EPA-600/2-77-160
August 1977
Environmental Protection Technology Series
POTENTIAL ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF
COMPOUNDING AND FABRICATING INDUSTRIES:
A PRELIMINARY ASSESSMENT
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
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RESEARCH REPORTING SERIES
Research reports of the Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, have been grouped into nine series. These nine broad cate-
gories were established to facilitate further development and application of en-
vironmental technology. Elimination of traditional grouping was consciously
planned to foster technology transfer and a maximum interface in related fields.
The nine series are:
1. Environmental Health Effects Research
2. Environmental Protection Technology
3. Ecological Research
4. Environmental Monitoring
5. Socioeconomic Environmental Studies
6. Scientific and Technical Assessment Reports (STAR)
7 Interagency Energy-Environment Research and Development
8. "Special" Reports
9. Miscellaneous Reports
This report has been assigned to the ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION TECH-
NOLOGY series. This series describes research performed to develop and dem-
onstrate instrumentation, equipment, and methodology to repair or prevent en-
vironmental degradation from point and non-point sources of pollution. This work
provides the new or improved technology required for the control and treatment
of pollution sources to meet environmental quality standards.
This document is available to the public through the National Technical Informa-
tion Service, Springfield, Virginia 22161.
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EPA-600/2-77-160
August 1977
POTENTIAL ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF COMPOUNDING AND
FABRICATING INDUSTRIES: A PRELIMINARY ASSESSMENT
by
R. Clark
J. Burch
R. Ayers
D. Brown
R. Dick
H. J. Henning
D. Hooie
R. Sharp
Battelle Columbus Laboratories
Columbus, Ohio 43201
Contract No. 68-02-1323
Project Officer
Ronald Turner
Industrial Pollution Control Division
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
INDUSTRIAL ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
CINCINNATI, OHIO 45268
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DISCLAIMER
This report has been reviewed by the Industrial Environmental Research
Laboratory, Cincinnati, Ohio, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and
approved for publication. Approval does not signify that the contents
necessarily reflect the views and policies of the U.S. Environmental Protect-
ion Agency, nor does mention of trade names or commercial products constitute
endorsement or recommendation for use.
ii
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FOREWORD
When energy and material resources are extracted, processed, converted,
and used, the related pollutional impacts on our environment and even on our
health often require that new and increasingly more efficient pollution con-
trol methods be used. The Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory -
Cincinnati (lERL-Ci) assists in developing and demonstrating new and improved
methodologies that will meet these needs both efficiently and economically.
This report, Potential Environmental Impact of Compounding and Fabricat-
ing Industries: A Preliminary Assessment, is intended to be an operational
guide for the manufacturing processes used in the compounding and fabricating
industries.
Much of the information on emissions from manufacturing processes was
obtained from related studies by the Environmental Protection Agency. This
report presents data which have been generated to allow identification of all
processing steps with significant environmental impact and all compounding
and fabrication industries where they are applied. It provides a basis for
more intensive study to define R&D which is needed for adequate control of
major environmental impacts. For further information, contact the Industrial
Pollution Control Division, lERL-Ci, 45268.
David G. Stephan
Director
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
Cincinnati
111
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ABSTRACT
The overall objectives of this research effort were to identify compound-
ing and fabricating industries from a selected number of Standard Industrial
Classification codes, and identify the environmental impact resulting from
processing steps used by fabrication or compounding industries.
Industries in the United States fall into two basic categories—those
that process primary raw material such as iron ore, logs, silica sand, animal
hide, etc., and those that fabricate or compound these raw materials into
various consumer goods. This report assesses the potential environmental
impact of industries in the second category, the compounding and fabricating
industries. The basic approach was to classify each industry by type and
major unit processes supported, and then to characterize the waste streams
produced by the unit processes. Examples of industries that are classified
as compounding and fabricating industries are the automobile industry and the
surface coatings industry.
iv
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CONTENTS
Foreword iii
Abstract iv
Figures vi
Tables xi
Acknowledgement xiii
1. Introduction 1
2. Conclusions 4
3. Recommendations 7
4. Research Approach 8
5. Results and Discussion 9
Wood Buildings and Mobile Homes 9
Furniture and Fixtures 11
Converted Paper Products 17
Printing Industry 34
Compounded Organic Chemical Products 39
Rubber and Miscellaneous Plastics Products 70
Leather Goods 89
Flexible Roofing, Flooring and Paving Products. ... 93
Inorganic Mineral Products 99
Fabricated Metal Products 124
Machinery Except Electrical 138
Electrical and Electronic Machinery 173
Transportation Equipment 205
Measuring, Analyzing and Controlling Instruments:
Photographic, Medical, and Optical Goods: Watches
and Clocks 228
Miscellaneous Manufacturing Industry 246
References 266
Appendix 270
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FIGURES
Number Page
1 Process for Manufacturing Mobile Homes 10
2 Process for Manufacturing Prefabricated Wood Buildings and
Components 12
3 Basic Schematic for a Large Furniture Plant 15
4 Simplified Non-Wood Furniture Assembly 16
5 Paper Coating and Glazing 18
6 Envelopes 20
7 Bags, Except Textile Bags 22
8 Die-Cut Paper and Paperboard and Cardboard 23
9 Pressed and Molded Pulp Goods 24
10 Sanitary Paper Products 26
11 Production of Stationary, Tablets, and Related Products .... 27
12 Production of Folding Paperboard Boxes 29
13 Production of Set-Up Paperboard Boxes 30
14 Production of Corrugated and Solid Fiber Boxes 32
15 Production of Sanitary Food Containers 33
16 Fiber Cans, Tubes, Drums and Similar Products 35
17 Generalized Printing Process 37
18 Production of Pharmaceutical Tablets and Capsules 43
19 Production of Liquid Pharmaceutical Preparations 44
20 Production of Semi-Solid Pharmaceutical Preparations 45
21 Production of Parenteral Pharmaceutical Preparations 46
22 Flow Diagram Milling Soap Bars 48
23 Production of Pastes or Emulsions 50
24 Flow Diagram of Manufacturing Process for Oil-Base Paints ... 52
25 Flow Diagram of Manufacturing Process for Water-Base
Paints 53
26 Hide Glue Manufacture 56
27 Bone Glue Manufacture 57
vi
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List of Figures (Continued)
Number Page
28 Manufacturing Process for Casein Glue 58
29 Fish Glue Processing 59
30 Waterbased Adhesives; (A) Emulsion Polymerization and
(B) Dispersion Processes 63
31 Synthetic Resin and Rubber Base Adhesives 64
32 General Flow Diagram for the Formulation of Oil-Base Ink .... 67
33 Flow Diagram of Manufacturing Fireworks and Pyrotechnic
Materials 68
34 Diagram for Typical Tire and Camelback Production Facility ... 72
35 Flow Diagram of a Typical Inner Tube Production Facility .... 75
36 Flow Diagram for Production of a Typical Molded Item 80
37 Flow Diagram of a Retread Operation 81
38 Flow Diagram for Typical Mechanical, Pan (Heater), and Wet
Digester Reclaim 84
39 Flow Diagram for the Production of Typical Canvas Footwear
Item 85
40 Plastic Tray Manufacturing 87
41 Generalized Process for Manufacturing Shoes 91
42 Manufacturing Process for Asphaltic Concrete 94
43 Flow Diagram of Manufacturing Asphalt Felt Rolls and Shingles. . 96
44 Asbestos Floor Tile Manufacturing 98
45a Process Flow Diagram for the Mirror, Door, and Window (Made
From Purchased Glass) Industry 100
45b Process Flow Diagram for Products Manufactured from Purchased
Glass 102
46 Process Flow Diagram for Block and Brick Manufacture 105
47 Process Steps for Concrete Products 108
48 Process Flow Diagram for the Plaster of Paris and Gypsum
Products Industry Ill
49 Process Flow Diagram for the Abrasive Buffs Industry 113
50 Process Flow Diagram for the Abrasive Wheel Industry 114
51 Process Flow Diagram for the Asbestos Textile Industry 117
52 Process Flow Diagram for the Asbestos Insulation Industry. . . . 119
53 Process Flow Diagram for the Inorganic Acoustic and Building
Insulation Industry 121
VII
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List of Figures (Continued)
Number -PaSe
54 Process Flow Diagram for the Inorganic Electrical Insulation
Industry 1^3
55 Metal Cans 128
56 Hand Tools, Forged 129
57 Hand Tools, Cast 130
58 Plumbing Fixtures - Zinc 131
59 Fabricated Structural Metal Products - Bridges 132
60 Screw Machine Products - Bolts, Nuts 133
61 Steel Forgings 134
62 Galvanizing for the Trade 135
63 Cartridge Cases 136
64 Internal Combustion Engines 148
65 Farm Machinery
66 Manufacture of Snowblower
67 Manufacture of Bulldozers
68 Manufacture of Underground Scraper/Loaders 153
69 Manufacture of Rock Bits 154
70 Manufacture of Derricks 155
71 Engine Lathe (Tailstock) Manufacturing 157
72 ECM (Electrochemical Machine) Manufacturing 158
73 Metal Working Drill Bits Manufacturing 159
74 Pasteurizing Equipment Manufacturing 161
75 Knitting Machine Manufacturing 162
76 Hydraulic Gear Pump Manufacturing 163
77 Ball Bearing Manufacturing 164
78 Pattern Manufacruring 165
79 Metal Melting Furnace Manufacturing 166
80 Duplicating Machine Manufacturing 168
81 Air Conditioner Manufacturing 170
82 Power Transformer Manufacturing 181
83 Electric Motor Manufacturing 183
84 Motor Brush Manufacturing 185
85 Welding Apparatus (Electric) Manufacturing 187
viii
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List of Figures (Continued)
Number Page
86 Welding Apparatus (Electric) Manufacturing 189
87 Vacuum Cleaner Manufacturing 191
88 Food Mixer Manufacturing 193
89 Incandescent Light Bulbs Manufacturing 195
90 Phonograph Record Manufacturing 197
91 PBX (Private Branch Exchange) Equipment Manufacturing 199
92 Transistor Manufacturing 200
93 Ceramic Disc Capacitor Manufacturing 202
94 Lead-Acid Storage Battery Manufacturing 204
95 Automobile Manufacture and Assembly 207
96 Manufacture of Automobile Frames 208
97 Manufacture of Truck Trailers 209
98 Manufacture of Aircraft 212
99 Manufacture of Ships 214
100 Manufacture of Fiberglass Boats 215
101 Manufacture of Railroad Locomotives 218
102 Manufacture of Bicycles 220
103 Manufacture of Missiles 223
104 Manufacture of Missile Nose Cones 224
105 Manufacture of Military Tanks 226
106 Aircraft Integrated Data Systems (Aids) 230
107 Thermostat Manufacturing 232
108 Mechanical Counting Devices Manufacturing 233
109 Electronic Volt Meter Manufacturing 235
110 Binoculars 237
111 Medical Scissors Manufacturing 239
112 Operating Table Manufacturing 240
113 Eyeglass Manufacturing 242
114 Film Negative Manufacturing 244
115 Camera Manufacturing 245
116 Clock Manufacturing 247
117 Class Ring Manufacturing 249
118 Sterling Silver Plate Knife Manufacturing 251
ix
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List of Figures (Continued)
Number
119 Pin Piano Manufacturing
120 Trumpet Manufacturing 254
121 Wagon Manufacturing 256
122 Doll Manufacturing 258
123 Ball Point Pen Manufacturing 260
124 Golf Club Manufacturing 261
125 Swimming Pool Manufacturing 263
126 Burial Caskets Manufacturing 265
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TABLES
Number Page
1 Major Industry Segments that Produce Compounded Organic
Chemical Products 41
2 Materials for Synthetic Resin and Rubber Adhesives 61
3 Adhesive Chemicals and Compounding Ingredients 62
4 Summary of Potential Process-Associated Wastewater 74
5 Process-Associated Wastewater Sources from the Production of
Rubber Hose and Belting 78
6 Relative Levels of Pollution Intensities for Process Typically
Associated with Manufacture of Fabricated Metal Products . . 137
7 Materials and Process Data for Metal Cans, Containers 139
8 Materials and Process Data for Cutlery, Hand Tools, Hardware . 140
9 Materials and Process Data for Plumbing Fixtures 141
10 Materials and Process Data for Fabricated Structural Metal
Products 142
11 Materials and Process Data for Screw Machine Products 143
12 Materials and Process Data for Metal Forgings and Stampings. . 144
13 Materials and Process Data for Coatings, Engravings,
(Services) 145
14 Materials and Process Data for Ordance and Accessories .... 146
15 Materials and Process Data for Engines and Turbines 171
16 Materials and Process Data for Farm and Garden Machinery and
Equipment 172
17 Materials and Process Data for Construction, Mining and
Materials Handling Machinery and Equipment 174
18 Materials and Process Data for Metalworking Machinery and
Equipment 175
19 Materials and Process Data for Special Industry Machinery,
Except Metalworking Machinery 176
20 Materials and Processes for General Industrial Machinery and
Equipment 177
21 Typical Material and Process for Office, Computing and
Accounting Machines 178
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List of Tables (Continued)
Number Pa§e
22 Materials and Processes Typical for Regrigeration and Service
Industry Machinery 179
23 Materials and Processes Typical for Motor Vehicles and Motor
Vehicles Equipment 210
24 Materials and Processes Typical for Aircraft and Parts 213
25 Materials and Processes Typical for Ship and Boat Building and
Repairing 216
26 Materials and Processes Typical for Railroad Equipment 219
27 Materials and Processes Typical for Motorcycles, Bicycles, and
Parts 221
28 Materials and Processes Typical for Guided Missiles and Space
Vehicles and Parts 225
29 Materials and Processes Typical for Miscellaneous Transportation
Equipment (Travel Trailers, Campers, Tanks, and Other n.e.c.) . 227
xii
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Many individuals contributed their advice and assistance to this study;
the Task Officer Ronald Turner of the Environmental Protection Agency de-
serves mention. Also, Mr. Paul Spaite, Consultant, assisted in the pre-
paration of this report. Staff members at Battelle-Columbus who contributed
to this study include, G. R. Smithson, J. B. Brown, and T. J. Thomas.
xiii
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SECTION 1
INTRODUCTION
Industries in the United States fall into two basic categories—those that
process primary raw materials such as iron ore, logs, silica sand, animal
hide, etc., and those that fabricate or compound materials from primary pro-
cesses into various consumer goods. This report assesses the potential
environmental impact of industries in the second category, the compounding and
fabricating industries. The basic approach was to classify each industry by
type and major unit processes supported, and then to characterize the waste
streams produced by the unit processes.
Specific objectives of the project were:
(1) To identify those industries that manufacture consumer products
by fabrication and/or compounding of materials received from the
primary processing industries
(2) To identify products or groups of products produced by a defin-
able population of companies
(3) To identify the environmental impacts resulting from processing
steps used by compounding or fabrication industries.
Data used in this report were taken from the U.S. Bureau of the Census
report series, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency(EPA) development documents
for effluent limitation guidelines and standard of performance for various
point-source categories, and other EPA documents. Some investigators of these
industrial groupings have either worked in or visited many of the firms within
these categories. Therefore, their conclusions are the result of personal
observations over the years.
Because of the preliminary nature of this study and the limited resources
and lack of readily available data, all industries were not studied in the
same depth.
Listed below are the Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) categories
that were reviewed to identify compounding and fabricating industries. These
categories were provided to the contractor in the scope of work.
245-Wood buildings and mobile homes
25-Furniture and fixtures
264-Converted paper and paperboard boxes (except containers)
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27-Printing, publishing, and allied services
2834-Pharmaceutical preparations
284-Soap, detergents, cleaning preparations, perfumes, etc.
285-Paint, varnish, lacquer, enamels, and allied products
2891-Adhesives and sealants
2893-Printing ink
2899-Chemicals and chemical preparations n.e.c.
2952-Asphalt felts and coatings
30-Rubber and miscellaneous plastics products
31-Leather and leather products
323-Glass products made of purchase glass
3271-Concrete block and brick
3273-Ready-mix concrete
329-Abrasive, asbestos, miscellaneous nonmetallic mineral products
34-Fabricated metal products (except machinery and transportation
equipment)
35-Machinery except electrical
36-Electrical and electronic machinery
37-Transportation equipment
38-Measuring, analyzing, and controlling instruments; photographic,
medical and optical goods; watches and clocks
391-Jewelry, silverware, plated ware
393-Musical instruments
394-Toys, etc., sporting goods
395-Pens, pencils, and other office and artist supplies
396-Costume jewelry, etc
399-Miscellaneous (brooms, signs, caskets, linoleum)
APPROACH
As a first step the products in the SIC codes were assessed. A study was
made of the character of the population of companies producing them, the
economic importance of the primary products, the degree to which products were
unique to establishments reporting in each SIC category (specialization ratio),
the degree to which the principal products were made by establishments
associated with other SIC industry categories (coverage ratio) and the degree
to which the companies making the products employed similar processes and
used similar raw materials. A first attempt then was made to identify real
world industries involved in the production of compounded and fabricated
products associated with the assigned SIC groups. This list of industries is
included as Appendix A for future use in analysis of this category of
industries.
For purposes of present analyses the assigned codes were divided into 15
categories for convenience in analysis of economic importance, manufacturing
operations, and waste streams associated with each category. These categories
and associated SIC codes are listed below
1. Wood buildings and mobile homes (SIC 245)
2. Furniture and fixtures (SIC 25)
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3. Converted paper products (SIC 264)
4. Printed products (SIC 27)
5. Compounded organic products (SIC 2834, 284, 285, 2891, 2893, 2899)
6. Rubber and miscellaneous plastic products (SIC 30)
7. Leather goods (SIC 31)
8. Flexible roofing, flooring, and paving products (SIC 2851, 2952,
3996, 3292)
9. Inorganic mineral products (SIC 3271, 3273, 329)
10. Fabricated metal products (SIC 34)
11. Machinery, except electrical products (SIC 35)
12. Electrical and electronic machines (SIC 36)
13. Transportation equipment (SIC 37)
14. Measuring, analyzing, and controlling instruments: photographic,
medical, and optical goods; watches and clocks (SIC 38)
15. Miscellaneous manufacturing industry (SIC 39)
Generally, the above-mentioned product groups conform to the 2- or 3-
digit SIC census data. However, asphalt floor tile and vinyl asbestos tile
(3292) and hard floor covering (3996) were assigned to flexible roofing,
flooring, and paving products; the other products in SIC 3292 are studied
under inorganic mineral products.
Given for each product group are descriptions of the industry, products,
and raw materials, a flow diagram of a representative product, and a dis-
cussion of the environmental impact of the waste streams. On each flow
diagram, flags are used to indicate which waste stream (air, water, or solid)
is affected by the various manufacturing processes or unit operations.
After development of the list of industries and the establishment of
categories for use in the study a search for information on the manufacturing
operations and waste streams produced was undertaken for each category. The
sources of information included effluent guideline documents and other EPA
industry studies as well as information from industry publications and back-
ground available from past experience of Battelle personnel.
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SECTION 2
CONCLUSIONS
The fabricating and compounding industries include literally thousands
of small and large firms competitively engaged in the manufacture of products
as diverse as automobiles, generators, aspirins, paints, Christmas-tree
lights and microwave ovens. The number of companies and establishments
listed in this report were taken from the Census of Manufactures reports. No
doubt there is some double counting in the totals, since most establishments
produce more than a single product. Nonetheless, these numbers provide some
appreciation for the level of magnitude of distinct plants. Generally, all
of the products from the fabrication and compounding industries are end
products. Many of these products will be used in other manufacturing process-
es, but they generally will not be consumed as raw products.
Assessing the environmental impact of the many products and manufacturing
processes is a formidable task. To make this current report more meaningful
as an operational guide, the unit processes identified in the conclusion
section of this report express the pollution levels in general terms, i.e.,
medium to high environmental impact. This comment relates to a general level
rather than a diagnostic appraisal of the kinds of compounds making up the
pollutants.
Most of the manufacturing processes or unit operations used in the
compounding and fabricating industries have a recognized impact on the
environment. Listed below are processes having a medium-to-high environmental
impact:
Water Air Solid
Pickling Casting Casting (slag, scrap)
Painting Pickling Painting
Lubricating Lubricating Machining (chips)
Machining Hot working Stamping
Electroplating Heating for forming Sheet forming
Baking (coatings) Heat treating Injection molding
(plastic)
Bonderizing Welding Welding (slags)
Washing (detergent) Torch cutting Insulating (asbestos)
Assembling Painting Electrochemical
machining
Heat treatment (salts) Degreasing Asphalt batching
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Etching (glass and metal) Solvents for coatings Woodworking machines
(sanders, saws,
etc.)
Mixing/blending Drying ovens (painting) Molding (rubber)
Paper coating and glazing Mixing (paints) Molding (block brick)
Varnish cooking
It should be emphasized that many of the solids can be recycled as
process scrap, especially the trimmings from metal stamping and machining
operations. Scrap plastics and some scrap metal are not valuable enough or
in enough quantity to warrant accumulation, segregation, and storage for
eventual sale to secondary material processors. Generally, the smaller
manufacturing shops will merely dispose of the solid wastes in landfills and/
or through scrap dealers, who may in turn dump the waste scrap after salvaging
whatever is useful from the aggregated scrap materials. Scrap plastics are
sometimes incinerated along with other combustible wastes.
Generally, pollutants associated with the wastewater stream of compound-
ing and fabrication manufacturing plants are: oil, heavy metals, cyanide,
suspended solids, alkalis, acids, and organic materials, such as solvents,
adhesives, phenols, etc. Solid lubricants from forming operations are usually
heavy greases. If separated, these wastes are combustible. Most industrial
products that are painted are spray painted. This is done in either a dry
booth (with air drawn through a filter) or water-spray booth. The water-
spray booth removes about 98 percent of the solid overspray particles from
the exhaust gas. This permits the solids of pigments from the painting
operation to be recovered and resold as a lower grade pigment. The waste-
water contains organic solvents and resins.
The principal volume of plating consists of rack and barrel electroplat-
ing of copper, nickel, chromium, and zinc onto ferrous and nonferrous metals
and plastics. This part of the plating industry accounts for about two-
thirds of all chemicals added to wastewater.
Other electroplating processes involve not only the above metals, but
also iron, cadmium, tin, indium, gold, silver, and platinum. The principal
pollutants associated with electroplating are:
• Heavy metals • Phosphates
• Cyanide salts • Suspended solids
• Alkalis • COD
• Acids • BOD
• Oil and grease • Color
Generally, pollutants entering the air waste stream are hydrocarbons
from the painting, printing, blending, or mixing operations, degreasing
operations, and rubber and plastics processing. However, solid particles
enter the atmosphere from grinding, polishing, buffing, mixing, and blending
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operations. Welding, brazing, and soldering operations emit fumes into the
atmosphere, but these fumes tend to be localized within the plant area.
Of the toxic water pollutants listed in Section 307 Federal Water Pol-
lution Control Act PL 92-500 only polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) is noted in
this study. However, several potentially objectionable materials that are
discharged include lead from paint, battery, and rubber fabricating plants,
chromium from chromic acid cleaning solutions, organic solvents from degreas-
ing operations, mercury compounds from paint and instrument manufacturing,
phenols from furniture and insulation manufacturing, cyanide from plating
processes and cadmium from coating processes.
Of the hazardous air pollutants listed in Section 112 of the Clean Air
Act only asbestos and vinyl chloride are noted in this study. Other
potentially hazardous materials discharged into the atmosphere include vola-
tilized hydrocarbons and chlorinated hydrocarbons. Sources of volatilized
hydrocarbons emissions include paint bake ovens, manufacture of rubber and
plastic products, and printing drying ovens. A major source of chlorinated
hydrocarbons identified in this study is metal degreasing operations. The
two most frequently used chlorinated hydrocarbons are trichloroethylene and
methyl chloroform - both are considered to be toxic compounds. At present the
emission information available for assessing the impacts from the important
manufacturing operations is for the most part strictly qualitative. The data
on composition of waste streams, number of sources, population of people
impacted, and the like are very scarce. It is apparent, however, from the
general character of emissions and from the number of known problems which
have been identified, that the environmental impacts associated with the
compounding and fabrication industries need to be understood and better con-
trolled. It is believed that this study has laid a foundation for a future
program consisting in large part of field investigations, which will firmly
define environmental needs.
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SECTION 3
RECOMMENDATIONS
It is recommended that the unit processes presented in Section 2 and the
industries presented in Appendix A be used as a basis for design of a program
to define R&D needed to control the environmental impacts associated with the
compounding and fabrication industries in detail. A study involving two
concurrent phases is visualized.
One phase should involve collection mostly in the field of information
on all of the unit operations which have been identified as having medium to
high environmental impact. The objective would be to define the nature of the
equipment variations, and variations in input and output matrixes, and collect
quantitative data on emissions. All factors needed to define the nature of
the control problem would be examined. Vendors of equipment and materials
would be contacted for information on products, and users of equipment would
be contacted in a field inspection program which would lead to collection of
all available data and define possible needs for sampling and analyses of
emissions.
In the first phase, an attempt should be made to define the general
nature of all variations for each manufacturing operation. This would lead to
development of a data base to identify problems needing in-depth study, eg.,
significant air emissions have been identified from the unit fabrication
methods employed by the plastics industry. It is known, for example, that
the resin-supplying industry has adjusted the rate of free vinyl chloride
monomer in PVC to permit safe handling. However, specific problems may exist
which would require additional studies to assess their importance. Examples
of these "potential" problems might be the nitrile blowing agents used in
some foam manufacture and the isocyanates used in some blow molding and spray
application of urethane. In-depth studies should concentrate on specific
materials such as, for example, styrene and acrylonitrile. Both of these
materials give off sufficient odor during processing to attest to their
volatility. However, it is assumed that styrene is held to acceptable con-
centrations and no problems exist with acrylonitrile.
A second concurrent phase should involve inspection of selected plant
sites associated with the industries listed in Appendix A. Key industries,
representative of all classes of industries would be selected e.g., con-
struction equipment might be studied to define problems associated with many
of the equipment industries which have been identified. Selection of in-
dustries and plant sites for visitations would be done in a way that permit-
ted maximum coverage with a minimum amount of travel.
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SECTION 4
RESEARCH APPROACH
To accomplish the objectives of this study, the following methodology
was used:
(1) A literature search was conducted to identify and
obtain the necessary documents.
(2) Standard Industrial Classification Code (SIC) cate-
gories were examined to identify candidate industries
involved in producing consumer products by compounding
and fabrication.
(3) After industries were defined for consideration, in-
formation sources such as the Census of Manufactures
and trade associations were used to verify the various
industrial classifications.
(4) Unit operations and manufacturing processes were analyzed
for each industry. Waste streams were identified as to
their impact or potential impact on the environment.
The literature search emphasized the identification of manufacturing
processes/unit operations, and identification of various waste streams that
have an impact on the environment. The products involved in the various
categories were all compounded or fabricated items. Where this was not the
case, products involving other processing steps were ignored.
Industries were analyzed to verify that products were produced by a
definable population of companies that were engaged competitively in the
production of similar or identical product lines.
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SECTION 5
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
WOOD BUILDINGS AND MOBILE HOMES
This industry includes establishments that are primarily engaged in manu-
facturing mobile homes and prefabricated wood buildings and components for
same.
Mobile Homes
This industry includes establishments primarily engaged in the manufac-
ture of mobile homes. These homes are generally over 10.67 meters (35 feet)
long, at least 2.44 meters (8 feet) wide, do not have facilities for storage
of water or waste, and are equipped with wheels. In addition to being used
as residential homes, these units can be used as offices and classrooms.
Shipments of mobile homes in 1972 represented 99 percent of the industry
total product shipments, while secondary shipment consisted mainly of pre-
fabricated wood buildings. In 1972 there were 352 companies operating 682
plants in the United States. They employed 72,200 people, purchased
materials valued at $2.227 billion, and shipped products valued at $3.252
billion. ^
Manufacturing Processes—
Information on the manufacturing processes and unit operations in the
mobile home industry is not readily available. The major input materials are
steel, aluminum, lumber, and plywood. The following major processes are used
in the manufacture of mobile homes: sawing or cutting aluminum, lumber, and
plywood; finishing and painting of components; and assembling. Figure 1
shows a simple flow diagram of the manufacturing process.
Waste Streams—
Woodworking machines such as saws, planers, and sanders produce sub-
stantial amounts of solid waste.'^) These wastes are generally exhausted to
air pollution control devices. Also solid waste is generated from cutting
or sawing of aluminum strips, and painting operations emit hydrocarbons into
the atmosphere.
Prefabricated Wood Buildings
This industry includes establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing
prefabricated wood buildings, sections, and panels. Shipments of prefabri-
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ALUMINUM, STEEL,
PLYWOOD, LUMBER
CUTTING/SAWING
OPERATION
COATING
OPERATION
ASSEMBLE AND
SHIP
r>>
Air Emissions
FIGURE 1. PROCESS FOR MANUFACTURING MOBILE HOMES.
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
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cated wood buildings represented 97 percent of the industry total shipments
in 1972. Establishments that fabricate buildings on the construction site
are not included.
The types of prefabricated wood building in this industry are: chicken
coops, corn cribs, farm buildings, marinas, and precut houses. In 1972 there
were 268 companies operating 315 establishments. They employed 25,500 people,
purchased materials valued at $619 million, and shipped products valued at
$1.06 billion. (D
Manufacturing Processes—
The major unit operations or processes in this industry are cutting,
sawing, planing, finishing, or coating of the lumber. Major materials that
are used in this industry that have an impact on the environment are: rough
lumber, plywood, particle board, paint, varnish, lacquers, and enamels.
Figure 2 shows a simple diagram of the manufacturing process.
Waste Streams—
Woodworking machines produce large quantities of waste sawdust, shaving
and chips that must be removed from the equipment site.(2) Exhaust systems
are used with many types of woodworking machines that are capable of pro-
ducing appreciable sawdust, chips, or shavings by drilling, carving, cutting,
routing, turning, sawing, grinding, planing or sanding wood. Woodworking
exhaust systems are somewhat unusual in that they are almost always equipped
with air-pollution control devices. In addition to the wood waste, hydro-
carbons are emitted into the atmosphere from the painting and varnishing of
the finish lumber.
FURNITURE AND FIXTURES
This segment of U.S. industry includes all establishments that are
primarily engaged in manufacturing household, office, public building, and
restaurant furniture. Store and office fixtures are also included. In 1972
there were 9,233 establishments in this industry, employing 462,400 people.
They purchased materials valued at $5.342 billion and shipped products valued
at $11.23 billion.(!)
A very limited number of firms can supply their own raw materials and
form them into furniture. More than 60 percent of the establishments in the
furniture industry have less than 20 employees and generate less than
$500,000 in annual sales.
Of the 6,000 + companies which produce furniture, only 250 can be con-
sidered major trend-setting factors in the industry. The 10 largest firms
represent about 20 percent of the industry sales. North Carolina is the
leading furniture production state with 22 percent of the shipments of all
household furniture. Metal office furniture production is highly concen-
trated in the Great Lakes areas.
As might be expected, the manufacture of household furniture dominates
11
-------
HARDWOOD,
SOFTWOOD,
PLYWOOD,
PARTICLE BOARD
PAINT
v
/
x« Xf
WOODWORKING
MACHINES
* >
>
PAINTING,
GARNISHING AND
LACQUERING
X
/
ASSEMBLE
AND
SHIPPING
Air Emissions
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 2. PROCESS FOR MANUFACTURING PREFABRICATED WOOD BUILDINGS AND COMPONENTS.
-------
this industry. Establishments that are primarily engaged in manufacturing
household furniture represented 59 percent of the total establishments in the
industry in 1972, employed 68 percent of the people, spent 67 percent of the
money spent for materials, and shipped 63 percent of the dollar value of
products. The following four segments represent the bulk of the manufacture
of household furniture.
Wood Household Furniture
In 1972, 2348 establishments were primarily engaged in manufacturing
wood household furniture. They employed 133,800 people, spent $1,355 billion
for materials, and shipped products valued at $2.87 billion.
Upholstered Household Furniture
In 1972, there were 1,308 establishments primarily engaged in manufactur-
ing upholstered household furniture. They employed 92,000 people, spent
$1.018 billion for materials, and shipped products valued at $2.105 billion.
Metal Household Furniture
There were 467 establishments in 1972 primarily engaged in manufacturing
metal household furniture. They employed 34,400 people, purchased materials
valued at $452 million, and shipped products valued at $890 million.
Mattresses and Bedsprings
In 1972, the 978 establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing
mattresses and bedsprings employed 31,600 people. They purchased materials
valued at $570 million and shipped products valued at $1.048 billion.
Other Segments
Other segments of the furniture and fixtures industry are significantly
smaller than the preceding four. Other segments include manufacturers of
radio and TV cabinets, wood and metal office furniture, furniture for public
buildings, wood and metal partitions and office and store fixtures, drapery
hardware and blinds and shades, and furniture and fixtures not elsewhere
classified.
Wood Furniture
Manufacturing Processes—
More than 70 percent of the furniture constructed in the United States
employs wood as the main material of construction. Approximately 20 percent
utilizes metals for construction frames. The increased use of pressboard
and hardboards in quality furniture is expected to increase the total con-
sumption of wood.
The production of wood furniture can be simply described as prefinish-
ing, finishing, and packaging operations. Prefinishing includes operations
13
-------
to size, cut, bend, glue, metal fix, join veneer, and laminate. The moisture
content of the wood is also controlled. Finishing operations include wood
graining, bleaching, staining, sealing, topcoating, and polishing.
Figure 3 shows the typical operations in a wood furniture plant. Many
of the operations require skilled craftsmen and are labor intensive.
Waste Streams—
The cutting and shaping operations produce solid wastes in the form of
sawdust and wood scraps. Part of this waste may initially be airborne, and
is removed from the air by filters or baghouse facilities.
In the wood furniture assembly business the effluents from the finishing
and laundry booths are identified as the major unit operations that impact
the environment via water, air, and sludge media. To be specific, the wood
preserving, painting, polishing, and metal plating utilize chemical forms
that many prominent sources consider to be toxic materials. The numerous
laundry operations generate copious volumes of varying degrees of degradable
detergents, emulsifiers, and soaking agents. The effluent from the laundry
operations may further contain dyes, fungicides and, of course, the industrial
chemicals that were being absorbed by the rags or upholstery fabrics.
The following is a listing of compounds that are expected to be found in
the sludges and volatilizing or evaporating within the confines of a furniture
plant. It is understood that many of these wastes have been blended or
otherwise mixed and may be reduced, combined, or altered in many ways:
Varnishes Ammonia
Shellacs Titanium dioxide
Lacquers Polyvinyl acetate
Linseed oils Carbon black
Tung oil Aliphatic hydrocarbons
Epoxies Chlorinated hydrocarbons
Polyurethane Solvents
Phenolics Benzene
Melamines Toluene
Phenol-formaldehyde Xylene
Hydrogen peroxide Naphthas
Sodium hydroxide Resins
Alcohol (isopropyl) Ketones
Non-Wood Furniture
Manufacturing Processes—
Metals and plastics are used primarily in commercial and institutional
furniture production. Figure 4 shows a simplified diagram of the assembly
of non-wood furniture.
14
-------
PLASTICS AND
FINISHING
MATERIALS
PLYWOOD MILL
VENEER MILL
PLANING MILL
SAW MILL
HARDBOARD MILL
PARTICLEBOARD
MILL
MACHINING AND
SIZING ROOM
GLUING BAY
SURFACE-CONDITIONING
ROOM
SHIPPING
— r^
I
Air Emissions
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 3. BASIC SCHEMATIC FOR A LARGE FURNITURE PLANT.
-------
METALS, PLASTICS
(SIIiF.D, CUT, STAMPED,
BOUGH FINISHED HEAT
TREATED, MOLDED,
ETC. )
BLENDING, BRAZING +
WELDING, MELTING
BATHING, RIVETING,
REINFORCED FIBERGLASS/
MOLDING MACHINING
PLATING, PAINTING,! V>
DRYING POLISHING
AND
PRESERVING
CP-ATIXG AM)
PACKAGING
SHIPPING
Air Fmissions
Hater Emissions
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 4. SIMPLIFIED NON-WOOD FURNITURE ASSEMBLY.
-------
Waste Streams—
Solid wastes arise from metal and plastic scrap and from packaging
materials. Plating operations give rise to water pollutants, as do some
metal-forming operations. Gaseous effluents result from painting and drying
operations.
CONVERTED PAPER PRODUCTS
This industry includes establishments that are primarily engaged in
manufacturing fabricated paper products. Of primary importance to this in-
dustry is that all products are made from purchased paper or board. As such,
the environmental problems associated with producing raw paper are not con-
sidered in this section. Environmental considerations are mostly limited to
paper waste, printing and coating materials, and glue.
Two major literature sources were used extensively for this analysis.
Measures of industry structure were taken from Industrial Marketing Guide(3) ,
a recognized reference on the paper industry. Descriptions of unit operations
and environmental considerations were liberally excerpted from an EPA Develop-
ment Document.'^'
In the development document mentioned above, the authors note that the
only process group in this industry that has serious environmental con-
siderations is paper coating and glazing. The remaining industries are low-
priority industries based on plant visits conducted by EPA. Therefore, in
the report that follows, the environmental considerations noted are potential
rather than actual.
Paper Coating and Glazing
This industry is composed of establishments primarily engaged in manu-
facturing coated, glazed, or varnished paper from purchased paper. Also
included in this industry are establishments engaged in manufacturing pres-
sure-sensitive tape with backing of any material other than rubber. Common
products in this category include cellophane (e.g., Scotch) tape, flypaper,
litmus paper, premoistened towelettes, and waxed paper.
This industry is composed of 426 establishments operated by 341
companies. In 1972 the four largest companies produced 26 percent of the
shipments valued. The 50 largest companies accounted for 77 percent of the
value of shipments.
Manufacturing Processes—
The processes used in this industry are distinguished by applying a
coating to the raw product, often leaving the shape unaffected. Figure 5
illustrates the major processing steps in this industry. The primary dis-
tinction between the many types of processes and products is the type of
coating used.
17
-------
PREPARATION
Aro
BLENT- ING
PAPER
STOCK
APP
COA
PA
/°
1 .^» /
-ICATION
OF
riNG TO
PER WEB
DRYING
CALEbTlER
OR
FINISH
CUTTING OR
REWINDING,
INSPECTING
AND PACKAGING
^PPvODUCT
SHIPPED
Air Emissions
—-- Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 5. PAPER COATING AND GLAZING.
-------
There are three major coating types used in this industry: aqueous-base,
solvent-base, and hot-melt. The aqueous base is the cheapest coating because
water acts as the carrier. Water is mixed with adhesives, pigments, and
various additives to make the coating. Solvent-base coatings use organic
solvents (e.g., ester, alcohols) as the carrier. These coatings are less
likely to produce water pollution because they can be readily recovered. The
hot-melt coating system uses similar mixing materials as solvent-base. The
coating is applied in molten form rather than as a solution or dispersion.
Coating mixtures are prepared in batches and applied to the paper
through a variety of methods. The paper may be dipped, casted, rolled,
brushed, sprayed, etc. Following this the coated paper is dried and finished.
Finishing may involve "ironing" and/or the application of embossing rolls for
designs. The final steps are cutting or rewinding, inspecting, packing, and
shipping.
Waste Streams—
(4)
According to the EPA there do not appear to be major environmental
problems in this industry. Wastewaters are described as low in volume but
possibly concentrated in nature. The general industry practice is discharge
to municipal sewers. Complete control of effluents is indicated as possible.
There is the possibility of air pollution from the driers and solid
waste generation from several operations. Further investigation is required
to further document the potential problems. Nonetheless, the potential for
water pollution appears to be more critical than that for either air or solid
waste.
Envelopes
The manufacture of envelopes is a medium-sized paper conversion industry
with shipments in 1972 of $587.7 million. About 178 companies operate 247
different establishments. It is not as highly concentrated as others, even
though the 50 largest firms account for 81 percent of industry shipments.
Manufacturing Processes—
As shown in Figure 6, paper is brought into the plant in rolls, cut into
sheets, and then die-cut in an envelope press. The envelopes are either
printed or left plain, and window punching is optional. The envelopes go
through a folding and gluing operation, then are packaged and shipped.
Waste Streams—
Possible environmental impacts could occur from wastepaper, printing
fluids, and glue waste.
Non-Textile Bags
This category includes both heavy duty bags (for cement, dog food, etc.)
and grocery type bags. Over 460 companies produce bags at 583 establishments.
19
-------
ROLL
PAPER
CUTTING
INTO
S:-:EETS
b
ENVELOPE
DIE-CUTTING
^>
PRINTING
1
1
WINDOW
PUNCHING
»"
1
FOLDING
AND
GLUING
PACKAGING
PRODUCE
SHIPPED
Air Emissions
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 6. ENVELOPES.
-------
This is one of the larger converted paper industries with 1972 shipments
totalling $1.8 billion.
Manufacturing Processes—
One of two major processes may be employed in this industry, as shown in
Figure 7. In the first process, roll paper is printed, glued and subjected
to shrink-oven operations (plastic covering, packaging.) In another, rolls
of paper are passed through a bag machine (cut to tube length, glued and
sewn, with shrink-oven operations optional before shipping.)
