time, and up the cool water leg. These
legs are sufficiently high to produce a hydrostatic head pressure
to balance the steam pressure in the sterilizing zone. If a
temperature of 127°C (260°F) is used in the sterilizing zone.
this would be equal to a pressure of about 1.36 atmospheres, which
would be balanced by water heights of about 16.77 meters (46 ft) in
the hot and cold legs.
As cans descend the hot water leg and enter the steam zone, their
internal pressure increases as food moisture begins to boil. But
this is balanced by the increasing external hydrostatic pressure.
Similarly, as high pressure cans pass through the water seal and ascend
the cool water leg, their gradually reduced internal pressure is balanced
by the decreasing hydrostatic head in this cool leg. In this way,
cans are not subjected to sudden changes in pressure.
56
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DRAFT
Process Description for Dry Pet Food -As shown in Table 4 , dry
pet food has rapidly increased its share of the pet food market in
recent years and now represents approximately half the total pet food
sold by weight.
Figure 12 shows a typical flow diagram for dry pet food manufacture.
Various grains such as soybean meal, corn, wheat, barley, milo, and
oats are measured from storage silos into a large mixer/blender.
Other items such as poultry meal, meat meal, liver meal, etc., may
also be added as per specific formula. In addition, micro-ingredients
such as calcium and potassium additives are introduced into the blender.
Agitation is sufficient to produce a homogeneous blend. The entire
mixture is sent through a hammermill. Oversized particles are removed
by screening and recycled to a storage tank where they become an initial
ingredient and are remilled. The ground fraction of acceptable particle
size is conveyed directly to a surge tank.
The mixture at this point may be fed directly into an extruder/expander
or it may be preconditioned with steam. Preconditioning softens the
product and raises its moisture level from a dry range of 12 to 14
percent, to approximately 20 percent. This also aids in gelatinization
during the extrusion process. Additional steam is injected into the
mix at the extruder/expander to raise the moisture level to 22 to
30 percent.
The moist meal is fed into the extruder chamber, which is a stainless
steel tube containing a stainless steel screw. Water jackets around
the outside of the extruder maintain proper temperature. Tem-
peratures in the extruder range up to 148.9°C (3006FJ, and the
product can be in the unit from 30 to 60 seconds. During this time,
the grains and starches are cooked, and all of the ingredients are
well blended. The product is forced through the extruder die and
cut by a series of whirling knives. Moisture of the product leaving
the extruder is 19 to 27 percent.
The moistened and expanded product is conveyed to a drying oven, where
the moisture level is reduced to approximately 10 percent. After
the product leaves the oven, it goes over a series of screens and
then flows through the fat and coating drum. Additional ingredients
such as flavorings and fat soluble vitamins may be added to the animal
fat.
The finished product is either stored in bulk for several days or
directly packaged into desired container sizes.
Because of its low moisture content, dry pet food has excellent shelf
life without further preservation. Antioxidants and mold-inhibitors
are sometimes added to the final coating.
57
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DRAFT
DRY STORAGE
(SILOS)
MICRO
INGREDIENTS
DRY BLEND
STEAM
FAT i
VITAMINS[-
FLAVORS J
RECYCLE
"FINES"
HAMMERMILL
SCREEN.
SURGE
RECYCLE 'OVERS'
PRE-CONDITION
EXTRUDE/
EXPAND
DRY
COATING
DRUM
BULK
STORAGE
SCREEN
PACKAGE
•STEAM
CLEANUP
FIGURE 12
PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM FOR
DRY PET FOOD
53
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DRAFT
SIC 2051 - Bread and Other Bakery Products, Except Cookies and Crackers
Background of the Industry - The bread, cake and related products industry
includes establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing bread, cakes,
and other perishable bakery products. This industry also includes es-
tablishments producing bakery products for sale by home-service delivery
•or through one or more non-baking retail outlets.
Bakeries tend to specialize in the products thev make with the major
divisions along the lines of the following: (a) bread types and items
such as donuts, snack cakes, snack pies, and sweet yeast goods; and
(b) bakeries which produce primarily full size cakes or pies.
Most bakeries, when baking specialty items such as snack cakes and snack
pies, do not bake larger cakes or pies. Larger cakes and pies are
produced by bakeries engaged only in the production of these items.
Such bakeries normally do not also manufacture bread and buns.
Raw materials used in bakeries differ little from materials used by home-
makers. Flour is the principal ingredient and is purchased in larger
quantities thari any other raw material. Sugar, salt, shortening, pre-
servatives, and other additives are also used in the production of bakery
products.
Present Magnitude of the Industry - The baking industry represents a
$TO billion annual business, including smaller, retail bakeries. The
U.S. Department of Commerce ( 5 ) reports that a total of 3,302 bakeries
were operating in 1972 with nearly half of them with 20 or more employees.
Bakeries tend to be located near their market. They are concentrated in
the eastern portion of the country and are usually situated in urban
areas. Nearly two-thirds of all bakeries are in the northeastern states.
Bakeries are generally owned by large corporations which have bakeries
throughout the United States. Many of these bakeries at one time were
independent or owned by smaller corporations and have subsequently been
acquired by larger companies.(6).
Future Outlook - Most bakeries are located in older buildings which have
been built onto over the years. Generally, these buildings are located
in urban areas, and additional expansion is limited because of neighboring .
buildings or street locations. There appears to be little construction
of new buildings in the industry. If additional floor space is needed,
neighboring buildings will be purchased when possible and equipment in-
stalled. If neighboring buildings are not available, remote buildings
are purchased. New buildings represent about 10 percent of new bakery
construction, while 90 percent represents the use and renovation of
existing buildings for expansion of bakeries.
Description of the Conventional Mix Bread Process - The conventional or
batch mix method of producing bread is the most extensively used processing
59
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DRAFT
method, accounting for more than 60 percent of all bread made in this
country. This method yields a somewhat coarse and unevenly textured
bread compared to the continuous mix process. The conventional method
1s described below. Figure 13 presents a typical process flow diagram.
Raw materials used in the baking of bread are purchased in bulk and stored
in bins, vats, or bags. Flour requires larger storage facilities than does
shortening, yeast, sugar, salt, and other lesser ingredients. Fruits
used in snack pies or regular pies are purchased frozen and with addition
of sugars and syrups are used as pie fillings. Other ingredients which
are used in lesser quantities, such as raisins, sesame seed, and rye
meal, are purchased in paper sacks and stored in rooms with temperature and
humidity control.
From its 18,000 to 50,000 kg (40,000 to 110,000 Ib) storage bins, the
flour is pumped or screw conveyed to a sifter which removes undesireable
foreign matter. From the sifter, the flour is transferred directly to
the mixer where ingredients are either added automatically or manually
depending on the type bread being made. This mix is referred to as a
"sponge mix" and contains flour, shortening, water, and yeast.
The mixing equipment is cleaned each day by scraping the walls of the
mixers to remove any dough which may adhere. Material removed from the
mixers is either used for animal feed or is taken to a sanitary landfill
for disposal. No water is used during the daily cleaning process unless
mixing has been completed for the day because the action of water and flour
together could impede any mixing which would occur soon after cleanup.
Water is used to clean mixers after all mixing has been completed for the
day or during a down day when a major cleanup of the plant occurs. This
allows the mixers to dry'sufficiently before the next day's operation.
Once the sponge mix is completed, the dough is placed into large greased
troughs. The troughs are rolled into a fermentation room where the
fermenting action of the yeast produces carbon dioxide which causes
the dough to rise. The fermentation room has controlled temperature and
humidity for optimum results. The dough remains in this room for about
five hours or until it has risen fully.
When fermentation is completed, the troughs are removed from the room
and the dough beaten down by hand. The trough is raised above the second
mixer, where it is tipped, and the sponge mix falls into the hopper of
the mixer below.
The greased troughs are not cleaned except for the occasional removal
of dough which may stick to the trough. Generally, the troughs are wiped
out with rags when necessary and regreased to accept the next batch of
dough.
In the second mixer, additional water, flour, sugar and other minor
ingredients are added, and'the-'dough is given its -final mixing period -
60
-------
DRAFT
HOLDING
^ CLEANING
CLEANING
SPONGE
MIX
CLEANING
FERMENT
MIXING
CLEANING
FLOOR
TIME
CLEANING
DIVIDING
, _ CLEANW3_|
^~ I
ROUNDING
CLEANING
"*"
CLEANING
DRY PROOF
MOLDING 6
PANNING
WET PROOF
BAKING
COOLING
CLEANING
SLICING
PACKAGE
SOLID
WASTE
i
-1
CLEANUP
WASTEWATER
FIGURE 13
BREAD - CONVENTIONAL MIX METHOD
PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
61
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DRAFT
of about 20 minutes. After the second mix, the dough is emptied back
Into a greased trough where it remains for an additional 20 minutes.
This is referred to as "floor time" and allows the dough a second rising.
The second mixer is cleaned in a manner similar to the sponge mixer.
When floor time is complete, the dough is emptied into the divider, which
divides the dough into prescribed portions by weight for one loaf of
bread. At the end of each production day, the divider is dry cleaned
to remove excess flour and dough. Useable dough is returned to the
divider hopper for further use. Dough which cannot be used is handled
as solid waste.
Once divided, the dough is conveyed a short distance to the rounder. The
rounder is a centrifuge which forms the dough into round shapes and dis-
charges it. The rounder generates a considerable amount of solid waste
which is normally removed by dry cleaning.
The next processing step is called "dry proofing." The rounded dough is
dropped into pans or into a dry proofer which has captive trays where
it remains at room temperature from 8 to 20 minutes for further rising.
Again, the pans or trays used for dry proofing are usually dry cleaned.
After completing the dry proofing, dough is conveyed to the sheeter.
In the sheeter, the dough is first rolled into a pizza-like shape and
then through a molder to form it into the familiar blunt cigar shape of
a loaf of bread.
After shaping, the dough is put into pregreased pans. If a pullman or
sandwich loaf is to be made, a pan lid will be placed over the pans.
This creates the familiar square sandwich loaf by preventing the dough
from rising to form a rounded top. The pans are then conveyed into a wet
proof box and remains there for about 40 to 70 minutes. The wet proofo
box is heated considerably above the room temperature (up to 53°C, 125 F)
and the humidity is increased. This causes the dough to rise and fill the
pans before baking. When removed from the wet proof box, the panned dough
is conveyed to ovens. The bread moves slowly through the ovens where it
bakes for about 20 minutes.
The pans of bread are then conveyed to a depanner which removes the bread
from the pans. This is accomplished by blowing air into the pans to free
the bread. The pans then pass under a series of suction cups which lift
the bread out of the pans. The bread is deposited onto a conveyor and the
pans go to a separate conveyor where they are returned to the production
line for further use. Bread pans are seldom washed. Generally they
are regreased and used continuously until the glaze inside the pans begins
to show wear. When this occurs, the pans are sent to a contractor to be
thoroughly cleaned and reglazed.
The loaves of bread are air cooled while being conveyed to the packaging
area where they are fed through high speed knife bands which slice the
62
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DRAFT
bread. After slicing, the bread is automatically bagged and placed on racks
for distribution to the loading and shipping areas. The slicing generates
substantial amounts of crumbs. These, along with raisins from raisin
bread, are swept from the equipment and floor and handled as a solid
waste.
Wet cleanup methods are used infrequently in most bakeries. During special
cleanup shifts or when a production line is shutdown, equipment and floors
are dry cleaned as thoroughly as possible using air to blow residues
from equipment and brooms and vacuum cleaners to clean the floors. This
is followed by wet cleaning the floors and the mixing equipment. The
floors are cleaned using mops and buckets or scrubbers which vacuums
the water from the floor as it is used. Mops, buckets, and scrubbers are
then cleaned and emptied as needed. Mixers are cleaned using a mixture
of water and mild detergents followed by a thorough flushing with fresh
water.
Description of the Continuous Mix Bread Process - The continuous mix
method of making bread is used at some bakeries. It produces bread in
less time than the conventional process; however, the finished product
has an extremely fine texture and is considered less flavorful then bread
made using the conventional process, Figure 14 is a process flow diagram
for this method.
In the continuous method, a slurry of ingredients is produced. The slurry
is much less viscous than the dough produced in the sponge mix for the
conventional process. This slurry is pumped into a refrigerated holding
tank in which it is slowly agitated and some fermentation takes place.
The slurry is then transferred to a premixer where additional flour and
other ingredients are added.
From the premixer, the dough is then pumped through a developer and the
dough is extruded and divided into individual loaf size portions and
deposited directly into pregreased pans. After being deposited in the
baking pans the dough is processed in the same manner as in the conventional
method.
The continuous mix method eliminates the fermentation time, second mixing,
floor time, dividing, rounding, and dry proof operations of the conventional
mix method.
Mixing equipment is cleaned daily because everything up to the mixer is
liquid in form. The slurry and holding tanks are flushed with fresh
water each day and small utensils are washed continuously. Floors are
cleaned with brooms or vacuum cleaners throughout the area except for the
mixing room which is generally mopped. Because continuous mixing is
primarily liquid, the mixing area is wet and requires frequent mopping.
Description of the Snack Cakes Process - Snack cakes, which are widely
produced by bakeries, are products requiring special equipment for its
manufacture and handling. The equipment is designed to make a specific
63
-------
DRAFT
HOLDING
CLEANING
r
LIQUID
SPONGE
I
MI
X
CLEANING
CLEANING I
"H
CLEANING
SOLID
WASTE
MOLDING &
PANNING
WET PROOF
BAKING
COOLING
SLICER
PACKAGE
CLEANUP
WASTEWATER
FIGURE 14
BREAD - CONTINUOUS MIX METHOD
PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
64
-------
DRAFT
product. A typical process flow diagram is shown in Figure 15 .
Raw materials for snack cakes include the basics of flour, shortening,
and sugar, plus minor ingredients such as leavening agents, preservatives,
artificial flavorings and colors, and ingredients for fillings. Storage
of raw materials involves bulk tanks, drums,iand bags.
Some ingredients are premixed in vats or tanks prior to transfer to
a mixer. In the mixer, other ingredients are added and blended into the
batter. The batter is then pumped to a depositor which releases the proper
amount into pregreased baking pans. Snack cakes require a large number
of smaller utensils such as small tubs and beaters for the mixing and
are cleaned frequently. Each time a different line of snack cake is made,
all related mixing equipment must be thoroughly cleaned in the wash room.
This is done using a high pressure spray. Solid waste is in the form of
flour, paper sacks, and other ingredient containers which are discarded
when emptied.
The pans are then iconveyed through an oven for baking. In some plants,
air is bubbled into the batter to aid in the rising process. When baking
is complete, the cakes may be dumped out of the pans for further processing
or may be filled with creme. This filling is accomplished by injecting
the creme using a series of needles. Filled cakes are then dumped from
the baking pans for further finishing or packaging.
Most of the equipment used in producing snack cakes is water cleaned. The
mixing vats, mixers, piping, and depositors are normally washed daily,
or when the cake variety is changed, The washing of cake pans is the
source of the strongest wastewater in most bakeries arid occurs 'due'to.pans
being washed after each use. In-plant studies ( 7 ) at one bakery noted
a BOD of 54,000 mg/1 intiie pan wash water. Pans are washed as infrequently
as possible. At least one bakery has completely eliminated pan washing
with a resultant decrease in waste load.
After being dumped from their baking pans, snack cakes pass through a
series of finishing operations. These include slicing, icing, filling,
dusting, and enrobing. These operations generate large amounts of solid
waste and require wet cleaning. In particular, the enrobing machine,
which coats the entire cake with icing, must be water cleaned and yields
a strong waste stream; however, it may require only infrequent cleaning
depending on its degree of usage. The solid waste generated at these and
other steps in cake baking are often sold as additives for animal feed.
Packaging follows finishing. Snack cakes are automatically wrapped singly,
in pairs, or in larger groups in plastic wrapping material. They then
pass through a metal detector which removes packages containing metal.
Description of Process - Cakes - The production of full-size cakes is
similar to that of snack cakes, except for the lack of finishing steps
other than icing. Figure 16 illustrates the process flow for cake baking.
65
-------
DRAFT
1
SOL
WAS
.._ CLEANING
r~ ~~
CLEANING PREPARATION
OF FINISHES
ŁLF AM I NIC -I
CLEANING PREPARATION ^
OF FILLINGS
CLEANING
1
.ID
;TE
MIXING
\
DEPOSITING
\
BAKING
1
COOLING
\
DUMPING
F I NI SH T IslG
-K
T
COOLING
*
PACKAGING
*
STORAGE
CLEANING
CLEANING
•- 1
"" 1
GREASING
1
WASHING ^
) \
CLEANING
CLEANING
CLEANING ^
CLEANUP
WASH CLEANING ^
ROOM
WASTEW
FIGURE 15
SNACK CAKE PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
66
-------
DRAFT
SOI
WA;
— CLEANING
m CLEANING
„, CLEANING 1
MIXING
I
DEPOSITING 1
1
BAKING
*
COOLING
CLEANING
"*
CLEANING
GREASING
(
...Ar-,., CLEANING
I nnon >
DUMPING
4
ICING
CLEANING 1 1
^ CLEANING
_ID
5TE
PACKAGE
r
CLEANING
CLEANING 1
CLEANUP
I
j
WASTEV
FIGURE 16
CAKE PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
67
-------
DRAFT
Manufacturers of full sized cakes normally produce a greater variety of
product than do snack cake bakers. This large product variety results
in a frequent (every few hours) change of production from one item to
another. The cleanup of the equipment between products results in larger
volumes (estimate: two to three times) than in snack cake plants which
produce a single product on a given production line. Wastewater is also
generated during daily mechanical scrubbing of the floors and occasional
mopping of accidental spillages. Cake pans are washed with high pressure
spray in a tunnel type washer with a recirculating reservoir which is
normally emptied and refilled every eight hours.
Solid wastes result from the disposal of ingredient shipping containers,
breakage- of the baked cakes, malfunctions of the packaging machinery,
incorrect baking and mixing formulation errors,
Description of Process - Snack Pies - Snack pies are made from refrigerated
dough and contain one or more fruits or other fillings. Snack pies can
be either baked or fried but are generally baked. The two major elements
of pies are the dough and the filling. Figure 17 illustrates a typical
process flow.
Flour, shortening, sugar, preservatives, flavorings, and additional
ingredients are mixed together. After thorough mixing, the dough is
dumped into a hopper which feeds the dough through an extruder to form sheet
of dough. This is referred to as sheeting.
When sheeted, the dough is placed on racks and then into a refrigeration
unit for approximately 20 minutes. When refrigeration is complete, the
dough is removed and placed into a second hopper located at the production
line. When the dough is extruded or sheeted a second time, it is the
proper thickness and width and is a continuous ribbon of dough.
Mixers and extruders are cleaned daily.by scraping excess dough from their
surfaces. Excess dough which cannot be used further is used as animal
feed or is disposed of as a solid waste. If the production line is
shutdown for an extended period of time, the equipment is thoroughly
washed with water. The production area is dry cleaned then mopped with
mops and buckets as a part of the daily cleanup program.
Fruit used in these pies is purchased frozen in 14 kg (30 Ib) containers.
The fruit is first cooked in a vat then conveyed to a mixer where additional
ingredients are added for sweetners and for substance to prevent the fruit
from bleeding through the crust. When thoroughly mixed, the fruit is
pumped to the depositor located at a point where the fruit is added to
the pies.
All related fruit processing equipment is washed each time a different
variety of fruit is used. Wastewater from this"process is from-cleanup
water with some solid waste going into the sewer or on the floor.
As the dough is extruded and the ribbon of dough proceeds to the depositor
68
-------
DRAFT
MIXING
CLEANING
.CMIN 1 INV3 _ I
1
r
CLEANING
SHEETING
REFRIGERATION
CLEANING
*EANJNG 1 SHEETING
PREPARATION
OF FILLING
;
<
FILLED
\ SPILLAGE CLEANUP
[CLEANING
iznrl_j i ' j
SOLID
WASTE
BAKING
PREPARATION
OF GLAZE
i
GLAZING
CL EA_N1NG
COOLING
PACKAGING
_CLŁANUP J
WASTEWATER
FIGURE 17
SNACK PIES
PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
69
-------
DRAFT
for fruit filling, it is cut to the proper length to include the top
of the pie. When cut, the dough rests on a forming machine which folds
and crimps the pie after it is filled with the fruit filling. Once
formed, the pie is then inspected for quality before being conveyed
to the oven or fryer. After baking or frying, the pie passes through
a spray of sugar glaze for finishing and is conveyed to the final
inspection and packaging area. Pies are individually packed in cellophane
or glasene wrappers for distribution.
Cleanup of the production equipment is generally dry unless the line is
shutdown for an extended period of time. Daily cleanup consists of dry
cleaning the floors and equipment with brushes and brooms. Water is
used for cleaning fruit filling mixer, cooker, and depositor. During down
days, floors may be wet mopped or cleaned with scrubbers. Wasted dough
is substantial where the pies are cut, formed, and crimped. Rejected
pies, doughs, and other solid wastes are used as animal feed or go to
sanitary landfills.
Description of the Pie Making Process - Pie making is very similar to the
process of making snack pies in that dough is mixed, refrigerated, sheeted,
formed, filled, and baked. After the dough is mixed it is sheeted and
refrigerated once or twice to produce a flaky crust. The dough is put
into a hopper located above the sheeter and then is extruded in continuous
ribbons which are placed on racks and then refrigerated. After cooling,
the dough may be put through a second sheeter. See Figure 10 .
The dough is then conveyed to a point where it is placed over an aluminum
pie pan and is pressed and formed into the pan. Immediately following
the forming of the dough, the dough-lined pan is trimmed of excess dough
which is reused. After the pie is trimmed, it is moved to the filler
where the fruit or other filling is deposited. If a top crust is desired,
the unbaked pie is conveyed to a second extruder which extrudes a sheet
of dough over the pie, forms it to the desired shape, and crimps the edges.
The trimmings of dough from both lower and upper crusts are recycled and
used again for pie crusts. The pies are then placed on a continuous
conveyor which conveys them through an oven where they are baked. After
baking, th'e>pies are placed on racks and permitted to cool sufficiently
before packaging. If a finish on the pie crust is desired, a mixture of
sugar and egg white is sprayed on the crust immediately after baking to
produce a glaze. The pie is then inspected, packaged, and boxed for
distribution.
Fruit used in pie fillings are purchased frozen in 14 kg (30 Ib) containers
and cooked in a vat. From the cooking vat, the fruit is pumped to a large
hopper where additional ingredients are added for sweetness and to give
the fruit filling more substance. After being thoroughly mixed, the
fruit is pumped to the filler where it is deposited into the pie shells.
When pies are made with no top crust, the filling, as in creme or lemon
pies, is deposited after the pie shell has been baked. Additional finishes :
or toppings may be applied. The pies are then inspected and packaged in boxes",
70
-------
DRAFT
__ CLEANING
r
_, CLEANING
CLEANING
CLEANING
r
.
PPFPAOATT O M —
OF FILLING
1
1 i
MIX
1
SHEETED
i
REFRIGERATED
|
SHEETED
*
FORMED
J
FILLING
.«4»
BAKED
CLEANING
CLEANING
CLEANING
CLEAN ING
ri PAMTKir:
*1
SPILLAGE CLEANUP
I
[CLEANING
i
SOLID
WASTE
—^___ ^ ^ |_ ^ I ^1 X IN >3
PREPARATION
OF FINISH
FINISHED
4
t
PACKAGED
CLEANING
CLEANUP
1
WASTEWATER
FIGURE 18
PIES
PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
71
-------
DRAFT
Cleanup of the pie production area generally follows a daily dry cleanup
routine. The fruit cooking and mixing utensils are cleaned with water
each time a different fruit filling is desired. The fruit mixing area
is generally clean except where spillage may occur and this is removed
by shovels with water being used where needed.
During down days or days when the line is not in production, a major
cleanup of all equipment is done by washing thoroughly with water. The
bulk of solid waste is generated by containers such as cans, cardboard
boxes, and cardboard containers which contained frozen egg whites, frozen
fruit fillings, or minor ingredients. A small amount of dough, flour, and
fruit fillings also contribute to the solid waste.
Description of the Cake Doughnut Process - The ingredients for doughnuts
are similar to those for yeast doughnuts and are stored and handled in
nearly the same manner. The principal dry ingredients are,in some cases,
purchased premixed. Water is added to the premix in a large vertical
mixer with secondary ingredients mixed separately and added manually.
Figure 19 illustrates a typical process flow.
Doughnut batter is transferred to an extruder. This machine forms the
doughnuts and deposits them into the cooking oil, Both the mixer and
the extruder are dry cleaned to the extent possible and then cleaned with
water.
Doughnuts are fried in a hot oil bath. They are conveyed through the oil
cooking on one side. Midway through the oil bath, the doughnuts are
turned over in order to cook the other side. Upon completion of frying,
the doughnuts are removed from the oil and conveyed through a spray screen
of sugar glaze. If any finish is required other than sugar glaze, the
doughnuts are reheated by infra-red lights located above the conveyor
belt while a spray of any one of several finishes is applied to the
doughnut. They are then cooled and conveyed to the packaging area where
they are inspected and packaged. Packaging is normally in bags or boxes
containing a dozen doughnuts,
Wastewater from the mixing, finishing, and packaging operations is generated
by the washing or related utensils such as mix bowls and beater blades.
Floor cleaning is done daily using brooms or vaccum cleaners with occasional
wet mopping for spills. During down days or when time permits, the floors
are thoroughly washed with wet mops or with scrubbers, which pick up
the dirty water.
Description of the Yeast Doughnut Process - Yeast type doughnuts are made
using yeast, rather than baking powder, as in the cake type, for leavening.
Generally, the mix is purchased in bags with all the needed dry ingredients
blended tbgether as an alternative and primary method to making doughnuts
from scratch and mixed with only water to complete the doughnut dough. See
Figure 20.
72
-------
DRAFT
so
WA
-ID
STE
CLEANING
CLEANING
FINISHES
L
MIXING
I
DEPOSITOR
J
FRYER
1
FINISHING
PACKAGE
CLEANING
~H
CLEANING ,
CLEANING _J
* 1
CLEANUP ,_
WASTEV
FIGURE 19
DONUTS - CAKE TYPE
PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
73
-------
r
h
CLEANING
CLEANING
-CLEANING
MIXER
CLEANING
SCALED
FORMED
CLEANING
WET
PROOF
COOKER
CLEANUP
FINISHED
j>
FILLED
CLEANUP
CLEANUP
PACKAGED
SOLID
WASTE
WASTEWATER
FIGURE 20
.nONUTS - YEAST TYPE
PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
74
-------
DRAFT
The dough is thtn scaled to verify that the proper amount of water has
been added. After scaling, the dough is fed into a hopper which extrudes
the dough in sheets and the doughnuts are stamped out. Excess dough
is returned to the hopper for further use.
The doughnuts are then placed in trays which are conveyed to a wet proof
room for about one hour to promote rising. After completing the wet
proof cycle, the trays are tipped, and the doughnuts fall into the hot
oil bath. Midway through the hot oil bath, the doughnuts are turned over
in order to cook the other side.
Upon completing the frying period, the doughnuts are removed from the oil
and conveyed for finishing with any one of several finishes, such as
glazing or powdered sugar. Finish and filling equipment is cleaned each
day to prevent clogging of the equipment. Creme fillers generate sub-
stantial amounts of solid waste and must be cleaned frequently.
When the doughnut has been finished and cooled, fillings may be injected
by needle. After finishing and filling, the doughnuts are then inspected
and packaged in consumer size packages of 6 or 12 doughnuts.
Floors are dry cleaned by sweeping or swept with brooms during normal
daily cleanups. Related equipment for mixing doughnuts is washed at the
end of each shift to prevent clogging of equipment. Excess dough is
constantly being scraped free of equipment and is handled as solid waste.
SIC 2052 - Cookies and Crackers ~
General - The cookie and cracker industry is primarily engaged in producing
crackers, cookies, pretzels, and other "dry" bakery products. In 1972,
the industry consumed 1.10 million kkg (1.21 million tons) of flour,
0.32 million kkg (0.35 million tons) of sugar, 0.27 million kkg (0.30
million tons)of fats and oils, and 0.05 million kkg (0.055 million tons)
of other ingredients. There are a total of 311 plants, 40 percent of
which are located in the northeast. The total employment for the industry
is 41,000. According to the Biscuit and Cracker Manufacturers' Association
( 8 ), of the total $1.69 billion value of cookies and crackers shipped
in 1974, large national and regional corporations were responsible for
approximately 70 percent.
According to the Bureau of the Census (2 ), the trends in the cookie
and cracker industry are a decrease in the number of plants and employees,
and an increase in the quantity and value of products produced. Thus,
the industry is apparently becoming more automated and consolidated. A
few new cookie and cracker plants are being constructed. These will
rely almost entirely on computer-controlled processing, thus decreasing
the manpower requirements and waste'due:to human error.
75
-------
ui\nr
Description of the Cookie and Cracker Process - Process flow diagrams
for cookies and crackers are shown in Figure 21 . Ingredients used in
large amounts for the manufacture of cookies and crackers are received
and stored in bulk. These include flour, sugar, shortening, invert syrup,
and corn syrup. The flour is sifted before these dry ingredients are
weighed and pneumatically conveyed into the mixers. The liquid ingredients
are metered and conveyed to the mixers.
Ingredients which are used in small quantities are received and stored
on pallets in their shipping containers. These materials are measured,
sometimes premixed, and added to the mixers manually. Normally, the
only source of wastewater generation from raw materials storage is the
periodic cleaning of the liquid storage tanks.
The mixing operation is normally performed in batches in one or two
stages, or continuously by either a vertical or horizontal mixer. The
vertical mixer has a series of mixing blades attached to three vertical
arms. The entire mixer can be raised and lowered and is designed for
use with a dough trough which is wheeled under the mixer. This mixer is
preferred for use in two-stage mixing processes since the dough from the
first mixing does not have to be added at the second mixing stage.
Horizontal mixers are more common and have a single mixing blade which is
horizontally positioned. The mixing chamber is rectangular with a concave
bottom to allow the mixing blade to incorporate all the ingredients. In
this type of mixer, shortening and sugar are normally added first, followed
by the liquids, and then the flour. The temperature of the dough is
regulated by adjusting the temperature of the ingredient water.
Batches of dough range from 135 to 450 kg (300 to 1000 Ib), primarily
depending on the capacity of the mixer. In the case of dough which
tends to dry out while standing, batches of less than maximum capacity
are used. According to the Biscuit and Cracker Manufacturers' Association
( 9 ), mixing time ranges from four minutes to one hour, depending on
.the product.
In the plants of the major producers of cookies and crackers, mixing
equipment usually operates continuously five or six days a week. Mixers
are cleaned out on varying schedules. In near-continuous operations, they
are cleaned on down days. In other situations, mixers are cleaned daily
or between varieties of product. Cleaning consists of scraping the mixers
as clean as possible and then rinsing with hot water. The ingredients
that are scraped out are handled as solid waste, which minimizes the
wastewater load, from this cleaning process.
After mixing, the dough is emptied into a dough trough mounted on casters.
From this trough, the dough is transferred to the forming machinery. There
are five basic types of forming machines as follows:
1. The stiffest dough is formed by a rotary machine. The forming
is accomplished by forcing the dough against an engraved
cylindrical die and scraping away the excess with a knife edge.
76
-------
DRAFT
COOKIES
r
~*
-
1
1
L_
P
MIXER
*
HDPPFR
t
pnPM T M(^
t
OVEN
*
COOLING OR
CHILLING
*
ICING OR
(OPTIONAL )
t
<^T A CK FP
*
D A r* ix A /- cr n
CRACKERS
my CT D
^
j,_pp_.R
nUKKtlK
*
ISHFETFD
f
C T A M DCT D
^
OVENS
*
COOLING OR
POST-HEATING
CLEANUP
CLEANUP
CLEANUP
FLOOR
CLEANUP
(VACUUM-TYPE
WET AND DRY
SCRUBBERS )
CLEANUP
W A ^ W
ROOM
ri FAMIIP
CA FAWIJP
FLOOR
C 1 P A M 1 1 D
l~L t ANUK
(VACUUM-TYPE
WET AND DRY
SCRUBBERS )
1
^
1
1
H
i
-
^
t
"
SALTING OR
OILING
(OPTIONAL)
I
WASTEWATER
STACKER
SOLID
WASTE
FIGURE 21
COOKIE & CRACKERS
PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
77
-------
DRAFT
The top surface of the cookie retains the design on the cylinder,
as examination of a sandwich or butter cookie will show.
2. Fairly stiff and extensible (stretchable) dough is formed into
sheets and cut into cookies by a cutting machine. All crackers
and some cookies, such as ginger snaps, are made using this
machine.
3. Bar forming machines use dough which is considerably softer.
These machines extrude the dough from a die (with a number
of different openings) onto a moving belt which carries them
through the oven. The strips of dough are cut into bars either
before or after baking.
4. The wire cutting machines operate in a manner similar to the bar
forming machines except that as the dough is extruded from the
die, it is cut into individual cookies with a taut wire. For
most products commonly formed with this machine, such as oatmeal
cookies and vanilla wafers, the cookies drop onto the baking
surface.
5. Deposit forming machines deposit the dough as individual cookies
without the use of a wire. This method is similar to the cookie
press used by homemakers. These machines are similar enough to
wire cutting machines that a slight modification in formula
permits, for example, oatmeal cookies to be made by the deposit
method.
Pretzels, sugar wafers and ice cream cones utilize specialized forming
equipment. Pretzels are extruded and cut into sticks or tied by mechanical
equipment. Batter is injected onto plates or matching dies for baking
sugar wafers and ice cream cones.
Wastewater is generated in the forming process during the cleanup of
the machinery. Rotary formers and the nozzles from extruding machines
are commonly water or steam cleaned in a wash room. Other forming machines
are wet cleaned or dry cleaned in place with compressed air.
The standard oven in the industry is a long (normally 90 m) tunnel oven.
The baking surface is a continuous metal belt. In cracker production,
wire mesh belts are often used in the ovens. Baking time varies from 2
to 15 minutes depending on the type of product. Sal tines and snack
crackers normally have the shortest baking time. Cookies such as fig
bars and chocolate chip are baked from seven to eight minutes. No
wastewater is generated as a result of the baking process since the ovens
are dry cleaned and wiped down with an organic solvent.
78
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DRAFT
After baking, the product is protected from cold drafts to prevent checking.
Sandwich cookie bases are applied warm thereby reducing product breakage.
For most other cookie and cracker products, ambient air cooling is all that
is required. These temperature control processes do not produce a waste-
water load since the equipment is dry cleaned.
Cracker products are salted and/or sprayed with oil. The salting machinery
is dry cleaned. The oil spraying equipment recirculates the oil it uses
and does not normally require cleaning.
Sandwich cookie bases, marshmallow cookies, sugar wafers and similar
products are iced and/or enrobed (coated) after baking. The Icings
and coating are mixed in stainless steel vats and carted or piped to
the appropriate machines. In large more modern plants, the vats and
piping are usually cleaned by a "clean-in-place" (CIP) system which
utilizes pre-rinse, wash, and final rinse cycles. In older plants, the
smaller mixers and other equipment are wet cleaned manually with hoses.
The mixing vats, pipes, aid enrobing equipment are scraped and not
cleaned at the end of each product run, which may occur several times a
day for each line. This is a significant source of waste load within
the cookie production process.
Packaging of the final cookie and cracker products is designed to minimize
breakage and maximize shelf life. According to the Biscuit and Cracker
Manufacturers' Association ( 8 ), both cookies and crackers may be tumble
packed or shingle stacked for packaging. Packaging containers include
bags, overwrapped plastic trays, and cartons. Moisture proof materials
are used to seal the packaged product. The packaging is performed
mechanically. The equipment is dry cleaned with compressed air weekly.
The steam room and the CIP system are the largest contributors to a
plant's waste load. All equipment associated with icing and enrobing
is cleaned by these methods, and these materials have high concentrations
of sugar and other organic materials.
General cleanup is a dry process. Wooden floors may be found in some
sections of cookie and cracker plants, evidence that the cleanup processes
in those areas are dry (vacuum and sweeping). Areas which are subjected
to liquid and semi-liquid spillage are wet cleaned using hoses, mops,
and vacuum-type wet scrubbers.
79
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DRAFT
SIC 2065 Confectionery Products
Background of the Industry - Included in this classification are those
establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing candy, including choco-
late candy, salted nuts, other confections and related products. Confec-
tions have been produced since pre-historic times, however, the extensive
production of refined sugar based candies did not occur until the late
18th century. Candy-making machines were invented during this period and
the industry has grown steadily since then. Today there are over 2,000
different varieties of confections and an average per capita consumption
of 8.5 kg (18.7 Ib).
The confectionery industry marketed $2,472 million in products in 1972,
an increase of 32 percent compared with 1967. The growth of the industry
will likely continue in the future, but probably at a reduced rate due
to increased raw material costs and a leveling of consumer demand.
In 1972 there were 993 establishments processing confectionery products
(2); however, of this number only slightly more than one third employed
more than 20 persons. Most of the larger plants are concentrated in
the north central and northeast region, the smaller establishments being
more widely distributed. The following process descriptions concentrate
on the basic production techniques which are common to most of these
varieties.
Description of the Candy Bar Process - Figure 22 shows a typical flow
diagram of a candy bar process. Although the range of candy bar types
is diverse, the manufacture of all bars is basically a single process,
in which there are two stages. In the first stage, the candy nougat or
center is prepared by cooking together varying quantities of sugar, corn
syrup, water, starch, cocoa, milk and other ingredients. The type of
ingredients utilized depends on the variety of nougat desired. The amount
of moisture removed in cooking of the various constituents determines
the density of the finished nougat. One of two types of cooking is generally
employed: 1) Pre-cooking, which is usually accomplished in open batch or
continuous- type cookers, and 2) vacuum cookers, which evaporate off excess
moisture from the mixture under vacuum. A combination of both types of
cooking can be utilized in a two step operation.
After cooking, the nougat is either cooled and aerated, or blended with
other ingredients. In the first case, the nougat mass is cooled, then
subjected to physical working. For lighter, soft nougats, this physical
working is called aeration and is accomplished by some form of pulling
or whipping action, while for hard nougats, kneading is used to work the
mass. In the second case, numerous ingredients of various kinds may be
added to the nougat to modify its flavor, texture, and appearance. Such
ingredients include vegetable oil, coconut, milk powder, peanuts, and
caramel.
80
-------
UKAH
BURNT
PEANUTS
A A I WASHDOWN
COAT
AERATE
a KNEAD
r
t
>^ c
I COOLING a,0 '
P_ ^^
PAPER, CONTAMINATED CANDY
I
V
SOLIDS
PRE-PROCESSED
CHOCOLATE
L WASHDOWN J jCOOLjNG_H20_ _^
T
EFFLUENT
FIGURE 22
CANDY BAR PROCESS
81
-------
DRAFT
The cooled nougat, or "base bar", is then either molded or formed and
cut to size. Two types of molding are utilized for the base bar:
1) A compressed corn starch mold or 2) metal molds, some of which may
be teflon coated. Formed candy nougats may be extruded or passed through
rotating spinners to form candy ropes before cooling and cutting to bar
size. Some candy bar producers utilize various types of nuts in the
base bar production.
Nuts can be added to the nougat before or after forming the base bar.
The nuts, if not previously prepared, are first cleaned of stones,
loose skins and extraneous materials. The nuts are then roasted,
cooled, and sorted or graded. The good nuts are used in the product,
and culls are removed as solid waste material. Peanuts, which are used
most extensively in base bar production, are either sent to grinders for
peanut butter type bars, or added directly to candy bars in whole or
broken form. If the nuts are processed at the plant, solids resulting
from the cleaning and sorting operations are the primary source of wastes.
The second step, which is not utilized for all candy bars, is to coat
the base bar, normally with chocolate. The coating process is termed
"enrobing". Enrobing is usually a totally automated recirculating
system which coats both the top and bottom of the base bar.
Milk chocolate, which is usually used for enrobing, is prepared by blending
cocoa powder, powdered milk and sugar. After blending these ingredients,
vegetable oils are added to produce liquid chocolate. The mixture is
cooked and then cooled prior to being transferred to heated storage tanks.
Chocolate coatings may be purchased and stored in heated tanks prior to
being pumped to the enrobers. Enrobers use warm water jackets to keep
the chocolate fluid. This water is continually recirculated in most
instances.
Whether the candy bars are enrobed or come directly from the base bar
formers, they pass through cooling tunnels. The cooling tunnels utilize
recirculated chill water systems. From the cooling tunnels, the finished
bars are inspected and individually wrapped and packaged.
The major waste water flows originate during washdown operations. Wash-
downs may be in the form of C.I.P. (clean-in-place) units, which are
used on conveyors, cookers, etc., or from minor cleaning and major wash-,
down operations at the end of a processing day. The wastewater from such
washdown operations is high in dissolved solids, detergents, and carbohydrate.
Most plants recycle the majority of the chill and cooling waters used in
their operations. Nevertheless, some plants do discharge some or all of
this non-contact cooling water. These streams contribute significantly to
flow volumes but not to waste loadings. Other small periodic wastewater
discharge result from cleanup of spills, pump seal leakages, steam conden-
sates and other minor sources. Flows varied significantly between plants
depending on plant size, type of product, recirculation technique, and
82
-------
DRAFT
washdown procedures from 3,800 I/shift (1,000 gal/shift) to well over
1.3 cu m/shift (350,000 gal/shift). This large range of flows gives
some indication of the diversity encountered in the candy bar industry.
Description of the Soft and Chewy Candy Process - Figure 23 shows the
process flow diagram of a typical soft candy plant. Corn syrup, sugar,
and water are the three major raw materials used in the manufacturing
of chewy candies. Dry ingredients, such as cooking starches, cerelose,
and cocoa, can be added to the syrup base. Various blends of the above
constituents are either pre-mixed in slurry tanks prior to cooking, or
in the cooking kettles themselves. After mixing, the syrup is cooked
between 117°C (243°F) and 155°C (34°F). The cooking and mixing area
is termed the "kitchen," and is the location where most of the clean-up
wastewater is generated. The cooking kettles, either batch or continuous,
utilize steam for cooking from which the condensate is generally recir-
culated back to the boiler. Cooking takes from five to ten minutes,
depending on the percentage of moisture desired. Following cooking, which
is closely regulated, the processing steps change somewhat depending
on whether the finished candy is to be a fondant creme, soft or hard
gum, pastille, or jelly.
Fondant cremes, after cooking, are cooled continuously by taking them
from the cooker to a large slowly rotating metal drum cooled internally
by water sprays. The syrup is cooled from 117°C (243°F) to approximately
38°C (100°F) and by means of a scraper knife the syrup is removed from
the drum and discharged into a beater. The quality of the fondant is
largely controlled by the efficiency of the beater which, in addition
to bringing about rapid crystallization, must remove the latent heat by
sufficient flow of water through a cooling jacket. If the fondant is
allowed to sit, the result is normally a rather dense product; a lighter
texture is obtained by the inclusion of "Frappe." Frappe, or whip, is
prepared by dissolving egg albumen or a substitute in water and then
mixing with sugar/glucose syrup. This mixture is then beaten to a foam
by means of a high speed whisk, either under normal or increased pressure.
Frappe may be used in fondant base in varying quantities depending on the
ultimate density desired.
Lozenges are a combination of corn syrup, sugar, and starch. This com-
bination is heated and mixed or lightly kneaded. Next, rollers are used
to roll out the candy into a sheet approximately 1.3 cm (0.5 in.) thick.
The sheet is fed into lozenge plungers which shape the lozenges to their
circular configuration. During the subsequent inspection, broken and mis-
shaped lozenges are removed and reused in the process. The accepted
lozenges are placed on drying boards and air dried until hard.
Gums, pastilles, and jellies comprise a large group of soft and chewy
confections. The prime differences between individual products are
the gelatinizing agents used and the moisture content. Most recipes for
gums rely on gum arabic or gelatin as the gelatinizing agent, but certain
83
-------
DRAFT
1 *
f ADDITIV
SET-UP i
KETTLES
i COR>
EXTRUDE
SWEEPINGS
nr---"_- -JTJ -_ _ j w
| L_<
(SWEEPINGS
W___T1~ SAND
I
i
j *• INS
I
i,. i- _
'PAPER, ETC.
