Office of Air and Water Programs
Air PolIutionTraining Institute
Cost Effectiveness
of Air Pollution Control Strategies
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oo
so©
Training Course Manual
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COST EFFECTIVENESS
OF AIR POLLUTION
CONTROL STRATEGIES
Conducted by
CONTROL PROGRAMS DEVELOPMENT DIVISION
Air Pollution Training Institute
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711
April, 1973
This course is designed for professional persons
in the field of air pollution control. The course
manual has been prepared specifically for ttie
trainees attending the course, and should not be
included in the reading lists of periodicals as
generally available.
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US EPA
This is not an official policy and standards
document. The opinions, findings, and conclusions
are those of th.e authors; and not necessarily those
of the Untted States Environmental Protectton Agency.
Every attempt has been made to represent the
present state of the art as well as subject areas
still under evaluation. Any mention of products,
or organizations, does not constitute endorsement
by the United States Environmental Protection Agency.
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AIR POLLUTION TRAINING INSTITUTE
CONTROL PROGRAMS DEVELOPMENT DIVISION
OFFICE OF AIR AND WATER PROGRAMS
The Air Pollution Training Institute (1) conducts training for the
development and improvement of state, regional, and local governmental
air pollution control programs, (2) provides consultation and other
training assistance to governmental agencies, educational institutions,
industrial organizations, and others engaged in air pollution training
activities, and (3) promotes the development and improvement of air
pollution training programs in educational institutions and state,
regional, and local governmental air pollution control agencies.
One of the principal mechanisms utilized to meet the Institute's goals
is the intensive short term technical training course. A full time
professional staff is responsible for the design, development and
presentation of these courses. In addition the services of scientists,
engineers and specialists from other EPA programs, governmental agencies,
industry, and universities are used to augment and reinforce the Institute
staff in the development and presentation of technical material.
Individual course objectives and desired learning outcomes are delineated
to meet specific training needs. Subject matter areas covered include
process evaluation and control, atmospheric sampling and analysis, field
studies and air quality management. These courses are presented in the
Institute's resident classrooms and laboratories at various field
locations.
Francis J. Kinglx'ChieJ
Air Pollution Training Institute
Control Programs Development Division
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
Project Description
Objective and Scope
Background
The Institute for Air Pollution Training
Previous Training Exercise
DESCRIPTION OF THE TRAINING EXERCISE
Exercise Elements
Scenario
Demographic Data
Power
Space Heating
Solid Waste
Emission Inventory
Identification of Sources
Source Characteristics and Emission Factors
Control Alternatives
Fuel Switching Costs
Tall Stacks
Air Cleaners
Transport and Diffusion Model
Description
Features and Limitations
Meteorological Data
Effects
Ground Level Concentrations
Damage Costs
Benefit and Benefit-Cost Ratio
Population Factors
Selection of Receotor Sites
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3. USER'S GUIDE
AS A MATTER OF INTRODUCTION
SCENARIO
USER'S MANUAL FOR OPERATING THE TERMINAL FOR
THE TRAINING EXERCISE
1. Computer Programs
2. Entering, Amending and Deleting Data
3. Exercising the Conversational Mode
4. Preparing Input for the Batch Mode
5. Running the Batch Mode
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SECTION 1
INTRODUCTION
Project Description
Objective and Scope
Background
The Institute for Air Pollution Training
Previous Training Exercise
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SECTION 1. INTRODUCTION
PROJECT DESCRIPTION
The training exercise is an active learning experience through
which participants are introduced to computerized techniques for
estimating the effects of alternative strategies planned for air
pollution control. The exercise utilizes a computer program which has
come to be referred to as the Training Model. It is performed at a
terminal, such as a teletype, that is linked to a time-share computer
system. This facility provides for real-time computations of fairly
intricate mathematical expressions, and for "conversational" interaction
between participant and computer program.
The exercise is keyed to an atmospheric transport and diffusion
model for determining average annual (or seasonal) ground level
pollutant concentrations. Input consists of emission data and meteoro-
logical data, which are derived from a scenario of regional dimensions.
Emissions may be reduced by the imposition of control measures that are
determined by the user's strategy. Output of ground level sulfur oxide
and suspended particulate concentrations is compared with preset air
quality goals. The object is to meet these goals and at the same time
achieve the maximum reduction for the least costly control strategy.
A benefit-cost ratio is determined from the soiling cost reduction (benefit)
and the associated cost of controls.
OBJECTIVE AND SCOPE
For the Training Exercise, the key word is "Training". In several
respects the Training Model echoes large scale operational models for
regional analysis,as in its logical, realistically fashioned scenario
and its use of NAPCA sanctioned control data, emission factors, dispersion
model, and soiling cost expressions. But through simplification, it
primarily serves Training, not operational objectives. It is intended to
demonstrate the powerful support that computerized techniques can offer
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to air quality management by providing real-time solutions for the
impact of control strategies before decisions on implementation are
made.
BACKGROUND
The Institute for Air Pollution Training '!;., •••
Under the Air Quality Act of 1967, the principal responsibilities
of the Federal government are to provide coordination, guidance, leader-
ship, research, financial support, and manpower development. It is for
the State and local control agencies to bear the brunt of abatement,
control, and air resources management. To meet their increased respon-
sibilities under the Act, these agencies have been upgrading inhouse
capabilities through expansion of staff and facilities. Most are en-
countering a scarcity of personnel who are well-qualified and up-to-date
in outlook and training. Yet, these agencies reside in the midst of
vehemently conflicting interests that will be vitally affected by their
judgment and decisions. Their control action must be supported by the
great weight of scientific, technological, social, and economic experience.
To measure up to this stature, control agencies must interrelate more
closely with authorities beyond their parochial arenas: the academic
and institutional realms, professional societies, private independent
consultants and researchers, and their Federal correlatives.
It is in this context that the NAPCA Office of Manpower Development
(OMD) plays a vital role. Through program and career development
activities, fellowship and traineeship awards, and sponsorship of
training sessions, OMD works to provide the quality of manpower necessary
to carry out the provisions of the Act. The Institute for Air Pollution
Training (IAPT) conducts a variety of courses at Research Triangle
Park and in cities across the nation, and helps other government
agencies, educational institutions, and .industrial organizations
to establish or improve their own training facilities. The
Institute for Air Pollution Training courses provide an excellent
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forum for the interchange of ideas. From the Federal side, they also
serve as a propagation and testing medium for the newest findings and
techniques developed under Federal auspices. This, then,is the frame-
work for design and implementation of the training exercise to be
described in the pages that follow.
