01 fice ot
          Solid Wast>;
          Washington- DC 20460
SW - 769
Draft Environmental
Impact Statement
                  «
On the Proposed Guidelines
for the Landfill Disposal
of Solid Waste

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                DRAFT

   ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT



         PROPOSED REGULATION

       GUIDELINES FOR LANDFILL
       DISPOSAL OF SOLID WASTE
          (40 CRF PART 241)
             PREPARED BY
        OFFICE OF SOLID WASTE
U.S.  ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
       WASHINGTON, D.C.  20460
          STE/FEN W.  PLEHN
   DEPUTY ASSISTANT ADMINISTRATOR
           FOR SOLID WASTE
             MARCH 1979

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2d printing, September 1980

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                               SUMMARY
             DRAFT ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT ON THE
      PROPOSED GUIDELINES FOR THE LANDFILL DISPOSAL OF SOLID WASTE
                 U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
                        OFFICE OF SOLID WASTE
1.   Name of Action
     Administrative Action (regulatory)

2.   Brief Description of Action

     Under authority of Section 1008(a) of the Solid Waste Disposal Act as
amended by the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976 (RCRA) (Public
Law 94-850), EPA has issued a proposed set of "Guidelines for the Landfill
Disposal of Solid Waste".  The proposed action presents recommended consid-
erations and practices for the location, design, construction, operation,
and maintenance of solid waste landfill disposal facilities.  Application
of these recommended practices on the case-by-case basis should assist such
facilities in meeting the provisions contained in EPA's "Criteria for
Classification of Solid Waste Disposal Facilities".

3.   Summary of Beneficial and Adverse Environmental Impacts

     a.   Foremost, application of the proposed Guidelines will
          contribute to significant overall improvements in
          environmental quality.  Specifically, beneficial
          impacts can be expected for groundwater quality,
          surface water quality, and air quality, as well as
          in the areas of increased protection of public
          health and safety.

     b.   Existing facilities employing Guidelines recommended
          technologies to upgrade operations should eliminate
          or reduce to acceptable levels the adverse environ-
          mental effects resulting from present practices.

     c.   Utilization of the Guidelines' recommendations
          should enable new and planned landfill disposal
          facilities to be sited, constructed, operated,
          and maintained in a manner that ensures a reason-
          able degree of protection for environmental re-
          sources and for the public welfare.

     d.   Incorporation of the Guidelines recommended consid-
          erations and practices in landfill ing solid wastes
          will increase energy usage for the design, instal-
          lation, and operation of new technologies and con-
          sequently, increase the economic cost of landfill
          disposal of solid wastes.
                                -iii-

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 4.   Alternatives  Considered
     a.    No action
     b.    Delay of action
     c.    Proposed action  (technical and approach alternatives)
     d.    Alternative action
 5.   Federal, State, and Local Agencies From Which Written Comments Have
     Been  Requested
     The proposed  guidelines are being distributed to hundreds of individuals
 and organizations  representing all sectors of our society.  The draft EIS is
 also being distributed to a diverse group of individuals and organizations
 including, but not limited to, the following examples:
 Other Federal Agencies
 Department of Interior (U.S.G.S., Fish and Wildlife, Bureau of Mines,
     MESA, Office  of Surface Mining)
 Department of Health, Education, and Welfare (Food and Drug)
 Department of Agriculture
 Department of Commerce
 Department of Energy
 Department of Defense
 State Government
All 50 State solid waste management offices
National Governors' Association
National Conference of State Legislators
National Association of State Attorneys General
Conference of State Sanitary Engineers
Local  Government
National Association of Regional  Councils
National Association of Counties
National League of Cities/U.S.  Conference  of Mayors
International  City Management Association

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Solid Waste Management Professional Groups
National Solid Waste Management Association
Governmental Refuse Collection and Disposal Association
American Public Works Association
Association of Metropolitan Sewerage Authorities

Professional Associations
American Society of Civil  Engineers
Water Pollution Control Federation
American Water Works Association
National Water Well Association

Environmental, Health, and Citizens Groups
Citizens for a Better Environment
Environmental Action, Inc.
Environmental Defense Fund
Natural Resources Defense Council
National Wildlife Federation
National Environmental Health Association
Izaac Walton League
League of Women Voters
6.     Date Statement Available to the Public
       The Draft Environmental Impact Statement has been provided to the
Office of Federal Activities, EPA, for the purpose of publishing an
official public notice of availability in the Federal Register.  This
notice is anticipated by March 1, 1979.  The 60-day public comment period
for the Draft EIS will be concurrent with the public comment period on
the proposed Guidelines.  Copies of the Draft EIS may be obtained by
writing:  DRAFT EIS, Office of Solid Waste, WH564, U.S. EPA, Washington,
D.C.  20460, Attention:  Bernard Stoll.  Comments should be sent to the
same address.
                               -v-

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                            ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS'
     This EIS was prepared by Fred C. Hart Associates, Inc., under EPA
contract number 68-01-4895.   The major contract personnel contributing
to this EIS were:
                    Fred C. Hart Associates, Inc.

                    William H. Crowell
                    Fred C. Hart (Project Director)
                    James E. McCarthy
                    Wayne 1C. Tusa (Assistant Project Manager)
                    Timothy D. Van Epp
                    Barbara M. Wong
                    Sandy P. Wright (Project Manager)


     The EPA Project Officer was Bernard J. Stoll, Office of Solid Waste.
Additional assistance was gratefully received from numerous EPA, State
and industry personnel.
                                   -vi-

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                          TABLE'OF CONTENTS

SECTION                                                            PAGE
Summary 	    111
Acknowledgements	  ~   v1
List of Tables	      x
List of Figures 	     xi
1.0 Executive Summary			      1
2.0 Introduction		      3
     2.1 Problem Description	      3
     2.2 Legal Basis for Action	      5
     2.3 Summary of Proposed Action ..	 ^	      7
     2.4 Purpose of EIS Document	;	      9
     2.5 EIS Scope of Work	     io
3.0 Approach	     11
     3.1 Background Information and Sources 	     11
     3.2 Evaluation Methods and Approach 	     11
4.0 Evaluation of Alternative Technologies	     13
     4.1 Compaction 	     14
     4.2 Shredding	     16
     4.3 Baling	    18
     4.4 Surface Runoff Diversion			     20

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                     TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)

SECTION                                                               PAGE
4.0  (continued)
     4.5  Grading	       25
     4.6  Diking	       28
     4.7  Ponding	       30
     4.8  Daily and Final Cover	       32
     4.9  Synthetic Liners	  .       45
     4.10 Natural Clay Liners	    50
     4.11 Leachate Collection	       57
     4.12 Leachate Treatment	       59
     4.13 Leachate Recycling	;«.•.•       69
     4.14 Impermeable Barriers	       71
     4.15 Permeable Trenches	       75
     4.16 Vertical Risers	       78
     4.17 Gas Collection	.  .	'.  .       82
     4.18 Access Control  	       85
     4.19 Safety  . . .  .	•     88
     4.20 Fire Control	       90
     4.21 Vector Control	       92
     4.22 Litter Control  .  , .	       94
     4.23 Gas Monitoring  	  	       96
     4.24 Leachate Monitoring 	       100
     4.25 Revegetation	       116
     References Cited 	       120
                                 -vi 11-

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                            LIST OF TABLES
TABLE                                                             PAGE

4-1  Ranking of USCS soil types according to performance           ...
     of cover functions. ....... ......... •'.•• ,,-•.. .--.  ..,,..
                                                                   42
4-2  Current cover costs ....... ....... .  . . . . . ..  .
                                                                   52
4-3  Attenuation and permeability properties of clays. ....

4-4  Chemical characterization of the clay minerals       .         -c
     used in attenuation studies of leachate pollutants. ...     ^

4-5  Leachate treatability by alternate treatment methods.  ;  . • -  .
                                                                   CO
4-6  Results of physical-chemical treatment processes .....     °

4-7  Results of biological treatment processes ........     6

4-8  Passive leachate monitoring well techniques for sampling     -jQg
     in the saturated zone, advantages and disadvantages .  .  .

4.9  Passive leachate monitoring field inspection techniques.,
     advantages and disadvantages.  . . . ....... .....

4-10 Other passive leachate monitoring techniques,
     advantages and disadvantages ............ ...    IIJ
4-11 Some grasses and shrubs with extensive root systems ...     '18

5-1  Existing technology levels and assumed upgrading
     technologies ...................... ,

5-2  Upgrading technology costs ................     ^31
                                                                   I TO
5-3  Alternate upgrading technology costs ...........

5-4  Impact of Guidelines on operating costs of municipal          ._.
     solid waste landfills (cost/ton) .............     l<34

5-5  Impact of Guidelines on operating costs of industrial
     waste landfills  (cost/ton)  ...............

5-6  Impact of Guidelines on operating costs of pollution
     control residue waste landfills (cost/ton). . ......

5-7  Summary of impact of landfill Guidelines on operating
     costs of landfills  (cost/ton)  . ............

5-8  Upgrading technologies resulting  in increased energy
     operating costs  .......................   144

5-9  Total increased  capital costs per ton  and  percent  increase
     in energy use for upgraded facilities  ...........   145
                                 -x-

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                     TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)

SECTION                                                                PAGE

5.0  Summary Evaluation of Guidelines Impacts  ..... 	       122
     5.1  Environmental Impact Summary  	         122
     5.2  Economic Impact Summary 	  .       126
     5.3  Energy Impact Summary 	       143

6.0  Irreversible and Irretrievable Uses:   Short-term
     Use vs. Long-term Productivity	       147
     6.1  Irreversible and Irretrievable Uses	       147
     6.2  Short-term Use vs.  Long-term Use	       148

7.0  Summary of Public Participation  	       149
     7.1  Organizations and Persons Consulted  .....  	       149
     7.2  Pertinent Public Hearing Questions
          and Responses	       150
Bibliography  	       151
Appendix A:  Liner Materials Evaluation                                175
Appendix B:  Unit Cost Calculations and Assumptions                    182
                               -IX-

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                            LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE
4-1  Surface runoff diversion ditch ................     22
4-2  Surface and interceptor ditches ................     23
4-3  Rates of heave as related to silt-clay content ........     38
4-4a.     Impermeable barrier system ................     73
   b.     Impermeable barrier combined with permeable trench. ...     73
4-5  Gravel vent and gravel -filled trench .............     76
4-6  Vertical riser gas extraction well design  ..........     80
4-7  Multi-level permanent gas probe installation .........     97
4-8  Portable gas sampling probes .................     98
4-9  Typical monitoring well screened over a single
     vertical interval .......................     103
4-10 Details of a low cost piezometer modified for collection
     of water samples .......................
4-11 Typical well cluster configurations  .............     105
5-1  Composite landfill costs ...................     127
5-2  Demand impact of higher landfill  user charges .........     139
                                 -XI-

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                        1.0 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
     This summary provides a brief description of subsequent sections
2.0 through'7.0 as contained in this EIS.

     Section 2.0 of this analysis identifies the nationwide problem of
improper landfill disposal as it relates to consequent air, surface
water, antf groundwater pollution.  The Resource Conservation and Recovery
Act of 1976 (herein referred to as the "Act" or "RCRA") legislates a
potential solution to those problems by requiring identification and upgrading
of those sites responsible for threats to  the public safety and welfare.
Section 1008 of the Act provides the legal basis for the preparation of
technical and economic guidelines for the  disposal  of solid waste.  In
response EPA is promulgating "Guidelines") and has  voluntarily prepared
this environmental impact statement (EIS)  to identifiy potential environ-
mental and economic effects of implementing this proposed administrative
action.

     In effect the Guidelines provide descriptions of alternative siting,
design, operating leachate control, gas control, surface runoff control,
and monitoring approaches and technologies which may be utilized  to meet
site specific levels of environmental protection.  As such, the environmen-
tal impacts of implementation of the Guidelines are positive in nature since
greater levels of air, surface water, and  groundwater protection should
result.

     The scope of this analysis  is limited to the landfill disposal of
solid waste, excluding hazardous waste disposal in accordance with regu-
lations to be promulgated under RCRA Subtitle C.  Separate guidelines
are being prepared for landspreading and surface impoundment disposal
technologies.

     Section 3.0 describes specific methodology approaches utilized in the
analysis.  In general, reliance was placed on an extensive literature search
and contact with EPA, State, industry, and other knowledgeable sources.
Economic approaches required evaluation of reference sources to determine
baseline costs of existing landfill operations, and development of a model
format to estimated landfill upgrading costs.  The model development neces-
sitated selection of model types, and identification of baseline and re-
quired upgrading technologies.  For the model landfills selected, unit up-
grading technology costs and increased disposal rates were identified.
Results indicated a potential range of increase in landfill disposal costs
from approximately 40 to 90 percent.  Existing baseline costs ranged from
approximately $3.95 to $11.15 per ton ($4.42 to $12.49 per metric ton).

     Section 4.0 identifies the rationale  for selecting the proposed
"guidance" format as the most suitable approach for presenting the landfill
Guidelines.  Subsequent subsections identify functions, design considerations,
economic costs, and environmental impacts  of utilizing the variety of tech-
niques available to mitigate or avoid potential pollution problems.

     Section 5.0 identifies overall impacts of implementing the Guidelines
with respect to siting, design, operation, leachate control, surface runoff
                                 -1-

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control,  and monitoring approaches.    The economic analysis briefly
described in Section 3.0 is presented in detail and indicates that
disposal costs could increase on the order of approximately $1.80 to
$9.85 per ton ($2.01 to $11.02 per metric ton) if the recommended prac-
tices of the Guidelines are applied.

     This section also presents estimates of increased construction energy
utilization based upon estimates of increased construction costs.  The
energy impacts summary section also indicates that operating energy expen-
ditures will increase depending on specific technologies employed at each
site.                               '                   '

     Section 6.0 identifies irreversible and irretrievable uses and short-
term uses versus long-term productivity of the environment. . In effect while
short-term impacts and expenditures will be required to implement upgrading
technology and operations, long-term benefits will accrue in terms of preven-
tion of air, groundwater, and surface water pollution in minimization of risks
to the public health and welfare, and in increased productivity of the environ-
ment.

     Section 7.0 provides a summary of the public participation process.
                                   -2-

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                     2,0 LANDFILL EIS INTRODUCTION
                                           .V-

                       2.1 PROBLEM DESCRIPTION


     The national problem of solid waste disposal has been dramatized by the
increasing amounts of solid wastes produced today, and the environmental con-
sequences for past disposal practices that have proved to be inadequate for
present needs.  Enormous amounts of solid wastes are generated by every sec-
tor of society.  Important classes of waste generation include municipal solid
wastes, industrial waste, pollution control residues, construction and demo-
lition waste, and agricultural wastes.  As the nation grows in population and
level of technology utilization, the amount and composition of wastes in each
of these categories is constantly increasing and changing,

     A majority of this refuse is disposed of on land.  Lack of planning,
finance, public interest, and availability of comprehensive technical guidance
has led to a situation wherein disposal  methodologies have often resulted in
air, surface water, and groundwater pollution problems.

     Although proper landfilling is a controlled method  of land disposal, adverse
environmental effects can still result from lack of planning, provisions of
adequate environmental  safeguards, and maintenance of high quality daily oper-
ations.  The major problems associated with improper landfilling that need to
be addressed are possible groundwater pollution, air pollution, surface water
pollution and public health and safety hazards.

     As solid wastes in a landfill degrade, chemical and biological  reactions
produce a variety of solid, liquid, and  gaseous products.   Biological activity
within a landfill generally begins with  aerobic degradation and produces carbon
dioxide, water, sulfates, nitrates, and  a broad mix of organic and inorganic
compounds.   When the available oxygen supply is depleted,  a.  erobic  microorganisms
predominate and, consequently, generate  methane, carbon  dioxide, alcohols and
organic acids, and a variety of other substances.  Significant amounts of these
inorganic and organic substances and microbial  agents can  be leached from decom-
posing refuse by moisture produced in and/or infiltrating  through the landfill.
The resulting liquid solution, consisting of dissolved and suspended solids, is
termed leachate.

     Groundwater and surface water pollution can result  from landfill leachate
percolating into subsurface soil and water systems.   The composition and quan-
tity of leachate produced is important in determining the  effect on  resultant
water quality.  Leachate characteristics vary with the solid waste composition
and time as decomposition reactions proceed.  The quantity of leachate also
varies with time, waste type, incident precipitation, and  operational controls.
In order to minimize or control water pollution from landfill  sites, it is
advisable to reduce the production of leachate and to prevent or minimize the
movement of contaminants away from the landfill sites.

     A fraction of waste decomposition product includes  a  gaseous mixture com-
posed of methane and carbon dioxide, with traces of nitrogen,  oxygen, and hydro-
gen sulfide.  The level of gas production depends primarily on the amount and
                                    -3-

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type of organic material in the wastes, moisture content, and temperature
variations in the landfill.  In the early stages of aerobic degradation,
carbon dioxide is the most commonly produced gas with only small amounts of
methane being generated.  Concentrations of carbon dioxide decrease when
anaerobic degradation begins to dominate the decomposition process, resulting
in increasing amounts of methane production.

     These gases are important considerations in evaluating the environmental
effects of a landfill because they migrate outward from the site, and can
travel large distances laterally through permeable soils.  Methane represents
a pollution and safety hazard because it is explosive when present in air at
concentrations between 5 and 15 percent.  In addition, damage to surrounding
vegetation can be caused by low oxygen concentrations in the root zone when
CCL and other gases replace the oxygen normally occupying the interstices of
soil.  Landfill generated gas movement can be controlled by several engineering
methods to minimize these adverse effects.

     Another potential source of water pollution from landfill sites is sur-
face runoff.  Direct runoff from the active face and uncontrolled runoff from
incident precipitation may erode the soil cover and entrain solid wastes, as
well as other suspended or dissolved solid matter.  These contaminants may
ultimately be received by adjacent surface water systems.  Proper surface run-
off control can present direct contamination of the runoff and minimize the
possibility of off-site pollution of receiving waters.

     An improperly constructed or inadequately maintained landfill can pose
additional health and safety hazards.  If decomposing solid wastes are left
accessible, they can attract rodents, flies, and other carriers capable of
transmitting pathogens.  Other safety considerations which may affect site
employees and visitors include explosion and fire hazards.  Proper site
operation and access control can minimize potential health and safety problems.

     In recognition of the seriousness of existing and potential problems, and
the large numbers of sites which have exhibited the types of problems described
above, Congress in October of 1976 passed the Resource Conservation and Recovery
Act (RCRA), Public Law 94-580.
                                  -4-

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                      2.2 LEGAL BASIS FOR ACTION
     The 1965 Solid Waste Disposal  Act marked the beginning of Federal
regulation of solid waste disposal.  Under this act, grants were made
available to conduct surveys of solid waste disposal practices, and to
establish a national reserach and development program to improve methods
of disposal.  In 1970, the Resource Recovery Act amended the Solid Waste
Disposal Act.  This measure provided specific funding for resource recovery
programs.  In 1976 an expansive and highly significant piece of environmental
legislation was enacted that finally attempted to address the scope of the
nation's solid and hazardous waste  disposal problems, and the accompanying
role of resource conservation.  This act, the Resource Conservation and
Recovery Act (RCRA), proposed to:

     1.   provide technical and financial assistance for
          improved solid waste disposal  practices;

     2.   provide training grants in solid waste dispo-
          sal occupations;

     3.   prohibit open dumping;

     4.   regulate hazardous wastes;

     5.   promulgate guidelines for solid waste collec-
          tion, transport, recovery, and disposal;

     6.   promote a national reserach and development
          program;

     7.   promote demonstration and construction pro-
          jects utilizing improved  solid waste and
          resource recovery technologies; and,

     8.   establish cooperative solid waste management
          among all levels of government and private
          enterprise.

     In particular, RCRA Sections 1008 and 4004 address the problems of en-
vironmentally acceptable solid waste disposal.  Section 4004 required EPA
to establish criteria for determining which solid waste disposal facilities
shall be classified as having no reasonable probability of adverse effects
on health or the environment.  The  classification criteria as proposed
identify environmentally seisitive  disposal locations (wetland, floodplains,
permafrost areas, sole source aquifers,  and critical habitats) and require
that groundwater, surface water, and air resources be adequately protected.
Section 1008 required EPA to develop guidelines which:

          1.   "provide a technical and  economic description
                of the level of performance that can be
                attained by various available solid waste
                management practices;"
                                    -5-

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          2.    describe levels of performance,  including
                appropriate methods and degrees  of control,
                that will  result in the protection of pub-
                lic health, ground and surface water quality,
                ambient air quality, disease and vector
                control, safety, and aesthetics; and,

         '3.    provide minimum criteria to define solid
                and hazardous waste dumping.

     With respect to landfill disposal EPA has prepared "Proposed Guidelines
for.the Landfill Disposal  of Solid Waste".   This accompanying  EIA analyzes
the technical, economic, and enviornmental  impacts of implementing these
guidelines.
                               -6-

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                    2.3 SUMMARY OF PROPOSED ACTION
     As directed by Section 1008(a) of RCRA, EPA has begun developing guide-
lines to aid in meeting Section 4004 solid waste disposal criteria.  The
cirst set of guidelines, under discussion here, deals specifically with the
landfilling method of solid waste disposal.  The stated purpose of the pro-
posed guidelines is "to suggest preferred methods for the design and oper-
ation of landfill facilities for disposal of solid wastes."  By examining
the various available technologies and expected levels of performance, EPA
is providing guidelines that should assist disposal facilities in meeting
required levels of environmental and public health protection.

     In keeping with the stated goals and objectives of the Act, the scope
of the "Guidelines for the Landfill Disposal of Solid Waste" encompasses
seven areas, as follows:

                    SECTION             TOPIC

                    241.200        Site Selection
                    241.201  •      Design
                    241.202        Leachate Control
                    241.203        Gas Control
                    241.204        Runoff Control
                    241.205        Operation
                    241.206        Monitoring

     In summary, the Guidelines identify a variety of approaches and tech-
nologies which may be implemented, on a site specific basis, to provide or
maintain the required levels of environmental protection.  As such, the
following provides a very brief summary of the major sections of the proposed
Guidelines:

     1.   The site selection section of the Guidelines
          indicates that site selection should be based
          on thorough consideration of hydrogeologic,
          economic, and environmental factors.  Site
          selection should aviod environmentally sen-
          sitive areas, identified as wetlands, flood-
          plains, permafrost areas, critical habitats,
          and recharge zones of sole source aquifers.
          The Guidelines also suggest that zones of
          active faults and karst terrain be avoided
          as landfill sites.  Site evaluations should
          include consideration of possible incorpor-
          ation into existing or future regional solid
          waste disposal systems.

     2.   The Guidelines design section emphasizes
          that design of a facility should analyze
          tradeoffs among environmental impacts,
          economic considerations, future use alter-
          natives and nature of the wastes.  The
                                    -7-

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2. (con't)
     major goal of maintaining ground and
     surface water quality can be attained
     by controlling leachate and gas as a
     prime objective.

3.   The leachate control section is con-:
     cerned with controlling production of
     leachate and its escape from the site,
     and consequent impact on the environ-
     ment.  Synthetic and natural clay
     liners are technologies that are avail-
     able to control leachate production by
     restricting groundwater intrusion into
     the site, and to prevent leachate es-
     cape into the environment.   Leachate
     collection techniques also assist in
     minimizing leachate escape from the
     site, while leachate treatment and re-
     cycling techniques more directly mini-
     mize the impact of leachate on the
     surrounding environment.


4.   The gas control section is concerned
     primarily with reducing methane gas
     production by minimizing moisture
     infiltration, with controlling escape
     of gases into the atmosphere, and with
     minimizing the migration of gases into
     adjacent soils.  These objectives can
     be achieved by utilizing various combin-
     ations of vertical impermeable barriers,
     vertical pipe vents, horizontal gravel
     trenches, and other gas collection tech-
     nologies.

5.   Recommended practices in the runoff
     control section include diversion
     of runoff through channeling devices
     such as dikes or other runoff diversion
     techniques, and maxmizing runoff from
     the landfill surface by the use of
     cover material, grading and revegetation.
     Ponding can be used to remove eroded
     sediment or other solid materials sus-
     pended in runoff that may otherwise con-
     taminate receiving waters.

6.   The section on landfill operation encom-
     passes the full range of landfilling
     from construction of waste cells to per-
     sonal safety on the site.  Compaction,
     shredding, and baling are specific tech-
     nology alternatives employed in the con-
     struction of waste cells that are iden-
     tified in the Guidelines.  Other operating
                            -8-

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     6. (cpn't)
          techniques which are discussed further
          include access control, safety, fire
          control, vector control, and litter
          control.

     7.   The monitoring section indicates that
          monitoring of leachate and gas produc-
          tion should continue during construction
          and after completion of a landfill facil-
          ity.  Once baseline conditions are estab-
          lished for .groundwater supplies, leachate
          generation and migration should be moni-
          tored regularly.  Explosive and toxic
          gas generation and migration should also
          be monitored regularly in the adjacent
          soils and in structures adjacent to the
          landfill.

     Although the Guidelines recommend these methods to satisfy the
"Criteria for Classification of Solid Waste Disposal Facilities," they
are not intended to be "exclusive or discourage or preclude the develop-
ment or use of equally effective and economical technologies."  In effect
the Guidelines provide a set of technologies which may be available for
incpropration into landfill  operations for a variety of waste types and
environmental settings.  Since the primary objective is adequate protection
of the environment, which is generally achievable by providing the necessary
air, groundwater, and surface water controls, the actual technologies re-
quired at any one location are highly site specific.  In a large number of
sites a variety of combination of technologies may be available to meet the
fixed goal of environmental  protection.

                    2.4  PURPOSE OF EIS DOCUMENT


     In the past, the lack of technical guidance, coupled with the lack of
uniformly enforceable regulation concerning methods of land disposal of solid
wastes, has resulted in a widespread national  problem of environmental  degra-
dation affecting air, water, and land resources.  The health and environmentally
related problems that are facing us today due to inadequate disposal serve to
underline the need for guidelines that will promote a consistent level  of envir-
onmental  protection commensurate with the variety of siting and  disposal  require-
ments present across the country.  The purpose of preparing this document is to
identify the environmental impact of implementing those proposed Guidelines.
As a result it has been useful to individually summarize, analyze, and evaluate
the performance of a major available technologies suggested by the Guidelines.
As a result, the technologies can be examined with respect to their possible
impacts on environmental, energy, and economic resources.  Although there are
numerous site specific considerations that must be included  in planning a
landfill facility, this generalized discussion of the Guidelines' recommenda-
tions will assist the EPA, the states, and representatives of individual  land-
fill sites in comparing trafeoffs among alternative technologies.  Preparation
of the EIS will also enable the public to understand EPA decisions and partici-
pate in the agency decision-making process.


                                    -9-

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                      2.5  EIS SCOPE OF WORK
     The Solid Waste Disposal Act, as amended by the Resource Conservation
and Recovery Act (RCRA) of 1976, directs the EPA to develop and publish
guidelines for comprehensive solid waste management.  In order to imple-
ment this legislation, recommended practices for landfill ing, impoundment,
and landspreading techniques are being prepared in three separate sets of
guidelines.  This document is intended to summarize the technical, environ-
mental, economic, and energy impacts of implementing the landfill Guidelines.
As such, this EIS excludes consideration of impoundment and landspreading
methods and focuses solely on the Guidelines pertaining to the landfill
method of solid waste disposal.
                                      -10-

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                            3.0  APPROACH
               3.1  BACKGROUND INFORMATION AND SOURCES
     A major research effort was initiated in developing the detailed
descriptions and analyses of the currently available landfill ing practices.
This effort incorporated pertinent background information acquired from a
variety of sources including contact with regulatory agencies  and private
concerns.  Special emphasis was placed on obtaining data on current research
and development areas in landfill technology.

     The literature search, which formed the major segment of the data
collection work, covered previous environmental  impact analyses, various
EPA studies, state-of-the-art analyses, technical  references,  and a variety
of other sources.  The extensive information base  thus accumulated, was
supplemented by contacts with EPA regions, appropriate state and local agencies,
and private organizations and individuals.  In addition to reviewing all aspects
of landfill ing technology and relevant environmental and public health consid-
erations, particular attention was paid to recent  documents on newer technolo-
gies provided by the Solid and Hazardous Waste Research Division of the Municipal
Environmental Research Laboratories, Office of Research and Development,
Cincinnati EPA.
                 3.2  EVALUATION METHODS AND APPROACH
                         3.2.1   Introduction


     The remainder of this EIS  provides detailed technical  and environmental
evaluations of potential landfill  technologies; environmental, economic and
energy impacts of Guidelines implementation; identification of short and long-
term impacts and irretrievable  committments of resources due to Guidelines
implementation; and a summary of the public participation process.   The fol-
lowing sections provide a more  detailed summary of the specific methodologies
utilized in identifying environmental, economic and energy  impacts.
                    3.2.2  Environmental  Methodology


     Technical and environmental  descriptions and impacts as identified in
Section 4.0 were developed primarily via  the literature review process de-
scribed in Section 3.1
                                    -n-

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                      3.2,3  Economic Metnodo1ogy


     To estimate the per ton increase in disposal costs which may occur as
a result of the increased use of a variety of technologies to achieve ade-
quate levels of environmental protection, a three-step methodology was
employed.  The following is a summary of the methodology that was developed
in  "Analysis of the Technology,  Prevalence and Economics of Landfill Disposal
of  Solid Waste in the United States" - Volume II by Fred C. Hart Associates,
Inc.

     The first step was the selection of model landfills.  Existing data on
landfill types and sizes were utilized to characterize the set of real world
model landfills.  In essence, three model waste types were chosen: municipal,
industrial, and pollution control residue.  Three model sizes were chosen in-
cluding 10 ton per day, 100 ton per day, and 300 ton per day sites.  For all
sites, differences in environmental conditions were assessed by evaluating
each model type and size in environmentally sensitive and non-sensitive set-
tings.  As per the "Criteria for Classification of Solid Waste Disposal Fa-
cilities (43 Fed. Reg. 49R) sensitive settings are identified to be wetlands,
floodplains, permafrost areas, critical habitats, and recharge zones of sole
source aquifers.  All other land settings are identified as non-sensitive.
Additional details regarding the selection of model  landfills are provided in
Section 5.2.

     The second step was to identify baseline costs for facilities within
each of the three model sizes.  Baseline costs are defined as the unit costs
incurred by facilities with the mix of technologies and operating procedures
currently in use.  Case histories and general cost references were analyzed
to estimate per ton costs for disposal sites in each of the above three size
categories.

     The third step was to estimate the costs of implementing alternative
technologies as described in the Guidelines.  This  first required estimation
of the type of technologies which on average best represent those technologies
currently in use for each of the waste types in both sensitive and non-sen-
sitive environs.  Secondly, a set of upgrading technologies  were assumed
which would best meet requirements for environmental protection and which
would be most representative of expected upgrading costs.  Instrumental in
this analysis was the development of cost estimates for potential upgrading
technologies.  Estimates were based upon an examination of a variety of case
studies and engineering cost estimates.  Section 5.0 presents technology per
ton cost estimates for each of the three size categories.  Appendix A presents
technology unit costs and calculation assumptions for the same technologies.

                      3.2.4  Energy Methodology

     Section 5.3 presents an estimation of potential increased energy consum-
ption that will result from both construction and operating phases of land-
fill operations.  Construction energy impacts were estimated by assuming that
energy use was directly proportional to increased capital expenditure.  For
operating energy impacts, estimates on increased energy expenditures has been
related to specific technology incorporation.  The results of these analyses
were originally presented in "Analysis of the Technology, Prevalance. and
Economics of Landfill Disposal of Solid Waste in the United States" (Volume II)
by Fred C. Hart Associates, Inc.

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             4.0  EVALUATION OF ALTERNATIVE TECHNOLOGIES
     In developing the "Proposed Guidelines for the Landfill Disposal of
Solid Waste" the Office of Solid Waste has evaluated a variety of alterna-
tives to the proposed action.  These alternatives include no action, delay
of action, and alternative emphasis, as well as the proposed action.

     The no action alternative is clearly not an appropriate option.  The
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) of 1976 was passed "to provide
technical and financial assistance for the development of management plans
and facilities for the recovery of energy, and other resources from discarded
materials and for the safe disposal of discarded materials, and to regulate
the management of hazardous waste."  In keeping with those goals Section 1008
required EPA to publish suggested guidelines for solid waste management which
would provide technical and economic descriptions of available solid waste
management practices.  In completing the Guidelines, EPA is fulfilling in part
this legislative mandate.

     Similarly, the delay of action alternative is not viable.  Section 1008
of the Act specified a limited time frame in which EPA was required to publish
the Guidelines.  Current problems being experienced throughout the country
demonstrate the immediate need for a unifying set of guidelines designed to
provide the required levels of environmental protection.

     In evaluating alternative emphases or approaches to be potentially
utilized in the Guidelines' development, it is first essential to 'understand
the basic implications of the proposed Guidelines.  In fact, the word "Guide-
line" embodies the central theme of this document.  As such, the Guidelines
are intended to function in an advisory capacity by providing detailed infor-
mation on planning approaches and detailed technologies which might be utilized
in meeting the goals of air, surface water, and groundwater protection iden-
tified in the "Criteria for Classification of Solid Waste Disposal Facilities"
and as embodied in the Act.  As such, the Guidelines have attempted to define
a variety of technological alternatives which might be utilized to meet in-
dividual, site specific requirements for air, surface water, and groundwater
protection, as well as for the broader goal of protection of public health and
safety.

     In this respect, alternative approach terminologies such as less restric-
tive vs. more restrictive, mandatory vs. suggested, prescriptive vs. descrip-
tive, etc., have no real significance.  The Guidelines provide only potential
approaches and methodologies to meet the goals of environmental protection and
as such are not enforceable by law.  Enforceability provisions and other impli-
cations, suggested by the terminologies listed above are intended to be managed
at the state level.  In essence this is the only viable approach due to the
widely varying disposal conditions experienced from state to state across the
country.

     With the above in mind, the remainder of this section attempts to acquaint
the reader with the functions, design considerations, economic costs, and en-
vironmental impacts of available landfilling technologies.  Section 5.0 also
provides insights on the effects of providing comprehensive landfilling Guide-
lines in terms of the resulting improved levels of environmental protection in
the air, surface water, groundwater, and public health and safety sectors.

                                  -13-

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                           4.1  COMPACTION


                         4.1,1 Introduction
     Compaction of solid wastes to achieve volume reduction can significantly
increase the capacity and life of a sanitary landfill.  Compaction also re-
sults in minimization of vectors and potential fire hazards.

     The Guidelines recommend that "in order to conserve landfill disposal
site capacity and preserve land resources solid wastes should be incorporated
into the landfill in the smallest practicable volume,"  While compaction occurs
to some degree in the placement of wastes in the daily cell, special landfill
compaction equipment may be necessary for maximum volume reduction.  The fol-
lowing sections describe in more detail the technology and environmental impacts
of compacting solid wastes.
                      4.1.2  Techno!ogy Summary


4.1.21 Operation

                                                 <
     Solid waste compaction can be achieved via utilization of appropriately
selected standard landfill equipment.  However, more efficient compaction can
be achieved via utilization of specialized equipment.

     Mobile waste compaction equipment includes a variety of machine types
and power train components which have been modified to produce a machine type
which is excellent for spreading and compacting solid* wastes on a relatively
level terrain at moderate speed ranges (up to 23 mph).  Steel wheels as gener-
ally provided on landfill compactor equipment, result in significantly greater
compaction (10 to 15%) that rubber-tired or tracked machines of comparable weight.

     Solid waste compaction in the landfill is achieved by the compressive forces
developed by repeated passes of a landfill machine on the waste mass.  Depending
on waste type and moisture content, two to five passes are completed over each
layer of waste placed during the daily operations.

     Mobile landfill compactors should be equipped with the appropriate
accessories to alleviate the problems associated with overheating due
to clogged radiators, broken fuel and hydraulic lines, tire punctures,
and damage incurred when waste becomes lodged in the tracks or between
the wheels and the machine body.

4.1.22 Current Economic  Costs

     Current economic costs of this technology average $1.90 ($2.12), $0.20
($0.22), and SO.05 ($0.06)per ton (per metric ton) for 10, 100, and 300 ton
per day landfill sites, respectively.
                                -14-

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             4.1,3  Environmental Impact Summary
1.   Volume reduction through solid wastes compaction allows
     utilization of smaller volume capacity landfills in a
     given waste management region,  Therefore, the landfill
     siting process is simplified as a smaller area of land
     must be selected possibly resulting in reduced adverse
     environmental impacts.

2.   Compaction of solid wastes serves to reduce landfill
     fire hazard, since it minimizes waste oxygen content
     in the landfill.