JC PAC
y
SOLIDS
1
_ 1 1
ES + |
p WASHDOWN J
— , COOLING & WASHDOW^J
1
n 1
1
FINISHED CANDY 1
" * 1 |
MOGUL CONDITIONING LUBRICATION j
STEM (N.I.D) " ROOM 8 WASHDOWN1
j/ CANDY IN f '
Q$\ MOULDS 1
1 ^ |
j j CONDENSATE J
ENROBE *T
V 1
^, i
5PECTP 1
1
:KAGE .
V
EFFLUENT
FIGURF J?3
CHEWY CANDIES
84
-------
DRAFT
modified starches are also used. The syrup mixture is poured in
the gum solution and gently mixed. Flours and coloring are then added
to the mixture prior to deposition in starch molds. With the softer
gums and pastilles, it is usual to include gelatin as well as gum
arabic, and the glucose syrup content is therefore higher.
Jellies may be made with the use of agar, gelatin, or pectin as the
gelling agent. Different textures are obtained. Agar produces short
textures, gelatin is inclined to produce toughness, and pectin gives
soft tender jellies with good keeping properties. Refractometers
are generally utilized for determination of the soluble solids end point
during cooking. The flavors and coloring are added to the setup kettles
after the cooking process. From the set-up kettles the candy is trans-
ported from the kitchen area to the candy hopper where it is discharged
in measured amounts into starch molds.
The starch molds are used to form the confection into desired shapes.
The starch employed is usually the finest dry corn or maize starch,
which takes the mold imprint in detail and is quick to absorb moisture
from the semi-liquid confectionery. Most plants utilize a fully
mechanized machine known as a "mogul" or N.I.D. The mogul automatically
prints a tray of starch, which is then moved by conveyor to a multiple
depositor which in turn is fed by a hopper. The depositer works on the
piston principle, supplying precise volumes of liquid candy to each
starch impression. The starch trays are fed into one end of the machine
and, after filling, are removed at the other end and allowed to cool and
set in the conditioning room. After setting, the confectionery is re-
moved and brushed free of loose starch. Excess starch is then cleaned
and recycled along with makeup starch back through the machine to refill
the starch trays.
The drying (conditioning) room may or may not be heated. Fondants are
usually held for 5 to 16 hr, depending on moisture content, in the
conditioning room at 13 to 16°C (55 to 61°F). The relative humidity is
maintained between 55 and 60 percent. Hard gums are generally dried for
6 to 10 days at 49°C (120°F). Soft gum and pastille drying times vary
between one and seven days. Jellies have higher moisture contents, so
drying times are reduced and vary with desired moisture content. At
six to eight percent moisture a 5 to 8 hr storage is required, while
at 9 to 11 percent moisture a 16 to 24 hr storage is necessary.
After de-molding and cleaning of adhering starches, the candy proceeds
to the coating process. Fondants are generally enrobed with chocolate,
whereas gums and jellies are "sanded." Sanding is a process whereby
the candy is slightly steamed to make the surfaces sticky thus holding
the crystal-sugar dusting. The sugar coated candy is then subjected
to a slight drying in a warm room prior to packaging.
The main wastewater source emanating from the starch molding/packaging
area is washdown water. Lubricating water and steam condensate from
85
-------
DRAFT
the sanding machine are also two minor sources of wastewater originating
in this area.
Washdown from the "kitchen" or cooking area is the primary source
of waste effluent; however, many plants save the initial washdown
of cooking kettles and hoppers to be recycled, after cleaning with
carbon filters.
Description of the Hard Candy Process - There is a wide variety of
hard-boiled sugar confections, all having a basic formulation of sugar
and glucose syrup with color, flavor, and a number of other added
ingredients. Figure 24 shows the flow diagram for a typical hard candy
process. The first step in the hard-boiled sugar operation is pre-
cooking of liquified sugar and glucose until all traces of sugar crystal
are dissolved completely. The candy then goes to a vacuum cooker.
Vacuum cooking takes approximately 10 minutes, depending on the cooking
temperature, which varies between 137° and 143°C (250° and 290°F). When
the desired consistency is reached, the syrup may be deposited in
starch board molds analogous to soft and chewy candies, but more
commonly the syrup is taken to the kneading machine (Burk's mixer).
At this point citric acid, colors and flavoring are added, also scrap
candy is sometimes added to form a seed. The kneading process incorpor-
ates air into the candy and cools it to the desired texture. Chill
water is used to keep the kneading table cold so the syrup will solidify.
This water is normally recirculated. After the candy has been kneaded
to the desired texture, it is fed into machines, known as drop rolls,
which press the pliable sugar into shapes. Alternatively, the pliable
sugar is supplied to a "spinner," (parallel rollers) which forms it
into a "rope" which is then fed into a candy forming machine. This
machine cuts the rope into small sections and forms the candy into desired
shapes. Another continuous plant for the production of fruit drops and
similar products uses the principle of pouring the high bodied syrup into
multiple metal molds where they pass through coolers and then are demolded
on belts.
After the candy has been formed, it is cooled either by a series
of cooling tunnels or by direct air cooling. The candy is then cleaned
and inspected. Some candies do not require a cleaning operation
and are simply sized and inspected prior to packaging.
The major wastewater flow associated with the hard candy process
comes from washdowns. Another source of wastewater is the vacuum cookers
which utilize water to draw off the condensate from the cookers when
forming a vacuum. Additionally, water is used to cool compressors,
condensers and other machinery. This non-contact cooling water is
generally recirculated.
86
-------
CORN
SYRUP
L
PRE-COOKER
BLENDED
SUGAR
•* — ' w
<\SHDOWN
WASHDOWN
DISCHARGE OR RECIRCULATE
>-
o
z
<
o
Q.
<
cr
u
i^
o
LU
\-
_)
D
(j
a
•-I
HI
or
SCRAP
SCRAP
SCRAP
U
t
T
oANDED
KNEADING
*
ROLLING
*
CANDY
FORMERS
*
COOLING
<8>
INSPECTED
i^ „. J . nnt-r
m \ ADDIT
WASHDOW}
H2.0 Ov
WAS
_, 1
^ i
31 ZED
I SCRAP PAPER
*zzzn--
WASHDOWN
f
EFFLUENT
SOLIDS
FIGURE 24
HARff "CANDY ~
(HARD-BOILED SUGAR)
87
-------
DRAFT
Description of the Cold Pan Candy Process - Figure 25 shows the flow
diagram for a typical cold pan candy process. A large variety of
confectionery cores can be used for this process. Some of the various
types of cores utilized are jellies, marshmallows, caramels, nuts, and
licorice.
Cold panning is essentially a cold process in which the cores are
rotated in a pan coated internally with a sugar layer. The cores
may be in any shape and are dumped into the pans in measured amounts.
Glucose syrups (60 to 65 percent concentration) are applied alternately
with caster sugar and flavors until the correct size and shape is
obtained. The circular motion of the turning pan causes the cores to
become evenly coated with a wetting agent (glucose syrup) prior to
the addition of sugars. The final sugar dustings are with icing
sugar which gives a smooth surface. Following dusting, the candy
is put into trays and allowed to set for 16 to 24 hr in a dry (but
not hot) atmosphere. The candy is then given a luster usually by
the addition of beeswax, carnauba wax, or spermocet. The wax is
usually applied in a molten form, in sufficient quantities to coat
the candy with a thin layer. The candy is then tumbled until a gloss
is obtained.
The major waste source from this process is washdown water. Flows
from washdown operations have a wide range with observed values from
2000 I/day (500 gal/day) to 4000 I/day (1000 gal/day). Very little
water is utilized in the actual production of the product.
Description of the Hot Pan Candy Process - Hot panning is done in
rotating copper or stainless steel pans which are provided with some
form of heating, such as steam jackets, direct heating, or injection
of hot air into the pan. Figure 26 shows the flow diagram for a typical
hot pan candy process.
Many types of cores are utilized for this process but mainly they
consist of hard candies and nuts. Various types of coatings may be
utilized, i.e. nuts use a gum/syrup or chocolate coating after a
preglaze of gum arabic. The coatings are poured onto the cores
while the pan is rotating and a slight heat is being applied. As the
coated cores approach dryness, icing sugar is dusted on and further
applications of syrup and starch are made. The rotating cores enlarge
gradually with each application of syrup and sugar. The operation
continues until the desired size is obtained. Between wettings, the
confections are continually rolling and rubbing against one another
and the sides of the pan. This aids in grinding of the high spots
and smoothing the surface. During the last stages of tumbling, colors
and flavorings may be added. Sometimes these additives are dissolved
in the syrup prior to addition to the centers.
-------
NUTS
SOFT
CANDY
TUMBLING
PANS
COATING
HOLDING
TRAYS
POLISHING
PACKAGE
^LEAN-UP I
CLEAN-UP
EFFLUENT
FIGURE 25
COLD PAN CANDY
89
-------
DRAFT
NUTS
±
HEATED
TUMBLING
PANS
i
COATING
HOLDING
TRAYS
I
POLISHING
PACKAGE
FIGURE 26
HOT PAN CANDY
EFFLUENT
90
-------
DRAFT
After the candy has been built up to the desired weight or thickness
it is transferred to holding trays and taken to conditioning rooms.
The candy remains in the room for approximately 24 hr at a relative
humidity of 45 percent. The candy is then polished with a coating
of wax, generally beeswax, carnauba or paraffin, and packaged. Waste-
water flows are the same as the cold candy operations described prev-
iously.
Description of the Marshmallow Process - Figure 27 shows the flow
diagram for the typical marshmallow process. There are many varied
recipes for marshmallow products; however, all contain sugar/glucose
syrups which are aerated with gelatin, egg albumen, Hyforam, or other
whipping agents. The texture and density of marshmallows can be varied
by adjusting the quantity of such constituents as egg albumen and
gelatin or by the inclusion of various gelatinizing agents or gums.
The first step in manufacturing is the weighing out of the various
ingredients before blending. Sugar and glucose are first dissolved
in water and boiled at approximately 112°C (233° F) to the proper
consistency. After cooking, dissolved gelatin and egg albumen are
then added to the syrup which has been cooled to about 71°C (160°F).
This mixture is then beaten to a thick foam. Many types of beaters
are utilized, with the main purpose being to incorporate air into
the product. Beating can sometimes be done under pressure to better
control the density of the product.
The marshmallow form is then augered through a scraped surface heat
exchanger which cools the product to approximately 61°C (110°F).
Sometimes water cooled surge tanks are utilized for this operation.
The cooling operation generally uses recycled chill water that does
not contact the product. Some wastewater may be derived from this
operation in the form of make up water; however, the waste loadings
are insignificant.
After cooling, the product is formed by pouring into starch molds, by
piping through nozzles, or by extrusion. The last two methods are used
most extensively in the industry. Extrusion of the cooled foam directly
into jars yields marshmallow cream, whereas for marshmallows, extrusion
is into long "ropes" onto corn starch covered conveyors.
The marshmallow ropes, which may vary in diameter from 1.3 to 2.5 cm
(0.5 to 1 in.), then receive an overhead application of corn starch.
The starch must be dried to a moisture content of 4 to 6 percent and the
temperature should be below 55°C (100°F). If these conditions are not
met, the marshmallow foam may partially soak into the starch and cause
a starch crust to form. After extrusion the marshmallow ropes are
conveyed through automatic choppers and cut to designated lengths.
91
-------
WASHDOWN,SPILLAGE
COOLING H20,WASHDOWN|
1^* TT-T—L .MUM _-. — - _ _ __r f
STA^CH^CONT^
YCONT. PRODUCT
SOLIDS
FIGURE 27
MARSHMALLOVT PROCESS
92
-------
DRAFT
The starch covered marshmallows are then conveyed to a humidified
rotating drum. This drum "sets" the marshmallows and helps to prevent
sticking. From this operation the product is conveyed to a starch
removal drum. The removed starch is circulated back through the
process after screening and refining. The product may then go through
a cooling drum where a light application of powdered sugar is applied.
If enrobing with chocolate or other coatings is to be done a sugar
application is not employed. Marshmallows then proceed to the packaging
area.
The major wastewater flow originates in the "kitchen" area where
washdowns occur. Virtually no water is used past the cooling steps,
since water in the drying and forming areas would inhibit the quality
of the final product. Dry sweeping, cleaning, and vacuuming is done
in the drying and forming areas.
Most plants have a "cleaning room" which is an additional source of waste
water. This room is used periodically for cleaning equipment and
machinery. Many plants utilize dust collectors in the drying areas
to remove starch and sugars which are suspended in the air. The
collectors are usually dry collection systems, utilized to recover pro-
ducts for recirculation, but wet scrubbers are incorporated for dust
collection in some plants. Effluents from the scrubbers are high in
dissolved solids and add significant short term waste loads.
Description of the Candy Tablets Process - Tablets are a mixture of
flavorings, lubricant, binding, and loose material which have been
stamped or compressed so as to form a hard, cohesive confection which
contains very little moisture. Stamped, or "cut" tablets are termed
"lozenges." A lozenge is a sugar dough which has been flavored, cut
to shape, and subsequently dried to remove most of the added water
(see Figure 28 ). Lozenge dough is prepared by mixing together a solution
of gum arabic, gelatin, icing sugar, and flavoring. According to Lees,
( 10 ), efficient mixing is the key to satisfactory production of lozenges.
Mixing times must be standardized to produce homogenized paste without
excessive flavor loss.
When the ingredients are thoroughly mixed, the dough is removed and sent
to the sheeting machine where it is rolled into a continuous smooth
sheet. This sheet is delivered directly to the lozenge-cutting
machine.
The tendency of the lozenges to stick to the conveyor or stamping
machine can be reduced by sprinkling the dough surface with a food
grade dusting powder. Stamped lozenges are then removed and deposited
in one layer on drying trays. The lozenges are then either put into
circulating hot air drying rooms or allowed to air dry until they
are sufficiently hardened. Glazing the lozenges can be achieved by light
steaming and drying.
93
-------
DRAFT
WATER &
FLAVORING
SUGAR
GELATIN &
GUM; ARABIC
FIGURF 28
LOZENGES
94
EFFLUENT
-------
DRAFT
The scrap paste which is left after stamping is then recycled back
to the sheeting machine before excess hardening can occur.
Washdowns are the primary sources of waste effluents, and are derived
primarily from the blending and mixing areas.
Figure 29 depicts a typical candy tableting operation. Tableting
is essentially a dry process in that ingredients such as powdered
sugar, corn syrup, gelatin, and requisite flavorings are compressed.
The actual production of tablets begins with mixing corn syrup, sugar,
and gelatine in a "masticator." This material is then dried and
transferred to a blender where flavorings and a small amount of water
is added, such that the dry particles will adhere better after passing
through the tablet forming machine. The tablet forming machine molds
the candies under pressures of about 1.9 atm (14 psi) into the desired
configurations. Tablets are then inspected and conveyed to the
packaging area. Rejects are recycled back to the blender to be repro-
cessed.
Any water used in the forming areas would affect the handling of the dry
materials. If machinery is to be cleansed, it is removed from the
area and taken to a separate cleaning room. The masticator is the
major piece of machinery that is washed on a daily basis. Cleaning of
floors in the processing area is generally done by vacuuming or sweeping.
Description of the Popcorn Ball and Treated Popcorn Products Process -
There are several varieties of glazed popcorn products.Figure 30 depicts
a typical flow diagram of a glazed popcorn operation. Corn is brought
in from the field in kernel form, cleaned, and fed into gas fired corn
poppers. After popping, the corn is passed over shaker screens to remove
to mixers where it is combined with some type of coating.
Popcorn coatings are derived from the cooking of various combinations
of corn syrup, sugar, molasses, and vegetable oil. These ingredients
are first pre-cooked together to blend and liquify the constituents and
the mixture is then cooked to a viscous syrup. Other ingredients, such as,
coconut, margarine or butter, honey, and corn or vegetable oils, may be
added to the syrup.
When the final cooking step is accomplished, the syrup is mixed with
the popcorn in either a continuous or batch process. After mixing the
glazed popcorn is either formed into popcorn balls or sent to cooling
drums. Two major types of cooling drums are utilized. One type consists
of a rotating wheel which uses baffles to break up the adhering popcorn
as it cools; the other type is a large rotating wire mesh screen. Both
kinds of drums employ air injection systems to cool the glazed popcorn.
The glazed popcorn is then separated from clumps and chaff by shaker
95
-------
PULVERIZE
CORN
SYRUP
MASTICATE!
DRIER
BLENDER
TABLET
MACHINE
[NSPECTION
PACKAGE
CLEAN-UP
Crrcr
FIGURE 29
TABLETS
96
EFFLUENT
-------
SUGAR
K
POP
i •
CULLS ,_EXTRA,NJEOUS| I
____
1[MATERIALS
I
jP(DPCŁRN_ CLUMPS_, _CUJLLS_
«
CULLS
PEANUTS
ETC.
SPILLAGE
^^»
m~ ~
r H
I MISC.
NGREDIENTS
WASTE WATER
PRIMARILY FROM
WASHDOWN OF/
PROCESSING
AREAS AND
COOLING WATER
IF DISCHARGED
SOLIDS
FIGURE 30
POPCORN BALLS AND TREATED POPCORN PRODUCTS
97
-------
DRAFT
screens located at the end of each cooling drum. The finished product
goes into hoppers where it is stored until packaged. Other ingredients,
such as peanuts, may be added to the popcorn at the packaging area.
Wastewaters from the glazed popcorn operation are primarily derived from
washdown operations. The volume of wastewater from washdown comprises
approximately 35 percent of the total flow, with the remainder being
comprised of various cooling water and other non-contact flows. This
percentage will be much higher for washdown flows if cooling waters
are not discharged. With the use of corn and vegetable oils, either
for coating containers to prevent product stickage or in the product
itself, some spillage results. This spillage creates grease and oil
in the washdown waters.
Steam rooms are employed in most plants to clean equipment and containers
of adhering syrups and solids. Therefore, the steam rooms are a primary
source of waste effluents which are comprised of detergent, germicide
solutions, corn oil and kernels, peanuts, and molasses and syrups.
Most solid wastes are removed by sweeping prior to washdowns and
separated into edible and non-edible wastes. Edible wastes are sold
for animal feed while non-edible materials are taken to land fill areas
by contractors.
The majority of plants visited during this study recirculate the cooling
and chill waters used in processing. Any water lost from cooling oper-
ations would be in the form of overflow or make-up waters.
Description of the Candied, Glazed and Crystallized Fruit Process -
Glazed (candied) fruits and peels are confections which have had the
water in the product replaced with a high sugar content syrup. Figure
31 shows the flow diagram for a typical glazed fruit process.
Many makers of glazed fruits first bleach the fresh fruit in a "brine"
solution prior to blanching and addition of flavor and color. Although
processors use various components in somewhat differing ratios, accord-
ing to Soderquist (11 ), a typical brine contains 1.5 percent sulfur
dioxide, 1.5 percent calcium chloride, and 1.0 percent slaked lime in
a water solution. Fruits may also be stored in brine solutions for
extended periods to insure a continuous production.
Next, the fruits and peels, whether fresh or brined, are "blanched"
or cooked. This is necessary to break down the fruit tissues and to
improve the penetration of syrups into the product. Futhermore, blanch-
ing helps to remove chemicals from the fruits which have been brined.
Blanching may be accomplished with the use of steam or boiling water.
Times allowed for blanching vary from 2 to 15 minutes depending on the
softness of the fruit.
98
-------
DAMAGED
€L~~ — —
FRUIT
[BRINE CHEMICAI s
EXTRANEO^ F/lATET^lSL*!
DISSOLVED SOLIDS
CHEMICALS
D ISSO_LVEp_SOL IDS
CHEMICALS'
SOLIDS
EFFLUENT
FIGURE 31
GLAZED FRUIT
99..
-------
DRAFT
After blanching, fresh fruits are cooled, whereas brined fruit is
generally leached in water. Water leaching serves the purposes of
removing additional chemicals and cooling the product. The fruit
is then ready to be immersed in hot sugar syrup in concentrations
between 70 and 80 percent. The amount of sugar transferred into the
fruit is of particular significance in connection with the product's
keeping qualities. As reported by Lees ( 10 ) candied fruit should
contain at least 75 percent sugar and candied peel around 65 percent.
Some loss of coloration and flavoring may occur during brining. This
is artificially restored during the syrup diffusion stage.
The syrup application phase may be repeated several times, following
short drying times, to bring the candied fruits up to desired sugar
concentration levels. The glazed fruits are then sorted and dryed
prior to packaging.
The major waste loadings are derived from washdowns and dumping of
blanching tanks. If leaching is employed, significant waste loadings
occur in the form of trace minerals such as S02- Brine solutions are
generally reused, but periodically must be dumped resulting in low flow,
high concentration surges.
SIC 2066 - Chocolate and Cocoa Products
Background of the Industry - This classification includes establishments
primarily engaged in shelling, roasting, and grinding cocoa beans
for the purpose of making chocolate liquor from which cocoa powder
and cocoa butter are derived, and in the further production of solid
chocolate bars and chocolate coatings. The value of shipments from
this industry reached $735 million in 1972, an increase of 41 percent
compared with 1967.
The present technology for the manufacture of chocolate has evolved
over the last 200 years, starting with the defatting of the cocoa
bean by French and Dutch processors during the late 18th Century.
This and other innovations lead to the preparation of a more palatable
cocoa powder and the first solid eating chocolate. The present
consumption of chocolate and cocoa in the United States is approximately
300,000 kkg/year, equivalent to about 1.6 kg per person. This consump-
tion represents the processing of over 1.5 million tons of cocoa beans.
The industry is concentrated in the northeastern states and primarily
in the state of Pennsylvania. Of the 48 plants located throughout
the United States, 30 employ more than 20 persons; however, the majority
of the production is done by a few large manufacturers.
100
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DRAFT
Description of the Cocoa and Chocolate Process - Bulk cocoa is
received in this country in a relatively clean and also pre-processed '
condition. This pre-processing consists of initial fermentation drying,
and preliminary cleaning of the cocoa beans. The first step of chocolate
manufacture is the further cleaning of this "raw" material. The beans
are passed through screens, brushes, airlifts, and magnetic separators
to insure the removal of any extraneous material such as grit, sand,
metal, jute fibers, and bean cluster which may interfere with later
processing.
As shown on Figure 32 the next step is the roasting of the beans.
Roasting helps develop the characteristic flavor, color and aroma,
reduce the moisture content, and loosen the shell from the cotyledons
or nibs. The roaster may be of either the batch or continuous type
and depending upon the primary disposition of the beans, i.e., for
cocoa powder, chocolate, or cocoa butter, the temperatures and times
of the roast may vary considerably.
The beans, the shell now loosened by roasting, are crushed in breaking
rolls so that mainly large pieces of nib and shell are produced with
a minimum of dust. The mixture of nib and shell is subjected to an air
flow which carries away the shell and dust discharging two main size
"classes of nibs, large and small. The large nibs yield the highest
quality chocolate due to the proportions of cocoa butter, moisture,
shell and germ (Table 5 ). Small nibs may be used in blends or
exclusively for the expeller pressing of cocoa butter. The shell is
recovered for use primarily as cattle feed supplement or garden mulch.
The reduction of the nib to a fluid state ("liquor" or "paste") is
the next step in the process. Grinding of the nibs in any of a
variety of mills liquefies the fat portion of the nib suspending
the solid cocoa particles in a fluid paste. The nib may be subjected
to the "Dutch Process" which is the alkinization and subsequent
drying of the nib to give a desired color and flavor. The liquor
may be directed to milk chocolate processing or to the pressing
operation. The latter route will be considered first.
As noted in Table 5 , approximately 55 percent of the nib is made
up of cocoa butter. Separation of the particles of cocoa matter
and the cocoa butter is effected by subjecting the liquor to a
pressing operation. Hydraulic pressing of the liquor yields liquid
cocoa butter and also a press cake of cocoa with a fat content
ranging from 12 to 25 percent depending on how the cocoa is to be
used. The operation of the presses is completely automatic wherein
the ultimate fat content of the cocoa cake is controlled by adjustment
of the pressure/time cycle. At the completion of each cycle the
ram travel direction is reversed and the solid cocoa cake is dropped
into a bin or onto a conveyor for transport to the grinding operation.
101
-------
DRAFT
r-C
(Dutch Proem)/ NdNoturol Proem)
EFFLUENT
FIGURE 32
CHOCOLATE
102
-------
DRAFT
TABLE 5
CONSTITUENTS OF COCOA NIBS
Moisture
Cocoa Butter
Shell
Germ
2.0 - 3.5 (depending on degree
of roast)
52.5 - 55.5
0.2 - 1.5
0.1 - 1.5 (depending on winnow
setting)
SMALL NIB
Moisture
Cocoa Butter
3.8 - 7.5
35 - 36
103
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DRAFT
The cocoa butter expelled from the press may be directed either to the
milk chocolate line or into solid liquid storage.
The reduction of the cocoa press cake to a fine, high quality powder
is accomplished by the cocoa mill which incorporates several processes
in a single unit. Pulverizing of the press cake to a powder begins
by first passing the hard, compacted cake through breaker rollers
and subsequently through hammer mills or peg disintegrators in con-
junction with sifters. The final particle size, however, is dependent
on that achieved during the liquor grinding process. During the
pulverizing of the press cake, set temperature limits are maintained
by cooling air to avoid .liquefication of the cocoa butter fraction.
The powder is delivered by an air stream through cooling pipes and
subsequently to a cyclone for separation of the cocoa from the air.
Cocoa powder may be marketed in a pure form or mixed with other in-
gredients to make drinking chocolates. The latter are usually prepared
by mixing with sugar, corn syrup, and flavors under controlled condi-
tions to achieve desired particle characteristics which impart the
qualities necessary for quick dispersion in hot or cold liquids.
In addition to the production of cocoa powder and cocoa butter,
the chocolate liquor may be molded into blocks of unsweetened choco-
late, or processed into milk and sweetened chocolate.
As noted on Figure 32 the production of sweetened chocolate begins with
combining the liquor with additional cocoa butter and sugar. Milk
chocolate is produced by mixing sweetened condensed or dry milk
with the liquor and, in the case of condensed milk, subjecting the mix-
ture to a drying process to drive off the moisture. Chocolate must
be relatively moisture free in that a trace of water can cause stale-
ness and if more than one percent moisture is present it may become
moldy. In addition the presence of moisture renders the product stiff
and difficult to work.
In order to achieve a homogeneous mixture and aid in the development
of a fine texture, the chocolate is passed through a series of water
cooled refining rolls before being subjected to period of agitation
in a process known as conching. Conches of various design function to
produce the final flavor and texture characteristics of the product.
The chocolate is agitated from a few hours up to several days before
removal to liquid storage or molding.
The final step in the manufacture of chocolate is that of molding
it into the desired size and shape for distribution. Because of cocoa
butter bloom, air bubbles, and other problems which may occur, molding
is a carefully controlled process. First the chocolate is brought
to the proper temperature during tempering and injected into metal
molding pans. The filled pans are then passed onto a shaker belt
which functions to distribute the chocolate evenly in the pans and
104
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DRAFT
liberate air bubbles. After or during the shaking process,
the pans are passed through a refrigerated chamber to reduce the
temperature of the chocolate under controlled conditions. Once set,
the chocolate is knocked out of the pans and proceeds to some form
of storage or packing.
As previously mentioned the presence of water is not compatible with
the production of cocoa products; therefore, the open use of water is
controlled so as to avoid entrainment in the product. Fortunately
the characteristics of chocolate and the high production temperatures
are not conducive to spoilage of the product. This eliminates the
need for continuous use of clean-up or sanitizing water. A variable
amount of wastewater is generated during the periodic cleaning of
holding or mixing tanks, transfer buggies, and molding pans. The
production area floors are also cleaned on a periodic basis, usually
proceeded by dry collection and then mopping, and/or using industrial
floor sweepers. Cocoa butter may often be used as a cleaning solvent
with the later recovery of the cocoa butter and chocolate material.
The primary source of water is that used for cooling. Cooling water
discharge is quite variable in that it may be recirculated through
a cooling tower for reuse. The cooling water is non-contact and
therefore does not contribute to the strength of the total plant
effluent.
Most large chocolate manufacturers also have a milk condensing plant
for the preparation of sweetened condensed milk for the preparation
of milk chocolate.
SIC 2067 - Chewing Gum
Background of the Industry - This industrial classification includes
those establishments primarily engaged in the manufacturing of chewing
gum and/or chewing gum base. According to the United States Department
of Commerce Census of Manufacturers (2), there were 19 establishments
processing gum in 1972. The majority of these plants are located in
the eastern area of the United States. The value of products shipped
in 1972 totalled $383 million, an increase of 26 percent over 1967.
The manufacture of chewing gum is most conveniently considered as two
separate industries: 1) the processing of raw latex and additives
into gum base, and 2) the processing of gum base into various styles
of chewing gum. Both processes may occur at a single plant location;
however, they are more commonly separated with a single gum base
plant supplying several chewing gum processors.
105
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DRAFT
Description of the Gum Base Process - Conventional chewing gum base
consists of a combination of natural gum latex, synthetic resins and
rubbers, and plasticisers. The highest quality natural gum,
chicle, possesses the ideal characteristics for chewing gum but,
due to fluctuating price and supply, it is most often "extended"
by addition of other natural gums and/or synthetic gums. Various
plasticisers, e.g., lanolin, oils, waxes, and glycerine may be added
to the gum blend to achieve the desired softness.
As noted on Figure 33, the production of gum base begins with the
grinding of the crude gums and subsequent filling of the gums into
steam jacketed kettles. Water is added and the gums are preheated
to a state soft enough to allow mixing with agitator blades. After
the gums are mixed to form a homogeneous mass, the mixture is bleached
with a weak solution of sodium hydroxide for several hours. The
gum is then subjected to a succession of hot water washes for two to
six hours. The wash cycles serve to remove extraneous material as
well as the caustic bleaching solution. The excess water is drained
and the gum is subjected to another cycle of mastication.
After the gum is dried to a three to five percent moisture content,
it is mixed with other natural and synthetic gums and softeners in
heated mixing kettles. The hot mixture is pumped through fine screens
and then through a centrifugal separator to effect a thorough removal of
all extraneous material. The gum is subsequently poured into molds
and, when cool, the blocks of gum base are removed from the molds and
stored for later processing into various chewing gum products.
Wastewater of significant volume and loading is generated by three
phases of the process: 1) hot water washing of the gums, 2) contact
cooling water, and 3) daily clean-up of floors and equipment. In
addition, there are wastewater sources of low waste loading (but of
relatively high volume) which include non-contact cooling water and
air scrubber water.
Description of the Chewing Gum Process - The manufacture of chewing
gum is generally quite similar throughout the industry with slight
variations employed in processing to achieve product differentiation.
A typical process is shown in Figure 34 . In the first step of manu-
facturing the ground gum base is placed in mixers, vats capable of holding
up to 900 kg (2000 pounds) each, equipped with slowly revolving blades.
These mixers blend together gum base, powdered sugar, corn syrup or
glucose, seed gum, plasticisers, and flavorings. Corn syrup or glucose
additions help sugar and flavorings to amalgamate with the gum base
while keeping the gum moist and pleasant to chew. Powdered sugar is
used as a thickening agent which has an effect on the brittleness or
flexibility of the final product. As reported by Cook (12 ), plasticisers
106
-------
DRAFT
EFFLUENT
FIGURE 33
"GUM BASE
107"
-------
DRAFT
V
souos
PRIMARY SOURCE
WASTE
FROM FLOOR
SWEEPINGS
PRIMARY SOURCE
OF WASTE
FROM FLOOR CLEAN-UP
AND AIR SCRUBBERS
WATER >--»,
rAM.iro I
SHEET
\
CUTS
SCORE
1
STACK
COOL 8
TEMPER
FORMER
EFFLUENT
FIGURE 34
CHEWING GUM
108 "
-------
DRAFT
such as glycerin are extensively used to help reduce the viscosity
of the gum base to a desirable consistency and to improve texture.
When the blending is completed, the gum base is "tempered" or pre-cooled
to reduce its temperature. After pre-cooling, the gum is mechanically
kneaded to a smoother and finer texture. The gum then passes to a series
of rollers that produce a sheet of varying thickness; the final thick-
ness of the gum sheet determining the type of gum to be made. Stick gum
comes from the thinnest sheets, candy-coated gum from a thicker sheet,
and bubble or ball gum from the thickest sheets or ropes.
Stick gum, after expulsion from the extruder, then moves to the sheeting
machine. This machine is made up of a series of rollers, each pair
of rollers set closer together to reduce the thickness of the gum
in stages. A light coating of finely-powdered sugar is used as an
adhesion agent to prevent the gum from sticking to the rollers as
well as to enhance the flavor. After passing through the sheeting
machine, the gum is cut into rectangular sheets, approximately 43 by
43 cm (17 by 17 in.), and scored in a single stick pattern. The gum
is then stacked automatically on trays and allowed to "set" in an air
conditioned room for at least 48 hr. From the conditioning room the
gum is taken to specially designed packaging machines which individually
wrap and seal the gum. The individually wrapped gum is then packaged
in multiple-stick packs.
The candy coating process for gums starts with sheets of scored and
flavored gum which are broken into small squares or oblong pellets.
Alternately, ball gum is extended in pencil shape and passed through
specialized forming machines. These different types of gum pieces
are then placed in panning machines which are simply rotating drums
equipped with blowers so designed as to deliver low humidity air.
A solution of corn syrup and sugar syrup is added and the drum is
set in motion until the pieces receive a uniform coating. A small
quantity of flavor is then added and thoroughly distributed. An
addition of finely powdered sugar is made at intervals and partially
coated gum is removed and allowed to season.
A coating is gradually built up with sugar syrups, starch, and gum
Arabic and dried rapidly by means of the blowers after each application.
A final polish is given to the coated gum by rotating the pieces in
drums lined with beeswax impregnated canvas.
Bubble gum is essentially a plastic base which allows for considerable
expansion when a volume of air is introduced. The gum base used for
bubble gum is made with various combinations of Jetutong rubber, resins,
and plasticisers. This gum base is then mixed with icing sugar and
glucose syrup in steam jacketed mixing kettles. After mixing, the gum
loaf is fed into an extruder hopper. From the hopper, the loaves are
picked up by two auger-type screws comprising the kneader and forced
under pressure through round holes. These continuous ropes of gum are
109
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DRAFT
then conveyed by rollers to cutters where they are cut into uniform
lengths. Bubble gum may also be formed in sheets and cut to size.
The gum is then put into racks and tempered from one to seven days.
After tempering, the gum is formed into a variety of shapes such as
pencil, kiss, ball, or square. The gum is then lightly coated with pow-
dered sugar, individually wrapped and boxed.
Wastewaters from chewing gum manufacturing are derived from three
primary sources: washdown, cooling waters, and {if used) air scrubbers.
Washdowns are the primary source of waste loading, averaging less than
7500 I/day (2000 gal/day) for stick-gum processing and slightly more
for candy-coated gum. Daily clean-up operations consist mainly of dry
sweeping or scraping and wet mopping with solvent, disinfectant and
water. Very little actual water flushing is done in the plant, except
in certain specified areas. Many plants also utilize automatic
scrubbers for cleaning floor areas.
Non-contact cooling water is generally recirculated; however, some
plants do discharge some or all of their water. This water, if
discharged, has a negligible waste loading, but may contribute signi-
ficantly to the total flow.
Many plants utilize air scrubbers to clean and humidify the air.
The water used in these scrubbers, due to sugar dust in the air,
may be relatively high in BOD and suspended solids. The. flow and
strength of loading will vary with the number and size of air scrubber
and the frequency of discharge.
SIC 2074. 2075. 2076 Vegetable Oil Mills
Mechanical extraction of vegetable oil from seeds originated with the
"stump press" utilized by the Egyptians, Phoenicians, and Chinese.
Dunning (13 ) reports that the process consisted of a burned-out stump
with a heavy pole driven by oxen that rotated upon the seed, thus
crushing the seed and extracting the free oil. The industrial revo-
lution brought many mechanical improvements, including the invention
of the hydraulic press in 1795. The hydraulic press remained the major
oil extraction device until the beginning of the present century, at
which time the development of the mechanical screw-press allowed con-
tinuous extraction of oil.
Today in the United States, the oilseed crushing industry represents a
major industry utilizing a variety of mechanical and chemical extraction
methods for the removal of vegetable oils from oilseeds such as soybeans,
cottonseed, flaxseed, peanuts, safflower, and other miscellaneous oilbearing
seeds.
A U.S.D.A. Marketing Research Report (14 ) states that the marketing
and processing of oilseeds and vegetable oil has been significantly
affected by increases in production and an expanding export market over
the past two decades. As a result, the industry has witnessed changes
110
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DRAFT
in organizational structure, processing technology, and the size and
number of processing mills. As indicated 1n Table 6 .vegetable oil
production in terms of plant numbers has shown a mixed pattern of growth.
This is best illustrated by the 62 percent increase in the number of
soybean crushing facilities in the last two decades, while cottonseed mills
decreased by 64 percent during the same period.
Approximately 67 percent of vegetable oil production is used in the
manufacture of shortening, salad and cooking oils, salad dressings,
mayonnaise, and margarine. Refining is usually separated from crushing,
the former prefering proximity to farm lands and the latter to marketing
areas, and over 70 percent of the final product manufacture occurs at
or near the refineries.
Since World War II, more efficient solvent extraction methods have for
the most part, replaced hydraulic and mechanical screw press methods.
During the same period, other striking technological developments have
included hydrogenation, deodorizing, and plasticizing of oils. These
processes have substantially increased the range of uses of vegetable
oils.
Other important developments in recent years have included an increased
use of safflower and sunflower oils in food products and the development
of meat analogs from olljseed products. The meat analogs, which compete
with lower cost meats such as hamburger, are expected to exert an
increasing demand on vegetable oil production.
The United States Department of Commerce reports ( 15 ) that approxi-
mately 19.4 million KKg (21.3 million ton) of soybeans were crushed
at 142 oil mills throughout the country during 1974. Soybean oil mills
are located principally in areas of heavy soybean production or meal
use with the greatest concentration of plants in the Eastern Corn
Belt states of Illinois, Iowa, Minnesota, Missouri, Indiana, and Ohio.
Arkansas and Mississippi represent the other major areas of soybean
crushing in the lower Mississippi Valley. Production data provided
by the National Soybean Processor's Association from 15 plants shows
production ranging from 62 to 2,310 KKg (68 to 2,550 ton) per day
with an average production of 1000 KKg (1100 ton) per day.
The vegetable oil industry is expected to continue the steady growth
shown over the past two decades. Further development of new tech-
nologies are expected and the worldwide demand for oilseed products
continues to increase.
Soybean Oil - Smith (16) reports that during the past 40 years soybeans
have made more rapid progress in the feed and edible oils industries
than other oilseeds because of their (1) low cost of production (less
than 10 man-minutes of labor per bushel); (2) adaptability to solvent
extraction processing; (3) economic importance to the feed and edible
oils industries; and (4) demand by foreign markets. The United States
in
-------
DRAFT
TABLE 6
THE NUMBER OF COMPANIES AND ESTABLISHMENTS
PROCESSING OILSEEDS FROM 1954 TO 1974
Industry and Year Companies
Number
Cottonseed oil mills:
1954 145
1958 125
1963 115
1967 91
1974 74
Soybean oil mills:
1954 55
1958 66
1963 68
1967 60
1974 36
Other vegetable oil mills:
1954 N.A.
1958 38
1963 39
1967 34
1974 N.A.
Establishments
Number
286
214
188
150
102
88
117
102
102
142
63
46
47
41
N.A.
112
-------
DRAFT
Department of Commerce reports (14 ) that the crushing and solvent
extraction of soybeans alone represented America's number one cash crop
In 1971, producing more revenue than corn, wheat, or cotton. In addition,
soybeans were the largest single farm export from the United States with
sales abroad 1n excess of 1.3 billion dollars a year.
Protein rich soybean meal, a by-product 1n the production of soybean oil,
1s a key Ingredient 1n the nation's expanding livestock and poultry
Industries. Supplies of soybean meal were more than adequate for
domestic consumption until mid-1972 when the United States entered an un-
paralleled soybean and soybean meal supply demand situation. Winner
( 17) reports that developments such as (1) unusually large purchases
by Russia; (2) a poor 1972 harvest; (3) curtailment of Peruvian fish
meal production, a protein source for feed grains; (4) reduced peanut
meal exports by India and Senegal because of drought and; (5) increasing
worldwide consumption, placed a heavy burden on American farmers and
consumers as prices for these products were propelled from $118/KKg
($130/ton) in mid-December 1972 to more than $363/KKg ($400/ton) by
early June 1973.
Production data provided by the National Soybean Processors Association
(NSPA) from 14 soybean oil mills found typical plants operating in the
range of 450 to 2300 KKg (500 to 2,500 ton) per day. Today 95 percent
of the industry processes soybeans by use of prepress solvent and direct
solvent extraction methods.
Cottonseed 011 - Cottonseed ranks second in total oilseed production
1n the United States with approximately 4.4 million KKg (4.8 million
tons) crushed in 1973. The National Cottonseed Processor's Association
(NCPA) Indicates that there are 102 active cottonseed crushing plants
in the United States with the major concentration of production occurring
in the states of Texas (28 plants); Mississippi (18 plants); Arkansas
(9 plants); California (7 plants); and Alabama (6 plants). Production
data provided by the NCPA for five crushing facilities ranged from 230
KKg (250 ton) to 700 KKg (750 ton) per day and averaging about 390 KKg
(430 ton) per day. Table 7 provides a summary of the cottonseed
industry listing total numbers of plants per state and the type of
extraction methods used.
Linseed Oil - The crushing of flaxseed to produce inedible linseed oil
was the third largest oil bearing crop produced in 1973 with 0.53 million
KKg (0.58 million ton) produced (about 2 percent of the total oil seed
crushing production). Flaxseed production is centered In the states of
North Dakota, South Dakota, and Minnesota which produce about 95 percent
of the nation's 'crop, with North Dakota alone accounting for about half.
According to the National Flaxseed Producers Association (NFPA), there
are presently a total of six active crushing plants ranging in production
from 550 to 800 KKg (600 to 900 ton) per day. The four largest flaxseed
crushing facilities utilize the prepress solvent extraction process.
Flaxseed crushers also process soybeans periodically depending on the
market value of soybeans.
113
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DRAFT
TABLE 7
COTTONSEED MILLING OPERATIONS BY STATE AND TYPES
OF EXTRACTOR METHODS UTILIZED 1974
Arizo
Arkan
Calif
Georg
Louis
Missi
Mis so
New M
North
Oklah
South
Tenne
Texas
Number
State of Plants
ma 6
ina 3
sas 9
brnia 7
ia 7
iana 4
ssippi 18
uri 2
exico 2
Carolina 4
oma 4
Carolina 5
ssee 3
28
AL 102
CENT 1 00%
Extraction
Methods
Mechnical
Hydraulic Screwpress
6
-
3
2
1 4
3
7
-
2
3
3
1 4
3
1 20
3 • 60
2.9% 58.8%
Prepress
Solvent
Extraction
-
3
3
5
-
-
2
2
-
-
-
-
-
4
19
18.6%
Direct
Solvent
Extraction
-
-
3
-
2
1
9
-
-
1
1
-
-
3_
20
19.6%
Source: National Cottonseed Producers Association.
114
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DRAFT
Peanut Oil - Peanuts ranked fourth in total oilseed crushing in 1973
and totaled 0.284 million KKg (0.313 million ton). This represents
less than one percent of the total oilseed crushing production. Infor-
mation provided by the Southeastern Peanut Association indicates that
there are presently eight active peanut crushers located in the States
of Virginia, Alabama, Georgia, and Florida. Daily production at these
facilities ranges from about 100 to 180 KKg (120 to 200 ton) per day.
Sixty-two percent of the industry processes peanuts using prepress
solvent extraction methods with the remainder, usually smaller capacity
operations, using mechanical screw press methods.
Olive Oil - Olives utilized for production of olive oil in the United
States are grown exclusively in California. Of the approximately
12,900 hectares (32,000 acres) of olives harvested annually, about ten
percent are processed for recovery of olive oil.
The production of olive oil can be divided into two product segments-
virgin and refined oil. Virgin oil, the finer quality oil, is produced
by mechanical pressing of whole, ripe olives. The poorer quality re-
fined oil is obtained by the solvent extraction of olive cannery pits,
culls, and from the pressing of low quality, whole, ripe olives. The ex-
tracted oil is then refined and blended with virgin oil. Currently, there
are two major producers_gf olive oil in the United States. However, there
are numerous "backyard" producers who press out the valuable virgin oil
by any means available.
