United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Health Effects Research
Laboratory
Cincinnati OH 45268
EPA-600/1-79-019
May 1979
Research and Development
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RESEARCH REPORTING SERIES
Research reports of the Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, have been grouped into nine series. These nine broad cate-
gories were established to facilitate further development and application of en-
vironmental technology. Elimination of traditional grouping was consciously
planned to foster technology transfer and a maximum interface in related fields.
The nine series are:
1. Environmental Health Effects Research
2. Environmental Protection Technology
3. Ecological Research
4. Environmental Monitoring
5. Socioeconomic Environmental Studies
6. Scientific and Technical Assessment Reports (STAR)
7 Interagency Energy-Environment Research and Development
8. "Special" Reports
9. Miscellaneous Reports
This report has been assigned to the ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH EFFECTS RE-
SEARCH series, This series describes projects and studies relating to the toler-
ances of man for unhealthful substances or conditions. This work is generally
assessed from a medical viewpoint, including physiological or psychological
studies. In addition to toxicology and other medical specialities, study areas in-
clude biomedical instrumentation and health research techniques utilizing ani-
mals but always with intended application to human health measures.
This document is available to the public through the National Technical Informa-
tion Service, Springfield, Virginia 22161.
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EPA-600/1-79-019
May 1979
HEALTH EFFECTS OF AEROSOLS
EMITTED FROM AN ACTIVATED
SLUDGE PLANT
by
B. Carnow, R. Northrop, R. Wadden, S. Rosenberg,
J. Holden, A. Neal, L. Sheaff, P. Scheff, and S. Meyer
School of Public Health
University of Illinois at the Medical Center
Chicago, Illinois 60680
Grant No. R-805003
Project Officer
Walter Jakubowski
Field Studies Division
Health Effects Research Laboratory
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
HEALTH EFFECTS RESEARCH LABORATORY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
CINCINNATI, OHIO 45268
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DISCLAIMER
This report has been reviewed by the Health Effects Research Laboratory,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and approved for publication. Approval
does not signify that the contents necessarily reflect the views and policies
of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, nor does mention of trade names
or commercial products constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.
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FOREWORD
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency was created because of increas-
ing public and government concern about the dangers of pollution to the health
and welfare of the American people. Noxious air, foul water, and spoiled land
are tragic testimony to the deterioration of our national environment. The
complexity of that environment and the interplay between its components re-
quire a concentrated and integrated attack on the problem.
Research and development is that necessary first step in problem solution
and it involves defining the problem, measuring its impact, and searching for
solutions. The primary mission of the Health Effects Research Laboratory in
Cincinnati (HERL) is to provide a sound health effects data base in support of
the regulatory activities of the EPA. To this end, HERL conducts a research
program to identify, characterize, and quantitate harmful effects of pollutants
that may result from exposure to chemical, physical, or biological agents found
in the environment. In addition to the valuable health information generated
by these activities, new research techniques and methods are being developed
that contribute to a better understanding of human biochemical and physiologi-
cal functions, and how these functions are altered by low-level insults.
This report provides an assessment and discussion of data obtained in a
community having an activated sludge wastewater treatment plant, to determine
if the plant could be related to any illness in the community. With a better
understanding of the health effects, measures can be developed to reduce ex-
posure to potentially harmful materials.
R.J."Garner
Director
Health Effects Research Laboratory
iii
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ABSTRACT
Activated sludge processes have the potential for discharging aerosols
containing pathogenic organisms into the ambient air which can be dissemina-
ted by winds over adjacent residential areas. An 8-month environmental health
study was carried out in a 1.6-km area surrounding an activated sludge plant
which processes l.lxlO9 liters (292 MGD) sewage per day. A cross-sectional
demographic and health survey of a random sample of persons residing within
the study area revealed that they were relatively homogeneous, predominately
white, upper middle class, with no remarkable prevalence of health problems.
Seven hundred and twenty four people (246 families) volunteered to record
self-reported illnesses at biweekly intervals. Throat and stool specimens
were collected from a selected subsample of about 161 persons providing a
total of 1,298 specimens analyzed for pathogenic bacteria and viruses. In
addition, 318 persons submitted paired blood samples at the beginning and at
the end of the study period to determine prevalence and incidence of infec-
tions to five coxsackievirus and four Echovirus types.
In order to characterize the study area environmental air quality,
measurements of total viable particles (total aerobic bacteria-containing
particles), total coliform bacteria, total suspended particulates (TSP),
ammonia (NH ), hydrogen sulfide (H2S), sulfur dioxide (802), nitrogen dioxide
(N02), chlorine (Cl2), particulate sulfates (804), nitrates (NOp, vanadium
(V), chromium (Cr), manganese (Mn), nickel (Ni), copper (Cu), arsenic (As),
selenium (Se), cadmium (Cd), tin (Sn), antimony (Sb), mercury (Hg), and lead
(Pb) were made at regular intervals at different distances from the plant in
ambient air. Grab samples of sewage were collected concurrently with the air
measurements and were analyzed for total viable particles, total coliform
bacteria, trace metals, SO^, and NO^. A limited number of measurements were
also made of viruses and coliphage in sewage and air.
The environmental measurements were used to develop study period (8-
month) exposure indices for each household for total viable particles, TSP,
NO_, SO , NO~, S0~, V, Mn, Cu, and Pb; a similar 2.5-month exposure index
was developed for total coliform bacteria. Not enough data were available
for other pollution parameters to justify development of additional exposure
indices. Results of the health survey and the specimen and serological ana-
lyses were compared with the household exposure indices.
No remarkable correlations were found between the exposure indices and
the rate of self-reported illnesses or of bacterial or viral infection rates
determined by laboratory analysis. However, the plant was identified as a
source of total viable particles and total coliform bacteria. The 0.8-km
te-mile) downwind study-period average total viable particle concentration
IV
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(198 particles/m3) was statistically higher (p < 0.05) than the 0.8-km
(^5-mile) upwind average (141 particles/m3) . The plant average (376 particles
m ) was also significantly higher (p < 0.05) than the 0.8-km upwind average.
The 1.6-km (1-mile) downwind average (155 particles/m3), when corrected for
another source of viable particles in the study area, was also higher than
the upwind value but the difference was without statistical significance.
The total coliform bacteria 2.5-month average also showed similar statistical
differences (p < 0.05) between the plant (6.87 coliforms/m3) and the 0.8-km
upwind concentrations (1.15 coliforms/m3). Only the plant was significantly
greater (p < 0.05) than the upwind average. Environmental levels of the other
pollution parameters could not be associated with plant emissions or plant
operating characteristics.
The overall conclusion that this activated sludge sewage treatment plant
had no obvious adverse health effects on residents potentially exposed to
aerosol emissions must be tempered by the recognition that only a very small
number of people were exposed to the highest pollution levels. It is also
important to note that this plant was not a source of high concentrations of
viable particles, gases, or metals to the study area.
This report was submitted in fulfillment of Grant No. R-805003 by the
School of Public Health, University of Illinois at the Medical Center under
the sponsorship of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. This report
covers a period from October 1, 1976 to December 31, 1977, and work was
completed as of April 30, 1979.
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CONTENTS
Foreword
Abstract iv
Figures viii
Tables x
Acknowledgment xv
1. Introduction 1
Objectives of study 1
Study design 1
Background and literature review 3
2. Conclusions 15
3. Recommendations 16
4. Methods of Procedure 18
Study area 18
Methodology 22
5. Results and Discussion 59
Health questionnaire survey 59
Health Watch 70
Environmental monitoring program 96
Integration of health and environmental data 137
References 144
Appendices
A. Methodology for microbiological analysis and
serosurvey of clinical specimens 152
B. Survey of viable particle sampling sites (nos. 5-20) 158
C. Methodology and results for environmental bacteria,
bacteriophage, and viruses 161
D. Precision of total viable particle counting procedures 181
E. Environmental data 183
F. Airborne total and fecal coliform collected with an LVAS 212
G. Two-week period total viable particle exposure index
calculation 214
VI1
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FIGURES
Number Page
1. Map of study area... » 19
2. Schematic of North Side Sewage Treatment Works with on-plant
sampling sites « 20
3. Map of sampling zones 23
4. Map of community sampling sites 41
5. Schematic of meteorological system 55
6. Seasonality of illness rates 80
7. study-period wind rose based on on-plant measurements 103
8. Study area concentration profiles for total viable particles 117
9. Study area concentration profiles for total coliform particles 118
10. Study area concentration profile for nitrogen dioxide 120
11. Study area concentration profile for sulfur dioxide 121
12. Study area concentration profile for total suspended particulates..,. 122
13. Study area concentration profile for airborne nitrates 123
14. Study area concentration profile for airborne sulfates 124
15. Study area concentration profile for airborne vanadium..... 125
16. Study area concentration profile for airborne manganese 126
17. Study area concentration profile for airborne copper 127
18. Study area concentration profile for airborne lead 128
19. Study area concentration profile for airborne tin 130
Vlll
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FIGURES (continued)
Number Page
20. Study area concentration profile for total viable particles,
excluding site 14: downwind 131
21. Total viable particle concentration versus aeration tank air rate.... 134
22. Total viable particle concentration 0.8 km downwind of the plant
versus wind speed 136
23. Respiratory infection rates versus total viable particle exposure.... 143
D-l. Pekron counts vs. others' total viable particle counts 182
IX
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TABLES
Number Page
1. 1970 Population Characteristics of Census Tracts Including Only
Those Blocks Within 1.6-Km Radius of Plant Site 21
2. Summary of Questionnaire Contacts 25
3. Summary of Health Watch Recruitment and Participation: April 3 -
August, 1977 28
4. Illnesses Selected for Analysis 30
5. Summary of Health Watch Participation and Completion: April 3 -
November 26, 1977 29
6. Attrition of Families in Health Watch by Data-Collection Period and
Sampling Zone 32
7. Explanations for Attrition in Health Watch 31
8. Number and Percent of Expected Diaries Collected by
Data-Collection Period 33
9. Expected Participation and Actual Status of Clinical
Specimen by Type of Specimen 35
10. Overall Summary of Blood-Collection Results 37
11. List of Monitoring Sites for Sampling of Airborne
Viable Particles.
42
12. List of Monitoring Sites for Sampling of Non-Viable
Air Constituents
13. Summary of Sample Collection for Viable Constituents of Air and
Sewage for Data-Collection Period April-November 30, 1977 ........ 45
14. Summary of Sample Collection for Non-Viable Constituents of Air
and Sewage for Data-Collection Period April-November 30, 1977.... 50
15 . Minimum Detectable Limits for Metals ............................... 49
x
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TABLES (continued)
Number Page
16. Analytical Methods for Air Sample Analyses: Non-Viable
Constituents 52
17. Minimum Detectable Limits for Gases 54
18. Analytical Methods for Wastewater Analyses: Non-Viable
Constituents 57
19. Distribution of Health Questionnaire Survey Population by
Distance of Residence from Plant 59
20. Percent Distribution of Sex of Questionnaire Survey
Population by Distance of Residence from Plant 60
21. Percent Distribution of Level of Income of Questionnaire
Survey Population by Distance of Residence from Plant 61
22. Percent Distribution of Age of Questionnaire Survey Population
by Distance of Residence from Plant 62
23. Percent Distribution of Race of Questionnaire Survey Population
by Distance of Residence from Plant 62
24. Percent Distribution of Family Size of Questionnaire Survey
Population by Distance of Residence from Plant 63
25. Percent Distribution of Air Conditioning in Homes of
Questionnaire Survey Population by Distance of Residence
from Plant 64
26. Percent Distribution of Length of Residence in Study Area of
Families in Questionnaire Survey Population by Distance of
Residence from Plant 65
27. Percent Distribution of Occupation of Questionnaire Survey
Population by Distance of Residence from Plant 66
28. Average Number of Reported Chronic Conditions per 100 Persons
by Distance from Plant 68
29. Average Number of General Types of Acute Illnesses per 1,000
Person-Days During Twelve Months Prior to Survey by Distance
from Plant 69
30. Study Population by Age and Level of Participation 71
31. Study Population by Sex and Level of Participation 72
xi
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TABLES (continued)
Number Page
32. Study Households by Race and Level of Participation 73
33. Study Households by Family Size and Level of Participation 74
34. Study Households by Household Income and Level of
Participation 75
35. Distribution of Reported Illnesses and Exposure Days by
Data-Collection Period 77
36. Illness Rates by Data-Collection Period 78
37. Illness Rates by Age and Type of Illness 81
38. Illness Rates by Sex and Type of Illness 82
39. Illness Rates by Race and Type of Illness 83
40. Illness Rates by Family Size and Type of Illness 84
41. Illness Rates by Length of Residence at Present Address 86
42. Frequency Distribution of Organisms Isolated from Stool
Specimens by Age of Participant 87
43. Frequency Distribution of Organisms Isolated from Throat
Specimens by Age of Participant 89
44. Comparison of Throat Bacterial Culture Results with
Reported Respiratory Illness 91
45. Age Distribution of Serosurvey Participants 93
46. Sex Distribution of Serosurvey Participants 93
47. Prevalence of Antibody to Nine Coxsackieviruses and Echoviruses
by Age 94
48. Prevalence of Antibody to Three Polioviruses by Age 95
49. Incidence of Viral Infections Among Susceptible Blood Donors 97
50. Incidence of Viral Infections Among Susceptible Blood Donors
by Age 98
51. Table of Nomenclature 100
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TABLES (continued)
Number Page
52. Study-Period Average Total Viable and Coliform Particle
Concentrations by Sampling Site Position. 105
53. Total Viable Particle Concentrations by Season and Sampling
Site Position 105
54. Study-Period Average Total Viable and Coliform Particle Concen-
trations by Sampling Site and Wind Direction 106
55. Median Size Distributions for Total Viable Particles and
Total Coliform Based on All Samples 107
56. Summary of Viable Sewage Data 108
57. Non-Viable Detection Limit Summary 109
58. Study-Period Average Ambient Trace Element Concentrations by Site.. 110
59. Study-Period Average Gas Concentrations by Site Ill
60. Study-Period Average Ambient TSP, Nitrate, and Sulfate
Concentrations by Site 112
61. Mean Total Suspended Particulate Size Distribution (Plant Site).... 112
62. Summary of Non-Viable Sewage Data 114
63. Average Total Viable Particle Concentrations by Sampling Position
Without Sites 6 Upwind and 14 Downwind 132
64. Summary of Total Viable Particle Exposure for Viral
Seroconversions 142
C-l. Total Aerobic Bacteria from Aeration Tank Samples on TSA Plates
With and Without 0.01% Actidione 164
C-2. Total Coliform Counts from Aeration Tank Samples Assayed by
Membrane Filter and Spread Plate Procedures 166
C-3. LVAS Decontamination (Coliphage, Animal Virus, and Coliforms) 167
C-4. LVAS Decontamination (Coliphage) 168
C-5. Sample Collection - LVAS 170
Xlll
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TABLES (continued)
Number page
C-6. Recovery of Poliovirus Type 1 from Seeded Aeration Tank
Samples by Freon 113-Direct Inoculation and Al(OH),-
Continuous Flow Centrifugation 173
C-7. Escherichia coli C3000 Phages from Wastewater Aeration Tank 174
C-8. Animal Virus Recovery from 45 ml Wastewater Aeration Tank
Samples Using Freon 113-Direct inoculation Procedure 175
C-9. Animal Virus Recovery from Wastewater Aeration Tank Samples
Using Al (OH) , Concentration Procedure 177
C-10. Virus Identification of Aeration Tank Samples 179
C-ll. Airborne Animal Virus from LVAS Samples in Vicinity of
Wastewater Aeration Tanks 180
E-l. Total Viable Particles in Air Data Set 183
E-2. Total Coliform Particles in Air Data Set 189
E-3. Viable Sewage Data Set 191
E-4. Gas Data Set 193
E-5. Particulate Data Set 195
E-6. Non-Viable Sewage Data Set 211
xiv
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The Division of Laboratories of the State of Illinois Department of
Public Health conducted the microbiological and serological analyses reported
here, and the cooperation of Mr. Richard Morrissey, Division Director, and
his staff is gratefully acknowledged.
Dr. Kerby Fannin of the Illinois Institute of Technology Research Insti-
tute supplied technical advice and analysis support for the viable pollutants.
Dr. Howard Bausum of the Department of the Army, USMBRDL, provided assistance
in operation of LEAP samplers borrowed from his lab.
Polytechnic Inc., Lincolnwood, Illinois; Columbia Scientific Industries,
Austin, Texas; Robert LaMorte of the Cook County Department of Environmental
Control; and the Illinois Environmental Protection Agency performed analyses
of gases, metals, nitrates, and sulfates in air and sewage samples, and their
cooperation is greatly appreciated.
Dr. Cecil Lue-Hing, Director of Research, Gary Ziols, and William Eyre
of the Metropolitan Sanitary District of Greater Chicago are gratefully acknow-
ledged for their assistance in supplying plant data and cooperation and sup-
port in allowing us to enter the North Side Sewage Treatment Works in Skokie,
Illinois to collect air and sewage samples and meteorological data during the
course of this study.
The preparation of the survey instruments and the tabulation of the sur-
vey data were conducted by the Survey Research Laboratory, University of Ill-
inois Circle Campus, under the direction of Dr. R. Warnecke to whom we are
greatly indebted. In particular, we wish to thank Ms. B. Eastman, coordina-
tor of the questionnaire survey, for her dedication to the task.
We are particularly grateful to the Manager of the Village of Skokie,
Illinois, Mr. John Matzer, for his active support of the questionnaire and
health surveys performed. Likewise, the support and cooperation of the Vil-
lage Manager of Lincolnwood, Illinois, Mr. Bernard Arends, in allowing us use
of the Village Hall roof for monitoring equipment is greatly appreciated.
In addition, the Director of the Skokie Health Department, Dr. S.
Andelman, and staff and Jerome Burke, Chief of the Skokie Fire Department,
were most helpful in providing space for drawing blood in the communities and
space for exchange of diaries, specimens, and supplies with the Health Watch
nurses.
The cooperation of the superintendents of the Skokie and Evanston School
xv
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Districts is acknowledged for allowing us to install air monitoring equipment
on the roof of school buildings in the study area.
The efforts of Ms. K. Srugys in recruiting medical technicians for
blood drawing are greatly appreciated.
Nearly 100 individuals in the above agencies and in our own facilities
contributed directly or indirectly to the conduct of this study, and although
it is not possible to recognize them here individually we sincerely appreciate
their participation, interest, and support in this project.
Without the continued guidance, cooperation, and continued interest on
the parts of Mr. H. Pahren and Mr. W. Jakubowski in the Health Effects Re-
search Lab of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency in Cincinnati, the
conduct and completion of this project may not have been successful.
xvi
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SECTION 1
INTRODUCTION
OBJECTIVES OF STUDY
That infectious agents are emitted into the atmosphere during the
aeration phase of sewage treatment is well established in the literature,
but it is not well documented that the emissions of particles containing
bacteria and viruses are hazardous to the health of persons residing near
the plant site. This study was designed to determine whether or not the
health of persons exposed to aerosols emitted by a sewage treatment plant
is significantly different from persons living in lesser exposed areas
around the plant site. Field and laboratory studies to evaluate the
environmental and health status included:
1) assessment of microorganisms and metal and gaseous constituents
in sewage with emphasis on those components considered to be
hazardous to man's health;
2) assessment of the quality, quantity, and distribution of viable
particles, non-viable particles, and gases in the air originating
from the sewage treatment plant and in the community;
3) assessment of the health, particularly with reference to in-
fectious diseases, of persons living in areas exposed to
different concentrations of viable and non-viable pollutants
originating from the plant. The health assessment was determined
from: a) a health questionnaire survey, b) a health watch, and
c) microbiological and serological analysis of throat, stool, and
blood specimens obtained from volunteer participants;
4) interrelating the respective data obtained regarding sewage
constituents, aerosol content, and meteorological conditions
affecting aerosol survival and dispersion, with retrospective and
prospective health information and microbiological and serological
laboratory studies of the study population in order to determine
the potential and actual health hazard of exposure to sewage
aerosols.
STUDY DESIGN
The sewage treatment plant, referred to as the North Side Sewage
Treatment Works, used in this study is located in Skokie, Illinois. An
area within a 1.6-kilometer radius of the treatment plant was designated
as the study area, which was estimated to consist of approximately 16,000
persons.
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In an attempt to determine whether or not the sewage treatment plant
was hazardous to the health of the community exposed to the plant
aerosols, several measurements of health were made.
First, a retrospective questionnaire survey of the types of diseases,
particularly of infectious character, occurring in the previous 12 months
was conducted.
Second, a health watch which was a prospective study of self-reported
diseases by the sample population as well as microbiological studies of
throat and fecal specimen cultures, was conducted. Biweekly diaries of
self-reported infectious diseases and biweekly throat and/or fecal
specimens of members of selected households were collected by field staff.
Also, two blood samples were collected from this study group, one at the
onset of the study and the second 8 months later. The serosurvey provided
both prevalence data of certain types of infectious diseases encountered
in the past and incidence of those encountered during the study period.
The analysis and interpretation of the health information collected
was based on the biometric and epideraiological concept of a dose-response
relationship; i.e., persons living in areas more highly exposed to
aerosols originating at the plant site may have different frequencies or
types of health problems than persons living in low exposure areas.
Accordingly, a separate control population group was not needed.
Conceptually, if the sewage treatment plant was the source of infections,
trace metals and gases, or other hazardous materials, then the level of
exposure may be directly related to the number of infections and/or
diseases occurring in the exposed population.
A sewage and air monitoring program was conducted to characterize the
type and extent of exposure of populations living within the study area to
pollutants emitted by the plant. The air pollutants monitored included
three general categories; viable particles, non-viable particles, and
gases. In addition, these substances were monitored in the sewage at
different stages of treatment.
The environmental measurement program characterized through 8 months
of monitoring the exposure of individuals living in the vicinity of the
plant. This was accomplished by generating models of air concentrations
within the study area for each pollutant measured. These concentrations
were used to develop a personal exposure index for each participant, and
these exposure indices were the basis for comparative health analysis. In
addition, through use of these measurements, an attempt was made to relate
the dispersion of pollutants to appropriate meteorological parameters and
a plant operation data model. This model would attempt to predict air
concentrations of each pollutant at various distances from the plant based
on such factors as wastewater aeration rate, wind speed and direction,
concentration of pollutant in wastewater, and solar radiation.
All health data obtained from the questionnaire and the Health Watch
and the corresponding laboratory results were recorded into a personal
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health file for each interviewee and/or participant in the study These
personal health files were referenced according to an individual and
household identification number. Incidence rates for various illness
categories were obtained for each person and/or household. A pollution
exposure index was available for each person or household. From these
data sets a dose-response relationship between different levels of
exposure to sewage plant emissions and illness and infection rates was
investigated0
Standard techniques such as regression and analysis of variance were
used to relate the health and environmental data,
BACKGROUND AND LITERATURE REVIEW
Viable Particles
Emphasis in past studies has been primarily placed on the dispersion
of aerosols containing microorganisms. The organisms either were
considered to be disease-producing in themselves or indicators of
disease-producing organisms Cl-8).
The implication that viable aerosols could be a threat to the health
of man working or living in the exposed area is of public health concern.
There have been few definitive studies, however, to strengthen or to
substantiate that implication. This is probably true not from lack of
concern of the potential health risk to man, but because of a recognition
of the complexity of factors affecting the viability of microorganisms in
aerosols. The agents emitted from wastewaters may be members of genera
and species known to be pathogenic for man but whether these organisms
survive in the aerosol environment, whether they retain their pathogenic
characteristics in that environment, and whether they survive in
quantities sufficient to be infectious and pathogenic for man are the
critical but yet undetermined parameters.
It goes without saying that sewage treatment plants are one of the
most important facilities devised by man to control infectious disease of
human origin known today. The proper and adequate decontamination and
disposal of human excreta are vital safeguards to human health, and
extreme control measures have been adapted to insure human pathogens of
fecal source do not contaminate drinking water supplies and, where
possible, the environment.
Bacteria-
Bacteria have been estimated to compose 25-33 percent by weight of
human feces (9), Although the greater portion of these bacteria are dead,
a number of studies have shown that the viable organisms are a mixture of
aerobic and anaerobic types. The exact numbers, genera, and species of
the fecal mass cannot be absolutely stated because factors such as age and
nutritional habits can readily alter the qualitative and quantitative
characteristics of the normal fecal flora.
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In general, anaerobic bacteria make up 99 percent of the fecal flora
(10). Bacteroides, which are Gram-negative bacteria, and Bifidobacteria,
which are Gram-positive, are the predominant anaerobes approximating
numbers in the magnitude of 109 - 1010 per gram of feces. Lactobacillus/
Clostridia, and fusobacteria average about 103 - 105, enterobacteria 10^,
and enterococci 105 per gram. Other organisms such as Veillonellae,
staphylococci, and yeasts are usually less than 103 per gram of feces.
Less frequent are Proteus spp., Pseudomonas aerugenosa, Bacillus spp., and
spirochetes.
Among the enterobacteria, Escherichia coli are the most common.
Klebsiella and Enterobacter groups are found in feces of only a portion of
healthy persons and are usually in small numbers (11).
Regarding the bacterial content of sewage, about 106 - 107 organisms
per ml can be recovered from sewage on standard nutrient media incubated
at room temperature (20°C). The reduction in number of organisms on a per
gram weight basis in sewage compared to that found in human excreta can be
partially explained by dilution and partially by the fact that the more
aerobic environment of the sewage favors destruction of the very
oxygen-labile anaerobic organisms found in feces. The actual number of
total organisms in sewage varies with seasonal changes, being greater in
the summer months, and from one geographic region to another. The most
prominent organisms found in sewage are members of the Proteus group,
coliform bacilli, streptococci, anaerobic spore-forming bacilli, natural
water bacteria, and denitrifying bacilli. In terms of expected numbers
per ml of sewage, E. coli reach levels of 105 per ml, Streptococcus
fecalis 103 - 10\ and Clostridia spp. 102 - 103. Other organisms,
including pathogenic salmonella and food-poisoning groups, can be found in
crude sewage by use of selective growth media (9). Tubercle bacilli have
also been recovered from sewage.
It is obvious that the bacteria which constitute the normal flora of
the human gastrointestinal tract and the flora normally found in raw
sewage are vastly different. The human gut is more compatible with the
survival and growth of anaerobic organisms than is sewage, whereas the
infrequently occurring Proteus spp. in human feces are a predominating
species in sewage.
The admixture of human excrement and potable water has long been
known to be a health hazard. In the early 1900 "s it was first recognized
that the aerosol created by flowing wastewater may also be of public
health concern. Horrocks (12) inoculated a sewer system with bacilli
organisms and was able to recover those same organisms in the aerosol
15 meters above the wastewater level. He also recovered coliforms and
Salmonella typhi in aerosol samples. Winslow (13) was concerned about the
inhalation of sewer gas as a cause (or source) of typhoid. He showed that
the splashing of sewage liberated organisms into the air and that these
organisms could be recovered at some distance away from the source, but he
did not believe these aerosols would be much of a health hazard.
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There were other reports on the potential health hazard of aerosols
emitted from sewage for over 20 years, yet the American Public Health
Association Committee on Standard Methods for Examination of Air (14)
reported in 1917 that in view of the small number of bacteria in air there
did not seem to be any great sanitary significance of the aerosols emitted
by sewage.
Then in 1934, Fair and Wells (15) using an air centrifuge determined
that there were about 780 organisms per cubic meter of air adjacent to
activated sludge aeration tanks and that nearly 140 organisms per cubic
meter were detectable some distance away from the tanks. About 10 percent
of these organisms were coliforms. These were perhaps the first
quantitative and qualitative studies to be done and, although crude, did
show the potential hazard of sewage aerosols for man. In view of the fact
that the average person breathes about 20 cubic meters of air a day, the
presence of even a few pathogenic organisms per cub$c meter of air could
represent an adequate exposure to an infectious agent, depending on the type
of agent, the conditions of exposure, and the susceptibility status of the
exposed person,,
Several studies have been conducted to show the potential hazards of
using wastewater f6r irrigation of land C16-18). Sepp C19,20) reviewed the
public health aspects of this practice in Europe, In an extreme situation,
Reploh and Handloser (16), using the insensitive method of agar settling
plates, demonstrated that an aerosol created by spraying raw sewage onto
crops contained coliform organisms that ceuld be detected 0.4 km downwind
when the wind velocity was 16-32 kph. Bringmann and Trolldenier (17} showed
that spraying settled raw sewage disseminated organisms whose viability was
dependent on the relative humidity, wind speed, and solar light exposure
time. High humidity, high wind, and little sunlight accounted for
widespread dissemination. Such factors as vegetation around the sewage
plant origin of the aerosol were also factors, and depending on these
variables several studies have shown that aerosols can be distributed from 3
to 1200 meters from the source. Shtarkas and Krasil'shchikov (18) studied
the aerosol distribution created by sprinkler systems for wastewater
aeration and they detected bacteria 0,5 km away and recommended a restricted
residential zone of 1-km radius around such facilities.
Katzenelson and Teltsch (3) likewise examined the air in the vicinity
of nondisinfected wastewater spray-irrigated fields. Coliforms were found
at a distance350 meters downwind from the irrigation line. In one case,
salmonellae were isolated 60 meters from the source of irrigation.
An extensive examination of microbial pollution associated with the
irrigation of wastewater has been conducted by Johnson and co-workers (21).
In a Phase I report, total coliforms, fecal coliforms, bacilli, and viruses
were detected at a distance of 1600 meters downwind from the source of the
spray. An unexpected result was that wind speed and direction and effluent
viable particle concentration did not seem to affect the total viable
particle concentration in air. The best linear regression equation linked
the airborne total coliform concentrations to distance, solar radiation,
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temperature, relative humidity, and atmospheric stability- Regression
variables shown to have little effect were effluent coliform level, wind
speed and direction, and length of sampling period.
In a different study of an activated sludge treatment plant, Johnson
et al. (22) found the plant was a source of bacteria and viruses to the
air. These agents were not detected above background levels at distances
greater than 0.4 km from the plant site.
In general, three factors have been repeatedly shown to be involved in
maintaining the viability of organisms in aerosols: 1) relative humidity,
2) solar light exposure, and 3) wind speed. High humidity favors most
bacteria and some virus survival (see later). These factors have also been
shown to be involved in organism viability in the field studies done to
determine the possible health significance of microorganisms from sewage
treatment plants. Solar light, particularly the ultraviolet light portion,
is damaging to the genetic competence of bacteria and viruses and also has
a desiccation effect. Wind speed was considered by Hickey and Reist (23)
as reducing the transport time of viable organisms and thereby increasing
survival and dissemination of infectious material.
Goff et al. (2) attempted to determine the relative importance of
solar light on survival of aerosolized bacteria by comparing the viable
counts of air samples collected during nighttime and daytime. Goff was not
able to evaluate the relative importance of radiation, humidity, air temp-
erature, or wind speed on viability of the aerosols. He suggested that
solar light, low humidity, high temperature, and low wind speeds reduced
the viability and/or dissemination of sewage aerosols.
However, Kenline (24) could find no relationship between relative
humidity and die-off time and felt the facts were more complex. He believed
dessication was the prime stress factor to viability of bacteria. For
droplets that evaporated in less than 1 second a loss of viability was
significant, but after this time die-off of residual organisms was slow and
little influenced by solar light, humidity, or temperature.
Ladd (25) seeded Bacillus subtilis, spore forming bacteria, in a sewer
intake 8 km away from a plant. Five to 10 hours later he could recover the
same organism in aerosol samples collected downwind from the plant, but did
not recover them upwind. He concluded that aerosols from treatment plants
could be harmful to plant employees and residents in the adjacent areas.
He suggested wastewater flow rates as a fourth variable affecting emission
rates and distribution. Linear regression analysis indicated that viable
particle emission rates increased slightly with increased wastewater flow
rates. Ladd's results for all four parameters suggested:
1) emission rates decrease with increased air temperature except
at the activated sludge tank where the higher air temperature
increased the emissions;
2) as the air speed increased there was a decrease, or no change,
in the viable particle count;
3) as the relative humidity increased the emission rate decreased.
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Higgins (26) attempted to simulate aerosol emission in the laboratory to
control for the variation introduced by environmental conditions. He
inoculated coliforms, Streptococci spp., Serratia marcescens, and Bacillus
subtilis into a water bath and aerated the bath to generate an aerosol. He
found S. marcescens more frequently in the aerosol than the other
organisms. He concluded that those organisms most concentrated at the
surface of the bath were the more likely to be present in the aerosol. He
also found that the size of the aerosol particles was important in
determining the type of organism recovered. Aerobacter aerogenes was
present in only large particles, whereas S. marcescens was present 20 times
more often in small particles.
Another variable that should be considered in the dissemination of
viable organisms in the aerosol is that of updrafts occurring over the
wastewater tank sites. Imhoff and Fair (27) and Halvorson et al. (28)
showed that when the air temperature is at, or below, the temperature of the
wastewater there is proportionately more updraft and consequently more
mobilization of the aerosol. Albrecht (29) plotted downwind E. coli
recoveries as a function of updraft and wind velocity and showed that a
positive relationship did in fact occur. In contrast, Kenline (24) found
fewer organisms 1.5-2.5 meters above ground than at ground level.
Compared to other types of operations in sewage treatment plants,
Napolitano and Rowe (8) found aeration tanks to be the major source of
viable aerosols. They estimated that 50 percent of the particles emitted
were less than 5 ym in diameter which are the particle sizes most likely to
enter the upper and lower respiratory and gastrointestinal tract of man and
therefore pose a health hazard.
In terms of health hazards, particle size is often referred to as a
critical characteristic for potential pathogenicity. This is the basis for
using the Andersen cascade air sampler (30) to measure viable particle
concentrations according to particle size. However, it cannot be ignored
that all size particles containing microorganisms could contaminate man's
environment and ultimately be a source of exposure via fingers, flies, food,
or fomites. The increased hazard due to particle size of 5 urn or less
refers specifically to direct inhalation or ingestion and does not consider
possible exposure by indirect contact with the "Four F's" mentioned above.
Randall and Ledbetter (7) examined ways of collecting aerosol samples
and determined that the All-Glass-Impinger (AGI) detected more organisms
(4 x ID1* colonies/m3 of air) under a given set of conditions than did the
Andersen sampler (3.1 x 101* colonies/m3) or the agar settling plate
(7.8 x 103 colonies/m3). The qualitative differences in these different
samples were mainly in the number of non-enterobacteria types recovered.
Approximately 10 percent of all organisms identified were Klebsiella,
Aerobacter, and Proteus spp., which are mostly respiratory organisms, and
a few Providence group, but no Salmonellae or Shigellae.
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Randall and Ledbetter (7) recommended Klebsiella organisms be used as
an indicator of sewage emissions for potentially hazardous particles in the
air. They detected immediately adjacent to the aeration tanks both
capsulated and non-capsulated forms of Klebsiella and proposed that the
capsulated forms would be the more stable forms in aerosols. This is one of
the few studies that has considered not only the presence of a species of
bacteria in aerosols, but also the potential pathogenic characteristics of
the organism, i.e., capsule formation. These characteristics are retained
even after aerosolization.
Sorber et al. (31) studied the aerosols produced during spray
irrigation of wastewater and found that about half of the coliforms present
in droplets were Klebsiella spp. This organism, some species of which are
human pathogens, were most frequently associated with small (1.1 V.m)
droplets which have a high probability of inhalation and retention by man.
They did not specifically state, as did Randall and Ledbetter (7), that
these should be the index organisms of environmental air.
Adams and Spendlove (1) investigated the caliform and total bacteria
aerosols generated from trickling filter plants. Positive recoveries of
coliform organisms were made at night up to a distance of 1.3 km from the
source.
Aerosols from activated sludge units have been determined by King
et al. (5) and Pereira and Benjaminson (32;. King et al. found that
Bacillus spp. were the predominating organism, followed by Alcaligenes
faecalis. A total of 41 different microorganisms were identified. The
colony counts obtained were affected by temperature and relative humidity
but not wind speed Pereira and Benjaminson identified 10 different
microorganisms in the air around the plant. The maximum distance from the
plant sampled was 300 meters downwind. Their findings were in agreement
with Randall and Ledbetter and thus they also recommended that Klebsiella
would serve as the best indicator of bacterial air pollution from sewage
sources.
Of interest are the findings of Blanchard and Syzdek (33,34) that the
concentration of s. marcescens in droplets formed by bursting bubbles was
10-10,000 times greater than in sewage itself (on a per volume basis). The
number of organisms in the droplets increased as the drop size increased,
and the number decreased as the number in the sewage decreased. However,
Higgins (26) had not found such a relationship, nor could he show that air
temperature, water temperature, or relative humidity were critical factors
regarding particle size or numbers from bubbling wastewater. Most
importantly, he demonstrated that particle size was dependent on the
concentration of solids in wastewater; the higher the solids concentration,
the larger the particle size*
Smith (35) extended these concepts experimentally using spores of
Bacillus subtilis to simulate and monitor viable particles. He showed that
the number of B_._ subtil is aerosolized increased as the number of spores in
the wastewater increased up to a concentration of 1 spore per aerosol
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dropleto After this concentration was reached in the aerosol droplet it did
not increase even though the concentration of spores in the wastewater
increased Smith also found that the number of spores aerosolized was
influenced by the concentration of salts and organic chemicals in the
sewage; the more salts and organic chemicals present in the wastewater, the
more spores were found in the aerosol.
It is not yet clear from the literature what the complete spectrum of
bacterial organisms is in aerosols originating from sewage. Possibly, a
reason for this is the multitude of meteorological, environmental, sampling,
and cultural variables involved in the survival and recovery of a large
variety of organisms. A number of investigators have recovered
enterobacteria at variable distances away from sewage treatment sites (23),
whereas other investigators have not (21). The implication of finding
enterobacteria, whether they are pathogenic or not, is that they are
indicators for the presence of human pathogens which, though present in
smaller numbers, are more hazardous to man's healtho In spite of the fact
that some investigators have identified enterobacteria in sewage aerosols,
there is only one study that has attempted to show that pathogenic strains
or variants of bacteria can occur in aerosols. The study of Randall and
Ledbetter (7) showed that pathogenic organisms may have a selective
advantage for survival in aerosols because of the nature of the
characteristic endowing the pathogenic property.
In summary, the potential groups of organisms that have been reported
to be recovered from aerosols includes Klebsiella, Aerobacter, Proteus,
Staphylococcus, hemolytic Streptococci, and Mycobacteria, not to mention
other organisms that are considered non-pathogenic except in opportunistic
situations.
Virus
Viruses are not considered part of the normal flora of the human
intestinal tract although several enteroviruses (polio-, coxsackie-, and
Echoviruses) have been recovered from apparently healthy individuals
undergoing subclinical, or inapparent, infections c. The enteroviruses are
the most frequently reported viral agents found in raw sewage but recovery
is not regular., Mack et al. (36) reported recovering one or more
enteroviruses in one of every 12 samples collected daily over a 2-year
period. Sewage is however an excellent source of bacterial viruses.
A number of investigators (1,37,38) have suggested that human viruses
in sewage may be even more of a threat to human health than bacterial
agents, therefore, viruses deserve more intensive study. Clarke et al. (39)
calculated that domestic sewage may contain 7,000 infectious virus particles
per liter. This quantity probably decreases 90 percent in the processing of
sewage prior to chlorination (36,40,44). Presumably the 90 percent loss is
due to bacterial "killing" of the infectious particles because it occurs
mostly under aerobic conditions. Another mode of virus inactivation is by
ingestion of viruses by protozoa in sewage (45). In addition, Slote (38)
has proposed that the loss could be due to escape of virus particles in
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aerosolized particles. According to Morrow's work (46) on Foot and Mouth
Disease virus (an enterovirus), a single aerosolized particle 0.1 mm in
diameter could contain as many as 10 infectious virus particles. Baylor
et al. (47) showed that bacterial viruses, as well as E_. coli, can be
concentrated 50 and 30 times, respectively, in droplecs compared to the
concentration in the liquid phase. Malina et al. (48) recently showed that
about 25 percent of all the poliovirus in sewage was associated with the
sludge, and survival time of the virus is inversely related to the amount of
solids present in the sewage. Thus, in addition to "killing" viruses in
sewage they may be lost by bubble formation in sewage treatment or
associated with the solids and not available for incorporation into aerosol
droplets.
Berg (49) stated that there are over 100 different enteroviruses
present in sewage. Johnson et al. (21) analysed sewage samples and found
80 percent of viruses isolated were enteroviruses and the remainder were
adenoviruses and reovirus-like agents. m raw sewage Nupen (50) recovered
20,000 infectious virus units per liter, most of which were entero- and
adenoviruses. Chang (51) reported that over 30 types of coxsackieviruses
could be identified in sewage. Several studies have reported polio (wild
and vaccine types), Coxsackie virus A16, Coxsackie virus B and Echoviruses
to be present in sewage (52-54).
In a theoretical assessment of the virus hazard associated with spray
irrigation of sewage, based on laboratory studies and effluent data, Sorber
et al. (37) calculated that workers 200 meters downwind of the source could
inhale 20 infectious airborne viruses in 10 minutes. The dissemination of
viruses by spray irrigation of wastewater effluent was reported by Teltsch
and Katzenelson (55). They recovered Echovirus 7 in four of 12 air samples
collected 40 meters downwind from the sprinkler.
The presence of airborne coliphage at the edge and within 15 meters of
activated sludge and trickling filter plants has been established by Fannin
et al. (56). The coliphages were enumerated by a most-probable-number (MPN)
procedure. Average emission levels from trickling filters and activated
sludge units were 2.84 x 10"1 and 3.02 x 10"1 MPN coliphage/m3 air,
respectively, for all positive observations. No correlation could be found
between bacteriophage isolations and wind speed or temperature. Relative
humidity was significantly correlated. The authors stated that modification
of the procedures used will enable collection and identification of the
animal virus levels in sewage emissions. This study was extended when
Fannin et al. (57) demonstrated that coliphage are more stable than
coliforms in an airborne state.
Several experimental studies have demonstrated the probable effect of
relative humidity on survival of viruses in aerosols (58-66).
Lipid-containing viruses usually survive better at low relative humidity
(58-66), while those containing only protein and nucleic acid but no lipid
survive better at a high relative humidity (59,62,63). Several
investigators (68-70) have suggested that loss of viral infectivity in
aerosolized particles is due to dehydration and concurrent presence of toxic
substances in the aerosols.
10
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Reviewing the literature on viruses in sewage and aerosols raises the
obvious suspicion that human viruses other than those in the enterovirus
group may be present in sewage aerosols. Subrahmanyan (53; recently
suggested infectious hepatitis virus may survive similarly to enteroviruses
in sewage and be of public health concern. Such other viruses may cause
illnesses that would require epidemiological studies for lack of virological
methods to isolate and identify these agents in environmental or clinical
specimens directly.
Fungi
The presence of fungi, particularly human pathogenic fungi, in sewage
and aerosols has not been adequately studied. A potential threat of fungi
in aerosols to human health is recognized because many are spore-formers
which survive very well in an adverse environment and are commonly spread by
the airborne route to man; i.e., histoplasmosis, coccidioidomycosis,
blastomycosis, and cryptomycosis.
In 1964 Dixon and McCabe (71) stated that pathogenic fungi can be
isolated from sewage, but because of the low morbidity of mycotic diseases
in man they did not believe fungi in sewage could be a significant health
hazard.
Sayer et al. (72) made estimates of airborne fungal flora by use of the
Andersen sampler and gravity settling plates; the former was much superior
both quantitatively and qualitatively. The majority of the sampling was
done in hospital rooms and operating suites, while other sampling locations
were undefined. Although they reported Hormodendicum, Penicillium,
Aspergillus, and Saccharomyces groups as the predominant spore-forming fungi
present, they also found minor numbers of several potentially pathogenic
fungi. They did not state, however, whether these fungi could be expected
in all types of air samples, nor did they discuss possible sources of these
fungi.
Non-Viable Particles and Gases
Non-viable particles and gases emitted from sewage treatment plants
could also be a health hazard but this possibility has not been addressed.
Only one substance, mercury, has been studied in relation to emissions from
sewage treatment facilities (73). Sewage treatment was found to be a source
of airborne organic mercury as well as elemental mercury.- and the
concentration of organic mercury in emissions appeared to be related to
sewage volume of the plant rather than industrial contamination.
Ammonia is the prevailing form of nitrogen in the effluent of activated
sludge facilities, and loss of ammonia by emission from tank surfaces has
been found in laboratory studies to be highly efficient depending on pH,
wind velocities, and detention time (74).
In addition to non-viable emissions, the background or ambient
concentration of non-viable particles and gases in the vicinity of the
11
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sewage treatment plant may also be an important consideration when examining
the emission of viable organisms. Several studies have shown that
correlations exist between viable microorganisms and air pollutants in the
ambient air. Lee et al. (75) found significant positive correlations
between bacteria and concentrations of NO, NO? , and hydrocarbons and
significant negative correlations with SC>2 and CO when temperature and
humidity were held constant. No correlations were found between bacteria
concentration and temperature, relative humidity, or concentration of total
suspended particulates. Mancinelli and Schulls {76) found significant
positive correlation between the number of viable bacteria isolated from air
samples and the concentrations of NO2 and total suspended particulates and a
significantly negative correlation with NO concentration. No correlations
were found with SO2 and hydrocarbon concentrations, temperature, and
relative humidity. Comparisons between these studies are difficult due to
the different methodologies used. The relationship between ambient
pollutant levels and bacterial concentration clearly needs further
investigation.
Epidemiological Studies
There have not been adequate epidemiological studies of the health
hazard of sewage treatment plants to a community. A number of investigators
studying the viable particles in aerosols of sewage have recommended such
studies. The concern that sewage emissions may be hazardous mainly stems
from the fact that respiratory and enteric bacteria can be recovered from
aerosols some distance downwind from the plant site. Even though not all
the recoverable agents are pathogenic for man they serve as indices that
infectious and pathogenic agents could be present.