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SECTION 2
DESCRIPTION OF THE TRAINING EXERCISE
Exercise Elements
Scenario
Demographic Data
Power
Space Heating
Solid Waste
Emission Inventory
Identification of Sources
Source Characteristics and Emission Factors
Control Alternatives
Fuel Switching Costs
Tall Stacks
Air Cleaners
Transport and Diffusion Model
Description
Features and Limitations
Meteorological Data
Effects
Ground Level Concentrations
Damage Costs
Benefit and Benefit-Cost Ratio
Population Factors
Selection of Receptor Sites
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SECTION 2. DESCRIPTION OF THE TRAINING EXERCISE
EXERCISE ELEMENTS
The Training Exercise is comprised of the following three elements:
* Scenario
* Class Problem
* Training Model
The first two set the ground rules for the exercise; the third is
the mechanism for solution. Details follow.
SCENARIO :
The hypothetical region designed for this exercise is shown in
Figure 1. It measures 50 km by 50 km, and is designated as the PDQ Region
because it covers portions of three counties, Prince, Duchess, and Queen.
Most other place names are derived from the International Phonetic Alphabet.
Airline distance between the two cities within the region, Alfa City
and Bakersville, is about 10 km, downtown to downtown. Alfa City, the
larger of the two, is a progressive community in which civic pride and
affluence is much in evidence. Bakersvilie is gradually emerging from its
drab beginnings as living quarters for workers in the nearby heavy industries.
This contrast is reflected in the following statistical details for the
tri-county region.
Demographic Data
Total population of the PDQ region is 706,000, divided as follows:
County Prince Duchess Queen
City: Alfa City (none) Bakersville
total 356,000 102,000
(Central
City) (240,000) (60,000)
Suburban 35,000 10,000 66,000
Exurban 38.500 37.000 62,000
Totals 429,000 47,000 230,000
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FIGURE 1
HYPOTHETICAL AIR QUALITY REGION
218 120 40
137
Kllom»t»r«
140
51
LEGEND
Eiurbon
Urban, Low Density
Urban, Medium Density
Urban,High Density
Wooded area
Water
Industrial Area
AREA SOURCE CENTROIDS
Incineration, Alfa City M^
Space Heating, Alto City 84
Incineration, Bokersville Ma
Space Heating, Bakersville S.
N
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Figure 1 shows the population distribution by 5 km grid spaces.
In Alfa City, of the 240,000 people living in the heart of the city, 80%
live in multiple family dwellings, 20% in single-family dwellings. The
remaining 116,000 within city limits live in single-family dwellings. The
average family unit has 4 persons, and the average multiple-family dwelling
has 40 units. The 80 - 20 ratio and 4 persons per family also applies
to Bakersvilie, but in the heart of town where 60,000 people reside the
average multiple has 20 units.
Power
Power generation for the entire region has been consolidated in
one central power plant built in 1952. The plant has a capacity of 1,500 mw,
provided by three 500 mw boilers, each burning 3150 tons per day of 3% sulfur,
12% ash content coal. Each boiler emits 1,000,000 acfm of flue gas,
which passes through multicyclones, then up a 300 ft stack into the atmosphere.
Recent checks show the multicyclones to be 74.6% efficient for removal of
particulates.
Space Heating
In Prince County, coal burning has been discontinued by county
ordinance. Commercial buildings and apartment houses (multiples) burn
either #5 or #6 oil, the mix averaging 1.7% in sulfur content. Home
space heating is done by burning #2 oil, which contains 0.3% sulfur. Facilities
for natural gas are becoming more available, and it is hoped that there
will be enough to handle 40% of all fuel demands by next year.
In Queen County, coal furnaces are still used in 60% of the private
houses, mainly in Bakersville. The remaining single-family houses use
#2 oil, and all multiple-family dwellings use the same mix of #5 and #6
oil as does Alfa City, with average sulfur content of 1.7%.
In Duchess County, only #2 fuel oil is in use.
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UNITS NUMBER NUMBER SPACE HEATING SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL
mmnv PER OF OF FUEL
U*W1Y MFD's SFD's IfD SR) MFD SFD
PRINCE 40 LOOO 67,250 HEAVY- #2 OIL 50% 100%
OIL MUNICIPAL MUNICIPAL
1,7% 0,3%S INCINERATOR INCINERATOR
50% PLUS
IN-HOUSE LANDFILL
INCINERATOR
DUCHESS - 0 11.750 - #2 OIL - 100%
BACKYARD
BURNING
QUEEN 20 600 45,500 HEAVY 27,300 100% 100E
OIL COAL: 3%S IN-HOUSE DUMP
1,7%S 18,200 INCINERATOR OPEN BURNING
#2 OIL: 0,3%S
MULTIPLE-FAMILY DWELLING SFD: SINGLE-FAMILY DWELLING
TABLE 1, AREA SOURCE CHARACTERISTICS OF PDQ REGION
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After the sources were checked for consistency with problem objectives,
emission factors listed in NAPCA publications^ were applied to process
rates to produce an emission inventory. The procedure is shown in Appendix A,
and the inventory results are in Table 2.
CONTROL ALTERNATIVES
Control measures specified for the Training Exercise are limited
to the following:
• Fuel switching
• Tall stacks
• Air cleaners
• Other (upgrading or eliminating a source)
A number of control alternatives for a given source may be available
A number of control alternatives for a given source may be available
within each of the three categories. Fuel switching may be done from coal
to oil or to gas, or from oil to gas, or from high sulfur to lower sulfur
content coal or oil. In the case of low stack replacement by a taller stack,
the alternatives from which a selection is to be made are the height in-
crements for the tall stack. As for air cleaning devices, control alternatives
are limited to specific types and sizes appropriate to each industry and process,
The common characteristic of all three categories is incremental cost.
Fuel switching and air cleaner use are directed to the reduction of
pollutant emissions. Fuel switching is at present the most effective way
of reducing sulfur oxide emission from combustion processes, but it may
also result in lower emission of particulates. Air cleaners are designed
primarily for the control of particulate emissions, but certain scrubbers
remove a small amount of sulfur oxides as well.
2~!In particular:
R. L. Duprey, "Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors."
Public Health Service Publication No. 999-AP-42, (1968)
G. Ozolins and R. Smith, "A Rapid Survey Technique for Estimating
Community Air Pollution Emissions." Public Health Service Publication
No. 999-AP-29 (1966).
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TABLE 2. SOURCE AND EMISSION DATA
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
0.
1.
2.
SOURCE
Power Plant
Municipal
Incinerator
Oil Refinery
Cement Plant
Lead Smelter
Sulfuric Acid PI.
Alfa City:
Incinerator
Alfa City: Space
Heating, Multpl
Auto Dump
Bakersvl : Incin.