3.   Increased compaction improves vector and litter control,

4.   Compaction potentially slows gas and leachate pro-
     duction by deterring waste decomposition.  However,
     this potentially extends the period during which the
     landfill will continue to generate gas and leachate
     possibly requiring long-term post-closure landfill
     monitoring and management.
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                            4.2  SHREDDING
                          4.2.1  Introduction
     Shredding is a solid waste volume reduction technique which con-
sists of milling the wastes to reduce waste constituents to smaller, more
uniformly sized particles.  The Guidelines recommend that in order to
conserve landfill disposal site capacity and preserve land resources,
solid wastes should be incorporated into the landfill in the smallest
practicable volume.  The Guidelines state that compaction or other
volume reduction may take place at or before delivery to the landfill,
by utilizing balers, shredders, or stationary compactors."  The Guide-
lines add that "Compaction of solid waste and cover soil also aids in
minimization of rodents, vectors and fires."

     The following sections describe in more detail the technology and
environmental impacts of shredding.


                       4.2.2  Technology Summary
4.2.21  Operation
     A shredding operation normally consists of a shredding unit, a
transport network, and the shredfill (landfill accepting shredded wastes).
Several types of shredding devices are used;  including vertical and
horizontal axis hammer mills, vertical axis grinders, and horizontal
axis impactors.  These shredders also usually include a variety of
conveyors for waste routing scales, truck loading and unloading platforms,
and storage bins or areas.

     In the shredding process, solid wastes are milled to produce uniform
particle sizes on the order of two to four inches in diameter.  Waste
size reduction results in up to 30 percent greater in-place waste density
at the shredfill site.  On a site specific basis, daily cover may not be
required, since litter and vector problems are reduced.  Decreased
settlement and improved operation during cold and wet weather have also
been noted.  Negatively, mechanical difficulties can occur with the
shredder unit, and rapid .wear of contact components requires a high
level of maintenance effort.
4.2.22  Current Economic Costs
     Full scale shredder technology is currently economically unfeasible
at small disposal sites.  For a 300 TPD facility,  current  costs  are  on
the order of $7.00 per ton ($7.89 per metric ton).
                                   -16-

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             4.2^3  Environmental Impact Summary
1.   Volume reduction through solid waste shredding reduces dis-
     posal volume requirements for existing and planned facilities
     and consequently reduces environmental impacts associated with
     landfill expansion or initiation.  Siting difficulties are
     also minimized due to the smaller amount of land required.

2.   The potential for reducing daily cover material require-
     ments for shredfills also minimizes impacts associated with obtain-
     ing cover material and reduces related siting considerations.

3.   Solid waste shredding improves landfill aesthetics by poten-
     tially reducing odor and litter problems typically associated
     with non-shredded landfills.

4.   Shredding reduces vector problems and consequent potential
     health related problems.

5.   Shredded solid waste presents less risk of landfill fire and
     consequent air pollution and safety hazards.

6.   Waste decomposition, and therefore leachate and gas produc-
     tion, initially may occur at a faster rate in a shredfill due
     to the increased waste surface area.  Thus, shredding may be
     considered advantageous in that it promotes rapid landfill
     stabilization.

7.   Shredding units pose a danger to employees from flying objects,
     explosions, fires, and noise.

8.   Shredding is often the first step in implementation of a
     resource recovery facility,  which in turn can result in
     significient reduction of impacts due to disposal processes.
                             -17-

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                            4.3  BALING
                        4.3.1  Introduction
     Baling is a solid waste volume reduction technique which consists .
of compacting solid wastes in high density,  (approximately 1800 Ibs/cu.
yd.) rectangularly shaped bales.  The Guidelines recommend that "in order
to conserve landfill disposal site capacity and preserve land resources
solid wastes should be incorporated into the landfill in the smallest  •  .
practicable volume."  The Guidelines state that "Compaction or other
volume reduction may take place at or before delivery to the landfill, by
utilizing balers, shredders, or stationary compactors."  The Guidelines
add that "compaction of solid waste and cover soil also aids-in minimization
of rodents, vectors and fires."                               -     .

     The following sections describe in more-detail  the technology and.
environmental  impacts of incorporating baling into a landfill disposal.
site.
                     4.3.2  Technology Summary
4.3.21  Operation


     An on-site solid waste baling operation includes a baling plant and
a specially designed balefill (landfill  accepting baled wastes).   Alterna-
tively, the baling plant may be located  at a large quantity source of solid
waste or at a waste transfer collection  point.

     A typical baling plant may consist  of stationary equipment such as
horizontal and inclined conveyors, a load-cell  scale, a high density
baler, a central control tower with control panels, hydraulic bale
push rams, and a bale truck loading platform.  Mobile equipment might
include an articulated front-end loader, a small general purpose "bobcat"
loader, and a forklift.

     Once processed, the bales are stacked for disposal at the active
face.  Soil cover may be applied periodically.
                                 -18-

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   The basic advantages of the process include reductions in required
landfill volume, ease of waste transport and placement,vector and litter
reduction, decreased settlement, and reduced requirements for cover material
A potential disadvantage is that the compaction process slows the decompos-
ition process, thus potentially extending the period of time during which
the landfill will continue to generate gas and leachate.  Accordingly, the
conditions which favor this alternative are in areas in which long hauls
are needed to reach the landfill, and in areas in which there is a shortage
of landfill sites thus requiring maximum utilization of available .land.

4.3:22  Current Economic Costs
   Full scale baling technology is currently economically unfeasible at
small disposal sites.  For a 300 TPD facility current costs are on the order
of $5.00 per ton ($5.60 per metric ton).


                 4,3.3  Environmental Impact Summary


   1,   Since solid waste baling can double the potential volume
        capacity of a landfill  site, the  adverse impacts related
        to landfill development and expansion can be decreased.
        Similarly, siting problems can be minimized since the site
        selection process need not be as  constrained by limited
        site availability.

   2.   Since solid waste baling reduces  cover material require-
        ments, impacts normally associated with cover material
        acquisition can be minimized.  Less siting dependence
        on obtaining suitable cover supplies can also permit the
        siting selection process to more  adequately address other
        environmental considerations.

   3.   Similarly, since volume reduction achieved at transfer
        stations by baling facilitates waste transport, conse-
        quent possibilities for longer haul routes to disposal
        sites permits additional flexibility in the siting pro-
        cess,

   4.   The increased compaction resulting from baling of solid
        waste serves to reduce landfill fire potential by minimizing
        atmospheric oxygen intrusion to the landfill,

   5.   Baling of solid waste results in  improved vector and
        litter control.

   6.   With the current level of technology,resource recovery
        as a disposal option is not feasible once the waste is
        baled and landfilled.
                                   -19-

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                     4.4  SURFACE RUNOFF DIVERSION
                          4.4.1  Introduction
     Surface runoff diversion utilizes a variety of techniques or combi-
nation of techniques to minimize the infiltration of surface water into
the solid waste cells.  In addition, surface drainage systems incorporate
design features that help control significant erosion of cover material.
These drainage techniques are utilized not only to prevent runoff from
adjacent areas from penetrating the site, but also to control on-site
runoff, particularly in minimizing runoff onto the active face.

     The Guidelines recommend that landfill  disposal  facilities be equipped
with suitable channeling devices, such as ditches, berms, or dikes to di-
vert surface runoff from land areas contiguous to the landfill.  More spe-
cifically, the surface runoff structures constructed should be capable of
diverting all surface water runoff from a 10 year, 24 hour storm.
                       4.4.2  Technology Summary
4.4.21  Runoff Control


     Surface Runoff Diversion Functions.    Two main functions in the area
of runoff control are served by surface runoff diversion techniques.  Soil
credibility is primarily a result of soil  grain size distribution, soil
structure and soil permeability (see the Section 4.8 discussion of daily and
final cover).  However, erodibility is  also dependent upon surface runoff
velocity, water flow characteristics and other hydraulic factors.   By
reducing on-site runoff flow and velocity, diversion of surface drainage
and control of on-site drainage reduce  the sediment load of runoff waters
and minimizes siltation of adjacent receiving water bodies.  Additionally,
minimization of cover erosion helps the cover material to maintain its inte-
grity and  to  resist percolation of surface waters.

     Design and Construction.   The actual design features of a system including
the type of diversion structures selected, the actual dimensions of the
structures, and the specific construction techniques, are dependent upon
a number of interrelated site specific  factors.  These design considerations
include the  site's topographic, hydrogeologic and hydraulic features.
Major topographic considerations include slope steepness, slope length and
slope shape.  Other important factors are rainfall  intensity, soil water
content and surface permeability.
                                 -20-

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     A. number of structures can be used singly or in combination to
achieve leachate control through runoff diversion including: sur-
faced channels, natural drainage ditches, dikes, berms, collector pipe
systems, and pump installations.

     There is a variety of construction techniques for open channels and
drainage ditches that can be located upland of the site to intercept and
direct surface waters around or away from the site (e.g., Figures 4-1 and
4-2).  Depending on substrata permeability and soil  erodibility, drainage
channels can be constructed of earth, lined with sod, stone, asphalt or
rubble, or fabricated from half sections of .concrete or corrugated metal pipe.
In addition, to permanent drainage structures, temporary channels and ditches
can be utilized to minimize on-site runoff onto the active face.

     In addition to the ditches and channels that form the basis of a
runoff diversion system,, structures such as berms, dikes, and check dams
can be utilized to increase control of runoff by reducing flow intensities.
Natural or artificially constructed berms reduce runoff velocity and minimize
erosion across the landfill surface by decreasing the slope of the flow.
While berms do not divert surface runoff, a series of berms can decrease
flow velocities.

     Check dams are constructed within the drainage channels where a
heavy flow is anticipated to allow more control over diverted surface run-
off.   By providing runoff storage capacity, runoff can be regulated to
maintain acceptable hydraulic discharge characteristics.
 4.4.22   Leachate Control
     A  system of surface  runoff diversion  structures  can assist  in  accom-
 plishing  the function  of  leachate  control.   In  effect, diversion  channels
 or  ditches  act  to minimize  the volume and  rate  of  surface  runoff  flow  across
 a landfill  site,  which in turn reduces  uncontrolled infiltration  of preci-
 pitation  and other  surface  water into the  solid waste.  Since waste moisture
 content is  a major  factor in  the rate of waste  decomposition and  the amount
 of  leachate generated, surface runoff diversion techniques, by acting  to
 reduce  the  moisture content,  mayalso potentially   result in reduced rates
 of  degradation,  reduced rates of contaminant  escape,  and decreased  volume
 of  leachate generation.

     As previously  mentioned, runoff diversion  structures  are utilized
 in  two  capacities:   at locations upgrade from a landfill facility to in-
 tercept and prevent natural drainage of surrounding off-site areas  from
                                  -21-

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                                     FIGURE 4-1
                           SURFACE  RUNOFF DIVERSION DITCH
                               PLAN AND SECTION  VIEWS
             Upland droiftag* flow

                         \
                                                                     Propoud landfill
Source:   Reference  1.
                                           -22-

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                                       FIGURE 4-2
                            SURFACE AND  INTERCEPTOR DITCHES
            biopeinterceptor Ollch
                                     Turfed Areo
In Soils Thai Erod* Rapidly
Thli Slop*  Should B«
Plall«md And ProlocUd.
  S.od Lining
                            SURFACE 8  INTERCEPTOR  DITCHES
                Sodded Oilch
                                                                              Rock Riprop
                                                                                          	1,5%
                                        Types of Linings
                                        Sod     Riprop
                                        Cloy    Concrete
                                        Lumber  Aspholl
                                     SURFACE OITCH  LININGS
            Ripropped  Ditch
   Interceptor Ollch
                                          2nd Ditch, Where
                                          Needed On Long
                                          Bock Slopes.
                 Construct Check Dam When
                 Velocity Is Great Enough To
                 Cause  Scouring.
                                                                                           — 1.8%.
                                                              <%^
Source:  Reference 2.
                                              -23-

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entering the site, and at on-site locations to control runoff and minimize
surface runoff onto and off of the active face.  Since runoff design pro-
cedures focus on minimizing on-site runoff and infiltration, no specific
leachate function design considerations are required..


4.4.23  Gas Control
     Surface runoff diversion measures can potentially result in decreased
problems associated with methane gas generation and migration.  Namely, by
reducing the volume and intensity of runoff flow across the landfill coyer and
reducing erosion that weakens cover integrity, channels, dikesy and other
structures act to minimize precipitation infiltration.  Since waste moisture
content is an important factor in gas generation, provision of surface
runoff controls ultimately influences rates of waste degradation and land-
fill gas production.

     The same considerations and design factors relevant to reducing
infiltration and consequent leachate generation are also applicable to'',.
minimizing waste moisture content and consequent gas generation.        ;

      ;                                              %
4.4.24  Current Economic Costs


      For a  10 TPD site, a 100 TPD site, and a 300 TPD landfill site, sur-
face  runoff control measures currently cost $0.15-($0.17), $0.04  ($0.04),
and $0.02  ($0.02) per  ton (per metric ton) respectively.
                  4.4.3  Environmental  Impact Summary
     Surface runoff diversion structures channel  runoff from precipitation
     and other sources around or away from landfill  sites, thereby minimiz-
     ing uncontrolled infiltration of moisture into  the waste mass.   Diver-
     sion structures also provide surface drainage away from the active face
     of fill construction and if necessary, can divert runoff from the active
     face to leachate treatment facilities.  These measures ultimately re-
     duce rates of waste degradation, reduce rates of contaminant leaching
     and minimize impact of landfill  generated leachate on adjacent water
     systems.
                                      -24-

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2.   Surface runoff diversion techniques also function in the same manner
     to minimize waste moisture content, reduce rates of waste degradation,
     and*therefore, reduce rates of gas generation.

3.   Runoff diversion structures, by diverting and reducing the intensity
     of surface flows, can significantly control  the erosion of landfill
     cover material.   This results in increased cover stability and in-
     tegrity, as well as minimizing siltation of adjacent receiving water
     bodies by runoff discharge.

4.   Considerations relating to the provisions of surface runoff diversion
     can impact the siting of a landfill disposal facility.  For example,
     the Guidelines recommend that localized high ground areas such as
     ridges and divides should be selected for disposal sites to minimize
     or avoid the potential for surface drainage onto the landfill from
     contiguous areas.
                               4.5  GRADING
                           4.5.1   Introduction
      Incident precipitation at a landfill will either evaporate,
 runoff or infiltrate into the landfill mass.  The Guidelines sug-
 gest, in order to minimize leachate generation from infiltrated
 moisture, that landfills should be covered with soil materials
 which are graded such that water does not pool on the landfill
 surface.  Surface slopes can be graded to maximize runoff while
 still minimizing the potential effects of erosion processes.  In
 order to minimize erosion the final grade should not exceed approxi-
 mately 30%.  The Guidelines also suggest that slopes longer than
 25 feet may require additional erosion control measures such as con-
 struction of horizontal terraces, of sufficient width for equipment
 operation, for each rise in elevation of approximately 20 feet.

      The following sections will discuss grading in terms of leachate
 control, gas control, and runoff control, its function in each of
 these areas, and appropriate design and construction considerations.
 These discussions are followed by an assessment of current economic
 costs of implementation and a summary of the attendant environmental
 impacts.
                                    -25-

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                    4.5.2  Technology Summary
4.5.21  Leachate and Gas Control
     Grading Functions.   Grading affects the environment surround-
ing a landfill facility in essentially the same manner as does sur-
face runoff diversion techniques (see details in Section 4.4).   To
briefly summarize, construction of sloped or graded daily and final
cover soils serves to:

        1.  reduce ponding and minimize infiltration
            of surface water;

        2.  reduce soil erosion and help maintain cover
            integrity, which further influences perco-
            lation;

        3.  minimize waste moisture content, resulting
            in a reduced rate of aeaerobic waste deg-
            radation; and

        4.  reduce the rate of leaching of landfilled waste
            contaminants.

     Grading, therefore, functions to minimize the volume of land-
fill generated leachate and reduce the severity of its impact on
adjacent groundwater supplies.   Additionally, grading functions to
ultimately reduce the rate of decomposition, the rate of gas gener-
ation and minimizes hazards due to accumulation of explosive and/or
toxic gases in adjacent structures.

     Grading Design and Construction.  The design of graded cover
materials must be based upon a variety of interrelated hydrogeologic
and hydraulic factors.   Some of these factors include general site
topography, soil type, runoff intensity, size of drainage area, vege-
tative type, slope stability, planned final  site use, etc.  In general,
the attempt is to maximize runoff while maintaining cover integrity
and efficiency of operations.

     Studies indicate that surface grades between a minimum of
2% and a maximum of 10% to 12% are most effective for both pro-
moting runoff to reduce infiltration and reducing surface flow velo-
cities to minimize soil erosion.   Figure 4-2, Section 4.4, illus-
trates possible slope ratios for use in conjunction with surface runoff
diversion systems to channel runoff around a landfill site or off the
active face of fill construction.   The active grading contouring
requirements of a site are dependent upon the afore-mentioned site
specific factors and should complement the planned final use of the
facility.
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4.5.22  Runoff Control
     Surface grading as a runoff control measure mainly impacts surface
water quality by reducing the potential for stream siltation from sedi-
ment-laden surface runoff waters.   This is accomplished in part, by mini'
mization of runoff and erosion at any landfill location and in part by
directing runoff to on-site runoff diversion and sedimentation control
structures.
                4.5.3  Environmental Impact Summary
1.   Grading influences the quality of adjacent groundwater supplies
     by minimizing quantities of landfill  leachate and leachate contam-
     inants on subsurface systems.    Since waste degradation rates are
     moisture dependent, grading may possibly function in inhibiting
     surface ponding, and subsequent infiltration and leachate generation.

2.   Similarly, grading techniques  may potentially reduce landfill gas
     generation rates and minimize  potential  hazards from accumulations
     of explosive and/or toxic gases in the atmosphere and adjacent
     structures.

3.   Carefully graded landfill cover also functions to minimize erosion
     and therefore, impacts surface water quality by reducing the poten-
     tial for siltation of surface  water systems receiving landfill run-
     off discharges.

4.   Joint usage of grading with surface runoff diversion techniques
     increases the efficiency of channelingrunoff waters away from
     the site or away from the working face.

5.   Long-term maintenance to resurface and regrade final cover subject
     to differential subsidence or erosion may be required to maintain
     adequate site runoff patterns  and the implied positive environmen-
     tal "impacts.
                                   -27-

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                              4.6  DIKING
                            4.6.1  Introduction
      Diking involves construction of a low wall or embankment from re-
latively impermeable material such as clay soils.  Dikes can be used as
part of a runoff control program, but are primarily incorporated to pre-
vent potential flooding.  Flood waters pose a larger, if less constant, pro-
blem in leachate and gas generation and cover erosion than incident pre-
cipitation.  This section discusses diking in the context of flood water
protection, while surface runoff diversion is discussed separately in Sec-
tion 4.4.

      In this regard the Guidelines define a floodplain to mean "the low-
land and relatively flat areas adjoining inland and coastal waters, includ-
ing flood-prone areas of off-shore islands, which are inundated by the base
flood."  Correspondingly, the base flood is defined as "a flood that has a
1 percent or greater chance of recurring in any year or a flood of a magni-
tude equalled or exceeded once in 100 years on the average over a signifi-
cantly long period."  The Guidelines therefore suggest if all or part of a
landfill facility lies within a 100-year floodplain, a suitable dike of suf-
ficient height to prevent inundation should be included in the site design.
Because a floodplain has been designated as an environmentally sensitive
area, siting of a landfill  facility in a floodplain may require additional
measures for minimizing potential impacts on surrounding ecosystems.

      The remainder of this evaluation will discuss the functions, design
and construction of diking for the purposes of leachate, gas and runoff
control.  The section concludes with an assessment of the current economic
costs for implementation and a summary of possible environmental impacts of
diking at a floodplain location.
                        4.6.2  Technology Summary
4.6.21  Runoff Control
      Diking Functions.   The functions of diking in runoff control  are
      similar to those performed by surface runoff diversion systems  in
      redirecting  upland drainage (Section 4.4),  except that diking  and
      diversion systems  differ in magnitude.   Unlike the effects  of run-
      off from precipitation sources,  flood waters that can inundate  a
      landfill facility  will potentially result in large scale erosion of
      cover materials, subsequent loss of cover integrity and increased
                                  -28-

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possibility of siltation of adjacent water bodies receiving runoff flows.
The loss of cover integrity has significant implications, particularly in
the area of leachate control.

      Diking Design and Construction.  The design and construction of im-
pervious perimeter dikes are dependent upon a variety of interrelated site
specific factors.  Diking can be designed to act in conjunction with other
surface runoff diversion techniques.  The actual dimensions of the struc-
ture and the specific construction techniques can be determined by hydrau-
lic considerations and the site topography.  Additionally, construction
techniques may also be dependent upon the type and availability of materials
for diking.  One of the most common and preferred materials utilized is
clay soil, due to relative impermeability and stability characteristics.


4.6.22  Leachate and Gas Control
      Flooding of a landfill  site will  likewise result in larger scale pro-
blems in leachate and gas control.  The major consideration is prevention
of Targe scale erosion of the cover and waste materials.   Secondarily, inun-
dation of solid wastes by flood waters  will  potentially produce larger quan-
tities of contaminants leached, larger  volumes of leachate, and potentially
greater volumes of gas generated.
4.6.23  Current Economic Costs


      Current economic costs for dike construction average $2.40 ($2.69),
$0.55 ($0.62), and $0.30 ($0.34) per ton (per metric ton) for 10, 100, and
300 ton per day landfill sites, respectively.
                   4.6.3  Environmental Impact Summary
1.   Diking around a facility located in a floodplain impacts groundwater
     quality by preventing potential long-term leachate contamination pro-
     blems that could result from large scale erosion and inundation of
     landfilled solid wastes by flood waters.

2.   Since landfill gas generation rates are also related to waste mois-
     ture content, diking serves to minimize gas volumes and developement
     of hazardous conditions.

3.   Diking functions to divert flood waters around a landfill site and
     minimize large scale erosion of cover material, thereby reducing the
     potential for sedimentation of surface waters that receive runoff dis-
     charge.
                                   -29-

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                              4.7  PONDING
                          4.7.1  Introduction
     Surface water, from precipitation events, that runs off the landfill
surface will invariably erode the soil surface to some degree, and in the
process may entrain significant amounts of susoended sediment and solids.
Design of landfill surface runoff controls can include ponding, the use of
stilling or sedimentation basins to separate the suspended solids from the
surface runoff before it is discharged to a receiving body of water.  This
technique can remove sufficient sediment to minimize siltation of downstream
surface water systems.  Ponding requires the conjunctive use of other sur-
face runoff diversion techniques to channel runoff waters to the ponding,
basins.

     The Guidelines suggest that ponding may be the only treatment necessary
for surface runoff before final discharge.  The runoff, however, must not
be contaminated by contact with the active face or via intermingling with
other leachate sources.
                       4.7.2  Technology Summary
4.7.21  Runoff Control
     Ponding Function.   The primary function of settling oonds in a system
of landfill runoff controls is to remove suspended sediment from surface
runoff, thereby minimizing its potentially deleterious impact on receiving
surface waters.  The velocity and turbulent flow characteristics of surface
runoff determine the maximum size and amount of solid particles which can be
retained in suspension.   In other words, the greater the velocity and turbu-
lence, the greater the erosive capacity of any runoff channel.   Ponding achieves
its function by reducing velocity and turbulent flow thereby allowing sediment
particles to settle out of suspension.


     Ponding Design and Construction.   There are no rigid guidelines for
the actual design and construction of sediment settling ponds for landfill
runoff control due to the dominant influence of site specific factors.  In
general the size and depth of sedimentation basins or series of basins should
accomodate the anticipated rate and volume of surface runoff.  The volume
and intensity of runoff, and therefore the required size and denth of the
ponds, is influenced by numerous factors including:
                                  -30-

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     1.   area climate and resulting water balance of site;

     2.   intensity and seasonal amounts of precipitation;
     3.   total drainage area of site;
     4.   site topography and slope features; and
     5.   vegetation type and density,

Additionally, the basin depth and required holding time should be determined
by the effective sedimentation rate, which in turn is affected by character-
istics of the suspended particles and the. type of settling basin provided.


4.7.22  Current Economic Costs


     Ponding  construction  costs are approximately $0.10  ($0.11), $0.05 ($0.06),
and $0.04 ($0.04) per ton (metric'.ton) for 10 TPD, 100 TPD and 300 TPD sites
respectively.
                 4.7.3  Environmental Impact  Summary
     1.   Utilization of ponding prevents the discharge of suspended
          solids to streams from surface runoff sources, minimizing
          possible siltation of downstream surface water systems and
          other secondary negative impacts.

     2.   Additionally, ponding intercepts surface runoff and controls
          runoff intensity thereby potentially reducing further off-
          site erosion and stream siltation.

     3.   Ponding places additional constraints on siting because
          supplementary landfill acreage is required.  This may
          become  a restrictive factor in areas of limited land
          availability. *

     4.   Sedimentation basin construction and the required periodic
          dredging may engender a number of secondary environmental
          impacts.
                                   -31-

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                  4.8  DAILY AND FINAL COVER
                       4.8.1  Introduction
     Daily cover is defined as the placement,  at the end of each day's
operation, of a compacted layer of soil  over the solid waste on the     •
working face.   Intermediate or final  cover is a thicker soil  layer
designed for long-term landfill protection after intermediate or   .
final cell completion.   The Guidelines  call for 15 centimeters (cm.)
(6 inches) of daily cover, and 30 cm.  (12 inches) of cover on landfill
cells "which will  not have additional  wastes placed on them for one
month or more."   The Guidelines also  recommend for final  cover 15 cm.
(6 inches) of clay with permeability less than 1 X 10"' cm/second or the
equivalent, followed by a minimum cover  of 45  cm. (18 inches) of top
soil  to complete the final cover and support vegetation.   A more im-
permeable final cover might require a  minimum  of 60 cm. (24 inches) of
low permeability soil.

     The principal functions of cover  in the context of the Guidelines are
leachate, gas, and runoff control.   Other functions include vector, odor,
litter, fire hazard, wind erosion, and dust control, and support of vehi-
cular traffic, vegetation, and post-closure construction.    Daily and  final
cover must accommodate the planned final use of the completed landfill
site.

     This section  is organized by cover  function: leachate control, gas con-
trol, runoff control, and other controls.   Each section identifies the
cover properties and processes critical  in serving the cover function,
and discusses the  various cover design and construction techniques for
attaining these goals.   A final section summarizes the implications of
daily and final cover for landfill siting, design, operation, and joint
use of different landfill technologies.    In addition, the summary section
identifies environmental, energy and economic  impacts of daily and final
cover.
                                -32-

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                    4.8.2.   Technology  Summary
 4.8.21  Leachate Control
     Cover Functions.    Several  properties  of cover material act  in
 concert to accomplish  the  function  of  leachate  control.   Principally,
 the cover material  reduces water movement  from  the landfill surface
 into the buried  waste.   Lower  permeability cover  soil  decreases  in-
 filtration into  the waste  mass  and  increases the  opportunity  for run-
 off and evaporation (see Table 4-1  ).   More specifically,  depending on
 the specific  overall site  strategy  of  leachate  control, cover selec-
 tion,  design,  arid application acts  to  minimize  or maximize infiltration,
 snowmelt, or  surface drainage.  Minimizing water  movement into the
 waste  via utilization  of a cover soil  maintains a lower waste moisture
 content which, in turn,  plays  a role in minimizing the rate of anaerobic
 waste  degradation.  Reduced waste decay rates result  in reduced  rates
 of landfill leachate generation and thus might  decrease the ultimate
 contaminant load in leachate.

      Alternatively, when recycling  is  the  chosen  leachate control
technology, it may be desirable to  facilitate wat^r  movement  through
the cover soil.  Collection or recycling of the  generated  leachate
material may result in  accelerated  stabilization of  the landfilled
waste.  Greater quantities  and concentrations of leachate  may  re-
sult, but the time frame over which contaminated materials may es-
cape may be significantly shortened.

    In addition to soil permeability,  there are  several other, more
secondary, cover soil  properties which  should be considered for ef-
fective leachate control.  In general,  these  other properties  relate
to maintaining cover continuity and integrity,  thus  preventing any
hydraulic connection between landfill  surface water  and buried waste.
Specifically,  the cover should not  subside and must  resist, cracking
upon wetting and drying or  upon freezing and  thawing.   The selected
cover material mus»t also minimize wind  and water erosion,  and  must
be capable of maintaining stable slopes.

    Cover Design and Construction Techniques.  A variety of cover de-
sign and construction techniques exist  to  achieve the  function of lea-
chate control .  To minimize infiltration and  percolation,  the  cover
soil should be fine-grained and have a  small  coefficient of permea-
bility  and vice  versa to maximize infiltration  and percolation.
To resist dessication and cracking, the soil  should have  a low shrink-
swell potential upon wetting and drying.   For instance, a soil with
low clay content or soil whose clay component is largely  kaolinite or
illite, as opposed to montmorillonite,  resists dessication and cracking
under typical  landfill  conditions.   Frost  heave  rates  are  related to
                                -33-

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                                                              TABLE 4-1
                                                RANKING OF USCS SOIL TYPES ACCORDING
I
CO
-£»
I






TO

PERFORMANCE OF COVER FUNCTIONS


Trarricablllty Utter rorcolitlon
USCO
Cymbal I
CM
OF

Typical

Boll.
Qo-Ho Oo,
DCI Value'

nliturai, llttla or no flnei
Poor.ly grided «riv
ill grivil-
und nlxlurei, little or no

OH

CC

CU
flnei
,
Cllty gravel*, grival-tand-illt
•Ixturei

Clayey gravel* , gravel-iand-clay
•Ixturel
Well-graded landi,

gravelly
land*, llttla or no flnci
3P
Poorly graded atuid«, gravelly
(>200)
I
(>200)

III
(m)
V
(150)
1
(>200)
I
landi, llttl* Of no final |>200)

CM

DC

ML



CL


Ollly landi, land-lilt Mlxturci


Clayay lando, land-clay nlxturti


Inorganic lilt* and very fine
•and*, rock flour,
clayey fine «AnO«,
llltt Uttll Oil gill
Inorganic clay* ol
•llty or
or clayey
plaittclly
lov to nedlun
plnitlclty, gravelly clayi,


OL
• aruijr clayi, illty
clayi
Organic illto and
clayi, lean

organic illty
clayi of lov plaotlclty
mi

Inorganic illl*, •
illalomaccoui fine
lca,ceou» or
•nndy or illty

II
(119)
IV
(157)
IX
(lO'i)


VII
(111)


X
(£M
VIII
(10T)
BUcklncso,
Cloy (t)
(0-J)
I
(0-5)

III
(0-20)
VI
(10-50)
II
(o-ioj
It
(0-10)

IV
(0-20)
VII
(10-50)
V
(0-20)


VIII
(10-50)


V
(0-20)
IX
(SO-ioo)
Cllppcrlneii, Ivpedi AilUl
6and/Crav«l (f\ (K, £«/•)• (j, ca/i)
I XII. I
(95-100) (10*1)
I X, III
(95-100) (10'Z)

III VII , VI
(60-95) (5 « WM)
V V. VIII
(50-90) (10 ) g
II XI , II 5
(95-100) (5 < 10'*) P
II IX^ IV ^
(95-100) (10"J) ij
*»
IV Vllt, V»
(60-95) (10°) «
vi vi . vu n
(50-90) (z K io-N) v1
VU IV. IX *'
(o-£o) do"5) 3
•
I
VIII II . XI '
(0-55) (3 * 10-°) ~
3
M
• vii
(0-60)
IX III. X
(0-50) (10M)

r.«i Hif.mion
InjuOo Aa«l«t
' (llc, en)' (HC, cm)'
X I
(6)
IX II


VII IV
(66)
IV VII
...
VIII 111 I
(60) j.
VII IV »!
... 2
o
VI V ••
(112) Y
vi ;'
&
in viu 3
(iQo) j
3
»
II IX «"
(180) g
U)

»-. ...

... ...

lolli, cUollc ollti
Cll
Inorganic clay* of high
plaotlclty, fat clayt
Oil
Organic clay* of medium to high
plaotlclty, organic illto
Pt


Teat and other highly organic
eotli



VI
(11.5)
XI
(62)
III
(1.6)

X
(50-100)
_-*

...


* 'o XIJ
(0-50) do'")
^-. • ~~ . —

... ... ...


I X
(200-1) 00* )
— . —

... ...

	 (untlnued )

-------
                                                                       TABLE 4-1  (continued)
OJ
en
 i
UCCO flirt a Dlapt
Impede
Dltcoorogo Vector Dlocourago Cupport
Kiitnre Uoc

0/mbol Otablllly Gcepaga Drainage Burrowing Dacrgcnca Blrdo Vegetation natural I'ouiJaUo.i
aw
CP
CM
8 g
CC 2 «•
A A
0 0
« i: K
&* 5 £ £

a li V
DP 'I j' £

3 ft *•
•u •*
6" £ ri S

J S b
6C * "

JM *
i 3
8 ? ?
CL ^ 1 1

OL ^ f f

3 3
M in

Cll
Oil
PI
X X
X X
nil vi
|
M% V

U

*j IX IX g
• « "
* it
r ix ix ?;
n v ."

2 vii ^ n jj
j« j "
JJ « n
w . tfj
b iv Jj i i.
** n **
3 d 3
C V1 8 *" ^
5 H n
•33^
•• in vii 3
* S
;? vi iv d
I
'• II IV
9
n
I VIII
VIII
III



>
•r*
«-<

0
t.
d
/;
.

n
^

jj
n
41

I
n
J
Ji1
vi
X
g
9
m



































                    ' RCI li rating com Index, X If coefficient of permeability. II  !• capillary head, and K-Factor It the loll credibility factor.
                                                                           o

-------
                                                       TABLE  4-1 (concluded)
                                                                      Inuedl
 I
OJ
CT>
 I

Eron I ort
U3CS Fire Uutcr.
Eyn.bol Ileilutuice K-Koctor'
CW

OP

CM

CC



CW

CP 8
t.
SH y
V)
sc "
XI
ML 'I
a

CL jj
»at Iretle
Suid/Crivel (I) Control (lie, cm)*
I
(95-100)
I
(95-100)
ITI
(£o-95)
v 1
(50-90) il
ft
tl
11
(95-100) S
u
II t.
(95-100) ^

vu g
(o-Co) C
1
(0-50) •*
X
(0-50)
—
...

X

IX

VII

IV



VIII

VII

VI

V

III


II

._
»w*

I

—
_.

rreeie Action
Siturtlloiii
llctv* (Ba/iluy)
t
(o.i-U
i
(0.1-3)
IV
(O.li-l«)
VII
(1-0)


II
(0.2-2)
II
(0.2-2)
V
(0.2-7)
VI
(1-7)
X
(2-27)

VIII
(1-6)
VIII
IX
...
Ill
(0.0)
—
.-

Crack
[luil ounce,
Cxpanilon If]
I
(0)
I
(0)
III
—
V
...


i
(0)
I
(0)
II
...
IV

VI
...

VIII
(1-10)
VII
IX
—
X
(>10)
IX
•»••

                                                                                                        (continued)
                         Source:  Reference  2.

-------
silt-clay content as shown in Figure 4-3,   To slow freezing
and to avoid freezing to great depth, fine grained soils should be
used.  However, coarse soils are more workable in cold climates,
since these, drain freely, therefore retaining less water to act as
a bonding agent under freezing conditions.

    Several other cover design and construction techniques serve
to impede water infiltration including;

    1. increasing surface slope to facilitate runoff;

    2. mixing cover soil to achieve uniform permeability;

    3. blending other soils for better gradation;

    4. using additives;

    5. increasing cover thickness;

    6. compacting (with special compacting equipment); and

    7. using a layered cover system.
    Increasing surface slope results in increased runoff rates and
consequently in less infiltration.   Mixing of cover soil  -to achieve
uniform permeability is useful  where cover soil  is obtained from a
source consisting of soil  layers of varying permeability. Similarly,
blending impedes infiltration and percolation by combining soils of
different grain sizes to broaden cover soil grain size distribution.
This decreases overall soil  porosity (void ratio) and Towers per-
meability.   Blending is expensive and energy consuming, but can pro-
duce an increased source of  acceptable cover soil if well-graded
soils are not readily available.

    Utilizing additives can  result in a lower permeability soil.
The process may permit utilization of a soil type which otherwise
might be unacceptable for cover material.

    Increasing cover thickness  can result  in a less direct contact
of waste with incident precipitation during the daily operation. A
greater depth of cover soil  can also support a larger variety of
cover vegetation species and consequently  may promote higher evapo-
transpiration rates and surface runoff rates.