Virgin oil is in great demand but short supply due to the fact that
roughly 0.9 KKg (one ton) of raw olives is required to produce 100 liters
(30 gallons) of virgin olive oil. The low oil yield is attributable to
the material makeup of the olive. A good quality rips olive is composed
of about 55 percent water, 25 percent pomace, and 20 percent oil.
Generally, olive oil is produced between the months of October and June
and continuous production during that period is dependent on the avail-
ability of laborers to harvest the fruit. Although demand for olive oil
exceeds supply, it is unlikely that the number of major producers will
increase since uncertainty of crop yield will continue to cause a reluc-
tance to invest in equipment thereby hindering the production of olive
oil on a large scale.
Miscellaneous Oils - The demand for a variety of other miscellaneous
vegetable oils such as safflower, sunflower, and seasame seed oils has
•been increasing in the United States since 1960. The demand for these
food materials has been most evident in the margarine industry where
food nutritionists and technologists have been utilizing safflower oil
as a source of polyunsaturated vegetable oils, important in controlling
plasma cholesterol levels in the diet. Doty and Lawler (18 ) report
that food use of safflower oil in 1970 totaled 36,000 KKg (40,000 tons)
and industrial use totaled about 9000 KKg (10,000 ton). Results of a
telephone survey during this study indicated that there presently exists
115
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DRAFT
two safflower-sunflower seed crushing plants in the United States with one
other under construction. All three facilities are located in California
and utilize both prepress solvent extraction and screw press extraction
techniques.
Description of Oilseed Crushing - The extraction of oil and the production
of meal or cake from oil bearing seeds may be performed by direct solvent
extraction, prepress solvent extraction, mechanical screw press or hydraulic
press operations. As indicated in Table 8 direct solvent extraction is
used primarily in the soybean industry; while prepress solvent extraction
and screw press operations are utilized primarily in the cottonseed, flax-
seed, and miscellaneous industries; and hydraulic press operations in a
small number of old, small capacity plants.
The crushing of oilseeds by solvent extraction, prepress solvent extraction,
or mechanical screw press, with minor variations in seed preparation, are
generally similar operations regardless of the seed being crushed with
one exception—the crushing of raw olives. Therefore, the following
process descriptions will discuss oilseed crushing in reference to the
extraction methods utilized by the major oilseed industries, while a
separate discussion will be provided for the crushing of raw olives.
Direct Solvent Extraction: Soybeans are commonly processed in the
United States today by the direct solvent extraction method. The manu-
facturing of crude soybean oil involves the crushing and solvent extrac-
tion of the crude oil from dehulled, conditioned soybean meats. The
important by-products of the process are soybean meal and cakes which
are sold commercially as a protein supplement in feed grains. Other oil-
bearing seeds, such as cottonseed, present problems in that the seeds
tend to disintegrate into fine particles, called "fines," which interfere
with the operation of the solvent recovery system. Modern technology,
however, has developed solvent extraction processes applicable to almost
any type of oilseed. During 1974, 20 percent of all cottonseed processors
utilized the direct solvent extraction process.
Cofield (19 ) reports that in general, the initial and operating costs of
a solvent extraction plant are higher than mechanical screw press operations.
More skilled labor is required in a solvent extraction plant and a several
hundred metric ton capacity is required for economical operation. Skilled
labor is often difficult to obtain and a large capacity requires large
storage facilities due to the seasonal production of oilseeds. Another
disadvantage of solvent extraction is the high cost of the solvent (usually
hexane) and its explosive potential.
The disadvantages and problems of solvent extraction are generally more
than offset by its primary advantage—increased oil yield. Currently,
95 percent of the soybean industry and 38 percent of the cottonseed
industry use either solvent extraction directly or in combination with
mechanical pressing.
116
-------
DRAFT
TABLE 8
EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM OILSEEDS BY VARIOUS PROCESSES
Oil Extraction Process
Most Common Applications
Direct Solvent Extraction
Soybean
Cottonseed
Solvent Extraction With
Prepressing
Cottonseed
Flaxseed
Peanuts
Sunflower Seed
Corn Germ (wet process)
Safflower
Seasame
Mechanical Screwpress
Cottonseed
Peanuts
Olives
Flaxseed
Hydraulic
Cottonseed
Olives
-------
DRAFT
As shown in Figure 35, raw materials arrive at the plant by rail or
truck and are immediately dried and cleaned before storage to eliminate
any foreign matter that could cause combustion, affect oil quality, or
deteriorate equipment. Cleaning is accomplished by a combination of
screens, air separators, and magnets.
A pretreatment step unique to cottonseed is that of delinting. Brennan
(20 ) reports that any cotton fiber still on the cottonseed after cleaning
is normally removed in two delinting steps, first-cut and second-cut. The
first-cut is a short, high grade fiber used in cotton-felt manufacturing.
The second-cut is usually sold to cellulose manufacturers. The motes, or
remaining fibers, and foreign matter are removed by shaking and are sold
for their cotton content. Cottonseed delinting is also required in prepress
solvent extraction and screw press operations.
All oilseeds must be dehulled to increase the efficiency and capacity of
the solvent extraction operation, and to reduce abrasion of equipment.
Dehulling is normally accomplished in bar or disc hullers or corrugated
cracking rollers, while screening and air separation are used to isolate
the hulls from the meat. In modern, efficient plants, this operation
creates little if any dust problem. However, in older installations,
particularly in those processing cottonseed, a considerable amount of
dust is created with a resulting loss in product quality and deterioration
of working conditions. Rockwell ( 21 ) reports a number of plants have in-
stalled wet scrubber systems, bag filters, and "cyclones" to reduce air-
borne particulate matter in oilseed preparation areas.
In most cases the hulls are recovered for animal feed or fertilizer.
In some plants, particularly in the peanut industry, the hulls are
incinerated or used as boiler fuel.
Hutchins ( 22 ) reports that the hull-free disintegrated meats are sent
to the "conditioner", usually a vertical stack cooker, where the meats
are heated to 70°C (158°F) maintaining a moisture content of 10 to 11
percent for 15 to 20 minutes. Cooking ruptures oil cells, provides dis-
infection, and stabilizes the enzyme activity of the meats. Conditioned
meats are then processed through flaking rollers where the meats are
pressed into a flat flake. Pressed soybean flakes range in thickness
from 0.02 to 0.03 cm (0.008 to 0.012 in.).
The flakes are conveyed from the milling preparation area to the solvent
extraction building housing one of several types of extractor units.
Although nearly all of the soybean extraction plants in the United States
now have percolation or basket-type extractors, a few immersion types
are still being operated on a small scale. It is not necessary to in-
clude a full description of all commercial extractor units available in
this document; however, adequate descriptions are available from published
references: Cofield ( 19 ), Encyclopedia of_ Chemical Processing Equipment
(23 ), and Langhurst ( 24 "K
118
-------
DRAFT
RAW MATERIALS
COTTONSEED
CLEANING AND
DRYING
J_
STORAGE AND
WEIGHING
SOYBEANS
PEANUTS
FLAXSEED
SUNFLOWER
AND OTHER
MISCELLANEOUS SEEDS
PREP
1
FIRST AND
SECOND CUT
LINTERS
*
DISC HULLER
*
HULL
SEPARATION
t
CRUSHING ROLLER
t
COOKER
RECYCLE 1
1 1
ARED COTTONSEED MEATS
1 1
f*
•*•
•*
I
CRACKING
'
ROLLERS
r
HULL SEPARATION
COOKER
1
'
FLAKING ROLLER
i
[
<+-
u
i
-*.
PREPARED OILSEED
MEATS
DISC
\
HULLER
>
HULL SEPARATION
»
CRUSHING
ROLLERS
1
>
COOKER
i
PREPARED
ME)
OILSEED
-------
DRAFT
The oil bearing pressed flakes are deposited into steel baskets within
the extractor unit and an organic solvent, usually hexanes is allowed to
percolate through the flakes at a temperature of 48° to 54°C (120° to
130°F) from 25 to 45 minutss.
Solvent extraction removes oil from the meat of oilseeds by the diffusion
of solvent and oil through the ruptured cell walls. Replacing the solvent
outside the cell walls with solvent of lesser oil content prevents the
process from reaching equilibrium,, and the process becomes continuous.
The hexane solvent reduces the oil content of the meats to about pne percent
or less with the flakes retaining 35 percent of the solvent.
Solvent extraction is accomplished either as a batch or a continuous opera-
tion. Batch methods have the advantages of low initial investment and the
capability of processing relatively small quantities, thus being practical ;
for the small processor. However, batch processing involves high labor costs •
and presents danger of flammable and toxic solvent vapor. The latter disad-
vantage has been overcome in recent years by the use of nonflammable tri-
chloroeth.ylenea and there are some small operations 22 to 27 KKg (25 to 30
ton capacity) which use batch operations. Most commercial operations
use hexane in a continuous operation.:
A number of continuous solvent extraction systems are employed by the
oilseed industry, but all use the same basic operations of (1) passing
the solvent over the conditioned, pressed meats to produce the oil-
solvent mixture called miscella; and (2) recovering the solvent from
the miscella and the extracted meats. A typical flow diagram of con-
tinuous solvent extraction is presented in Figure 36 .
Kingsbaker ( 25 ) reported that several desolventization methods are used
for recovery of the solvent from the miscella and the extracted meats, with
all having the object of removing the solvent,at the lowest possible temper-
ature and recovering the solvent with a minimum of loss. In cottonseed
crushing particular care must be taken t,o quickly remove the oil from the
miscella to prevent oil damage. This problem is not typical of other oil-
seeds. The recovery of the solvent from the miscella is usually accom-
plished in a long tube evaporator followed by a stripping column. Each
unit evaporator removes approximately 90 percent of the solvent.
The first method of desolventization of meats, developed in Germany, is
still used by perhaps a third of the solvent extraction plants in the
United States. The method involves passing the meats via a ribbon conveyor
through a series of steam jacketed tubes called "schneckens.". The schneckens
are expensive,' difficult to clean, and less efficient than more modern methods.
The next method of desolventization of meats that appeared in the industry
was the solvent vapor-desolventizing system. .About 99 percent of the
solvent is removed from the meats by passing superheated hexane vapor over
them. The heat from the vapor vaporizes the solvent. A final steam stripping
removes the last of the solvent from the meats.
120
-------
PREPARED OIL SEED MEATS
(SOYBEAN FLAKES)
HEXANE
SOLVENT
BASKET
EXTRACTOR
DESOLVENTIZER
TOASTER
SPENT FLAKE
BOILER
h-l
SOFTNER
IN-PLANT
WATER
SUPPLY
g
COOLING
; TOWER
NON-CONTACT
SLUDGE
STEAM
MISCELLA
(CRUDE OIL AND
HEXANE SOLVENT
MIXTURE)
SOLVENT RECOVERY.
(HEXANE WATER j
SEPARATOR) !
MEAL GRINDING
OF TOASTED FLAKES
COOLING-
SHIPPING
I
^PROCESS
WASTEWATER
(1-3% OF -
WASTEWATER
VOLUME)
CRUDE NON-DEGUMMED
VEGETABLE OIL
TO REFINERY
NON-CONTACT
COOLING TOWER
SLOWDOWN AND
BOILER SLOWDOWN
(97-98% OF
WASTEWATER VOLUME)
"" CLEANUP
WASTEWATER
DISCHARGE TO
SEWER OR '
TREATMENT
FACILITY I
OILSEED
MEAL
TO MARKET
FIGURE 36
A SIMPLIFIED FLOW DIAGRAM OF A DIRECT SOLVENT EXTRACTION PROCESS
-------
DRAFT
The desolventizer toaster is perhaps the most widely used method of de-
solventizing meats, particularly in the soybean industry. It consists of
a vertical vessel with steam heated tray sections. The upper trays provide
desolventization by steam .sparging while the lower trays provide toasting
by heating the flakes to about 106°C (222°F). The desolventized meats are
then cooled, ground, screened and processed as finished meal for animal
feed.
Solvent recovery in every phase or method of solvent extraction is of
great importance to processors because of the high cost of hexane and its
flammability. Solvent recovery is involved in all of the extraction equip-
ment but is a special problem in the recovery of solvent from the final vent
gas discharge. Various methods employed for this purpose include all adsorp-
tion systems, activated carbon, and refrigerated vent condensers, with the
last being most extensively used.
Modern plants can expect a total loss of hexane of 2 liters (0.5 gal)
or less per KKg (1.1 ton) of seeds processed and a concentration in
the vent of less than 0.9 volume percent air. The total losses :in
some plants are considerably higher, as much as 4 to 6 1/KKg
(1 to 1.4 gal/ton). These less efficient plants, besides having the
danger of fire and explosions, will usually face economic problems.
The final product, crude soybean oil, is stored in oil storage tanks
for later shipment via railway tank cars to area edible oil refineries.
Soybean Oil Degumming: There are a large number of solvent extraction
plants in the United States which also process soybean oil for the re-
covery and refining of phosphatides. This process is generally known
as degumming.
Bloomberg ( 26 ) reports that a typical soybean oil will yield a 3.5
percent gum-like material which is 35 percent water and 65 percent
oil soluble; the oil soluble portion will be about one-third oil and two-
thirds acetone-insoluble (lecithin). Lecithin is a complex mixture of
phosphatides which consists chiefly of phosphatidyl ethanolamine, phos-
phatidyl serine, and phosphatidyl inositol, combined with various
amounts of other substances such as triglycerides, fatty acids, and
carbohydrates.
A typical plant for degumming soybean oil, operating at 13.6 metric
tons (1.5 ton) per hour, is illustrated in Figure 37 • Oil, containing
3.5 to 4.0 percent gums, is pumped from the crude oil storage tank through
heating coils where it is heated to 59 to 65°C (138 to 149°F); then
through an in-line mixer, about one and one half percent on a weight
basis, of water is added to the crude oil. The oil-water mixture re-
mains in the hydration tank under continuous mixing for about 45 minutes.
From the hydration tank, the oil-water mixture is pumped to a degumming
centrifuge. The two products are discharged from the centrifuge. De-
gummed oil, containing about 0.2 to 0.3 percent moisture, goes to a
refining process and lecithin, containing about 35 percent moisture,
122
-------
DRAFT
WATER ADDITION
11/2 WT/WT
CRUDE
OIL
TANK
3.5 TO 4.0% GUMS
PUMP
OIL
HEATING
COILS
IN-LINE
MIXER
HYDRATION
TANK
RESIDENCE TIME
45 MIN
PUMP
CENTRIFUGE
PUMP
VACUUM
DRYER
DEGUMMED OIL
-»- TO REFINING
(0.2 TO 0.3% WATER)
. LECITHIN
(0.5% WATER)
WASTEWATER DISCHARGE
FIGURE 37
A SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF A TYPICAL DEGUMMING OPERATION
123
-------
DRAFT
is pumped to a -vacuum dryer. Dry lecithin, containing about 0.5 per-
cent moisture is discharged from the vacuum dryer. The moisture re-
moved from the wet lecithin amounts to about 227 liters (60 gallons)
per hour, and is discharged to a sewer or waste treatment system.
Mechanical Screw Press Operations: The primary emphasis of this de-
scription will focus on the cottonseed industry as 77 percent of the
processing facilities in the United States still use mechanical screw
presses, either for prepressing or complete extraction.
Cottonseed arrives at the plant by rail or truck and is stored in large
warehouses. Cottonseed is prepared for pressing by cleaning and sub-
sequent processing through the first and second cut 1 inters (Figure 35 ).
Brennan (20 ) reports_that the first-cut recovered lint is baled and sold
to cotton-felt manufacturers and the second-cut is sold to cellulose
manufacturers. The delinted cottonseed is then dehulled by cutting
the seeds in bar hullers with the meats being separated from the hulls
by a series of shakers, beaters, and separators. Cottonseed meats are
passed through a crushing roller to flatten the meats into flake form
and to rupture a large number of oil cells. More importantly, crushing
puts the meats into a form that permits uniform treatment of heat and
moisture necessary for preserving good quality oil. Hutchins ( 22 )
reports that after crushing, the meats (30 to 34 percent oil content)
are conveyed into a vertical stack cooker at a temperature of 84°C
(138°F) and a moisture content of 12 percent. Cooked meats are then
discharged into the mechanical screw press or expeller where about two-
thirds of the oil content is removed and sent to a sump.
Figure 38 shows a simplified flow diagram for mechanical screw press
extraction. Dunning ( 13 ) reports that the screw press extractor con-
tains a main worm shaft that exerts a pressure of 700 to 2,000 atm
(10,000 to 30,000 psi) on the meats being processed; the shaft is
selected for the type of seed being processed and the pressure required
by the seed. The particular shaft selected, however, can have its pres-
sure adjusted for variations in the seeds.
A drainage barrel, consisting of rectangular bars set in a frame, permits
drainage of oil from the pressing operation as well as acting as a
filtering media. The spacing of the bars will vary along the length of
the extractor and also according to the type of seed being processed.
The oil from the mechanical extractor is settled in a sedimentation
basin to remove the settleable vegetable solids or "foots", which are
normally about two percent by weight of the meats being processed. The
final unit operation before storage is filtration.
The meat from the mechanical press is in the form of a cake. It may
undergo additional oil removal by solvent extraction, or, if the plant
is strictly mechanical, it is ground in the meal room. The grinding
124
-------
MAKEUP
WATER
NON-CONTACT
COOLING
TOWER
NON-CONTACT WATER OR OIL
IS USED TO COOL SHAFT*
PRETREATED
OILSEED MEAT
ro
en
MECHANCIAL SCREW PRESS
WORM SHAFT".
if-l. I *l I *l
DRAINAGE BARREL-
*SOME SCREW PRESS OPERATIONS
UTILIZE OIL AS A COOLANT IN
A CLOSED SYSTEM
OIL
CAKE
SCREENING
TANK
FILTRATION
CRUDE NON-DEGUMMED
OIL TO STORAGE
GRINDING
BAGGING
JMEAL
SHIPPED TO MARKET
TO AN EDIBLE OIL REFINERY
_FIGURE 38
A SIMPLIFIED FLOW DIAGRAM OF MECHANICAL SCREW PRESS EXTRACTION
-------
DRAFT
operation presents a potential dust problem, particularly in the grinding
of cottonseed meal. At this point, ground hulls may be mixed with the
meal for protein adjustment.
Prepress Solvent Extraction Operations: About 19 percent of the cotton-
seed, 50 percent of the peanut, and 50 percent of the flaxseed crush-
ing industries utilize the prepress solvent extractor method. Typically,
oil seeds are cleaned, cooked, and screw pressed in the same manner as
normal screw press operations where two-thirds of the oil content of the
meats are removed. However, the cooled granulated cake from the screw
press contains about 10 percent oil (one-third of the oil content of the
seed). This oil is recovered by the same continuous solvent extraction
process described above. Solvent extraction reduces the oil content of
the cake to less than 0.5 percent and the crude oil is sent to storage.
Olive Oil Processing - Crude olive oil may be produced from whole
ripe olives by the mechanical screw press operation or by hydraulic
press. Cannery crushed whole olives are processed for oil by direct
solvent extraction. The screw press and hydraulic press produce both
virgin and low grade oils while solvent extraction produces only low
grade oil.
Mechanical Screw Press: Figure 39 illustrates the screw press process
for olive oil production. The whole ripe olives are hopper-fed into
a transport pump washer for prewashing before passing into an air per-
colation washer for final washing. The clean olives are then trans-
ferred into a hammer mill by means of a bucket elevator.
In the hammer mill the olives fall onto a metal screen and are struck
by a rotating drum fitted with steel bars. The pulverized fruit.falls
through the screen into an open trough which is sloped slightly toward
the discharge end. A rotating bar with interspersed, fan-like blades
blends the crushed fruit into a meal and conveys it along the trough.
The meal is then transferred into a screw press with the resulting
pomace being hauled away for fertilizer, while the slurry, composed of
oil, water and fine particles of olives, is centrifuged. Centrifiguation
separates the slurry into sludge, oil and water, and fruit water fractions,
The fruit water is recycled into the centrifuge to aid in separation
of the slurry. The sludge has a low pH and is normally used for neu-
tralizing alkaline soils.
126
-------
DRAFT
WATER SUPPLY
WHOLE RIPE OLIVES
TRANSPORT
PUMP
WASHER
AIR PERCOLATION
WASHER
HAMMER
MILL
MIXING
TROUGH
SCREW
PRESS
FRUIT
WATER
FIRST
CENTRIFUGE
WATER TO PRESSED SLURRY
OIL-WATER
POLISHING
CENTRIFUGE
EQUIPMENT
CLEANUP
WATER
SCREEN
TRUCKED TO LAND
APPLICATION
POMACE HAULED AWAY
FOR FERTILIZER
SLUDGE TO LAND APPLICATION
FRUIT
WATER
10 GAL/MIN
VIRGIN OR LOW GRADE OIL
FIGURE 39
SCREW PRESSING PROCESS FOR RECOVERY OF OLIVE OIL
127
-------
DRAFT
The oil-water mixture is separated in a polishing centrifuge with the
water being recycled back to the screw press slurry and the oil collected
in storage tanks. Finished oil is tested for taste, odor, .and free fatty
acid content to determine if refining is necessary. If the oil proves to
be of high quality, it is retained for blending with refined oil, bottled
as virgin olive oil, or sold in bulk.
Wastewater generated in the screw pressing process consists of periodic
dumping of wash tanks, centrifuge effluent, and occasional equipment
cleanup.
Hydraulic Press Operations: Figure 40 illustrates the recovery of
olive oil by hydraulic pressing. After crushing in the hammer mill,
the ripe olives are placed in burlap "press bags" which are subsequently
layered into the hydraulic press.
Pressing is carried out in two or more stages, with the first press
(at pressure of approximately 20 atm) (300 psi) yielding high grade,
virgin oil. Successive presses at higher pressures yield a lower grade
oil which must be refined. The extracted oil is then centrifuged
to separate fruit water from the oil. Low grade oil goes directly to
refining while the virgin oil is bleached by processing the oil through
a pressure clay filter. The bleached virgin oil is then pumped to
storage tanks.
The pomace remaining in the burlap filter bags contains about ten
percent oil and is mixed with crushed cannery pits and culls for
solvent extraction.
Wastewater generated in the hydraulic pressing process consists of
occasional washing of the olives prior to pressing and centrifuge effluent.
The Solvent Extraction Process: Figure 41 illustrates the solvent
extraction for olive oil production. Cannery olive pits and culls and
deteriorated, bruised whole olives are manually placed into a hammer mill
and pulverized into wet meal. At this point pomace from the pressing of
the olive oil may be added to the meal. The meal is dried in a rotary kiln
to prepare it for extraction. The dried meal is placed into the extractor
where the oil is extracted by a hexane solvent. The hexane is recovered,
the pomace sold for cattle feed, and the oil recovered for refining. The
only source of wastewater in this process consists of water which drains
out of the fruit during storage.
128
-------
DRAFT
WHOLE RIPE OLIVES
HAMMER
MILL
BURLAP PRESS
BAGS
HYDRAULIC
PRESS
LOW GRADE OIL
TO REFINERY ""
POMACE TO REFINING
CENTRIFUGE
VIRGIN OIL
PRESSURE
CLAY
FILTER
WASTE EFFLUENT
(FRUIT WATER)
FILTER CAKE
o SOLID WASTE
VIRGIN OIL
FIGURE 40
HYDRAULIC PRESSING PROCESS FOR RECOVERY OF OLIVE OIL
129
-------
DRAFT
CANNERY OLIVE PITS, CULLS
BADLY BRUISED WHOLE OLIVES
OLIVE POMACE
HAMMER
MILL
(GRINDING)
ROTARY KILN
DRYER
HEXANE
EXTRACTION
HEXANE
RECOVERED
SEPARATOR
-*• CONSENSER WATER
•»- POMACE TO CATTLE FEED
LOW GRADE OLIVE OIL
FIGURE 41
OLIVE OIL SOLVENT EXTRACTION PROCESS
130
-------
DRAFT
SIC 2079 Shortening. Table Oils, Margarine And Other Edible Fats And
Oils, Not Elsewhere Classif-fiB"
The refining and production of edible oil products from both animal
fats and vegetable oils derived from oilseed products constitutes a
major industry in the United States. The Institute of Shortening and
Edible Oils (ISEO) (27) reports that fats and oils provide about 40 percent
of caloric nutritional needs for the United States. Fats and oils com-
monly used for table use and cooking purposes are predominately trifatty
acid esters of glycerol, commonly called "triglycerides". Triglycerides
make up approximately 95 percent of the constituents present in crude
vegetable oil. Other principal constituents present include mono- and
diglycerides, free fatty acids, phosphatides, sterols, fatty alcohols,
tocopherols, carotenoids and chlorophyll (color bodies), and vitamins E
and K.
The USDA Foreign Agricultural Service Statistics (28) indicate that
world production of edible oils has been a growing industry for many
years. Prior to World War II, cottonseed was the major oilseed crushed
in the industry, but soybean oil has dominated the American market for
the last thirty years due to its relatively high protein yield. Soybean
oil has been largely responsible for the last decade's increase in
annual world production of vegetable oil from 12.3 to 22 million
metric tons. Table 9 shows the growth in demand for major vegetable
oils and animal fats in the United States over the last two decades.
Table 10 presents the annual production of the major crude vegetable
oils produced in the United States from 1959 to 1973.
The ISEO (29) reports that there, are currently 121 active edible oil
refineries in the United States processing more than 8.2 million metric
tons (9 million tons) of edible fats and oils annually. The largest
concentration of edible oil refineries is in California which as 20
plants; Illinois is second with 15 plants, and Texas is third with 10
plants. Table 11 provides a summary table listing the geographical
distribution of edible oil refining facilities throughout the United
States.
The following process description covers the refining of animal fats
(tallow and lards) and crude vegetable oils such as soybean, cottonseed,
peanut, palm, palm kernal, olive, safflower, and sunflower oils.
Description of Process - A typical, full scale edible oils refinery
usually purchases crude vegetable oils from a variety of oilseed crushing
operations and refines the oil into a number of finished products such
as shortening, margarine, salad and cooking oils, salad dressings and
mayonnaise. The principal steps involved in refining edible oils include
(1) storage and handling, including tank car cleaning; (2) caustic
refining; (3) acidulation; (4) bleaching; (5) hydrogenation;
131
-------
TABLE 9 FOOD FATS AND OIL END PRODUCTS
U.S. DOMESTIC DISAPPEARANCE OF FATS AND OILS IN FOOD PRODUCTS,.
BY TYPE OF FAT OR OIL, 1950-72 I/ (MILLION METRIC TONS) o
s»
YEAR Soybean Cottonseed Corn Coconut Peanut Palm Palm Kernel Safflower Olive Sesame Total 3
1950 0.656 0.655 0.101 0.059 0.047 - 0.012 - 0.036 0.002 1.567
1951 0.697 0.473 0.096 0.064 0.052 - 0.005 - 0.018 2/ 1.405
1952 0.867 0.552 0.091 0.087 0.038 0.0005 0.005 - 0.021 2/ 1.662
1953 0.965 0.521 0.107 0.083 0.021 0.0005 0.009 - 0.020 2/ 1.727
1954 0.908 0.782 0.105 0.093 0.026 0.007 0.015 - 0.028 1.964
1955 1.047 0.608 0.106 0.088 0.022 - 0.016 - 0.024 0.0005 1.911
1956 0.978 0.568 0.115 0.103 0.030 - 0.019 - 0.020 2/ 1.833
1957 1.041 0.555 0.123 0.106 0.030 - 0.021 - 0.022 0.0005 1.899
1958 1.281 0.466 0.122 0.115 0.028 - 0.021 - 0.024 0.0005 2.058
1959 1.431 0.483 0.140 0.081 0.037 0.001 0.022 - 0.24 2/ 2.110
1960 1.366 0.556 0.141 0.078 0.028 0.0005 0.024 - 0.023 0.0005 2.216
1961 1.279 0.579 0.148 0.093 0.043 0.014 0.027 - 0.027 0.0005 2.310
1962 1.486 0.562 0.156 0.121 0.028 0.013 0.043 0.018 0.026 0.0005 2.442
1963 1.478 0.530 0.159 0.102 0.041 0.008 0.031 0.024 0.015 0.0005 2.378
1964 1.696 0.611 0.187 0.115 0.026 0.005 0.030 0.017 0.030 0.0005 2.719
1965 1.701 0.640 0.194 0.123 0.032 0.006 0.036 0.023 0.020 0.0005 2.775
1966 1.949 0.552 0.180 0.157 0.065 0.024 0.029 0.038 0.022 0.0005 3.016
1967 1.980 0.488 0.183 0.164 0.078 0.028 0.049 0.072 '0.025 0.001 3.068
1968 2.147 0.445 0.183 0.167 0.091 0.035 0.044 0.031 0.029 0.0005 3.173
1969 2.488 0.435 0.177 0.182 0.067 0.058 0.042 0.056 0.026 0.001 3.533
1970 2.650 0.442 0.188 0.156 0.069 0.051 0.035 0.036 0.028 0.001 3.657
1971 2.638 0.327 0.177 0.207 0.083 0.088 0.035 0.052 0.028 0.001 3.637
19723/ 2.811 0.319 0.210 0.222 0.078 0.150 0.031 0.015 0.030 0.001 3.867
I/ Includes disappearance into products for both civilian and military consumption.
Data not adjusted for changes in finished product stocks and excludes exports.
2/ Less than 225 metric tons.
3/ Preliminary, U. S. Department of Agriculture.
-------
u>
to
TABLE 10
PRODUCTION OF MAJOR CRUDE VEGETABLE OIL IN THE UNITED STATES FROM 1959-1973*
MILLION METRIC TONS
(Million Pounds)
1959
I960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972 1973
Soybean
Crude Oil
Production
Cottonseed
Crude Oil
Production
Peanut
Crude Oil
Production
Corn
Crude Oil
Production
Linseed Oil
Production
Saf flower
Oil
1.97
(4343)
0.73
(1615)
0.047
(104)
0.146
(322)
NA
NA
1.99
(4384)
0.81
(1790)
0.038
(83)
0.108
(239)
NA
NA
2.01
(4428)
0.80
(1765)
0.042
(93)
0.152
(336)
NA
0.023
(51)
2.21
(4891)
0.91
(2001)
0.028
(61)
0.166
(366)
NA
0.069
(152)
2.29
(5057)
0.87
(1923)
0.045
(100)
0.177
(390)
0.179
(394)
0.047
(104)
2.24
(4948)
0.88
(1936)
0.056
(123)
0.188
(414)
0.209
(462)
0.050
(HI)
2.37
(5231)
0.92
(2028)
0.061
(135)
0.202
(446)
0.185
(409)
0.063
(138)
2.63
(5806)
0.77
(1692)
0.077
(170)
0.203
(447)
0.206
(455)
0.077
(170)
2.80
(6171)
0.50
(1095)
0.082
(182)
0.201
(444)
0.164
(363)
0.063
(139)
2.78
(6127)
0.47
(1041)
0.096
(211)
0.205
(452)
0.138
(305)
0.045
(100)
3.09
(6818)
0.67
(1480)
0.084
(186)
0.211
(466)
0.133
(294)
0.034
(75)
3.76
(8300)
0.59
(1300)
0.125
(275)
0.215
(475-)
0.127
(280)
0.045
(100)
3.74
(8265)
0.56
(1235)
0.121
(266)
0.220
(485)
0.179
{395)
NA
3.58
(7892)
0.59
(1308)
0.120
(265)
0.226
(499)
0.202
(445)
NA
3.40
(7509)
0.71
(1566)
0.124
(273)
0.237
(523)
0.173
(381)
NA
* Approximate Values
NA - Not Available
Source: Fats and Oil*
Situation. 1959-1973.
-------
DRAFT
TABLE 11
A SUMMARY OF THE NUMBER OF EDIBLE OIL REFINERIES
IN THE UNITED STATES LISTED BY STATE
Alabama
Arizona
Arkansas
California
Colorado
Georgia
Illinois
Indiana
Iowa
Kansas
Kentucky
Louisiana
Maryl and
Michigan
Minnesota
Missouri
2
2
2
20
1
4
15
3
8
3
1
3
1
1
2
2
Nebraska
New Jersey
New York
North Carolina
Ohio
Oklahoma
Oregon
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island
South Carolina
South Dakota
Tennessee
Texas
Virginia
Washington
Wisconsin
TOTAL
2
8
2
2
5
1
2
1
1
2
2
6
10
3
3
1
121
134
-------
DRAFT
(6) winterization; (7) deodorization; and (8) plasticizing and packaging.
Figure 42 illustrates a process flow diagram of a typical, full scale
edible oils refining operation.
Storage and Handling: Crude fats and oils arrive at the refinery
receiving area by tank truck or rail car and are pumped to a tank
farm storage area. After use, the tank trucks and rail cars are systema-
tically cleaned with steam or detergents. Tank car cleaning and the
cleanup operations associated with the storage and handling areas con-
stitute a major wastewater discharge from edible oil refineries.
Caustic Refining: There are in use today several edible oil plants
which use the older methods of batch or "kettle" refining of crude
vegetable oils. Sanders (30) reports that economics currently dictates
the use of the continuous caustic refinery process which utilizes
centrifuge separators for the maximum recovery of neutral oils. Figure 43
presents a simplified flow diagram of the caustic refinery process.
The caustic refining process (also termed "saponification") is carried
out by the chemical reactions of a triglyceride (fat) with sodium
hydroxide at a temperature of 60°C (140°F) from one to five minutes.
This chemical reaction is illustrated in Figure 44. Products of the
reaction are alkali salts of the fatty acids whose esters formed gly-
cerides and glycerine.
When the reaction is complete, the caustic solution is centrifuged
to remove the neutral oils from the water soluble sludge or sodium
soaps containing free fatty acids, proteins, color bodies, and
phospholipids. These extraneous materials are commonly known as
"foots" or "soapstock". The neutral, refined oils are further processed
by a water washing step to remove residual soaps that could cause deteri-
oration during later storage or processing. Water usage for oil washing
is about 10 to 15 percent by weight of oil.
The washed oil must be vacuum dried before storage. This operation
contributes approximately two percent additional water by weight to the
waste load. In addition, clean up operations such as wash-downs or
tank cleaning produce periodic water waste loadings.
Soapstock Acidulation: The completely saponified foots or soapstock
solution is cycled to an acidulation tank where excess sulfuric acid is
added to yield free fatty acids that are recoverable for distillation
purposes for the manufacture of fatty acid derivatives. The reaction
follows the general equation shown in Figure 44.
During the processing of soapstock for fatty acid content, waste
water is generated directly from the process itself. Acidulation of a
basic soapstock-water mixture produces wastewater not only by neutrali-
zation but also frees water from the soapstock mixture. The end result
with respect to waste load is an acid water with a pH of approximately
135
-------
SODA ASH AND WATER
BLEACHING CLAYS
CRUDE OIL'
TANK CAR MASH
HAMXING
CO
o»
INTERMEDIATE
BLEACHING
INTERMEDIATE
STORAGE
O
5
I
TANK FARM
STORAGE AM5
HAMXING
I
I PROCESS EFFLUENT
GRAVITY
f> SKIMMING
•EIR
FINAL DISCHARGE
RECOVERED
INEDIBLE
OILS
1 | HANDLING EQUIPMENT
OBXORIZATION
CONDENSER
FINISHED
STORAGE
PLASTICIZING
PACKAGING
\
SHORTENING
MARGARINE
SALAD OILS
TABLE OILS
FIGURE 42
PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM OF A TYPICAL
EDIBLE OIL REFINERY
-------
DRAFT
18 PERCENT
SODIUM
HYDROXIDE
1.5 KG/HR
(
CRUDE
VEGETABLE
OILS
50 KG/HR
PROPORTIONING
JO PUMPS C
SULFUR 1C
ACID
PROPORTIONING
> PUMPS T
PROPORTIONING
JO PUMPS
MIXER
26°C
1-5 MINUTES
SOAPSTOCK
OR
r"FOOTS"
3 KG/HR
CENTRIFUGE
60°C
SOAPSTOCK
ACIDULATION
HOT WATER
NEUTRAL OILS
TO
WASHING
47 KG/HR
"i
ACIDULATED
SOAPSTOCK
WATER WASHING
(MIXER) 70°C
4.7 KG/HR
--»
CENTRIFUGE
SOAPY WATER
10% FAT
WASTE WATER
PH 1.5 - 2.0
VACUUM
DRYING
1 WASTE WATER
REFINED OIL TO STORAGE
FIGURE 43
A SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF A CONTINUOUS PROCESS
FOR CAUSTIC REFINING AND RECOVERY OF ACIDULATION SOAPSTOCK
137
-------
DRAFT
CAUSTIC REFINING
R-C-O-CH2
R1-C-O-CH2
R2-C-0-CH2
60°C
C-H2-OH
•*• C-H
NAOH + 3 H20
CH2-OH
R-C-OO NA+
RI-C-OO~NA+
R2-C-00~NA+
A TRIGLYCERIDE
(CRUDE VEGETABLE OIL)
GLYCERINE
(A NEUTRAL OIL
SOLUABLE IN H20)
SOAPSTOCK OR FOOTS
(A POLAR ALKALI SALT
SOLUABLE IN
ACIDULATION
R-C-OO NA+
-«~M A +
Rj-C-OO NA"1" +H2SO4
R2-C-00 NA+
SOAPSTDCK
R-C-OOH
Rj-C-OOH
R2-C-OOH
H2O
FATTY ACID
(ACIDULATED SOAPSTOCK)
NAOH
FIGURE 44
GENERAL CHEMICAL REACTIONS ASSOCIATED WITH THE CAUSTIC REFINING AND
ACIDULATION PROCESSES
138
-------
DRAFT
1.5 to 2.0. The total volume of water will amount to 65 to 75 percent,
or less, of the soapstock treated. Water from cleanup produces periodic
waste loading.
Bleaching: Bleaching of edible oils is usually accomplished by the
adsorption process which consists primarily of the use of bleaching
earth, both natural and activated. A number of refineries use
activated carbon as a substitute adsorbent in place of bleaching earths.
United States refiners usually determine the colors of the lighter
bleached oils and shortenings by matching a 13.3 cm (5.25 in.) column
of the melted fat or oil against red and yellow Lovibond color glasses.
For the darker colored oils a spectrophotometric method has been developed
for the evaluation of oil colors. At the present time both methods are
widely used.
The three bleaching methods commonly used are batch bleaching, continuous
vacuum bleaching, and a newer development described as countercurrent
vacuum bleaching. All bleaching processes are conducted under vacuum to
protect the oil against oxidation. Some operators add the adsorbent, a
bleaching clay such as Fuller's or diatomaceous earth, at the beginning
of the heating period; others prefer to have the oil at the bleaching
temperature (usually 103 to 134°C) before the adsorbent is added to
facilitate dehydration. In bleaching most oils, the cost of the adsorbent
is exceeded by that of the oil lost by retention in the spent adsorbent.
After filtration, the oil is usually cooled to a temperature of 54 to
59°C (100 to 140°F) before being transferred to storage. Figure 45
illustrates a simplified flow diagram of the bleaching process. After
filtration, the spent filter cake material containing 25 to 40 percent
oil is usually discarded in either a dry or slurry form. It has not been
economically feasible in the industry to attempt recovery of the entrained
oil present in the spent filter cake. However, practices for the recovery
of this oil have been developed by a few companies. The procedure calls
for the spent filter cake to be subjected to a pressurized air flow for
a few minutes until most of the free oil is displaced. Dry steam is then
introduced into a press chamber from 30 to 45 minutes to remove the re-
maining oil. In some plants nitrogen is used in place of pressurized air.
Acid-treated clays and activated carbon have a greater retention that
neutral earth materials.
In the final analysis, the choice of an absorbent depends upon cost,
activity, and oil retention. Bleaching dosages usually range from a low
of 0.2 percent for lighter oils to a maximum of about 2.0 percent for
darker oils.
139
-------
DRAFT
BLEACHING
MATERIAL
(FULLER'S OR
DIATOMACEOUS
EARTH)
•I
REFINED OIL
CONTACT
COOLING WATER
FROM TOWER
BLEACHING
VESSEL
VACUUM
DRYER
SYSTEM
(OIL-CLAY SLURRY)
_J
FILTER
PRESS
L_l
REFINED OIL
(TO HYDROGENATION,
" WINTERIZATION OR
DEODORIZATON)
SPENT FILTER
CAKE
STEAM
GENERAL HOUSEKEEPING
CLEANUP
OIL
RECOVERY
RECOVERED
OIL
T
t—
SOLID WASTE
CONTACT
COOLING TOWER
SLOWDOWN
WASTEWATER
FIGURE 45
A SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM FOR BLEACHING REFINED OILS
140
-------
DRAFT
Waste loadings from the bleaching process are identified as follows:
(1) contact cooling water from barometric conoenser systems; (2) liquid
waste from the filter cake oil recovery operation; and (3) cleanup
operations.
Hydrogenation: Hardening, or hydrogenation, of an edible fat
consists of the direct addition of hydrogen to the carbon double
bond of an unsaturated fatty acid chain. Primarily, hydrogenation is
a means of converting liquid oils to semisolid, plastic fats suitable
for shortening or margarine manufacture. It also enhances the stability
as well as improving color. Figure 46 illustrates a simplified diagram
of the hydrogenation process. The reaction requires a catalyst which
consists of nickel in a finely divided form, prepared by special methods,
and often supported on a highly porous, inert material, such as
diatomaceous earth. The catalyst is suspended in the oil during
hydrogenation, and at the conclusion is removed by filtration. Although
catalysts decrease in activity with repeated use, a single charge may
be used a number of times.
In the usual type of equipment, the hydrogenation reaction is brought
about by agitating the suspension of catalyst and oil in a closed
pressure vessel in an atmosphere of hydrogen. Agitation serves the
double purpose of increasing the solubility of hydrogen in oil and
renewing the oil at the catalyst surface. The rate of hydrogenation
increases with increasing temperature and pressure. The composition
and character of the hydrogenated product may vary according to the
positions of the double bonds which are hydrogenated, as well as certain
isomerizing influences accompanying the reaction, and are highly de-
pendent upon the conditions of hydrogenation.
The hydrogenation process converts liquid oils to hard or "plastic"
fats; it also improves the resistance of fats and oils to deterioration
through oxidation or flavor reversion. The interchangeability among a
wide variety of fats and oils is largely a result of the contribution
of the hydrogenation process.
The only wastewater generated from hydrogenation process would be
from periodic cleanup operations.
Winterization: The process called "Winterization", a term originating
from the fact that initially the process was undertaken in outside
storage tanks during the winter months, involves removing higher-melting
glycerides from vegetable oils such as corn oil, soybean oil, and
cottonseed oil. At the present time mechanical refrigeration is used to
crystallize the higher-melting glycerides into a filterable mass. Oil
is either batch or continuously pressed or centrifuged to remove the
crystalline solids from the oil. Winterized oils are processed into
a variety of finished products such as salad oils, and edible oils used
in mayonnaise. Wastewater generation is primarily from general
housekeeping cleanup. Figure 47 presents a flow diagram of the Winter-
ization process.
141
-------
DRAFT
REFINED
OIL
NICKEL
CATALYST
SUSPENDED IN
OIL
VACUUM
DRYER AND
DEAERATER
PROPORTIONING
PUMP
HYDROGEN
HYDRDGENATOR
CONVERTER
COOLER
GAS
RELEASE
SPENT CATALYST
(RECOVERED BY
SOME PLANTS)
FILTER PRESS
"HARDENED"
OIL
COMPRESSOR
NON-CONTACT
COOLING
WATER
r
GENERAL
HOUSEKEEPING
CLEANUP
I
NON-CONTACT
COOLING TOWER
BLOWDOWN
WASTEWATER
FIGURE 46
A SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF A CONTINUOUS HYDROGENATION PROCESS
142
-------
DRAFT
REFINED OR
BLEACHED OIL
PRECOOLER '&—Eli
NON-CONTACT
COOLING WATER
CRYSTALIZER
TEMP 7°C
REFRIGERATION
FILTER
•*• STEARINS
GENERAL HOUSEKEEPING
CLEANUP
REFINED
"WINTERIZED"
OIL
WASTEWATER
I
NON-CONTACT
COOLING TOWER
SLOWDOWN
FIGURE 47
A SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM FOR A CONTINUOUS "WINTERIZATION" PROCESS
143
-------
DRAFT
Deodorization: Edible oils are usually subjected to a steam distillation
process known as deodorization. The purpose of this process is to remove
odoriferous compounds and free fatty acids in order to produce an oil
bland in flavor. Three types of deodorizing equipment are used: batch,
semi-continuous, and continuous. In each, the principles are the same with the
oil held in a vessel under vacuum using stripping steam to affect steam
distillation of the volatiles. A vacuum is generally produced by condensing
steam with water after the steam has been forced through a venturi. The
condensing water is recirculated back to a cooling tower where heat is
removed and returned to the condensing equipment for further use. Figure
48 presents a simplified flow diagram of the deodorization process. During
the process, certain fatty materials are concentrated within the stripping
steam and are removed by the barometric condenser water, where they are
eventually deposited on the contact cooling tower grillage and in the tower
basin. Therefore, the contact cooling tower presents periodic cleaning
problems which are generally handled manually.