Bakersvl : Space
Heating, Multpl
Bakersvl. Dump
COORDINATES AREA
(km) (sq.km)
X
20.0
15.4
19.0
14.0
14.2
24.8
19.6
18.5
12.2
25.9
25.1
21.5
Y
10.0
17.2
16.8
19.8
19.8
20.1
24.5
32.0
: 25.4
16.9
14.9
14.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
78.5
254.0
10.1
10.1
78.5
9.1
STACK HT.
(m)
100.0
25.0
25.0
25.0
25.0
25.0
25.0
0.0
0.0
25.0
0.0
0.0
EMISSION
SOX
538.65
0.42
0.00
0.00
44.70
32.40
0.08
23.88
0.00
0.02
6.07
0.01
(T/DAY)
PARTIC,.
300. OO1
3.58
3.72
18.24
46.20
4.04
3.14
1.84
1.20
0.79
4.69
1.74
13. Alfa City: Space
Heating, Single 18.5
14. Bakersvl: Space
Heating,Single 25.1
15. Bakersvl: Space
Heating, Single
Oil 25.1
32.0 254.0 0.0
14.9 78.5 0.0
14.9 78.5 0.0
2.80
8.21
0.36
*After control by mechanical cleaner, 74.6% efficient.
NOTE: Coordinates of Area sources are for centroid of area.
0.59
18.00
0.77
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TABLE 3. FUEL SWITCHING ALTERNATIVES AND'COST DATA
Applied to Power Plant and Space Heating Only
Source
Power
Plant
Space
Heating
1. Alfa City
a. Single
Family
b. Multiple
2. Bakersvl
a. Single
Family
b. Single
Family
c. Multiple.,
Process Rate
Units/Year '
Coal:
3:45(106)T
Alt: Oil
5.49(108) gal
Alt: Gas
5.43(10l°)ft3
12 011
43.3(!06)gal
Alt: Gas
42.7(108)ft3
15 1/2 Oil
67.6(106)gal
Alt: gas
66.2(108)ft3
Coal
52.5(103)T
Alt: #2 oil
8.38(106) gal
Alt: gas
8;28(108>ft3
#2 oil
5.6(106)gal
Alt: gas
5.42(108) ft3
#5 1/2 oil
17.1(10°)gal.
Alt: gas
1.69(109)ft3
Present Fuel
Type Cost
Coal $7.05/T
3%S ,
$24.3(10°)
Ann.
#2 Oil $0.153/gal
0.3%S 66.20(105)
Ann.
#51/2 $ 0.082/gal
oil
1.65K 55.20(105)
Ann.
Coal S20.30/T
3*S $10.67(105)
Ann .
n oil $0.153/gal
0.33SS $8.39 (105)
Ann.
#5 1/2 oil $0.082/gal
1.65%S $14.03(105]
Ann.
Coal
Range: S=Sulfur %
Cost Formula
S: 3.0 + 0.5
Y=10. 961-2. 817S
+ 0.505 S2
(dollars'/ton)
S: 3.0 + 0.5
Y=38. 015-14. 380S
+2.825S2
(dollars/ ton)
Oil
#6
Range: Cost Formula
S: 2.0 - 0.5
Y=.058-.003S
(dollars/gal)
#5
Range: Cost Formula
S: 1.75-0.5
Y=.0585-.0025S
(dollars/gal )
#5 1/2 oil 0.8*S
$ .089/gal
$ 59.80(l05")Ann.
05 1/2 oil: 0.885S
$ 0. 089/gal
$15.22(105)
12 (S=0.3S)
Cost
$ 0.076/gal
$ 41.8(106)
Ann.
$ 0.131/gal
$88.50(105)
Ann.
$ 0.153/gal
$12.82(105)
Ann.
$ 0.131/gal
$22-. 38(105)
Ann.
Gas
Firm
Cost
$ .001/ft3
$54.3(106) .
Ann.
$.0016/ft3
$68.30(105)
Ann.
$.0015/ft3
$99.35(105)
Ann.
$.00169/ft3
$1167{lb5j
Ann.
$.0016/ft3
$8.66(105)
Ann.
$.0015/ft3
$25.30(105)
Ann.
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Tall stacks effect no reduction in the quantity of pollutant that
is emitted. Elevated emission sources merely take advantage of a larger
volume of air through which pollutants are diluted before reaching ground
level, and winds at higher levels of the atmosphere carry the material to
greater distance than with lower sources. The net result is that ground
level concentrations close to the source may be considerably reduced by
implementation of the tall stack option.
Fuel Switching Costs
Several factors including boiler conversion determine the incremental
cost of a fuel change, but the most significant factor is the cost of the
fuel itself. Cost figures selected for use in th4s exercise are derived
from the report entitled "The Fuel of Fifty Cities".^ A number of simpli-
fications were made to adapt the reported figure to the purposes of the
exercise. In the cases of coal and heavy oil, cost and sulfur percentage
data were fitted to a polynomial in order to derive generalized expressions
of costs for all intermediate values of sulfur content. Table 3 lists the
fuel switching applications and costs adopted for the exercise.
In the second column headed Process Rate, alternative fuel amounts
were calculated on the basis of requirements to produce the same annual
number of BTU's as provided by the fuel in present use. Calculations, shown
in Appendix A, assume combustion efficiencies published in Ozolins and Smith,
(1966).4
A change from high sulfur to low sulfur coal or from high sulfur
to low sulfur oil will reduce emissions of sulfur oxide but not >
particulates. However, calculations using emission factors show that a
T.Ernst and Ernst, "The Fuel of Fifty Cities", report prepared for
Department of Health, Education and Welfare, National Air Pollution
Control Administration, November 1968.
4. Ibid, p. 43.
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TABLE 4. AIR CLEANER ALTERNATIVES AND COST DATA
Source
Power Plant
Other Alt.
Tall Stack
Fuel Swltcl
'••.•
Municipal
Incinerators
X. . : _
Refinery
(Boiler and
o recess
•heater only
1
i Cement,
• Plant
'<
•Lead
" Smelter
Other Alt:
Tall Stack
(Corrotlvlty
Faetor»3xJ
Sulfurtc
Acid Plant
(Corroslvlty
Factor-Sx)
Tyne of
Feasible
.EP
MC
Cleaner
MC (plus
wetted
baffles)
WS
FF(Baghousi
EP Plus
•leva ted
flare
MB"
afterburner]
EP
MC
FF
we
\V
FF
WS
EP +
mist
eliminators
Code: .»» 5. 6, 7
«': 8. 9.10
K: 1f.1t.1fc
Afterb. .' .24,25.26
Other i 27
Exfel
ing
MC
0
0
0
0
0
Eff
74.6
0
0
0
0
0
1
ALTERNATIVES
Eff.% . Annual Costs
Code
5
11
11
8
5+17
5
11
14
e
t
for low, Naj. HI eff.)
for tow. M. H1 eff. )
for Low, Ned, H1 eff.)
grade)
SOx
0
0
80
0
0
0
0
40
p
80
7Q^.