The question whether pathogenic bacteria can survive in aerosols as
well as non-pathogenic agents has not ofter been considered. Randall and
Ledbetter (7) did recover Klebsiella spp. from sewage aerosols and some of
these isolates were capsulated forms which are considered pathogenic. It
was of interest that these workers also found that the capsular forms were
more stable in the aerosol environment than the non-capsulated forms. Even
so, Randall and Ledbetter did not consider these to be a health hazard.
Based on the numbers of Klebsiella spp. they recovered from the aerosol at
sewage treatment plant sites, they calculated that a plant worker would
inhale about 100,000 organisms per month. From studies in monkeys it was
shown that a critical dose of 800,000 pathogenic Klebsiella could cause
respiratory tract disease (9).
The concept introduced above is important. Not only are the genera,
species, and pathogenic characteristics of bacteria in aerosols important,
but also the number must be sufficient to be hazardous to man. There is no
uniform number of bacteria necessary to cause disease. The dose size varies
with the pathogen. For example, less than 100 shigella organisms can cause
shigellosis, but it requires 100,000 Salmonella typhi to cause typhoid fever
and over 100 million E^_ coli or Vibrio cholera organisms to cause diarrhea
or cholera, respectively (77).
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Viruses in aerosols have been less well studied mainly for technical
and monetary limitations in doing such studies. These agents are considered
to be important health hazards in aerosols partly because as few as one
infectious virus particle could be required to initiate infection (78-81)
and partly because small doses of viruses in aerosols are more likely to
cause inapparent infections than are small doses of bacteria (82).
Ledbetter et al. (83) have reported an epidemiological type of study
regarding the health hazard of sewage aerosols. They compared the number of
respiratory illnesses reported by sewage plant workers with those reported
by water treatment plant workers. They found that the number of cases of
pneumonia in both groups was nearly the same, but the sewage plant workers
had more colds: 1.62 colds/sewage worker/year versus 1.27 colds/waterworker/
year, and sewage plant workers had more "flu": 7.7 cases/100 sewage plant
workers/year versus 5.1 cases/100 water treatment plant workers/year. The
significance of these data was not determined. It has been suggested (23)
that new employees would be more susceptible to viable aerosol infections
than experienced personnel, that the socioeconomic status of the sewage and
water plant workers may not be the same, and that the non-viable particle
composition of the atmosphere at each plant is probably different.
There are four recent reports that have attempted to address the
question of the health effects of particles produced during wastewater spray
irrigation or sewage treatment. Katzenelson et al. (84), based on a
retrospective study of incidence of enteric diseases in 77 kibbutzim, found
the incidence of shigellosis, salmonellosis, typhoid fever, and infectious
hepatitis were two to four times higher in communities practicing wastewater
irrigation than those not. The association of the aerosols and illness was
strengthened by the finding that the difference in incidence rates was not
significant in the non-irrigation season. However, the residential areas
were 100 to 3000 meters distant from the irrigated fields, leading to the
possibility that transmission could be by body or clothing of the workers
returning to their homes.
Rylander et al. (85) observed sporadic outbreaks of fever, malaise, and
eye symptoms in newly employed sewage workers. About 50 percent of the
workers exposed to dust from pulverized sludge had these symptoms. Although
the evidence was indirect, the investigators suggested that endotoxins were
the responsible agents for these conditions.
R.B. Dean (86), in a report to EPA, translated and commented on Danish
studies of absenteeism and death rates among sewage workers in Denmark. In
workers over 50 years of age, absenteeism was significantly greater than in
office workers of the same age. Reports of gastrointestinal and chronic
conditions were the most frequent reasons for absenteeism. The death rate
in sewage workers was greater in those working 9-16 years at several plants
than in those employed less than 9 years. The strength of these
associations will depend on further analytical data and demographic
characterization of the workers.
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Johnson et al. (22) found little evidence that viable particles
originating from an activated sludge plant were disseminated more than 0.4 km
into the surrounding area. A health survey of households within a 5-km
radius of the plant was conducted, and Johnson was not able to observe any
significant illness occurrence. This is one of the first studies to demon-
strate that sewage treatment plants may not be hazardous to households more
distant than 0.4 km from the plant.
Dowling (87) made the interesting observation that persons exposed to
sewage aerosols may develop immunity by being regularly exposed to low levels
of viruses that cause infections but not clinical illness. Such an immune
person would have fewer clinically evident infections than persons sporadical-
ly exposed who have had less chance of developing immunity, and therefore
would have more clinical infections. Clark compared the antibody levels of
highway maintenance workers and sewage treatment plant workers in Cincinnati
for more than 30 enteroviruses. The sewage workers, in general, had higher
antibody levels than the highway workers for three enteroviruses (personal
communication: C. Scott Clark, Department of Environmental Health, University
of Cincinnati, Ohio, February 26, 1979).
In summary, an attempt has been made here to show that there is an
abundance of literature documenting that bacteria and viruses survive in
sewage and are emitted as aerosols. It is apparent that survival and distri-
bution of these viable particles in air are dependent on a multitude of inter-
acting factors. This has raised many questions about viable particles being
even potentially hazardous to man. Little information is available concerning
the presence of non-viable particles, gases, and fungi in sewage and aerosols,
and the possibility that these alter man's health directly, or indirectly,
cannot be discussed. Epidemiological studies of sewage-aerosol-exposed pop-
ulations would be an obvious way of determining the health effects of these
exposures, but health studies in communities adjacent to plants have seldom
been proposed because of the complexity of the confounding factors of relat-
ing environmental measures and health of a presumably exposed population.
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SECTION 2
CONCLUSIONS
1. The sewage treatment plant was a source of airborne to'tal viable particles
(total aerobic bacteria-containing particles) and total coliform bacteria
as measured in the community.
2. The concentration profiles of trace metals, particulates, nitrates, sul-
fates, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, and chlorine
in the community indicated that the plant was not a source of these
materials.
3. Ambient concentrations of total viable particles and total coliform
bacteria showed no obvious correlation with plant operating characteristics
or sewage concentrations.
4. Total viable particle and total coliform bacteria concentrations did not
display obvious trends with solar radiation, temperature, and relative
humidity.
5. Virus and coliphage measurements in sewage and air were inadequate in num-
ber to determine their concentrations with any confidence.
6. Significant linear relationships were not found by regression analyses of
total viable particle exposure indices and the following health measure-
ments :
a) self-reported acute illness rates
b) pathogenic bacteria isolation rates
c) prevalence rates of antibody to certain enteroviruses
d) virus antibody titers
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SECTION 3
RECOMMENDATIONS
Based on this study the following recommendations can be offered:
1. Preliminary environmental sampling in the community should be con-
ducted to determine that a. sufficient number of people live in the
high exposure area to provide an adequate random sample size for
epidemiological evaluation. The number of people living in the
high exposure area will likely always be problematical, and compar-
able studies of several plants may be necessary.
2. A survey of the study population should be conducted with a question-
naire that would provide demographic, occupation, income, education,
and length of residence information and minimize inquiry of previous
acute and chronic illness.
3. The health watch population should be a subsample of the questionnaire
population, and the subsample should include all households in the
high exposure area with an equivalent number of households in the
medium and low exposure areas.
4. Blood samples for serological measurements should be obtained at the
onset of the study and at 6-month intervals for the duration of the
study from all health watch participants. Of all laboratory data
possible to collect as measurements of infection, serosurveys are
most reliable and conducive to epidemiological interpretation.
5. Using the monitoring and analysis techniques developed in this study,
studies of sewage treatment plants should be conducted to evaluate
the relative emission characteristics of other plant designs. The
results reported in this study indicate that plant design can have a
significant effect on viable emissions. Viable particle concentra-
tions in air reported in the literature at trickling filter plants
and at treatment plants with different aeration characteristics and
sludge processing facilities at the same site have been found to be
generally higher than those found at this plant.
6. Health and environmental monitoring should be conducted for a mini-
mum of one year.
7. Further research into sampling techniques of airborne coliphage and
animal virus should be carried out to develop reliable methods for
16
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quantitation before they are included in a monitoring program for an
epidemiological study.
8. Identification of bacteria recovered from samples should be done for
at least a subset of the air samples.
9. Recommendations specifically regarding a health watch study are:
a) Use public health nurses to do both the interviewing and
health watch recruiting. The nurses' familiarity with the
necessary clinical specimens would allow a more convincing
explanation to be offered and consequently a higher accep-
tance rate.
b) The nurses should be very well paid as this type of work is
very demanding. The nurses should also be under contract
for the entire study period.
c) One nurse should be the primary contact for each family,
from the initial interview to the completion of the final
diary.
d) The recruitment period should be extended so that non-par-
ticipants can be replaced. Families should not be counted
as health watch participants until they have turned in a
diary or donated a clinical specimen.
e) Children should be given rewards each time they give a
specimen, rather than delaying their gratification until the
study ends.
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SECTION 4
METHODS OF PROCEDURE
STUDY AREA
Selection of Site
During the initial planning stages of this study several wastewater
treatment plants in the Chicago area were considered as candidate sites for
a sewage health effects study. Most important consideration was given to:
1] the presence of a sizeable and homogeneous Csocio-economic status)
population within a 1,6-km (1-milel radius of the plant?
2} the relative size of high-risk population groups, i.e., children and
elderly, residing near the plant;
3) source of sewage, whether domestic or industrial;
41 the predominant wind patterns for the plant area in relationship to
the residential population areas;
5) the topography of the plant area.
After thorough consideration of all these factors, the North Side
Sewage Treatment Works CNSSTW) in Skokie, Illinois was selected for study.
The plant is nearly surrounded by a substantial number of residences.
Census information C1970} indicated the population to be of homogeneous
socio-economic status and to consist of appropriate numbers of individuals
in the desired high-risk age groups. The sewage is not heavily industrial,
and the prevailing wind patterns and topography appeared to be conducive to
exposure of population groups.
Description of Plant
Built in 1929, the NSSTW is one of the three main plants of the
Metropolitan Sanitary District of Greater Chicago CMSD), The plant is
located on Howard Street between Hamlin Avenue and McCormick Boulevard in
Skokie, Illinois (Figure 1) which is a northwest suburb of Chicago.
The NSSTW is an activated sludge plant employing diffused aeration with
a little tapered aeration, Chlorination occurs after the final settling
process. No sludge processing occurs at the plant. A schematic of the
plant is shown in Figure 2, The maximum capacity of the plant is 1.51 x 109
liters of raw sewage per day. During the study period CApril-November,
19771 the plant had an average daily flow rate of 1.1 x 109 liters of sewage
and a median air rate of 4,6 x 106 m3/day. The estimated surface area of
sewage in the aeration tanks is about 55,000 m2 in settling tanks,
concentration tanks, etc., exposed to the atmosphere,, The total retention
18
-------
= I 1 I .
I U,-si
'I S G.i.°«l "*"
~ I -
Lirt. 0» Pl»3^__ | J
..inn,:*1
Wilde*
Si
- Cip.lol Si
I sf < I
* Ill
L»
-- :H
ILI
4 , Criin Sl
£ S
\ o..,
. \ "
^
>
A
«...
J j s
S «.i.«,. .3 -
1 a - ,.,^4, £_
dLz^BMfi*
1C
: »n ! S
.
">'"-'»
~ 1 3 s iSi " Th«»t-'
s, *
LINCOLNWOOO
X
CHICAGO .
(r,,»
Figure 1. Map of study area.
-------
Sites 1-4 are for sampling of airborne viable constituents.
Site A is for sampling of airborne non-viable constituents.
Sites a and b are points for grab samples of sewage for analysis of viable and non-viable constituents,
Figure 2. Schematic of North Side Sewage Treatment Works with on-plant sampling sites.
-------
volume of one battery of aeration tanks is 7.45 x 104 m3. The tank levels are
maintained at approximately 4.6 meters. Residence time of sewage in the aer-
ation tanks is generally 5^ hours.
Description of Study Area
The area within a 1.6-km radius of the treatment plant as shown in
Figure 1 was designated as the study area. Previous studies have found that
the dispersion of viable particles does not exceed 0.8 km from the source.
Therefore, the 1.6-km radius study area permitted analysis of exposed and un-
exposed populations. The study area included portions of four communities:
Skokie, Lincolnwood, Evanston, and Chicago. As can be seen in Figure 1, the
plant is located in a small industrial area. Light industries are situated
north, east, and south of the plant, occupying most of the land within the
first 0.4-km (^-mile) radius of the plant. Residences are located about 152
meters west of the aeration basins, about 427 meters southwest of the basins,
and about 0.8 km (h mile) directly east of the tanks. Housing also exists
within 0.8 km north and south of the plant. The major residential section
begins at the 0.4-km radius line and extends uniformly through the 1.6-km
radius area.
The population of the study area was estimated to be 15,850 persons, or
5,600 households, based on the 1970 census. TABLE 1 presents some character-
istics for the population living in the study area. Considering property
value, age, and race, the population appeared to be relatively homogeneous.
Although there were differences in several characteristics between some of the
tracts, these 1970 figures were used for preliminary evaluation of the popula-
tion and not for subsequent demographic analysis.
TABLE 1. 1970 POPULATION CHARACTERISTICS OF CENSUS TRACTS INCLUDING
ONLY THOSE BLOCKS WITHIN 1.6-KM RADIUS OF PLANT SITE
Census tract:
8072 8074 8075 8076 8080 202 203 8103
1970 population
No. of blacks
% under 18 yrs.
% 18-61 yrs.
% 62 yrs. and
over
% housing units
rented
999
34
59
7
8
589 3363 5067 2072 3366 2068 2029
30
55
15
9
5
30
58
12
5
7
32
60
8
5
2
30
60
10
3
4
26
63
11
3
10
64
26
4
25
62
13
12
Ave. value of
owned homes ($) 36,000 37,000 35,000 33,400 43,500 35,400 35,400 28,000
21
-------
METHODOLOGY
Health Questionnaire Survey
Community Relations Work
During the fall of 1976, meetings were held with the village managers
of Skokie and Lincolnwood and with the Director of the Skokie Health
Department. The project was explained in full and was endorsed by both
communities. The local officials also understood the need for explaining
the study only as an air quality study, rather than as one of a sewage
treatment plant, to avoid biasing the illness reporting. Throughout the
project, both municipalities were extremely generous in making facilities
and resources available and in helping solve various local problems.
The Public Relations Department at the University of Illinois sent a
publicity release describing the project to the local newspapers. However,
none of the papers published the announcement. The Skokie Village Report
(circulation 25,000) did carry an announcement of the project, expressing
the support of the Village, and urging residents to cooperate. This article
was published on March 29, 1977, approximately 1 week before the
interviewers began the field work. Copies of the article were given to the
interviewers for use in their introduction and explanation of the project to
the families.
Finally, advance letters were sent to all families in the questionnaire
sample. This letter arrived several days prior to the interview; it
explained the purpose of the study and invited residents to call the field
coordinator if they had any doubts about the authenticity of the project.
Instrument
Design*--A history of the baseline health status of each participant was
tabulated in a health questionnaire developed in collaboration with Survey
Research Laboratory (University of Illinois, Circle Campus}. Specific
questions were asked regarding any acute illnesses the participant had
experienced in the past year. Additional questions were asked about such
factors as chronic diseases, smoking habits, demographic characteristics
(i,e,, age, sex, race, income, occupation], length of residence in the study
area, travel, and vaccination history,
PretestTwenty-four households were selected for the pretest; 17
interviews were completed, three households could not be contacted after six
attempts, three households refused, and one address was non-existent. After
administration of the questionnaire, the interviewers were debriefed and
their suggestions were incorporated into the final questionnaire, though
very few modifications were made.
Sampling
Definition of sampling zonesAn important requirement for this study
was that the sample of households be equally distributed throughout the
study area. Therefore, three concentric sampling zones (Figure 3) were
designated around the sewage treatment plant as follows;
22
-------
_
TWm S. ij- > 5
U==^ i
t ,
" . < * ? ' C.
I u.
= « -
1 1 3 5 p. 3 i
'I S I |, I' S | S I.I
. /
jjmJTf.,,;
"«*
r 'w i| i
.11" W-
Figure 3. Map of sampling zones.
-------
Sampling Zone 1: 0.0-0,8 km from center of plant
Sampling Zone 2: 0,8-1,2 km from center of plant
Sampling Zone 3: 1,2-1,6 km from center of plant
Since the number of residences in the first 0,8-km radius was small (394)
compared to the next two 0,4-kro radius areas (1308 and 3630, respectively),
a random sample of the entire area would have established many more house-
holds in the outer 0.8-km area. Therefore, a random sample was chosen for
each zone in order to obtain a more uniform geographic distribution of
households throughout the study area. It must be emphasized that these
zones were established for sampling purposes only. Final data analyses were
based on actual viable and non*-viable pollution exposure levels, and not
geographic distances.
Sampling frameA comprehensive listing of all households in the study
area was developed from the Chicago and North Suburban Street Address
Directory (R.R. Donnelley & Sons, Co.) and a printer's mailing list (Nelson
Printing Company, Glenview, Illinois; contracted by the Village of Skokie to
provide all mailings of administrative and public service nature).
Apartment building listings were personally enumerated by the staff as were
blocks where printer's lists were missing. In addition, a sample of the
printer's listing was verified and found to be accurate. The final listing
included more households than were listed in the street address directory.
Sample designThe sample design was a disproportionate stratified
sample with the three sampling zones forming the strata. Since an equal
number of households was required per zone, the sample size for each zone
was determined by the number of households in the smallest zone, Sampling
Zone 1, Only 394 households were present in Sampling Zone 1; thus, nearly
every family in Sampling Zone 1 was included in the sample. An equal number
of households was then selected in Sampling Zones 2 and 3, since selecting
additional units there would not have added precision to the overall
results.
Therefore, allowing for non-cooperation, 332 units per sampling zone
were chosen by a systematic random sampling procedure from the list of
housing units.
Probability of selection = number of housing units selected per zone
estimated number of housing units per zone
Zone 1 = 332 = 0,843
39.4
Zone2 = 1358- °'254
3 "SO
Zone 3 = -llrn = °'091
JooU
This means that 84, 25, and 9 of every 100 households in Sampling
Zones 1, 2, and 3, respectively, were to be included in the sample, it is
re-emphasized that incorporating more households from Sampling Zones 2 and 3
24
-------
would not have improved the precision of the results since the small number
of households in Sampling Zone 1 was the limiting parameter.
Administration of Questionnaire--
Interviewers for the survey were hired from the study area or nearby
suburbs in order to improve the acceptance of the interviewer by the
families. Twenty-three interviewers were trained in a 3-day session by
Survey Research Laboratory and School of Public Health project staff. These
training sessions instructed the interviewers in basic interviewing skills
and background information about the project. The emphasis was placed on
this being an "Air Quality and Community Health" study, rather than a
"Health Effects of Sewage Aerosols" project to avoid biasing the parti-
cipants' response as much as possible.
All interviews were conducted in the home of the respondent. If a
family refused at the initial contact, a second (different) interviewer
contacted the family. When the family refused again, this was considered a
refusal and was the final disposition of the household. Six attempts were
made to contact a family before designating that family as a "non-contact".
Business addresses and addresses outside the study area were coded as
incorrect addresses. CSee TABLE 2 for a summary of questionnaire contacts).
The average length of the interview was 45 minutes.
TABLE 2. SUMMARY OF QUESTIONNAIRE CONTACTS
Eligible households
Completed interviews
Refusals
Non-contacts (jio one home after six attempts;
family on vacation for entire interviewing
period)
Incorrect address (business address, outside
study area)
Total sample size
No,
807
144
29
16
996
%
81.0
14.0
3.0
2.0
100.0
As shown in TABLE 2, the overall acceptance rate of 81 percent provided
the necessary number of households for the study. The percentage agreeing
to participate was nearly equal in each zone:
25
-------
Households Interviewed
No, %_
Zone 1 269 81.0
Zone 2 267 80,0
Zone 3 271 82,0
Total 807 81,0
Data Reduction and Processing--
Responses to each question in the instrument were numerically coded for
recording onto computer tapes. Coding, keypunching, and verification were
performed by Survey Research Laboratory personnel. Data were arranged into
SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) format for retrieval and
analysis,
Health Watch
Introduction
In order to obtain ongoing, prospective information about health in the
study population, a subsample of the persons interviewed in the Health
Questionnaire Survey was solicited into the Health Watch, Participants, as
family units, were asked first to maintain a health diary to self-report any
and all illnesses they encountered for an 8-month period. Secondly, they
were requested to provide blood samples at the beginning and again at the
end of the 8-month period, and finally, families with young children were
asked to provide clinical specimens, i.e., throat and/or stool specimens,
for biweekly microbiological surveillance.
Recruitment of Households--
Recruitment into the Health Watch was attempted after a designated
family had completed the health questionnaire. The interviewers were
specially trained to explain the Health Watch and to encourage partici-
pation. The type of specimens requested from each family was dependent on
the age structure of the household:
1) If children 12 years or younger were present, biweekly throat and
stool specimens were requested from the children, as well as two
blood samples and diary upkeep. The next older person over 12 years
of age in those households was requested to provide only a stool
specimen biweekly. All persons over 6 years of age were requested
to give two blood samples and to maintain the diary.
2} if all persons in the household were over 12 years of age, two blood
samples and dairy maintenance were requested from each household
member.
26
-------
Each Health Watch participant signed an informed consent statement
delineating specifically what each person was agreeing to and what the
overall purpose of the study was. All persons who completed the Health
Watch were given a check for $10.00 as a token of appreciation.
Because it was difficult to predict actual compliance with these re-
quests, the interviewers were instructed to accept families who would parti-
cipate at any level, i.e., if a family would only keep the diary and not
give blood, that family was accepted. Or, if a child would give only throat
specimens, not stools, that was acceptable also. Thus, the range of parti-
cipation varied widely among households.
Initially, the decision had to be made as to who should do the re-
cruiting, The possibilities were:
1} to start with experienced interviewers and train them to do the
recruiting into the Health Watch;
2) to start with trained public health nurses and train them in
interviewing techniques; or
3) to proceed in a two-phased manner, with trained interviewers to
administer the questionnaire , followed a day or two later by public
health nurses to do the recruitment.
The third choice was eliminated because the families might lose interest
during a 2-day lag period, and because of logistic problems coordinating the
two sets of field workers. The second choice was highly favored, but was
very expensive and logistically impossible, as 23 nurses would have been
needed to complete the interviewing and recruiting in the alloted time
(.1 month). It was impossible to locate a contingent of 23 nurses to work
for only 1 month. Interviewers who could be trained in Health Watch
terminology were the most readily available and least costly method of
recruitment. Therefore, these interviewers were utilized, but this was not
an effective recruitment scheme,
Study Design and Sampling
The study design and sampling for the Health Watch were extensions of
the design and sampling methods described for the Health Questionnaire
Survey. It was estimated that 300 households were needed to participate in
the Health Watch in order to have sufficient health-related data to analyze.
Consequently, 365 households (approximately 125 per zone) were selected as
the sample in order to achieve an actual participation of 300 households.
The probability of a household's selection for the Health Watch from the
total number of households in each zone was:
zone i . x 125 _
Zone 2 = x if = °-096
27
-------
Zone 3 =
125
332
= 0.034
However, these probabilities of selection apply only to the initially
designated Health Watch subsample. A system was instituted to replace any
initially designated Health Watch household that refused to participate.
The replacement was the nearest (geographically) housing unit in the
questionnaire sample,
The goal of recruiting 300 participating families was initially met;
365 families were recruited and agreed to participate. However, 75 of the
365 did not subsequently participate; they gave no clinical specimens and
turned in no diaries, despite repeated contacts by the field staff.
Attempts were made until August, 1977 to persuade the originally recruited
families Cn = 365) to participate. After that, the decision was made to
concentrate field staff efforts on maintaining the 290 participating
families and to drop the disproportionate effort of attempting to reach the
75 non-participants. Therefore, only the 290 participating families are
included in the Health Watch data analysis (TABLE 3).
TABLE 3. SUMMARY OF HEALTH WATCH RECRUITMENT AND PARTICIPATION5:
APRIL 3 - AUGUST, 1977
Sampling zone
Zone 1
Zone 2
Zone 3
Total
Families
April
No,
125
118
122
365
recruited
, 1977
%
34,3
32,3
33.4
100.0
Families actually participating
August, 1977
No.
95
93
102
290
%
32.7
32.1
35.2
100.0
Based on diary participation.
Health Watch Diary
Diary design"--An easily maintained dairy was patterned after one
designed by Dr. Seymour Sudman of Survey Research Laboratory. Each diary
provided directions and space for self-reporting of any illnesses that
occurred in a 2-week period. The information requested included:
28
-------
- date illness began
- person in family experiencing illness
- nature of illness and/or symptoms
- number of days ill with no restriction of activity
- number of days of restricted activity
- medications taken
- physician consulted
- hospitalization
- date of recovery
Usually the diary was maintained by the health questionnaire
respondent, i.e., the wife/mother of the household. Occasionally, older
children would write in the details of their own illnesses.
Illness definitionHealth Watch participants were instructed to record
any and all symptoms, illnesses, and, injuries regardless of apparent
severity. This was done in hopes that over-reporting rather than
under-reporting of illnesses would occur. When the diaries were reviewed by
the central office staff, only relevant, selected illnesses were chosen for
tabulation (TABLE 4}, These were illnesses which could have a causal
association with aerosols from the sewage treatment plant. Conditions or
isolated symptoms such as sun poisoning, backache, constipation, headaches,
drug and vaccine reactions, cramps, and fatigue were not coded for health
data analysis.
Diary participationf-TAELE 5 summarizes the number of families and
persons entering and completing the Health Watch, The distributions of
these families and persons in each zone were similar. More detailed
comparisons of these subgroups will be presented in RESULTS.
TABLE 5. SUMMARY OF HEALTH WATCH PARTICIPATION AND COMPLETION:3
APRIL 3 - NOVEMBER 26, 1977
Sampling zone
Zone 1
Zone 2
Zone 3
Total
Number entering
Health Watch
Families
95
93
102
290
Persons
306
289
274
869
Number completing
Health Watch
Families
No.
82
80
84
246
%
86,3
86.0
82.3
84.8
Persons
No.
252
245
227
724
%
82.4
84.8
82.8
83.3
on diary participation.
29
-------
TABLE 4. ILLNESSES SELECTED FOR ANALYSIS
Respiratory
Upper respiratory infections
Bronchitis (infectious)
Pneumonia
Respiratory allergies
Asthma
Breathing difficulties specifically attributed to air pollution
Other respiratory symptoms
Gastrointestinal
Nausea with or without headache
Gastroenteritis
Diarrhea with or without headache
Other GI symptoms
Eye and ear
Conjunctivitis
Blepharitis
Otitis
Burning, itchy, watery eyes
Other eye and ear symptoms
Skin
Allergic rashes, hives
Eczema
Boils
Abscesses
Other skin infections
Other infections
Childhood infections
Genitourinary infections
Other acute infections
Flare-up of chronic condition
New chronic condition
30
-------
It can be seen in TABLE 6 that 52 percent of the families which dropped
out had done so by data-collection period 4, that is, 2 months into the
study. Seventy-five percent of the attrition occurred in the first 2h
months of the study.
TABLE 7 summarizes the reasons given for dropping out of the Health
Watch. The most frequent reason was moving out of the study area. In most
of the cases, no reason was offered or could be elicited by the field staff.
TABLE 7, EXPLANATIONS FOR ATTRITION IN HEALTH WATCH
Reason given
None given
Moved from study area
Illness in family
Too much trouble
Non-cooperative children
Problem with field person
Language
Out of town during study period
Study created marital problems
Total
Families
No.
21
11
3
2
2
2
1
1
1
44
%
48.0
25.0
7.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
100.0
It can be seen in TABLE 8 that overall, 80 percent of the diaries were
actually collected. Participation during the first 2 weeks was the lowest
(33 percent) while families were still being recruited. The maximum
participation was reached by May 1-14 (data-collection period 3) and
declined only slightly thereafter.
Throat and Stool Specimen Collection--
Children 12 years of age and under were asked to provide biweekly
throat and stool specimens. These specimens were considered important in
order to identify agents associated with reported illness and to monitor for
inapparent infections. Throat specimens alone could serve as sources of
many respiratory and gastrointestinal bacterial and viral pathogens.
However, pathogenic enteric virus usually can only be recovered from throat
cultures for short periods of time (about 5 days) whereas they may be
recovered for up to 6 weeks post-infection from stool specimens. In
31
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TABLE 6. ATTRITION OF FAMILIES IN HEALTH WATCH BY
DATA-COLLECTION PEE.IOD AND SAMPLING ZONE
Data-collection
period, 1977
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
Date
April 3-16
April 17-30
May 1-14
May 15-28
May 2 9- June 11
June 12-25
June 2 6 -July 9
July 10-23
July 24-Aug. 6
Aug. 7-20
Aug. 21-Sept. 3
Sept. 4-17
Sept. 18-Oct. 1
Oct. 2-15
Oct. 16-29
Oct. 30-Nov. 12
Nov. 13-26
Total (%)
a
No. of families which dropped out
Zone 1 Zone 2 I Zone 3 Total
000 0
232 7
3 0 .4 7
162 9
4206
103 4
001 1
100 1
110 2
001 1
Oil 2
001 1
000 0
002 2
000 0
001 1
000 0
13 (29.5) 13 (29.5) 18 (41.0) 44
Cum.
%
00.0
16.0
32.0
52.0
66.0
75.0
77.0
80.0
84.0
86.0
91.0
93,0
93.0
98.0
98.0
100.0
100.0
(100.0)
Based on diary participation.
32
-------
TABLE 8. NUMBER AND PERCENT OF EXPECTED DIARIES
COLLECTED BY DATA-COLLECTION PERIOD
Data-collection period, 1977
April 3-16
April 17-30
May 1-14
May 15-28
May 29 - June 11
June 12-25
June 26 - July 9
July 10-23
July 24 - August 6
August 7-20
August 21 - September 3
September 4-17
September 18 - October 1
October 2-15
October 16-29
October 30 - November 12
November 13-26
Total
Mean
Diaries collected
No.
96
206
261
262
257
251
250
248
248
248
245
246
242
241
231
229
232
3993
235
%a
33.0
71.0
90.0
90.0
89.0
87.0
86.0
8600
86.0
86.0
84.0
85.0
83.0
83.0
80.0
79.0
80.0
81.0
80.0
a Percent is based on the 290 families originally participating
in the Health Watch.
33
-------
addition, one adult in each of these families was asked to provide a
biweekly stool specimen for the purpose of monitoring for apparent,
inapparent, and intra-family spread of infections.
Throat swabs were collected by public health nurses who were familiar
with but briefly retrained in this procedure by the project staff. Stool
specimens were collected in large plastic tubs which could be suspended via
plastic handles in the toilet bowl. These specimens were obtained earlier
on the day of the nurse's visit and either refrigerated or placed in a cool
area of the house until the nurse's arrival. Laboratory results were
reported to the families on a quarterly basis. Specimens were also
collected during acute illnesses of any family member. The submission of
these "emergency" specimens depended on the family's initiative in
contacting the central office. Laboratory results of the emergency
specimens were telephoned to the family immediately and then confirmed in
writing, as part of the quarterly report.
TABLE 9 summarizes the expected and actual numbers of persons giving
specimens and the number of specimens received. Judging from the percentage
of people who gave specimens, throat swabs were more acceptable
Caverage =9,4 specimens/person) to individuals than were stool specimens
(average = 6,7 specimens/person). Even for throat cultures, the number of
specimens received was much lower than expected due to attrition, late
recruitment into the study, and non-cooperative children. The difficulty in
obtaining specimens increased in September when the children returned to
school. Their schedules were busy, and they often missed the appointment
with the nurse.
Field Procedures-
Field staff recruitment-Just as interviewers were selected from the
study area, attempts were initially made to hire local nurses for the field
staff. The Skokie Health Department, the Visiting Nurses Association of the
area, local nursing clubs, local schools of nursing, and hospitals as well
as the Illinois Nursing Association were contacted, but no interested nurses
were recruited through any of these channels. Oakton Community College,
which had an LPN (Licensed Practical Nurse) training program, provided seven
applicants, and although none had field experience, they were all hired,
largely upon the recommendation of the LPN program director. Within 1
month, two of the LPNs had resigned (one for health reasons and one because
she did not like the jobl; within 2 months, five more LPNs were terminated
because they were not visiting their families regularly or at all.
Contact was made with SPH (School of Public Health) students in the MPH
(Masters of Public Health) program. Seven were hired including three
nurses. This constituted the basic field staff core. Several additional
persons were hired from Augustana School of Nursing, Northwestern
University, and North Park College, all of which are located near the study
area.
A great deal of time was expended in recruiting field staff personnel.
This could have been obviated by employing public health nurses (or nursing
34
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TABLE 9. EXPECTED PARTICIPATION AND ACTUAL STATUS
OF CLINICAL SPECIMENS BY TYPE OF SPECIMEN
Participant/ specimen status
No. people expected to give specimen
No. people giving one or more specimens
No. specimens expected
No. specimens received
Ave. no. specimens received/participant
Reason specimen not received
Dropped from program
Refused to submit
Family not contacted
Temporary absence from study area
Total number not received
Stoc
No.
180
80
3,060
541
6.7
334
1,273
908
4
2,519
Type of
5l
%
100.0
44.0
100.0
17.7
10.9
41,6
29,7
0.1
82.3
specimen
Thro
No.
Ill
81
1,887
757
9.4
209
412
496
13
1,130
at
%
100.0
73.0
100.0
40.1
11.1
21.8
26.3
0.7
59.9
Based on the number of people who actually participated in some phase of
the Health Watch and who agreed to provide specimens.
No. of specimens expected = (no. of people expected to give specimen) x
(17 data-collection periods).
35
-------
students or public health students! under a contract for the duration of the
project. As stated previously, this would have been costly in terms of
wages, but would probably have resulted in less family attrition.
Field staff training*The project staff developed a manual for training
the field staff. An all day training session was used to demonstrate
procedures for collection of throat swabs, proper handling of stool
specimens, review of diaries, and proper completion of various forms
required in the project. As subsequent staff members were added, they were
trained on an individual basis in the central office. Additionally, a new
staff person would accompany a more experienced staff member on several
family visits. Seeing the entire routine in action gave the new persons a
feeling of confidence in dealing with their assigned families.
Home visitsPortions of the 290 Health Watch families were assigned to
each field staff representative. If clinical specimens were to be
collected, a nurse was assigned to the family. If only diaries were being
collected, a public health student or other responsible student was
utilized. Every family was to be visited every 2 weeks. During the visit,
the diaries and/or specimens were collected, the diaries were reviewed
on-the-spot for completeness and legibility, questions were answered, and
the family was encouraged to continue in the study.
Clinical specimens were deposited at a central point in the study area
and transported, in ice each morning to the State Laboratory for immediate
processing. Completed diaries were deposited at the same collection site
and were picked up on a weekly basis by the central office project staff.
New diaries were available for the field workers at the collection site, as
well as supplies for the nurses to use in collecting clinical specimens.
Diary Verification
During two data-collection periods, a 10,0 percent random sample of
diaries was verified over the telephone by the central office staff. The
sample was drawn so that 10,0 percent of each field worker's cases were
verified each time and so that different families were telephoned each time.
In all, 55 families were selected for diary verification. Forty-eight
diaries were completely correct; one diary had correct health information
but one incorrect reporting of "number of days present during the data
collection period"; and six families could not be contacted for veri-
fication.
Seroepidemiological Survey-
All persons 6 years of age and older Cn «= 8371 were requested to give
two blood samples, pre- and post-study. The sera of each paired-blood were
tested in the Virus Serology Laboratory in the Division of Laboratories,
Illinois Department of Public Health, for antibodies to 12 viral agents
(APPENDIX Al, These included Polioviruses, Types 1-3; Coxsackieviruses
B1-B5, and Echoviruses 3,6,9, and 12 which: (1) are known to commonly
populate sewage; C2) are stable and could be emitted into sewage aerosols;
36
-------
and (3) are known to be common pathogens for man which may cause either
clinical or subclinical illness. Enteric viruses have been associated with
gastrointestinal, respiratory, cutaneous and/or combined illness.
Most pre-study blood samples (73,8 percent) were obtained during one
all-day session conducted at the Skokie Health Department, Three rounds of
home visits were arranged to obtain blood from elderly, ill, and working
persons. Medical technicians and senior-year medical technology students
were hired to draw blood at the various sessions. Whenever possible, a
field staff worker was present at the all-day session and accompanied the
technician on home visits.
One all-day session and two rounds of home visits were used to obtain
the second blood samples. In addition, a new method, that of subcontracting
with a private medical laboratory (Mason-Barron Laboratories, Skokie,
111, 60076) in the study area was employed to draw blood from study
volunteers. While only 11 percent of the second samples was obtained in
this manner, this represented persons who were willing to give blood but
whose work schedules prohibited either their coming to the all-day sessions
or their being home for a personal visit. Therefore, this use of the
private laboratory was deemed very beneficial to the outcome of the project,
A final summary of blood-collection results may be found in TABLE 10.
TABLE 10. OVERALL SUMMARY OF BLOOD-COLLECTION RESULTS
Status
Blood collections made
Refusals, dropouts, etc.
Total
Number of persons
First sample
424
413
837
Second sample
327
510
837
Paired sera
318
318
Includes only Health Watch participants 6 years of age and older.
Paired sera were analysed for both the spectrum of antibodies present
and for rises in antibody titers, as evidence of infection during the
observation period. Single blood samples were similarly tested but were not
included in antibody prevalence or incidence data analysis. Serology
results were mailed to the blood donors in May, 1978, upon completion of
serological analysis.
Data Reduction and Processing*
All diaries were reviewed for completeness and clarity in the central
office. Families were telephoned by the central office to clarify diary
entries or obtain additional information for coding. All diary information
37
-------
was numerically coded for computer input by Survey Research Laboratory. The
diary and clinical data along with the questionnaire data were stored in a
personal health file which was referenced according to an individual and
household identification number. Statistical Analysis System (SAS) format
was utilized for retrieval and analysis of both Health Watch diary data and
clinical data,
Methodology for Environmental Monitoring Program
General Description-
The environmental monitoring program was designed to characterize the
nature and degree of exposure of the study population to pollutants emitted
during sewage treatment. Three types of materials were monitored in air and
sewage: viable particles, non-viable particles, and gases. Measurements were
made over an 8-month period at the sewage treatment plant and in the
surrounding community.
The viable monitoring protocol for air included sampling for total
aerobic bacteria-, total and fecal coliform-, coliphage-, and animal
virus-containing particles. Each time an air sample was taken, an aeration
tank grab sample was taken for analysis of corresponding organisms. The
term "Total Viable Particles" is used in this report to refer to total
aerobic bacteria-containing particles in the air. Concentrations of total
viable particles were measured on a regular basis (approximately every other
day) at the plant and in the community for 8 months (April-November, 1977),
Concurrent monitoring of total aerobic bacteria in the aeration tank sewage
was performed for comparison. Initial attempts to monitor for total and
fecal coliform were made using an All-Glass*-Impinger on 6 days during April
and May, These samplers were found to be below the sensitivity required for
detection of the concentrations present. Beginning in September airborne
total coliform samples were taken with Andersen samplers on days of total
viable particle sampling and with a Litton large volume air sampler (LVAS) 1
day per week. The sewage samples collected for total aerobic bacteria
determinations were also assayed for total and fecal coliforms. Airborne
coliphage measurements were originally scheduled to be taken once every
other week. However, many equipment problems were encountered with the
LVAS, and only eight coliphage in air and 24 coliphage in sewage
measurements were obtained. Animal virus in air samples were obtained for 2
days (one upwind and one downwind each day). Twenty-three sewage samples
were taken for animal virus determinations.
Monitoring of non-viable constituents was conducted every 5 days from
April through November on the plant and in the community. Sewage samples
were collected for determinations of metals, nitrates, and sulfates on each
day that air samples were taken for these non-viable constituents. Sewage
samples were also collected for physico-chemical characteristics. Air
sampling was performed for total suspended particulates (TSF) and gases.
The materials for which quantitative determinations were made included
vanadium (V), chromium (Cr), manganese (Mn), nickel (Ni), copper (Cu),
arsenic (As), selenium (Se), cadmium (Cd), tin (Sn) , mercury (Hg), lead
(Pb), antimony (Sb) , sulfates (SO^) , and nitrates (NOji) , The gases
38
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collected were chlorine, nitrogen dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, and
sulfur dioxide. Five-day BOD, COD, total filterable solids, total suspended
solids, ammonia nitrogen (NHs-N) , nitrate and nitrite nitrogen (N03-N02-N) ,
total phosphorus, and pH were determined for each physico-chemical sewage
sample,
A meteorological station was installed on the plant site for continuous
monitoring of wind direction, wind speed, temperature, relative humidity,
ultraviolet radiation, total radiation, and rainfall. This equipment
provided integrated wind direction data for use in the selection of the
monitoring sites.
The environmental monitoring data were used to develop a "personal
exposure index" for the residents of the study area. This was accomplished
by using maps of concentration isopleths generated from the air pollution
data. The "personal exposure index" takes into account meteorological
factors as well as the actual measured pollution levels.
Selection of Monitoring Sites
The selection of sites for viable particle sampling was based on the
need to characterize the exposure with regard to wind direction. Three
sites in a line at various distances downwind from the aeration tanks and
one upwind were chosen for this purpose. Based on dispersion distances
observed in previous studies of airborne organism distributions and the
geographic distribution of residences in the study area, 16 community
sampling sites were selected in two concentric circles of 0.8-km and 1.6-km
radii from the plant, and four on-plant sites were chosen along the north,
east, south, and west edges of the aeration tank batteries. In order to
select the four sites for a given sample-collection period according to wind
direction, the 20 possible viable sampling sites were chosen to closely
follow the eight major wind direction patterns CN«»S, E«*W, NW«»SE, and
SW<»NE), At each sampling site, a location for the mobile monitoring unit
was chosen away from all tall buildings or other obstructions. For on-plant
site selection, wind direction was categorized into one of four 90 sectors:
NE to SE, SE to SW, SW to NW, and NW to ME,
The monitoring sites selected for the non-viable air measurements were
based on different criteria than for the viable protocol. Each site was a
permanent facility. The site at the plant was located near the aeration
tanks. Two community sites were selected in high-density residential areas
1,6 km from the aeration tanks. Two other sites were located northeast of
the plant approximately 0.8 and 1.6 km from the tanks. These selections
were based on 1975 prevailing wind data for the north suburban area. The
non-viable monitoring sites required access to a 110 volt electrical supply.
It was also necessary to locate the equipment on a relatively flat roof not
easily accessible to vandals and far from building exhaust systems.
Grab samples were collected at the inlet manifold of one of the
aeration tank batteries in order to determine the concentrations of the
pollutants which might be aerosolized. At this point, preliminary treatment
39
-------
effluent has been thorpughly mixed with return sludge. Although sampling
from a midpoint in the aeration tank might have been more representative,
this was considered too dangerous for field personnel to routinely perform.
Samples for physical and chemical parameters were also taken at the final
outfall of, the plant in order to compare our analysis techniques with those
of the Sanita,ry District laboratory.
Description of Monitoring Sites
TABLE 11 lists the monitoring sites by designation and location
description for the sampling of airborne viable particles. The on-plant
sites Csites 1-4) are illustrated in Figure 2, and the community sites
(.sites 5-20) are depicted in Figure 4. The four on-plant sites (Figure 2)
are located adjacent to the aeration tanks along the centers of the north,
east, south, and west edges of the batteries. It can be seen in Figure 4
that eight of the community sites (5-12) are situated on the 0.8-km radius
(from plantl circle, and the remaining eight community sites C13-20) are on
the 1,6-km radius circle. A detailed description of the environmental
conditions at each site is given in APPENDIX B, The area as a whole can be
characterized as residential with some light industry and commercial offices
directly south and east of the plant (Figure 4), The North Shore Channel
runs north and south approximately 0,8 km east of the plant. Excavation for
the Metropolitan Sanitary District's (MSD) Tunnel and Reservoir Plan project
was being carried out across the street from the MSD's field services office
at 3200 Oakton (sites 6 and C).
The Andersen samplers, used to make the total viable particle and total
coliform in air measurements, were situated on top of a mobile monitoring
unit at the height of about 1.8 meters (6 feet) above ground during
sampling. Power was supplied from lead-acid batteries,
TABLE 12 lists the sites of the stationary installations for the
sampling of airborne non-viable constituents (total particulates, gases,
metals, nitrates, and sulfates)., Site A consists of two adjacent sites (Al,A2)
northeast of aeration tank C (Figure 2) , Sites B and E are in a. high
density residential area, and sites C and D (Figure 41 are downwind of what
was preliminarily determined to be the prevailing winds at the plant. Each
of these non^viable monitoring stations contained a high volume air sampler
Cfor total suspended particulate, metals, sulfate, and nitrate measurements!
and a bubbler sampler for simultaneous collection of five gases. The
installation dates and heights for this equipment are given in TABLE 12. On
August 22, a five-stage Andersen Head Cfor total particulate, sulfate, and
nitrate measurements) was added to one of the two Hi Vols at plant site A,
Sewage samples for determination of total aerobic bacteria, total
coliform, fecal coliform, coliphage, and animal virus concentrations were
taken from the inlet to aeration tank battery B. This sampling point is
depicted in Figure 2. Additional samples for animal virus were taken at the
outlet of battery B in an attempt to characterize changes in viral
concentration in the aeration tanks.
Monitoring and Analyses of Environmental Samples-
Total viable particles in airSample collection for determination of
total viable particle concentrations began on April 18, 1977. Several trial
40
-------
<
;
i B
it j.i. _ i
|O*ktmT« "!
j Sc^ Austin IJ
Hsrvwd Terr
]( Bruinmef ot
SAMPLE LOCATIONS: O VIABLE, A NON-VIABLE
Figure 4. Map of community sampling sites.
-------
TABLE 11. LIST OF MONITORING SITES FOR SAMPLING
OF AIRBORNE VIABLE PARTICLES
Site no.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
Sampling site location
Northwest corner of aeration tank battery B
Center of east edge of aeration tank battery A
Southeast corner of aeration tank battery C
Center of west edge of aeration tank battery D
Northeast corner of Central Park and Keeney on Keeney
Parking lot of MSD office (3220 Oakton)
West edge of Bell and Eowell parking lot on Howard
East side of McConrdck Blvd. across from FEL-PRO Corp.