Distillate recovery systems in common use today reduce the rate of fatty
material deposition at the cooling tower basin. Distillate recovery is
based on a liquid oil spray condensing the fatty materials before they
reach the barometric condenser. Recovery is on the order of 90 to 95
percent. The recovered distillate is collected in dry form and may be used
or sold as a by-product. The reduction of distillate concentrations of
organic matter to the contact cooling tower has several advanatages:
(1) periods of manual cleanings are reduced; (2) cooling tower waste loadings
are reduced; and (3) odor control is enhanced.
Food Emulsifier Operations: In addition to the previously described pro-
cesses, several manufacturers also produce a variety of food emulsifier
compounds. Production of edible food stuffs requires the use of an emul-
sifying agent in edible form. Items such as dressings, cakes, icings,
etc. are improved by the ability of an emulsifier to hold an oil phase
and a water phase in suspension. In the edible oils industry the production
of food emulsifiers such as mono-and diglyceride compounds fulfills this
need.
The production of mono-and diglycerides is a result of a chemical reaction
in which excess free glycerine in the presence of a catalyst such as sodium
hydroxide is added into a reaction vessel containing a suitable base oil
(triglyceride). Under proper temperature and pressure conditions the fatty
acids of the triglycerides and the hydrohyls of the glycerine exchange
positions to produce a mixture of glycerine, monoglycerides, diglycerides,
and triglycerides. At the end of the reaction, excess free glycerine
is "stripped" off using a vacuum system employing an intercondenser to
prevent contamination and loss of glycerine into the barometric condenser
water. In many cases, however, some glycerine escapes into the condenser
water posing a problem with waste loading at the contact water cooling tower.
144
-------
DRAFT
HYDROGENATED
OIL OR
LIQUID OILS
CONTACT COOLING
TOWER WATER
DEODORIZER TOWER
DISTILLATE
RECOVERY
_J
DISTILLATE
TO STORAGE
GENERAL HOUSEKEEPING
CLEANUP
NON
CONTACT
COOLING
WATER
—r
SPENT
CAKE TO -*
SOLID WASTE
I I I
WASTEWATER
FINISHED
"HARDENED"
OR
LIQUID OIL
FIGURE 48
A SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM FOR EDIBLE OIL DEODORIZING
145
-------
DRAFT
Plasticizing and Packaging: The plasticizing and packaging of refined,
hydrogenated (hardened) edible oils into finished products such as
shortening, margarine, or salad dressing are generally processed in
the following manner. Sanders (30) summarizes the plasticizing process
for shortening where the melted blend of refined edible oils are de-
livered from a feed tank through a high-pressure pump where nitrogen
is added. The blend is then cooled to 18°C (64°FJ in about 30 seconds and
is worked gently from one to four minutes during which crystallization
occurs. After crystallization is complete, the blend is allowed to
undergo a sudden decrease in pressure to remove the free nitrogen.
The blend (now shortening) is filled into either number 10 cans or 23 kg
(50 Ib) plastic lined boxes and is allowed to "set up" by storage at room
temperature for 24 to 48 hours. Figure 49 illustrates a typical flow
.diagram for a plasticizing and packaging operation.
In general, the packaging of shortenings and other finished products
employ strictly mechanical treatment of oils and their conversion from
large bulk quantities into consumer or commercial sized packages. Con-
sequently, the bearing these operations have on the waste loading of
wastewater treatment facilities depends primarily on the cleanliness and
efficiency of those operations. Cleaning operations, such as salad oil
packaging, requires larger volumes of water and therefore, contributes more
heavily, to waste treatment than a more plastic product such as shortening.
Margarine production, because of the nature of the product and its ability
to provide a growth medium for bacteria requires considerably more sani-
tation than does the production of shortening. Margarine is by law 80
percent oil and the remainder is water, milk solids, and salt. These
ingredients are creamed and cooled for packaging. As in the packaging of
shortening, general cleanliness has a direct relation to the waste load
imposed. It differs, however, from shortening packaging in at least two
respects: (1) the use of emulsifiers in the product may impose more
severe problems with waste treatment; and (2) the volumes of water needed
is increased due to the addition of margarine mixing equipment and the
resulting necessity for cleaning. Figure 50 presents a typical flow
diagram of margarine plasticizing and packaging operations.
The plasticizing and packaging of salad dressings and mayonnaise presents
a variety of unique waste loading problems. Dressings are generally an
emulsion of oils and other oil and water soluble ingredients such as cer-
tain vegetables and spices. These ingredients are blended and mechanically
and chemically emulsified to produce a stable product. As in margarine,
the production of salad dressings also supports the growth of certain
pathogenic forms of bacteria. Consequently, CIP (Clean-in-Place) equipment
is wide spread throughout the industry. The production of salad dressings
and mayonnaise requires the use of food emulsifiers (mono- and diglycerides)
as a basic ingredient. The high organic content of food emulsifiers
coupled with their ability to exist in either an oil or a water phase
creates a difficult if not unique waste loading problem for the industry.
146
-------
HYDROGENATION
WINTERIZATION
CLEANUP
WATER
FINISHED
HARDENED OILS
t
\
|
1
: J
I PLASTICIZER "
''
FINISHED
LIQUID OILS I
_f
NON
<"nKITATT
COOLING
WATER
«J FILLLER t——
^ PACKAGING
SHORTENING
WAREHOUSE
r
TABLE OILS
(SALAD OIL,
COOKING OILS)
NON-CONTACT
COOLING
TOWER
SLOWDOWN
CLEANUP
WASTEWATER
FIGURE 49
A SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM FOR EDIBLE OIL
REFINERY PLASTICIZING AND PACKAGING OPERATIONS
147
-------
JRAFT
REFINED, BLEACHED,
MYDROGENATED, DEODORIZED,
OIL FROM STORAGE
PASTEURIZATION
i
[ MILK SUPPLY|
IN-PLANT WATER
SUPPLY
WEIGHING
SCALE
VITAMINS A, D
COLORING, SALT
FLAVORING
EMULSIFIERS
EMULSION
TANK
TEMP - 37°C
PUMP
PLASTICIZATION
(VOTATOR CHILLER)
TEMP 7°C
PACKAGING
TEMP 15°C
MARGARINE
FIGURE GO
CLEANUP
WASTEWATER
A SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF A CONTINUOUS
MARGARINE PLASTICIZING AND PACKAGING OPERATION
148
-------
DRAFT
SIC 2082 Malt Beverages
There are 104 breweries in the United States. According to the Modern
Brewery Age Blue Book ( 31 ) the 1973 sales for these brewers was 16.2
billion liters (138 million barrels). The total value of shipments
for 1974 was estimated by the Department of Commerce (32 ) at 48 billion
dollars. There have been a considerable number of breweries constructed
since 1950. In addition, many breweries constructed prior to 1950 have
undergone major expansion. In general the past 15 years has seen the
number of operating breweries decrease while the size of those operating
has increased. It would appear that any breweries constructed in the
future will be large and automated. As the 18 year old and over population
group increases during the decade, the product shipments for the brewing
industry are expected to grow accordingly.
Description of Process - The malt beverage industry produces beer, ale,
and malt liquor by the fermentation of sugars converted from the starch
of various grains. The basic unit processes include mashing, brewing,
fermenting, aging and filtering, and packaging. In addition, some
form of by-product recovery is practiced by all brewers. A simplified
process flow diagram for a typical brewery is shown in Figure 51. It
should be pointed out that every brewer and, in fact, every individual
brewery, has features which make it unique. For the purpose of this
description, only those process variables which affect wastewater generation
will be discussed.
Mashing: Malt is ground and mixed with water in a mashing vessel. Rice,
corn, and other grain derivatives are similarly ground and mixed, except
that they are brought to a boil. The two mixtures are combined in the
mash cooker, or "mash tun," where the starch from the grain is converted
by enzyme action into malt sugar and the proteins are partly degraded
into amino acids. Upon completion of mashing, the grains solids are
separated from the extract by "lautering," by a plate and frame filter,
or by a grain separator. The extract is sent to the brew kettle. Spent
grains are sold wet or dried to produce marketable animal feed.
Wastes from the mashing process comprise an extremely small part of the
total plant load. They are generated from intermittent clean-up of
vessels and grain separators. In newer more fully automated plants
vessel clean-up is accomplished by Clean-In-Place (CIP) equipment. This
procedure involves an initial hot water rinse, caustic wash, and final
rinse, with the initial and final rinses being sewered.
Brewing: Once the extract has reached the brew kettle it is boiled and
mixed with hops or hop extract. This boiling destroys the enzymes while
it extracts the resins from the hops which impart flavor and aroma to the
beer. The hot extract, now called "wort," is passed through a hop separator
149
-------
DRAFT
MALT RICE CORN
1 * * • ,
GRINDER
SPENT
RECt
GRINDER
_1 •
'"I i
SPENT GRAINS
SPENT HOPS
TRUB
YEAST
I
SPENT YEAST
SPENT YEAST
J
GRAIN
3VERY
J ' '
r
EXTRACT
*
WORT
I
1
1
WORT COOLER
J
-» I !
* !
,-.«..,.„ >_ J i
j
i i
SECONDARY 1 ^ t j
STORAGE I 1
II
!
| r 1 DECANT TANK |
PACKAGING * 1 OR FILTER j
SOLID WASTE
WASTEWATER EFFLUENT
FIGURE 51
PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM MALT BEVERAGE BREWERY
150
-------
DRAFT
which screens out the spent hops. Insoluble materials which collected
in the brew kettle, now known as "trub," are bettled out either in the
"hot wort tank" or after cooling. Normally the "wort" is then filtered
with diatomaceous earth prior to fermentation.
Wastes from the brewing process are spent hops, trub, and filter residue.
Spent hops and trub may be added to the spent grains or sewered. Filter
wastes may be sewered or recovered separately from the spent grains.
Diatomaceous earth waste is filtered to separate solids from the liquid
waste. The liquid is then decanted and discharged while the solids are
hauled to land disposal.
Fermenting, Aging, and Filtering: Yeast is added to the cooled wort in
fermentation tanks to convert the malt sugar into alcohol and carbon
dioxide. In addition, an excess of yeast is produced. About one-fourth
of this yeast may be reused. The carbon dioxide gas may be vented to the
atmosphere or reclaimed for other in-plant uses.
Most brewers pump the completely fermented beer into primary storage tanks.
During this period additional yeasts and insoluble substances settle out.
In some breweries the partially fermented beer is pumped to large tanks
for a secondary fermentation and aging period. One variation of the process
allows the yeast to collect in the aging tanks on a bed of beechwood chips.
The chips must be cooked prior to their initial use. They are then removed
and sterilized before being reused. After aging in primary storage the
beer is chilled and filtered with diatomaceous earth or reusable pads
before final storage. The beer is normally filtered again for clarity
prior to packaging. Some brewers recarbonate at this time through the in-
jection of carbon dioxide.
Wastes from fermentation, aging, and filtering include spent yeast and
spent filter media. Yeast residue from fermentation may be sewered, added
to spent grains, or in some cases evaporated. Filter cake may be backwashed
to decant tanks or to vacuum or pressure filters before discharge. For
those brewers using the beechwood chip process, yeast is difficult to
remove because of the large volume of wash water present. After aging
these brewers utilize an additional clarification step producing an
organic sludge which must be discharged.
Packaging: Malt Beverages are packed in cans, returnable and non-returnable
bottles, and returnable kegs. A packaging flow diagram is shown in Figure 52,
Kegs are returned containing some unused beer, which is normally discharged
to the sewer. The kegs proceed to a washer with a prerinse, caustic, and
final rinse spray cycle. The cleaned kegs are filled and manually corked.
Since draught beer does not require pasteurization, the kegs are sent to
cold storage while awaiting shipping,
151
-------
DRAFT
CANS
NON-RETURNABLE RETURNABLE
BOTTLES BOTTLES
CAN RINSER
BOTTLE RINSER
KEGS
BOTTLE WASHER !•-
CAN FILLER
h
KEG DUMP
SOLIDS
H
KEG WASHER I
BOTTLE FILLER!—— •—•<
KEG FILLER
PASTEURIZER fr—•—
LABELLER
COLD STORAGE
INSPECTION
REJECTS
CRUSHING
STORAGE
SOLIDS
FIGURE 52 __
PACKAGING FLOW DIAGRAM MALT BEVERAGE BREWERY
WASTEWATER
EFFLUENT
152
-------
DRAFT
Cans are rinsed with clean water to eliminate any dust particles which
they have accumulated. During filling and seaming there is a beer loss
due to the speed of the line and the configuration to the container.
Canned beer is usually pasteurized, but it may instead be filtered with
milipore filters or simply kept cold. The cans are inspected for proper
product level and those rejected are crushed, thereby creating an addi-
tional beer loss.
Non-returnable bottles need only to be rinsed before filling. Returnable
bottles, however, must be washed, cleaned, sterilized, and rinsed. Labels,
unused product, and other refuse are removed from returnable bottles in
a bottle washer. Basically the washers follow three steps: 1) prerinsing,
in which both the inside and outside of the bottles are subjected to a hot
spray; 2) soaking, in which the bottles are immersed in a hot caustic
solution; and 3) final rinsing, in which caustic carry-over is removed in a
fresh water rinse. The pre-rinse and final rinse are normally discharged.
The bottles proceed to the bottle filler where there is some beer loss.
Prior to shipment the bottles must be labelled and inspected and may be
pasteurized.
Wastes from packaging are an important factor in total plant load. Beer
loss is generated from keg dumps, bottle and can fillers, and compactors.
These losses are normally sewered although the beer may be collected con-
centrated, and added to spent grains. Returnable bottle washers generate
liquid and solid wastes, the solids being screened and hauled away and
the liquids being sewered.
Spent Grain Recovery: Handling of spent grains from the mashing process
follows one of the three following procedures: 1) spent grains may be sold
wet at 80 to 90 percent moisture; 2) spent grains may be screened and pressed
to remove as much moisture as possible, thereby producing spent grain
liquor which must be discharged, and grains at 65 to 70 percent moisture
then fed to gas fired rotary driers to produce animal feed; 3) the grains
may be screened, pressed, and fed to gas fired driers while the spent grain
liquor is concentrated in evaporators to a syrup (20 to 30 percent total
solids) which is mixed with the dried grains. Spent hops, trub, and spent
yeast may be added to the grains in any of the above procedures. In addi-
tion, a plant may have all the above capabilities and yet for economic
reasons choose to sell all or some portion of these grains'wet. A flow
diagram for a typical spent grains recovery operation is shown in Figure 53.
Wastes from spent grain recovery form the principal part of the total plant
load. If discharged, the spent grain liquor is the largest single waste
source. If the spent grain liquor is recovered by concentration in evap-
orators, then the evaporator condensate is the major wastewater contributor.
Multiple-effect, vertical tube evaporators are commonly used. Wet scrubber
discharge and periodic cleaning of screens, presses, conveyors, and centri-
fuges will also contribute to the wasteload.
153
-------
DRAFT
SPENT GRAINS
LIQUOR
DEWATER1NG
SCREEN
SOLD WET
WASTEWATER
EFFLUENT
FIGURE 53
SPENT GRAINS RECOVERY MALT BEVERAGE BREWERY
WASTEWATER
EFFLUENT
154
-------
DRAFT
SIC 2083 Malt
The malt Industry consists of 29 malting companies located primarily
in Wisconsin and Minnesota. Total annual production for 1973 was 128
million bushels (33). Of this total 119 million were used in the malt
beverage industry, 4.14 million were used in the distilled spirits in-
dustry, and 3.5 million were exported.
Description of Process - Malt is a primary raw material for the processes
of brewing and distilling. Fermentation depends upon the action of enzymes,
and the purpose of malting barley is to produce those enzymes which bring
about the eventual conversion of starch into fermentable sugars. Essentially
the process of manufacturing malt from barley consists of steeping, germin-
ating, and kilning. A flow diagram for the malting process is shown in
Figure 54.
After preliminary cleaning and grading, barley is stored in grain bins.
Differences in types of barley utilized relate primarily to kernal size,
two common designations being two-row and six-row. Once the proper type of
barley has been selected it is conveyed to the malt house for steeping.
The barley is placed in large hopper-bottomed steep tanks where it is
kept submerged in cool water for 40 to 72 hours. The purpose of this pro-
cess is to impart moisture to the grain and to remove undesirable colors
and tannins. This is accomplished by changing the water in the steep tanks
three to four times while compressed air is bubbled through the mixture.
The wastewater discharged during these changes forms the principal part
of the total malt house load.
After steeping, the barley is transferred to germinating drums or compart-
ments for a period of four to eight days. It is during this period that
the formation of enzymes occurs along with the creation of heat and carbon
dioxide. Temperature and humidity controlled air is forced through the
malt while it is being turned. After a few days additional moisture is
added to accelerate germination, usually by spraying. The portion of this
water which is later drained from the germinating drums or compartments
forms the second part of the total wastewater discharge.
The malt is now ready for kilning. During this procedure the malt is
conveyed to drying floors where it is kept for three to four days. Furnaces
under the floors provide controlled temperature conditions to dry the malt
to the desired moisture content. The floors are normally situated vertically
so that the malt may be dropped from level to level while the temperature
is increased. Upon completion of drying the malt is stored or shipped.
The wastewater effluent from steeping and germinating is normally screened
before final discharge. The solid by-product is generally sold as feed.
155
-------
DRAFT
WATER-
COMPRESSED AIR-
WATER SPRAY-
MOIST AIR-
BARLEY
CLEANING
GRADING
STORAGE
STEEPING
GERMINATING
KILNING
MALT STORAGE
SCREEN
-»-SOLIDS
T
WASTEWATER EFFLUENT
FIGURE 54
FLOW DIAGRAM MALTING PROCESS
156
-------
DRAFT
SIC-2084 Mines, Brandy, and Brandy Spirits
According to the Department of Commerce (32) there were 496 bonded wineries
and wine cellars and 49 bottling houses in operation as of June 30, 1973.
The total value of product shipments for these establishments in 1974 was
estimated at $1.06 billion dollars, or about 14 percent of all alcoholic
beverages. Total sales of wine in 1973 were 1.31 billion liters (347
million gallons). Of the total, California produced 69.6 percent, other
states produced 14.5 percent, and 13.9 percent was imported. The distri-
bution of U.S. produced wine by area and type, as reported by the Wine
Advisory Board, (34) is shown in Figure 55.
Beverage brandy production in 1972 was 6.49 million proof gallons, almost
all of which was grape brandy. Beverage brandy refers to those fruit
spirits distilled under 170° proof. Neutral brandy refers to those
spirits distilled between 170° and 190° proof. Wine spirits refers to
those fruit spirits distilled over 170° proof. Thus, neutral brandy and
wine spirits are not mutually exclusive classifications. In reporting
the production, withdrawals or stocks of spirits between 170° and 190°
to BATF, producers have the discretion of placing it in the classification
neutral brandy or in the general classification "Alcohol and Spirits".
This classification includes other than fruit spirits and since there is
no breakdown of this classification in the BATF reports, the brandy com-
ponent cannot be identified. Tax-free removals of spirits for addition
to wines are reported. Removals under this classification would consist
only of wine spirits. Removals under this classification in fiscal year
1972 totaled 24,419,000 proof gallons. Tax-free removals of "brandy" for
addition to wine totaled 1,000,000 proof gallons. Most or all of this
was produced in California.
The wine industry has maintained a growth rate which averaged
10.7 percent between 1967 and 1972. During the same period per capita
consumption increased 57.1 percent to 6.12 liters (1.62 gallons). A
major factor in this increase was the growth of the 21 to 44 age group—
the group associated with higher levels of wine consumption—which will
continue to increase during the 1970's.
Description of Process - The technology of wine making is comprehensively
described by Amerine, Berg, and Creuss (35). For the purpose of this
discussion emphasis will be placed only on those process variable directly
affecting wastewater generation. Each and every winery has features
which make it unique. The most conspicuous difference, however, in terms
of wastewater effluent, is between those wineries which do not produce
spirits by distillation and those which do. Table wines (including
sparkling wines) are produced without the addition of wine spirits.
Wineries producing these form a general classification. These wineries
may also purchase wine spirits and produce dessert wines. The second
classification includes wineries which produce table wines and dessert
T57
-------
DRAFT
TABLE WINE1
CALIFORNIA
DESSERT WINE2
SPARKLING WINE-
BY TYPE (CALENDAR YEAR 1972)
NEW YORK
OTHER
BY AREA (FISCAL YEAR 1972)
1INCLUDES TABLE WINE AND OTHER SPECIAL NATURAL STILL WINE NOT
OVER 14 PERCENT ALCOHOL BY VOLUME.
2INCLUDES DESSERT WINE, VERMOUTH AND OTHER SPECIAL NATURAL STILL
WINE OVER 14 PERCENT ALCOHOL BY VOLUME.
^INCLUDES ALL NATURALLY FERMENTED AND ARTIFICALLY CARBONATED
SPARKLING WINES. OTHER SPECIAL NATURAL SPARKLING WINES ARE INCLUDED.
FIGURE 55
DISTRIBUTION OF U.S. WINE PRODUCTION 1972
158
-------
DRAFT
wines, but which also produce wine spirits for addition to dessert wines
and/or brandy. It should be noted that wineries in the eastern part of
the U.S. produce only^table wines or if they produce dessert wines,
purchase wine spirits for the addition to dessert wines. In either
case they do not maintain stills. Those wineries producing wine spirits
are located solely in California, and, for the most part, in the San
Joaquin Valley. For this reason the process description will be
divided into two sections: wineries without stills, and wineries with
stills.
Wineries Without Stills: Products from these wineries are red and white
wines, sparkling wines and dessert wines using wine spirits purchased
elsewhere. The basic unit processes common to these wineries are:
crushing and destemming, pressing (procedure varies), fermenting, clari-
fication, aging, and bottling. In addition, all wineries are faced
with distinct seasonal variations, as are most agricultural food industries.
During the grape crushing season, which lasts approximately six to eight
weeks in September and October, all the fermentable material must be
fermented. Finishing operations, however, are carried on throughout
the year, thereby creating differing problems in wastewater disposal.
A process flow diagram for the production of red table wine without
recovery of distilling material is shown in Figure 56. After picking,
the grapes are placed in containers and transported to the winery where
they are weighed and dumped into a crusher/stemmer. There are three types
in use: the roller, disintegrator, or Carol la. The Carol la is the only
type from which the stems and leaves are removed. The juice, skins, and
seed, now known as "must," are pumped to fermentation vats. Wastes from
crushing and destemming consist of periodic wash downs of the crusher/
stemmer, which are sewered, and stems, which are normally spread on
vineyard property.
Fermentation is preceeded by the addition of a small amount of sulfur
dioxide to the must, thereby inhibiting the growth of wild yeast or
bacteria. With the addition of a pure yeast "starter" the fermentation
process is initiated and the grape sugars are converted into nearly equal
parts of alcohol and carbon dioxide. Considerable heat is generated and
the vats must be cooled to maintain optimum fermening conditions. When
the fermenting must has attained the desired amount of color and tannin,
then it is drawn off the pomace as "free-run" juice and pumped to a
finishing tank where fermentation may be processed to completion. The
pomace is pressed to extract any remaining liquid. The resulting press-
run may be used for the production of less expensive wines or it may be
recombined with the "free-run". The pomace is hauled and spread in the
vineyards or dried and sold as feed for poultry. Usually within six
weeks after crushing the fermentation is complete. The liquid, now
called wine, is decanted or "racked" off the sediment of yeast pulp
and tartarates known, as "lees". This procedure may take place three
or four times. Additional wine may be recovered by passing the lees
through a centrifuge or filter. The sulfur dioxide content is normally
159
-------
DRAFT
GRAPES
BENTONITE
STEMS
CRUSHER
STEMMER
MUST
FERMENTER
T_
POMACE
FREE-RUN
JUICE
PRESSED
POMACE
PRESS
PRESS-RUN JUICE
3-4 TIMES
FINISHING TANKS
WINE
LESS EXPENSIVE WINE
-»• CAKE
LEES
FILTER
FINING
•*- CAKE
FILTER
REFRIGERATION-
CAKE
FILTER
AGING
L
RACK
ION j
EXCHANGE I
$
» CAKE
FILTER
BOTTLE
FIGURE 5G
PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM RED TABLE WINE PRODUCTION
WITHOUT RECOVERY OF DISTILLING MATERIAL
WASTEWATER
EFFLUENT
160
-------
DRAFT
adjusted at this time. Wastewater from fermentation is generated from
wash downs of fermenters, finishing tanks, pomace presses, and lees
filters . Pressed pomace and lees filter cake are normally hauled and
spread in the vineyards.
The wine may now undergo a series of "finishing" operations which vary
from winery to winery. After the first racking a fining agent such
as bentonite clay may be mixed with the wine to encourage the settling
of suspended and colloidal materials. This step would normally be
followed by filtration with filters or plant and frame presses. The
wine must now be aged. This may be done in wooden, stainless steel,
or concrete containers of various sizes. During aging wine is normally
refrigerated to hasten the precipitation of tartarates which might
be desposited after bottling. Since refrigeration is expensive the use
of ion exchange resins as an alternative has come into limited practice.
In this process potassium and calcium ions are replaced with sodium
or hydrogen ions. Additional racking, filtration, fining, and centri-
fugation may be utilized to further clarify the wine. Uniformity of
quality and character are maintained by analyzing and blending the
wine. In every case a polishing filtration is customary shortly before
bottling to insure that the wine is perfectly clear. Wastes from
finishing operations consist of lees from fining vats, centrifuges,
and aging containers. Cake from filters is hauled and spread in the
vineyards.
Bottling, labeling, and casing are the final operations. Most wineries
find it more practical to bottle their own wines, although wine may be
shipped in tank cars to plants where the only operation is bottling. The
bottles are filled and corked under sterile conditions. There is little
spillage involved except in the case of breakage. The wine is inspected
for clarity prior to labeling and casing, and this operation for the
most part, is entirely automated.
Figure 57 shows a process flow diagram for the production of white table
wine without the recovery of distilling material. Both white and red
table wine production normally occur in any one winery but the processing
operations are different. The white wines are not fermented in the presence
of the skins as are the red wines. As a result the tannin and extract
content are lower. It should be noted that either white or red grapes
can be used for the crush. The must from the crusher is allowed to
separate so that the free-run juice may be obtained. It is then sent
to a press, which is most often of cylindrical design, and the re-
maining juice is collected. The pressed pomace, which still contains
some sugar, is hauled and spread in the vineyards. The press-run is
normally utilized for the production of less expensive wine. The free-
run is sent to fermentation and innoculated with pure yeast. From this
point on the wastewater discharge is similar to that of red wine production.
161
-------
DRAFT
S02-
GRAPES
CRUSHER
STEMMER
I
MUST
STEMS
1
PRESSED
POMACE
PRESS
FREE-RUN
JUICE
PRESS-RUN
JUICE
LESS EXPENSIVE WINE
DRAINING
TANK
CAKE
FILTER
FERMENTER
LEES
CAKE
FILTER
FINISHING OPERATIONS
SAME AS FOR RED TABLE
WINE PRODUCTION
FIGURE 57
PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM WHITE TABLE WINE PRODUCTION
WITHOUT RECOVERY OF DISTILLING MATERIAL
WASTEWATER EFFLUENT
162
-------
DRAFT
Figure 58 shows a process flow diagram for the production of sparkling
wine. These may be defined as wines which have more than 1.5 atmosphere
pressure at 10°C (50°F). Although there are several methods for the
production of sparkling wines the most common involves the addition
of sugar and yeast to cause a "secondary fermentation" of wine in a
closed container. A common example of one type of sparkling wine is
what is known as champagne. To a properly selected and blended wine
or "cuvee", sugar and yeast are added. The moisture is placed in bottles
or tanks for fermentation and storage. After an appropriate time interval
the bottles are "disgorged" or the liquid "transferred" temporarily from
bottle to storage. This procedure allows the removal of yeast which
has accumulated in the bottle. The transferred wine is filtered, placed
back in the bottle, and cased for storage. If the "bulk" or tank
process is used then two tanks are employed with interconnecting filtration.
Upon transfer of the fermented wine to the second tank the wine is bottled.
Wastes from sparkling wine production consist of mixing tank cleanup and
yeast from filtration of fermented wine.
Figure 59 shows a process flow diagram for the production of dessert
wine. These wines contain more than 14 percent alcohol due to the
addition of fortified spirits. Common examples of this process are
white dessert wine, port or other red dessert wine, and sherry. Fer-
mentation is allowed to proceed to a specified sugar level. The wine
is pumped to fortifying tanks for the addition of wine spirits. Fortified
wine for sherry production may be baked or aged shermat blended with
submerged culture of flor sherry. Fining, filtering, and aging procedures
follow as previously discussed. Wastes from the production of dessert
wine are substantially the same as those from the production of table
wines. Since the two operations normally take place on the same premises,
the load represents and addition in terms of vessels required for fortifying,
baking, and storage, and in terms of the associated filtration and wash
downs necessary.
Figure 60 shows a process flow diagram for an eastern winery producing
table.'dessert, and sparkling wines. Several basic differences in
eastern and western wineries are apparent. The grapes from the east
are the V. labrusca which are lower in sugar content and higher in
acidity than the V. vinifera grown in California. Preparation for fermen-
tation generally involves pressing. Grapes for white wines are cold pressed
as they come from the stemmer/crusher. For this pressing many continuous
and bladder models are being used. Grapes for red wines are "hot pressed",
i.e. the pulp is heated prior to the loading the press. Amelioration
of up to 35 percent by the addition of dextrose may be required prior
to the fermentation due to the high acidity and low sugar content of the
juice. In addition, if hot pressing was used, the juice must be cooled
before fermentation starts. After fermentation it is common practice to
blend in up to 25 percent of California wines. Eastern sherry wines are
made by fortifying finished wines and then baking by the Tressler method.
This consists of heating while oxygen is released slowly in the wine.
Another method involves allowing the sherry^' to age in oak barrels.
163
-------
DRAFT
YEAST
BLENDED WINE
OR CUVEE
i I r
SUGAR
MIXING
TANK
TANK
FERMENTATION
TANK #1
CAKE
FILTER
BOTTLE METHOD.
i
DISGORGING
TANK #2
]
CASE
STORAGE
BOTTLING
1
BOTTLE
FERMENTATION
BOTTLING
STORAGE
TRANSFER METHOD
I
TRANSFER TANK
FILTER
FIGURE 58 WASTEWATER EFFLUENT
PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM SPARKLING WINE PRODUCTION
164
-------
DRAFT
WINE FERMENTED
ON SKINS
WINE NOT FERMENTED
ON SKINS
WHITE DESSERT
WINE PRODUCTION
PORT AND OTHER RED
DESSERT WINE PRODUCTION
WINE SPIRITS
FORTIFICATION
VAT
SHERRY
PRODUCTION
BAKING
AGING
FINISHING OPERATIONS
FIGURE 5V
PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM DESSERT WINE PRODUCTION
WASTEWATER EFFLUENT
165
-------
Cft
[—••STEMS .[— •• POMACE
1 RECEIVING 1 *4 ?Z^*^ I *f KDLOING |— I ^ PRESSING 1 H SURGE 1 C — H FERMENTING
1 | CRUSHER | 1 || || | ^J
1 ^ 1 i
A I A
"CU" I ""-"* I r«T1'«n
| { M,0
1*~ I JTCAM »| 1 WASH DOWN |— l_-J
BIN WASH 1 WASH DOWN 1 HEATING 1 L_E] <^OLING
1 REFRIGERATION
i J J SYSTEM
DESSERT WINE ta-CAKE
FINING U 1 BAKE f> 1 FORTIFY U 1 „ *°N._ U 1 FILTER 1" 1 FINING
, J 1 11 P I—* ExovrKŁ 1 | 1 1
WASH DOWN
1
TABLE WINE
| »-CAKE J |— ^CAKE
II 1 1 1 1 1 i CASE 1
FILTER I H STORAGE 1 H FILTER 1 M BOTTLING 1 M STOR.^ 1
WASH DOWN
1
1
SPARKLING WINE
1 BLENDING 1 ^ BOTTLING 1 H STORAGE 1 H DISGORGING
WASH DOWN
i
| »-CAKE
| O— ^ FILTER | *| STORAGE |
1 WASH DOWN
1
1
U 1 AGING p 1 a-ENDING 1
WASH DOWN
1
!U Ai t
1 "J BOTTLING I "•! CASE STORAGE 1
WASH DOWN
i
FIGURE 60
PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
EASTERN U.S. WINERY OPERATIONS
-------
DRAFT
Sparkling wine production is bottle rather than tank fermented and normally
employs the transfer system to clear the bottle of yeast deposits. Waste-
water from eastern wineries is generated in a manner similar to that in
western wineries without stills. (For further discussion of wastewater
per unit of production see Wastewater Characteristics, Section V).
Wineries With Stills: Wineries with stills may produce all of the
aforementioned wines in addition to beverage brandy and wine spirits.
A process flow diagram for such a winery with complete recovery of
distilling material is shown in Figure 61 . Only the best wine is
used for the production of beverage brandy, whereas wine spirits or
fortifying brandy is made from recovered distilling material.
Beverage brandy is produced from the distillation of wine and normally
takes place in a continuous column still. Indirect heat or steam
introduced at the bottom of stripper evaporates the alcohol from the
wine which is introduced near the top of the column in the counter
current. The vapor leaving the top of the still is condensed to form
the spirit. The de-alcoholized residue, known as "stillage", is discharged
from the base of the column. The beverage brandy as it leaves the still
is at 170° proof or less. Additional columns may be added at this time
to remove the higher alcohols (principally amyl alcohol) which comprise '
the fusel oil content of brandy. Removal of aldehydes is also practiced
by the addition of an aldehyde column. Since the aldehydes (chiefly
acetaldehyde) have a low boiling point they are taken off the top of
the column and the product off the bottom of the aldehyde column. The
brandy is then reduced in proof, aged in wood, and bottled.
Fortifying brandy is made by a similar process but by the use of distilling
material such as lees, filter wash, pomace wash, unmarketable standard
wine, and other wine residues. The final product, either wine spirits
or neutral brandy, is distilled from 140° to 190° proof and sold as
such.
A major part of the wastewater from wineries with stills is derived from
stillage. Since the distillation process depends upon grape crushing
for its raw material (i.e., either newly fermented wine or distilling
material) the distilling season and stillage generation roughly parallel
the crushing season. During this time period those California wineries
with stills use a land disposal system for stillage wastes. This entails
pumping the stillage into shallow "checks" or ponds of not more than 0.10m
(four inches) depth for evaporation and percolation. Enough land is
required for separate checks to accomodate at least? to 10 days of stillage
volume, at which time the original check may be reused after having
dried and being deseed.
167
-------
DRAFT
PRESSED POMACE
WATER
FINISHED WINE
LEES (FROM FERMENTATION,
FINING, FILTERING, AND
AGING)
1 Ł
CONTINUOlfJS
COLUMN STILL
ALDEHYDE
-COLUMN
140 -170"
r
STEMS
DISINTEGRATOR
1
SCALPER
•*- SOLIDS
DISTILLING
MATERIAL
STILLAGE
HEADS
140°-190°
BEVERAGE
BRANDY
PRODUCTION
t
WINE SPIRITS
PRODUCTION
DILUTE
STORAGE/SHIPMENT
AGE
BOTTLE
FIGURE
WASTEWATER EFFLUENT
__ PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
BEVERAGE BRANDY AND WINE SPIRITS PRODUCTION WITH
COMPLETE RECOVERY OF DISTILLING MATERIAL
168
-------
SIC 2085 Distilled. Rectified, and Blended Liquors
The distilled spirits industry is comprised of those establishments
manufacturing alcoholic liquors by distillation and rectification, and
those manufacturing cordials and liqueurs by blending liquors with
other ingredients. The major products associated with this industry
are whiskey, vodka, gin, rum, cordials, and liqueurs. As reported
by the Distilled Spirits Council of the United States, the relative
proportions of domestic distilled spirits bottled in 1973 are shown
in Figure 62.
The production of distilled liquor was estimated by the Department of
Commerce (2) at $1.9 billion in 1973, with per capita consumption amount-
ing to 2.85 gal (10.6 1) annually. The major producing areas are
Kentucky, Illinois, Indiana, Maryland, Pennsylvania, and Tennessee,
which contain the majority of the 220 licensed U.S. grain distillers.
The production of rum by molasses distillers occurs principally in
Puerto Rico, with some plants located in the Virgin Islands, Florida,
and Massachusetts.
Description of Process - Grain Distillers - Wide variations in distilled
beverage products can be caused by one or more of the following factors:
(1) types of materials and their proportions; (2) methods of material
preparation; (3) selection of yeast types; (4) fermenter conditions;
(5) distillation processes; (6) maturation techniques; and (7) blending
experience. This description, however, will only discuss those varia-
tions germane to a basic understanding of the process and, more
specifically, those variations directly affecting wastewater generation.
Figure (63) is a simplified flow diagram for the basic process common
to all grain distillers. The principal steps involved are mashing,
fermenting, distilling, aging, rectifying-bottling, and feed recovery.
After preliminary grading and cleaning the grain is milled to form a
meal. Milling breaks the outer cellulose wall around each kernel to
expose more starch surface to the action of cooking and conversion.
Water is added to the meal and the suspension is fed into a cooker.
Cooking may be carried on under pressurized or atmospheric conditions
in either batch or continuous processes. After partial cooling, the
addition of ground barley malt converts the solubilized starches by
enzyme action into grain sugar. This conversion may take place in a
separate vessel called a "converter" in order to free the cooker for
the next cook. The slurry, at this point called "mash," is further
cooled by vacuum or by tubular heat exchangers and pumped to the
fermenters.
Wastes from the mashing process consist of condensate from pressure
cookers and vacuum coolers in addition to vessel cleanup. For plants
operating in this mode the load comprises about 12 percent of the
169
-------
WHISKEY
53.6%
VODKA
21.6%
MISCELLANEOUS
1.7%
CORDIALS, LIQUEURS
8.1%
FIGURE 62
DOMESTIC DISTILLED SPIRITS BOTTLED OUTPUT
170
-------
DRAFT
THIN
* — L
i
THIN
STILLAGE
TO FH
RECOVERY
MALT GRAIN
( MILL ] | MILL
|
1 BIN | | ^
| COOKER
_ _•
i
RTOR
1
| COOLER
YEAST 1
SIlLLAGt P ™ J
i
I
1
3XTER
|" BEER WELL
STILLAGE
SCREEN 1 1 STILL
1 HIGH WINE
SOLIDS 1
, 1 OOUBLER
TO MULTI COLUMN
i
1 CISTERN TANK
_. 1 BARREL FILL
SYSTEM
1
»,.______ .__ __ ~.
— ^
___»,
*
_
IDE ION I ZED l__*.
1 AGING
t
[ BARREL DUM=
i j
| FILTER
* f~
| PROOF CUTTING
j
1 BOTTLING ]
. ....
»-SOLIDS
1
WASTE
EFFL
j
1
1
rfATER
LENT
FIGURE 63
PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM WHISKEY DISTILLERY
171
-------
DRAFT
total plant waste. For plants with atmospheric cookers and shell
and tube mash coolers the load would be lower.
The fermentation process commences with the introduction of pure cultured
yeast, thus converting the grain sugars into nearly equal parts of ethyl
alcohol and carbon dioxide. Fermenter mash concentration, agitation,
and temperature cause the rate of fermentation to vary between two and
five days. The mash concentration is set between 28 and 40 gallons per
bushel of grain, depending on the amount of "thin stillage" or "back-
set" that is returned from the base of the whiskey separating column
and the amount of water added. In the production of "sour mash" whiskey
this concentration, by law, would be greater than 25 percent of the
fermenting mash volume. The fermented slurry, now known as "beer," is
dropped into a beer well in route to the still.
Wastes from fermentation are small, consisting of fermenter and yeast
tub cleanup. In most cases the first rinse, which contains considerable
mash and alcohol, is discharged to the beer well. Sterilization by steam
thus becomes the only discharge and contributes about one percent of the
total plant wasteload.
Distillation involves the separation of alcohol from the de-alcoholized
residue known as "stillage". Although numerous varieties of distillation
exist, for whiskey this is normally accomplished in a continuous whiskey
separating column. Indirect heat or steam introduced at the base of
the column strips the alcohol from the fermented mash introduced near
the top of the still. The vapor leaving the top of the still is condensed
and forms the product. The discharge from the base of the column contains
the soluble and suspended substances carried through the process and
from which several useful by-products are derived. The alcohol, at
approximately 115° proof, is stored in a high wine tank, and possibly
run through a doubler which raises the alcoholic content to approximately
130° proof. The product is then ready for shipment to the cistern tank.
Beer still cleanup and doubler discharge, if not pumped back to the beer
well, constitute the wastes from distilling. These comprise only one
to two percent of the total plant load.
In whiskey production, deionized water is added to the product in the
cistern tank and the mixture is aged in new, white oak barrels with
charred staves and heading. The total years of storage depends on
the time it takes to attain the desirable ripeness or maturity. The
three reactions occuring simultaneously in the barrel during aging are
extraction of complex wood constituents by the liquid oxidation of the
original components in the liquid and other material extracted from
the wood, and reaction between the various organic substances present
in the liquid resulting in the formation of new congeners. Wastes from
maturation are negligible.
172
-------
DRAFT
If the production of grain neutral spirits is desired, then the product
is pumped from the high wine tank at approximately 105° to 135° proof and
sent through a continuous multi-column still system, thereby by-passing
maturation. Figure (64) illustrates this system, which normally
consists of aldehyde concentrating, rectifying, and fusel oil columns.
The product is first fed to the aldehyde column. The product is then
split into three paths. The main stream (20° to 40° proof) is pumped
to the rectifying column; the heads (aldehydes and esters) are pumped
to the heads concentrating column; and the fusel oil is pumped to the
fusel oil concentrating column. The grain neutral spirits are with-
drawn from the rectifying column at 191° proof.
Wastes from the multi-column process comprise two to four percent
of the total plant wasteload. Concentrated heads may be discharged,
burnt as fuel, or returned to fermenters. Fusel oil tails are
discharged to the sewer while fusel oil is sold. Rectifying column
tails maybe sewered or demineralized and used as dilution water. Most
complete distilleries alternate between whiskey or grain neutral spirits
production, and there is little difference apparent in the resultant
wasteload.
Blending and bottling may take place at a separate facility or as part
of a complete distillery. (A discussion of bottlers is included under
SIC 5182). At a complete distillery the aged product is dumped from
barrels and filtered, with filter media and charcoal residue being
treated as a solid waste. After gauging, the product is final filtered
and the residue sleuced to sewers. The addition of deionized water fixes
the proof, and the product is ready for bottling. Some breakage will
inevitably occur and this also would be sewered. The waste associated
with bottling is probably less than one percent of total distillery
waste.
Several variations exist in the method of recovering whole spent
stillage. Basically distilleries fall into two categories: 1) those
with no recovery and 2) those utilizing evaporators and dryers for
complete recovery. Only the smallest distilleries practice no stillage
recovery. It is more economical for these plants to dispose of wet stillage
to nearby farmers for cattle feed than to install a feed recovery system.
These small distilleries have a substantially different wasteload, since
feed recovery is the major contributor to total distillery waste.