85
90
90
60
98.5
80
Inst(lAS)
$120K
$1.1K
$1.9K
$ 34K
$4.7K
$0.9K
$33. 3K
$40 K
0 & M
$345K
$ 9K
$ 22K
$133K
$ 14K
$8. OK
$ 17K
V
$ 9K
Total
•$465*
$10. IK
$23.9 K
$167K
$ia7K
$8.9K
$50.3K
$10. OK
••'..,
Eff.% Annual Costs
Code
6
12
12
9
6+17
6
12
15
12
9
• s
sox
0
0
0
80
0
0
0
0
to
55
p
90
80
80
92
93
93
80
99.3
«M»
88
Jhsta/15)
$160K
$ 48K
$1.7K
$3.3K
$ «3K
•K0K.
$1,3K
$4aOK
$8.4K
$7.4r
0 4 M
$450K
$300K
$ 10K
$-/42K
$153K
w.«
$ 9. OK
$18 K
$105K
$ 16K
Total
S610K
$348K
$11. X
$45. 3K
$196K
.$25.5K
:$10.3K
$58. OK
$U3. 4K
$23. 4K
Eff.% Annual Costs
Code
7
13
13
10
16
M7
7
13
16
16
10
7
SO,
0
0
0
80
0
0
6
0
0
•*
0
68
0
f
( /
p
' 95.7
90.0
90.0
95.6
99.3
95
95.7
90
99.7
99.3
-
9J.9
99.3
bst(l/l$l 0 & M
$220 K
$ 60 K
L_ '.
$2.5 K
-l -
$Ł.QK|
i i
*#>•*
I
-I-
•' ' i
i
-.. „,- r,,
$11.3*
$ I.OK
$51.3*
(300K;
— - —
H0.7K
$ 75 X._
!
. i
$570K
$360K
. $ 12K
S160K
$ 23K-
.'-,-
$1'75K .
!_.:
$ 24K
$10. SK
$2P K
$~-30K
- -•-- --
f ' : i
i
$ 45K
-$40.74*
Total
$790K
$420K
$14. 5K
$166. OK
$ 73K
$230K
.. ,
$35:3fK
$12.5X
J71.3K
•
$»30K
— -
$JS-=7k
.'"!.: ! •
$182,41
" i
•
J.
-------
change from coal to oil reduces particulates by one or two orders of
magnitude, and also lowers sulfur oxide emission even if the percentage
of sulfur is the same for oil as for coal. A change from either coal or
oil to gas virtually eliminates both pollutants.
Tall Stacks 5:.:c!-s
A widely accepted cost figure for erection of tall stacks is $1000
per foot. For this exercise, the cost has been rounded to $3200
per meter, and the total cost is amortized over fifteen years.
Air Cleaners zr--,
Table 4 shows air cleaner options that conform with NAPCA control
recommendations^ for the sources listed. The following abbreviations
are used in the Table:
EP: electrostatic precipitator
WS: wet scrubber
MC: mechanical cleaner (dry centrifugal)
FF: fabric filter (baghouse)
Afterb: afterburner
The number code in the lower left hand corner of the table refers to
a list developed for the computer subroutine on control alternatives. Costs
are given, where applicable, for low, medium, and high efficiency control
devices. Costs and efficiencies are derived from data and charts in the
NAPCA Control Techniques document. The single cost figure that is used for
each device includes purchase and installation cost amortized over fifteen
years, plus annual cost of operation and maintenance. This cost is most
5. "Control Techniques for Particulate Air Pollutants", National Air
Pollution Control Administration Publication No. AP-51, January 1969.
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Other Controls
Emissions from the two dumps and apartment house incineration
in both cities are best controlled by measures other than those specified
for the exercise. The dumps could, of course, be closed down; however,
reasonable alternatives and associated costs must be provided. To simplify
matters, it was decided to eliminate open burning by specifying an incinerator
with precipitator for the auto dump, and conversion of the municipal dump to
a landfill operation. The alternative decided upon for the two cases of
apartment house incineration was upgrading of incinerators to multiple-
chamber types which result in 87% reduction in particulate emissions. The
controls listed below are coded in the exercise as "No. 27, Other", under
Air Cleaner Alternatives.
Source
7. A-City Incinera-
tion
9. Auto-Dump
10. B-City Incinera-
tion
12. B-City Dump
Control
New Incinerators
Incinerator w/
precipitator
New Incinerators
Landfill
0
0
100%
Eff. (P)
87%
98.5%
87%
100%
$/Year
962,000
650 ,000
481 ,000
185,000
7B. Jerome Z. Holland, "A Meteorological Survey of the Oak Ridge Area",
USAEC Report ORO-99, 554-559, Oak Ridge Laboratory, 1953.
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directly dependent upon the size of the equipment, which in turn depends
upon the volume of air to be cleaned (acfm). In this regard, the volumes
determined for air cleaners in this exercise have been checked for
consistency with the process or production rates.
TRANSPORT AND DIFFUSION MODEL .0 ' -l
Description
The atmospheric transport and diffusion used for the training exercise
is a simplified version of the model developed in 1968 by D.O. Martin
and J. A. Tikvart.6 The model is designed for calculating average ground
level concentrations of any air pollutant at one or more downwind receptor
locations resulting from multiple sources of emissions. For each receptor
location the model sums the effect of each source over a complete set of
climatological conditions prorated according to frequency of occurrence.
In this simplified version of the model, the only parameter prorated by
frequency of occurrence is wind direction, reported to sixteen points of
the compass.
Wind speed is represented by a single average value for each
wind direction instead of a frequency distribution for five wind speed
classes used in the complete model. Similarly, atmospheric stability
is represented by one category designated as "D" or "neutral" by Turner^,
instead of being prorated by frequency of six stability categories.
For each of the sixteen wind directions, at each receptor point, an
atmospheric diffusion calculation is made and the ground level concen-
trations contributed by emission sources individually are summed at
each receptor point. Because of the number of calculations required, a
computer is used.
Ibid, Paragraph 1.3.2
D. Bruce Turner, "Workbook of Atmospheric Dispersion Estimates."
U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, National Center
for Air Pollution Control, Cincinnati, Ohio, Rev. 1969,Public Health Service,
Publication No. 999-AP-26, 6.
-18- 17
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Features and Limitations
Although the exercise makes no presumption regarding operational
usefulness of the model in either its complete or variously modified
forms, the scope and limitations of the model shoul-d-be recognized.