Waste Streams—
There is potential environmental impact from paper waste, printing
fluids, and glue waste.
Die-Cut Paper and Paperboard and Cardboard
This industry manufactures products such as postcards, filing folders,
and stencil cards. Most of the products are relatively expensive in relation
to much of the paper industry. In 1972, industry shipments totalled $646.6
million from 309 companies and 374 establishments. The 50 largest companies
account for 80 percent of industry output.
Manufacturing Processes—
In making tabulating cards and special forms, roll paper is slit, print-
ed (letterpress or offset) and die cut to form standard cards. They are then
packaged (which requires some gluing) and shipped. Special forms require
some assembling and gluing before they are packaged.
To make single-ply business forms, roll paper is slit, printed, folded
or rewound, and packaged. For multiple plies, the forms are collated (carbon
insertion and gluing) before they are packaged. Figure 8 illustrates these
processes.
Waste Streams—
Environmental considerations include wastepaper, printing fluids, and
glue.
Pressed and Molded Pulp Goods
This is a highly concentrated but small industry. Industry products in-
clude papier-mache' articles, egg cartons, etc. Only 32 companies are in this
industry, operating 49 establishments. The four largest companies account
for 75 percent of industry shipments. Figure 9 illustrates the process in
this industry.
Manufacturing Processes—
In general, processing consists of printing paper stock (if necessary),
21
-------
ROLL ^S^
PAPER N.
BAG
y.ACHINE
PRINTING
^
CLUIXTC I •••»•
SEWING
i
s^
CLUING 1 - 1--
SHRINK
- OVEN
^s. ROLL PRODUCT
/ PAPER ^ SHIPPZD
Air Emissions
Water Emissions
1^ Solid Emissio
sions
FIGURE 7. BAGS, EXCEPT TEXTILE BAGS.
-------
ROLL
PAPER
SLITTING
PRINTING
/>
CUTTING
OR
REWINDING
ASSEMBLING,
FOLDING OR
COLLATING
PACKAGING
A»m
GLUING
/\
PRODUCT
SHIPPED
Air Emissions
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 8. DIE-CUT PAPER AND PAPERBOARD AND CARDBOARD.
-------
PAPER
STOCK
PRIMING
(OPTIONAL)
CUTTING AND
PRESSING
6
FINISHING
PACKAGING
PRODUCT
SHIPPED
Air Emissions
FIGURE 9. PRESSED AND MOLDED PULP GOODS.
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
-------
pressing and cutting, finishing (lining, coating, etc.) and packaging.
Waste Streams—
Environmental impacts include coatings (see paper coating and glazing),
wastepaper, printing fluids, and glue.
Sanitary Paper Products
This is a highly concentrated industry, including consumer use items
such as toilet tissue, paper napkins, and disposable diapers. The four
largest companies account for 65 percent of industry shipments valued at
almost $2.0 billion in 1972. Only 72 companies operate in this large
industry.
Manufacturing Processes—
Different types of paper are purchased in the form of jumbo rolls. They
are unwound, embossed (towels and napkins), and printed, if necessary. Paper
stock for towels and bathroom tissue is perforated, rewound and packaged,
which requires some gluing. Napkins, tissues, and industrial wipes are cut
and folded after the printing operation and then packaged. For sanitary
napkins and diapers, the process is essentially a gluing operation to adhere
the fluffy pulp layers to the liners. Figure 10 describes these operations.
Waste Streams—
Environmental considerations include paper waste, glue, and printing
materials.
Stationary Products Industry
The stationary products industry produces tablets, desk pads, etc.
Industry shipments in 1972 totaled $422.6 million. The 50 largest companies
accounted for 64 percent of industry shipments.
Manufacturing Processes—
Figure 11 describes the operations in this industry. Roll paper is
ruled (tablets) or printed (stationary), followed by cutting. All types of
printing are utilized, including some photography. Covers are added, and the
items are bound by stitching, gluing, or sewing. For plain stationary, roll
paper is simply cut and packaged.
Waste Streams—
Environmental considerations include wastepaper, printing, and photo-
graphic materials and glue.
Converted Paper Products, n.e.c.*
The converted paper products n.e.c. industry produces diverse items such
* n.e.c. = notelsewhere classified.
-------
Towels, Bathroom Tissu£
JUMBO
ROLLS
TOWEL
1 EMBOSSING
1
1
UNWINDING
-o-
1
i
OPTIONAL
PRINTING
/
AND
REWINDING
-*•
ROLL
CUTTING
X
s\
PACKAGING
(GLUING)
PRODUCT
SHIPPED
Napkins, Facial Tissue, Industrial Wipes
JUMBO
ROLLS
PRINTING
FOLDING
\
PACKING
PRODUCT
Sanitary Napkins and Diapers
LINERS
JUMBO ROLLS
FLUITED PULP
GLUING
CUTTING AND
FOLDING
PACKAGING] I'KUIHV.:
(CHUNG) I Silll'PL.U
Air Emissions
Water Emissions
Solid Er.\i;;sions
FIGURE 10. SANITARY PAPER PRODUCTS.
26
-------
ROLL
PAPER
RULING OR
PRINTING
CUTTING AND
PUNCHING
BINDING
(WIRING, STITCHING,
GLUING)
PACKAGING
PRODUCT
SHIPPED
N3
--J
Air Emissions
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 11. PRODUCTION OF STATIONARY, TABLETS, AND RELATED PRODUCTS-
-------
as confetti, wall paper, and crepe paper. Industry shipments totaled $285
million in 1972. Because of the wide range of products, industry concen-
tration is low.
Manufacturing Processes—
Because of the diverse number of products in this industry, no process
diagram is immediately available. In general, this industry does not differ
from others in the converted paper products industry- Purchased paper is
cut, printed or dyed (optional), glued and folded, and packaged for shipping.
Waste Streams—
Environmental considerations include paper waste, printing and dyeing
materials, and glue.
Folding Paperboard Boxes
This industry is marked by rather low concentration with the largest
50 firms accounting for 68 percent of the value of shipments. About 450
companies operate over 500 establishments that shipped products valued at
$1.36 billion in 1972.
Manufacturing Processes—
Large rolls of paperboard are first printed by rotogravure, offset or
letter press. Some water-base inks are used although they are not common.
Printing may be followed by varnishing or coating to protect the surface.
The paper is then cut, creased, and folded. The boxes are glued (usually
waterbase) and shipped. Figure 12 describes the operation.
Waste Streams—
Environmental considerations include paper waste, printing materials,
and glue.
Set-Up Paperboard Boxes
The set-up (rigid) paperboard box is characterized by low concentration
with the 50 largest firms only accounting for 46.percent of industry ship-
ments. In 1972, the value of shipments totaled $342.6 million.
Manufacturing Processes—
Rigid boxes are made from four materials: paperboard, corner stays, ad-
hesive, and covering materials. First, flat sheets of cardboard are cut and
scored to size. Individual blanks are separated from the sheet and the
corners are cut out. Next, the sides of the blank are folded and the corners
stayed. Staying may be accomplished with adhering paper, cloth, or metal re-
inforcements. The same process is repeated for the corner. Decorative
coverings (wrappers) are adhered last. Figure 13 illustrates this process.
28
-------
ROLL
PAPERBOARD
PRINTING,
COATING
_-£»
CUTTING AND
CREASING
b
FOLDING AND
GLUING
PRODUCT
SHIPPED
FIGURE 12. PRODUCTION OF FOLDING PAPERBOARD BOXES.
Air Emissions
VO
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
-------
UJ
o
BOXBOARD
CUTTING AND
SCORING
t>
CORNERING
-
FOLDING,
CORNER ADHERING
_/
SHEET
PAPER
PRINTING
D
WRAPPING
t
CUTTING
PRODUCT
f
SHIPPED
^
Air Emissions
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 13. PRODUCTION OF SET-UP PAPERBOARD BOXES.
-------
Waste Streams—
Environmental considerations include paper waste and printing materials.
Corrugated and Solid Fiber Boxes
This group of converted paperboard products is the largest in the entire
industry. In 1972, 709 companies operating 1,265 establishments produced
products with a value of $4.2 billion. The industry is not highly concen-
trated.
Manufacturing Processes—
Unit processes are similar to those for folding boxes except for the base
material (corrugated paper and fiber paper). In the corrugating machine, a
fluted medium is made on a die and adhered to a Kraft liner at the "single
facer" with an adhesive solution of cornstarch, caustic, and borax. This
single-faced sheet is then processed through the double backer which applies
the second facing, forming a single wall. This process may be repeated for
thicker walls. Solid fiber boxes are made in a similar manner, but a different
based adhesive (usually polyvinyl acetate) is used and there is no fluting.
All types of printing are used in this industry. Figure 14 describes these
processes.
Waste Streams—
Environmental considerations include wastepaper, glue and printing
material.
Sanitary Food Containers
This industry is concentrated with four firms accounting for 41 percent
of the shipments. The value of shipments totaled $1.4 billion in 1972.
Traditionally, there has been much competition in certain portions of this
industry between paper and plastic containers.
Manufacturing Processes—
To make paper cups and plates, roll paper is slit, moistened, printed
(usually water-base), cut, and formed. Cups and other containers may require
gluing. The cups may be either waxed or made from polyethylene-coated paper-
board (which requires no seam gluing). Milk cartons and other containers
are made in similar operations. Figure 15 describes these operations.
Waste Streams—
Environmental considerations are wastepaper, glue, and printing fluids.
Fiber Cans, Tubes, and Drums
The fiber cans, drums, and related materials had industry shipments of
31
-------
ROLL ^
PAPER
CORRUGATING
AND
PASTING
CUTTING
AND
CREASING
^
PRINTING
-
FOLDING
AND
GLUING
PRODUCT
SHIPPED
Air Emissions
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 14. PRODUCTION OF CORRUGATED AND SOLID FIBER BOXES.
-------
CUPS, PLATES, CONTAINERS
10
OJ
ROLL
•W^«MM
PAPER
SLITTING,
MOISTENING
PRINTING
PACKAGING
PRODUCT
SHIPPED
CUTTING
AND
FORMING
FOLDING
SEALING
PACKAGING
PRODUCT
CARTONS
SHIPPED
Air Emissions
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 15. PRODUCTION OF SANITARY FOOD CONTAINERS.
-------
$620 million in 1972. Over 160 companies operate plants, and the four largest
producers account for 52 percent of the value of shipments.
Manufacturing Processes—
Large rolls of paper are first slit to the desired width and an adhesive
is applied to one side as it is wound to the specified thickness and cut.
The units can be left plain, painted, or silk screened to customer specifica-
tions. Cans and drums may be lined to accommodate the material they will be
carrying.
Certain drums, etc., may require metal covers and/or parts at the ends.
Many plants have their own metal finishing operations. Figure 16 describes
these processes.
Waste Streams—
Environmental considerations include wastepaper, glue, and printing or
painting materials. If metal finishing is included, this would involve cut-
ting fluids, oils, degreasers, varnishes, varnish remover, deburring sol-
utions, and special cleaners and surface preparation solutions.
PRINTING INDUSTRY
Printing and Publishing
There were 39,206 establishments in the United States primarily engaged
in publishing and printing in 1972. An additional 2,889 establishments were
engaged in direct services for the publishing and printing establishments.(1)
These 42,095 establishments employed 1,063,000 people, spent $10.045
billion for materials, and shipped products valued at $30.132 billion.
The printing of newspapers, periodicals, and books and commercial print-
ing activities collectively accounted for about 81 percent of the establish-
ments, employed 78 percent of the people, accounted for 80 percent of the
value of materials purchased, and accounted for 80 percent of the value of
shipments of the entire industry.
Newspapers—
Newspapers accounted for the greatest amount of printed matter produced
in the United States. There were 8,116 establishments in 1972 primarily en-
gaged in publishing and/or printing newspapers. They employed 349,000 people,
spent $2.045 billion for material, and shipped products valued at $8.27
billion. Some of these establishments engaged in commercial printing, but
some others have part or all of their printing done by commercial printers.
Periodicals—
There were 2,535 establishments primarily engaged in publishing and/or
printing periodicals in 1972. They employed 67,000 people, spent $1.41
34
-------
METAL PARTS
ROLL
PAPER
SLITTING
b
\
/x
WINDING
AND
GLUING
PAINTING
(OPTIONAL)
t
ASSEMBLING
PRODUCT
SHIPPED
Air Emissions
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 16. FIBER CANS, TUBES, DRUMS AND SIMILAR PRODUCTS.
-------
billion for materials, and shipped products valued at $3.521 billion. Their
publications include magazines, trade journals, comic books, and statistical
reports.
Books—
There were 1,905 establishments in 1972 primarily engaged in publishing
and/or printing and binding books and pamphlets. These establishments
employed 98,000 people, spent $1.292 billion for supplies, and shipped prod-
ucts valued at $3.794 billion.
Commercial Printing—
There were 21,584 establishments in 1972 primarily engaged in commercial
printing by letterpress and/or lithographic processes. These establishments
employed 314,000 people, spent $3.293 billion for materials, and shipped
products valued at $8.414 billion. The average employment by these estab-
lishments is about 15 people, indicating many small establishments. In fact,
12,108 such establishments employ fewer than 5 people, whereas only 40 employ
500 or more people.
In addition to labels, wrappers, catalogs, directories, advertising,
financial, legal, and general job printing, some shops specialize in printing
newspapers and periodicals for others. These letterpress and lithographic
printers purchased 13 percent as much newsprint as did the newspaper pub-
lishers and printers.
Manufacturing Processes—
Figure 17 shows a general flow sheet for the printing of newspapers,
periodicals, books, and the products of commercial lithographic and letter-
press printing. Most of these printing processes, regardless of the products,
share many of the same unit operations. The major difference between litho-
graphic and letterpress printing is the preparation of a plate from a photo-
graphic medium in the former and the use of some form of typesetting in the
latter. Letterpress printing is gradually being replaced by lithographic and
other photo-dependent processes. The nature of the printed product dictates
the manner in which it is finished, as shown in Figure 17- In the following
paragraphs, unit operation will be discussed.
Photography—Particularly for lithographic offset printing, the prepared
copy is first photographed. This photographed material is subsequently trans-
ferred to a printing plate.
Other than the prepared copy, the major materials used are photographic
film and processing chemicals. The processing chemicals are complex mixtures
of organic and inorganic chemicals designed to perform developing, fixing,
and reducing functions to bring out the latent image in the photographic
emulsion.
Preparation of Printing Plate—A lithographic or a photo-offset plate is
prepared from the photographic image. Lithographic plates, generally
36
-------
PREPARED
ART AND COPY
CHEMICALS —
FILM —
; A
LITHOGRAPHIC
OFFSET PI.ATK
PREPARATION
TYPSETTING
INK'
PAPER >[pKINTING__]^>
TYPE-METAL
REMELT
NEWSPAPERS
CUTTING
l_COLLATING._
\
FOLD]
\
x \
1 1
NO . _J [FAST
/ \
iNlNg
/
PAPERBOARD
FABRIC
GLUE . )FB
THREAD '
U
1ND1^
\
/
....
/
SPECIAL !
HANDLING i
\
/
PERIODICALS
BOOKS
OTHER PRINTED
PRODUCTS
Air Emissions
-r
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 17. GENERALIZED PRINTING PROCESS.
37
-------
aluminum, are covered with a polymeric coating. Illumination through the
developed photographic transparency causes crosslinking and hardening of the
coating in some systems, or may cause depolymerization and softening in
others. The non-hardened portions are subsequently dissolved off, leaving
hydrophobic areas as ink receptors for printing.
Lithographic plates are generally made of aluminum and are not reused.
However, there is some usage of reusable zinc plates. Disposable plastic
plates are coming into common usage, and bimetallic plates (copper or steel)
may be used for long runs.
Coating materials may be diazo resins or various other synthetic
polymers.
Chemicals used in processing the plates include various inorganic and
organic acids and a variety of organic solvents.
Printing—For the printing operation, the printing plate or preset type
is affixed to the printing press. As the press moves, the printing plate or
type face picks up ink and transfers it to the paper. The major input
materials are the carrier of the printing image (plate or type), paper, and
printing ink.
Type-Metal Remelt—In linotype printing, which is tending to become
obsolete, a line of type characters is cast on demand from a keyboard as a
solid metal slug. After use, the metal is remelted for reuse.
Drying—After printing, the paper on which the wet ink has been placed
is run rapidly through an oven to dry the ink. Depending on the type of ink
used, the drying process may involve crosslinking of a liquid polymer and/or
vaporization of a solvent. Some solvent-free, UV-curable ink resins are
coming into use.
Cutting and Collating—The printed roll paper is cut into sheets of the
appropriate size, which are arranged in proper numerical sequence.
Binding—Books are bound in either hard-cover or paperback form. Other
types of publications are generally bound in a simpler manner. Most periodi-
cals, for example, are stapled together and newspapers are merely folded
together.
Materials used in binding include thread for sewing book sections to-
gether, paperboard, glue, and preprinted fabric or special paper. A thin
plastic sheet may be laminated to the outside of paperback books.
Waste Streams—
In the following paragraphs, those unit operations that generate waste
products will be discussed.
38
-------
Photography—The major waste stream from this unit operation is the
wastewater stream containing used processing chemicals. Some of these
chemicals have been oxidized or reduced in part to forms different from those
in which they entered the system. In addition, unexposed silver halide has
been removed from the emulsion and is contained in the wastewater as silver
ferrocyanide, a soluble salt. Some of the larger establishments can profit-
ably recover the silver values from this stream.
There is also some potential for solid waste in the photographic section.
Once the copy has been reduced to a photographic image, the original has no
further use to the printer. Furthermore, the containers in which both film
and chemicals are received must be disposed of. It is assumed that, in most
cases, there will be little need for the production and ultimate disposal of
duplicate photographic images.
Preparation of Printing Plate—The waste products from processing the
printing plates are liquid in nature and would be contaminants of wastewater.
Some of the solvents used are volatile and are modest air contaminants.
The photographic material must be disposed of after the plate is made
and makes a contribution to solid waste.
Printing—The major waste from the printing operation is the non-reusable
plate that must be disposed of as a solid waste.
Type-Metal Remelt—There should be no waste stream other than gaseous
effluents from the fuel used to supply heat.
Drying—Any solvent that is vaporized in the oven would constitute a
gaseous effluent to the air. High volume web printing systems can emit
significant quantities of air contaminants, and in some processes, vaporized
resins and smoke. Air pollutants from drying ovens are odorous, and can be
irritating to the eyes. When irradiated by sunlight in the presence of
oxides of nitrogen, even more noxious pollutants are formed.
Cutting and Collating—The only waste stream from this operation is edge
trimmings and perhaps an occasional spoiled sheet, providing a modest amount
of paper as a solid waste.
Binding—Only solid wastes arise from book binding. These wastes com-
prise trimmings from the input materials and perhaps an occasional spoiled
cover or book.
COMPOUNDED ORGANIC CHEMICAL PRODUCTS
Many types of chemical products are formulated or fabricated for use by
consumers or by other industries. Examples of such products include pharma-
ceutical preparations, soaps and other detergents, cleaners, polishes,
sanitary preparations, textile agents, perfumes, cosmetics, paints, adhesives
and sealants, and printing inks.
39
-------
In 1972 there were 7,405 establishments primarily engaged in producing
such products. They employed 351,400 people, purchased materials valued at
$9.142 billion, and shipped products valued at $24.4 billion.C1)
Five segments of this very diverse industry accounted for 64 percent of
the total establishments in the industry, 49 percent of employment, purchased
77 percent of the dollar value of materials, and shipped 83 percent of the
dollar value of products. Table 1 shows pertinent information on these five
industry segments. Manufacturing processes will be discussed for these and
some of the smaller segments of the industry.
Pharmaceutical Preparations
Other segments of the pharmaceutical industry are primarily engaged in
manufacturing biological products, medicinals, and botanical products in
bulk. The major activity of this segment of the industry is fabricating or
processing drugs into pharmaceutical preparations for human or veterinary use.
Most of the ingredients used are purchased in bulk from other suppliers,
although many of the larger companies manufacture some of the ingredients
they use.
Pharmaceutical preparations are classified as ethical or proprietary
Ethical Pharmaceuticals are promoted to physicians, dentists, or veterinarians
for their direct use or to be prescribed for the public. Proprietary phar-
maceuticals are promoted directly to the public for over-the-counter sales
for use on humans or animals. Proprietary Pharmaceuticals account for about
75 percent of the total value of shipments of all pharmaceutical preparations
for human and veterinary use. Veterinary Pharmaceuticals (both ethical and
proprietary) account for only about 3.5 percent of the value of shipments of
all pharmaceutical preparations.
About half (379) of the 756 establishments shown in Table 1 employed
fewer than 10 people in 1972, whereas 24 establishments employed 1000 people
or more. Average employment was 148 people per establishment.
Manufacturing Processes—
Pharmaceutical preparations may be used in solid, semi-solid, liquid,
or gaseous forms. A wide variety of dosage forms exists, including tablets,
hard and soft gelatin capsules, powders, microcapsules, ointments, creams,
suspensions, solutions, syrups, lozenges, aerosols, inhalants, injectibles,
and others. All establishments engaged in formulating pharmaceutical prep-
arations must be equipped to produce one or more of these dosage forms.
Most of the equipment and the general processes used in formulating
pharmaceutical preparations are common to many other products. However, some
aspects of the processing are unusual. Most products are prepared in re-
latively small batches, and different products are processed in the same
equipment. This leads to an unusual amount of cleaning of equipment prior to
changing from one product to another. Many of the process operations are
conducted in separate rooms to prevent any cross contamination of products.
Quality control is more important in the formulation of pharmaceutical
40
-------
TABLE 1. MAJOR INDUSTRY SEGMENTS THAT PRODUCE COMPOUNDED
ORGANIC CHEMICAL PRODUCTS
$ Million
Industry
Segment
Pharmaceutical preparations
Soap and detergents
Cleaning, polishing, and
sanitary preparations
Perfume, cosmetics, and
toilet preparations
Paint, varnish, etc.
Establishments
756
642
1,108
646
1,599
Employees ,
1000
112.0
31.5
25.1
48.3
66.0
Cost of
Materials
1,576
1,374
759
1,243
2,061
Value of
Shipments
7,150
3,394
1,868
4,057
3,824
-------
preparations than it is in most other industries. Finally, inventory control
is very important at all stages of production, packaging, labeling, storage,
and shipment.
Very general diagrams are shown for production of the more common dosage
forms of pharmaceutical preparations. Figure 18 is a generalized process for
fabricating tablets or capsules. Tablets may be made by a wet or dry process,
depending on stability and other properties of the ingredients.
Figure 19 shows a general process for producing liquid pharmaceutical
preparations. Except for the need for sterile conditions and quality control,
this is a very simple process.
Figure 20 shows a general process for producing semi-solid pharmaceutical
preparations, such as ointments, creams, and suppositories. The relative
difficulty of working the ingredients together determines the type of milling
or emulsification required.
Figure 21 shows a general process for producing parenteral solutions for
injection. Since these solutions enter directly into the body without first
going into the intestinal tract, aseptic conditions are particularly
important.
Waste Streams—
The most significant waste streams are probably the aqueous wastes gen-
erated in cleaning equipment. These wastes contain many types of biological
agents.
Dusting occurs in many of the process steps. Since both air temperature
and humidity must be controlled, and dust must be kept away from both workers
and other products, an elaborate air-filtration system is required or a great
deal of outside air must be conditioned. The dust is ultimately an air contam-
inant, water contaminant, or solid waste.
When non-aqueous solvents are used, small amounts may be air contami-
nants or water contaminants from the cleaning operations.
Shipping containers in which ingredients or preformed packaging units
are received make a contribution to solid waste. Breakage may also make a
contribution to solid waste.
Soap and Detergents
This segment includes establishments primarily engaged in the manufactur-
ing of soap, synthetic organic detergents, inorganic alkaline detergents, or
any combination thereof, and establishments producing crude and refined
glycerin from vegetable and animal fats and oils.
Three large companies (out of over 300) dominate the household detergent
market with over 80 percent of the business. They have a lesser position in
laundry detergents, other household cleaning products, and industrial cleaning
42
-------
RECEIVING
\
,
/
WEIGHING
DISPENSING
/
DRY BLENDING
\
/
COMPRESSION
V
/
COMMINUTION
©
/
WET
GRANULATION
BLENDING
SCREENING
DRYING
LUBRICATION
©
s
CONTROL
/
BLENDING
MILLING
>
/
ENCAPSULATION
1 ^
LUBRICATION
COMPllESSIONf
V
COATING
TABLETS
COMPRESSION
COATING
P-©
TABLETS
CAPSULES
FIGURE 18. PRODUCTION OF PHARMACEUTICAL TABLETS AND CAPSULES.
Source: Versar Report.
43
-------
WEIGHING
DISPENSING
RECEIVING
SOLVENTS
ETC.
BLENDING
FILTERING
STORAGE
= QUALITY
CONTROL
LIQUID
PACKAGING
FIGURE 19. PRODUCTION OF LIQUID PHARMACEUTICAL PREPARATIONS.
Source: Versar Report
44
-------
RECEIVING
QC
WEIGHING |
DISPENSING I
^1
MILLING
QC
QUALITY
CONTROL
HEATED
BLENDING
i "• ~;
t \s
i i • i
ROLLER COLLOID HOMOGENTZER
MILL MILL (LIQUID
(SOLIDS) (GUMS) CREMES)
_0
^ £
viy c
PACKAGING ]
FIGURE 20. PRODUCTION OF SEMI-SOLID PHARMACEUTICAL
PREPARATIONS.
Source: Versar Report.
(5)
45
-------
AMPOULE
FILLING
\/
STERILIZING
STERILE
SOLUTIONS
ROOM
FILTERING
STERILE
STORAGE
PACKAGING
LABELING
ASEPTIC
AMPOULE
FILLING
FIGURE 21. PRODUCTION OF PARENTERAL PHARMACEUTICAL PREPARATIONS
Source: Versar report.'.5)
46
-------
compounds. Overall in 1972, fifteen establishments (out of 642) accounted
for 47 percent of the value of shipments.
Manufacturing Processes—
Basic raw materials are caustics, fats, oils, salts, and surfactants.
The soap-making processes, either those utilizing the alkaline saponification
of fats and oils or those employing the saponification of fatty acids, may be
either batch or continuous. The steps or operations performed include saponi-
fication of the fats and oils by boiling in a caustic solution using live
steam, followed by "graining" or precipitating the soft curds of soap out of
the aqueous lye solution by adding sodium chloride. The soap solution then
is washed to remove glycerine and color body impurities to leave the settled
or neat soap to form on standing.
A typical product of this industry is bar soap. Most bar soap today is
manufactured by the "milling" process. Milled soaps, as they are called by
the industry, usually are manufactured by one of two processes. In the older
and still more commonly used process shown in Figure 22, the soap stock is
batched in a mixer, called a "crutcher", with other ingredients. The batch
is then flowed onto chill rolls, and then flaked off and passed through a
steam-heated hot-air dryer. The flakes can be packaged as flake soap or
ground and packaged as powder. When soap bars are made, the flakes from the
dryer are "plodded" (mixed in a screw or sugar tubular mixer) or mixed with
final ingredients such as perfume. The plodded material then is fed to a
roll mill. The flaky soap produced by the roll mill then is plodded again to
throughly mix ingredients and improve texture and is extruded in a continuous
bar shape for cutting, stamping, and wrapping.(^)
Waste Streams—
All chemical processes and some of the other operations involved in mak-
ing soap, production of fatty acids, and the purification of glycerine have
odors as a common air pollution problem. Blending, mixing, drying, packaging,
and other physical operations are subject to the air-pollution problems of
dust emissions. Process water is used to clean up the various pieces of
equipment, therefore the wastewater will be mainly soap. Most of the soap
wastes would be recycled. Solid waste results from the packaging operations.
Polishes, Bleaches and Sanitation Products
This segment includes establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing
furniture, metal and other polishes; waxes and dressings for fabricated
leather and other materials; household, institutional, and industrial plant
disinfectants and deodorants; household bleaches; dry cleaning preparations;
and other sanitary preparations. This segment is composed of 1108 establish-
ments operated by 1023 companies.
Manufacturing Processes—
Most of the products of this industry segment are prepared as solutions,
emulsions, or pastes, although some are prepared in solid form. Blending and
47
-------
MIXER
CHILLING
ROLLER
r - ^
^
MIXER
PERFUME
f
ROLL
MILL
PLODDER
'
CUTTER
/>
CTAVDpTJ
s
BAR
PACI^GING
i
oo
Air Emissions
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 22. FLOW DIAGRAM MILLING SOAP BARS.
(2)
-------
mixing are common operations in this industry. No specific process repre-
sentative of this industry segment was found. The simplified diagram shown
in Figure 23 should be fairly typical of processes used in preparing
emulsions or pastes.
Waste Streams—
Odors may be evolved in all of the process steps. Some particulate
matter may also be evolved in the milling operations. Water pollution should
not arise from the actual process operations, although cleanup of spills and
cleaning of equipment would contribute to water pollution. Solid wastes
would include the containers in which starting materials were received.
Toilet Preparations
This segment of the industry includes establishments primarily engaged
in manufacturing perfumes, cosmetics, and other toilet preparations. This
segment also includes establishments primarily engaged in blending and com-
pounding perfume bases, and those manufacturing shampoos and shaving products.
This segment is composed of 646 establishments operated by 594 companies.
Manufacturing Processes—
One of the leading products in this segment is shampoo. The manufacture
of shampoos is relatively simple. Generally, the only major equipment needed
are stainless steel manufacturing kettles jacketed for heating and cooling,
and equipped with adequate agitation. Shampoos normally consist of water
solutions or suspensions of one or more cleansing agents combined with other
ingredients or additives.'"'
Synthetic detergents are generally used as cleansing ingredients, al-
though soap also finds some application. Additives include thickeners,
opacifiers, conditioners, lime-soap dispersants, sequestrants, solubilizing
and coupling agents, bacteriostatic and fungistactic materials, perfume,
color, etc.
Waste Streams—
Water is used for cleaning the process kettles. The wastewater includes
diluted shampoo. Alcohol and solvents are also used to clean the process
kettles. Air pollution could consist of various odors.
Paint and Allied Products
This industry is composed of establishments primarily engaged in the
manufacturing of paints (in paste and ready-mixed form), varnishes, lacquers
enamels, and shellac; putties, wood fillers, and sealers; paint and varnish
removers; paint brush cleaners; and allied paint products.
The paint and varnish industry is one of the oldest manufacturing in-
dustries in the United States. The industry is made up of about 1,500 com-
panies currently operating about 1,700 plants.(7) The industry is well
49
-------
SOLID
INGREDIENTS
MIXING
LIQUID
INGREDIENTS
HEATED
BLENDING
MILLING
OR
HOMOGENIZING
PASTE OR
EMULSION
\
/
PACKAGING
WAREHOUSING
Air Emissions
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 23. PRODUCTION OF PASTES OR EMULSIONS.
50
-------
distributed geographically throughout the country and production volume is
definitely related to density of population. Even though about 36 companies
account for about 64 percent of the total sales, the industry is one of the
few remaining which contains numerous small companies that specialize in a
limited product line to be marketed within a geographic region. There are
fewer than 20 companies that sell paint nationwide.
Manufacturing Processes—
Paints can be divided into two categories, (1) water-base paint and
(2) oil-base paint. The major production difference is in the carrying
agent—oil-base paints are dispersed in an oil mixture, while water-base
paints are dispersed in water with a biodegradable surfactant used as the
dispersing agent. The next significant difference is in the cleanup pro-
cedures. As the water-base paints contain surfactants, it is much easier to
clean up the tubs with water. The tubs used to make oil-base paint are gen-
erally cleaned with an organic solvent, but cleaning with a strong caustic
solution is also a common practice.(8>9)
There are three major steps in the manufacturing of oil-base paints:
(1) mixing and grinding of raw materials, (2) tinting and thinning, and
(3) filling operations. The flow diagram in Figure 24 illustrates these steps.
At most plants, the mixing and grinding of raw materials for oil-base
paints are accomplished in one production step. For high-gloss paints, the
pigments and a portion of the binder and vehicle are mixed into a paste of
a specified consistency. This paste is fed to a grinder, which disperses the
pigments by breaking down particle aggregates rather than by reducing the
particle size. Two types of grinders are ordinarily used for this purpose:
pebble or steel ball mills, or roll-type mills. Other paints are mixed and
dispersed in a mixer using a sawtoothed dispersing blade.
In the next stage of production, the paint is transferred to tinting and
thinning tanks, occasionally by means of portable transfer tanks but more com-
monly by gravity feed or pumping. Here, the remaining binder and liquid, as
well as various additives and tinting colors, are incorporated. The paint is
then analyzed and the composition is adjusted as necessary to obtain the
correct formulation for the type of paint being produced. The finished product
is then transferred to a filling operation where it is filtered, packaged and
labeled.(^,9) jn a large plant, these operations are usually mechanized.
Water-base paints are produced by a slightly different method than oil-
base paints. Figure 25 illustrates a typical process for manufacturing water-
base paints. The pigments and extending agents are usually received in proper
size, and the dispersion of the pigment, surfactant, and binder into the ve-
hicle is accomplished with a saw-toothed disperser. In small plants, the
paint is thinned and tinted in the same tub, while in the larger plants the
paint is transferred to special tanks for final thinning and tinting. Once
the formulation is correct the paint is transferred to a filling operation
where it is filtered, packaged, and labeled in the same manner as for oil-base
paints.
51
-------
PIGMENTS
OIL
I
MIXING
TANK
STONE OR
ROLLER
MILL
PEBBLE
OR
BALL MIX
THINNING
AND
TINTING
TANK
RESINS
TINT AND
THINKERS
DISPERSION
TANK
Air Emissions
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 24. FLOW DIAGRAM OF MANUFACTURING PROCESS FOR OIL-BASE PAINTS.
(10)
52
-------
PIGMENTS
RESINS OIL
SURFACTANTS
WATER
NX
DISPERSING
TANK
x\
PAINT
TINTING
THINNING
PACKAGING
AND
FILLING
(PAINT
Air Emissions
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 25. FLOW DIAGRAM OF MANUFACTURING PROCESS FOR WATER-BASE PAINTS.
(10)
53
-------
Waste Streams—
Air emissions result from the grinding and mixing operations of dry
materials and the addition of solvents to the tinting and thinning operations.
Solid waste in the form of sludge is a result of the cleanup operation. Waste-
water is generated from the tubwashing operations in the manufacture of water-
base paints. The final cleanup for oil-base paint tubs consists of flushing
with a petroleum solvent until clean. The dirty solvent is then treated one
of three ways: (1) it is used in the next paint batch, (2) it is sold to a
solvent reclaiming company where it is sometimes redistilled and resold, or
(3) it is placed in a drum and the cleaner solvent decanted for subsequent
tank cleaning and return to drums until only sludge remains in the drum. The
drum of sludge is then sent to a landfill for disposal.
Manufacturing Processes—
Varnish cooking processes are conducted in two types of vessels—the open-
topped portable kettle and the newer, totally enclosed, stationary kettle.
The open kettles are cylindrical vessels with dished or flat bottoms.
They usually are transported on a three- or four-wheel truck, and are heated
over an open flame. This type of kettle usually varies in capacity from 185
to 375 gallons and is made of steel, copper, monel, aluminum, nickel, or
stainless steel. Under most operating conditions, the kettle is charged in a
loading room and then moved to the fire pit. It is heated over the fire pit-.
then, when the reaction is complete, transferred to another location for cool-
ing. The thinning process involves pumping the hot varnish to another vessel
which contains cold solvent, and some solvent to volatilize to the atmosphere
during this operation. In the past, it was common to manually agitate the
contents during cooking. Materials in open kettles now are seldom agitated
manually. Agitation is provided by air-driven or electrically driven mixers
and by sparging the contents with an inert gas, such as carbon dioxide or ni-
trogen. The open kettle still is employed extensively in varnish-manufactur-
ing establishments.(2)
The closed stationary vessels are almost exclusively found at chemical
companies engaged in manufacturing of a wide variety of paint bases.
Waste Streams—
Vapor or gases are emitted from the open kettles during the cooking pro-
cess. Water pollution results when wet scrubbers are used to control air
emissions, and when the cooking tubs are cleaned, using a caustic cleaning
solution. The caustic cleaning solution is reused and diluted or treated
before discharging to the municipal sewer system. Solid wastes are treated
and shipped to landfills.
Adhesives and Sealants
This industry is made up of establishments primarily engaged in manufac-
turing industrial and household adhesives, glues, caulking compounds, sealants,
and linoleum, tile, and rubber cements. It can be further categorized by
54
-------
product type as follows:
1. Natural base glues and adhesives
2. Synthetic resin and rubber adhesives, and
3. Caulking compounds and sealants.
Essentially, this is a compounding or formulating industry. In general, raw
materials are manufactured under other industrial classifications although
some companies may manufacture chemical raw materials for adhesives and seal-
ants and also manufacture the finished products. The 1974-1975 adhesives Red
Book lists 745 companies and 1114 plants engaged in the manufacture of ad-
hesives, ranging in size from less than 5 to over 1,000 employees. On the
other hand, the 1972 Census of Manufactures lists only 463 establihments as
being primarily engaged in manufacturing adhesives and sealants. They employ-
ed 14,900 people, purchased materials valued at $504 million, and shipped
products valued at $928 million. (-*-' The synthetic resin and rubber adhesives
category accounts for about 70 percent of the value of shipments with the re-
mainder split between the other two categories.
Manufacturing Processes—
The manufacturing processes vary with raw materials and type of product.
Natural-Base Glues and Adhesives—The natural-base glues include animal
glues (hide, bone), protein adhesives (casein, blood, fish, soybean), vege-
table adhesives (starches, dextrins), and bituminous cements. In the manu-
facture of animal glues the general process consists of cleaning the hide or
bones, extraction with hot water or steam, filtration, evaporation and drying.
Figures 26 and 27 present the processes in more detail.
Casein is prepared by acidifying skimmed milk to pH 4.5 to precipitate
the solid curd from the liquid (Figure 28). The curd is washed, dried and
ground. Casein adhesives are prepared using alkali dispersing agents and
other additives such as preservatives, plasticizers, viscosity-control agents,
and fillers.
To prepare fish glue, selected fish skins are washed free of preservative
(salt) and cooked with hot water to extract the protein (5-7 percent solids),
filtered, and concentrated to 40 to 50 percent solids. A preservative is
added to the adhesive (Figure 29).
Soybean flour is prepared from dehulled, extracted, and dried soybeans
keeping the temperature below about 160 F to preserve the solubility of soy-
bean protein. Soybean flour is mixed just before use with compounds to aid
wetting, dispersion, defoaming and optionally crosslinking, blending adhesive
resins, and fillers.
Blood glues are prepared from fresh liquid blood collected in packing
plants. The clotting substance is removed, preservatives added, and the
liquid spray-dried or vacuum dried at carefully controlled temperatures.
55
-------
HIDES
WASH
WATER
MILK OF LIME
CURE
->NON-GLUE PROTEINS
WATER
MINERAL ACID H TREAT
WASH
HOT WATER ^ COOK
I ..FILTER
EVAPORATION
r
DRYER
ADHESIVE
DILUTE ACIDS
EXTRACTED HIDES
SOLIDS
WATER
WATER
Air Emissions
Water Emissions
Solid limissions
FIGURE 26. HIDE GLUE MANUFACTURE.
56
-------
BONES
STEAM
CYCLING
HOT WATER
CLEANED
EXTRACTOR
FILTER
CENTRIFUGE
EVAPORATOR
DRYER
GRINDER
ADHESIVE
->BONE
.SOLIDS
.GREASE, FAT
Air Emissions
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 27. BONE GLUE MANUFACTURE.
57
-------
SK1MV!LD MILK —
ACID
HC1 OR LACTIC
r
r-FT'N
I
CURD
(CASEIN)
LIQUID
WASHER
/?
DRIER
GRINDER
ADDITIVES
ADHESIVE
ALKALI
OILS
FILLERS
VISCOSITY CONTROL
'PRESERVATIVES
"PLASTICIZERS
Air Emissiopc
Water Emissions
"Tb
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 28. MANUFACTURING PROCESS FOR CASEIN GLUE.
58
-------
FISH SKINS
WATER HOT
WASHER
HOT
EXTRACTOR
(5-7% SOLIDS)
FILTER
SALT, ETC.
-SKINS
BACTERICIDE
J>
CONCENTRATOR
40-50 % SOLIDS
ADHESIVE
Air Emissions
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 29. FISH GLUE PROCESSING.
59
-------
Soluble and partly soluble blood is used for adhesives with appropriate
additives and fillers.
Starch (corn, potato, wheat, and tapioca) can be degraded inexpensively
into a wide range of adhesive products including thin-boiling starches,
oxidized starches and dextrins. Aqueous dispersions of these materials with
dispersing aids, defearners, fillers, etc. are widely used adhesive systems.
Synthetic Resin and Rubber Adhesives—The range of raw materials for
synthetic resin and rubber-based adhesives include essentially all types
or organic polymeric compounds. Table 2 lists the chief base materials for
adhesives. Obviously, it is extremely difficult to make general statements
concerning emissions and waste streams. Table 3 presents types of materials
used as compounding ingredients in adhesives. This also covers a wide range
of chemical compounds.