Figure 65 illustrates the process flow for a feed recovery system. Since
whole spent stillage is approximately five to seven percent solids, feed
recovery is essentially a dewatering process. The first step consists
of passing the whole stillage over a screen. The coarser solids are re-
tained and sent to a press for further removal of soluable solids. The
press cake, if dried separately on driers, becomes "distillers light
grain." The thin still age liquid is normally centrifuged to remove
suspended solids then piped to multiple-effect evaporators where it is
concentrated to a syrup containing about 25 to 35 percent solids. These
173
-------
HIGH WINE TANK
HEADS
HEADS BURNT
135° PROD
\
HbA
ALDEHYDE
COLUMN
RECTIFYING
COLUMN
20°-40° PROOF
TAILS TO
SEWER
4O° PROOF
FUSEL OIL
CONCENTRATING
COLUMN
li
FUSEL OIL
FUSEL OIL
COLUMN
PRODUCT
190° PROOF
FIGURE 64
PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM HIGH PROOF SPIRITS PRODUCTION
TAILS TO SEWER
o
5
-------
DRAFT
WHOLE STILLAGE
LIQUID
LIQUID
CENTRIFUGE
CAKE
LIQUID
EVAPORATOR
SYRUP
GRAIN
GRAIN
STORAGE
SCREEN
PRESS
: PRESS CAKE
MIXING
CONVEYOR
DRYER
I L
PARTICULATE
CYCLONE
CONDENSATE
RECYCLED
GRAIN
EXHAUST
-L-
WET
SCRUBBER
-•I
DRIED GRAIN
WITH SOLUBLES
FIGURE 65
PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
FEED RECOVERY SYSTEM
WASTEWATER EFFLUENT
175
-------
DRAFT
evaporated solubles may be drum dried to produce "distillers dried
solubles," or more commonly dried with press cake in rotary driers
to produce "distillers dark grains."
the major contribution to distillery wasteload is from the feed
recovery system. It can, according to Boruff and Blaine (36), account
for as much as 83 percent of the total distillery waste. The most
significant source of wastewater within the feed recovery system is
the condensate from evaporators. Dust emanating from grain dryers
may constitute a secondary source if wet scrubbers are used, or it
may be eliminated through the use of cyclones.
Description of Process - Molasses Distillers - While the basic process
of molasses distillers is similar to that used by grain distillers,
there exist some variations which warrant discussion. Figure 66 shows
a process flow diagram for a molasses distillery.
Molasses syrup (either case molasses or citrus molasses) is received
as by-products from the case and citrus industries and stored in large
holding tanks. The molasses is then pumped to tanks where phosphorus
and ammonia nutrients are added to satisfy the nutritional requirements
of yeast fermentation. The amounts of nutrients added depend upon the
grade and purity of the raw molasses. Hiatt (37) cites instances of
pasteurization of the raw molasses prior to nutrient addition, but exist-
ence of this practice is not evident in the industry at this time. Some
pre-heating of the yeast seed cultures does take place though. To
eliminate undesirable bacterial contamination the pH is adjusted to be-
tween 4.0 and 5.0 through the addition of sulfuric acid. Some distillers
also include the use of antifoamers prior to fermentation.
The molasses mixture is seeded with the desired yeast cultures to initiate
fermentation. While cooling of the molasses to aid fermentation has been
reported, some distillers use a "wild fermentation" process where the
mash is inoculated by the yeast that is present in the air and in the
raw material. This takes place in lieu of cooling.
Following fermentation, the "mash" (8 to 12 percent alcohol) is sent
through a multi-column distillation process. Some experimentation has
been performed attempting to remove the spent yeast cells by centrifu-
gation prior to distillation. Currently, this is not a common practice
in the industry. One possible arrangement of the multi-column system is
shown in Figure 66. A separating column removes the alcohol from the *
de-alcoholized residue known as "slops" or "stillage." The vapor leaving
the top of the column is condensed and sent to an aldehyde column. Here
the "heads" (aldehydes and esters) are removed. The product is drawn off
the bottom and sent to the rectifying column where fusel and amyl oils
are separated. The final product is now ready for flavoring, aging, and
176
-------
DRAFT
CITRUS OR BLACKSTRAP
MOLASSES
STORAGE
I PASTEURIZATION !
PASTEURIZATION _
•——•*'——* NUTRIENT
ADDITION
ANTIFOAMANTS
—.---—t
H2S04 »T
tmmi mm mi J2« mmim •• l|
COOLING
YEAST
CLEANUP
FERMENTATION
CENTRIFUGE
•*-CAKE
.
SEPARATING
COLUMN
ALDEHYDES
ESTERS
AMYL ALCOHOLS
FUSEL OILS
FSTILLAGE
ALDEHYDE
COLUMN
WASTEWATER
EFFLUENT
RECTIFYING
COLUNN
AGING
1
BOTTLING
FIGURE 66
PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM MOLASSES DISTILLERY
177
-------
DRAFT
bottling. By-product fusel oils may be marketed. Aldehydes and esters
may be used for fuel in the distillery.
Stillage from distillation comprises the major part of molasses distillery
waste. Present methods of stillage disposal vary according to locale.
Puerto Rican distillers discharge their untreated effluents directly to
the ocean. Two of the continental United States molasses distillers prac-
tice periodic evaporation of their slops streams. In these two instances,
the amount of evaporation depends upon the available market for concentrated
molasses slops as feed supplements.
SIC 5182 Bottlers and Blenders of Wines and Distilled Liquors
According to the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms (BATF) there are
90 plants in this'category authorized to operate. These plants are dis-
tributed throughout 25 states with the heaviest concentration in California.
The BATF reports only total bottled output, therefore no breakdown is
available between separate bottlers and bottlers combined with distilleries
or wineries. Production may range up to 13 million proof gallons per year
for the larger plants in this category.
Description of Process - Typical operations in plants from this subcategory
are redistilling, rectifying and bottling. As defined in the industry,
rectifying includes mixing, blending, and chilling processes. The principal
products of such plants may be wines, brandies, whiskies, white goods,
cocktails, and cordials. Wastewater from these plants 1s negligible, as
documented in Section V.
SIC 2086 Bottled and Canned Soft Drinks
The soft drink bottling and canning industry consists of franchised
and independent companies who purchase concentrate or syrup and package
soft drinks. According to the U.S. Department of Commerce, ( 32 )
soft drink bottlers and canners operate approximately 2470 facilities
with the largest concentration of plants in the southern states.
The National Soft Drink Association ( 38 ) reported a total wholesale
value of 6.2 billion dollars for product shipped in 1973. Per capita
consumption amounted to 26.9 gallons which was divided as follows: 91
percent regular and nine percent diet drink. Cola flavored drinks
represented 65 percent of the regular market, with lemon-lime drinks
ranked second at 11 percent. The percentage distribution of package
types is shown in Figure 67 . It should be pointed out that this
distribution varies widely by local market.
Total sales were marketed as 80 percent packaged and 20 percent bulk.
Packaged product includes all glass containers and cans whereas
bulk product reaches the consumer via stainless steel pressurized
cannisters of differing sizes classified as "post-mix" or "pre-mix".
The designation "post-mix" indicates fountain syrup prepared at the
point of consumption, and "pre-mix" indicates a finished beverage
ready to be dispensed. In 1973 "post-mix" accounted for 81 percent and
"pre-mix" 19 percent of total bulk volume.
178
-------
DRAFT
FIGURE 67
CONTAINER MIX IN THE SOFT DRINK INDUSTRY
179
-------
DRAFT
In addition to geographical differences in sales volumes and package
type, there are definite seasonal variations. During the summer
months of July through September, sales can peak as much as 50
percent above sales during the winter months of January through March.
Peaks in sales are preceded several months by corresponding peaks in
production. The value of shipments for the soft drink industry is
expected to maintain a future annual growth rate of 9 to 11 percent
as it has over the past six years.
Description of Process - Soft Drink Bottling and Canning - The term
"soft-drink" refers to those non-alcoholic beverages which are normally
flavored, acidified, colored, sweetened, and carbonated. A similar
but non-carbonated product is also packaged but in comparatively small
quantities. Figure 68 is a simplified process flow diagram illustrat-
ing operations in a soft drink bottling and canning plant.
Raw Materials: Soft drink manufacturers must ultimately combine treated
water with finished syrup to form a final product. Finished syrup
received in bulk will already have been flavored, colored, acidified,
and sweetened. This syrup, which is prepared from a proprietary formula
at a corporate bulk syrup plant, is delivered by tank truck to the
bottler. In some_cases a flavored, colored, and acidified concentrate
is received and the finished syrup is produced by adding sugar (liquid
or dry) and water to the concentrate. The concentrate may be received
in powder and/or liquid form depending on the type of product. In other
cases all raw materials may be purchased directly from members of
the flavor and extract industry and mixed at the bottling or canning
plant. Under normal conditions, there are no wastes associated with
the receipt of raw materials.
Water Treatment: Soft drink plants routinely treat incoming city
water. Two degrees of treatment are normally required: water utilized
for bottle washing must be low in hardness; water to be mixed with syrup
must be completely free of any substances which might affect the flavor,
color, and appearance of the final product. A typical water treatment
plant might submit incoming city water to chemical coagulation and
sedimentation in a large reaction tank through the addition of ferrous
sulfate and lime. Water filtration and purification by means of sand,
gravel, and carbon media in addition to chlorination might follow.
Dearftetion and ion exchange units are sometimes utilized. Whatever
the means or degree of treatment, the primary goal is to eliminate
any contaminants destined for product usage. Some plants soften in-
coming city water to be used in bottle washing. This provides for
better wetting and sheeting characteristics, thereby increasing the
ease of caustic removal in the rinse cycles.
Wastewater associated with water treatment will vary widely depending
on incoming water quality and plant operating procedures. As a
general rule, however, these wastes are a small part of the total
plant load.
180
-------
DRAFT
CONCENTRATE
I
SUGAR
_J
WATER SUPPLY
MIXING
TANKS
WATER
TREATMENT
RETURNABLE
BOTTLES
r-—•"——t
J SOFTENER!—
1 J
BOTTLE
NON-RETURNABLE
BOTTLES
BOTTLE
RINSER
"
CANS
H
i"""*
CAN
RINSER
l
-»• CLEANUP *"
IE
SYRUP
I
STORAGE
TANKS
:F
FLOW
MIX
gj »J
^^T
COOLER
cARBONATOR
REFRIGERATION
L ,
FILLER
CROWNER
jnifm, mmI mm «• mm
j WARMER [*—— *.
INSPECTION
H CASING U 1
r L
i
WASTEWATER
EFFLUENT
LABELING
FIGURE 68
PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
SOFT DRINK BOTTLING AND CANNING PLANT
181
-------
DRAFT
Syrup Preparation and Storage: Syrup received in bulk requires no
preparation. It is typically stored in tanks of approximately 209000 1
(5,000 gal) until it is ready for use. Separate mixing tanks9 however,
are involved in the preparation of syrup from concentrate. These
mixing tanks9 which are smaller than the storage tanks, are normally
used to prepare only the amount of syrup to be used in the final product
for that day. This means thats if four different products utilizing
concentrates are to be packaged that day, the equivalent of four mixing
tanks is required.
In order to minimize wastes, and to provide ease in handling and
sanitation, stainless steel mixing tanks with cone/dished heads are
used in the preparation and storage of syrup. Each "flavor change"
however, necessitates the removal of residual syrup from the tank
walls. This clean-up constitutes the wasteload from the mixing opera-
tion. Syrup storage tank clean-up also contributes to the total waste-
load, but it is on a less frequent basis.
Container Preparation: The three types of containers associated with
packaged production are cans, non-returnable bottles, and returnable
bottles. The cans and non-returnable bottles are normally only rinsed
with city water to eliminate particles that may have accumulated during
storage. The returnable bottles may contain leftover materials such
as unused product, cigarette butts, mold, and other refuse which are
removed automatically in a bottle washer. These machines must wash,
cleans sterilize, and rinse all bottles. Figure 69 provides an
internal view of one type of washer currently in use.
All bottle washers follow the same basic steps of prerinsing, soaking,
and final rinsing. During prerinsing both the inside and the outside of
the bottles are subjected to a hot spray. Solids removed at this point
pass first through a coarse, then through a fine mesh screen before the
rinsewater is sewered. Recirculated final rinse water is often used
in the pre-rinse section. Soaking involves immersing the bottles
for not less than five minutes in at least a three percent alkaline
solution containing 60 percent caustic soda. This occurs in a single
or multi-compartment tank at a minimum of 66°C (150°F). The liquid level
and strength of the solution are checked regularly to maintain specified
standards. The entire solution is dumped intermittently, at periods
ranging from six weeks to six months. After intermediate caustic removal
sprays, the bottles undergo a final fresh water rinse. This water, which
contains some carry-over caustic cleansing solution, is sewered if not
reused for pre-rinsing.
Inspection of soft drink bottling plants confirms that bottle washer
wastes represent the major portion of the total plant load. The
residual drink left in the bottle is the major source of BOD. Suspended
solids from the pre-rinse are inevitably sewered. High alkalinity and
pH result from carry-over detergent in both pre-rinse and final rinse.
182
-------
FINAL RINSE
CO
CO
BOTTLE
DISCHARGE
CAUSTIC REMOVAL
\ SgRAY-
/'f^ODDQODOODODiJ^ ^V.Y, G
HOT CAUSTIC SOLUTION O
DIRECTION OF
TRAVEL
BOTTLES
INTERMITTENT DUMP
WASTEWATER EFFLUENT
FIGURE 69
FLOW DIAGRAM
SOFT DRINK BOTTLE WASHING MACHINE
-------
DRAFT
Container Filling: Finished syrup from storage or mixing tanks is
combined in specified proportions with treated water in the "flow-
mix". This mixture is fed to a cooling-carbonating vessel where it
is chilled and infused with gaseous carbon dioxide. The mixture then
passes to the "filler" where it is introduced into the container. In
some bottling plants an alternate method is used whereby syrup is first
placed in bottles which are then filled with carbonated water. In
either case the container is immediately crowned or capped. The
filled and sealed bottles are passed through a warm water rinse before
inspection, possible labeling, casing, and shipment or storage.
Wastes from container filling result from filler spillage, lost
product associated with flavor changes, and the corresponding clean-
up. A flavor change necessitates flushing the lines from syrup
through the flow-mix, cooling-carbonating vessel, and filler. Chlorine
and treated water, plus any product left in the lines, are then sewered.
The percent of the total plant wasteload contributed by flavor changes
varies according to the number of changes made daily and the efficiency
with which each plant eliminates product loss. Filler spillage varies
considerably between bottling and canning plants. In a bottling plant
there is little or no spillage while the filler is operating. In a
canning plant, however, there is considerably more product loss in
filling due to the speed or the line and nature of the container. In
a plant which only cans, this loss would be the major source of BOD
wasteload.
Bulk Filling: As part of some plants' total production both pre-mix
and post-mix cannisters are utilized. This operation requires
only that separate syrup and water lines be provided to an area where
the cannisters are filled under pressure. Figure 70 demonstrates
this procedure.
Wastes from bulk filling result from a small amount of residual
product left in the cans by the consumer. Hot water, caustic, and
final water rinse procedures are used to clean the cans.
SIC 2087 Non-Synthetic Flavoring Extracts and Syrups
When used for food purposes a flavoring extract may be generally defined
(39)as a solution in ethyl alcohol of proper strength of the sapid and
odorous principles derived from an aromatic plant, parts of the plant,
or essential oil from the plant, with or without coloring matter, con-
forming in name to the plant used in its preparation.
Flavorings derived from parts of aromatic plants are termed natural
flavorings whereas those prepared from synthetic chemicals, such as
esters, aldehydes, ketones, and others, are considered artificial,
imitation, or synthetic flavors.
184
-------
DRAFT
SYRUP AND WATER
i
FLOW MIX
COOLER
CARBONATOR
PRE-MIX
FILLER
CANNISTERS
CANNISTER
WASHER
r
•{^SHIPMENT |
CLEANUP
SYRUP
POST-MIX
FILLER
SHIPMENT
WASTEWATER
EFFLUENT
FIGURE 70
PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM BULK FILLING
SOFT DRINK PLANT
185
-------
DRAFT
Common flavoring extracts include vanilla, lemon, clove, cinnamon, orange,
nutmeg, peppermint, and wintergreen. The most common methods for the
preparation of flavoring extracts are steam or water vapor distillation
(with or without vacuum), solvent extraction, and expression.
Flavoring extracts are produced in a wide variety of concentrations and
forms -- extracts, concentrates, powders, emulsions, tablets, and
essences -- with the strength and form depending on the intended use
of the product. Natural flavoring extracts are then blended with other
substances, such as sugar, synthetic flavoring extracts, alcohol, and
food colors, in numerous combinations and proportions to produce finished
specific flavors. The finished flavors are also produced in the same
variety of concentrations and forms as the flavoring extracts. Finished
flavors are utilized in a number of other food related areas, principally
the beverage, baking, confectionery, and frozen desserts industries.
There are approximately 60 companies operating flavor producing plants in
the United States. While little information is available from the
industry, it would appear that a typical plant produces flavoring extracts
as well as finished specific flavors and possibly spices.
A separate entity of the flavoring extract and syrup industry is the
manufacturing of beverage bases (concentrates and syrups). These bases
are almost exclusively produced by the major soft drink companies which
utilize them in their soft drink products. There are approximately 22
beverage base plants operating in the United States.
The demand for flavoring extracts and flavors fluctuates in direct relation
to fluctuations in the beverage, baking, confectionery, and frozen desserts
industries. However, the need for flavoring products probably maintains a
near balance since beverage and frozen dessert demand is high when
baking demand is low and vice versa (40). In 1973 the value of product
shipments of flavorings accounted for an estimated 1.6 billion dollars
and was expected to rise to 1.7 billion in 1974.
Process Description-Standard, Terpeneless and Concentrated Flavoring
Extracts from Essential Oils - Essential oils may be defined as liquids
which occur naturally in many types of plants or which may be reproduced
by a combination of substances in the plant upon reaction with one
another in the presence of water. The preparation of the most common
forms of flavoring extracts from essential oils is illustrated in
Figure 71.
Essential oils are generally purchased and stored in fiber drums, while
alcohol and other solvents are stored in storage tanks. A standard
formula exists for every type of flavoring extract which can be manu-
factured. The preparation of a standard flavoring extract (Figure 71 )
involves a blending process in which a specified percentage by volume
of the essential oil, alcohol, and water are mixed in tanks.
186
-------
DRAFT
ESSENTIAL OIL
STEAM
STANDARD OR
CONCENTRATED
FLAVORING EXTRACT
(A)
COOLING WATER
. TERPENE
SOLUTION
DISSOLVED OIL
TERPENELESS FLAVORING
EXTRACT
(B)
TERPENELESS FLAVORING
EXTRACT
(C)
FIGURE 71
STANDARD, TERPENELESS AND CONCENTRATED
NATURAL FLAVORING EXTRACT PROCESS
187
-------
DRAFT
For certain applications, such as in ices and fountain syrups, it is
desirous to produce a more water soluble flavor. Consequently, the
more insoluble components (terpenes) of the oil must be removed. This
can be accomplished by vacuum distillation (Figure 71) or solvent ex-
traction (Figure 71) of the essential oil.
In the vacuum distillation process, steam is used to strip the more
volatile plant oil from the terpenes. The purified oil is then mixed
with dilute ethyl alcohol of proper strength to form the terpeneless
extract.
In the solvent extraction process the solvent dissolves the plant oil
from the essential oil and is drawn off. The solvent is then recovered
from the purified oil which is subsequently mixed with dilute ethyl
alcohol of proper strength to form the terpeneless extract.
Concentrated extracts are produced in the same manner as standard extracts
except the percent by volume of plant oil is considerably increased.
Wastewater generated from the production of these products consists
primarily of internal equipment cleanup when a flavoring change is made.
Process Description-Flavoring Extracts from Direct Solvent Extraction
of Aromatic Plant Tissues - There are few flavoring extracts prepared
from the direct solvent extraction of plant tissue. By far the most
common example is the manufacturing of vanilla extract as illustrated
in Figure 72.
Vanilla beans are received and stored in boxes. The vanilla beans taken
from storage are first chopped before being steeped in an alcohol-water
solution. In order to exhaust the desired material from the bean,
solutions ranging from 35 to 60 percent by volume of ethyl alcohol are
used. The vanilla extract, composed of alcohol, water and dissolved
vanilla flavor, is drawn off through a filter, adjusted to a desired
water, alcohol, and sugar content in storage tanks, and subsequently
bottled.
The alcohol remaining in the chopped beans from the steeping process is
extracted and reused. The beans are discarded as solid waste.
The major wastewater generation is attributable to filter backwash and
to the cleaning of vanilla extract storage tanks when sediment accumu-
lates in the tanks.
Process Description - Natural Flavoring Concentrates and Powders - Flavor-
ing concentrates and powders are derived from plant liquor or essential oils.
Fruit liquor is usually used in the case of fruit concentrates and powders
while essential oils are used for spice concentrates and powders.
The typical process flow diagram for the manufacturing of these products
is illustrated in Figure 73 .
188
-------
DRAFT
RAW VANILLA BEANS
CHOPPING
(OPTIONAL)
EXTRACTION
ALCOHOL
RECOVERY
FILTER
FLAVORING EXTRACT
FILTER
BACKWASH
STORAGE
TANK
(CONSTITUENT
ADJUSTMENT)
CLEANUP
• MM MM ^» «^ ^*'
WATER
PACKAGING
CLEANUP
WATER
SPENT VANILLA
BEANS TO SOLID
WASTE
WASTEWATER
FIGURE 72
NATURAL VANILLA EXTRACT MANUFACTURING PROCESS
189
-------
DRAFT
FRUITS
WASHING
WASH WATER
EXPRESSION
ESSENTIAL OILS FRUIT
1 OR LIQUOR
WASTE TISSUE TO
' SOLID WASTE
VAPOR TO
EVAPORATION Jjt—..-afe*.
ATMOSPHERE
CLEANUP
WATER
DEHYDRATION
VAPOR TO
——-•*-
ATMOSPHERE
WASTEWATER
NATURAL FLAVOR CONCENTRATE
NATURAL FLAVOR POWDER
FIGURE 73
NATURAL FLAVORING CONCENTRATES AND POWDERS
MANUFACTURING PROCESS
190
-------
DRAFT
In order to produce fruit concentrates or powders, fruits are washed and
chopped and the fruit liquor containing water, oil, and fruit particles
is expressed from the chopped fruit. To prepare the fruit concentrate the
liquor is evaporated under vacuum. If powdered flavor is to be produced,
the liquor together with vitamins, sugar, and acid is completely dehydrated.
The production of spice concentrates involves the evaporation of essential
spice oils. The oils are dehydrated for the production of powder.
Wastewater generated from the manufacturing of concentrates and powders
includes fruit wash water, evaporator effluent, and dehydrator effluent.
Process Description - Finished Specific Flavors and Cordials - The manu-
facturing of finished specific flavors and cordials is a blending process
in which natural and/or synthetic flavoring extracts are blended in nu-
merous proportions and combinations with other ingredients such as
alcohol, sugar, coloring agents, and water.
If not produced at the plant, flavoring extracts and colors are usually
received and stored in fiber drums. After proper mixing they are packaged
in bulk containers. The finished flavors may be produced in all of the
various forms discussed above.
Cordials are a blend of flavoring extracts, sugar, water, and alcohol.
Cordials are a special case of flavor production in which alcohol
comprises a considerable portion of the total product volume.
Wastewater attributable to the preparation of finished flavors and
cordials consists entirely of cleanup of mixing tanks prior to flavor
changes.
Process Description - Beverage Bases - By far the majority of beverage
bases, both concentrates and syrups, are manufactured by major soft drink
companies in plants which produce concentrates and/or syrups exclusively.
The manufacturing of flavoring concentrates and syrups is illustrated
in Figure 74 .
The flavoring extracts, acids, treated water, colors, and sugar (except
in concentrate production) are proportioned from storage tanks into
large, stainless steel mixing tanks and blended. The product is then
strained through a wire mesh screen and packaged or shipped in bulk by
tank cars or trucks.
The manufacturing of beverage concentrates and syrups in flavoring extract
plants is done on a much smaller scale and excludes water treatment and
container washing. There is also no need for flavoring material storage
as these materials are produced in-house.
The primary sources of wastewater in the soft drink concentrate and syrup
plants are cleanup of mixing tanks prior to flavor changes at the
end of each day; and washing of containers, drums, and tank cars. The
production of beverage bases in flavoring extracts plants would generate
wastewater from cleanup of mixing tanks only.
IQl
-------
DRAFT
SUGAR (SYRUPS ONLY), ACIDS,
COLORS, FLAVORING EXTRACTS
WATER
TREATMENT
MIXING
TANKS
STRAINING
FILLING
CLEANUP WATER
WASHING (DRUMS,
TANK CARS, 5 GAL.
CONTAINERS)
1
PLANT
CLEANUP
WATER
WASTEWATER
FIGURE 74
BEVERAGE CONCENTRATE AND SYRUP MANUFACTURING PROCESS
192
-------
DRAFT
SIC 2095 - Roasted and Soluble Coffee Processing
General - Coffee roasting and the production of soluble coffee extracts
occurs in 208 plants distributed throughout the country. According
to the Pan American Coffee Bureau ( 41), in 1972 843,696 kkg (930,000 tons)
of roasted coffee and 81,048 kkg (89,300 tons) of soluble coffee were
produced .with a total value of $2.32 billion. The greatest density
of plants is found along the Atlantic seaboard and in California.
According to the National Coffee Association (42 ), of the 21 million
bags (60 kg each) of coffee that are imported each year, 10 percent
has already been processed, usually into soluble coffee.
The National Coffee Association further reports that seven large corporations
account for 70 percent of the total production in this country. In the
soluble coffee segment of the industry, two corporations produce 81 percent
of total production.
Coffee is normally sold in a roasted and ground or soluble form. Both
are available as either regular or decaffeinated types, and soluble coffee
is produced by spray drying or freeze drying. Some coffee plants produce
all possible combinations of the above forms and types. The Pan American
Coffee Bureau ( 43 ) indicates that decaffeinated coffee accounts for only
12 percent of all coffee sold; however, 28 percent of all soluble coffee
is made from decaffeinated beans.
Since 1962, the per capita coffee consumption in this country has been
declining. However, the National Coffee Association (42 ) indicates that
the soluble coffee industry continues to expand and account for a larger
share of the total coffee market each year.
All coffee processing begins with the green coffee bean. Further processing
will include roasting, possibly preceded by decaffeination and followed
by extraction and then spray or freeze drying. These processes are described
in the following subsections. Figure 75 illustrates the basic processes
used in producing roasted coffee.
Description of the Decaffeination Process - Green coffee beans usually
arrive at the plant in 60 kg (132 Tb) burlap sacks from which they are
transferred to a storage hopper. The beans are then cleaned by air
levitation to remove foreign material and chaff which are lighter than
the beans. The beans are then either decaffeinated by individual type
or the various types of beans are mixed to obtain the desired blend and
then decaffeinated. If decaffeinated roasted or soluble coffee is desired,
the caffeine is removed from green coffee beans using the direct solvent
method or the water extraction (liquid/liquid) method.
In the direct solvent method (see Figure 76), caffeine is removed by
contacting the beans with organic solvent, most commonly methylene chloride.
The beans are prewetted by various methods before extraction, a necessary
step to allow high decaffeination levels. The solvent is drained off and
fresh solvent added until the residual caffeine is at the level desired
193
-------
DRAFT
STORE IN
BURLAP BAGS
r
CHAFF S TRASH__
SHAKER SCREEN
AIR VACUUM
CAFFEINE
BLOCKS
DECAFFEINATION
FOR SOME
PRODUCTS
STORE
BLEND
ROAST
QUENCH
(AIR-COOL)
EFFLUENT
SEE FIGURE
FOR PROCESS FLOW
FOR DECAFFEINATION
WATER
r-;rT-i
| ^ ISCRUBBER | ^
WATER |
SPRAY, INCORPORATED
IN PRODUCT
FOREIGN MATTER
SOLID
WASTE
STONER
SCREEN
WASTEWATER
G
S
PACKAGE
i
STORE
^
m^r. AROMATIZING
AfiFMT TF
J DESIRED
TORE
SEE FIGURE
SOLUBLE
COFFEE
PACKAGE
i
STORE
GROUND ROASTED
COFFEE
WHOLE COFFEE
BEAN
FIGURE 75
COFFEE ROASTING
PRjDCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
194
-------
DRAFT
AIR CLEANED
GREEN BEANS
(SEE FIGURE )
GREEN BEAN
LIQUID
PREBOIL IN
EXTRACTOR TANK
(OPTIONAL)
SOLVENT
RETURN
ADD SOLVENT
STRIP SOLVENT
DECAFFEINATED
CAFFEINE INI
BEAN
WATER
STORAGE HOPPER
EVAPORATOR STILL
DEWATERING
SCREEN
CAFFEINE CAKE
HOT AIR DRYER
SOLIDIFY CAFFEINE
INTO BLOCKS
COOLER
BOX & STORE
CAFFEINE
DRY DECAFFEINATED
GREEN BEAN STORAGE
FIGURE 76
ORGANIC SOLVENT CONTACT
DECAFFEINATING PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
WASTEWATER
195
-------
DRAFT
(usually 97 percent of the caffeine is removed). The used solvent is
distilled to recover clean solvent and a crude caffeine residue.
The method of extraction most commonly used in this country by the large
producers of decaffeinated products is called the water extraction or
liquid/liquid extraction method (see Figure 77). In this process, the
caffeine js extracted from the green beans in extractor columns with
93 C (200 F) water. Next the extract may be centrifuged to remove solids.
The caffeine is then selectively transferred from the aqueous green
coffee solution stage to the trichlorethylene solvent by countercurrent
or rotating disk contactor liquid/liquid extractors. The water extract
is then stripped of its solvent residue and returned to the process
to extract further caffeine. The caffeine contained in the trichlor-
ethylene can be recoverd by distillation of the solvent, or by liquid/
liquid extraction with water. The solvent is purified by distillation
and returned to the process. Caffeine may be packed and shipped in its
crude form or it may be further purified to meet food and drug standards.
The extraction of green beans with recycled water extract continues
until the caffeine level in the green is reduced to the required degree
(usually 97 percent removal), and the beans are then drained, washed
and dried.
In the extraction processes discussed, the decaffeinated beans are
rinsed and dewatered with an auger screw or screen. The beans are then
hot air dried, cooled, and stored in preparation for roasting.
Wastewater is generated in the decaffeinating process primarily from
the washing of the decaffeinated beans, the flushing of the extract
centrifuge and the solvent and caffeine separation process. Smaller
amounts of wastewater come from the caffeine solidifying process, storage
of the wet beans and condensate overflow.
Description of the Roasted Coffee Process - Coffee beans are roasted in
order to develop their flavor. There are eight commonly used shades
or degrees of roasting. Selection of a particular shade depends on
the type of beans and the flavor desired.
Green coffee beans are normally roasted in revolving metal cylinders,
directly or indirectly heated by gas or #1 fuel oil. Batch roasting
in lots of 230 to 635 kg (500 toJ400 lb|) is the more common method,
with end temperatures in the 200° to 220 C (390° to 428°F) range at the
end of the cycle in 8 to 18 minutes6 If a continuous roasting method is
used, the temperature is 260 C (500°F) and the contact time is approximately
5 minutes.
The roasted beans are cooled by either wet or dry methods. The roasting
process ir> termed "wet" if it is checked by the spraying of water over
the hot beans (while still in the roaster). This water is partially
evaporated and partially absorbed into the bean. None is discharged
as wastewater. In dry roasting, the process is arrested only by air
cooling and by contact with the cooling apparatus.
196
-------
DRAFT
AIR CLEANED
GREEN BEANS
(SEE FIGURE )
EXTRACTORS
BEANS & EXTRACT
k-
SOLID
WASTE
EXTRACT
SLURRY
HOPPER
SCREENING
n
DEWATERING
SCREEN
HOT AIR
DRYER
COOLER
DRY
DECAFFEINATED
GREEN BEANS
CENTRIFUGE
LIQUID/
LIQUID
EXTRACTION
FRACTIONATOR
SOLVENT AND
CAFFEINE
SEPARATION
CAFFEINE CAKE
SOLIDIFY
CAFFEINE
INTO BLOCKS
BOX & STORE
CAFFEINE
m o
H r
c <
;o m
2 Z
H
FIGURE 77
LIQUID/LIQUID EXTRACTION
DECAFFEINATION PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
WASTEWATER
197
-------
DRAFT
Stoning, removal of metal and other foreign material heavier than the
coffee beans, is then performed. Next the beans are stored until
packaged as whole roasted beans or ground. A "granulator" composed of
a series of rollers and often capable of 10 size adjustments, is commonly
used to grind the beans at rates up to 1.8 kkg per hour (2 tons per hour).
The ground roasted coffee is packaged for sale or further processed into
a soluble coffee product.
There is normally no wastewater generated in the production of roasted
coffee unless the plant utilizes a wet scrubber for the stack gasses,
and few coffee roasting plants have wet scrubbers. General plant clean-
up is dry -- usually portable vacuum cleaners and/or brooms.
Description of the Soluble Coffee Process - The fresh grounds are added
to one end of a series of six to eight extractor chambers (see Figure 78),
through which hot water is passed countercurrent to the grounds. This
countercurrent flow permits the fresh hot water to extract the remaining
soluble materials from the most spent grounds. The conditions of this
flow are carefully controlled for maximum removal of soluble constituents
and good flavor and quality.
The extract is cooled if it is to be stored before further processing,
and centrifuged or filtered. The liquid extract at this stage is 20
to 30 percent solids. For freeze drying, the solids concentration must
be increased to 40 percent. For spray drying, it is economically
advantageous to increase the solids content to the same 40 percent.
Concentration of the extract to the desired 40 percent solids level
is accomplished by evaporation or freeze concentration.
Spent grounds are carried from the extractor by steam ejection to a
storage tank. In some plants, the grounds are then deposited in a
landfill. In other plants, the grounds are rotary dried or pressed and
used as fuel for the boilers. The waste from the pressing of the grounds
is a significant source of wastewater as is the intermittent (every 5
to 10 minutes) cleaning of the centrifuge or filter. Other wastewater
sources include the general washdown of the extractors, sludge from the
centrifuge or filter, the scaling tank, the heat exchanger, and the
holding tank.
Spray Drying and Agglomeration: After concentration (if used), the extract
is delivered to the atomizing nozzle and spray dried. The dried product
is stored in bulk until it is packaged by automatic or semi-automatic
machinery. The powdered coffee produced by spray drying is usually
agglomerated by a second pass through part of the drying tower to yield
the relatively large "coffee crystals" which are now popular in this
country.
Wastewater is generated in this process step when the equipment is cleaned.
Cleaning is done at the end of a run which may be as infrequent as monthly.
Freeze Drying: Another method of producing soluble coffee is freeze
drying (see Figure 79). In this process, the liquid coffee extract
is cooled and concentrated by centrifugation. Following this, it is
frozen, ground, and more water is withdrawn through sublimation. The
product is then packaged and stored prior to shipment.
198
-------
DRAFT
GROUND COFFEE
(SEE FIGURE ! )
• GROUNDS GRDLLNDB
• kvJHiMBMKpMJUUAiiMMMB~Miik*MUMUBMf
EXTRACTORS
COOL
I WASTEWATER
SEE FIGURE 5
FREEZE DRYING
CENTRIFUGE
HEAT EXCHANGER
-1
CONCENTRATED
SLUDGE AND
CLEANUP WASTES
CLEANUP .J
AND CONDENSATEI
STORAGE TANKS
1
*
SPRAY DRY
AROMATIZE
AGGLOMERATE
CLEANUP ^i
"1
CL EANUP
PACKAGE
STORAGE
WASTEWATER
FIGURE 78
SOLUBLE COFFEE PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
T99
-------
DRAFT
CONCENTRATED
SOLUTION
RECYCLED
EVAPORATOR
EXTRACT FROM
SOLUBLE PROCESSING
COOL
STORAGE
CENTRIFUGE
FREEZING
I CONDENSEp wATER
AND COFFEE SOLIDS
CLEANUP
CONCENTRATED SLU
AND CLEANUP
.
GRINDING
,
SUBLIMATION
i
STORAGE
MELT ICE AND ,.
"COFFEE SOLIDS |
WASTEWATER
FIGURE 79
FREEZE DRYING PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
200
-------
DRAFT
SIC 2097 - Manufactured Ice
General - Commercial ice producing plants fall within two distinct
product categories - block and fragmentary ice. Block ice is produced
in 136 kg (300 Ib) or 182 kg (400 Ib) blocks which are frozen in rec-
tangular cans partially submerged in refrigerated brine tanks. Block
ice is sold whole, divided into 10 to 200 blocks, cut into cubes and
bagged, or crushed and sold as bagged sized ice. Cube ice machines
are sometimes found in ice manufacturing plants, but their low volume
capacity hardly justify their use. Cube and crushed ice finds its
greatest usage in the preserving and serving of foods and beverages,
or distribution to vending machines. Fragmentary ice is produced as
small pieces such as disks, cylinders, and random shapes similar to
crushed ice and normally is bagged at the plant. It is often produced
on large capacity units for industrial users such as poultry plants,
dairies, chemical plants, ready-mix concrete suppliers, and fish and
seafood transportion.
According to the Bureau of the Census ( 2 ), in 1972 approximately 4.1
million kkg (4.5 million tons) of ice were commercially manufactured
at some 2,000 plants located throughout the country, with the heaviest
concentration of manufacturers in the Atlanta, Georgia area. Production
at individual plants ranges from 0.45 to 363 kkg (0.5 to 400 tons) per
day; however, typical daily production is in the 45 to 136 kkg ( 50 to
150 ton) range.
Demand for ice fluctuates seasonally, with the highest demand in the
summer and lowest demand in the winter. Some plants close in the winter
months; others continue to operate with a skeleton crew, and still others
with large storage facilities, sell their product year-round but cease
processing during the winter.
According to the National Ice Association (44 ), approximately 60 percent
of ice manufacturing plants produce both fragmentary and block ice;
25 percent manufacture block ice only; and 15 percent manufacture
fragmentary ice only. Block ice is still the large volume product of
most ice manufacturers. However, increased efficiency of fragmentary
ice making machines and decreased demand for block ice has led to
decreased production of block ice and a corresponding increase in frag-
mentary ice. According to the Bureau of the Census ( 2 ), the quantity
of block ice produced dropped from 4.4 million kkg (4.9 million tons)
in 1967 to 2.2 million kkg (2.4 million tons) in 1972. This trend is
expected to continue, resulting in no construction of new block ice
plants. The last known block ice manufacturing plant.was built around
1966. The demand for fragmentary ice has been and is expected to continue
to increase substantially, possibly spectacularly. Many manufacturers
have installed fragmentary ice making machines to supplement and/or
to replace block ice making facilities.
Generally, the water used to make ice must be potable. It may be supplied
201
-------
DRAFT
by the local water purveyor or a well. Depending on its quality, the
water may be treated by the ice manufacturer.
Description of Process - Block Ice - Municipal water is sometimes not
satisfactory for the production of quality ice. Undesirable water
qualities can result in poor color, residues, and tendencies to shatter
or crack. To obtain clear block ice, it is sometimes necessary to
treat fresh water with lime, sand filters, carbon filters, or reverse
osmosis to remove suspended and/or dissolved solids. According to the
National Ice Association (44 ), about 60 to 70 percent of the block
ice manufacturers treat their water supply. Sources of wastewater at
this stage of processing include backwash water, precipitate, and brine
from treatment facilities.
Figure 80 illustrates the processing of block ice. The cans in which
block ice is to be frozen are filled from an elevated can filler. Once
filled, the cans are placed in agitated brine tanks either singularly
or in groups. Groups of cans are held together by grids made of flat
steel with the weight of the grids assisting to keep the cans submerged
and prevent tipping. The grids also hold the cans apart (seldom over
3 cm) to allow the brine to flow between the cans. Wooden can covers
rest directly over the grids and provide additional weight to hold
the cans in the brine. There is virtually no make-up or blowdown from
brine tanks. Water is kept in the tanks for years, and salt is added
once or twice a year. Brine tanks are seldom, if ever, dumped.
During freezing, air may be used to agitate the fresh water in the cans.
The purpose of this aeration is to aid in forming clear, pure water
crystals by assisting in the rejection of most of the impurities
into the core of the ice block. The unfrozen core, consisting of about
10 to 22 1 (3 to 6 gal), is usually pumped out and replaced with fresh
water preferably cooled. According to ASHRAE ( 45), the block of ice
will require up to an additional hour to freeze the core water. A 136
to 132 kkg (300 to 400 Ib) block of ice requires 1 to 2 days to freeze,
depending upon the temperature of the brine,
When the blocks are frozen, the cans are removed from the brine. The
frozen cans are then transported to the dumping area where they are
submerged in a dip tank (filled with water) until the ice block loosens
andofloates up in the can. The dip tank water should be below 21°C
(70 F) to avoid ice stressing and cracking or undue melting. After the
ice thaws from the can, the cans are raised and moved to the dumping area
where the cans are tipped, the ice blocks sliding free. Once the ice
is dumped, it is rinsed with fresh water. It may then pass through a
scoring machine (circular saws) to score the ice for 11 kg (25 Ib) blocks
and then is moved to storage. Alternatively, the 136 to 182 kg (300 to
400 Ib) block may be stored until sold, at which time the block is
scored and picked into smaller blocks, rinsed, and distributed to
retailers or sold at the plant. Ice cans, once emptied, are refilled
with water to freeze the next batch of ice.
202
-------
AFT
COMPRESSOR ^
AND/OR CONDENSER
eOOLING WATER
STORED
|
CRUSHER
f
SORTED
*
WEIGHED
*
PACKAGED
rpiic;wpn irp
SNOW
AND ENDS
WATER*
TREATMENT
\
WATER*
STORAGE
I
CANS
FILLED
1
BRINE
TANK
*
CORE PUMPED*
& REFILLED
1
DIP
TANK
*
DUMPED
1
J
SCORED
CLEANUP
CLEANUP
PICKED INTO
BLOCKS
RINSE
*
PACKAGED
BAe^WAbM/'SUUDGfcrDKliMl-
CORE WATER
OVERFLOW
SNOW AND ENDS
~~~ "TTNirTw" AND*
c;Awc. ENDS „
*
WEIGHED
i
CLbANUP
PACKAGED »•
TTF TURFS
BLOCK ICE
WASTEWATER
* MAY BE OMITTED
NO SOLID WASTE
FIGURE 80
PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
BLOCK ICE
-------
DRAFT
Hastewater from the freezing of block ice comes from core pumping,
water used to cool the refrigeration compressors, dip tank overflow,
and snow from scoring. In some ice plants, compressor cooling water
is routed to the dip tank where it is used to thaw the ice blocks
from the cans. In the dip tank, some chlorides and solids are added
to the wastewater. They are transferred from the brine tank as the
cans are being dipped.
Whole ice blocks are stored in freezer rooms with the bottom layer
held off the floor about 15 cm. A space between the ice blocks and
the side walls of the storage room is also maintained to promote cold
air circulation around all ice blocks.
Cubes: Cubes prepared from block ice are sawed out of the whole by a
variety of automatic and semi-automatic machines which handle blocks of
11 to 182 kg (25 to 400 1b). The machines consist of one or two sets
of power operated circular saws operating in two plants successively
and a third large power saw for cutting the indented cubes free of the
block. Ice losses from this type of processing are 30 to 50 percent in
the form of snow and end pieces. These waste pieces are sometimes used
to precool water which is to be frozen, but most often are discharged as
wastewater.
Some ice manufacturing plants have small, 225 or 450 kg (500 or 1000 Ib)
per day, cube machines like the cube machines found in hotels and other
commercial establishments. Cube machines are a very small percentage of
most ice manufacturing plants' capacities, and are intended primarily for
retail sales.
Crushed ice: Sizing machines, which have come into increasing use, consist
of an ice crusher into which blocks of ice are fed. The crushed ice is
delivered into an overhead rotating screen, which separates the broken
pieces into bins containing the desired size(s). These pieces are then
weighed and placed in plastic bags for sale or distribution to retailers,
vending machines, or other larger customers.
Up to 50 or 60 percent of the block ice may be lost in crushing. Particles
less than a specified size cannot be used, and must either be recycled
to manufacturing or melted and discharged as wastewater. A machine has
recently been introduced for use in compressing undersized crushed ice
or snow into blocks. Widespread use of this type of machine could
significantly increase the yield from block ice manufacturing, instead
of wasting the water or recycling the snow and end pieces back to the
product water.