Underlying assumptions include:
* Steady-state, equilibrium conditions
• Wind invariant in time and space within each directional sector
• Smooth, flat terrain
• No mechanism for removal of airborne contaminants (e.g.
no scavenging by clouds or precipitation, no capture by
surface bodies of water or impact on structures,
chemical changes in transport except for a 3-hour half life
exponential decay rate assumed for sulfur dioxide).
The model is geared to climatological time periods and averages,
and should not be used for analyses of short term cause-effect relations
between sources and pollutant concentrations. It is a stochastic, not a
dynamic model, although its basic transport and diffusion equations are
developed on physical principles including the effects of elevated sources
(effective stack height calculated by the Holland equation76)
Meteorological Data
Data for computing wind transport of airborne contaminants were
adapted from the annual wind rose for St. Louis, which was used in the
previous training exercise. As may be noted from Table 5, southerly
and northwesterly winds occur most frequently. The scenario takes this
situation into account. Note that in Figure 1, which shows a map of the
hypothetical region, the major point sources are located generally west
and south of the "target" population centers.
-19-
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WIND
DIRECTION
N
NNE
NE
ENE
E
ESE
SE
SSE
S
SSW
SW
WSW
W
WNW
NW
FREQUENCY OF
OCCURRENCE
4.4
3.7
3.8
3.7
3.9
5.9
6.9
8.3
10.5
6.9
6.2
5.7
6.1
9.2
9.1
5.9
AVERAGE
SPEED
(m/sec)
2.4
2.3
2.2
2.2
2.4
2.2
2.3
2.9
•3.0
2.7
2.6
2.6
2.6
3.0
3.1
2.6
TABLE 5. Wind Rose Data for Training Exercise
EFFECTS
The discussion now considers two effects of pollutant dispersion
at the receptor locations:
0 Ground level concentrations of sulfur oxides and
particulates
0 Damage costs resulting from exposure to higher concen-
trations of particulates
Ground level concentrations
The direct output of a transport and diffusion model computation
is the list of ground level concentrations of sulfur oxides in
parts per million (ppm) and particulate concentrations in micrograms per cubic
n •
meter (ug/m ), at each receptor point. Charts of ground level concen-
-20-
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trations under initial conditions are shown in Section 4, within the
User's Manual that is included in this report. Separate charts are pre-
sented for sulfur oxides and particulates, for each major source in-
dividually and for all sources combined.
In performing the training exercise, the user compares the initial
output with specified air quality goals, and develops a control strategy
for reduction of ground level concentrations to the specified standard
. * «
at minimal cost./ When the classroom exercise is performed in "Conver-
sational Mode," described in Section 4, concentrations before and after
controls are printed out side by side. A printout is illustrated in
the User's Guide, Section 3 of this manual.
Damage Costs
Estimates of air pollution damage costs can be widely disparate.
When biological effects are considered, it is clearly impossible to put a
price tag on population mortality and morbidity (the insurance community
notwithstanding!), and almost as difficult to establish a cause-effect
relation between pollutant concentration levels and rises in mortality and
morbidity. Damage cost estimates are a little better substantiated when
they apply to effects upon inanimate receptors.
Nonetheless, economic effects of air pollution are all-pervasive to
the problem; for it is in the context of economics that much of the air
pollution problem has arisen and must be solved. Hence, the proper evalua-
tion of control strategies must invoke economic judgments.
For the training exercise, the one economic effects parameter that is
-21-
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considered appropriate is soiling cost. Soiling cost is defined as ex-
penses of maintenance and cleaning made necessary by excessive deposits of
dirt, dust, soot, and other airborne particulates. Costs are calculated
for cleaning automobiles, clothing, furnishing, and household appurtenances
including houses themselves. Soiling cost can be little more than an
indicator of total damage costs of air pollution. However, the good cor-
Q
relations established by authors such as Michelson , in studies that cover
sevaral cities across the country, lend justification to the adoption of
a particulate concentration-soiling cost relation for this exercise. The
following expression is used:
Y = 2.56X - 90.44
where Y = annual soiling cost, in dollars per capita
X = annual average concentration of particulates,
in micrograms per cubic meter
For total soiling costs, Y is multiplied by the population that is
exposed to the X level of concentration.
Benefit and Benefit-Cost Ratio '• .
The reduction in total soiling costs resulting from the use of a con-
trol strategy is called the benefit for that strategy. For determining control
benefit, damage costs for the initial condition must first be determined,
then the damage costs for the post-control situation. The difference
is the benefit.
The benefit-cost ratio, also referred to in this exercise as the
strategy-effectiveness ratio, is defined as the benefit divided by the
corresponding control strategy cost. In performing the exercise, one
of the objectives is to achieve a high benefit-cost ratio. However,
this achievement must be consistent with, the other objective, which is
8. Irving Michelson, unpublished findings developed on contract with NAPCA.
Some of Michel son's work is described by Richard D. Wilson and David W.
Minnotte in their paper, "A Cost-Benefit Approach to Air Pollution Control."
Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association, vol. 19, no. 5, 303-314,
May 1969.
-22-
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to meet air quality goals.
Concentrations of sulfur oxides are not considered in the determination
of damage costs and benefits because no firm relation has been established
between concentrations and damage costs for this pollutant. The reduction
levels of sulfur oxides requires a control cost but achieves no dollar
benefit in the exercise. Inclusion of a control cost for sulfur oxides
results in lower overall benefit-cost ratios than would be calculated for
particulates alone. As an expression of this "diluted" benefit-cost
ratio, the term "strategy-effectiveness ratio" is used in the computer
programs- for the training exercise.
Population Factors
The number of people exposed to a given ground level concentration
of particulates is multiplied by the corresponding soiling cost per capita
to give damage costs for that segment of the population. Since concen-
trations are not uniform across the region, a better approximation of
total damage costs is obtained by subdividing the region into areas in
which concentrations are more uniform, then summing the individual soiling
costs of the subdivisions.
In the training exercise, two subdivision scales are used. By the
coarser scale, the region is divided into six subregions, identified in
Figure 1 (which see) by the heavily drawn boundary lines. Reading from
left to right, the subregions on the lower half of the map should be numbered
1, 2, and 3; those on the upper half, 4, 5, and 6. The heavy numbers
shown outside the lower and upper boundaries of the region are the popu-
lations in thousands for the subdivisions nearest to the numbers. The
population breakdown is as follows:
Subdivision: Population Subdivision:Population Subdivision:Population
(thousands) (thousands) (thousands)
4: 218 5: 120 6: 40
1: 137 2: 140 3: 51
-23-
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By the finer scale, the region is divided into TOO grid sectors each
measuring 5 km square, as shown in Figure 1. The number at the center of
each sector represents the population (in thousands) within that sector.
The numbers vary from 60 (thousand) in sectors within the centers of Alfa
City and Bakersville, to 2 (thousand) in exurban areas and zero in Lake
Zulu. Note that an 1.1 by 11 grid, a total of 121 grid intersections, is required
to enclose the 100 grid sectors.