(about 7450 north)
Southwest corner of Jarvis and St. Louis on Jarvis
Northeast corner of Jarvis and Hamlin on Jarvis
Northeast corner of Brummel and East Prairie on Brummel
Northeast corner of Oakton and Eamlin on Hamlin
South of Drake and Lee on Drake
Northeast corner of Cleveland and Hartrey on Cleveland
West of Dobson and Dodge on Dobson
Southeast corner of Sacramento and Fitch on Fitch
East of Lawndale on Lunt
Northeast corner of Karlov and Estes on Estes
Northeast corner of Lowell and Brummel on Brummel
Southwest corner of Madison and Karlov on Karlov
a A mobile monitoring facility was used at these sites. Samplers
were at height of 1.8 meters above ground during sampling. A
detailed description of each site appears in Appendix B.
42
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TABLE 12. LIST OF MONITORING SITES FOR SAMPLING OF NON-VIABLE AIR CONSTITUENTS
Site
designation
A
B
C
D
E
Sampling site location
Northeast of aeration tank C
Roof of Cleveland School,
Cleveland and Kildare
Roof of MSD Office, 3200 Oakton
Roof of Dawes School, Oakton and
Dodge
Roof of Lincolnwood Village Kail,
Lincoln and Fitch
Installation dates
Hi Vols
4/1/77 &
5/11/77
4/1/77
5/23/77
5/23/77
5/23/77
Bubblers
5/11/77
5/11/77
5/23/77
5/23/77
5/26/77
Height above ground
of sampling
installation, meters
1.1
8.5
7.9
3.3
4.3
-------
field runs were made prior to April 18. Sampling days were restricted to
Sunday through Thursday due to laboratory arrangements. Hence an
every-other-day sampling schedule for the duration of the project
data-collection period resulted in a repeated pattern of 3 days of sampling
one week followed by 2 days the next week. An attempt was made to alternate
day and night samplings. Each day or night a total viable particle sample
was scheduled, four sampling runs were made; one upwind of the aeration
tanks and three downwind. These four sites were identified by determining
the resultant wind direction for the previous 1-hour period from the
on-plant meteorology station. Three monitoring sites (one on the plant, one
on the 0.8-km radius from the tanks, and one on the 1.6-km radius circle)
falling on a line downwind from the plant were then selected. An upwind
site on the 0.8-km radius circle was chosen as a control site. Due to
vehicle and personnel limitations the four sites selected for a particular
sampling day had to be monitored consecutively. The sampling site order was
determined randomly. A summary of the number of total viable particle
samples collected through November, 1977 is included in TABLE 13.
Andersen 2000 six-stage CA6S5 Viable Samplers were used to collect
total viable particles. This multi-orifice cascade impactor consists of six
aluminum stages accompanied by six glass petri dishes and a pump. Each
stage collects particles of predetermined size range with stage 6
collecting particles of 0,65 to 1,1 vm diameter and stage 1 collecting
particles of 7,7 ym and above. BBL trypticase soy agar (TSA) was used as the
collection medium. As of June 23, a fungal inhibitor, Actidione CUpjohn),
was added to the plates to control interfering fungus growth. The
agar-Actidione plates and samplers were prepared by the Illinois Institute
of Technology Research Institute CIITRI), Before routine use of a fungal
inhibiting additive was begun, IITRI performed an evaluation of the effect
of their addition on total aerobic bacteria growth CAPPENDIX C).
The Andersen samplers loaded with prepared dishes were refrigerated
until sample collection time. Eight samplers were available for the
environmental monitoring program. The samplers were calibrated at a flow
rate of 28.3 1/min Cl cfm) using a wet-test meter. These calibrations were
verified three times during the study and were found not to change
significantly.
Each sampling run was made with the sampler situated on top of the
mobile monitoring vehicle Csampler a,t a height of approximately 1.8 meters
above ground). The vehicle contained a battery and charger system which
supplied power for the continuous duty 28.3 1/min airflow pump. The vehicle
was not running during each test. No sampling was done during periods of
precipitation. The sampling runs were performed by University of Illinois
project personnel. Fifteen-minute samples were collected. All
data-collection information was recorded on the appropriate form. At the
end of each run the petri dishes were removed from the sampler, labelled,
and incubated at 35°c for 48 +_ 5 hours in the on-plant laboratory facility.
44
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Constituent
Total aerobic bacteria-con-
taining particles in air
(total viable particles)
Total aerobic bacteria
in sewage
Total coliform in air
Fecal coliform in air
Total coliform in sewage
Fecal coliform in sewage
Coliphage in air
Animal virus in air
Coliphage in sewage
Animal virus in sewage
Method of sample
collection
Andersen six-
stage viable air
sampler
grab samples
Andersen
LVAS
LVAS
grabb
grabb
LVAS
LVAS
grabb'e
grabb'f
Date of
first sample
4/18/77
4/18/77
9/13/77
8/24/77
8/24/77
4/14/77
4/14/77
5/03/77
9/29/77
5/03/77
5/16/77
No. of samples collected
Day
32a
42
lla
9C
9c
46
45
4d
2d
24
23
Night
40a
39
15a
Oc
Oc
40
40
Od
Od
0
0
Total
72a
81
26a
9C
9C
86
85
4d
2d
24
23
a These numbers represent the number of sample-collection periods. Each day or night sample-col-
lection period involved one upwind and three different downwind sampling runs.
Sewage samples were taken from inlet to aeration tank battery B.
These numbers represent the number of sample-collection periods. The following samples were
collected: in one period, one upwind and one downwind; in two periods, one upwind and two down-
wind; in six periods, one upwind and three downwind.
Q
These numbers represent the number of sample-collection periods. In each period, one upwind
and one downwind sample were collected.
e Five samples are pooled samples of aeration tank influent and effluent, one is influent only,
and nine are pairs of influent and effluent samples collected on the same day.
Three samples are pooled samples of aeration tank influent and effluent, four are influent
only, and eight are pairs of influent and effluent samples collected on the same day.
-------
Analyses for concentration of total viable particles in the air were
performed at the laboratory facility on the plant grounds. After
incubation, the number of colonies per plate was counted CQuebec colony
counter) and recorded by project personnel. The concentrations for each
stage were determined by applying the positive hole count correction factor.
The most probable number of bacteria-containing particles were obtained from
tables based on statistical considerations of the number of positive holes
(among the 400 orifices per stage) for stages 3 to 6 determined by Andersen
(88). A quality control evaluation of the persons counting the organisms
was made and a statistical measure of counting precision was developed
(APPENDIX D) .
Total and fecal coliform in airSample collection for airborne total
coliform measurements using the Andersen sampler began September 13. The
sample-collection schedule for total coliform was identical to that for
total viable particle monitoring. TABLE 13 summarizes the sample collection
for total coliform through November, 1977. The same Andersen samplers
described for total viable particle monitoring were used for total coliform
measurements, M-Endo broth (Difco) containing 1.5% Bacto-Agar (Difco) with
the fungal inhibitor, Actidione, was used as the collection medium. All
plates and samplers were prepared by IITRI,
The sampling runs were performed as described for total viable particle
measurements with the following changes. A 30-minute sampling time was used
for total coliform runs. At the end of each run, the petri dishes were
incubated at 35^C for 24 +_ 2 hours in the plant laboratory. Immediately
following this incubation, the plates were transported to IITRI. Upon
receipt of the plates, IITRI counted the total coliform colonies under
fluorescent light with a binocular microscope and determined the total
coliform concentrations using the positive hole correction factor O88), For
a more detailed description of sampler preparation and quality control
methods, see APPENDIX C,
In addition to using Andersens for total coliform sample collection, a
Litton large volume air sampler (LVAS) was used for total and fecal coliform
sampling beginning in August. Due to the complexity of operation, this
sampler was used approximately one day a week from August to November
(TABLE 13), The same protocol for site selection and mobile sampling unit
operation were used. Sampling was done at approximately 1.2 meters (4 feet)
from the ground and upwind of the sampling vehicle.
The LVAS sampler passes a stream of air through a corona discharge zone
to charge any particles within the air column. The particles then pass
through an electrostatic field which precipitates them into a film of liquid
flowing over a rotating disc. This liquid is then collected for assay.
All sampling was performed, by project personnel. The equipment and
media were prepared by IITRI, A field decontamination method employing live
steam and ultraviolet light was devised by IITRI, and decontamination was
performed at each, sampling site. For details of the decontamination
46
-------
procedure and sampling, see APPENDIX C. The fluid flow rate was between 6
to 10 ml/min, electrostatic precipitator voltage ranged from 10 to
15 kilovolts, and airflow was 1.0 m3/min. Phosphate-buffered water with
0.01 percent phenol red and 25 percent BEL trypticase soy broth CTSB) was
used as the collection medium, One hundred milliliters of fluid were
collected as a control, and two 15-minute samples were taken, one for total
coliform and one for fecal coliform, at each site.
The fluid was collected directly into a Millipore membrane filtration
apparatus containing a 0.45 ym pore-size 47 mm diameter membrane filter.
All samples were filtered and assayed by project personnel at the plant
laboratory immediately after field sampling. Tubed m-Endo and m-FC media
(Difco) were used for total and fecal coliform assays, respectively (P9 }.
The plates were incubated at 35° C for 24 +_ 2 hours. They were then
refrigerated and/or transported on ice to IITRI for counting as described
above.
Coliphage and animal-virus-containing particles in air-Sampling for
animal virus was conducted on 2 days, September 29 and October 27. One
upwind control and one downwind sample (as defined above) were collected on
the plant grounds on each day. All sampler preparation, sampling,
filtration, and assays were done by IITRI personnel by methods described by
Fannin et al. (56), For a description of these procedures, see APPENDIX C.
The LVAS was also used for airborne coliphage collection on 4 days:
May 3, May 16, June 13, and July 25, One upwind and one downwind sample
were collected on the plant grounds on each day. On-site sample collection
was performed by project personnel. All other aspects of the procedure were
performed by IITRI according to Fannin et al. (56). For a description of
these procedures, see APPENDIX C.
Due to equipment and decontamination problems it was decided that use
of the one available LVAS for both coliphage and total and fecal coliform
sampling would not be feasible. As £ result, sampling for coliphage was
cancelled after July 25.
Total aerobic bacteria, total and fecal coliform, animal virus and
coliphage in sewageA sewage sample for determination of total aerobic
bacteria and total and fecal coliform concentrations was collected each day
that total viable particles and total coliform were sampled in air.
Although difficulty with air monitoring equipment for coliphage prevented
collection of the originally anticipated number of air samples, sewage
samples for coliphage were collected approximately every 2 weeks from May 3
to September 29 and every week from September 29 to November 17. Sewage
samples for animal virus were collected beginning May 16 and followed the
coliphage sampling schedule after that. The sewage samples were taken from
the inlet to aeration tank battery B. See TABLE 13 for a summary of the
sewage samples collected.
Each sewage sample was collected by dipping a polyurethane container
directly into the tank. The samples for animal virus were collected in
47
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clean glass 5-liter bottles, The container was then capped, labelled,
stored on ice overnight. The sample was delivered to I1TRI the following
morning in an ice chest.
Analysis of sewage samples for total aerobic bacteria concentrations
was performed by IITRI. The standard method (Standard Plate Count) (891 was
not used since it requires plating of samples in liquid medium rather than
on an agar surface. Standard Plate Count levels in sewage would not be
comparable to counts from aerosols taken with Andersen samplers, which
impact particles on an agar surface. Total aerobic bacteria on trypticase
soy agar (TSA) was determined by the spread plate procedure. Appropriate
dilutions of each sewage sample were plated in duplicate on TSA plates. The
plates were subsequently incubated for 48 +_ 2 hours at 35°C and counted
using a Quebec colony counter.
Total coliform bacteria concentrations were determined by IITRI using
the standard membrane filter procedure as described in Standard Methods
(89), Appropriate sewage dilutions were filtered in duplicate through
0.45 ym Millipore membrane filters Cor equivalent). The filters were placed
on adsorbent pads in plastic petri dishes containing m-Endo medium,
incubated at 35°C for 24 +_ 2 hours, and counted under fluorescent light
using a binocular dissecting microscope.
Fecal coliform bacteria concentrations were determined by IITRI using
the standard membrane filter technique as described in Standard Methods
(89), The procedure described for total coliform in sewage was followed
with the following exceptions:
1) m-FC medium was used
2) The plates were placed in water-tight containers and incubated in a
waterbath at 44,5°C for 24 +_ 2 hours.
Analysis of sewage samples was performed by IITRI for animal virus and
coliphage. For the first six animal virus samples, the Freon 113
processing - direct inoculation procedure was used. Increased sensitivity
for animal virus detection was found to be necessary, and the remaining
samples were concentrated using an aluminum hydroxide - continuous flow
centrifugation technique. Both procedures were used for coliphage analyses.
For a description of these procedures, see APPENDIX C.
Total suspended particulates (TSP), metals, nitrates, and sulfates
in airHi Vol measurements for TSP, nitrates, sulfates, and metals began
May 19, 1977, Measurements were usually made every fifth day. Six RAC Hi
Volume air samplers located at five different sites (TABLE 12) were run
simultaneously on each scheduled sampling day. Due to background metal
contamination of the glass-fiber filters employed for TSP measurements,
analysis of these filters for ambient metal concentrations could not be
performed, Whatman 541 filters were judged as an acceptable substitute for
the glass-fiber filters for metals determinations. From June 28 on, three
of the six Hi Vols were run with Whatman 541 filters for metals analysis,
48
-------
and three were run with glass-fiber filters for TSP, nitrate, and sulfate
determinations. The sampling schedule was staggered with sites A, B, and E
monitored for metals one day while TSP, SO^, and NO^ were measured at
sites A, C, and D. The next sampling day the procedures were reversed.
This pattern was repeated throughout the project data-collection period.
Beginning on August 22, the Hi Vol at site A2 was equipped with an Andersen
Head to collect size-differentiated particulate samples. The
sample-collection schedule for TSP, metals, nitrate, and sulfate
measurements appears in TABLE 14,
Operation of the Hi Vols, conditioning, and weighing of the filters
were carried out in accordance with the EPA reference method (90),
Calibration of the samplers using a Bendix Variable Orifice Calibration
Assembly was carried out periodically during the study period. Each
sampling run lasted 24 hours (midnight to midnight), After the final filter
weights were recorded, the filters were delivered to the appropriate
laboratory. The Whatman filters were sent to Columbia Scientific Industries
(CSI) for metals analysis. Minimum detectable limits for these analyses are
presented in TABLE 15. The glass-fiber filters were delivered to the Cook
County Environmental Control Laboratory for nitrate and sulfate
determinations.
TABLE 15, MINIMUM DETECTABLE LIMITS FOR METALS
Element
V
Cr
Mn
Ni
Cu
As
Se
Cd
Sn
Sb
Hg
Pb
Detection limit
Cyg/cm2l
0,01
0.10
0,10
0,04
0,04
0,05
0,03
0.04
0.05
0,05
0.04
0,08
Detection limit
Cyg/m3)a
0.002
0.022
0.022
0.009
0,009
0.011
0.007
0.009
0.011
0.011
0.009
0.018
a
Assumes average total volume of air
filter area = 413,67 cm2.
1835 m3. Average
49
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TABLE 14. SUMMARY OF SAMPLE COLLECTION FOR NON-VIABLE CONSTITUENTS OF AIR AND
SEWAGE FOR DATA-COLLECTION PERIOD APRIL-NOVEMBER 30, 1977
Constituent
Total suspended particulates (TSP)
Metals in air
(V, Cr, Mn, Cu, As, Sef Cd,
Sn, Sb, Ni, Eg, Pb)
Nitrates and sulfates in air
Gases
NO 2
H2S
SO 2
NH3
Physico-chemical tests in sewage
Sampler
Hi-Vol
Ki-Vol -
(Whatman
filter)
Hi-Vol
Bubbler
"
ii
it
Grab
Date of
first
sample
5/19
6/28
5/09
5/19
5/24
5/19
8/12
9/11
6/08
No. of samples collected
Site
A
45
32
40
35
25
36
31
13
Site
B
30
13
27
16
11
17
14
5
,
Site
C
22
15
21
16
12
17
14
7
-_
Site
D
23
16
21
16
11
16
13
7
__
Site
E
20
16
18
18
12
16
14
7
__
Total
14 Oe
92b
127°
101
71
102
86
39
26
(13 inlet
13 out-
fall )d
Ul
o
See TABLE 12 for key to sites.
Each sample analyzed for all twelve metals.
£j
, Each sample analyzed for sulfates and nitrates.
a Each sample analyzed for BODs, COD, total suspended solids, total filterable solids, total
phosphorus, nitrate plus nitrite as nitrogen, ammonia nitrogen, and pH,
e All TSP concentrations collected on glass-fiber filters only.
-------
The total suspended particulate concentrations were determined from the
glass-fiber filters by project personnel according to the EPA reference
method (90). The analytical methods used for the determination of 12
metals, nitrates, and sulfates are presented in TABLE 16.
Gases-Sampling for gas concentrations was done concurrently with the
Hi Vol sampling. The two groups of sites (A-B-E and A-C-D, TABLE 12) were
sampled alternately between sampling days. It was originally intended to
collect equal numbers of samples of chlorine, nitrogen dioxide, hydrogen
sulfide, sulfur dioxide, and ammonia. Trial runs for these gases indicated
that methods for chlorine and ammonia required modification as the
environmental concentrations were below detectable limits. As a result,
reliable chlorine measurements did not begin until August 17. Ammonia
measurements began on September 21. The sample collection for gases is
summarized in TABLE 14,
Modified RAC five-gas bubbler trains were used to collect gases. The
trains were modified as described below in order to achieve a satisfactory
minimum detectable limit for NHs and also to provide a backup impinger for
S02,
The bubbler samplers were located near the Hi Vol samplers. Each
bubbler was equipped with a manifold to permit simultaneous sampling for a
maximum of five gases, A membrane filter was used to remove particulate
matter from the air prior to entry into the inlet. A second membrane filter
was used to prevent the pump critical orifice from being plugged,
Polytechnic, Inc. charged the bubbler tubes (polypropylene) with the
appropriate absorbing reagents (TABLE 16) and then purged the systems with
nitrogen in order to preserve the collection fluids.
The SC>2f NC>2, Cl2, and H2S bubblers were operated at approximately
200 ml of air/tnin for 24 hours per sampling run, the NHa bubbler at 5 1/min,
In addition to the standard impinger supplied with the RAC five-gas sampler,
a large fritted impinger was placed in the sampler's shelter for the
collection of ammonia. This impinger, which ran off the pump used for the
S02, NC>2, Cl2, and H2S measurements, was calibrated to operate at 5 1/min.
The higher flow rate was needed to obtain a satisfactory minimum detectable
limit, A careful analysis of the modified sampler train was conducted to
make sure that the addition of the ammonia collection impinger did not
interfere with the pump's ability to bring the impinger orifice for SO2,
N02r c^2f an^L H2S to critical flow. The concentration of H2S was never
above the minimum detection limit from May 24 to October 1. Because of
this, it was decided to cancel sampling for H2S and use the extra bubbler
tube as a backup trap for SO2. The critical flow orifice was replaced and
the flow rate calibrated every third, run.
The samplers were delivered to nearby Polytechnic, Inc. for analysis.
The methods used by Polytechnic for the gas concentration determinations are
presented in TABLE 16. Polytechnic developed calibration curves and
determined minimum detectable limits (TABLE 17). A quality control standard
51
-------
TABLE 16. ANALYTICAL METHODS FOR AIR SAMPLE ANALYSES: NON-VIABLE CONSTITUENTS
Analyte
Chromium
Vanadium
Lead
Manganese
Nickel
Copper
Cadmium
Selenium
Tin
Antimony
Arsenic
Mercury
Nitrates
Sulfates
Chlorine
SO 2
NO 2
Ammonia
H2S
Performing
laboratory
CSIa
CSI
CSI
CSI
CSI
CSI
CSI
CSI
CSI
CSI
CSI
CSI
CCLb
CCL
pC
P
P
P
P
Method
Collection on Whatman 541 filter paper. Energy dispersive X-ray
fluorescence spectrometry
it 11
n 11
« "
n n
B n
n n
H it
n n
n u
n ii
u n
u
"
u
B
II
II
II
II
II
V
II
Automated, copper-cadmium reduction method
Tentative method for determination of 804 in the atmosphere.
Automated Technicon II, Methylthymol Blue procedure
Methyl Orange-spectrophotometric
Pararosaniline-TCM absorption
Sulf anil amide-spec trophotometric
Absorption in sulfuric acid and
Absorption in cadmium hydroxide
determination
determination
spectrophotometric determination
and spectrophotometric determination
Ref.d
1
I
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
en
to
(continued)
-------
TABLE 16 (continued)
a Columbia Scientific Industries.
Cook County Environmental Control Laboratory.
c Polytechnic Inc.
References:
1. Rhodes, J.R.: Energy-Dispersive X-Ray Spectrometry for Multielement Pollution Analysis.
IEEE Transactions on Nuclear Science 21(1); 608-617, 1974.
2. Federal Water Pollution Control Administration Methods for Chemical Analysis of Water
and Wastes. November, 1969.
3. Environmental Protection Agency, Quality Assurance Branch. Environmental Monitoring and
Surveillance Lab. National Environmental Research Center, Research Triangle Park, N.C.
July 15, 1977.
4. Medycyna Pracy XXV. 1974. pp. 53-58. "A Determination of Cfe in the Air Using Kettner's
Method." Department of Industrial Toxicology, Lodz.
5. Federal Register, Vol. 36, #84, pp. 113-115, 1971,
6. Federal Register, Vol. 38, #110, pp. 15, 75-76, 1973,
7. Standard Methods, 14th ed., pp. 412-415; Stern, Vol. 2, 2nd ed,, pp. 104-105.
8. Methods of Air Sampling and Analysis, Intersociety Committee Method 701, pp. 426-432.
-------
was run every second analysis for chlorine, nitrogen dioxide, and hydrogen
sulfide, and every analysis for sulfur dioxide. The calibration curves for
ammonia were verified periodically throughout the 3 months of ammonia
sampling,
TABLE 17, MINIMUM DETECTABLE LIMITS FOR GASES
Gas
C12
NH3
N02
H2S
S02
Detection limit
(lag/sample , based
on minimum absorbancel
0,53
16
1,89
0,27
0.84
Average total
volume of air
Cm3)
0,25
7.0
0,25
0,2.5
0,25
Minimum concentration
(yg/m3)
2.12
2.29
7.56
1.07
3.33
(ppm)
0.00074
0.0032
0.0040
0.00076
0.0013
Metals, nitrates, and sulfates in sewageOne-liter grab samples, one
for metal and one for nitrate and sulfate analyses, were collected from the
inlet to the B battery aeration tanks on each day air sampling for these
parameters was done. Each sample was collected by dipping a polyurethane
container directly into the tank. The samples were immediately frozen
solid. When three samples for metal analyses had accumulated, they were
packed in dry ice and sent to CSI, Inc., Austin, Texas, by 24-hour messenger
service. The samples always arrived frozen. The sample for nitrate and
sulfate was delivered on ice to the Cook County Department of Environmental
Control in Mayweed, Illinois,
At CSI, the following procedure was used to prepare samples for X-ray
fluorescence analysis (personal communication: Dr. John Schindler, CSI,
Austin, Texas)s
Ten ml of 6 N HNOa were added to the frozen sample. After complete
melting, the whole sample was filtered through Whatman 541 and 1.2 ym
Millipore filters giving a completely clear filtrate. One hundred ml
of filtrate were diluted to 500 ml and ammonium acetate buffer added to
maintain the pH at 4,0 throughout the precipitation. Ten ml of a
freshly prepared 2 percent ammonium pyrolidine dithiocarbamate CAPDC)
(correctly known as ammonium tetramethylene dithiocarbarbamate, ATMDTC)
solution were added. After 30 minutes the precipitate was collected on
a Millipore HAWP filter CO.45 ym), dried, and analyzed by X-ray
fluorescence (91).
The samples for nitrates and sulfates were thawed, split, agitated, and
analyzed with a Technicon Autoanalyzer. Five ml of chloroform were added to
the sample for nitrate analysis as a preservative.
54
-------
Physico-chemical characterization of sewageBeginning June 8, sewage
samples for determinations of physico-chemical characteristics were
collected every other Wednesday, On each scheduled Wednesday, one sample
was collected from the inlet to aeration tank battery B and a. final outfall
sample was taken from the Pump and Blower station. The number of samples
collected is summarized in TABLE 14,
Polyurethane containers were used to collect these samples. Delivery
of the containers in an ice chest was made to the Illinois Environmental
Protection Agency CIEPA), Chicago, within 4 hours of collection, and they
were processed the same day. The IEPA performed the physico-chemical
analyses according to Standard Methods (TABLE 18].
Meteorology
A meteorology data acquisition system was set up on the plant grounds.
This consisted of an 11-meter tower with sensors for temperature, humidity,
wind speed and direction, solar radiation, ultraviolet radiation, and pre-
cipitation; a Weathermeasure Corp, Model M733-M9 Data Center; and Model
SC701 Signal Conditioning Console (Figure 5).
System functions were controlled by an Intel 8080 microprocessor. In
addition to control functions, the microprocessor was also programmed to
calculate and display 1-hour vector averages of wind speed and direction,
compute averages of all parameters, and convert all sensor input to
engineering units. Modules for each parameter sensor were connected to the
Model SC701 chassis. In addition to providing data to the Model M733, each
module provided voltage and current outputs to drive a strip chart recorder
and an electronic switching system for high and low calibration. The Model
M733 was also equipped with a real time clock, a magnetic tape interface,
ninetrack-tape recorder, and a digital-to-analog converter.
The probes, modules, and recorders were all supplied by Weathermeasure
Corp, as follows:
1) TRS - 1/4 general purpose platinum resistance thermometer assembly;
MP626 platinum temperature module, range - 30 to 110 F.
2) HM111 relative humidity sensor; MD 111 P/A humidity circuit module,
range 0 to 100%,
3) W 101 - P - Ac/540 Skyvane wind sensor with, an AC generator for wind
speed and a 0° - 540° potentiometer for wind direction; MD 104-2
wind speed module, range 0 - 100 mph; MD 103-Z wind direction
module, range 0° - 540 .
4} P511 - E heated rain and snow gauge, tipping bucket, MD432 event
accumulator module,
5} Eppley Lab, Inc. ultraviolet radiometer No. 15596 with circuit,
range 290-385 nm,
6) R413 Star pyranometer; MD104-4 solar radiation module, range 0-2 grn
cal/cm rain.
7} REW - 2P-12V/12V potentiometric recorder for wind speed and
direction,
8) FEW - 12V-6 potentiometric recorder for all other parameters.
55
-------
B242-S
T, W101-P-AC/540 / , WM19X
/ rM9
/ TAPE
W101-MA / .' DECK
I
f
/'
K
ft
/ r
L
I
C
/-
/
/-
/
u
BS-2
=,. JS6-6-RH
5\ > 4r->. TD G. \ 1 A
|j 1 y 'I" f* 1 H - O . I / *t
1 TM HM111-PUC
1 ,
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1
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r"-i
: \L_
i r ,
/
li
M
[
j
1
i
/
/
"31
(
It
li
!
/
/
/
11
rznuD f5T
no .
JJlk
1.
CVT
>}
rrm
!
1J!|
''
/~~vl\ / OO
COTrt-l
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REW-2P-
12V/12V
^-RcW-1^ V-b
CONSTANT
VOLTAGE
TRANS-
FORMER
(OPTIONIAI ^
Figure 5. Schematic of meteorological system.
56
-------
TABLE 18. ANALYTICAL METHODS FOR WASTEWATER ANALYSES: NON-VIABLE CONSTITUENTS
Analysis
Chemical oxygen
demand (COD)
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)
Total suspended
solids (nonfilterable)
Ref.a
1
1
2
Page
550
543
268
Remarks
Sulfuric acid-Dichromate reflux
5 -day
Gooch
incubation at 208C
crucible with glass fiber
filtra-
Residue on evaporation (ROE, total
filterable)
tion dryness at 103 to 105°C
92 Evaporation at 180 C
Total phosphorus (total P)
479 Persulfate digestion, stannous chloride
color development
Nitrate plus nitrite as nitrogen (NO +
N02 - N) 3
Ammonia nitrogen (NH3 - N)
pH
423 Automated cadmium reduction followed by
Diazo dye method
416 Automated Phenate method using optical
density with spectrophotometer
460 Electronic pH meter
References:
1. AWWA, APEA, WPCF, Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater. Fourteenth
edition, American Public Health Association, Washington, D.C., 1976.
2. Methods for Chemical Analysis of Water and Wastes, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Washington, D.C., 1974.
-------
The system was in operation from May 21 to November 30. On
approximately August 10, the electronic system was put out of commission
(possibly by lightning) and did not being operating again until September 6,
58
-------
SECTION 5
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
HEALTH QUESTIONNAIRE SURVEY
Demographics of Survey Population
The 807 households (2,378 individuals) participating in the health
questionnaire survey were distributed throughout the 1,6-km radius study
area as shown in TABLE 19, The distances in TABLE 19 correspond to the
sampling zones discussed in the METHODS section. It can be seen that the
households were fairly equally distributed with regard to distance from the
plant. Since the main health variable to be considered in this study was
the incidence of infectious diseases relative to air quality, it was
important to determine that the study population was composed of persons
with similar demographic characteristics. Age, sex, race, socioeconomic
status, and family size are all confounding variables in the incidence of
most infectious diseases.
TABLE 19. DISTRIBUTION OF HEALTH QUESTIONNAIRE SURVEY POPULATION
BY DISTANCE OF RESIDENCE FROM PLANT
Distance of
residence
from plant
0.0 - 0.8 km
0.8 - 1,2 km
1,2 - 1,6 km
Total
Households
No.
269
267
271
807
%
33.3
33,1
33.6
100.0
Individuals
No,
847
791
740
2,378
%
35,6
33.2
31.1
100.0
The distributions of the study population according to age, sex, race,
family size, and household income (as an indicator of socioeconomic status)
are given by distance of residence from the sewage treatment plant in
TABLES 2Q through 24. Comparisons Cchi-square tests) of sex (TABLE 20) and
income distributions (TABLE 21) were made to see if these demographic
variables were related to distance of residence from the plant. The
chi-square statistics for TABLES 20 and 21 were not significant (p > 0.10)
59
-------
indicating that the sex and income distributions were similar in the three
residential groups,
TABLE 20. PERCENT DISTRIBUTION OF SEX OF QUESTIONNAIRE SURVEY
POPULATION BY DISTANCE OF RESIDENCE FROM PLANT
Distance of
residence
from plant
0,0 - 0,8 km
0,8 ~ 1,2 km
1,2 - 1,6 km
Total
Percent distribution of sex
Female
50,3
54,4
52,8
52,4
Male
49,7
45.6
47,2
47,6
Total
100,0
100.0
100.0
100.0
The age distributions (TABLE 22) indicated that the majority of the
survey population was in the 19 to 59 year age group; less than 5 percent
were under 6 years of age. Using a chi-square test, a significant
difference Cp < 0.001) was found between the age distributions for the three
residential subpopulations. There was, for example, a high percent of
persons over 59 years of age in the periphery of the study area. This was
partially due to the inclusion of a large condominium complex occupied by
older adults.
The race distributions (TABLE 23) were statistically significantly
different (chi-square test, p < 0.05) for the three residential
subpopulations. This difference was mainly due to extensive variations in
the ethnicity of the non-white families, but these represented less than
8 percent of each of the three subpopulations.
TABLE 24 includes the distributions of family size for the three
residential subpopulations, A significant difference (chi-square test,
p < 0,05) was found between the family size in the three areas. One
explanation for this observation was that the families residing 1.2 to
1,6 km from the plant (specifically those in the condominium complex) tended
to consist of older families who were childless or whose children were no
longer living at home,
Distribution of Factors Affecting Exposure of Survey Population
Several factors which could potentially affect the exposure of
residents in the study area to airborne environmental constituents were
examined for even distribution among the 807 households from which the
Health Watch sample was obtained. Air conditioning in the home, for
example, could reduce the amount of outdoor particles entering the home
60
-------
TABLE 21. PERCENT DISTRIBUTION OF LEVEL OF INCOME OF QUESTIONNAIRE SURVEY POPULATION
BY DISTANCE OF RESIDENCE FROM PLANT
Distance of
residence from
plant
0.0 - 0.8 km
0.8 - 1.2 km
1.2 - 1.6 km
Total
Percent distribution of 1976 household income
< $3,000
1.9
2.6
0.7
1.7
$3,000-
6,999
1.9
2.2
1.5
1.9
$7,000-
9,999
4.5
3.4
5.5
4.5
$10,000-
14,999
11.5
7.5
12.5
10.5
$15,000-
24,999
32.7
26.6
26.6
28.6
>$25,000
33.1
34.1
32.1
33.1
Didn't know
or refused
to respond
14.5
23.6
21.1
19.7
Total
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
Median
income
($)
22,045
23,451
22,222
22,316
-------
TABLE 22. PERCENT DISTRIBUTION OF AGE OF QUESTIONNAIRE SURVEY
POPULATION BY DISTANCE OF RESIDENCE FROM PLANT
Distance of
residence from
plant
0.0 - 0.8 km
0.8 - 1.2 km
1.2 - 1.6 km
Total
a,b
Percent distribution of aqe
<6
years
5.1
4.2
5.4
4.9
6-18
years
20.4
18.9
16.8
18.8
19-59
years
60.2
57.2
51.6
56.6
>59
years
14.3
19.7
26.1
19.7
Total
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
Mean age,
years
37.0
39.2
40.6
38.9
Age was not given for seven or 0.03 percent of the 2,378 respondents.
Chi-square independence test significant at 0.001 level.
TABLE 23. PERCENT DISTRIBUTION OF RACE OF QUESTIONNAIRE SURVEY
POPULATION BY DISTANCE OF RESIDENCE FROM PLANT
Distance of
residence from
plant
0.0 - 0.8 km
0.8 - 1.2 km
1.2 - 1.6 km
Total
._ v_
Percent distribution of race '
White
92.6
94.0
94.1
93.6
Black
american
0.4
0.4
2.6
1.1
Oriental
4.1
1.1
2.2
2.5
Latin
american
1.1
1.5
0.0
0.9
Other
1.9
3.0
1.1
2.0
Total
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
Determined by observed race of household respondent.
Chi-square independence test significant at 0.05 level.
62
-------
TABLE 24. PERCENT DISTRIBUTION OF FAMILY SIZE OF QUESTIONNAIRE SURVEY POPULATION
BY DISTANCE OF RESIDENCE FROM PLANT
Distance of
residence from
plant
0.0 - 0,8 km
0,8 - 1,2 km
1,2 - 1,6 km
Total
Percent distribution of family sizea'
1
8,2
7,1
14,0
9,8
2
30,5
36,0
41,0
35,8
3
22,3
25,1
17,0
21.4
4
23,4
20,2
20,3
21,3
5
10,8
9,4
3,7
7,9
6
3,7
1,1
3,0
206
7
0,4
0,7
0,4
0,5
8
0,4
0,4
0.4
0.4
9
0,4
0
004
0.2
Total
100,0
100.0
100,0
100,0
Mean
family
size
3,1
2.9
2,7
2.9
in
Total number of related household members,
Chi-square test for independence significant at 0,05 level.
-------
. Length of residence in the study area would likely affect the
duration of exposure to any environmental constituents in the study area,
and certain occupations would be expected to influence susceptibility to
certain acute infectious processes more than other occupations. The
distributions for air conditioning, length of residence, and occupation by
distance of residence from the plant are presented in TABLES 25 through 27.
As shown in TABLE 25, over 92 percent of the homes, regardless of the
residential area, had central or window-mounted air conditioning. No
significant differences (ehi-square test, p > 0.1) were found between the
number of air conditioned homes in the three residential groups.
TABLE 25. PERCENT DISTRIBUTION OF AIR CONDITIONING3 IN HOMES
OF QUESTIONNAIRE SURVEY POPULATION BY DISTANCE OF
RESIDENCE FROM PLANT
Distance of
residence
from plant
0,0 - Q.,8 km
0,8 - 1,2 km
1.2 - 1,6 km
Total
Air conditioning
Present
in home
92,2
95,5
95.6
94,4
Not present
in home
7,8
4,5
4.4
5,6
Total
100.0
100.0
100.0
100,0
Central or window units.
The average length of residence in the study area was 11,7 years
CTABLE 26), The length of residence distributions were statistically
significantly different (chi-square test, p < 0.001) between the three
residential groups. This again was partially due to those families living
in the recently constructed condominium complex in the peripheral area.
Over 75 percent of the employed persons in the study population were
white collar workers CTABLE 27). The distributions of occupations between
the three residential groups were significantly different (chi-square test,
P < 0.05),
Summary of Demographic and Exposure Characteristics of Health
Questionnaire Survey Population
Briefly, the families participating in the questionnaire survey,
regardless of their residence location in the study area, can be
characterized as white (93,6 percent), middle class ($22,317 median income),
white collar workers (76.8 percent), with an average family size of 2,9
people, and having lived in the study area for more than a decade
(mean =11.7 years 1,
64
-------
TABLE 26. PERCENT DISTRIBUTION OF LENGTH OF RESIDENCE IN STUDY AREA OF
FAMILIES IN QUESTIONNAIRE SURVEY POPULATION BY DISTANCE OF
RESIDENCE FROM PLANT
Distance of
residence
from plant
0.0 - 0.8 km
0.8 - 1.2 km
1.2 - 1.6 km
Total
Length of residence in study area, years
<1
7.1
7.1
8.0
7.4
1-5
22.0
21.2
27.7
23.5
5-10
14.5
17.1
23.5
18.2
10-20
38.5
36.4
24.2
33.3
21-30
16.8
16.8
15.5
16.4
>30
1.2
1.1
1.1
1.1
Unknown
0.0
0.3
0.0
0.1
Total
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
Mean,
years
12.3
12.2
10.7
11.7
Chi-square independence test significant at 0.001 level.
-------
TABLE 27. PERCENT DISTRIBUTION3 OF OCCUPATION13 OF QUESTIONNAIRE SURVEY POPULATION
BY DISTANCE OF RESIDENCE FROM PLANTC
Distance of
residence
from plant
0.0-O.G km
0.8-1.2 km
1.2-1.6 km
Total
Occupational Class
Professional ,
technical
20.8
23.8
18.8
21.1
Managers,
adminis-
trators
27.4
28.7
29.5
28.5
Clerical
24.0
27.1
30.4
27.1
Crafts-
men
11.4
6.4
8.1
8.6
Opera-
tives
6,8
5.3
3.8
5.3
Transport
equipment
operatives
2.6
2.1
2.9
2.5
Service
workers
5.4
5.9
6.0
5.7
Don ' t know,
no answer
1.6
0.7
0.5
1.0
Total
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
en
en
^Based on 1,689 persons age 19 or older, employed full-time or part-time on date of interview.
^Based upon 1970 Bureau of the Census Occupational Classification System.
"Chi-square independence test significant at 0.05 level.
-------
The analyses of the general characteristics of the subsets of the
health questionnaire survey population according to location of residence in
the study area have shown that there are minor significant differences in
these subsets. Age, race, family size, length of residence, and occupation
were significantly different, whereas sex, income, and home air conditioning
were not. The differences, although minor, will be incorporated into later
interpretation of the health data,
Prevalence of Chronic Conditions in the Survey Population
The concern about chronic conditions in the study population was
two-fold: first, a number of chronic conditions have been associated with
metals, gases, or infectious agents that are present in the environment; and
second, individuals with chronic illness may be at a. higher risk to acute
infectious diseases than those without such conditions, TABLE 28 lists the
chronic conditions specifically inquired about in the questionnaire survey
and the corresponding number of conditions per 100 persons in the
residential areas. For the 2,378 respondents, 2,006 chronic conditions were
reported. The rates for respiratory conditions (26,6 per 100),
cardiovascular conditions C20.4 per 100), gastrointestinal conditions (21.1
per 100? and other chronic conditions C28.0 per 100) combined for an overall
prevalence of 96,6 conditions per 100 persons interviewed. It was not
possible to assess these rates because they represent self-reported
conditions experienced in the life-time of the survey participants;
comparable data are not reported in the literature.
No association was found (one-way analysis-of-variance, p> 0.05)
between the prevalence of chronic respiratory, chronic cardiovascular, or
all chronic conditions and distance of residence from the plant. However, a
significant difference (one-way analysis-of-variance, p < 0,01,- followed by
Duncan multiple range test) was observed between the prevalence of chronic
gastrointestinal conditions in the 0.0 to 0.8-km and 1.2 to 1.6-km residence
groups; persons living furthest from the plant had more gastrointestinal
conditions than those living nearest the plant site. As shown in TABLE 22,
the 1,2 to 1,6-kn?. residence area had a higher percentage of persons over 59
years old (26,1 percent! than the other two residence areas (14.3 and 19.7
percentJ. This may be a possible explanation for the above observation.
Acute Illnesses Reported for Year Prior to Interview
TABLE 29 contains a summary of the rate of acute illnesses per 1,000
person-days for the year prior to the onset of the study. The average rate
of 1,64 illnesses per 1,000 person-days was likely an underreporting since
recall of short-term illness is probably unreliable, particularly if one
family member responds for other family members. This was borne-out by
several surveys over the past few decades (93) indicating that the average
experience was 2.5 to 4.4 illnesses per 1,000 person-days,
One-way analyses-of-variance were performed for each type of illness as
well as total illnesses to test for significant differences in average
number of illnesses per 1,000 person-days between the three residential
groups. No significant difference (p > 0.05) between groups was found for
67
-------
TABLE 28. AVERAGE NUMBER OF REPORTED CHRONIC CONDITIONS PER 100
PERSONS BY DISTANCE FROM PLANT
Type of chronic condition
Respiratory conditions
Allergies
Chronic bronchitis
Emphysema
Asthma
Tumor/cancer
Other
Cardiovascular conditions
High blood pressure
Stroke
Heart attack
Angina
Other
Gastrointestinal conditions
Stomach/ihtest. ulcer
Colon ulcer
Diverticulosis
Gall bladder
Tumor/cancer
Other
Other cancers
Arthritis
Infectious hepatitis
Diabetes
Anemia
Other chronic conditions
Total
Distance of residence from plant
0.0-0.8 km
25.3
15.9
4.5
1.1
2.2
0.3
1.2
18.4
10.9
1.2
2.7
1.5
2.1
17.0
3.5
3.9
1.5
4.3
1.5
2.2
2.1
9.9
1.0
4.4
3.7
6.6
76.5
0.8-1.2 km
29.2
19.6
3.7
1.4
3.7
0.3
0.6
21.2
12.4
0.5
2.5
2.6
3.2
21.6
5.7
2.4
2.0
5.7
2.1
3.7
2.6
9.6
1.2
5.1
2.7
6.1
87.2
1.2-1.6 km
25.3
16.8
2.6
0.9
3.2
0.3
1.5
21.9
14.7
0.4
2.8
1.2
2.7
25. 3a
5.3
4.0
2.6
7.6
2.0
3.8
3.6
11.5
1.4
3.2
4.1
5.9
90.3
Total
26.6
17.4
3.6
1.1
3.0
0.3
1.1
20.4
12.6
0.7
2.7
1.8
2.6
21.1
4.8
3.4
2.0
5.8
1.9
3.2
2.7
10.3
1.2
4.2
3.4
6.2
84.3
Significantly greater (one-way analysis-of-variance test, p < 0.05,
in conjunction with Duncan multiple range test) than that for
0.0-0.8 km residence group.
68
-------
TABLE 29. AVERAGE NUMBER OF GENERAL TYPES OF ACUTE ILLNESSES PER 1,000 PERSON-DAYS
DURING TWELVE MONTHS PRIOR TO SURVEY BY DISTANCE FROM PLANT
en
VD
Distance of
residence
from plant
0.0 - 0.8 km
0.8 - 1.2 km
1.2 - 1.6 km
Total
Type of acute illness
Respiratory
O.S6
0.90
0.93
0.93
Gastro-
intestinal
0.30
0.22
0.38
0.30
Eye/ear
0.19
0.11
0.14
0.16
Skin
0.25
0.19
0.27
0.25
Total
1.70
1.48
1.75
1.64
-------
respiratory, eye/ear, skin, or total acute illnesses. However, a
significant difference (p < 0,05} in the average number of acute
gastrointestinal illnesses per 1,000 person-days between the three
residential groups was observed. A Duncan multiple range test indicated
that the mean gastrointestinal illness rate for people residing 1,2 to
1,6 km from the plant was significantly greater than that for those residing
0,8 to 1,2 km from the plant,
HEALTH WATCH
Demographic Comparisons
Questionnaire-Only Households and Health Watch Participants
Of the 807 households that participated in the questionnaire Health
Watch to determine the incidence of health problems prospectively over an
8-month period. The remaining 517 households (1*509 individuals) were
designated as "questionnaire-only" households, A demographic comparison of
these two subsamples was made to determine whether the Health Watch
participants adequately represented the entire questionnaire population
(n = 807 households! and thus would be representative of the general
population residing in the study area. The age, sex, race, family size, and
income distributions for these two subsamples are presented in TABLES 30
through 34, Chi-square tests were performed and means and medians are
included where appropriate. The demographic distributions were found to be
similar Cp > 0.10} for the two subsamples.
Health Watch Refusals and Their Replacements
During recruitment of households for the Health Watch, 61 households
(162 individuals) refused to participate in the study. In order to maintain
the original sample size, the refusals were replaced with 54 alternate
volunteer households (163 individuals), A demographic comparison of these
two subsamples was performed to determine the differences between the
refusals and their replacements.