In general, the adhesives are manufactured as water dispersions or
solutions, solutions in organic solvents, or as solvent-free semisolid or
solid products. Water-dispersed adhesives may be formed by emulsion poly-
merization of the base material or dispersion of pre-polymerized material
in water. Figure 30 presents a flow chart of these processes. Solvent
systems are prepared by dissolving the adhesive compound or compounds in an
organic solvent. The physical properties of the raw material and the
viscosity of the product dictate the type of equipment necessary. Low-
viscosity resins can use low-shear, high-speed stirrers while high-viscosity
products may require high-shear mills to produce solutions. Hot-melt ad-
hesives may be prepared by hot milling ingredients and cooling the product.
Figure 31 outlines the steps in preparing synthetic resin-based adhesives.
Rubber-based adhesives may require milling of the rubber between steel rolls
at room temperature or elevated temperatures. This softens the rubber and
renders it more soluble.
Sealants are made from elastomeric materials, either alone or with
pigments and solvents. Many types of sealants have been developed to solve
specific problems. The physical properties of the sealant are varied by
varying the elastomer (high or low molecular weight compounds), pigment
(powder, fibrous, platelike), and sometimes solvents. Sealants are formu-
lated for gun or knife application and (with solvents) brush or spray.
Manufacturing processes for sealants are similar to those for adhesives,
that is, the elastomers are blended with additives such as plasticizers
and pigments then diluted with solvents, if required.
Waste Streams—
Natural-base adhesives processing presents the possibility of generat-
ing volatile material during the digestion steps. Usually there is solid
waste (unextractable portion of bones, hides, etc.). These are usually
processed further into by-products such as fertilizer. Cleanup of processing
equipment may result in waterborne waste.
60
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TABLE 2. MATERIALS FOR SYNTHETIC RESIN AND RUBBER ADHESIVES
Thermoplastic Adhesives
Aerylate-vinyl acetate
Acrylic-ethylene
Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene
Cellulose acetate
Cellulose acetate butyrate
Cellulose caprate
Cellulose nitrate
Chlorinated polyethylene
yanoacrylate
Ethyl cellulose
Hydroxyethyl cellulose
Methyl cellulose
Polyacrylate
Polyacrylic esters
Polyamide
Thermosetting Adhesives
Epoxy
Epoxy ester
Epoxy/bitumen
Furan
Melamine formaldehyde
Phenol formaldehyde
Phenol formaldehyde-resorcinol
Phenolic
Rubber-Based Adhesives
Butadiene acrylonitrile rubber
Butadiene-polyacrylate rubber
Butadiene-styrene rubber
Butyl rubber
Chlorinated rubber
Cyclized rubber
Depolymerized rubber
Natural rubber
Hot-MeIt Adhesive
Polyamides
Polycarbonates
Polyesters
Polyolefins
Polyvinyl acetate
Polyester
Polyether
Polyimide
Polymethacrylate
Polystyrene
Polysulfone
Polyvinyl acetal
Polyvinyl acetate
Polyvinyl alcohol
Polyvinyl butyral
Polyvinyl chloride
Polyvinyl formal
Vinyl acetate-ethylene
Vinyl chloride-vinyl acetate
Vinyl chloride-vinylidene
Phenolic-epoxy
Polyester
Polyethylene imine
Polyisocyanate
Polyurethane
Resorcinol formaldehyde
Silicone
Urea formaldehyde
Polybutadiene
Polychloroprene
Polyisobutylene
Polyisoprene
Polysulfide
Polyurethane rubber
Reclaimed rubber
Silicone rubber
61
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TABLE 3. ADHESIVE CHEMICALS AND COMPOUNDING INGREDIENTS
Accelerating and vulcanizing agents
Antioxidants
Bleaches
Collodial stabilizers
Crosslinking and insolubilizing agents
Defoamers
Dyes and pigments
Extenders and fillers
Humectants
Liquifiers
Perfuming and masking agents
Plasticizers
Preservatives
Softners
Solvents
Tackifiers
Thickeners
Ultra-violet absorbers
Wetting agents
Miscellaneous chemicals
62
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MONOMERS
EMULSION
POLYMERIZATION
POLYMER
DISPERSION
ADHESIVE
(a)
ADDITIVES
Air Emissions
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
POLYMER
DISPERSION
ADHESIVE
(b)
FIGURE 30. WATERBASED ADHESIVES; (A) EMULSION POLYMERIZATION AND
(B) DISPERSION PROCESSES.
63
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SOLVENT
IF REQUIRED
ADDITIVES
Air Emissions
Water Emissions
ADHESIVE
BASE
RESIN
BLENDER
PACKAGE
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 31. SYNTHETIC RESIN AND RUBBER BASE ADHESIVES.
64
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Often the raw materials for synthetic resin and rubber-based adhesives
are manufactured at a site other than the adhesive formulation installation.
In this case the manufacturing process consists essentially of dissolution
and blending ingredients and packaging the resultant mixture. There may be
volatile components of the resins and the volatile organic solvents used
present possible emissions to be controlled. If fillers such as clay are
used, particulate emissions may be a problem. Liquid waste may be generated
in clean-up operations. Wastewaters from synthetic resin and rubber based
products contain high dissolved solids, heavy metals, total suspended solids,
BOD, COD, and hexane extractibles.
Specific statements for the industry as a whole are difficult because of
the very wide range of chemical compounds used as base materials and addi-
tives. Some manufacturers produce a wide range of products while others
produce only one type with possibly several grades.
Printing Ink
This industry consists of establishments primarily engaged in manufact-
uring of the following types of inks:
Bronze ink
Gold ink
Gravure ink
Ink, duplicating
Ink, printing: base or finished
Lithographic ink
Printing ink
Screen process ink.
The ink manufacturing industry is similar to the paint industry in that
it is essentially a formulation industry.
Printing ink production in the United States now exceeds one billion
pounds per year. The industry comprises over 250 printing ink producers.
However, seven companies share over 50 percent of the market: Inmont, Sinclair
and Valentine, Sun Chemical, Cities Service (F. H. Levey), Tenneco Chemicals
(California Ink), Borden, and Flint Ink. Many large-volume users are
captive producers as, for example, American Can, Reuben H. Donnelly, Bemis
Bag and others. (H'
Manufacturing Processes—
Both oil- and water-base inks can be made in the same factory. Many of
the same raw materials are used and the inks are produced with, generally,
the same equipment. Some oil-base pigments may be blended into the extenders
and carriers before being dispersed by roll or ball mills. The various oils
and resins, lacquers, clays, pigments, and dispersing agents used are gen-
erally the same. The major difference is the use of either oil or water as
the dispersing medium. The production of ink products consists of milling,
dispersion and mixing operations.
65
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The processes and equipment used by the ink industry are very similar to
those used by the paint industry and will not be discussed here.
Figure 32 shows a typical flow diagram for the ink industry.
Waste Streams—
Solvent vapor emissions occur in almost every phase of manufacturing and
in numerous locations throughout individual plants. Typical emission points
are:
Blending tanks
Grinding
Dispersion
Holding tanks
Filtering
Packaging
Storage tanks.
The loading or unloading of pigments and other dry solid into grinding and
dispersion equipment results in dust emission into the surrounding plant
areas.
The only process wastewater from ink formulation is the water used for
tubwashing. However, sometimes this water is recycled and the sludge is
transported to landfills.
Fireworks and Pyrotechnics Industry
This industry consists of establishments manufacturing a wide array of
pyrotechnic items and fireworks for military and civilian uses. Military
pyrotechnics include light effects for illumination and signalling (flares),
smoke, noisemakers, and specialized heat sources. Civilian pyrotechnics
comprise all types of fireworks, railroad and highway fuses, railroad tor-
pedoes, and specialized heating devices. The scope of this industry varies
widely from, for example, toy caps to 2-million-candlepower illuminating
flares. This industry appears to depend on empirical, practical, and pro-
prietary processes and formulations. According to the 1972 Census of Manu-
facturers, the industry annually ships products worth about $40 million.^
Thomas Register 1976 lists 36 companies engaged in one or more parts of this
industry.
Manufacturing Processes '
The manufacture of pyrotechnics is a hazardous industry and adherence
to safety regulations is of utmost importance.
The overall process involves formulation of the pyrochemicals and
assembling the pyrotechnical material within the container or package
(Figure 33). The complexity of the finished device varies from paper caps
(small powder charge between paper layers) to display fireworks with numerous
charges of different composition and complex fusing arrangement to control
66
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SOLVENT
STONE
OR
ROLLER MILL
FEEBLE
OR
BALL MILL
DISPERSING
TANK
THINNING
TANK
If
FILLING
PACKAGING
AND
SHIPMENT
Air Emissions
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 32. GENERAL FLOW DIAGRAM FOR THE FORMULATION OF OIL-BASE INK.
(12)
67
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ACCESSORY
MATERIALS
OXIDIZERS
BLEND
PACK
\s
PRODUCTS
Air Emissions
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 33. FLOW DIAGRAM OF MANUFACTURING FIREWORKS AND PYROTECHNIC
MATERIALS.
68
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ignition and propulsion for desired effects. Complex timing devices that
result in the ejection of the pilot from aircraft or separation systems in
astronautics are examples of sophisticated pyrotechnic applications.
Formulation of the pyrochemical materials consists of blending combina-
tions of the following items:
Fuels. Historically charcoal and sulfur, but now includes
a large variety of materials such as metallic powders (mag-
nesium, aluminum, iron, titanium, zirconium, manganese
molybdenum, tungsten, lead, etc.); nonmetals, such as silicon
and boron; and some organic materials such as gallic acid,
picrates, carbohydrates, oils, and waxes.
Oxidizers. Nitrates of sodium, potassium, strontium, and
barium; potassium chlorate and potassium perchlorate;
fluorocarbon polymers; and hexachloroethane, etc.
Binders. Dextrins, gum arabic, cellulose nitrate, poly-
esters, shellac, etc.
Accessory Materials. Dry-flow control and mining aids,
liquid desensitizers, moisture-barrier materials, and
neutralizers.
Blending procedures depend on the texture and sensitivity of the result-
ing mixture. Loose powders are blended by simple tumbling or in a V-shaped
tubular blender. Some mixtures require a more vigorous action with alter-
nate squeezing and plowing as with a steel muller. The latter methods are
used with formulations containing polymeric binders.
The pyrochemical mixture, ranging from loose powder to plastic mass, is
then loaded into the final package or device. This varies from hand pouring
to automatic metering for the loose materials. Other materials are packed
into paper or metallic tubes, depending on the end product. The charges may
be packed with light pressure to form pellets, cylindrical columns, or a long
chain. Military devices may require high-pressure hydraulic forces to pack
steel or brass tubes or molds. Hand packing or hydraulic presses are used
depending upon degree of consolidation required and the degree of automation
attained.
Most pyrotechnic items involve more than one compound of different
chemical or physical properties. For example, an aerial display piece re-
quires igniting fuse, propelling charge, fusing for secondary propulsion of
"stars", colored or explosive charges, plus any special-effect charges. De-
tails of these separate formulations and especially techniques for prepara-
tion are generally proprietary.
The processing of pyrotechnical materials is primarily dry with liquids
used as volatile compounds or as processing aids and binders for forming
solid masses of materials.
69
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Waste Streams—
During compounding, dry materials are generally mixed in closed containers,
often with wetting liquids to reduce sensitivity. Possible emissions consist
of volatiles from organic liquids or binder solvents and solid particulate
material from ingredients. The hazardous nature of these materials would
seem to dictate that any loose material would be minimized.
During packing or loading, because of the hazardous nature of compounds,
special care is taken to minimize material losses. Materials at this stage
are essentially dry solids.
RUBBER AND MISCELLANEOUS PLASTICS PRODUCTS
The rubber-processing industry is a highly diversified one involving the
synthesis of polymers as well as the fabrication of polymers and natural
rubber into finished products. It is also quite fragmented; over 2000 plant
locations have been identified. The segments of the rubber industry covered
in this analysis consist of the following industries:
• Tire and inner tubes
• Rubber and plastics footwear
• Reclaimed rubber
• Rubber and plastics hose and belting
• Fabricated rubber products
• Retread tires.
The miscellaneous plastics products industry consists of 7,698 establishments,
and employs 347,000 people, producing a wide diversity of products.
Tires and Inner Tubes
The tire and inner tube industry consists of 56 plants producing 172
million tires and 53 million inner tubes annually for a total rubber con-
sumption of 2.5 million tons per year.(19) Tire and inner tube plants are
located primarily in Ohio and southeastern U.S. A few are located in
northern U.S. and the remainder are scattered widely throughout the country.
Manufacturing Processes—
The raw materials used in manufacturing tires consist of rubber (natural
and synthetic), oil, fabric, wire, carbon black, and various additives such
as antioxidants, antiozants, curing agents, and catalysts. Soapstone
although not a raw material, is used extensively in the tire industry to pre- ,
vent uncured rubber from sticking to itself. Soapstone comprises a major
source of suspended solids in the effluent waste from tire plants.
70
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The typical tire manufacturing process consists of the following:
1. Preparation or compounding of the raw materials
2. Transformation of these compounded materials into
the five tire components
3. The building, molding, and curing of the final
product.
A flow diagram for the typical plant is shown in Figure 34. The basic
machinery units used in the compounding operation are the Banbury mixer and
the roller mill. A Banbury mixer is a batch-type internal mixing device and
is the hub of this compounding operation. After mixing, the compound is
sheeted out in a roller mill, extruded into sheets, or pelletized. The pro-
cess depends on the type of batch (reactive or non-reactive) and the manu-
facturer. Pelletizing of a non-reactive batch permits the weighing and mix-
ing of the stock to be done automatically. The reactive compounded rubber is
always sheeted out.
The rubber stock,once compounded and mixed, must be molded or transformed
into the form of one of the final parts of the tire. This consists of several
parallel processes by which the sheeted rubber and other raw materials, such
as cord and fabric, are made into the following basic tire components: tire
beads, tire treads, tire cords, and tire belt (fabric).
In the formation of tire treads, the rubber stock as it is received from
the compounding section is manually fed to a warm-up roller mill. Here the
rubber is heated and further mixed. Heat is provided by the conversion of
mechanical energy. Temperature control is provided by the use of cooling
water within the rolls of the mill.
To produce tire cords and belts, rubber stock must be impregnated onto a
pretreated fabric. The fabric is led off a roll, spliced onto the tail of
the previous roll (either adhesively or by a high-speed sewing machine), and
fed under controlled tension (via a festooner) to a latex dip tank. After
dipping and while still under tension, the fabric is fed past vacuum suction
lines or rotating beater bars to remove the excess dip before the fabric
rises through a drying and baking oven.
In the processing of rubber stock to tire beads, the rubber is extruded
onto a series of copper-plated steel wires, which are then cemented, wrapped,
and cut. The rubber stock is pretreated, as before, in a warm-up mill and
strip-feed mill. Excess rubber is trimmed from the bead before it leaves
the extruder and is fed back to the strip feed mills. To apply cement the
coated wire is passed through a trough or set of brushes. The cement is
necessary to insure the proper adhesion of the bead when it is wrapped.
The tire is molded and cured in an automatic press. Here a rubber
bladder bag is inflated inside the tire, causing the tire to take its charac-
teristic doughnut shape. The mold is simultaneously closed over the shaped
tire. Heat is applied by steam via the mold and bladder bag. Excess rubber
71
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ho
Rubber, Dry
Compound
Fabric and Wire
Storage
Green Tire
Inspection
ar.d Painting
Tire Molding
and Curing
Inspection
Storage
Shipping
Tire
Finishing
.
77
Air Emission*
Water Emission*
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 34. DIAGRAM FOR TYPICAL TIRE AND CAMELBACK PRODUCTION
FACILITY.
Source: Tire and Synthetic, EPA 440/1-73/013
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and trapped air escape through weepholes. After a timed, temperature-con-
trolled cure, the press is cooled, the bladder is deflated via a vacuum, and
the tire is removed. The tire is next inflated with air and left to cool in
the atmosphere. This last inflation insures product quality and uniformity
by allowing the tire to "set up" or achieve the final limits of its cure
under controlled conditions.
After the molding and curing operations, the tire proceeds to the grind-
ing operation where the excess rubber which escaped through the weepholes is
ground off. If the tire is designated to be a whitewall, additional grinding
is performed to remove a black protective strip. Most tires receive further
grinding of the tread in order to balance the tire.
After the grinding operations, the whitewall portion of a tire receives
a protective coat of paint. The paint is generally water based. This
operation usually occurs in a hooded area. Solids from any wet air pollution
equipment or runoff due to overspraying of the paint will create pollution
problems. After inspection and possibly some final repairs, the tire is
ready to be shipped.
Waste Streams—
Table 4 presents a review of the potential sources of wastewater
streams. Air emissions result from the compounding, green tire printing,
and tire finishing operations. Solid waste results from the grinding
operations.
Manufacturing Processes—
Inner tube manufacturing is very similar to tire manufacturing in that
the process consists of the following steps:
1. Preparation or compounding of raw materials
2. The extension or compounding of raw material to
form a tube
3. The building, molding and curing to form the final
products.
A flow diagram for the typical process is shown in Figure 35.
The basic machinery used in the compounding operation is similar to that
used in tire manufacturing, namely, Banbury mixers and roller mills.
Waste Streams—
Pollutants are emitted by the Banbury mills operation when carbon black
is added to the mill.
73
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TABLE 4. SUMMARY OF POTENTIAL PROCESS-ASSOCIATED WASTEWATER
Plant Area
Source
Nature and Origin of Wastewater Contaminants
Compounding
Bead, tread, tube
formation
Cord and belt
formation
Green tire painting
Molding and curing
Tire finishing
Run off
Washdown, spills, leaks,
discharges from vet air-
pollution equipment
Washdown, spills, leaks
Washdown, spills, leaks
Washdown, spills, air-
pollution equipment
Washdown, leaks
Washdown, spills, air-
pollution equipment
Oil
Solids from soapstone dip tank
Oil from seals in roller mills
Oil and solids from Banbury seals
Solids from air-pollutior. equipment discharge
Oil and solvent-based cements from the cementing
operation
Oil from seal? in roller mills
Organics and solids from dipping operation
Oil from seals in roller mills, calenders, etc.
Organics and solids from spray-painting operation
Soluble organics and solids from air pollufion-
equipnent discharge
Oil from hydraulic system
Oil from presses
Solids and soluble organics from painting operation
Solids from air-pollution equipment discharge
SOURCE: Tire and Synthetic Segment, EPA 440/1-73/013
(20)
-------
Carbon
Black
Rubber
and Dry
Compound
Storage
Extender
Oil
Storage
Tube
Formation
u
Inspection, Packaging,
and Shipping
Tube Slicing,
Molding,
and Curing
•^ —
Air Emissions
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 35 . FLOW DIAGRAM OF A TYPICAL INNER TUBE PRODUCTION FACILITY-
Source: Tire and Synthetic Segment, EPA 440/1-73/013
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Rubber Hose and Belting
This industry consists of establishments engaged primarily in the manu-
facture of rubber hose and belting, including garden hose. The establish-
ments that manufacture these products include the major rubber companies and
several others. At present 68 companies manufacture hose and belting. Many
of the companies manufacture mechanical goods in the same plant. In 1972,
90 establishments in this industry shipped products valued at $1.02 billion
and employed 31,900 persons. (*•'
Manufacturing Processes—
Hose manufacture can be classified according to the manner in which the
hose is produced. Such factors as service, size, production volume, and cost
usually determine the method by which the hose is made. The greatest pro-
portion of all hose manufactured today is produced by highly mechanized
equipment specially designed for the purpose. Three fundamental methods of
hose manufacture exist, producing the following types of hose:(21)
1. Machine-wrapped ply hose
2. Hand-built hose
3. Braided and spiralled hose.
Hand-Built Hose—The term hand-built hose applies to two general types
of hose, non-wire reinforced and wire reinforced, which are made by hand on
a steel mandrel. The hose is made by hand when it is too large in diameter,
too long to fit in the three-roll making-machine, or when the hose is made
with special ends. The hand method is also used frequently when the fabric
reinforcement must be applied one ply at a time. The mandrel is mounted on
a series of double roller stands and one end of the mandrel is held in the
jaws of a powerdriven chuck to rotate the mandrel during the making
operations.
Braided and Spiralled Hose—The term braided hose identifies a type of
hose construction and method of manufacture in which the strands of rein-
forcement are interlaced or interwoven in addition to spiralling around the
tube. Braided hose is produced in size ranging from 5 to 200 millimeters
(0.2 to 8 inches) internal diameter. A variety of methods are available for
manufacture. Factors such as internal diameter, length, burst strength,
production rate, and cost dictate to a large extent how the hose is made.
Manufacturing commences with the extrusion of a tube supported on a
flexible mandrel or a non-supported tube in lengths up to 50 meters (165
feet) or in continuous lengths. Non-supported tube must be firm enough in
the unvulcanized state to resist deformation and stretching under normal
processing conditions. A high percentage of braided hose is made with a
non-supported tube. When the tube is too thin or too soft to withstand
subsequent processing or when the internal diameter must be kept within a
narrow range, it is supported on a flexible mandrel. The mandrel is at least
as long as the hose to be made, has a round cross-section, and can be coiled
76
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in a small diameter. It is made of rubber or plastic material and may have
a wire core to prevent stretching.
Belting—The other major product in this industry is belting. Compound-
ing is carried out inthe conventional manner as in tire plants. The com-
pounded rubber is then calendered onto fabric and cured in an autoclave or by
continuous cure. V-belts are made on special equipment. They have wire
reinforcement centers and are covered with rubberized fabric. The rubber is
mixed by standard methods, i.e., in intensive mixers. The stock is then
calendered onto fabric, slit, and wrapped on wire by means of special
equipment.
Waste Streams—
Table 5 shows the origin of the wastewater from the production of rubber
hose and belting. Air emissions result from the compounding operations.
Fabricated Rubber Products
This industry consists of establishments primarily engaged in manufac-
turing industrial and mechanical rubber goods, rubberized fabrics and
vulcanized rubber clothing, and miscellaneous rubber specialties and sun-
dries. In 1972 there were 1,103 establishments, employing 99,000 persons,
which shipped products valued at $2.83 billion.Cl)
Manufacturing Processes—
Processes employed in this industry segment are varied. Processes used
are compounding, milling, fabrication, molding, vulcanization, and extrusion.
The manufacture of molded rubber products is representative of the process
in this industry.
Several methods are used to mold rubber products. The selection of a
particular molding technique is dependent on the nature of the product, the
type of rubber, and production economics. The principal methods used for
the manufacture of general molded products are the compression, transfer,
and injection-moIding processes. In many cases all three techniques are used
at one plant location.
Rubber molding processes typically consist of the following:
1. Compounding of the rubber stock
2. Preparation of the mold preforms or blanks
3. Molding
4. Deflashing.
Compression Molding—Compression molding is the oldest method of making
molded parts. The uncured rubber is formed to the approximate shape, re-
ferred to as a preform,and placed in the individual cavities of the mold.
77
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TABLE 5. PROCESS-ASSOCIATED WASTEWATER SOURCES FROM THE PRODUCTION OF RUBBER HOSE AND
BELTING
00
Plant Unit or Area
Oil storage
Compounding
Extrusion
Calendering
Curing(a)
Testing
Source
Spills and leaks
Washdown, spills, leaks, and
discharges from wet air-
pollution control equipment
Cooling waters, spoils, and
leakages
Spills and leaks
Condsnsate
Spills and leaks
Nature and Origin of
Waste Water Con-./\nin.?nts
Oil pick-ap by stor^, run-off
Solids from soapstone dip tank.
Oil and water leaks from nixers
and mills. Solids fro:n wet air-
pollution control equipment dis-
charges.
Anti-tack agent- in cooling tank
overflows, oil fro™ raachiriery
Solids from soapstone dip tank.
Oil and water leaks from mixers
anc' mills
Organics and lead leached by steam
vul~anizer condensate
Oil pick-up hydraulic testing water
(a) Waste waters generated by curing operations are essentially limited to hose manufacture.
(b) Test in;; waters .ire used only in hose manufacture.
Source: Fabricated and Reclaimed Rubber, EPA 440/]-74/030
(21)
-------
As the mold is closed under pressure, the compound conforms to the shape of
the cavity and the excess material is forced out into a flash groove.
Transfer Molding—Transfer molding involves the transfer of the uncured
rubber stock from one part of the mold to another. The stock, in the form
of blanks, is placed in a recess called the pot or transfer cavity. The pot
is fitted with a ram or piston which is inserted over the stock. The force
of the press when applied to the ram plus the heat from the mold causes the
stock to be softened and flow through runners into the previously empty mold-
ing cavities, where the stock is cured in the desired form.
Injection Molding—Injection molding is the newest method of molding and
requires the greatest degree of sophistication both from the standpoint of
materials and mold design. Basically, it is the same as transfer molding
with the exception that the stock is injected into the cavities. There are
essentially three different types of injection-molding machines. One machine
uses a ram to force the stock through runners into the cavities; another uses
a screw; the third is a combination of the first two and is a reciprocating
screw. Figure 36 shows a typical flow diagram for a molded item.
Waste Streams—
Airborne particles generated during the compounding operations are
controlled by wet-scrubbing devices. Solid waste is generated during de-
flashing operations. When metal-bonded items are produced, the metal is
degreased with a solvent and sometimes the metals are pickled. The spent
degreasing solvent is generally drummed and hauled from the plant, while the
pickle liquor requires containerization or treatment before it is discharged.
Tire Retreading
Tire retreading is an industry dominated by independents. Approximately
4,500 retreading shops or plants are currently registered with the Federal
Department of Transportation and the number of tires retreaded by the in-
dustry as a whole approaches 32 million each year.(21) There are a few
large retreading plants which are operated by the major tire companies:
Firestone, Goodyear, Goodrich, and General, etc. In most aspects these are
very comparable to a plant manufacturing new tires. An average retreading
requires approximately 10 pounds of rubber per passenger tire and 35 pounds
per truck tire.
Manufacturing Processes—
Figure 37 shows a typical tire-retreading operation. The majority of
retreading shops purchase the rubber stock from an outside supplier in the
form of camelback tread or extruded spaghetti rubber. The work tire is first
visually inspected to ascertain its suitability for retreading. The satis-
factory worn tire is first ground and buffed with a grinding wheel to remove
the old, worn tread rubber. The buffing is stopped when the tire carcass is
reached.
The bare carcass is coated with rubber cement and the camelback tread or
79
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oo
o
Compound
Mixing
Milling
Metal
Parts
.
*-
Surface
Preparation
Injection
Molds
Deflashing
System
Finishing
I
Molded
Finished
Product
A'r Emissions
Water Emissions
Solid Scissions
FIGURE 36. FLOW DIAGRAM FOR PRODUCTION OF A TYPICAL MOLDED ITEM.
Source: Fabricated and Reclaimed Rubber, EPA 440/1-
74/030.
-------
Camel Back
and Rubber Cement
Inspection
and Shipping
Air Emissions
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 37- FLOW DIAGRAM OF A RETREAD OPERATION.
81
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spaghetti rubber is applied around the tire and cut to length. The tire with
tread rubber is placed in the curing mold and the mold is closed. Most of
the curing molds are steam heated and the steam condensate is recycled to the
boiler. Some molds are heated with electricity; these are generally older
than the steam-heated molds.
After curing, the tire is removed from the mold. The rubber flash is
buffed off the tire before it is inspected and shipped.
Waste Streams—
Solid waste is generated by the buffing and grinding operations and
the fine buffings are emitted into the air. Worn tires that are found un-
suitable for retreading are removed from the shop as solid waste.
Reclaimed Rubber
The category includes establishments which are engaged primarily in
reclaiming rubber from scrap rubber tires, tubes, and miscellaneous waste
rubber articles by processes which result in devulcanization, depolymeriza-
tion, or regeneration of products that contain added ingredients. These
products are sold for use as raw materials in the manufacture of rubber
goods, sometimes mixed with crude or synthetic rubber, sometimes not.
The quantity of scrap rubber being reclaimed and reused and the number
of rubber reclaiming plants operating in the United States have both steadily
declined over the past decade. Some of this reduction is probably due to
development of new rubbers not compatible with reclaimed rubber, but the
major decreases are undoubtedly the result of cost, quality, and environmental
considerations.
By far the most important source of raw material is tire scrap. The
supply is plentiful and well distributed so that it is relatively easy to
collect. The quality of rubber in tires is high, giving an unusually high
percentage of rubber hydrocarbon at low cost. The whole tire creates pro-
blems due to the tire-cord fiber contained in the carcass portion. This
fiber has to be removed either by mechanical means or by chemical methods
such as those used in the digester process. In 1972 there were 20 establish-
ments employing 900 persons that shipped products valued at $23 million.
Manufacturing Processes—
Reclaimed rubber is the product resulting from the treatment of ground
scrap tires, tubes, and miscellaneous waste rubber articles with heat and
chemical agents. Substantial devulcanization or regeneration of the rubber
compound to a plastic state is effected, thus permitting the product to be
reprocessed, compounded, and revulcanized. The term "devulcanization" which
is frequently associated with reclaiming is a misnomer. Devulcanization
means breaking the chemical bonds at crosslinking sites. Actually, all the ,
commercial reclaiming processes employed are based on depolymerization of
the rubbers. This depolymerization can occur either by promoting thermal
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scission or breaking of the polymer chain by oxidation at points other than
at crosslinking sites. Some scission of the existing crosslinks may also
occur.
Three basic techniques are used at existing plants to produce reclaimed
rubber: the digester process, the pan process, or the mechanical process. A
generalized material flow diagram for the three processes is shown in
Figure 38.
Waste Streams—
Wastewater results from the wet digester reclaim processes and air
emission results from the various grinding processes, while solid waste is
generated from the processes that separate the rubber from the fiber and
metal.
Rubber Footwear
This industry consists of companies that manufacture all rubber and
plastics footwear, waterproof fabric upper footwear, and other fabric upper
footwear having rubber or plastic soles vulcanized to the uppers. This
report covers plants that make products of PVC as well as rubber.
This industry shipped products valued at $600 million and 107 establish-
ments employed 31,500 persons in 1972.^
Manufacturing Processes—
The process description presented below pertains to canvas shoe pro-
duction, which utilizes all the major processing technologies commonly found
in the manufacture of general fabricated products. A schematic flow diagram
for a typical canvas shoe production facility is shown in Figure 39.
The various rubber stocks consumed in a canvas shoe plant are compounded
in Banbury mixers or compounding roll mills and then sheeted out. The sheet-
ed rubber is dipped in an anti-tack solution to prevent sticking during
storage.
The canvas shoe is built from four major components: soles, canvas
uppers, boxing, and inner soles. These components are made separately by
varying operations before being brought together in the fabrication operation.
The soles are generally molded by injection, compression, or transfer
molding techniques. (All molding processes can produce oil spills and leaks;
however, compression and transfer molding equipment generally produce more
oil spillage than the injection molding machines.)
The molded soles are deflashed, usually in a buffing machine, before
coating with latex adhesive. The latex coating is dried in an oven.
The canvas components for footwear are made from two- or three-ply
fabric. The fabric is received at the plant as single sheets. Latex is
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Rubber
Scrap
Grinding.
Cracker Mills,
Magnetic
Separators ,
Screens
00
9
Mechanical
Depolyraerizatlon
Depolyr.erizati.on
Oils and Agents
De?oly=erization
and refiberization
Agents and Oils
FIGURE 38.
VET DIGESTER RECLAIM PROCESS
FLOW DIAGRAM FOR TYPICAL MECHANICAL, PAN (HEATER), AND WET
DIGESTER RECLAIM.
NOTE: Some reclaim facilities operate more than one processes
Source: Fabricated and Reclaimed Rubber, EPA 440/1-74/030.
Air Emissions
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
-------
Rubber, Pigment
and Mix Compound
Mixing and
Compounding
Compression
Molds
Extrusion
Inspection, Packing
and Storage
Extrusion and
Calendering
1
Def lashing j^
/\
Shoe Building
Air Emissions
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 39. FLOW DIAGRAM FOR THE PRODUCTION OF TYPICAL CANVAS FOOTWEAR ITEM.
(21 ")
Source: Fabricated and Reclaimed Rubber, EPA 440/1-74/030.
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applied to the plies, which are pulled together and passed over a heated drum.
The sheets are stacked and the multilayer canvas is stamped to shape. The
different canvas components making up the shoe uppers are stitched together
on sewing machines.
Waste Streams—
Latex is used in several applications as an adhesive. Spills, leaks, and
cleanout wastewaters, laden with uncoagulated latex solids, are frequently pro-
duced. At the end of the curing cycle the ammonia/air mixture is vented to
the atmosphere. Air-pollution control devices are used and no air-pollution
problems or requirements appear to be associated with this practice. Solid
wastes are generated from the buffing machines.
Miscellaneous Plastics Products
This industry includes establishments primarily engaged in molding
primary plastics for the trade, and fabricating miscellaneous finished
plastics products. Establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing fab-
ricated plastics products or plastics film, sheet, rod, nontextile monofila-
ments and regenerated cellulose products, and vulcanized fiber are classified
in this industry, whether resins are purchased or produced in the same plant.
Establishments primarily engaged in compounding purchased resins are also
classified in this industry.
Miscellaneous plastics products were produced by 7,698 plants, in 1972,
averaging 45 workers each.'I' Most of these plants (57 percent) employ fewer
than 20 workers. This industry shipped products valued at $10.7 billion. A
wide diversity of products are manufactured from plastics.
Manufacturing Processes—
Thermoplastic and thermosetting resins are the major raw materials with
the principal manufacturing operations being physical property modification,
molding and forming, assembly operations, and material coating.
In general, plastics products are made by forcing the compounded raw
material to conform to a mold shape, usually by the application of heat and
pressure, and then causing the material to solidify to the mold configuration
by cooling or curing. Additional work may be done on the molded part such
as machining to a finer tolerance or joining of the part to another of a
similar or dissimilar nature. After fabrication a functional or decorative
coating or other surface alteration may be applied to the part in a finishing
operation.
The manufacture of plastic trays is representative of the plastics in-
dustry manufacturing processes. A typical operation presently in use in the
plastics products industry is shown in Figure 40. The raw material, usually
polyethylene, polypropylene, or polystyrene, is received in a standard pre-
compounded form from a volume supplier. The manufacturer usually has a wide
choice of standard formulations available to meet his particular functional
and esthetic requirements. The resin as received may be dried in a
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RAW
PLASTIC
BLEND
DRY
INJECTION
MOLD
CLEAN
oo
HOT STAMP
FINISHED
TRAY
Air Emissions
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 40. PLASTIC TRAY MANUFACTURING.
Source: Machinery and mechanical products manufacturing.
(22)
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circulating air oven depending upon its hygroscopic properties and the ambient
relative humidity.
The raw dried plastic, usually in the form of pellets, is processed by
injection molding. Injection molding is a thermoplastic process in which a
quantity or "shot" of material in plasticated form is injected into a closed,
cooled mold cavity and allowed to harden to the shape of the mold. The part
is removed from the mold and then trimmed of excess material. The use of a
"paintable" mold-release agent negates the need for any further cleaning
operation. The tray is now ready for finishing, which consists of applying a
decorative design by hot stamping. Hot stamping is a process in which a heat-
ed die is applied to a "color foil" which is in intimate contact with the
tray. The die configuration is thereby transferred to the tray as a colored
pattern.
Waste Streams—
Process water may be used for the following purposes:
1. Direct contact cooling as in the extrusion process
2. Direct contact heating as in the preexpansion and
compression molding of polystyrene foam
3. Washing of oils or water-soluble heating/cooling/
lubricating fluids from a plastic part if such were
used during a machining, annealing, or molding pro-
cess (mold release agents)
4. Removal of dust or paint mist generated in a grinding
or spray painting operation
5. Rinsing of plastic parts following an electroplating
process
6. Washing of processing equipment contaminated in any
of the above processes or in an otherwise clean pro-
cess such as slush molding.
Solid waste is generated when parts are machined or trimmed. Pollutants
emitted to the atmosphere from plastic manufacturing plants include partic-
ulates and hydrocarbons. The particulate emissions are resin powders, dust
and solid additives. Hydrocarbons consist of blowing agents, monomers,
dimers, solvents and additives.
Significant air waste streams can be identified from the unit fabrication
methods employed by this segment of the plastics industry. It is known, for
example, that the resin-supplying industry has adjusted the rate of free
vinyl chloride monomer in PVC to permit safe handling. However, specific
problems may exist which would require additional studies to assess their
importance. Examples of these specific "potential" problems might be the
nitrile blowing agents used in some foam manufacture and the isocyanates used
88
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in some blow molding and spray application of urethane. In-depth studies
should concentrate on specific materials such as, for example, styrene and
acrylonitrile. Both of these materials give off sufficient odor during
processing to attest to their volatility. However, it is assumed that styrene
is held to acceptable concentrations and no problems exist with acrylonitrile.
Both of these suppositions bear further investigation.
LEATHER GOODS
The leather goods industry fabricates many consumer products from
leather and other materials. The major types of products include shoes, hand-
bags, purses, wallets, gloves, and luggage.
Many of the products are no longer strictly the province of leather.
Many other materials are now used in conjunction with leather or in place of
leather. However, these other materials are used by the same establishments
that manufacture leather goods, and products including the other materials
must be considered as part of the output of the leather goods industry.
There were 2,684 establishments in 1972 primarily engaged in the pro-
duction of leather goods and related products. They employed 944,000 people,
purchased materials valued at $1.953 billion, and shipped products valued at
$4.71 billion.t1)
Virtually all of the leather goods industry is embraced within the
segments that produce shoes, personal leather goods, and luggage.
Personal Leather Goods
Personal leather goods include women's handbags, purses, and pocketbooks,
leather gloves and mittens, billfolds, card cases, glasses cases, cigar cases,
cigarette cases, key cases, jewelry cases, tobacco pouches, and other
personal items.
There were 794 establishments in 1972 primarily engaged in fabricating
such personal items. They employed 39,000 people; purchased leather valued
at $70 million, fabrics and other sheet goods valued at $87 million, and
other materials worth $115 million; and shipped products valued at $705
million.(1) It is noteworthy that the value of non-leather sheet goods ex-
ceeded by nearly 25 percent the value of leather purchased.
Luggage
Luggage includes suitcases, traveling bags, trunks, valises, shoe kits,
satchels, sample cases, briefcases and attache cases, cases for musical in-
struments, camera bags and cases, and hat boxes (except paper and paperboard).
There were 277 establishments in 1972 primarily engaged in manufacturing
such products. They employed 17,000 people; spent $5 million for leather,
$39 million for fabrics and other sheet goods, and $102 million for other
materials; and shipped products valued at $365 million.^' These statistics
show clearly that leather is no longer a very important material of
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construction in the luggage segment of the leather goods industry. Further-
more, the value of hardware and other non-sheet materials purchased far
exceeds the value of all sheet materials purchased as linings, walls, and
pockets for luggage.
Shoes
The manufacture of shoes includes the cutting of boot and shoe stock
and the production of shoes, boots, house slippers, and other footwear (ex-
cept rubber) for men, women, and shildren. In 1972, there were 1,165 U.S.
establishments primarily engaged in fabricating shoes of leather and other
materials. They employed 881,000 people; spent $600 million for leather,
$274 million for other sheet goods, and $594 million for other materials; and
shipped products valued at $3.479 billion.(1)
(23)
Manufacturing Processes
The manufacturing processes for shoes are more complex than are those
for other leather goods. Because of the dominant position of shoe manu-
facturing in the leather goods industry and the complexity of the shoemaking
process, no other processes will be discussed.
The basic operations in shoe manufacturing are cutting, forming, and
fastening, but these are broken down into several suboperations. Further-
more, due to the advent of many new materials and new machinery, there are
many variations in the shoe-manufacturing process.
Figure 41 shows a generalized process for the manufacturing of shoes.
This process should be approximately correct for shoes of any conventional
manufacture, although it does not apply to any type of molded footwear.
Different manufacturers may combine these operations in various ways.
The shoe industry has descriptive names for process operations, or the
rooms in which they occur, that may not be readily understood by those out-
side the industry. The activities that occur in these various operations
will be discussed briefly in the following paragraphs.
Cutting Room—The parts for the shoe upper are cut here with dies. In
the case of leather uppers, the dies must be so placed on the leather as to
provide appropriate characteristics for the different parts of the shoe and
care must be taken to avoid color mismatches. A great deal of money can be
lost through careless or unskilled cutting.
In addition to leather, upper parts of fabric, vinyl, or other materials
are cut here, as well as liner materials.
Stitching Room—In the stitching (fitting) room, the edges of the die-
cut leather uppers are skived (tapered) to provide a bevel for good fit.
Some areas of the uppers may be split to provide thinner leather in some
parts of the shoe. The parts are appropriately sewed together and the seams
are rubbed or taped to make them smooth. Reinforcing materials may be added
here, and an inner lining may be cemented on. Top edges are folded and
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LEATHER, VINYL,
FABRIC, ETC.
CUTTING
ROOM
CEMENT
THREAD
LACES —;
INSOLE MATERIAL
OUTSOLE BLANKS
EYELETS
STICH1NG
ROOM
UPPERS
REINFORCING
STAPLES
CEMENT
FILLER
LOW HEELS
HIGH HEELS
STAIN -
WAX —
TOP DRESSING
PACKAGING MATERIALS
FINISHING
ROOM
I
STOCK
KITTING
ROOM
INSOLES
— TACKS
THREAD
.