    Compaction impedes infiltration and percolation by reducing po-
rosity and thus permeability. Some compaction is generally achieved
during routine waste and cover  application. Additional compaction is
achievable via utilization of special compaction equipment.
                              -37-

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                                   FIGURE  4-3

         RATES  OF  HEAVE AS RELATED  TO  SILT-CLAY CONTENT


fROST

SUSCEPTIBILITY
CLASSIFICATIONS








SANOS


CLAYS (PI >I2)
CLAYS (PI otei"itn **ri
           Intan, mil* rait af /rait atnttratian 0.23 incn a»r dar.
Source:   Reference 2.
                                                 -38-

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    Layering of.separate soils or other materials in the final  cover
achieves a level  of leachate control  not obtainable with one material.
For most situations, it is sufficient to compact a layer of very im-
permeable clay beneath a layer of silty sand to provide soil erosion pro-
tection and to help retain capillary water in the clay layer.

    To assist infiltration and percolation for the recycling option
potential techniques include:

    1. selection of high permeability cover soils;

    2. reducing surface slope;

    3. decreasing cover thickness; and

    4. decreasing compaction efforts-


4.8.22   Gas Control
    Cover Functions.   Cover material  functions in a number of ways
to control landfill gas generation, build-up,  and migration. Prin-
cipally, the cover may be designed and constructed to either impede
or assist the passage of gas from landfill  to  atmosphere.  This choice
depends on whether the particular landfill  design requires an active
system of gas collection and venting or a passive system permitting
gas migration.  An active system may be preferred when leachate control
dictates an impermeable cover, when neighboring land uses  pose rela-
tively few problems, or when gas is collected  and used for its energy
value.  Otherwise, a passive system in combination with vertical gas
movement through the cover material may suffice as least complicated
and least expensive.

    Besides directly regulating gas diffusion  processes, the cover
must be designed and constructed to maintain its continuity and in-
tegrity to prevent more direct escape of methane and other gases.
More importantly though, those cover leachate  control measures that
minimize the rate of waste decay also minimize the consequent rate
of gas production.  This, in turn, may increase the period of time
over which gas is produced.

    Cover Design and Construction Techniques.    The most important
technique for controlling gas migration through the cover is the
selection of the appropriate cover soil.  A very fine impermeable
soil impedes gas movement, while coarse granular soil assists gas
movement (see Table 4-1).  Maintaining a high  degree of cover soil
saturation also impedes gas migration.  Incorporating gas  venting
or barrier systems, or combinations thereof, restricts gas movement
to specific paths or areas.
                              -39-

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4.8.23  Runoff Control
    Cover Functions.   Cover design and construction can result in
control of surface runoff and accompanying erosion processes.  Cover
selection can minimize the potential credibility of the cover soil.
For example, gravels, gravel-sand mixtures, and sands are resistant
to eVosion effects.  Proper cover design and application can also re-
duce erosion by reducing surface runoff rates. Erodibility and runoff
depend on a number of interrelated factors including topographic fea-
tures, soil water content, rainfall intensity, compaction, vegetation,
and general cover management.  Important topographic features include
slope steepness, slope length, and slope shape.  Soil erodibility de-
pends on soil particle-size distribution, organic matter content, soil
structure and soil permeability.

    Cover Design and Construction Techniques.    There are several
cover design and construction techniques available to achieve the
water erosion control functions discussed above.  First, an erosion
resistant soil should be selected using published tables of erodi-
bility (K-factor) value's for different soil grain sizes (see  Table 4-1)
Other techniques  include:

    1. specifying coverages and compactive effort;

    2. reducing surface slope;

    3. establishing vegetation quickly;

    4. providing mulch and other temporary slope protection; and

    5. using additives;

    Compaction, used to control gas and leachate movement by re-
ducing infiltration, also reduces erosion.  The value of reducing
surface slope to control  erosion must be weighed against the value
of maintaining some surface slope to prevent surface-ponding and
increased infiltration.  Vegetation should be  established as quickly
as possible on final and, if feasible, on intermediate cover.  Like-
wise mulch or other suitable materials should  be placed on bare inter-
mediate or final cover soil, especially in the interval before vege-
tation emerges.  Additives such as chemical soil stabilizers and
cement-stabilized soils can also be effective  against erosion, but
are more costly than straw mulch treatment followed by natural grass
cover.  In general, interior and perimeter surface drainage con-
trols are also used in concert with general cover management to
minimize the effects of surface runoff.
                             -40-

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4.8.24   Other Functions
    Landfill cover also serves a variety of other landfill functions.
These include:
    a. Health considerations:
       1. minimizing vector breeding areas and animal
          attraction by controlling:
             a) fly and other insect emergence and entrance.
             b) rodent burrowing for food and harborage.
             c) bird scavenging.
    b. Minimizing fire hazard potential by:
       1. controlling movement of atmospheric oxygen.
       2. providing barrier cell walls.

    c. Asthetic considerations:
       1. minimize blowing paper.
       2. control noxious odors.
      . 3. provide sightly appearance to the landfill operation.
       4. minimize wind erosion and dust generation.

    d. Site usage considerations.
       1. minimizing settlement and maximizing compaction to:
             a) assist vehicle support and movement.
             b) insure equipment workability under all  weather conditions.
             c) provide for future construction.
       2. Providing for vegetable growth..
Table 4-1 ranks cover soil types for these cover functions.

4.8.25   Current Economic Costs
    Current economic costs for implementina these technologies for
 the three  landfill site classes,  as estimated  utilizing the method-
 ology outlined  in Section 5.0, are presented in Table 4-?.
                             -41-

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Technology
       TABLE  4-2

  CURRENT  COVER COSTS

  10 TPD ($ Cost/Metric     100 TPD        300 TPD
$ Cost/Ton    Ton)          "$/Ton ($/MT)   VTon (S/MT)
Impermeable Daily Cover
 (On-site source)           0.75     (0.84)            0.35  (0.39)    0.25 (0.28)


Impermeable Daily Cover
 (Off-site source)          5.30     (5.94)            2.65  (2.97)    1.75 (1.96)
Permeable Daily Cover
 (On-site source)
    0.60    (0.67)
0.30  (0.34)    0.20 (0.22)
Permeable Daily Cover
 (Off-site source)
    1.90    (2.13)
0.95  (1.06)    0.65 (0.73)
Final  Impermeable Cover
 (On-site source)           0.45     (0.50)
                             0.20  (0.22)    0.20 (0.22)
Final  Impermeable Cover
 (Off-site source)          3.20     (3.58)
                             1.50  (1.68)    1.35 (1.51)
Final  Permeable Cover
 (On-site source)
    0.40     (0.45)
0.15  (0.17)    0.15 (0.17)
Final  Permeable Cover
 (Off-site source)
    1.30    (1.46)
0.60  (0.67)    0.55 (0.52)
Source:  Summarized from Tables 5-2 and 5-3.
                                           -42-

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                   4.8.3 Environmental Impact Summary
1.   Landfill cover soil selection and cover design and construction
     techniques which impede or reduce infiltration of incident precipi-
     tation, snowmelt, and surface drainage into the waste mass result
     in improved water quality.   Decreased infiltration serves to maintain
     a lower waste moisture content, thus minimizing the rate of anaerobic
     waste degradation and the rate of contaminant generation.    These
     controls affect primarily the readily decomposed organics  and biotic
     pollutants such as coliform bacteria.

2.   Landfill cover soil selection, and cover design and construction
     techniques which impede or reduce infiltration of landfill surface
     water (discussed under No. 1 above) also minimize the rate of
     decomposition gas generation and control  vertical gas migration.
     This reduces the likelihood of gas migration to and build-up of
     explosive concentrations in buildings on or near the landfill site.
     Since some plant species are adversely affected by landfill gas, it
     also allows a greater variety of cover plant species to be planted
     to control cover soil erosion and surface runoff.    Finally, the
     mineralization of groundwater is reduced, since the amount of
     carbon dioxide dissolving in leachate is minimized.

3.   Landfill cover soil selection and cover design and construction
     techniques which assist infiltration of landfill surface water into
     the waste mass, and therefore facilitate leachate recycling, result
     in- accelerated stabilization of the landfilled waste.   Greater
     quantities and concentrations of leachate and gas may result, but
     the time frame over which these substances may escape may be signifi-
     cantly shortened.   A permeable cover also permits a passive
     system of gas control with vertical gas venting safely to  the atmos-
     phere.

4.   Landfill cover soil selection and cover design and constriction
     techniques which minimize surface runoff and cover soil erosion serve
     to minimize siltation of surface waters adjacent to the landfill site.

5.   Landfill cover soil selection and cover design and construction
     techniques which protect the cover from subsidence, dessication,
     cracking, and wind and water erosion serve to prevent any  hydraulic
     connection between landfilled waste and surface water.   This mini-
     mizes direct contamination of surface waters by leachate.
                                   -43-

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6.   Use of daily and final cover also:  minimizes fire hazard
     potential; maximizes the safety of the landfill  site  opera-
     tions; minimizes vector breeding areas and animal  attraction;
     minimizes wind erosion and dust generation; preserves slope
     stability; provides efficient operating surfaces;  minimizes
     differential  settlement and maximizes  compaction;  provides
     for vegetative growth and subsequent site use; and provides
     an aesthetic  appearance to the landfill site.

7.   The extraction, transport, and application of  cover soil  causes
     a  variety of  secondary environmental  impacts.   Furthermore, any
     manufacturing, transportation, construction, or maintenance
     activity associated with any of the aforementioned cover
     selection,    cover design or construction techniques also
     has secondary environmental  impacts.
                             -44-

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                          4.9  SYNTHETIC LINERS
                           4.9.1  Introduction
     Groundwater and infiltrating precipitation, in conjunction with
liquid waste constituents, can produce leachate, a solution consisting
of dissolved and suspended solid matter and microbial waste products.
Depending on specific site conditions, natural attenuation character-
istics may not be adequate to provide the required degree of protection
for adjacent groundwater systems.   Physical containment of the leachate
generated over the life of a site may be possible by using a synthetic
liner.

     In this light, the Guidelines call for "a suitable structure which
allows the desired volumetric release of leachate for the maximum leach-
ate storage capability without failure due to liner placement."  This
requires incorporation ot a number of specific design and engineering
features.   For instance, according to the Guidelines, the practical
minimum thickness for membrane liners is 20 mils.   The Guidelines also
recommend careful liner subgrade preparation and liner protection above
grade.   And finally, the Guidelines suggest that the liner  be sloped
to one or more points and incorporate easily drained granular material
to facilitate leachate removal.

     The following sections discuss the function of synthetic liners in
leachate control and gas control.   The liner properties required to
achieve each function are identified, and the available materials and
construction methods to provide these properties are briefly evaluated.
A final section summarizes the major environmental impacts of synthetic
liners utilization as leachate and gas control measures.
                              -45-

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                       4.9.2  Technology Summary
4.9.21  Leachate Control
     Liner Functions.   Because of the potential for ground and surface
water pollution, solid waste and groundwater must not be allowed to
interact.  Maintaining a separation of several feet may effectively pre-
vent direct contact between the waste and the seasonal high groundwater
table.  However, the effects of downward movement of leachate into the
groundwater system may result in substantial pollution of the ground-
water system.  Consequently, a liner installation may be utilized to pre-
vent downward migration of leachate constituents and to provide a greater
measure of safety with respect to direct groundwater intrusion into the
waste.

     Proper liner selection, design, and construction depend on several
factors, including waste type, subsurface soil conditions, landfill
type, current and projected regional water resource uses, the potential
effect of leachate on groundwater quality, direction of groundwater
movement, and the interrelationship of the aquifer with other aquifers
and with surface water.  To be effective in controlling leachate,
all liners must be relatively impermeable to leachate, and must be
sufficiently durable to maintain their integrity over the expected
period of landfill leachate generation.  Specifically, the liner must be
capable of withstanding the stresses associated with:wetting and drying,
freezing and thawing, periodic shifts of the earth and subgrade settling,
and liner installation and initial operation of equipment  on the lined
base.  It must resist attack from ozone, ultraviolet radiation, soil
bacteria, mold, fungus, and vegetation.  Furthermore, a liner must resist
laceration, abrasion, and puncture by any waste material landfilled
above it.  The liner must be amenable to field splicing and to repair as
necessary.      Finally,the liner should be as economical as possible
given the specific job it must perform.

     Liner Selection, Design, and Construction.   There are several
broad categories of synthetic liners: admixed and asphaltic
materials, treated soils, soil sealants, and polymeric membranes. A
number of each of these liner types have been developed and are being
evaluated by industry and by EPA for their effectiveness and feasibility
for controlling both hazardous and non-hazardous solid wastes.  Of these
liner categories, the admixed and asphaltic materials  and polymeric
membranes  have received the most attention, and .tentative conclusions
have been drawn regarding their overall effectiveness.
                                 -46-

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     Admixed and Asphaltic Materials.   Admixed and asphaltic liner
materials include:

                 1. modified bentonite and soil;
                 2. asphalt concrete;
                 3. soil asphalt;
                 4. soil cement;
                 5. sprayed asphalt membranes; and
                 6. bituminous seals.

Admixed materials are normally formed in place.   Asphalts are placed
using conventional roadway paving equipment, and are sealed with a number
of passes using spray bar equipment.   Appendix A contains descriptions
of a number of the major admixed materials listed above, and lists specific
advantages and disadvantages.

     Admixed liner material evaluations in simulated landfill situations
over short periods of time have so far concluded:

     1.  admix liners containing asphalt maintain their impermeability
         to leachate, but significantly lose compressive strength;

     2.  to avoid inhomogeneities and leakage, paving asphalt and soil
         asphalt liners should be greater than 2 to 4 inches thick;

     3.  soil cement becomes less permeable to leachate over time, but
         loses compressive strength initially;

     4.  wholly asphaltic membrances maintain their impermeability to
         leachate, but swell slightly;

     5.  oily wastes cannot be safely contained by asphalt-based liners;

     6.  bentonite and polymeric modified bentonite liners may not be
         satisfactory for confining strong acids and bases and concentrated
         brines; and

     7.  wastes containing both aqueous and oily phases may pose special
         problems because of the need of the liner to resist simultaneously
         two fluids inherently different in their compatibility with
         materials.

     Polymeric Membranes.   A large variety of polymeric membrane  liners
are being developed and evaluated, including:

                       butyl rubber
                       chlorinated polyethylene
                       chlorosulfonated polyethylene
                       elasticized polyolefin
                       ethylene propylene rubber
                       neoprene
                       polyester elastomer
                       polyvinyl chloride
                                   -47-

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Appendix A contains descriptions for the more commonly utilized membranes
and lists specific advantages and disadvantages.

     Basic liner materials can be strengthened by laminating fabric
between layers of the liner material.  Typical reinforcing "scrim"
materials include nylon, dacron, polypropylene, and fiberglass fabrics.
The reinforced liner material exhibits better puncture resistance and
overall loading capacity than liner materials alone.  Disadvantages
include less flexibility and elongation prior to rupture, and greater
cost.

     Liner installation requires a number of specialized construction
techniques.  The base upon which the liner will be placed must be even
and free from objects capable of rupturing the liner.  Six inches of
graded sand are commonly used as a liner base.  Actual liner installa-
tion requires joining large membrane sheets over the landfill base and
adjacent to such features as vents, sampling wells, collection pipes,
etc.  A number of adhesives and solvents are used for this field splicing.
Specific instructions must be carefully followed to maintain the structural
integrity of the liner.

     Once the liner installation is complete, continued emphasis must be
placed on maintaining liner integrity.  The most common approach is to
provide a two foot graded sand or soil layer over the liner to prevent
rupturing of the liner by waste materials and to permit operation of
landfill equipment on the lined base.  The first layer of waste should
be relatively free of large objects.


4.9.22  Gas Control
     A secondary role for synthetic liners is the control of decomposition
gas movement.  Downward or lateral gas movement may occur as landfill
gas is generated.  If the gas migrates through permeable substrata it
may collect in dangerous concentrations in buildings near the landfill.
Synthetic liners may be placed horizontally or on a slope to block
downward and lateral gas movement, respectively.

     The liner properties required to successfully perform this role are
essentially the same as for leachate control with the exception that a
liner material's permeability to gas may differ from its permeability to
water or leachate.   Recent synthetic liner evaluations have not dealt
with gas control effectiveness.
                               -48-

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".9.23  Current Economic Costs
       Current economic costs for synthetic liners average $4.00 ($4.48),
$1.90 ($2.13), and $1.65 ($1.85) per ton (metric ton) for 10, 100, and
300 ton per day landfill sites, respectively.


                 4.9.3  Environmental Impact Summary


1.   Synthetic liners prevent downward migration of leachate pollutants
     from the waste to groundwater supplies, thus protecting groundwater
     from pollution.

2.   Synthetic liners also prevent groundwater from directly intruding
     on the waste mass, thus protecting groundwater from pollution.

3.   Synthetic liners may reduce the likelihood of a groundwater mound
     from forming beneath a landfill, since a liner minimizes the flow of
     water directly through the landfill to the groundwater table below.
     This, then, minimizes the chances that the groundwater table will
     intersect the waste mass.

4.   Installation of a synthetic liner requires collection and removal of
     the contained leachate.   This permits leachate treatment or leach-
     ate recycling, the ultimate consequence being minimization of
     groundwater and  surface water pollution.

5.   Synthetic liners control downward and lateral gas movement, or
     provide a base for vertical impermeable gas barriers.   The control
     of gas movement  out of the landfill reduces the chances of gas
     migration through permeable strata and build up in explosive con-
     centrations in buildings on or near the landfill site.

6.   The manufacture, transport, and installation of synthetic liners
     results in a variety of secondary environmental impacts.

7.   Use of a synthetic liner allows more flexibility in landfill site
     selection, since natural soil  pollutant attenuation is not relied
     upon, nor is an  on-site source of natural liner material required.
     Consequently, potential reduction in waste transport distances  can
     result in positive secondary environmental impacts.
                                  -49-

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                     4.10  NATURAL CLAY LINERS
                        4.10.1 Introduction
     Landfill leachate, an effluent generally high in dissolved and sus-
pended solids, is produced when groundwater and precipitation percolate
into the solid waste and combine with waste liquids and degradation gene-
rated moisture.   When natural hydrogeologic characteristics of a site
would not result in adequate leachate containment, additional measures
may be required to protect adjacent groundwater systems.   Natural clay
liners can facilitate the containment of leachate to the on-site environs
and potentially may offer the possibility of attenuation of various leach-
ate contaminants.

     In this light, the Guidelines call for "a suitable structure which
allows the desired volumetric release of leachate for the maximum leachate
storage capability without failure due to liner placement."   This requires
incorporation of  a number of specific design and engineering features.
For instance, according to the Guidelines, natural soil liners should
have a low permeability (.1 x 10'7 cm./sec., or less) and a practical
limiting thickness of 12 inches.   The Guidelines also suggest that the
liner slope to one or more points and incorporate easily drained granular
material to ex'pedite leachate removal.

     The following sections discuss the function of natural clay liners in
leachate control  and gas control;   The liner properties essential to
achieving each function are identified, and the materials available and
construction techniques to provide these properties are briefly evaluated.
A final section summarizes the major environmental impacts of using natural
clay liners as leachate and gas control measures.   The evaluation assumes
an off-site source of natural clay materials since on-site conditions were
not initially suitable to provide the required levels of leachate containment.
                                -50-

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                      4.10.2  Technology Summary


4.10.21  Leachate Control
     Liner Functions.  Maintaining a physical separation between solid
wastes and groundwater reduces the potential production of leachate and
the potential contamination of surface water and groundwater by leachate.
Vertical separation of the waste above the historical high groundwater level
can prevent intrusion of groundwater into the waste and consequent leach-
ate contamination.   However, leachate has the potential for downward mi-
gration into groundwater systems and therefore, physical separation of the
waste and groundwater supply is not generally adequate to prevent ground-
water contamination.   The technique discussed here utilizes a natural
clay liner which can both minimize the downward movement of leachate
pollutants and prevent direct intrusion of groundwater into landfilled
solid wastes.

     Several site specific factors, particularly landfill type, solid
waste type, subsurface soil conditions, direction of groundwater flow,
possible interconnection between the aquifer and other aquifers, the
effects of the specific leachate on the groundwater supply and the current
and projected regional water resource uses, must be considered in the
selection, design and construction of natural clay liners.   In addition,
since natural clay materials also may exhibit attentuation properties for
specific leachate constituents, selection of a natural liner based upon
specific attenuation properties for a particular waste type can provide an
additional degree of protection for adjacent groundwater supplies.

     Liner Selection. Design, and Construction.   Natural clay minerals
are among those materials most commonly used for lining landfill sites.
Montmorillonite, illite and kaolinite are the three mc:t common clay mine-
rals that are used singly or in combination for landfill liners.   The
physical properties of clay soils, and therefore of natural clay liners,
are primarily dependent on clay particle sizes and on the clay's mineral-
ogy or crystalline structure.   Chemically, all clay minerals consist of
hydrous aluminum silicates and therefore, all possess certain common
features.   However, individual clay minerals incorporate differing amounts
of water and accessory ions such as calcium and magnesium which result in
other features that depend upon the individual characteristics of the
particular clay minerals.   Table 4-3 gives several examples of variable
clay properties, specifically, with respect to permeability and attenuation
characteristics.

     Clay liners have a relatively low permeability attributable to small
constituent grain sizes and the reduction of the sediment/pore space ratio
under wet conditions.  The ability of clay aggregates to swell and expand
derives from the existence of ionic charges that attract surficial layers
                                -51-

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                                TABLE 4-3
                       ATTENUATION AND PERMEABILITY
PROPERTIES OF CLAYS

Percent9
0
2
4
8
16
32
64
100
2
4
8
16
16
32
64
100
4
16
8

8

8



Material
Montmorillonite
Montmorillonite
Montmorillonite
Montmorillonite
Montmorillonite
Montmorillonite
Montmorillonite
Montmorillonite
Kaolinite
Kaolinite
Kaolinite
Kaolinite
Kaolinite
Kaolinite
Kaolinite
Kaolinite
Illite
mite
Montmorillonite
+ 8 Kaolinite
Kaolinite
+ 8 Illite
Kaolinite
+ 8 Illite
+ 8 Montmorillonite
Cation
Exchange
Capacity
(meq/100g)b
0.0
1.7
3.3
6.8
13.3
27.3
50.7
79.5
0.2
0.5
1.0
2.2
-
4.3
8.2
15.1
0.7
2.7

7.6

2.8


9.2

Bulk.
Density
(g/cm3)
1.71
1.71
1.77
1.79
1.87
1.55
1.23
0.84
1.68
1.76
1.80
1.87
1.94
1.66
1.22
0.90
1.80
1.83

1.95

1.95


1.64
                                                            Initial
                                                            Hydraulic
                                                            Conductivity
                                                             (cm/sec)
                                                            1.27E-03
                                                            9.45E-04
                                                            4.34E-04
                                                            4.70E-04
                                                            1.22E-05
                                                            1.27E-05
                                                            3.05E-07
                                                            7.26E-07
                                                            7.44E-04
                                                            4.78E-05
                                                            9.90E-04
                                                            2.86E-05
                                                            1.09E-06
                                                            2.40E-06
                                                            5.45E-07
                                                            2.98E-07
                                                            8.17E-04
                                                            2.68E-05

                                                            5.35E-07

                                                            1.48E-06


                                                            8.08E-06
a.  Quartz sand added to make 100%.   -
b.  Meq equals milliequivalents.
c.  Exponential notation:   E-03 means x

Source: Reference 5
                                 -52-

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of molecular water, as well as the tendency of some clays, particularly
montmorillom'te, to absorb additional interlayer water molecules.    There-
fore, when clay particles contact water, the effective diameter of the
particles is increased and concurrently available pore space is diminished,
resulting in decreased permeability rates.    Maintaining moisture  content
is therefore relevant to ensuring low permeability and liner effectiveness
in containing leachate.,.  Moisture content  is also important to the degree
to which clays can be compacted in order to achieve the lowest permeability
possible.   Some clays such as montmorillonite have a greater tendency to
absorb water than other types.   For each clay type, an optimum moisture
level exists for maximum compaction.

     The particular ability of clay minerals to absorb moisture is con-
gruent with an equivalent tendency to dewater and shrink.    Therefore, pro-
longed exposure of clay liners to air will  increase shrinkage and  result
in cracking which would increase passage of leachate through and accelerate
failure of the liner.   As a consequence of these properties, natural  clay
liners should be installed only as fill construction progresses.

     The base upon which the liner will be  placed should be cleared and
graded.   Actual construction of the liner  requires placement of layers of
clay material on the landfill base and compaction with appropriate equip-
ment until the desired liner thickness is obtained.   Moisture may be  added
as needed to ensure hydration of clay minerals, to allow optimum compaction
for maximum density, and to prevent drying  and cracking.   Until waste place-
ment occurs, continued emphasis must be placed on maintaining clay moisture
content and liner continuity.   Careful operation of landfill equipment and
deposition of the first layer of waste on the lined base is required to
maintain liner integrity.

     In addition to containing landfill generated leachate, natural clay
liners have a limited capability to provide in-site treatment or attentuation
of leachate constituents.   Due to the liner's low permeability, leachate
movement is extremely slow and allows physical, chemical,  and biological
interaction between leachate constituents and clay minerals and pore water.
This results in attentuation of pollutant elements by filtration,  adsorbtion,
ion-exchange processes, chemical precipitation, complexation and biodegra-
dation.   The relative dominance of one mechanism over another is  not  well
documented.   However, some studies indicate that the cation exchange  capa-
city (CEC) of clay minerals is the major removal mechanism for substances
such as ammonium, potassium and magnesium.    As such, CEC  is the principal
property utilized to estimate potential attenuation effects of natural clay
liners.

     The cation exchange capacity arises from the fact that clay minerals
consist of interlocking layers of silica and aluminium oxides with interlayer
water molecules and cations such as sodium, calcium, and potassium.  This struc-
ture lends itself to the existence of unbalanced molecular bonds and therefore to
                                  -53-

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                                                             .
the capacity to adsorb ions that may be contained in the leachate.   Of the
three clay minerals mentioned here, montmorillonite has the greatest
CEC, followed by illite and kaolinite.   Cation exchange capacities also
depend upon the composition and pH of the leachate.   Therefore, natural
clay liners can be chosen and constructed to selectively attenuate par-
ticular leachate pollutant elements.   Table 4-4 provides differential CEC's
for three sample clay minerals.


4.10.22  Gas Control

     A secondary role for natural clay liners is the control of decom-
position gas movement.   Downward or lateral gas movement may occur as
landfill gas is generated.   If the gas migrates through permeable sub-
strata, it may collect in dangerous concentrations in buildings near the
landfill.   Natural clay material can be placed as a horizontal liner or
installed as a semi-vertical or vertical wall to block downward and lateral
gas movement, respectively.   In actual practice, clay liners as dis-
cussed in this section can primarily provide an impermeable base for alter-
nate gas control measures such as venting systems or perimeter barrier
systems.

     The liner properties required to successfully perform this role are
essentially the same as for leachate control with the exception that a
clay material's permeability to gas will differ from its permeability to
leachate or water.   Certain features incorporated into the design and con-
struction of a natural clay liner will help minimize gas movement.  Selec-
tion of a natural soil type should aim to maintain a high degree of satu-
ration which will reduce liner porosity and minimize gas movement.   Addi-
tional compactive effort will also decrease permeability and reduce gas
migration.   Another direct and effective procedure is to increase the
thickness of the liner.
4.10.23   Current Economic Costs
     For a 10 TPD site, 100 TPO site, and 300 TPD site natural clay liners
cost $3.20 ($3.58), $1.50 ($1.68), and $1.35 ($1.51) per ton (per metric
ton) respectively.
                               -54-

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                                   TABLE 4-4

              CHEMICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF THE CLAY MINERALS USED
                 IN ATTENUATION STUDIES OF LEACHATE POLLUTANTS
Montmorillonite
(American Colloid
Kaolinite (Pike Co., southern
County, Illinois bentonite)
Element Exch.*(ppm) Total Exch.*(ppm) Total
Ca 2,
Mg
Na
K
NH4
Fe
Mn
Pb
Cd
Zn
B
Al
Si
Ti
Total Carbon (55)
592
76.8
43.2
87.2
13.0
2.0
0.06
2.0
0.2
0.80
-
-
-
-

Organic Carbon (%)
Inorganic Carbon
(%)
CEC (meq/lOOg)
Surface area (m^/g)
3,700 1
1,800
929
8,200
40
6,600
29
46
3
20
46
221 ,800
217,700
14,700
0.54
0.51
0.03
15.1
34.2
3,120
680
24.0
240
43
2.0
0.02
2.0
0.2
1.00
_
-
-
-




22,300
25,500
178
1,100
38
25,500
25
15
3
40
3
95,600
284,800
1,300
0.93
0.92
0.01
79.5
86.0
11 lite
(Minerva
Co. Mine)

Exch.*(PPm) Total
5,248
800
115.2
800
50
2.0
0.37
2.0
0.3
2.5
—
-
-
-




23,350
10,430
1,050
56,270
62.5
28,730
390
93.8
18.8
37.5
43.8
130,100
226,500
4,010
2.19
1.81
0.38
20.5
64.6
Source: Reference 6.
                                     -55-

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                4.10.3  Environmental Impact  Summary
1.   Natural clay liners can minimize downward migration of leachate
     pollutants from waste mass to groundwater supplies, thus protec-
     ting groundwater aquifers from pollutant effects.

2.   Natural clay liners may reduce the likelihood of a groundwater
     mound from forming beneath a landfill, since it minimizes the flow
     of water directly through the landfill to the groundwater table
     below.  This, then, minimizes the chances that the groundwater table
     will intersect the waste mass.

3.   Installation of a natural clay liner may require collection and
     removal of the contained leachate.  This may require incorporation
     of treatment technologies which ultimately result in minimization
     of groundwater and surface water pollution.

4.   Natural.clay liners control downward and lateral gas movement by
     providing a base for semi-vertical or vertical impermeable gas
     barriers.  The control  of gas movement out of the landfill reduces
     the chances of gas migration through permeable strata and build-
     up in explosive concentrations in buildings  on or near the landfill
     site.  Additionally, controlling gas migration minimizes minerali-
     zation of groundwater by minimizing the amount of carbon dioxide that
     contacts  and dissolves  in groundwater.

5.   Use of a  natural clay liner allows more flexibility in landfill site
     selection, since sites  with previously unacceptable subsurface char-
     acteristics can potentially be utilized for  solid waste disposal.
     Consequently, for example, landfill  siting can better minimize waste
     transport distances, resulting in positive secondary environmental
     impacts.  .

6.   The excavation, transport, and installation  of off-site natural
     clay materials  results  in a variety of secondary environmental  impacts,
                                   -56-

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                          4.11  LEACHATE COLLECTION
                            4.11.1   Introduction
     Groundwater and infiltrating surface water percolating through
landfilled solid waste'may produce leachate,  a solution of dissolved
and suspended matter and microbiaT waste products.   Depending on its
composition and concentrations, this leachate may pose a danger of
severe contamination of underlying groundwater and/or adjacent surface
water.

     A number of the landfill  unit technologies evaluated in this EIS
influence leachate control in  a variety of ways.    These include daily
and final cover (Section 4.8)  and synthetic and natural clay liners
(Sections 4.9 and 4.10).   However, the most effective insurance against
leachate pollution is leachate collection and treatment or recycling.
In actuality, the emplacement  of a synthetic or natural clay liner to
protect water resources from leachate usually dictates some form of
collection and removal of the  accumulated leachate.   Once removed, the
leachate must be disposed of in an environmentally acceptable manner.

     The Guidelines suggest that "removal of collected leachate for
disposal should be incorporated into the design of lined landfills to
avoid overflowing of collected leachate".   The Guidelines go on to
recommend that "all liner materials should be sloped to one or more
points and covered with a layer of granular material to facilitate
removal of leachate."

     The following pages describe in more detail  the technology and
environmental impacts of leachate collection.
                                  -57-

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                   4.11.2  Technology Summary
4.11.21  Leachate Control
     Leachate collection is normally accomplished by gravity drainage
with a synthetic or natural clay liner designed to slope to one or
more sump collection points.   The liner can be overlain by a layer
of porous material, such as sand or gravel, to facilitate drainage.
This material may be six inches to two feet in thickness and usually
also serves to protect the liner from mechanical damage by solid
wastes and landfill equipment.    Alternatively, the liner can in-
corporate clay tile drainage systems designed to channel leachate
to the collection sumps.   Once collected, the leachate may be treated
immediately or pumped to a storage tank where it is held for eventual
treatment or recycling.


4.11.22   Current Economic Costs


     Current economic costs for leachate collection for 10, 100 and
300 ton per day landfills are:  $0.95 ($1.06), $0.40 ($0.45) and $0.30
($0.34) per ton (per metric ton) respectively.
            4.11.3  Environmental  Impact Summary
1.   Since leachate collection presumes and facilitates leachate
treatment and/or leachate recycling, its environmental  impacts are
essentially comparable to those for leachate treatment  and/or lea-
chate recycling.   These impacts, generally, are reductions in the
contamination of ground and surface water.
                             -58-

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                          4.12  LEACHATE TREATMENT
                            4.12.1  Introduction
    To avoid contamination of soil, groundwater, and surface water by
high concentrations of organic matter and inorganic ions in landfill leach-
ate, the percolating leachate can be collected and treated.   This section
evaluates leachate treatment methodologies which are generally one of two
types: biological and/or physical-chemical.    Land application of raw lea-
chate and piping leachate to a municipal secondary wastewater treatment
plant are alternative disposal methodologies.

    The Guidelines point out that any leachate treatment system effluent
discharge to surface water will require a National Pollutant Discharge
Elimination System (NPOES-) permit under Section 402 of the 1977 Clean Water
Act (Public Law 95-217).   The Guidelines identify a variety of wastewater
treatment techniques which may potentially be adequate to meet the provisions
of an NPDES permit, depending on a variety of factors, including age of the
fill and the influent leachate's chemical oxygen demand (COD).   See Table
4-5 for an indication of potential treatment methodologies.
                                 TABLE 4-5

           LEACHATE TREATABILITY BY ALTERNATE TREATMENT METHODS
Leachate Quality

Age of Fill COD, mg/1
Young
(5 year) 10,000
Medium
(5-10 year) 500-10,000
Old (10 year) 500





Biolog-
ical
G
F
P
Chemical
Precipi-
tation
P
F
P
Treatment Efficiency

Chemical
Oxid-
ation
P
F
F
Ozon-
ation
P
F
F
Reverse
Osmosis
F
G
G
Activated
Carbon
P
F
G

Ion
Ex-
change
P
F
F
Source:  Reference 8.
* (COD removal:   G = Good;    F = Fair;    P = Poor)
                                   -59-

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    The Guidelines conclude that:

    1. "Leachates containing a significant fraction of high molecular
        weight organic compounds (i.e. those in excess of 50,000)
        are best treated by physical-chemical methods such as lime
        addition followed by settling";

    2. "Leachate containing primarily low molecular weight organic
        compounds are best treated by biological methods such as acti-
        vated sludge";

    3. "Leachates treated by combinations of chemical, physical  and
        biological methods are often the most effective in achieving
        discharge standards".

    The following sections describe in more detail the technology and
environmental impacts of incorporation of leachate treatment.
                         4.12.2  Technology Summary
4.12.22   Leachate Control
    Several wastewater treatment
on a laboratory scale, for their
leachate contaminated by organic
niques are broadly categorized as
processes, land application, and
researchers have been involved in
this evaluation relies most heavi
investigations by Chian and DeWal
techniques have been tested, primarily
effectiveness in treating landfill
matter and inorganic ions.   These tech-
 physical-chemical, biological treatment
combinations thereof.   While many
 landfill leachate treatability studies,
ly on the more recent and comprehensive
le.  (References 7 and 8).
    To estimate leachate strength and leachate treatment efficiency,
most researchers have measured influent chemical oxygen demand (COD)
and percent COD removal in effluent, respectively.   COD is a relative-
ly accurate and simple measure of a wastewater's water-soluble organic
compounds.   In addition, Chian and DeWalle have proposed ratios  of in-
fluent leachate biological oxygen demand (BOD) to COD, and of COD to
total organic carbon (TOC), to approximate landfill  leachate organic
matter composition.   BOD/COD and COD/TOC ratios can be used in turn to
predict the effectiveness of biological versus physical-chemical leachate
treatment methods.   The COD/TOC ratio decreases with landfill age, since
the organic carbon becomes more oxidized and less readily available for
microbial growth as degradation of landfill waste proceeds.   Therefore,
older leachate is less amenable to biological  treatment, since such
treatment is simply a controlled microbial degradation process.   Similarly,
BOD reflects leachate organic matter composition.   A high BOD indicates
a high proportion of low molecular weight, free volatile fatty acids in
the leachate.   These high energy compounds are subject to microbial
degradation and, therefore, are indicative of a
Thus, a high BOD/COD indicates a young landfill
refuse whose leachate is amenable to biological
               relatively young landfill
               or a biologically unstable
               treatment, and vice versa.
                                 -60-

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    Table 4-5, summarizes the implications of this concept by comparing
the relative efficiencies of various leachate treatment methods for
varying landfill ages and their corresponding leachate strengths and
compositions.   The following paragraphs briefly describe each of these
leachate treatment techniques.