The age, sex, race, family size, and income distributions for the
Health Watch refusals and replacements are also presented in TABLES 30
through 34, No significant differences (p > 0.1) were found between the
demographic distributions for the two subsamples when chi-square analyses
were performed,
Health Watch Drop-outs and Those Completing the Health Watch
Of the 290 households that participated in the Health Watch, 44
(15 percent); dropped out during the course of the study, (Details of study
attrition are in the METHODS section,} The 246 families completing the
Health Watch included 724 individuals; the 44 drop-out families consisted of
145 individuals. The demographic characteristics of the drop-outs and those
who completed the Health Watch are presented in TABLES 30 through 34, The
distributions of age, sex, race, family size, and income were found to be
the same (p > 0.1} using chi-square tests. Forty-three (17 percent) of the
respondents from the households completing the study refused to divulge or
did not know the household income, and this applied to 11 (25 percent) of
the drop-out households,
70
-------
TABLE 30. STUDY POPULATION BY AGE AND LEVEL OF PARTICIPATION
Level of
participation
Questionnaire
only
Health Watch
participants
Sub total
Health Watch
refusals
Health Watch
replacements
Subtotal
Dropped out of
Health Watch
Completed Health
Watch
Subtotal
Age groups, years
<6
No.
61
32
93
4
1
5
2
30
32
%a
4.0
3.7
3.9
2.5
0.6
1.5
1.4
4.1
3.7
6-18
No.
259
162
421
25
27
52
23
139
162
%
17.2
18.6
17.7
15.4
16.6
16.0
15.9
19.2
18.6
19-59
No.
865
473
1,338
86
92
178
79
394
473
%
57.3
54.5
56.3
53.1
56.4
54.8
54.5
54.4
54.4
>59
No.
318
202
520
47
43
90
41
161
202
%
21.1
23.3
21.9
29.0
26.4
27.7
28.3
22.2
23.2
Unknown
No.
6
0
6
-
-
-
-
"
%
0.4
-
0.3
-
-
-
-
~"
Total
1,509
869
2,378
162
163
325
145
724
869
Mean
age,
years
40.0
39.7
39.8
44.3
42.8
43.6
41.9
39.2
39.7
Row percents.
-------
TABLE 31. STUDY POPULATION BY SEX AND LEVEL OF PARTICIPATION
Level of participation
Questionnaire only
Health Watch participants
Subtotal
Health Watch refusals
Health Watch replacements
Subtotal
Dropped out of Health Watch
Completed Health Watch
Subtotal
Sex
Male
No.
719
411
1,130
76
78
154
66
345
411
%a
47.7
47.3
47.5
46.9
47.9
47.4
45.5
47.6
47.3
Female
No.
790
458
1,248
86
85
171
79
379
458
%
52.4
52.8
52.5
53.1
52.1
52.6
54.5
52.4
52.7
Total
1,509
869
2,378
162
163
325
145
724
869
to
Row percents.
-------
TABLE 32. STUDY HOUSEHOLDS BY RACE AND LEVEL OF PARTICIPATION
Level of participation
Questionnaire only
Health Watch households
Subtotal
Health Watch refusals
Health Watch replacements
Subtotal
Dropped out of Health Watch
Completed Health Watch
Subtotal
Race
White
No.
485
27C
755
59
52
111
42
228
270
%
93.8
93.1
93.6
96.7
96.3
96.5
95.5
92.7
93.1
Black
No.
7
2
9
1
1
2
0
2
2
%
1.4
0.7
1.1
1.6
Io9
1.7
0.8
0.7
Oriental
No,
12
8
20
0
1
1
1
7
8
%
2.3
2.8
2.5
_
1.9
0.8
2.3
2.9
2.8
Spanish
No. %
4 0.8
3 1.0
7 0.9
C
0
0
1 2.3
2 0.8
3 1.0
Other
No.
9
7
16
1
0
1
0
7
7
%
1.7
2.4
2.0
1.6
-
0.8
2.9
2.4
no. of
households
517
290
807
61
54
115
44
246
290
a Determined by observed race of household respondent.
Row percents.
-------
TABLE 33. STUDY HOUSEHOLDS BY FAMILY SIZE AND-LEVEL OF PARTICIPATION
Level of
participation
Questionnaire
only
Health Watch
households
Subtotal
Health Watch
refusals
Health Watch
replacements
Subtotal
Dropped .out of
Health Watch
Completed
Health Watch
Subtotal
Family size (no. of members in household)
1
No.
51
28
79
6
4
10
6
22
28
%d
9.9
9.7
9.8
9.8
7.4
8.7
13.6
8.9
9.7
2
No.
183
107
290
28
20
48
19
88
107
%
35.4
36.9
35.9
45.9
37.0
41.7
43.2
35.8
36.9
3
No.
117
56
173
13
13
26
10
46
56
%
22.6
19.3
21.4
21.3
24.1
22.6
22.7
18.7
19.3
4
No.
109
62
171
9
10
19
6
56
62
%
21.1
21.4
21.2
14.8
18.5
16.5
13.6
22.8
21.4
5
No.
43
21
64
5
4
9
2
19
21
%
8.3
7.2
7.9
8.2
7.4
7.8
4.6
7.7
7.2
6
No.
11
10
21
0
2
2
0
10
10
%
2.1
3.5
2.6
3.7
1.7
4.1
3.4
7
NO.
1
3
4
0
0
0
1
2
3
%
0.2
1.0
0.5
2.3
0.8
i.O
8
No.
1
2
3
0
1
1
0
2
2
%
0.2
0.7
0.4
1.9
0.9
0.8
0.7
Q
No.
1
1
2
0
0
0
0
1
1
%
0.2
0.3
0.3
0.4
0.3
Total
no. of
house-
holds
517
290
807
61
54
115
44
246
290
Mean
family
size
2.92
3.00
2.95
2.66
3.02
2.83
2.61
3.07
3.00
Row percents.
-------
TABLE 34. STUDY HOUSEHOLDS BY HOUSEHOLD INCOME AND LEVEL OP PARTICIPATION
Level of
participation
Questionnaire
only
Health Watch
households
Subtotal
Health Watch
refusals
Health Watch
replacements
Subtotal
Dropped out of
Health Watch
Completed
Health Watch
Subtotal
Household Income
<$3,000
No. %u
B
11 2.1
3 1.0
14 1.7
1 1.6
1 1.9
2 1.7
0
3 1.2
3 1.0
$3,000-
6,999
No.
11
4
15
3
0
3
1
3
4
%
2.1
1.4
1.9
4.9
2.6
2.3
1.2
1.4
$7,000-
9,999
No.
19
17
36
4
4
8
4
13
17
%
3.7
5.9
4.5
6.6
7.4
7.0
9.1
6.4
5.9
$10,000-
14 999
No.
56
29
85
9
3
12
8
21
29
%
10.8
10.0
10.5
14.8
5.6
10.4
18.2
8.5
10.0
$15,000-
24 , 999
No.
152
79
231
11
15
26
9
70
79
%
29.4
27.2
28.6
18.0
27.8
22.6
20.5
28.5
27.2
£$25
No.
163
104
267
19
16
35
11
93
104
000
%
31.5
35.9
33.1
31.1
29.6
30.4
25.0
37.8
35.9
Unknown
No.
32
15
47
3
2
5
4
11
15
%
6.2
5.2
5.8
4.9
3.7
4.3
9.1
4.5
5.2
R*f
No.
73
39
112
11
13
24
7
32
39
LtSfid
%
14.1
13.4
13.9
18.0
24.1
20.9
15.9
13.0
13.4
Total
no. of
house-
holds
517
290
807
61
54
115
44
246
290
Median
income
($)
22,171
23,200
22,532
21,364
23,000
21,923
19,444
23,857
23,228
Ul
Respondent did not know household income.
Respondent refused to answer income question.
Row percents.
-------
Summary-"-- .
The above three demographic comparisons of study population subsamples
permit the following conclusions;
IX Health Watch participants were representative of the population
residing in the study area.
2) Health Watch refusals were demographically similar to their
replacements.
31 Health Watch families dropping out of the Health Watch were
demographically similar to those completing the study.
Health Diary Data
The distribution of the types and number of illnesses reported and of
the person-days observed during the 17 biweekly periods of the study are
shown in TABLE 35. If all 869 persons who participated at any time in the
study had participated for the full time, then 12,166 person-days of
observation would have been expected for each biweekly period. At the
beginning of the study (April 3), only 28.7 percent of the expected
observations were made because family recruitment was still in progress.
The maximal person-days observed was in the May 15-28 period when 86.3
percent of the expected was seen. Further attrition occurred, primarily in
the next month. Variations in person-days observed during all periods were
due to vacations and other short-term absences. Overall, 74.0 percent of
the expected observations were made.
Because of these variations, illness rates were expressed as
follows:
number of illnesses , nnn ... . . ___
x 1,000 = illness rate per 1,000 person-days
number of person-days observed
Thus, the total number of 1,572 illnesses reported during 153,026
person-days observed equaled a rate of 10.27 illnesses, per 1,000 person-days
as shown in TABLE 36. in general, these illness rates were consistent with
the Health Interview Survey (HISl for 1975-1976 reported by the National
Center for Health statistics CNCHS) C93?, The rates shown in TABLE 36 were
nearly 1,7 times higher than those reported by NCHS. This study and the HIS
were not conducted in the same way and cannot be directly compared. It was
possible that the Health Watch participants were more health conscious than
the general population, because there was some degree of self-selection on
the^part of the Health Watch families even though they were demographically
similar to a random sample of the study area population. The outcome of a
self-selected, health conscious group would tend to result in over-reporting
of illness. It is also emphasized that illness is defined here as any
deviation from an expected healthy state, whereas NCHS defined illness as a
condition limiting normal activity; consequently, the Health Watch was a
highly sensitive measure of illness but not as specific or valid as the HIS.
76
-------
TABLE 35, DISTRIBUTION OF REPORTED ILLNESSES AND EXPOSURE DAYS
BY DATA-COLLECTION PERIOD
Beginning date
of 2 -week data-
collection
period, 1977
April 3
April 17
May 1
May 15
May 29
June 12
June 26
July 10
July 24
August 7
August 21
September 4
September 18
October 2
October 16
October 30
November 13
Total
(%)
No. of
person-days
of exposure
3,486
5,794
10,062
10,504
10,231
9,858
9,496
9,398
9,162
9,331
9,423
9,604
9,465
9,425
9,166
9,262
9,359
153,026
Respir-
atory
20
40
73
65
49
54
25
37
56
64
61
69
82
108
65
59
91
1,018
(64.8)
No. of
Gastro-
intes-
tinal
9
9
15
21
14
19
10
19
18
11
16
21
14
17
25
16
21
275
(17.5)
illnesses
Eye-ear Sk
2
6
13
14
8
5
5
10
15
6
9
4
8
7
1
2
3
All
in other0
3 5
5 7
2 7
3 5
6 10
2 4
2 3
3 9
3 3
7 9
2 6
6 4
5 5
6 6
4 5
4 2
3 5
Total
39
67
110
108
87
84
45
78
95
97
94
104
114
144
100
83
123
118 66 95 1,572
(7.5) (4.
2) (6.0) (100.0)
. Includes illnesses listed in TABLE 4,
Total number of days all persons participating in Health Watch were
present in the study area during the data-collection period.
° Includes other acute infections, exacerbations of chronic conditions
and new chronic conditions.
77
-------
TABLE 36. ILLNESS RATES BY DATA-COLLECTION PERIOD
oo
Beginning date
of 2-v/eek
data-collection
period, 1977
April 3
April 17
May 1
May 15
May 29
June 12
June 26
July 10
July 24
August 7
August 21
September 4
September 18
October 2
October 16
October 30
November 13
Total
All
illnesses
11.42
11.58
10.93
10.28
8.50
8.52
4.74
8.30
10.37
10.40
9.98
10.83
12.04
15.28
10. SI
8.96
13.14
10.28
Respir-
atory
5.85
6.90
7.26
6.19
4.79
5.48
2.64
3.94
6.11
6.86
6.47
7.19
8.66
11.46
7.09
6.37
9.72
6.66
Gastro-
intes-
tinal
2.64
1.55
1.49
2.00
1.37
1.93
1.05
2.02
1.97
1.18
1.70
2.19
1.48
1.80
2.73
1.73
2.24
1.80
Eye/ ear
0.59
1.04
1.29
1.33
0.78
0.51
0.53
1.06
1.64
0.64
0.96
0.42
0.85
0.75
0.11
0.22
0.32
0.77
Skin
0.88
0.86
0.20
0.29
0.59
0.20
0.21
0.32
0.33
0.75
0.21
0.63
0.53
0.64
0.44
0.43
0.32
0.43
Other
acute
infec-
ions
0.59
0.35
0.10
0.10
0.39
0.10
0.11
0.32
0.11
0.21
0.11
0.11
0.11
0.14
Exac er ba t ion
of chronic
condition
0.88
0.86
0.60
0.19
0.39
0.30
0.11
0.43
0.22
0.54
0.42
0.31
0.42
0.32
0.44
0.22
0.43
0.39
New
chronic
condition
c
0.19
0.20
0.11
0.21
0.21
0.11
0.10
0.32
0.11
0.10
, -__ , no. of illnesses reported
Illnesses per 1,000 person-days = E
* * no. of person-days present
See TABLE 35 for number of illnesses.
No cases reported.
x 1,000
-------
Temporal Variations of Illnesses
Respiratory illness rates were lower in the spring and summer than in
the fall, reaching peak incidence in early October (TABLE 36), This
relatively high occurrence appeared shortly after the beginning of school,
coinciding with the increased exposure of cWdren within the confinement of
school rooms. The overall pattern of incidence of respiratory illnesses
(Figure 61 was in consonance with current knowledge of seasonality of
respiratory illness (931.
Seasonal variation was not observed for gastrointestinal illnesses,
eye/ear illnesses, skin disease, other acute problems, exacerbation of
chronic conditions, or new chronic conditions. Although seasonal variations
for these illnesses was not expected, the rates for these illnesses were low
(only gastrointestinal illness rates consistently exceeded one per 1,000
person-daysi and temporal variations would have been an unlikely
observation.
Illness Rates and Demographic Characteristics
Illness rates were examined with respect to five demographic variables;
age, sex, race, family size, and length of residence in the study area in
order to determine which of these characteristics might be associated with
risk of illness.
AgeRates of all reported illnesses (TABLE 37) were highest in
children under 14 years old, and the rate tended to decrease as age
increased. The total illness rate for 3 to 5 year old children was
significantly different (one-way analysis-of-variance, p < 0.01, in
conjunction with Duncan multiple range test) from the total illness rate for
the 14 to 18, 19 to 59, and over 59 year old groups.
Over two-thirds (68,0 percent) of all illnesses in all age groups were
of respiratory nature. Gastrointestinal conditions were more common in the
age groups 0 through 18 years than in older age groups. The other illness
types were less age related and relatively infrequent in occurrence.
Sex>As seen in TABLE 38, the incidence rate of all illnesses reported
for females (11.8 per 1,000 person-days) was significantly greater (t-test,
p <: 0.01) than that reported for males (8.6 per 1,000 person-days). A
similar sex differential in illness was also observed by NCHS. It has also
been reported (941 that women seek more health care, excluding visits
pertaining to childbearing, than males. It was possible that the mother in
a household was the Health Watch diary keeper and tabulated her own
illnesses more completely than she did for other family members. It was
also possible that women were in the home/community environment more than
the male members of the household and were exposed to community airborne
pollutants more consistently. The effect of air conditioning in the home,
actual time spent at home and in the study area are confounding variables
that cannot be addressed from the information available in the study.
79
-------
00
o
0)
k_
3
CO
o
Q.
X
CO
CO
CO
C CO
= >
03
ff °
cc w
to 0
£ o
= o
o
Q)
Q.
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Respiratory
Illnesses
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
01 2 34 56 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov.
Data-Collection Period
Figure 6. Seasonality of illness rates.
-------
TABLE 37. ILLNESS RATES3 BY AGE13AND TYPE OF ILLNESS
Type of illness
Acute
Respiratory
Gas tro in t e s t ina 1
Eye/ear
Skin
Other acute infections
Chronic
Exacerbation of
chronic condition
New chronic condition
Total (all illnesses)
No. of people in age category
Age^jrouj
0-2
13.99°
3.50
2.33
U
19.83
9
3-5
16.09
3.97
0.88
0.44
0.22
0.22
21.82e
23
6-13
10.63
2.38
0.89
0.59
0.15
14.65
76
os, years
14-18
7.63
2.50
0.66
0.46
0.13
0.13
11.50
86
19-59
6.02
1.71
0.59
0.36
0.10
0.24
0.07
9.09
473
>59
4.61
1.10
1.13
0.55
0.23
1.13
0.17
8.91
202
Total
(all ages)
6.66
1.80
0.77
0.43
0.14
0.39
0.10
10.27
869
00
See footnote "a" in TABLE 36.
Age at beginning of Health Watch.
See TABLE 35 for number of illnesses.
No cases reported in this category.
Significantly different (p < 0.01) from total illness rates for age groups 14-18, 19-59, and
>59 years.
-------
TABLE 38. ILLNESS RATES BY SEX AND TYPE OF ILLNESS
Type of illness
Acute
Respiratory
Gastrointestinal
Eye/ear
Skin
Other acute infections
Chronic
Exacerbation of chronic
condition
New chronic condition
Total (all illnesses)
No, of people in
sex category
Sex
Male
5,67b
1,48
0..56
0,41
0.04
0,36
0.08
8.61
411
Female
7.55
2,09
0.96
0.45
0.23
0,41
0.11
11.80C
458
Total
Cboth sexes)
6,66
1,80
0.77
0,43
0.14
0,39
0,10
10.28
869
* See footnote "a" in TABLE 36,
D
See TABLE 35 for number of illnesses.
Significantly (p < 0.01) greater than total illness rate
for males.
RaceIllness rates by race are shown in TABLE 39. Since 92.7 percent
of the families in the study were white, comparisons of illness rates
according to ethnicity were not undertaken.
Family siaeIt has been generally found that the incidence of
infectious diseases was proportional to family size (95). There was no
apparent difference in illness rates in families ranging in size from one
through nine members (.TABLE 40) in this study. These illness rates however
included numerous non-infectious, acute conditions as well as chronic
conditions, which may mask the effect of family size on communicable
illnesses,
Length of residenceIt was also hypothesized that persons living in
the study area for a short time might experience more illness because they
are being exposed for the first time to sewage aerosols in the environment,
whereas persons who have been exposed for longer periods of time were
infected and are subsequently immune to these environmental agents. Not all
reported illnesses are infectious in nature, and, as will be shown later,
only about one of six reported illnesses in children can be associated with
82
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TABLE 39, ILLNESS RATES'* BY RACE AND TYPE OF ILLNESS
Type of illnessb
Acute
Respiratory
Gastrointestinal
Eye/ear
Skin
Other acute infections
Chronic
Exacerbation of chronic condition
New chronic condition
Total
No. of households in
race category
c
Race
White
6.68
1.89
0,83
0.45
0.14
0,42
0.10
10,51
270
Black
5,76
d
-
--
5,76
2
Oriental
6.20
1.94
8.14
8
Spanish
6.88
1.06
0,53
__
8.47
3
Other
6.74
0.42
0.42
0.21
0.21
0.21
8.21
7
Total
6.66
1.80
0.77
0.43
0.14
0.39
0.10
10.28
290
CD
* See footnote "a" in TABLE 36.
See TABLE 35 for number of illnesses.
Q
Determined by observed race of household respondent.
No cases reported.
-------
TABLE 40. ILLNESS RATES BY FAMILY SIZE AND TYPE OF ILLNESS
Type of illness
Acute
Respiratory
Gastrointestinal
Eye/ear
Skin
Other acute
infections
Chronic
Exacerbation of
chronic condition
New chronic
condition
Total (all ill-
nesses)
No. of families
in size category
Family size (no. of members in household)
1
6.04b
1.46
1.04
0.42
2.S2
LI. 87
28
2
6.49
1.46
0.93
0.58
0.17
0.82
0.17
10.61
107
3
4.98
1.59
0.94
0.29
0.11
0.14
8.04
56
4
7.72
2.84
0.65
0.60
0.16
0.22
0.13
12.33
62
5
7.72
1.09
0.52
0.16
0.10
0.10
9.60
21
6
5.54
1.51
0.76
0.42
0.08
0.08
8.39
10
7
6.85
0.36
c
7.21
3
8
4.94
0.62
0.31
0.62
0.31
6.80
2
9
10.28
0.94
1.87
13.08
1
Total (all
family sizes)
6.66
1.80
0.77
0.43
0.14
0.39
0.10
10.28
290
oo
b
See footnote
in TABLE 36.
See TABLE 35 for number of illnesses.
No cases reported in this category.
-------
an infectious agent. Although, no association between length of residence
and illness rate is readily apparent (.TABLE 411, the inverse relationship of
illness rate and length of residence may be real. Future studies should
document this relationship, with laboratory data to confirm the incidence of
infectious disease.
Microbiological Analyses of Specimens Collected
Stool specimens
Eighty Health Watch participants provided stool specimens, as shown
in TABLE 9, representing 44,0 percent of the expected number of providers.
They submitted 541 stool specimens (17,7 percent of the total number of
stool specimens expected), indicating that not even the 80 participants
provided all the specimens expected. The purpose of requesting the stool
specimens was multifold; to determine the frequency of microbiologically-
confirmed self-reported illnesses; to establish the incidence of
asymptomatic infections; and, particularly for the enteric viruses, to
improve the chance of isolating certain viruses because virus shedding in
the gastrointestinal tract is of longer duration (about one month) compared
to shedding for a few days from oropharyngeal tissue (i,e0f throat swabs).
Laboratory testing for bacteria included a searcn for many unusual
isolates but not all possible pathogens such as enterotoxic Escherichia
coli. The tissue culture systems used in the laboratory for virus isolation
(APPENDIX A) were most sensitive for recovering adeno-, myxo- and
enteroviruses and therefore excluded information on reoviruses and other
entero-like agents.
As shown in TABLE 42, two Salmonella spp, were recovered from the 80
persons tested for eight months. One isolate was from a 5-year-old girl;
the other was from an adult female. Neither had reported clinical illness.
This was equivalent to an incidence rate of 3,75 cases per 100 person-years,
which, compared to 12 cases per 100,000 person-years reported in the United
States by the Center for Disease Control (96) was more than expected. The
rate of permanent, asymptomatic carriers of salmonella in the United States
is believed to be 0,2 to 5.0 per 100 of the normal population. Whether
these two cases were carriers, or not, was not established.
Viruses isolated from the 541 stool specimens were members of three
enterovirus groups. No adenoviruses or other cytopathic agents were
recovered that could have been detected in the cell culture systems used
(.TABLE 421, Seven polioviruses were recovered, and all of these were from
young children with a recent history of poliovirus immunization. One
Coxsackievirus B3 was isolated :rom a child. The remaining 13 virus
isolates were Echoviruses types 3, 6, 12, 22, and 25, The incidence of
Echovirus infection was highest in the 3 through 6-year-old groups but
occurred in the other age groups to 13 years old. Only one Echovirus
infection occurred (Echovirus 121 in an adult. These coxsackie virus
and Echovirus typeL recovered from this study group are commonly associated
with respiratory-enteric illness or with diarrheal disease but often are
asymptomatic infections.
85
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TABLE 41. ILLNESS RATES BY LENGTH OF RESIDENCE AT PRESENT ADDRESS
Type of illness
Acute
Respiratory
Gastrointestinal
Eye/ear
Skin
Other acute infections
Chronic
Exacerbation of
chronic condition
New chronic condition
Total (all illnesses)
No. of persons in
residence category
Length of residence, years
<1
7.77
1.80
0.57
1.04
0.10
11.27
56
1-5
8.11
2.61
1.07
0.70
0.09
0.64
0.09
13.30
206
6-10
6.57
1.14
0.57
0.18
0.07
0.04
0.14
8.72
159
11-20
5.40
1.80
0.54
0.48
0.16
0.30
0.10
8.79
289
21-30
6.91
1.56
1.16
0.25
0.69
0.11
10.68
145
31-40
4.47
c
0.56
0.56
5.59
11
>40
4.98
1.66
3.32
9.97
2
Total
6.65
1.80
0.77
0.43
0.14
0.39
0.10
10.27
868d
03
(Tl
See footnote "a" in TABLE 36.
See TABLE 35 for number of illnesses.
No cases reported in this category.
Length of residence unknown for one person.
-------
TABLE 42. FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF ORGANISMS ISOLATED
FROM STOOL SPECIMENS21 BY AGE OF PARTICIPANT
Isolates
Stool specimens
1) No. of people asked
to give specimens
2) No. people who gave
at least one
3) No. specimens
obtained
Bacterial isolates0
1 ) Salmonella
Viral isolates
1) Polio 1
2) Polio 3
3) Coxsackie B3
4) Echo 3
5) Echo 6
6) Echo 12
7) Echo 22
8) Echo 25
Total viral
Total stool0 isolates
Age groups, years
0-2
8
6
43
0
3
3
0
0
0
0
1
0
7
7
3-4 .
14
10
73
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
1
3
3
5-6
20
10
72
1
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
6
7
7-12
69
23
154
0
0
1
0
3
0
0
0
0
4
4
13-18
24
8
46
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
19-59
45
23
153
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
2
Total
180
80
541
2
3
4
1
4
2
3
2
2
21
23
a Specimens were requested on a biweekly basis of children 12 years of
age and under and of one adult in each family thereof. Specimens were
obtained from May, 1977 through November, 1977.
Age at beginning of Health Watch.
° For cases of multiple consecutive isolations of a single type of
organism for one person, only the first isolation was tabulated.
87
-------
An interpretation of the incidence of these laboratory-confirmed
infections based on examination of stool specimens is, at best, crude. The
incidence of Salmonella spp, in stool specimens has been considered above,
and the poliovirus isolates were vaccine-related. The recovery of 14
coxsackie viruses and Echoviruses from 80 persons submitting 541 specimens
over an 8-month period yields a. crude rate of 17,5 enterovirus isolations
per 100 persons per 8 months. The. Center for Disease Control publishes
frequencies of enterovirus infections for the United states, but these are
based on isolations from severely ill, sometimes hospitalized populations.
Two studies conducted by Honig et al. (97) and Gelfand et al. (98)
showed that the percentage of healthy children shedding enteroviruses ranged
from 4.6 to 14.9 percent. The Health Watch study period covered those
seasons of the year in which enterovirus infection rates are expected to be
highest, accounting for the rate found here being in the upper limits of the
expected rate,
Throat Specimens
Of the 111 children 12 years old and under in families recruited into
the Health, Watch, 81 submitted 757 throat specimens for an average of 9.3
specimens per child during the study (TABLE 43). Theoretically, 17
specimens could have been collected from each participating child; actually,
nearly 5-5 percent of the expected number of throat specimens were collected.
Compared with the 17,7 percent of expected stool specimens collected, it is
apparent that providing throat swabs was more acceptable than submitting
fecal samples. It was also noted that the age distribution of the 81
children providing throat specimens was similar to that of the original 111
children in the recruited families,
A total of 177 bacterial and viral isolates was made from the 757
throat specimens received. On the average, 4.5 bacterial isolates were
recovered from each child in the 0 to 2 year age group, 2,7 per child in the
3 to 4 year age group, and 1,8 in the 5 to 12 age group. A similar decrease
in isolation with increasing age was also possible for viral infections but
the numbers were too small to be significant.
Of the 20 different bacterial types isolated, Klebsiella pneumoniae,
Staphylococcus aureus, and Enterobacter spp. were the most frequently
recovered in the 0 to 2 and 3 to 4 year age groups. S_,_ aureus was the most
frequent isolate in the 5 to 12 year old group, followed by Beta-hemolytic
streptococci. The number of different bacterial genera isolated was the
smallest in the youngest age group and more different genera were recovered
with increasing age.
Only four virus isolates were recovered: three Echovirus 6 were
isolated in the 3 to 12 year olds, and one Adenovirus 2 in the 5 to 12 year
old group. No viral isolates were made in children 2 years old or younger.
Hemadsorption tests were done on all cell cultures inoculated with these
specimens and none were positive, suggesting that influenza, para-influenza,
88
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TABLE 43. FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF ORGANISMS ISOLATED FROM
THROAT SPECIMEN'S3 BY AGE OF PARTICIPANT
Isolates
Throat specimens
1) No. people asked
to give specimens
2) No. people who gave at
least one
3) No. specimens received
Bacterial isolates
1) Stsphylococcus aureus
2) B-Streptococcus, Group A
3) ^-Streptococcus,
not A or D
4) Salmonella enteritidis
(Newport)
5) Klebsiella ozaenae
6) Klebsiella pneumonias
7) Escherichia coli
8) Enterobacter aerogenes
9) Enterobacter aggloirerar.s
10) Enterobacter clcacae
11) Enterobacter hafnise
12) Serratia liquefaciens
13) Eerratia morcescens
14 ) Serratia rv.bidaea
15) Aerotnonas hydrophilia
16) Citrobacter diver sus
17 ) Citrobacter f reundii
18) Pseudomonas spp.
19) CDC, Group IV, C-2
20) CDC, Group V, E-l
Total bacterial
Viral isolates
1) Adenovirus 2
2) Echovirus 6
Total viral
Total throat isolates
Age groups , years
0-?
No.
Rate0
8
6
48
6 100.0
0 0.0
0 0.0
0 0.0
2 33.3
9 150.0
2 33.3
0 0.0
1 16.7
4 66.7
0 0.0
0 0.0
0 0.0
0 0.0
0 0.0
0 0.0
2 33.3
0 0.0
0 0.0
1 16.7
27
0
0
0
,,.
No.
14
11
108
8
1
2
1
0
2
1
1
2
6
0
1
0
0
2
1
0
1
0
0
29
0
2
2
31
-4
Rate
72.7
9.1
18.2
9.1
0.0
18.2
9.1
9.1
18.2
54.5
0.0
9.1
0.0
0.0
18.2
9.1
0.0
9.1
0.0
0.0
5-1
No.
89
64
601
56
14
17
0
0
4
5
0
6
5
1
3
1
1
1
0
0
2
1
0
117
1
1
2
119
?
Rate
87.4
22.4
26.5
0.0
0.0
6.2
7.8
0.0
9.4
7.8
1.6
4.7
1.6
1.6
1.6
0.0
0.0
3.1
1.6
0.0
Total
No.
Ill
81
757
70
15
19
1
2
15
8
1
9
15
1
4
1
1
3
1
2
3
1
1
173
1
3
4
3.77
Rate
86.4
16.5
23.5
1.2
2.5
18.5
9.9
1.2
11.1
18.5
1.2
4.9
1.2
1.2
3.7
1.2
2.5
3.7
1.2
1.2
Specimens were requested on a biweekly basis from children 12 years
of age and under. Specimens were- obtained from May, 1977 through
December, 1977.
Age at beginning of Health Watch.
, Number of isolates per 100 persons.
For cases of multiple consecutive isolations of a single type of
organism for one person, only the first isolation was tabulated.
89
-------
measles, or mumps virus infections had not occurred in this population.
The spectrum of the bacterial isolates listed in TABLE 43 deserves
brief comment but does not completely lend itself to a statement of
expectation. The Beta-hemolytic streptococci incidence rates observed here
were as expected,- these are rare infections in infants and pre-school age
children, reaching rates of 10 to 25 percent in a school-age population (9).
Man is the main reservoir, and environmental sources are of little
importance, Staphylococcus aureus is a potential pathogen for man since it
is found in both respiratory secretions and feces and frequently in sewage.
Approximately 20 percent of children are infected during any one period of
time, and the carrier rate is approximately 30 percent in most normal
populations. The remainder of the spectrum can be generally classified as
enterobacteria: most are considered normal flora of the gastrointestinal
tract of man and have limited pathogenic ability there. All would be
expected in sewage influents but some are also free-living in soil and
water, Salmonella enteritidis is a definite pathogen for man causing
paratyphoid fever, but a minimum of 100,000 organisms is needed to cause
overt disease; it is not free-living and is found in sewage. The 17
isolates of Klebsiella pneumoniae and ozaenae from 81 children were more
than expected. Although, these organisms can be part of the normal flora of
the intestinal tract, recovery from the oropharynx of a general population
is usually sporadic and rare (.99)., Randall and Ledbetter 07} suggested that
the capsulatec? species of Klebsiella, which both of these species are, was
able to survive in sewage aerosols better than noncapsulated species by
virtue of the capsule being protective. The Serratia spp. recovered are
widespread in nature and are usually associated with short-term respiratory
conditions. Although they can be found in sewage, there are other
environmental sources of the organism (i-e«r soil). Escherichia coli
becomes a prominent member of the intestinal flora in the first few days of
life and is frequently present in the first fev, years of life, which was the
general observation here. The Aeromononas, Citrobacter, and Pseudomonas
spp. are free-living agents in soil, water, and sewage and have little, or
only opportunistic, pathogenicity for man. An overall incidence rate of
about 4 percent for each of these three genera from throat swabs in a
general population was not unexpected although comparative data have not
been found in the literature. The Enterobacter spp, are free-livinq and are
infrequent residents of the intestinal or respiratory tract. The recovery
of five separate isolates from the six children in the 0 to 2 year age group
was more than expected, Hoeprich (100) states that incidence rates of 21 to
23 percent have been observed. The two isolates referred to as CDC
Groups IV and V were unusual Gram-negative, non-lactose fermenters that have
been previously identified by the Center for Disease Control, but are of
unknown significance and unassociated with human illness.
In summary, 173 separate, non-normal flora, bacterial isolates were
recovered from routine throat swab specimens of 81 children one through 12
years old. In contrast, only two unusual bacterial isolates were identified
in stool specimens from persons 0 through 59 years of age. Virus isolates
were about three times more frequent from stools (excluding the polioviruses
associated with immunization) than from throat specimens. The recovery of
more enteroviruses from stool than from throat specimens was expected
90
-------
because infections of the oropharynx persist for only a few days whereas the
infections continue in the intestinal tract for a month or more (whether or
not there is associated clinical illness) increasing the chance of recovery
when biweekly specimens are obtained. The information derived from this
microbiological survey of throat and stool specimens did not allow a state-
ment of the significance of the findings because of the small number of
participants involved and. of bacteria and viruses recovered. The findings
were of value for descriptive purposes for consideration later when the air
quality data are analysed,
Comparison of Bacterial Isolation and Apparent and Inapparent Illness
Some of the reasons for obtaining specimens from the Health Watch
population were to determine the frequency of laboratory confirmation of
reported illness and to obtain some information on the frequency of
inapparent infections. TABLE 44 summarizes the comparison of isolating
bacteria from throat swabs with the reported occurrence of respiratory
illness. It can be seen that 12,0 percent of all throat specimens were
obtained wlien a respiratory illness was reported. Thus, about one-sixth of
the reported respiratory illnesses could be confirmed by bacterial
isolation. The majority C88,0 percent) of specimens were obtained from
persons without reported illness; about one-fifth were culture positive and
the remainder culture negative. This comparison suggested that one of five
children had an inapparent infection sometime during the study.
TABLE 44. COMPARISON OF THROAT BACTERIAL CULTURE RESULTS WITH
REPORTED RESPIRATORY ILLNESS
Throat bacterial
culture result
Positive
Negative
Total
Reported respiratory illness
Yes
2,l%a
(confirmed
infections )
9.9%
12.0%
No
17.2%
(inapparent
infections 1
70.8%
88.0%
Total
19.3%
87.3%
100. 0%b
? All percents are percent of total throat bacteria cultures.
N = 757 throat bacterial cultures.
Serosurvey of Health Watch Participants
Prevalence of Viral Antibodies
Blood samples were collected only from persons over 6 years old.
As
91
-------
shown in TABLE 45, persons providing samples at the beginning and at the
end of the study Cpaired bloods) were in this analysis to be able to compare
the prevalence of antibody-positive persons with the incidence of persons
developing antibody during the study period.
Of the 869 Health Watch participants, 32 (.3.7 percent), were under 6
years of age; 115 (13.2 percent) gave one blood sample; and 404 (46.5
percent1 gave no blood (TABLE 45). Consequently the remaining 318 (36.6
percent) giving the paired blood are considered here. The age distribution
of the donors and non-donors was significantly different (chi-square test,
p < O.OOli; only 12.6 percent of the donors were 6 to 18 years of age
whereas 26,7 percent of the non-donors were in this age group. Overall, the
mean age of the paired blood donors was significantly higher (p < 0.05) than
that for the non-donors. The sex distributions shown in TABLE 46 were not
significantly different (chi-square test, p > 0.05) between the three
serosurvey participant groups.
The first blood samples of the paired bloods were analyzed for
neutralizing (.type-specific) antibody to three types of polioviruses, five
types of coxsackie viruses B, and four types of Echoviruses (TABLES 47 and
48), Antibody titers in the respective sera obtained at the beginning of
the study were used to determine the rates of previous infections by these
specific viruses and the number of persons susceptible to each of these
agents,
TABLE 47 summarizes the prevalence of antibody data for the coxsackie
viruses and Echoviruses by age groups. The percentage of donors having
antibody for each of the coxsackie viruses B in each age group suggests that
infections with Bl occur in the 14 to 18 year age group. Infections with
types B2, B3, and B4 occur at all ages. Infections with B5 occur in all age
groups and there may have been an epidemic of B5 virus infections a decade
earlier involving school-age children (.6 to 13 years of age). Overall,
there had been more previous infections with B4 and least with Bl viruses.
Approximately one-third of the donors had previous infections with
Echoviruses, Most of the initial infections by Echoviruses 3 and 6 appear
to occur before 6 years of age, whereas Echovirus 9 infections occurred in
all age groups, Echovirus 12 infections occurred primarily in the adult age
groups.
Overall, 38,3 percent of the donors had experience with one or more of
the coxsackie viruses and Echoviruses in the past. Since there is no
vaccine for any of these viruses, these titers are probably due to natural
infection by wild viruses acquired by the fecal-oral route from infected
persons or from the environment, In contrast, the prevalence of antibody to
the three poliovirus strains (TABLE 48). could be due to infections by wild
virus or by immunization. It can also be seen that, on the average, over 38
percent of the donors have antibody to one or more of the polioviruses
regardless of age.
Serological Evidence of the Incidence of Viral infections
Knowing the prevalence of antibody to the nine enteroviruses listed in
TABLE 47, it was possible to identify the susceptibles in the study
92
-------
TABLE 45. AGE DISTRIBUTION OF SEROSURVEY PARTICIPANTS
No. of blood sam-
ples collected
Paired
Single
None
Total
b c
Age groups, years '
6-18
No.
40
14
108
162
%
12.6
12.2
26.7
19.3
19-59
No.
192
72
209
473
%
60.4
62.6
51.7
56.5
> 59
No.
86
29
87
202
%
27.0
25.2
21.5
24.1
Total no.
of persons
318
115
404
837
Mean age ,
years
45. 2d
41.4
38.1
41.3
Thirty-two of the 869 Health Watch participants were under 6 years old,
, and blood samples were not requested of them.
Age at beginning of Health Watch.
Chi-square analysis showed significant difference (p < 0.001) between
age distributions for the three serosurvey participation groups.
Significantly different (analysis-of-variance test, p < 0.05) from
mean age of those who did not provide any blood samples.
TABLE 46. SEX DISTRIBUTION OF SEROSURVEY PARTICIPANTS
No. of blood sam-
ples collected
Paired
Single
None
Total
Sex
Male
No. %
157 49.4
62 53.9
178 44.1
397 47.4
Female
No. %
161 50.6
53 46.1
226 55.9
440 52.6
Total no.
of persons
318
115
404
837a
Thirty-two of the 869 Health Watch participants were under 6 years old,
and blood samples were not requested of them.
93
-------
TABLE 47. PREVALENCE OF ANTIBODY TO NINE COXSACKIEVIRUSES AND ECHOVIRUSES BY AGE
Virus
Coxsackie Bl
Coxsackie B2
Coxsackie B3
Coxsackie B4
Coxsackie B5
Total Coxsackie
Echo 3
Echo 6
Echo 9
Echo 12
Total Echo
Total no. positive
No. of donors
Age groups, years
6-1
No.C
0
3
3
4
5
15
7
7
2
0
16
31
17
3
%c
0.0
17.6
17.6
23.5
29.4
41.2
41.2
11.8
0.0
14-18
No.
5
7
10
12
12
46
8
8
5
1
22
68
25
%
20.0
28.0
40.0
48.0
48.0
32.0
32.0
20.0
4.0
19-59
No.
33
87
92
127
69
408
55
78
60
60
253
661
188
0,
'o
17.5
46.3
48.9
67.5
36.7
29.2
41.5
31.9
31.9
>59
No.
11
47
41
67
17
183
49
49
28
36
162
345
88
%
12.5
53.4
46.6
76.1
19.3
55.7
55.7
31.8
40.9
Total
No.
49
144
146
210
103
652
119
142
95
97
453
1105
318
%
15.4
45.3
45.9
66.0
32.4
37.4
44.6
29.9
30.5
a
b
c
Based on neutralizing antibody assay of first blood samples of paired samples obtained.
Number of blood samples where initial antibody titer was >_ 10.
no. positive for indicated virus
Percent =
no. of sera tested for specific age group.
-------
TABLE 48. PREVALENCE OF ANTIBODY TO THREE POLIOVIRUSES BY AGE
Virus
Polio 1
Polio 2
Polio 3
Total
No. of donors
Age groups, years
£-
No.b
16
16
13
45
17
L3
%C
94.1
94.1
76.5
14-18
No.
24
25
22
71
25
%
96.0
100.0
88.0
19-59
No.
177
178
155
510
188
%
94.1
94.7
82.4
> 59
No.
78
74
68
220
88
%
88.6
84.1
77.3
Total
No.
295
293
258
846
318
%
92.8
92.1
81.1
, Based on neutralizing antibody assay of first blood samples of paired samples obtained.
Number of blood samples where initial antibody titer was > 10.
Percent =
no. positive for indicated virus
no. of sera tested for specific age group.
-------
population. It was necessary to calculate the number of susceptibles for
each virus under consideration, since any one person could be immune to one
virus and susceptible to another virus. The following equations were used
in TABLE 49:
1} no, susceptible + no, immune = total paired blood donors
2} no, susceptible ~ (no, of persons with initial titer <10)
plus
(all other persons with fourfold rise)
The incidence of Coxsackievirus B4 infections was the highest observed,
17.97 per 100 persons, whereas the Bl rate was the lowest, 1,48 per 100
persons. The listing of the number of persons immune and susceptible to the
coxsackieviruses emphasizes that the majority of persons were susceptible to
these agents, except for Coxsackievirus B4,
The infection rates for Echoviruses 3, 6, 9, and 12 were similar to
each other and were generally lower than those observed for the
coxsackieviruses. The number of susceptibles was similar to the number
susceptible to the coxsa.ckieviruses.
The incidence of these viral infections was then examined by age groups
(.TABLE 50-1, Infections by Coxsackieviruses Bl and B2 were not observed in
the 6 through 18 year old group, but occurred in all other age categories.
The incidence of B3 infections was similar in all age groups, whereas B4
infection rates increased remarkably with increasing age to a maximum of
over 30 per 100 persons over 59 years old. Coxsackievirus B5 infections
were relatively more frequent in children and adults than in the over 59
year old group.
Echovirus 3, 6f and 9- infection rates were similar in all age groups;
Echovirus 12 infections were not observed in the 6 through 18 year old group
and the rate increased from about 4 per 100 in the 19 through 59 year old
group to 1C per 100 in the over 59 year old group. With only a few
exceptions, the number of susceptible persons in each age group exceeded the
number immune. The prevalence and incidence data presented here for these
few infectious diseases are of important descriptive nature, and they are
rot intended for statistical interpretation since a hypothesis for these
data alone */as. not the purpose of this portion of the study, Biometric
analyses of these data will be applied when they are considered with the
environmental air quality data,
ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING PROGRAM
Introduction
The environmental monitoring program was designed to answer two
questions; CD What are the exposures of people living in the study area to
air pollutants?; C2) Is the Metropolitan Sanitary District's North Side
96
-------
TABLE 49. INCIDENCE OF VIRAL INFECTIONS AMONG SUSCEPTIBLE BLOOD DONORS
Virus
antigen
Coxsackie Bl
Coxsackie B2
Coxsackie B3
Coxsackie B4
COxsackie B5
Echo 3
Echo 6
Echo 9
Echo 12
No. of persons
immune
48
137
140
190
98
119
140
94
94
No. of persons
susceptible
270
181
178
128
220
199
178
224
224
No. of persons
seroconverting
4
12
15
23
9
7
8
3
10
Incidence of
viral infections
1.48
6.63
8.43
17.97
4.09
3.52
4.49
1.34
4.46
No. of persons with initial antibody titer _> 10 minus no. of persons with fourfold
rise whose initial titer was >10.
No. of persons with initial antibody titer < 10 plus all other persons with fourfold
rise.
All persons with fourfold rise in antibody titer.
Incidence of viral infections
no. of persons seroconverting
no. of persons susceptible
x 100.
-------
TABLE 50. INCIDENCE OF VIRAL INFECTIONS AMONG SUSCEPTIBLE BLOOD DONORS 3Y AGE
Virus
antigen
Coxsackie Bl
Coxsackie E2
Coxsackie B3
Coxsackie B4
Coxsackie B5
Echo 3
Echo 6
Echo 9
Echo 12
Age groups, years
6-18
No. of
immune
a
persons
5
10
12
15
16
15
14
7
1
to. of
SUSC . ,
b
persons
35
30
28
25
24
25
25
23
39
to. of
oersons
seroccn-
verting
0
0
2
1
1
2
1
1
0
Incid.
of viral
infection
0.00
0.00
7.14
4.00
4.17
8.00
4.00
3.03
0.00
19-59
to. of
oiMKune
persons
32
82
89
114
65
55
77
59
58
No. of
susc.
persons
160
110
103
78
127
137
115
133
134
No. of
persons
serocon-
verting
3
9
9
14
7
4
5
1
5
Incid.
of viral
infection
1.87
8.18
8.74
17.95
5.51
2.92
4.35
0.75
3.73
> 59
No. of
immune
persons
11
45
39
60
17
49
48
28
35
No. of
susc.
persons
75
41
47
26
69
37
38
58
51
No. of
persons
serocon-
verting
1
3
4
8
1
1
2
1
5
Incid.
of viral
infection
1.33
7.32
8.51
30.77
1.45
2.70
5.26
1.72
9.80
00
No. of persons with initial antibody titer ^_ 10 minus no. of persons with fourfold rise whose initial titer
was > 10.