\
LASTING
ROOM
~ 1 v
BOTTOMING
AND MAKING
ROOM
Y ^
(
OUTSOLES
TREEING AND
PACKAGING
ROOM
Air Emissions
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 41. GENERALIZED PROCESS FOR MANUFACTURING SHOES.
(23)
Source: Practical leather technology.
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cemented or stitched, eyelets are placed, and laces are put in place.
Stock Fitting Room—In this area, insoles are die-cut from appropriate
materials and outsole blanks are reduced in thickness near the edges or
otherwise prepared for use, depending on the type of construction to be used.
Lasting Room—The upper, insole, and reinforcing parts of the shoe are
brought together in the lasting room. Operations vary somewhat, depending
on the type of construction being used. In a typical operation, the insole
is first tacked to the last, then the upper is fitted to the last and tacked
on. The toe is pulled over with a machine, then the component parts are
fastened together by stitching, cementing, or stapling, depending on the
particular construction.
Bottoming Room—The outsole is attached to the shoe in the bottoming and
making room. In some types of construction, a filler is placed between the
insole and the outsole before final attachment. The sole may be attached by
sewing or cementing, perhaps with some use of tacks or staples as well. Low
heels are attached while the shoe is still on the last.
Two recent developments that help reduce manufacturing costs are the
direct-molded sole and the injection-molded sole. In the direct-molding
operation, the preformed upper and insole assembly is placed on top of the
precut sole in a mold. Heat and pressure applied to the mold force the sole
into the desired shape and vulcanize the sole in a firm bond with the upper.
In the injection-molding operation, the preformed upper insole assembly is
placed in a mold and the molten outsole material is forced into the lower
part of the mold, forming and bonding the sole in place.
Finishing Room—The attached outsoles are trimmed and smoothed in the
finishing room, and the edges are stained and waxed. If the shoe is to have
a high heel, it is removed from the last before attaching the heel with nails
driven from inside the shoe into the heel.
Treeing and Packaging Room—The completed shoes are cleaned and may be
given a top dressing. After buffing and inspection, they are packaged and
stored for inventory and shipment.
Waste Streams—
The activities that produce waste streams will be discussed briefly in
the following paragraphs.
Cutting Room—Considerable cutting scrap arises from this operation. To
the extent that it is not reusable, it makes a significant contribution to
solid waste.
Stitching Room—Material removed in skiving, splitting, and the placing
of eyelets constitutes a modest solid waste.
Stockfitting Room—Significant solid waste arises from these cutting and
trimming operations.
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Lasting Room—There should be no significant waste stream from lasting
other than thread ends and an occasional bent tack or staple.
Bottoming Room—There should be no significant waste stream from con-
ventional bottoming and making operations. Some air pollutants are emitted
when soles are direct-molded or injection-molded.
Finishing Room—Some solid waste is generated in trimming and burnishing
the sole edges. Solvents used in the staining and waxing formulations create
modest air pollution.
Teeing and Packaging Room—Solvents used in top dressing formulation
cause modest air pollution.
FLEXIBLE ROOFING, FLOORING, AND
PAVING PRODUCTS
This industry includes establishments that manufacture asphalt materials
for roofing, asphalt and vinyl-asbestos floor coverings, and asphalt and tar
paving materials. In 1972 there were approximately 1,240 such plants that
employed about 35,400 people and shipped products valued at $2.142 billion.
Asphalt Paving Mixtures and Blocks
This industry includes plants primarily engaged in the manufacture of
asphalt and tar paving mixtures and paving blocks made of asphalt, creosoted
wood, and various compositions of tar and other materials. Shipments of
paving mixtures and blocks in 1972 represented 93 percent of the industry
total product shipment. The census of manufactures reported 586 companies
and 964 plants in 1972 producing paving mixture and blocks in the United
States.(l) They employed 13,900 people and shipped products valued at
$923 million.
In addition, there are approximately 4,800 asphalt paving plants in the
United States that use paving products.(15) An estimated 1,200 plants are
mobile plants operated by highway contractors.(^) Xo the extent that the
paving plants prepare their own paving products, they would have waste
streams comparable to those of the paving mixtures and block industry. These
paving contractors also have waste streams associated with use of the paving
products. However, they are not included in this study of compounding and
fabricating industries.
Manufacturing Processes—
Asphaltic concrete is the combined product of sand or gravel with as-
phalt, as shown in Figure 42. The sand or gravel is heated and dried in a
rotary drier. The dried sand or gravel is transported to a mixing hopper
where a weighed amount of asphalt is introduced.^17)
Waste Streams—
Asphalt concrete has been recognized as a major source of particulate
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ASPHALT
SAND OR GRAVEL
Air Emissions
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 42. MANUFACTURING PROCESS FOR ASPHALTIC CONCRETE.
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emissions in the United States.1? Fabric filter and medium energy
scrubbers preceded by a cyclone are used to collect dust from the dryer- The
dry collection system is the most widely used system in the industry today.
Mineral fines collected in the dryer are used in the hopper mixer. Emissions
also occur from the asphalt storage tank. The wet system is costly to in-
stall and maintain. The resultant slurry is usually discharged to an open
pit, where settling occurs and the clear water is recycled. Fugitive dust
is also an environmental problem in this industry.
Asphalt Felts and Coatings
This industry comprises establishments primarily engaged in the manu-
facture of asphalt-saturated felts in roll or shingle form, either smooth
or faced with grit, and in manufacturing roofing cements and coatings. In
1972 there were 225 asphalt roofing plants in the United States.(1) The
shipments of this industry were valued at $869.5 million in 1972.
Manufacturing Processes—
The raw material consists of felt, asphalt, sand, mica, granules, and
talc.
Asphalt roofing and shingles are manufactured on high-speed continuously
operating machines. Some types are produced at a rate as high as 500 feet
per minute.
The process consists of saturating the felt, coating the surfaces with
asphalt, coating with pulverized or granular minerals, cooling, cutting, and
packaging. (Figure 43).
Saturation of Felt—A roll of felt is installed on a felt reel, then is
subjected to a hot saturating process. The usual saturation temperature is
between 232 and 260 C. The function of the asphalt saturant is to fill the
voids in the felt, help bind the felt fibers, and "prime" the felt to assure
good coating adhesion and improve the weather resistance of the felt without
damaging the weather-resistant coating.
Coater—After saturation, the sheet is carried to the coater where the
coating asphalt is applied to both the top and the bottom surfaces. The
temperature of the coating asphalt is usually in the range of 177-204 C.
Mineral Surfacing Application^—When smooth-roll roofing is being made,
talc or mica or another parting agent is applied to the two sides of the
roofing sheet and pressed into the coating by the press rolls. When mineral
surface is being prepared, colored granules are added from a hopper and
spread thickly on one side, and backing material on the other side.
Finish or Cooling Looper—The function of the looper is to cool the
sheet down to a point where it can be cur and packed without damage to the
material. The cooling of the sheet is accomplished by either splashing water
or by spraying water on the hot sheet.
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FELT
ASPHALT
GRANULE
TALC
SATURATOR
/
COATER
SURFACE APPLICATION i
r
COOLING LOOP
Air Emissions
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 43. FLOW DIAGRAM OF MANUFACTURING ASPHALT FELT ROLLS AND
SHINGLES.
96
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Waste Streams—
Low-boiling-point hydrocarbon oils in the form of dense white air
emissions varying in opacity from 50 to 100 percent are generated from the
saturation of felt; dust is emitted from the mineral application process.
The wastewater is generally pollution-free except for suspended particulates
of coatings granules washed off the felts.
Hard-Surface Floor Covering
This industry includes establishments that manufacture floor covering
such as vinyl-asbestos tile, vinyl sheet, and asphalted felt-base coverings
(linoleum). However, linoleum is slowly being phased out and being replaced
by newer vinyl floor covering. Most floor tile manufactured today uses a
vinyl resin, although some asphalt tile is still being produced. The value
of shipments in 1972 was $153.5 million for vinyl-asbestos floor tile and
$25 million for asphalt floor tile.' '
/ -1 Q \
Manufacturing Processes —
The tile-manufacturing process, shown in Figure 44, involves several
steps: ingredient weighing, mixing, heating, decoration, calendering, cool-
ing, waxing, stamping, inspecting, and packaging. The ingredients are
weighed and mixed dry. Liquid constituents, if required, are then added and
thoroughly blended into the batch. After mixing, the batch is heated to
about 150 C and fed into a mill where it is joined with the remainder of a
previous batch for continuous processing through the rest of the manufactur-
ing operation.
The mill consists of a series of hot rollers that squeeze the mass of
raw tile material down to the desired thickness. During the milling
operation, surface decoration in the form of small colored chips of tile
(mottle) are sprinkled onto the surface of the raw tile sheet and pressed in
to become a part of the sheet. Some tile has a surface decoration embossed
and linked into the tile surface during the rolling operation. This may be
done before or after cooling. After milling, the tile passes through
calenders until it reaches the required thickness and is ready for cooling.
Tile cooling is accomplished in many ways and a given tile plant may use one
of several methods. Water-contact cooling in which the file passes through
a water bath or is sprayed with water is used by some plants. Others use
non-contact cooling in which the rollers are filled with water. In some
plants, the sheet of tile passes through a refrigeration unit where cold air
is blown onto the tile surface. After cooling, the tile is waxed, stamped
into squares, inspected, and packaged. Trimmings and rejected tile squares
are chopped up and reused.
Waste Streams—
Direct contact cooling water from the cooling baths or sprays becomes
contaminanted. Air emissions result from the mixing of the raw ingredients.
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RAW MATERIALS
ASBESTOS, PVC RESINS,
PIGMENTS,
FILLERS
V—
MIXING
FORMING
ROLLING
^/
COOLING
FINISHING,
CUTTING
PACKAGING
A
Air Emissions
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 44. ASBESTOS FLOOR TILE MANUFACTURING.
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INORGANIC MINERAL PRODUCTS
This large industry consists of establishments primarily engaged in
manufacturing finished products from clay, glass, concrete and other in-
organic minerals. The segments of industry engaged in mining operations or
in producing the raw materials used in the finished products are not included.
Mirrors Made from Purchased Glass
Mirrors manufactured from purchased glass are included in this industry.
Primary products are mirrors either framed, unframed, truck, or automobile.
Numerous manufacturing plants in the United States produce one or more
of the above products. These plants are distributed throughout the
states. (2Zf)
In 1972, shipments of mirrors from purchased glass amounted to $254.5
million. Framed, unframed, and automobile mirrors accounted for 33, 36, and
31 percent, respectively, of the value of shipments.^)
Manufacturing Processes—
The process for manufacturing mirrors from purchased glass consists of a
series of sizing and finishing operations, as shown in Figure 45a. Glassware
is usually received at manufacturing facilities in bulk and is scribed and
broken or cut into desired sizes. Although much of this glass is used as-
received, some of the glass is shaped. For store-security mirrors, for
example, the glass is made convex by heat treatment. After shaping, this
glass undergoes several finishing operations including polishing and heat-
tempering.
Mirrors undergo a coating operation before final finishing and assembly.
After rinsing the mirror surface with stannous chloride, the surface is
coated with silver nitrate. Coatings are bonded to the glass by firing
coated glassware at elevated temperatures.(25) After firing, mirrors are
cooled and undergo a series of final finishing operations. These operations
include polishing, etching, and engraving. About 33 percent of these mirrors
are assembled into frames, while 36 percent are sold unframed. The remainder
are used for automobile mirrors.
Waste Streams—
Three types of waste streams are involved in the manufacture of mirrors
from purchased glass. These are air, water, and solid. This industry is
generally not considered a major polluter and, as a result, little attempt
has been made to reduce emissions. Air emissions include glass particulates.
Other air emissions are dependent upon the type of fuel used for curing
coatings. Water emissions include glass particulates and silver nitrate.
Solid-waste stream emissions consist almost exclusively of glass.
Glassware-finishing operations are sources of particulate emissions into
air-waste streams. Grinding, polishing, and engraving of glass surfaces are
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Other Raw
Materials
Received
Addj tional
Finishing
E
Final Product
Assembled
Air Emissions
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 45a. PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM FOR THE MIRROR, DOOR, AND WINDOW
(MADE FROM PURCHASED GLASS) INDUSTRY.
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usually hooded operations and the emissions generally are collected on fabric
filters. Thus, few of these particulates are discharged into the atmosphere.
The firing of surface coatings also results in airborne emissions.
These emissions are generally dependent upon the type of fuel used. Natural
gas, for example, could result in NOX (NO or NC^), particulates, CO, and
hydrocarbons. Fuel oils, on the other hand, could additionally result in
SOX (S02 or 803) emissions. Electric fuel-fired lehrs are virtually "clean"
and should result in little, if any, air emissions.(26)
Coating and finishing operations are both sources of water pollutants.
In both cases, water is used for cooling purposes. This water is generally
reused numerous times before discharge. Discarded water is generally dis-
charged into a sewer or septic system or into a settling pond. This water
generally contains a glasseous sludge and heat, either of which could present
a pollution problem.
Other Products Made from Purchased Glass
The manufacture of products from purchased glass is included in this
industry. Several of these products are:
Aquariums
Art glass
Artificial flowers, foliage, fruits, and vines
Christmas-tree ornaments
Cut and engraved glassware
Decorated glassware: chipped, engraved, etched, sandblasted, etc.
Doors
Grass, artificial
Marbles
Mosaics
Scientific and technical glassware
Windows.
There are over 200 glass plants producing one or more of the above products.
These plants are distributed throughout the United States, with the largest
proportion of volume, over 53 percent, in New Jersey, New York, Ohio, and
Pennsylvania. New York accounts for almost 25 percent of the plants.(24)
In 1972, shipments of novelties made from purchased glass exceeded
$180 million. This amounted to an increase of 27 percent over 1967 value
of shipments.(1)
Manufacturing Processes—
The manufacturing process of products from purchased glass consists of a
series of sizing and finishing operations, as shown in Figure 45b. Glassware
and other raw materials are usually received at manufacturing facilities in
bulk. Before the glass is processed, it is sized by cutting and scribing and
breaking. Although much of this glass is used as-received, some of the glass
is shaped by heat. Artificial flowers, foliage, fruits, and so forth, are
101
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Raw Materials
Received
Glass
Sized
t
Glass
Shaped
i ?,
\ Glass
| Finished
"£
9 °
•' /\ //\
Glass
Coated
£? ^J Additional
| Finishing
I
t?
Final Product
Assembled
Storage and
Shipment
Air Emissions
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 45b. PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM FOR PRODUCTS MANUFACTURED FROM PURCHASED
GLASS.
102
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heated to the glass melting point and bent to the desired shape. Once the
glass is in the desired shape, it undergoes several finishing-type operations.
These operations include polishing, heat tempering, etching, and engraving.
After finishing, aquariums, art glass, doors, mosaics, and windows are
assembled. Christmas-tree ornaments and most scientific and technical glass-
ware, on the other hand, are coated with enamels, decals, or other materials.
Enamels and some decals are bonded to the surface by heat. Other decals and
decorating materials are stuck to the surface of the ornaments by using a
commercial adhesive. These various types of glass products are stored until
they can be loaded for shipment.
Waste Streams—
This industry is generally not considered a major polluter and, as a
result, little attempt has been made to reduce emissions. Air emissions
include glass particulates and other emissions, depending upon the type of
fuel used for shaping. Water emissions include glass particulates and heat.
Solid-waste stream emissions consist almost exclusively of glass.
Glassware-finishing operations are sources of particulate emissions into
air-waste streams. Grinding, polishing, and engraving of glass surfaces are
usually hooded operations and the emissions generally are collected on fabric
filters. Thus, few of these particulates are discharged into the atmosphere.
During the shaping operation, various types of pollutants can be emitted.
These emissions are generally dependent upon the type of fuel used.
Coating and finishing operations are both sources of water pollutants.
In both cases, water is used for cooling purposes. This water is generally
reused numerous times before discharge. Discarded water is generally dis-
charged into a sewer or septic system or into a settling pond. This water
generally contains a glasseous sludge and heat, either of which could present
a pollution problem.
Solids are generally emitted from the sizing, shaping, finishing, and
assembly operations. These emissions consist of a glasseous solid and are
normally returned to the glass plant as cullet. This solid waste is not
expected to present a pollution problem.
*
Concrete Building Block and Brick
This classification includes concrete and cinder blocks and concrete
brick as major products. Minor products include:
Concrete decorative block (split, slump, shadowal.1)
Precast terrazzo plinth blocks
Sand-lime blocks
Building blocks and bricks made from other material.
Unfired brick only. The common-fired clay brick is included in the
refractories industry.
103
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Over 1300 manufacturers operate block and brick plants in the United States.
Most plants are located from 50 to 100 miles from active construction areas.
Because of the high population density and subsequent large amount of con-
struction, the southeast, northeast, and north-central areas(5) contain
approximately 74 percent of these plants.
In 1972, this industry employed over 22,800 people in 1388 establish-
ments and had total shipments of about 94 million blocks and bricks, valued
at $856 million.(1) By 1973, the number of people employed had decreased
slightly, while the number of blocks and bricks shipped increased to over
98 million.
Manufacturing Processes—
Building blocks and bricks are manufactured from a variety of materials,
with the most common manufactured from portland cement concrete. Other
materials used include: lava, lightweight concrete, gypsum, granite, cinders,
and s and-1ime.
Typical steps in block and brick manufacture, along with expected waste
streams, are shown in Figure 46. Controlled mixtures of a bonding material
(e.g., portland cement), aggregates (e.g., sand, gravel, etc.) and water are
batched and mixed at the block and brick plant. After the batch has been
blended to the desired consistency, the material is formed and compacted with
vibration and pressure in steel molds. These formed blocks and bricks are
then discharged from the molds and cured by high-pressures steam, low-pres-
sure steam, or ambient air. Steam curing is essential for high production
and volume operations, as well as sand-lime and cinder block manufacture.
Only in small operations are products air cured. After curing, blocks and
bricks are cubed, strapped, stacked, and stored until they can be loaded for
truck shipment.
Waste Streams—
(27 28)
Previous studies ' indicate that this industry is not a major pol-
luter and, as a result, little attempt has been made to reduce emissions.
Emissions generally reflect the raw materials used except during curing.
Curing-operation emissions reflect the type of fuel used as well as the
decomposition of the curing-room shell.
Emissions occur in the air-waste stream during raw materials unloading,
batching, mixing,and steam curing; particulates are emitted into the atmos-
phere. The composition of these particulates generally reflects that of the
raw materials. However, emissions from steam curing are dependent upon the
type of fuel used.
Molding, racking,and steam curing are sources of water-waste stream
emissions. For steam curing, water is used for steam and for boiler cooling.
Steam is driven off into the air-waste stream. Cooling water, however, is
either reused, recycled, or discarded. Discarded cooling water either enters
104
-------
o
9
Air Emissions
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 46. PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM FOR BLOCK AND BRICK MANUFACTURE.
-------
the plant's water-waste stream or is discharged into a pond. The discarded
water generally contains suspended participates and has an elevated temp-
erature. (29)
During molding and racking operations, water is used to rinse the molds
and racks. Although this water is often reused, it eventually is discharged
into a waterway or settling pond. Particulates and some solids are discharged
in this manner. (-29'
Solid wastes are usually discharged during the molding, racking, and
cubing operations. Most of these emissions from molding and racking are
reused, while most solid wastes from cubing are discharged. These solid
wastes are composed of broken or "scrap" blocks and bricks and could rep-
resent a pollution problem.
Other Concrete Products
The manufacture of concrete products (except block and brick) from a
combination of portland cement and aggregate is included in this industry.
Major products include ready-mixed concrete, precast-concrete products, and
prestressed concrete. Other concrete products include:
Areaways, basement window: concrete
Art marble, concrete
Ashlar, cast stone
Bathtubs, concrete
Battery walls and boxes, concrete
Building materials, concrete:
except block and brick
Building stone, artificial: concrete
Burial vaults, concrete
Cast stone, concrete
Catch basin covers, concrete
Ceiling squares, concrete
Central-mixed concrete
Chimney caps, concrete
Church furniture, concrete
Columns, concrete
Concrete, dry mixture
Copings, concrete
Covers, catch basin: concrete
Cribbing, concrete
Crossing slabs, concrete
Door frames, concrete
Drain tile, concrete
Fireplaces, concrete
Fountains, concrete
Garbage boxes, concrete
Grave markers, concrete
Grave vaults, concrete
Grease traps, concrete
Housing components, prefabricated:
concrete
Incinerators, concrete
Joists, concrete
Laundry trays, concrete
Lintels, concrete
Manhole covers and frames,
concrete
Mantels, concrete
Mattresses for river revetment,
concrete articulated
Meter boxes, concrete
Monuments, concrete
Panels and sections, prefabricat-
ed: concrete
Paving materials, prefabricated
concrete, except blocks
Pier footings, prefabricated
concrete
Ready-mixed concrete
Septic tanks, concrete
Shower receptors, concrete
Shrink-mixed concrete
106
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Sills, concrete Transit-mixed concrete
Silo staves, cast stone Well curbing,concrete
Silos, prefabricated concrete Window sills, cast stone
Slabs, crossing: concrete
Steps, prefabricated concrete
Stone, cast concrete
Storage tanks, concrete
Tanks, concrete
Thresholds, precast terrazzo
Tombstones, precast terrazzo or concrete
There are over 10,000 concrete-product plants making two or more of the
above products. There are approximately 500 plants producing prestressed
concrete, 5,000 producing precast concrete, and the remainder producing ready-
mixed concrete.(29) These plants are distributed throughout the United
States with the largest proportion of the volume in the north-central and
southern sectors. Location of plants is dependent upon the construction
requirements in the various areas.
Manufacturing Processes—
The manufacturing process for concrete products is relatively simple,
as shown in Figure 47. Portland cement products are prepared by weighing out
predetermined quantities of cement, aggregates (sand, lime, gravel), and
water into a mixer and blending. This mixing is either accomplished on a
truck mixer (hence the name transit- or ready-mixed) or at the site. After
the batch has been blended to a desired consistency, it is poured into
"forms" or "molds" for shaping. These formed concrete shapes are then
"cured" until they have hardened sufficiently to be handled. Curing is done
in either ambient air or by forced warm moist air. After the concrete has
hardened sufficiently, the forms are removed and the products continue curing
in air. These products are then stored until they can be loaded for truck
or rail shipment.
Waste Streams—
(27,28)
Previous studies indicate that this industry is not a major
polluter and, as a result, little attempt has been made to reduce emissions.
Before mixing, the emissions generally reflect the raw materials used. After
mixing, the emissions are primarily a cementitious solid.
Particulate emissions from raw material unloading, batching, and mixing
are discharged into the air-waste stream. The composition of these parti-
culates generally reflects that of the raw materials.
Warm moist air curing also results in airborne emissions.
emissions are generally dependent upon the type of fuel used.
These
Pouring and form removal are both sources of water pollutants. In both
cases, water is used for cleaning purposes. Usually this water is discharged
107
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Acquire raw
materials
Materials are
batched and mixed
Mix is poured
into
member forms
Warm, moist
air cure
Member forms
are removed
Ambient
air drying
Products
are stored
Products
are loaded
for shipments
Air Emissions
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 47. PROCESS STEPS FOR CONCRETE PRODUCTS.
108
-------
although it is sometimes reused once or twice before discharge. Discarded
water goes onto the ground, into a sewer or septic system, or into a settling
pond. This water generally contains a cementitious sludge that could present
a pollution problem.
/
In addition to the aforementioned water emissions, pouring and form re-
moval are sources of solid wastes. These emissions consist of a cementitious
solid and are normally discarded. Form materials may also contribute to the
solid waste. These solid wastes could present a pollution problem.
Plaster of Paris and Gypsum Products
The manufacture of products from plaster of paris, papier mache, gypsum,
or scagliola is contained in this industry. Major products include numerous
types of statuary. Other products include:
Architectural sculptures, plaster of paris: factory production only
Art goods: plaster of paris, papier mache, and scagliola
Brackets, architectural: plaster of paris, factory production only
Columns: papier mache or plaster of paris
Ecclesiastical statuary: gypsum or papier mache, factory production only
Floor composition, magnesite
Flower boxes, plaster of paris: factory production only
Fountains, plaster of paris: factory production only
Gravel painting
Images, small: gypsum, clay, or papier mache, factory production only
Moldings, architectural: plaster of paris, factory production only
Ornamental and architectural plaster work: mantels, columns, etc.
Panels, papier mache or plaster of paris
Pedestals, statuary: plaster of paris or papier mache, factory only
Plaques: clay, plaster, or papier mache, factory production only
Sculptures, architectural: gypsum, clay, or papier mache, factory only
Statuary: gypsum, clay, papier mache, scagliola, and metal, factory only
Stucco
Synthetic stones, for gem stones and industrial use
Urns, gypsum or papier mache: factory production only
Vases, gypsum or papier mache: factory production only.
More than 40 companies produce these products.
The larger plaster of paris and gypsum-product companies are diversified
companies or division of diversified companies engaged in other aspects of
the construction industry or other business. These plants are distributed
throughout the United States and are generally located according to the
United States population distribution.(29,30)
Manufacturing Processes—
Plaster of paris and gypsum products are made from a slurry of water,
109
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gypsum, aggregate (sand, glass fibers), and a lightweight filler. In
addition, surface-active agents are added to stucco and papier mache for
bonding. After these raw materials are batched and mixed, they are poured
into molds or forms for shaping. Initially, some of the excess water is
removed by ambient air drying. When enough water is removed so that the
structure can support itself, the forms are removed. After formal removal,
the various products are either ambient-air or kiln dried. The products are
then painted or stained with various commercial decorating agents. These
decorating agents are ambient-air dried. Occasionally, a commercial sealant
is sprayed over the decorated object. Once dry, the products are stored
until they can be loaded for shipment. A process-flow diagram for this in-
dustry is shown in Figure 48.
Waste Streams—
Air emissions include particulates representative of the raw materials
used. Other air emissions are dependent upon the type of fuel used for kiln
drying. Water emissions include dissolved solids, suspended solids, and
substances contributing to increased alkalinity. Solid-waste-stream emissions
consist almost entirely of waste plaster of paris and gypsum products.
Raw-material receiving, batching, and mixing are sources of particulate
air emissions. These emissions generally reflect the raw materials being
used. Since the majority of these particulates can be captured in fabric
filters, they are not expected to present a pollution problem.(31) Kiln dry-
ing could also result in airborne emissions. These emissions are generally
dependent upon the type of fuel used.
Water wastes are emitted from batching, mixing, shaping, and decorating
operations. In each of these areas, water is used for cleaning purposes.
This water is sometimes reused before discharge. Discarded water is gen-
erally discharged into a sewer or septic system or into a settling pond.
This water generally contains dissolved solids, suspended solids, and sub-
stances contributing to increased alkalinity. A previous study(27) indicated
that this could present a pollution problem.
Solid wastes are discharged from shaping and decorating operations.
These emissions consist of a cementitious material and are generally dis-
carded. This solid waste could present a pollution problem.
Abrasive Buffs
The production of abrasive buffs from various kinds of natural and
synthetic materials is included in this industry. Products manufactured by
this industry include cloth and paper buffs, as well as sandpaper and soap-
impregnated scouring pads and sponges.
There are numerous manufacturers of these products distributed through-
out the United States.
110
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Ambient Air
Drying
Raw Materials
Received
Batching and
Mixing
Products
Shaped
o
Kiln Drying
,
Storage and
Shipment
-r
Air Emissions
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 48. PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM FOR THE PLASTER OF PARIS AND
GYPSUM PRODUCTS INDUSTRY.
Ill
-------
Manufacturing Processes—
Most of these products undergo similar processing operations, as shown
in Figure 49. Abrasive buffs are manufactured from bricks, cloth, paper,
steel, sticks, and stones using both natural and synthetic abrasive grains.
Some of the more common grains used today include garnet, emery, aluminum
oxide, and flint. These various grains are attached to the buff material
by using an epoxy and pressing. For soap-impregnated scouring pads and
sponges, the buff material usually is immersed in a soap solution under
vacuum. All of these buffs are then air dried, packaged, and stored until
they can be loaded for shipment.(32)
Waste Streams—
Air emissions include particulates representative of the raw materials
used. Water emissions include soap particulates. Solid-waste-stream
emissions consist almost exclusively of waste buffs.
Raw-material receiving, batching, and mixing operations are sources of
particulate emissions. These operations, however, are usually done under
hoods which are usually discharged through fabric filters. Thus, few of
these particulates are discharged into the atmosphere.
Soap impregnation of buffs is the major source of water pollutants.
Water is generally used in the soap slurry as well as for cleaning. The
slurry, however, is reused and recycled. Thus, the only emissions would be
from cleaning. This water is expected to contain the same ingredients found
in the soap as well as some metal and sponge fibers, each of which could
present a pollution problem.
Solids are generally emitted from batching, mixing, pressing, and
impregnating operations. These emissions generally consist of a cementitious
material (epoxy) and waste buffs. Small amounts of these solids are reused or
recycled. Thus, this solid waste could present a pollution problem.
Abrasive Wheels
The production of abrasive wheels from diamonds and synthetic materials
is included in this industry. There are numerous producers of these pro-
ducts distributed throughout the United States. Most abrasive wheel manu-
facturing facilities, however, are located near their raw material supply.
Manufacturing Processes—
Most of these products undergo similar processing operations, as shown
in Figure 50. Abrasive grains (natural diamond and synthetic materials) are
combined with a resinous ceramic binder material and pressed or poured into
desired shapes. Many of these pieces are heated to elevated temperatures
(e.g., 2375 F). Pressed pieces that are not heated are usually dried in
fuel-fired dryers. After firing and drying, these pieces are cooled in
ambient air and stored until they can be loaded for shipping by rail or
truck.(32)
112
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Pressing
Raw Materials
Received
?
Batching
and Mixinp
Soap-
Impregnation
1
Storage and
Shipping
Air Emissions
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 49. PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM FOR THE ABRASIVE BUFFS INDUSTRY.
113
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Low
Temperature
Curing
Raw Materials
Received
Batching
Mixing
Forming
9
/ ^s^
|
Ambient Air
Drying
?
o
o
High
Temperature
Curing
i
-
Storage and
Shipment
Air Emissions
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 50. PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM FOR THE ABRASIVE WHEEL INDUSTRY.
114
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Waste Streams—
The manufacture of abrasive wheels involves air, water, and solid-waste
streams. Air emissions include abrasive grain particulates. Other air
emissions are dependent upon the type of fuel used for drying and firing.
Water emissions include abrasive grain particulates. Solid-waste-stream
emissions consist almost exclusively of a cementitious sludge.
Raw material receiving, batching, and mixing are sources of particulate
emissions into air waste streams. These particulates are composed of fine-
grained raw materials. Since these operations are usually hooded, the
streams generally pass through fabric filters. Thus, few of these parti-
culates are discharged into the atmosphere.
Forming and curing operations are both sources of water pollutants. For
curing, water is used for cooling purposes. This water is generally reused
numerous times before discharge. Discarded water is generally discharged
into a sewer or septic system or into a settling pond. This water generally
contains suspended particulates and heat, each of which could present a
problem.
Water is used during the forming operations primarily for cleaning pur-
poses. This water is used once or twice before discharge into a sewer or
septic system or into a settling pond. Discarded water could contain both
suspended and dissolved solids which could present a pollution problem.
Solids are generally emitted from forming and ambient air drying
operations. These emissions consist of a cementitious material (hardened
resins, cements, and discarded abrasive wheels). In general, few wheels are
disposed of, so this is not considered a pollution problem. However, little
of the discarded epoxy is reused or recycled and it could present a pollution
problem.
Asbestos Textiles
Textiles made from asbestos are included in this industry. Major prod-
ucts include blankets, cloth, and felt. Other asbestos textile products are:
Carded fiber
Cord
Rope
Table pads and padding
Tape
Thread
Wick
Yarn.
There are at least 11 asbestos textile manufacturers operating 15 plants dis-
tributed throughout the United States. Most facilities, however, are located
near their raw material supply.
115
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Manufacturing Processes—
In making asbestos textile products, no process water is used with the
asbestos fibers. Instead, a variety of organics, such as vinyl resins,
textile coatings, and solvents are batch ingredients. These products are
made by the usual textile processing methods, as shown in Figure 51. After
asbestos fibers are dispersed in a carrier material, the product is shaped
by a pressing or extruding operation. Shaped products are then cured by
either high-pressure steam, low-pressure steam, ambient air, or chemical
reaction. After cooling, products are stored until they can be loaded for
truck or rail shipment.v33)
Waste Streams—
Although this industry is, in general, not a major polluter, an attempt
has been made to reduce asbestos fiber emissions. Air emissions include
minor amounts of asbestos fiber. Other air emissions are dependent upon
the type of fuel used for curing. Water emissions include suspended and
dissolved solids. Solid waste-stream emissions consist almost exclusively of
asbestos fibers encased in resin.
Raw material receiving and dispersing are sources of particulate air
emissions. These operations, however, are generally conducted under a hood
which usually is discharged through fabric filters. As a result, few of
these particulates are discharged into the atmosphere.
High- and low-temperature curing operations also result in airborne
emissions. These emissions are generally dependent upon the type of fuel
used.
Curing and cleaning operations are both sources of water pollutants.
For curing, water is primarily used for cooling purposes. This water is
generally reused numerous times before discharge. Discarded water is
generally discharged into a sewer or septic system or into a settling pond.
This water generally contains suspended particulates and is not expected to
present a pollution problem.
Cleaning water is rarely reused or recycled and is generally discharged
into municipal sewer systems. This water contains both, suspended and dis-
solved solids and could present a pollution problem. (™'
Solids are generally emitted from the forming and cooling operations.
These emissions consist of a cementitious material and are generally dis-
carded. This solid waste could present a pollution problem.
Asbestos Insulation
Manufacture of high-temperature insulation from asbestos is contained in
this industry. Products include:
Blankets, insulating for aircraft
Boiler covering
116
-------
9
Raw Materials
Received
9
Asbestos Fibers
Dispersed
Pressing
sing
High-Pressure
Steam
Curing
Low-Pressure
Steam
Curing
Chemical
React ion
Curing
I
1
Storage and
Shipping
Air Emissions
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 51. PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM FOR THE ASBESTOS TEXTILE INDUSTRY.
117
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Insulsleeves (foundry materials)
Molded asbestos
Pipe and boiler covering
Tubing.
This industry consists of over 14 companies operating some 20 manufact-
uring plants.
Manufacturing Processes—
Asbestos insulation is made from asbestos fibers combined with an in-
organic or resinous binder, as shown in Figure 52. After mixing, the coated
asbestos fibers are extruded into a mat, poured into forms, or cast into
tubing. These shaped products are usually cured under high-pressure steam.
After cooling, the cured product is then subjected to appropriate finishing
operations for the particular product, such as compressing or the application
of a backing sheet (i.e., aluminum foil). Insulation is then packaged and
stored until it can be loaded for truck or rail shipment.
Waste Streams—
Waste streams involved in the manufacture of asbestos insulation may
include air, water, and solid. This industry is generally not considered a
major polluter and, as a result, little attempt has been made to reduce
emissions. Air emissions include minor amounts of asbestos fibers. Other
air emissions are dependent upon the type of fuel used for curing.
Water emissions include dissolved and suspended solids. Solid-waste-
stream emissions consist almost exclusively of coated asbestos fibers.
Raw material receiving and curing are sources of air particulate
emissions. Raw material receiving, however, is usually done under a hood
which discharges through fabric filters. As a result, few of these particu-
lates are discharged into the atmosphere.
Curing operations also result in airborne emissions. These emissions
are generally dependent upon the type of fuel used.
Cleaning after forming operations results in water emissions. Cleaning
water is rarely reused or recycled and is generally discharged into municipal
sewer systems. This water contains dissolved and suspended solids and could
present a pollution problem.(27)
For curing, water is primarily used for cooling purposes. This water is
generally reused numerous times before discharge. Discarded water is gen-
erally discharged into a sewer or septic system or into a settling pond.
This water generally contains suspended particulates and is not expected to
present a pollution problem.
Solids are generally emitted from the mixing and forming operations.
These emissions consist of resin-encased asbestos fibers and are generally
discarded. This solid waste could present a pollution problem.
118
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Pouring
into Molds
9
Raw Materials
Received
Mixing
with Binder
Mat
Extrusion
High Pressure
Steam
Curing
Castii.g
into Tubing
Air Emissions
1 Water Emissions
|v Solid Emissions
FIGURE 52. PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM FOR THE ASBESTOS INSULATION INDUSTRY.
119
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Inorganic Acoustical and Building
Insulation*
This industry includes the manufacture of acoustical and low-temperature
building thermal insulation. Insulation fiber glass accounted for 66 percent
of the total tonnage production in 1971. Other products include:
• Acoustical board and tile
• Ceramic fiber batts, etc.
• Glass wool batts, etc.
• Mineral wool, batts, etc.
Relatively few companies manufacture inorganic acoustical and building in-
sulation. These plants, which are distributed throughout the United States,
are relatively large. The smallest produces on the order of 5 million pounds
of insulation per year.(35)
Manufacturing Processes—
The inorganic acoustical and building insulation contained in this
category are made from ceramic fiber, fiber glass, glass wool, and mineral
wool. These fibers are combined with a thermosetting phenolic binder in a
diluted aqueous solution, as shown in Figure 53. This binder sometimes also
contains a colored dye. After mixing, the fibers are formed into a mat which
is cured and cooled. The cured mat is then subjected to appropriate finish-
ing operations for the particular product, such as compressing or the
application of a backing sheet such as aluminum foil. Insulation is then
packaged and stored until it can be loaded for truck or rail shipment.
Waste Streams—
Air emissions include glass fibers. Other air emissions are dependent
upon the type of fuel used for curing. Water emissions include suspended
solids. Solid-waste-stream emissions consist almost exclusively of glass
fibers.
Raw material receiving and curing are sources of air particulate
emissions. Raw material receiving, however, is usually done under a hood
which discharges through fabric filters. As a result, few of these particu-
lates are discharged into the atmosphere.
Curing operations also result in airborne emissions. These emissions
are generally dependent upon the type of fuel used.
This classification does not include foam-type insulation.
120
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9
Knw Materials
Received
Mixing
with Binder
Mat
Extrusion
Curing
Coo]ing
r
Finishing
1'ackaging
Storage
Air Emissions
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 53. PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM FOR THE INORGANIC ACOUSTIC AND BUILDING
INSULATION INDUSTRY.
121
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Cleaning and curing operations result in water emissions. For curing,
water is primarily used for cooling purposes. This water is generally reused
numerous times before discharge. Discarded water is generally discharged
into a sewer or septic system or into a settling pond. The curina water gen-
erally contains suspended particulates and is not expected to present a pol-
lution problem. Phenolic compounds are also present in the wastewaters.
Cleaning water is rarely reused or recycled and is generally discharged
into municipal sewer systems. This water contains suspended solids and could
present a pollution problem.(35)
Solids are generally emitted from the mixing and forming operations.
These emissions consist of resin-encased fibers and are generally discarded.
This solid waste could present a pollution problem.
Inorganic Electrical Insulation
The manufacture of inorganic electrical insulation from mica and fused
quartz is contained in this industry. Two major products are laminated mica
and quartz tubing.
Relatively few companies manufacture electrical insulation. These
plants, which are distributed throughout the United States, are believed to
be relatively large.(15)
Manufacturing Processes—
Laminated mica and fused quartz tubing are made from a series of re-
latively simple operations as shown in Figure 54. These operations include:
raw material receiving, batching, and mixing; forming; heat treating; cool-
ing; finishing; and packaging. Laminated mica is primarily made from sheet
mica which is then impregnated with a monomer. Sheets of mica are generally
stacked before high-pressure impregnation. After forming, they are shaped
by punching or cutting and then finished. Laminated mica insulation is
packaged and stored until it can be loaded for shipment.(28)
Fused quartz, on the other hand, is made from silica (Si02) and an
organic binder. After mixing, the tubes are cast or pulled and then the
silica is fused at a high temperature (2800 F). Upon cooling, tubes are
sized and finished. Fused quartz insulation is then packaged and stored
until it can be loaded for shipment by rail or truck.(28)
Waste Streams—
Air emissions include silica (Si02) and mica particulates. Other air
emissions are dependent upon the type of fuel used for heat treatment. Water
emissions include dissolved and suspended solids. Solid-waste-stream
emissions consist almost exclusively of mica and fused quartz.
Raw material receiving, batching, and mixing are sources of air parti-
culate emissions. These operations, however, are usually done under hoods
which discharge through fabric filters. As a result, few of these particulates
122
-------
RAW
MATERIALS ARE
RECEIVED
BATCHING AND
MIXING WITH
BINDER
PACKAGING AND
STORAGE
ELECTRICAL
INSULATION
Air Emissions
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 54. PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM FOR THE INORGANIC ELECTRICAL INSULATION
INDUSTRY.
123
-------
are discharged into the atmosphere.
Heat-treating operations also result in airborne emissions. These
emissions are generally dependent upon the type of fuel used.