Description of Process - Fragmentary Ice - Fragmentary ice differs from
sized ice in that sized ice is made from crushed block ice, whereas frag-
mentary ice is produced when water flows over a freezing surface.. One of
five general methods is employed in removing ice from surfaces to which
it has been frozen. These are as follows:
204
-------
DRAFT
1. Separation from a flexible surface
2. Scraping the ice crystals from a wet direct expansion chilled
surface and pressing the sludge into briquettes
3. Hot vapor heating the surface to release ice frozen by direct
expansion to the inside or outside of tubes
4. Mechanically separating the ice from a direct expansion
refrigeration drum
5. Water defrost of sheets frozen to refrigerated plates (45 ).
These processing steps are done in commercial fragmentary ice making
machines. As indicated in Figure 81 , following removal from the
fragmentary ice machine, the ice is sized by screw conveyors if necessary,
sorted by size, stored in hoppers or a surge bin, and then packaged
in plastic bags. Unlike crushed ice, little, if any, ice is less than
the minimum size; accordingly it can all be packaged for sale.
Fragmentary ice varies from crystal clear to opaque depending upon the
water quality, and is irregular in form. Potable water (municipally
supplied or from wells) seldom requires pretreatment for the manufacture
of fragmentary ice. Wastewater sources peculiar to the production of
fragmentary ice include the following:
1. Excess water not frozen on the freezing surface
2. Water used for defrost
3. Slowdown from fragmentary machines
Manufactured ice is stored on both short and long term bases. Facilities
for short term (day) storage are normally large enough to accommodate
at least 3 days of production. Ice is stored for longer periods because
of fluctuations in demand; e.g., production decreases during the fall
and stored ice is used to fill the smaller winter demands. According
to ASHRAE (45), the increasing demand for manufactured ice and subsequent
production of all types of sized ice has prompted the expansion of day
storage facilities by 100 to 200 percent.
General cleanup (dry sweeping with subsequent melting and/or hose down)
1 to 4 times each day, and the periodic defrosting of storage facilities
add to the waste stream.
205
-------
uKrtFT
WATER*
TREATMENT
ICE
MACHINE**
BULK
STORAGE
SURGE
BIN
PACKAGING
STORAGE
J3_A CKW ASH /SL UDG E
BRINE
SLOWDOWN
DISTRIBUTION
CLEANUP
WASTEWATER
*NORMALLY NOT USED
**THE ICE MACHINE CAN BE ONE OF FIVE TYPES OF FRAGMENTARY
ICE MAKERS! WITH OR WITHOUT WATER STORAGE BUILT INTO IT.
NO SOLID WASTE GENERATED.
FIGURE 81 •
PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
FRAGMENTARY ICE
206
-------
DRAFT
SIC Code 2098 - Macaroni. Spaghetti, and Noodles
Spaghetti, macaroni, and other related products, known as alimentary
pastes, are made by forming unleavened dough into a variety of shapes,
which are subsequently dried to less than 13 percent moisture. Typically,
these products are made by mixing semolina with water and kneading
the resulting dough until homogeneous. The dough is then extruded
or rolled before being cut into the familiar shapes of macaroni products:
spaghetti, macaroni, noodles, shells, elbows, etc. Egg noodles contain
added egg or egg yolk.
According to the Department of Commerce, Census of Manufactures (2)
there are approximately 191 manufacturers spread throughout the nation
which produce macaroni products. The West leads with 64 plants, followed
closely by the Northeast with 63 plants. The North Central U.S. has
43 macaroni and spaghetti plants, and the South only 21. The plants
range in size from large corporations to very small, family owned
businesses. Total sales volume is about 400 million dollars, and
production about 910 million kilograms annually.
The above figures for number of plants are believed to be misleading,
however, because they include many Italian eating establishments which
manufacture pasta only for their own use. Standard and Poor lists
only 24 companies in this category which manufacture on a commercial
scale. Since some of these companies have several plants, it is estimated
that the total number of significant commercial plants in the United
States is between 30 and 40. All plants contacted discharged to municipal
systems.
Process Description. Figure 82 shows a process flow diagram for
a typical macaroni and noodle processor. The basic raw materials
are semolina, durum flour, farina flour, or a combination of these,
and water. Semolina is milled from hard wheat such as amber durum.
Size of particles is less important than uniformity. Coarse semolina
is easier to handle, but requires longer mixing times.
Egg products are normally used in certain noodle formulations. In
some cases, frozen pasteurized egg yolks are used. Alternatively,
freshly separated egg yolks or dehydrated egg yolk solids may be incor-
porated into the various eqq containing products.
The other major ingredient common to all pastas is water. Quality
and temperature of incoming water are of special
207
-------
DRAFT
RECYCLE FRAGMENTS
< WATER
«• EGG SOLIDS
(OPTIONAL)
VAC UUM _PUMP_ _C OOL IN G
WATER ~H
FIGURE 82
PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM FOR
MACARONI, SPAGHETTI, AND NOODLES
208
-------
DRAFT
consideration to obtain consistent quality products. Other ingredients
may include egg-white solids, onion, garlic, celery, bay leaf, salt
or other seasonings, and disodium phosphate.
Solid and liquid raw materials are mixed together in desired proportions.
On the average, about 30 parts of water by weight are added to 100
parts of solid raw material. The moisture content of the original
semolina varies between 12 and 16 percent.
Mixing methods vary with the type of dough mixer used. The larger
and more modern facilities utilize continuous dough mixing techniques,
whereas the smaller processors employ batch methods for blending and
mixing. Either process results in a homogeneously kneaded dough of
approximately 30 to 32 percent moisture. After mixing, the dough
is pushed through various shaped dies under high pressures.
In almost all cases, a vacuum is applied to deaerate the dough as
it enters the extruder. This requires extensive cooling water for
proper maintenance and operation of the pumps. This water, while
being non-contact water, is usually combined with remaining plant
effluent, and represents, in many instances, virtually the entire
effluent flow, exclusive of sanitary wastes.
If short macaroni products are to be made, a cutter placed directly
under the die cuts strands into the desired length. The "shorts"
are conveyed directly to the drier. Long spaghetti, macaroni, or
noodle strands are spread manually or mechanically on drying sticks.
After they are cut to an even length, the loaded sticks pass through
a predrier in which approximately six to eight percent moisture is
extracted in an hour or less time. The goods come out of the predrier
with a moisture content of 22 to 24 percent.
At the discharge from the predrier, there is a recovery zone to insure
equal moisture distribution throughout the product and to prevent
the goods from checking or cracking during the final drying.
The final drier can be batch or continuous. Batch driers are typically
used when production figures are under 4,545.45 kg (10,000 Ib) per
day. Batch driers in which products circulate in a closed circuit
through different climate zones have proven to be efficient and reliable.
Special equipment is needed to manufacture twisted or stamped goods.
"Pasta Bolognese" is made from a calibrated dough sheet which
209
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DRAFT
is extruded from the press. Since twists and stamped goods are
usually made in small quantities, production costs are relatively
high. They are typically dried in stationary batch driers containing
a number of trays, through which air, heated by coils containing hot
water or low pressure steam, is blown.
Both long and short cut macaroni products are generally dried to about
12 or 13 percent moisture content. Once dried, the products have
excellent preservation qualities.
Short products such as soup pastas, elbows, sea shells, etc., can
either be dried stationary on trays or continuously in drum or belt
driers. Trays are typical for small operations, but continuous systems
were observed for high production levels.
Furthermore, microwave ovens have been recently introduced for the
drying of "shorts." Microwaves selectively heat water with little
direct heating of most solids. Drying is uniform throughout; the
shorts' pre-existing moisture gradients are evened out. This unique
application results in very rapid drying, but requires specialized
equipment and safety devices. Normal 24 hour drying cycles were observed
to be reduced to 30 minutes.
In small factories, products are packaged by hand. In larger factories,
long, short, and twisted goods are weighed and filled by semi-automatic
or completely automatic machines into cellophane or plastic bags,
or paper cartons. Cut corners or "breaks" inherent in the packaging
of "long" items are typically recycled back through the process by
being finely ground and then used as a raw ingredient.
Those plants that utilize frozen egg solids were observed to do in-
place cleaning. The resultant waste flows were low (typically less
than 11,340 liters/day (3,000 gal/day)). Similarly, several plants
indicated the use of dried egg solids with all cleanup being performed
with conventional "dry" methods (i.e., sweeping, scraping, rubbing,
etc.).
It is obvious that pasta production is essentially a dry process with
manufacturers avoiding the use of water during processing and cleanup.
The only significant waste volume observed is non-contact cooling
water. The only strong waste from an organic pollutant point of view
is generated by periodic cleaning in special washers of the extrusion
dies, and cleanup of egg product blending equipment in noodle manufacturing
operations. In both cases, waste volume is very low.
210
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DRAFT
SIC 2099 Almond Paste Manufacturing
Results of this study indicate there are currently only four active almond
paste manufacturers in the United States. These operations distributed
in the states of New York, New Jersey, Illinois, and California, represent
a relatively minor industry in terms of food production. Several plants
manufacture almond paste in combination with a variety of other nut pro-
ducts such as nut toppings, pastry fillings, icings, glace bases, baker's
specialty items, and other nut pastes. In addition, some facilities manu-
facture almond paste less than 30 days per year. The following process
description was obtained through a plant visitation to one almond paste
manufacturer.
Description of Process - Figure 83 presents a generalized flow diagram
of almond paste processing. Raw almonds (and similar nuts such as pecans,
walnuts, hazel nuts, cashews, and apricot kernels) arrive at the plant by
truck in boxes and are stored in coolers. The raw almonds are roasted and
placed in a series of initial soak tanks at a temperature of 81 to 92°C
(180 to 200°F) for about 20 minutes. Durst (46) reports that from the
soak tanks, the almonds are blanched to separate the testce (red skins),
germ (small hearts), and cotyledons (almond halves or split almonds). The
testce and germ are aspirated and separated by screen from the cotyledons.
The cotyledons are inspected and are placed in pregrinding soak tanks at
59 to 73°C (140 to 165°F) for 15 to 20 minutes. After the almond cotyledons
have soaked they are conveyed to a blending hopper where the almonds are
water cooled. At this point ingredients such as sugar and flavorings are
added. The blend is then placed into a grinder which ruptures the fat
cells causing the mixture to have a pasty consistency. The almond paste
is then transferred into a number of soaking units where it is cooked to
a moisture content of 10 to 15 percent. After cooking, the paste is hand
packaged into 227 to 286 gm (8.0 to 10.0 oz) vacuum packed cans or 22.6 kg
(50.0 Ib) plastic lined bakes for institutional use. Substantial packing
care is required to contain the product and prevent oxidation and subse-
quent rancidity of the fat content.
The major sources of wastewater generation in the manufacturing process
are (1) the initial and pregrind soak tank; (2) daily plant housekeeping
including equipment cleanup and floor washings; and (3) water used to cool
the nuts before grinding.
SIC 2099 Baking Powder
Background of the Industry - Baking powder is produced in at least 28
plants in the United States, most of which are located in the Chicago
and New York metropolitan areas. Ten manufacturers account for a major
portion of the production of the industry.
Baking powder is produced for use by commercial bakeries as well as by
the individual consumer. Packaging requirements thus range from small
tins to barrels.
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DRAFT
INPLANT BOILER
WATER
RAW ROASTED
ALMONDS
INITIAL SOAK TANKS
'C/20 MIN.
PRESSURIZED AIR
INGREDIENT ADDITION!
SUGAR, FLAVORING,
ETC.
SKIN REMOVER
INSPECTION
TABLE
HOLDING
BIN
SOLID WASTE
PREGRIND
-Hi SOAK
TANKS
DAILY PLANT CLEANUP
BLENDER
HOPPER
GRINDER
COOKERS
WASTEWATER
HAND
PACKAGING
FINISHED NUT
PASTE PRODUCT
FIGURE 83
A SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF ALMOND PASTE PROCESSING
212
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DRAFT
Description of Baking Powder Processing - A simple process flow diagram
is presented in Figure 84. The basic operations in the production of
baking powder are dry material transport, metering, blending, mixing,
sifting, and packaging. The hydrophillic nature of the raw materials
and the final product, and the stringent quality standards for the final
product make it imperative that water be prevented from contaminating
the material handling lines. For this reason, extensive measures are
taken to control humidity and to prevent the use of water in the plant,
except for emergency situations.
The raw materials used (corn starch, bicarbonate of soda, sodium aluminate
sulphate, and monocalcium phosphate) may be delivered and stored either
in bulk or in bags, depending primarily on the size of the plant. In
the larger plants the material is unloaded from railcars or trucks by
air or mechanical transport systems and diverted to dedicated storage
silos. In smaller facilities raw materials are received in palletized
bags which must be mechanically transported to the blending area, opened,
and deposited in storage hoppers. The raw materials are then metered
into the blender in proper proportions. The blended material is trans-
ferred to a surge hopper to await packaging so that a subsequent batch
may be blended. The material is then sifted to remove foreign materials
and deposited into the holding hoppers for each packaging line. The
finished product is packaged in the appropriate type and size container,
palletized, and warehoused for future shipment. The entire operation
does not normally require the use of any water either for processing
purposes, cleanup, or dust control. In-plant cleanup is entirely by
dry methods, i.e., air brushing, foxtail brushes, brooms, and vacuum
systems. Water would be used for cleanup only in an emergency situation,
such as after a fire or an accident. The bulk raw material unloading
docks for the air-slide rail cars or trucks and the bagged raw material
unloading and warehousing areas may be hosed by water wash in some plants
in order to cleanup spills after unloading operations are finished. However,
this cleanup procedure is infrequent and undocumented.
Dust from air transport systems is apparently controlled by cyclone
separators, filters, and/or bag houses. Wet scrubbers have not been
documented.
SIC 2099 Bouillon
There are only four known producers of bouillon cubes in the United
States. In the course of this study all four plants were contacted,
three were visited, and wastewater sampling was conducted at one plant.
Only one of the four producers manufactured bouillon products exclusively.
Of the remaining three, bouillon was a major product in one and a minor
product (less than 20 percent total production) in the other two. Pro-
ducts produced along with bouillon include soups, soup mixes, puree,
drink mixes and specialty foods.
Retail sales of bouillon products was estimated at 30 million dollars
in 1973. Demand for bouillon products has been increasing in recent
years and is expected to continue as the cost of meat rises.
2-13
-------
DRAFT
RAW MATERIAL UNLOADING
SODIUM
BICARBONATE
STORAGE SILOS
(DRY)
DRY SCALPINGS
TO LANDFILL "
I "" 1
i
SODIUM
ALUMINUM
SULPHATE
CORN
STARCH
DRY MATERIAL METERING
AIR BLENDER
BLENDED BATCH
SURGE HOPPER
I ]
DUST COLLECTOR
SIFTING
HOLDING HOPPERS
PACKAGING
STORAGE
MONOCALCIUM
PHOSPHATE
FIGURE 84
BAKING POWDER PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
214
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DRAFT
Process Description-Bouillon Products - The manufacturing of bouillon
products is basically a four step process as illustrated in Figure 85.
The ingredients used to manufacture bouillon products are purchased
from a number of other food related areas such as the edible oil, spice,
and organic chemical industries. Ingredients are received and stored
in fiber drums, boxes, or plastic bags. It is not uncommon for plants
to produce a portion of the ingredients in-house. Two plants, for
example, are known to produce their own hydrolyzed vegetable protein.
The various ingredients, including hydrolyzed vegetable protein, salt,
meat extract, fats, spices, and emulsifiers, are proportioned in a
mixing tank. The mixture is dried in an oven and subsequently ground
into a granular form. The granular bouillon is either packaged in jars
or pressed into cubes.
Wastewater generation in the bouillon process is limited to cleanup
water used to wash mixing tanks, ovens, grinders. The packaging area
is cleaned with air.
SIC 2099 - Bread Crumbs, Not Made in Bakeries
General - The manufacturing of bread crumbs outside of bakeries is a
very limited industry. Four manufacturers of bread crumbs, which are
not primarily bakeries, were contacted. The majority of bread crumbs
appear to be manufactured and packaged for retail sale by large
bakeries.
Description of the Process - Bread crumb production not in bakeries is
essentially an assembly process. In all of the plants contacted, baked
and ground bread crumbs are the raw material used. These baked crumbs
are purchased in 20 to 45 kg (50 to 100 Ib) bags from bakeries. These
bags of crumbs are emptied into a vibrating mixer where they are
blended with the desired combination of spices. From the mixer, the
spiced crumbs are transferred to a holding tank on a conveyor belt.
The crumbs are then gravity fed from the tank to the packaging machinery.
The bread crumbs are packaged in 227 gram (8 oz) or 426 (15 oz) paper
cans. Lids are applied and the cans are boxed for storage and shipment.
All of the equipment and the floors are dry cleaned, and no water is
used in the product. For a schematic representation of the process,
see Figure 86-
For all practical purposes, bread crumb processing not in bakeries can
be considered as a dry process. There is apparently no process waste-
water discharged.
215
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DRAFT
INGREDIENTS
MIXING
TANK
OVEN
DRYING
GRINDING
PACKAGING
CLEANUP
"WATER
CLEANUP
WATER
CLEANUP
WATER
WASTEWATER
FIGURE 85
BOUILLON PRODUCT MANUFACTURING PROCESS
216
-------
DRAFT
1
L^— . i -— n --- - -
MIXER
*
TANK
*
CANNER
1
LIDS
*
BOXED
SEASONING ADDED
SOLID
WASTE
FIGURE 86
BREAD CRUMBS, NOT MADE IN BAKERIES
PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
217
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DRAFT
SIC 2099 - Chicory
General - Chicory is a flavoring which is blended with coffee. More
chicory is consumed in the South than elsewhere in this country.
Chicory is made from roots of the chicory plant. It is grown in Europe
and is pre-processed prior to importing. The pre-processing consists
of harvesting the roots, cleaning, slicing, and dehydrating. It is
shipped to the United States in burlap bags.
There is only one chicory processing plant in the United States. It
produces approximately 2,270 kkg (5 million Ib) each year. Both the
building and the equipment of the processing plant are relatively old.
Description of the Process - Chicory processinq is similar to roasted
coffee processing, as illustrated on Figure 87 - The pre-processed
dehydrated pieces of root are shipped to the plant and stored in burlap
bags. The bags are dumped into a bucket elevator and then a screw
conveyor for transfer to roasting ovens which are similar to roasters
used for coffee.
After roasting a specified time, the oven is turned off and approximately
4 1 (2 gal) of water per 450 kkg (1000 Ib) charge is sprayed onto
the chicory while it is still in the roaster, This water is used to
reduce the potential fire hazard in the roaster. The roasted chicory
is then dumped into an air cooler. There are no liquid drippings from
this cooler. After air cooling, the chicory is conveyed to the grinder
where it is ground into specified degrees of granularity and then packed
into polyethlene inner bags and burlap outer bags. Excessively fine
particles are reconstituted and reground.
The bags are stored at the plant until distributed. A relatively low
humidity must be maintained in the packaging and storage areas in order
to prevent "caking" of the chicory. Chicory tends to cake due to the
high sugar content of the material. In that form, it is not saleable
and must be reprocessed and repacked.
There is no process water. A minor amount of water is used for an air-
cooled air conditioner during the summer months and as non-contact cooling
water for a small compressor. None of the equipment requires wet
cleaning; it is wiped out periodically with rags. General plant cleanup
is dry -- predominately dry brooming. More severe spillage areas may
first be dry broomed; then mechanically scraped and broomed; and possibly
wet mopped using a conventional mop and bucket. The basement floor
of the plant was concrete with one floor drain near the back door. The
chicory is stored on this level, which prevents use of water for cleaning.
The second and third floors of the plant were wood and did not show
evidence of water application.
218
-------
DRAFT
STORE IN
50 KG BAGS
BUCKET
ELEVATOR
SCREW
CONVEYOR
DRY CLEANUP
SOLID
WASTE
ROASTER
AIR
COOLER
GRINDER
WATER FOR ;F IRE
PREVENTION
NON-CONTACT
COOLING
WATER
FINES
PACKAGE
STORE
WASTEWATER
FIGURE 87
CHICORY
PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
219
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DRAFT
SIC Code 2099 - Paprika and Chili Pepper
Paprika and chili peppers are major dehydrated vegetables, and are
important spices used in many foods. A handful of companies located
in the South and West process these commodities. For the purposes
of this study, three plants were field visited for the collection
of historical data, and composite samples were collected and analyzed
to verify these data.
Paprika and chili peppers are virtually identical and generally can
only be distinguished by their obvious taste differences. The plants
are harvested between early October and December. Harvesting is done
mechanically or by hand, depending on the size of field, climatic
conditions, and availability of labor.
Preservation of chilis and paprika is accomplished by standard dehydrating
techniques. Drying is done either on continuous stainless steel belts
or individual tray driers. In either case the original raw moisture
content of the vegetable is reduced to below ten percent by the application
of heat to the sliced, diced, or shredded vegetable. The combination
of heat and moisture reduction preserves the product from bacterial
degradation; these low moisture levels are not conductive to bacteria,
mold, and yeast growths.
Process Description. Figure 88 shows a typical process flow diagram
for dehydrated chili peppers and paprika. After harvesting, the peppers
are brought to the plant in either large wooden tote bins or in bulk.
Storage is less than 24 hours to prevent any microbial breakdown.
Typically, the chilis are conveyed through a dry reel to remove dirt
and debris. They are then dumped directly into a large soak tank
which wets the vegetable and loosens adhering dirt. The chilis are
usually removed from the soak tank by a continuous elevated conveyor
with high-pressure overhead cold water sprays to further clean the
extraneous material.
The soak tanks and water sprays contribute the major volume of wastewater
generation. The tanks may be dumped several times during the day,
the frequency depending on the condition of the harvested peppers
(mud, vegetable damage, etc.). Tote or storage bin washing can also
be a source of significant waste strength.
An inspection typically follows washing at which time defects are
removed as culls. The vegetables are conveyed directly to either
220
-------
DRAFT
BULK
A. _i_
N nt DT
DIRT
SEED RECOVERY
CRACK
.CORES
fl —- -
^STEMS'
FLOTATION
TANK
JUICES
SEEDS
DEWATER
TO SEED
COMPANY
DRY
REEL
SOAK
TANK
SPRAY
WASH
DIRT, JUICES
SLICE/DICE
DIRT. JUICES
JUICES
DRY
CLEAN-UP
GRIND
BLEND
-WATER
STORAGE
FIGURE 88
PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM FOR
PAPRIKA 6 CHILI PEPPERS
221
-------
DRAFT
a chopper, a slicer, or a dicer where the entire pod is cut. The
various cutting operations contribute a strong concentration of organic
solids (juices) to the wastestreams due to the macerating of the plant
cells. In addition, these machines are periodically washed to reduce
bacterial contamination. Finely comminuted organic particles enter
the waste flow from these rinsings.
The chopped pieces are coated with fine sulfite sprays to prevent
browning during the dehydration process. These sulfited pieces are
conveyed to either a continuous stainless belt drier or alternately
to wooden trays. If trays are used, then a series of trays are loaded
with even layers of the chopped peppers. When sufficient trays have
been filled, they are placed into a drying tunnel, and warm air is
introduced until the desired finished moisture is attained. With
either method of dehydration, final moisture levels of approximately
eight percent are obtained.
The other major source of wastewater is standard end-of-shift clean-
up, at which time all tanks, conveyors, dicers, etc., are emptied,
opened, and thoroughly washed and sanitized before startup of the
next day's operation.
The dried flakes may be packaged directly or milled into fine chili
powder or paprika powder. The milling is done by conventional hammermill
and screens; but after the dried pieces are finally ground, they are
added to a type of ribbon blender where water in the form of a fine
spray is introduced to raise the moisture level to ten to twelve percent.
The increased moisture aids in color retention of these ground powders.
The powders are then packaged in the desired container.
Seed recovery is an important by-product of this type of vegetable
operation. Carefully selected fields of either chilis or paprikas
are identified as being desirable for seed recovery. When these particu-
lar lots are brought into the plant to be dehydrated, the pods are
cracked and core and seed are separated (usually by flotation). The
pods are skimmed from the surface while the seeds are diverted through
a dewatering reel. The seeds are sold to a seed company and become
the following year's crop.
Water reuse and recycling was not observed in a typical pepper dehydration.
In some cases the final water sprays became make-up water for the
soak tanks, but the process does not lend itself to water reuse.
222
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DRAFT
SIC 2099 Desserts, Ready-to-Mix (Gelatin)
Background of the Industry - Ready-mix desserts and prepared gelatin
desserts are produced in at least 46 plants in the United States with most
of these facilities located in the Mid-west and the Northeast. The
products, directed primarily at the institutional and individual consumer,
are marketed in nearly infinite variety of flavors.
Although the industry has used wet production techniques in the past,
technological advances have made dry production techniques virtually
universal in the industry. These techniques involve the mixing and
packaging of raw materials and no significant contact with process
water.
Process Description - Ready-mix desserts and prepared gelatin desserts
are manufactured as shown in Figure 89. The basic operations are dry
material storage, transport, screening, metering, blending, mixing,
sifting, and packaging. The hydrophilic nature of the raw materials
and the final product in addition to stringent quality standards make
it imperative that water be prevented from contaminating the process
lines. For this reason, extensive measures are taken to control humidity
and to prevent the material from accidentally contacting water.
The raw materials used are generally delivered and stored in bags or
cartons. For ready mix desserts these materials may be dextrose, mod-
ified food starch, and/or cornstarch, salt, carrageenan, sodium phosphate,
hydroxylated soybean lecithin, nonfat dry milk, citric acid, and miscellan-
eous flavorings and colorings. Prepared gelatin desserts use edible gelatin,
salt, fumaric acid, and miscellaneous flavorings and colorings. Raw
materials are deposited in their designated storage and metering systems.
The various types of desserts are each prepared in a batch operation. In
larger plants mobile collection hoppers are moved about the facility
collecting screened and metered quantities of ingredients. When the
desired ingredients are gathered, the hopper is discharged to the mixer.
The prepared gelatin dessert mixing process requires the addition of a
small amount of water (less than one part of water per 600 parts of
product). The water is incorporated into the product and is not wasted.
The ready-mix dessert process uses no water in the mixing step. This is
the only difference in the processing of prepared gelatins and ready-
mix desserts.
After mixing the product is stored in a holding hopper until it is packaged
in the appropriate sized container. The product is then warehoused for
future shipment.
223
-------
DRAFT
BAGGED
RAW MATERIAL
PROCESS WATER
ADDED ONLY WHEN
GELATINS ARE
BEING PROCESSED
DEDICATED RAW
MATERIAL DUMP
SCREENING
STORAGE HOPPER
SCALE HOPPER
MOBILE COLLECTION
HOPPER
MIXER
MIXER BATCH
HOLDING HOPPER
PACKAGING
STORAGE
DUST COLLECTION
DUST COLLECTION
DUST COLLECTION
FIGURE 89
PREPARED GELATIN DESSERT PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
224
-------
DRAFT
The only source of wastewater in the processing operation is from the
water washout of mixers to prevent color contamination of the product.
Wash out takes place in a segregated washroom. All other cleanup in
the vicinity of the process line is accomplished by dry means, i.e.,
vacuum cleaners and brooms.
Newer plants are designed to facilitate dry cleaning through provisions
for soft cleaning hoppers, conveyors, and other machinery. Floors and
working surfaces may also be coated to improve dry cleaning efficiency.
Wastewater generation rates from equipment wash out are highly variable
Mixers are washed only when there is a product change and it happens
that the previous product would cause color contamination of the following
product.
Dust control facilities are required for these plants, however, dry
collection techniques are used exclusively in the plants surveyed.
SIC 2099 Honey
Honey, the oldest known substance used as a food sweetener, was widely
used as such prior to the advent of refined sugar. Its utilization
today continues as a household condiment and also because of its
hygroscopic characteristics as an ingredient to retard drying in
baked goods. The annual production of honey in the United States
averages 100,000 kkg (110,000 ton). Excluding small farm operations a
total of 16 plants produce the bulk of commercial honey. The value
of honey products in 1972 was $64 million, a 31 percent increase over 1971,
Description of the Honey Production Process - Honey is a natural food,
produced by the honeybee (Apis Mellifera L.), and is available in
various forms, e.g. liquid, comb, cut comb, granulated or finely
crystallized, and creamed. It requires no elaborate processing and
a considerable proportion of the crop passes from the producer direct
to the consumer. However, when honey is to be sold in the retail market,
it usually goes to local producers for packaging. Figure 90 shows a
typical honey process for the retail market.
The honey arrives at the plant already extracted from the cone, unless
comb honey is to be processed. Comb honey, which makes up a small
proportion of the bottled honey, is usually cut and bottled by hand.
Honey which has been extracted from the cone is first stored in heated
tanks at the plant receiving area. Heated storage tanks serve two
purposes: 1) to make the honey less viscous, and 2) to help remove
minute air bubbles entrapped in the cold honey. The tanks are usually
kept at a temperature between 60°C and 70°C, according to Manley (47).
The storage tanks are generally heated by a recirculating hot water
system. Since honey has many flavors and colors, mixing is sometimes
employed in the tanks to produce a more desirable blend. From the re-
ceiving tanks, honey is then pumped to another set of holding tanks called
"filtering tanks." These heated filter tanks are where honey.is held
prior to pumping through the filter process.
225
-------
DRAFT
WASHDOWN
> WATER,BOTTLE
CLEANING WATER
IF APPLICABLE
FIGURE. 90
HONEY PROCESS
226
-------
DRAFT
Filter presses employ a series of canvas or textile type screens, through
which the honey is forced to remove extraneous material such as wax,
bees wings, and other foreign substances. In some cases, a filter aid,
such as decolite, is added to the honey prior to filtering. The presses
are washed daily (outside wash), and are dismantled usually every other
day for a thorough cleaning. From the filter presses, honey can be
returned to storage tanks or directly to filling equipment.
Honey is generally bottled in glass or plastic containers; however, for
bulk purposes tins or paper containers are sometimes utilized. After
bottling and sealing, the containers are cleaned of spillage. Depending
on the size of the operation, the cleaning can either be done manually
by washing and wiping or mechanically with hot water washers. Usually
the use of water in any operation is avoided due to the hygroscopic
tendency of honey.
Honey that is to be sold in granulated form is generally bottled cold.
However, even heated honey, if allowed to set for a period of time,
will granulate.
Washdowns are the only major source of wastewater in honey manufacturing.
Usually, steam/water hoses are utilized to clean equipment and floors.
Washdown flows, depending on the size of plant or extent of washdown,
seldom exceed 800 I/day (200 gal/day).
SIC 2099 Molasses and Sweetening Syrups
Sweetening syrups and molasses are considered in the Census of Manu-
factures as a single food preparation class and are designated by
SIC product code 20993. Included in this group are the producers and/or
bottlers of pancake syrup, sorghum syrup, maple syrup, and molasses.
Together these establishments accounted for $138.8 million in ship-
ments in 1967.
Maple syrup is produced in the northeastern states from Wisconsin
through New England, with Vermont being the largest producer. The
annual production averaged 49000 cu m (1.2 million gallon) during the
last ten years and appears to have leveled off since 1949. The syrup
has been refined in essentially the same manner since the local Indians
passed the knowledge on to the white settlers. The manufacture to
date remains a small farm business with only a few establishments
engaged in the packaging of a wholesale product.
Sorghum was first introduced into the United States around 1700
primarily as a forage and silage crop. Approximately eight million
hectares (20 million acres) of sorghum are planted yearly. The primary
species of sorghum grown for syrup manufacturing is SL Saccharatum,
which is grown primarily in the southern states. In 1972 the production
of sorghum syrup was reported by Agricultural Statistics to be 27,211 cu m
(7,189,100 gallons).
227
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DRAFT
Description of the Molasses Process - Molasses is a valuable by-product
of beet and cane sugar manufacturing. "Blackstrap" molasses is the final
syrup left after repeated crystallizations for the extraction of sugar.
The major portion of molasses produced is utilized for animal feed,
ethyl alcohol, monosodium glutamate, and yeast production. Smaller
quantities are used in the manufacture of glycerine, lactic acid, acetone,
and syrup.
The molasses obtained in the early stages of sugar production has a
pleasant, palatable flavor and is used in the preparation of edible
molasses. As shown in Figure 91, the edible molasses is first heated
and filtered, before being pumped to filling machines which deposit
the molasses into the appropriate container. The containers are then
inspected, sealed, and rinsed prior to transporting to the labeling
and final packaging area.
The bottling of molasses produces wastewater from two areas: the
periodic cleaning of equipment and the rinsing of the filled bottles.
Due to the limited processing equipment and generally small size
of the operation, the volume of wastewater discharged is not large.
Description of the Maple Syrup Process - Maple syrup is produced from
the sap of the sugar maple tree, Acer Saccharum, which grows in the
north central and northeastern states. During the late winter and early
spring the trees are tapped to draw off the sap. The sap, containing
approximately three percent sugar, is boiled down to a sugar concentration
of 66 percent by the individual farmer prior to delivery to the processor.
The majority of processors are small farm operations; there are only
a limited number of establishments which bottle maple syrup on a large
commercial scale for wide distribution. The following process description,
which is illustrated in Figure 92,, is concerned only with the latter
group of processors.
The syrup is received at the plant in drums and subsequently graded
according to color and sugar concentration. The raw syrup is heated
in kettles and then filtered through a medium of diatomaceous earth. The
filtered syrup is filled into the desired container and sealed. The
containers are then washed in either a water bath or spray to remove any
spilled syrup. After washing, the filled syrup containers are trans-
ferred to the labeling and casing area.
In addition to bottling syrup, the plant may also crystallize maple sugar
for production of various fondant creme candies. The discussion of the
candy process has been handled in the section dealing with confections,
SIC 2065. Also, the maple syrup may be carmelized in cooking kettles
to intensify the maple flavor characteristics. The carmelized syrup
is reconstituted in water and boiled for distribution as maple flavoring.
There are two major sources of wastewater in the maple syrup process:
1) daily cleanup of processing area floors and equipment, and 2) non-
contact cooling water. The cleanup of the floors is accomplished
228
-------
DRAFT
HEAT
FILTER
.
FILL
SEAM/CAP
CONTAINER!
WASH
LABEL/
CASE
CLEAN-UP
WASH WATER
EFFLUENT
FIGURE 91
MOLASSES
229
-------
DRAFT
EXTRANEOUS MATERIAL
SOLIDS
CLEAN-UP
1 FLOORS,
EQUIPMENT
CONTAINER WASHWATER
EFFLUENT
FIGURE 92
MAPLE SYRUP
230
-------
by mopping; the kettles,.filters, and other equipment are rinsed with
a small amount of water to maintain cleanliness and efficiency, the total
volume of cleanup water being less than 4,000 Vday (1,000 gal/day).
The discharge of cooling water may reach 20,000 I/day (5,000 gal/day);
however, as it is non-contact, waste loadings are negligible.
Description of the Pancake Syrup Process - The production of pancake
syrups from a sugar base is a relatively uncomplicated process which
requires little processing prior to bottling. The process, as shown on
Figure 93,begins with dissolving corn and or cane sugar in water
in heated kettles. Selected flavorings are added to the sugar water
solutions and the liquid is cooked until the desired color and viscosity
characteristics are achieved. Flavorings may be added before the syrup
is pumped to filling machines which deposit the hot syrup into the
appropriate preheated container. The containers are subsequently
capped, rinsed, and transported to the labeling area for final packaging
preparation.
A continuous flow of wastewater, about 9500 I/day (2500 gal/day) per
line is generated by the container washer. The other significant
source of wastewater is from the daily cleanup of the processing area,
kettles, and equipment. Non-contact cooling water would also increase
the final volume of wastewater discharged but would not affect the
loading.
Description of the Sorghum Syrup Process - Sorghum cane is cultivated
primarily in the mid-western and southeastern states. It is harvested
and processed during a three month season, normally August through
October. Most sorghum syrup producers are small farm operations which
dispose of any wastes directly to the land; however, there are a few
manufacturing plants with larger production capacities which generate
significantly higher volumes of wastewater. The process description
and subsequent effluent evaluations will concentrate on the latter.
Upon receipt at the plant, the cane is subjected to a dry cleaning
process to remove remaining leaves and extraneous material. As
noted in Figure 94,the next step is the crushing of the cane in
roller mills to extract the juice which contains about nine percent
sucrose and three percent invert sugar. The extraneous material
is separated from the juice by settling and skimming. A filter aid
is then added to the juice and the mixture is pumped through a filter
press for further clarification. Concentration of the sugar is
accomplished by boiling in a vacuum pan or, as on the small farm
operation, in open kettles. The concentrated product is hot filled
in the desired container which is subsequently capped, washed, and
labeled for market.
Wastewater is generated on a continuous basis from the container ash
operation and from the barometric leg used to draw a vacuum on the
reducing kettles. This latter source is the most significant with
respect to volume, but low in waste loading as the only potential
wastes are small amounts of volatile solids in the condensate. Periodic
cleaning of the filtering mechanism necessary to maintain efficiency
and daily washdown of the processing area contributes the highest
waste loading, but even this is a relatively low volume.
231
-------
DRAFT
CLEAN-UP
CLEAN-UP
CLEAN-UP
CONTINUOUS DISCHARGED
t
EFFLUENT
FIGURE 93
PANCAKE SYRUP PROCESS
232
-------
EXT RA NEŁUS _MA TEFU_AL_
EXTRANEOUS MATERIAL
Ą
SOLIDS
PERIODIC CLEAN-UP
CONTINUOUS DISCHARGE
EFFLUENT
FIGURE 94
SORGHUM SYRUP
233
-------
DRAFT
SIC 2099 Non-Dairy Coffee Creamer
Non-dairy coffee creamer plants produce one of two distinct products --
dry or liquid non-dairy creamer. The main ingredients used in manu-
facturing non-dairy creamer are vegetable oil (usually coconut) and
corn syrup. If the creamer is to be a dry product, disodium phosphate
is the only additional ingredient. On the other hand, if liquid creamer
is to be produced, a number of other ingredients such as sodium caseinate,
sugar, mono- and diglycerides, esters of fatty acids, and artificial
flavor and color are added. Liquid creamer is commonly packaged in half
ounce, pint, quart, or half gallon containers. Dry creamer is packaged
in jars or in 208 1 (55 gallon) drums for sale to distributors.
Virtually all liquid creamer is produced on a regional basis in multi-
product plants. Products manufactured along with liquid creamer range
from cereals to dessert toppings. Dry creamer is produced by two
companies in two plants which produce solely dry creamer.
The demand for non-dairy creamer is dependent on price fluctuations in
the dairy and sugar industries and seasonal changes.
Process Descriptions, Liquid Non-Dairy Creamer - Vegetable oil is received
in railroad tank cars which must be steam heated upon receipt to allow
the oil to be pumped into storage tanks. The other ingredients are re-
ceived in fiber drums, boxes, and bags and are stored dry. While there
is normally no waste generated in the storage of ingredients, occasional
spillage of vegetable oil may occur in transfer from tank cars to storage
tanks.
The manufacturing of liquid non-dairy creamer is illustrated in Figure 95.
The ingredients and water are proportioned into stainless steel mixing
tanks where they are mixed at temperatures of approximately 71°C (160°F)
to aid in the molecular blending of the ingredients.
The mixture is pumped from the tanks through conventional or flash
pasteurizers. In conventional pasteurization the product m,ust be held
at a temperature of at least 66°C (150°F) continuously for 30 minutes
or 74.5°C (166°F) for 15 seconds, whereas in flash pasteurization the
product is pasteurized at 140°C (280°F) for less than one second. The
product is then homogenized to provide a smooth consistency and avoid
separation of ingredients during use.
The liquid creamer is cooled by passing it between stainless plate coolers
and is then pumped into holding tanks before machine packaging into half
ounce, pint, quart, and half gallon containers. The packaged products
are stored in refrigerated warehouses until shipment to commercial dis-
tributors.
234
-------
DRAFT
CORN
SYRUP
BOILER
NON-CONTACT
SLOWDOWN
FLOOR HOSES
MINOR
INGREDIENTS
VEGETABLE
OIL
MIXING
PASTEURIZATION
CIP
I
I
CIP !
j
HOMOGENIZATION
CIP j
H
PLATE COOLER
CIP
HOLDING TANK
CIP
PACKAGING
FLOOR
DRAINS
WAREHOUSE
PLANT EFFLUENT
JFIGURE 95
LIQUID NON-DAIRY CREAMER MANUFACTURING PROCESS
235
-------
DRAFT
Wastewater generated from the manufacturing of liquid non-dairy creamer
is due solely to cleanup operations. All of the equipment with which
the creamer comes in contact must be thoroughly sanitized to prevent
bacterial growth. The most common sanitation method is the clean-in-
place (CIP) system which may be automatic, stationary, or portable.
The sequential cycles involved in the cleanup of liquid creamer equip-
ment are; (1) hot water pre-rinse at approximately 43°C (110°F),
(2) detergent rinse, (3) chlorine rinse, (4) final rinse, (5) sanitiza-
tion, and (6) air drying. Hosing of floors, primarily in the packaging
area, is a secondary contributor to the waste stream.
Process Description, Powdered Non-Dairy Creamer - The manufacturing of
powdered non-dairy creamer is illustrated in Figure 96 . Vegetable oil
and corn syrup are received in railroad tank cars which are heated with
steam upon arrival so that the oil and syrup can be pumped into storage
tanks. Disodium phosphate is stored in separate holding tanks until use.
The corn syrup storage tanks are maintained at a temperature of approxi-
mately 71°C (160°F) so that the syrup will remain fluid. Under normal
conditions there is no wastewater generated in the storage operations
but an occasional spill of oil, syrup, or disodium phosphate may occur
during transfer into storage tanks.
The vegetable oil, corn syrup, disodium phosphate, and water are propor-
tioned into stainless steel mixing tanks where they are agitated. The
blended product is then passed through a pasteurizer where it is heated
in coils to a temperature of 70°C (160°F) for a period of 15 minutes.
At this time the product is actually in two phases; oil and liquid-solid.
In order to combine the phases so that separation does not occur during
use, the product is homogenized by pumping it through small diameter
nozzles at approximately 170 atm (2500 psig) to force the molecules in
the mixture together. The liquid mixture is transferred by the high
pressure nozzles into drying boxes where it is dried by blowing hot air
through the mixture. The resulting dry product, with a consistency
similar to diatomaceous earth, then passes through a cooling chamber
before going to the spray drying process. In the spray dryer the dry
product is sprayed through nozzles and falls as a fine mist through a
chamber where it is subjected to a stream of steam and then hot air.
This process dries and swells the particles and adds the bulk considered
desirable in the final product. The dry product is then cooled in shaker
coolers and graded for size in a sifter. Particle lumps are disposed as
solid waste, fine particles are recovered and returned to the initial
mixing step, while particles of desired size are packaged in jars or
bulk containers.
Wastewater generated in the production of powdered non-dairy creamer
consists of CIP system rinse, sanitizing and caustic wash water (dis-
charged after two washings), floor cleanup of certain areas in the plant,
and a small amount of water from wet scrubbers over the spray dryers.
After the initial drying of the product all transfers of product" to
unit operations are done by vacuum. Since it is undesirable for water
to come in contact with the dry product, all cleanup in these areas
is done with air.
236
-------
DRAFT
CORN
SYRUP
I
BOILER
NON-CONTACT
SLOWDOWN
STEAM, HOT AIR
DISODIUM
PHOSPHATE
FLOOR HOSES
VEGETABLE
OIL
MIXING
PASTEURIZATION
HOMOGENIZATION
DRYING BOXES
COOLING
SPRAY DRYING
SHAKER COOLERS
SIFTING
PACKAGING
CIP
SYSTEM
WET SCRUBBER
WEEKLY HOSE DOWN
FLOOR DRAINS
NON-CONTACT
PUMP COOLING
WATER
—1
FIGURE 96
POWDERED NON-DAIRY CREAMER MANUFACTURING PROCESS
WASTEWATER
237
-------
DRAFT
SIC 2099 Peanut Butter
In the United States, peanuts are grown for such products as peanut
butter, candy, and salted and roasted nuts. Surplus peanuts and
those too low in quality for food use are crushed for oil and meal.
Total edible peanut consumption has increased about 3 percent annually
in recent years, and the greatest increase in edible usage has been
in the manufacture of peanut butter. Over 63 percent of all edible
peanuts go into peanut butter. Use per person increased from 1.1 Kg
"2.5 Ib) in 1950 to 1.6 Kg (3.5 Ib) in 1970, and market outlooks
48 ) indicate consumption will continue to increase.
In 1970 processors manufactured over 320,000 KKg (350,000 ton) at
115 plants (in 31 states). Woodroof ( 48 ) reports two brands,
of more than 90, produce 58 percent of the peanut butter found on
the market. Over 90 percent of all peanut butter is made from
Runner and Spanish type peanuts.