    Physical-chemical treatment methods, which have been tested to date,
include activated carbon and ion exchange adsorption, reverse osmosis,
chemical oxidation, chemical precipitation, and various combinations of these
processes.   In general, physical-chemical treatments  have not proven to be
effective on raw leachate generated from a recently installed landfill, since
this leachate contains a high proportion of low molecular weight,  volatile
fatty acids which are more amenable to biological treatment processes
(Reference 8).   Table 4-6 summarizes the results of several physical-
chemical treatment investigations.

    Activated carbon and ion exchange adsorption resins have not been able
to adsorb the volatile fatty acids and have resulted in unsatisfactory
effluent concentrations.   As Table 4-6 indicates, literature reports of
COD removal in raw leachate of young landfills has ranged from 34 percent
using activated carbon batch treatment to 71 percent using activated carbon
column treatment.   Activated carbon treatment of various biological
treatment effluents and leachate from relatively stabilized landfills
using known chemical dosages, however, has resulted in COD removal ranging
from 70 to 91 percent.   Ion exchange treatment of an activated sludge
effluent resulted in only a 58 percent COD removal.

    Reverse osmosis at pH 8.0 using a cellulose acetate membrane has
yielded 89 percent COD removal from raw leachate of a young landfill,  while
only 56 percent COD removal was possible at pH 5.5 using the same method.
However, the necessary upward pH adjustment may be economically unattractive.
Reverse osmosis of biological treatment effluent was more successful,
averaging over 95 percent COD removal.   Severe membrane fouling creates
significant operating diffulties and may require incorporation of biological
pre-treatment techniques.

    Chemical oxidation, including chlorination and ozonation, of both
raw leachate and biological treatment effluent resulted in values for COD
removal  ranging from 0 to 18 percent (Reference 8).    Oxidation of the
prevalently acidic landfill leachate is generally too slow to be effective.
Also, use of some oxidants results in large amounts of sludge to be handled.
                               -61-

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                                         TABLE 4-6

RESULTS OF TREATMENT EFFICIENCIES OBTAINED IN DIFFERENT PHYSICAL-CHEMICAL TREATMENT STUDIES


Treatment
Process
Chemical Pre-
cipitation






Inital
Author COD
Cook and Foree 14,900
Ho. et al. (15) 9,100
(24)
9,100
10,800
558


BOD/
COD
0.45
0.75

0.75
0.74
0.27


COD/ Treatment
TOC System
3.45 Lime
- Ferric Chloride

- Alum
- Lime
- Lime treatment
Per-
centage
COD
Removal
13
16.3

5.3
3.5
7.7



Dosages
2,760 mg/!Ca(OH)
1,000 mg/1

1,000 mg/1
1,840 mg/1
2,700 mg/1
                                  366   0.11
                           of anaerobic
                           digester effluent
                           Lime treatment of
                           anaerobic digestor
                           effluent polished
                           by aerated lagoon
29    1,400 mg/1
Activated Carbon
and Ion-Exchange
Adsorption
Karr (28)


4,


800


0.


66


2


.73


Alum


and


lime


Ferrosulfate

Roy Weston Inc.
Rogers (44)
Simensen and
Odegaard (45)


Thornton and
Blanc (50)
Van Fleet
et al (51)
This study
t Cook and Foree


3
1

1
1
5
12
2

2


139
,400
,240

,234
,234
,033
,923
,000

,820
330

0.
0.
0.

0.
0.
0.
0.
0.

0.
0.

04
81
66

68
68
60
57
36

65
07



2

2
2




2
2

2.1
-
.78

.88
.88
-
-
-

.89
.57

Lime
Lime
Lime

Iron
Alum
Lime
Lime
Alum

Lime



and

and
and





Activated



aeration

aeration
aeration





carbon
40


13

0
0
8

0
11
24
26
31

26
70
2,250 mg/1
A12(SO,)3 and
806 rag/1 CaO
2,500 mg/1
FeSO. 7H,0
1,000 mg71
1,000 mg/1
210 ml saturated
lime/1 leachate
200 mg/1 FeCl,
180 mg/1 A1,(SO
1,350 mg/1 *
1,200 mg/1
2,700 mg/1

450 mg/1

(15)                       batch treatment
                           of aerated lagoon
                           effluent
           3,290 0.45 3.45 Activated carbon
                           column treatment
                           of lime pretreated
                           leachate
                                                                     81      15 min HRT,  after
                                                                            initial  volume
                                                                            turnovers
                                        -62-

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                                 TABLE 4-6 (continued)
Treatment
 Process
Author
Initial  BOD/ COD/
  COD    COD  TOC
Treatment
  System
  Per-
centage
  COD .
Removal
                                                                                    Dosages
            Ho.etal.  (24)4,920    0.75    -  Activated carbon,
                                                batch

                            7,213    0.75    -  Activated carbon
                                                column
            Karr  (27)       5,500    0.66 2.73  Activated carbon,
                                                batch

            Pohland and       184    0.18 1.5   Carbon batch treat-
            Kang  (38)                           ment of activated
                                                sludge effluent

                              120    0.18 1.5   Ion exchange treat-
                                                ment of activated
                                                sludge effluent

            Roy Weston, Inc.  127    0.04 2.1   Activated carbon,
                                                batch
                                                        34      16,000 mg/1
            Van Fleet,
            et. al. (51)
            This study
           2,000    0.36
                   Activated carbon
                   column treatment
                   of leachate

                   Activated carbon
                   column treatment
                   of alum pretreated
                   leachate
              632   0.65 289   Activated carbon
                               column treatment
                               of leachate

              546   0.1 2.-5S '  Activated carbon
                               column treatment
                               of effluent of
                               aerated lagoon
                    59



                    60


                    91



                    58



                    85


                    71



                   94
                                          70 decreased
                                          to 13 aften-
                                          140 Bv

                                             70
                                                               45 min HRT
                                                               after volume
                                                               turnover

                                                               160,000 mg/1
                                                                10,000 mg/1
                                                               5,000 mg/1
                                                               cation and
                                                               anionic mixture,
                                                                              i

                                                               10,000 mg/1
                                    -63-

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                                    TABLE 4-6 (continued)
   Treatment
    Process
Chemical Oxi-
 dation
Reverse Os-
 mosis
    Author
Initial  BOD/ COD/
  COD    COD  COD
Treatment
System
Per-
centage
COD
Removal
Dosages
                                  527
                                  932
                                  522
                         0.1  2.46
                              2.9
                         0.1  2.7
Cook and Foree    330   0.07  2.57
    (15)
Ho, et.al.(24)  1,500   0.75   -
                                7,162   0.75   -

                Karr (28)  .     4,800   0.66  2.7-3
                Roy Weston.Inc.    139   0.04  2.1
                This study
                  139   0.04  2.1
                1,250    -    2.9
                                  627
                              2.5
                    Ion exchange column
                    treatment of effluent
                    of aerated lagoon
                    Activated carbon
                    column treatment of
                    effluent of anaerobic
                    filter
                    Activated carbon
                    column treatment
                    of aerated effluent
                    of anaerobic filter

                    Chlorination

                    Chlorination with
                     calcium hypo-
                     chlorite
                    Ozonation

                    Chlorination
                    Chlorination with
                     calcium hypo-
                     chlorite
                    Ozonation
                    Ozonation of an-
                     aerobic filter ef-
                     fluent
                    Ozonation of aerat-
                     ed lagoon effluent
Roy Weston.Inc.   265    -    2.1   Reverse osmosis

This study     53,330   0.65  2.89
                               53,300   0.65  2.89
                    Reverse osmosis of
                     leachate at pH
                     5.5, cellulose ace-
                     tate membrane
                    Reverse osmosis
                     of leachate at
                     pH 8.0, cellulose
                     acetate memb.
50


50



70




33

 8


37

22
 0
22
37
48


80

56



89
65 ml bleach/1
  sample
8,000 mg/1
Ca(ClO)?
after 2 hr
4 hr, 7,700 mg
 0.,/1-hr
2,000 mg/1 Cl-
1,000 mg/1 Ca
 (cio)2

4 hr 34 mg 0,/1-
hr 3 hr, 600
mg/l-hr

3 hr, 400 mg
 0/1-hr
    Permeate
 yield
50% Permeate
 yield
                                                                  SOX Permeate
                                                                  yield
                                             -64-

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                                 TABLE 4-6 (concluded)
                                                                         Per-
                                                                       centage
Treatment                    Initial  BOD/ COD/       Treatment          COD
 Process         Author        COD    COD  COD          System	  Removal      Dosages


                                900    -     2.9  Reverse osmosis of      98    77% Permeate
                                                   anaerobic filter ef-          yield
                                                   fluent DuPont B-9
                                536    -     2.5  Reverse osmosis of      95    502 Permeate
                                                   aerated lagoon ef-            yield
                                                   fluent, cellulose
                                                   acetate membrane
                                         -65-

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     Similarly, chemical precipitation (including lime, alum, alum and lime,
ferric chloride, ferrosulfate, lime and aeration, alum and aeration, and
iron and aeration processes) of both raw leachate and biological treatment
effluent achieved COD removal values ranging from 0 to 40 percent (Reference
No. 8).   Using chemical precipitants normally generates large amounts of
sludge and additional disposal costs and often requires significant oper-
ation and maintenance expenditures.

     Aerobic biological treatment of leachate has been studied using labor-
atory scale aerated lagoons and activated sludge tanks seeded with sludge
from municipal wastewater treatment plants (Reference 9). These processes
have resulted in up to 99 percent COD removal in raw leachate in two studies
(See Table 4-7).   In addition, investigators have commonly achieved 95 to 99
percent BOD reduction, 60 to 70 percent removal of volatile suspended solids
(VSS), and excellent odor reduction.   Further, Chian and DeWalle report
high removals of heavy metals in aerated lagoons, especially for iron
(99.9%)zinc (99.9%), calcium (99.3%), and magnesium (75.9%), due to chemical
precipitation and flocculation.   Problems identified in some investigations
of aerobic treatment include: high sludge yield, poor solids-liquid separation,
foaming, high power requirements, lower removal efficiencies with increased
process loadings, and process failure with detention times of two and five
days.

     Effluent from an anaerobic digester treated in an aerated lagoon in one
study achieved sufficient BOD removal, but still required physical-chemical
treatment to remove resistant organics and lower COD.   For influents with
high COD concentrations, aerobic treatment may require additional physical -
chemical  treatment to remove resistant organics and lower the COD.

     Biological  treatment of leachate by anaerobic digester and anaerobic
filter processes has resulted in COD removals ranging from 89 to 98 percent
(Reference 9).   These values compare favorably with COD removals achieved
with aerobic methods, but reflect longer detention times.   One investigation
concluded that anaerobic treatment of leachate is superior to other treatment
technologies since anaerobic digestion units are readily adapted to treatment
of landfill  leachate, the landfill gas generated can be recovered, and the
longer detention times are suited to the relatively small volumes of leachate
generated at a landfill site.

     Studies of rotating biological discs and aerobic trickling filters, to
date, have resulted in only low COD removal.

     Land application of landfill leachate has sustained little actual
testing or experience to date as a viable leachate treatment process.   However,
results from land application of municipal wastewater can to some extent be
extended to land application of landfill  leachate.   Key variables in
evaluating the potential of this type of process include: soil type, depth to
groundwater, topography, application rates, season of application, and the
limitations that certain leachate constituents might place on the process.
                               -66-

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                    TSBEE4-7
   RESULT OF TREATMENT EFFICIENCIES  OBTAINED IN
   DIFFERENT BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT
He-
logical
preeat*
ID
Aerobic









AflMrobic













AMMe/
Anaerobic











Author
(2)
Boyle and
Hun (5)
Cook and
Force (19)
Karr<28)
Pohlandand
Kay (37)
Roy Weston
Inc.
This study
Boyle and
Ham (5)
Force and
Rod CO)
Karr(M)



Roger* (44)



This study

Boyle and
Htm (3)



Fore* and
Reed 
-------
4.12.23  Current Economic Costs
    In "general, leachate treatment costs range from $5.80 ($6.50),  $1.10
($1.23), and $0.50 ($0.56)  per ton (per metric ton) for 10,  100,  and 300
ton per day landfill  sites  respectively.
                   4.12.3  Environmental  Impact Summary
    Leachate treatment serves to remove organic matter and inorganic
    ions,  as well  as odor and color,  from collected  landfill  leach-
    ate before it  is discharged to surface waters.    If properly
    and effectively implemented, leachate treatment  technology en-
    sures  that any landfill  leachate  discharge to  surface waters
    will meet the  provisions of the NPDES permit which would  be re-
    quired under Section  402 of the 1977 Clean Water Act (Public Law
    95-217).   The consequent environmental  impacts  of uncontrolled
    discharges are thereby avoided.
                              -68-

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                      4.13  LEACHATE RECYCLING
                        4.13.1  Introduction
     Leachate recycling is the controlled collection and recircu-
lation of leachate through the landfill for the purpose of promot-
ing rapid stabilization of re/use and leachate constituents.   Re-
cycling may also result in reduction of leachate strength and thus
may serve as a pretreatment arrangement prior to leachate treat-
ment processes or direct leachate discharge.

     The Guidelines indicate that "recirculation of collected
landfill leachate onto active or completed sections of the land-
fill can reduce leachate constituent concentrations by chemical,
physical and biological processes and may be effective in re-
ducing leachate volume."   The following discusses in more detail
the technology and environmental impacts of leachate recycling.
Since leachate recycling is a relatively new landfill technology,
the following evaluation must be considered preliminary in nature.
                       4.13.2  Technology Summary
4.13.21   Leachate Control
     The precise mode of operation of leachate recycling is still
poorly understood since it has only been recently investigated in
experimental landfill simulations and very little practical appli-
cation of the concept has yet been achieved.    The generally hypoth-
esized and accepted explanation is that recirculation of leachate
through a landfill promotes faster development of an active population
of anaerobic methane forming bacteria, which  effect the bulk of
the waste decomposition process.   This, in turn, increases the rate
and predictability of biological stabilization of the organic con-
stituents in the waste.   While initial recycling may result in
higher leachate constituent concentrations than would normally be
experienced, the potential increase in degradation rates theoretically
should result in reduction of leachate constituents in a short time
frame.   A variety of constituents, particularly non-organics, such
as metallic ions, may remain relatively unaffected.   Depending on
site specific considerations, requirements for long-term post-closure
landfill leachate monitoring and management may be reduced in certain
instances.
                              -69-

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    While actual development of and experience with leachate re-
cycling systems  is limited, some alternative arrangements can be
described.   First, the leachate must be collected using one of
the techniques identified in Section 4.11.   The actual recircu-
lation technique utilized depends on whether the landfill section
through which the leachate is to be recycled is active or completed,
and on the permeability of the cover material.   For permeable covers,
the most practical system for leachate recycling is to distribute the
leachate by utilizing a truck equiped with a spray bar.   Alternatively,
the leachate can be recycled by utilization of a spray irrigation
system or a number of well points.   Landfills incorporating imperme-
able final covers may be more amenable to leachate distribution via
pressure or gravity lines to a system of perforated pipes buried
beneath the cover material.

    The rate of biological stabilization can be accelerated by adding
sewage sludge to the cover material to seed a methane forming bacteria
population and/or by initially neutralizing the landfill pH through
addition of lime, etc. so that optimum conditions for immediate
development of a bacteria population can be achieved.    These measures
can reduce landfill  stabilization time to a matter of months as
opposed to a matter of years.

    Once the leachate has been recycled, it may be suitable for direct
discharge to surface waters, depending on the condition of the
receiving waters and/or on the specific applicable regulatory requirements,
In some cases, the landfill may completely reabsorb the recycled leachate,
resulting in zero leachate discharge.    This is particularly true where
leachate generation  has primarily resulted from short-circuiting of
leachate through the waste mass.    In  many cases, however, the effluent
leachate will  require further  treatment by separate biological  and/or
physical-chemical processes (see  Section 4.12, Leachate Treatment) to
remove residual  organics,  inorganics such as hardness,  chloride, and
calcium,  and odor, color and metals, etc.
4.13.22   Current Economic Costs

    Current economic costs for this technology average $0.45 ($0.50),
$0.10 ($0.11), and $0.04 ($0.06) per ton (per metric ton)  for 10, 100,
and 300 ton per day landfill  sites respectively.

                  4.13.3  Environmental  Impact Summary
       Leachate recycling, especially with pH control  and initial
       sludge seeding, may increase the rate and predictability of
       biological  stabilization of the readily available organic
       pollutants  in landfill  refuse and leachate.

       Since leachate recycling accelerates landfill  stabilization
       and may reduce the requirements for long-term post-closure
       leachate monitoring and management, the completed landfill
       site may be reclaimed for final use much more rapidly.
                                 -70-

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                       4.14  IMPERMEABLE BARRIERS
                          4.14  Introduction
     A major product of landfill waste decomposition processes is a
gaseous mixture consisting largely of methane (55 percent) and carbon
dioxide (45 percent), with trace amounts of elemental nitrogen, hydrogen
and oxygen, and varying trace constituents such as ammonia, carbon
monoxide, ethylene and water vapor.  The extent of gas production
depends primarily on landfill age,  percent and type of waste organic
materials, cover material  permeability and thickness, landfill tempera-
ture variation, waste density and moisture content.  Once generated,
methane can migrate radially by diffusion and convective flow processes
through the gas permeable waste and the adjacent and overlying soil.
Under certain conditions, the methane can collect in explosive concen-
trations (5 to 15 percent in the presence of air) in conduits or buildings
adjacent to the landfill.  The presence of methane can also result in
damage, to a variety of plant species due to reduced oxygen concentrations
in the plant root zone.  Carbon dioxide will dissolve in groundwater
forming carbonic acid, therefore mineralizing and contaminating it.  A
common methodology utilized to predict the potential extent of methane
migration is to assume that ten feet of horizontal methane migration may
occur for each foot of landfill depth.  The resulting value is only a
very general estimate, since site specific subsurface conditions such as
an impermeable cover and porous substrata can result in methane migration
on the order of hundreds of feet.

     One method of methane gas  control  is  to to minimize waste decomposition
rates by minimizing waste moisture content, thus  reducing  gas  generatic .
rates.   Many  of the  landfill  unit technologies discussed  in  this  repo- -
aid  in minimizing infiltration  of moisture  into the  waste  mass and
consequently potentially result  in reduced  gas generation  rates.    Given
adequate methane gas  control measures,  an  alternative approach is  to
provide more optimum  decomposition conditions, i.e.  by  shredding  (increasing
waste surface  area) or by increasing  moisture content (leachate  recycling),
consequently resulting in more  rapid  gas generation  over a decreased  time
frame.

     The primary methane gas control  methodologies  involve physical chan-
nelling or  containment of the  gas itself.   In some  cases, natural  soil,
hydrologic, and geologic site  conditions combined with  a permeable
landfill cover can result in venting  of the decomposition  gases directly
into the atmosphere.   Where these conditions do  not occur and where
adjacent land  use patterns dictate, installation  of  gas control systems
engineered  to  vent decomposition gases  safely into  the  atmosphere  is
required.   These systems include impermeable barriers, vertical  risers,
permeable trenches, gas collection systems, and a variety of combination
systems.
                                 -71-

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     With regard to impermeable barriers, the Guidelines suggest using
compacted moist clays, asphaltic materials or polymeric materials which
are gas impermeable.   The Guidelines further recommend that the cutoff
wall extend from the ground surface down to a gas impervious layer below
the bottom of the landfill.

     The following sections describe in more detail  the technology and
environmental impacts associated with utilizing impermeable barriers for
gas control.
                      4.14.2  Technology Summary


4.14.21  Gas Control
     Impermeable barriers function by blocking the lateral migration of
landfill gas through the surrounding more permeable material.   An imper-
meable barrier is normally constructed around the periphery of a land-
fill where subsurface conditions might lead to potential  migration;   The
barrier should be installed to a depth below the maximum depth of waste
deposition and preferably to an impervious layer (see Figure 4-4).   This
bottom seal could include certain bedrock types, the groundwater table,
or an impermeable landfill liner such as a natural clay liner or a
synthetic liner.

     While an impermeable barrier can be effective under certain conditions,
an adjoining permeable pathway located on the interior edge of the imperme-
able barrier may result in more positive methane controls.   For instance,
an adjoining trench can be backfilled with gravel to the same depth as the
impermeable barrier.   In turn, the permeable trench results in vertical
gas movement to the atmosphere (see Section 4.16).   This approach may be
required even in relatively permeable substrata where the adjacent land
uses require strenuous gas control measures.    Vertical risers (see Section
4.15) may also be installed in the permeable trench if there is a danger.
of the trench being sealed off by freezing of the land surface.

4.14.22  Current Economic Costs

     Current economic costs for impermeable barriers average $1.30 ($1.46),
$0.30 ($0.34), and $0.15 (SO.17) per ton (per metric ton) for 10, 100,
and 300 ton per day landfill  sites, respectively.
                                  -72-

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                            FIGURE  4-4
          BARRIER AND  TRENCH  GAS  CONTROL  SYSTEMS
                     Gas
iK witi) talM rwiaii
    *NS-*S^>.->V

    3    Barrier system. Migra'ir.g gas is ur-2£ie :o cross impermeable barrier
   and is forced to vent to atrrcsphef e. "'e^.^ is e*c3va:ed to continuous-. •
   bottom seal {bedrock or water tails): ta/ri & memora/ie is installed; trench
   is backfilled. Ba/rie< can be impervious membrane or clay.
                   Gas,


         Trench with granular backC-li. Gas travsis to trench ar.d is Dented to
   surface becausa granular backfill is more ^rrreabis t.^an surrounding soi!.
   Trench is excavated to bottom sea! (tod/ccX c.- water tabie) ado backfilled
   -.vi'n crushed stone or clean gravel.
Source:   Reference  10.

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                     Environmental Impact Summary
     If effective at controlling gas migration to offsite areas, ver-
tical impermeable barriers can have several environmental impacts:

1.   Gas buildup  in explosive concentrations in nearby offsite
     buildings or conduits is minimized, therefore reducing fire
     and explosion hazard.

2.   Vegetation kills due to landfill gas creating deleterious anaerobic
     conditions in plant root zones are minimized.

3.   Gas movement control minimizes mineralization of ground water due
     to the formation of carbonic acid caused by the dissolution  of  land-
     fill generated carbon dioxide.

4.   Manufacture, transport, and installation of a barrier system may
     have a variety of secondary negative environmental impacts.
                                  -74-

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                     4.15  PERMEABLE TRENCHES
                       4.15.1  Introduction
     A gas permeable, gravel-filled trench can also be utilized to control
the laterial migration of landfill generated gas, and thus to minimize land-
fill explosion and fire hazards, vegetation kills, and potential groundwater
mineralization.   (See Section 4.14 for a more detailed discussion of the
causes, characteristics, and control of landfill gas generation and migration.)

     Under certain conditions permeable trenches can provide adequate con-
trol of methane movement.   However, the trenches still may permit gas
migration through diffusion processes and are susceptible to clogging due
to infiltration, snow or ice cover or biomass growth.   The Guidelines
indicate that gravel-filled trenches equipped with vertical perforated pipes1
functioning as methane vents have been shown to reduce the effect of
temporary covers such as ice or snow.   The Guidelines also recommend equip-
ping trenches for removal of water or leachate from the trench bottom to
facilitate gas movement.

     The following sections describe in more detail the technology and environ-
mental impacts of permeable trenches.
                    4.15.2  Technology Summary



4.15.21  Gas Control


     Permeable, gravel-filled trenches are usually located on the landfill
perimeter or occasionally incorporated between daily cells.   These trenches
operate by intercepting laterally migrating landfill gas and by providing a
low resistance path to the atmosphere.   These trenches should normally
extend to at least the bottom of the landfill.   They may be excavated
vertically or placed diagonally (see Figure 4-5).   The trench should drain
naturally, and the filler material should be graded to avoid infiltration
and clogging by sediment washed in from surface runoff.   The upper surface
of the trenches should be maintained free of soil and vegetation to maximize
gas access to the atmosphere.

     Permeable trenches are most effective at existing landfills in which the
surrounding soil is relatively less permeable than the trench backfill material
and the water table is relatively deep.   For somewhat permeable subsurface
                                 -75-

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                              Figure  4-5

              GRAVEL  VENT AND  GRAVEL-FILLED TRENCHES
                                                Stop*
                            final cov«r malarial
                             -* V«nl«d
                        C.ll
                             Gravel vents or gravel-filled trenches
               can be used  to control lateral gas movement  in a
               sanitary landfill.
Source:  Reference 2
                              -76-

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soils, the trench should be backed up by an impermeable barrier of the type
discussed in Section 4.14.   Furthermore, if freezing of the land surface
and resultant sealing of the trench is a possibility, vertical  pipes may
be utilized as vents.   These vents may or may not be equipped  with pump or
blower units for induced exhaust.

     As in the case of impermeable barriers, Stone (Reference 10) reports
that in certain cases permeable barriers may not provide adequate gas
control if utilized alone.   Failure detection is also difficult; however,
maintenance of the barrier is relatively simple.

4.15.22  Current Economic Costs

     Per ton (per metric ton) costs for perimeter gravel trenches are
$1.60 ($1.79), $0.35 ($0.39), and  $0.20 ($0.22) for 10 TPD, 100 TPD and
300 TPD sites, respectively.


                  4.15.3  Environmental Impact Summary


     Utilization of permeable trenches can result in a number of positive
environmental impacts including:

     1.  Gas buildup in explosive  concentrations can be minimized,
         therefore reducing potential explosion hazards.

     2.  Vegetation kills due to gas migration can be minimized.

     3.  Groundwater mineralization due to carbon dioxide dissolution
         can be minimized.

     4.  Odors, particularly from  hydrogen sulfide generation,  can be
         confined to the immediate landfill area.

     5.  The transport and installation of barrier materials may result
         in secondary environmental impacts such as energy use, air
         emissions due to transport, site specific impacts due to gravel
         quarrying, etc.
                               -77-

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                       4.16  VERTICAL RISERS
                        4.16.1  Introduction
     Vertical risers provide a low resistance path to the atmosphere
for laterally migrating landfill gas.   Vertical riser construction
can consist of perforated pipe vents or gravel-filled well systems.
Section 4.14 provides a more detailed discussion of the rationales for
control of landfill gas generation and migration.

     The Guidelines do not recommend utilizing perforated pipes alone
for methane control since venting effectiveness is generally limitetl
to the immediate vicinity of the pipe.   For more effective control
a closely spaced grid of vents or wells could be installed.

     The Guidelines also distinguish between natural ventilation using
vertical risers and induced exhaust wells equipped with a pump or
blower.   The Guidelines state that properly designed and installed
exhaust well systems are substantially more effective than natural
ventilation systems.   Additionally, the Guidelines state that induced
exhaust systems are not limited to shallow landfills on shallow im-
permeable strata, and that induced systems may potentially be used to
recover exhaust gases.   However, induced exhaust systems require
significant operating expenditures and maintenance.
                                -78-

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                  4.16.2  Technology Summary
4.16.21  Gas Control
     Vertical risers can operate either by providing a low resistance
path to the atmosphere for laterally migrating landfill gas, or, if
equipped with a pump or a blower, by inducing gas ventilation by
creating a negative pressure gradient within the waste mass.   Vertical
risers are usually utilized when the final cover is relatively imper-
meable.   Risers can be installed around the landfill perimeter, but
are most effective when also placed in the landfill interior.   In areas
adjacent to building structures, discharges should be limited to above
the roof line.

     The riser sizes and spacings depend on the type and severity of
waste deposition, the rate of gas production, and the gas permeability
of both cover and surrounding soil.   The recommended spacing is
30 to 60 feet on centers (Reference 11).   Once drawn through the riser,
landfill gas is vented to the atmosphere, flared, or recovered and
cleaned for on-site or off-site energy use.

     Actual construction of vertical risers (see Figure 4-6) involves:
(1) drilling the wells to a continuous bottom seal such as bedrock or
the groundwater table; (2) inserting the perforated pipes into the wells
and backfilling with gravel, or simply backfilling the 'well with gravel;
and (3) if desirable, connecting each riser to a pump or blower to
induce ventilation.   Section 4.17 discusses gas collection systems
whereby vertical risers are connected via a header to a central pump
or blower.   As mentioned in Section 4.15, risers can also be installed
in permeable trenches when there is a danger of freezing and sealing
of the trench surface.

     As in the case of permeable trenches, Stone (Reference 10) reports that
/ertical risers depending only on natural ventilation have been shown to
ie ineffective at many sites.   Alternatively, there are two types of
'orced flow or induced exhaust systems: high flow and low flow.   High
 low systems cause large volumes of gas to flow laterally through the land-
 ill and, consequently, through the exhaust system.   The negative
 ressure gradient created is also sufficient to draw atmospheric air
.hrough the cover material into the landfill.   This type of system pro-
/ides an effective barrier to gas migration.   However, high flow systems
entail several disadvantages:

           1.  explosion hazards are increased by'reducing
               methane concentrations from the normal 50%
               found in landfills toward the explosive
               range (5-15%);
                                   -79-

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        ",'iy,- PERFORATED PIPE
               Gas  Extractibn
                   Well   Design
FINE  SAND

COARSE GRAVEL
Source: Reference 11

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           2.  fire hazard from spontaneous combustion within the
               fill is increased by drawing oxygen into the nor-
               mally anaerobic environment,

           3.  methane recovery is made more difficult and expensive
               by dilution with air; and,

           4.  energy requirements, and, therefore, operating
               costs, are higher.

     Low flow systems also work by creating a negative pressure sys-
tem between wells which result in gas movement towards the riser
venting points.   This system differs from the high flow system by
providing only the minimum head differential required to establish
a negative pressure gradient towards the risers.   The low pumping
requirements and consequent lower difference in pressure between the
atmosphere and the waste mass result only in minimum intrusion of
atmospheric air into the landfilled waste.'   Consequently, low flow
systems as compared to high flow systems reduce potential fire and
explosion hazards, require less energy expenditures, and are more con-
ducive to methane gas recovery operations.

     Stone (Reference 10) compares induced exhaust systems to natural
ventilation vertical riser systems in terms of effectiveness,  maintain-
ability, and controllability.   When adequately designed and installed,
an induced exhaust system is considered a "fail-safe" means of methane
migration control, especially when wells are also installed in the
interior of the landfill.   While forced flow systems require more
maintenance, it is easier to detect failures and maintenance is less
hampered by lack of assessibility.

     It is also possible to control lateral gas migration by forcing
air into the landfill.    Such an induced recharge system can be
designed very similarly to induced exhaust systems.   Such systems
generally consist of a perforated header pipe in a surface-sealed,
gravel-filled trench connected to a central pump or blower.   The
system operates by displacing gases to the atmosphere by providing a
positive gradient in the landfill interior.   While the recharge system
generally requires less energy, and thus less operating expense, and
does not require incorporation of final gas disposal technologies, it
does preclude recovering the gas for energy use.   Furthermore, forcing
air into the landfill increases  the likelihood of explosion and fire
hazards as explained above for high flow induced exhaust systems
(Reference 10).   Additionally, under certain conditions, it is
theoretically possible for forced air systems to result in methane
migrations over longer distances than would normally be expected.  To
some degree this could be alleviated by the presence or provision of
impermeable barriers or permeable escape routes at the landfill site
perimeter.
                                 -81-

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4.16.22  Current Economic Costs
     Current economic costs for these technologies average
$0.90 ($1.01), $0.45 ($0.50), and $0.40 ($0.45) per ton (per metric
ton) for 10, 100, and 300 ton per day landfill sites respectively.
                4.16.3  Environmental Impact Summary
1.   Naturally vented vertical risers and low flow induced ex-
     haust systems can be effective at controlling lateral land-
     fill gas migration and therefore minimize both fire and ex-
     plosion hazards in buildings and conduits adjacent to the
     landfill site.

2.   High flow induced exhaust systems and induced recharge sys-
     tems can also effectively control lateral gas migration, thus
     reducing both fire and explosion hazards at and adjacent to
     the landfill site.   However, these systems also force air
     into the landfill, thereby reducing the methane concentration
     from the normal 50% found in the landfills toward the explosive
     range (5-15%).   These systems, then, increase the explosion
     hazards of the landfill site itself.   Both systems also
     increase the fire hazard from spontaneous combustion at the
     landfill site by supplying oxygen to the normally anaerobic
     environment.

3.   All of the vertical riser systems minimize vegetation kills
     which are due to landfill gas creating deleterious anaerobic
     conditions in the root zones.

4.   All of the vertical riser systems minimize the mineralization of
     ground water due to the formation of carbonic acid by dissol-
     ution of landfill generated carbon dioxide.

5.   All of the vertical riser systems minimize odor pollution of
     off-site areas due to the controlled, on-site release to the
     atmosphere of hydrogen sulfide and other gases.

6.   The manufacture, transport, and installation of all of the
     vertical riser systems entail a variety of secondary negative
     environmental impacts.
                                  -82-

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                     4.17  GAS COLLECTION SYSTEMS
                         4.17.1  Introduction
     Gas collection systems consist of vertical risers connected via
header pipes or permeable surface-sealed trenches generally equipped
with perforated header pipes.  Both types of systems are generally
equipped with a central pump or blower to facilitate gas collection.
Otherwise, these systems are designed, constructed, operated, and main-
tained similarly to vertical risers, permeable trenches, and induced
exhaust or induced recharge systems.  Likewise, gas collection systems
can minimize methane explosion hazards, vegetation kills, and minera-
lization of ground water.  (See Section 4.14 for a fuller discussion of
the causes, characteristics, and control of landfill gas generation and
migration.)

     The Guidelines describe induced exhaust well collection systems as
very effective when properly designed and installed; as not limited to
shallow landfills or shallow impermeable substrata; as allowing the options
of flaring or recovering the exhaust gases; and as requiring significant
maintenance.  The Guidelines describe induced exhaust trenches:as consis-
ting of surface-sealed, gravel-filled trenches equipped with perforated
header pipes connected to a pump or blower; as more effective than in-
duced exhaust wells, especially at shallow landfills; as requiring more
extensive construction; as potentially  requiring significant mainte-
nance: and'as less likely to be useable with recovery systems due to the
introduction of air.

     The Guidelines describe induced recharge trenches as being of the
same design as induced exhaust trenches,, but operating in reverse, sup-
pressing horizontal migration of methane via provision of a positive
pressure gradient beneath the landfill surface.  This results in dis-
persion of gases to the atmosphere across the trench and ground surface.
The Guidelines claim induced recharge trenches require less energy than
exhaust trenches, and that flaring is not necessary since the gases are
not concentrated.

     The following sections describe in more detail the technology and
environmental impacts of gas collection systems.
                                  -83-

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                       4.17.2  Technology Summary
4.17.21  Gas Control
     Given the technologies for permeable trenches, vertical  risers,
and for induced exhaust and induced recharge systems (see Sections 4.15
and 4.16), the technology of gas collection consists of:  (1) connecting
the vertical risers via a header pipe to a central  pump or blower for
induced exhaust; or (2) in the case of surface-sealed induced exhaust or
induced recharge trenches, connecting a perforated  header pipe to a cen-
tral pump or blower.   With the exception of one or the other of these
additional elements, gas collection system design,  construction, operation,
and maintenance is very similar to that of its component technologies of
vertical risers or permeable trenches, and induced  exhaust or induced re-
charge.   For this reason, gas collection systems involve virtually the
same advantages and disadvantages in terms of effectiveness,  maintainability,
and controllability as those listed for individual  components in Sections
4.15 and 4.16.
4.17.22  Current Economic Costs

     Current economic costs for these technologies average $2.50 (S2.80),
$0.55 ($0.62), and $0.30 ($0.34) per ton (per metric ton) for 10, 100, and
300 ton per day landfill sites, respectively.


                    4.17.3  Environmental  Impacts Summary
     Low flow induced exhaust collection systems can be effective at con-
     trolling lateral landfill  gas migration and therefore minimize both
     fire and explosion hazards adjacent to the landfill  site.

     High flow induced exhaust collection systems can also effectively
     control  lateral  landfill gas migration, thus reducing both fire and
     explosion hazards in buildings and conduits adjacent to the landfill
     site.   However, this type of system can draw air into the landfill,
     thereby reducing the methane concentration from the  normal 50% found
     in landfills toward the explosive range (5-15%).   Therefore,  the
     high flow systems increase the on-site explosion potential.   Both
     the low flow and the high flow induced exhaust collection  systems
     increase the fire hazard from spontaneous combustion at the landfill
     site by drawing  oxygen into the normally anaerobic environment
     (Reference 10).
                                    -84-

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 3.   All of the gas collection and recharge trench systems minimize vege-
      tation kills which are due to landfill gas creating anaerobic con-
      ditions in subsurface soil layers.