Cleaning and heat-treating operations result in water emissions. In
heat treating, water is primarily used for cooling purposes. This water is
reused numerous times before discharge. Discarded water is normally dis-
charged into a sewer or septic system or into a settling pond. This water
generally contains suspended particulates and is not expected to present
a pollution problem.
Cleaning water is rarely reused or recycled and is generally discharged
into municipal sewer systems. This water contains suspended solids and could
present a pollution problem.
Solids are normally emitted from the forming and finishing operations.
These emissions consist of laminated mica and fused quartz chunks and are
generally discarded. This solid waste could present a pollution problem.
FABRICATED METAL PRODUCTS
This major group includes establishments engaged in fabricating ferrous
and nonferrous metal products such as metal cans, tinware, hand tools, cut-
lery, general hardware, nonelectric heating apparatus, fabricated structural
metal products, metal forgings, metal stampings, ordnance (except vehicles
and guided missiles), and a variety of metal and wire products not elsewhere
classified. Certain important segments of the metal-fabricating industries
are classified in other major groups, such as machinery, transportation
equipment, including tanks, professional scientific and controlling instru-
ments, watches and clocks, and jewelry and silverware.
There were 29,526 establishments in 1972 primarily engaged in producing
metal products ranging from cans and nut and bolts to large structures made
up from steel structurals (e.g., bridges). These establishments employed
1.454 million people and shipped products valued at $51.74 billion.^)
Manufacturing Processes —
A relatively limited number of unit operations are used in various
combinations to manufacture the great diversity of products that are fab-
ricated by this industry. These unit operations and the types of wastes
they generate are discussed first. Several flow charts are then
presented that illustrate the sequence of operations in typical metal-
fabrication processes.
Melting and Casting of Metals—Metals are generally melted and cast by
companies involved in the foundry industry, but there are many metal-fabrica-
tion companies that have captive melting and costing operations for producing
fabricated metal products. The melting and costing operations have continued
to be identified as sources of air, water, and solid-waste pollution. The
chief forms of pollution come from the vaporization of metal and the slags
124
-------
formed during melting and from the burn-off of binders during the solidifica-
tion of metals in the sand molds. Solid wastes include the hydrocarbons
which burn off or are vaporized during casting. Dust-collection systems in
use at many modern foundries have been effective in substantially reducing
the airborne solids coming from the melting operations. Control of the gas-
eous emissions is accomplished by controlling the compounds used in sand and
core binders. The American Foundrymen's Society issues several health and
safety guides especially related to some of the more noxious chemicals (e.g.,
urethane resins). Some of such compounds are used for core binders and can
cause skin irritations while in concentrated liquid or vapor forms. Such
compounds include toluene, phenol, triethylamine, alkyd oils, polyesters,
and polyethers. These are but a few of the hydrocarbons associated with
high-quality core making. Other compounds such as ammonia, isocyanates, and
alcohols are also used in foundries. Many of such compounds are baked off
in core ovens and vented to the atmosphere.
The foundry industry is associated with contributions to all waste
streams and has been the subject of review by OSHA representatives. Pre-
sumably, the foundries captive among the fabricated metal products industries
are also experiencing similar reviews.
Welding and Torch Cutting of Metals—As a process, welding is applied by
perhaps half of the industries engaged in fabricating metal products, either
to the products or to the construction of tooling used to manufacture metal
components. Dies used in forging, die casting, sheet forming, and stamping
are generally welded either in the form of hard facing or as a repair method.
The various welding processes most commonly used include stick electrode
welding, sub-arc welding, metal inert gas welding, and resistance welding
(usually the flash butt types). There are many other welding processes.
Associated with welding is the oxy-gas torch cutting of metals and especially
the carbon electrode oxygen process of cutting metals (sometimes referred to
as arc-air cutting). Both of these processes can result in the development
of large volumes of dust-like materials which can cause much concern among
those working nearby. The carbon arc-air/oxygen process is by far the most
productive of dust which contains various metal oxides, depending on the
metal being cut. Of course slag forms also from the molten metal exposed to
air. Thus, the waste streams which are developed from these processes in-
clude metal oxides, slags, and silicates.
The majority of the dust-like wastes are usually confined to the
immediate area of the individuals performing the operations but the stick
electrode welding and the arc-air cutting can result in more widely scattered
waste which is very difficult to control unless the welding is performed in
booths or tents.
Soldering is also included as a means of fastening metal, but as used
commercially it does not produce waste streams. Any runoff goes back into
the bath. There may be some hazard, however, in heating soldered scrap
because of the lead contained in solder alloys.
Metalworking operations—There are several types of metalworking opera-
tions involved in the manufacture of fabricated metal products including
125
-------
Forging Stamping
Rolling Blanking
Extrusion Shear forming
Rollforming Drawing
Spinning Machining.
These processes are carried out either cold or hot depending on the
material being formed. Hot forming usually involves the use of lubricants
which are either oil-base or water-base suspensions of graphite applied
to the tooling and workpieces and are, therefore, likely to produce airborne
solids and hydrocarbons. The cold-forming processes usually are lubricated
with solid films including stearate soaps and molybdenum disulfide. These
lubricants are usually applied in batch tanks prior to the metal-forming
process.
Furnaces used for the hot-forming operations are usually fueled with
natural gas, oil, or electricity, oil being associated with the highest
levels of smoke and unburned hydrocarbons. Most fuel-fired furnaces are less
than 15 percent efficient and a large percentage of the furnaces are not
equipped with sufficient controls to ensure complete combustion of the fuels.
On the other hand, much of the unburned fuel is burned after the products of
combustion leave the furnaces, thereby minimizing the potentially adverse
effects of CO and other partially combusted products which would otherwise
cause pollution problems.
Lubricating—While is truly part of metal-forming processes, it is iden-
tified as a distinct process step because of the potential environmental
impact. Some of the best lubricants contain such metal oxides as cadmium
oxide and lithium oxide and certain copper-containing compounds. Such com-
pounds are toxic to varying degrees. Thus, most companies have abandoned
their uses except for rare cases in which the greases are not likely to be
exposed to conditions which would cause them to vaporize or otherwise get
into the environment. Major emphasis during the past few years has been
directed to the use of water-base lubricants wherever possible to avoid the
smoke from oil-base compounds.
Cold forming requires lubrication also but the compounds are different,
usually involving water solutions or suspensions of graphite or compounds of
the stearate soap types. The waste streams coming from these lubricants
usually are in the wastewater with very little air pollution. Current
practices for dealing with soaps include the use of settling tanks to convert
the compounds to solids which are then disposed of in land fills.
Thermal Treatments—A wide variety of thermal treatments are applied to
fabricated metal products, including the heating for hot working, annealing,
heat treating, baking (drying of slurries and coatings), and furnace brazing.
Depending on the products being heated and the purposes, heating operations
can result in a variety of pollutants to the airstreams. Products of com-
bustion, evaporated solvents, and other gaseous types are sometimes rather
plentiful near furnaces/ovens being used for this purpose.
Surface Treatments and Coatings—Surface treatments which are applied to
126
-------
the fabricated metal products include sand blasting, polishing, and various
forms of acid or caustic pickling. Sand blasting results generally in waste
products which are eventually disposed of in land fill areas (solid waste).
Polishing usually results in water suspensions of solids which either go
directly into the waste streams or are passed through settling basins which
in turn are periodically cleaned of sediments that are used for land fill.
The surface treatments which can result in the most noticeable water pol-
lution are the pickling operations. Many companies use reaction ponds to
neutralize the pickle liquors before diluting and flushing them into the
waste streams.
Surface-coatings processes are used to apply a protective coating onto
the surface of fabricated metal products and include electroplating, paint-
ing/varnishing/lacquering, enameling, bonderizing, tinning, and galvanizing.
All of these processes can result in waste streams, especially the
electroplating and painting processes. Electroplating solutions contain
various metal salts which can reach the waste streams if not neutralized and
removed. The use of electrostatic painting has substantially reduced the
entry of over-spray into the waste streams. Otherwise, the spray booths are
flushed with water curtains which carry away the over-spray to either settl-
ing basins or directly to the sewage systems. The solvents/carriers of these
coatings generally evaporate and are exhausted either directly to the air or
after baking in ovens which are vented to the air.
Typical Processes—
Generalized flow charts are shown for production of the following fab-
ricated metal products:
Product Figure Number
Metal cans 55
Hand tools, forged 56
Hand tools, cast 57
Plumbing fixtures, zinc 58
Fabricated structural metal products - bridges 59
Screw-machine products - bolts, nuts 60
Steel forgings 61
Galvanizing for the trade 62
Cartridge cases 63
These charts show the manner in which unit operations are combined for the
various processes and show the natures of waste streams arising from the
operations.
Waste Streams—
Table 6 summarizes the relative levels of air, water, solid-waste, and
noise pollution arising from the various unit operations typically associated
with the manufacture of fabricated metal products. Also shown is a relative
measure of whether a particular waste is general throughout the plant or
127
-------
Slitting
and
Roll Forming
Soldering
Coating
(organic)
is:
oo
lids
Stamping
Coating
(organic)
•
rac
-R-
1
age
X
SHIP
-f
Air Emissions
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 55. METAL CANS.
-------
/>
Heat
Forge
Heat
Treat
Machine
^>
Assemble
Package
SHIP
Paint
Polish
Air Emissions
Vater Emissions
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 56. HAND TOOLS, FORGED.
-------
MOLDS
SAND
INVESTMENT
U)
o
Paint
Assemble,
Package
I
SHIP
Polish
_
7}
-r
Air Emissions
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 57. HAND TOOLS, CAST.
-------
Polish
SHIP
Electroplate
Air Emissions
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 58. PLUMBING FIXTURES - ZINC.
-------
to
Cut to Length
Assemble
,o
Gas Torch
Mechanical
Weld
Fasten
Rivets, Bolts
ASSEMBLY)-*
Paint
P
Air Emissions
-r
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 59. FABRICATED STRUCTURAL METAL PRODUCTS - BRIDGES.
-------
I
1
!
1
t
Electroplate
SHIP
Trim
Air Emissions
FIGURE 60. SCREW MACHINE PRODUCTS - BOLTS, NUTS.
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
-------
Cut to Length
SHIP
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 61. STEEL FORCINGS.
-------
Zinc Pig
Ul
Pickle and
Rinse
i
Degrease
Centrifuge
Hot Dip
Cool/Wash
-r
Air Emissions
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
SHIP
FIGURE 62. GALVANIZING FOR THE TRADE.
-------
UJ
Multi-Station
Extrude
i
Lubrication
-r
Air Emissions
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
SHIP
(or Store)
AIT
Assembly
>-
1— -- j Projectiles
' ----- !
Explosives
FIGURE 63. CARTRIDGE CASES.
-------
TABLE 6. RELATIVE LEVELS OF POLLUTION INTENSITIES FOR PROCESSES
TYPICALLY ASSOCIATED WITH MANUFACTURE OF FABRICATED
METAL PRODUCTS.
Pollution Intensity
Manufacturing Process
Melting of netals
Casting (mold making)
Welding (stick electrode)
Metalworking
Forging
Rolling
Extrusion
Rollforming/
spinning
Machining
Stamping/shearing
Lubricating
Thermal treatments
Heating for hot work
Annealing
Heat treatment
Baking/Drying
Brazing
Surface treatment
Sand bias ting (open air)
Polishing
Pickling/ rinsing
Surface coating
Electroplating
Paint ing/ varnishing
Enameling
Bonder iz ing
Galvanizing
Air
H/G
H/G
H/L
L/G
L/G
L/C
L/G
L/G
L/G
H/G
M/G
L/G
L/G
M/G
M/G
H/L
L/L
L/G
M/G
M/G
L/G
L/G
L/G
Water
L/G
M/G
L/L
M/G
L/G
L/G
L/G
L/G
L/G
H/G
L/G
L/G
L/G
L/G
M/G
L/G
M/G
H/G
H/G
M/G
L/G
H/G
M/G
Solid
M/G
M/G
L/G
H/G
H/G
L/G
L/G
L/L
L/G
M/G
L/G
L/G
L/G
L/G
L/G
H/G
M/G
M/G
L/G
M/G
M/G
L/G
M/G
Noise
H/G
M/L
H/L, M/G
M/G
M/G
M/G
L/L
H/L, M/G
-
H/G
M/L
M/G
L/G
L/G
M/L
M/L
L/L
L/L
L/G
L/G
L/G
L/G
Code: H - High
M - Medium
L - Low
G - General Pollution in Plant
L - Local Pollution within
work area of employee
137
-------
local to the immediate area in which a given operation is performed. This
table provides guidance regarding the general level of emphasis which would
be required to reduce the pollution levels. The processes rating high/gen-
eral in terms of the intensity of pollution require first attention. However,
this comment relates more to the general level rather than to a diagnostic
appraisal of the kinds of compounds making up the pollutants. Careful
measurement and analysis would be required to determine the toxicity levels
of each material passing into the waste streams.. Such measurements are be-
yond the scope of this study.
Several tables are included that elaborate on the flow charts that were
shown earlier. These tables show the unit operations, the wastes and the
media in which they occur, the potential levels of pollution (low, medium or
high), and actions that are currently taken to alleviate pollution. Tables
illustrating these elements are shown for the following types of fabricated
metal products:
Metal cans, containers
Cutlery, hand tools, hardware
Plumbing fixtures
Structural metal products
Screw machine products
Forgings and stampings
Coatings, engravings
Ordance and accessories.
MACHINERY EXCEPT ELECTRICAL
This major grouping includes establishments engaged in manufacturing
machinery and equipment other than electrical equipment and transportation
equipment. Machines powered by built-in or detachable motors ordinarily are
included in this major grouping with the exception of electrical household
appliances. Portable tools, both electrical and pneumatic powered, are
included in this group, but hand tools are classified elsewhere.
This group of manufacturing firms often starts with fabricated metal
products as part of the raw materials used in building the machinery. The
majority of companies in this category depend heavily on suppliers of cast-
ings ,forgings, screw machine products, tubing, rolled sheet and plate, wire
and other semifinished products which are then machined for eventual
assembly into the machines. On the other hand, these manufacturing firms
utilize a wide variety of manufacturing processes as related to the assembly
of subcomponents and components.
There were 40,309 establishments, which employed 1,819,700 people and
shipped primary products valued at $65.6075 billion in 1972 in this major
industry category.(1)
The segments of the machinery industry included in this analysis con-
sist of the following categories:
• Engines and turbines
138
-------
TABLE 7. MATERIALS AND PROCESS DATA FOR METAL CANS, CONTAINERS.
Operations
Waste/Media
Potential Levels
of Pollution
Current
Action
Stamping
Roll form/welding
Drawing
Spinning
Acid pickling
Electroplating
Tinning
Galvanizing
Annealing
Lubricating
Lubricating
Painting
Baking
Welding
Spent liquor/water
Spent liquor/water
Fumes/air
Fumes/air
Fumes/air
HC fumes/air^
Oil/water
HC fumes/air^
Fumes/air
Fumes/air
Medium
Medium
Low
Low
Low
Low
Medium
Medium
Low
Medium/local
Neutralizing
Neutralizing
Venting
Venting
Skimming
Venting
Venting
Venting
(a) The following raw materials are used in these operations: sheet steel,
sheet aluminum, lubricants, paints, tin pig/electrodes, zinc, and
acids.
(b) HC = hydrocarbon
139
-------
TABLE 8. MATERIALS AND PROCESS DATA FOR CUTLERY, HAND TOOLS,
HARDWARE.
Operations 'a'
Waste /Media
Potential Levels
of Pollution
Current
Action
Casting
Forging
Stamping
Welding
Sanding
Electroplating
Machining
Fumes/air Medium to high
Lubricants/air,water Low
Lubricants/air,water LOW
Fumes/air Medium/local
Dust/air LOW
Spent liquor/water Medium
Neutralizing
Annealing
Heat treating
Lubricating
—
Painting
Baking
Acid pickling
Fumes /air
Fumes /air
Fumes /air
Oil/water
HC fumes (b)
Fumes
Spent liquor/water
Low
Low
Low
Medium
Low
Low
—
—
—
Oil separators
—
Venting
Neutralizing
(a) The following raw materials are used in these operations: Bar steel,
castings, sheet steel, forgings, wire, paint, acids, and sands.
(b) HC = hydrocarbon.
140
-------
TABLE 9. MATERIALS AND PROCESS DATA FOR PLUMBING FIXTURES.
/ \
Operations ^ '
Waste /Media
Potential Levels
of Pollution
Current
Action
Casting
Forging
Machining
Electroplating
Baking
Heat treating
Enameling
Tube forming
Die casting
Fumes/air
Spent liquor/water
Fumes/air
Fumes/air
Fumes/air
Fumes/air
Lubricating(process)Oils/water
Blanking
Welding Fumes/air
Brazing Fumes/air
Medium
Medium
Low
Low
Low
Low
Medium
Medium/local
Low
Venting
Neutralize
Venting
Venting
Venting
(a) The following raw materials are used in these operations: steel scrap,
iron scrap pig, brass, zinc, rubber, and plastics.
141
-------
TABLE 10. MATERIALS AND PROCESS DATA FOR FABRICATED STRUCTURAL METAL
PRODUCTS.
fa")
Operationsv '
Waste/Media
Potential Levels
of Pollution
Current
Action
Welding
Riveting
Forming
Forging
Heat treating
Torch cutting
Drilling
Galvanizing
Annealing
Painting
Preheating
Lubrication
Fumes/air
Fumes/air
Fumes/air
Fumes/air
Fumes/air
Oil/water
Medium/local
Low
Medium/local
Low
Medium
Low
Venting
(a) The following raw materials are used in these operations: steel plate,
structurals, sheet aluminum, extrusions, roll-formed shapes, rebar,
and paints.
142
-------
TABLE 11. MATERIALS AND PROCESS DATA FOR SCREW MACHINE PRODUCTS.
Potential Levels Current
Operations Waste/Media of Pollution Action
Machining
Cold forging Stearate soaps/water Medium
Stamping — —
Lubricating Oil/water Low
Electroplating Liquors/water Low
Pickling Liquors/water Low
(a) The following raw materials are used in these operations: wire, sheet
steel, plastic tubing, steel bar, and copper bar.
143
-------
TABLE 12. MATERIALS AND PROCESS DATA FOR METAL FORCINGS AND
STAMPINGS.
Operations
(a)
Waste/Media
Potential Levels Current
of Pollution Action
Forging
Stamping
Shearing
Punching
Bending
Rolling
Spinning
Welding
Machining
Galvanizing
Painting
Baking
Tinning
Heating
Annealing
Heat treating
Lubricating
Sand blasting
Polishing
Fumes/air
Fumes/air
Fumes/air (HC)
Fumes/air
Fumes/air
Fumes/air
Fumes/air
Fumes/air
Fumes/air
Oils/water
(b)
Low
Low
Medium
Medium
Low
Medium
Low
Low
Medium/local
Medium
Venting
Cascade separation
(a) The following raw materials are used in these operations: steel billet,
steel bar, die steels, nonferrous billet, nonferrous bar, stainless
steel, steel sheet/plate, glass frits, lubricants, and paints.
(b) HC = hydrocarbon.
144
-------
TABLE 13. MATERIALS AND PROCESS DATA FOR COATINGS, ENGRAVINGS,
(SERVICES).
Operations(a)
Acid etching
Anodizing
Painting
Tinning
Galvanizing
Polishing
Electroplating
Waste/Media
Spent acids/water
Spent acids/water
Vapors/air
Vapors/air
Vapors/air
Dust/air
Ac ids /water
Potential Levels
of Pollution
Medium
Medium
Low
Low
Low
Medium/ local
Low
Current
Action
Neutralizing
Neutralizing
—
—
—
—
Neutralizing
(a) The following raw materials are used in these operations;
chromium, nickel, copper, precious metals, soaps, paints/varnishes, hy-
drocarbon coatings, aluminum pig, zinc pig, and tin pig.
145
-------
TABLE 14. MATERIALS AND PROCESS DATA FOR ORDANCE AND ACCESSORIES.
Operations
Waste/Media
Potential Levels Current
of Pollution Action
Extrusion
Forging
Drawing
Stamping
Casting
Rolling
Swaging
Machinery
Lubricating
Sand blasting
Painting
Baking
Heat treating
Annealing
Load/pack
Scale/solids
Fumes-dust/air
Scale/solids
Fumes/air
oil/water
Dust/solid
Fumes/air
Fumes/air
Dust/air
Medium
Medium
Low
Medium
Low
Medium
Low
Medium
Precipitators
Separation
Electrostatic
Venting
(a)
(b)
The following raw materials are used in these operations: brass strip,
steel strip, acids, pig iron, bar/billet, paint (HC), lubricants,
explo|ives, paper, wood, caustics, (tool steels), hydraulic fluids
(HC1 ^ . nlasMrs. sanHe Vn'riHovo ('ur'\\®' and quenching oils
plastics, sands, binders (HC)
HC - hydrocarbon.
146
-------
• Farm and garden machinery and equipment
• Construction, mining and handling machinery and equipment
• Metalworking machinery and equipment
• Special and general industrial machinery and equipment
• Office, computing, and accounting machines
• Refrigeration and service industry machinery.
Engines and Turbines
Companies in this group are primarily engaged in the manufacture of
steam turbines; hydraulic turbines; gas turbines (except aircraft); steam,
gas, and hydraulic turbine generator units; steam engines; and internal
combustion engines. Establishments in this industrial grouping generally
do not have an integrated operation involving the manufacture of such basic
raw materials as castings, forgings, bar stock, rolled structurals, extrusions,
etc. Such items are ordinarily purchased for subsequent fabrication into
components and subcomponents. On the other hand, industrial firms in this
grouping have extensive machine tools for machining, blanking, shearing,
drilling, simple forming, welding, and assembling of the final products.
There are exceptions. For example, two of the leading producers of outboard
motors have their own in-house capability for casting certain components in-
cluding motor blocks, pistons, and heads.
Manufacturing Processes—
In general internal combustion engines are made by drilling, tapping,
and machining a cast block to accept other machined components such as
cylinder wall linings, pistons and connecting rods, crankshafts and valve
assemblies.'3') A flow diagram is given in Figure 64 showing some of the
steps involved in manufacturing small to medium internal combustion engines.
Waste Streams—
Other than the casting operations and the local pollution associated
with welding, this industrial grouping is not associated with a serious
impact on the environment. Most of the scrap steel and nonferrous materials
used by this industry group are recycled.
Farm and Garden Machinery
and Equipment
This segment includes establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing
farm and garden machinery and equipment such as wheel tractors, agricultural
weeding machines, lawn mowers, and garden tractors. Some of the larger
companies in this industry also produce castings, forgings, stampings, and
many other fabricated metal products.
147
-------
RAW
MAW
MATERIALS
JO
^^
CAST
^
^
t)
MACHINE
Ct
.A
a
CLEAN
^
S\
RINST
/\
~
f^
HE
T
TRH AT
,
r»»T
HEAT
p
_
CLEAN
CLCAN
y\
r
^
-CNVfRSO"
COAT
PR PLAT
CO* VERSO-
UR PLATE
CONVERSO*
OH PLATE
/>
x\
—
FINISHED
SHFET
VTT AL
I'AKTS
FCRCXD
fNGINE
PARTS
riMISHED
C*S7 ENGINE
PARTS
PURCHASED
P*»TS
S\
^
MECHAMC'L
-r
-r
Air Emissions
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 64. INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES.
-------
Manufacturing Processes—(37)
Farm tractors and attachments are fabricated from a variety of piece
parts including major purchased parts (motor, transmission, seats, gages,
etc.) and parts manufactured by the industry (frame, axles, housings, covers,
etc.)- A typical operation for manufacturing farm machinery is shown in
Figure 65.
Manufacture of garden and lawn equipment includes cutting, bending, and
welding the frame and mounting the engine, wheels, handles, and trim to this
frame. All components are generally painted except for gears, bearings and
sprockets which are heat treated to improve wear characteristics. A typical
operation in the manufacture of a snowblower is shown in Figure 66.
Waste Streams—
Painting and welding operations seem to be the dominating factors in
the development of pollution from this grouping. The relative volume of
scrap turnings and trimmings is usually high enough to encourage recycling
to the mill suppliers of the metals or to scrap dealers.
Construction, Mining and Handling
Machinery and Equipment
This industry grouping produces heavy machinery and equipment used
largely by the construction, mining, drilling, and other manufacturing in-
dustries. The products are often one of a kind requiring extensive machining
and welding operations. Some of the companies have their own foundries for
manufacturing heavy components. However, the majority of companies purchase
forgings, castings, and other structural materials from companies manufac-
turing fabricated metal products.
Manufacturing Processes—
In contrast to the companies involved with the manufacture of passenger
automobiles, the companies in this grouping are not usually associated with
highly automated assembly lines. The manufacture of bulldozers can be
considered as reasonably typical, including some hot forming, extensive
shearing and cutting, welding, and mechanical fastening followed by painting
and final assembly. A simplified flow diagram for the manufacture of bull-
dozers is presented in Figure 67.
Flow diagrams are also shown for the production of the following
products in this industry grouping to illustrate the wide diversity of manu-
facturing operations associated with this classification of industries:
Products Figure Number
Underground scraper/loaders 68
Rock bits 69
Derricks 70
149
-------
Ul
o
HEAVY SHEET ^
METAL STOCK
LIGHT SHEET fc
METAL STOCK
f
i
SHEAR.
SAW
SHEAR,
SAW
BAR
STOCK
AW METAL
TOCK
»-
FORM.
BEND,
STAMP
DRILL,
PUNCH
FORM,
BEND,
STAMP
SHEAR,
SAW,
SHAPE
CAST
DRILL,
PUNCH
GRIND,
HONE,
LAP
TURN.
MILL.
LAP
Z>
' ^
CLEAN
RINSE
^HOSPHATE
CLEAN,
RINSE
DRILL,
TAP,
PUNCH
PHOSPHATE
tOAT
PHOSPHATE
COAT
DEBURR
O
PHOSPHATE
COAT
— ^
s\
— »»
— fc-
FINISHED
FRAME
ft FLOORING
FINISHED
COVERS,
HOUSING
TRIM, ETC.
FINISHED
AXLES
STRUCTURAL
MEMBERS
FINISHED
CAST
PARTS
PURCHASED
PARTS
MECHANICAL
FASTENERS
WELD
BRAZE
FINISHED
^ INSPECTS ^ FARM
TEST MACHINERY
r>
Air Emissions
i ^ Water Emissions
1^ Solid Emissions
FIGURE 65. FARM MACHINERY.
-------
RAW SHEET
STOCK (HEAVYl"
RAW SHEET
STOCK 'LIGHT)
RAW SHEET
STOCK 'HEAVY)"
Air Emissions
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 66. MANUFACTURE OF SNOWBLOWER.
-------
..J
RIAL """ |
RAW
MATERtAU
Ui
N)
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 67. MANUFACTURE OF BULLDOZERS.
-------
J-1
•Ui
Co
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 68. MANUFACTURE OF UNDERGROUND SCRAPER/LOADERS.
-------
Ul
FORGE AND
COOL
HEAT
TREAT
o
BRAZE
1, MATHTNF. s ASRFMRT.K L flARRTDK
/' BEARINGS \
( PINS I
BUSHINGS /
\ ETC . /
J p INSERTS V
\
MACHINE U
N
^
_>>
. j Air Emissions
i
INSPECT ^
cujp 1 Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 69. MANUFACTURE OF ROCK BITS.
-------
(Ji
Ui
RAW MATERIAL
POUR
5 CONCRETE
V
REMOVE
MOLD
ROLLED
LOW CATJ50H
STEEL'
Air Emissions
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
INSPECT
& TEST
V
FINISHED
DERRICK
FIGURE 70. MANUFACTURE OF DERRICKS.
-------
Waste Streams—
The processes having the greatest impact on the environment are the
casting, welding, flame cutting, machining, and painting operations. Oils
are used in the metal forming operations and to lubricate the various
assembly operations.
Metalworking Machinery and Equipment
Companies involved in the manufacture of machine tools (laths, boring
mills, drill presses, etc.), metal-forming equipment (presses, hammers,
shears, heading machines, etc.), and other types of equipment for tooling
and machining, stamping, forging, extrusion, grinding, hot rolling, drilling,
etc. , are typically integrated back to the machining and assembly operations
for manufacturing their products, and few of the companies actually produce
forgings or castings for their own use. Since the advent of foundry emission
controls, some of those companies which, in fact, had their own foundries
have since closed them because of the relatively higher cost of operation
and new capital equipment required. Erie Foundry is a good example. This
company is a leader in the manufacture of hot-forming presses and formerly
cast many of its press components. The foundry now operates only on a very
limited basis and the company now purchases many of its castings from
commercial sources.
(37)
Manufacturing Processes—
Generally, metal-forming machine tools are made by forming, machining,
and welding plates into a specific machine configuration. These plates are
then assembled along with associated accessories and the final product
painted. Figures 71 and 72 show flow diagrams for an engine lathe and
electrochemical machine respectively.
Generally, machine tool accessories are made by machining the part to
shape from forgings, castings, bar stock, or plate. Parts are then ground
and polished to obtain the desired size and finish and are finally heat
treated. Figure 73 shows a flow diagram for manufacturing drill bits.
Waste Streams—
The main sources of waste products from companies in this general in-
dustrial area are associated with the metal-forming, machining, and assembly
operation. The machining operations result in large quantities of turnings
which are almost always stored and eventually resold as scrap. Welding
operations, grinding, and machining and the associated cutting oils and
painting operations represent the chief sources for pollutants. Flame scarf-
ing and torch cutting are also practiced extensively and are associated with
high levels of smoke and dust.
It should be noted that this grouping of industries is an extensive user
of such subassemblies as motor bearings, vacuum pumps, hydraulic pumps,
gears, and transmissions which are more often produced by companies in other
industrial groupings.
156
-------
Ln
BAR _
STOCK """
MILL
BAR
STOCK
A
BAR
STOCK
£>
^
^
£}
^
^
0
/^
£>
DEGREASE
£}
^
^>
xOv
yy-\
y^
^
/^
HEAT
TREAT
HEAT
TREAT
HEAT
TREAT
.
;
^
£>
&
./
^
^
JO
p
/^
/\
/^
FINISHED
HOUSING
FINISHED
BASE
RINSE
FINISHEC
SPINDLE
FINISHED
CENTER
FINISHED
WHEEL
FINISHED
BOLT
/
£
^
y
A^SCMni F — FINISHED
*" TAILSTOCK
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 71. ENGINE LATHE (TAILSTOCK) MANUFACTURING.
-------
Ln
00
RAW _
MATERIAL"
PLATE
STEEL
SHEET
STEEL"
FINISHED
ELECTROCHEMICAL
MACHINE
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 72. ECM (ELECTROCHEMICAL MACHINE) MANUFACTURING.
-------
RAW
STOCK
DRAW
HEAT
TREAT
TEMPER
^
j^
/^
p
SAW
TUMBLE
POLISH
^>
b
^
^
^>»
FORGE
MILL
SAND
BLAST
NITRIDE
^>
b"
^
^P
C*\ PAN
PICKLE
^
^
r>
X"
FINISHED
BITS
Water Emissions
FIGURE 73. METAL WORKING DRILL BITS MANUFACTURING.
Solid Emissions
-------
Special and General Industrial
Machinery and Equipment
This rather broad grouping of industries produces products ranging from
food processing devices to patterns for casting and from printing equipment
to packaging machinery. In many respects the manufacturing operations are
similar to those used in the manufacture of metalworking machinery and equip-
ment. The materials differ somewhat in that much more stainless steel is
used for food processing and for the printing machinery. Because this
category also includes many types of small hand-operated machines, there is
a wider use of wood and plastic for handles, levers, wood patterns, etc.
Manufacturing Processes
(37)
General manufacturing processes are described for the following in-
dustries: food products machinery, textile machinery, pumps and compressors,
ball and roller bearings, industrial patterns, and furnaces and ovens.
Food products machinery is made by assembling manufactured and purchased
parts. Since contamination is a serious concern in the food products in-
dustry, stainless steel, unit construction, and manufacturing parts for quick
and easy disassembly and cleaning are used. Figure 74 shows a diagram for
manufacturing pasteurizing machinery.
Textile machinery is produced by assembling assorted manufactured and
purchased parts. In general, moving parts are machined, heat treated, and
finished to close tolerances. Figure 75 shows a flow diagram for manufactur-
ing a knitting machine.
Pumps and compressors are produced by casting and machining housing and
pistons, nobbing gears, forging and machining crankshafts, and making or
purchasing all other essential parts. Figure 76 shows a flow diagram for
making a simple hydraulic gear pump.
Ball and roller bearings are produced in four parallel line operations,
one for each of the bearing elements (two race balls, balls, and retainers).
The races are machined and ground, the balls are formed in a die and the
retainers are blanked, pierced, and formed. Not all bearing manufacturers
produce their own rolling elements and, for some roller bearings, the re-
tainers may be purchased. Figure 77 shows a flow diagram for manufacturing
ball bearings.
Industrial patterns are produced by making a clay mockup for visualiza-
tion. Then precision formed (by machining and bench hand tooling) wooden
patterns are made to establish the shape on experimental or limited produc-
tion castings. When in production, a metallized pattern is usually cast from
the master. Figure 78 shows a flow diagram for pattern manufacturing.
Furnaces and ovens are made by fastening together heavy formed plates by
welding and riveting. The interior is then lined with durable nonflammable
material. Then the entire outer surface of the furnace is painted. Figure
79 shows a flow diagram for manufacturing a Heroult type direct-arc electric
160
-------
STAIRLESS
STEEL
STRIP
Vater EreisDlons
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 74. PASTEURIZING EQUIPMENT MANUFACTURING.
-------
HIGH
CARBON
COILED"
STEEL
KJ
PIERCE
^
STEEL
FORGING
LOW
CARBOh
STEEL
HEAT
TREAT
TURN
J — »•
/>
— *-
\
CUT OR
BLANK
— »•
DRILL
^
REAM
/>
DEBURR
BLANK
SLOT
Q
— »-
— ^
&.
HEAT
STEEL
OR CAST
IRON
BARREL
FINISH
HEAT
TREAT
^-
0
— »-
^>
CASTING *-
S\
MACHINE
SURFACE
COAT
FINISHED
RING
0.
0
— »-
— ^~
t
BARK
FINI<
p
EL
5H
MACHINE
PAIN
RINSE
ATTACH
CYLINDER.
DIAL
PURCHASED *
D PARTS
_ .s Air Emissions
I Water Emissions
9**
£
s\
— ^—
/\
•
CAM
ED
FINISHED
DIAL
CAP
FINISHED
FRAME
PARTS
FINISHED
FLAT
PARTS
FINISHED
CAM
RING
^
- LU
BRICATE
»»
ASSEMBLE 1
o
/
WELD
1 1^
BRAZE
FASTENERS
/\
1
NSPEC
i TES
"T
T
FINISHED
MACHINE
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 75. KNITTING MACHINE MANUFACTURING.
-------
RAW
MATERIAL
RAW
MATERIAL
Air Emissions
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 76. HYDRAULIC GEAR PUMP MANUFACTURING.
-------
XX.
TUBE
STOCK
£^
^O
S>
^
Ai
HEAT
TREAT
MEAT
TREAT
ROUGH
GRIND
r Erai<
,P
^
ssi
SEMI
GRIND
STRIP
ons
!^>
^
^
HEAT
TREAT
P
FINISH
GRIND
d>
^
1
L
^\
^
RUST
INHIBIT
RUST
INHIBIT
RUST
INHIBIT
^
1
1
/\
FINISHED
OUTER RACE
FINISHED
INNER RACE
FINISHED
BALL
PURCHASED
PARTS
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
/\. x\
MATCH ft
ASSEMBLE
LUBRICATE
INSPECT
a TEST
FINISHED
BALL
BEARING
FIGURE 77. BALL BEARING MANUFACTURING.
-------
WOOD-
/>
f ,/V
MOCK UP
MACHINE
HAND
FINISH
SHELLAC
PAINT
FINISHED
EXPERIMENTAL
PATTERN
ON
Ul
X?
METAL
CAST
MACHINE
FINE
FINISH
>
PAINT
FINISHED
PRODUCTION
PATTERN
Air Emissions
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 78. PATTERN MANUFACTURING.
-------
MATERIAL
RAW
MATERIAL
Air Emissions
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 79. METAL MELTING FURNACE MANUFACTURING.
-------
furnace.
Waste Streams—
Lubricating oils are typically found associated with most of the assem-
bly operations and usually end up in the wastewater. Acid pickling also is
extensively practiced and could represent a problem if the wastewaters are
not properly neutralized. The operations of welding, flame cutting, machin-
ing, assembling, metal forming, painting, cleaning, etc. are major contri-
utors to waste products. Plastics and plastic-coated materials are likely
to become part of the waste products and can result in air pollution when
these materials are heated during the remelting operations by the companies
which purchase scrap materials from companies in this grouping. This is
more of an indirect source of waste products which do not show up until the
scrap metal reaches the steel mills.
Office, Computing, and
Accounting Machines
This segment includes establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing
office machines and devices and typewriters. Office machines and typewriters
were produced in 217 establishments, by 33,900 employees, and primary prod-
ucts shipped were valued at $1.2323 billion in 1972.
Manufacturing Processes
Office machines are made by sawing or shearing low-carbon steel and then
forming it into a frame configuration. The machining operations for the
frame and internal parts include milling, notching, turning, drilling, tap-
ping, grinding, buffing, and tumbling. The various parts are joined by
welding, soldering, riveting, and staking. Parts are then phosphated,
painted, inspected, and shipped. Figure 80 shows a flow diagram for making
duplicating machines.
Waste Streams—
Process water is used mainly for cleaning after machining operations
for plating. Operations such as machining, buffing, drilling, and grinding
contribute to the solid waste stream. Air emissions result from such
operations as welding, painting, and baking.
Refrigeration and Service
Industry Machinery
This segment includes establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing
refrigeration equipment and systems and similar equipment for commercial and
industrial use; complete air conditioning units for domestic, commercial, and
industrial use; and warm air furnaces, except electric. Establishments
primarily engaged in manufacturing soda fountains and beer-dispensing equip-
ment and humidifiers and dehumidifiers, except for room humidifiers and dehu-
midifiers, are also classified in this industry.
167
-------
oo
LOW
CARBON _
BARSTOCK
OR CASTING
Air Emissions
CLEAN
INSPECT
4 TEST
FINISHED
DUPLICATING
MACHINE
p^ Water Emissions
(^ Solid Emissions
FIGURE 80. DUPLICATING MACHINE MANUFACTURING.
-------
In 1972 there were 758 plants producing refrigeration and service in-
dustry equipment. These plants employed 149,800 people and shipped products
valued at $7.0331 billion.
-------
SHOT
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 81. AIR CONDITIONER MANUFACTURING.
-------
TABLE 15. MATERIALS AND PROCESS DATA FOR ENGINES AND TURBINES.
Xa)
Operations
Casting
Machining
Roll forming
Stamping
Welding
Heat treating
Assembling
Riveting
Mechanical Fastenings
Lubricating
Painting
Electrochemical
machining
Degrease
Waste/Media
dust/air, solids
chips/solid
oil/water
oil/water
fumes /air
HC/air
oil/water
—
—
oil/water
vapor/air , water
—
liquors /water
vapors /air
Potential Levels
of Pollution
high
medium
low
low
low
low
low
—
—
medium
low
—
medium
locally high
Current
Action
filters
recycle
—
—
vent
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
neutralize
vent
(a) The following raw materials are used in these operations: metals (sheet, bar, wire castings,
forgings, extrusions), aluminum alloys, alloy & stainless steels, nickel alloys, cobalt
alloys, titanium alloys, screw-machined products, plastics, oils, greases, acids, paints,
ceramics, and degreasing agents.
-------
NJ
TABLE 16. MATERIALS AND PROCESS DATA FOR FARM AND GARDEN MACHINERY AND
EQUIPMENT.
Operations'3'
Sheet forming
Machining
Welding
Die casting
Galvanizing
Electroplating
Heat treating
Painting
Waste/Media
oils/water
chips/solid
fumes/air
fumes /air
fumes/air
liquors/water
fumes/air
fumes/air , water
Potential Levels
of Pollution
low
medium to high
medium/ local
low
low
low
low
medium
Current
Action
—
recycle
vent
vent
vent
neutralize
vent
vent /water
curtains
(a) The following raw materials are used in these operations: metals (bar, sheet, wire forgings,
castings structurals), steels, zinc, copper, aluminum, fasteners, welding rod/wire, plastics,
wood, paints, solvents, motors, and transmissions.
-------
• Construction, mining and materials handling machinery and
equipment - Table 17
• Metal working machinery and equipment - Table 18
• Special industry machinery, except metal working machinery -
Table 19
• Materials and processes for general industrial machinery -
Table 20
• Typical material and process for office computing and
accounting machines - Table 21
• Materials and processes typical for refrigeration and
service industry - Table 22.
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC MACHINERY
This product group includes establishments engaged in manufacturing
machinery, apparatus and supplies for generation, storage, transmission,
transformation and utilization of electrical energy. The manufacture of
household appliances is also included in this group. Products include such
diverse items as generators, Christmas tree lights, and microwave ovens.
Although no single company or group of companies dominates this industry,
General Electric and Westinghouse are probably the largest firms. In 1972
this industry product group consisted of 11,964 plants, employed 1,650,000,
persons and shipped products valued at $96.7233 billion.