The USDA ( 49 ) defines peanut butter as "a cohesive, comminuted
food product prepared from clean, sound, shelled peanuts by grind-
ing or milling properly roasted, mature peanut kernels from which
the seed coats have been removed and to which salt is added as a
seasoning agent". Texture of the finished product may be smooth,
regular, or chunky, depending on the size of perceptible grainy
peanut particles. Peanut butter types are stabilized or nonstabi-
lized, depending on other added ingredients involved, and are manu-
factured in three grades determined by color, consistency, flavor and
aroma, and absence of defects. The primary use of peanut butter is
in homes and schools, and as an ingredient in a variety of snack
foods.
Process Description - The manufacture of peanut butter is a relatively
simple dry process. No water is added in processing since peanut
butter is immiscible. Figure 97 , a simplified process flow diagram
for the manufacture of peanut butter from shelled peanuts, illustrates
the seven basic process steps of roasting, cooling, blanching, picking
and inspecting, grinding and cooling, salting, and packaging.
The shelled peanuts are received and stored dry in 45.5 Kg (100 Ib)
burlap bags. A mixture of different peanuts is blended and then
transported to roasting by an elevator or similar type conveyor.
Shaker screens may be used to remove fines or other small fragments
at this point.
Dry roasting is done by either batch or continuous methods. In the
batch method, peanuts are heated to 160°C (320°Fl, and held for 40
to 60 minutes in a revolving oven. Different varieties of peanuts
may be roasted separately and then blended. An advantage of the
batch method is that special attention can be given batches that
238
-------
DRAFT
SHELLED PEANUT
STORAGE
i
1 SCREENING T
1
r
1 ROASTING 1
i
BLANC
i
INSPE
\
XING 1
P
CTION r
SWEETENERS, OTHER | GRINDING
- 1
| COOLING j-
\
DEAER
I 1 ».
F
ATION Ą
1 PACKAGING I
i
F
FL
IGURE
FINES
SKINS, HEARTS
PICKOUTS
BY-PRODUCT RECOVERY
CATTLE FEED
INEDIBLE OIL STOCK
CONTINUOUS SLOWDOWN
_
VACUUM SEAL WATER
JAR WASH
DETERGENT RINSE
BOILER SLOWDOWN
_ _ -^
DOR AND EQUIPNENT CLEANUP
97 *
TO SEWER
PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
MANUFACTURE OF PEANUT BUTTER
239
-------
DRAFT
vary in moisture content or other qualities. In the continuous method
peanuts are conveyed through a countercurrent stream of hot air.
Continuous agitation provides improved heat transfer, extraction of
moisture and volatiles, and an even and complete color from the center
to the surface of each kernel. Advantages of continuous roasting are
reduced labor and loss due to spills, more uniform roasting, and
smoother plant operations. Continuous roasting is the most common
method used.
Roasting nuts first become dark during the "white roast" as the
skins absorb oil. Then, the peanuts become done or "brown roasted".
Moisture content is reduced from 5 percent to less than 2 percent.
Oily spots called "steam blisters" form on kernels as volatile com-
ponents are released to the skins as free oil. After roasting, the
peanuts are quickly air cooled using high volume filtered suction
fans to stop further cooking. Wastes to this point consist of floor
wash, and conveyor cleanup.
Shelled peanut kernels consist of two cotyledons (halves), the heart
(germ), and the skin. After cooling, the split peanuts are mechanically
dry blanched or whitened by removing the red skins and hearts. Roasted
peanuts are heated to 138°C (280°F) to loosen and crack the skins.
After cooling, they pass through the blancher continuously where
brushes or rubber belts rub off the skins. By-products recovered in-
clude peanut hearts separated from the cotyledons by screening, and
the skins collected by cyclones. Peanut hearts are bagged and may be
sold for poultry feed, bird feed, or oil recovery. Bagged skins may
be used in cattle feed, oil recovery, poultry house bedding, or floor
sweeping compounds.
The blanched nuts are screened and inspected manually and electron-
ically. Light or scorched nuts and rocks or other foreign matter
are removed, and the pickout nuts are sold as inedible oil stock.
Grinding is accomplished in two stages to reduce the peanuts to the
desired texture. Constant pressure is applied to produce a uniform
product with little air entrainment. A wide variety of grinding
machinery is used in the industry. To avoid overheating, grinding
mills are cooled by a water jacket.
Various ingredients, including about 2 percent salt by weight, are
added before final grinding to improve flavor. Most processors also
add sugar to prevent grittiness. Partially hydrogenated vegetable
oils are commonly added as emulsifiers to prevent oil separation and
improve spreadability. Peanut butter stabilized in this manner may
not legally exceed 55 percent fat content, ( 48 ) including the
natural peanut oil released in grinding. The finished peanut butter
is cooled using votators, a type of heat exchanger, and deaerated
prior to packaging.
240
-------
DRAFT
Blanching and inspection produce no wastewate.1. Boiler condensate
and cooling water associated with grinding may be sewered or re-
circulated. A small amount of water is used in floor and equipment
washdown.
Peanut butter is packed in air tight containers since exposure to
air produces rancidity by auto-oxidation. Package types range from
plastic lined fiber drums to individual servings in flexible plastic.
The most common method of packing for retail trade is in glass jars.
All processors contacted use new glass which is air cleaned prior to
filling, capping, and labeling. Peanut chunks may be added during
filling.
In a few plants it is still economically feasible to reclaim im-
perfectly filled jars. The reclaim operation consists of manually
removing the peanut butter from partially filled or improperly sealed
containers, and collecting it in lined drums for repackaging. Un-
damaged jars are fed to an automatic detergent washer and then re-
filled. Jar washers have prerinse, detergent, and final rinse cycles.
Normally, only the detergent solution is reused.
Unusable containers become solid waste. Wastewater produced by floor
and equipment washdown is normally sewered. Jar washer discharge is
the major wastestream sewered from packaging.
SIC 2099 Pectin
Pectin is a water soluble substance contained in the peel of citrus
fruits which binds adjacent cell walls in plant tissues and yields
a gel which is used in the preparation of fruit jellies and to some
extent in the pharameceutical industry. The recovery of pectin is
a complex operation which requires a number of processing days. Pectin
is marketed in four standard grades; rapid set, slow set, low methoxyl,
and special formula. There are three known producers of pectin in the
United States and in the course of this study three plants were contacted
and visited.
Pectin is produced by two different processes; alcohol precipitation
and precipitation by aluminum compounds. Other than the method of
precipitation, the two processes are similar.
Description of Process - Alcohol Precipitation of Pectin - The
production of pectin by alcohol precipitation is illustrated in Figure
98 Citrus peels are ground from raw citrus fruit in-house or purchased
wet or dry in bulk. Those plants which obtained the peels from raw fruit
in-house generally produce citrus juice and citrus oils in addition to
pectin. The processing of wet and dry peels is essentially the same
except that dry peels must be rehydrated prior to processing.
The peels are subjected to a hammer mill and then washed. The insoluble
pectin contained within the peel is extracted by immersing the peels
in a vat containing hydrochloric acid, water, and wood fiber while
steam is injected through the mixture. The combination of live steam
241
-------
DRAFT
VACUUM FILTRATION L ..FILTER CAKE TO EVAPCRATI
I [ CONDENSATION T>«N CATTLE
•ASTEKATER
FIGURE 98
PECTIN MANUFACTURING PROCESS BY ALCOHOL PRECIPITATION
242
-------
DRAFT
and acid renders the pectin soluble and the peel and pectin liquor
are subsequently separated by vacuum filtration. The pectin liquor is
passed through a diatomaceous earth pressure filter to remove insoluble
inorganics from the liquor and then cooled. Prior to precipitating by
alcohol, the liquor is concentrated under vacuum to three percent
pectin by weight thereby decreasing the amount of alcohol required for
precipitation. The alcohol removes the water from the liquor leaving
the crude pectin which is separated from the mixture by use of a drain
screw. The pectin is purified by three successive washings in the
following manner: (1) alcohol and acid wash with six to seven hour
retention time, (2) alcohol wash, and (3) alcohol wash with ammonia added
to adjust the pH to between 4.0 and 5.0. Each of the washings is followed
by a drain screw to recover the spent alcohol. The alcohol in the liquid
from the precipitation step and the three washings is recovered by
distillation.
The purified pectin is dried in a forced air dryer which removes the
remaining alcohol and decreases the moisture content to between six and
seven percent. The dried pectin is milled to a desired consistency and
blended. Four grades of standard pectin are produced from the blended
product by varying the corn sugar content in each grade.
Wastewater generated in the alcohol precipitation of pectin consists of
the following: (1) alcohol still bottoms, (2) filter sluice from
vacuum and pressure filters, (3) peel washing, (4) weekly caustic
cleaning of the evaporator, and (5) general plant cleanup. Appreciable
quantities of non-contact cooling water and boiler blowdown are also
generated with the total discharge of the plant being 1500 cu m/day
(0.400 RGD).
Process Description - Pectin Recovery by Aluminum Compound Precipitation -
The production of pectin by aluminum compound precipitation is illustrated
in Figure 99. Citrus peels are prepared or received in the same
manner as previously described. The peels are ground and washed prior
to entering the extraction vats where pectin is extracted from the peel
by the addition of sulfuric acid and the introduction of steam into the
wooden vats. Following a 16 to 20 hour retention time in the vats
the mixture is adjusted for pH and the liquor containing the soluble
pectin is separated from the peel by vacuum filtration. The pectin
liquor is then stripped of insoluble inorganics by pressure filtration
or centrifugation. Pectin is precipitated from the liquor by the
addition of an aluminum compound, commonly aluminum chloride or sulfate.
The pectin precipitate and liquor are run through a press which separates
the liquor from the solids containing the soluble pectin. The solid
mass is pelletized and then rinsed five successive times with the
following sequential rinses; (1) hydrochloric acid-alcohol, (2) alcohol,
(3) citric acid, (4) buffer, and (5) final. The purified pectin is
then drained of excess liquid by a drain screw and prepared for packaging.
The wastestreams generated by the manufacturing of pectin by this process
include leaching water, spent peel and wastewater, spent filter aid and
sluice water, press wastewater following precipitation, and press water
from pressing of filter cake following sluicing.
243
-------
DRAFT
PLANT WATER SIPPLV
-^ VAPOR »ASTE*ATB»
TO ATMOSXCRE
FIGURE 99
PECTIN RECOVERY BY ALUMINUM COMPOUND PRECIPITATION PROCESS
244
-------
DRAFT
SIC 2099 Popcorn
Popcorn was one of the earliest foods prepared from Indian maize, the native
corn of the Americas. "Flint corn," the most primitive of the commercial
types and the major variety used for popping is still much like maize.
According to Agricultural Statistics, there are 19 plants which prepare
popcorn for wholesale distribution which, in 1972, produced 233,883 kkg
(257,271 tons) valued at $16 million. The mid-western states of Illinois,
Indiana, and Iowa account for the majority of production.
Description of the Popcorn Process - The popcorn process starts with the
weighing of the corn as it arrives at the plant from the fields. The corn
arrives already detached from the cob in dry kernel form. FigurelOO depicts
a typical flow diagram of a popcorn process.
After weighing, the corn is then conveyed to storage bins. From the storage
bins the corn goes through a screening operation which removes split kernels
and other extraneous material. The whole kernels are then transferred to
another set of hoppers which gravity feed directly into density separators.
These separators are canted shaker type screens which utilize a vibrating
motion to separate the kernel by size. Fine wastes such as "bees wings"
(small particles from the kernel edges) adhere to the screen and are washed
out daily. This washing of the density separator screens accounts for the
major waste loadings derived from a popcorn operation. Washdown flows from
this operation range from a low of 200 I/day (50 gal/day) to a high of 800
I/day (200 gal/day) depending on the number of screens utilized.
The separated corn then goes to a final set of hoppers where it is stored
until packaging. Packaging can be done either in bulk or the more familiar
one to three pound bags. Fumigation with methyl bromide is sometimes employed
in the final holding bins.
All cleaning in a popcorn plant is usually done by vacuuming or sweeping
since any water coming in contact with the final product can result in
product damage. Solid waste from screening operations are generally sold
as animal feed. Packaging wastes are hauled away by contractors to local
disposal sites.
SIC 2099 Spices
Background of the Industry - Spices are produced by approximately 40 manu-
facturers in the United States. Most of the facilities are concentrated
in the midwest and northeast. The domestic consumer market is dominated
by three companies with strong nationwide positions; however, the total
domestic and commercial market is much less concentrated. Plants, in
general, process and package spices for both market sectors; however,
most of the smaller companies rely on a few major institutional customers
for most of their work. A typical spice plant processes a large number
of raw spices into a nearly infinite variety of final products. Conse-
quently a typical plant may be characterized as being highly flexible in
its material handling processes so that it may readily respond to precise
customer requirements.
245
-------
DRAFT
CULLS, EXTRANEOUS
MATERIAL
'FINE WASTES
L^_ _ __ __ ___
I
SCREEN WASHING
(BEES WINGS)
•SPILLAGE
'ACKAGE MATERIAL
I
Ą
SOLIDS
EFFLUENT
FIGURE TOO'
POPCORN PROCESS
246
-------
DRAFT
Process Description - The large variety of spices and seasonings received
as raw material are generally in a dried condition and are packaged in
cloth bags or sealed bales. In most plants raw material storage, process
lines, and final product storage areas are climate controlled to prevent
damage from mold, fungus, and condensation. Processing is variable;
however, basic steps include cleaning, sorting and grading, chopping,
grinding, blending and mixing, temporary intermediate product storage, and
packaging. Rejects and spillage from these operations are primarily cleaned
and removed by dry methods, i.e. foxtail brushes, brooms, vacuum cleaners,
and air brushes. Figure 101 outlines a general process flow schematic for
a typical plant. Final products may be packaged as whole spices, chopped
and blended spices or seasonings, or as ground spices. In most plants
equipment is not dedicated to a single commodity, therefore cleanup is
necessary between product changes. This cleanup, except for the grinding
mills, is usually dry. Surfaces in many plants have been coated with
silicate based paints to expedite dry cleaning techniques.
The grinding mill, however, must be cleaned with hot water or steam after
certain products, such as black or red pepper, have been ground. This is
necessary to remove oils released by grinding. The mills are removed to
a wash room if hot water or steam clean out is necessary.
Spice plants have a significant dust control problem. Modern facilities
use their air conditioning system filters to remove fugitive particulates;
however, at least one facility (plant 87E01) uses a wet scrubber and dis-
charges to a municipal sewer. This method of control, however, is not
widely practiced in the industry.
SIC 2099 Tea. Instant and Blended
The development of instant tea in the early 1950's stemmed from attempts
to overcome the perishability of tea leaves, which as a whole are sensitive
to odors, high humidity, and excessive heat. Tea leaves are imported into
the United States from a number of points in the world, but principally
Ceylon, India, and Kenya. The Department of Commerce (50 ) reports that
1973 imports of tea leaves totaled 78,600 KKg (86,600 ton). Of this
imported total approximately 70 to 75 percent is utilized in the production
of blended tea while the remainder is processed into instant tea. There
are five companies producing blended and instant tea in approximately ten
plants. In the course of this study all five companies were contacted,
four plants were visited, and verification samples were taken at three
plants. The industry has provided documentation to the effect that tea
blending is a completely dry process with no wastewater discharge.
The majority of tea plants are located near major ports to facilitate the
receipt of the imported tea leaves. Several of the instant tea manufacturers
produce instant tea in multi-product plants along with such products as
blended tea, soup, salad dressings, instant coffee, and sugar substitutes.
247
-------
DRAFT
RAW MATERIAL
BAG STORAGE
FIGURE .101
SPICE PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
248
-------
DRAFT
Production of blended and instant tea remains relatively\constant throughout
the year, with the highest demand in the warmer months. -The production of
instant tea is dependent upon tea crop yield in exporting countries and this
yield can fluctuate drastically from year to year.
Process Description - Instant Tea - Figure 102 illustrates the instant tea
process. Tea leaves are stored in oil lined wooden tea chests or silos
until processing. The tea leaves, with or without prior blending, are
carefully proportioned with water into an extractor, with the water-tea
ratio being determined by weighing the tea leaves as they enter the ex-
tractor. In the extractor tea leaves and water are boiled for a specified
period of time after which the tea extract is pumped into the first evap-
orator. The wet spent tea leaves are centrifuged and the liquid fraction
is pumped into the evaporator while the dewatered tea leaves are used for
composting or cattle feed.
While the tea extract is being evaporated to a specified concentration,
the resulting aromatic tea vapors are passed into an aroma column where
they are condensed and retained for later use in the finished tea product.
The concentrated tea extract is cooled in coils to render tannins and
caffeins insoluble before the extract is passed into gravity clarifiers
from which the clarified tea extract is transferred into the final evap-
orator. Clarifier sludge containing the insoluble tannins and caffeins
is adjusted to an alkaline pH and a catalyst, such as hydrogen perioxide,
is added. The mixture is regenerated within a heat exchanger where the
catalyst aids in breaking down insoluble, long chain hydrocarbon compounds
into soluble, short chain hydrocarbon compounds. The altered mixture is
cooled to render undesirable components insoluble prior to clarification.
The clear tea extract is transferred to the final evaporator and the
sludge is recycled to the pH adjustment step.
The clear tea extract contained within the evaporator is concentrated to
a composition of approximately 40 to 45 percent total solids and the
aromatic tea vapors thus generated are returned to the aroma column. At
this point tea vapors (regenerated by heating) from the aroma column and
the concentrated tea extract are mixed to a homogeneous blend in a feed
tank prior to drying in a spray dryer. The blended tea extract is sprayed
in the form of a fine mist from the top of the dryer and while falling
is subjected to a stream of hot air. Evaporation of water from the
particles of mist produces soluble powdered tea particles which collect
at the base of the spray dryer.
Prior to packaging, the "instant tea" may be blended with sugar, art-
ificial sweeteners, or powdered fruit concentrates to yield various
tea "mixes". The tea or tea mix is packaged in packets, jars, or fiber
drums, depending on whether the final product is for wholesale or
retail use.
Essentially, the only process wastestream generated during instant tea
manufacturing is periodic dumping of clarifier sludge. All other daily
249
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DRAFT
TEA LEAVES
TO
SOLID WASTE
FIGURE 102
INSTANT TEA PROCESS DIAGRAM
250
-------
DRAFT
waste flow is attributable to cleanup operations. Daily cleanup gen-
erally consists of an almost continuous floor washdown to remove spills
and leaks from equipment connections.
Since instant tea manufacturers operate on a 24 hour per day basis, equip-
ment cleanup is generally done once per week and consists of the following
sequential steps: fresh water prerinse, caustic wash, fresh water rinse,
nitric acid wash for removal of silica formations, and fresh water rinse.
Process Description - Blended Tea - The blended tea process is a com-
pletely dry process in which tea leaves are received and stored in the
same manner as for instant tea manufacturing. Tea leaves are then tasted
for quality and dry blended in drums prior to being hopper fed into the
packaging line. The crucial step in the blended tea process is the taste
testing of tea leaves from each tea chest to determine which leaves should
be blended together to yield the richest flavor.
SIC 2099 - Pre-packaged Sandwiches
General - Pre-packaged sandwiches for sale off the premises are dis-
tributed primarily from food outlets such as convenience stores and
vending machines. The manufacturers of these sandwiches purchase
processed materials and assemble sandwiches. The sandwiches are sold
either frozen or fresh. According to the Bureau of the Census ( 2. ),
in 1972, the value of total product shipments of fresh sandwiches
was $65.2 million, a 113 percent increase over the $30.6 million figure
for 1967. Nationwide sales figures were not available for frozen
sandwich production. Plants producing pre-packaged sandwiches are
normally located in major urban areas since that is where most of
their products are consumed.
Description of the Process - Plants producing pre-packaged sandwiches
are essential 1y assemblers of processed food items (see Figure 103).
Processed meats, cheeses, tuna fish, sandwich spreads, and similar in-
gredients are purchased from a wholesaler and stored in a refrigerated
cooler as required. Sliced bread is normally delivered each day for
that day's production. In some plants, bread or rolls are baked on
the premises. Meats and cheeses are sliced and the sandwiches are
assembled manually. Some plants purchase canned spreads for the
preparation of tuna or ham salad type sandwiches. Other plants.
produce only sliced meat and/or cheese sandwiches. Still other plants
prepared salad type fillings on the premises, normally in a chopping
machine, for the preparation of sandwiches. After assembly, the
sandwiches are cello wrapped mechanically and either frozen or distributed
for immediate consumption.
Plants which prepare sandwiches only from processed ingredients generate
wastewater only as a result of the cleaning of utensils in a sink and
cleaning of the floor with a mop and bucket. Firms which prepare salad
type ingredients on the premises will also have wastewater generated
from the washing of the chopping machine and the assorted mixing con-
tainers.
251
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DRAFT
STORAGE
r
SLICED
BREAD
— -Tl— I—. -
MEAT
SLICED
ASSEMBLED
SOLID WASTE
PACKAGED
CLEANUP WASTEWATBR
SLICED INGREDIENT SANDWICH PREPARATION
PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
STORAGE
I I
CHOPPING & MIXING
(OPTIONAL)
I 1
—I
ASSEMBLED
I
SOLID WASTE
PACKAGED
J
CLEANUP WASTEWATER
SALAD INGREDIENT SANDWICH PREPARATION
PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
FIGURE 103 '
SANDWICH PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
-252
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DRAFT
Solid wastes are generated in the slicing and assembly operations and
in the salad filling preparation. These wastes are disposed j&f to a
landfill or sold as animal feed.
SIC 2099 Vinegar
The manufacture of vinegar is one of the most ancient of natural fermenta-
tions which has been used by man; the principle use being a flavoring or
preservative agent in foods. There are currently 94 establishments processing
vinegar, some being independent plants while others are closely tied to the
production of other products. Although distributed throughout the country,
the major concentration of plants is in the eastern states. The value of
shipments in 1971 reached $77.9 million, an increase of over $4.6 million
from 1970 according to the United States Department of Agriculture's
Agricultural Statistics.
Description of Process - Vinegar is defined as a condiment made from sugar
or starch containing materials by alcoholic and subsequent acetic fermenta-
tion. The product is usually classified according to the materials from
which it is made: (1) from fruit juices, e.g., apples, oranges, grapes,
berries, etc.; (2) from starchy vegetables, e.g., potatoes or sweet potatoes;
(3) from malted cereals; (4) from sugars such as syrup, molasses, honey,
maple skimmings; and (5) from alcohol from yeast manufacture. In the
United States most table vinegar is derived from apples.
The manufacture of vinegar involves two distinct steps: (1) The fermentation
of sugar to ethanol and (2) the oxidation of the ethanol to acetic acid. For
the purpose of this study, only the second step of the process will be con-
sidered in detail. Indeed, in most cases, the raw material for vinegar
production, i.e., either the fruit for fermentation or the ethanol are
actually the products or by-products of other industries. Effluent limi-
tations guidelines have been, or soon will be, promulgated for these various
industries, e.g., the production of yeast, apple cider, alcoholic beverages,
fruit juices, etc.
Vinegar production may exist as both a separate industry or as an ancillary
industry and will be characterized herein as an independent process.
As mentioned, the manufacture of vinegar begins with the raw material of
either unfermented fruit or ethanol-containing materials. Production Path A
(Figure 104) starts with the fermentation of cider or fruit juice. The juice
is pumped into fermentation tanks in which the fruit sugars are converted to
ethanol by selected varieties of yeasts, belonging to the genus Saccharomyces.
As the sanitation of these tanks is important to prevent contamination by
undesirable organisms, a significant quantity of wastewater is generated at
this point by the washing of the tanks between uses.
253
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URAFi
APPLE CIDER,
FRUIT AND/OR
BY-PRODUCTS
B
ETHANOL &•
NUTRIENTS
I
WINE
FILTER MEDIUM
i
Ą
SOLIDS
J
COOLING WATER
CLEANING WATER
——. _ __ _ _ __ ^___ ^
SPILLAGE
pf
"EFFLUENT
FIGURF 104" '
VINEGAR PROCESS
254.
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DRAFT
Production Path A, and Path B converge at the next step in the process, the
oxidation of ethanol to acetic acid which is accomplished by the vinegar
bacteria, members of the genus Acetobacter. These organisms are character-
ized by their ability to convert ethanol to acetic acid. The conversion is
accelerated and controlled by the use of a vinegar generator^ There are
several types of generators in use, although the design principle remains
the same; i.e., the rate of acetification is proportional to the amount of
oxygen available for reaction, which in turn is proportional to the surface
area. The reactive surface may be maximized by either of two general
methods: (1) utilizing a fill material such as wood shavings or (2) by
continuous aeration and circulation of the liquid. The generators using a
fill material require periodic cleaning to avoid plugging by the bacterial
growth. This cleaning is, however, not a daily practice and is done only
as necessary. The closed system utilizing oxygen injection requires less
maintenance and when operated properly produces vinegar more efficiently
than the other procedures. Regardless of type, the generators require a
cooling system to maintain the optimum temperature for Acetobacter growth.
The cooling water is non-contact and may be recirculated.
Vinegar produced by the accelerated generator process is often harsh in
flavor and odor and requires aging in wooden tanks to produce an agreeable
flavor and odor, as well as to allow it to clear. A final polishing of the
product is necessary to produce the characteristic sparkling clarity of
most vinegars. This final process may be accomplished by either filtration
or fining. Fining consists of introducing a suspension of clay, casein,
gelatin, bentonite clay, or other suitable materials and allowing the mixture
to settle. The clear vinegar is then racked. The more common method of
clearing vinegar is that of filtration. The filter system must be cleaned
periodically in order to maintain its efficiency.
The refined vinegar is either marketed in bulk or bottled in retail containers
at the plant. In order to prevent the continued growth and subsequent
clouding by the Acetobacter organisms, the vinegar is pasteurized at 60°C for
a few seconds. Pasteurization may be accomplished in bulk by passing a con-
tinuous stream of vinegar through a steam jacketed tube or plate pasteurizer
and then cooling it in a water cooled unit. Bottled vinegar may be pasteur-
ized by immersion or by flash pasteurization prior to bottling. The bottled
product is subsequently capped, washed and transported to labelling and
casing. During bottling, most of the wastewater is generated by the pasteur-
ization cooling cycle and the final bottle wash.
The major source of wastewater from the bulk operation is from the filtration
system. Periodic cleaning of floors, generators, and bottling equipment also
contributes variable amounts of wastewater depending upon process and house-
keeping differences. Transient surges of wastewater occur when wooden
storage tanks are drained of the water to keep them from drying out between
uses.
255
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SIC 2099 Yeast
Currently in the United States there are 13 active yeast processors
representing four companies producing an estimated 204,000 KKg (250,000 ton)
of yeast annually. The largest producer reports supplying approximately
35 percent of the total market. Production facilities are located near
metropolitan areas in the states of New York, New Jersey, Maryland,
Illinois, Missouri, Texas, Louisiana, Washington, and California.
Market demand for yeast products is reported (51) to be closely related
to growth in the baking industry, and is expected to increase slowly in
future years. During the last two years, the industry has witnessed the
closing of one new yeast plant, while another new plant is presently
under construction. Industry trends and economics indicate that new
production plants will be large scale, highly automated facilities.
Background of the Industry - As early as 3500 years ago, man collected
yeast deposits (52) from the surfaces of plant life and consumed them
for medicinal and dietary purposes. Science has since shown that yeast
is high in proteins and vitamins. However, despite its high food value,
yeast is primarily used for fermentation. In the baking industry, yeast
ferments sugar in bread dough producing carbon dioxide gas responsible
for the rising or leavening of bread. In the brewing industry, yeast
ferments or breaks down sugars to alcohol and carbon dioxide.
In the nineteenth century, brewers supplied most of the commercially
grown yeast for the baking industry. During World War I, the scarcity
and high price of grain mashes led to the development of a method of
yeast production using molasses as the primary raw material. This process
was highly successful, and with subsequent minor refinements is used by
the industry today.
Description of Process - The three basic products produced by the yeast
industry are (1) "bakers compressed yeast" (2) "active dry yeast", and
(-3) pharmaceutical dry yeast" (52). The primary product, "bakers
compressed yeast", is utilized by large baking companies as a leavening
agent, while smaller bakeries, blenders of ready-to-bake cake mixes, and
repackagers require the active dry yeast. Pharmaceutical dry yeast, which
represents a small portion of total yeast production, is used by the
pharamaceutical industry as a protein and vitamin dietary supplement.
The basic raw materials necessary for yeast growth are cane and beet
molasses, water, chemical sources of nitrogen and phosphorus, and a pure
stock culture of the desired yeast strains. Other required production
materials may include sulphuric acid for fermenter pH adjustment,
vegetable oil or chemical defoamers, and small amounts of plasticizing
agents for forming and packaging. Although individual plants vary accord-
ing to size, age, and water usage, the processing steps and raw materials
256
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DRAFT
are virtually identical throughout the industry. Figure 105 presents a
simplified flow diagram for the following basic process steps: (1) molasses
feed wort preparation, (2) stock yeast preparation, (3) fermentation,
(4) yeast cream separation, (5) dewatering and drying, and (6) packaging.
Yeast production begins when the yeast food, called feed wort, is prepared
by combining cane and beet molasses, diluting the mixture with water,
and adjusting the pH to 4.5 before sterilization. The mixture is heated
with steam in a high pressure continuous cooker, and after some solid
matter is removed by vibrating screens, the sterilized molasses is fed to
centrifugal clarifiers where additional solids are removed and retained
in the clarifier bowl. The clear wort is pumped to storage tanks. Molasses
provides the primary source of carbon and sugar for yeast food, and supplies
calcium potash, and other elements. The ratio of cane to beet molasses
depends on availability and nutrient content, but a mixture is always used
to provide a balanced yeast diet except that nitrogen and phosphorus must
be added since any molasses is deficient in both.
Clarifier sludge, being mainly inorganic and of little valuei is hauled
to landfills or ploughed into agricultural land. Other wastes from feed
wort preparation are clarifier, tank, and piping sterilization and cleanup.
Parallel to feed wort preparation, a test take containing sterile molasses
is inoculated with a few cells from pure culture of the desired yeast
strain. These grow to a larger mass that is transferred to successively
larger vessels until there is a sufficient quantity of stock yeast for
starting growth in the main fermenting tanks. During each transfer, the
contents of the "seed" fermenters are sent to continuous centrifugal sepa-
rators to remove spent nutrients from the stock yeast. Wastes normally
discharged from the culture stages include water used in sterilizing and
cleaning of tanks and piping, and spent nutrients.
Both stock yeast and feed wort are then delivered to the main fermenters.
Water and stock yeast are placed in the sterile tank. Feed wort, nitrogen,
and phosphorus are continuously added as the steadily aerated yeast is
allowed to ferment for about ten hours. Aqua ammonia and phosphoric acid
are commonly used sources of nitrogen and phosphorus. Foam caused by
aeration is cut back periodically by adding sufficient vegetable oil or
chemical defearners.
Under ideal conditions the yeast growth is exponential. Since any surplus
nutrients tend to be fermented to alcohol, thus wasting raw materials and
retarding yeast growth, the feed wort and other chemicals are added by
automatic metering equipment at a predetermined, exponential rate. During
growth fermentation, the physiological activities of yeast cells cause a
progressive pH decrease. Since yeast grows best in an acid medium, pH is
maintained at 4.5 by the addition of aqua ammonia. Because fermentation is
exothermic, cooling water is circulated through coils to maintain an optimum
30°C (85°F) temperature. Near the end of the 12 hour growth stage, the
temperature is further lowered and aeration discontinued to stop growth
and allow the yeast cells to fully mature.
257 "
-------
DKAF'I
KXASSES BLENDING WASHDOWN '
AND STORAGE
DILUTION AND
PH ADJUSTMENT
CONDENSATE
STEAM STERILIZATION
cSKS^j — ™ —
STOCK YEAST, NUTRIENTS,! ~~| WASHDOWN
PH CONTROL, DEFOAMER *" FERMENTATION
CETNRIFUGAL I S™IJ?E? ,
SEPARATION ' — — —
!
ROTARY VACUUM L—^4 _^», ATMOSPHERIC
FILTRATION | j | FILTRATION , j *1 | DR^ ^^
PLASTICIZING ._«. BELT DRYING PULVERIZER
PACKAGING \—H PACKAGING L *4 PACKAGING
' PHARMACEUTICAL DRY YEAST
ACTIVE DRY YEAST
SSoSTS^LlST -ILER COMPENSATE AM, COOLING WATER*J
._J •
FILTRATE AND CLEANUP
TO SEWER
FIGURE
PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM DRIED FOOD YEAST
258
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DRAFT
After fermentation, the cream yeast is separaled from the fermented wort
by centrifugal separation. The separated waste resulting from first
separation is called first separator beer. After first separation, the
yeast cream is put through a second and third separation. In each of the
last two separations, the yeast slurry is diluted in a cold water washing
process, and then separated. Wastes from these steps is called second
separator beer and third separator beer. At least two of the largest
production plants use third separator beer as the second separation wash
water. Other discharges from fermentation and separation include fermenter,
centrifuge, and wort tank and piping cleanup.
The process for making bakers compressed yeast, active dry yeast, and
pharmaceutical yeast are identical up to this point.
The yeast cream slurry must be filtered and dewatered prior to packaging.
Bakers compressed yeast and active dry yeast are pumped to either recessed-
plate filter presses or a rotating vacuum filter drum. If a filter press
is used, yeast cream is pumped into the filtering compartments and pressure
applied. After opening the press, yeast cake is scraped into stainless steel
carts for delivery to a mixer. No filter aids are used. If a vacuum filter
is used, a revolving drum covered by a circular band of filter cloth is
evacuated and revolved in a vat of yeast cream. A thin layer of solid yeast
forms on the cloth, and the effluent is discharged from the interior of the
drum. Potatoe starch may be used as a filter cloth precoat or filter aid,
and is normally reclaimed by settling of the effluent.
Compressed yeast cake is fed to a mixer where it is blended and plasticized
to adjust moisture content and improve extrudability. Plasticizing agents
typically used are vegetable oils, emulsifiers, and shaved ice. After mixing,
bakers compressed yeast is continuously extruded as a ribbon, and cut into
blocks for packaging. Package sizes range from blocks weighing several
ounces to 50 pounds, although 1 and 5 pound blocks are most common. Bakers
compressed yeast in saleable condition has a 73 percent moisture content,
and must be kept refrigerated until used.
The slurry for active dry yeast is extruded directly after filter pressing.
Then it is fed into rotary or belt type warm air dryers for 12 hours and
the granular product packaged in filter drums. Active dry yeast contains
only eight percent moisture, and keeps well without refrigeration. Four
parts of active dry yeast equal ten parts of bakers compressed yeast.
The slurry for pharmaceutical dry yeast is pumped to the vertex of a rotary
double-drum dryer where it is preheated and passed in a thin film over
rotating drums heated internally by live steam. The slurry spread on the
drum surface dries and is scraped for conveyor transport to a pulverizer
or flaker. Both powder and flakes are packaged in bags and drums.
Process wastes from yeast drying are filter effluent, spent filter precoat,
and equipment backflushing and cleanup. Drying and packaging produce only
minor wastes from machinery and floor cleanup.
259
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This Page is Blank
260
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DRAFT
SECTION IV
INDUSTRY SUBCATEGORIZATION
In the development of effluent limitation guidelines and standards of
performance for the Miscellaneous Foods and Beverages Industry, it was
necessary to determine whether significant differences exist which form
a basis for subcategorization of the industry. The rationale for sub-
categorization was based on emphasized differences and similarities in
the following factors: (1) constituents and/or quantity of waste
produced, (2) the engineering feasibility of treatment and resulting
effluent reduction, and (3) the cost of treatment. While factors such
as process employed, plant age and size, and nature of raw material
utilized tend to affect the constituents and quantity of waste produced,
the emphasis herein is not merely on an analyzation of these factors but
on the resulting differences in waste production, engineering feasibility,
and cost.
The Environmental Protection Agency preliminarily subcategorized the
miscellaneous foods and beverages point source category into the SIC
Codes listed in Table 12. As discussed in Section III, most of these
codes encompass numerous manufacturing processes, and the possibility
that some of the codes could be consolidated was well recognized.
Several factors or elements were considered with regard to identifying
any relevant subcategories. These factors included the following:
1. Process variations
2. Raw materials
3. Age of plants
4. Size of plants
5. Plant location
6. Products and by-products
7. Climatic influences
8. Seasonal variations
After consideration of all of the above factors it is concluded that the
miscellaneous foods and beverages industry should be further divided into
subcategories as given in Table 13. The rationale for the subcategori-
zation is given below.
PROCESS VARIATIONS
The production of miscellaneous foods and beverages, as indicated in
Section III, involves considerable variation in process operations.
These variations, whether caused by the end product desired or other
factors, can result in markedly different wastewater characteristics,
applicable control and treatment alternatives, and costs of control
and treatment alternatives. Of all factors considered, process
261
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DRAFT
TABLE 12
CLASSIFICATION OF THE MISCELLANEOUS FOOD AND BEVERAGES
INDUSTRY BY STANDARD INDUSTRIAL CLASSIFICATION CODES
SIC 2017 Poultry and Egg Processing (Egg Processing Only)
SIC 5744 Shell Eggs
SIC 2034 Dehydrated Soups
SIC 2038 Frozen Specialities
SIC 2047 Dog, Cat, and Other Pet Food
SIC 2051 Bread and Other Baking Products, Except Cookies and Crackers
SIC 2052 Cookies and Crackers
SIC 2065 Candy and Other Confectionery Products
SIC 2066 Chocolate and Cocoa Products
SIC 2067 Chewing Gum
SIC 2074 Cottonseed Oil Mills
SIC 2075 Soybean Oil Mills
SIC 2076 Vegetable Oils Except Corn, Cottonseed, and Soybean
SIC 2079 Shortening, Table Oils, Margarine and Other Edible Fats and
Oils, Not Elsewhere Classified
SIC 2082 Malt Beverages
SIC 2083 Malt
SIC 2084 Wines, Brandy, and Brandy Spirits
SIC 2085 Distilled, Rectified, and Blended Liquors
SIC 5182 Bottling of Purchased Wines, Brandy, Brandy Spirits, and
Liquors
SIC 2086 Bottled and Canned Soft Drinks and Carbonated Waters
SIC 2087 Flavoring Extracts and Flavoring Syrups Not Elsewhere
Classified
SIC 2095 Roasted Coffee
SIC 2097 Manufactured Ice
SIC 2098 Macaroni, Spaghetti, Vermicelli, and Noodles
SIC 2099 Food Preparations, Not Elsewhere Classified
262
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DRAFT
TABLE 13
RECOMMENDED SUBCATEGORIZATION OF THE MISCELLANEOUS
FOODS AND BEVERAGES POINT SOURCE CATEGORY
VEGETABLE OIL PROCESSING AND REFINING
Al Establishments primarily engaged in the production of
unrefined vegetable oils and by-product cake and meal
from soybeans, cottonseed, flaxseed, peanuts, safflower
seed, sesame seed, sunflower seed by mechanical screw
press operations.
A2 Establishments primarily engaged in the production of
unrefined vegetable oils and by-product cake and meal
from soybeans, cottonseed, flaxseed, peanuts, safflower
seed, sesame seed, sunflower seed by direct solvent
extraction or prepress solvent extraction techniques.
A3 Establishments primarily engaged in the production of
olive oil and by-product cake or meal from raw olives
by hydraulic press and solvent extraction methods.
A4 Establishments primarily engaged in the production of
olive oil and by-product cake or meal from raw olives
by mechanical screw press methods.
A5 Establishments primarily engaged in the processing of
edible oils by the use of caustic refining methods
only. .
A6 Establishments primarily engaged in the processing of
edible oils by the use of caustic refining and acidu-
lation refining methods.
A7 '' Establishments primarily engaged in the processing of
edible oils utilizing the following refining methods:
caustic refining, acidulation, bleaching, deodorization,
winterizing, and hydrogenation.
A8 Establishments primarily engaged in the processing of
edible oils utilizing the following refining methods:
caustic refining, bleaching, deodorization, winterizing
hydrogenation.
A9 Establishments primarily engaged in the processing of
edible oils utilizing the following refining methods:
caustic refining, acidulation, bleaching, deodorization,
263
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DRAFT
TABLE 13
A10 Establishments primarily engaged in the processing
of edible oils utilizing the following refinery
methods: caustic refining, bleaching, deodorization,
winterizing, hydrogenation, and the plasticizing and
packaging of shortening and table oils.
All Establishments primarily engaged in the processing of
edible oils utilizing the following refining methods:
caustic refining, acidulation, bleaching, deodorization,
winterizing, hydrogenation, and the plasticizing and
packaging of shortening, table oils, and margarine.
A12 Establishments primarily engaged in the processing of
edible oils utilizing the following refining methods:
caustic refining, bleaching, deodorization, winterizing,
hydrogenation, and the plasticizing and packaging of
shortening, table oils, and margarine.
A13 Establishments primarily engaged in the processing of
edible oils into margarine.
A14 Establishments primarily engaged in the processing of
edible oils into shortening and table oils.
A15 Establishments primarily engaged in the refining and
processing of olive oil.
BEVERAGES
A16 Production of malt beverages by breweries constructed
since January 1, 1950 and with a production capacity
in excess of 800 cubic meters per day. In addition,
. this subcategory includes plant 82A16.
A17. Production of malt beverages by breweries constructed
before January 1, 1900 and with a production capacity
in excess of. 2000 cubic meters per day.
A18 Production of malt beverages by breweries not included
in subcategories A16 and A17.
A19 Installations primarily engaged in the production of
malt and malt by-products.
A20 Wineries primarily engaged in the production of wine,
brandy, or brandy spirits, and not operating stills.
A21 Wineries primarily engaged in the production of wine,
brandy, or brandy spirits, and operating stills.
264
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DRAFT
TABLE 13 (CONT'D)
A22 Distilleries primarily engaged in the production of
beverage alcohol from grains and operating stillage
recovery systems.
A23 Distilleries primarily engaged in the production of
beverage alcohol from grains and not operating stillage
recovery systems.
A24 Distilleries primarily engaged in the production of
beverage alcohol by distillation of molasses.
A25 Installations primarily engaged in the blending and
bottling of purchased wines of spirits.
A26 Installations primarily engaged in the production of
soft drinks; and which package exclusively in cans.
A27 Installations primarily engaged in the production of
soft drinks; and which are not included in Subcategory A26.
A28 Installations primarily engaged in the production of
beverage base syrups, all types
A30 Installations primarily engaged in the production of
instant tea.
C8 Installations primarily engaged in the production of
roasted coffee.
C9 Installations primarily engaged in the decaffeination
of coffee.
CIO Installations primarily engaged in the production of
soluble coffee.
Fl Installations primarily engaged in the blending of tea.
BAKERY AND CONFECTIONERY PRODUCTS
Cl Production of cakes, pies, doughnuts, or sweet yeast
goods, separately or in any combination, by facilities
using pan washing.
C2 Production of cakes, pies, doughnuts, or sweet yeast
goods separately or in any combination by facilities
not using pan washing.
265
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DRAFT
TABLE 13 (CONT'D)
C3 Installations primarily engaged in the production of
bread related products
C7 Installations primarily engaged in the production of
cookies or crackers separately or in any combination.
CIS Installations primarily engaged in the production of
bread and buns in any combination.
C14 Installations primarily engaged in the production of
bread and snack items, in any combination.
Dl Installations primarily engaged in the production of
candy or confectionery products separately or in any
combination, except glazed fruits.
D2 Installations primarily engaged in the production of
chewing gum.
D3 Installations primarily engaged in the production of
chewing gum base.
D5 Installations primarily engaged in the production of
milk chocolate with condensory processing.
D6 Installations primarily engaged in the production of
milk chocolate without condensory processing.
PET FOODS
B5 Installations primarily engaged in the production of
canned pet food, low meat.
B6 Installations primarily engaged in the production of
canned pet food, high meat.
B7 Installations primarily engaged in the production of.
pet food, dry.
B8 Installations primarily engaged in the production of
pet food, soft moist.
MISCELLANEOUS AND SPECIALTY PRODUCTS
A29 Installations primarily engaged in the production of
flavorings, or extracts, separately or in any combination.
A31 Installations primarily engaged in the production of
bouillon products.
A32 Installations primarily engaged in the production of
non-dairy creamer.
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TABLE 13 (CONT'D)
A33 Installations primarily engaged in the production of
yeast and by-product molasses, if recovered.
A34 Installations primarily engaged in the production of
peanut butter by facilities using jar washing.