 4.   All of the gas collection and cecharge trench systems minimize the
      mineralization of ground water by restricting movement of carbon
      dioxide.

 5.   Gas collection and recharge trench  systems minimize odor pollution
      of off-siteareas due to the uncontrolled release to the atmosphere
      of hydrogen sulfide and other gases.

 6.   The manufacture, transport, and installation of gas collection and
      recharge trench systems entail a variety of secondary negative envi-
      ronmental  impacts.
                          4.18  ACCESS CONTROL

                          4.18.1  Introduction


      Because  of the  nature  of landfill  operations  and  the potential
 hazards  involved,  it is  important  to  control  access  to the site
 in order to ensure the safety and  health of personnel  and visitors.
 The  Guidelines  specify that a disposal  facility  should  be designed,
 constructed,  and operated to  permit strict supervision  of site
 access.   Access to  the  site  should be  controlled  and  should  be only
 by established  roadways.   Additional controls include  traffic  signs
 or markers to direct traffic  to and from the  discharge  area.

      The following section will detail  the functions of access  control
 and  specify design and construction methods.   The costs  of providing
 access control  are also  presented.   A  final  section will  assess  the
 environmental impacts of access control on various aspects of land-
 filling.

                         4.18.2  Technology Summary


4.18.21  Access Control  Functions
     The primary aim of access control is to prevent trespassing
and unauthorized use of the disposal site, which will enable land-
fill operators to maintain safe working conditions and protect the
health of personnel and visitors.  Peripheral fences are commonly
used to control or limit access, thereby preventing trespassing,
keeping children and animals out of potentially hazardous areas,
and discouraging vandalism and scavenging.  Fences also serve to
prevent unauthorized use of disposal sites and limit the types of
wastes accepted to those for which the landfill was specifically
designed.  Finally, certain fence types can provide a visual screen
for landfill operations and can consequently result in localized
aesthetic improvement.
                                  -85-

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     Additional access control is furnished by providing perma-
 nent and temporary roadways, and traffic signs or markers- that
 promote an orderly traffic flow to and from the discharge area.  In
 combination proper fences and road systems provide the measure of
 access control that will enable site operators to maintain efficient
 operating conditions.
4.18.22 Access Control Design and Construction
     Fencing used to control or limit access to landfill disposal
facilities may be permanent or portable, and may be constructed
of wood or chain links, wood, or other similar materials.    At
some locations it may be desirable to install several strands of
barbed wire on fence tops, projecting at an angle, to further dis-
courage trespassing and vandalism.  Peripheral fencing should
limit access to one or two gates that are clearly marked and can
be locked when the site is unattended.  Landfill sites should be
open only when operators or other supervisory personnel are on
duty.

     Fencing requirements are dependent on the degree of isolation
of the site location.  In areas adjacent to urban centers and resi-
dential developments, more expensive fencing may be required to
protect residents and children, and to screen landfill operations.
Landfills located in more isolated rural areas may need less ex-
pensive fencing or fencing only at entrances and other places of
possible unauthorized access.

     Permanent, all-weather roads should be constructed from the
public road system to the site.  Design of the roads should ac-
comodate the anticipated volume of delivery vehicles and other
vehicular traffic.  destruction and maintenance of the grade of
access roads should accomodate the limitations of the equipment.
Permanent on-site roads represent a higher initial cost than
temporary roads.  However, this cost can be balanced by overall
savings in equipment repair and maintenance.  Temporary roads
are more often used to connect permanent road systems to the con-
stantly changing location of the working face.


4.18.23  Current Economic Costs

     Provision of fencing as an upgrading technology currently costs
$0.90 ($1.01), $0.20 ($0.22), and $0.10 (SO.11) per ton (per metric
ton) for 10, 100, and 300 ton  per day landfill sites, respectively.
                           -86-

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                4.18.3  Environmental Impacts Summary
1.   Use of access control techniques aids in siting landfills in
     more densely populated areas by mitigating possible hazards
     to the health and safety of surrounding populations.  This
     results in positive environmental impacts because waste trans-
     port distances are minimized.

2.   Proper access controls limit trespassing, vandalism, scavenging
     and other disruptions to landfill operations, and prevent unauthor-
     ized dumping, thus allowing more efficient and environmentally
     beneficial use of the disposal  facility.

3.   Strict access controls, by limiting trespassing, not only promote
     efficiency in operations, but also contribute to maintaining safe
     working conditions, and the health and safety of personnel and
     visitors.

4.   Access controls can be employed to visually screen landfill
     sites,  and therefore promote a more aesthetic appearance to the
     landfill operations.
                               -87-

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                             4.19  SAFETY
                         4.19.1  Introduction
     A variety of operation and maintenance procedures contribute
towards providing  safety for personnel and visitors, and towards effi-
cient working conditions.  In addition to measures for fire control (Sec-
tion 4.20), vector control (Section 4.21), and access control (Section
4.18), the Guidelines present a number of specific recommendations for
ensuring safety at the disposal site.  For example, the Guidelines recom-
mend  that personal safety .devices such as hard hats, gloves, safety
glasses, and footwear should be provided to facility employees.  In gene-
ral, the Guidelines suggest that a landfill site be designed, constructed,
and operated in a manner so as to protect the health and safety of personnel
and users through compliance with relevant provisions of the Occupational
Safety and Health Act of 1970 (OSHA) (Public Law 91-596) and regulations
promulgated thereunder.

     The following sections further summarize applicable Guideline recommen-
dations and associated environmental impacts.
                      4.19.2  Technology Summary
4.19.21  Operation


     The main objective of implementing safety procedures is to maintain
the health and welfare of facility personnel and site visitors.  Addi-
tionally, safety measures contribute to lower costs through increased
efficiency of operations and decreased equipment maintenance.  In con-
junction with the aforementioned recommendations, the Guidelines speci-
fically suggest the following:

     1.   safety manuals should be provided and employees instructed
          in application of its procedures;

     2.   safety devices such as rollover protective structures and
          seat belts should be provided on all equipment used to spread
          and compact solid wastes;

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     3.   communications equipment should be available on site
          for emergency situations;

     4.   quantitative and qualitative records of solid wastes
          received and location of disposal  should be maintained;

     5.   a source of water should be provided on-site for fire
          and dust control and for employee  convenience;  and,

     6.   following closure of a completed landfill a long-term
          maintenance program should be initiated.
                4.19.3  Environmental  Impact Summary
1.   Incorporating safety measures in the design,  construction,  and oper-
     ation of a landfill  facility serves to promote the  safety of landfill
     personnel and users.
                                  -89-

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                          4.20  FIRE CONTROL
                         4.20.1  Introduction
     Although the open burning of wastes is prohibited at  all
landfills, fire hazards can still result from a variety of conditions.
Dumping of hot or burning waste loads or sparks from vehicles and land-
filling equipment can accidently ignite solid wastes.   Additionally, the
potential for heat energy generation by exothermic chemical reactions in
decomposing wastes results in conditions favoring spontaneous combus-
tion.  Therefore, solid wastes that can smolder or burn even after being
covered necessitate the on-site availability of some method of fire
control.

     The Guidelines, besides prohibiting open burning, recommend the
following measures to minimize fire hazards:

     1.   provisions should be made to extinguish any fires in wastes
          being delivered to the site or which occur at the working
          face or within equipment or personnel facilities;

     2.   a source of water should be provided at the disposal  facility
          and safety devices should include fire extinguishers to be
          provided on all equipment used to spread and compact solid
          wastes or cover material;  and,

     3.   cover material should be applied, as necessary, to minimize
          fire hazards.

     These measures, particularly the application of cover material as  a
fire control method  are discussed in more detail in subsequent sections.
                          4.20.2   Technology Summary



    4.20.21   Operation


         The major functions  of fire control are to maintain  safe working
    conditions and to promote efficient fill construction by  minimizing the
    initiation and spread of  waste combustion.    Secondarily, fire control
    protects air quality by minimizing contributions of participates  and
    other constituents from  burning wastes.
                                   -90-

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     In addition to supplying water and equipment to extinguish fires,
proper landfill design and construction can manipulate the two main con-
ditions that contribute to fire hazards:-the availability of flammable
material in the waste cell, and the availability of an oxygenated air
supply necessary to combustion.  With regard to the first condition,
landfills can be operated so that wastes regarded, as highly flammable
may be excluded or disposed of in a separate area utilizing special dis-
posal procedures such as immediate encapsulation with cover materials,
wetting, etc.  However, due to the highly variable nature of solid
wastes, and particualarly of municipal wastes, some flammable type
materials always exists in waste cells, so that this measure by itself
is not totally effective in controlling fire hazards.
     The second condition, the availability of oxygen for combustion,
can be successfully restricted by judicious and regular application of
cover material.   Well-compacted daily soil cover, as utilized to form the
floor, sidewalls, and top of a waste cell during fill construction, tends
to constitute an effective barrier to oxygen migration and also provides
for physical containment of any fire outbreak.

     The moisture content of cover material and of constituent solid
wastes is also important in minimizing initiation and spread of fire.   A
fine grained soil such as clay, which can absorb more water and maintain
a higher degree of saturation than coarse soils, results in reduced
oxygen migration into the waste mass.   Saturated cover soils are also
temporarily effective in stabilizing landfill  conditions approaching
spontaneous combustion or in extinguishing an  existing fire.   The moisture
content of waste fill is also an important factor in spontaneous combustion,
Although it is difficult to estimate the specific or average water content
of variable solid wastes, some studies indicate that when moisture levels
drop below 50% of the original water content,  conditions are favorable
for spontaneous combustion.   However, maintaining high soil  water content
by regular additions of water for the life of site may not be feasible due
to leachate generation considerations.

4.20.22  Current Economic Costs

     Current economic costs for fire control  average 50.04 ($0.04), $0.01
($0.01) and $0.01 ($0.01) per ton (metric ton) for 10, 100, and 300 ton per
day landfill sites, respectively.
                4.20.3   Environmental  Impact Summary
  1.    Fire  control  serves to minimize the accidental or spontaneous
       initiation and  spread of waste combustion, resulting  in  im-
       proved  safety of  landfilling operations and personnel, and
       improved  efficiency of operations.

  2.    Secondarily,  fire controls aid in rapid extinguishing of fires,
       which in  turn protects air quality by reducing contributions of
       particulates  and  gaseous emissions from burning refuse.
                                 -91-

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                         4.21  VECTOR CONTROL
                         4.21.1  Introduction
     The constituents of solid wastes, especially municipal wastes, may
provide a potential source of food and harborage for a variety of vectors.
These vectors, generally defined by the Guidelines as agents capable of
carrying and transmitting disease pathogens, can include rats, flies,
mosquitoes, and occasionally birds.  While a properly designed and con-
structed sanitary landfill minimizes animal attraction and vector breed-
ing, it may be necessary to institute additional vector control measures
to ensure the health and safety of persons on and around the disposal site.

     Towards this goal, the Guidelines suggest that disease and nuisance
vectors should be controlled at landfill disposal facilities through mini-
mization of food and harborage, by judicious application of cover materials
and through initiation of eradication programs if vector populations be-
come established.

     The remainder of this evaluation presents an overview of various
aspects of vector control methods and their impact on the environment.
                      4.21.2  Technology Summary
4.21.21  Operation


     The control of vector breeding and harborage functions mainly to
ensure the health of on-site personnel and adjacent communities by mini-
mizing carriers of disease pathogens.  The main objective of such control
then is to restrict the availability of food and harborage.  Along these
lines, daily and intermediate cover soils can be instrumental in imple-
menting effective vector control because they can provide durable and
complete coverage of solid wastes.

     Daily or more frequent applications of cover material are necessary
to deter burrowing animals such as rats and control the breeding of flies and
                                    -92-

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mosquitoes.  Rats and other burrowing animals are attracted to land-
fills by the availability of waste food scraps and shelter.  While daily
cover application can eliminate open exposure of solid wastes, burrowing
can continue, and the resulting tunnels damage the structural integrity
of the cover and may provide pathways for infiltration of surface waters.
This problem can be alleviated by selection of soil  types that will not
structurally support tunneling.

     Flies are also attracted by the availability of breeding areas and
food sources.  Well-graded and well-compacted soil cover will impede vec-
tor larvae emergence.  Studies have shown that 6 inches of daily cover is of
sufficient thickness to serve vector control functions.

     Since mosquitoes utilize water-filled areas for propagation, mosquito
control is best achieved by preventing development of stagnant water bodies
on the surface of the site.  Continuous grading may  be required to fill in
depressions resulting from incomplete compaction or  differential  settling
of wastes.

     Additionally, birds are attracted in large numbers by the availability
of food.   The problem can be minimized by quickly covering wastes with
a thick layer of cover material sufficient to discourage bird scavenging.

     In the event vector populations become established or show a seasonal
increase, extermination using insecticides and rodenticides may be nece-
ssary.   Such programs should be carefully controlled and monitored so
that they do not pose a health or safety hazard.
               4.21.3  Environmental Impact  Summary
    Vector control serves to promote safe working conditions and the
    health of persons on and around the disposal site by minimizing
    potential disease transmitting agents.
                                   -93-

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                          4.22  LITTER CONTROL
                          4.22.1  Introduction
     Due to the amounts of solid wastes handled and the nature of landfill
operation methods, disposal  sites must contend in varying degrees with the
problem of controlling litter on and around the site.   In regard to litter
control, the Guidelines specify only that, along with  its other functions,
cover material can be applied to minimize blowing litter.  However, the
Guidelines generally recommend that the landfill facility should be main-
tained in an aesthetic manner.  In addition, containment and cleanup  of
litter contributes to the safety of operations and personnel.

     The function of litter control and the various techniques that function
in that capacity are detailed in the following sections.  The evaluation
concludes with a summary of the current economic costs and the environmental
impacts of  litter control.
                       4.22.2  Technology Summary
4.22.21  Operation
     Solid waste, particularly pacer and other light density wastes, may
be subjected to wind or other elements as it is being transported, dis-
charged, and compacted  prior to actual  incorporation into the waste
cell.  This situation results in problems with blowing litter.  Contain-
ment and periodic cleanup  of such litter on and around the landfill
facility contributes mainly to maintaining an aesthetic appearance and
consequently contributes towards promoting   public acceptance of the
facility.

     The major objective in controlling blowing litter is to minimize the
amount of refuse exposed to wind and weather.  This can be effected by a
number of techniques including limiting the size of the working face,
proper application of cover materials in daily operations, provision of
temporary fencing, provision of regular maintenance operations, and pro-
hibition of indiscriminate dumping.

     Blowing litter can be minimized by keeping the size of the working
face at a nimimum; covering portions of the waste cell as it is constructed
serves the same function.
                                    -94-

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    To contain wastes that escape coverage at the working face, litter
fences can be placed downwind of the working face.  Since the location
of the working face is constantly shifting, such fences are usually
portable.  As a general rule, trench operations require less fencing
because the walls of the trench usually aid in confining solid wastes.
At a very windy trench site, a 4-foot fence will usually be sufficient
for litter control.  Area operations usually present a greater litter
problem and may require fences as high as 6 to 10 feet in order to contain
blowing wastes.

    Additionally, litter control requires periodic cleanup near the oper-
ating area and along roadways on or near the disposal  site.  The refuse
picked up, as well as any resulting from indiscriminate dumping, should
be returned to the working face to be covered near the daily close of
operations.


4.18.22 Current Economic Costs


    Current economic costs for the provision of litter control are $0.05
($0.06), $0.01 ($0.01), and $0.01 ($0.01) per ton (metric ton) for 10,
100, and 300 ton per day landfill sites, respectively.
                    4.22.3  Environmental  Impact Summary
1.   Litter control  measures enable landfill  facilities to present a
    more aesthetic appearance which may facilitate public acceptance
    of the site.
                                    -95-

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                           4.23  GAS MONITORING
                         4.23.1  Introduction
    A landfill gas monitoring program evaluates methane gas migration
to evaluate the effectiveness or requirements for on-site gas control
measures.  The Guidelines call for monitoring all on-site enclosed
structures to detect potential hazardous explos.ive conditions.  The
Guidelines also recommend monitoring gas migration and explosive con-
ditions at the landfill property boundary.
                          4.23.2  Technology Summary
4.23.21  Gas Control
    Methane monitoring should occur at regularly spaced intervals
around the landfill  perimeter and at any buildings or other enclosed
structures on or immediately adjacent to the landfill site, where
feasible.   Samples should be taken at depth intervals from the immed-
iate subsurface down to the landfill base.   Points below the water
table or otherwise similarly isolated do not require monitoring.

    Sampling frequencies must be determined on a site-by-site basis
but should generally be completed at least quarterly.  Monthly monitoring
should occur when gas migration is more probable as for example during
periods of frozen cover.  More urgent situations where landfill gas is
posing a potential hazard may require daily monitoring.

    Gas sampling devices include both permanent probe installations
(See Figure 4-7) and portable probe samplers.   (See Figure 4-8).   Both
types draw samples from the soil pore spaces by utilizing vacuum force.
Permanent probe installations must be sealed at the surface to prevent air-
contamination of the soil air sample.  Care must be exercised not to cross
contaminate samples  taken at several depth intervals in the same sampling
location.   Portable  samplers are hand-driven and can normally extract
samples to only 5 feet deep.

    Detailed gas analysis generally occurs in a laboratory via utilization
of a gas partitioner.  Several constitutents,  however, such as methane,
carbon dioxide, and  oxygen can be analyzed in the field utilizing portable
devices incorporating electrovoltaic components.
                                     -96-

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                             •BOREHOLE  ANNULUS
                      WATER TABLE
                                 V
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IMPERMEABLE PLUGS


PEA GRAVEL


BOREHOLE  CUTTINGS
                                               FIGURE 4-7
            Multi-Level  Permanent

            Gas  Probe   Installation
Source: Reference 11

              91

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\
/
   -INLET
   •HARDENED  STEEL
   SLIDING TIP -
   WHEN DRIVEN BACK
   STEEL TIP SLIDES
   TO OPEN PROBE.
                             • GAS SAMPLING
                              CHANNEL  CLOSED


                              SLIDE  HAMMER
                              • GAS  SAMPLING
                              PORT
                           •l"0 DRILL STEEL
                                                       GAS  SAMPLING
                                                      •DETACHABLE
                                                  j    HAMMER
                                                       SHAFT ( IS "or 36"}
X
INLET

PROBE  TIP
•LEGENO-

•  GAS MOVEMENT
                                            FIGURE 4-8
                      Source: Reference 11.
                                           Portable  Gas
                                     Sampling  Probes
                                           (Schematics)

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4.23.22   Current Economic Costs
     Current economic costs for the technology average  $0.15
($0.17), $0.03  ($0.03)., and $0.01 ($0.01) per ton (per metric.
ton) for 10,  100,  and 300 ton  per day landfill  sites,  respectively.
             4.23.3 Environmental Impact  Summary
     To the extent that a landfill  gas monitoring program im-
proves the effectiveness of the implemented landfill gas con-
trol  measures, it:

     1. Minimizes fire and explosion hazard in buildings
        and other enclosures on or near the landfill site.

     2. Minimizes vegetation kills due to the creation of
        anaerobic conditions in the root zones of some
        oxygen-sensitive plant species.

     3. Minimizes the mineralization of ground water due
        to the dissolution of carbon dioxide in ground-
        water to form carbonic acid.

     4. Minimizes odor pollution of off-site areas due to
        the potential off-site release of hydrogen sul-
        fide to the atmosphere.
                            -99-

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                       4.24  LEACHATE MONITORING
                         4.24.1  Introduction
     Landfill leachate is monitored primarily to facilitate the protec-
tion of ground and surface water resources beneath and adjacent to the
landfill site before, during and after landfill operation.  A leachate
monitoring program detects and evaluates existing or potential pollution
caused by leachate by periodically measuring the extent and rate of
leachate migration from the landfill site, and the degree and nature of
leachate contamination.  This inf'-r.ration can aid in determining the
need for and nature of leachate c -.truls, and in evaluating their effec-
tiveness once they are implemented.   As such, leachate monitoring functions
in long-term landfill site environmental protection and in the detection
and abatement of imminent contamination hazards.

     The Guidelines call for monitoring groundwater and leachate para-
meters at those landfill sites having the potential for discharge to
drinking water supply aquifers.  The Guidelines refer to EPA's "Procedures
for Groundwater Monitoring at Solid Waste Disposal Facilities" for further
information  (Reference 12).  In that document, EPA recommends leachate
monitoring prior to landfill operation to  obtain  baseline data, and at
least annual leachate sample analysis from all monitorina wells.  Finally,
the proposed Guidelines suggest following the leachate samele analysis
methods described in EPA's "Guidelines Establishing Test Procedures for
the Analysis of Pollutants" (40 CFR Part 136).

     The following discusses in more detail  the technology and environ-
mental impacts of leachate monitoring.
                      4.24.2  Technology Summary
4.24.21  Leachate Control
     Leachate monitoring aids in developing long and short term pre-
dictive models for environmental impacts of landfills under varying
hydrogeological and climatic conditions.  Several types of leachate
monitoring technologies can be identified, including both active and
passive types.  Active monitoring involves continuous pumping at wells
intercepting potentially contaminated groundwater flow, and is best
suited for point source groundwater contamination due to spills or tank
leaks.  Several disadvantages of active leachate monitoring include
(Reference 12):
                              -100-

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          1.    the larger ( in area ) the contaminant source, the
               greater the number of pumping wells required to in-
               tercept groundwater flow;

          2.    disposal of the pumped water can pose a problem,
               especially when the water is contaminated;

          3.    over a period of years, cumulative pumping costs
               and well maintenance costs may be high;

          4.    pumping may accelerate the spread of leachate
               through the aquifer, and the monitoring system
               may eventually become a pumped withdrawal system; and,

          5.    improper selection of screen depth could prevent
               the well from intercepting the leachate plume.'

     Passive leachate monitoring techniques include well monitoring in
the zones of both aeration and saturation, field inspection and other
methods. These approaches minimize groundwater flow pattern disruptions,
and are discussed more completely herein.

     Passive monitoring involves periodical sampling at stations located
in the path of groundwater flow for changes in the concentrations of
chemical constituents of groundwater.  Prior to monitoring, hydrogeologic
studies, especially geophysical  resistivity studies should be conducted
to establish the setting and most effective permanent monitoring system
design.  Data to be gathered include (Reference 12):

          1.    groundwater flow direction;

          2.    distribution of permeable and impermeable ground material;

          3.    permeability and porosity;

          4.    present or future effects of pumping on the flow
               system; and,

          5.    background water quality.

     The  information is best determined by field inspection, but can be
obtained more economically from  already published information.   From
this site specific data, a monitoring station network can be designed.
EPA suggests that a minimally acceptable monitoring network should con-
sist of (Reference 12):

          1.    one line of three wells downgradient from the land-
               fill and situated at an angle perpendicular to ground-
               water flow, penetrating the entire saturated thickness
               of the aqu.ifer;
                                   -101-

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          2.  one well immediately adjacent to the downgradient edge of
              the filled area, screened so that it intercepts the water
              table; and,

          3.  a well completed in an area upgradient from the landfill
              so that it will not be affected by potential  leachate
              migration.

The size- of the landfill, hydrogeologic environment, and budgetary restrict-
ions are factors which will dictate the actual number of wells used.  However,
every effort should be made to have a minimum of three wells at each landfill
and no less than one downgradient well for every 250 ft. (76 meters) of land-
fill frontage.

     A station, located in or adjacent to the landfill, can act as an early
warning that leachate is reaching the groundwater table and monitoring at
downgradient points should be intensified, possibly by adding more sampling
locations or by utilizing more comprehensive analysis techniques.

     The particular type, design, installation, and use of individual moni-
toring stations varies and depends upon site hydrogeologic conditions,  eco-
nomics, and the purpose of the monitoring.  For example monitoring in the
zone of aeration may occur when (Reference 12):

          1.  scientific research such as measurement of attenuation
              is involved;

          2.  there are unusual geologic or hydrologic considerations;

          3.  extremely toxic chemicals are suspected in the leachate
              which would demand closer attention; and,

          4.  sampling is to be used as an early-warning system to
              check the effectiveness of engineering techniques.

Aeration zone monitoring techniques include soil  analysis,  pressure vacuum
lysimeters, and trench lysimeters.

     Monitoring in the zone of saturation must consider groundwater flow
characteristics as well as soil-leachate interactions,  techniques include:
(1) wells screened or open over a single vertical  interval  (Figure 4-9);
(2) piezometers (Figure 4-10); (3) well clusters  (Figure 4-11); (4) single-
wells with multiple sample points; (5) sampling during drilling,  and (6)
pore-water extraction from core samples.  Detailed descriptions of the  design,
installation, and sampling methodologies for each  of these techniques is be-
yond the scope of thie EIS (the reader is referred to Reference 12).  Table
4-8 presents EPA's evaluation of the advantages and disadvantages of each of
the above techniques.
                                      -102-

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                         FIGURE  4-9

               TYPICAL  MONTIORING WELL SCREENED
               UVER A SINGLE  VERTICAL INTERVAI
                                               CAP
LAND  SURFACE
BOREHOLE
SCHEDULE 40 PVC
CASING
SLOTTED SCHEDULE
40 PVC SCREEN
                                               LOW PERMEABILITY
                                               BACKFILL
                                               GRAVEL  PACK
                                                   WATER TABLE
  Source:  Reference 12.
                          -103-

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                                FIGURE 4-10

                     DETAILS OF A LOW COST PIEZOMETER
                MODIFIED FOR COLLECTION OF WATFR SAMPLES
PRESSURE-VACUUM
LINE
LOW PERMEABILITY
MATERIAL
BOREHOLOE
POROUS OR SLOTTED
PVC PIPE
CHECK VALVE
SAND BACKFILL
DISCHARGE LINE

LAND SURFACE
                                                   POLYETHYLENE TUBING
                                                  END CAP
                                                  "T"AND ELBOW FITTINGS
                                                   SAMPLE COLLECTION
                                                   CHAMBER
                                                  END CAP
 Source: Reference 12.
                               -104-

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o
<_n
i
E -

O O

             CD

             I
             H  O O
             a.  K) o
             ui
             a
                                                      FIGURE  4-11

                                          TYPICAL WELL CLUSTER CONFIGURATIONS
                              O DEPTH
                                 12 meters
                                 (40 ft.)
                     O DEPTH
                       24 meters
                       (80 ft.)
                           DEPTH
                           30m«l«rt
                           (100 ft.)
                   DEPTH
                 6 meter*
                   (20 ft.)
                                          DEPTH
                                          I8m«ten
                                          (60 ft.)
                               PLAN VIEW
ss
                                       a> u>
                          -^  LAND
                         6SfSUR-

                              FACE
*CO   few f5t

     "l? f_f'
pO^!S»5lP*^
                                                     WATER
                                                      TABLE
                                                     SCREENED
                                                     INTERVAL
 SECTION  VIEW

(After Yare,  1975):
WELL CASINGS
                                     LAND SURFACE
LARGE
DIAMETER
BOREHOLE
                                                                 SAND
                                                                 BACKFILL
                                                                 IN SCREENED
                                                                 INTERVAL
                                       LOW
                                       PERMEABILITY
                                       MATERIAL
             Source:  Reference 12.

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                        TABLE  4-8

       PASSIVE LEACHATE MONITORING WELL TECHNIQUES FOR
   SAMPLING  IN THE SATURATED ZONE, ADVANTAGES AMD DISADVANTAGES
    Well Screened or Open Over a Single Vertical Interval
        Advantages
Small diameter, shallow wells
are quick and easy to install.
Can provide composite ground-
water samples if screen covers
saturated thickness of aquifer.

Can be drilled by a variety of
methods.
      Disadvantages
No information is given on
the vertical distribution
of the contaminant.

Improper completion depth
can cause error in deter-
mining leachate distribution.

Screening over much of the
aquifer thickness can contri-
bute to vertical movement of
contaminant.

Leachate may become diluted
in the composite sample, re-
sulting in lower than actual
concentrations.
                         Piezometers
Sample is collected from a
selected vertical section
of the aquifer.

If properly constructed, tech-
nique prevents downward migra-
tion of leachate in borehole.

Can be installed inexpensively
and rapidly if casing diameter
is small.

Modification of an engineering
piezometer will allow vertical
sampling of contaminant.
Restricted number of drilling
methods.
Improper completion depths can
cause error in determination
of leachate distribution.

Improper construction can con-
tribute vertical  migration of
contamination.
                                -106-

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                          TABLE 4-8 (continued)
                             Well Clusters
             Advantages
     Simple installation does not
     always require hiring a dril-
     1 ing contractor.
     Excellent vertical sampling
     made possible if sufficient
     number of wells are con-
     structed.
     "Tried and true" methodology,
     accepted and used in most con-
     tamination studies where ver-
     tical sampling is required.

     Low cost if only a few wells per
     cluster are involved and if
     the drilling contractor has
     equipment suitable for instal-
     lation of small-diameter wells.
                                              Disadvantages
                                        If only a few wells are in-
                                        stalled, large vertical
                                        sections of the aquifer are
                                        unsampled.   Artificial  con-
                                        straint on  data by completion
                                        depths.

                                        If jetting  rigs or augers are
                                        used, installations are usual-
                                        ly limited  to total depths of
                                        38 to 46 meters (125 to 150
                                        feet).

                                        Small diameter wells can be
                                        used only for monitoring.
                                        They cannot be used in  abate-
                                        ment schemes.

                                        In small-diameter wells, devel-
                                        opment  and  sample collection .
                                        become  tedious and difficult if
                                        water level is below suction
                                        lift.
                 Single Well  -- Multiple Sample Points
3.


4.
Excellent information is gained
on vertical distribution of the
contaminant.

If necessary, well diameter is
large enough to use in a pumped-
withdrawal pollution abatement
program.

Sampling depths are limited only
by the size of the sampling pump.

Rapid installation possible.
                                             Expensive.
                                             Proper well  construction and
                                             sampling procedures are cri-
                                             tical  to successful application.
                                   -107-

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                          TABLE 4-8 (concluded)
                       Sampling During Drilling
             Advantages
1.   The best technique currently
     available for defining verti-
     cal distribution of contami-
     nants in thick aquifers.

2.   Completed well can be used for
     water-quality monitoring and/or
     pumped withdrawal of contami-
     nant.
           Disadvantages
1.   Considerably expensive.
     Careful supervision of drilling
     and sampling is necessary.
                                             Potential cross-contamination
                                             of samples exists.
                Pore-Water Extraction from Core Samples
1.   Generally inexpensive.
2.   Pore water extract is amenable
     to field chemical analyses
     such as:  chloride concentra-
     tion and specific conductivity.

3.   Excellent vertical sampling
     when mud invasion into core
     sample is monitored.

4.   Samples can be obtained from
     almost any depth when wire-
     line coring apparatus is used.

5.   Qualitative use of pore water
     extract allows for presence/
     absence determination.

6.   Can be used with consolidated
     rock as well as unconsolidated
     sediment samples.
1.   Quantitative analysis requires
     careful control during sample
     collection.

2.   Interstitial water can drain
     from unconsolidated sand and
     gravel reducing volume of the
     collected water sample.

3.   Core recovery  in coarse sand
     and gravel  can be difficult
     and time consuming.

4.   Small  sample volume available
     for chemical analysis.
5.   Can be expensive.
 Source:   Reference 12.
                                -108-

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     Leachate monitoring in the aerated and saturated zones can be
economically supplemented by field inspection techniques for evidence of
leachate contamination.  These methods include inspection for seeps and
vegetation stress, determination of Soil specific conductance, tempera-
ture,and electrical earth resistivity, and seismic  surveys.  Table
 4-9   lists the advantages and disadvantages of each of the above.
Additional leachate monitoring techniques include surface water quality
measurements, aerial photographic interpretation, and geophysical well
logging  (see Table 4-10).

     A program for leachate monitoring must specify sampling frequencies
and sampling parameters.  According to EPA, sampling frequency depends
on such factors as (Reference 12}:

           1.  Characteristics of groundwater flow;

           2.  The location and purpose of the particular monitoring
               wel 1;

           3.  Trends in the monitoring data;

           4.  Legal and institutional data needs; and

           5.  Climatological characteristics-
Environment and Fisheries Canada, however, has generalized potential
sampling frequencies for sites where groundwater contamination has not
been evidenced, as follows.(Reference 13):
               Calculated Groundwater             Sampling
               Velocity (ft/yr)	              Frequency

                       75                         annually

                  75   to  150                    semi-annually

                      150                         quarterly


     Prior to landfill operation, seasonal samples should be collected
and analyzed for nitrogen, heavy metals, sulfates, hardness, alkalinity,
pH, BOOg, COD (or TOC) and specific conductance.  When the landfill
operation has commenced, samples should be taken especially at wells
nearest the operation.  Initial routine sampling need consider only such
key parameters as total dissolved solids, electrical conductivity,
chlorides, and possibly hardness.  If a change of significance occurs in
one or more of these key variables, then a more comprehensive sample
analysis should be performed for hardness, alkalinity, pH, iron, sulfate,
chloride, specific conductance, BODs, COD (or TOC), and any other site
specific chemicals which may reflect landfill content and condition.  A
long-term, post-closure leachate monitoring scheme may extend several

                                -109-

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                             TABLE  4-9

        PASSIVE LEACHATE MONITORING FIELD INSPECTION TECHNIQUES.
                     ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
                                General
             Advantages
1.    Can be carried out quickly and
     inexpensively.

2.    Helps place the overall  problem
     in perspective.
     Establishes the extent of addi-
     tional investigations which may
     be required.

     When combined with a literature
     survey on available data, in-
     spection procedure may be used
     by an experienced hydrologist
     to roughly establish the over-
     all situation.
           Disadvantages
1.   Untrained inspector may over-
     look subtle but valuable data.

2.   Findings are not always con-
     clusive in detecting ground-
     water contamination.

3.   Time factors are not indicated
     relative to condition changes.
     Few, if any, analyses or actual
     physical  measurements are made.
1.   Where present,  definite indi-
     cation of leachate generation.

2.   Convenient point of collection
     for leachate sample.
     Changes in flow rates  or loca-
     tions of seeps are indicative
     of internal  landfill  changes.
     May not indicate presence of
     contaminated groundwater

     Chemical  quality not neces-
     sarily representative of bulk
     of leachate in the landfill or
     entering  the groundwater
Source:  Reference 12.
                              -110-

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                   TABLE  4*-9 (continued)
                      Vegetation Stress
        Advantages
Qualitative indicator of leach-
ate and gas contamination.
Mapping extent of stressed
vegetation may provide an indi-
cation of the limits and source
of contamination.
Stressed vegetation can be
mapped remotely by aerial
photographic methods, allowing
wide coverage in a short period
of time.
Stress change is a good indi-
cator for monitoring purposes.
More effective if selected
species are planted, then
observed.
      Disadvantages
Evidence of stressed vegeta-
tation, especially in early
stages, is not always evident
except to a trained, botanist.

Stress may be caused by many
factors, some unrelated to the
presence of the landfill.
Determination of the responsible
factor or factors is usually ex-
tremely difficult.

Certain stresses will not occur
unless physical or chemical
change occurs at the surface or
within the vadose zone.  There-
fore, it provides no indication
of problems at depth.
         Specific Conductance and Temperature Probes
Providing equipment is properly
calibrated and insertion proce-
dures carefully implemented,
positive determination as to
presence and degree of contami-
nation can be made.

Provides accessibility to other-
wise restricted areas, such as
marsh or swampland.
Not an absolute method.  Equip-
ment subject to malfunctioning,
causing erroneous information.
Equipment must be checked for
malfunctioning against a stan-
dard solution.

Requires hiring personnel trained
in the use and handling of the
equipment.
                             -Ill-

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                         TABLE 4-9  (concluded)
                     Electrical  Earth  Resistivity
             Advantages
     Definition  of  subsurface  geol-
     ogy and  contaminated water
     bodies can  be  derived  at  a
     faster and  cheapter rate  than
     drilling.

     Greatly  reduces  the number  of
     sampling wells required.
                                  Disadvantages
     Surveys  can
     odically to
     data.
be duplicated peri-
provide monitoring
                       1.   Indirect method.   Requires
                            some substantiation by
                            drilling.
2.   Many natural and man-made
     field conditions preclude
     resistivity surveys.

3.   Data interpretation in complex
     situations is often question-
     able.

4.   Background data on natural -
     water quality are prerequisite.
                           Seismic Surveys
     Can  provide  subsurface geologic
     information  must  faster and
     cheaper  than drilling.

     Can  be used  to extend geologic
     data over  broad areas on a
     limited  budget.

     Can  be used  in certain areas
     where access for  a drilling rig
     would be difficult.
                       1.
                       2.
                       3.
                                       4.
                                       5.
     Provides no direct information
     about leachate.
     Requires more direct substanti-
     ation such as drilling.
     In complex geologic formations,
     interpretation is difficult and
     substantial  errors may occur.