The segments of the electrical and electronic machinery industry in-
cluded in this analysis consist of the following categories:
• Power, distribution, and specialty transformers
• Motors and generators
• Carbon and graphite products
• Welding apparatus, electric
• Household cooking equipment
• Household vacuum cleaners
• Electric housewares and fans
• Electric lamps
• Phonograph records and prerecorded magnetic tape
• Telephone and telegraph apparatus
173
-------
TABLE 17. MATERIALS AND PROCESS DATA FOR CONSTRUCTION, MINING AND MATERIALS
HANDLING MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT.
Operations
(a)
Waste/Media
Potential Levels
of Pollution
Current
Action
Sheet-forming
Torch cutting
Welding
Machining
Electroplating
Painting
oil/water
fumes/air
fumes/air
oils/water
liquors/water
fumes,overspray/
air^water
low
high/local
medium/local
medium
low
medium
vent
vent/water
curtains
Baking
Heat treating
Pickling
Bonderizing
Forging
Casting
Assembling
Fastening
fumes/air
fumes (HC) /air
liquors/water
liquors/water
scale, scrap/solids
vapors
oils/water
—
low
low
medium
low
low
medium
medium
—
vent
vent
neutralize
neutralize
—
—
—
—
(a) The following raw materials are used in these operations: metals (sheet, plate, structurals,
wire, bar, forgings, castings), steels, copper alloys, aluminum, brazing alloys, fasteners,
batteries, plastics, oils, greases, acids, rubber products, glass, electromagnets, fab-
ricated components, wheels and bearings, steering gear, pumps, and radiators.
-------
TABLE 18. MATERIALS AND PROCESS DATA FOR METALWORKING MACHINERY AND
EQUIPMENT.
Operations
(a)
Waste/Media
Potential Levels
of Pollution
Current
Action
Casting
Forging
Machining
Plate forming
Welding
Brazing
Grinding and Polishing
Torch cutting
Heat treating
Painting
Electroplating
Lubricating
fumes,slags/air,solids medium
fumes/air
chips/solids high
oil/water low
fumes/air medium
fumes/air low
solids low
fumes,slags/air,solids medium
fumes HC/air low
vapors,solids/air,water medium
liquors/water low
oils/water medium
recycle
vent
vent
neutralize
(a) The following raw materials are used in these operations: metals (castings, forgings
structurals, wire, tubing, sheet, plate), carbon and alloy steel, copper and alloys,
aluminum, brazing alloys, tool steels, fasteners, and glass.
-------
TABLE 19. MATERIALS AND PROCESS DATA FOR SPECIAL INDUSTRY MACHINERY, EXCEPT
METALWORKING MACHINERY.
Operations
(a)
Waste/Media
Potential Levels
of Pollution
Current
Action
Plate forming
Stamping
Machining
Welding
Brazing
Soldering
Grinding & Polishing
Torch cutting
Lubricating
Bright Annealing
Heat Treatment
Electroplating
Pickling
Painting
Baking
Adhesive bonding
Coining
Assembling
oils/water
oil/water
chips/solid
fumes/air
fumes/air
fumes/air
dust/air,water,solid
fumes/air
oil/water
fumes HC/air
fumes/air
acids/water
acids,alkali/water
HC/air.water
HC/air
HC/air.water
oils/water
low
low
low
medium
low
low
medium
medium/local
low
low
low
medium
low
medium
low
low
low
recycle
vent
vent
vent
water/fill
vent
(a) The following raw materials are used in these operations: metals (sheet, structurals
plate, castings, forgings, wire), iron, carbon and alloy steels, stainless steels, zinc
alloys, copper and alloys, nickel (plating), chromium (plating) brass and bronze
(bearings), aluminum alloys, lead alloys, oil, grease, plastics, paints, solvents,
acids/alkali, and wood.
-------
TABLE 20. MATERIALS AND PROCESSES FOR GENERAL INDUSTRIAL MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT.
Operations^3)
Waste/Media
Potential Levels
of Pollution
Current
Action
Casting
Plate forming
Stamping
Machining
Welding
Brazing
Soldering
Heat treating
Grinding & Polishing
Electroplating
Pickling
Painting
Riveting
Assembling
Lubricating
Lining of furnaces
fumes(HC),slags/air,
solid,water
oil/water
oil/water
oil/water
fumes/air,solids
fumes/air
fumes/air
fumes/air
dust,solids/air,water
metal salts/water
acids/water
fumes(HC)/air,water
oil/water
fumes,HC/water,air
dust,asbestos/air,
water
high
low
low
medium
low
low
low
low
medium
medium
medium
low
low
medium
vent
vent
vent
vent
(a) The following raw materials are used in these operations: metals (sheet, plate structurals,
castings forgings, bar, billet wire, tubing), steel (carbon, alloy) aluminum, zinc alloys,
copper and alloys, iron, plastics, wood, oil, grease, paints, solvents, acids/alkali,
refractories, and asbestos.
-------
TABLE 21.
TYPICAL MATERIAL AND PROCESS FOR OFFICE, COMPUTING AND ACCOUNTING MACHINES.
Operations
(a)
Waste/Media
Potential Levels
of Pollution
Current
Action
00
Die Casting
Sheet forming
Powder compaction
Sintering
Stamping
Blanking
Brazing
Painting
Molding
Baking
Lubricating
Welding
Pickling
Machining
Phosphating
Assembling
Fumes/air
oil/water
f times (HC)/air
oil/water
trimmings/solid
fumes/air
fumes(HC)/air,water
oils/water
fumes(HC)/air
oils/water
fumes/air
acid/water
chips/solid
soaps/water
oil/water
low
low
low
low
low
low
low
low
low
low
low
low
low
medium
low
vent
vent
vent
(a) The following taw materials are used in these operations: metals (die castings sheet,
structurals, extrusions, powders, wire, stampings) steel, aluminum alloys, zinc alloys,
copper and alloys, lead, tin, plastics, paint, oil, acids/alkali, fiber board, and rubber.
-------
TABLE 22. MATERIALS AND PROCESSES TYPICAL FOR REFRIGERATION AND SERVICE INDUSTRY
MACHINERY.
Operations^3)
Waste/Media
Potential Levels
of Pollution
Current
Action
Casting(die)
Plate and Sheet forming
Machining
Welding
Brazing
Soldering
Grinding and polishing
Heat treating
Electroplating
Pickling
Painting
Baking
Assembling
Charging of Freon
fumes/air
oil/water
oil/water
fumes,slag/air,solid
fumes/air
fumes,lead/solid
dust/water,solid
fumes(HC)/air
fumes,acids/air.water
liquors/water
fumes(HC)/air.water
fumes(HC)/air
oil/water
Freon/air
low
low
medium
medium/local
low
medium
medium
low
medium
low
medium
low
medium
relatively high
for industry
vent
vent
neutralize
(a) The following raw materials are used in these operations: metals (sheet, plate, wire,
powders, castings forgings, tubing), steel, aluminum alloys, copper and alloys, tin,
lead, zinc, iron, fasteners, plastics, wood, oil, grease, paints, and freon.
-------
• Semiconductors and related devices
• Electronic capacitors
• Storage batteries.
Descriptions of manufacturing processes and flow diagrams were excerpted
from Reference 37.
Power, Distribution, and
Specialty Transformers
This industry includes establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing
power, distribution, instrument, and specialty transformers. Power, dis-
tribution and specialty transformers were produced by 216 plants and had a
value of primary products shipped at $1.3874 billion in 1972. Most of these
plants (64 percent) employ more than 20 workers. Approximately 67 percent of
the transformers produced are fluorescent lamp ballasts, 31 percent are
specialty transformers, and 2 percent are for miscellaneous uses.
Manufacturing Processes—
Steel insulated wire and cable, copper and copper-based alloys, and
aluminum and aluminum-based alloys are the major raw materials. The prin-
cipal manufacturing operations are mechanical material removal, material
forming, and material coating.
In general, transformers are made by stamping out steel core laminations,
binding them together, fitting a prewound coil over the core, drying and
sealing the core, and assembling the coil and core in a sheet metal tank.
The manufacture of power transformers (Figure 82) is representative of
the transformer industry. The manufacturing starts with silicon steel stock
which is pretreated in a pickling bath and then rinsed. The laminations are
cut, punched,and then coated with varnish and bonded together. The coils
are then wound on the forms and impregnated with a sealer such as oil. The
coil is then installed on the core and the core/coil assembly is dried. The
assembly is then installed in an oil tank made from paint structural steel.
This tank has plumbing to circulate the oil for cooling. Some transformers
are filled with a cooling oil containing polychlorobiphenyls (PCBs).
Waste Streams—
Process water used by the industry is used mainly for a water rinse
after a pickling operation in a bath, usually a 5-80 percent concentration
of sulfuric acid at 65-88 C (150-190 F) . Vapor degreasing is also done with
solvents such as trichloroethylene, perchloroethylene, or trichloroethane
which must be rinsed away using water. Air emissions result from coating,
grinding, and degreasing operations. Solid waste results from shearing,
cutting, and punching operations.
180
-------
oo
SILICON
STEEL
STOCK
PAPER8OARO.
STOCK
HAW
MATERIAL
Air Emissions
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 82. POWER TRANSFORMER MANUFACTURING.
-------
Motors and Generators
This industry includes establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing
electric motors (except starting motors) and power generators; motor gen-
erator sets; railway motors and control equipment; and motors, generators,
and control equipment for gasoline, electric, and oil-electric buses and
trucks.
Motors and generators were produced by 426 plants, and had a value of
primary products shipped at $2.1448 billion in 1972. Most of these plants
(60 percent) employ more than 20 workers. Of all the motors and generators
manufactured in 1972, 96 percent were fractional horsepower motors, 2 percent
were integrated horsepower motors, less than 1 percent were prime mover
generator sets and less than 1 percent were motor generator sets.
Manufacturing Processes—
Steel, copper, aluminum castings and semiconductors are the major raw
materials. The principal manufacturing operations are mechanical material
removal, material forming, material coating, and assembly operations.
In general, motors and generators are made by forming the rotor and then
winding the rotor and stator. The body frame and end bells are then formed
and assembled with the rotor, stator, and other piece parts. The unit is
then cleaned, painted,and tested.
The manufacture of motors (Figure 83) is representative of the industry.
A typical motor is constructed by starting with silicon steel stock that is
cleaned in a pickling bath and rinsed. This stock is then used for the
laminations which are formed by insulating, shearing into strips and blank-
ing into circles. Next, the stator laminations are notched. The laminations
are then stacked and tack welded together forming the rotor and stator cores.
The rotor and stator cores are next wound, dipped in lacquer, and baked.
The body frame and bells are made from rough castings which are
machined, cleaned, and primed. The motor shaft is machined and chamfered,
and a key-way cut. The motor shaft is pressed into the rotor and then the
rotor is balanced.
The stator is assembled to the frame and the rotor and bearings are
installed. The assembled motor is cleaned, painted, and tested.
Waste Streams—
Process water is used mainly for the pickling bath rinse. Otherwise,
this industry uses little or no water. Air emissions result from baking,
painting, welding, and grinding operations. Solid waste results from grind-
ing, shearing, and drilling operations.
Carbon and Graphite Products
This industry includes establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing
182
-------
00
ROUGH
CASTING
Air Emissions
Water Emissions
CLEAN
x°
INSPECT
4 TEST
FINISHED
MOTOR
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 83. ELECTRIC MOTOR MANUFACTURING.
-------
lighting carbons; carbon, graphite, and metal-graphite brushes and brush
stock; carbon or graphite electrodes for thermal and electrolytic uses; and
other carbon, graphite, and metal-graphite products. The major products are:
• Brush blocks, carbon or molded graphite
• Brushes and brush stock contacts: carbon, graphite,
etc. - electric
• Carbon specialties for electrical use
• Carbons, electric
• Electrodes, for thermal and electrolytic uses:
carbon and graphite
• Lighting carbons.
Carbon and graphite products were produced by 72 plants, and had a value
of primary products shipped at $374.8 million in 1972. Most of these plants
(62 percent) employ more than 20 workers. Forty percent of the dollar value
produced in this category is from electrodes, 17 percent from brushes, con-
tacts and brushplates, and 43 percent from other carbon and graphite
products.
Manufacturing Processes—
Carbon, insulated wire, and cable and copper are the major raw
materials. The principal manufacturing operations are mechanical material
removal, material forming (metals), and casting and molding (metals).
Carbon and graphite products such as motor brushes are made by pressing
the carbon into the desired form, baking it in a furnace and treating with
a metallic halide.
The manufacture of motor brushes (Figure 84) is representative of the
carbon and graphite products industry. A mixture of carbon and a metal
(powder) such as silver or copper is pressed in a mold to form the brushes.
Sometimes a pigtail is embedded into the carbon before molding to provide
electrical contacts. The pigtail is formed by cutting insulated extra
flexible stranded wire to the proper length, stripping the two ends of in-
sulation, and twisting the leads. A contact lug is sometimes crimped onto
the exposed end of the wire. After pressing, the motor brush is then baked.
The brush is finally treated by dipping with a metallic halide such as lead
iodide which is sometimes added prior to pressing and baking. The lead
iodide produces a lubricating film which helps to increase the life of the
brush.
Waste Streams—
Process water is used mainly for cleaning. Air emissions result from
the baking and mixing operations.
184
-------
PURCHASED
PARTS
INSULATED
WIRE
RAW
MATERIALS
00
BAKE
,0
DIP IN
METALLIC
HALIDE
INSPECT
& TEST
FINISHED
BRUSH
Air Emissions
I Water Emissions
|v Solid Emissions
FIGURE 84. MOTOR BRUSH MANUFACTURING.
-------
Welding Apparatus, Electric
This industry includes establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing
electric welding apparatus and accessories. Establishments primarily en-
gaged in coating welding wire from purchased wire or from wire drawn in the
same establishments are also included.
Electric welding apparatus was produced by 166 plants, and shipped
primary products were valued at $524.4 million in 1972. Most of these plants
(54 percent) employ fewer than 20 workers. Approximately 30 percent of the
electric welder products manufactured are arc welders, 69 percent are arc-
welding electrodes, and 1 percent are resistance welders.
Manufacturing Processes—
Steel, insulated wire and cable, aluminum and aluminum-based alloys and
copper castings are the major raw materials. The principal manufacturing
operations are mechanical material removal, material coating, and assembly
operations.
In general, electric welders are made by assembly of the transformer,
control panel, fan, and cable harness into a metal enclosure.
The manufacture of AC transformer welding apparatus (Figure 85) is re-
presentative of the welding apparatus industry. The sheet metal stock is
first pretreated in a sulfuric acid bath. The metal components such as the
cabinet are fabricated and the skids are welded to the baseplate. The
covers, skids, and other metal components are then painted. The transformer,
which can either be purchased or manufactured in-house, is assembled to the
baseplate along with the control panel, fan and cable harness. The unit is
then inspected and tested, the covers are assembled, and the unit is cleaned.
Waste Streams—
Process water is used mainly for rinsing after pretreating and degreas-
ing. The pretreating consists of a sulfuric acid bath with a water rinse.
Vapor degreasing is done with trichloroethylene or trichloroethane. Air
emissions result from the welding and painting.
Household Cooking Equipment
This industry includes establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing
household cooking equipment, both electric and nonelectric types. The major
products are:
• Barbecues, grills, and braziers for outdoor cooking
• Cooking equipment, household
• Gas ranges, domestic
• Microwave ovens, household
186
-------
SHEET _
METAL"
oo
ACID
BATH
RINSE
SHEAR
\
BLANK
FORM
FINISHED
COVER, SKIDS
& BASE PLATE
WELD
PAINT
Air Emissions
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 85. WELDING APPARATUS (ELECTRIC) MANUFACTURING.
-------
• Ovens, household: except portable
• Ranges: electric, gas, etc. - household
• Stoves, disk.
In 1972, household cooking equipment was produced by 82 plants and had a
value of primary products shipped at $763.8 million. Most of these plants
(60 percent) employ more than 20 workers. Fifty-six percent of the house-
hold cooking equipment is electric ranges and ovens and 44 percent is non-
electric cooking equipment.
Manufacturing Processes—
Steel, aluminum and aluminum-based alloys, castings, electric motors,
and timers are the major raw materials. The principal manufacturing
operations are material forming (metal), material coating, mechanical
material removal, and casting and molding (metals).
In general, household cooking equipment is made by bending and forming
sheet steel stock into the outer housing shape, welding it, and assembling
components to it.
The manufacture of electric ranges (Figure 86) is representative of the
household cooking equipment industry. Sheet steel stock is first cleaned
and galvanized. It is then cut and trimmed to the proper size and holes are
cut for burners, controls, etc. The stock is next bent and formed for the
side panels, top surface, control box, oven sidewalls, and doors. The frame
is then cut and welded together. The unit is cleaned in a pickling bath and
vapor degreased with trichloroethylene, perchloroethylene, or trichloro-
ethane, and all surfaces are primed. The outside surfaces are painted with
a high heat-resistant compound and the fixtures and trim are electroplated.
Electric burners are made by embedding resistance coils in fused magnesium
oxide powder or refractory cement. The oven sidewalls are installed on the
frame and they are packed with fiber glass or asbestos insulation and
assembled with sheet metal screws. The burner and controls are installed
next and wired. The oven is then inspected and tested.
Waste Streams—
Process water is used mainly for cleaning of the metal stock after
pickling and vapor degreasing. Air emissions result from galvanizing,
welding, pickling, vapor degreasing, enameling, and plating. Solid waste
results from the cutting and trimming, and shearing operations.
Household Vacuum Cleaners
This industry includes establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing
vacuum cleaners for household use.
Household vacuum cleaners were produced by 36 plants, and shipped
primary products were valued at $372 million in 1972.
188
-------
SHEET
STEEL.
STOCK
yX
PICKLE
GALVANIZE
fS~
SHEAR
^>
TRIM
^>
BEND
FORM
SIDE PANELS,
TOP SURFACE,
CONTROL BOX,
OVEN SIDEWALLS,
DOORS
STOCK
METAL'
S^J /^
CUT
^>
WELD
FINISHED
FRAME
PICKLE
AND
VAPOR
DECREASE
PACK WITH
FIBERGLASS
AND ASBESTOS
PORCELAIN
ENAMEL
OUTSIDE
SURFACES
PAINT OVEN
SURFACES WITH
HEAT RESISTANT
COMPOUND
INSTALL
BURNERS
AND
CONTROLS
INSPECT
AND
TEST
Air Emissions
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 86. WELDING APPARATUS (ELECTRIC)
MANUFACTURING.
-------
Manufacturing Processes—
Steel, insulated wire and cable, copper and copper-based alloys,
aluminum and aluminum-based alloys, castings, and electric motors' are the
major raw materials. The principal manufacturing operations are mechanical
material removal, material forming, material coating, and electrochemical
processing.
In general, vacuum cleaners are made by casting and machining the body,
then fabricating the components, and finally assembling these parts to the
body.
The manufacture of canister vacuum cleaners (Figure 87) is represent-
ative of the vacuum cleaner industry. Initially two plastic halves which
form the canister body are molded and the excess plastic is trimmed.
Handles, covers, and attachments (such as brush housings) are also molded in
plastic. The wands are rolled metal tubing with knurled ends or extruded
plastic. Metal trim is stamped, degreased, pickled, and electroplated. This
trim is then screwed or bonded to the canister halves. Purchased motors,
switches and wires are installed next, and the canister halves are bolted
together and covers attached. The vacuum cleaner is tested and then pack-
aged along with accessories.
Waste Streams—
Process water is used mainly for rinses after cleaning, vapor degreas-
ing, and postplating rinses. Air emissions result from the plating, welding,
and degreasing operations. Solid waste results from trimming and stamping
operations.
Electric Housewares and Fans
This industry includes establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing
electric housewares for heating, cooking, and other purposes; and electric
fans, including ventilating and exhaust household-type fans.
Electric housewares and fans were produced by 299 plants and shipped
primary products were valued at $1.3184 billion in 1972. Most of these
plants (56 percent) employ more than 20 workers. Twelve percent of the
products produced in this category are electrical fans, 6 percent are
electric razors, and 82 percent are other small appliances.
Manufacturing Processes—
Steel, copper and copper-based alloys, aluminum and aluminum-based
alloys, castings, timing mechanisms, and electric motors are the major raw
materials used by this industry. The principal manufacturing operations are
material forming (metals), material coating, and mechanical material removal.
Electric housewares and fans are made by a wide range of manufacturing
processes. Most typically, machining or plastic molding is used to manu-
facture the shell of the unit. Welding is used to attach parts, some of
190
-------
RAW
PLASTIC
SHEET
METAL-
STOCK
RAW
PLASTIC
TEST
FINISHED
VACUUM
CLEANER
-t*
-r
~ib
Air Emissions
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 87. VACUUM CLEANER MANUFACTURING.
-------
which are electroplated. Finished products are usually painted.
The manufacture of food mixers (Figure 88) is representative of the
electric housewares and fans industry. The shell of the mixer is made by
turning and grinding a rough metal casting or by plastic molding. Rolling,
swaging, bending, and forming are used to make the beaters which are then
tumbled to remove any burrs, and electroplated. Two halves of the unit are
butted together to form the assembly which is then cleaned by pickling and
neutralized in an alkaline solution. The unit is then electroplated or
painted. Plastic parts are either molded in-house or purchased. Assembly of
all components is the last operation and includes soldering of electrical
connections. Electric motors are either purchased or manufactured. Gears
are formed by machining and tempering or by plastic molding.
Waste Streams—
Process water, which constitutes 43 percent of the gross water used by
the industry, is used mainly for cleaning prior to and after such processes
as bright dipping, and in rinses in electroplating. Other sources of
effluent water are air scrubbers used in the painting operation. Air
emissions result from the electroplating, painting, welding, and grinding
operations.
Electric Lamps
This industry includes establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing
electric bulbs, tubes, and related light sources. Important products of this
industry include:
Bulbs, electric light: complete
Electrotherapeutic lamp units for ultraviolet and infrared radiation
Flashlight bulbs, photographic
Glow lamps
Infrared lamps
Lamps, electric: incandescent filaments, fluorescent, and vapor
Lamps, sealed beam
Light bulbs, electric: complete
Photoflash and photoflood lamps
Pilot lights, radio
Strobotrons
Tubes, electric light
Ultraviolet lamps.
Electric lamps were produced by 142 plants and shipped primary products
were valued at $1.025 billion in 1972. Half of these plants (50 percent)
employ more than 20 workers. Of the products produced in this category.
33 percent are photographic incandescent bulbs, 34 percent are large incan-
descent bulbs, 20 percent are miniature incandescent bulbs, 8 percent are
electric discharge, and 5 percent are Christmas tree lamps.
192
-------
p
SHEET
STOCK'
to
U>
ROLL
BEND
FORM
SWAGE
WELD
PLATE
FINISHED
BEATERS
ROUGH _
CASTING
/
GRIND
>>
/\
CLEAN
PLATE
OR PAINT
/x\,
FINISHED
MIXER
SHELL
PURCHASED
MOTOR
& PARTS
WELD
SOLDER
MECHANICAL
FASTENERS
/>
>>
THERMOPLASTIC ^_
RESIN
MOLD
ASSEMBLE
TEST AND
INSPECT
FINISHED
PLASTIC
ACCESSORIES
FINISHED
FOOD
MIXER
Air Emissions
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 88. FOOD MIXER MANUFACTURING.
-------
Manufacturing Processes—
Glass and glass products are the major raw materials, with the principal
manufacturing operation being mechanical material removal.
In general, electric lamps are made by drawing and forming the filament,
assembling the filament to the base, and then cleaning, electroplating, and
assembling the final product. The manufacture of incandescent lightbulbs
(Figure 89) is representative of the electric lamp industry. The filament
wire is drawn and the filament is formed and attached to a stamped base.
The filament and base unit is then pickled, cleaned, rinsed, electroplated,
and dried. The glass envelope is blown and then assembled to the base and
filled with inert gas. The bulb is tested and packaged.
Waste Streams—
Process water is used mainly in a vapor-degreasing process following
machining operations and in rinses following electroplating. Hydrofluoric
acid is used to "frost" the bulbs and the exhaust gas is vented to an ammonia
scrubber. The wastewater contains ammonium fluoride which is a disposal
problem. Air emissions result from the vapor-degreasing and soldering
operations.
Phonograph Records and Prerecorded
Magnetic Tape
This industry includes establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing
phonograph records and prerecorded magnetic tape. The major products are:
Master records or tapes
Phonograph record blanks
Phonograph records (including preparation of the master)
Prerecorded magnetic tape
Record blanks, phonograph
Records, phonograph.
Phonograph records and prerecorded magnetic tapes were produced by 564
plants and shipped primary products were valued at $563.9 million in 1972.
Most of these plants (79 percent) employ fewer than 20 workers. About 58 per-
cent of the products produced in this category are 45 rpm records and 41
percent are 33-1/3 rpm records. Prerecorded cartridge tapes and cassette
tapes account for less than 1 percent of the total production.
Manufacturing Processes—
Plastic and magnetic tapes are the major raw materials, while the prin-
cipal manufacturing operations are molding and forming (nonmetals) and
chemical/electrochemical operations.
In general, phonograph records are made by molding plastic from a
negative master disc. Prerecorded magnetic tapes are made by passing Mylar
tape coated with iron oxide in front of a recording head.
194
-------
\f>
Ln
Air Emissions
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 89. INCANDESCENT LIGHT BULBS MANUFACTURING.
-------
The manufacturing operations for fabricating phonograph records are
shown in Figure 90. The first step in the manufacture of phonograph records
is to machine a metal disc which serves as the master disc. Next, this disc
is coated with plastic which is then grooved by the recording cutter. The
disc is then coated with lacquer and a negative is made by electroforming.
If this negative master is to be used to make a large quantity of records,
it is made from high-grade steel. The negative master is then used as a mold
in a plastic molding operation which is usually done under pressure with
heat.
The plastic, if it is for low-cost records, is a synthetic thermoplastic
containing fillers. High-quality records are made with vinyl plastic without
filler because the fillers cause a scratching sound when played.
Pre-recorded magnetic tapes are made from thin sheets of mylar that are
coated with iron oxide and slit into strips of 6.35 mm or 3.175 mm width.
The magnetic tape is then wound on plastic spools. It is recorded by passing
the tape at a constant speed through a recording machine. Many manufacturers
of pre-recorded tape simply purchase the magnetic tape and do only the
recording themselves.
Waste Streams—
Process water is used mainly for removing dust and dirt from the master
disc. Air emissions result from the lacquer coating of the disc.
Telephone and Telegraph Apparatus
This industry includes establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing
wire telephone and telegraph equipment, and parts especially designed for
telephone and telegraph use.
Telephone and telegraph apparatus was produced by 200 plants and shipped
primary products were valued at $4,531 million in 1972. Most of these plants
(56 percent) employ more than 20 workers. Forty percent of the dollar value
produced in this category is from telephone switching and switchboard equip-
ment, 12 percent is from telephone carrier equipment, 40 percent is from
telephone instrument sets, 7 percent is from telegraph apparatus, and 1 per-
cent is from other equipment.
Manufacturing Processes—
Steel, wire, copper, aluminum, castings, resins, electron tubes, and
semiconductors are the major raw materials. The principal manufacturing
operations are mechanical material removal, material forming, material coat-
ing, chemical/electrochemical operations, physical property modification,
and molding and forming (non-metals).
Telephone and telegraph equipment is made by a wide range of diverse
manufacturing processes. Typically, the chassis and cabinet are manufactured'
and the components are installed and wired.
196
-------
METAL
STOCK """
MACHINE
METAL DISC
COAT WITH
PLASTIC
CUT GROOVES
LACQUER
COAT DISC
ELECTRO-
FORM NEGATIVE
vo
PLASTIC
RECORD
COMPRESSION
MOLD
LABEL
ADHESION
BOND
FINISHED
RECORD
PLASTIC
DISC
Air Emissions
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 90. PHONOGRAPH RECORD MANUFACTURING.
-------
The manufacture of PBX (Private Branch Exchange) equipment shown in
Figure 91 is representative of the telephone and telegraph industry. First
the cabinet and chassis are formed by stamping, shearing, bending, spot
welding, grinding,' pickling, and painting. The chassis is then drilled and
the components such as purchased pre-wired circuit boards, relays, and
transformers are installed. These parts are assembled either by soldering
or wire wrapping. Wire wrapping is now being used through the industry
because of its superior mechanical and electrical properties. It is also a
dry process as opposed to dip soldering.
Waste Streams—
Telephone shells are molded plastic. Process water is used mainly for
electroplating, etching, painting, anodizing, cleaning, and air scrubbing.
Air emissions result from the plating, painting, and grinding operations.
Solid waste results from shearing, stamping, and drilling operations.
Semiconductors and Related Devices
This industry includes establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing
semiconductor and related solid state devices, such as semiconductor diodes
and stacks, including rectifiers, integrated microcircuits (semiconductor)
networks), transistors, solar cells, and light sensing and emitting semi-
conductor (solid state) devices.
Semiconductors and related devices were produced by 325 plants and
shipped products were valued at $2.1633 billion in 1972. Most of these plants
(59 percent) employ more than 20 workers. Thirty six percent of the
products produced in this category are transistors, 44 percent are diodes
and rectifiers, 16 percent are integrated circuits, and 4 percent are other
semiconductors.
Manufacturing Processes—
Steel insulated wire cable, aluminum, copper, castings, silicon, ger-
manium, and resins are the major raw materials. The principal manufacturing
operations are mechanical material removal, chemical/electrochemical
operations, and material forming (metals).
In general, semiconductors are made from silicon or germanium wafers
that are doped with impurities. These are joined together and lead wires
are attached.
The manufacture of transistors (Figure 92) is representative of the
semiconductors industry. (Crystals of silicon are first grown by the
Czochralski or Float Zone methods. They are then cut and polished to form
wafers.) The wafers are cast and sorted, then bonded together, and wires
are bonded to the joined wafers. The unit is washed in ultra pure water,
dried, and baked. A cap is finally soldered into place and the unit tested.
198
-------
METAL_
STOCK"
VO
SHEAR
*>
STAMP
^
BEND
SPOT
WELD
f
a
/ s\ XS.
GRIND
PICKLE
R
PAINT
DRILL
b
FINISHED
CHASSIS
Air Emissions
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 91. PBX (PRIVATE BRANCH EXCHANGE) EQUIPMENT MANUFACTURING.
-------
to
O
o
L »-
GROW
CRYSTAL
CUT
/\
WASH
DRY
POLISH
BAKE
P
SORT
WELD
CAP
PURCHASE
CAP
P
DIE BOND
WIRE
BOND
FINAL
TEST
FINISHED
TRANSISTOR
Air Emissions
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 92. TRANSISTOR MANUFACTURING.
-------
Electronic Capacitors
This industry includes establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing
electronic capacitors. The major products are:
Capacitors, electronic: fixed and variable
Condensers, for electronic end products.
Electronic capacitors were produced by 113 plants, and shipped primary
products were valued at $454.4 million in 1972. Most of these plants (90 per-
cent) employ more than 20 workers. Of the capacitors produced, 18 percent are
electrolytic capacitors, 76 percent are ceramic capacitors, and 6 percent
are mica capacitors.
Manufacturing Processes—
Various metal stock, wire, and dielectric materials are the major raw
materials. The principal manufacturing operations are material coating,
assembly operations, and physical property modification.
In general, capacitors are made by forming discs, applying a silver
surface to both sides, oven drying, attaching lead wires, and plastic coating
the unit.
The manufacture of ceramic disc capacitors (Figure 93) is representative
of the capacitor industry. First a ceramic disc is formed and oven fired.
A silver surface is applied to each side of the disc and it is oven dried.
The discs are then loaded into a magazine where wires which have been
previously stripped, cut, and bent are attached by dip soldering. The disc
assembly is cleaned in a detergent or solvent. A plastic coating is applied
and the capacitor is dried. Identification is printed on the capacitor and
a wax coating is applied. The wire leads are then sheared and samples of
the capacitors are tested.
Waste Streams—
Process water is used mainly for cleaning after the leads are dip
soldered in place.
Storage Batteries
This segment includes establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing
storage batteries, and the products include:
Alkaline cell storage batteries
Lead-acid batteries (storage batteries).
201
-------
RAW _
MATERIAL
FORM
CERAMIC
DISC
OVEN
FIRE
APPLY
SILVER
SUFACE
(ONE SIDE)
OVEN
DRY
APPLY
SILVER
SURFACE
(OTHER SIDE)
OVEN
DRY
FINISHED
DISCS
WIRE-
STRIP a
CUT WIRES
BEND
LEADS
DIP
SOLDER
LEADS TO
DISCS
X\
WASH
DRY
APPLY
COATING
OVEN
DRY
IDENTIFY
WAX
DIP
N>
O
KJ
SHEAR
LEADS
SAMPLE
ft TEST
WEIGH
«< PACK
FINISHED
CAPACITOR
Air Emissions
I Water Emissions
I^ Solid Emissions
FIGURE 93. CERAMIC DISC CAPACITOR MANUFACTURING.
-------
Storage batteries were produced by 213 plants, and had a value for primary
products shipped of $971 million in 1972. Most of these plants (56 percent)
employ more than 20 workers. Seven percent of the storage batteries produced
are automobile replacement batteries, 2 percent are lead-acid batteries for
other than motor vehicles, and 70 percent are for other uses.
Manufacturing Processes—
Lead, purchased plastic cases, litharge, and sulfuric acid are the major
raw materials. The principal manufacturing operations are molding and
forming, material forming, and assembly operations.
In general, storage batteries are made by casting the plates out of
lead, spreading a lead oxide and sulfuric acid paste on the plates, drying,
assembling, and adding the acid.
The manufacture of lead-acid storage batteries (Figure 94) is represen-
tative of the storage battery industry. First lead is cast to form the
grids. A paste is then made by mixing lead oxide with sulfuric acid and
water. The paste is spread onto the lead grids to form plates which are
cured and dried. The plates are stacked with a spacer material between them
to form the battery cells. At this point in the assembly, the operations
vary for wet-charged and dry-charged batteries. The wet-charged battery
cells are assembled in a plastic or rubber case, interconnected, sealed,
tested, and filled with sulfuric acid. An electrical charge is applied to
the battery terminals which converts the negative plates to lead sponge and
the positive plates to lead peroxide. This operation, called forming,
completes the battery manufacture.
The dry-charge batteries are shipped and stored without sulfuric acid
to extend the battery shelf life. For the dry-charge battery, the forming
operation is accomplished by connecting the battery cells and immersing them
in forming tanks containing sulfuric acid for the actual forming. The cells
are then removed, washed, and assembled in the battery case. Then they are
tested, decorated, and readied for shipment. Some manufacturers of dry-
charged batteries are able to conduct the forming operations with the cells
in the battery case.
Waste Streams—
Process water, is used mainly for cleaning and rinsing. Unused
203
-------
Air Emissions
V.'ater Emissions
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 94. LEAD-ACID STORAGE BATTERY MANUFACTURING.
-------
sulfuric acid is a major source of waste. Wastewaters are comprised of
sulfuric acid (typically 2-4%) and suspended and dissolved lead. Scrap waste
from the various processes, for example, grids, paste mix, reject plates, are
recovered and sent to a lead smelter for processing as secondary lead and
reused.
TRANSPORTATION EQUIPMENT
This major industry includes establishments engaged in manufacturing
equipment for transportation of passengers and cargo by land, air, and water.
There were 8,802 establishments in 1972 primarily engaged in the manufacture
of transportation equipment. They employed 1,719,000 people and shipped
products valued at $94.7 billion.
Important products produced by establishments classified in this major
group include motor vehicles, aircraft, guided missiles and space vehicles,
ships, boats, railroad equipment, and miscellaneous transportation equipment
such as motorcycles, bicycles, and snowmobiles. Thus, the manufacturing
operations vary quite extensively and cannot be typified in a simple way.
However, the manufacturing processes are quite similar in many respects to
those discussed under fabricated metal products.
Manufacturing Processes
There are some basic processes and/or manufacturing steps which can have
an impact on the environment (air, water, solids). The foundry activities of
the companies in this category rank rather high in pollution potential. The
many surface-finishing operations including electroplating, pickling, anodiz-
ing, painting, enameling, all have potential for contributing to an
environmental impact. Lubrication of the various metal-forming and fabricat-
ing processes can contribute to problems, especially in those plants where
such fabrication processes are practiced extensively. A considerable amount
of plastics is used in the manufacture of both automobiles and aircraft.
Waste plastics are disposed of either by burning or in the form of solid
waste, which probably ends up in some landfills. Welding is a potential
source of pollution in the manufacture of equipment. However, the MIG/TIG
welding practices commonly used are not likely to create pollution to the
extent associated with stick electrode welding used in the fabrication of
larger structures. An exception to this is observed in the manufacture of
ships and boats where the fumes from stick electrode welding are an even
more serious problem for the welders than in field erection of towers and
other large fabrications. This is due in part to the fact that the operators
are more likely to be confined to smaller quarters. This is also true in the
welding of tank hulls.
Motor Vehicles and Motor Vehicle Equipment—
This is by far the largest segment of the transportation equipment
industry. In 1972 there were 3,391 establishments primarily engaged in the
manufacture of motor vehicles, bodies for passenger cars, trucks, and buses,
205
-------
parts and accessories, and truck trailers. These establishments employed
807,400 people and shipped products valued at $63.9 billion. This segment
included 39 percent of the establishments in the transportation equipment
industry, employed 47 percent of the work force for the industry, and shipped
67 percent of the dollar value of products.
The four leading establishments engaged primarily in the manufacture of
passenger automobiles are quite heavily integrated, having facilities for
conducting the majority of part-making operations within one or more of their
manufacturing plants. For example, General Motors has one of the largest
foundries in the country and Ford has a forge shop which produced nearly
5 percent of the Nation's total output of forgings. Thus, many of the pro-
cesses identified under fabricated metal products as having an impact on the
environment are also represented by this industrial classification. There
are, of course, several smaller firms in vehicle manufacture which purchase
such components as part of their raw materials. Checker Motors, for example,
purchases nearly all components except the bodies and frames, for taxicabs.
The waste streams from these organizations differ in magnitude and cannot be
simply classified as an industrial grouping with regard to pollution poten-
tial. Similarly, the manufacturers of truck bodies, tractors and buses all
represent varying degrees of integration. Caterpillar Co., for example, has
extended its integration to the manufacture of both forgings and casting
while Fruehauf has largely confined its manufacturing to forming, assembling,
fastening, and welding of truck bodies.
Three manufacturing processes were selected that are typical of the
transportation equipment industry. Flow charts are shown for automobile
manufacture and assembly (Figure 95), manufacture of automobile frames
(Figure 96) and manufacture of truck trailers (Figure 97).
Waste Streams—
Table 23 shows the raw materials and operations used in manufacturing
motor vehicles and equipment, the wastes engendered, and the media in which
the wastes are emitted. It also shows the general levels of pollution and
the current actions, if any, taken to reduce pollution.
Aircraft and Parts—
This is the second largest segment of the transportation equipment
industry. In 1972 there were 1094 establishments primarily engaged in this
industry. They employed 438,700 people and shipped products valued at $15.5
billion.
The major manufacturers of aircraft have concentrated their manufactur-
ing operations on sheet metal forming, joining (riveting, welding, adhesive
bonding, mechanical fastening), extensive machining, and assembly of air-
craft. Virtually all subcomponents, not considered as part of the basic
airframes, are purchased (engines, landing gear, drive systems, etc.).
There are over 600 firms engaged in the manufacture of such components for
aircraft. Furthermore, part-making firms are likely to purchase such fab-
ricated metal products as extrusions, forgings, and castings which are then
206
-------
O
-~J
FRAME
SUSPENSION
FINISHED
FRONT QUARTER
PANELS
MAIN SODY
FINISHED
HOOD, DOORS &
~ 1
ASSEMBLE
WFLD
1
BRAZE
MECHANICAL
FASTENERS
P
p
S*1
'
i CONVERSION
COAT
^
1 >
CASTINGS
FORCINGS
WEIUMETS
MACi;l::;NG
PAINT
&
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/\
">-,
"~^
^
N
x
^
FINISHED
F.N'CINC t
TRANSMISSION
;
FUXilA^ED
PARTS
FINISHED
FINISHED
FINISHED
FINISHED
UPHOLSTERY
FINISHED
!
i
•
] ASSEMBLE
Air F.ir.isslons
Water End^sions
Solid Kalsslons
FIGURE 95. AUTOMOBILE MANUFACTURE AND ASSEMBLY.
-------
N)
O
00
RAW
MATERIAL
SHEAR
. /\ , r , x\ .
"b >>
«JIMIVII- — •-»• DI_MIS/\ •" ruis^n ^^ ' »-"M»I
A
ASSEMBLE
». PAINT -^ INSPECT FINISHED
& ALIGN ^ FRAME
y
/ s\
WELD
BRAZE
MECHANICAL
FASTENERS
,0 D .
/ / Air Emissions
— T^
Water Emissions
^ Solid Emloslnna
FIGURE 96. MANUFACTURE OF AUTOMOBILE FRAMES.