A35 Installations primarily engaged in the production of
peanut butter by facilities not using jar washing.
A36 Installations primarily engaged in the production of
pectin and peel by-products, if recovered.
A37 Installations primarily engaged in the production of
almond paste.
Bl Installations primarily engaged in the production of
frozen prepared dinners.
B2 Installations primarily engaged in the production of
frozen breaded or battered specialty items, separately
or in any combination.
B3 Installations primarily engaged in the production of
frozen bakery products.
B4 Installations primarily engaged in the production of
tomato-cheese-starch products.
B9 Installations primarily engaged in the production of
chili pepper and paprika, in combination.
C4 Installations primarily engaged in the production of
processing .of eggs.
C5 Installations primarily engaged in the production of
shell eggs.
C6 Installations primarily engaged in the production of
manufactured ice.
C12 Installations primarily engaged in the production of
prepared sandwiches.
D5 Installations primarily engaged in the production of
vinegar.
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TABLE 13 (CONT'D)
El Installations primarily engaged in the production of
molasses, honey, glazed fruit or syrups, separately
or in any combination.
E2 Installations primarily engaged in the production of
popcorn.
E3 Installations primarily engaged in the production of
ready-mix desserts or gelatin desserts, separately
or in any combination.
E4 Installations primarily engaged in the production of
spices.
E5 Installations primarily engaged in the production of
dehydrated soup.
E6 Installations primarily engaged in the production of
macaroni, spaghetti, vermicelli, or noodles, separately
or in any combination.
F2 Installations primarily engaged in the production of
baking powder.
F3 Installations primarily engaged in the production of
chicory.
F4 Installations primarily engaged in the production of
bread crumbs.
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variation has generally been found most significant in determining sub-
categorization.
The consideration of process variations resulted in the following sub-
categorization:
Vegetable Oil Processing and Refining:
The production of unrefined vegetable oil from soybeans, cotton-
seeds, flaxseeds, peanuts, safflower seeds, sesame seeds, sun-
flower seeds and olives by mechanical screwpress operations.
The production of unrefined vegetable oil from soybeans, cotton-
seeds, flaxseeds, peanuts, safflower seeds, sesame seeds, sun-
flower seeds and olives by direct solvent extraction and prepress
solvent extraction.
Edible oil refining only.
Edible oil refining and acidulation.
Edible oil refining, acidulation, oil processing and deodorization.
Edible oil refining, oil processing, and deodorization.
Edible oil refining, acidulation, oil processing, deodorization
and the production of shortening and table oils.
Edible oil refining, oil processing, deodorization, and the pro-
duction of shortening and table oils.
Edible oil refining, acidulation, oil processing, deodorization, and
the production of shortening, table oils and margarine.
Edible oil refining, oil processing, deodorization, and the pro-
duction of shortening, table oils, and margarine.
Margarine production only.
Shortening and table oil production only.
Beverages:
Malt beverages.
Malt.
Wineries without distilling operations.
Wineries with distilling operation.
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Grain distillers with still age recovery systems.
Grain distillers without still age recovery systems.
Molasses distillers.
Plants primarily bottling wines and distilled liquors.
Soft drink canning plants.
Soft drink bottling, or combined bottling/canning plants.
Plants producing flavor base syrups and/or concentrates.
Roasted coffee.
Coffee decaffeination.
Soluble coffee.
Instant tea.
Tea blending.
Bakery and Confectionery Products:
Bread and bread related products.
Cakes, pies, doughnuts, and sweet yeast goods utilizing pan washing.
Cakes, pies, doughnuts, and sweet yeast goods not utilizing pan
washing.
Cookies, crackers, and other "dry" bakery products.
Candy and confectionery products except glazed fruit.
Glazed fruit.
Chewing gum products excluding the preparation of natural gum base.
Chewing gum base prepared from artificial and natural materials.
Chocolate and cocoa products prepared from cocoa beans.
Pet Food:
Canned pet food.
Dry pet food.
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Miscellaneous and Specialty Products:
Shell egg handling (SIC 5144).
Egg processing (SIC 2017).
Frozen specialties. •
Non-dairy coffee creamers.
Production of specific flavors from the blending of extracts, acids,
and colors.
Manufactured ice.
Bouillon production.
Yeast production.
Peanut butter manufacturing not including jar washing.
Peanut butter manufacturing including jar washing.
Chili pepper and paprika.
Prepackaged sandwiches.
Vinegar.
Molasses, honey, and syrups.
Dehydrated soup.
Prepared desserts, gelatin.
Spices.
Macaroni, spagetti, vermicelli, noodles.
Almond paste.
Pectin.
Baking powder.
Chicory.
Bread crumbs.
The rationale for the above subcategorization due to process variation
is as follows:
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Vegetable Oil Processing and Refining
Unrefined Vegetable Oil - The production of cr.ude vegetable oil from oil-
seeds involves three distinct processes each resulting in different waste-
water stream loadings. Mechanical screw press operations have been docu-
mented by plant visitations and telephone surveys to have zero discharge
of process wastewater. The extraction processes of direct solvent extrac-
tion and pre-press solvent extraction do contribute an average.daily waste-
water flow of approximately 100 cu m/day (0.03 MGD). This wastewater
results from 1) wastewater generated by wet scrubber systems3 2) degumming
operationsj, 3) steam condensates contaminated by oil, fatty acids or hexane
solvents, and 4) in-plant cleanup resulting from spillage of oil or miscellas
tank leakage or pump failure.
Edible Oil., Shortening., and Margarine - Wastewaters generated from edible
oil refineries, on the other hand, vary greatly with respect to the degree
of process integration existing at each plant. For example9 a large full-
scale edible oil refinery may have an entire sequence of operations in
which vegetable oils are transformed into finished products such as
shortenings margarine or table oil. A conventional full-scale operation
would include: 1) storage and handling facilitiess 2) caustic refinings
3) soap-stock acidulation, 4) bleaching9 5) hydrogenation, 6) formula blending.
7) winterization9 8) deodorization9 and 9) plasticizing and packaging a
number of finished products. In contrast there exists a number of small
.scale operations consisting of only tank farm storage and handling facili-
ties with steam or kettle refining. These smaller plants usually sell the
refined oil to other edible oil processors who in turn produce a finished
product.
Due to the variations in plant size and process integration, it was
necessary to adopt a "building block" approach to the assessment of
wastewater loadings within the industry. The eight unit processes listed .
in Table 14 have been identified^, each generating a different wastewater
effluent. Table 15 presents a list of the various unit process combi-
nations within'the industry and the number of plants utilizing-each
combination in the U.S. during 1970.
Three processes are common to about 95 percent of the industry. These
include 1) raw material storage in storage tankss 2) tank car cleaning,,
and 3) caustic refining. Seng (53) reports that as a result of handling
large volumes of edible oils there are erratic flows resulting from
washing and cleaning processes to remove oils and greases that accumulate
due to tank leaks9 transfer operations pump failures, and the accumulation
of refuse materials and settled dust. These materials become a major
waste load problem when washed into plant storm sewers by rain. Becker
(54) reports that in some cases the BOD increase as a result of storm
water runoff is considerable.
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TABLE 14
EDIBLE OIL PROCESS UNITS
1. Edible oil refining (i.e., caustic, steam and kettle refining,
and including intersterification rearrangements)
2. Soapstock acidulation
3. Edible oil processing (i.e., bleaching, winterization, and
hydrogenation)
4. Contact cooling tower blowdown from deodorization barometric
condenser systems
5. Tank car cleaning
6. Storage and handling
7. Plasticizing and packaging (i.e., shortening and table oils
production)
8. Margarine processing
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TABLE 15
PROCESS INTEGRATION IN THE EDIBLE OIL REFINING INDUSTRY9
Number of Plants Utilizing
Process Integration* Process Integration
1. R , 21
2. R 6
3. RP 7
4. ROW. 10
5. RDWH 2
6. RDWP 5
7. RDWHP 29
8.. RDH 9
9. RDHP 10
10. RDP 5
11. RHP , 1
12. -DP ' . 2
13. P _3
TOTAL 110
a R = Refine; D = Deodorization; H = Hydrogenation;
W = Winterize; P = Plasticize
* All plants are assumed to have tank car cleaning and
storage transfer facilities.
Source: 1970 Directory to Edible Oil Refineries
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Tank car cleaning operations are usually adjacent to outdoor tank farm
facilities and may at times contribute to the storage and handling
wasteload. On the average, about 10 tank cars are washed per week during
the day shift. The wasteload of this operation consists primarily of
bulk oil and detergents flushed out of the tank car by cleaning. Usually
a holding tank is used to recover the bulk oil. The recovered oil is
'then pumped to an inedible oil holding tank. Seng (53) reports that
crude oil is treated with caustic and is centrifuged to remove micro-
organisms and soapstock. These "foots" are pumped to an outdoor tank'
farm for sale or for acidulation purposes. The refined oil is then
washed and centrifuged. Caustic refining constitutes a continuous
source of process wastewater with a pH value ranging from 10 to 12.
Water usage for the oil washing process is estimated to be about 10
to 15 percent by weight of the oil processed. The acidulation of soap-
stock or "foots" for fatty acid content produces a continuous wasteload
low in pH (1.5 to 2.0) and higher in organic content. The total water
volume is estimated to be 65 to 75 percent of the soapstock treated by
weight.
Francois (55) reports that the thermo-compressor condensates from the
deodorization process constitutes a continuous wasteload high in
organic impurities or "unsaponificable" substances. Certain fatty
acid materials are concentrated within the stripping stream and are
removed by barometric condenser water where they are eventually con-
centrated in the contact cooling tower blowdown.
In general, the steps of bleaching, hydrogenation, and winterization
represent a relatively small wasteload in comparison to the above
defined unit processes. Seng (53) reports that bleaching produces a
wasteload containing a small amount of spent filter material that is
flushed down the sewer during cleanup; a source of suspended solids
found in the wastewater. In the hydrogenation process very small
amounts of nickel catalyst sometimes reach the sewer from cleanup
operations. In the winterization process, the only wastewater that
would result is from general cleanup activities.
Wastewater generation for the plasticizing and packaging of shortening
is quite different from that of margarine processing. In general,
filling rooms that process shortening require much smaller volumes of
cleanup water'than do packaging operations that require the maintenance. •
of bacteria free filling equipment. The packaging of margarine, salad
dressings, mayonnaise, and other milk products capable of supporting
pathogenic bacteria require daily cleaning and sterilization of all
filling equipment. Therefore, margarine processing produces a larger
volume of wastewater containing high strength disinfectants (chlorine,
detergents) in comparison to shortening and table oil filling rooms.
Beverages
Malt Beverages - The sources of pollutants from the malt beverage industry
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can be documentated on a plant by plant basis. There are no process
variations justifying further subcategorization of the industry. As
discussed in Section III, one brewing company uses beechwood chips
during fermentation. The cooking and washing of the chips, as well
as yeast recovery from the chips, creates unit process wastes different
from other brewers.
Malt - All maltsters in the United States process malt by steeping,
germinating, and kilning. Most of the resulting wastewater is associ-
ated with steeping, and all plants use submerged steeping. Process
variation is not considered to be a factor for further subcategorization
of the malt industry because of the uniform nature of the process.
Wine, Brandy, and Brandy Spirits - Data and field observations support
the contention that wineries operating stills have considerably higher
wasteloads in the distilling (crushing) season than those who do not
operate stills. Wastewater from still age represents a 300 percent
increase over normal wasteloads.
Distilled Spirits - Grain distillers must be subcategorized according
to whether they do or do not operate still age recovery systems. Those
plants which do not operate still age recovery systems generally sell
wet spent stillage as cattle feed and consequently do not generate
a wasteload from stillage recovery (condensate from evaporation).
Molasses distillers stand as a separate subcategory since a majority
neither recover nor sell stillage, but dispose of it directly to the
ocean.
Soft Drinks - There are basically three types of soft drink plants:
1) those that produce only canned drinks, 2) those that produce only
bottled drinks, and 3) those that produce both bottled and canned drinks.
From a process point of view, there is a discrete difference between
bottling and canning operations — the former involves bottle washing
while the latter is primarily a mixing-filling operation.
t
As documented in Section V, the pounds of pollutant per unit of produc-
tion are decidedly less in canning plants than in bottling or bottling/
canning plants. This difference is due primarily to the wastewater
•generated by a bottle washer processing returnable bottles. This
difference in wastewater will vary depending on the percent of returnable
or non-returnable bottles processed.
Therefore, based on process variations, available data justifies two
subcategories of soft drink production: 1) those operations producing
only canned drinks and 2) those operations producing only bottled drinks
and others producing both bottled and canned drinks.
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Coffee - Virtually all production processes are common to all producers
of roasted coffee as a final product. These include: 1) raw material
storage and weighing, 2) air cleaning, 3) blending and roasting, 4)
grindi-ng, and 5} packaging. Coffee roasting requires no process water,
with two exceptions. First, some plants use a water spray to check the
roasting process, but this water is evaporated and incorporated into
the product. Second, a .few plants have wet stack scrubbers which
generate small quantities (up to 200 I/day) of wastewater. Cleaning of
all coffee roasting equipment is a dry process.
Decaffeination is a separate step that may or may not exist in soluble
and roasted coffee processes depending on product requirements of the
individual plant. Water is used in the caffeine extraction process and
the rinsing of the decaffeinated green beans. The caffeine extraction
process (including equipment cleaning) is a significant source of waste-
water volume and concentration. Even though more than one decaffeination
technique is recognized to exist, available wasteload data does not sub-
stantiate a clear basis for differentiating among the process for effluent
guidelines development purposes.
The soluble coffee process utilizes water to extract the soluble coffee
from the ground roasted coffee. General plant cleanup, extractor equip-
ment cleaning, and drying tower cleaning are significant sources of
wastewater volume and concentration. Freeze drying and spray drying
are the normal methods of preparing soluble coffee for marketing.
Available data does not warrant differentiation between the freeze-dried
and the spray-dried product.
Tea - The instant tea manufacturing process is essentially uniform through-
out the tea industry. As noted in Section III, one source of process
wastewater generated from instant tea manufacturing is the periodic
dumping of clarifier Sludge when regeneration of tea extract from the
sludge becomes minimal. Equipment cleanup water is the major source of
process wastewater. The production of blended tea involves n6 process
wastewater generation and may be designated a dry process. Subcategori-
zation of the tea manufacturing industry to account for process differences
between instant tea and blended tea production is necessary.
Flavoring Extracts and Syrups - The processes involved in the manufacture
of flavoring extracts and syrups include solvent extraction, distillation,
expression, evaporation, dehydration, and blending. These individual
processes are discussed in Section III of this document. The small
amount of information available from the industry for these products
indicates that most flavoring extract plants perform blending, as well
as several of the extraction processes listed above, and possibly some
dry spice grinding and blending. The one exception to this is the pro-
duction of beverage bases, the majority of which are produced by major
soft drink companies in plants solely manufacturing beverage bases.
Most beverage base plants purchase rather than produce the flavoring
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materials used and the principle process is merely one of blending.
The separation of beverage base plants from flavoring extract plants
is further reinforced by the fact that more wash water is used in the
former.
Bakery and Confectionery Products
Bakery Products - In the production of bread and other baked products,
except cookies and crackers, bread and bun production are virtually
identical and can be separated from cake and pie production because
bread production requires no filling, icing, enrobing, or other
finishing operations. Additionally, significantly less cleaning of
equipment is necessary. In bread production, pans are rarely, if
ever, wet cleaned. Other equipment is only cleaned weekly.
'Cakes, pies, and sweet yeast goods can be produced by methods which may
or may not require pan washing. This difference plays a major role in
the strength of a plant's wasteload. The BOD of pan wash water has
been reported (7) as high as 54,000 mg/1.
Many processes are common to all cookie and cracker manufacturers.
These include: 1) mixing, 2) baking, 3) cooling, 4) stacking, and
5) packaging. Principal variations in the other processing steps are
the result of the category or style of the end product. The principle
process variations are the forming, oiling, and icing, or enrobing,
procedures. Forming of cookies is usually done by either rotary dyes
or extruding machines while crackers are formed by sheeting or stamping
the dough. The forming equipment in both cases is dry cleaned with
the exception of rotary formers. This wet cleaning of the rotary formers
is not, however, a significant source of wastewater strength, although
it does contribute a relatively small amount to the volume. Some types
of crackers are sprayed with oil following baking in order to help
improve the flavor. The equipment used for the oil spraying of crackers
is normally not wet cleaned, and is therefore not assumed to be a con-
tributor to the wasteload. Certain varieties of cookies are either iced
or enrobed. In the cleaning of this equipment is additional source of
.waste: However, virtually all plants produce a variety of cookie and
cracker products and discharge a combined effluent. As a result, avail-
able data does not justify further subcategorization of the cookie and
cracker industry on the basis of process variations.
Candy Confectionery Products - The candy and confectionery industry pro-
duces a wide range of products and employs a number of different pro-
cessing methods. However, some common denominators in processing lend a
certain amount of homogeneity. The several diverse processes have in
common a "candy kitchen" for the initial preparation of the candy base
and it is at this point that most cleanup water is used and most waste-
water generated, regardless of what later processing is involved in pro-
ducing the final product. Glazed fruit production, however, employs
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processes which generate wastewater with distinct treatment generations.
The glazed fruit process often involves a bleaching of the fruit and
subsequent discharge of sulphur dioxide.
While the production of chewing gum and chewing gum base involves rather
similar processes, sodium hydroxide is used as a bleaching agent in the
preparation of chewing gum bases and presents a pH characteristic which
must be given consideration in treatment.
In the production of chocolate and cocoa products from cocoa beans, the
incompatability of moisture in chocolate requires a careful control of
the use of open water. However, large volumes of water are used in
several aspects of the process, e.g., cooling water. These establish-
ments characteristically discharge large volumes of water of a relatively
low waste loading.
Pet Foods
The principal variations in pet food processing result from the type of
product being produced. The dry pet food product does not require
processing of fresh and frozen meat and meat by-products. The processing
of fresh and frozen meat and by-products requires an extensive separate
sequence of specialized equipment which may include grinders, screw
conveyors, slurry tanks and interconnecting piping. All of the special
meat handling equipment is a significant source of waste generation during
operation and cleanup. In contrast the dry pet food operation is composed
of almost entirely dry ingredients which may require only dry grinding
prior to expanding.
The canned pet food product differs from the dry and semi-moist products
because of the necessity for the can filling—can washing retort oper-
ation. The canning operation is a signficant source of wastewater volume
in organic pollutant generation.
In terms of processing steps, the soft moist product lies between the
canned and dry product in terms of number of processing steps and resultant
waste generation. The soft moist product will normally utilize some fresh
or frozen beef products and by-products and will therefore have a prelimi-
nary meat processing line. In formulation, the soft moist product is
generally similar to the low-meat canned product except for the lower
moisture level and the addition of preservatives. The soft moist product
does not go through a canning operation.
The extruding and expanding operations using soft moist and dry pet food
manufacturing are not major sources of waste generation. Equipment is
typically cleaned daily producing a short-term, high strength waste which
is relatively insignificant in terms of pollutant generation per volume
of production.
These variations in production processes result in substantially different
waste generations per ton of production, as described in Section V and
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support the subcategorization of the industry into canned, soft moist,
and dry pet food.
Miscellaneous and Specialty Products
Shell Egg Handling and Egg Processing - Shell egg handling and egg
processing are distinct operations in that shell egg handling involves
storage, washing, oiling, handling, and grading of eggs in the shell,
while egg processing utilizes shell eggs as a raw material, whether
broken on the premises or by another processor, and produces dried,
frozen, or canned eggs or albumen. Food and Drug Administration
regulations require that all egg products be pasteurized. The type
of products produced varies widely among egg processing plants and
even within a given plant as a result of changing seasons and demands;
however, available data on wastewater generation preclude further sub-
categorization.
Frozen Specialties - While many production processes are common to all
frozen specialty manufacturers, variations do occur in some processing
steps as a result of the style of end product. However, these process
variations are not considered to be of significant magnitude to justify
further subcategorization of the frozen specialties industry.
Non-Dairy Coffee Creamer - The production of both liquid and powdered
non-dairy creamer has the following unit processes in common: 1) mixing,
2) pasteurization, and 3) homogenization. Following the homogenizing
of the liquid product, the unit processes differ in that the product
to be powdered is dried while the product to remain a liquid is cooled.
Based on existing evidence, this production variation does not cause an
appreciable difference in wastewater generated per ton of solid product.
The distinction of solid product is necessary because liquid creamer is
approximately 50 percent water by volume.
Cleanup water from clean-in-place systems is the major source of waste-
water, the quantity and character of which would be the same for both
liquid and powdered creamer. Consequently process variations do not
substantiate further subcategorization of the non-dairy creamer industry.
Ice Manufacturing - Block and fragmentary ice are produced by signifi-
cantly different processes, as detailed in Section III of this document.
Block ice is produced by partially submerging rectangular cans filled
with water in refrigerated brine tanks. Fragmentary ice is produced
as small pieces, such as disks or cylinders, by machines especially
designed for that purpose.
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The major volume of wastewater in many block ice plants is once-through
cooling water discharge. In addition, wastewater may be generated in
the production of block ice from treatment of incoming water; dipping
of the cans to loosen the ice; replacement of the unfrozen core with
fresh water; ice and snow losses; and from scoring, cutting, and crushing.
Conversely, block ice plants that follow good water conservation practices
do not generate these large volumes of wastewater. In fact, some block ice
plants generate less wastewater per kkg of production than fragmentary
ice plants. The quantity of wastewater is dependent upon primarily
plant management rather than process variations.
Fragmentary ice making machines are semi-automatic. Wastewater is
generated from excess water not frozen, defrost water, and blowdown.
The range in quantity of wastewater is relatively narrow, because it
is not highly operator-dependent.
Therefore, although block ice and fragmentary ice processing methods
differ, data indicates no appreciable difference in organic loading,
suspended solids, or potential treatment for the wastewater generated
by the respective processing methods. No further subcategorization of
ice manufacturing is justified.
Yeast - The production processes necessary to produce commercially
acceptable yeast are standard throughout the industry. These include:
1) raw material storage and preparation, 2) fermentation, 3) separation
of the mature yeast from residual nutrients, 4) dewatering, and 5)
packaging. Spent beer wash separated from the yeast by centrifugal
methods accounts for over 70 percent of the pollutant loading of com-
bined wastes. Spent nutrients, which may comprise from 15 percent to 50
percent of the total waste volume, depending on dilution water use and
reuse, have a BOD of 2000 to 15,000 mg/1. Although these process vari-
ations cause differences in combined waste volume, no substantial dif-
ferences in waste generation per unit of production were found. Spent
beer is normally discharged to a sewer or pumped to an evaporator for
molasses by-product recovery. Yeast dewatering practices, using filter
presses and rotary vacuum filters, constitute the second largest waste
stream in most yeast plants. Since there are virtually no differences
in the equipment and procedures used in yeast factories, no basis for
further subcategorization is judged to exist.
Vinegar - As illustrated in Section III, the process of vinegar pro-
duction is a discreet operation resulting in a wastewater differing
in characteristics from that of other food and beverage processors.
Pectin - As illustrated in Section III, the production of pectin is a
unique process distinctly different from any other in the miscellaneous
foods and beverages industry. This process variation results in a
wastewater with significantly different characteristics as compared to
that of other food and beverage processors.
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Boumon Products - The process involved in bouillon production is
unique in its simplicity and the fact that equipment cleanup water
is the only source of wastewater generated in the process.
Peanut Butter - All peanut butter processors roast, blanch, inspect, and
grind shelled peanuts to produce peanut butter. All of these are dry
process steps, although water is used in heating, cooling, and aeration.
IP packaging operations, some plants remove the product from partially
filled or improperly sealed jars, and then wash the jars before refilling.
Jar washer discharge is a low volume, concentrated wastestream which
significantly increases plant waste generation per unit of production
when sewered. The increased wasteload from jar washing constitutes a
strong basis for subcategorization of this industry. Other wastestreams
include floor and equipment cleanup.
Chili Pepper and Paprika - The unit processes employed by the paprika and
chili pepper industry are generally uniform. New techniques from time
to time have been employed to effect reduced volumes and/or strengths of
liquid process wastes. Special efforts have been made on those produc-
tion processes which generate the greatest amounts of pollutants: wash-
ing, fluming, and chopping. It may be concluded that the use of alternate
process equipment may substantially reduce raw waste generation.
Since the new techniques are not entirely proven, they are viewed as
being pollution control options rather than a basis for subcategorization.
Subcategorization on the basis of these new methods is considered to be
inequitable for several reasons: 1) the new techniques are largely still
experimental for most commodities; 2) the magnitude of the new techniques'
effect upon raw waste load reduction is still largely undetermined, and
3) the establishment of a separate (more stringent) subcategory now for
those plants which are attempting pioneering efforts would be unreasonable.
Prepackaged Sandwiches - As described in Section III, the wastewater
generated by the production of prepackaged sandwiches results from the
cleaning of utensils and other equipment, and from floor washing. No
justification for further subcategorization of the prepackaged sandwich
industry has been determined to exist.
Baking Powder, Chicory. Bread Crumbs - These processes have been identified
to result in no water use or process wastewater generation and may therefore
be appropriately considered as "dry" operations.
Mi seel 1aneous Products - The preparation and packaging of popcorn, molasses,
the various syrups, honey, prepared gelatin desserts, dehydrated soup, and
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the various macaroni products, while involving diverse operations, is
characterized by low levels of wastewater generation. Therefore, no
further subcategorization of these products is considered justifiable
on the basis of process variations. For the purposes of effluent
guidelines development, these products have been given the designations
El through E6.
RAW MATERIAL VARIATIONS
Vegetable Oil Processing and Refining
Unrefined Vegetable Oils - With the exception of olives, available data
do not justify subcategorization of unrefined vegetable oil production
on the basis of raw materials since most processing plants crush dif-
ferent oilseeds at various times. Raw material and process variation
are to some extent interrelated since processing techniques are often
specially related to the type of oilseed being processed. Solvent
extraction is the most common method used to extract soybean oil while
cottonseed oil is usually extracted by screw press operations.
A significant difference in wastewater characteristics results when olives
are processed for olive oil. As indicated in Section V, a considerably
more concentrated wastestream results from the handling of whole olives
and olive pits as compared to other oilseeds. Therefore, it is necessary
to place the production of olive oil into a separate subcategory from
other oilseed processing. No further subcategorization is justifiable as
a result of raw material variations.
Edible Oil, Shortening, and Margarine - Variations in raw materials offer
no justification for further subcategorization of edible oil, shortening,
and margarine (excluding olive oil). The refining of different oils does
generate different wasteloadings, but a given plant frequently changes
the type of oil being refined and refines more than one type at one time.
As a result, there is no basis for further subcategorization of the
industry on the basis of raw material variations.
However, olive oil refining is done exclusive of other oils and generates
a distinctive wastestream. Therefore, olive oil refining must be con-
sidered as a separate subcategory.
Beverages
Malt Beverages - Raw materials for the brewing industry include malt,
cereal, grains, hops, and yeast. In terms of wastewater generation,
there is essentially no difference in the raw materials utilized within
a brewery. Some breweries use hop extracts instead of hop flowers,
thereby eliminating the spent hop disposal problems, but the disposal
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practice with spent hops is normally the addition of this material to
spent grains. No further subcategorization of the malt beverage
industry as a result of raw material variation is justified.
Malt - Although different types of barley are used for the production of
malt, data presently available does not substantiate any differences in
wastewater generated. No further subcategorization is justified based
on raw material variations.
Wine, Brandy, and Brandy Spirits - Wineries in the western United States
use the V. Vi'nifera variety of grape and those in the east utilize the V_.
Labrusca variety.The eastern grape is lower in sugar and higher in
acidity than the western grape. Although eastern wineries practice
amelioration prior to fermentation, there is no data existing to indicate
that the type of grape, per se, creates a difference in wastewater dis-
charged. Therefore, no further subcategorization of the industry as a
result of raw material variations is considered justifiable.
Distilled Spirits - Differences in raw materials contribute to differences
in processes as a rationale for subcategorizing molasses versus grain
distillers. Citrus and blackstrap are used in molasses distilleries
whereas corn, rye, and malt are used in grain distilleries.
It should be mentioned that any grain distiller utilizing a 100 percent
rye mash bill may generate a higher wasteload than that from a straight
whiskey mash bill, although current data does not indicate the justifi-
cation of a separate subcategory for this type of operation.
Soft Drinks - Since diet soft drinks inherently utilize less sugar during
processing than regular soft drinks, lower wasteloads might be expected.
Diet soft drink production, however, is generally less than 10 percent
of the production at any one plant. Available data indicate the waste
characteristics of plants utilizing diet soft drink production to not
be significantly different from other operations. Further subcategori-
zation on the basis of raw material variation is not felt to be justified.
Coffee - Coffee processors utilize green beans as the basic type of raw
material, with two exceptions. Some producers utilize partially roasted
green beans as their raw material. However, since coffee roasting is a
dry process, this variation does not require further subcategorization.
Second, at least one producer of soluble coffee products imports a coffee
extract from which to manufacture the desired product. This procedure
produces less wastewater than the production of soluble coffee from ground
roasted coffee, but technical data is not available to support further
subcategorization of the soluble coffee process. Further subcategori-
zation of the coffee processing industry on the basis of raw material
cannot be justified because the industry has adequate control over its
raw material quality and basically the same raw materials are used by all
manufacturers.
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Tea - Raw materials in the tea industry consist of tea leaves imported
from various parts of the world. There is no reason to believe, nor do
available data indicate, that there is any difference in wastewater
resulting from the variety of tea leaves utilized. Therefore, no further
subcategorization of the tea industry as a result of raw material vari-
ation is justifiable.
Bakery and Confectionery Products
Bakery Products - All baked goods manufacturers utilize raw materials
such as flour, sugar, shortening, and water. In the production of bread,
these are the only major ingredients. In the production of cakes and
pies, fruit, chocolate, spices, flavorings, and a larger amount of
sugar are consumed in addition to those ingredients used for bread pro-
duction. The result of this difference in ingredients is a significant
difference in the wastewater volume and strength generated by the pro-
duction of bread and the production of cake and related products. The
ingredients used in the production of cake require more frequent wet
cleaning of the equipment associated with their preparation. The large
amounts of sugar used in cake production also contributes significantly
to the strength of the wastewater discharged.
These variations in raw materials result in substantially different
waste generation per unit of production, and support the recommended
subcategorization of bread vis-a-vis cake products.
All cookie and cracker manufacturing plants utilize the same basic types
of raw materials or ingredients. As detailed in Section III of this
document, these ingredients include flour, sugar, shortening, and
assorted additives, flavorings and colorings. In the production of
crackers, these are the only major ingredients. In the production of
cookies, chocolate is also a major ingredient and a much larger amount
of sugar is consumed per kkg of product. The result of this variation
is undoubtedly a greater wasteload from cookie production than from
cracker production. However manufacturers normally produce both prod-
ucts and discharge a combined effluent. Consequently, no data exists
to support the further subcategorization of the cookie and cracker
industry on the basis of raw material differences.
Candy and Confectionery Products - The refined condition of sugar and
corn syrup, the major ingredients used in the confectionery industry,
leads to no requirement for pre-cleaning or pre-processing. The same
situation is true for chewing gum which uses natural gum base as a
prime ingredient. In contrast, the cleaning of raw materials for gum
base and for chocolate and cocoa products generates wastes of signifi-
cant differences. In general, while raw material variations lend sup-
port to the subcategorization proposed because of process variations,
further subcategorization is not justified.
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Pet Foods
All pet food plants use the same basic types of raw materials or ingre-
dients. As detailed in Section III of this document, these ingredients
fall into the following general categories:
1. Meat and meat by-products,
2. Poultry and poultry by-products,
3. Fish and fish by-products,
4. Cereal grain and grain products principally derived from
soybeans, corn, wheat, barley, and oats,
5. Vegetables, fresh, frozen, and dehydrated,
6. Sugars and syrups,
7. Gums and food starches,
8. Milk based products,
9. Fats and oils,
10. Minor ingredients such as flavorings, vitamins, minerals,
colors, preservatives, and others.
In general, the raw materials listed above have to some extent been pre-
processed elsewhere prior to arrival at the pet food manufacturing plant.
For example, the meat and meat by-products are typically delivered from
meat-packing plants where the animals have been slaughtered and dressed.
Accordingly, the pet food manufacturer has good control over the quality
and condition of his raw materials. If they do not meet standards, he
may refuse to accept them.
The formulations used by different manufacturers in preparing various
styles of dog and cat food are described in Section III of this docu-
ment. Generally, all or most of the ingredients listed are used to
some extent in each formulation. The principal differences are in the
respective percentages of animal and grain derived ingredients used.
The ratio of meat (fish) to dry ingredients has a profound effect upon
raw waste generation and strength. Results analyzed from twelve canned
pet food plants in Section V show that the organic pollutants strength
of the raw wastes generated increases significantly with increase in use
of fresh and frozen meat (fish) and meat (fish) by-products (not including
dry meal). Thus, the data support the subcategorization of the canned
pet food industry into high-meat (fish) and low-meat (fish).
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Miscellaneous and Specialty Products
Shell Egg Handling and Egg Processing - All egg processors utilize shell
eggs as the predominant raw material, whether broken on the premises or by
another processor. Sugar, salt, and assorted food additives are also
utilized as raw materials by some processors. However, these additional
ingredients do not produce a wasteload which distinguishes plants utilizing
them from plants which process only egg products. The strength and
cleanliness of the eggs' shell also varies. However, insufficient data
exists for subcategorization on this basis. The chemical composition of
eggs is primarily responsible for the characteristics of egg processing
wastewater and consequently for the need for a single egg processing sub-
category.
Some processing plants break (and sometimes pasteurize) eggs for shipment
to other processors for pasteurizing, drying, freezing, or canning. How-
ever, available data does not justify a separate subcategory for egg pro-
cessors who do not break eggs.
Frozen Specialties - Frozen baked goods require rich ingredients such as
butter, sugar, cream, etc., and these are purchased in bulk, received,
blended under controlled conditions, further assembled into final product
form, sometimes baked or fried, and packaged and frozen.
The frozen baking dessert plant.must thoroughly clean with hot water all
the mixing vats, cooking kettles, measuring devices, pumps, piping, etc.,
which have come in contact with the ingredients and product. This cleanup
is continuous during plant operation as different products are manufactured.
For example, one section of the plant may run several different kinds of
pies during a shift. A peak in cleaning is normally reached during the
massive final cleanup at the end of operation each day.
The ingredients for frozen T.V. dinners and ethnic foods usually include
meat, fowl, or fish, vegetables, gravies, and minor additives. In
addition, there may be added starches (such as noodles), grains (such as
rice), and a variety of small dessert dishes. These ingredients are
usually prepared elsewhere and are then further processed, cooked,
assembled, packaged, and frozen at the prepared dinner plant. The bulk
of the wastes generated originates from preparation of the ingredients.
Prepared poultry arrives at the processing plant in a form ready for
deskinning and deboning (if desired). Beef and other meat normally arrive
in bulk. Some vegetables, such as carrots that require a longer cooking
time, may be partially precooked prior to being brought to the assembly
area. Potatoes are usually prepared from dehydrated potato products.
The primary wastewater generation results from equipment and container
cleanup, and the differences in ingredients greatly affect the
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character!sties of the wastewaters. Raw material variations further
support the subcategorles proposed above for frozen specialties. No
further subcategoHnation is felt to be justified.
Mon°pa1ry Coffee Creamer - Raw materials used in the manufacturing of
liquid and powdered creamer are discussed in Section III. The main
difference in raw materials between the two products is the use of
sodium caseinat©8 mono- and d1=glycendess sugar and fatty acids in
the production of liquid creamer. However8 the percent by volume of
these materials in the final product is small and has insignificant
effects on the wastestnanm. Therefore8 raw materials variations do
not necessitate further subeategorization of the industry.
Flavoring Extracts and Syrups ° The raw materials used by the flavoring
extract and syrup industry fielud® whole plants9 plant tissues (fruit,
stems;, Ieaves9 etc.)8 essential oils8 synthetic flavoring extracts,
alcohol8 ©cidss sugar8 solventss and colors. These materials are
generally used by all flavor producers. The exceptions are the beverage
base producers which use only natural and synthetic flavoring extractss
acids8 sugar and colors in their production. The distinct difference
in raw material usage further supports the previous subcategorization9
but does not justify further subcategorization.
Ice Manufacturing - All ice manufacturers utilize potable water as their
raw material.It may be supplied by the local purveyor or a well. In
many areas8 the water available is not satisfactory for the production
of quality ice. Treatment of the incoming water may contribute some
additional concentration of minor pollutant parameters to the wasteload,
but further subcategorliatlon of ice manufacturing is not justified by
this difference alone.
Yeast - Cane and beet molasses is the primary raw material used in growing
yeast. Differences in such diverse factors as sugar content, trace metals,
and minerals, physical stratifications amino acid content and mix and
nutrient content may produce daily variations in the total plant wasteload
due to the controls used in batch processing of yeast. Since all processors
are subject to the same raw material variations» no further subcategorization
on the basis of raw materials is justified.
Bouillon Products - The nature of raw materials used in the manufacturing
of bouillon products result in a wastewater high in proteins and thus highly
biodegradable. Thereforea raw materials usage supports subcategorization
of bouillon products as a discrete subcategory.
Peanut Butter - All processors use shelled peanuts as the primary raw
material.Small amounts of salts sugar8 stabilizer, and other ingredients.
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are added to improve product quality. Raw material quality may affect
roasting and grinding parameters, but there are no existing data to
document any effect on wasteloads from jar washing and cleanup.
Chili Peppers and Paprika - Paprika and chili peppers, as explained in
Section III, are virtually identical raw products, indistinguishable
except for taste. Some of the contributing variables influencing raw
material quality as it arrives at the processing plant include the
following:
1. Physical quality:
- Dirt and foreign objects - type of soil
- Weather at time of harvest - muddy fields
- Unfavorable climatic conditions - yield decreases
2. Biological quality:
- Climatic influences, drought, etc.
- Insect damage
- Bacterial or mold damage
It is not considered necessary, however, to subcategorize on the basis
of such unpredictable events which would usually be localized in
occurrence. It is concluded that variations in raw product quality
are normal and should be expected from week to week and season to sea-
son. Therefore, the waste management program should be designed with
sufficient flexibility to handle the problems inherent in the industry
due to expected raw product quality variations. It is also suggested
that a processing plant attempt to work out beforehand with its regu-
lating agency an emergency plan to handle a situation where uncontrol-
lable significant deterioration in its raw product quality may cause
subsequent upsets in treatment facilities.
Other variables which influence raw product quality and which are to
some extent under the control of the processor are listed below:
1. Harvest method,
2. Type of container and length of haul,
3. Degree of preprocessing in field, sorting, and
washing.
These variables should be considered when control options are being
considered to help meet the best available treatment limitation for
1983. They are not completely capable of quantitative evaluation
at the present time, but are deemed to represent good engineering
practice and pollution reduction benefits.
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PLANT AGE
The effective age of a processing operation is usually difficult if not
impossible to define — the reason being that there is often little
correlation between the age of a plant building and the age of the
equipment within the building. A processor may constantly replace worn
out equipment with new equipment, or, in some cases, install old equip-
ment in a new building. In general, data is not available or is it
likely to result to support clean differences in waste generation and
treatability within the overall miscellaneous foods and beverages industry
on the basis of plant age alone.
One very notable exception occurs in the malt beverage industry. The
construction of breweries has for the most part occurred prior to 1900
or after 1950, with the exception of those built immediately after the
repeal of prohibition. Data indicates that differences in the wastewater
loading as well as the applicable control and treatment technology, is
significant. Basically, the older breweries were not designed with waste
disposal in mind. Smaller tankage is common in the older breweries, thus
providing more surface area, and making cleanup more difficult. Older
mashing vessels do not separate grain as effectively as newer ones, thus
creating additional loads for by-product recovery operations. Intricate
and often unknown plumbing systems make isolation and segregation of
wastestreams economically impractical.
On the other hand, breweries built after 1950 have been increasingly aware
of wastewater disposal. Newer plants feature efficiently designed vessels
in conjunction with automated cleanup. Wastes which might be sewered in
an older brewery are reused or added to by-product recovery in the newer
brewery. Plant design in the last few decades has allowed for ease in
waste collection. Wastewater monitoring has identified problem areas and
plant personnel are subsequently trained to be more cognizant of these
problems.
Otherwise, age of plant provides no rationale for further subcategorization
of the miscellaneous foods and beverages industry.
PLANT SIZE
The size of the plant may be significant from both a technical and economic
point of view. On the technical side, no correlation to justify a sub-
categorization on the basis of size was found between plant size and either
raw waste characteristics or wastewater volume, except in the malt beverage
industry.
Plant size is more important from an economic viewpoint. Virtually all
in-plant and end-of-pipe waste reduction technology is subject to economy
of scale, and the larger plant will almost always benefit from economy of
scale.
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In the malt beverage industry, size of plant correlates to subcategori-
zation based on plant age. Plants constructed after 1950 have for the
most part been constructed for a production of more than 800 cu m (7000
barrels) per day due to the tendency for demand to be met by large
capacity. It can be expected that this trend will continue and any
future plants will be both large and automated.
Although there is no strict correlation between brewery size and waste
generation, a generalization may be logically made about old, large
breweries. These plants tend to be situated over relatively large areas
with segmented operations occurring in different buildings. The product
must be transferred more frequently and farther; supervision and consoli-
dation of wastes are more difficult. Therefore, size of plant is another
key factor in the subcategorization of breweries, but is not considered
as an element of subcategorization for other products.
PLANT LOCATION
Plant location can be an important economic factor determining the
availability of suitable land, and of municipal treatment facilities.
Other potential effects connected with plant location include the fol-
lowing:
1. Both climate and weather affect end-of-pipe waste treatment
processes. Variations in temperature, rainfall, evaporation
rate, and sunshine can all affect the performance of different
types of treatment systems. This has been taken into account
to the extent possible in the selection of control and treat-
ment alternatives in Section VII. While variation of per-
formance of treatment systems has been recognized, it is known
that high loads of pollutant removal efficiency can be main-
tained under variable climatic conditions with proper design,
operation, and maintenance.
2. Availability of solids disposal facilities or marketing op-
portunities near the plant. The cost of solids disposal
(screenings and sludge) varies considerably depending on
local situations.
3. The quality of the receiving water and the state industrial
discharge limitations being imposed. Plants located in areas
designated by a state as being water quality limited generally
have to meet very stringent requirements.
The factors listed above are local in nature and cannot be considered as
factors for subcategorization for industries located throughout the
United States. In general, the technologies developed for reaching the
recommended effluent limitation guidelines set forth in this document are
largely land-independent. Use of land-based treatment measures where
this option exists may in many instances substantially reduce the cost of
effectively achieving the recommended effluent reduction level.
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Of all the products within the miscellaneous foods and beverages industry,
the one most definable by location is wine spirits production. As pre-
viously mentioned, virtually all of the wineries producing spirits are
located in the San Joaquin Valley of California. These factors, however,
merely serve as substantiation of the subcategorization dictated by pro-
cess variations and do not justify further subcategorization of the
industry.
PRODUCTS AND BY-PRODUCTS
Many of the types of plants discussed in this document produce a variety
of products and by-products -- some change products with the season or
as the market demands, others produce varying styles of the same product.
There is no question that the nature of the products and by-products
produced by a plant usually affects the wastewater of that plant; however,
the subcategories previously developed adequately account for these effects.
No further subcategorization on the basis of products and by-products is
warranted.
CLIMATIC INFLUENCES
Influences of climate correlate closely with plant location discussed above,
and it is impossible to subcategorize nation-wide industries on the basis
of climate. The location of virtually all wineries with stills is in the
San Joaquin Valley where the climate is relatively dry thereby encouraging
the use of land disposal of wastewater for this previously defined subcate-
gory.
SEASONAL VARIATIONS
The seasonal demand of a number of products in the miscellaneous foods and
beverages industry, e.g., soft drinks, beer, candy has been discussed under
the topic of process variations. Certain raw materials are available on a
seasonal basis. These include various fruits, vegetables, and perhaps
most notably grapes. The availability of grapes restricts the pressing
(crushing) season to a short period of time during the fall of the year.
Since the material for distilling is generating in the pressing season,
distilling takes place at the same time as pressing with a small amount of
time lag. Although this factor does not directly lead to subcategorization,
it supports the subcategorization for the distilling industry.
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