No. of persons with initial antibody titer < 10 plus all other persons with fourfold rise.
All persons with fourfold rise in antibody titer.
d , , *.-,**_ no. of persons seroconverting ,...
incidence of viral infections = no. of persons susceptible9 * 10CK
-------
Sewage Treatment Plant a source of air pollution for the surrounding
community?
The following nine data sets were organized to help answer these
questions:
11 Hourly Meteorology, which contains hourly observations of tem-
erature, humidity, wind speed, wind direction, solar radiation,
ultraviolet radiation, and visibility;
21 Averaged Meteorology, which contains 24-hour averaged temp-
erature, humidity, solar radiation, UV radiation, visibility,
and 24-hour vector-averaged wind speed and direction;
31 Gaseous Air Pollution, which includes 24-hour integrated
averages of sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, hydrogen sulfide,
chlorine, and ammonia;
4) Particulate Air Pollution, which includes 24-hour integrated
averages of total suspended particulates, sulfates, nitrates,
vanadium, chromium, manganese, nickel, copper, arsenic, cadmium,
selenium, tin, antimony, mercury, and lead;
5) Total Viable Particles (total aerobic bacteria-containing
particles 1, (collected with six-stage Andersen samplers)
which includes.plate counts, total corrected plate count, total
viable concentrations, identification of plate counter, pump
number, sampler number, and the humidity at the sampling location;
6> Total Coliform Particles, (collected with Andersen six-stage
samplers1 which contain the same parameters as the total
viable particle data set;
71 Viable Sewage, which contains measures of total aerobic bacteria,
total coliform, and fecal coliform concentrations sampled from
the inlet of aeration battery B; _
8) Non-viable Sewage, which contains measures of SO^, NO^, v, Cr,
Mn, Ni, Cu, As, Cd, Se, Sn, Sb, Hg, Pb;
91 Plant Operating Characteristics, which includes daily totals
of sewage throughput, total air used in aeration process, total
flow through the aeration batteries and 24-hour composites of
organic and ammonia nitrogen, dissolved oxygen, 5-day BOD,
and suspended solids in the raw sewage, preliminary sewage, and
final effluent.
TABLE 51i Table of Nomenclature, lists all variables that appear in the
data sets with the abbreviations used in this analysis. A complete listing
of all environmental data is given in APPENDIX E. The plant operating data
is available from the Metropolitan Sanitary District of Chicago (MSD)
Summary of Environmental Data
Meteorology
A detailed record of the meteorological conditions during the study
period was an important component of both the environmental sampling and
data analysis efforts. Three sources contributed to this record. They were
99
-------
TABLE 51. TABLE OF NOMENCLATURE
CL2CONC
S02CONC
SO4CONC
CRCONC
MNCONC
NICONC
a CPHMP .-«.-.
rlOV^Wi-^W
SECONC
SNCONC
TprTiwr1 ___....-.._-._-._.,..
nrir'm'jr1 _____..____.. ...-._
PBCONC
NH3LIMIT
PT "*T TMTT .-.... .- .-.-.--.
1LT'>r'T TMTT ____«- ______ __.
Mn°T TMTfT _-....-. _!--.,.-._!_. __
S02LIMIT
Cm TMTT __.. - __.-_... _
MNLIMIT
NILIMIT
PITT TMTrT _._____ »__..»._____,
ASLIMIT
SELIMIT
CDLIMIT
SNT.TMTT -- -T _._..., - --
SBLIMIT
HGLIMIT
PBT IMTT ----.- - ---__,~
DNCODE
COUNTER
INCTIME
Ammonia in air concentration
Chlorine in air concentration
Hydrogen sulfide in air concentration
Nitrogen dioxide in air concentration
Sulfur dioxide in air concentration
Total suspended particulates
Nitrate in air concentration
Sulfate in air concentration
Vanadium in air concentration
Chromium in air concentration
Manganese in air concentration
Nickel in air concentration
Copper in air concentration
Arsenic in air concentration
Selenium in air concentration
Cadmium in air concentration
Tin in air concentration
Antimony in air concentration
Mercury in air concentration
Lead in air concentration
Ammonia in air detection limit
Chlorine in air detection limit
Hydrogen sulfide in air detection limit
Nitrogen dioxide in air detection limit
Sulfur dioxide in air detection limit
Vanadium in air detection limit
Chromium in air detection limit
Manganese in air detection limit
Nickel in air detection limit
Copper in air detection limit
Arsenic in air detection limit
Selenium in air detection limit
Cadmium in air detection limit
Tin in air detection limit
Antimony in air detection limit
Mercury in air detection limit
Lead in air detection limit
Day or night code
Identifies plate counter
Identifies air sampling pump
Time in incubator (hours)
(yg/m3)
(yg/m3)
(yg/m3)
(yg/m3)
(yg/m3)
(yg/m3)
(yg/m3)
(yg/m3)
(yg/m3)
(yg/m3)
(yg/m3)
(yg/m3)
(yg/m3)
(yg/m3)
(yg/m3)
(yg/m3)
(yg/m3)
(yg/m3)
(yg/m3)
(yg/m3)
(yg/m3)
(yg/m3)
(yg/m3)
(yg/m3)
( yg/m 3)
( yg/m 3)
(yg/m3)
(yg/m3)
(yg/m3)
(yg/m3)
(yg/m3 )
(yg/m3 )
(yg/m3 )
(yg/m3)
(yg/m3)
(yg/m3)
(yg/m3)
(continued)
100
-------
TABLE 51 (continued)
PCI Andersen stage 1 plate count
PC2 Andersen stage 2 plate count
PC3 Andersen stage 3 plate count
PC4 Andersen stage 4 plate count
PCS Andersen stage 5 plate count
PC6 Andersen stage 6 plate count
TOTAL PC Total MPN corrected Andersen plate count
TCONC Total viable particle concentration (particles/m3)
CONC Total coliform concentration (particles/m3)
WD Wind direction
KU Relative humidity (%)
TVIAB Total aerobic bacteria in sewage (107 organisms/ml)
TCOLI Total coliform in sewage (10 6 organisms/ml)
FCOLI Fecal coliform in sewage (105/ml)
101
-------
the National weather Service at Midway Airport, the MSD North Side Plant,
and the automated on-plant (Skokie) meteorology station operated by the
project staff. The Midway data provided hourly observations of temperature,
humidity, wind speed and direction, and visibility. The. MSD provided an
on-plant measure of temperature, and the project's on-plant station
collected hourly averages of temperature, humidity, solar radiation,
ultraviolet radiation, and vector-averaged.wind speed and direction. The
Midway, MSD, and project's Skokie meteorological variables are identified as
Midway, MSD, and Skokie data, respectively.
Three sources of meteorological data were used because no one source
was complete. The experiences of several investigators C23,25) have
indicated that meteorology plays an important role in the dispersion of
viable aerosols, both in terms of which way they travel and how long they
remain viable. One of the project's objectives was to develop a model to
predict how viable aerosols emitted from the plant impact the surrounding
community. To accomplish this, all samples must be accompanied with a
complete meteorological description.
Regression analysis was carried out between the three sources to
determine the applicability of the Midway data to the Skokie area. Very
high correlations (r > 0,9 and significantly different from zero at the
0.0001 level for all three pairs of variables) were found between the hourly
Skokie, MSD, and Midway temperatures. The correlations also remained high
on a 24-hour basis (x > 0,a and significantly different from zero at the
0,0001 level>, and scatter plots of the data did not systematically deviate
from a 45° angle. The order of priority for selecting a temperature to be
used in the analysis was Skokie first, MSD second if Skokie was missing or
invalid, and Midway third if both Skokie and MSD were missing.
The correlation between Skokie and Midway humidity was not as strong as
for temperature. When compared on an hourly or 24-hour basis, the
correlation coefficient was 0,62 (significantly different from zero at the
0,001 level). The reason for the difference probably could be traced to
high measurement error in the Skokie record. The Midway measurement was
used in the analysis when the Skokie value was missing. However, it should
be recognized that this is a possible source of error.
The correlation coefficient for the wind speed measures when the Skokie
wind speed was >_ 10 was 0.62, while wind direction correlation was 0,71 when
averaged on a 24-hour basis (both correlation coefficients significantly
different from zero at the 0,0001 level). One important source of error
between wind speed and direction measures, besides the distance between.the
two stations, is that the Midway data represents hourly observations while
the Skokie measurements are true vector-averaged hourly averages. Although
the wind speed and direction correlations are only slightly better than the
humidity correlations, the errors incurred by substituting Midway data for
missing Skokie data are not substantial because of a fairly complete Skokie
record.
The study-period wind rose based on on-plant measurements shown in
Figure 7, shows no strong predominant wind pattern. The most frequent wind
102
-------
17.6%
18.6%
10.4%
9,8%
Q 10.8%
7.0%
13.4%
0-5 6-10 11-15 >15
Wind Speed, miles/hour
Figure 7. Study-period wind rose based on on-plant measurements.
103
-------
direction was southwest for only 18.6 percent of the study period hours.
The most frequent wind direction measured at Midway was south for 24.6 per-
cent of the study period hours.
Summary of Viable Data
Airborne measurements of total viable particles and total coliform,
and sewage measurements of total aerobic bacteria, total coliform, and
fecal coliform comprise the viable data sets and are shown in APPENDIX E.
Sampling runs consisted of air sampling at four sites and the collection of
an on-plant sewage sample. These sites, which were selected based on the
previous hour's vector-averaged wind direction, were 0.8 km upwind from the
plant, on the plant grounds downwind of the aeration tanks, 0.8 km downwind
of the plant, and 1.6 km downwind of the plant. Sampling sites 1 through 4
(Figure 2) represent position "on-plant downwind" , Sites 13 through 20 were
always position "1.6 km downwind". Sites 5 through 12 were positions 0.8 km
upwind or 0.8 km downwind depending on the wind direction.
A total of 72 Andersen runs for total viable particles and 26 Andersen
runs for total coliform and 83 sewage samples for total aerobic, coliform,
and fecal coliform bacteria were collected. Fortyeight of the viable runs
were in the summer and 24 in the fall. Twenty-two of the 26 total coliform
runs were in the fall. A 1-liter sewage sample was collected with each
Andersen run. TABLE 52 shows the average total viable particle and average
total coliform particle concentrations for the four positions. TABLE 53
shows seasonal differences for total viable particles by position. TABLE 54
shows average total viable particle and coliform concentrations by sampling
location and wind direction. TABLE 55 gives average concentrations for to-
tal viable and total coliform particles summarized by median size distribu-
tion. About 70 percent appeared to be greater than 4,7 ym in diameter. On
the average, 95 percent of the total viable particles discharged from the
plant were greater than 2.1 ym, while 99 percent of the total coliform par-
ticles were greater than 1.1 ym. (Airborne measurements of total and fecal
coliform taken with the LVAS are shown in APPENDIX F. The airborne coliphage
and animal virus concentrations, measured with the LVAS, and coliphage and
animal virus in sewage concentrations are presented in APPENDIX C).
104
-------
TABLE 52, STUDY-PERIOD AVERAGE TOTAL VIABLE AND COLIFORM PARTICLE
CONCENTRATIONS BY SAMPLING SITE POSITION
Sampling
site
position3
0,8 km
upwind
On-plant
downwind
0,8 km
downwind
1.6 km
downwind
Total viable particlesb
Mean
concentration ,
particles/m3
143 C62)
376CC68)
198GC68)
218CC60)
Standard
deviation,
particles/m3
123
339
155
262
Total coliform
Mean
concentration,
particles/m3
1.15 (26)
6,87C(26)
1,15 (25)
1.01 (24)
Standard
deviation,
particles/m3
1.8
8.9
2.0
2.2
Position relative to plant.
Number of samples in C )«
Significantly greater than the upwind value (p < 0.05)
TABLE 53. TOTAL VIABLE PARTICLE CONCENTRATIONS BY SEASON AND
SAMPLING SITE POSITION
Sampling
site
position9-
0,8 km
upwind
On-plant
downwind
0., 8 km
downwind
1,6 km
downwind
b z
Total viable particle concentrations , particles/m3
Summer
Mean
concentration
143 C38)
379 (43)
186 (.44)
230 C37)
Standard
deviation
125
385
152
281
Fall
Mean
concentration
144 (24)
372 (25)
221 (24)
199 (23)
Standard
deviation
123
245
161
232
Position relative to plant.
Number of samples in ( ),
105
-------
TABLE 54. STUDY-PERIOD AVERAGE TOTAL VIABLE AND COLIFORM PARTICLE
CONCENTRATIONS BY SAMPLING SITE AND WIND DIRECTION
Sampling
site
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
Distance
from plant,
km
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
Downwind concentrations,
particles/m3
Total viable
particles
447 (12)a
381 (21)
347 (21)
354 (13)
268 ( 6)
191 ( 8)
155 (14)
199 ( 7)
294 ( 7)
93 ( 9)
228 (13)
232 ( 4)
169 ( 6)
580 ( 9)
200 (10)
60 ( 6)
174 ( 6)
248 (8)
171 (12)
144 ( 3)
Coliform
3.96 ( 7)
3.42 (12)
17.08 ( 5)
12.20 ( 2)
1.10 ( 6)
2.60 ( 3)
1.20 ( 9)
1.10 ( 2)
0.37 ( 3)
0.00 (12)
2.03 ( 6)
0.73 ( 3)
1.10 ( 8)
0.00 ( 2)
0.00 ( 3)
0.55 ( 2)
Upwind concentrations,
particles/m3
Total viable
particles
59 ( 7)
157 (10)
135 (12)
378 ( 3)
227 ( 5)
161 ( 6)
118 (16)
54 ( 3)
Coliform
0.37 (3)
0.00 (2)
0.94 (7)
0.37 (3)
1.97 (9)
1.65 (2)
Number of samples in ( ).
106
-------
TABLE 55. MEDIAN SIZE DISTRIBUTIONS FOR TOTAL VIABLE PARTICLES
AND TOTAL COLIFORM BASED ON ALL SAMPLES
Stage
1
2
3
4
5
6
Total
Diameter
ym
>7
4.7 - 7
3.3 - 4.7
2.1 - 3.3
1.1 - 2.1
0.65- 1.1
Total viable
TVP/m3
103
54
43
18
13
5
236
particles
%
43
23
18
8
6
2
100
Total coliform
Coliform/m3
1.28
0.65
0.40
0.13
0.08
0.02
2.56
%
50
25
16
5
3
1
100
Average sewage concentrations by month and for the 8-month study period
are shown in TABLE 56. Total aerobic bacteria concentrations are reported as
10^ organisms per 100 ml, total coliform as 10" organisms per 100 ml, and
fecal coliform as 10 organisms per 100 ml.
Summary of Non-Viable Data
A total of 20 non-viable air pollutants were monitored during the study
period, five gases (S02, N02, C±2, NH3, H2S) and 15 associated with sus-
pended particulate matter (TSP, 504 NO^, V, Cr, Mn, Ni, Cu, As, Cd, Se, Sn,
Sb, Hg, and Pb). Grab samples of aeration tank liquids were taken concurrent-
ly with air measurements and analyzed for 12 pollutants (804, NO^, V, Ni, Cu,
As, Se, Cd, Sn, Sb, Hg, and Pb). The measurements appear in APPENDIX E.
Sampling was carried out every 5 days from April 4 to November 30. Air sam-
ples for all 20 parameters were collected at the plant for every collection
period. Of the remaining four sites, two were used to collect TSP, 504, and
N03 while two were used to collect samples of the five gases and 12 metals.
TABLE 57 shows the total number of days each air pollutant was sampled, the
number of days when zero, one, two, and three samples were above the detec-
tion limit, the total number of samples above the detection limit, and the
average detection limit of each measurement procedure. This table shows
that 10 out of the 20 non-viable indices were below the detection limit on
over half of the sampling days. Only seven of the 20 indices were above the
detection limit at one or more locations on every measurement day.
TABLES 58 through 60 show the particulate and gas data averaged by loca-
tion for the study period. The maximum average assumes all concentrations be-
low the detection limit are equal to the detection limit. The minimum aver-
age assumes all concentrations below the detection limit are equal to zero.
107
-------
TABLE 56. SUMMARY OF VIABLE SEWAGE DATA
Averaging period
1977
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
April-November
Total aerobic bacteria
(107/100 ml)
No. of
samples
6
10
11
11
5a
10b
10
13
78
Mean
155
525
20
59
889
30
40
39
165
Standard
deviation
96
1,323
19
54
1,789
40
21
24
659
Total coliform
(106/100 ml)
No. of
samples
6
10
11
11
11
11
10
13
83
Mean
37
65
19
26
104
70
64
42
54
Standard
deviation
16
109
12
24
85
44
30
25
59
Fecal
(105
No. cf
samples
6
10
11
11
11
11
10
13
83
coliform
/100 ml)
Mean
35
67
40
58
128
120
73
79
78
Standard
deviation
32
67
29
34
59
52
36
59
56
o
03
f Plus one sample of > 107/100 ml. Five samples were > 109/100 ml.
Plus one sample of < 109/100 ml.
-------
TABLE 57. NON-VIABLE DETECTION LIMIT SUMMARY
Non-viable
constituent
NHs
C12
H2S
NO2
so2
TSP
SCI;
N0~3
V
Cr
Mn
Ni
Cu
As
Cd
Se
Sn
Sb
Hg
Pb
No. of
sampling
days
15
34
28
41
41
47
47
47
32
32
32
32
32
32
32
32
32
32
32
32
No. of days
no sample s>
det. limit
10
0
26
0
17
0
6
6
14
29
8
29
0
29
19
18
19
25
25
0
No. of days
1 sample >
det. limit
1
3
I
4
6
0
0
0
4
3
5
3
0
1
9
9
10
4
4
0
No. of days
2 samples >
det. limit
3
12
1
16
12
2
20
8
4
0
8
0
5
2
4
3
1
2
3
4
No. of days
3 samples >
det. limit
1
19
0
21
6
45
21
33
10
0
11
0
27
0
0
2
2
1
0
28
Total
samples >
det. limit
10
84
3
99
48
142
103
115
42
3
54
3
91
5
17
21
18
11
10
92
Detection
limit
(yg/m }
2.29
2.12
0.70
7.60
3.30
1.00
0.01
0.01
0.002
0.022
0.022
0.009
0.009
0.011
0.009
0.007
0.011
0.011
0.009
0.018
-------
TABLE 58. STUDY-PERIOD AVERAGE AMBIENT TRACE ELEMENT CONCENTRATIONS BY SITE
Sampling
site3
A
B
C
D
E
Sampling
site
A
B
C
D
E
Concentration , Pg/m3
V
Average
C
max.
0.0045
0.0041
0.0043
0.0040
0.0073
Average
a
mm.
0.0021
0.0014
0.0019
0.0017
0.0047
Cr
Average
max.
0.0318
0.0277
0.0327
0.0287
0.0385
Average
min .
0.0000
0.0000
0.0058
0.0000
0.0118
Mn
Average
max.
0.0417
0.0361
0.0478
0.0459
0.0363
Average
min.
0.0292
0.0183
0.0380
0.0376
0.0262
Ni
Average
rax.
0.0118
0.0100
0.0115
0.0106
0.0104
Average
min.
0.0003
0.0000
0.0006
0.0006
0.0000
Cu
Average
max.
0.2141
0.3691
0.4247
0.3971
0.3123
Average
min
0.2141
0.3691
0.4247
0.3971
0.3123
As
Average
max.
0.0109
0.0086
0.0099
0.0100
0.0093
Average
min.
0.0012
0.0000
0.0007
0.0019
0.0000
Concentration , yg/m3
Se
Average
max.
0.0090
0.0081
0.0084
0.0074
0.0086
Average
min.
0.0025
0.0029
0.0017
0.0021
0.0041
Cd
Average
max.
0.0157
0.0131
0.0149
0.0148
0.0170
Average
min.
0.0042
0.0000
0.0018
0.0033
0.0069
Sn
Average
max.
0.0124
0.0111
0.0117
0.0115
0.0109
Average
min.
0.0037
0.0021
0.0022
0.0022
0.0022
Sb
Average
max.
0.0120
0.0122
0.0114
0.0114
0.0117
Average
min.
0.0018
0.0032
0.0000
0.0018
0.0024
Hg
Average
max.
0.0134
0.0112
0.0129
0.0126
0.0116
Average
min.
0.0015
0.0021
0.0013
0.0026
0.0000
Pb
Average
max.
0.6083
0.7412
0.8400
0.6455
0.8394
Average
min.
0.6083
0.7412
0.8400
0.6455
0.8394
. See TABLE 12 for key to sampling sites.
Determined from Whatman 541 filters analyzed by energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectrometry.
Average maximum assumes all concentrations below the detection limit are equal to the detection limit.
Average minimum assumes all concentrations below the detection limit are equal to zero.
-------
TABLE 59. STUDY-PERIOD AVERAGE GAS CONCENTRATIONS BY SITE
Sampling
site
A
B
C
D
E
Concentration, yg/m3
C12
Average
max.
13.55
15.25
13.39
16.73
14.81
Average
min.°
11.05
11.80
11.03
13.59
11.42
NH3
Average
max.
2.90
2.96
2.47
2.76
2.66
Average
min.
0.36
0.43
0.17
0.57
0.25
NO 2
Average
max.
46.39
53.59
60.57
54.85
53.83
Average
min.
42.72
47.32
57.01
54.85
53.49
H2S
Average
max.
0.88
0.72
0.97
1.06
0.73
Average
min.
0.11
0.00
0.22
0.27
0.00
S02
Average
max.
10.49
13.98
13.68
15.80
8.76
Average
min.
3.27
7.22
7.08
8.76
3.11
, See TABLE 12 for sites key.
Average maximum assumes all concentrations below the detection limit are equal to the detection
limit.
c
Average minimum assumes all concentrations below the detection limit are equal to zero.
-------
TABLE 60. STUDY-PERIOD AVERAGE AMBIENT TSP. NITRATE,
AND SULFATE CONCENTRATIONS BY SITE
Sampling site
A
B
C
D
E
t.
AvAVr^fTA siprM u»r>t" {"v^nr^^T^^T's i" T orv . i in /in ^
TSP
77.56
74.47
87.45
82.21
68.13
NO 3
1.60
1.40
1.46
1.57
1.44
so;
14.08
11.31
13.43
13.03
12.04
See TABLE 12 for key to sampling sites.
Determined from glass-fiber filters.
TABLE 61. MEAN TOTAL SUSPENDED PARTICULATE SIZE
DISTRIBUTION (PLANT SITE)
Stage
1
2
3
4
5
Total
Diameter, yra
> 7.0
3.3-7.0
2.0-3.3
1.1-2.0
0.01-1.1
Average concentration , yg/m^
21.0
15.0
9.8
10.7
16.3
72.8
Weight
%
28.7
20.6
13.4
14.8
22.5
100.0
Based on 17 samples.
112
-------
The actual concentration falls between these averages. All concentrations
are in yg/m3. A summary of TSP particle size distribution (based on plant
site measurements) is given in TABLE 61. About 50 percent (by weight) were
greater than 3.3 ym. A summary of non-viable sewage data is shown in TABLE
62. Number of samples, detection limits, study period average concentra-
tions, and standard deviations of all 12 pollutants measured are included.
Summary of Plant Operation Data
The plant operation data, collected by the MSB, included daily flow
rates and analytical data describing sewage quality. All flows represented
daily totals in million gallons per day. All analytical data were in mg/
liter.
Variables relating to the plant as a whole included rain in inches, to-
tal sewage, total air corrected to 590°F at 21.9 p.s.i., air temperature and
air pressure at the aeration galleries. Sludge is sent to the concentration
tank before being shipped to the West Southwest Plant. The difference be-
tween the total flow to the concentration tank and total flow to the West South-
west Plant is sent back for treatment to the preliminary tanks. Flow to the
concentration tank from the preliminary tanks, flow to the concentration tank
from the settling tank, and flow from the concentration tank to the West
Southwest Plant were included in the data set. The percent solids and tons
of dry solids per day in the flow to the West Southwest Plant were also in-
cluded. Chlorination data included in the operating data set were dosage
in ppm, residual in outfall, and total NaOCl used per day.
Twenty-four-hour composite samples of total sewage treated, total return
sludge, and percent solids for each battery are recorded for each aeration
tank battery. The difference between the total sewage treated and return
sludge is the total new sewage treated per day for each battery.
The remaining variables were all analytical measures of sewage quality
throughout the plant: measures of organic and ammonia nitrogen, dissolved
oxygen, 5-day biological oxygen demand, and suspended solids (fixed and vola-
tile) in the incoming sewage; measures of organic and ammonia nitrogen,
5-day biological oxygen demand, and suspended solids (fixed and volatile)
taken from the sewage as it leaves the preliminary tanks and enters the aer-
ation tanks (considered the best description of the sewage in the aeration
tanks); final effluent measures of organic and ammonia nitrogen, dissolved
oxygen, 5-day BOD, total suspended solids, and temperature; and nitrite and
nitrate.
An analysis of the plant operation data set showed that the flows of to-
tal sewage and air varied by a factor of two throughout the study period.
It is interesting to note that the ratio of total sewage to air varies by
over a factor of three, implying that there is no constant operating condi-
tion for this ratio.
Development of Personal Exposure Indices
Two viable and nine non-viable pollutants were selected for the model
to predict personal exposure indices for use in the health analysis. The
main criterion used in selecting these indices was the ability to reliably
113
-------
TABLE 62. SUMMARY OF NON-VIABLE SEWAGE DATA
Constituent
NO 3
V
Ni
Cu
As
Se
Cd
Sn
Sb
Hg
Pb
No. of
samples
27
27
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
No. of
samples above
detection limit
27
27
0
19
19
19
0
19
19
10
0
19
i
Detection
limit
yg/liter
0.1
0.1
12
2
2
60
2
3
1
1
4
5
Study period
ave . cone .
yg/liter
26. 6a
7.6a
b
215
218
171
b
129
60
1.4°
b
280
i.
'
Standard deviation
yg/liter
17. Oa
4.6a
b
54
251
69
b
56
15
1.9°
b
141
Concentrations in nag/liter.
All samples below detection limit.
Samples below detection limit averaged as 0 yg/liter.
-------
measure the pollutant. In the case of fecal coliforms and many of the me-
tals, the study area concentrations were close to, or below, detection limits,
Viable Exposure Indices
The two viable indices selected for this analysis were total viable par-
ticles and total coliform particles. Total viable particles were reliably
measured throughout the study period. Although total coliform concentrations
were very close to the sampler's detection limit, the relatively large number
of samples collected were combined to minimize the uncertainties of each
measurement.
Samples for total viable particles and coliform were collected at 20
sites that were either directly upwind or downwind of the plant. The upwind
and downwind average concentrations of total viable particles and total coli-
form by sampling sites were summarized in TABLE 54. Figures 8 and 9 show
these data projected over the entire study area. These maps were generated
using the SYMAP program. This program uses an inverse square weighting
scheme to interpolate concentration at every point within the study area from
the concentration at the 20 sampling locations. It was judged to be the best
model available because it integrates all meteorological and topographical
conditions by using all the air pollution data to interpolate concentrations
in the study area. A comparison of the downwind maps to the upwind maps
identifies the plant as a source of total viable and total coliform particles
within certain portions of the study area. The downwind total viable parti-
cle map also identifies a second source of total viable particles near site
14. This source does not emit coliform particles.
Exposure indices for total viable particles and total coliform were de-
veloped by combining the modeled upwind and downwind concentrations with the
study-period wind rose data shown in Figure 7- The process used to accom-
plish this is as follows: First, for each household in the study area, an
upwind and a downwind exposure index were predicted by SYMAP. Each household
was then associated with the closest wind direction of Figure 7. The percent-
age of the time each household was upwind and downwind of the plant was cal-
culated by assuming that each house is downwind from the plant if the wind is
within a 135° arc directly across the study area from that house. For exam-
ple, if a household has been associated with the northwest direction, winds
from the east, southeast, and south place that house downwind of the plant.
Winds from the southwest, west, northwest, north and northeast place that
house upwind of the plant. The house is, therefore, downwind of the plant
10.75% + 7.04% + 13.39% or 31.8 percent of the study period and upwind 18.62%
+ 17.55% + 10.42% + 12.40% + 9.76% or 68.75 percent of the study period.
The exposure index for each household is then calculated from Equation 1:
Exposure = (UPEXP) (% upwind) + (DOWNEXP) (% downwind)
Where: Exposure = household exposure index for study period
UPEXP = household upwind exposure
115
-------
% upwind = percent of study period house was upwind of the plant
DOWNEXF = household downwind exposure
% downwind = percent of study period house was downwind of the plant
UPEXP and DOWNEXP are predicted by SYMAP for each household used in the analy-
sis .
Two studies were carried out to check the accuracy of the process de-
scribed above. First, the study-period wind direction distribution was com-
pared to the wind direction distribution for sampling hours only. These two
distributions were almost identical. This allows the combination of study-
period wind data and exposure indices with no error resulting from possible
abnormal winds during sampling.
Second, a validation of SYMAP's interpolation accuracy was carried out.
This was accomplished by dropping one of sites 5 through 12 at a time and
having SYMAP predict a concentration at the missing site. This represents a
worst-case analysis because at no point in the study area does SYMAP have to
search further for sampling sites than from one.of sites 5 to 12 to the sur-
rounding sampling points. The comparison between the actual and predicted
concentration at sites 5 through 12 showed that SYMAP always interpolated an
exposure index to at least within a factor of two under worst-case conditions.
This is further confirmed by examining maps of downwind exposure when one of
the 0.8-km downwind data sites was missing. These maps all showed the same
pattern of elevated exposures into the community as is shown in Figure 8.
In addition to the study-period-averaged exposure indices for total
viable particles and total caliform, an exposure index for every 2-week
Health Watch period for total viable particles was calculated. Total coli-
form was not used in the 2week analysis because the data were all collected
in the fall. In addition, the accuracy of combining subgroups of the data
when the measurement is so close to the detection limit would be question-
able. The process of developing 2-week exposure indices was the same as the
study-period index. For each 2-week period, an upwind and downwind exposure
index was calculated for each household. These indices were then combined
with a wind direction distribution from the same 2-week period using Equa-
tion 1. This resulted in 16 exposure indices for each household in the
study. The SYMAP modeling technique for the 2-week periods differed slight-
ly from that used for the overall study period. Details are given in APPEN-
DIX G.
Non-Viable Exposure Indices
Nine of the 20 non-viable pollutants included in the environmental mon-
itoring effort were selected to become personal exposure indices. The cri-
teria used to select these variables were that the pollutant concentration
must be above the sampling method's detection limit a majority of the time,
and that there must be some variation across the study area. The identifi-
cation of the plant as a source was not a factor here, because, with the
116
-------
jaeoeoeeetoe&h
UPWIND
3(a)
O
Concentration Ranges, TVP/m
<150 150-300 >300
DOWNWIND
3(b)
0.5 km
Plant Boundaries
Figure 8. Study area concentration profiles for total viable particles.
-------
iccccccounronoc'
oo
UPWIND
4(a)
o
Concentration Ranges, coliforms/m0
<1.0 1.0-2.0 >2.0
> ODOOOCJOOQ ooatjeeue
i- OODOOOOCO caeGBoaa
- oooo ooco ecoe oea
. oooooooco ccaceoea
> oo ooo oo CD eeeaeeea
DOWNWIND
4(b)
0.5 km
Plant Boundaries
Figure 9. Study area concentration profiles for total coliform particles.
-------
possible exception of tin, none of the non-viable indices could be linked
back to the plant.
The following nine indices were developed into personal exposure in-
dices. Figures 10 through 18 show the study-period concentration profile of
the pollutants. A short description of the characteristics of each pollut-
ant is included with each index.
1) NC>2 - No source of N02 could be identified in the study area.
Overall, the plant appears to be a little cleaner than the
study area. Summer concentrations were higher than fall con-
centrations .
2) SC>2 - No source of S02 could be identified in the study area.
No consistent seasonal pattern was observed.
3) TSP - The major source of TSP in the area is Chicago. Wind
direction analysis also identifies the Tunnel and Reservoir
Project (TARP) construction site as a possible source of par-
ticulates. The treatment plant is not a source. Summer con-
centrations were higher than fall concentrations.
4) N03 - Chicago is the only major source of nitrates in the stu-
dy area. The plant might possibly be a source during west
winds but the range is only 1.4 to 1.6 ug/m^. No seasonal
pattern is evident.
5) SOT Chicago is the only source of sulfates in the area. Sum-
mer averages are higher than fall averages.
6) Vanadium - Wind direction identifies a source southwest of the
study area. The TARP site is also a possible source. Summer
concentrations are higher than fall concentrations.
7) Manganese - Chicago appears to be the main source of Mn in the
study area. The TARP construction site is also a possible
source. Fall concentrations of Mn are higher than summer con-
centrations .
8) Copper - Wind direction analysis identifies a source northeast
of the study area. No seasonal differences were evident.
9) Lead - Chicago is the only major source of lead in the study
area. The wind direction analysis also identifies a possible
source west of the study area. The TARP construction site al-
so appears to be a Pb source. No seasonal differences were
evident.
Of the remaining variables, NH3, H2S, Cr, Ni, As, Se, Cd, Sb, Hg, and
Sn were not included in the health analysis because the number of samples
above the detection limit was less than 21. Clo was not included because
o
the range across the study area was only 11.03 to 11.80 yg/mj
The calculation of household exposure indices for the nine non-viable
pollutants was much more direct than for the viable measurements. Figures
10 to 18 represent study-period averages of the non-viable indices inte-
grated for all wind directions. It was, therefore, only necessary for SYMAP
to interpolate an exposure index for each household in the health study for
each pollutant.
119
-------
t
loooconcccoQcooaoi
juauruounococccutjuocccccccccci
locococooococooccoonnoocorccci
inccorncoonc
leenacec
;eooauBc
;cetjdsee
iecccGCR
crcccrnocn
incoocnccco t*n
,
ict-ct.cococo
iccccuocccccccci
Dcoocccuccccrrrrc
locoouccoccuoccccc
;cccoccnoocooocLccc(.occr
.(-CCCOCUIJCCLCCCCCCI
Concentration Ranges, [jg/m^
<51.0 51.0-65.0 >65.0
0.5 km
Plant Boundary
Figure 10. Study area concentration profile for nitrogen dioxide.
120
-------
r
en
co
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Concentration Ranges, |_tg/m
<11.1 11.1-13.4 >13.4
0.5 km
Plant Boundary
Figure 11. Study area concentration profile for sulfur dioxide.
121
-------
oaooooooceeoceaeeeoec
A
T , .
I
N
Concentration Ranges, |-ig/m3 . 0.5 km .
<74.5 74.5-81 >81.0 I I
::::::::: li^iijixj 'SSSSSKSJ' Plant Boundary
j r, utjj,. "oaa 19093
Figure 12. Study area concentration profile for total suspended particulates
122
-------
t
ICOOOI
:ccoo
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IQOOOOnOOODOCDCOOO
IOOOCDOOOOOOCOOOOO
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Concentration Ranges, (Jg/m
<1.46 1.46-1.53 >1.53
0.5 km
Plant Boundary
Figure 13,
Study area concentration profile for airborne nitrates,
123
-------
t
Concentration Ranges, (
<12.1 12.1-13.0 >13.0
0.5 km
Plant Boundary
Figure 14. Study area concentration profile for airborne sulfates.
124
-------
N
Concentration Ranges,
<0.0025 0.0025-0.003 >0.003
0.5 km
Plant Boundary
Figure 15. Study area concentration profile for airborne vanadium.
125
-------
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Concentration Ranges,
<0.02 0.02-0.03 >0.03
0.5 km
Plant Boundary
figure 16.
area concentration profile for airborne manganese,
126
-------
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Concentration Ranges, |jg/m3
<0.28 0.28-0.35 >0.35
0.5 km
Plant Boundary
Figure 17. Study area concentration profile for airborne copper.
127
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cocccr)ccccoccocM«ecee*c«ofleeecceeeeeeeeeeeefloeeeaooc seenee
ooccoocooooococooeoeeo eeaoaecGoceeeeoaeeaoeccoaaaoqeeacflee
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Concentration Ranges, (ag/m^ | 0-5 km [
< 0.68 0.68-0.76 >0.76 ' '
';::::::;: 'icis lilali^r Plant Boundary
Figure 18. Study area concentration profile for airborne lead.
128
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It is important to point out that all non-viable concentrations mea-
sured, with the exception of SO^, were very low with respect to environmen-
tal health standards and Chicago averages for the same seasons. Chicago
sulfate data were not available, so no comparison could be carried out.
Analysis of Plant as an Emission Source
Distance-Concentration Relationships
All 20 non-viable and two viable pollution indices were modeled by
SYMAP to identify which pollutants could be related back to the sewage treat-
ment plant as an identifiable source. For the viable indices, upwind and
downwind maps were plotted (Figures 8 and 9). For the non-viable indices,
integrated wind direction maps as well as maps sorted by wind direction were
plotted. Of all 22 indices, only total viable particles (Figure 8), total
coliform particles (Figure 9), and possibly tin (Figure 19) identify the
plant as a source.
The total viable particle average concentrations show a decrease with
distance from the plant. TABLE 52 shows that the plant downwind total via-
ble particle concentration is greater than three times the upwind or back-
ground concentration. At 0.8 km downwind of the plant, the average total
viable particle concentration is still 45 percent greater than the back-
ground concentration. The 1.6 km-downwind average concentration is also
higher than the background concentration.
The total viable particle upwind and downwind maps, Figure 8, show that
the plant contribution to the total viable particle air concentration ex-
tends further than 0.8 km downwind of the plant. The 1.6-km downwind con-
centration is higher than the 0.8-km downwind concentration, however, this
is partially the result of some other source or sources of total viable
particles located near site 14 (Figure 4). Such a source or sources lo-
cated near site 14 not only increase the downwind concentration at site 14
but also increase the 0.8-km upwind concentration at site 6. Removing site
14 and site 6 upwind from the analysis removes any complications encountered
because of the other possible sources at site 14. The remaining sites show
a clear pattern of the effect of the treatment plant on the surrounding com-
munity when they are downwind of the facility (Figure 20).
An inventory of industrial and municipal facilities in the entire study
area was conducted during the study period. No obvious source of viable or-
ganisms was noted. The Metropolitan Sanitary District does maintain a con-
sumer pick-up station for "Nu-earth", treated sewage sludge for home garden
use, directly north of the plant. However, this operation is considered to
be too small and too distant from site 14 to have an effect on total viable
particle concentration. The road into site 14 is not paved, although it is
heavily used, and accumulation of rain water was noted to occur in pockets
of gravel and mud. The roads in the area surrounding all other sampling
points are paved.
129
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inooocoooorjcococcoooacueeesceeeei
focoooccoooorooococooooocuoocooDrccccccccococacaonoooouocccccccrc
Concentration Ranges, |_ig/m3 0.5 km
<0.0025 0.0025-0.0030 >0.003 I
Plant Boundary
Figure 19. Study area concentration profile for airborne tin.
130
-------
I
--
Concentration Ranges, TVP/m3
<150 150-300 >300
0.5 km
Plant Boundary
Figure 20. Study area concentration profile for total viable particles
excluding site 14: downwind.
131
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TABLE 63 shows the four averaged position variables without samples
collected at site 6 (when it was upwind of the plant) and site 14. The
downwind concentrations are all higher than background and decrease with
distance from the plant. Figure 20 shows the downwind study area concen-
trations affected by the plant source only and supports this conclusion.
TABLE 63. AVERAGE TOTAL VIABLE PARTICLE CONCENTRATIONS BY SAMPLING
POSITION WITHOUT SITES 6 UPWIND AND 14 DOWNWIND
Sampling site
position3
Total viable particles
No. of
samples
Mean concentration
(particles/m3)
Standard deviation
(part ides /nH)
0.8km upwind
On-plant downwind
0 . 8km downwind
1 . 6km downwind
52
68
68
51
141
376b
198b
155
121
339
155
144
a Position relative to plant.
k Significantly greater than the upwind value (p < 0.05).
A one-way analysis-of-variance was run to test the significance of the
difference between the means of the four position variables. When run both
with and without sites 6 upwind and 14 downwind, the difference between po-
sition means is significant at the 0.05 significance level.
In order to determine which of the three downwind position means are
significantly higher than background, t-tests were run comparing the 0.8-km
upwind concentration to the plant, 0.8 and 1.6-km downwind concentrations
separately. These tests were run both with and without sites 6 upwind and
14 downwind. When all 20 downwind and eight upwind sites are included, the
differences in concentration between 0.8-km upwind and all three downwind
sites are significant at the 0.05 level. The same comparisons when run on
the data without sites 6 upwind and 14 downwind show that the plant and
0.8-km downwind are significantly higher than background at the 0.05 sig-
nificance level. The 1.6-km downwind concentration is not significantly
higher than the 0.8-km upwind concentration at the 0.05 or 0.1 significance
levels.
The total coliform concentration at the plant is six times greater
than any of the other position concentrations (TABLE 52). Assuming the 0.8-
km upwind represents background conditions, it appears that the plant does
add significant amounts of coliform to the air that passes over it. By the
time the air reaches 0.8 km downwind of the plant, however, the coliform con-
centration returns to the background levels. The plots of the upwind and
132
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downwind coliform concentrations (Figure 9) confirm this. A one-way analy-
sis-of-variance showed the variation in means of the coliform data to be
significant at the 0.05 significance level.
The study area concentrations of tin are shown in Figure 19. This map
represents only 18 measurements collected during the study period. Because
of the small number of samples above the detection limit, no wind direction
analysis of tin was possible. For this reason, the identification of the
plant as a source of tin is quite tentative.
The following conclusions appear to be warranted: 1) the effect of the
plant on total viable particles is significant out to at least 0.8 km down-
wind and does not return to background until almost 1.6 km downwind; 2) the
effect of the plant on total coliform concentration is significant. How-
ever, because of the limited viability of coliform in air, the concentra-
tion returns to background <0.8 km downwind from the plant.
In order to thoroughly compare the differences between the means from
all four positions, the Duncan multiple range test in conjunction with a
one-way analysis-of-variance was used. The Duncan tests show when sites 6
upwind and 14 downwind are not included, that the plant measurements of to-
tal viable particles and total coliform are significantly higher than the
other three position means at the 0.05 level of significance. Log transfor-
mations are commonly used for air pollution data because of extreme values.
When the natural log of the concentration of total viable particles is used,
the Duncan test shows that the plant concentration is higher than the other
three position concentrations and that the 0.8-km downwind concentration is
higher than background at the 0.05 significance level.
Meteorology, Plant Operating Characteristics and Concentrations
A second approach to the characterization of the plant as an emission
source was a comparison between air quality measurements and sewage charac-
teristics, meteorology, plant operating parameters, and interaction effects
between these variables. The goal of this analysis was to develop a model
to predict viable concentration in the study area based on meteorology, sew-
age characteristics and plant operating conditions. A second goal was to
determine if the plant was a significant source of any non-viable pollution.
When on-plant total viable particle concentrations were compared using re-
gression analysis with plant operating characteristics (such as sewage
throughput or air rate), or total aerobic bacteria in sewage concentrations,
no obvious relationships were found. However, sampling locations 1-4 (Fig-
ure 2) were not always directly downwind. When the analysis is limited to
those observations + 22.5° from due east or west (sites 2 and 4), a rough
association (r = 0.68, significantly different from zero at the 0.005 level)
is evident (Figure 21). These concentrations reflect air passage across
maximum tank surface areas. (The north-south distance is only 25 percent of
that from east to west.) The spread in the data could not be further ex-
plained by systematic differences in wind speed, temperature, or relative
humidity. Total coliform also did not show any striking relationships with
sewage concentrations or operating parameters.
133
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Aeration Tank Air Rate, 106ft.3/day
Figure 21. Total viable particle concentration versus aeration tank air rate.
-------
Total viable particle and coliform in air were compared using regres-
sion analysis with temperature, humidity, wind speed and direction, solar
radiation and ultraviolet radiation for the plant and 0.8-km upwind and
downwind positions. No discernible relationships were found between total
viable particle and coliform concentrations and humidity, temperature, so-
lar radiation, UV radiation, or wind direction. The plot between wind
speed and total viable particle concentration 0.8 km downwind of the plant
(Figure 22) did show the characteristic negative sloping envelope found
with relationships between other air pollutants and wind speed.
A two-way analysis-of-variance was used to test the significance of
the differences between the mean concentrations at the four positions and
whether they were sampled during the day or night. No significant day-
night differences were found for either total viable particles or total
coliform, whether sites 6 and 14 were included or not (p > 0.05). For this
analysis, classification by day or night was considered an indicator of
meteorological conditions during sampling. In order to further delineate
the effects of meteorological conditions, a multiple regression was done with
wind speed, temperature, and relative humidity as the independent variables
and total viable particle concentration as the dependent variable. Due to
the low r^- of 0.11 (percentage of the variance explained by these three var-
iables) these meteorological parameters cannot be considered to have a sig-
nificant effect on total viable particle concentration. Even less of the
differences between total coliform concentrations can be explained by wind
speed, temperature, and relative humidity (r^ = 0.048) using this same me-
thod.
The lack of correlation between viable measurements and meteorological
variables is perhaps not unexpected. In general, it might be suggested that
solar radiation, low relative humidities, low wind speeds, and high tempera-
tures would give low viable particle recoveries. However, the available
data appear to be somewhat equivocal in this regard. For instance, Goff et
al. (2) reported higher recoveries of both total bacteria and coliform at
night than during the day. However, this effect may have been due to high-
er nighttime relative humidities. King et al. (5) reported increased recov-
eries with higher temperatures. Kenline and Scarpino (4) did not observe
any trends with relative humidity or solar radiation, although their data
possibly suggested better recoveries with higher humidities. Randall and
Ledbetter (7) observed no variation in recovery with relative humidity or
temperature, but did report a rough positive relationship between number of
bacteria and relative humidity when the wind speed factor was suppressed.