-------
RAW
MATERIAL'
PURCHASE
RAILS
SHEAR
^
BLANK
PUNCH
Z7
FORM
FINISHED
PANELS
N3
O
n
E
ASSEMBLE
FRAME
WELD
BRAZE
MECHANICAL
FASTENERS
LINE INSIDE
WITH
PLY WOOD
ADHESION
BOND
MECHANICAL
FASTENERS
*|
/>
o
/
—
•"
—
*
ASSEMBLE ASSEMBLE ASSEMBLE ASSEMBLE
"" WHEELFD
-------
TABLE 23. MATERIALS AND PROCESSES TYPICAL FOR MOTOR VEHICLES AND MOTOR VEHICLES EQUIPMENT.
N3
M
o
Operations
(a)
Sand casting
Die casting
Stamping
Sheet forming
Machining
Hot forging
Cold forging
Welding
Electroplating
Heat treating
Painting
Baking
Sanding/polishing
Lubricating
Pickling
Bonderizing
Assembling
Waste/Media
Potential Levels
of Pollution
Current
Action
Fumes HC/air/water
Fumes/air
Chips/solids
Scale/solids
Soaps,phosphates/water
Fumes/air
Metallic salts /water
HC/air(b)
HC/water
(b)
HC/air(b)
Solids/water
Oils/water
Acids/alkali/water
Acids/water
Oils/water
High
Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium
Locally high
Medium
Low
Medium
Medium
Low
Medium to high
Medium
Medium
Medium
Dust collection/
vent
Vent
Recycle
Land fill
Neutralize
Vent
Neutralize
Vent
Vent/water screen
Vent
Water screen
Separators
Neutralize
Neutralize
Separators
"(a) The following raw materials are used in these operations: metals (sheet, bar, wire, forging,
castings, P/M parts), aluminum and alloys, copper and alloys, steel, zinc (Cor die casting),
iron (for cast irons), chromium (plating), nickel (plating), lead (batteries), fasteners,
metal powders, solder, cloth/fabric, plastics/glass, wood, acids/alkali, oils, greases,
resins/adhesives, solvents/paints, rubber products, and freon.
'(b) HC = hydrocarbon.
-------
machined and assembled into the subcomponents. Figure 98 shows a general
flow chart for airplane manufacturing.
Waste Streams—
The very nature of aircraft and parts manufacture is such that very
little solid nonrecyclable waste is formed during the manufacturing oper-
ations. On the other hand, the use of composites, plastics, and fabrics
can result in potential environmental impact if such materials are not
properly disposed of. Such materials can form noxious fumes if disposed
of by burning. The extensive machining operations usually associated with
aircraft manufacture are the sources of water-soluble cutting oils which
are often disposed of in the local sewage systems. Depending on the levels
of use, this can have an environmental impact. Other than the fumes formed
during welding and the vapors coming from the painting operations, there are
few sources of air pollutants associated with the manufactures of aircraft.
Table 24 summarizes these wastes and their approximate levels.
Ship and Boat Building and Repairing—
This is a medium-size segment of the transportation equipment industry.
In 1972 there were 2,232 establishments primarily engaged in building and
repairing boats and ships of all varieties, including barges, dredges,
drilling platforms, and floating drydocks as well as more conventional
vessels. These establishments employed 185,200 people and shipped products
valued at $4.3 billion.
Figure 99 shows a general flow chart for the manufacture of steel
vessels. The production of glass-fiber-reinforced boats is significantly
different, and is shown in Figure 100.
Waste Streams—
From the standpoint of environmental impact, perhaps the most notice-
able operations associated with manufacture of large steel ships are the
extensive torch cutting and welding operations that are used to cut the
large plates to size and for subsequently joining them to the frames and
bulkheads. Riveting is extensively used, but the major source of pollution
from this process is in the heating of the rivets, and the extent depends on
the types of furnaces being used for the purpose. Painting is also exten-
sively used during and after assembly. Scrap steel makes up the majority of
waste originating from shipbuilding operations.
By contrast, the manufacture of fiber-glass boats is a relatively clean
operation involving mostly layup and curing of the resins used in the join-
ing of layers and sections of both the skins and bulkheads. Disposal of
the waste resins can represent an environmental impact if they are burned.
Table 25 summarizes the waste streams from both types of operations.
211
-------
N5
RAW
MATERIALS
Solid Emission*
FIGURE 98. MANUFACTURE OF AIRCRAFT.
-------
TABLE 24. MATERIALS AND PROCESSES TYPICAL FOR AIRCRAFT AND PARTS.
(a)
Operations
Forming
Riveting
Bonding
Welding
Electroplating
Heat treating
Lubricating
Anodizing
Pickling
Chemical machining
Sand ing /polishing
Machining
Grinding
Painting
Baking
Elect rod is charge
machinery
Assembling
Waste/Media
Lubricants /water
HC/water, air
Fumes/air
Metal salts/water
Fumes/air
Oils/water
Chemicals /water
Acids/water
Acids/water
Dusts, metal fines/
water ,so?.ids
Chips/solid
Dust /water .solids
HC/air, water
HC/air(b)
Metallic fines/solids
Oils/water
Potential Levels
of Pollution
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Medium
Low
Low
Medium
Low
Medium
Low
Medium
Medium
Medium
Low
Current
Action
—
Vent
Vent
—
Vent
Separation
Neutralize
Neutralize
Neutralize
—
Recycle
Vent
Vent
Settling tanks
Sewage
(a) The following raw materials are used in these operations: metals (sheet, bar, wire,
forging, casting, extrusion), aluminum alloys, copper and alloys, steels, titanium
alloys, heat-resistant alloys, magnesium alloys, nickel (plating), chromium (plating),
glass, plastics, resins, fiberglass, solvents, rubber products, paints, oils, greases,
cloth/fabric propellants, and acids/alkali.
(b) HC = hydrocarbon.
-------
RAW
MATERIAL
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 99. MANUFACTURE OF SHIPS.
-------
to
I-1
Ui
RAW
MATERIAL '
TUBE
STOCK'
Air Emissions
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 100. MANUFACTURE OF FIBERGLASS BOATS.
-------
TABLE 25. MATERIALS AND PROCESSES TYPICAL FOR SHIP AND BOAT BUILDING AND REPAIRING.
(a)
Operations
Plate forming
Welding
Waste /Media
Oils/water
Fumes /air
Potential Levels
of Pollution
Low
High/local
Current
Action
Runoff
Vent /masks
Riveting
Mechanical fastening
Torch cutting
Molding of plastics
Sand blasting
Fabrication
Adhesive joining
Machining
Fumes,dust/air,solids
Fumes/air
Dust/air.solid
Oils/water
Scrap/solids
Solid chips
Medium/local
Medium
Low
Medium
Masks,vent
Runoff
recycle
Recycle
(a) The following raw materials are used in these operations: metals (castings, forcings,
plate, sheet, bar wire, extrusion) steels, aluminum alloys, nickel alloys, copper
alloys, welding rod/flux, plastics, rope, wood, plywood, resins, rubber, fiberglass,
epoxies, plexiglass, glass, motors, diesel, gasoline, and electric.
-------
Railroad Equipment—
This is a small segment of the transportation equipment industry,
accounting for only about 3 percent of both employment and value of ship-
ments. In 1972 there were 163 establishments primarily engaged in manu-
facturing railroad equipment. They employed 50,800 people and shipped prod-
ucts valued at $2.446 billion. If coal is to fulfill its projected role in
the U.S. energy picture by 1985, the manufacture of railroad equipment must
be greatly increased.
Figure 101 shows a general flow chart for the manufacture of railroad
locomotives.
Waste Streams—
In many respects the manufacture of railroad equipment has much in
common with the manufacture of trucks from the environmental standpoint, in
that both types of manufacturers usually purchase most of the components and
assemble them by riveting, welding, and mechanical fastening. The welding
operations stand out as a major factor as do the painting operations. Waste
products include scrap metal and various forms of runoff from rinsing,
pickling,and painting operations. Table 26 summarizes the waste streams
from this type of operation.
Motorcycles, Bicycles, and Parts—
This is a very small segment of the U.S. transportation equipment in-
dustry, accounting for only about 1 percent each of employment and value
of shipments for the entire industry. There were 222 establishments in the
United States in 1972 primarily engaged in manufacturing motorcycles,
bicycles, and parts. They employed 17,600 people and shipped products
valued at $660 million.
This U.S. manufacturing industry produces only a fraction of the motor-
cycles, bicycles, and parts that are purchased in the United States. Most
motorcycles are imported, as are most expensive, lightweight bicycles. Also,
many parts are imported for bicycles that are assembled in the United States.
Figure 102 shows a general flow chart for the production of bicycles,
which represent over 90 percent of the products produced by this industry.
Waste Streams—
The environmental impacts of the manufacturing steps involved are re-
latively low with the possible exception of the painting operation where the
overspray is relatively high for tubular frames (in comparison with the
painting of products having sheet metal construction.) Welding and brazing
are processes which have a modest impact on the environment. Otherwise the
manufacture of bicycles and parts can be considered to have little impact on
the environment. Table 27 shows this clearly.
217
-------
T>VI | [7-7 I U.V.CDI
p*i- rt>*~ | ^ I «tL3 (-^— MIHT -*- CAB CO.THCL
J I r i l i p^~.rL i
Air Emissions
~r
I Water Emissloas
IV Solid Emissions
FIGURE 101. MANUFACTURE OF RAILROAD LOCOMOTIVES.
218
-------
TABLE 26. MATERIALS AND PROCESSES TYPICAL FOR RAILROAD EQUIPMENT.
(a)
Operations
Welding
Forging (wheels)
Casting
Machining
Wire winding
Sheet forming
Torch cutting
Machining
Assemb] ing
Painting
Lubricating
Pickling
Sandblasting
Waste/Media
Fumes /air
Smoke, scale/air, solids
Fumes , dust /air , water ,
solids
Oils/water
—
Oils/water
Vapor, slags/air, solids
Chips/solid
—
Overspray /water , air
Oils /water
Spent liquors/water
Solids
Potential Levels
of Pollution
Medium/local
Medium
High
Medium
Low
Low
Medium/local
Medium
—
—
Medium
Medium
Medium/local
Current
Action
Vent
Vent
Filters
—
—
—
Vent
Recycle
—
—
—
—
—
.
(a) The following raw materials are used in these operations: metals (plate, sheet, forgings,
castings, bar, wire), steel, aluminum, copper, iron (castings), brazing alloys, solder,
wood, plastic, acids/alkali, oils, greases, paints, and solvents.
-------
to
ro
o
Air Emissions
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 102. MANUFACTURE OF BICYCLES.
-------
TABLE 27. MATERIALS AND PROCESSES TYPICAL FOR MOTORCYCLES, BICYCLES, AND PARTS.
ro
to
Operations 'a'
Roll forming
Welding
Stamping
Machining
Electroplating
Acid pickling
Polishing
Heat treating
Painting
Lubricating
Assembling
Waste/Media
Oil
Fumes/air
Trimmings /solids
Chips/solids
Metal salts/water
Liquors/water
Dust/air, solid
HC/air (b>
HC/air .water $ )
HC/air, water ^ )
Oil/water
Potential Levels
of Pollution
Low
Medium/ local
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Medium
Low
Low
Current
Action
—
Vent
Recycle
Recycle
Neutralize
Neutralize
__
Water curtain
—
—
(a) The following raw materials are used in these operations: metals (strip, tubing bar, castings
stampings, forgings, steel, aluminum alloys, brass, brazing alloys), rubber products, paint,
acids, oils, greases, leather, batteries, and motors.
(b) HC = hydrocarbon.
-------
Guided Missiles and Space Vehicles and Parts—
This is a medium-size segment of the transportation equipment industry.
There were 147 establishments primarily engaged in this industry segment in
1972. They employed 160,100 people and shipped products valued at $5.628
billion.
Figure 103 shows a general flow chart for the manufacture of guided
missiles. The nose cone is an integral part of every missile system, and
Figure 104 shows a flow chart for production of nose cones.
Waste Streams—
This grouping can be considered to have impact on the environment similar
to the aircraft industry, except where the propellants represent poten-
tial pollution problems. This is especially true when the missiles are
dismantled and either replaced or refueled. The manufacturing processes
which stand out as contributing to environmental problems include the
machining, lubricating of materials during metal forming processes, and weld-
ing. The welding processes used, however, are not nearly as serious as the
stick electrode welding used in some other industries.
Table 28 summarizes the waste streams from manufacturing guided missiles,
space vehicles and parts.
Miscellaneous Transportation Equipment—
This catch-all grouping of transportation equipment includes such dis-
parate products as travel trailers and campers, military tanks and components,
electric golf carts, all-terrain vehicles, snowmobiles, pushcarts, wheel-
barrows, midget autos (power driven), go-carts, and utility automobile
trailers and chassis.
This small segment of the transportation equipment industry is charac-
terized by a rather large number of fairly small establishments. In 1972
there were 1,553 establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing mis-
cellaneous transportation equipment. These establishments employed 59,100
people and shipped products valued at $2.269 billion.
Figure 105 shows a flow chart for the production of military tanks.
Waste Streams—
The manufacturing processes most likely to have a significant impact on
the environment are the welding and painting of tank components and assemb-
lies. The other manufacturing processes and environmental impacts compare
with those for the manufacturing of trucks and buses. Table 29 summarizes
the waste streams from the production of miscellaneous transportation equip-
ment.
222
-------
ERIAL
^RTS
CAST
MILL
ft
GRIND
SHEAR
£>
ROLL
"0
THREAD
SEAM
WELD
f
FINISHED UPPER
DOME
FINISHED
CASE
/>
WELD
UPPER DOME
TO CASE
PURCHASED
POUR
INTO CASE
IGNITOR
£)
~77
PART
FINISHED
NOZZLE ASSEMBLY
ho
to
U)
Air Emissions
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
BOLT GUIDANCE 6
CONTROL TO
ENGINE ASSEMBLY
INSTRUMENTATION
GUIDANCE CONTROL,
ATTITUDE CONTROL.
ETC.
PURCHASED
PARTS
FIGURE 103. MANUFACTURE OF MISSILES.
-------
N>
SHEET
STOCK
Air Emissions
Water Emissions
COAT
ATTACH
INSTRU-
MENTS.
ETC.
RESIN
INSPECTS
TEST
FINISHED
NOSE
CONE
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 104. MANUFACTURE OF MISSILE NOSE CONES.
-------
TABLE 28. MATERIALS AND PROCESSES TYPICAL FOR GUIDED MISSILES AND SPACE VEHICLES AND PARTS.
to
ro
(a)
Operations
Sheet forming
Machining
Waste/Media
Oil/water
Chips/solid
Potential Levels
of Pollution
Low
Medium
Current
Action
Recycle chips
Electrochemical
machining
Material molding
Anodizing
Pickling
Painting
Heat treatment
Lubricating
Assembly
Load propellants,
explosives
Metallic fines
fumes,slag/air,solid
Acids/water
Liquors/water
Vapors,overspray/air,
water
unburned gases/air
Fumes/air
Oils/water
Chemicals/water
Low
Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium
Low
Low
Low
Low
Vent
Neutralize
Neutralize
Vent
Vent
(a) The following raw materials are used in these operations: metals (sheet, plates, extrusions,
bar, wire, forgings, castings), steel, aluminum alloys, refractory metals, magnesium alloys,
titanium alloys, copper alloys, nickel alloys, ceramics, fiberglass, adhesives, resins,
paints, oils, solvents, propellants, and acids/alkali.
-------
MOUNT
TURRET
PLATFORM
ft PILOTS
CUPOLA
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 105. MANUFACTURE OF MILITARY TANKS
-------
TABLE 29. MATERIALS AND PROCESSES TYPICAL FOR MISCELLANEOUS TRANSPORTATION EQUIPMENT
(TRAVEL TRAILERS, CAMPERS, TANKS, AND OTHER NEC).
NJ
N>
•-J
Operations (a)
Welding
Torch cutting
Machining
Riveting
Lubricating
Sheet forming
Stamping
Painting
Waste/Media
Fumes /air
Fumes/air , solid
Chips/solids
—
HC/air, water
Oil/water
Oil/water
HC/air, water
Potential Levels
of Pollution
Medium/ local
Low
Low
—
Medium
Low
Low
Low
Current
Action
masks /vent
—
—
—
—
—
—
Venting
(a) The following raw materials are used in these operations: metals (sheet, plate, castings,
forgings, metal powder parts, bar, wire),steel, aluminum, iron (castings), solder,
plastics, rubber products, oils, glass, paint, batteries, acids/alkali, fiberglass,
and resins.
-------
MEASURING, ANALYZING, AND CONTROLLING
INSTRUMENTS; PHOTOGRAPHIC, MEDICAL, AND
OPTICAL GOODS: WATCHES AND CLOCKS
This industry product group includes establishments engaged in manu-
facturing instruments (including engineering and scientific) for measuring,
testing, analyzing, and controlling, and their associated accessories; optical
instruments and lenses; surveying and drafting instruments; surgical, medical
and dental instruments, equipment and supplies; ophthalmic goods; photo-
graphic equipment and supplies; and watches and clocks.
In 1972 this industry product group consisted of 5,866 establishments
which employed 442,600 people, and shipped products valued at $15.3521 billion.
Descriptions of manufacturing processes were excerpted from Reference (37).
The segments of the measuring, analyzing, and controlling instruments;
photographic, medical, and optical goods; watches and clocks industry
included in this analysis consist of the following categories:
• Engineering, laboratory, scientific and research instruments
and associated equipment
• Automatic controls for regulating residential and commercial
environments and appliances
• Totalizing fluid meters and counting devices
• Instruments for measuring and testing of electricity and
electrical signals
• Optical instruments and lens
• Surgical and medical instruments and apparatus
• Ophthalmic goods
• Photographic equipment and supplies
• Watches, clocks, clockwork-operated devices, and parts.
Engineering, Laboratory, Scientific,
and Research Instruments and
Associated Equipment
This segment includes establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing
engineering, laboratory, and scientific instruments, including nautical,
navigational, aeronautical, surveying, and drafting equipment, and instru-
ments for laboratory work and scientific research.
Engineering and scientific instruments were produced in 1972 by 721
plants, averaging 51 workers each. Most of these plants (65 percent) employ-
ed less than 20 workers. Fifty-two percent of the production was in the area
228
-------
of aeronautical and navigational instruments, while 31 percent was in the lab-
oratory and scientific instrument category. The remaining 17 percent con-
sisted of miscellaneous instruments.
Manufacturing Processes—
Materials used include copper, aluminum, steel, electric motors, vacuum
tubes, bearings, and semiconductors. The principal manufacturing operations
are mechanical material removal, material forming, assembly operations and
material coating.
A wide range of manufacturing processes are used in the scientific
instrument industry. This is so mainly because of the differing raw materials
and the variety of products produced.
The manufacture of an airborne integrated data system (AIDS) is repre-
sentative of the scientific instrument industry. As shown in Figure 106,
sheet metal stock is stamped, punched, drilled, bent, and formed to make
various parts of the chassis. These parts are then assembled by welding
and, after assembly, are usually surface treated by anodizing or a similar
process. Electrical components are then installed in the completed chassis
and wired to complete the AIDS controller itself. To operate, electronic
circuit cards must be added to the chassis and interconnections added to out-
side sensors and systems.
Waste Streams—
Water is used mainly for surface treatment operations and cleaning.
Solid waste results from the stamping, drilling and welding operations.
Automatic Controls for Regulating
Residential and Commercial Environ-
ments and Appliances
This segment includes establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing
temperature and related controls for heating and air-conditioning installa-
tions and refrigeration applications, which are electrically, electronically,
or pneumatically actuated, and which measure and control variables such as
temperature and humidity; and automatic regulators used as components of
household appliances.
In 1972, environmental controls were produced by 129 plants, averaging
228 workers each. About half of these plants (47 percent) employed more than
20 workers. On a dollar basis, about 50 percent of the environmental
controls were temperature-responsive thermostats with the balance being dis-
tributed among various other types of environmental controls.
Manufacturing Processes—
Raw materials such as carbon steel, alloy steel, copper, aluminum, and
castings are required to produce automatic controls. Several operations are
performed on these raw materials, including mechanical material removal,
229
-------
SHEET
METAL.
STOCK
STAMP
PUNCH
DRILL
^>
FORM
BEND
FINISHED
CHASSIS
PARTS
WELD
ANODIZE
INSTALL AND
WIRE ELECTRICAL
COMPONENTS
to
O
TEST AND
INSPECT
FINISHED
AIDS
ELECTRICAL
COMPONENTS
Air Emissions
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 106. AIRCRAFT INTEGRATED DATA SYSTEMS (AIDS).
-------
material forming, assembly operations, and material coating.
In general, environmental controls are made by forming mechanical com-
ponents in linkages to sense the desired environmental parameter and produce
a corresponding mechanical output. These are then mounted in a case along
with a dial, pointer, and transparent cover.
The manufacture of thermostats is representative of the environmental
coiatrols industry. Figure 107 describes this manufacture. Initially, raw
mill stock is stamped, shaped, formed, bent, etc., to the configurations
required in the final thermostat. The bimetal strip is fabricated by bonding
two dissimilar metal strips together. The bimetal strip is then drilled and
riveted to a ceramic back plate, and an electrical contact is staked onto
the bimetallic strip. Metallic parts (except bimetal strip) are usually
finished by plating, anodizing, or applying similar surface treatments.
Other components such as the dial cover lens are then assembled to form the
final thermostat.
Waste Streams—
Process water is used mainly for plating and cleaning operations and
ultrasonic machining. Air emissions result from painting and plating
operations and solid waste is generated from stamping, drilling, and grinding
operations. Mercury get into the water effluent from the manufacture of
mercury switches.
Totalizing Fluid Meters and Counting Devices
This segment includes establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing
totalizing (registering) meters for monitoring fluid flows, such as water
meters and gas meters. It also includes producers of mechanical and electro-
mechanical counters and associated metering devices.
Fluid meters and counting devices were produced in 1972 by 56 plants,
averaging 150 workers each. Most of these plants (73 percent) employed more
than 20 workers. Sixty-five percent of the products shipped involved
totalizing fluid meters, 14 percent counting devices, and 21 percent
nonelectrical motor vehicle instruments.
Manufacturing Processes—
Various stock metals, motors, tubes, and semiconductors are the major
identified raw materials. The principal manufacturing operations are
mechanical material removal, material forming (metal), assembly operations,
and material coating.
In general, fluid meters and counting devices are made by die casting
or stamping the indicating wheels and cases which are then surface finished
and assembled into the meter.
The manufacture of mechanical counting devices (Figure 108) is repre-
sentative of the fluid meter and counting devices industry. The shell of
231
-------
OJ
Air Emissions
I Water Emissions
|v Solid Emissions
FIGURE 107. THERMOSTAT MANUFACTURING.
-------
CO
CO
RAW
M*Tf RIALS ^
],
STA,,P U-^.
1
1
1
HAW
M ATER 1 AL^ ^*"
DIE
CAST
B AV,
M A T F R 1 A L
^
^>
V^
^^
DRILL
^
^
V*.
^-^
^i FINISHED
SHELL
/5
FINISHED
1 WHEELS
1
1 FINISHED
SHAFTS
.
nW-
—
MECHANICAL
FASTENERS
FINISHED
COUNTER
JU
J^
-f
Air Emissions
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 108. MECHANICAL COUNTING DEVICES MANUFACTURING.
-------
the counter is stamped and formed from heavy-gauge sheet stock with a window
blanked into the case for viewing of the counter mechanism. Holes are drilled
for mounting bushing blocks, etc. The counter mechanism wheels are die cast,
deburred, and drilled. Numbers are painted onto the wheel edge and the wheels
placed on a length of steel shaft previously cut to length and drilled. The
shaft and wheels are assembled into the case along with a bottom plate (also
previously stamped). The case is plated inside and the outside is painted.
A molded plastic cover (clear) is installed in the case in front of the
counter wheels to seal the case and insure readability.
Waste Streams—
Process water is used mainly for cleaning, plating, and surface-finish-
ing operations. Air emissions result fr"»m the painting and plating
operations. Solid waste results from debarring and drilling operations.
Instruments for Measuring and
Testing of Electricity and
Electrical Signals
This segment includes establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing
instruments for measuring the characteristics of electricity and electrical
signals, such as voltmeters, ammeters, wattmeters, watt-hour meters, demand
meters, and equipment for testing the electrical characteristics of
electrical, radio, and communication circuits and of internal combustion
engines.
Instruments to measure electricity were produced by 622 plants, in 1972,
averaging 87 workers each. Most of these plants (60 percent) employed fewer
than 20 workers. Sixty-one percent of the production in this category was
for test equipment for testing electrical, radio, and communications circuits,
while 14 percent was for integrating instruments, and 25 percent for miscel-
laneous test instruments.
Manufacturing Processes—
Metal mill forms, motors, electron tubes, and semiconductors are the
major raw materials. The principal manufacturing operations are material
forming, assembling, chemical/electrochemical processing, and material
coating.
In general, instruments for measuring electricity are made by forming
a chassis and cabinet from metal and/or plastic, and then mounting electronic
components and printed circuit boards onto the chassis and wiring these
components to the required electric circuit.
The manufacture of an electronic voltmeter is representative of this
industry. As shown in Figure 109, sheet metal is stamped, sheared, and bent
to form the chassis, the corners of which are then spot welded. The chassis
is drilled and punched to accept electrical component mounting. Sheet metal "
theins truant ShGared' bent' folded> and "elded to form the outer case of
234
-------
N3
OJ
SHEET
METAL-
STCCK
'o
BEND
STAMP
>>
SHEAR
>
BEND
Air Emissions
r-^ Water Emissions
|V Solid Emissions
ADD
TRIM
FINISHED
CASE
r~
CHASSIS
TO CASE
TEST &
CALIBRATE
ELECTRON.C
I VOLT METEH
MECHAr.lCAL
FASTENERS
FIGURE 109. ELECTRONIC VOLT METER MANUFACTURING.
-------
Electrical components are next mounted on the chassis, printed circuit
boards installed, and interface connectors installed on the front panel and/
or rear chassis apron. The electrical components on the chassis are then
wired together. After fabrication, the case is painted and trim pieces and
handles are installed. The chassis is installed in the cabinet and affixed
with hardware, usually by machine or sheet metal screws. The instrument is
then tested and calibrated.
Waste Streams—
Process water is used mainly for plating and rinsing operations. Air
emissions result from the painting and welding operations.
Optical Instruments and Lenses
This segment includes establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing
instruments that measure an optical property; apparatus except photographic
that projects or magnifies such as binoculars, prisms, and lenses; optical
sighting and fire-control equipment; and related analytical instruments.
Optical instruments and lenses were produced in 1972 by 482 plants,
averaging 38 workers each. Most of these plants (72 percent) employed fewer
than 20 workers. Seventy-eight percent of the shipment value was for
analytical, optical, and scientific instruments and 22 percent for miscel-
laneous sighting and fire-control systems.
Manufacturing Processes—
Mill shapes of steel and aluminum are the major raw materials. The
principal manufacturing operations are mechanical material removal, material
forming of the raw materials, and molding and forming nonmetals.
In general, optical instruments are made by fabricating a housing or
other supporting structure to hold the optical elements which are ground
and polished prior to installation in the housing.
The manufacture of binoculars (Figure 110) is representative of the
optical instruments and lens industry. Standard commercial prismatic bino-
culars are generally manufactured with molded plastic cases and glass lenses.
The various portions of the case are slush molded. The individual pieces are
then deburred and lens and prism mounting areas are machined for a precise
fit. The lenses and prisms are then ground, polished, and mounted in the
case. After installation and adjustment of the lens, the lens retainers are
installed and final adjustments are made in the optic system. Lens covers
are installed to complete the binoculars.
Waste Streams—
Process water is used primarily for plating and painting, and as a sus-
pension medium for grinding and polishing compounds in making lenses.
236
-------
PLASTIC
RESINS
LENS
BLANKS
NJ
ADJUST
INSTALL
LENS
RETAINERS
FINAL
CALIBRATION
FINISHED
BINOCULARS
Air Emissions
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 110. BINOCULARS.
-------
Surgical and Medical Instruments
and Apparatus
This segment includes establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing
medical, surgical, ophthalmic, and veterinary instruments and apparatus.
Surgical and medical instruments were produced in 1972 by 487 plants,
averaging 66 workers each. Most of the plants (61 percent) employed fewer
than 20 workers. Surgical instruments and hypodermic syringes constituted
40 percent of the production and hospital furniture about 11 percent.
Manufacturing Processes—
Raw materials include metal mill forms, plastics, and fabrics. The
principal manufacturing operations are mechanical material removal, molding
and forming, and material coating.
In general, surgical and medical instruments are made by metal-working
operations, such as turning, drawing, and grinding to form and finish the
raw stock into the desired surgical instrument. Process water is used mainly
for plating, cleaning, and sterilization of the products.
Because of the diversity of products and materials used in the surgical
and medical instruments industry, no single product can be considered typical.
However, the manufacture of medical scissors (Figure 111) and operating
tables (Figure 112) illustrate many ,of the manufacturing processes used in
this industry. Scissors for medical purposes are stamped from stainless
steel sheet stock. The mating halves are then ground, buffed, and formed.
One half section is drilled and tapped, while the other is clearance drilled
for a mounting screw. The halves are assembled using a machine screw and
the scissors are then cleaned.
Operating room furniture, such as an operating table, is made of heavy
gauge metal for stability. The base is cast and machined at the mounting
surfaces and at the junction of the base and bed sections. The upper bed
portion is die cast, machined at the mounting interface, and buffed. Cross
braces are welded to the base and a sheet plate is welded to the braces as
a platform for the mattress. Holes are drilled and tapped for control levers,
if required, to rotate or otherwise change the position of the bed. The bed
assembly is completed by plating, and cleaning.
Waste Streams—
Process water is used in the cleaning and plating operations. Air
emissions result from the grinding, buffing, welding, and brazing operations.
Ophthalmic Goods
This segment includes establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing
ophthalmic frames, lenses, and sunglass lenses.
In 1972 this industry was composed of 499 establishments, averaging 54
238
-------
SHEET ^
STOCK *""
STAMP
GRIND
^
BUFF
b
r~
FORM
DRILL
TAP
IS5
U>
VO
ASSEMBLE
INSPECT &
TEST
MECHANICAL
FASTENERS
FINISHED
SCISSORS
Air Emissions
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 111. MEDICAL SCISSORS MANUFACTURING.
-------
RAW
MATERIAL ""
CAST
MACHINE
P P
WELD
BUFF
b
DRILL
0
TAP
ro
*>
o
PLATE
CLEAN
INSPECT
& TEST
FINISHED
TABLE
Air Emissions
I ^ Water Emissions
| ^ Solid Emissions
FIGURE 112. OPERATING TABLE MANUFACTURING.
-------
employees each. They shipped primary products valued at $465 million.
Manufacturing Processes—
Glass blanks for lenses and metal and/or plastic for frames are the
major raw materials. The principal manufacturing operations are mechanical
material removal in forming the glass lenses and material forming with sub-
sequent chemical processing in making metal frames. Plastic frames are made
by injection-molding techniques.
The manufacture of eyeglass lenses and frames is representative of the
ophthalmic goods industry. A typical operation for making eyeglass lenses
and frames is shown in Figure 113. The glass blanks are first ground using
an emery slurry, then rinsed. Next a polishing operation is performed using
a metallic oxide compound. This is followed by a second rinse. The blank is
then edged on a grinding wheel to obtain a smooth, even edge on the lens.
Plastic eyeglass frames are generally made by injection molding of
plastic formulations. The molded members are polished and then assembled
with hinge hardware, etc.
Metal frames are fabricated from sheet stock by stamping and bending
operations. The formed sections are then assembled by spot welding and
riveting. Following assembly, the metal is electro-finished by any of
several technqiues such as plating or anodizing.
Waste Streams—
Process water is used mainly as a suspension medium for grinding and
polishing compounds in the lens manufacture. It is also used for plating
rinses in the manufacture of metal rims.
Photographic Equipment and Supplies
This segment includes establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing
(1) photographic apparatus, equipment, parts, attachments, and accessories,
such as still and motion-picture cameras and projection apparatus; photocopy
and microfilm equipment; blueprinting and diazotype (white printing) appara-
tus and equipment; and other photographic equipment and (2) sensitized film,
paper, cloth, and plates, and prepared photographic chemicals for use there-
with.
Photographic equipment and supplies were produced in 1972 by 616 plants,
averaging 152 workers each. Most of these plants (63 percent) employed fewer
than 20 workers. About 50 percent of the production was in the area of
cameras and equipment, and 50 percent in the photosensitized material
category.
Manufacturing Processes—
A wide range of raw materials are used in this industry. The principal
manufacturing operations are chemical processing in manufacturing of film,
241
-------
Air Emissions
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 113. EYEGLASS MANUFACTURING.
242
-------
plastic molding and assembly in the making of cameras, and mechanical
material removal and material forming (metals) in the manufacture of photo-
graphic equipment, such as projectors, and cameras.
Because of the diversity of products and materials used in the photo-
graphic industry, no single product can be considered typical. However, the
manufacture of negative film and cameras are good examples of the types of
manufacturing processes used in this product area. These manufacturing
processes are illustrated in Figures 114 and 115. As shown in Figure 144,
film is made by preparing an emulsion of silver salts, gelatine, and other
special-purpose chemicals which are then spread in a thin uniform layer on a
clear acetate or other plastic base. The negative film is then dried and
packaged in a variety of configurations, e.g., sheet, cartridge, and roll.
The manufacturing of a camera is a good example of the manufacture of
photographic apparatus (Figure 115). In the case of a pocket-type camera
(chosen because of the high volume of sales) plastic parts such as the case,
lens, and lens cover are injection molded. Metal parts, for the shutter,
battery contacts, etc., are stamped and formed to the desired configurations.
The parts are then assembled to form the completed camera.
Waste Streams—
Process water is used mainly for the processing of film emulsions and
other photosensitized materials, and for plating and cleaning in the making
of cameras. Solid waste results from the deburring operations, grinding and
polishing of the lens.
Watches, Clocks, Clockwork
Operated Devices, and Parts
This segment includes establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing
clocks (including electric), watches, watchcases, mechanisms for clockwork-
operated devices, and clock and watch parts. This industry includes estab-
lishments primarily engaged in assembling clocks and watches from purchased
movements and cases. Principal products are:
• Appliance timers
• Chronographs, spring wound
• Chronometers, spring wound
• Clock materials and parts, except crystals and jewels
• Clocks, including electric
• Mechanisms for clockwork-operated devices
• Movements, watch or clock
• Timers for industrial use, clockwork mechanism only
243
-------
to
-e-
MIX
PRECIPITATE
RIPEN
GELL
SHRED
SILVER NITRATE
POTASSIUM OR
AMMONIUM HALIDE
S^
WASH
r*
FINAL
ADDITIONS
r-
COAT
DRY
FINISHED
FILM NEGATIVE
Air Emissions
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 114. FILM NEGATIVE MANUFACTURING.
-------
PLASTIC
RESINS -
INJECTION
MOLD
GRIND
b
DEBURR
>
WASH
FINISHED CASE
AND PLASTIC
PARTS
GLASS
STOCK
GRIND
>
POLISH
FINISHED
LENS
ro
-P»
en
-r
Air Emissions
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
PHOTOCELL
AND
OTHER
COMPONENTS
ASSEMBLE
UNIT
FINISHED
CAMERA
FIGURE 115. CAMERA MANUFACTURING.
-------
• Watchcases
• Watches and parts: except crystals and jewels.
Watches, clocks, and watchcases were produced in 1972 by 202 plants,
averaging 157 workers each. About half of these plants (49 percent) employed
more than 20 workers. The largest product group was clocks, with a pro-
duction of over 24 million, followed by watches (with imported movements)
with over 9 million units.
Manufacturing Processes—
Timing motors, watchcases, and watch movements are the major raw
materials. The principal manufacturing operations are mechanical material
removal and material forming on watch and clock parts, plastic molding
operations, electrochemical processing, and assembly operations.
In general, clocks and watches are made by assembly of precision
mechanical parts into a metal or plastic case that is then equipped with a
face and clear cover.
The manufacture of clocks is representative of the watch and clock
industry. Figure 116 describes the manufacturing operation for clocks. The
plastic case and accessory plastic parts are generally injection molded. The
various timing gears for the clock movement are produced by stamping (for
the larger gears) and by extrusion and cutting (for the small, thick gears).
Grinding, deburring, and cleaning of the gears precedes assembly. The frame
members for the movement are formed by stamping, blanking and bending
operations. Holes are drilled and tapped, and bushings installed where
required. The movement is then assembled, and a timing motor (manufactured
in-house or purchased) is installed. The movement is then inserted in the
case along with the face and fastened to the case. Hands, which may be
stamped or formed, are fastened to the movement. A clear plastic lens and
bezel assembly is installed, completing the clock. The clock is inspected
and packaged for shipment.
Waste Streams—
Process water is used mainly for plating, machining, and cleaning
operations. Air emissions result from the plating and welding operations.
Solid waste results from grinding and drilling operations.
MISCELLANEOUS MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY
This product industry includes establishments primarily engaged in
manufacturing products not classified in any other manufacturing product
group. Industries in this group fall into the following categories: jewelry,
silverware and plated ware; musical instruments; toys, sporting and athletic
goods; pens, pencils, and other office and artists' materials; buttons,
costume novelties, miscellaneous notions; brooms and brushes; caskets; and"
other miscellaneous manufacturing industries.
246
-------
to
-p-
SHEET. BAR.
& TUBE 1
STOCK
SHEET
ft TUBE .
STOCK
Air Emissions
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 116. CLOCK MANUFACTURING.
-------
This product group consisted of 15,012 establishments, employed 443,800
persons and shipped products valued at $12.041 billion in 1972. Descriptions
of the manufacturing processes and flow diagrams were excerpted from
Reference 37- The segments of miscellaneous manufacturing industry included
in this analysis consist of the following:
• Jewelry, precious metal
• Silverware, plated ware, and stainless steel ware
• Musical instruments
• Games, toys, and children vehicles; except dolls and bicycles
• Dolls
• Pens, mechanical pencils, and parts
• Sporting and athletic goods
• Burial caskets.
Jewelry, Precious Metals
This segment includes establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing
jewelry and other articles worn on or carried about the person, made of
precious metals with or without stones (including the setting of stones where
used), including cigarette cases and lighters, vanity cases and compacts>
trimmings for umbrellas and canes and jewel settings and mountings.
Precious metal jewelry was produced by 1524 plants, and shipments of
primary products were valued at $947 million in 1972. Most of these plants
(80 percent) employed fewer than 20 workers.
Manufacturing Processes—
Gold, silver, platinum and solder preforms are the major raw materials
used to produce rings, necklaces, broaches, and other jewelry items.
The principal manufacturing operations are material forming, physical
property modification, mechanical material removal, and assembly operations.
In addition, casting is used to obtain intricate patterns in large items
such as class rings.
In general, jewelry is made by forming the basic raw materials into the
desired configurations by casting or other means. Then a surface treatment
such as a precious metal plating is applied.
The manufacture of a gold class ring (Figure 117) is representative of
the precious metal jewelry industry. A gold alloy is melted and poured
into a mold to form the crown of the ring. Once the gold has set, the crown
is removed from the mold, deburred and polished. The surface is then
248
-------
N>
•C-
VO
CAoT
DEBURR
GOLD
ALLOY
^>
—
POLISH
CUT
>
CHEMICAL
CLEAN
FINISHED
CROWN
BEND
FINISHED
LOOP
^
SOLDER LOOP
TO CROWN
POLISH
^
SET
STONE
FINISHED
RING
Air Emissions
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 117. CLASS RING MANUFACTURING.
-------
chemically cleaned using a sulfuric acid pickling solution to remove the
black compound formed on the ring's surface during casting. A loop is formed
around an arbor and is gold soldered to the crown. A stone is then set into
the crown.
Waste Streams—
Process water is used mainly for cleaning prior to and after surface
treatments.
Silverware, Plated Ware, and
Stainless Steelware
This segment includes establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing
flatware (including knives, forks, and spoons), hollow ware, toilet ware,
ecclesiastical ware, and related products made of sterling silver; of metal
plated with silver, gold, or other metal; of nickel silver, of pewter; or of
stainless steel. Silverware and plated ware were produced by 205 plants,
and primary products shipped were valued at $308 million in 1972. Most of
these plants (65 percent) employed fewer than 20 workers.
Manufacturing Processes—
The major raw materials used in this industry are steel, copper and
precious metals. The principal manufacturing operations are mechanical
material removal, material forming, and electrochemical processing.
In general, silverware is made by forming the base metal to the desired
shape by stamping and forming sheet steel and then finishing the metal sur-
face by plating.
The manufacture of sterling silver plated knives (Figure 118) is repre-
sentative of the silverware industry. The blade is first stamped from a
stainless steel sheet to the desired configuration. It is then ground to
produce a cutting edge and deburred, if necessary. The handle is extruded
from a silver alloy, such as nickel silver, to form a hollow shell. One end
is closed, while the other has a slit for the blade. The handle is polished
and then silver plated and the blade is inserted and silver soldered.
Finally, the whole knife is polished.