     Requires the hiring of a trained
     person and the use of a computer
     to reduce and interpret data.
                            Subject  to  noise  interference
                            many  field  situations.
                                   in
Source:   Reference 12.
                                   -112-

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                        TABLE  4-10

        OTHER PASSIVE LEACHATE MONITORING TECHNIQUES.
                ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
             Surface Water Quality Measurements
        Advantages
Useful in locating leachate
discharge points.
Can be a quick and inexpensive
means of estimating environ-
mental impact of the landfill.
      Disadvantages
Surface water may be subject
to contamination from other
sources not defined.

Dilution may be too great to
provide useful information.
                     Aerial Photography
Frequently can detect stressed
vegetation which indicates
contamination.

Can be used to prepare contour
maps relatively inexpensively.
Also provides certain geologic
information.

Much less costly than a detailed
ground survey of vegetation
stress.

Yearly photographs can provide
unbiased and indisputable evi-
dence of surface changes such
as:  landfill configuration,
vegetation conditions, and sur-
face water body locations.

Can be used to precisely map
key wells and sampling points
of the landfill site.

Enables a quick familiarization
of the landfill site conditions
without visiting the site.
Availability of aerial photo-
graphs and photographic ser-
vices is sometimes limited.

Little information concerning
sub-surface conditions.
Little indication as to pre-
cise causes of detected sur-
face changes.
                                   -113-

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                          TABLE 4-10 (concluded)
                       Geophysical Well Logging


	Advantages	    	Disadvantages	

1.   Provides back-up data to sub-      1.   Requires special equipment and
     stantiate driller's and geolo-          the hiring of trained operators;
     gist's log of borehole.                 thus, adding considerable ex-
                                             pense.

2.   Allows a more accurate deter-      2.   Is not an absolute for quanti-
     mination of depth to formation          tative hydrogeologic determi-
     change than might be achieved           nations.
     with routine sampling.

3.   Allows a rough geological log
     to be constructed from an
     existing well that was not
     logged when drilled.

4.   May be useful in locating top
     and bottom of a contaminated
     ground water  body.
 Source:   Reference  12.
                                    -114-

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decades.  If long-term monitoring takes place,  a thorough sample analysis
of the kind discussed above should be performed at least every two years
(Reference 13). It has been suggested that leachate monitoring can be
terminated if, at the landfill  property boundary or other agreed upon dis-
tance from the landfill, the chloride concentration is reduced or has
stabilized to 50 parts per million above background, or if drinking water
standards are met, whichever test is more restrictive (Reference 12).

    Details of leachate sample  withdrawal, preservation, storage, and
analysis are beyond the scope of this EIS.  The reader is referred to
Reference 12 and 13.
4.24.23  Current Economic Costs

    Current economic costs for leachate monitoring average $ 0.60 ($0.67),
$0.10 ($0.11), and $0.05 ($0.06) per ton (per metric ton)  for 10, 100,  and
300 ton per day landfill sites, respectively.
                 4.24.3  Environmental  Impacts Summary
     Leachate monitoring data can aid in determining the need for and nature
     of leachate controls at new or existing landfill  sites,  and can facil-
     itate the evaluation of their effectiveness once they are implemented.
     The ultimate environmental  effect of leachate monitoring, then, is the
     protection of ground and surface water resources  adjacent to the landfill
     site.
                                  -115-

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                            4.25  REVEGETATION
                          4.25.1  Introduction
    Natural vegetation serves several vital functions including physically
stabilizing earth materials, reducing precipitation infiltration, and
eihancing the appearance of a site.  Revegetation is the process of reesta-
blishing viable grasses, shrubs, trees, and other vegetation after the com-
pletion of a waste fill and .placement of the final earth cover.

    The Guidelines recommend that a "completed landfill  should be covered
with 15 cm of clay with permeability less than 1 X 10-7 cm/sec or the
equivalent, followed by a minimum cover of 45 cm of top soil to complete
the final cover and support vegetation."  Depending on the depth of veget-
ation roots, an even greater depth of top soil may be required. The Guide-
lines further specify that vegetation aids leachate control by minimizing
erosion and maximizing evapotranspiration, and aids runoff control by
encouraging runoff while still minimizing erosion of cover soil on sloped
surfaces.

    The following sections will discuss in more detail the specific functions
fulfilled by revegetation, and the design and construction considerations
necessary for successful revegetation implementation.  In conclusion, the
evaluation summarizes the current economic costs of and the environmental
impacts of revegetation.
                          4.25.2  Technology Summary
4.25.21  Leachate Control
    Revegetation Functions.  Revegetation plays a role in leachate control
by reducing precipitation infiltration via evaporative processes and by mini-
mizing rates of runoff.  Lack of vegetative cover results in uncontrolled
water and wind erosion of cover material.  Vegetation functions to stabilize
cover materials, impede erosion, and maintain cover integrity, consequently,
infiltration into the waste mass due to loss of cover integrity is minimized.

    Revegetation Design and Construction.  The design and implementation of
revegetation processes begins with preparation of the final  cover to provide
support for vegetative growth.  It is the uppermost layer of top soil  that is
most important in designing revegetation plans for completed landfill  sites.
Relevant factors to be considered include the composition or type of soil
utilized, the soil's physical, chemical, and biological  properties, and the
depth or thickness of the top soil layer.  Soil type should be  compatible
                                  -116-

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 with  the planned vegetations nutrient and other requirements.  Soils such as
 clay   loam or silty loam have been suggested as suitable for a large variety
 of plant growth. Analyses of soil sample fertility and pH may be useful in
 determining plant type for optimum growth.

     The required depth of soil for effective revegetation depends upon the'
 type  of cover vegetation selected.  Plants such as native grasses have shallow
 root  systems and may need only 2 feet or less of top soil, while larger trees
 with  deep tap root systems may require as much as 8 to 12 foot thicknesses of
 top soil.

     The nature of plant root systems is also important in determining the speed
 of vegetation establishment and the degree of cover soil stabilization that can
 be achieved and maintained.  Vegetation with shallow but dense root systems
 such  as hay, meadow grasses, rye, and other native grasses, lend themselves
 to revegetation because they establish quickly, are more effective for surface
 stabilization, are inexpensive and are easy to maintain.  Table 4-11 lists
 examples of grasses and shrubs with extensive shallow root systems that can
 provide these desired properties.  Other plants, including legumes such as
 clover, or crops such as alfalfa, have deeper lateral root  systems usually
 requiring up to 4 feet of top soil, and are more effectively used for stab-
 ilizing sloped areas.  Shrubs and trees with large tap root systems are
 generally not recommended for landfill revegetation because planned depths
 of top soil layers are usually not thick enough to sustain these root systems.

     In addition, plants must be selected to accomodate a number of local
 growth factors.  Climate and soil fertility are two major factors affecting
 the success of revegetation efforts.   Native species are more likely to be
 acclimated to the amount of rainfall  and other seasonal conditions unique to
 the site.  On the other hand, soil fertility can be influenced by adding
 nutrients in the form of organic or commerically prepared fertilizers. Organic
 fertilizers are preferred because they improve the soil structure and release
 nutrients at a slower rate.

     Finally,  the actual  process  of revegatation entails preparation of the
soil  surface prior to planting, including grading and spreading fertilizer,
and the application of some cover such as mulch following planting to provide
interim soil  stabilization.   Where grasses or crops have been selected, hvdro-
seeding, a technique of spraying  a mixture of seeds, soil  supplements, and
water, is an efficient and cost-effective method of planting.

4.24.22  Runoff Control
     While it is desirable to maximize surface runoff in order to reduce infil-
tration, increased runoff can pose substantial erosion and pollution problems.
Revegatation addresses these problems because it can assist in control of runoff
while stabilizing landfill cover material, especially on sloped surfaces.  Its
main function in runoff control, then, is to reduce potential erosion and minimize
the amounts of sediment that are accumulated in surface runoff.
                                   -117-

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                              TABLE 4-11
         SuME GRASSES AND SHRUBS WITH EXTENSIVE ROOT SYSTEMS
Alpine Rockcress
Arrowwood Viburnum
Bittersweet
Bristly Locust
Chinese Matrimony Vine
Creeping Cotoneaster
Drooping Leucothoe
Dryland Blueberry
English Ivy
Fragrant Sumac
Grape
Heather
Henry Honeysuckle
Japanese Barberry
Japanese Spurge
Kentucky Bluegrass
Kudzu Vine
Leadwort
Lowbush Blueberry
Moss Phlox
Mountain Sandwort
Nannyberry Viburnum
New Jersey Tea
Periwinkle
Prarie Rose
Red Osier Dogwood
Rock Cotoneaster
Scotch Broom
Silver Vein Creeper
Thyme
Turfing Daisy
Virginia Creeper
Virginia Rose
White Chinese Indigo
Wintercreeper
Yellowroot
Source: Reference 14
                                     -118-

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 4.25.23  Other Functions


      In addition to leachate, gas,  and runoff control,  revegetation techniques
 serve an aesthetic function in enhancing the final  appearance and use of the
 completed site.  Landfill  design and planning can provide vegetation that will
 complement the planned ultimate use.

      In a different vein,  problems  with revegetation can function as an indi-
 cator of landfill  generated gas migration or other degradation related prob-
 lems.  Some of these are:

      1.   concentrations of methane, carbon dioxide,.and other
           toxic gases can  migrate vertically to the atmosphere
           through  cover soil or laterally through permeable sub-
           strata to areas  adjacent  to the site.  These  gases can
           displace oxygen  supplies  necessary to plant growth, and
           can alter soil properties and quality.   Studies show
           many instances of correlation between subsurface con-
           centrations of gases and  damage to vegetation on and
           around the site; and,

      2.   elevated soil temperatures resulting from subsurface
           spontaneous combustion reactions have also been cor-
           related  to poor  vegetation growth.
 4.25.24  Current Economic Costs


     Revegatation of 10 TPD, 100   TPD, and 300 TPD landfill  sites currently
costs approximatley $0.25 ($0.28), $0.10 ($0.11), and $0.10  ($0.11) per dis-
posed ton (per metric ton).

                 4.25.3  Environmental Impact Summary


     1.    Revegatation techniques  physically stabilize surface soil
          and minimize water erosion,  therefore reducing the potential
          for siltation of receiving  surface waters  by surface runoff
          discharge.

    2.   Potentially reduced infiltration due to evaporative processes
         resulting from revegetation also serves to minimize leachate and
         gas generation and subsequent impacts on the adjacent environ-
         ment.

    3.   Revegetation improves the aesthetic appear?r.ce of the site
         and enhances its final use.
                                    -119-

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                           REFERENCES CITED
1.   Brunner, D.R. and D.J. Keller.   Sanitary landfill  design and
     operation.  [Washington], U.S.  Environmental  Protection Agency,
     1972.  59 p.

2.   Lutton, R.J. and G.I. Regan.   Selection and design of cover for
     solid waste; interim report.   Municipal Environmental Research
     Laboratory, Cincinnati (Interagency Agreement No.  EPA-IAG-D7-
     01097). 153 p.

3.   Stewart, W.S.  State-of-the-art study of landfill  impoundment
     techniques.  Cincinnatti, U.S.  Environmental  Protection Agency,
     October 1978.  77 p.

4.   Haxo, H.E., Jr., R.S. Haxo, and R.M. White.  Liner materials ex-
     posed to hazardous and toxic  sludges; first interim report.  Cin-
     cinnati, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, June 1977.   63 p.

5.   Shilesky, D.M. et al.  1st draft final report; solid waste landfill
     practices, Washington, U.S. Environmental  Protection Agency, Sep-
     tember 1978.  Various pagings.

6.   Griffin, R.A. and N.F. Shimp.   Attenuation of pollutants on muni-
     cipal landfill-leachate by clay minerals.   Cincinnati, U.S. Envi-
     ronmental Protection Agency,  August 1978.   147 p.

7.   Chian, E.S.K. and F.B. DeWalle.   Evaluation of leachate treatment;
     volume I and II; biological and physical-chemical  processes.  EPA-
     600/2-77-186b.  Cincinnati, Municipal Environmental  Research Labora-
     tory,  Nov. 1977.  245 p.

8.   Chian, E.S.K. and F.B. DeWalle.   Sanitary  landfill  leachates and
     their treatment.  Journal of  the Environmental Engineering Division,
     ASCE, 102(EE2):   411-431.  April 1976.

9.   Banerji, S.K., ed.  Proceedings; management of gas and leachate in
     landfills; third annual municipal  solid waste research symposium
     St. Louis; March 14-16, 1977.   EPA-600/9-77-026.   Cincinnati,
     Municipal Environmental Research Laboratory,  Sept.  1977.   289 p.

10.  Stone R. Reclamation of landfill methane and  control  of off-site
     migration hazards.  Solid Wastes Management 21 ( 7);  52-54,  69.


11.  Mooij, H., F.A.  Rovers, and J.J. Tremblay.  Procedures for land-Mil
     gas monitoring and control; proceedings of an international seminar.
     Waste Management Branch Report EPA 4-EC-77-4.  Environmental Impact
     Control Directorate, Oct. 1977.

12.  Office of Solid Waste.  Procedures manual  for ground water moni-
     toring at solid waste disposal  facilities.  Environmental  Protection
     Publication SW-611.  269 p.


                                 -120-

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                     REFERENCES CITED (continued)
13.  Mooij, H., F.A.  Rovers,  and A.A.  Sobanski.   Recommended  procedures
     for landfill  monitoring  programme design  and implementation;  pro-
     ceedings of an international  seminar.   Waste Management  Branch
     Report EPS 4-EC-77-3.  Environmental  Impact  Control  Directorate,
     May 1977.  25 p.

14.  Flower, F.B., et.  al.  A study  of vegetation problems  associated
     with refuse landfills.   [Cincinnati],  U.S. Environmental  Protection
     Agency, Office of  Research and  Development,  Municipal  Environmental
     Research Laboratory,  May 1978.   130 p.
                                -121-

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       5.0 SUMMARY EVALUATION OF GUIDELINES IMPACTS
     The following sections present a summary analysis of the
environmental, economic, and energy impacts associated with im-
plementing the proposed Guidelines.
             5.1 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT SUMMARY
     The following paragraphs provide an analysis of the en-
vironmental impacts of the proposed Guidelines in terms of im-
plementations for landfill siting, design, leachate control,
gas control, runoff control, operation, and monitoring.
                   5.1.1 Site Selection
     Past landfill site selection processes have, in many cases,
not adequately considered environmental protection.  The siting
recommendations contained in the proposed Guidelines, however,
should result in greater avoidance and protection of environ-
mentally sensitive areas (ESA), and greater environmental pro-
tection in terms of selecting landfill sites in general. Guide-
lines' recommendations regarding landfill technologies addition-
ally have implications for landfill siting which can also im-
pact the environment.

     The Guidelines recommend the avoidance of environmentally
sensitive areas, such as wetlands, floodplains, permafrost areas,
critical habitats, and recharge zones of sole source aquifers.  Karst
terrian and active fault zones are also identified as areas to
avoid in landfill siting.  Such considerations will lead to a
number of positive environmental impacts associated with each type
of ecosystem:


        1.  Wetlands: Maintenance of wetland ecological
            functions and values, including downstream
            flood protection, regional aquifier recharge
            or discharge, suspended sediment filtration,
            nutrient absorption, terrestrial wildlife
            and aquatic habitat, provision of recreational
            and open space.

        2.  Floodolains:  Maintenance of floodplain func-
            tions and values, such as flood protection,
            and regional aquifier recharge or discharge.

                            -122-

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         3.   Permafrost areas:   Protection of a  fragile eco-
             system  based  upon  the  integrity of  the  perma-
             frost layer.

         4.   Critical  habitats:   Protection of endangered
             species.

         5.   Recharge  zones  of  sole source aquifers:  Protec-
             tion  of ground  water drinking supplies.

         6.   Karst ten Ian c. active  rauH zones: Avoidance
            of areas which are particularly amenable to
            potential  leachate migration and subsequent
            pollution effects.
     Several other Guidelines siting recommendations can result
in positive environmental impacts.  Incorporating the landfill
site into an existing or future regional solid waste disposal
system can facilitate solid waste processing (baling, shredding,
compacting) and resource recovery, thus increasing landfill  life
 and  minimizing  environmental  degradation.

     Finally, several Guidelines recommendations for environ-
mental control technologies have implications for landfill sit-
inQ«  .  Leachate, gas, and runoff controls may depend, in many
cases, on either natural or artificial materials.  When natural
materials, such as natural clay liner material, are to be utilized
transport costs may dictate that sources of those materials must
play a role in the site selection process.  Alternatively, when
artificial materials are used, more siting flexibility is pos-
sible.  However, there may be secondary impacts involved in the
manufacture, transport, and installation of these materials.
Additionally, the alternative technologies identified in the
Guidelines may permit utilization of sites that may not have been
suitable for landfill use without modification.  This similarly
adds flexibility to the site selection process and offers the po-
tential to maximize considerations of site specific environmental
factors.
                       5.1.2 Design
     The Guideline's landfill design recommendations emphasize
environmental protection considerations.  The design provisions

                              -123-

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in particular, recommend comprehensive design procedures,
provide a consistent framework for design, and present a variety
of alternative environmental control technologies from which a
landfill environmental protection strategy can be developed to
meet a set of specific requirements.
                  5.1.3 Leachate Control
     The Guidelines provide several recommendations regarding
leachate control that will result in positive environmental im-
pacts.  Recommended practices relate to cover selection, design,
and construction; on-site and off-site surface runoff controls;
landfill depth relative to the groundwater table; liner selec-
tion, design, and construction; natural leachate attenuation
mechanisms; landfill closure; leachate collection methods; lea-
chate treatment techniques, including leachate recycling; and
leachate monitoring.  The result of these Guidelines'  recommen-
dations and information will be an overall reduction in contami-
nation of ground and surface water resources by landfill lea-
chates.
                    5.1.4  Gas Control
     The Guidelines provide several alternative landfill gas
control measures which improve landfill  operation, safety, and
environmental protection.  These measures relate to cover
selection, design, and construction; acceptable waste types;
leachate and runoff control measures; and passive and active
gas barriers and gas venting systems.  Gas control measures
generally result in the prevention of gas migration and build-
up in explosive concentrations in nearby enclosed structures;
the minimizing of vegetation kills; and  the prevention of
groundwater mineralization.  Objectionable landfill  odors
will also be reduced.
                   5.1.5 Runoff Control
     The Guidelines recommend a variety of surface runoff and
erosion control measures which should result in improved-levels
of environmental protection.  These measures include provision
of surface runoff diversion structures; grading of landfill
slopes; selection of cover soil type; revegetation of landfill
surfaces; and ponding to prevent  stream siltation. Implementa-
tion of these measures generally reduce infiltration at the
landfill site, thus minimizing consequent landfill gas and lea-
chate generation.  In addition, on-site surface runoff is con-
trolled such that erosion and subsequent stream siltation are
minimized.
                            -124-

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                     5.1.6  Operation
     The Guidelines make numerous recommendations regarding land-
fill operation which will result in positive environmental  im-
pacts with respect to health, safety, and environmental  consider-
ations.   These measures cover waste type acceptability; waste
pre-treatment; waste compaction or other volume reduction methodol-
ogies; cover selection, design, and construction; employee health
and safety; site traffic controls; record-keeping; etc.    As a
whole, these types of controls minimize landfill  accidents, fires,
explosions, rodents, vectors, litter, noise, and  odors,  and con-
tribute to the efficiency of the landfill operation.    Similarly,
adequate operating control minimizes the potential for pollutant
discharges to the environment, and consequently directly reduces
air, water and groundwater pollution.
                     5.1.7 Monitoring

     The Guidelines recommend that landfill monitoring operations
 include both groundwater and leachate monitoring and gas monitoring.
 In effect, then, monitoring results in positive environmental
 impacts resulting from the reductions in air, groundwater, and
 surface water pollution.

                     5.1.8.  Summary
      In general, the Guidelines will result in improved environ-
mental protection of landfill sites.   The recommended practices
regarding landfill siting, design, leachate control, gas control,
runoff control, operation, and monitoring will:

1)  protect environmentally sensitive areas; 2) minimize ground and
surface water pollution due to leachate contamination; 3) minimize
explosion hazards and vegetation stress due to landfill gas
migration; 4) minimize erosion and subsequent stream siltation due
to  surface runoff; and 5) minimize landfill litter, vectors, rodents,
odor, noise, and accidents.
                              -125-

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                  5.2  ECONOMIC IMPACT SUMMARY


            5.2.1   Development of Upgrading Costs

     Development of upgrading costs for the three selected waste types and
the three representative size categories followed a multiple step methodology.
The first step in the analysis was to identify model landfills to be used as
the bas-is of cost estimates.  Several factors were considered in choosing the
models:  (a) typical waste types; (b) prevalence of the model types; (c) dif-
ferences in costs due to scale eonomics; and (d) compatability with the models
utilized in the "Draft Environmental Impact Statement for Proposed Criteria
for Classificaiton of Solid Waste Disposal  Facilities" under Section 4004 of
RCRA.  Since cost estimates for both Section 4004 Criteria and Guidelines re-
quire many of the same technologies and operating procedures, choosing a com-
patible model made possible a comparison of these estimates.

     Final selection of model types included municipal, industrial and pollu-
tion control residues for both environmentally sensitive and non-sensitive areas,
for 10 ton per day, 100 ton per day, and 300 ton per day landfill sites .  Two
additional waste types were evaluated:  agricultural wastes and construction and
demolition debris.  In both cases, only a very limited number of single purpose
sites potentially existed and further cost analysis was not considered significant.

     A second step in the analysis is the development of baseline cost data
for capital and operating and maintenance expenses for landfills.  Several of
these sources graphically portrayed this information in a cost per ton vs. daily
waste tonnage chart.  To estimate current landfill costs a composite graohical
approach was utilized.  To accomplish this, the graphical data presented in
Sanitary Landfill. 1974:Public Works, 100 (3):   79, March 1969; Handbook of
Solid Waste Management/1974; and Sanitary Landfill:  Planning, Design, Opera-
tion Maintenance, 1971, were updated to 1977 dollars.  Figure 5-1 presents a
composite curve development by avenging per ton costs in the range of 0 to
1000 tons per day.

     As indicated in Figure 5-1, current disposal costs (including capital and
operating expenses) range from approximatley $2.00 to $12.00 per ton ($2.24 to
$13.44 per metric ton).  Disposal costs at ten ton per day sites average approx-
imately $11.15 per ton ($12.49 per metric ton).  One hundred ton per day sites
exhibit economy of scale effects with disposal  costs averaging $6.65 per ton
($7.45 per metric ton).  Similarly, 300 ton per day sites average approximately
$3.95 per ton ($4.42 per metric ton).  Approximately 20 to 30 percent of these
costs represent design and construction expenses with the remaining 70 to 80
percent representing operating expenditures.
                                -126-

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   25.00.
   20.00-
o
0
f-
0>
   15.CO-
to
to
O
O
   10.00.
o
a.

-------
     To determine upgrading costs for the landfill models previously
identified, both existing technologies and assumed upgrading technolo-
gies were identified.  The existing practice of Guidelines level tech-
nologies can be broadly sorted by waste type and  site characteristics.
Table 5-1 was based on an assessment of available literature and pro-
vided a checklist of environmental protection'technologies currently
employed by a "typical" landfill for a given type of waste in both
environmentally sensitive and non-sensitive areas.  Table 5-1 also
presents the upgrading technologies which have been assumed as repre-
sentative of required upgrading and average upgrading costs.

     Following the identification of upgrading technologies, unit costs
for each technology were developed via examination of case studies and
via utilization of an engineering estimation methodology.  Appendix B
presents the design assumptions and calculations  utilized to identify
technology unit costs and disposal costs per ton  of waste.  Tables 5-2
and 5-3 present disposal costs per ton for each of the upgrading tech-
nologies.  The set of technologies identified on  Table 5-2 were previ-
ously identified in Table 5-1 as technologies selected for developing
upgrading costs for each of the model landfills.  Table 5-3 presents
cost alternatives as presented in the Guidelines.

     By comparing the additional costs of upgrading technologies to
baseline costs, an estimate of increased landfill ing costs can be de-
veloped.  Tables 5-4 through 5-7 present dollars  and percent increase in
disposal costs for the model landfills previously selected.  Increases
in disposal costs for 10 ton per day sites range from 53 to 88 oercent,
for 100 ton per day sites from 41 to 55 percent,  and for 300 ton per day
sites from 46 to 58 percent.

     Projections for increased disposal  costs at the nationwide level
can be completed by estimating the total  number of landfills for each
landfill tyoe,  size, and sensitive/non-sensitive category, and by ao-
plying increase in costs of disposal  as  generated above.   An analysis
completing the  above was previously completed in the background docu-
ments "Analysis of Technology-, Prevalence, and Economics  of Landfill
Disposal of Solid Waste in the United States (Volume II)  "by Fred C.  Hart
Associates, Inc.   This nationwide estimate is formally presented in the
Criteria EIS document.  The implicit assumotion is that costs generated
by upgrading of landfills are Criteria induced costs.
                                   -128-

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                             TABLE 5-1
   EXISTING TECHNOLOGY LEVELS AND ASSUMED UPGRADING TECHNOLOGY
Assumed Current
Technology Levels
                        MUNICIPAL  (Sensitive)
Waste Processing:
Gas Control:
Leachate Control:
None
None
Clay Liner
Daily Cover
Surface Runoff:    Ditching
Monitoring:


Waste Processing:
Gas Control:
Leachate Control:
Surface Runoff:
Monitoring:


Waste Processing:
Gas Control:
Leachate Control
None

  MUNICIPAL (Non-Sensitive)
None
None
Permeable Cover
Ditching
None

   INDUSTRIAL  (Sensitive)
None
None
Infrequent Permeable Cover


                 -129-
                                     Assumed Up-
                                grading Technologies
Vertical Impermeable Barriers
Impermeable Cover
Leachate Collection &
Treatment (New Facility)

Ponding
Dike Construction
Gas & Leachate
Vertical Impermeable Barriers
Impermeable Cover
None
Gas & Leachate
None
Impermeable Cover
Liner (New Facility)
Leachate Collection &
Treatment(New Facility)

-------
                        TABLE 5-f(concluded)
Surface Runoff:
Monitoring:
INDUSTRIAL (Sensitive)  (continued)
    None

    None
Ponding
Dike Construction
Leachate
Waste Processing:
Gas Control:
Leachate Control:

Surface Runoff:
Monitoring:
   INDUSTRIAL (Non-Sensitive)
    None
    None
    Infrequent Permeable Cover

    Ditching
    None
None
Impermeable Cover
Liner (New Facility)
Ponding
Leachate
               POLLUTION CONTROL RESIDUES (Sensitive)
Waste Processing:    None
Gas Control:
Leachate Control:


Surface Runoff:

Monitoring:
    None
    None

    Ditching

    None
None
Impermeable Cover
Liner (New Facility)
Leachate Collection &
   Treatment (New Facility)
Ponding
Dike Construction
Leachate
             POLLUTION CONTROL RESIDUES (Non-Sensitive)
Waste Processing:    None
Gas Control:
Leachate Control:

Surface Runoff:
Monitoring:
    None
    None
    Ditching
    None
None
Impermeable Cover
Liner (New Facility)
None
Leachate
                                -130-

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I
CO
I
                                                     TABLE 5-2
                                            UPGRADING TECHNOLOGY  COSTS
Technology
Vertical Impermeable
Barrier
Dike Construction
Impermeable Daily Cover*
(on-site source)
Impermeable Daily Cover*
(off-site source)
Ponding
Gas Hou;t.oring
Groundwater Water
Quality Monitoring
Natural Clay Liner
(off-site source)
Leachate Collection
Dacilities
Leachate Monitoring,
Removal and
Treatment
Cost/Ton
$1.30
2.40
0.75
5.30
0.10
0.15
0.60
3.20
0.95
5.80
10 TPD
(Cost/Metric Ton)
($1.46)
(2.69)
(0.84)
(5.94)
.(0.11)
(0.17)
(0.67)
(3.58)
(1.06)
(6.50)
Cost/Ton
$0.30
0.55
0.35
2.65
0.05
0.03
0.10
1.50
0.40
1.10
100 TPD
(Cost/Metric Ton)
($0.34)
(0.62)
(0.39)
(2.97)
(0.06)
(0.03)
(0.11)
(1.68)
(0.45)
(1.23)
Cost/Ton
$0.15
0.30
0.25
1.75
0.04
0.01
0.05
1.35
0.30
0.5P
300 TPD
(Cost/Metric
($0.17)
(0.34)
(0.28)
(1-96)
(0.04)
(0.01)
(0.06)
(1.51)
(0.34)
(0.56)
       "Impermeable" refers to a cover type with relatively low permeability  i.e.,1 X 10'7  cm/sec.

-------
                                                      TABLE 0-3
                                        ALTERNATE UPGRADING TECHNOLOGY COSTS
       Technology
Shredding
Baling
Permeable Daily Cover
  (on-site source)
Permeable Daily Cover
          10 TPD
Cost/Ton  (Cost/Metric Ton)
                           100 TPD
                 Cost/Ton   (Cost/Metric  Ton)
$0.60
($0.67)
$0.30
($0.34)
(off-site source)
Vertical Pipe Vents
Perimeter Gravel Trenches
Gas Collection
Synthetic Liner
Leachate Recycling
(not including
collection)
Ditching
Final Impermeable Cover*
(on-site source)
Final Impermeable Cover*
(off-site source)
1.90
0.90
1.60
2.50
4.00
0.45
0.15
0.45
3.20
(2.13)
(1.01)
(1.79)
(2.80)
(4.48)
(0.50)
(0.17)
(0.50)
(3.58)
0.95
0.45
0.35
0.55
1.90
0.10
0.04
0.20
1.50
(1.06)
(0.50)
(0.39)
(0.62)
(2.13)
(0.11)
(0.04)
(0.22)
(1.68)
0.65
0.40
0.20
0.30
1.65
0.05
0.02
0.20
1.35
(0.73)
(0.45)
(0.22)
(0.34)
(1.85)
(0.06)
(0.02)
(0.22)
(1.51)
 * "Impermeable"  refers to a cover type iffth relativity 1-fiW permeability, i.e., 1 X 10'7 cm/sec.

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                                                   TABLE  5-3  (concluded)
CJ
OJ
                Technology
          10 TRD
Cost/Ton  (Cost/Metric Ton)
                                                                              100 TPD
300 TPD
Final Permeable Cover
(on-site source)
Final Permeable Cover
(off-site source)
Revegetation
Fire Control
Access Control
Litter Control
Compaction
$0.40
1.30
0.25
0.04
0.90
0.05
1.90
($0.45)
(1.46)
(0.28)
(0.04)
(1.01)
(0.06)
(2.12)
$0.15
0.60
0.10
0.01
0.20
0.01
0.20
($0.17)
(0.67)
(0.11)
(0.01)
(0.22)
(0.01)
(0.22)
$0.15
0.55
0.10
0.01
0.10
0.01
0.05
($0.17)
(0.62)
(0.11)
(0.01)
(0.11)
(0.01)
(0.06)

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I
CO
I
                                                     TABLE  5-4
            IMPACT  OF GUIDELINES  ON OPERATING COSTS  OF  MUNICIPAL  SOLID WASTE  LANDFILL  COSTS  (COSTS/TON)
Required Technologies
Gas Control
Vertical Impermeable Barriers
Leachate Control
Imper. Daily Cover (off-site source)
Dike Construction*
Surface Runoff
Ponding
Dike Construction
Monitoring
Gas Monitoring
Groundwater Quality Monitoring
Total Incremental Costs
Baseline Costs
Total Post-Guidelines Costs
Percent Increase

10
Sensitive
$1,30
5.30
1.20
0.10
1.20

0.15
0.60
•$~O5"
11.15
$21.00
88%

TPD
Non-Sensitive
$1.30
5.30
—

0.15
0.60
$"735"
11.15
$18.50
66%
Site Size Categories
100 TPD
Sensitive Non-Sensitive
$0.30 $0.30
2.65 2.65
0.28
0.05
0.27

0.03 0.03
0.10 0.10
$"3768 |O8
6.65 6.65
$10.33 $9.73
55% - 46%

300
Sensitive
$0.15
1.75
0.15
0.04
0.15

0.01
0.05
$Oo
3.95
16725
58%

TPD
Non-Sensitive
$0.15
1.75
_..

0.01
0.05
$O6~
3.95
I579T
50%
      1 Dike construction costs were divided equally between leachate and surface runoff control  functions.

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                                                   TABLE 6-5

               IMPACT OF GUIDELINES ON OPERATING COSTS OF INDUSTRIAL WASTE LANDFILLS  (COSTS/TON)



                                     	Site Size Categories	
                                    	10 TPD	  	100 TPD	 	300 TPD	
     Required Technologies	Sensitive  Non-Sensitive  Sensitive  Non-Sensitive Sensitive  Non-Sensitive


          Gas Control                     -                         -


       Leachate Control

Imper. Daily Cover (off-site source)  $5.30       $5.30          $2.65       $2.65


        Surface Runoff

Ponding                                0.10           -           0.05            -
Dike Construction                      2.40           -           0.55            -            -


          Monitoring

Gas Monitoring                         0.15         0.15          0.03        0.03
Ground Water Quality Monitoring        0.60         0.60          0.10        O.*0
Total Incremental Costs
  Due to Guidelines                  ;$3.55        $6.05         $3.38        $2.78

Baseline Costs                        11.15       11.15          6.65          6.65
Total Post-Guidelines Costs          $19770      $17.20         $10.03       $9.43


Percent Increase                       77%          54%            51%         42%

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                                                        TABLE 5-6
            IMPACT OF GUIDELINES ON OPERATING COSTS OF POLLUTION CONTROL RESIDUE WASTE LANDFILLS (CQSTS/TON)
      Required Technologies
                                                                            Site Size Categories
                                                        10 TPD
                                                                             100 TPD
                                               300 TPD
                                         Sensitive  Non-Sensitive   Sensitive  Non-Sensitive   SensitiveNon-Sensitive
         Gas Control
       Leachate Control
      Imper.  Dally Cover (off-site source)
                                            $5.30
$5.30
$2.65
$2.65
$1.75
$1.75
en
i
  Surface Runoff
Ponding
Dike Construction
          Monitoring
      Groundwater Quality Monitoring
      Total  Incremental  Costs
        Due to Guidelines
      Baseline Costs
      Total  Post-Guidelines Costs
      Percent Increase
8.40
11.15
19755"
75%
5.90
11.15
$17.05.
53%
3.35
6.65
$10.00
50%
2.75
6.65
$9.40
41%
2.14
3.95
$6.09
54%
1.80
3.95
"£5775
46%

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                                                      TABLE 5-7
                SUMMARY OF  IMPACT OF LANDFILL GUIDELINES ON OPERATING COSTS OF LANDFILLS  (COSTS/TON)*
                                                                    Site Size Categories
CJ
Landfill Baseline Costs

     Waste Types
Mu n i c i pa 1
Post-Guidelines Costs
Percent Increase"

Industrial
    Post-Guidelines  Costs
    Percent  Increase

    Pollution  Control  Residues
    Post-Guidelines  Costs
    Percent  Increase
                                               10 tpd
                                                                      100 tpd
300 tpd
                                       Sensitive  Non-Sensitive   Sensitive  Non-Sensitive  Sensitive  Non-Sensitive

                                     $11.15(12.49)  $11.15 (12.49)$6.65 (7.45)$6.65  (7.45)  $3.95 (4.42) $3.95 (4.42)
                                      21.00(23.52)   18.50 (20.72)  10.33  (11.57)9.73 (10.90) 6.25 (7.00)  5.91 (6.62)
                                        88%           66%           55%         46%          58%          50%
                                  19.70 (22.06) 17.20 (19.26) 10.03 (11.23)9.43 (10.56)
                                    77%           54%           51%         42%
                                  19.55 (21.90) 17.05 (19.10) 10.00 (11.20)9.40 (10.52)  6.09  (6.82)   5.75  (6.44)
                                    75%           53%           50%         41%          54%          46%
     *    Costs  in  parentheses are costs/metric ton

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  5.2.2  Economic Effects of Increased Landfill Disposal Costs
     The data presented in the previous section outlined the probable
impact of increased technology utilization on unit operating costs of
such facilities.  However, it is the reaction to these additional costs
by those commercial, industrial and government sectors directly and
indirectly affected that will determine the long-run net costs and
overall effectiveness of the Guidelines.  Hhen a particular business
or government agency is faced with higher operating costs, it can
adjust through one of the followina routes:

        1.  change operating methods or technologies
            to avoid the costs;

        2.  absorb the higher costs in the form of
            lower profits (higher subsidies);

        3.  shift the higher costs backward on to
            suppliers (e.g.» lower wages); and

        4.  shift the cost forward in the form of higher
            rates or prices to its customers.