Adams and Spendlove (1) suggested that solar radiation and humidity were im-
portant factors but did not present a systemized analysis of their data.
Fannin et al. (57) found a significant inverse correlation between coliform
concentration and ambient air temperature but no relationship between coli-
form and relative humidity. Lee et al. (75) found no appreciable associa-
tion between total viable bacteria concentrations and temperature or rela-
tive humidity. Conclusive interpretation of these studies is also diffi-
cult due to the different methodologies used to collect bacteriological
aerosols. Evaluation of more subtle effects than we have observed here
awaits a more exhaustive analysis than time permitted.
135
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H
CO
1000
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E
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800
. 600
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0)
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400
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Wind Speed, miles/hour
20
25
Figure 22. Total viable particle concentration 0.8 km downwind of the plant versus wind speed.
-------
No relationships (regression analysis) were found between plant non-
viable measurements and any plant operating or sewage characteristic. The
off-plant sites B, C, D, and E were analyzed by comparing upwind and down-
wind measurements made at each site. No relationship was found between TSP,
SO^, N0~ and any sewage or operating parameter. Sites C, D, and E are all
1.6 km away from the plant. Combining these three sites for the wind direc-
tion analysis also did not produce any relationship between a non-viable
pollutant and a sewage characteristic or plant operating characteristic.
Even though a variety of trace elements were found in the sewage (TABLE
58) most are apparently not discharged into the air in sufficient quantities
to be notable. The same was true for nitrates and sulfates. The lack of
correlation between operating parameters and any of the non-viable pollut-
ants is somewhat puzzling, particularly in light of the fact that both sew-
age throughput and air rate independently varied by almost a factor of two.
Apparently the quantities of sulfates, nitrates, and trace elements which
are aerosolized do not measurably contribute to the existing background
concentrations. It may be that aeration tank surface area and air discharge
velocity are more important factors for emission of pollutants to the atmos-
phere.
The observations noted above for viable and non-viable concentration
relationships with meteorological and plant operating data are based only on
a preliminary analysis. No notable trends are evident. However, a complete
evaluation of all the possible interactive effects has yet to be carried out.
It is also significant to note that the concentrations of total viable and
coliform particles were lower than have been reported by other investigators
of trickling filter plants (Adams and Spendlove (1), Goff et al. (2), Napoli-
tano and Rowe (8), and Fannin et al. (57)). When comparing the results of
this study with measurements made at other activated sludge plants, the to-
tal viable particle concentrations reported here were somewhat higher than
those reported by Pereira and Benjaminson (32); comparable to those mea-
sured by Napolitano and Rowe (8) and Johnson et al. (22); and much lower
than those reported by Randall and Ledbetter (7). The total coliform bac-
teria concentrations measured in this study using Andersen samplers can only
be compared to one study which also used Andersen samplers at an activated
sludge plant (57). The results of that study are higher than those reported
here, but distances of the samplers from the aeration tanks were not given.
The lower values reported in this study are probably due to the low velocity
design of the air-addition pipes (10-30 ym porosity ceramic diffuser plates),
to the unusually deep aeration tanks (4.2-4.6 meters), and to the fact that
no sludge treatment facilities are located at the plant. In addition, the
measured concentrations of non-viable materials were usually quite low.
INTEGRATION OF HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL DATA
Introduction
The major purpose of this study was to determine whether or not a sew-
age treatment plant is a health hazard to a community. This was investi-
gated by integrating the environmental exposure data with the health data
137
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for the study population in the community. The environmental data provided
exposure indices for total viable particles (total aerobic bacteria-contain-
ing particles), total coliform bacteria and non-viable pollutants (TSP, me-
tals, and gases) for each household for the 8-month study period. The
Health Watch data provided household illness and infection rates for the
same period. The seroepidemiological survey provided the most valid inci-
dence rates of infection, but for only a few, selected viruses. Finally,
the retrospective health questionnaire survey permitted the identification
of persons potentially at high risk to the health effects of viable and non-
viable pollution exposure.
A dose-response approach was taken in the analysis of exposure and
health effects. Regression analyses were performed to determine if health
effects increased with exposure, or if the two variables varied independent-
ly. Scatter diagrams were prepared to further examine the relationship be-
tween exposure and health effects.
Acute Illness and Total Viable Particle Exposure
Acute Illness Rates and Total Viable Particle Exposure
Total viable particle exposure indices for the 8-month study period
were compared with acute illness rates for each of the 290 Health Watch
households. Eight-month exposure indices were calculated with and without
sites 6 (upwind) and 14 (downwind) since these sites reflected a source of
total viable (downwind) particles other than the plant (see Figure 20).
The range and mean in particles/m for the exposure indices using all sites
were 86 to 265 and 155, respectively. The range and mean for the indices
excluding sites 6 and 14 were 86 to 264 particles/m and 158 particles/m3,
respectively. In relating illness rates to total viable particle exposure,
it was necessary to limit the illnesses to those types which potentially
might have a causal association with viable particle exposure. With this in
mind, the illness rates were based on self-reported (diary) acute illnesses
equal to or greater than one day duration and were calculated for respira-
tory, gastrointestinal, eye and ear, skin, and total illnesses. The 290
8-month household total illness rates ranged from 0 to 71.43 and averaged
7.31 illnesses per 1000 person-days of exposure.
Regression analyses of the 8-month household total viable particle ex-
posure indices and the corresponding 8-month household acute illness rates
were performed. No linear relationship (p > 0.05) was found for these var-
iables with or without sites 6 (upwind) and 14 (downwind). This was true
for the separate illness categories as well as all types of illnesses com-
bined. All of the correlation coefficients were < 0.1 and not significant-
ly different (p > 0.05) from zero. Scatter diagrams of total illness rates
and respiratory illness rates against total viable particle exposure indices
(calculated both ways) did not reveal any apparent relationships missed by
the regression analysis. The lack of correlation between 8-month total via-
ble particle exposure and illness rates may be the result of an inadequate
sample size (in terms of number of households), an unequal frequency dis-
tribution of household exposure indices in terms of not having enough house-
holds exposed at "low" or "high" levels of total viable particle
138
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concentrations, the Inaccuracies in self-reported illness rates, the exist-
ence of more complex functional relationships between the health and expos-
ure variables, or no relationship at all.
Temporal Acute Illness/Total Viable Particle Exposure Relationships
Regression analyses between illness and exposure were also performed on
a 2-week averaging period basis. These periods correspond to the Health
Watch data-collection periods. The same illnesses used for the total viable
particle analyses discussed above were calculated as 2-week period rates.
Not enough total viable particle measurements existed for the first data-
collection period (April 3-16) so the analyses were performed for only the
last 16 2-week periods. No linear relationships (p > 0.05) were found for
the 2-week periods when analyzed separately or together for all types of
illnesses or for respiratory illnesses only. Respiratory illnesses were
considered separately since they represented a large proportion of the to-
tal illnesses reported.
In order to examine a possible lag effect between exposure and illness,
a 2-week lag period analysis was carried out. This was accomplished by cor-
relating a 2-week period's illness rates with the previous 2-week period's
exposure indices. A 2-week period was the smallest lag period possible to
analyze. Again, no linear relationship (p > 0.05) between 2-week illness
rates and total viable particle exposure measured 2 weeks prior to the ill-
ness period was detected.
In addition to the explanations for lack of correlation provided in the
previous section, it was also possible that the 2-week lag period was too
long in terms of incubation period for most bacterial and viral agents pos-
sibly associated with these illnesses. It was also important to note that
the 2-week exposure indices were much less reliable measurements than those
based on the total study period.
Acute Illness Rates for High Risk Subgroups and Total Viable Particle Ex-
posure
An attempt was made to examine the relationship between illness and ex-
posure for various subpopulations potentially at high risk to the effects of
total viable particle exposure. Age, chronic respiratory disease, chronic
gastrointestinal problems, smoking, family composition (presence of young
children), and length of residence in the study area were considered poten-
tial risk factors. Regression analyses between the 8-month illness rates
(as separate categories and as total illnesses) and exposure indices were
carried out controlling for each of these high risk groups.
The acute illnesses defined above were used to calculate rates for per-
sons, within households belonging to a specific high risk subgroup. A person-
exposure index was taken to be equal to a person-household exposure index.
The correlation coefficients for four age groups (0-12, 13-18, 19-59, and
> 59 years) did not reveal any linear relationships (p > 0.05) between ill-
ness and exposure. A similar finding was derived for the 70 people with
chronic respiratory disease (chronic bronchitis, emphysema, or asthma).
139
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The correlation coefficients for persons with chronic gastrointestinal pro-
blems were not significantly different (p > 0.05) from zero. Regression
analyses of smokers (current) and non-smokers also resulted in correlation
coefficients not significantly different (p > 0.05) from zero. Family com-
position was categorized as follows: (1) families with only one or two mem-
bers (all adults); (2) families with youngest child aged 0 to 5 years; (3)
families with youngest child between 5 and 14; and (4) families with young-
est child over 13 years old. All but one correlation coefficient (r = 0.27
for skin illnesses for families with youngest child between 5 and 14) were
not significantly different (p > 0.05) from zero. Length of residence was
considered in terms of less than 1 year, 1 to 5 years, 6 to 10 years, 11 to
20 years, and over 20 years of residence in the study area. All but one
coefficient (r = 0.39 for skin conditions in the over 20 years of residence
group) were not significantly different (p > 0.05) from zero. The correla-
tion coefficients obtained for skin conditions for families with youngest
child between 5 and 14 years old and for greater than 20-year residents are
based on mean illness rates of 0.25 and 0.07 skin conditions per 1,000 per-
son-days of exposure, respectively, and are therefore of questionable impor-
tance.
In summary, regression analyses of acute illness and total viable par-
ticle exposure with consideration given to high-risk variables did not re-
sult in any significant linear relationships. Again, the lack of any appar-
ent linear correlation between exposure and illness may be due to inadequate
sample sizes, an inadequate representation of exposure levels, inaccuracy of
the illness data, or the existence or nonexistence of more complex relation-
ships. Because of the consistent lack of any significant relationships when
each independent variable was considered singularly, any multiple regression
analysis would also be of no significance.
Summary Discussion of Acute Illness Rates and Total Viable Particle Expos-
ure
Regression analyses of acute illness rates and total viable particle ex-
posure as described above did not reveal any significant linear relation-
ships. The concern that these results were possibly due to an inappropriate
exposure index was pursued. The exposure index incorporates upwind (back-
ground) exposure as well as downwind (plant contribution). If a qualita-
tive difference exists between organisms present in the background concen-
trations and those originating from the sewage treatment plant, then an in-
dex reflecting only the contribution of the plant would be better for the
study of sewage treatment plant health effects. It was also possible that
since the plant's contribution to the average exposure index is not very
great (the plant only strongly impacts, with respect to total viable parti-
cles, the limited number of people living near it), variations in background
exposure may mask the health effects of plant organisms. A "plant-source
bacteria" exposure index was calculated by taking the difference between the
total exposure index (which incorporates downwind and upwind of plant data)
and the background concentrations. Regression analysis of the acute illness
rates and 8-month "plant" exposure index (total viable particles) resulted
in no significant results (p > 0.01).
140
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It was of interest that the regression analysis results obtained with
the "plant-source bacteria" exposure index support those obtained using the
total exposure index. It should be pointed out, however, that the "plant"
index was not initially used because one of its two factors, the background
index, represents only 25 percent of the airborne total viable particle mea-
surements. This results in an increase of the uncertainty of the plant in-
dex when compared to the total exposure index. For this reason and because
no change in statistical results occurred, the "plant" index will not be ap-
plied to further analyses.
Acute Illness and Total Coliform Bacteria Exposure
Regression analyses of total coliform bacteria exposure indices and
corresponding acute illness rates were made for each household. The total
coliform bacteria exposure indices cover a 12-week period since total coli-
form measurements did not begin until September 13. The range of the 290
household exposure indices (all sites) was 0.25 and 3.55 particles/m^ with
a mean of 1.42 particles/m^. The illness rates used for this analysis were
based on the same criteria described for the total viable particle analyses
and correspond to the data collection periods covered by the exposure index
(Sept. 18 to Nov. 26). No linear relationship (p > 0.05) was found for
respiratory illnesses or for all illnesses combined.
Illness and Exposure to TSP, Metals, and Gases
The 8-month exposure indices developed for N02, S02, TSP, NO^, SO^, V,
Mn, Cu, and Pb represent an adequate characterization of the study area ex-
posure for those non-viable constituents. Although these constituents were
found not to be associated with the sewage treatment plant, regression analy-
ses between exposure and illness were performed to search for an association
between these constituents and health.
The illness rates used in these regression analyses were those presented
in TABLE 36. No linear relationship (p > 0.05) was found between the house-
hold illness rates and corresponding household exposure indices for any of
the nine constituents. This was the case for all illnesses combined as well
as for the separate illness categories (respiratory, gastrointestinal, skin,
etc.). Scatter diagrams of the illness rates and corresponding exposure in-
dices also did not reveal any apparent linear relationships.
Infection Rates and Total Viable Particle Exposure
Throat and Stool Specimens
As was shown in TABLE 43, 174 bacterial organisms were isolated from
throat cultures of children 0 through 12 years of age. Throat bacterial in-
fection rates were developed as follows:
throat bacterial infection = I unique bacterial isolations x 1,000
rate per 1,000 person-days £ days present in study area
of exposure for every 2-week data-col-
lection period a throat cul-
ture was received
141
-------
These rates were then compared to the total viable particle exposure indices.
In Figure 23, the bacterial infection rates were plotted for S_. aureus and all
other bacteria combined. Staphylococcus aureus was specifically plotted be-
cause it is most frequently transmitted from person to person and is unlikely
to be of environmental origin. Both rates of bacterial infection were unre-
lated to total viable particle exposure; the two distributions of infection
rates were similar. Thus, there appears to be no dose-response relationship
between viable particle exposure and bacterial infections. Regression anal-
ysis confirmed the lack of a linear relationship between infection rates and
total viable particle exposure (correlation coefficient = 0.07).
Serosurvey
Analysis of virus infections was possible by comparison of the total
viable particle concentration of household exposure with infections due to
coxsackieviruses and Echoviruses as determined serologically. Regression
analysis of the initial virus antibody titers and total viable particle ex-
posure indices was carried out for each of the coxsackieviruses and Echovir-
uses. None of the correlation coefficients were significantly different
(p > 0.05) from zero. TABLE 64 shows the number of sera tested that showed a
fourfold rise in antibody and the number of sera tested in which a rise was
not found for any of the five coxsackieviruses and four Echoviruses tested.
Also shown are the mean total viable particle exposure associated with each
serological group. The total viable particle exposure was less for persons
with no seroconversions (160) compared to those with at least one antibody
rise to one of the types of coxsackieviruses (175). A different pattern was
observed for the Echovirus conversions which suggested an inverse relation-
ship between exposure and frequency of infection. The differences observed
were not remarkable enough to suggest that the risk of infection was greater
or less due to increased exposure to total viable particles.
TABLE 64. SUMMARY OF TOTAL VIABLE PARTICLE EXPOSURE FOR VIRAL
SEROCONVERSIONS
No. antibody rises/sera for:
Coxsackieviruses Bl-5
0 (272)a
>_ 1 (46)
Echoviruses 3, 6, 9, 12
0 (292)
>_ 1 (25)
Total viable particle exposure,
particles/m w
Mean Range
160 86 - 411
175 86 - 411
163 87 - 411
145 86 - 392
No. in parentheses indicates no. of sera tested.
142
-------
U)
CD
CD ^
"03 o
* £
C LU
O ^
CJ
Q) CO
1 £
« I
oi S
CD
CL
CJ
03
DQ
~ O
03 O
O O
CD
Q.
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0,
- excludes Staph
---- Staph. only
LLLJftl
o o
o
oo
o
C\J
o
CD
o
o
C\J
o
C\J
o
oo
C\J
o
C\J
CO
o
CD
CO
o
o
o
oo
Total Viable Concentration, particles/m^
Figure 23. Respiratory infection rates versus total viable particle exposure.
-------
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151
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APPENDIX A
METHODOLOGY FOR MICROBIOLOGICAL ANALYSIS AND SEROSURVEY
OF CLINICAL SPECIMENS
The laboratory procedures for bacteria and virus isolation in throat
and stool specimens, and for serological procedures were proposed and
conducted as outlined below.
1. Throat Swab Specimen
Two throat swab specimens (one swab for bacteriological analysis, the
second for virus study) will be collected once every 2 weeks over a period
of 8 months. All specimens will be delivered to the State Laboratory
within 24 hours of collection. The State Laboratory shall provide the
University of Illinois sterile throat swabs and media where appropriate
for the throat and fecal specimens described below.
a. Bacteria
Analytical procedures used will follow those stated in the 1974
"Manual of Clinical Microbiology", 2nd ed.; "Diagnostic Procedures",
5th ed. APHA; and "Identification of Enterobacteriaceae", Edwards and
Ewing, 1972.
A dry cotton swab is used to obtain a specimen from the pharynx and
tonsil area, including any exudate present.
The swab specimen is returned to the sterile paper envelope or is
placed in a sterile test tube which will be identified by subjects'
name and a serial laboratory number.
Upon receipt at the laboratory, the swab specimen is inoculated onto
five different agar media in 100 mm plastic petri dishes. These
plates will be streaked (5% sheep blqod agar., bile eaculin, e-os±fte<-
methylene blue (EMB)-, Baird-Par/ker or Staphylococcus 110 egg yolk,
Hektoen-Enteric agar plates) with, a w±re loop and incubated a&ro-
bically at 35-36°C for 16-24 hrs.
Plates will be examined macroscopically for abnormal bacteria flora.
1. Gram positive bacteria will be identified using standard
microbiological procedures.
152
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2. 3 pickings of selective gram negative bacterial colonies will be
inoculated into a set of 5 tubes containing different media
(peptone broth, triple sugar iron agar (TSI) , mannitol broth,
Christenson's urea agar, lysine decarboxylase broth)- Those
bacterial pickings requiring further testing for complete
identification will be inoculated onto an API-20 test kit.
Specific antisera will be used to serotype any salmonella,
shigella, or enteropathogenic E. coli. Possible E. coli isolates
will be inoculated onto MR/VP broth and citrate agar. Nonenteric
organisms may be studied further using Leifson's media and other
microbiological techniques.
All laboratory findings will be noted on laboratory workcards and
reported on listing sheets.
b. Viruses
Throat, nasopharyngeal and laryngeal swabs should be collected in
2 cc respiratory transport medium (8 g NaCl, .2 g KC1, 1.15 g Na2HPOit,
4 g bovine albumin, 5 ml Gentamycin - per 100/ml). Swabs are wrung
out. Supernate is treated with 1 cc of 4x antibiotic diluent for 30
minutes and then immediately inoculated into TC system.
Each throat specimen will be inoculated onto the following cell
cultures systems:
1. Primary Rhesus Monkey Kidney (Rh MK)
Growth Media (GM): 5% FCS - 95% 199 - L. Glutamine.
2. Human Embryonic Fibroblast (Flow 5000) GM: 10% FCS - 5% T POi^ -
85% 199 - L. Glutamine.
3. Human Epithelial Carcinoma (HEP-2) GM: 10% FCS - 90% MEM - L.
Glutamine.
Maintenance Media (MM) for all lines consists of 5%
inactivated FCS - 95% MEM.
Standard TC concentrations of Penicillin-Streptomycin-Polymyxin
B and Amphotericin B are incorporated into both GM and MM.
Sodium Bicarbonate is used as a buffering system.
Tissue culture inoculation protocol will be as follows:
Enteric Virus Isolation - Treated specimens are inoculated into at
least 2 tubes of each cell line on MM in a volume of 0.1 cc.
Tubes are incubated at 35 - 37 C in standard stationary tissue
culture racks with a 5° slant. Tubes are held for two weeks and
observed microscopically for viral cytopathogenic effect (CPE).
153
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The following references were used for the virus isolation technique:
Schmidt, N.J., Tissue Culture Techniques for Diagnostic Virology*
pp. 79-178, in Diagnostic Procedures for Viral and Rickettsial
Infections, ed. E.H. Lennette fi N.J. Schmidt, 1969, IV edition,
Am. Pub. Hlth. Assoc. Inc., New York.
Laboratory Diagnosis of Viral Diseases, Course No. 8241-C, pp.
11-14, 94, 98-99, U.S. Dept. H.E.W., Public Health Service, CDC,
Atlanta.
2. Fecal Swab Specimens
Fecal specimens will be collected to analyze for bacteria and viruses.
£11 specimens will be delivered to the State Laboratory within 24 hours of
collection. All specimens for virus analysis will be cooled in ice
immediately after collection and during delivery.
a. Bacteria
Analytical procedures used will follow those stated in the 1974
"Manual of Clinical Microbiology", 2nd ed.; "Diagnostic Procedures",
5th ed. APHA; and "Identification of Enterobacteriaceae", Edwards and
Ewing, 1972.
Specimen is obtained using a swab sample from the patient's feces.
The swab is placed into a tube containing Amies transport medium with
the tube identified by subject's name and a laboratory serial number.
Upon receipt at the laboratory, the swab is inoculated onto EMB,
Hektoen-Enteric, bismuth sulfite agar plates and selenite enrichment
broth media which are incubated aerobically for 16-24 hrs. at 37°c,
the bismuth sulfite plate for 48 hrs.
1. Plates are examined macroscopically for pathogenic gram negative
bacteria.
2. The selenite enrichment broth is used to inoculate another
Hektoen-Enteric agar plate when the primary plates showed no
significant growth. The plate is incubated for 16-24 hrs at 37°C.
b. Viruses
Feces (swabs or stool) - Swabs are removed from carrying media, wrung
out and discarded. One milliliter of 4x antibiotic diluent is added
to carrying media. Stools are suspended as a 5-10% solution in 4x
antibiotic diluent. Fecal specimens are then centrifuged at
15,000 PPM/30 minutes to remove debris.
Supernatant is aseptically decanted and inoculated into TC or stored
at -20 c until ready for inoculation.
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The following cell cultures will be employed :
1. Primary Rhesus Monkey Kidney (Rh MK)
Growth Media (GM) : 5% FCS - 95% 199 - L. Glutamine.
2. Human Embryonic Fibroblast (Flow 5000) GM: 10% FCS -
5% T POi - 85% 199 - L. Glutamine.
3. Human Epithelial Carcinoma (Hep-2) GM: 10% FCS -
90% MEM - L. Glutamine.
Maintenance Media (MM) for all lines consists of 5%
inactivated FCS - 95% MEM.
Standard TC concentrations of Penicillin-Streptomycin-Polymyxln
B and Amphotericin B are incorporated into both GM and MM.
Sodium Bicarbonate is used as a buffering system.
The tissue culture inoculation protocol is as follows :
Enteric Virus Isolation - Treated specimens are inoculated into at
least 2 tubes of each cell line on MM in a volume of 0.1 cc.
Tubes are incubated at 35 - 37 C in standard stationary tissue
culture racks with a 5 slant. Tubes are held for two weeks and
observed microscopically for viral cytopathogenic effect (CPE) .
The following references were used for the virus isolation technique :
Schmidt, M. J. , Tissue Culture Technics for Diagnostic Virology,
pp. 79-178, in Diagnostic Procedures for Viral and Rickettsial
Infections , ed. E.H. Lennette fi N.J. Schmidt, 1969, IV edition,
Am. Pub. Hlth. Assoc. Inc., New York.
Laboratory Diagnosis of Viral Diseases, Course No. 8241-C,
pp. 11-14, 94, 98-99, U.S. Dept. H.E.W., Public Health Service,
CDC, Atlanta.
3. Blood Specimens
a. Virus serology
Each blood sample will be allowed to clot and will be stored in ice
chests and will be delivered to the State Laboratory within 24 hours
of collection. Serum from each blood sample will be analyzed for 10
virus antibody levels. The initial sera will be stored at -20 C and
analyzed when the second sample is available. Poliovirus, echovirus,
and coxsackie B neutralization test in micro titer assay will be per-
formed as follows:
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I. Reagents
A. Medium 752 - Source: GBI
B. Viral and sera diluent.
10% Fetal calf sera (inact. 30' at 56°C)
90% 752
200 u/cc Penicillin
200 ug/cc Dehydrostreptomycin
35 u/cc Polymixin B Sulfare
5 ug/cc Fungizone
C. Cell medium
10% FCS (Inact. 30' at 56°C)
90% Medium 752
5 cc/100 cc 2.8% NaHC03 stock
1 cc/100 cc of 100X L-Glutamine
(same antibiotic concentrations as used in viral diluents)
D. 70% Ethanol
E. Mineral Oil
II. Microtiter Plate.
Soak all plates for 1 hour in 70% EtOH to remove toxicity.
Expose to UV for 1 hour.
III.
A. Make up viral dilutions as follows:
10'1, 10"2, 10~3, lO""1*, 10~5, 10~6, 10~7, 10~8
Change pipettes for each dilution. Refrigerate until ready
to use.
B. Dispense diluent, virus dilution, cell suspension and mineral
oil in the following amounts into each well:
0.025 ml diluent
0.025 ml virus dilution KEEP CELL SUSPENSION
0.025 ml cell suspension WELL SHAKEN
0.10 ml mineral oil
Set up one full plate for each virus plate extra for controls.
Controls have 0.05 ml diluent, but no virus dilution.
C. Incubate plates at 37°C for 72 hours. Observe plates each day
156
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to note progress or cell growth and virus actions. Record
cytopathologic el effect as + or -.
D. After 72 hours record all positions. Determine average
dilution of virus showing CPE. Count back two dilutions to
give 100 TCD concentration. Use this dilution in serum
testing.
IV. Serum Testing
A. Dilute sera 1/4 and inactivate at 56° for 30".
B. Make dilutions in plate of 1/8-1/1024. Allow one serum con-
trol at lowest dilution used for each serum tested.
C. Add 100 TCD of virus to the serum dilutions and incubate at
room temperature for 1 hour. Add cell suspensions and
mineral oil and incubate at 37°c for 72 hours.
D. Run complete virus titration concomitantly.
E. In testing positive sera allow one plate for each serum and 4
rows of wells for each virus titration. Use all extra holes
as cell controls.
V. Cell Preparation - Hep-2
A. Wash the cell sheath 3x with a ESS free of divalent ions.
B. Add a Ix trypsin-versene solution and allow it to remain on
the cell sheath for 1 minute. Remove the trypsin-versene and
add the cell suspension medium. Let the bottle stand erect
for 10 minutes and then shake the cell loose. Agitate well
with a pipette and then count the cells in a hemocytometer.
C. Cells are suspended at 320,000/cc to give 8000 cells per
0.025 cc.
References:
Schmidt, N.J., Tissue Culture Technics for Diagnostic Virology,
pp. 79-178, in Diagnostic Procedures for Viral and Rickettsial
Infections, ed. E.H. Lennette & N.J. Schmidt, 1969, TV edition,
Am. Publ. Hlth. Assoc., Inc., New York.
Laboratory Diagnosis of Viral Diseases, Course No. 8241-C, pp.
11-14, 94, 98-99, U.S. Dept. H.E.W., Public Health Service, CDC,
Atanta.
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APPENDIX B
SURVEY OF VIABLE PARTICLE SAMPLING SITES (Nos. 5-20)
Site Description
5. Central Pk. and Keeney
Industrial area, no food processing, residential area begins 1
block north on west side of street.
6. MSP Field Serv. parking lot
Site located approximately 30 paces from west edge of lot and 60
paces from river (to the west). Industrial area located to south
and east of site, warehouses to north.
7. Bell and Howell parking lot
Approximately 4.6 meters of grass and stones to lot; 73 paces west
thru to edge of lot (which was just open field - grass and stones,
during sampling period); then about 15-18 meters further to canal.
8. McCormick Blvd.
Site located across street from Fel-Pro. Approximately one-half
block to east: Sanitary Canal, separated from site by construction
at least 0.8 km long, parallel to canal.
9. Jarvis and St. Louis
All industrial (no food processing). Immediately next to site
(to S.W.): open land, weedy ("No Dumping" area). Area: 1 square
block. At south edge of land: "Batch - Pac".
10. Jarvis and Hamlin
Residential to west, some industry to north, east, and south.
Within one-half block south: Knechtel Science Research Laboratories
(7341 Hamlin).
11. Brummel and E. Prairie
Residential to north, west, and east. 1 block east: park (starts
at Hamlin), about 1 block wide, then rest of way east is open land
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and then plant (MSD). Two blocks north: RR tracks (Skokie Swift).
Immediately S.W. (across street): school (E. Prairie Elem.) Two
short blocks south and within one block west: delicatessen, hair
salon, laundromat (on Howard).
12. Hamlin and Oakton
All residential to north; restaurant/snack shop 1 short block east;
fast-food fried chicken shop 0.4 km to west.
13. Lee and Drake
Residential. One block to south: Main St., with small business
shops, etc., beginning 2 blocks east of Drake on Main (includes
deli/restaurant).
14. Cleveland and Hartrey
Residential, except to S.W.: Evanston water tower, and to south
and west of that: industry, including coke storage (Marquette Coal
and Mining). Two blocks north and one-half block west: EZ Spuds.
15. Dobson and Dodge
Residential to north, west, and east. One short block south
(Howard Street): fast-food fried chicken, with two other restau-
rants next to it (going east on south side of Howard). Going
west on Howard (on south side): Cantonese carry-out restaurant,
deli, bakery. N.W. corner, Howard and Dodge: restaurant.
16. Sacramento and Fitch
Residential to east, south and north. School and community
center across street to east. North one block (Touhy Avenue)
and then east for about 0.8 km: commercial (shops, etc.).
Within 1 block east (of Sacramento and Touhy): Chop-Suey Shop,
bakery, pizza restaurant. Second block east: large doughnut
shop.
17. Lawndale and Hunt
Industrial (no foods) surrounding site, except for grassy field
immediately N.E., one-half square block area.
18. Karlov and Estes
Residential for blocks around, in all directions.
19. Lowell and Brummel
All residential. One block north: Skokie Swift RR. tracks. One
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block west: park. One block west and 1 block south: White Hen
Pantry (small grocery/sandwich store).
20. Madison and Karlov
Residential. One block north: Main St. (with small shops, etc.)
including bakery, laundry, to east.
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APPENDIX C
METHODOLOGY AND RESULTS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL BACTERIA,
BACTERIOPHAGE, AND VIRUSES
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Animal Virus Assay
Cell Cultures
Human epidermoid carcinoma of larynx cell cultures (HEp-2) were
obtained from Illinois State Health Department Laboratories. Cultures
were grown at 37 C in disposable plastic 490 cm2 Corning roller bottles
and split 1:3 at 4 to 6 day intervals. For subpassage, monolayers were
washed three times with calcium- and magnesium-free Hank's Balanced Salt
Solution (HESS) and exposed for 3 min to 0.25% trypsin in pH 7.4 phosphate
buffered saline (PBS). The trypsin solution was decanted and the mono-
layers were incubated at 37 C until the cells began to slough-off of the
surface of the bottle. Cells were resuspended in growth media and diluted
to approximately 3 to 4 x 105 cells/ml. Primary African Green Monkey
Kidney cells (PMK) with SV$ and SV^ antisera were obtained from the Grand
Island Biological Co., Grand Island, NY and diluted with growth medium to
approximately 2.5 x 105 cells/ml. The cells were refed with fresh growth
medium after 24 hr at 37°C under 5% CO2-
Cell Culture Media
Cultures of HEp-2 cells were subpassaged on growth media consisting
of Minimal Essential Medium (MEM) containing 10% fetal calf serum (FCS)
(Grand Island Biological Co., Grand Island, NY), 50 pg/ml Gentamicin and
2.5 yg/ml Fungizone. For PMK cell cultures, the same growth medium,
without Fungizone, was used. For maintenance, monolayered cultures were
refed with MEM containing 2% heat-inactivated (56 C for 30 min) fetal calf
serum (HIFCS) and antibiotics, as described. Plaque assay overlay media
consisted of MEM supplemented with 2% HIFCS, 4% of 1:1000 dilution neutral
red, 1% of 50% MgCl2 6H20, 50 yg/ml Gentamicin or 200 units/ml penicillin
and 200 yg/ml streptomycin, 2.5 yg/ml Fungizone, and 1.5% Difco-Bacto
agar.
Mycoplasma Screening
To test for presence of mycoplasma, 1 ml concentrates of each cell
culture were inoculated into 10 ml of Difco PPLO broth without crystal
violet, supplemented with Difco Mycoplasma Supplement S. At the same
time, 0.1 ml of the sample was inoculated onto the surface of duplicate
petri plates each containing 6 ml of the PPLO broth plus 0.9% Oxoid
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lonagar No. 2. One plate was incubated aerobically and the other
anaerobically at 37°C. After 4 days, 0.1 ml of the broth was transferred
to each of two additional agar plates and incubated as described at the
same time, 1 ml of broth was transferred to a new broth tube that, after 4
days incubation, was transferred to agar plates. All plates were examined
microscopically (300X) at 2 to 3 day intervals for 14 days. Presumptive
Mycoplasma was confirmed by Dienes stain retention, presence of subsurface
colony growth, and ability to grow when subcultured.
Plaque Assay
Growth medium was aspirated from 100 mm Corning plastic tissue
culture dishes monolayered with HEp-2 or PMK cells and washed twice with
Earles Balanced Salt Solution (EBSS) containing 10 mM HEPES buffer,
2.5 yg/ml Fungizone, 200 units/ml penicillin, and 200 yg/ml streptomycin.
The monolayered cells were inoculated with 1 to 2 ml of processed sample.
(Normally, no more than half of the sample allocated to a specific cell
line was assayed during any particular assay procedure.) To monitor virus
toxicity of the sample, an appropriate dilution of poliovirus type 1
suspension was added to a processed sample aliquot, mixed, and similarly
inoculated onto replicate cell cultures. Positive virus and uninoculated
cell culture replicates were included with each assay. All control virus
inoculations were performed in a Class II type 1 laminar flow hood
separate from those used for either sample processing or sample assay.
Inoculated cell cultures were incubated, with periodic agitation, at
37 c for 60 min for virus adsorption. These cultures were again washed
with EBSS and, under subdued lights, 15 ml of overlay medium at 45 C was
added to each plate. After solidification, the plates were inverted,
covered with aluminum foil, and incubated at 37°C in 5% CO2 atmosphere.
The plates were observed daily after 2 days and the plaques were marked
and harvested upon observation for at least 8 days. Each assay was
validated by qualitative observation of control plates.
Plaque Harvest and Passage
Plaques were harvested from sample and control plates by removing a
plug of plaque-containing overlay agar, while simultaneously scraping the
underlying cell sheet with a sterile disposable transfer tube and placing
it in a sterile vial containing 2 ml of EBSS with HEPES buffer and
antibiotics, as described. Plaque isolates were held at -70°c until
passage in homologous cell systems. For passage, tubes of monolayered
cell cultures were washed twice with EBSS, inoculated with 0.5 ml of
freshly thawed plaque-plug suspensions and incubated at 37°C for 60 min
for virus adsorption. The tubes were fed with MEM containing 2% HIFCS and
reincubated at 37 c. Positive virus plaques and uninoculated cell control
plaque plugs were similarly passaged. In addition, appropriate poliovirus
type 1 suspension dilutions were inoculated into replicate tubes and
uninoculated tubed cell cultures were included with each assay. The tubes
were observed daily for cytopathic effect (CPE) after 48 hr for at least 8
days or until the control cell monolayers were lost. Tubes demonstrating
CPE were frozen at -70 C and repassaged using a similar procedure. Tubes
demonstrating CPE on the second passage, without apparent bacterial or
162
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fungal contamination, were considered positive virus isolates and were
frozen at -70 C. All plaque harvesting and passage procedures were
performed under indirect lighting.
Coliphage Assay
Coliphage assays were performed on samples obtained from the
wastewater aeration tank. Liquid samples were processed by the Freon 113
or Al(OH)3- continuous flow centrifugation procedures and air samples by
the Freon 113 procedure. Phages of Escherichia coli C300 were assayed by
the soft agar overlay method using 4 hr; cultures of E_._ coli C3OOQ-,
grown in phage assay broth (PAB) . The PAB was prepared by
adding 8.0 g nutrient broth; 5.0 g NaCl; 0.20 g MgSOi* 71^0; 0.05 g MnSC
to a final volume of 1 liter of distilled water and adding 0.15 g CaCl2 to
the solution. The PAB with agar (PABA) was prepared by adding 15 or 7 g
Difco agar to 1000 ml of PAB. To each tube, containing 2.5 ml of PABA
with 0.7% agar and maintained at 45 C, 0.1 ml of host culture suspension
and 1 ml of each sample or appropriate sample dilution was added. Liquid
samples from the aeration tank were assayed in 10-fold dilutions while
processed air samples were assayed without dilution. Tubes were mixed and
poured onto 1.5% PABA plates and evenly spread by swirling and rocking the
plate. The plates were incubated 5 to 18 hr and the plaques were counted
using a Quebec colony counter. Control plates for the host cultures, base
agar, and positive growth of MS-2 phage were incubated with each assay -
Bacterial Assay
After vigorous agitation of liquid samples from the aeration tank,
approximately 50 ml were placed in a suitable container and blended for
4 min at medium speed in a Virtis mixer. Samples were then assayed for
total coliform, fecal coliform, and total viable bacteria. Total and
fecal coliform assays employed the membrane filtration procedures
(Standard Methods, 14th ed., 1965). Appropriate duplicate sample
dilutions were filtered through 47 mm diameter 0.45 pm pore size Millipore
filters which were placed on absorbant pads in 50 mm plastic petri dishes
containing either m-Endo or m-FC medium for total or fecal coliform
assays.
Total coliform plates were incubated at 35 C for 24 hr and character-
istic "metallic sheen" colonies were counted under fluorescent light using
a binocular dissecting microscope. Fecal coliform plates were placed in
water tight containers and incubated in a water bath at 44.S c for 24 hr.
Characteristic blue colonies were counted using a similar procedure.
Large volume air. samples were similarly assayed for coliform bacteria but
without the initial processing. Total viable bacteria were assayed by
plating 0.1 ml of appropriate sample dilutions in duplicate on trypticase
soy agar (TSA) containing 0.01% actidione by the spread plate technique.
The plates were incubated at 35°C for 48 hr and colonies counted using a
Quebec colony counter.
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Air Sampling Procedure Development and Selection
Andersen Six-Stage Viable Air Samplers
Andersen six-stage viable air samplers were calibrated to sample at
28.3 liters per min. Throughout the project, 27 ml of BEL trypticase soy
agar (TSA), prepared according to the manufacturer's instructions, were
poured into glass Andersen petri plates and, after solidification,
incubated overnight at 35°c. When no evidence of colonial growth was
observed on the plates, they were loaded into four six-stage viable air
samplers for UI personnel pickup. The samples were collected, incubated,
and counted for total aerobic bacteria-containing particles by University
of Illinois (UI). Due to occasional fungal overgrowth after 48 hr
incubation at 35°C, inclusion of a mold inhibitor into the media was
considered. Before routine use of a fungal inhibiting additive, four
separate aeration tank samples from the North Side Sewage Treatment Works
(NSSTW) were assayed in duplicate at appropriate dilutions for total
aerobic bacteria on TSA plates with and without 0.01% actidione
(TABLE C-l). Since no consistent differences were observed with and
without actidione, it was included routinely in TSA plates.
TABLE C-l. TOTAL AEROBIC BACTERIA FROM AERATION TANK SAMPLES
ON TSA PLATES WITH AND WITHOUT 0.01% ACTIDIONE
Aerobic bacteria (cfu/0.1 ml x IP1*)
Sample 0.01% Actidione Without Actidione
1
2
3
4
10.5
20.0
4.5
8.0
3.0
18.5
6.5
6.0
Andersen sample collection for total coliform, as well as for total
aerobic bacteria-containing particles, was initiated after September 22,
1977. The medium employed was Difco m-Endo broth, prepared according to
the manufacturer's instructions, except that it contained 1.5% Difco
Bacto-Agar. The medium was poured in 27 ml volumes into glass Andersen
plates and into plastic petri dishes incubated at 37°C overnight and
plates showing no colonial growth were either loaded into Andersen
samplers for field use by UI personnel or used for spread plate assays.
After air sampling, the plates were incubated at 35°c for 24 hr by UI and
either refrigerated or brought immediately to IITRI for counting.
Characteristic metallic green colonies were counted under fluorescent
light with a binocular microscope. Because low airborne concentrations
were anticipated, the total coliform growth-supporting-capacity of the
m-Endo Agar used for each sampling trial was verified by parallel
duplicate aeration tank assays of appropriate dilutions, by both the
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spread plate and membrane filtration procedures (TABLE C-2). No significant
differences were found between the two procedures (t = -0.62, df = 29).
Large Volume Air Samplers
Large volume air sample collection for total and fecal coliform
bacteria employed the LVAS sampler. The LVAS was also used for airborne
coliphage sample collection, until cancellation during August, and for
airborne animal virus sampling. An effort was made to make the sample
decontamination and air sampling protocol as uncomplicated and concise as
possible. Several alternative methods for large volume air sample
decontamination in the field were considered. The decontamination
procedure used prior to coliform sampling is outlined in TABLE C-3. After
decontamination, 10 ml of the sampling fluid were collected to be assayed
as a "toxicity" control for seeded dilutions of E. coli. The fluid flow
rate was adjusted to 6 to 10 ml/min and 100 ml of sampling fluid were
collected directly onto a membrane filter for assay as a "contamination"
control. Sampling was initiated at an air flow rate of approximately
1.0 m3/min as determined by previous manometer calibrations by the
manufacturer. The recommended electrostatic precipitator voltage was
14Kv, although UI personnel indicated that actual sampling was frequently
performed at lOKv in order to reduce electrical arcing. During sampling,
air sample-containing fluid was collected in a 0.45 ym pore size 47 mm
diameter membrane filter in a Millipore filtration apparatus. Both
experimental and contamination control samples were filtered and assayed
by UI for total or fecal coliform, using tubed m-Endo or m-FC media
(Standard Methods, 14th ed., 1975). After 24 hr incubation at 35°C the
plates were either refrigerated or returned immediately to IITRI where the
characteristic colonies were counted.
Prior to sampling for airborne coliphages with the LVAS, an
alcohol-hot water procedure was recommended for sampler decontamination
(TABLE C-4). The protocol basically involved a 100 ml wash of 70% ethyl
alcohol, with 0.01% methylene blue, followed by a boiling water wash for
30 min after the temperature of the sample effluent reached 56 c. Sample
collection was not initiated until the effluent temperature was reached to
at least 27°c. Field application of this procedure was limited because
the low voltage resulted in extended time requirements for production of
boiling water and because wind conditions often cooled the sampler,
delaying attainment of the 56°C temperature in the sampler effluent.
To reduce field time requirements and to provide a suitable LVAS de-
contamination method prior to coliphage or animal virus sampling, a
procedure employing live steam and ultraviolet light was devised. Prior
to field application, the usefulness of this procedure was evaluated in a
coliphage-contaminated sampler. A 75 ml aliquot of sterile water, con-
taining 5.2 x 107 pfu/ml MS-2 phage, was run through a LVAS at a rate of
approximately 9 ml/min. The effluent was collected and assayed for MS-2
phage on E._ coli C3000 by the soft agar overlay procedure. The sampler
peristalic pump was released and the inlet and outlet sampler tubing was
connected to live steam for 15 min. Excess condensate which formed on the
sampler rotating disc was removed with a sterile syringe and needle. A
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TABLE 02, TOTAL COLIFORM COUNTS FROM AERATION TANK SAMPLES ASSAYED
BY MEMBRANE FILTER AND SPREAD PLATE PROCEDURES
Date
U.977)
9-13
9-14
9-19
9-21
9-25
9-28
9-29
10-4
10-5
10-9
10-11
10-13
10-17
10-19
10-25
10-27
10-31
11-2
11-2
11-6
11-8
11-10
11-14
11-16
11-20
11-22
11-24
11-28
11-30
11-30
Total coliform (cfu x 105/ml)
Membrane filter on
m-Endo broth
1,4
6,5
5,8
8.0
14,4
14,2
2,0
6,6
8,8
24.0
7,4
5,1
2.2
7,0
4.9
7,8
2,2
3,0
4,8
4,0
3,0
2,0
8.0
12.6
5,7
4,7
13,3
2,5
3.5
3.1
Spread plate on m-Endo
broth with 1,5% agar
13,4
14.0
12,8
14,0
16.7
8,6
5,8
3,6
7,4
6,0
4,0
6.2
9,4
6,3
5.8
7.8
5,1
8,0
8,8
8,8
7,0
2.8
8,7
8,2
1.8
1,4
1,9
3,4
6,2
4,9
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TABLE C-3. LVAS DECONTAMINATION (COLIPHAGE, ANIMAL VIRUS, AND COLIFORMS)
1. Turn on main power switch.
2. Remove sampler wall and release peristalic pump tension.
3. Connect sampler inlet and outlet tubing to steam generator and turn
on heating unit.
4. After steam is formed, permit flowing steam to pass through both the
inlet and outlet tubing for 15 min.
5. Using a sterile syringe and needle, aseptically remove excess moisture
from sampler rotating disc as needed.
6. Place ultraviolet light fixture above sampler rotating disc for 15 min,
7. Aseptically readjust peristalic pump tension and close sampler.
8. Flush 200 ml sterile water through sampler.
9. Aseptically collect 20 ml of final flush into sterile vacutainer tube
for decontamination verification.
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TABLE C-4. LVAS DECONTAMINATION (COLIPHAGE)
1. Bring 2 liters of RO water to boil.
2. Connect sampler inlet line to blue wash No 2 (70% alcohol) . Run
100 ml of wash through sampler (discard effluent).
3. Insert inlet line into boiling water.
4. Insert inlet tubing from LVAS and peristalic pump into boiling water.
5. Insert tip of outlet peristalic pump tubing into groove of rotating
disc in LVAS (via slightly cracked LVAS lid).