The coarser scale is used during the classroom session, when expeditious
performance of the exercise is desired at the expense of precision. It is
a feature of the "Conversational Mode," the computer program designed for
close on-line interaction between computer and user during class. The
finer scale is used for high resolution output of initial and post-control
concentrations, the latter serving to check the total costs computed for
subdivisions against total costs for the sectors. Since it takes about
20 minutes for the terminal to print out results at 121 grid points, this part
of the program is run in "Batch Mode" off-line, outside of classroom hours.
Selection of Receptor Sites
In the Conversational Mode, the user must select a receptor site
for each of the six subdivisions. The analogous-problem is the selection
of sampling sites of an air pollution monitoring system. Remote site
selection for a monitoring system is governed by a variety of factors
including representativeness. In the training exercise, site represen-
tativeness is virtually the sole criterion. The major test of user
skill shall be the selection of subdivision receptor sites at which ground
level concentration and soiling cost and benefit data come closest to
corresponding values averaged over all grid sectors within the subdivision.
If this were not a condition of the exercise, the user could achieve high
strategy effectiveness ratios by locating receptors near the edges of the
map, where initial concentrations are minimal. Hence, the comparison of
Conversational Mode and Batch Mode results tests not only strategy effec-
tiveness but also representativeness of receptor locations. This com-
parison could be quantified and expressed as a Skill Score.
-24-
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SECTION 3
TRAINING EXERCISE FOR COST-EFFECTIVENESS EVALUATION OF
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL STRATEGIES
USER'S GUIDE
-------
TRAINING EXERCISE FOR BENEFIT-COST EVALUATION OF
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL STRATEGIES
User's Guide
AS A MATTER OF INTRODUCTION,
What -ii> the. TMti.n4.ng Exetoc6e?
The Training Exercise is an active learning experience designed
to give the user an appreciation of computerized techniques, currently
being developed under NAPCA auspices, for determining effects of
alternative control action. Its objective is to demonstrate the
powerful support these techniques can offer to air quality management
personnel by providing real-time solutions regarding the probable
impact of control strategies before decisions on implementation are
made.
Who one. the. 4.nte.nde.d oAeAi oj the.
The exercise is geared to the level of education and experience that
is normally to be found among technical personnel of a moderately
active municipal, county, or state air pollution control agency. How-
ever, others in related academic or administrative pursuits could
benefit by this exercise.
-id the. TMtirting Exe/ic/c6e conducted?
Home base for this training session is at Research Triangle Park,
N. C. , at the facility of NAPCA Office of Manpower Development,
Institute for Air Pollution Training. However, the session may
be conducted at any site served by commercial telephone provided
prearrangements are made for the required library storage, and a
teletype terminal and acoustic coupler can be accommodated. A
number of commercial time-share services are available at most
locations; however, for minimum telephone charges, one should
determine which of the competing services has the closest multiplexer.
1.6 &arruJt4.(Utity ttiith compute*. pnaQnannnijiQ a. pieA.e.qu
-------
the. C-ompateA twninoJi, what ttuu.ni.ng mateAiat and piepo/utttort
oMjange.d fioti conducting a ttioA.YU.ng exeAcxae?
Several classroom arrangements are possible. For example, the
instructor leading the responses may request a class consensus for
each of the more critical decisions to be entered at designated points
in the exercise. Another arrangement is for the class to be divided.
into groups, each developing, its own control strategy and operating.
the terminal in its turn. After all groups have completed their runs,
results are compared and discussed. Still another arrangement is for
groups to work alongside each other on several terminals short of a
maximum number permissible on the particular time-share service.
What. opeAationat pioceduAe. 6oŁlotae.d at. the. terminal?
haw doei the. uiCA fenow wnen and how he. e.nteA& fau> data?
After the desired computer program is commanded and completes its
listing of scenario data, it prints out instructions to be used at
each point designated by a question mark where a user response is
required. The user's input is usually a number or set of numbers.
See the following User's Manual for details.
-28-
-------
SCENARIO
The following figures show a map of the hypothetical air
quality region upon which are superimposed total ground level con-
centration patterns for all emission sources and individual pat-
terns for the most significant point sources.
Figure U-0. Annual Wind Rose for St. Louis, Mo.
Figures U-l to U-4 show annual arithmetic average ground level
concentrations of sulfur oxides.
Figures U-5 to U-8 show annual arithmetic average ground
level concentrations of particulates.
-29-
-------
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure No.
Title
Page
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Initial S0« Concentrations,
for all Sources.
Initial SOX Concentrations,
Initial SOX Concentrations,
Total .
Source 1.
Source 5.
Source 6.
Initial SOX Concentrations
Initial Particulate Concentration. Total
for all Sources.
Initial Particulate Concentrations. Source 1.
Initial Particulate Concentrations. Source 4.
Initial Particulate Concentrations. Source 5.
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
-30-
-------
Figure 1
HYPOTHETICAL AIR QUALITY REGION
218 120 40
137
ALL SOURCES
Sulfur Oxides-ppm
LEGEND
Exurban
Urban, Low Density
Urban, Medium Density
Urban, High Density
Wooded area
Water
Industrial Area
-31-
AREA SOURCE CENTROIDS
Incineration, Alia Cily M^
Space Healing, Alia City 84
Incineration, Bokersville M4
Space Heating, Bakersville S_
-------
Figure 2
HYPOTHETICAL AIR QUALITY REGION
218 120 40
137
140
SOURCE *
SOX ppm
POWER PLANT
LEGEND
Eiurban
Urban, Low Density
Urban, Medium Density
Urban,High Density
Wooded area
Water
Industrial Area
AREA SOURCE CENTROlDS
Incineration, Alfa City M^
Space Heating, Alfa City 84
Incineration, Bakersville M4
Space Heating, Bafcersville St
-32-
-------
Figure 3
HYPOTHETICAL AIR QUALITY REGION
218 120 40
137
51
SOURCE&5
SOX ppm
LEAD SMELTER
LEGEND
Exurbon
Urban, Low Density
Urban, Medium Density
Urban, High Density
Wooded area
Water
Industrial Area
AREA SOURCE CENTROIDS
Incineration, Alfa City M^
Space Heating, Alfo City 84
Incineration, Bakersville Ma
Space Heating, Bakersville S.