Waste Streams—
Process water is used mainly for plating and cleaning. Air emissions
result from polishing and grinding operations. Solid waste results from the
grinding and polishing operations.
Musical Instruments
This segment includes establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing
pianos, with or without player attachments; organs; other musical instru-
ments; and parts and accessories for musical instruments.
250
-------
STERLING
SILVER *"~
STAMP
GRIND
>
DEBURR
FINISHED
BLADE
HANDLE
STOCK *""
EXTRUDE
FORM
PLATE
FINISHED
HANDLE
Ui
ASSEMBLE
SILVER
SOLDER
FINISHED
KNIFE
Air Emissions
I ^ Water Emissions
1^ Solid Emissions
FIGURE 118. STERLING SILVER PLATED KNIFE MANUFACTURING.
-------
Musical instruments were produced by 344 plants, and shipped primary
products were valued at $521 million in 1972. Most of these plants (68 per-
cent) employed fewer than 20 workers.
Manufacturing Processes—
A large variety of raw materials are involved in this industry,ranging
from wood to precious metals. The principal manufacturing operations are as
varied as the musical instruments produced. For instance, pianos are pri-
marily manufactured by woodworking, whereas horns are fabricated by material
forming of brass tubing.
Because of the diversity of products and materials used in the musical
instrument industry, no single product can be considered typical of the manu-
facturing operations performed. However, the manufacture of pianos and
trumpets are good examples. As shown in the process flow diagram of
Figure 119, pianos are constructed primarily of wood, with a cast iron string
frame and steel strings. The string frame, after being cast, is machined
as required for mounting to the sounding board, and for proper insertion
of the string tension adjustment pins. The remainder of the construction is
primarily woodworking—cutting, planing, glueing, bolting, etc.
The manufacturing of a trumpet, shown in Figure 120, is representative
of the manufacturing of brasswind instruments in general. The operation
starts with a tube of the base material, usually brass, which is bent in
sections to form the various pieces of the instrument. The valve housings,
also made of tubing, are machined to a precision inside dimension and drilled
in appropriate locations for mounting to the interconnecting tubing. The
various tubing sections are then brazed to the valves. Another section of
tubing is then drawn and flared to form the bell of the trumpet, and it is
brazed to the pipe section on the horn. The entire instrument is then
plated and polished prior to insertion of the valve mechanisms, which are
machined and finished in a separate operation.
Waste Streams—
Process water is used mainly for plating operations, rinsing, and lub-
ricant in some metalworking operations. Solid waste is generated by the
various woodworking operations. Air emissions result from the coating and
plating operations.
Games, Toys, and Children's Vehicles;
Except Dolls and Bicycles
This segment includes establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing
games and game sets for adults and children, and mechanical and nonmechani-
cal toys.
Games, toys and childrens vehicles were produced by 665 plants, and
primary products shipped were valued at $V39 billion in 1972. Most of
these plants (58 percent) employed fewer than 20 workers.
252
-------
RAW
MATERIAL
N)
-r
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
FINISHED
STRING
FRAME
FINISHED
SOUNDING
BOARD
FINISHED
CASE
PURCHASE
PARTS
INSPECT
TUNE
FINISHED
PIANO
FIGURE 119. PIN PIANO MANUFACTURING.
-------
N3
Ui
BRASS
TUBE *"
BRASS
TUBE
HONE
»•-
BEND
MILL
BRASS
TUBE
»*-
_/' Air Emissions
• r— ^
Water Emissions
V
Solid Emissions
FORM
DRILL
DRAW
BRASS _
STOCK"
2>
— »~
DRILL
THREAD
FLARE
TURN
^
FINISHED
HORN
SECTION
FINISHED
VALVE
HOUSING
FINISHED
BELL
SECTION
FINISHED
MOUTHPIECE
ASSEMBLE
o
BRAZE
1
ASSEMBLE
1
O
PLATE
FINISHED
TRUMPET
FIGURE 120. TRUMPET MANUFACTURING.
-------
Manufacturing Processes—
Metal mill shapes, plastics, fabrics, and paperboard containers are the
major raw materials. The principal manufacturing operations are mechanical
material removal, material forming, plastic molding, and material coating.
A wide range of diverse manufacturing processes are used in the games,
toys, and children's vehicles industry. This is due to the differing raw
materials and to the diversity of finished products in this industry.
Because of the diversity of products and materials used in the games,
toys, and children's vehicles industry, no single product can be considered
typical. However, the manufacture of wagons is a good example of the manu-
facturing operations performed in this industry. As shown in Figure 121, the
body of the wagon is stamped from a piece of sheet metal stock, then bent and
formed to make the sides and lip of the body. The body is drilled to accept
mounting hardware, then cleaned and painted. Brackets for the wheels are
stamped, bent, formed, drilled and painted. Steel tube or rod is cut to
length to form axles. The handle is stamped, formed, and rolled and then
riveted to the front wheel assembly. Plastic wheels are molded, and nylon
bushings inserted into the wheel hub. Assembly is most frequently left to
the purchaser, so the final production step is packaging of the individual
components. Nuts, bolts and sheet metal screws are used in assembling a
wagon.
Waste Streams—
Process water is used mainly for plating and cleaning of metal parts.
Air emissions result from the painting operations. Solid waste is generated
from drilling, cutting, and stamping operations.
Dolls
This segment includes establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing
dolls, doll parts, and doll clothing. Establishments primarily engaged in
manufacturing stuffed toy animals are also included in this industry. The
major products are:
• Animals, stuffed: toy
• Dolls, doll parts, and doll clothing except wigs
• Toys, stuffed.
Dolls were produced by 243 plants, and primary products shipped were valued
at $190 million in 1972. Most of these plants (57 percent) employed fewer
than 20 workers.
Manufacturing Processes—
The major raw materials include thermoplastics, fabrics, paperboard
containers, and metal mill forms. The principal manufacturing operations are
255
-------
SHEET
STOCK'
CUT
~0
STAMP
BEND
FORM
DRILL
£}
FINISHED
BODY
NJ
Ui
SHEET
STOCK'
STAMP
FORM
DRILL
$
PAINT
FINISHED
BRACKETS
TUBE OR
ROD
CUT
£>
DEBURR
2>
FINISHED
AXLE
Air Emissions
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
THERMOPLASTIC
RESIN
MOLD
INSERT
BUSHING
FINISHED
WHEEL
ASSEMBLY
ASSEMBLE
FINISHED
WAGON
FIGURE 121. WAGON MANUFACTURING.
-------
plastic molding and assembly operations.
In general, dolls are made by molding and assembling plastic parts, such
as heads, arms, legs and trunks, into the finished doll.
The manufacture of dolls, Figure 122 is representative of the doll
industry. The various features of the doll, heat, arms, torso, etc.> are
slush molded. Specific color features for eyebrows, lips, etc.j are hot
stamped. The plastic parts are then machined and assembled, and the
doll is dressed and then packaged for sale. Hair is plastic and clothing is
purchased either complete or as already colored material to be made into
clothing.
Waste Streams—
Solid wastes are generated from the cutting of the fabric and machining
of plastic parts.
Pens, Mechanical Pencils,
and Parts
This segment includes establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing
pens, pen points, fountain pens, ball point pens, refill cartridges, porous
tipped felt tip markers, and parts. The major products are:
• Cartridges, refill: for ball point pens
• Fountain pens and fountain pen desk sets
• Markers, soft tip (felt, fabric, plastic, etc.)
• Meter pens
• Nibs (pen points): gold, steel, or other metal
• Pen points: gold, steel, or other metal
• Pencils and pencil parts, mechanical
• Penholders and parts
• Pens and pen parts: fountain, stylographic and ball point.
Pens and mechanical pencils were produced by 116 plants and primary products
shipped were valued at $283 million in 1972. Most of these plants (55 per-
cent) employ more than 20 workers. Over 3 billion pens were produced in the
U.S. in 1972.
Manufacturing Processes—
Raw materials are metals (including some exotic metals), plastics, and
gum for erasers. The principal manufacturing operations are mechanical
257
-------
THE" RMOS PLASTIC
RESIN
FABRIC
Air Emissions
N>
Ul
oo
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 122. DOLL MANUFACTURING.
-------
material removal, plastic molding, and assembly operations.
In general, pens and mechanical pencils are made by cutting, stamping,
swaging and crimping metals and plastic to form the case to which is added a
graphite or ink cartridge.
The manufacture of ball point pens (Figure 123) is representative of
the pens and mechanical pencil industry. The case of the pen is slush molded
of clear or colored (as desired) plastic. The ink container is a section of
extruded plastic tube with a tip assembly installed in one end. The top
assembly is the key to the pen's operation and is manufactured by extruding
and forming a case (usually brass) in which is installed an iridium ball
bearing. A stop is placed behind the base to prevent its slipping out of
the case. The plastic ink tube is attached to the tip and filled with ink.
Then the tip assembly along with ink tube is installed in the molded case.
Waste Streams—
Process water is used mainly for plating and cleaning, with a minor
amount used in metal working along with a lubricating oil. Air emissions
result from plating operations.
Sporting and Athletic Goods
This segment includes establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing
sporting and athletic goods, not elsewhere classified, such as fishing
tackle; golf and tennis goods; baseball, footballs basketball, and boxing
equipment; roller skates and ice skates; gymnasium and playground equipment;
billard and pool tables; and bowling alleys and equipment.
Sporting and athletic goods were produced by 1554 plants, and primary
products shipped were valued at $1.454 billion in 1972. Most of these
plants (70 percent) employ fewer than 20 workers.
Manufacturing Processes—
A wide range of raw materials are used in the manufacture of sporting
goods because of the wide array of finished products. Stock metals,
plastics, broadwoven fabrics, and leather are the major raw materials. The
principal manufacturing operations are determined by the product and range
from casting and molding of plastics to mechanical material removal and
material forming of metal.
A wide range of diverse manufacturing processes are used in the sport-
ing and athletic goods industry.
Because of the diversity of products and materials used in the sporting
and athletic goods industry, no single product can be considered typical.
However, the manufacture of golf clubs and swimming pools are good examples
of the type of manufacturing processes used in this industry. Golf club
manufacture, as illustrated in Figure 124, starts with the shaft, usually
made of steel tubing which is pickled, rinsed, heat treated, drawn, cut,
259
-------
BRASS
STOCK'
EXTRUDE
SHEAR
*>
r ORM
FINISHED
TIP
ASSEMBLY
THERMOPLASTIC
RESIN
EXTRUDE
SHEAR
*>
FINISHED
INK TUBE
to
ON
O
ASSEMBLE
TIP
TO TUBE
FILL TUBE
WITH INK
THERMOPLASTIC
RESIN
SLUSH
MOLD
FINISHED
CASE
INSTALL
TUBE& TIP
IN CASE
FINISHED
PEN
Air Emissions
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 123. BALL POINT PEN MANUFACTURING.
-------
SHEET
METAL
STOCK
ON
SHEAR
£}
PUNCH
STAMP
BLANK
PAINT
FINISHED
WALL
SECTIONS
TUBE »
ANGLE -
STOCK
Air Emissions
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
PLASTIC
STOCK
CUT
£>
GRIND
^
CLEAN
PAINT
FINISHED
FRAME
CALENDER
CUT
t>
GLUE
FINISHED
PLASTIC
LINER
ASSEMBLE
ON
SITE
FINISHED
SWIMMING
POOL
FIGURE 124. SWIMMING POOL MANUFACTURING.
-------
tempered, cleaned, plated, and cleaned again. The metal head of the club is
forged or cast and machined. It is then drilled to fit the shaft, heat
treated, plated, and cleaned. The head and shaft are joined to form the
club, and a handle grip is added. Then it is balanced, polished, inspected,
and tested.
Swimming pools (above ground, over 15 foot diameter, metal), as illu-
strated in Figure 125 are made from various mill forms or sheet metal,
usually steel. The wall sections are sheet steel which is sheared, punched,
stamped, blanked,.cleaned, and painted. The bracing members of the frame
work of the pool are built up with angular stock, tubing, and rolled sheet
stock. Rolled sheet metal forms the top edge of the pool and all metal
parts are painted. The vinyl liner is made by calendering vinyl into a
large continuous sheet of the appropriate size for the pool. The liner is a
purchased item for many of the pool manufacturers.
Waste Streams—
Process water is used mainly for plating and cleaning at various stages
of manufacture of such products as golf clubs, fishing tackle, etc. Air
emissions result from the painting, polishing, welding and plating- Solid
waste results from the shearing, stamping, machining and drilling operations.
Burial Caskets
This segment includes establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing
burial caskets and cases including shipping cases of wood or other material
except concrete. Specific products are:
• Burial cases, metal and wood
• Burial vaults, fiber glass
• Casket linings
• Caskets, metal and wood
• Grave vaults, metal.
Caskets were produced by 515 plants, and primary products shipped were
valued at $382 million in 1972. Most of these plants (64 percent) employed
fewer than 20 workers. Metal caskets comprise almost half of the production
and over half of the dollar value of this industry. Wood and other types of
caskets account for the remainder of the production in this industry.
Manufacturing Processes—
Metal mill forms, wood, fiber glass, and fittings are the major raw
materials. The principal manufacturing operations are material forming,
mechanical material removal, assembly operations and material coating.
262
-------
STEEL
TUBING
RAW
MATERIAL"
IsJ
(^
Co
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 125. GOLF CLUB MANUFACTURING.
-------
In general, caskets are made by cutting the pieces of the shell and
then forming these pieces. These shell pieces are then joined to form the
completed casket shell and plated. Casket linings of cloth material are
next placed inside the casket shell. Hardware such as handles and ornamenta-
tion can be cast, forged or rolled to the desired shape or form and then
plated to finish the piece.
The manufacture of a metal casket shell (Figure 126) is representative
of the casket industry. First, the sides, ends, bottom, and cover are
stamped from sheet stock and then formed to their final shapes. The shell
is then assembled and the seams welded. The cover and shell are pickled
and plated. Frequently epoxy is applied by a dipping process. For preser-
vation, the cover is attached to the shell with hinges and the interior is
fitted and decorated as desired.
Waste Streams—
Process water is used mainly for plating and cleaning operations. Air
emissions result from the plating, and painting operations and from welding.
Solid waste is generated by grinding operations.
264
-------
SHEET
METAL """
STAMP
FORM
WELD
GRIND
^
PICKLE
PLATE
(OPTIONAL)
ISJ
ON
t-n
A
PAINT
EPOXY
DIP
p-
ASSEMBLE
BOX &
COVER
FINISH
INTERIOR
INSPECT
& TEST
FINISHED
CASKET
FABRIC
ETC.
Air Emissions
Water Emissions
Solid Emissions
FIGURE 126. BURIAL CASKETS MANUFACTURING.
-------
SECTION 6
REFERENCES
1. 1972 Census of Manufactures, Report Series MC72(2), Bureau of the Census,
U.S. Department of Commerce (1974-1975).
2. Air Pollution Engineering Manual AP-40, Second Edition, U.S. Environmen-
tal Protection Agency, Office of Air and Water Programs, Office of Air
Quality Planning and Standards, Research Triangle Park, N.C., May, 1973.
3. C. H. Kline Co., Industrial Marketing Guide, Pulp and Paper Industry,
1973.
4. Development Document for Proposed Effluent Limitations Guidelines and New
Source Performance Standards for the Converted Paper Products Point
Source Category, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Denver Center,
April, 1974.
5. Versar, Incorporated, Industrial Energy Study of the Drug Manufacturing
Industries, prepared for the Federal Energy Administration/U.S. Depart-
ment of Commerce, PB-238994, September 30, 1974. 208 pp.
6. Hair Preparations, Kirk-Othmer, Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology,
Second Edition, Volume 10, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1966,
pp 768-808.
7. Noble, Patricia (editor), Marketing Guide to the Paint Industry, C. H.
Kline & Co., Inc., Fairfield, N.J., 1969.
8. Barrett, W. J., Mooneau, G. A., and Ridig, J. J., Waterborne Wastes of
the Paint and Inorganic Pigments Industries, Southern Research Institute,
Birmingham, Ala., EPA 670/2-74-030, July, 1973.
9. Field Notes and Chemical Analyses - Survey of Paint and Ink Manufacturers
in Oakland, Calif., U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Field
Investigations Center, Denver, Colo., October, 1973.
10. Development Document for Proposed Effluent Limitations Guidelines and New
Source Performance Standards for the Paint Formulating and the Ink Formu-
lating Industries, EPA-440/1-75/050 Group II, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, February, 1975.
266
-------
11. Development Document for Proposed Effluent Limitations Guidelines and
New Source Performance Standards for the Synthetic Resins Segment of the
Plastics and Synthetic Materials Manufacturing Point Source Category,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D. C. , August, 1973.
12. Air Resources, Incorporated, Air Pollution Control Engineering and Cost
Study of the Paint and Varnish Industry, PB-238-058.
13. Ellern, Herbert, Military and Civilian Pyrotechnics. Chemical Publishing
Co. , New York, 1968.
14. Ellern, Herbert, Pyrotechnics, Kirk-Othmer, Encyclopedia of Chemical
Technology, Second Edition, Volume 16, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New
York, 1968. pp 824-840.
15. Economic Analysis of Proposed Effluent Guidelines - Paving and Roofing
Material (Tar and Asphalt) U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, EPA
230/1-74-055, September 1974.
16. Nowacki, Lou and Ewing, R. A., Cost of Implementation and Capabilities
of Available Technology to Comply with P.L. 92-500, for National
Commission on Water Quality, July 3, 1975.
17. Development Document for Proposed Effluent Limitations Guidelines and
New Source Performance Standards for Paving and Roofing Materials (tar
and asphalt) Point Source Category, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
EPA 440/1-74-049, (Group II, December 1974).
18, Development Document for Proposed Effluent Limitation Guidelines and
New Source Performance Source Performance Standards for the Building
Construction and Paper Segment of the Asbestos Manufacturing Point
Source Category, EPA 440/1-73/017, Effluent Guidelines Division, United
States Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D. C. , October, 1973.
19. tfigg> D. M. (Battelle's Columbus Laboratories) Cost of Implementation of
Capabilities and Available Technology to Comply with P.L. 92-500,
Volume III, Industry Category No. 21, for National Commission on Water
Quality, July, 1975.
20. Roy F. Weston, Inc., Development Document for Proposed Effluent
Limitations Guidelines and New Source Performance Standards for the
Tire and Synthetic Segment of the Rubber Processing Point Source
Category, EPA 440/; -73/013, Effluent Guidelines Division, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D. C. , September, 1975.
21. Roy F. Weston, Inc., Development Document for Proposed Effluent
Limitations Guidelines and New Source Performance Standards for the
Fabricated and Reclaimed Rubber Segment of the Rubber Processing
Point Source Category, EPA 440/1-74/030, Effluent Guidelines Division,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D. C. , August, 1974,
213 pp.
267
-------
22. Hamilton Standard, Development Document for Effluent Limitations
Guidelines and Standards of Performance for the Machinery and Mechanical
Products Manufacturing Point Source Category, Volume 3, Draft (Contract
No. 68-01-2914), Effluent Guidelines Division, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Washington, D. C., June, 1975.
23. Thorstensen, Practical Leather Technology, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company,
New York (1969), pp 245-251.
24. Gussow, D., "Secondary Glass Manufacturers", The Glass Industry, 56^ (10),
89-109 (1975).
25. Shand, E. B., Glass Engineering Handbook, Second Edition, McGraw Hill
Book Company, New York, (1958), pp 176-184.
26. Schorr, J. R., Hooie, D. T., Sticksel, P. R., and Brockway, M. C.,
"Source Assessment Glass Container Manufacturing Plants", Battelle
Memorial Institute, EPA Contract No. 68-02-1323, Task 37, B14-B16
(1976).
27. Hooie, D. T. and Lennon, J. W. , "Cost of Implementation and Capabilities
of Available Technology to Comply with P- L. 92-500, Volume II, Industry
Category 27, Concrete, Gypsum, and Plaster Products", for the National
Commission on Water Quality, Battelle Memorial Institute, pp. 27-1 to
27-6 (1975).
28. Personal Communications with Manufacturers and Trade Associations.
29. Jensen, Gordon F., "Industrial Energy Study of the Concrete, Gypsum, and
Plaster Products Industries", Stanford Research Institute, pp. 31-124
(1974).
30. Schorr, J. R., Snyder, M. J. , Barr, H. W. , Duckworth, W. H. , Hooie,
D. T., Lennon, J. W., Spinosa, E. D., and White, A. M. , "Development
and Establishment of an Energy Efficiency Improvement Target for SIC 32:
to°75-201?1976?d GlaSS Products"' BatteHe Memorial Institute, PP 75-1
31. Swift, P., "Dust Control Related to Bulk Delivery of Particulate
Materials", The Chemical Engineer, pp 143-150 (1975).
32. Ref 30, pp 81-1 to 91-11.
33. Ref 30, pp 92-1 to 92-17.
34. Hooie, D. T., "Cost of Implementation and Capabilities of Available
Technology to Comply with P- L. 92-500, Volume II, Industry Category 28,
Asbestos Manufacturing", for the National Commission on Water Quality,
Battelle Memorial Institute, pp. 28-1 to 28-31 (1975).
35. Ref. 27, pp 29-1 to 29-18.
268
-------
36- The Thomas Register, Vols. 1-6 (1975).
37. Development Document for Effluent Limitation Guidelines and Standards of
Performance for the Machinery and Mechanical Products Manufacturing Point
Source Category, Volume II, Prepared by Hamilton Standard Division of
United Technologies, Contract No. 68-012914, for United States Environ-
mental Protection Agency, June 1975.
269
-------
APPENDIX
The assigned SIC codes for the subject report all covered a number of
industries as they are defined by the SIC Manual. For purposes of analyses
of environmental impacts the products in each category were examined to
determine whether they seemed to be good approximations of real world in-
dustries which could be defined in terms of populations of companies com-
petitively engaged in the production of similar products using similar input
materials and the same kinds of unit processes and unit operations. For the
categories examined there appeared to be a reasonable degree of correspon-
dence between some SIC category and industries as they are operating in
commercial practice. Because of the number and complexity of the industries
covered by the study it was necessary to use readily available information
and exercise considerable judgement in defining "industries" to be used as a
basis for further investigation. It is felt however, that this list which
has been developed is a reasonable starting point for further study of the
industries under consideration.
The table which follows presents the industries identified for each
assigned SIC category. The industries identified are all equatable to 4-
digit codes (industries), 5~digit codes (product groups) or 7-digit codes
(products) as defined by the Census of Manufactures. The titles as shown
in the table may or may not correspond with SIC titles. The associated SIC
code numbers in the table do however identify products which have been taken
to represent the product slate for the identified industry. The dollar value
of shipments for the SIC categories associated with each defined industry is
shown to proyide a rough index of the relative economic importance for each
industry. Further information on what products are included in each industry
is available from the Census of Manufactures.
It should be noted that all subdivisions of every assigned SIC category
have not been covered in the industries identified. In some categories,
especially those involving "Miscellaneous Products" or products "not else-
where classified", small categories which are not catalogable as compounded
or fabricated products or which were not considered of sufficient importance
from the standpoint of economic importance or potential for environmental
impact were dropped out. Despite this, a very high percentage of the products
included, judged in terms of value of shipments, have been accounted for.
The extent to which industry and product statistics may be matched with
each other is measured by two ratios. The first of these ratios, called
primary specialization ratio, measures the proportion of product shipment
(both primary and secondary) of establishments classified in the industry to "
total shipments of such products by all manufacturing establishments. The
second ratio, defined as coverage ratio, is the proportion of primary
270
-------
products shipped by the establishments classified in the industry to total
shipments of such products by all manufacturing firms.
It should be further noted that the table of industries has all assigned
SIC categories arranged in numerical order. The subgroups shown under each
assigned category are not in all instances those normally included subgroups.
Some defined industries equatable to SIC groups outside of the assigned
categories have been included where it seemed logical to do so. Where this
was done a note of explanation is identified.
Finally it should be stated that the value of shipment data shown are
taken directly from the 1972 Census of Manufactures. For each principal
product the value of primary product shipments made in all industries was
used. While this is probably not of great importance to the intended use
of the data,the Census of Manufactures should be consulted by readers who
wish to understand how the data were collected.
271
-------
Table A-l. LISTING OF INDUSTRIES IDENTIFIED FROM ASSIGNED SIC CATEGORIES
Industries Identified From
Assigned SIC Categories
SIC Group 245
Mobile homes
Prefabricated wood buildings
SIC Major Group 25
Wood household furniture
Upholstered furniture
Metal household furniture
Mattresses and bedsprings
Wood TV and radio cabinets
Wood office furniture
Metal office furniture
Public building and related furniture
Wood partition and fixtures
Metal partitions and fixtures
Drapery hardware blinds and shades
SIC Group 264
Coated printing paper
Waxed paper
Laminated or coated rolls and sheets
Gummed products
Pressure sensitive tape
Commercial envelopes •
Grocers and variety bags
Specialty bags and liners
Shipping sacks and multi-wall bags
Office supplies
Pressed and molded pulp goods
SIC Code(s)
Included
2451
2452
2511
2512
2514
2515
2517
2521
2522
2531
2541
2542
2591
26411
26412
26417
26413
26414
2642
26431
26432
26433
26451
26462
Value of
Shipments
(Millions of $)
3190
1001
2716
1990
859
1079
283
259
781
496
772
713
311
111
153
356
139
574
588
513
819
408
342
136
Notes
(1)
(2)
(3)
272
-------
Table A-l (continued 1
Industries Identified From
Assigned SIC Categories
SIC Code(s)
Included
Value of
Shipments
(Millions of $)
Notes
SIC Group 264 (continued)
Sanitary napkins and tampons
Sanitary tissue health products
Stationary
Tablets and related products
Wrapping paper (gift wrapping etc)
Wall paper
SIC Group 265
Folding paperboard boxes
Setup paperboard boxes
Corregated and solid fiber boxes
Sanitary food containers
Fiber cans, drums and related products
SIC Major Group 27
Newspapers
Periodicals
Book printing
Commercial printing (letterpress)
Commercial printing (lithographic)
Engraving and plate printing
Commercial printing (gravure)
Manifold business forms
Greeting card publication
Blank books, looseleaf binders
Bookbinding
Typesetting
Photoengraving
Electrotyping and stereotyping
Lithographic platemaking
SIC Group 284
Soap and other detergents
26471
26472
26481
26482
26492
26493
2651
2652
2653
2654
2655
2711
2721
2731
2751
2752
2753
2754
2761
2771
2782
2789
2791
2793
2794
2795
2841
281
1692
118
219
181
83
1372
342
4196
1381
620
7908
3197
1049
3404
4919
205
759
1381
583
566
369
508
321
35
263
2851
273
-------
Table A-l (Continued)
Industries Identified From
Assigned SIC Categories
SIC Code(s)
Included
Value of
Shipments
(Millions of $) Notes
SIC Group 284 (continued)
Polishes and sanitation goods 2842
Surface active agents 2843
Toilet preparations 2844
SIC Group 285
Paint and allied products 2851
SIC Group 289
Natural base glues and adhesives 28913
Synthetic resin and rubber adhesives 28914
Caulking compounds and sealants 28915
Printing ink 2893
Fireworks and pyrotechnics 2899529
SIC Group 295
Paving mixtures and blocks 2951
Asphalt felts and coatings 2952
Bituminous fiber pipe 26461
SIC Major Group 30
Tires and inner tubes 3011
Plastic and rubber footwear 3021
Reclaimed rubber 3031
Rubber and plastic hose and belting 3041
Sponge and foam rubber goods 30693
Rubber floor and wall coverings 30694
Hard rubber mechanical goods
Molded rubber mechanical goods
Rubber soles and heels 30696
Druggists and medicalrubber goods 30697
Retread tires 7534
SIC Group 31
Boot and shoe cut stock 3131
1735
580
4247
3520
119
671
121
498
39
893
902
21
4898
493
52
886
350
98
30695 11,15,18 98
30695 21,23,25,629
29
154
116
196
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
274
-------
Table A-l (Continued1)
Value of
Industries Identified From SIC Code(s) Shipments
Assigned SIC Categories Included (Millions of
SIC Group 31 (continued)
Slippers
Shoes (mens, womens and childrens)
Luggage
Personal leather goods
SIC Group 323
Mirrors
Tempered glass
Laminated glass
Scientific and industrial glassware
SIC Group 327
Concrete block and brick
Concrete and other precast construction
3142
3143,3144,
3149
3161
3151,3171,
3172
32315
32316, 81,83
32113
32316 38
3271
32721,32722,
159
2965
321
654
254
153
534
156
795
1517
$) Notes
(8)
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11)
products 32723
Ready-mixed concrete 3273 3578
SIC Group 328
Cut stone and stone products 3281 286
SIC Group 329
Abrasive products 3291 892
Asbestos products 3292 742
Gaskets, packing and sealing devices
Mineral wool products 3296 391
SIC Major Group 34
Metal cans 3411 4224
Metal shipping containers 3412 509
Kitchen and table cutlery 34211 183
Scissors and shears 34212
Blade razors and blades 34212 207
Handtools 3423,3425 1315
Furniture hardware 34292 205
275
(12)
-------
Value of
Industries Identified From SIC Code(s) Shipments
Assigned SIC Categories Included (Millions of $) Notes
SIC Major Group 34 (continued)
Insulated bottles, jugs and chests
Binders hardware
Plumbing fixtures
Plumbing fittings and brass goods
Hot water and steam heating systems
Prefabricated structural metal
Metal doors sash and trim
Fabricated platework (boiler shops)
Sheet metalwork
Architectural metalwork
Prefabricated metal buildings
Reinforcing rods and other metal
construction products
Screw machine products
Bolts, nuts, rivets, washers
"Custom" iron and steel forgings
"Custom" non-ferrous forgings
Stamped metal parts
Crowns and closures
"Custom" plating and polishing
Metal coatings (organic)
Small arms and ammunition
Military arms and ammunition
Coil and leaf springs
Valve and pipe fittings
Wire products
SIC Major Group 35
Turbine and tubrine generator sets
Stationary internal combustion diesel
engines
34293
34294
3431
3432
34333,34335
3441
3442
3443
3444
3446
3448
34494,34495
3451
3452
3462
3463
3465,3469
3466
3471
34790,61,71,81
3482,3484
3483,3489
3493
3494
3495,3496
3511
35193
85
928
315
673
220
3305
1902
3265
2650
589
578
856
1083
1988
1838
280
7739
339
1008
351
756
1757
361
2876
3448
2079
604
(13)
(14)
(14)
276
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Table A-l
Industries Identified From
Assigned SIC Categories
SIC Code(s)
Included
Value of
Shipments
(Millions of $) Notes
SIC Major Group 35 (continued)
Stationary internal combustion
gasoline engines
Outboard motor
Diesel engines for buses and trucks
Farm machinery and equipment
Lawn and garden equipment
Construction equipment
Mining equipment
Oil field equipment
Elevators and moving stairs
Conveyors and conveyor equipment
Hoists, cranes and monorails
Industrial trucks and tractors
Machine tools - metal cutting
Machine tools - metal forming
Special dies, tools, jigs and fixtures
Machine tools accessories
Power driven handtools
Rolling mill machinery
Welding and cutting apparatus
Automotive maintenance equipment
Food products machinery
Textile machinery
Woodworking machinery
Paper industries machinery
Printing trades machinery
Chemical manufacturing machinery
Foundry equipment and equipment
Plastic working machinery
Rubber-working machinery
35191,35192 450
35195 425
35194 634
3523 4143
3524 1143
3531 5653
3532 729
3533 980
3534 412
3535 825
3536 446
3537 1004
3541 1258
3542 670
3544 2713
3545 1151
3546 622
3547 247
35493 93
35494 11 111
3551 867
3552 738
3553 411
3554 381
3555 736
3559 11 212
35592 132
35593 434
35594 137
(15)
277
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Table A-l (Continued)
Industries Identified from
Assigned SIC Categories
SIC Code(s)
Included
Value of
Shipments
(Millions of $)
Notes
Pumps and pumping equipment
Ball and roller bearings
Air and gas compressors
Blowers and fans
Industrial patterns
Typewriters
Electronic computers
Calculating and accounting machines
Scales and balances
Duplicating machines and photo copying
equipment
Automatic merchandising machines
Commercial laundry equipment
Industrial and commercial AC and
heating
Room A.C. and dehumidification
Warm air furnaces
Measuring and dispensing pumps
Commercial cooking and cleaning
equipment
Carburetor, pistons, rings, and valves
SIC Major Group 36
Transformers
Switchgear and switchboard apparatus
Motor and generators
Industrial controls
Welding apparatus, electric
Carbon and graphite products
Capacitors
Retifying apparatus
3561
3562
3563
3564
3565
3567
3573
3574
3576
3579
3581
3582
1632
1418
722
682
234
1046
6108
694
182
1046
306
183
(16)
(16)
35851,35852, 4867
35853,35854,
35857
(17)
35856
35858
3586
3589
3592
3612
3613
3621
3622
3623
3624
36291
36292
679
384
183
864
791
1436
2058
2635
1245
570
335
112
132
278
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Table A-l
Industries Identified from
Assigned SIC Categories
SIC Code(s)
Included
Value of
Shipments
(Millions of $)
Notes
Household cooking equipment
Household refrigerators, home and
farm freezers
Household laundry equipment
Electric housewares and fans
Household vacuum cleaners
Sewing machines
Household water heaters
Dishwashing machines
Food waste disposal units
Electric lamps
Current carrying wiring devices
Non current carrying wiring devices
Residential electric lighting fixtures
Commercial, industrial and institutional
electric light fixtures
Vehicular light equipment
Radio and television receiving sets
Phonograph records and recorded tapes
Telephone and telegraph apparatus
Radio and television transmitting
equipment
Radio and television receiving
electron tubes
Cathode ray television picture tube
Transmitting, industrial and special
purpose electron tubes
Semiconductors and related devices
Electronic capacitors
Resistors for electronic application
Electronic coils
Connectors, for electronic applications
3631 1027
3632 1419
3633 1289
3634 1448
3635 439
3636 152
36391 119
36394 12,14 359
36394 71 66
3641 1089
3643 1206
3644 832
3645 746
3646 701
3647 358
3651 3608
3652 537
3661 3973
3661 8376
3671 189
3672 633
3673 366
3674 2360
3675 454
3676 438
3677 385
3678 523
(18)
279
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Table A-l (continued)
Industries Identified from SIC Code(s)
Assigned SIC Categories Included
SIC Group 36 (Continued)
Storage battage
Primary battery dry, wet
X-ray apparatus and tubes
Electrical equipment for internal
combustion engines
Lamp bulb components
Appliance wire and cord
SIC Major Group 37
Motor vehicles
Truck and bus bodies
Motor vehicle parts and accessories
Truck trailer
Aircraft
Aircraft engines and engine parts
Air parts and auxilliary equipment
Ship building and repairing
Boat building and repairing
Railroad equipment
Bicycles and parts
Motorcycles and parts
Guided missiles and space vehicles
Space propulsion units and parts
Guided missiles and space vehicle
parts and auxiliary parts
Travel trailers and campers
Tanks and tank components
SIC Major Group 38
Engineering and scientific instruments
Building interior environmental controls
Process control instruments
3691
3692
3693
3694
36992
36996
3711
3713
3714
3715
3721
3724
3728
3731
3732
3743
37511
37512
3761
3764
3769
3792
3795
3811
3822
3823
Value of
Shipments
(Millions of $) Notes
952
316
383
1781
332
366
41045
1444
19417
1079
7538
3069
3436
3200
1031
2284
396
112
3705
740
825
1276
285
1106
658
794
280
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Industries Identified from
Assigned SIC Categories
SIC Ma.jor Group ^R 1:irmed'>
Fluid meters and counting devices
Instruments to measure electricity
Measuring and controlling devices
Optical instruments and lenses
Surgical and medical instruments
Surgical appliances and supplies
Dental equipment and supplies
Ophthalmic goods
Still picture equipment
Sensitized photographic film
and plates
Prepared photographic chemicals
Photo copying equipment
Motion picture equipment
Clocks
Watch cases
Watches
SIC Major Group 39
Jewelry precious metal
Silverware and plateware
Jewelers materials and lapidary work
Musical instruments
Dolls
Games and toys
Bicycles childrens vehicles
Sporting and athletic goods
Pens and mechanical pencils
Lead pencils and art goods
Marking devices
Carbon paper and inked ribbon
Value of
SIC Code(s) Shipments
Included (Millions of $) Notes
3824
3825
3829
3832
3841
3842
3843
3851
38611
38616,38619,
38615,38617
38618 11
38612
38613
38731
38737
38734,38735
3911
3814
3915
3931
3942
39441,39442
3944
3949
3951
3952
3953
3955
327
1329
585
584
984
1142
352
483
616
2406
286
1455
191
329
52
477
981
317
336
525
277
1214
126
1538
311
174
163
317
281
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Table A-l (Continued)
Industries Identified from
Assigned SIC Categories
SIC Major Group 39 (Continued)
Costume jewelry
Artificial flowers
Buttons
Needles, pins, fasteners
Brooms and brushes
Signs and advertising displays
Burial caskets
Hard surface floor covering
Chemical fire extinguishing equipment
Matches
SIC Code(s)
Included
3961
3962
3963
3964
3991
3993
3995
3996
39991
39993
Value of
Shipments
(Millions of $) Notes
441
101
100
553
391
1098
387
300
125
Notes:
(1) Does not include recreational vehicles.
and campers.
See SIC 3792 travel trailers
(2) Classification of industries included under SIC Group 264 is considered
more speculative than most other industries because of difficulty in
interpretation of product descriptions.
(3) Includes all types of envelopes except stationary which is covered
under SIC Product Group 26481.
(4) Fireworks and pyrotechnics represent group of minor economic importance
under SIC Industry 2899 which by its nature is considered worthy of
environmental assessment.
(5) Bituminous fiber pipe (SIC Product Group 26461) is listed under SIC
Group 295 with industries involving use of asphalt binders.
(6) Hard rubber mechanical goods and molded mechanical goods may have more
environmental significance than other products under miscellaneous
category.
(7) Retread tires, included under service industries in SIC system is felt
to present problems similar to those of other industries being d under
considered under SIC major group 30. Since retread tires are
considered to be a non-manufacturing industry by the Census of
Manufactures there is no value of shipment data reported.
282
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(8) Data on shoe industries and personal leather goods were not adequate to
determine with confidence whether shoe manufacture represented one or
more industries. For present purposes it has been considered a single
industry.
(9) Sales data for some species of tempered glass were not available. Total
shown is reported figure for reported categories.
(10) Laminated glass is manufactured by companies in the glass industry and
from purchased glass. Division in terms of volume is not known.
(11) Scientific and industrial glassware volume of sales are reported only as
part of a larger group.
(12) SIC category 34211 contains a collection of products roughly divisible
as shown, which probably come from a number of different industries.
(13) All stamped metal parts (automotive and other) have been combined for
analysis as one industry.
(14) Custom plating and polishing and "metal coatings (organics)" have been
defined as industries for further investigation of possible environ-
mental impacts which will not appear in other categories.
(15) Dual-fuel engines are included with diesel engines.
(16) Separate data could not be published for industry 3572 typewriters,
without revealing the operations of individual companies. Accordingly
industry 3572 typewriters has been combined with industry 3579, office
machines, n.e.c. for 1972.
(17) The total value of shipments of refrigeration machinery includes ex-
tensive duplication resulting from the use of products of some estab-
lishments in the industry as materials by others within the same
industry.
(18) This category includes a wide variety of transmission equipment includ-
ing alarm systems, military equipment, etc.
283
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
1. REPORT NO.
EPA-600/2-77-160
2.
3. RECIPIENT'S
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
Potential Environmental Impact of Compounding and
Fabricating Industries: A Preliminary Assessment
. REPORT DATE
August 1977 issuing date
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7.AUTHORIS) R> Clark5 j. Burch, R. Ayers, D. Brown, R. Dick
I. J. Henning, D. Hooie, and R. Sharp
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
Battelle
Columbus Laboratories
505 King Avenue
Columbus, Ohio 43201
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
1BB610 1AB604
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
Contract 68-02-1323
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory~Cin.
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
OH
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Final
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
EPA/600/12
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
16. ABSTRACT
The overall objectives of this research effort were to identify
compounding and fabricating industries from a selected number of Stand-
ard Industrial Classification codes, and identify the environmental
impact resulting from processing steps used by fabrication or com-
pounding industries.
Industries in the United States fall into two basic categories—
those that process primary raw material such as iron ore, logs, silica
sand, animal hide, etc., and those that fabricate or compound these
raw materials into various consumer goods. This report assesses the
potential environmental impact of industries in the second category,
the compounding and fabricating industries. The basic approach was
to classify each industry by type and major unit processes supported,
and then to characterize the waste streams produced by the unit pro-
cesses. Examples of industries that are classified as compounding
and fabricating industries are the automobile industry and the surface
coating industry.
17.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b. IDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
COSATI Field/Group
Manufacturing; Pollution; Industrial
Wastes, Industrial Waste Treatment
Manufacturing Processes
13B
13. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
Release to Public
19. SECURITY CLASS (This Report)
Unclassified
21. NO. OF PAGES
298
20. SECURITY CLASS (Thispage)
Unclassified
22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (9-73)
OU.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1977-757-056/6517
284
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