     These four methods are of course not mutually exclusive, and typi-
cally occur in various combinations as the affected parties search for
ways to minimize the burden of the added costs.  In the landfill "in-
dustry"  this type of situation is complicated by the fact that much of
the nation's solid waste handling capacity is publicly owned (although
frequently privately operated), so the profit element is essentially
replaced by various public mandates or regulations dealing with sub-
sidy limits, bond retirement guarantees based on user changes, and nu-
merous other economic, financial or political constraints.  Because of
the multiple objectives of the public sector, an analysis of the impact
of additional costs is more difficult.

     The overall incidence patterns of these costs, that is who bears
the burden of those costs, will be determined by the particular mix
of reactions outlined above.  These can be roughly divided into two
categories which are discussed in the following sections:

        1- Sunply Effects:  reactions by the suppliers
           of the landfill services.

        2. Demand effects:  reactions by those demanding
           these landfillinq services (i.e., solid waste
           generators).
                                   -138-

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5.2.21  Supply Effects
     The landfill operator faced with higher operating costs can either
absorb the costs or seek out some method of avoiding them or shifting
them elsewhere.  The analysis of these reaction patterns is similar in
nature to those dealing with the incidence of various government taxes
or fees; both depend principally on the financial conditions of the
firms and the characteristics of the markets in which they are invol-
ved.  Any increases in business costs will eventually be borne either
by those who provide the various factors of production (labor, capi-
tal, equipment), or by those buying the business's goods or services.
The only remaining alternative is to revise the technological or in-
stitutional structure of the firm (i.e., new equipment, consolidation
with other firms, etc.) to avoid or minimize the impact of these
costs by lowering costs in other areas.  The following sections add-
ress five major market and operational effects most applicable to land-
fill operation.

     Increase Disposal Fees For Landfill Users.  The ability of land-
fill operators to pass costs forward in the form of higher user
charges typically depends on the nature of the demand for their ser-
vices. If the demand is very price elastic, the potential increase in
revenue will be minimal as many of the landfill users will  find al-
ternative methods of meeting their waste handling needs.  This is
demonstrated in Figure 5-2:

                            FIGURE 5-2

               DEMAND  IMPACT OF HIGHER USER CHARGE
                                                         quantity  handled (tons)
    A  hypothetical  landfill  is used by two waste generators repre-
 sented by demand  curves D, and D2 each of which disposes of Q  tons
 of waste annually at  the  site.  MS the landfill raises  its rates from
 R  to  R,, the more  price-sensitive of the two, represented by demand
 curve  DJ, reduces its demand from QQ  to QQ,.  The more price inelastic
 generator,  represented by curve D5, shows a more modest drop from QQ
 to QQ0.                          d
                               -139-

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     The principal effect of the increase in rates is a decline in
quantity disposed and, if demand is elastic, a decline in total reve-
nues for specific landfills.  However, the problems created by a
highly elastic market demand go beyond those of insufficient revenue
generation.  All wastes formerly handled by the landfill must either
be deposited elsewhere or not disposed of.  The first of these options
raises the possibility of illegal dumping as well as the increased
likelihood that various landfill operators might avoid compliance,
both of which are serious enforcement problems. The second option
would be that generators might reduce their waste generation rates
and/or expand recycling efforts.  This question is covered in more
detail in a later section.

     Higher Taxes For Landfill Support.  A response available to pub-
lic landfill operations is to pass the additional costs on to tax-
payers in the form of higher subsidies for landfill operations. Some
municipalities that have formerly assumed that all or a specified por-
tion of landfill costs would be paid by landfill users may be faced
with the problem of maintaining operating ratios (operating revenues/
operation costs) while not wanting to provide any significant disincen-
tives to those generators who should be using these facilities.  As
the portion of total costs covered by user charges drops, other public
revenue sources would be required.  Some private landfill operating
costs could also be indirectly subsidized by taxpayers through in-
vestment, tax credits or loan guarantees for landfill upgrading or
construction, research and development grants, or other forms of sub-
sidy.  The specific policy of the agencies involved, the prevailing
methods used to finance everyday operating costs or retire bonds, and
numerous other factors would have to be considered with the eventual
reaction tending to be highly site specific.

     Decreases In Supplier Costs.  The theoretical possibility exists
that landfills could reduce their additional costs through decreases
in supplier costs (i.e. lower wages, fuel costs, etc.). This possibi-
lity is raised for the sake of completeness only.  It is not con-
sidered a practical possibility for most landfill operations, except
as a part of a regionalization and consolidation effort.

     Change In Profits Of Private Landfill Operators.  If a landfill
operator cannot recover all of its additional costs through rate in-
creases, subsidies, or decreases in supplier costs, the impact will
be borne by the firm's stockholders in the form of a lower return on
invested capital.  Small impacts in the area will probably not cause
any substantial adjustments by these firms, especially in the short
run, but the decreased profitability could reduce the level of invest-
ment in such operations and make it more difficult to raise the capi-
tal necessary to upgrade existing operations or build new ones.  For
those landfills that are publicly owned but privately operated, the
situation would entail a pass-through of costs to the relevant public
                                 -140-

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agency with whom the operator has contracted.  The affected agency
would then be forced to either authorize higher user charges, pro-
vide alternative financial support to the operator to cover the
extra operating costs, or implement a substantial revision in its
operation.
     Change In Profits Of Industries With On-Site Disposal. For
those firms that handle part or all of their solid wastes at sites
owned and operated by the firm, the higher disposal costs may mean
a substantial  financial loss if the firm has a high waste generation
rate and their disposal represents a significant element in their
overall operating costs.  Conversion from open dump operations to
landfill operations could, in extreme cases, mean closure for some
financially vulnerable firms.  Others would be left virtually un-
affected.  Industries that would be expected to face relatively sub-
stantial solid waste handling costs include food processing, apparel
wood products, fabricated metals and non-electrical machin^y.
     Regionalization And Consolidation Of Waste Handling. The analy-
sis of economics of scale in landfill operations previously presen-
ted showed that disposal cost savings could be realized through con-
solidation of smaller sites into one large landfill operation. The
implementation of the RCRA landfill Criteria and Guidelines will
probably increase the benefits of consolidation due to lower unit
disposal costs of large sites and the sharing of the initial finan-
cing burden of landfill capacity among more waste generators.
     The major economic factors that affect the consolidation de-
cision are the potential for scale economics, the density, disper-
sion, and total volume of the waste sources, and the relevant costs
of transportation.
5.2.22   Demand Effects
     Source Reduction.   The previous section demonstrated how
higher disposal costs (or rates) can reduce the demand for landfill
services.  Either an alternative waste disposal method will then be
used (larger landfill, landspreading, illegal dumping, etc.) or the
volume of the waste stream will be reduced. Adjustments in the raw
materials used in production processes, changes in food packaging
techniques, bottle deposit regulations, and similar actions could be
used to reduce the volume of waste produced from various industrial,
commercial or residential activities. Part of this may occur as the
disposal costs are internalized into various operations which then
independently adjust their waste generation; other areas may only
occur if given the impetus of State or Federal regulations. Increased
disposal costs should make legislation aimed at source reduction more
attractive.
                            -141-

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     Energy And Resource Recovery.  The combined forces of higher
waste disposal costs and increased petroleum cost and concern over
possible disruptions in energy supplies have improved the cost-
effectiveness of many resource and energy recovery systems and app-
roaches. The number of existing, under-construction, or planned re-
covery plants across the country has increased substantially in re-
cent years.  The added costs of RCRA will encourage this trend, es-
pecially in or near large urban areas where suitable landfill sites
are scarce and expensive and the waste density exists that is neces-
sary for large scale recovery plants.  Much of this same type of ac-
tivity may occur in the industrial sectors that also face similar.
disposal cost increases.  In combination with waste reduction, energy
and material recovery techniques will be applied more frequently, de-
pending on the market for the received materials, the incremental pro-
duction costs of the recovery processes, and the regional costs of
electricity and other energy forms.
    Other Legal Waste Disposal Methods.  Other legal disposal methods
that will continue to exist after implementation of the Guidelines are
surface impoundment and landspreading.  The costs of these two disposal
methodologies options will also be affected by RCRA,  Decisions concern-
ing waste disposal options by industry and municipalities will change to
reflect the changing costs of these options.  Since the costs of future
surface impoundment and landspreading activities are not yet determined,
it is not yet possible to estimate how the increases in the cost of land-
filling identified in this report will affect the choice of these other
legal disposal options.


    Illegal Dumping.  One option that is unfortunately available to
generators and landfill operators is the continued use or operation of
disposal facilities not meeting the provisions of the criteria.  The
enforcement problem will  be most severe for the thousands of very small
sites in rural areas that would face very large increases in disposal
costs.  The enforcement costs for such operations, due to their geograoh-
ic dispersion, small sites, the overall detection difficulty, will be
rather high as well, forcing agencies to concentrate only on large sites.
                                  -142-

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                       5.3  ENERGY IMPACTS  SUMMARY
                         5.3.1   Introduction
       Guidelines  implementation  will  result in  increased  energy consumption
 for both the construction  (including  upgrading)  and  operating  phases
 of landfill  operations.  Construction energy use will  increase due  to  the
 requirements for  improved  levels of environmental  protection with the  con-
 committant use of more complex technologies such as  liner installation,
 gas venting  and collection systems, leachate collection and treatment  sys-
 tems,  etc.   Similarly, energy use associated with the  operating phase  will
 increase due to energy requirements for  leachate pumping,  more frequent
 cover  application, etc.  As previously referenced, Table  5-1 presents  those
 technologies which have  been defined  as  required upgrading technologies
 and which will  result  in increased construction  energy use.  The table also
 indicates those technologies which will, in addition,  be  required for  new
 facilities.   Similarly,  Table 5-9 indicates those technologies which will
 result in increased energy use associated with  landfill operation.
                  5.3.2   Estimating  Construction  Energy  Impacts
       Data  detailing construction  energy  use  (gas,  oil,diesel  fuel,
 electricity) for construction of landfills is currently unavailable.
 To  estimate  the  potential  increase in  construction  energy  use, the assump-
 tion  has  been made  that  increased  energy  use  is directly proportional  to
 increased capital expenditure.   The baseline  costs  for  existing  landfill
 operations,  as previously  develped in  Section  5.2,  are  $11.15, $6.65  and
 $3.95 per ton for 10 TPD,  100 TPD  and  300 TPD facilities,  respectively.
 Approximately 25% of those costs are attributable to  construction costs,
 as  follows:  10  TPD - $2.78;   100  TPD  - $1.66;  300 TPD -  $0.99.

     By utilizing required upgrading unit  costs for  the technologies
identified in Table  5-2,  total upgrading capital  costs can  be deter-
mined.  Table 5-10 presents the capital costs  for those technologies
incorporated into existing facilities.   Increased construction energy
use has been assumed to be proportional to increased capital  costs of
the required upgrading technologies.  A more detailed explanation can
be found in "Analysis of Technology, Prevalence and  Economics of Land-
fill Disposal in the United States  (Volume II)  "by Fred  C.  Hart Associates
Inc.  Consumption use is  expected to be primarily in the form of  gas,
oil, and diesel  fuel utilization.
                   5.3.3  Estimating Operating Energy Impacts



      Table 5-9 describes upgrading technologies which will  result in


                                       -143-

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                              TABLE 5-8
            UPGRADING TECHNOLOGIES RESULTING IN INCREASED
                        ENERGY OPERATING COSTS
                         SENSITIVE FACILITIES
     Municipal1
     Industrial
 Pollution Control
      Residues
Groundwater Water
Quality Monitoring

Gas Monitoring
Impermeable Daily
Cover

Groundwater Water
Quality Monitoring
Impermeable Daily Cover
Groundwater Water Quality
Monitoring
                       NONSENSITIVE FACILITIES
Groundwater Water
Quality Monitoring

Gas Monitoring
Impermeable Daily
Cover

Groundwater Water
Quality Monitoring
Impermeable Daily Cover
Groundwater Water Quality
Monitoring
* Daily cover assumed as existing technology; no increased energy use.
                                   -144-

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I

-p.
en
i
                                                       TABLE 5-9



           TOTAL INCREASED CAPITAL COSTS PER TON AND PERCENT INCREASE  IN ENERGY USE FOR UPGRADED FACILITIES
Municipal :

Industrial

Pollution
Residues:
«
Sensitive*
Nonsensltlve
: Sensitive
: Nonsensltlve
Control
Sensitive
Nonsensltlve
10 TPD
Increased Capital
Cost/Ton %
$3.99
1.49
•2.62
0.22

2.62
0.12

Increase
144%
54%
94%
8%

94%
8%
100 TPD
Increased Capital
Cost/Ton
$0.93
0.33
0.62
0.07

0.62
0.02

% Increase
56%
20%
37%
4%

37%
1%
300 TPD
Increased Capital
Cost/Ton « %
$0.51
0.17
0.35
0.05

0.35
0.01

Increase
52%
17%
35%
5%

35%
1%
           Baseline construction costs:  10 TPD, $2.28; 100 TPD, $1.66; 300 TPD, $0.99.

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Increased energy use during landfill operation.  For existing facilities
the primary energy consuming technology is that of impermeable cover.  It
has been assumed that municipal facilities for both sensitive and non-
sensitive areas apply daily cover.   Consequently, energy costs will not
increase.  For the remainder of the waste types, it has been assumed that
daily cover is not a common practice and that impermeable cover application
is energy intensive, a 100% increase in energy requirements for those sites
which currently do not apply daily cover might be a reasonable estimate.
Consumption is primarily in the fuel energy resource area.
                               -146-

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           6.0  IRREVERSIBLE AND IRRETRIEVABLE USES;
           SHORT-TERM USE VS. LONG-TERM PRODUCTIVITY

          6.1  IRREVERSIBLE AND IRRETRIEVABLE USES
     Since the Guidelines focus on improving environmental conditions,
it is important to examine the nature of the changes that they will
induce.  Implementation of the Guidelines would involve the irre-
trievable expenditure of certain resources.  The technologies se-
lected over and above those currently used to meet Guidelines objec-
tives would necessitate the increased use of manpower and energy to
design, install and operate landfill facilities.  Once expended, this
energy and labor would be irretrievable for other uses.

     Certain materials are required for implementing specific tech-
nologies such as cover soils, impermeable liners or barriers, lea-
chate and gas collection devices, and monitoring devices.  Under
the Guidelines, these materials would be committed to use at the
site for at least the lifetime of the landfill and until potential
pollution  problems have, abated.  Given the  difficulty  in.determining
when the landfill has  completely stabilized,  and  the fact that
certain materials will suffer varying degrees of deterioration within
the site, these materials should be considered as irreversibly incor-
porated into the landfill.

     Waste materials buried in a landfill undergo varying amounts
of decomposition.  The heterogenous nature of many landfills con-
tributes to the difficulty in recovering recyclable materials.  Given
the current state of resource recovery technology and  the high
cost of excavating a site, metals and other elements would poten-
tially not be retreivable for recycling or other resource recovery
programs.

     In addition to materials, the costs incurred by landfill owners
and operators to initiate and maintain improved construction and
operating procedures, as well as the increased administrative and
managerial costs incurred by all levels of government for inspec-
tion, surveillance, and monitoring of facilities, would be irre-
trievable.

     In summary, certain irreversible commitments of resources will
be required as a result of Guidelines implementation.   In effect,
however, the reduction or elimination of potential negative
environmental impacts in the air, surface water, and groundwater
arenas, will result in an increase in the long term productivity of
the nation's environs and will result in increased levels of pro-
tection of public health and safety.
                               -147-

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           6.2   SHORT-TERM USE VS. LONG-TERM USE
     Certain short-term demands on the environment, in addition
to irretrievable usage of some resources, are necessary to meet
the Guidelines requirements of promoting long-term environ-
mental protection.

     Planning requirements involved with implementing the Guide-
lines necessitate some short-term economic and manpower ex-
penditures.  As a result of planning and incorporating additional
technology, increases can be expected in the capital energy
expenditures of operating a landfill disposal facility.  Increases
in the economic costs of disposal can therefore be expected.  However,
these initial short-term uses potentially can be mitigated by the
eventual-energy savings and overall economic savings in reduced
diposal problems, and in reduced air and water pollution cleanup
efforts  that are now required by presently inadequate disoosal methods

     These and other short-term uses, such as construction effects
associated with installing additional control techniques, may in-
crease noise levels, create dust, temporarily disrupt the environ-
ment and place immediate demands on particular resources, but they
will result in minimizing the widespread effect of ground water,
surface water,  and air pollution and will protect certain environ-
mentally sensitive areas.

     Increased economic costs of landfill ing will also affect re-
search and development in resource recovery areas.  While more ef-
ficient and effective landfill ing practices may reduce the need
for alternative disposal methods, the initial increased cost of
meeting the Guidelines and the growing limitations on land availa-
bility, especially in densely populated urban areas, can give added
incentive to long-term resource recovery programs.

     In summary, while a variety of short term requirements and
impacts in the environment will  ensue as a result of technology imple-
mentation, in the long—term the result will  be an increased level of
protection  for  the  environment, which in turn implies best use of  the
nation's  environmental  resources.  Additionally,  increased costs of
landfill ing provide additional  imoetus  towards resource recovery
technology  develooment,  which in turn results in  reduced environmental
demands  due to  landfill ing disposal  requirements.
                            -148-

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                   7.0  SUMMARY OF PUBLIC PARTICIPATION
                 7.1  ORGANIZATIONS AND PERSONS CONSULTED
     As per the Summary statement, this impact statement has been distrib-
uted to a substantive number of organizations for public comment.
                                      -149-

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                     7.2  PERTINENT PUBLIC HEARING
                          QUESTIONS AND RESPONSES
     Public hearings on this draft impact statement have been scheduled
as follows:

     Washington,  D.C.                                   May 15, 1979

     Houston,  Texas                                    May 17, 1979
                                 -150-

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                                      -156-

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   Removal Journal,  Jan 73.

Industrial Waste Management: Seven Conference Papers Presented at the
   National Conference on Management and Disposal of Residues from the
   Treatment of Industrial Wastewaters,  Washington, DC.,  February
   1975.  U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.  Ill p.

Ivaska, J.S.  ABC's of landfill operation and equipment selection.
   Public Works,  108(1) : 44-46, Jan. 1977.

Jacobs Engineering Co.  Assessment of hazardous waste practices  in the
   petroleum refining industry.  Washington, U.S. Environmental Protec-
   tion Agency,  1976.  353 p.
                                    -159-

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James, S.C.  Metals in municipal landfill leachate and their health
   effects.  American Journal of Public Health,  67(5):429-432,
   May 1977.                        :

Jensen, .Michael E.  Observations of continental European solid waste
   management practices.  Public Health Service Publication No. 1880.
   Washington,  U.S. Government Printing Office, 1969.  46 p.

John Deere.  Refuse control; where to start... points to consider...
   operating methods .... A-1821-8-76,  31 p.

Johnson, P.C. and S.J. Endlich.  Landfill hearings can speed or slow
   approval permits.  Solid Waste Systems, 6(1):28^30, Jan/Feb. 1977.

Jones, J.  Disposal of power plant wastes.  Washington, U.S. Environ-
   mental Protection Agency, 1978. 20 p.

Kentucky Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Protection.
   Hazardous waste in Kentucky; a survey.  Frankfort, Kentucky: Division
   of Hazardous Material and Waste Management, Bureau of Environmental
   Protection,  Jan. 1978. 130 p.

Kentucky State Department of Health.  An industrial solid waste manage-
   ment program for Kentucky.  Division of Solid Waste Disposal, July
   1971.  Ill p.

Kentucky State Department of Health.  Solid waste service system
   administration. Division of Solid Waste Disposal,  Feb. 1972.  81 p.

Kispert, R.G., S.E. Sadek, and D.L. Wise.  An economic analysis of
   fuel gas production from solid waste.  Resource Recovery and Conser-
   vation  l(l):95-109.

Knap, A.H. Solid waste sampling;  a field and laboratory technique.
   Waste Age, June 1977, 3 p.

Kohan, A.M.  A summary of hazardous substance classification systems.
   Environmental Protection Publication SW-171.  Washington, U.S.
   Government Printing Office,  1975.   55 p.

Kones, T.P. , R.L. Barrows,  D.A. Yanggen.  Implementing cooperative
   solid waste management in Wisconsin.  University of Wisconsin -
   Extension  , G2622.  Wisconsin Department of .Natural Resources and
   Local Affairs and Development, 24 p.

Kruth, M.A., D.H. Booth, and D.L. Yates.  Creating a countywide solid
   waste management system;  the case study of Humphreys County,
   Tennessee.  Environmental Protection Publication SW-110.- Washington,
   U.S. Government Printing Office, 1972.  15 p.
                                   -160-

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Landfill criteria "reasonable" but need some work. NSUMA Reports,
   July 1978,  2 p.

Landfill-generated gas: time  bomb or town benefit?  American City and
   County, April 1978, 3 p.

Larson, G.  Utility concept dsecribed as key for managers wanting practical,
   effective solid waste plans.  Solid Waste Systems,  21-22, 24-28, Aug.-
   Sept. 1976.

Leachate control system tested at landfill.  Public Works, 107(12)r
   74, Dec. 1976

League of Women Voters.  Municipal sludge: what shall we do with it?;
   disposal alternatives. Washington, League of Women Voters, 1976. 8 p.

Lehman, J.P.  Federal surveys of industrial waste.  Environmental Pro-
   tection Publication SW-545.  Washington, U.S. Government Printing
   Office, 1976.  31 p.

Le Grand, H.E.  System for evaluation of contamination potential of
   some waste disposal sites.  12 p.

Linehan, T.F., Jr.  Sanitary landfill leachate generation, composition,
   and travel.  Presented to Professor Rein Laak, Solid Waste Engineering.

Little, H.R.  Design criteria for solid waste management in recreational
   areas.  Environmental Protection Publication SW-91 ts.  Washington,
   U.S. Government Printing Office, 1972.  68 p.

Lofy, R. and J.R. Perry.  Environmental Assessment of Subsurface disposal
   of municipal wastewater treatment sludge; interim report.  Environmental
   Protection Publication SW-547C.  Washington, U.S. Government Printing
   Office, 1977.  112 p.

Lutton, R.J. and G.L. Regan,  Selection and design of cover
   for solid waste; interim report.  Municipal Environmental Research
   Laboratory, Cincinnati (Interagency Agreement No. EPA-IAG-D7-01097).
   153 p.

Madison study focuses on financial aspects of landfilling '•cmilled trash.
   Solid Wastes Management  17(2):30 (4 p).

Madoro, A.W. and J.F. Duffield.  Alternative sources for landfill cover.
   Public Works  109 (5):82-83, May 1978.

Mahoney, P.P.  ANSWERS project: an answers to a munipal problem. Public
   Works, 109 (2):61-64, Feb.  1978.                               	

Mantell, C.L.  Solid wastes: origin, collection, processing and disposal.
   New York, John Wiley & Sons, 1975. 1,127 p.
                                  -161-

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Massey, D.T.  Attitudes of nearby residents toward establishing sanitary
   landfills.  ESCS-03.  Washington, U.S. Government Printing Office,
   1978.  58. p.

Materials recovery; solid waste management guidelines for source separation.
   Federal Register, 41(80):16?950-16,956, April  23, 1976.

Meyers, P.O.  Selection of advanced solid waste disposal techniques.
   Public Works, 70-71, 96.  Aug. 1975.

MITRE Corp.  Preliminary working draft environmental impact statement
   for Subtitle C, Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976  (RCRA);
   Vol. II-Appendices A-T-Supporting Documentation  (Washington), U.S.
   Environmental Protection Agency, Feb. 1978.

Montgomery, R.L. and M.J. Bartos.  Dredging and the landfill. Waste Age,
   Oct. 1977, 3 p.

Mooij, H.  Landfill research activities in Canada.  Environmental  Impact
   Control Directorate, Environmental Protection Service Report, Waste
   Management Branch, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.  16 p.

Mooij, H.  Procedures for the analysis of landfill leachate; proceedings
   of an international seminar.  Solid Waste Management Report EPS-4-EC-
   75-2.  Environmental Conservation Directorate , Oct. 1975.  26  p.

Mooij, H.  Solid waste research activities in Canada.  Presented at
   Fourth Annual Research Symposium "Land Disposal of Hazardous Wastes,"
   EPA-SRI, San Antonio, Mar.. 6-8, 1978. 5 p.

Mooij, H.  and F.A. Rovers.  Recommended groundwater and soil sampling
   procedures;  proceedings of an international seminar.  Solid Waste
   Management Branch Report EPS-4-EC-76-7.  Environmental Conservation
   Directorate,  June 1976.

Mooij, H., P.A. Rovers, and A.A. Sobanski.  Recommended procedures for
   landfill monitoring programme design and implementation; proceedings
   of an international seminar.  Waste Management Branch Report EPS  4-
   EC-77-3.  Environmental Impact Control Directorate, May 1977. 25  p.

Mooij, H., F.A. Rovers,and J.J. Tremblay.  Procedures for landfill gas
   monitoring and control; proceedings of an international seminar.
   Waste Management Branch Report EPS 4-EC-77-4.  Environmental Impact
   Control Directorate,  Oct. 1977.

Munich, A.J., A.J. Klee, and P.W. Britton.  Preliminary data analysis;
   1968 national survey of community solid waste practices.  U.S.
   Department of Health, Education and Welfare.  Public Health Service;
   Consumer Protection and Environmental Health Service; Environmental
   Control Administration, 1968.  U.S. Government Printing Office,
   483 p.
                                    -162-

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Munnecke, D..H.R. Day, and H.W. Trask.  Review of pesticide disposal
   research.  Environmental Protection Publication SW-527.  Washington,
   U.S. Government Printing Office, 1976.  76 p.

National Association of Counties Research Foundation.  Suggested solid
   waste management ordinance for local government. Environmental Protec-
   tion Publication  SW-73d. (Washington), U.S. Environmental Protection
   Agency, 1974. 23 p.

National Center for Resource Recovery, Inc. Sanitary landfill, a state-
   of-the-art study.  Lexington, Mass., 1974.  119 p.

National Commission on Productivity.  Report of the solid waste management
   advisory group on opportunities for improving productivity in solid
   waste collection.  Washington, National Commission on Productivity,
   1973.  46 p.

National League of Cities and United States Conference of Mayors.
   Municipal solid waste disposal ... how cities site landfills.
   Grant No. T906607010.  72 p.

National monitoring survey.   Waste Age,  Sept. 1977, pp 18-19.

Neely, G.A. Landfill planning and operation.  APWA Reporter, 16-19,
   Dec. 1972.

Nesheim, E.E. Land application of wastewater sludge.  Public Works,
   109  (6): 98-100,  June 1978.

New York State Department of Environmental Conservation.  Draft. New
   York State comprehensive resource recovery and solid waste management
   plan.  February 1970.

New York State Department of Environmental Conservation.  Sanitary landfill;
   planning, design, operation, maintenance.  Bureau of Solid Wastes En-
   gineering, 1971.  33 p.
Newest homes in town border on the landfill.  Solid Wastes Management
   18(9):16  (3 p).                           	'	
Newton, M. Model state hazardous waste management act (annotated).
   Environmental Protection Publication SW-635.  Washington, U.S.
   Government Printing Office, 1977. 55 p.

Noble, G.  Sanitary landfill design handbook.  Westport, Conn.: Techno-
   mic Publishing Company, Inc. 1976. 285 p.

Office of Land Use Coordination.  Background paper in support of an EPA
   policy to protect environmentally significant agricultural lands.
   Washington, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Undated. 34 p. 5
   Appendixes.
                                    -163-

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Office of Management and Budget, Executive Office of the President of the
   United States.  Standard industrial classification manual, 1972.
   Washington, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1972.  649 p.

Office of Solid Waste.  Assessment of industrial hazardous waste practices,
   inorganic chemicals industry.  U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
   1975..  Various pagings.

Office of Solid Waste.  Assessment of industrial hazardous waste practices:
   organic chemicals, pesticides and explosives industries.  Washington,
   U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1976.  Various pagings.

Office of Solid Waste.  Assessment of industrial hazardous waste practices:
   paint.and allied, products industry, contract solvent reclaiming oper-
   tions,  and factory application of coatings.  Washington, U.S. En.-i-;-;.-
   mental Protection Agency, 1976.  296 p.

Office of Solid Waste Mangement Programs.  Decision-makers guide in solid
   waste management. Environmental Protection Publication SW-500.  Washing-
   ton, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1976.  158 p.

Office of Solid Waste Management Programs.  Development of construction and
   use criteria for sanitary landfills.  Environmental Protection Publica-
   tion SW-19d.  (Washington), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1973.

Office of Solid Waste.  Draft environmental impact statement; proposed
   criteria for classification of solid waste disposal facilities.
   Washington, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, April 1978. Various
   pagings.

Office of Solid Waste Management Programs.  EPA activities under the
   Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976; annual report to the
   President and the Congress fiscal year 1977.  Environmental Protection
   Publication SW-663.  Washington, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1978.
   80 p.

Office of Solid Waste Management Programs.  Evaluation of solid waste
   baling and balefills.  V.I. v.2. Environmental Protection Publication
   SW-111 c. 1.  (Washington), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,1975.
   153 p.

Office of Solid Waste Management Programs.  Guidelines for local govern-
   ments on solid waste management.  Environmental Protection Publication
   SW-17C.  Washington, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1971.  184 p.

Office of Solid Waste Management Programs.  Hazardous waste disposal
 .  damage reports.  Environmental Protection Publication SW-151.
   (Washington), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1975. 8 p.
                                   -164-

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Office of Solid Waste Management Programs.  Pharmaceutical industry;
   hazardous waste generation, treatment, and disposal.  Environmental
   Protection Publication SW-508.  Washington, U.S. Government Printing
   Office, 1976. 178 p.

Office of Solid Waste.  Procedures manual for ground water monitoring
   at solid waste disposal facilities.  Environmental Protection Publication
   SW-611. 269 p.

Office of Solid Waste.  Process design manual; municipal sludge landfills.
   EPA-625/1-78-010. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Oct. 1978.

Office of Solid Waste Management Programs.  Report to Congress; disposal
   of hazardous wastes.  Environmental Protection Publication SW-115.
   Washington, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1974.  110 p.

Office of Solid Waste.  Solid waste facts, SW-694. Washington, U.S.
   Environmental Protection Agency, May 1978.  13 p.

Office of Solid Waste Management Programs.  Solid waste management;
   available information materials-interim catalog.  Environmental
   Protection Publication SW-58.27.   Washington, U.S. Government
   Printing Office, 1977. 190 p.

Office of Solid Waste Management Programs.  Source separation; the
   community and awareness program in Somerville and Marblehead,
   Massachusetts.  Environmental Protection Publication SW-551.
   (Washington), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1976.  81 p.

Office of Water Program Operations.  Municipal sludge management:
   environmental factors.  EPA 430 /9-77-004 (MCD-28).  Washington,
   U.S. Government Printing Office, 1977.

Office of Water Program Operations.  Municipal sludge management:
   environmental factors.  Washington, U.S. Environmental Protection
   Agency, October 1977.  30 p. § Appendixes.

Office of Water Program Operations.  Municipal sludge management: EPA
   construction grants progran; an overview of the sludge management
   situation.  EPA-430/9-76-009 (MCD-30). Washington, U.S. Government
   Printing Office, 1976.  64 p.

Office of Water Program Operations.  Technical bulletin; Evaluation of
   land application systems-evaluation checklist and supporting commen-
   tary.  EPA-430/9-75-001.  Washington, U.S. Government Printing Office  ,
   Mar. 1975. 182 p.

Office of Water Supply.  Draft environmental impact statement, state
   underground injection control program; proposed regulations (40CFR
   Part 146). Washington, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Undated.
   Various pagings.
                                   -165-

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Office of Water Supply, and Office of Solid Waste.  The report to Congress:
   waste disposal practices and their effects on ground water.(Report)
   Washington, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1977. 512 p.

Pacey, J.  Methane gas in landfills: liability or asset?  in Waste
   Management Technology and Resource § Energy Recovery.  Washington,
   D.C. : U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1976, pp. 168-190.

Park, W.P.  Engineering economics; the sanitary landfill-"there goes
   the neighborhood!"  Consulting Engineer, March, 1976.

Perry, J.R.  Sanitary landfill guidelines compliance program; survey of
   Federal facilities-Feb. 1976.  Office of Solid Waste, 1976.

Personal communication.  W. Anderson, P.E. Pickard and Anderson, Inc.
   June. 1978 (Unpublished information).

Personal communication.  Federal Insurance Administration. Flood Insurance
   Program, Philadelphia, August 1977.

Personal communication.  C. Fogg, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil
   Conservation Service, Environmental Services Division, September 22,
   1978.

Personal communication.  Mikohler, U.S. Department of Interior Fish and
   Wildlife Service, Washington, May 31, 1978.

Personal communication.  J. Sanislow, Division Representative, New York
   City, Army Corps of Engineers, Emergency Operations Branch, September22,
   1978.

Personal communication,  K. Schreiner, Official Contact, U.S. Department
   of Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Office of Endangered Species,
   September 29, 1978.

Pesticides-EPA proposal on disposal and storage.  Federal Register, 39
   (220):36847-36950, Oct. 15, 1974.          "

Pohland, Frederick G., Sanitary landfill stabilization with leachate
   recycle and residual treatment. EPA-600/2-75-043. Cincinnati, Mmicipal
   Environmental Research Laboratory, Oct. 1975. 106 p.

Polychlorinated bif.henyl-containing wastes; disposal procedures. Federal
   Register. 41(64):14136, April, 1976.

Porter, K.W., D.A. Yanggen, M.T. Beatty, J.A. Gams, S. Gronbeck, and
   T.P. Kures.  Technical guide for solid waste management; a compendium
   of published and original material.  University of Wisconsin-Extension,
   G2427.  Wisconsin Departments of Natural Resources and Local Affairs
   and Development, 62 p.
                                    -166-

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Porter, W.X.  D.A. Yanggen, T.P. Kimes, S. Gronbeck, M.T. Beatty, and
   J.A. Gams.  Planning for cooperative solid waste management in Wisconsin.
   University of Wisconsin-Extension, G2426.  Wisconsin Departments of
   Natural Resources and Local Affairs and Development, Oct. 1972.

Proceedings of the Fourth National Congress on Waste Management Technology
   and Resource and Energy Recovery, Atlanta, Nov. 12-14, 1975. Environ-
   mental Protection Publication SW-8p. (Washington), U.S. Environmental
   Protection Agency, 1976. 382 p..

Processes Research, Inc.  Alternatives for hazardous waste management in
   the organic chemical, pesticides and explosives industries.  Washington,
   U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1976.  Various pagings.

RCRA poses grave problems for landfill operators, state and local agen-
   cies, and EPA itself.  Solid Wastes Management, 21(2):42,44, Feb. 1978.

Regional planning, wise equipment choice behind successful landfill
   operations.  Solid Waste Systems, 5(4):8-10, Aug./Sept. 1976.

Reindl, J.  Landfill course; interrelationships within the solid wastes
   system.  Solid Wastes Management, 22-23, 54-57, Apr. 1977

Reindl, J.  Landfill course; examining disposal and recycling techniques
   for solid wastes.  Solid Wastes Management, 66,68,70,92,94, May 1977.

Reindl, J.  Landfill course; solid wastes disposal depends on landfill
   techniques.  Solid Ifastes Management, 22-24,48 June 1977.

Reindl, J.  Landfill course; managing gas and leachate production on
   landfills.  Solid Wastes Management,  30-31, 68, 86, 88, 90, July
   1977.

Reindl, J. Landfill course; proper site selection requires balancing of
   established criteria.  Solid Wastes Maiagement, 26-27, 71, Aug. 1977.

Reindl, J.  Landfill course; gathering data; most important step in
   designing landfill.  Solid Wastes Management, 42,44, 74, 76, 78,
   Sept. 1977.

Reindl, J. Landfill course; evaluating design alternatives for landfill
   construction. Solid Wastes Management, 44, 46, 48, 50 66, Oct. 1977.

Reindl, J. Landfill course; operational efficiencies must be built into
   sites at design stage.  Solid Wastes Management,  60, 62, 64, 66, Nov.
   1977.

Reindl, J. Landfill course; equipment needs determined by site operational
   factors.  Solid Wastes Management, 34, 36, 38, 52, Dec. 1977.
                                     -167-

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Reindl, J. Landfill course; closing of landfill needs to avoid future
   site problems.  Solid Wastes Management, 22-24, 26, o4, 06, Jan
   1978.

Reindl, J.  Landfill course; solid wastes disposal depends on landfill
   techniques.  Solid Pastes ?-knagement 20(6);22 (4p).

Reindl , J.  Landfill course; managing gas and leachate production on
   landfills.  Solid Wastes Management  20(7):so (7p).

Research publications of solid and hazardous waste research division
   disposal branch.  SHWRD Research Reports relating to waste disposal,
   July 1973. Sept. 1977.

Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976.  Public Law 94-580,
   94th Congress. Oct. 21, 1976.