-33-
-------
Figure 4
HYPOTHETICAL AIR QUALITY REGION
218 120 40
51
SOURCE
SOX ppm '
SULFURIC ACID PLANT
LEGEND
Exurban
Urban, Low Density
Urban, Medium Density
Urban, High Density
Wooded area
Water
Industrial Area
AREA SOURCE CENTROIDS
Incineration, Alfa City M^
Space Heating, Alfa City 84
Incineration, Bakersville M4
Space Heating, Bakersville &a
-34-
-------
Figure 5
HYPOTHETICAL AIR QUALITY REGION
210 120 40
Exurbon
Urban, Low Density
Urban, Medium Density
Urban,High Density
Wooded area
Water
Industrial Area
AREA SOURCE CENTROIDS
Incineration, Alfa City M^
Space Heating, Alfa City 84
Incineration, Bohersville MA
Space Heating, BakertviHe Sfl
-35
-------
Figure 6
HYPOTHETICAL AIR QUALITY REGION
218 120 40
si
SOURCE
Porticulotes
1* I
POWER PLANT
LEGEND
Elurbon
Urban, Low Densiiy
Urban, Medium Dtntily
Urban, High Density
Wooded area
Water
Industrial Area
AREA SOURCE CENTROIOS
Incineration, Alia City M^
Space Healing, Alfa City 84
Incineratien, Bokersville MA
Space Heating, Bokertville 8,
-36-
-------
Figure 7
HYPOTHETICAL AIR QUALITY REGION
218 120 40
137
51
SOURCE # 4
Participates
CEMENT PLANT
LEGEND
Exurban
Urban, Low Density
Urban, Medium Density
Urban,High Density
Wooded area
Water
Industrial Area
AREA SOURCE CENTROIDS
Incineration, Alfa City M^
Space Heating, Alfa City 84
Incineration, Bakeriville MA
Space Heating, Bakeriville 84
-37-
-------
Figure 8 .
HYPOTHETICAL AIR QUALITY
218 i 220
40
51
SOURCE* 5
Participates
LEAD SMELTER
LEGKND
E xurbon
Urban, Low Density
Urban, Medium Density
Urban,High Density
Wooded area
Water
Industrial Area
AREA SOURCE CENTROIDS
Incineration, Alfa City *%
Space Heating, Alfa City 64
Incineration, Bakerivllle M4
Space Heating, Bakertville 84
-38-
.'
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USER'S MANUAL FOR OPERATING THE TERMINAL FOR THE TRAINING EXERCISE
1. Computer Programs
The following two programs are available for the training exercise:
* The Conversational Mode
• The Batch Mode
Instructions for initiating a program are given in the Instructor's
Manual.
Before class convenes, the Batch Mode will be run to present initial
conditions on a fine scale. During class, you will engage in close inter-
action with the computer in the Conversational Mode. At the end of the
exercise, the Batch Mode may be rerun, using the final combination of
controls you specified for your Conversational Mode solution.
2. Entering, Amending, and Deleting Data
Enter data only after a question mark (?) is printed out. The
required data format is specified in the text that precedes the question
mark.
For the Conversational Mode, all input data must be numeric (with or
without an optional decimal point). Enter only one number at a time,
except that when the power station and receptor coordinates are requested,
enter two numbers separated by a space.
After entering a number, press the "RETURN" key.
For the Batch Mode, enter numbers the same way as for the Conversational
Mode. In addition, entry of an alphabetic description of thirty or less
/
characters is required for the control device in use. When this information
is requested, type a single quote ('), then the appropriate description,
and end with a single quote.
If you have made an error in your entry, or wish to change data before
it is processed, you can do so if you have not yet pressed the RETURN key.
-39-
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First, back space over the error by using the "left arrow" («-),
which is at the upper case position on the letter 0 key (NOT THE NUMBER
ZERO). Keep the SHIFT key down when you strike for the arrow. Each
strike deletes the printed character in the preceding position.
For example, if you notice you have entered "21 10" when you
intended "20 10", press four "left arrows" to cover the "1" of "21".
Then enter "0 10". Now press the RETURN key after the correct entry,
and the computer will confirm it by. printing out "20 10".
Five or more successive back space arrows will delete the entire
line, and are sometimes used for this purpose. Hence, in the example
described, if you plan to delete all of "21 10" and retype "20 10",
you use five "left arrows" and would find that all data on
the line have been deleted.
If you do not spot your error until it has been processed, you
must wait until you are asked to enter your control option. At this
point, enter "-99" and you must restart the exercise from the beginning.
3. Exercising the Conversational Mode
Please refer to the printout that has been reproduced in the
Appendix with added narrative. Some teletypes will print out your
entry; others will not, as in the sample shown. In either case, your
entry will be confirmed by the computer before it proceeds to the next
step.
Once the Conversational Mode has been initiated, it immediately
requests an entry for the power station coordinates. This information
request and each one that follows is designated here as a "STEP".
Ste.p 1. Ente.i "20 10", unŁe6A the. In&tAjmctofi 4pecc^e6 a
tocation. Note, that a. Apace mai-t 4epaAaŁe the. X and V c.ooidinat&i> .
After confirming your entry, the computer will print out three
tables of scenario data that it will use to compute initial ground
level concentrations and soiling costs. The first table is the Source
-40-
-------
and Emission Inventory. The second table lists the fuels in current
use. The third table is an abstract of the scenario map showing the
population (in thousands) within each of the hundred 5-km square grid
sectors, and the boundaries of six subregions.
Ste.p 2. EnteA 4>cx re.ce.ptor coordinates -in the. manner re.qu.es ted. Be
that the. coordinates aft e.ach ne.ce.pton one. within the. spe.ci&i.e.d
Limits.
Note: You are not restricted to whole numbers for coordinate
points. You may use numbers like "15.3 25.7" but little
is gained by going beyond one decimal place. For best
results, each receptor should be located at a point that
is "representative" of both the population distribution,
and the average ground level concentrations of pollutants
within its respective subregion before and after controls.
The preliminary Batch Mode printout and the scenario charts
will help you decide where to locate the receptors, but
your skill and best judgment are essential.
As soon as you enter a receptor location, the computer operates
the transport and diffusion model source by source to determine the total
ground level concentrations (GLC) of sulfur oxides and particulates that
will be received at this receptor. After you have completed the sixth
receptor location, the computer tabulates results for all six.
Your strategy begins when the printout reads "CONTROL OPTION: ENTER..."
You have four options:
1. Select a source to be controlled, and when requested, add a control from
among those listed as available.
2. Select a source from which controls are to be removed, and when requested,
specify the control to be removed.
3. Having either added or removed controls, compute new ground level
concentrations (GLC).
4. Restart or terminate the exercise.
Options may be repeated as often as desired until a final strategy is
determined.
Before you enter your first option, it is recommended that you tear off
all previous data printouts and keep the sheet alongside you for handy
reference.
Ste.p 3. EnteA your des-ire.d control option -in the. manner -indicate.d by
the. iyifafwation re.qu.est. .This re.qu.est Mitt be. made, at
-41-
-------
dt.cAAA.on point* throughout the. exe/tcx^e. The. &Uu>t time.