6. Place heat lamp on air inlet of LVAS and secure with clamp.
7. Turn on main power switch of LVAS. Turn on fluid pump switch of LVAS,
Turn on peristalic pump switch. Adjust all pumps to high. Turn
heat lamp on.
8. Monitor temperature fluid from LVAS outlet. Observe level of water
in groove of rotating disc. Be sure it does not overflow disc. If
air bubbles are present in outlet line, adjust fluid pump.
o
9. After above fluid has reached 56 C, continue process for 30 min.
10. After 30 min:
a. Turn off heat lamp, remove and replace with aluminum foil.
b. Turn off peristalic pump and remove tubing from groove of
rotating disc (ASEPTICALLY).
c. Place LVAS inlet tube in sterile cold HQ water. Hold in ice
bath. Use vent needle.
d. Monitor LVAS outlet temp, until it reaches at least 27 C
(cooler if possible under ambient conditions).
11. Sampler is now ready for sample collection.
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germicidal ultraviolet lamp (GE G15T8-15 watt) was then placed at approxi-
mately 10 cm above the rotating sampling disc which was exposed to the UV
light for 15 min. The peristalic pump was readjusted, the sampler closed,
and 200 ml of sterile water was flushed through the sampler at about
13 ml/min for approximately 15 min. The final flush (10 ml) was then
collected and assayed for MS-2 phage. Approximately 3.8 x 107 pfu/ml were
counted in the sampler effluent before decontamination compared to
0 pfu/ml on five assayed plates after decontamination.
Air samples for animal virus and coliphage assay were collected by
methods described by Fannin et al. (Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 31; 705,
1976). The LVAS was operated at an air sampling rate of approximately
1.0 vr/min, with 14.0-15.0 Kv through the electrostatic precipitator and a
sampling fluid flow rate of 7 to 9 ml/roin, depending upon environmental
conditions. Sampling fluid, consisting of 30 ml of PBS, containing 2% of
the 1% phenol red solution, 0.03% GE Antifoam 10, and 2% HIFCS was used.
The sampling fluid was recirculated through the sampler and maintained at
a constant volume by replacing evaporated water (TABLE C-5). The
reservoir containing this fluid was kept in an ice bath during the
sampling period. Field samples were processed and assayed as soon as
possible. Animal virus samples that were not assayed immediately were
frozen at -70 C. 'The LVAS was decontaminated between each sample by the
flowing steam-germicidal UV lamp procedure.
The operating procedures for the LVAS for coliform sampling were the
same as described above except that on the recommendation of UI the
collecting fluid was PEW with 25% trypticase soy broth (TSB) and was not
recirculated. The steam and UV method was used for decontamination
because it was found to be effective, did not require the additional
toxicity control, and provided a uniform method of decontamination for
sampling operations.
Sample Processing for Viral Isolation
Wastewater Aeration Tank Samples
Freon 113 processing ajid direct inoculation-^ r-Wastewater aeration
tank samples were initially processed for animal virus and coliphage
isolation by a Freon 113 procedure for direct inoculation onto cell
cultures. Approximately 200 ml of each sample was mixed with 10X EESS
containing 10 mM HEPES buffer and adjusted to pK 9.5 with IN NaOE. The
sample was agitated with a Virtis mixer at medium speed for 4 min,
sonicated for 30 sec with a Branson sonifier at 4.5 amps-, and centr/ifuged
at 600 x g for 30 min. The supernatant was adjusted to pH 7.2 with IN
HC1, an equal volume of Freon 113 was added, the mixture was vigorously
agitated,and held overnight at 4°C. The aqueous phase was again
centrifuged at 600 x g for 30 min and the supernatant assayed for
coliphage and animal virus.
Aluminum hydroxide-continuous flow centrifugation concentrationWhen
increased sensitivity for animal virus detection was found to be
169
-------
TABLE C-5. SAMPLE COLLECTION-LVAS
1. Allow LVAS to pump remaining final rinse water out of lines. Collect
final 20 ml of final rinse and label. Hold sample at 4 C.
2. Connect large (7cmxl8g) sterile needle aseptically to inlet tube of
LVAS.
3. Wipe top of collecting fluid vial with 70% alcohol.
4. Insert inlet line needle aseptically into vial.
5. Insert vent needle aseptically into vial.
6. Place collecting fluid vial in ice bath.
7- Wipe top of empty vial with 70% alcohol and insert outlet line needle
and vent needle.
8. Allow LVAS to pump collecting fluid through unit and collect first 20
ml. (Label pre-sample sterility control; store at 4 c.
9. Quickly transfer outlet line needle aseptically to collecting fluid
vial (same vial inlet line is attached). Mark level of collecting
fluid in vial immediately at completion of pre-sample sterility control
sample. (Attach sterile syringe filled with sterile water to vial
aseptically).
10. At end of sampling period, shut off voltage and blower, remove LVAS
inlet line and insert needle 5.nto sterile water vial. Allow collect-
ing fluid to collect in sample vial until fluid is clear. (Approx.
30 ml) . Shut LVAS pump off. Disconnect sample vial and store at 4°C.
11. Flush LVAS with water.
170
-------
necessary, aeration tank samples were concentrated using an aluminum
hydroxide-continous flow centrifugation technique developed and evaluated
in IITRI laboratories. All samples were held at 4°C after receipt and
processed within 8 hr. Prior to processing, A1(OH)3 was freshly prepared
by adding 3 ml of 2M Na2C03 to 100 ml of 25 mM Aids and adjusted and
maintained during a 15 min stirring period at pH 7.2. The precipitate was
centrifuged at 500 x g for 15 min and resuspended in an equal volume of
0.15 M NaCl. The liquid fraction of approximately 5 liters was decanted
into an iced reservoir and the remaining solids-associated suspension was
adjusted to pH 9.5 with 5 N NaOH, placed in appropriate containers,
sonicated with a Branson sonifier at 4.5 amp for 30 sec, and centrifuged
at 500 rpm for 30 min. The supernatant was added to the initial liquid
fraction, adjusted to pH 6.0 with 5 N HC1, and 1% of freshly prepared
A1(OH)3 suspension added. After 1 hr mixing in an ice bath, during which
the pH was held constant, the sample was centrifuged at 27,000 x g in a
continuous flow centrifuge (KSB system with a Sorvall Model RC2-B) at a
flow rate of 200 ml/min. Precipitated materials were resuspended in pE
10.5 glycine buffer, containing 2% sodium-EDTA and 10% HIFCS, sonicated
for 10 sec with a Branson sonifier at 4.5 amps, and adjusted to pH 9.5
with 0.1 N NaOH. After a 10 min stirring the suspension was centrifuged
for 15 min at 27,000 x g. The supernatant was decanted, filtered through a
HIFCS pretreated 47 mm diameter 0.45 ym Millipore or a 0.4 ym Unipore
filter, and mixed with 10% of a 10X concentration of BBSS containing
HEPES. A final concentration of 50 yg/ml of Gentamicin and 5 yg/ml
Fungizone was added and the sample frozen at -70 C until assayed.
Processing procedure verificationStudies in which animal virus was
recovered from seeded environmental samples using both the
Freon 113-direct inoculation and aluminum hydroxide-continuous flow
centrifugated procedures we re performed. Samples were seeded with
laboratory preparations of poliovirus type 1 strain LSc 2ab. Care was
exercised throughout these experiments to ascertain that no field sample
contamination occurred. All apparatus which came in contact with virus
were autoclaved or soaked in a sodium hypochlorite solution immediately
after use.
For seed virus preparations approximately 100 pfu of poliovirus
type 1 strain LSc 2abwere inoculated into roller bottles containing
Buffalo Green Monkey (BGM) kidney cell monolayers washed three times with
HBSS. The inoculated culture was incubated in a roller apparatus for 60
min at 37°C to permit virus adsorption, and 100 ml MEM with 2% HIFCS and
10 mM HEPES buffer was added. Incubation continued until the cell
monolayer began to slough off due to virus produced CPE or approximately
48 hr. The cell-virus suspension was decanted, vigorously mixed with 5%
chloroform, refrigerated at 4°c for 4 hr, and centrifuged at 600 x g for
30 min. The supernatant was decanted into 10 ml tubes, titered by the
plaque assay procedure, and stored at -70 C until used.
Immediately prior to use, the suspension was thawed and diluted to
about 103 or 10^ pfu/ml in BBSS with 10 mM HEPES buffer and the virus
suspension was "deaggregated" by filtration through a 0.05 ym Unipore
171
-------
filter. An appropriate volume of filtered suspension was then added to
the aeration tank influent sample collected from the North Side WWTP. _
sample volumes were approximately 200 ml for Freon 113-direct inoculation
or 5 liters for Al(OH)3-continuous flow centrifugation. The seeded
suspension was stirred at low speed for 30 min at 4°C and then processed
by the appropriate procedure for virus recovery. A plaque titration was
performed on a portion of the filtered virus used in each study to
determine the number of virus pfu initially seeded.
The recovery of seeded virus from NSSTW aeration tank samples was
found to be greater than 57% for all trials (TABLE C-6) . The recovery
efficiency was found to be higher with the Freon 113-direct inoculation
procedure but the concentration factor using this technique was 200 times
lower and, consequently, less sensitive than that of the aluminum
hydroxide-continuous flow centrifugation procedure.
Thirty-four viral isolates were collected and processed as described
above. The identification of three enterovirus groups was performed by
tissue culture procedures described in APPENDIX A.
Large Volume Air Samples
Samples were mixed and adjusted to pH 9.5 with 0.1 N NaOH, sonicated
for 30 sec with a Branson sonifier at 4.5 amps, and centrifuged for 30
min. The supernatant was adjusted to pH 7.2 with a 0.1 N HC1, an equal
volume of Freon 113 added, and after vigorously mixing, the sample was
held at 4°C overnight. The aqueous fraction was removed and centrifuged
at 600 x g for 30 min. The supernatant was filtered through a 0.4 \aa
Unipore membrane filter and the filtrate was assayed immediately for
coliphages and the remaining portion was held at -70 C until assayed for
animal virus.
EESULTS
Aeration Tank Samples
Coliphage
Escherichia coli C3000 phage counts from wastewater aeration tank
samples shown in TABLE C-7 ranged from 2.2 x 103 to 8.6 x 105 pfu/liter.
Animal Virus
Using the Freon 113-direct inoculation procedure 45 ml wastewater,
contained in 50 ml processed sample, were assayed on HEp-2 and PMK cells.
Plaques were observed in all HEp-2 and in all but one PMK cell assays with
concentrations in PMK cells ranging from < 22 to 222 pfu/liter and in
HEp-2 cells from 156 to 444 pfu/liter (TABLE C-8). None of the observed
plaques, however, demonstrated CPE after two passages in homologous cell
systems. Since no viruses were confirmed, their concentrations were
estimated to be < 22 plaque forming viral units (PFVU) per liter in
wastewater aeration tank samples using the direct inoculation procedure.
Although this method was demonstrated to recover 66% and 93% seeded virus
172
-------
TABLE C-6, RECOVERY OF POLIOVIRUS TYPE 1 FROM SEEDED AERATION TANK SAMPLES BY
FREON 113-DIRECT INOCULATION AND Al(OH)3-CONTINUOUS FLOW CENTRIFUGATION
Method
Freon 113
Freon 113
Al (OH) 3
Al (OH) 3
Sample
volume
(ml x 100)
1,8
1,9
50.0
50.0
Concentration
factor
1
1
200
200
Final
volume
(ml)
205
226
25
25
Virus (pfu x 10 3)
Inoculum
1.34
4.52
5,17
112. 34
Recovery
0.89
4.18
3.12
64.55
Recovery
%
66
93
60
57
-------
TABLE C-7. ESCHERICHIA COLI C3000 PHAGES FROM WASTEWATER AERATION TANK
Date
(1977>
5-3
5-16
6-13
7-5
7-11
7-25
7-25
9-14
9-29
9-29
10-5
10-5
10-13
10-13
10-19
10-19
10-27
10-27
11-3
11-3
11-10
11-10
11-17
11-17
Aeration tank Proce
sample source met
b
Inf + Eff
ssing Coliphage concentration
hod (PFU/liter)a
F° 8.2 x 105
inf + Eff F 2.0 x 105
Inf + Eff F 8.6 x 105
Inf + Eff F 5.7 x 104
inf + Eff F 1.6 x 105
Inf F 1.6 x 105
Eff F 1.2 x 105
Inf A 4.3 x 103
Inf A 1.2 x 105
Eff A 1.2 x 10^
Inf F 2.2 x 103
Eff A 3.3 x I0k
Inf F 1,6 x 104
Eff F 7.2 x 103
Inf F 1,6 x 105
Eff F 1,8 x 10^
Inf F 1.8 x 10 4
Eff F 7,2 x 103
Inf
Eff
Inf
Eff
inf
Eff
F 1.8 x 104
F 2.3 x 105
F 1.2 x 105
F 1.2 x 105
F 9.0 x 104
F 1.1 x 105
Based on duplicate 1 ml assays of 10 fold dilutions,
Inf and Eff refer to aeration tank influent and effluent, respectively.
F - Freon 113 processing. A - Al(OH)3 processing.
174
-------
TABLE C-8, ANIMAL VIRUS RECOVERY FROM 45 ML WASTEWATER AERATION TANK
SAMPLES USING FREON 113-DIRECT INOCULATION PROCEDURE
Date
(197 7 X Sourc
5-16 Inf +
6-13 Inf +
7-5 lnfb
7-11 Inf +
7-25 Inf
7-25 Eff
Cell
E system
Effa PMK
HEp-2
Eff PMK
HEp-2
PMK
HEp-2
Eff PMK
HEp-2
PMK
HEp-2
PMK
HEp-2
PFU
observed
(no,)
10
20
2
16
0
7
7
17
9
19
8
8
PFU/1
222
444
44
356
<22
156
156
378
200
422
178
179
First
passage CPE
(no, )
0(5)c
1(9)
0
9
_
1
0
1(2)
0
3
0
1
Confirmed
virus
(no.)
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0(1)
0
0
0
0
Aeration tank influent and effluent designated by Inf and Eff, re-
spectively.
One sample only received,
° Number of plaques found to be bacterial or fungal contaminants in
parenthesis.
175
-------
from wastewater aeration tank samples (TABLE C-6) the voltes processed
were estimated to be below those required for routine animal virus
detection from the study source.
Consequently, an alternative processing procedure permitting concen-
tration of large sample volumes prior to assay was considered, evaluated,
and employed for virus concentration from wastewater aeration tank
samples. The virus data obtained from these samples using the
Al (OH) , -continuous flow centrifugation procedure are presented in
TABLE C-9. Plaques were observed in both the PMK and HEp-2 cell systems
for most of the samples assayed. The concentrations were, however, lower
than those observed by direct inoculation and ranged from < 0.4 to
16.3 pfu/liter in PMK cells and from < 0.4 to 3.9 pfu/liter in HEp-2
cells. Animal viruses were confirmed in 54% of the samples when assayed
in PMK cells but no confirmation was made in any samples assayed in HEp-2
cells. When viruses were found, their concentrations ranged from 0.3 to
7.1 pfvu/liter. Using seeded virus, however, the procedures used
recovered 57% and 60% of the virus seeded in similar samples (TABLE
The influent and effluent samples obtained between the end of August
and November 17, 1977 were processed for animal viruses as described
above. Thirty -four isolates of cytopathogenic agents were made from nine
sewage samples collected on eight separate days. Identification of these
was crudely conducted with pools of type-specific poliovirus antisera and
with separate pools of Coxsackievirus types Bl through 5 specific antisera
(TABLE C-10) . Nine of the 34 isolates were polio viruses obtained from
five of the nine sewage samples. None of the isolates were neutralized by
the pool antisera for Coxsackievirus Bl-5 . The remaining 25 agents were
cytopathogenic for primary cultures of monkey kidney cells in 72 hours
post-inoculation. These non-poliovirus , non-coxsackieviruses may have
included other enteroviruses such as the Echoviruses. It was concluded
that polioviruses and other cytopathic agents can be recovered from
aeration tank influents and effluents, but they may not be found in sewage
aerosols if they are bound to large parti culate matter in the sewage and
not free to be aerosolized.
Aerosol Samples
Animal Viruses
Four air samples were collected for animal viral assay in the vicinity
of the wastewater aeration tanks. Although plaques were observed in both
upwind downwind samples, none was confirmed as virus (TABLE C-ll) .
Limitations in availability of equipment and shifts in wind conditions
during sampling prevented collection of larger volumes of air and corre-
sponding increased sampling sensitivity. In addition, the samples were
divided for assay on both PMK and HEp-2 cell systems which further re-
duced the air volume represented in each assay by about one-half. The
maximum air volume sampled was 180 m3 or about 180,000 liters.
176
-------
TABLE C-9. ANIMAL VIRUS RECOVERY FROM WASTEWATER AERATION TANK SAMPLES USING
Al(OH)3 CONCENTRATION PROCEDURE
-J
-J
Date
C1977> Sou
Cell
rce system
8-30 Infa PMK
HEp-2
9-14 Inf PMK
HEp-2
9-29 Inf PMK
HEp<-2
9-29 Eff PMK
HEp-2
10-5 Inf PMK
HEp-2
10-5 Eff PMK
HEp-2
10-13 Inf PMK
HEp-2
10-19 Inf PMK
HEp-2
Volume
assayed
CfflU
15.0
15.0
6.5
10.0
5.0
1,0
13.0
a,o
24.0
24,0
5.5
5.5
13.0
13,0
16.3
16,3
Sewage
volume
Cml)
2490
2490
1547
2380
1485
297
3198
2214
2952
2952
1832
1832
2834
2834
2364
2364
PFU
observed
Cno.)
12
4
24
0
0
1
2
0
2
8
5
2
0
2
2
4
PFU/1
4.8
1.6
16.3
<0,4
<0.7
3.4
0,6
0,4
0.7
2.7
2,7
1.1
<0,4
0.7
0.8
1.7
First Conf:
passage vij
CPE (no . ) (nc
irmed
:us
>.) PFVU/1
4 2(2)b 0.8
3 0
<0,4
13(2) 11(2) 7.1
0
0
1 0
1 1
0
0(1) 0
8 0
4 4
0(1) 0
0
1 0
0(1) 0
1 0
<0,4
<0,7
<3.4
0.3
<0.4
<0,3
<0.3
2.2
<0.5
<0,4
<0.4
<0.4
<0.4
(continued)
-------
TABLE C-9 (continued)
oo
Date
(197 7 i Sour
Cell
ce system
10-19 Eff PMK
HEp-2
10-27 Inf PMK
HEp-2
1O-27 Eff PMK
HEp-2
11-3 Inf PMK
HEp-2
11-3 Eff PMK
HEp-2
11-10 Inf PMK
11-10 Eff
11-17 Inf
11-17 Eff
HEp-2
PMK
HEp-2
PMK
HEp-2
PMK
HEp-2
Volume
assayed
(ml)
6,8
6,8
11.0
11,0
14,7
14,7
12.1
12,1
17.5
17,5
7,0
7,0
13,8
13,8
14,5
14,5
1.9
1.9
Sewage
volume
(ml)
2264
2264
2332
2332
2381
2381
2505
2505
2310
2310
2093
2093
2305
2305
2422
2422
295
295
PFU
observed
(no.)
2
3
5
3
2
4
13
3
1
9
6
7
6
3
8
2
2
1
PFU/1
0,9
1,3
2,2
1,3
0,8
1,7
5,2
1,2
0.4
3,9
2,8
3,4
2,6
1,3
3.3
0,8
6.9
3.4
First Conf:
passage vi:
CPE (no . ) (nc
0 0
2 0
3(1) 3
1 0
0 0
0 0
7 7
1 0
0 0
0 0
1 1
1 0
1(4) 1
0 0
1(3) 1
0 0
0 0
0 0
untied
rus
D , ) PFVU/1
<0.4
<0.4
1.3
<0.4
<0.4
<0,4
2.8
<0.4
<0,4
<0.4
0.5
<0,5
0.4
<0.4
0.4
<0.4
<3.4
<3.4
Aeration tank influent and
Number of plaques found to
effluent designated by Inf and Eff, respectively.
be bacterial or fungal contaminants in parenthesis.
-------
TABLE C-10. VIRUS IDENTIFICATION OF AERATION TANK SAMPLES
Sample
date
8/30/77
9/14
9/29
10/5
10/27
Aeration
tank
sample
location
Influent
Influent
Effluent
Effluent
Influent
Virus
identifi-
cation21'13
PV
NPCV
PV
NPCV
NPCV
NPCV
NPCV
PV
NPCV
PV
PV
NPCV
PV
NPCV
NPCV
NPCV
NPCV
NPCV
NPCV
NPCV
NPCV
NPCV
NPCV
Sample
date
11/3
11/10
11/10
11/17
Aeration
tank
sample
location
Influent
Influent
Effluent
Influent
Virus
identifi-
. . a,b
cation
NPCV
NPCV
NPCV
NPCV
NPCV
PV
NPCV
PV
NPCV
PV
NPCV
Listed for each second-passaged plaque.
PV = Poliovirus isolate; NPCV = Non-polio, non-coxsackie virus
179
-------
00
O
TABLE Oil, AIRBORNE ANIMAL VIRUS FROM LVAS SAMPLES IN VICINITY OF
WASTEWATER AERATION TANKS
Date
0.977} Locat
Air
volume
;ion (m3 \
9-29 Upwind 120
9-29 Downwind 180
10-27 Upwind 120
10-27 Downwind 120
Fluid
volume
Cml)
35
30
31
38
Cell
system
PMK
HEp-2
PMK
HEp-2
PMK
HEp-2
PMK
HEp-2
Air
volume
assayed
(m3)
60
60
88
90
53
53
56
56
PFU
observed
(no,)
0
2
7
3
8
2
3
11
First
passage
M
1
1
0
0
0
1
4
Confirmed
virus
(no. )
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
-------
APPENDIX D
PRECISION OF TOTAL VIABLE PARTICLE COUNTING PROCEDURES
Three hundred and seventy one plates were double counted from
9/19/77 to 11/1/77. One of the University of Illinois project monitoring
team (P. Pekron) acted as a reference for the other three members of the
counting team. The measurements were evaluated using the "technical
error of measurement" test (1):
S =
n
e
2n
where n is the number of pairs of measurements in the study, d2 is the
square of the difference between members of the i pair of measurements
(i = 1 n) and s = the technical error of measurement. The technical
error, s, can be interpreted as a coefficient of variation, and is a
dimensionless constant. It essentially describes the size of measurement
error. It is applied to the differences in counts in the following ways:
should |X-Y|> 3s
it is assumed that the difference is not expected and is due to some
error in counting (X being Pekron counts, Y being the counts of other
workers).
3s is chosen arbitrarily as is a "p" value (such as p = 0.01) in testing
a normal hypothesis. Thus, 3s is essentially equivalent to 3 standard
deviations, meaning 99 percent of these values should fall in this "3s"
range. The differences which are due to a miscount (determined by this
statistical method) are circled on Figure D-l. As can be seen in
Figure D-l, only 12 out of 371 counts did not fulfill this criterion.
For these 12 points, only the Pekron counts were used. For all the rest
the two counts were averaged. Double counting was carried out to the end
of the project with the same averaging procedure.
Reference (1): National Center for Vital and Health Statistics Series 11,
No. 152, Washington, D.C., 1975.
181
-------
110
ioo-
...
''*""""1
iif
60-t-rrrrrr^, rtv .-itrtzn
i.:
j i t t-1 j-t-r-i I
J...t,-ri*+
r: dtJ.it
- ; i j i i ! M
::.Ltih.iJ
. I.. I I., t. j-l
in:r:
o-
10
Pekron Counts
Figure D-l. Pekron counts vs. others' tota,! viable particle counts,
182
-------
03
00
APPENDIX E
ENVIRONMENTAL DATA
TABLE E-l. TOTAL VIABLE PARTICLES IN AIR DATA SET
OBI.
1
2
3
4
i>
6
7
8
9
10
1 1
12
13
14
t'j
Id
i r
iu
19
20
21
22
23
2*
25
26
27
2a
2<3
JO
.11
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
4o
47
48
49
50
SI
52
53
54
DATE
,
4.18
4.13
4. IS
4 . IS
4.20
4.20
4 .20
4. 20
4.21
4 . 24
4 .24
4 .24
4 .24
4.26
4. 2O
4 .20
4.26
3.02
5.02
5.02
5.02
5.08
5 .08
s.oa
5.oa
5 . 10
5.10
b. 1 0
ii. 10
b. 12
5. 12
b. 12
5.12
t> .16
5. lo
j. 16
b. 16
5. IB
5.16
3.22
b.22
5.22
b.22
5.24
5.24
5.24
5.24
5.26
5 .26
5.20
5.20
5.30
5.30
UOCATICJN
B
4
7
1 1
19
4
7
1 1
19
8
3
a
12
16
1
8
12
20
2
6
10
ie
4
7
1 1
1%
2
7
1 1
15
7
1 1
15
2
b
10
14
3
Id
2
6
1 0
1 4
3
6
10
ia
3
6
1 0
16
3
6
ENCODE
O
0
O
D
N
N
N
N
O
O
D
O
iJ
N
N
r.
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
0
a
D
O
N
O
D
O
O
N
N
N
N
0
D
O
O
N
N
PCI
80
90
93
38
32
20
120
26
102
25
0
C.
8
126
14
12
IS
17
22
33
21
10
3
IS
1
.
.
.
.
8
19
74
,
149
3'j
7
74
25
f
7
lo
28
07
18
37
.
23
.
98
7B
.
31
21
PC2
.
39
2 I
S3
2b
9
1 1
10
13
19
18
2
1
5
15
1
3
O
2
5
1 1
1
1
1
4
I
.
,
,
.
9
7
19
13
100
18
3
lo
10
,
3
3
7
30
10
4
2
1
53
24
6
15
36
a
PC3
.
29
22
2y
14
22
21
28
33
1 1
17
3
0
4
6
I
4
5
5
7
4
5
0
J
0
0
.
.
.
.
7
1
10
10
50
25
I 7
3
.
4
2
2
17
4
7
4
1
6
45
12
21
28
4
PC4
.
0
1 4
1 4
2o
22
2a
24
1 2
D
3
0
0
0
.2
1
4
0
2
3
1
a
3
4
1
0
.
,
,
.
0
1
3
4
12
9
7
b
3
.
i
i 0
8
16
1
1 4
3
0
2
1 /
8
1
9
3
F-CS
.
7
7
10
13
7
1 1
1 I
11
1
0
1
0
0
1
B
0
1
1
2
3
1
2
1
1
2
.
.
.
.
1
1
3
3
1
9
42
2
4
.
4
5
'4
IS
2
1 0
1
1
2
7
5
?_
6
3
PC 6
.
6
a
4
4
9
3
4
143
1
2
1
1
1
0
.
2
0
4
0
0
0
0
0
9
0
.
.
.
.
0
1
0
0
0
7
0
6
1
.
0
0
0
0
O
1
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
1
TOTALPC
t
167
162
208
120
10 1
100
203
233
139
65
7
8
18
Ib2
.
25
27
31
39
52
36
16
10
33
4
.
.
.
.
25
30
109
312
103
.
123
40
.
19
33
49
145
41
73
,
27
.
19 1
1 09
V
1 10
38
TCONC
*
371 .111
360.000
462 .222
266 .667
224 .4V4
222 .222
4bl .111
528 .B89
308.889
1 44 .4 -.4
15 ,'j56
17.7/6
40 .000
337 .7/3
,
b5 .5b6
60 .000
60 .aa9
66 . 66 7
1 15 .556
bO .000
35 .556
22 .222
73.333
8.689
.
.
.
.
C.5 .556
66 .607
242.222
.
693.333
223 .639
.
273 .333
102 .222
.
42.222
73.333
1 08 .889
322.222
9 1 . 1 ! 1
162.222
.
60.000
.
424.444
242 .222
.
244 .444
84 .444
WO
.
90
50
90
<50
90
90
90
90
315
315
315
315
315
135
135
135
1 35
45
45
45
45
90
90
90
90
.
.
.
.
270
270
270
2/0
225
225
225
225
45
.
225
225
225
225
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
4G
45
45
1 I ME
t
1435
1600
1535
1505
1930
2015
2120
2055
,
1125
1035
950
1 100
iy i o
1950
2020
2055
1720
1 JOO
IB25
1900
1 700
1835
.' 730
iElS
1 350
1420
1505
1445
IU20
1B45
1930
1905
13:5
1415
1450
1355
19 1 5
1 /OS
i 1 00
I 125
1205
1 1 45
1850
2005
2030
.
.
1350
1430
14 JO
1640
180S
INCTIME
m
SO
50
50
50
43
43
43
43
43
46
46
'i 6
46
43
43
43
43
48
48
48
48
..6
46
46
46
.
.
.
.
42
42
42
42
50
50
50
50
43
.
4 !',
48
48
48
43
43
43
1 3
52
52
52
52
43
43
POSITION :
CNEDN
PL^NTDN
HALFU'P
HAUFDN
CNtDN
PLANIDN
HAl_FUP
HALFlJN
CNFON
HALFOM
PLANTDN
HALFDN
HALFI;^
L'NELON
PLANTON
MALFUP
HALFDN
LNCDN
PLAN TON
HALf-'UP
HALF ON
CNEDN
PLANT OH
hALFUP
HALFON
CNF ON
PLANTON
HALFDN
HALFDN
ONEDN
PI-ANTON
MA1.KDN
HALFL/P
CNEDN
PLANTDN
HALFON
HALFUP
ONE ON
PL AN TUN
GNL3N
PLANTDN
HALFON
HALFUP
CNf.DN
PLAMTDN
HALFUP
HAL TON
CNEON
PL/ NTDN
HALFUP
HALFON
CNEDN
PLANTON
HALFUP
<
(continued)
-------
TABLE E-l (continued)
oo
uos
55
50
57
sa
59
60
6 1
62
i>3
64'
oa
66
O7
08
to'l
70
71
72
73
74
7 a
76
77
7d
79
00
ai
82
83
64
ti5
86
67
68
69
90
9 1
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
ioa
GATC LOCATION
5. JO
5.30
6.01
6.01
6.01
6.0i
6.05
0.05
0.05
6. OS
6.07
6 .Of
0.07
6 .07
6 .09
6.09
6.09
6.09
o. 13
6.13
6. 13
0.13
6.15
D. 15
6.15
6 . IS
6. 19
6.19
6. 19
6.19
6.21
6.21
6.21
6.21
0.23
6.23
0.23
0.23
6.27
0.27
6 ,27
6.27
7.03
7.03
7.03
7.03
7.05
7.05
7.07
7.07
7.07
7,07
7. 11
7.11
10
ia
2
7
1 1
1 5
3
6
10
ia
4
7
1 t
19
3
5
9
1 7
4
7
1 1
1 9
4
7
I I
19
2
7
1 1
15
4
7
1 1
19
1
a
12
20
4
7
1 1
19
2
7
1 1
15
2
7
3
6
10
ia
4
a
DNCOOE
N
N
J
o
o
o
N
N
N
N
D
n
O
D
N
N
N.
N
O
D
O
O
N
N
N
N
D
O
D
O
N
N
N
N
O
O
D
O
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
0
D
N
N
N
N
D
D
PC!
36
33
2
13
0
30
16
1 1
8
.
1 1 7
.
79
,
49
14
55
15
20
8
57
/
84
24
59
51
S
16
23
64
93
35
1 17
54
9b
39
102
40
140
43
75
ad
20
1 7
10
54
14
31
23
45
24
21
33
93
PC2
6
21
1
a
i
17
4
0
2
5
72
1
20
6
27
6
10
0
1 1
2
17
4
49
5
20
8
32
5
13
7
95
17
25
26
89
36
4 1
5
1 07
24
14
35
.
4
0
.
10
10
19
69
<*
a
t>
30
PC3
4
1 1
2
4
0
12
5
2
0
3
36
,
17
13
13
2
10
4
29
2
4
7
29
4
7
4
3
a
0
3
65
a
21
1 i
56
15
12
6
52
10
6
16
.
9
2
7
10
12
6
23
4
6
47
57
P C4
3
15
3
5
0
7
3
0
0
0
4
3
7
2
7
2
6
a
4
1
2
0
I 7
2
6
4
5
2
1
5
27
7
5
a
4
1
3
17
30
2
9
7
3
4
4
4
2
4
0
1 8
0
0
23
43
PC 5
3
27
3
3
0
3
0
0
0
1
1
4
25
3
0
4
6
5
1
3
1
5
2
2
2
1
3
1
7
a
6
7
14
2
1
0
9
30
6
9
10
7
2
5
5
3
5
2
9
2
/
7
o
PC6
I
2
12
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
4
I
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
2
1
0
2
1
2
1
1
1
I
£
0
0
0
3
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
2
1
0
0
0
2
0
0
TOTALPC TCONC
S3
109
23
34
1
70
29
13
10
231
128
100
24
33
69
1 4
83
19
184
36
96
70
50
36
39
108
2S9
74
176
1 14
249
92
158
83
362
85
1 13
156
36
21
.
41
63
50
164
34
44
1 16
229
1 17.778
242.222
51.111
75 .350
2.222
155 .556
64 .444
28 .889
22 .222
513. J33
284 .444
222!222
53.333
73.333
153.333
31.111
1 84 .444
42.232
4 08 .839
64 .444
213 .333
1 55 .556
111.111
80 .000
86 .667
240.000
642 .222
164 .444
391.111
253.333
553.333
204 .444
351 .111
184 .444
804 .444
1 8a .889
251 .111
346.667
.
80 .000
46 . 6 o 7
.
91.111
140 .000
111.111
364 .444
75.5SO
97.778
257.778
508 .339
UO
»5
45
270
270
270
270
45
45
45
45
90
90
90
90
0
0
0
0
90
90
90
90
90
90
90
90
270
270
270
270
90
90
90
90
135
135
135
135
90
90
90
90
27O
270
270
270
270
270
45
45
45
45
135
135
TIME
I 735
1305
1330
1410
1350
2035
2015
1920
1 942
1515
1 ;( 0
1 455
1 430
1 815
1 935
1910
1 84S
1 400
1 505
1 440
1440
1925
1820
1920
1900
920
1 01 5
1 0*0
950
1 840
1 835
1900
1920
1100
1225
I 135
1200
193S
I 910
1 S4S
1820
1 840
1925
1 950
1900
1 145
1205
2310
2250
2220
2200
1 520
1550
INCTIME POSITION X
43
43
46
46
46
46
43
43
43
43
49
49
49
49
43
43
43
43
32
52
52
52
4 1
41
4 1
4 1
50
50
50
50
43
43
43
43
47
47
47
47
43
43
43
43
44
44
4 4
44
44
44
48
48
48
48
,
.
HALPDN
GNEON
PL A N't ON
HALFDN
HALF UP
CNEDN
PL. AN TON
HALF UP
HALFDN
C NEDN
PLAN f ON
HALHU?
H A L F u K
CMEDN
PLANTON
HALrUP
HALFDN
CNEDN
PLAN' DN
HALF UP
HALFDN
ONE.OIM
PLANTDM
HALFUP
HALF DN
CNcDN
PLANl'DN
HALFON
HALFL/P
CNEDN
PLANTDN
HALF UP
HALFDN
CNEDN
PLANTDN
HALFUP
HALFON
ONEON
PLANT ON
HA LFUP
.HALFON
CNFDN
PL AN TON
HALFCN
HALFUP
CNtUN
PLANTON
HALFDN
PLANTON
HALFUP
HALFON
ONEON
PLANTON
HALFUP
(continued
-------
TABLE E-l (continued)
oo
Ul
DBS
109
1 10
1 1 1
112
1 1 J
1 1 4
1 15
1 10
1 17
1 18
. 1 9
120
121
122
12J
124
12S
126
127
I2a
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
130
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
1 4O
147
14d
149
150
151
I 52
153
154
155
150
157
158
159
160
161
162
OATE LOCATION
7. 11
7. I I
7. 1 J
7. 13
7. 13
7.13
7.17
7.17
7.17
7.17
7.19
7. 19
7. 19
7. 19
7.25
7.25
7.2b
7.25
7.27
7.27
7.27
7.27
7 .3 1
7.31
7.31
7.31
a. 04
6.04
8. 04.
a. 04
8. 08
8. Ob
0 . OB
6.08
a. 10
a. 10
8.10
a. 10
8.14
a. 14
a. 14
a. 14
a. i o
b. 16
8.16
a. 16
8. 18
a. la
s. ia
d. la
e. 22
a. 22
a. 22
8.22
12
20
4
7
11
19
t
o
10
14
2
t.
10
14
3
5
9
17
4
/
1 1
19
2
7
1 1
15
3
o
1C
18
2
7
1 1
15
3
5
9
17
3
O
to
18
3
5
9
17
3
6
10
18
2
6
10
14
DNCOOE PCI
O
O
N
N
N
N
O
D
0
O
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
D
D
0
O
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
O
O
O
D
N
N
N
N
O
D
O
O
N
N
N
N
O
O
o
o
N
N
N
N
S
75
59
18
35
3d
46
15
5
0
9
35
9
280
241
10
18
24
45
1 4
64
23
24
4 1
40
48
2
50
2
6
46
19
13
1 44
48
1 72
1 12
2
13
SI
2d
15
163
1 1
71
31
23
34
82
268
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
. J
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.c
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.5
.
.0
.0
.0
.
. a
.0
.0
.0
.0
. 5
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
,
,
.0
PC2
1 .
4.
51.
3.
9.
Id.
38.
1 .
4 .
0.
o .
24.
O.
70.
1 80.
2.
5.
.
86.
9.
18.
ia .
45.
a.
,
16.
2 ,
7.
1 .
3.
37.
7.
6.
7.
58.
.
16.
87.
96.
3.
5.
2.
27.
3.
SO.
7.
78.
21 .
12.
12.
1 26.
49.
13.
125.
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
5
5
5
0
0
0
5
0
s
5
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
s
0
0
PC3
1 1 .0
2.0
41 .0
0.0
2.0
o.O
29.0
0.0
0 .0
0,0
1C .0
35. 0
7.-J
do .0
239.0
1 .0
4 .0
1 .0
43.0
10.0
22.0
19.0
7.0
23.0
13.0
13.0
o.O
19.0
0.0
8.0
17.5
5. 5
2.0
J.O
23.0
31.0
23.0
22.0
I 79.5
1 .0
3.5
20.5
40 . 0
I .0
32.0
2.0
Sb.O
11 .0
9. 0
9.0
59. 0
20.5
12.0
103.0
PC 4
2.0
2.0
6.0
0.0
4.0
2.0
1 (j.O
2.0
.
3.0
3o.O
21.0
37.0
'72.0
2 9 * 0
3.0
2.0
I G
19.0
7.0
24.0
9.0
6. C
2.0
o.O
61.0
2.0
i .0
3.0
3.0
7.5
55.0
8.0
8.5
i 2. 0
1 .0
7.0
11.0
24.0
I .0
4. 0
14 .0
J.O
4. 0
13.0
1 .0
1 6.0
7.0
9.0
4.0
49.0
22.S
14.0
33.5
PCS
0.
1 .
4 .
2.
14.
1 1 .
O .
._ .
2.
0.
2! .
1 2.
1 i .
30.
/ .
23.
1 .
o .
1 1 .
-7 w
i 0.
d.
19.
9.
5 .
73.
0.
3.
1 .
0.
.
3.
6 .
»
7.
rt.
7.
12.
7.
2.
0.
2.
CJ .
2.
2.
I .
4 .
1 .
5 .
27.
119.
7.
39.
1 1.
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
a
0
0
0
0
0
0
J
j
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
a
0
0
0
0
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
5
0
PC6
0 .0
1 .0
0 .0
0.0
2.0
0 .0
1 .0
0.0
1 .0
0.0
1 1 .0
5.0
4.0
9.0
0. J
J.O
1 .0
0.0
9.0
0 .0
4 .0
2 .0
.
b.O
2.0
5.0
0 .0
2.0
0.0
0.0
1.0
1 .5
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
1 .0
1 .0
0.5
1 .0
2.0
0.0
3 .0
1 .0
1 .0
0 .0
0.0
0.0
0.0
7.0
4 .0
0.0
.
1 .0
rOTALPC
22.0
85.0
161.0
23.0
66.6
75.0
136.0
19.0
B
3.0
99.0
122.0
74.0
547.0
746. 0
42.0
31 .0
.
21 3.0
47.0
142.0
79.0
.
Sd.O
.
216.0
1 4.0
82.0
7.0
20.0
.
,
41.5
,
244.0
.
102.0
305.0
420.0
10.0
26.0
96.5
10 7.0
26.0
321 .0
22.0
224.0
71.0
se.o
93.0
439.0
,
.
543.5
TCONC
43.
103.
357.
51 .
146.
166.
302 .
42.
B
& .
220.
271 .
164.
1215.
1 657.
93.
68.
.
473.
1 0 4 .
31 b.
175.
195.
«
480.
31 .
182.
15.
44 .
.
,
92 .
.
542 .
.
226.
677.
933.
22.
62.
214.
237.
57.
713.
48 .
49 7.
157.
128.
206.
975.
,
.
1 207.
89
89
78
1 1
67
07
22
22
67
00
1 t
44
56
78
33
89
33
44
56
56
56
00
1 1
22
56
44
22
22
67
78
33
22
22
44
78
78
3 3
69
73
78
89
67
56
78
WO
135
135
90
90
90
90
225
225
22 S
225
225
225
225
225
0
0
0
0
90
90
90
90
270
270
270
270
45
4 5
45
45
370
270
270
270
O
0
0
0
45
45
45
45
0
0
0
0
45
45
45
45
225
225
225
225
TIM£
1445
I42b
2015
1815
1905
1040
1255
1 130
1 I 08
I 150
1 745
1805
1900
1325
.
1 925
1945
2005
1 750
1630
: 4i o
1 320
1925
1 025
1 855
1800
2320
2225
2305
2245
1600
1305
1325
1 2i5
2015
1900
1940
1920
940
835
900
920
1 905
1SOO
1 850
1825
1450
1405
1340
1315
191O
1825
18SO
1800
iNCTiME POSITION X
9
44
44
44
44
51
51
51
51
.
,
,
,
44
44
44
44
44
44
44
>+ 4
-.3
43
43
43
.
.
B
.
02
52
52
52
44
44
44
44
54
54
b4
54
44
44
44
44
51
51
51
51
.
.
,
HA1_I=L>N .
ONtON
PLANTON .
HALFUP .
HALFUN
ONZ0.4 .
PLANTL/N
HALF ON .
rlALFL*" .
ONEJrt
PLANTOM .
HALFON .
HALFUP .
Oh.CDN
PLANION
HALFUP .
HALFUN .
CNEDN
PLANTC'N
HALFUP
HALFUN .
GNEON
PLANTDN .
HALFUN .
HALFUP .
DNEDN
PL ANT ON
HALFUP .
HALFDN
CNHON
PLANTDi\ .
nAi.ro:.
HALFU?
O Nt£ D N .
PLAMON .
HALFUP
HALFUN .
C.NdPN .
PLAN7ON .
HALFUP .
HiLFUN
CMLON .
PI-ANTON ,
HALFUP
HALF ON .
CNCDN
Pt-AMDN
HALFUP .
HALFDN
CNrON
PLAMDN
HALFDN
HALFUP .
ONEDN
-------
TABLE E-l (continued)
oo
ous
103
lo*
165
1 66
167
108
169
170
171
172
1 T3
1 74
175
176
177
1 78
1 79
1 30
1 31
182
183
1 64
165
166
187
138
169
140
191
192
193
194
195
) 96
19 /
I'Jb
i 99
200
201
202
203
234
205
206
20'
203
209
2 i 0
21 1
212
213
214
215
216
OATc LQCAT ION
8.24
b .24
fa. 24
8.24
B . 30
3. JO
8 .JO
8. JO
.5,01
9.01
9.01
9.01
9. 05
9. Ob
9 .0-j
9.05
9.07
9.07
9.07
9.07
9.11
9.11
9.11
9.11
9.13
9.13
'9.13
9. 13
9.19
9.19
9. 19
9. 19
9.21
9.21
9.21
9.21
9. 25
9 .25
9.25
9.23
9.27
9.27
9.27
9.27
9 . 29
9.29
9. 29
9.29
10.04
10.04
10.04
10.04
10. Ob
10.05
3
6
1 0
13
3
3
1 1
16
3
8
12
16
3
8
1 1
16
3
5
9
1 7
1
8
12
20
3
5
9
17
2
7
1 1
15
3
3
12
16
1
5
9
13
2
7
1 1
15
1
5
j
13
2
r
i i
15
2
7
DNCCQE PL.
O
D
[J
D
D
L)
O
D
N
N
N
N
,0
13
O
D
N
N
N
N
D
D
D
D
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
0
L>
O
0
N
N
N
N
O
O
0
O
N
N
N
N
D
O
D
0
N
N
36,0
14.5
18.5
12.5
40. b
23.0
30.0
2^.0
26.0
i 1.0
19.0
11.0
17.5
12 .0
15.5
1 .3
50.0
11.0
33.0
48.0
194 .0
103. 0
1 2 o . 0
.
58.0
1£.0
32.5
I 3.5
46.0
40.5
39.0
51.0
44. 0
112.0
26.5
25. 'J
50,0
82.0
uo . 0
92.5
86. 0
71 .5
34.5
40.0
99.5
75. b
69.0
.
123.5
31 .0
25.0
33.5
62.5
76.5
PC2
55.5
4.0
4 .5
3.5
24 .0
8.5
11.0
7.5
IS.O
11.0
2.U
u. 0
1 0.5
1 .0
5.5
2.5
35.0
10.0
21.0
17.0
220 .0
24.0
37 .0
71.0
90.0
2.0
20.5
1 .5
33.0
19.3
23.5
2.0
42.5
20 .0
1 X5 . 5
8.0
35.0
39.5
.
19.0
139.5
24.0
14. Ci
13 .0
74.0
28.0
30.5
.
116.5
23.5
2.5
22.5
59.0
47.0'
PCJ
29.5
1 .5
2.0
1 .5
11.5
8,0
0.5
1 .5
14.0
O . 0
-.0
0.0
30 .Si
0.0
1 .5
i . 0
.