Resource Technology Corporation.  Guidelines for resource recovery fror.i
   municipal wastes.  Apr.1977. 26  p.

The report to Congress; waste disposal practices and their effects on
   groundwater.  Washington,D.C.: Office of  Water Supply and Office of
   Solid Waste Management Programs, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
   Jan. 1977.  512 p.

Rossoff, J., et.  at., Disposal  of by-products from nonreqenerable flue gas
   desulfurization systems: second progress report.  Washington, U.S.
   Environmental Protection Agency, May 1977, 278 p.

Roy F. Weston, Inc.  Pollution prediction tecliniques for waste disposal
   siting; a state-of-the-art assessment.  Environmental Protection
   Publication SW-162c.  (Washington), U.S. Environmental Protection
   Agency, 1978

Russell, J.R.  Solid waste management systems in the rural Southeast.
   Agricultural Economic Report No.333.   Washington, U.S. Department
   of Agriculture , Economic Research Service, 1976. 19 p .

Sather, J.H. ed.  Proceedings of the National Wetland Classification
   and Inventory Workshop, University of Maryland, College Park, Mary-
   land, July 20-23, 1975.  Washington,  U.S. Department of Interior,
   Fish and Wildlife Service, Office of Biological Services.(conducted
   by the Wildlife Management Institute ), July 1976.  248 p.  + Addendum.

Schalit, L. , et al. Hazardous solid waste streams from organic chemicals
   manufacturing and related industries.  Cincinnati, U.S. Environmental
   Protection Agency, Undated.  Various pagings.

Schomaker, N.R.  Current research on land disposal of hazardous wastes,
   in Residual Management by Land Disposal; Proceedings of the Hazardous
   Waste Kesearcn symposium, Feb. z-4, 1976.University of Arizona.
                                   -168-

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Schomaker , N.B. and M.H. Roulter.  Current EPA research activities in
   solid waste management, in Research Symposium  on Gas and Leachate
   from Landfills; Formation, Collection and Treatment , March 25-26,
   1975, kutgers, State University" of New Jersey.

Schultz, D.T.  Landfill recycles waste papermill sludge.  Public Works,
   109($):83-85, June T978.                               	

SCS Engineers.  Assessment of industrial hazardous waste practices--
   leather tanning and finishing industry.  Washingtion, U.S. Environ-
   mental Protection Agency, 1976.  233 p.

SCS Engineers.  Data base for standards/regulations development for
   land disposal of flue gas sludges.  EPA-600/7-77-118.  Cincinnati,
   Ohio, Municipal Environmental Research Laboratory, Dec. 1977. 284 p.
   (USEPA, Office of Research and Development Series in Research Reporting).

SCS Engineers.  Study of engineering and water management practices that
   will minimize the infiltration of precipitation into trenches containing
   radioactive waste; final report.  Contract No. 68-03-2452.  Las Vegas,
   National Environmental Research Center, U.S. Environmental Protection
   Agency, Sept. 1977. 85 p.

Serper, A.  Anticipation of environmental impacts of facilities urged.
   Solid Wastes Management, 21(3): 60,62,64,88, Mar. 1978.

Shaw, S.P. and C.G. Fredine.  Wetlands of the United States.  U.S. Fish
   and Wildlife Service Circular 39, Washington, U.S. Government Printing
   Office, 1956.  67 p.

Shea, T.G. and J.D. Stockton.  Wastewater sludge utilization and disposal
   costs.  EPA-430/9-75-01-5 (MCD-12). Washington, U.S. Government Printing
   Office, 1975. 13 p.

Shilesky, U.M. et al.  1st draft final report; solid waste landfill
   practices. Washington, U.S.  Environmental Protection Agency, September
   1978. Various pagings.

Shultz, D.W. ed.  Land Disposal of Hazardous Wastes; Proceedings of the
   Fourth Annual Research Symposium held at San Antonio, Texas, March 6,
   7 and 8, 1978.  Cosponsored  by Southwest Research Institute and the
   Solid and Hazardous Waste Research Division, U.S. Environmental
   Protection Agency.  Cincinnati,undated. (Preliminary draft) 425 p.

Shuster, K.A.  Leachate damage  assessment: an approach.  Washington,
   U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1975. 56 p.

Shuster, K.A.  Leachate damage  assessment.  Case study of the Peoples
   Avenue solid waste disposal  site in Rockford, Illinois. Environmental
   Protection Publication .SW-517. (Washington), U.S. Environmental Protec-
   tion Agency, 1976. 25 p.
                                     -169-

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Skinner, J.H.  Reduce the incentive to waste.  Presented at 30th National
   Meeting, American Institute of Chemical Engineers, Boston, Sept. 8,
   1975. 9 p.

Sludge disposal:  the problem, the search, the solution.  Public Works,
   1C#(3):58-61, Mar. 1978.'

Smith, F.A.  Comparative estimates of post-consumer solid waste.
   Environmental Protection Publication SW-148.  (Washington), U.S.
   Environmental Protection Agency, 1975. 18 p.

Smith, Frank Austenin.  Quantity and composition of post-consumer solid
   waste: material flow estimates for 1973 and baseline future projections.
   Waste Age, April 1976.

Smith, F.A.  Resource recovery plant cost estimates: a comparative
   evaluation of four recent dryshredding designs.   Environmental Pro-
   tection Publication'  SW-163 in the Solid Waste Management Series.
   Washington, July 1975.  20 p.

Smith, F.L. Jr.  A solid waste estimation procedures material flows
   approach.  Environmental Protection Agency, 1975. 56 p.

Smith, J.E.  Inventory of energy use in wastewater sludge treatment
   and disposal.  Industrial Water Engineering, July/August 1977, p. 20-
   26.	

Solid and hazarous waste research division outputs.  Disposal Technology
   PFOgram, Sept. 1977.   Prepared for OR § D Program Review.

Solid waste shredding: blueprint for progress. Waste Age, July 1975,
   p. 10-15.                                   	

Sorg, T.J. and H.L. Larder, Jr. Sanitary landfill facts. Environmental
   Protection Publication SW-4ts.  Washington, U.S. Government Printing
   Office, 1971. 30 p.

Spindletop Research Inc. Transfer stations; solid waste management
   handbook.  Kentucky State Department of Health,  Division of Solid
   Waste Disposal, May 1971. 49 p.

State hazardous waste programs; proposed guidelines.  Federal Register.
   43(22):4366-4373, Feb. 1, 1978.

State of Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection Solid Waste
   Management Unit.  Operating Connecticut's land disposal areas; a text-
   book for the man on the land disposal site.  Environmental Protection
   Publication, Region 1. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1975.90 p.
                                   -170-

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 Stearns, R.P. and J.P. Wbodyard.  The  impact of resource recovery on urban
   landfill requirements.  Waste Age   Jan. 1977, 6 p.

 Stearns, R.P. and J. P. Wbodyard.  Resource recovery and the need for
   sanitary landfills.  Public Works,  108(9):106-109, Sept. 1977.

 Steiner, R.L. and R. Kantz.  Sanitaty  landfill; a bibliography. rPublic
   Health Service Publication no. 1819.   (Environmental Protection Pub-
   lication SW-4 rg. 1).  [Washington], U.S. Environmental Protection
   Agency, 1974.  34 p.

 Stewart, W.S.  State-of-the-art study  of  land  impoundment techniques.
   Cincinnati, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency  Office of Research
   and Development, Municipal, Environmental Research Laboratory, Undated,
   77 p. (Prepublication Report). Grant no. R-803585.

 Stone, R.  Reclamation of landfill methane and  control of off-site migration
   hazards.   Solid Wastes Management  21(7): 52-54,  '69.

 Stump, P.L. ed.  Proceedings of a Symposium; Solid Waste Demonstration
   Projects,Tincinnati, Ohio, May 4-6, 1971.  Environmental Protection
   Publication SW-4 p.  Washington, U.S. Government  Printing Office, 1972.
   256 p.

 Sussman, D.B. Co-disposal of sewage sludge and solid wastes-it works.
   American City and County, Oct. 1977.

 Sverdrup S. Parcel and Associates, Inc.  Sludge, handling and disposal
   practices at selected municipal wastewater treatment plants.  Washing-
   ton, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, April  1977.  56 p.

 Swartzbaugh, J.T., R.L. Hentrich, Jr.,and G. Sabel.   Evaluation of
   landfilled municipal and industrial solid wastes.  Cincinnati, U.S.
   Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development,.
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Teipel, J.A.  Dallas'solid waste plan in its second decade.   Public Works,
   109(5):60-61,  May 1978.

Thermal processing and land disposal of solid waste.  Federal Register,
   39(158):29, 328-29338,  Apr.  14,  1974.

Thompson, B. and I.  Zandi,  Future of sanitary landfill. Journal of
   the Environmental Engineering Division.  101 (EEl):4i-54.

Thompson, J.W.  Shredding vs remote landfill costs.  Solid Waste
            6(3):6-7,  May/June  1977.
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   (Washington), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1973.  29 p.
                                  -171-

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   and Welfare, 1970.  50 p.

Tolman, A.L.  et al.  Guidance manual for minimizing pollution from waste
   disposal sites.  Cincinnati, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1978.
   83 p.

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Transcript;  Public fuearing on proposed classification criteria on Sxslid
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   Environmental Protection Publication SW-39 p.  (Washington), U.S.
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   Protection Agency, 1977.   270 p.

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                                   -172-

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Vigh, C.  Sanitary landfill location and design; solid waste management
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   Mar.-Apr. 1973.
                                     -173-

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NAPORA, Inc.    Assessment of industrial hazardous waste practices--
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Zausner, E.R.  An accounting system for sanitary landfill operations.
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   6 p.
                                  -174-

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                                 APPENDIX A

                        LINER MATERIALS EVALUATIONS

                       Admixed and Asphaltlc Materials

                            (Source: Reference 3)
Asphalt Concrete
     Asphalt concrete is a carefully controlled mixture of asphalt cement and
graded aggregate that is placed and compacted at elevated temperatures.  As-
phalt concrete is especially well adapted to the construction of linings for
all types of hydraulic structures.  It may lie used for the entire lining
structure, or it may be a principal part of a more complex lining.  Depending
on mix design and placement, it may serve as an impermeable layer or as a
porous layer.  Properly mixed and placed, asphalt concrete forms a stable,
durable, and erosion-resistant lining.

     Asphalt cements of *M) to 50 or 60 to 70 penetration grades are preferable
for hydraulic concrete linings.      The lower penetration grades produce har-
der asphalt concrete linings that are more resistant to the destructive action
of water, the growth of vegetation, and extremes of weather.  They are more
stable on side slopes than linings made with sulfur asphalt cements, but they
retain sufficient flexibility to conform to slight deformation of the sub-
grade.

     Mix design of asphalt concrete for hydraulic linings follows general
principles such as those described in publications of the Asphalt Institute,
Table 11 lists some typical mix compositions.  The maximua  stone  size will
generally be from 1.2? to 2.5^ cm (1/2 to 1 in.) in size, and  the amount of
mineral filler passing a No. 200 sieve will usually be froa %fa to 1$%.  The
mix should have 6$ to 9^ asphalt content by weight of the total mix.  The
aggregate gradation and asphalt content  should be such that the nix will be
stable, yet easily compacted to less than *•$. air voids.

Soil Asphalt

     Soil asphalt embraces a wide variety of soils,  usually those of low
plasticity mixed with a liquid asphalt.  Generally,  soil asphalt mixtures
are avoided for lining purposes.      There ar& always exceptions, but soil
asphalt mixes containing cutback asphalts are usually not suitable for lin-
ings.     (Cutback asphalts are liquid solutions of asphalt in a volatile sol-
vent.  Upon evaporation of 'the solvent, cutback asphalts assume a heavy con-
sistency typical of the base asphalt.  ) Those soil asphalts containing
emulsified asphalts require a waterproofing seal,  membrane,  or asphalt con-
crete to be placed on top of them.  (Asphalt emulsions are dispersions of
microscopic asphalt particles in a continuous aqueous phase containir^ small
amounts of chemicals or clay as emulsifiers.  They can be classified as
anionic, cationic, or nonionic, depending on the electrical charge on  the
asphalt particles.  Asphalt emulsions are normally liquid, reverting to the
solid or semisolid state of the base asphalt after application by means of
evaporation or breaking out of the water.  )

                                   -175-  •

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Sprayed Asphalt Membranes


      An asphalt menbrane  lining (hot-sprayed  type)  consists of a continuous
 layer of asphalt,  usually without filler or reinforcement of any kind.   It is
 generally covered  or buried to protect it from  mechanical damage and to pre-
 vent weathering (oxidation) of the surface.   Its  cover may be another layer
 of a multilayer lining structure,  but generally it  is native soil,  gravel,
 asphalt macadam, or other substances  specifically placed for this purpose.
 Asphalt membranes  are placed to thicknesses of  0.^8 to 0.79 cm (3/i6 to 5/16
 in.) and constitute continuous waterproof layers  extending throughout the
 length and breadth of the structure being lined.  Asphalt of special charac-
 teristics is used  to make these membranes into  tough,  pliable sheets that
 readily conform to changes or irregularities  in the subgrade.  Buried under a
 protective coating, an asphalt membrane will  retain its tough, flexible qual-
 ities indefinitely.  It is one of the least expensive types of current liners.

      Asphalts used to make membranes  must have  very low temperature suscepti-
 bility and a high  degree  of toughness and durability.   Furthermore, asphalt
 for membrane linings must have a high softening point to prevent sagging or
 flow down a slope  if the  cover material should  be accidently removed and the
 membrane exposed to the sun.  The material must also be sufficiently plastic
 at operating temperatures to minimize the danger  of rupture from earth move-
 ment.  Also, it must not exhibit excessive cold flow tendencies in order to
 effectively resist the hydraulic head to which  it is subjected.

      Considerable  laboratory research and field trials have gone into the
 selection of suitable asphalts.  Those that meet  the requirements are usually
 asphalts produced  from selected feedstocks by the use of air-blowing tech-
 niques.  (Some manufacturers employ chemical  modifiers, which are most often
 termed, catalysts,  in the blowing process.)
Bituminous Seals


      Bituminous  seals  are  generally used to  seal  the  surface pores of an as-
 phalt mixture  serving  as a lining or to  provide additional  assurance  for
 waterproofing.   They are also  considered in  some  cases where there may be some
 reaction between the aggregate in the mix and the liquid  to be  stored.   There
 are  basically  two types of bituminous seals.  One is  simply an  asphalt cement
 (sometimes  emulsified  asphalt  is used instead) sprayed over the lining surface
 at a rate of about 1.1 liter/m2 (l  qt/yd2).  This method  provides  a film
 approximately  0.18 cm  (1/32 in.) thick.   The second type  of seal consists of
 an asphalt  mastic that may contain  2$% to 50$ asphalt cement.   The remainder
 ia a nineral filler such as limestone dust or an inexpensive reinforcing
 fiber such  as  asbestos.  This  mixture is generally squeegeed on at an applica-
 tion rate of about 2.7 to  5.^  kg/m2 (5 to 10 lb/yd2).
                                     -176-

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BENTONITE/SOIL
     High-swell clay minerals have been widely used to control excessive
seepage in natural soils by decreasing their permeability.  Bentonite, one of
the most widely used clays, is a heterogeneous substance composed of mont-
morillonite and small amounts of feldspar, gypsum, calcium carbonate, quartz,
and traces of other minerals.  Bentonite has colloidal properties because of
its very small particle size and the negative charge on the particles.  About
?0# to 90# of the particles are smaller than 0.6 micron.25  Bentonite has the
capacity of absorbing approximately five times its weight in water and occu-
pies .a volume of 12 to 15  times its dry bulk volume at maximum saturation.2°
It is this swollen mass that fills the voids in soils that normally would
permit water seepage.  These high-swell bentonites are found in Wyoming,
South Dakota, Montana, Utah, and California.

     The level of ionic salts found in certain industrial wastes is often
sufficient to reduce the swelling of bentonite and therefore impair its use-
fulness as a sealant.  Since the water that initially contacts the bentonite
is most critical to its effectiveness, swelling of the bentonite can often
be effected by prehydrating the bentonite in fresh water.  This forms an
effective seal in the presence of contaminated wastewater.  But in the pres-
ence of high quantities of dissolved salts, the prehydrated clay eventually
deteriorates.  The use of a specially formulated form of bentonite (Saline
Seal) reportedly assures that after prehydration, the bentonite will remain
swollen for a long time and will not deteriorate as rapidly when exposed to a
high level of ionic contaminants.

     Saline Seal bentonite can be distributed over a prepared lagoon surface
at a rate of about 1.82 kg/0.09 m2 (2.0 lb/ft2) and mixed thoroughly into the
top 5-1 to 15.2 cm (2 to 6 in.) of soil.  The area is then covered with a
minimum of 1 in. of fresh water to effect prehydration.  After 2 to 4 days,
industrial waste can be put into the lagoon.

     Saline Seal can also  be placed on unstable or wet soil surfaces as a
slurry.  Slurries are made'by mixing approximately 0.23 kg (1/2 It) of
Saline Seal per 3.8 liters (gal) of water.  Vhen distributed over the soil
surface,  the slurry will effectively seal the soil surface.

     Table 18 compares  the relative performance of a bentonite and Saline Seal,
both of which were prehydrated with fresh water.  The soil tests were per-
formed on sandy soil, with 3.6 kg (4.0 Ib) of each applied per 0.09 m2 (ft2)
and thoroughly mixed into  the top 5-1 cm (2 in.) of soil.  As the data indi-
cate, the prehydrated bentonite seal showed signs of deterioration on the
second day and failed completely on the seventh day, whereas the Saline Seal
maintained and even improved the seal.  The contaminated water used in the
test contained 3«^ sodium chloride and J.6& sodium sulfate.
                                  -177-

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 Day
                        COMPARATIVE PERFORMANCE OF BENTONITE AND

                        SAUHZ SEAL BENTONITB IN A SOIL TEST27
          Prehydratad Bentonite
                                            Prehydrated Saline Seal
Permeability*
  (cm/sec)
Leakage Rate#
     Tin.)
Permeability*
  (cm/sec)
Leakage Rate#
  cm (in.)
1
2
3
i*
5
7*
1.0 x
2.0 x
5.0 x
1.0 x
" 6.0 x
1.0 x
io-4
10-6
lo-*
io-5
io-5
10-*
0.318
0.635
1.905
3.18
19.1
31.8
(o.
(o.
(o.
(1.
(7.
(12.
125)
250)
750)
25)
5)
5)
1
1
0
0
0
0
.0 x
.0 x
.8 x
.9 x
.7 x
.7 x
10-6
10-6
10-6
10-6
10-6
10-6
0
0
0
0
0
0
.318
.318
.25^
.28**-
.221
.221
(0.125)
(0.125)
(0.100)
(0.112)
(0.087)
(0.087)
 *1.0 x 10"6 cm/sec represents an effective seal (equivalent to 1 ft of
  compacted native clay).
       of water at a 1.22-m (*4~ft) head.
       failed.
      Low-swell clays such as hydrated mica and kaolin have had limited use as
 sealants.   However,  some research has been conducted on their sealing charac-
 teristics, 28 and perhaps additional investigations are needed.  The low-swell
 clays are  affected less by increased concentrations of magnesium or calcium
 in water,  and the damage from drying may be less severe.   Low-swell clays
 are generally found  in Nevada and other western states.

      The cost of bentonite-type clays varies from about $10/ton to more than
 $25/ton (FOB the clay-processing plant), with $20/ton a typical cost.28  The
.price variation is a function of the quality of the clay,  the degree of carried
 out processing,  and  the quantity purchased.   In addition to the basic cost,
 shipping is expensive unless the site is located near the  clay-processing
 plant.   Typical shipping costs range from $20 to $30/ton,  depending on the
 mode of transportation and the distance traveled.   Note, however,  that if clay
 suitable for an impoundment site lining is available on the site itself  the
 coat could be as low as $1.00/0.8 m2 (yd2) if ^ ciay c^ ^ bulldozed'into
 position, '•f
                                 -178-

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SOIL CEMENT
     Soil cement la prepared by compacting a mixture of Portland cement, water,
and a wide variety of soils.  As the Portland cement hydrates, the mixture be-
comes a hard, low-strength Portland cement concrete.  Soil cement Is sometimes
used to surface pavements with low-volume traffic, and it is extensively used
for the lower layers of pavements, where it is generally referred to as ce-
ment-treated base.  Soil cement is also widely used in water control construc-
tion, more specifically to protect the slopes at earth dams and other embank-
ments.  See Appendix 0 for Information regarding contract awards for soil
cement water control projects.

     Strong soil cement linings can be constructed using many types of soils,
but the permeability of the resulting liners varies with the nature of the
soilt The more granular it is, the higher the permeability.  By using fine-
grained soils, soil cements with permeability coefficients of about 10"° cm/sec
can be obtained.  In actual practice,  surface sealants are often applied to •
soil cement linings to obtain a more waterproof structure.  Aging and weather-
ing characteristics of soil cement linings are fairly good, especially those
associated with the wet-dry and freeze-thaw cycles.  Some degradation of soil
cement linings can be expected in an acidic environment, however.
                                    -179-

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                         Polymeric Membranes


                         (Source:  Reference  4)
Butyl
     Butyl rubber is a copolymer of a major amount of isobutylene  (97%) and a
minor amount of isoprene to introduce un saturation in the rubber as sites for
vulcanization.  A vulcanized butyl rubber compound is used in the manufacture
of the sheeting, which is available in either unsupported or fabric-reinforced
versions of 20 to 125 mil thickness.  Butyl rubber has excellent resistance to
permeation of water and swelling in water.  This rubber has poor resistance to
hydrocarbons, but is quite resistant to animal and vegetable oils and fats.
Butyl rubber compounds generally contain low amounts of extracts hi a material
and swell little in water.  Overall they age very well, although some butyl
compounds ozone crack.  Some recent compounds contain minor amounts of EPDM to
improve ozone resistance.  In outdoor exposure in water management use, butyl
rubber liners have shown no degradation after 20 years of service.  Obtaining
good splices of butyl sheeting/ particularly in the field, .continues to be a
problem, as cold curing adhesives are required,

Chlorinated Polyethylene (CP5>

     This relatively recently, developed polymer is an inherently flexible
thermoplastic produced by chlorinating high density polyethylene.  Sheeting of
CPE makes durable linings for waste, water, or chemical storage pits, ponds,
or reservoirs.  CPE withstands ozone, weathering and ultraviolet and resists
many corrosive chemicals, hydrocarbons, microbiological attack, and burning.
Compounds of CPE are serviceable at low temperatures and are nonvolatile.
Membranes of CPE are available in 20 to 40 mil thicknesses in supported and
reinforced versions.  They are generally unvulcanized and are spliced with
solvent adhesives by solvent welding.

Chlorosulfonated Polyethylene
          synthetic rubber is made by the chlorosulfonation of polyethylene.
It can be used in both vulcanized and unvulcanized compounds; however, liners
of this rubber are generally based on unvulcanized compounds containing at
least 45% of the rubber.  They are available in sheeting of 30 to 45 mil thick-
nesses; most are made with fabric reinforcement of either nylon or polyester
scrim.  Liners of this rubber have good puncture resistance, are easy to seam
in the factory or field with solvents, cements, or heat, and have excellent
resistance to weathering, aging, oil, and bacteria.  Membranes of this ma-
terial have been used in the lining of pits and ponds where highly acid-con-
taminated fluids are encountered.

     After polyvinyl chloride, this is the most used polymeric material for
liners.

Slasticized Polyolefin

     Membrane liners of an elasticJjsed polyolefih have been recently intro-
duced.  This material is unvulcanized and thermoplastic and can be easily
                                     -180-

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seamed with heat either in the field or factory.  It features excellent resis-
tance to weathering and oils.  Films of this material are supplied in 20-foot
widths in 20 to 30 mil thickness.

Ethylene-Propylene •Rubber  (EPDM)

     This synthetic rubber is a terpolymer of ethylene, propylene, and a small
amount of a diene monomer that introduces double bonds onto the polymer chain.
these double bonds are sites for vulcanization of the rubber and, as the unsat-
uration is in the side chain of the polymer molecule and not in_ the main chain,
ozone, chemical, and aging resistance are excellent.  The rubber is compatible
with butyl and is often added to butyl to improve resistance of the latter to
oxidation, ozone, and weathering.  As it is a wholly hydrocarbon rubber like
butyl, EPDM has excellent resistance to water absorption and permeation, but
has relatively poor resistance to some hydrocarbons.  EPDM liners are supplied
in vulcanized sheeting of 20 to 125 mils thicknesses, both supported and un-
supported. ^Special attention is required in splicing and seaming «-hiqt ma-
terial, as vulcanizable adhesives must be used.

Neoprene or polycnioroprene

     Neoprene is a synthetic rubber based primarily on chloroprene.  It fea-
tures good weathering and oil resistance and has been used where these prop-
erties are required.  It is supplied in vulcanized sheeting of 30 to 125 mils
thicknesses.  As it is a vulcanized rubber, vulcanizing cements and adhesives
must?'be used for seaming.

Polyester Elastomer

     This is an experimental thermoplastic rubber which has recently been in-
troduced as a liner material.  It has excellent resistance to oils and can be
heat sealed.  It is supplied in relatively wide sheets of 7 to 10 mils thick-
nesses.

Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)

     Polymeric membranes based upon PVC are the most widely used flexible lin-
ers.  They are available in wide sheets of 10 to 30 mils thicknesses; most is
used as unsupported film, but fabric reinforcement can be incorporated.  PVC
compounds contain 30 to 50% of one or more plasticizers to make the films
flexible and rubber-like.  They also contain 2% of a chemical stabilizer and
various amounts of fillers.  There is a wide choice of plasticizers that can
be used with PVC, depending upon the application and service conditions under-
which the PVC compound will be used.  PVC polymer generally holds up well in
burial tests; however, plasticized compounds of PVC films have deteriorated,
            presumably due to the biodegradability of the plasticizer.  Also,
some plasticizers are soluble to a limited extent in water.        On exposure
to weather with its wind, sunlight, and heat, PVC liner materials can deterio-
ate badly due to loss of p]^sticizer and to polymer degradation.  Consequently,
they are generally covered.  Plasticized PVC films are quite resistant to pun-
sture and relatively easy to splice by solvent welding, adhesives and heat.
                                    -181-

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                              APPENDIX B


                UNIT COST CALCULATIONS AND ASSUMPTIONS


     For the purposes of developing final upgrading unit costs a calcu-
lation methodology was adopted which was similar in approach to the
"Draft Environmental Impact Statement Criteria for Classification of
Solid Waste Disposal Facilities."  Major assumptions are as follows:

          Utilization of 10 TPD, 100 TPD, and 300 TPD sites
          Corresponding total acreages of 6 acres, 28 acres
          and 75 acres respectively
          Corresponding total perimeter lengths of 2,000 ft., 4,400 ft.
          and 7,200 ft. respectively
          260 days operation per year
          In place refuse to soil cover ratios of 1:1, 2:1  and 3:1 respectively
          26,000, 260,000 and 780,000 total ten year life capacity
          for 10 TPD, 100-TPD and 300 TPD facilities respectively

More detailed assumptions for the selected and alternative upgrading
technologies are as follows:

VERTICAL IMPERMEABLE BARRIER

          20' depth, 60 cu.-ft./ft. perimeter installation
          excavation @ $0.50/cu. yd., clay material @ $3.00/cu. yd.,
          placement @ $0.30/cu. yd.
          total unit cost $17.00/ft.   ($55.76/meter)

DIKE CONSTRUCTION

          10' depth, 567 cu. ft./ft.
          3:1 slopes
          materials and placement @ 1.50 cu. yd.
          total unit cost $31.50/ft.   ($103.32/meter)

IMPERMEABLE DAILY COVER (ON-SITE SOURCE)

          total unit cost $0.60/cu. yd.   ($0.78/cu. meter)

IMPERMEABLE DAILY COVER (OFF-SITE SOURCE)

          transport @ $1.00/cu. yd., clay material @ $3.00/cu. yd.
          olacement @ $0.30 cu. yd.
          2 mile average transport distance
          total unit cost $4.30/cu. yd.   ($5.62/cu. meter)
PONDING
          2" 24 hr. rainfall event
          runoff storage required for twice the site landfill  area
          excavation @ $0.50/cu. yd. (0.65/cu. meter)  land @ $3,000/acre
          ($7,410/hectare)
          10.TPD, 0.4 acres, 5' depth; 100 TPD, 1.85 acres, 5'  depth;
          300 TPD, 2.5 acres, 10' depth
                                   -182-

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PERIMETER GRAVEL TRENCHES
          20' depth, 60 cu.  ft/ft, perimeter installation
          excavation @ $.50/cu.  yd, gravel  material  @ $4.00/cu.  yd,
          placement @ $.30/cu.  yd.
          total unit cost $21.00/ft.    ($68.88/meter)
GAS COLLECTION
          perimeter installation
          total unit cost @ $20.00/ft for 10 TPD and 100 TPD sites,
          $15.00/ft for 300 TPD sites ($65.50/meter, $65.60/meter,  $99.20/meter
          respectively
          Annual operating costs for 10 TPD, $4,000; 100 TPD, $8,800; 300 TPD, $10,800.
SYNTHETIC LINER
          total unit costs including site preparation and earth  cover
          $3.60/sq yd.    ($4.31/sq. meter)

LEACHATE RECYCLING

          30" infiltration/year, .
          10 TPD, $6,000 piping, $2,000 pump station, $500 annual  costs;
          100 TPD, $13,200 piping, $4,000 pump station,  $1000 annual  costs;
          300 TPD, $21,600 piping, $10,000 pump station, $2000 annual costs

DITCHING

          total unit cost $2.25/ft.    ($7.38/meter)

FINAL IMPERMEABLE COVER (ON-SITE SOURCE)

          unit cost $0.60/cu.  yd. @ 2'  depth    ($0.78/cu. meter)

FINAL IMPERMEABLE COVER (OFF-SITE SOURCE)

          unit cost $4.30/cu.  yd. @2' depth     ($6.02/cu. meter)

FINAL PERMEABLE COVER (ON-SITE SOURCE)

          unit cost $0.50/cu.  yd. @ 2'  depth    ($0.65/cu. meter)

FINAL PERMEABLE COVER (OFF-SITE SOURCE)

          unit cost $1.75/cu.  yd.(a 2' depth     ($2.29/cu. meter)

REVEGETATIQN

          total unit cost $1000/acre    ($2471/hectare)

     The following table presents the development of technology  unit
costs in more detail:
                                  -183-

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GAS MONITORING

          10 TPD, 4 wells; 100 TPD,  8 wells;  300  TPD,  12  wells
          wells @ $200/each, labor @ $100/day
          sampling labor for 10 TPD, 4 man-days/year;  100 TPO
          8 man-days/year; 300 TPD,  12 man-days/year
          $1000 monitoring' equipment

GROUNDWATER WATER QUALITY MONITORING

          10 TPD, 3 wells; 100 TPD,  4 wells;  300  TPD,  7 wells
          quarterly sampling @ $150/sample,  SlOOO/well
          sampling labor for 10 TPD, 3 man-days/year;  100 TPO,  4  man-days/year;
          300 TPD, 7 man-days/year @ $100/day

NATURAL CLAY LINER (OFF-SITE SOURCE)

          transport @ $1.00/cu. yd., clay material  @ $3.00/cu.  yd.,
         ' placement @ $.30/cu. yd.
          2-foot depth clay material
          2-mile average transport distance
          total unit cost @ $4.30/cu. yd.    ($5.89/cu. meter)

LEACHATE COLLECTION FACILITIES

          10 TPD, 3500'  collector pipe; 100  TPD,  14,300'   collector  pipe-
          300 TPD, 36,000' collector pipe
          100' collector pipe spacing plus perimeter
          total unit cost @ $7.00/ft.     ($22.96/meter)

LEACHATE MONITORING. REMOVAL AND TREATMENT

          6" infiltration/year, 450  gal/day/acre
          10 TPD, 2700 gal/day, 2.5c/gal; 100 TPD,  12,600 gal/day, U/gal;
          300 TPD, 33,750 gal/day,  0.5<£/gal  (18.74/cu.ft., 7.5c/cu.ft.,  3.7
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FIRE CONTROL
           one fire truck unit @ $1,000,. $2,000,  and $10,000 per site
          for 10 TPD, TOO TPO and 300 TPD sites respectively
ACCESS CONTROL
          perimeter installation
          total unit cost 9 $12.00/ft.   ($39.36/meter)
LITTER CONTROL
          litter control  fencing,   130 ft.,  280 ft.  and 450 ft.  per
          10 TPD, 100 TPD and 300  TPD sites  respectively 9 $10.00/ft.
          ($32,80/meter)
COMPACTION
          one machine @ $50,000
                                    -185-

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                                                         UNIT COSTS Of CONTROL  TECHNOLOGIES
                                             Capital Casts
                                                                                              0 t M Costs
Technology
Vertical Inper-
neable Barrier
Dike Construction
lapemeable
Dally Cover (on-
slte source)
tape ratable
Dally Cover (off-
site source)
Ponding
Gas
Monitoring
Groundwater Water
Quality Monitoring
Gas Collection
Facilities
Site Size Unit Casts
10
100
300
10
100
300
10
100
300
10
100
300
10
100
300
10
100
300
10
100
300
10
100
300
TPO
TPO
TPO
TPO
TPO
TPO
TPO
TPD
TPO
TPO
TPO
TPO
TPO
TPO
TPO
TPO
TPO
TPO
TPO
TPO
TPO
TPO
TPO
TPO
$17.00/ft.
$31. 50/ft.
-
-
$ O.SO/cu. yd.
H
$200/well
N
$l,000/well
M
$ 20/ft.
2
4
7
Quantity
,000'
,400'
.200'
2.000'
4,400'
7.200'


3
IS
40


2
4
7
-
-
,200 cu.
,000 cu.
,200 cu.
4
a
12
3
4
7
,000*
.400'
.200'
Total •
$ 34,000
74,800
122,400
$ 63.000
138.000
226.800
-
-
yd. $ 2.800*
yd. 13.000*
yd. 27,500*
$ 1.800**
2.600**
3.400**
$ 3.000
4,000
7,000
$ 40.000
88,000
144,000
Unit Cost 	 Quantity
Yearly
Costs
Present
Worth
Total Costs/Ton
(1977 dollars)
$ 1.30
~ ~ ~ . ~ 0.30
I I II. °-15
-
$0.60/cu. yd. 5,200 cu. yd.
• 26,000 cu. yd.
52.000 cu. yd.
$4.30/cu. yd. 5,200 cu. yd.
26.000 cu. yd.
52.000 cu. yd.
-
$100/day 4 days/year***
• 8 days/year* **
• 12 days/year***
$150/saap1e 3 days/year****
" 4 days/year****
• 7 days/year**"
-
• - "
$ 3,120
15,600
31.200
$ 22.400
111.800
223,600
-
$ 400
800
1.200
$2.100
2.800
4,900
$ 4,000
8.800
14.400
-
$ 19.200
95,800
191.600
$ 137,300
686,500
1.372.900
-
(2.400
4,900
7,400
$ 12,900
17,200
30,100
$ 24,600
54,000
88,400
$ 2
0
0
$ 0
0
0
$ s
2
1
$ 0
0
0
$ 0
0
0
$ 0
0
0
$ 2
0
0
.40
.55
.30
.75
.35
.25
.30
.65
.75
.10
.05
.04
.15
.03
.01
.60
.10
.05
.50
.55
.30
 • Includes  land costs
** Include*  oqutpawit cost*  at $1.000
   8 sa>ples/weU/y«ar
   4 sa>ple*/wH/jre*r
                                               Capital  Costs
                                                                                                  0 t M Costs
Technology
Natural Clay
Liner
Leachate
Collection
Leach* te
Treataent
Peneable Daily
Cover (on- site
source)
Pewable Daily
Cover (off- site
source)
Vertical Pipe
Vents
PerlattUr Sravel
Trendies
Site Size Unit Costs
10 TPO J4.30/CU. yd.
100 TPO
300 TPO
10 TPO >7.00/ft.
100 TPO
300 TPO "
10 TPO
100 TPO
300 TPO ;
10 TPO
'100 TPO
300 TPO ~
10 TPO
100 TPO
300 TPO ~
10 TPO $2000 per
100 TPO
300 TPO
10 TPO ttl.OO/ft.
100 TPO
300 TPO
Quantity
19,350 cu.
90,340 cu.
242,000 cu.
3,500'
14,300'
36.000*
-
-
-
12
56
150
2.000'
4.400'
7,200'
Total
yd. t 83,200
yd. 388,500
yd. 1.040.600
{ 24.500
100.100
252.000
-
-
-
t 24,000
112.000
300,000
$ 42,000
92.400
151.200
Unit Cost
-
-
2.5 u.i wwwewiT Bwmofncfc an -420-007/3774
                                                                    -186-
                                                                                                                                 UCT1806

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