-it -ti made., you. i&UUL want to add a. contfiat. Hence., vntex
a. numbeA, ^nom 1 to 75, that ide-ntifceA the. iootce you.
to
The computer now produces a listing of NAPCA-sanctloned control
measures that are applicable to the selected source. Also listed for
each control are:
a. Control effectiveness for sulfur oxides (S) and particulates (P),
that is, percentage of emission reduction by utilization of
the control device. This is omitted for fuel substitutions
and stack height changes.
b. Annual i zed cost: sum of annual operating and maintenance
cost and installation cost amortized over 15 years. For
stack height changes, the printout shows only $3200 per
meter, which is the cost of erecting a new stack. However,
the annualized cost developed internally by the computer
is 1/15 the total cost. For lower sulfur content coal and
heavy oil, the annualized costs are not listed but are computed
on a sliding scale based upon the percentage of sulfur
selected between the lower and upper limits shown.
Ste.p 4. EnteA a. number. which cowieApondl* to the. contnoi meAAuAe. you. have.
&eŁe.cte.d. Vou may oie 04 many autho^ize.d confiotb &on a. AouAce
06 you. dUxUm, and you. may add c.ontAott> to iAte.nt vbuth you*. oveJiaJtt Attiate-gy.
Howe.veA, the. picgiam aJULow you. to add them onty one. at a -time.
After the control selection is confirmed, and if necessary particularized
by additional steps described below, the program repeats a request for
Step 3. Enter then the next source number you plan to control, and in the
following Step 4, the control measure desired.
If your control option is a fuel switch to lower sulfur coal or
heavy oil, the computer requests the sulfur content selected.
-42-
-------
Step 5. EnteA the. ^ut^uA content 06 a whote. numbeA on at, a numbeA and
de.CAjrnat to no mo/ie. than two pŁace6.
If your control option is a stack height change, the computer will
request the new stack height, in meters.
Step 6. EnteA the. new Atack height, Bounded o^ to the. ne.aA.eAt 25
Highe.1 pfie.cJJsi.on. can be. handted. but wJUUL not AuAe. to be lewved
the. deA
-------
The program now confirms the entries for Steps 3 and 7 in a
combined statement, and follows with a repeat request for Step 3. You
may then proceed to enter new controls at the last source treated, delete,
change, or augment controls at other sources, request new GLC's at any
Step 3 request point along the way, repeat these steps as often as
desired, or adopt your last strategy as final. To exercise last option,
respond as follows to the Step 3 request.
Ste.p 3: EnteA "-99".
With this entry, all foregoing material is removed from storage.
You may use this control option if you wish to start over and select
new receptor locations, or eliminate a large number of control devices
that had accumulated in the previous exercise. Otherwise, the next
user may begin the exercise.
Instruction for terminating the call are given in the Instructor's
Manual.
4. Preparing Input for the Batch Mode
The post-control Batch Mode requires certain input that is produced
by the final Conversational Mode run. For each source controlled, the
following information should be provided:
a. The source identification number
b. The percentage of sulfur oxide and particulate emissions
removed by each control
c. The new stack height, if a change has been made
d. The annualized cost for each control.
5. Running the Batch Mode
Since the Batch Mode is normally run outside of classroom hours,
instructions for running the Batch Mode are found in the Instructor's Manual
-44-
-------
HYPOTHETICAL AIR QUALITY REGION
218 12O 4O
137
Kilometers
240
so
ALL SOURCES
Sulfur Oxides-ppm
LEGEND
Exurbon
Urban, Low Density
Urban, Medium Density
Urban,High Density
Wooded area
Water
Industrial Area
AREA SOURCE CENTROIDS
Incineration, Alto City M^
Space Healing, Alfa City 84
Incineration, Bakersville Ma
Space Heating, Bakersville S-
-------
HYPOTHETICAL AIR QUALITY REGION
218 120 4O
K ilometers
137
140
51
SOURCE *
SOX ppm
LKGEND
E xurban
Urban, Low Density
Urban,Medium Density
Urban(High Density
Wooded area
Water
Industrial Area
AREA SOURCE CENTROIDS
Incineration, Alfa City M
-------
HYPOTHETICAL AIR QUALITY REGION
210 120 40
50
137
51
SOURCE #=5
SOX ppm
LEGEND
Exurban
Urban, Low Density
Urban, Medium Density
Urban,High Density
Wooded area
Water
Industrial Area
AREA SOURCE CENTROIDS
Incineration, Alfa City M^
Space Heating, Alfa City 84
Incineration, Bakersville Ma
Space Heating, Bakersville S.
-------
HYPOTHETICAL AIR QUALITY REGION
210 120 40
137
K ilometers
140
51
SOURCE 4* 6
SOX ppm
LEGEND
E xurbon
Urban, Low Density
Urban,Medium Density
Urban, Hign Density
Wooc!ed area
Water
industrial Area !
AREA SOURCE CENTROIDS
Incineration, Alia City M^
Space Heating, Alfa City s^
incineration, Bakersville Ma
Space Heating, Bokersville S,
-------
HYPOTHETICAL AIR QUALITY REGION
218 120 4O
K ilometers
137
140
ALL SOURCES
Particulotes pq/m*
LEGEND
Exurban
Urban, Low Density
Urban, Medium Density
Urban,High Density
Wooded area
Water
Industrial Area
AREA SOURCE CENTROIDS
Incineration, Alfa City M
-------
HYPOTHETICAL AIR QUALITY REGION
218 120 4O
Kilometers
137
140
51
SOURCE
Porticulotes
LEGEND
Exurban
Urban, Low Density
Urban, Medium Density
Urban,High Density L.
Wooded area
Water
Industrial Area
AREA SOURCE CENTROIDS
Incineration, Alfa City M^
Space Healing, Alfa City S
-------
HYPOTHETICAL AIR QUALITY REGION
218 12O 4O
137
51
SOURCE #4
Porticulotes
LEGEND
Exurban
Urban, Low Density
Urban, Medium Density
Urban,High Density
Wooded area
Water
Industrial Area
AREA SOURCE CENTROIDS
Incineration, Alfa City M^
Space Heating, Alfa City 84
Incineration, Bakersville Ma
Space Heating, Bakersville S-
-------
HYPOTHETICAL AIR QUALITY REGION
218 120 40
137
Kilometers
240
SOURCES 5
Porticulales pg/m5
LKC;END
Exurban
UrbantLow Density
Urban, Medium Density
Urban, High Density
Wooded area
Water
Industrial Area
AREA SOURCE CENTROIOS
Incineration, Alfa City M<$
Space Healing, Alta City 84
Incineration, Bakersville Ma
Space Heating, Bakersville Sa
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