J.O
9.0
2 .0
213.0
15.0
ld.0
39.0
183.5
7 .5
101 .5
9.0
40.0
3 .0
12.5
7 ,0
24.5
1 J.O
3.0
4.5
58.5
6.5
3.5
3.5
22.5
17.0
5.5
.
46.5
18.5
13.0
.
72 . tt
4 .0
3.5
6.5
29.0
2J.5
PC4
3 .5
I .0
0.5
0.0
7 .0
5.0
0.0
4 .0
7. 0
3.0
.
1 .B
30 .0
1 .0
5.5
3 .5
10.0
4 .0
14.0
.
69.0
13.0
15.0
42.0
36.5
1 .5
4.0
3 .5
8 .0
5.5
3.0
4.0
8.0
4.0
1 .0
0 .0
IS.O
9.5
9.5
7.0
S.O
10.0
7.0
9.5
4.0
7.0
8.0
,
22.0
3.0
1 .0
5.0
12.5
7.0
PCS
3 ,5
1 .0
1 .0
-i . 5
2.0
2 .5
7. 0
14.0
0. 0
I . 0
0 .0
0. 0
2 .0
4. 5
5.5
0 .0
3.0
10,0
! o.O
5. 0
51.0
il . 0
12.0
77. 0
6. 0
9.0
4 .5
2. 0
3.0
1 . 0
1 .5
3.0
2.5
1 .0
0. 0
0. 0
7.0
9. 0
.
10. 0
b. 0
4.0
5.0
0.0
3. 0
14,5
14> 5
.
2.. 0
14.0
1.5
2.5
1 5.5
15. 0
f'C6 IOTALPC
0.0
2.0
0.0
0.0
1 .5
49.0
1 .0
0 .5
0 .0
1 .0
1 .0
i .0
0 .0
0.5
I .5
1 . 0
2.0
i .0
5.0
1 .0
2 .0
4. 0
5 .0
I 0.0
2 .5
3.0
1 .0
0 .5
0.5
o.o
0.0
4.0
0.0
1 .0
0.0
0.0
1 .0
1 .0
0 .0
2.0
0.0
0.0
1 .0
0.0
0.0
0.0
a.o
.
0 .0
0 .0
2.5
3.0
0 .0
1 .0
130.
24.
26.
2 1 .
60.
93.
49.
56,
66.
33.
,
19.
96.
1 9.
35.
9.
.
39.
98.
.
769.
190.
21 2.
,
376.
35.
164.
30.
130.
69.
79.
7 I .
121.
151.
46.
38.
166.
149.
,
139.
26 1 .
I2o.
67.
,
227.
143.
140.
.
336.
75.
30.
73.
178.
170.
0
0
5
0 '
5
0
^
5
0
0
0
5
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
5
0
0
0
5
0
5
0
5
0
0
0
5
5
0
0
5
0
0
5
0
5
5
0
0
5
0
TCGNC
2os
53
5 °j
4o
192
206
11 u
125
145
73
42
214
42
77
20
36
21 7
1 70S
422
471
636
77
364
66
290
153
176
157
270
33b
102
34
370
332
303
580
261
148
504
313
31 I
74 /
107
do
162
396
J77
.H9
.33
.39
.07
.22
.67
. 30
.56
.67
.33
.
.22
.44
.22
.78
.00
.
.67
. 78
.39
.22
. i 1
.67
.78
.44
.67
.00
.33
.67
.78
.00
. 56
.22
.44
u 0
.22
.
.39
.00
. 1 1
.89
,
a 44
.89
. 1 1
.
. 78
..73
.00
.22
.67
.78
.0
45
45
45
45
31 ~>
31 5
315
315
31 5
3lb
315
31 b
31 b
31 5
31 5
31 S
0
0
0
0
135
135
135
135
0
0
0
0
270
270
270
270
315
o 1 5
3:5
31 5
I 6 0
180
180
180
270
270
270
270
180
130
180
130
270
270
270
270
270
270
TI ME
i 225
1 120
i-fOi
1145
1415
1 340
1300
1 320
2152
£030
20C5
800
340
620
2025
20 1 0
1945
1425
1810
1715
1 73 5
I 755
1910
1845
1800
1820
1910
1345
I 000
1820
142 7
1 J45
i 225
1308
2006
1840
1 920
1 BOS
I 732
1657
1820
1620
2055
2015
1900
1 940
1220
1 1 03
1 140
1028
1 830
1925
INCTIME
43
4 d
48
43
52
52
52
52
44
44
44
44
49
49
49
49
4 4
44
4 4
44
49
49
49
49
43
43
43
43
50
50
50
50
43
43
43
43
44
44
4 **
44
47
47
47
47
44
44
44
43
43
43
43
44
44
POS1TIC.N )
HLANTON
HALFU?
HALt'L'N
O r,E 0 N
PLANTDN
HALFON
HALF UP
OKiiDN
PLAf.T.TN ..
HALFON
hSLr OP
CNEDN
PLANIuM
HALF bN
HALFUP
ONt UN
PLANTDN
HALFUP
HALFON
C Nil ON
PLANIUN
HALF UP
HALTL'N
ONE ON
PL AMI UN
HALF UP
HALFDN
UNEON
PLAKTDN
HALFDN
HALFUP
ONE ON
PLANT ON
HAl.r UN
HALF Jp
GN.-~D.Si
PLANTON
HALFON
HALFUP
ONfcJN
PLAN! ON
KALl-'ON
HALFUP
ONEUN
PLANTDN
HALFJN
HALF UP
ONtON
PLAMDN
HALFDN
HALFUP
CJNEON
PLANTUN
MA»-FDN
(continued)
-------
TABLE E-l (continued)
oo
-j
uus
217
21B
219
2 ? 1
223
224
225
226
227
228
229
250
231
232
233
234
23b
236
2J7
23c*
239
240
241
242
243
244
245
246
24/
248
249
230
251
252
255
254
23b
2b6
257
2SM
259
260
261
262
263
264
N
N
N
N
O
D
O
D
N
N
N
N
O
L)
0
O
|V,
N
N
N
O
D
D
D
63.0
44 , 0
1 Od.S
20.5
8.0
5/.5
62. 0
69. 0
56. 0
65. 0
08. b
112.0
91.5
215. 0
94. 0
56. 5
59. 0
141. 0
42. 5
06 . 5
10. S
11.0
27.5
3. 0
11.0
10.0
1 . 5
4 . 5
14.5
3. 5
11.5
12.0
id. 0
a . 5
2. 5
59. 5
69. 5
30.0
50. 0
111.5
89.0
65 0
Id. 0
4 . 0
1 . 0
2. 3
o2. 0
33. 0
20.5
241 .5
14. b
7. 0
1 . 5
5.0
28.0
16.0
120. 0
3.0
15.5
160.0
35.0
24.0
42.5
86. 5
32.5
10. 0
97.5
57.0
57.0
53.0
104.5
60. '5
13.0
2.0
6.0
41.0
2.0
5.0
6.0
5.0
2.0
2.0
5 c b
9. 5
6.0
4.5
2 .5
2.0
d.O
18.5
14.0
48.0
49.5
30.0
24.5
0.0
5.0
3.0
1 .5
17.0
1 .5
3.0
39.0
1 1 .5
2.0
2.0
1 .0
PC3
13.5
12.0
65 . 0
d.O
18.5
76 .0
16.0
29.0
19.0
58 .0
62 5
9 .5
29.0
55 .0
22.0
24.5
4o . 5
66.0
d4 .0
2 ,5
0 .0
36 .5
1 .0
2 .0
0 . 0
22.5
3.0
4.0
o G
15.0
14.0
1 .0
0 . C
4 .5
o.S
1 0. 0
9 . 0
57.0
22.5
L. . 0
19.0
14.5
0 .0
1 .5
2.0
1 . 0
1 . S
2. 0
21.5
14.0
4 . 5
1 .5
2.0
PC4
7.5
12.0
39.0
0 .0
72.0
35.5
21 .0
3 ,0
5.0
25.5
15 .5
I .0
5.0
13.5
8. 0
3.0
15.5
12.5
1 d . 0
2 .0
0.0
10.0
i . :.
2 .0
0.0
1 . 0
5 . 0
7.0
2 .0
2.0
1 0.5
0 .5
0 .0
2 .0
2 .0
5.0
3 .5
22.0
16.5
1.5
4 .0
3.0
3 .0
2 .0
0.0
1 .0
0.5
0.5
0.5
8.5
5.5
4.0
1 . 0
PCb
7, 0
42 .5
10. C
6. 5
80.5
12.5
10.5
8,5
4 . 0
1 . 0
3.0
2. 0
0. 0
?0. 5
9.5
17.0
20.5
10.0
0. 0
1 .0
3. 0
2. 0
0. 0
0. 0
0. 0
O.b
0. 0
3.0
1 . 0
1 . 0
0. U
1 .5
0 . 5
0. 0
13.0
3 .0
0 . 0
- .5
: 5. o
3 . 0
5.5
3. 5
0 . 0
0. 0
1 . 0
I . 0
2. 0
0. 0
0. 0
1 .0
.0.0
6. 0
0.0
PC6
2 .0
b .0
0. 0
2.5
I .0
4.0
52.0
2 .0
0.0
1 .0
0.0
0. J
3.0
3.5
0.0
0.5
0 .0
1 .0
1.5
0.5
1 .0
c.o
0 .0
0.0
0.0
0 .0
0.5
0.0
1 .5
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
5 . 0
0.0
O.b
0.0
0. 0
0 .0
0 ,0
0 .0
0 .0
0.0
C .0
0.0
0 .0
0.0
0.0
0 .0
TOTALPC TCONC
12 1 .0
132.0
342.5
13 0
36 5 ! 0
155.5
172.5
137.5
259.5
2J6.S
114.0
3 4 o » 5
243.0
136.5
156.5
528.5
19 1.5
104.5
19.5
20.5
1 1 d.O
7.b
20.0
16.0
30.5
I 4.5
31.0
I 5.0
43.5
4 J.O
25.5
1 I .5
11.0
88.5
106.0
57.0
104.5
215.0
130.0
136.0
45.0
12.5
7.5
7.0
82.0
3a.o
26.0
302.5
49.5
19.0
1 5. 0
9.0
268
293
761
? ti
320
345
383
305
576
481
253
770
540
303
347
730
425
4 1 0
43
45
262
16
44
35
o7
32
66
33
96
9u
56
25
24
196
235
126
4 10
477
265
302
1 00
27
16
15
102
85
57
672
1 1 3
42
33
20
.889
.333
.111
I *
.000
.556
.333
. 556
.667
.111
.333
.000
.000
.333
.776
.000
.536
.000
.333
.556
.222
.667
.444
.556
.778
.222
.889
.535
.067
.556
.667
.536
.444
.66 7
.556
. 60 7
.000
. 778
b89
,222
.000
. 778
.607
.556
.222
.056
.778
.222
.000
.222
.333
.000
KD
270
270
270
270
270
270
270
270
270
270
2SS
225
22b
225
225
225
225
225
31 0
31 5
31 5
31 b
90
90
90
90
160
IB 0
160
180
90
90
90
90
1 80
180
180
160
180
180
ISO
luO
0
0
0
0
225
225
225
225
225
225
225
225
TIME
2040
2000
1652
1 445
1 400
2030
1953
1320
1 900
1 743
1635
1710
1600
1 820
1935
20 1 0
1900
1215
1 100
1015
1 1 40
2015
1320
1 940
1905
1 100
1215
I 2 '5 5
1 1 40
2030
1835
1913
1 955
I 000
1040
1 200
I 120
2025
1905
1 B25
1945
i 045
1005
350
925
1 «45
2010
2045
1 930
1 130
1 050
i 035
1110
INCH ME
44
44
52
52
5 2
52
45
45
40
45
43
43
43
43
4O
40
46
46
45
45
45
45
44
44
44
4 4
b 1
51
b 1
5 1
4 4
44
4 4
44
45
4b
45
4 S
40
46
46
48
46
46
46
46
45
45
45
45
S3
55
53
53
POSt TICN
HALFUP
ONtON
PL. ANTON
HALFDN
ONKUN
PLANTDN
HALFON
HALF UP
ONF.UN
PLAMON
HALF;>N
HALF- UP
CNr. UN
PL AKTON
HALFDN
HALFUP
OK'CDN
PLANT OK
HALFDN
HALFUP
u tse u N
PLANfON
HALF Up
H A L F O N
ChcLiN
PLANTON
HALFON
H A L K U p
GN£ it TV
PLAMDN
H &Li~ UP
HALF l)N
CiNLUN
P L A N T O i\
HALFON
HALFUP
CN<-L»!J
PLAN I i.i N
HAL1-" JN
HALFUP
UNLUr;
PLAF.TON
HALFUP
HALF UN
GNEiiN
PL AN TON
HALf-'UN
HALFUP
ONEDN
PLANTOlM
HALFON
HALFwP
(JNEDN
X
.
m
.
'
*
B
^
f
f
*
B
^
,
s
,
,
B
^
,
^
^
B
.
0
t
.
,
f
B
n
,
w
,
.
,
m
^
f
.
.
f
f
m
^
B
^
m
f
m
I
,
(continued)
-------
TABLE E-l (continued)
oo
CO
UBS
271
272
273
274
275
276
277
27a
279
2(30
2ai
262
2H3
2f>4
285
2d6
2d7
288
289
290
291
292
293
290
295
296
297
298
PATE LOCATION
1 1
1 t
1 1
1 1
1 1
1 1
1 1
i 1
11
1 1
1 1
1 1
1 i
1 1
i 1
: i
1 1
1 1
1 1
1 1
1 i
1 1
i i
1 1
1 1
1 1
1 1
1 1
. 14
. 14
. 14
. 14
. 16
. 10
. 16
. Ib
. 20
.20
.20
.20
.22
.22
.22
.22
.24
.24
.24
.24
.2d
.23
.23
. 26
.30
.JO
.30
.30
1
5
9
1 J
2
7
1 1
15
1
b
9
1 J
4
7
I 1
19
2
7
1 1
15
2
7
1 1
IS
3
t>
9
17
ONCODE PCI
N
N
N
N
O
O
0
O
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
O
D
0
O
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
47
80
70
57
103
50
30
S3
40
0
b
28
4
N
HAuFUP
U Nb 0 N
PLANION
HAL.'- ON
HsLFUP
ONLUN
PLANT3N
HALF UP
H*LrON
ONCDN
P L A H r ,j N
HALF ON
HALt-'U,'*
Of, r.ON
PLAN! ON
HALf-OH
HALFOP
CNEDN
PLANTDN
HALF UP
HALFON
ONEON
-------
TABLE E-2. TOTAL COLIFORM PARTICLES IN AIR DATA SET
05
COS
1
2
3
4
b
6
7
8
3
54
DAIS
9.13
9.13
9.13
9. 13
9.19
9. !9
9.19
9.19
9.2 i
9.2 1
9.21
9.21
9.25
9.25
9.25
9.25
9.27
9 .27
9.27
9.27
9.29
9.29
9.29
9.29
1 0.04
10.04
10.04
1C .04
10.05
10.05
1 0. 05
1 0. 09
IO.09
1 0.09
I 0.09
10.11
10.11
10.11
10.11
10.13
10.13
10.13
10.13
10.17
10.17
10.17
10.17
10.19
10.19
10.19
10. 19
1 0.23
10 .23
10.23
DNCOOE
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
D
O
D
O
N
N
N
N
D
D
0
D
N
N
N
N
D
D
D
0
N
N
N
O
O
O
O
N
N
N
N
O
O
O
D
N
N
N
N
O
D
D
0
N
N
N
LOCATION
3
5
9
1 7
2
7
1 1
15
3
8
12
16
1
5
9
13
Z
7
i 1
15
1
<3
9
13
2
7
1 1
I'j
2
7
1 1
2
7
1 1
15
2
7
1 1
15
2
6
I 0
14
2
6
10
1 >
3
8
12
16
4
7
1 1
PUMP
99
97
97
99
99
99
99
99
99
99
99
91
97
97
97
97
99
99
99
99
99
99
99
99
97
97
97
97
97
97
97
95
95
95
95
93
98
98
93
95
95
95
95
93
98
93
98
98
98
98
98
95
95
95
INCTIME
22
22
22
22
23
?3
23
23
26
20
26
26
24
24
24
24
22
22
i?.
22
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
23
23
23
22
22
22
22
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
24
24
24
24
23
23
23
23
24
24
24
PCI
6
0
0
0
0
0
2
2
12
2
0
0
1
1
2
0
2
0
I
t
0
1
0
1
I
0
0
0
1
O
2
3
0
1
1
1
1
1
2
5
0
0
2
1
1
1
0
1
0
1
0
9
0
0
PC2
4
0
0
0
0
2
1
0
5
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
2
0
0
0
2
2
1
0
3
1
0
0
2
4
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
PC3
2
O
0
0
0
1
1
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
4
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
O
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
7
0
0
PC4
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
a
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
t
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
4
0
0
PCS
I
0
O
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
O
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
i
0
0
PC6
O
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
O
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
O
0
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
TOTALPC
15
0
0
0
0
3
4
2
19
2
2
0
I
1
2
0
3
0
1
0
0
1
0
1
2
0
0
0
2
0
2
6
0
1
1
8
3
2
2
9
1
0
2
3
6
1
0
3
0
1
0
2t
0
0
CONC
33.3
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
6 .7
8.9
4.4
21.1
2.2
2.2
0.0
1 . 1
1 . 1
2.2
0.0
3.3
0.0
2.2
1 . 1
0.0
1 . 1
0.0
1 . 1
2.2
0.0
0.0
0.0
2.2
0.0
2.2
6.7
0.0
1 . 1
1 . 1
6.9
3.3
2.2
2.2
10.0
1 . 1
0. 0
2.2
3.3
6. 7
1 . 1
0.0
3.3
0.0
1 . 1
o.o
23.3
0,0
0.0
WO RH
0 95
0 83
0 79
0 83
270 79
270 74
270 74
270 74
315 P3
315 65
315 73
315 70
ISO 58
160 53
180 54
180 41
270 70
270 65
270 74
270 74
ISO 66
160 70
130 59
180 fcl
270 50
270 50
270 47
270 50
?. 7 0 38
270 36
270 54
270 56
270 60
270 43
270 60
270 66
270 59
270 66
270 66
225 45
225 35
225 48
225 39
?25 51
225 52
225 56
225 59
315 70
315 81
315 65
315 75
90 73
90 75
90 30
TEMP TIME
59 1910
62 1845
63 leOO
62 1320
63 1010
64 1845
C5 1800
64 1 8 ;? 0
01 1427
65 1?45
61 1225
64 1305
. 2C 08
71 1840
74 1920
79 1005
64 1732
64 1657
62 1820
06 1620
65 2055
2015
1630
1930
65 12?0
65 11 03
67 1140
61 10 fP,
S'J 1630
61 1925
54 ?040
57 1652
S5 14 45
60 1535
55 1400
47 2010
48 [c>5C
16ZO
47 1900
57 1740
60 163S
50 1710
60 1600
61 1320
58 1935
56 2010
60 i ° 0 0
54 1215
SI 1 1 00
1015
53 I 140
201 5
1820
. 1940
(continued)
-------
TABLE E-2 (continued)
uas c
b5
56 1
57
£.8
b9 1
60 I
6 I
02
63
04 1
65
66 1
6 f 1
68 1
69 1
70 1
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
fa
79
60
81
82
03
t.4
as
86
O'f
88
89
90
9 1
92
93
94
9'j
96
97
93
99
loo
iO I
102
10 3
>AT£
0.23
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.31
0.31
0.3 1
0.31
1 .02
I .02
1.02
1.02
1 .06
1 .06
I .06
.06
.08
.08
.08
.08
. 14
. 1 4
. 14
. 1 4
. 16
. 16
. 16
. 16
.20
.20
.20
.20
.22
.22
.22
.22
.24
.24
. 24
.24
.28
.23
.28
.28
1 .30
I .30
1 .30
1 .30
DM CODE
N
D
O
O
D
O
O
O
o
N
N
N
N
O
D
O
O
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
D
O
O
O
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
D
O
D
O
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
.-OCATION
19
1
5
9
13
1
5
9
13
1
5
9
13
3
5
9
1 7
2
6
I 0
1 4
1
5
9
13
2
7
1 1
15
i
5
9
13
4
7
I 1
19
Z
7
1 1
15
2
7
1 1
15
3
5
9
I 7
PUMP
95
98
98
98
90
98
96
98
95
93
98
98
93
95
95
95
95
98
98
98
98
98
98
98
98
95
95
95
95
98
95
95
95
95
95
95
95
95
95
95
95
90
98
98
98
98
98
98
98
I NCTIME
24
23
23
23
23
25
25
25
25
24
24
24
24
22
22
22
22
22
23
23
23
.
.
.
22
22
22
22
23
23
23
23
23
23
23
23
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
22
22
22
22
PCI
0
6
I
I
0
0
0
1
6
1
2
0
O
3
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
.
2
1
1
0
5
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
6
0
0
o
PC2
0
3
0
0
0
1
0
0
3
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
.
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
6
0
0
0
PC3
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
J
0
0
1
0
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
J
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
I
0
0
0
4
0
0
0
PC4
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
PCS
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
o
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
o
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
3
0
0
0
?C6
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
TOTALPC
1
'10
1
0
2
0
z
9
1
4
0
0
4
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
I
0
1
.
3
1
1
0
I 0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
I
0
0
0
21
1
0
0
CONC
1 . 1
11.1
1 '. \
0.0
2.2
0.0
2.2
10.0
: . i
4.4
0 . J
0.0
4.4
0.0
: , i
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
1 . 1
0.0
1 . 1
.
3.3
1 . 1
1. 1
0.0
11.1
0.0
0.0
1 . 1
1 . 1
0.0
0.0
o.o
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
1 . 1
0.0
0.0
0.0
23.3
1 . 1
0.0
0.0
iD
90
ISO
180
160
ISO
180
ISO
160
100
1 80
180
160
ISO
0
0
0
0
225
225
225
225
160
1 80
160
i ao
270
270
270
270
iao
13C
180
ISO
90
90
90
90
?70
270
270
270
270
270
270
270
0
0
0
0
f.H
80
89
39
64
69
78
74
79
74
S5
84
66
89
39
59
89
B 0
1000
1040
1200
1120
2L<>5
!905
1625
19 t5
i 045
1005
ebo
925.-
1845
2010
204'J
10 TO
1800
1935
2025
1900
1230
1 1 50
1 >50
1310
1735
1850
1805
IC26
1920
16^0
1 740
1715
lObO
900
1015
935
1 700
1745
1905
1 330
1925
1730
1810
1645
-------
TABLE E-3. VIABLE SEWAGE DATA SET
vfl
oas
i
2
3
*
5
6
7
8
9
: o
1 i
1 Z
13
1 4
1 -5
16
1 7
18
1 ?
20
2 i
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
3'1
39
40
41
42
43
< <+
c>
ti
7
8
9
0
s;
52
53
54
DATE
4. 13
4.14
4.13
4. 20
4.24
4.26
5.02
5.33
5.10
S. i 2
5. Ib
3. 13
5. 22
S. 24
5.26
5.30
6.01
6. 05
6 . 07
6 , 09
6. 13
6. 15
6. 19
0.21
6.23
6.17
6.29
7. 03
7. 05
7. 07
7.11
7.13
7. 17
7. 19
7. 21
7.25
7.27
7 . .i 1
S. 02
a. os
3. 10
U. i 4
ti. 16
U. 1 7
8.13
0. 22
8. 24
fi.30
5. Jl
9.01
9. OS
9.07
9. 1 1
9. 13
ONCODE
D
O
O
M
D
N
N
N
O
N
O
N
a
N
0
N
0
N
O
N
ID
N
D
N
D
N
D
N
0
N
D
N
0
N
O
N
a
N
D
U
N
O
N
LJ
O
N
O
O
O
N
O
N
D
N
LOCAT ION
3
1
1
1
1
1
3
1
1
1
1
1
i
1
1,
I
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
I
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
i
I
1
1
1
1
3
3
1
1
1
I
1
1
1
I
1
1
1
1
1
TV; AB
f
.
220.0
319.8
73.4
i 14.6
58.0
56.5
o6.5
4250. o
I 0 0 . 0
css.o
33.5
8.0
3.8
19.4
6.5
12.0
46.0
4.9
5. 6
15.0
13.9
14.2
67,5
1 2.3
P.2.0
42.3
40.7
27.7
1 4.8
50. S
10 . I
19.8
b9 .0
93.6
167.3
1-10.9
136.4
til .U
70. 0
69. 0
4090.0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
9.2
9.5
8.5
(0.5
TCDLI
a .a
34 .5
32 .0
S'l .5
45 .'5
47.5
54 .0
44 .0
36.0
73.0
29.0
370 .0
3.9
12 .6-
16.2
8.7
10 .3
la. 6
41.0
5.7
7.6
23 .0
18.4
40 .5
15. 5
10.8
22 .0
14 .1
10.4
9.9
12.3
a. r
7.8
7.0
47.0
5J.5
73.6
-3 .6
45.0
sa.s
67.0
36 .0
79 . 1
90 .5
96 .2
26.6
1 10.0
250 .0
285 .5
71 .0
1 ^2.3
51 .5
66 .4
9 .5
FCOLI
14.3
19.0
86 .8
34.5
56.5
0. I
53.0
71.4
29.5
56.8
46.5
245.0
16.4
92.7
35.5
IV .0
27.0
32.5
47.0
1 0.2
15.0
-.1 .5
51 .5
119.1
47.0
31.5
19.2
38. 0
2slo
26.5
27.8
65. 5
13 .5
63.6
113.2
87. 7
7(j .8
112.7
65.5
H2 .3
50.5
160.9
144.6
15 i. 5
49.5
;? o t . i
190 .0
153.5
101.4
214.6
69.5
175.0
126.4
TIME
1 000
1120
1 433
1 930
1 000
1 900
1700
1 330
1815
1915
i aso
1 91 5
1 330
I 030
1 300
2045
1 545
1 800
1525
1 950
91 0
1 925
1 1 1 5
1 800
1 050
1 830
1315
2315
1 600
1810
13?0
1 920
900
2 000
1 iOO
1 935
1100
t 600
2015
955
2000
1500
1 500
1233
1 230
1 300
1 130
1915
600
2035
1 700
1930
(continued)
-------
TABLE E-3 (continued)
OG.S
55
5o
57
56
59
60
OnTE DNCODE LOCATION TVI^a
9.14 N
9. 19 N
9.21 D
9.25 N
9.2B D
9.29 O
61 10.04 O
62 1
0.05 N
63 10.09 O
64 I
65 1
0.11 N
0.13 D
66 10.17 N
67 10.19 D
68 1
0.25 a
69 10.27 H
70 10.31 D
71 11.02 N
72 I
73
74
75
76
77
ra
7*
so
ai
82
1.02 0
.Ob O
.08 N
.10 0
.14 N
.16 0
.20 N
.22 hf
.24 O
.28 N
.30 N
83 11.30 O
10.3
132.3
12.9
39.0
60.5
10.3
49. 0
40.0
75.0
32.5
14.0
10.2
4XJ.S
49.0
64.0
24. 0
47.0
31.5
73.0
64.0
14.2
61.0
70.5
43.0
22.0
5.6
47.5
24.9
*.o
TC3LS
84 .5
53 .0
82 .3
1 46. fl
40 .6
13.5
66.5
95.0
1 IS. 6
66.0
51 .0
22 .0
7O.O
49.0
77.5
22 .5
47.5
30 .O
40.0
30.5
12.9
79. S
99.2
57.0
47.0
9.3
25.0
31 .0
35.0
FCOLI
149.6
64. I
179.1
33.2
97.7
62.7
76.4
75.9
33.5
8 1 .4
37.5
140.4
sa.6
79. S
94. 1
U..5
250.0
44.4
107.2
IO9.5
t.0.0
71 .8
105.9
67.2
73.6
21 .0
25.1
45.5
54,0
TIMC
1 040
2000
i 100
2100
1 233
i 815
1 400
1830
1 630
I SOO
1 300
1800
1000
1 1GO
2100
1 003
2100
930
1 045
1 840
1 030
1 300
1300
2000
1 645
1000
1930
1930
I 130
-------
TABLE E-4. GAS DATA SET
OJ
oas
t
2
3
4
0
7
a
9
l J
i i
12
13
14
IS
10
1 7
Is
* y
20
21
22
2-i
24
^ ^
2o
27
2£j
2 V
3 u
11 1
32
33
34
3 a
36
37
36
39
« J
4 1
4 ^
43
44
«* 5
40
47
4 H
49
50
51
52
^3
:>4
at
5
5.
5.
5.
5.
5.
5 .
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6.
b.
6.
6.
6.
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C .
b.
6.
o .
c* .
6 .
b.
6.
b .
b.
O.
7.
7.
7 .
7.
7.
7 .
7.
7.
7 .
7.
7.
7.
7 .
7.
7.
7.
7.
8.
a.
8.
8.
6.
d.
a.
b .
a.
8.
24
24
24
2V
29
O3
05
05
0(J
oa
OB
13
1 J
13
id
18
1 3
23
23
?3
2d
28
2d
03
03
03
08
Ob
Ob
1 J
U
13
17
IB
Id
23
23
2K
2b
20
02
02
02
07
07
12
12
17
17
22
LOCAI ICN
A
a
C
D
A
b
t
A
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C
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b
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A
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NH3CGNC CL2CCJNC
.
.
a
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12
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19
5
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7
t,
25
2 4
1 1
1 4
1 7
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CL2LIKIT K2SLIMIT NC2LIKIT
0.0
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0.9
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0.7
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0.7
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0.7
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0.7
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0.7
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0.7
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0.6
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.7
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0.8
SO2LIMir
31 .5
31 .5
28.8
31.0
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34 .9
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31.5
31.5
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31.0
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3 . 1
3.2
(continued)
-------
TABLE E-4 (continued)
Ooi
b O
UO
S/
bcl
59
60
01
02
o3
O4
bb
O6
0 7
oO
O 9
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71
72
73
74
70
76
77
76
79
30
dl
62
63
6-+
85
do
d 7
db
09
yO
9 1
92
^ J
94
93
90
J7
9a
99
100
10 1
102
103
104
100
136
107
108
UAIC
0.22
a. 2?
8.27
6.27
9.01
9.01
9.01
9. Oo
9.06
9 . 06
9. 1 1
9.11
9.11
9.16
9. 10
9.10
9.21
9.21
9. 21
9.20
9.20
9 . 26
10'. 01
10.01
1 o.O I
1 0 .06
i a. oo
10.11
10.11
1 0. 1O
10.16
10.16
10.21
10.21
10.21
10.20
1 0 .2o
1 0 2o
10. j 1
1U.31
10.31
1 1 . 05
1 1 . 05
1 1 . Ob
11.10
11.10
1 1 . I'J
1 1 . Ib
11.15
1 1 . 20
1 1 .20
11.20
: i .25
1 1 .2b
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c
A
3
f.
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C
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12
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32
34
31
37
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54
30
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17
57
70
70
90
72
CMC S02CONC
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4.2
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2.9
2.9
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3.3
2.9
* 4.1
3.3
-------
TABLE E-5. PARTICULATE DATA SET
J
tl
s
!
2
3
S
o
7
d
I 0
1 1
12
13
1 4
1 5
1 7
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2 J
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22
23
24
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27
23
31
32
33
34
30
37
41
42
43
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04
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14
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24
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13
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VftNiUSeONoGb
cccc cccccccccccccccccccctili i i i i i "I i 7
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OKliNJNDNONOiNDNONONONONONl I I 1 I I I I I 1 I I
-fc ****""**"*
*****""**
"*"»».»..,.
(continued)
-------
TABLE E-5 (continued)
en
o
B
S
4d
49
50
b 1
52
53
54
5-j
56
57
bd
5V
60
61
62
63
64
65
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a
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42
120
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152
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0.77
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1 .57
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TABLE E-5 (continued)
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(continued)
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TABLE E-5 (continued)
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(continued!
-------
TABLE E-5 (continued)
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TABLE E-5 (continued)
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(continued)
-------
TABLE E-5 (continued)
NJ
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TABLE E-5 (continued)
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TABLE E-5 (continued)
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292 1 1 ,f'b
293 11. 2 J
294 I 1 .20
295 11.20
29t, 11,20
297 11.20
29d 11.20
29V 11.25
S S
B e
c <
0 0 C
t) Of
S E C
282
28J
2t)4 .
235 9
267 I
ttiU 9
289 9
29O .
291 .
292
293
294 .
295
296 9
297 9
299 9
L
U P N S
C L F 00 C
A A I 3 * V V K
TNI. C CCCC
U I E SN N O N D
NDR PC C E C c
A H 3 4.4 0.17
AH4 2.30.14
A H 5 19 .2 1,00
U H « 49.0 . . 9 9
C H G 83. a 1.37 3.96 .
D H G 1*1.9 4.07 13. Ob . .
EhiSO.O. . 9 9
A h « 43 .8 . 9 9
AH1 0.4 C. 20 . .
AH2 ti.uC.14 . . .
AH3 J. 20.15 .
A H 4 2.3 0,21
A ri 5 13.0 0.85 .
JUG 44.7 1.35 IZ. 70
C H » 49.5 9 9
O h W 37.3 . . 9 9
E H G 41.9 1.S4 12.33 .
A rl U 24.3 . . 9 9
C
H H P P O O
i o G a a L L
: c c c c i i
) O O O L) M H
* D N D N I 1
: e c i£ c T T
m
m
m
0011 0.023 00 04 002t* 0
m
0.578 0 005 0 029 0
0.205 0 003 0 OSO 0
.
.
.
.
.
0 019 u.30d 0 007 0 045
O 028 O.221 0 O07 0 042
0 014 0.255 C 005 0 029
C M v< N N C C A A SSCCS
H N N I I o U S S EEDJN
c c c c c c c c c ccccc
N O M O N D N J N DfSiONO
_ g
9 9 .0 225 9 9.9.9
9 9 .0 34a ) 9.9.9
9 9 9 -S 9.9.9
0 041 9 . 0 131 9 9 . 9 . . 0
0 053 9 .0 207 9 9.9.9
. 0 029 . 0 OJ9 , 0 344 9 9 . 9 . . 0
"NCASCSS
O D O D J5 ") n
-LLLI_LJ_L-L
MMMMMMMJui
'tllllll
TTTTTTTT
* * .
"
024 0 . 0 09 0.007 olo07 oloiS 0011 oloil
* . . ,
020 0,C09 0.007 0^007 olot7 0012 oloi2 0
04t» 0.01'/ 0017 O.012 O.012 0 .029 0021 0.021 0
n *
- *
» *
. *
0-O1& 0.011 O.Oli 0.020 o!oi9
0.01^* 0.010 0.010 0.024 d 0 1 / 0.017
0.007 0.007 O.O17 oloi2
S
N
C
N
019
312
H t
** *
i
j *
* J
>i
j
T 1
009
01 7
(continued)
-------
TABLE E-5 (continued)
NJ
H
O
L
0 P
C L
D T N
0 AIT
s END
300 1 I .25 A H
301 11. 25 A H
i 0 2 i I . 2 b A H'
303 11.25 A H
30 I 0 11.30 A H
311 11.30 A H
312 11.30 A H
313 11.30 A H
314 11.30 A H
31b 11 .30 C h
316 11 .30 O H
S S
N H
C C <
o u a i
B not
S C E <
300
301
302
003 .
304
JOb . 9
307 . .
30d . 9
309 0.015 9
310 .
311
313 '. '.
314 . .
315 . 9
316 . 9
J
F U
L C
ht PC
1 9.30 .24
2 6.2 0' . I 0
3 2.4 0.44
4 5. b 0 .2b
5 9.7 0.04
w 26.1
3 40 . a 1 .US 10
S 71.2 1 .08 13
A 3b 5 .
U> W . 6 .
i ia. a 0.27
2 16.1 0.23
J 15. U 0.23
» 12.1 0.26
5 21.5 0.79
» 4U. 1
» 62.9
5 H H P
3 C G B
: c c c
JO G 0
^ 0 N O
fc C E
^
.
,
f
. 0 003
t
9
9
'
B
9
0013
S
0 C C .1 M N ,-j c
fccccccccc
cucuoaoooo
NDNDNONDND
CECECECECE
> . . . .
. .... . ,
. . . . w ^
. . . . . . .
9 T . 9 . 9 0
34 . . .
9t> . . . .
9 9 0.035 y . 0
o ooa 9 .0. 103 y . o
. . . . . . .
. . . . . . f
. . . .
. . . . . .
. . , a f B
0 009 . 0.035 . 0.07b . 0.009 0
. 0 OOU 9 . .0. 097 9 . 0
C M N C
V R S I U
F 0 D O j D
t> L L L L i_
^ I I I I I
O M M M MM
N I I 1 I I
C T T T T T
.
*
t
i
f
0.256 0 004 0 025 0 023 o!o08 0
* *
0.693 0 OOb 0 028 olnog o
0. 704 0 031 O.u 10
I '.
.
B *
0.741 '. 0
1.086 0.032 0.01O
C A
C C
0 0
N D
C E
.67 9
"
340 . 0
t
^
^
004 y
093 . 0
A S
S E
D O
L L.
I I
H M
I [
T T
OOO 0 006
007 0 007
0 OOS
007 0 007
o ooa
A S S C C b
S E E D D M
C C C t C C
O O O O O O
N D N D N O
C E C E C E
9.9.3
.....
9.9.9
023 9 . 9
9.9.9
021 9 . 9 . 9
CSS
O N B
000
L L L
I i I
M M M
I I I
T T T
"
*
* '
"
0 015 0.011 oloil
« .
0016 0.012 0.012 0
0018 . 0.013 0
.
* *
0015 0.011 0.011 0
0018 0.013 0.013
H P
G B
D D
L L
I I
H H
[ I
T T
*
.
009 I
010
.
.
009 1
-------
TABLE E-6. NON"VIABLE SEWAGE DATA SETC
Date
0703
0708
0713
0723
0728
0802
0807
0812
0817
0822
0827
0901
0906
0911
0916
0921
0926
1001
1006
1011
1016
1021
1026
1031
1105
1110
1115
1120
1125
1130
Time
1830
1516
1810
1000
2115
1100
1615
1730
1500
1645
1815
1915
1700
1700
2050
1100
2130
1800
2030
1800
2200
2100
1130
1300
1830
1030
2150
2000
1130
1930
a
c
S04
35.2
41.8
41.8
50.6
42.0
3805
3300
15.4
36.2
37.8
65.4
13.2
35.0
36.2
12.3
28.8
4.3
38.6
2.9
5.7
11.4
0.5
6.4
35.7
12 o 9
2702
8.6
Samples
N0_ V
12.4
10c3
8.3
8.4
4d
12.2 <]
9.8
2.9
8o4
12.8
12.4 <]
1.1 <]
15.8 <]
6.7 <:
8o3 <:
9.3 <:
1.1
10o4 <.
1.2 <.
4ol <.
4o3 <.
2o4 <.
10.6 <.
16.0 <.
Sol <-
1.8
<.
<.
<
2.2 <.
c c
Ni
.2 212
L2 348
L2 225
L2 159
L2 261
L2 113
L2 128
L2 228
L2 232
L2 164
L2 249
L2 210
L2 226
L2 218
L2 225
12 276
L2 182
L2 174
L2 248
c
Cu
60
841
706
81
642
49
80
117
373
123
251
203
294
90
12
7
4
175
29
c
As
260
340
70
160
260
150
190
150
280
150
170
140
180
110
130
150
151
140
74
below detection limit reported as <
c
Se
<2
<2
<2
<2
<2
<2
<2
<2
<2
<2
<2
<2
<2
<2
<2
<2
<2
<2
<2
c
Cd
107
256
231
111
232
61
63
140
163
93
123
112
142
71
86
118
88
141
117
c
Sn Sh
55 <1
87 <1
69 <1
56 <1
66 <1
25 2
42 <1
c c
Hg
4
<4
<4
<4
<4
<4
<4
74 1 <4
76 <1
54 <1
68 4
69 3
72 <1
59 1
66 3
63 1
51 7
57 3
39 2
<4
<4
<4
<4
<4
<4
<4
<4
<4
<4
<4
c
Pb
420
530
674
386
257
273
280
287
308
183
229
203
261
119
187
176
155
215
119
detection limito
Concentration in mg/liter.
Concentration in Vt.g/liter0
-------
APPENDIX F
AIRBORNE TOTAL AND FECAL COLIFORM COLLECTED WITH AN LVAS
Date
1977
0824
0831
0907
0914
0921
1005
Site
2
4
11
3
1
6
3
1
6
14
1
3
10
1
3
18
4
7
15
Position
upwind
downwind
downwind
upwind
downwind
downwind
upwind
downwind
downwind
downwind
upwind
downwind
downwind
upwind
downwind
downwind
upwind
downwind
downwind
Time
Started
1350
1120
1750
1050
1310
1520
1055
1350
1550
1735
1110
1330
1530
1217
1440
1700
1100
1300
1745
Voltage
KV
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
15
15
15
15
15
15
Total Coliform
Air
Volume, m
17
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
a
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
Fluid
Volume, ml
90
110
60
170
130
110
90
85
100
120
100
110
125
110
100
110
105
80
Cone.
cfu/m
0
0.6
0
0
0.13
0.33
6.8
1.2
0073
1.0
1600
1.27
0053
9,67
0.87
0.27
0013
Oo53
Fecal Coliform
Air
Volume
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
11
b
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
Fluid
Volume
90
110
60
140
120
90
70
85
110
90
95
100
100
100
85
100
100
9° 4--
(con tn
Cone .
cfu/m
0
0.07
0
0
0
0
0.2
0.13
0
0
b
0.67
Oo2
0.07
4.13
0
0
0
ued)
to
l->
NJ
-------
AIRBORNE TOTAL AND FECAL COLIFORM COLLECTED WITH AN LVAS (continued)
to
H
U)
1102
1116
1130
3
1
6
14
4
2
7
15
2
4
upwind
downwind
downwind
downwind
upwind
downwind
downwind
downwind
upwind
downwind
1100
1700
1300
1500
1015
1350
1200
1530
1045
1240
15
10
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
95
105
95
120
120
85
170
100
90
150
1.0
12.93
0.27
5.13
1.2
15.8
0.2
4.33
0.47
13.93
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
100
95
95
115
140
100
120
100
100
120
0
3.07
0
0.87
0*73
7.33
Oo07
0
0
0
(a) Sample not collected.
(b) Sample contaminated.
-------
APPENDIX G
TWO-WEEK PERIOD TOTAL VIABLE PARTICLE EXPOSURE INDEX CALCULATION
The difference between the 2-week index and the study-period index
involves how the measurement data were summarized for the SYMAP program. For
the study-period case, all data were averaged by location and wind direction.
These averages were then fed directly into the mapping program. In the case
of the 2-week periods, however, the environmental data set consists of only
five runs. This means that a maximum of five of the eight wind directions
could have any data at all. In most cases, the number of wind directions
with any data was four or less.
In order to develop an accurate exposure index using SYMAP, a
concentration at all 20 monitoring sites was necessary. A model was
developed to predict a concentration at every monitoring site for each 2-week
period. The input to the model was the four average position variables for
average position variables. The concentration at each location for each
2-week period is calculated by:
CONC
EICONC = (BICONC ,) (
x,y x,y' CONC
,
y. =
x
y
BICONC
x,y
BICONC
x,yf
position associated with location y
2-week period (biweek)
location
biweekly (period x) concentration at site y
biweekly (period x) position concentration associated
with site y
CONC
study-period concentration at y
CONC , = study-period position concentration associated with
y site y
214
-------
TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
REPORT NO
EPA-600/1-79-019
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION1 NO.
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
Health Effects of Aerosols Emitted from an
Activated Sludge Plant
5. REPORT DATE
May 1979 issuing date
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
. AUTHOR(S)
B. Carnow, R. Northrop, R. Wadden, S. Rosenberg, J,
Holden, A. Neal, L. Sheaff, p. Scheff, S. Meyer
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
School of Public Health
University of Illinois at the Medical Center
Chicago, Illinois 60680
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
1BA607
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
R-805003
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
Health Effects Research Laboratory - Cinn, OH
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Final; Oct.l,1976-Dec.31,1977
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
EPA/600/10
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
16. ABSTRACT
An 8-month environmental health study was carried out in a 1.6 km area surrounding
a 202 MGD activated sludge plant. A cross-sectional demographic and health survey
of a random sample of persons residing within the study area revealed that they were
relatively homogeneous, predominately white, upper middle class, with no remarkable
prevalence of health problems. Seven hundred & twenty-four people (246 families) vol-
unteered to record self-reported illnesses at bi-weekly intervals. Throat and stool
specimens were collected from a selected sub-sample of 161 persons providing a total of
1298 specimens analyzed for pathogenic bacteria and viruses. 318 persons submitted
paired blood samples at the beginning and end of the study period to determine preva-
lence and incidence of infections to 5-Coxsackie- and 4 Echovirus types. No remarkable
correlations were found between the exposure indices and rate of self-reported illness-
es or of bacterial or viral infection rates determined by laboratory analysis. However
the plant was identified as a source of viable particles and total coliforms. The
overall conclusion that this activated sludge treatment plant had no obvious adverse
health effect on residents potentially exposed to aerosol emissions must be tempered
by the very small number of people who were exposed to the highest pollution levels.
This plant was not a source of high concentrations of viable particles, gases or metals
& that the plant levels of the aerosolized pollutants were much lower than those report
ed by other investigators for similar plants.
17.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b.IDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
COSATI Field/Group
Activated sludge, waste treatment,
epidemiology, aerobiology, aerosols,
microbiology, serology, environmental
surveys
Viable particles, non-
viable particles, chemica]
monitoring, exposure in-
dices, meteorology measure
ment
44G
57U
68D, G
13. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
Release to Public
19. SECURITY CLASS (This Report)
unclassified
231
20. SECURITY CLASS (This page)
unclassified
22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (9-73)
U. S. GOVERHNENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1^79 657-060/^31 ",
------- |