EPA-600/2-77-160
August 1977
Environmental Protection Technology Series
            POTENTIAL  ENVIRONMENTAL  IMPACT OF
     COMPOUNDING AND  FABRICATING INDUSTRIES:
                       A PRELIMINARY ASSESSMENT
                               Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
                                    Office of Research and Development
                                   U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
                                           Cincinnati, Ohio 45268

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                RESEARCH REPORTING SERIES

Research reports of the Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, have been grouped into nine series. These nine broad cate-
gories were established to facilitate further development and  application of en-
vironmental technology. Elimination of traditional grouping  was  consciously
planned to foster technology transfer and a maximum interface in related fields.
The nine series are:

      1.  Environmental Health  Effects Research
      2.  Environmental Protection Technology
      3.  Ecological Research
      4.  Environmental Monitoring
      5.  Socioeconomic  Environmental Studies
      6.  Scientific and Technical  Assessment Reports (STAR)
      7  Interagency Energy-Environment Research and Development
      8.  "Special" Reports
      9.  Miscellaneous Reports

This report has been assigned to  the ENVIRONMENTAL  PROTECTION TECH-
NOLOGY series. This series describes research performed to develop and dem-
onstrate instrumentation, equipment,  and methodology to repair or prevent en-
vironmental degradation from point and non-point sources  of  pollution. This work
provides the new or improved technology required for the control and treatment
of pollution sources to meet environmental quality standards.
This document is available to the public through the National Technical Informa-
tion Service, Springfield, Virginia  22161.

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                                              EPA-600/2-77-160
                                              August  1977
POTENTIAL ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF COMPOUNDING AND

FABRICATING INDUSTRIES:  A PRELIMINARY ASSESSMENT
                       by
                    R. Clark
                    J. Burch
                    R. Ayers
                    D. Brown
                     R. Dick
                  H. J. Henning
                    D. Hooie
                    R. Sharp
         Battelle Columbus Laboratories
              Columbus, Ohio  43201
             Contract No. 68-02-1323
                 Project Officer

                  Ronald Turner
      Industrial Pollution Control Division
  Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
             Cincinnati, Ohio  45268
  INDUSTRIAL ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORY
       OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
      U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
             CINCINNATI, OHIO  45268

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                                 DISCLAIMER
     This report has been reviewed by the Industrial Environmental Research
Laboratory, Cincinnati, Ohio, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and
approved for publication.  Approval does not signify that the contents
necessarily reflect the views and policies of the U.S.  Environmental Protect-
ion Agency, nor does mention of trade names or commercial products constitute
endorsement or recommendation for use.
                                     ii

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                                  FOREWORD

     When energy and material resources are extracted, processed, converted,
and used, the related pollutional impacts on our environment and even on our
health often require that new and increasingly more efficient pollution con-
trol methods be used.  The Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory -
Cincinnati (lERL-Ci) assists in developing and demonstrating new and improved
methodologies that will meet these needs both efficiently and economically.

     This report, Potential Environmental Impact of Compounding and Fabricat-
ing Industries: A Preliminary Assessment, is intended to be an operational
guide for the manufacturing processes used in the compounding and fabricating
industries.

     Much of the information on emissions from manufacturing processes was
obtained from related studies by the Environmental Protection Agency.  This
report presents data which have been generated to allow identification of all
processing steps with significant environmental impact and all compounding
and fabrication industries where they are applied.  It provides a basis for
more intensive study to define R&D which is needed for adequate control of
major environmental impacts.  For further information, contact the Industrial
Pollution Control Division, lERL-Ci, 45268.
                                       David G. Stephan
                                           Director
                         Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
                                          Cincinnati
                                      111

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                                  ABSTRACT
     The overall objectives of this research effort were  to  identify  compound-
ing and fabricating industries from a selected number of Standard Industrial
Classification codes, and identify the environmental impact resulting from
processing steps used by fabrication or compounding industries.

     Industries in the United States fall into two basic categories—those
that process primary raw material such as iron ore, logs, silica sand, animal
hide, etc., and those that fabricate or compound these raw materials into
various consumer goods.  This report assesses the potential environmental
impact of industries in the second category, the compounding and fabricating
industries.  The basic approach was to classify each industry by type and
major unit processes supported, and then to characterize the waste streams
produced by the unit processes.  Examples of industries that are classified
as compounding and fabricating industries are the automobile industry and the
surface coatings industry.
                                     iv

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                                  CONTENTS
Foreword	     iii
Abstract	      iv
Figures	      vi
Tables	      xi
Acknowledgement  	    xiii
     1.   Introduction  	        1
     2.   Conclusions	        4
     3.   Recommendations	        7
     4.   Research Approach	        8
     5.   Results and Discussion  	        9
              Wood  Buildings  and Mobile Homes  	        9
              Furniture  and Fixtures	      11
              Converted  Paper Products	      17
              Printing Industry  	      34
              Compounded Organic Chemical Products	      39
              Rubber and Miscellaneous Plastics Products	      70
              Leather Goods 	      89
              Flexible Roofing, Flooring and Paving Products.  ...      93
              Inorganic Mineral Products	      99
              Fabricated Metal Products 	     124
              Machinery Except Electrical 	     138
              Electrical and  Electronic Machinery  	     173
              Transportation  Equipment	     205
              Measuring, Analyzing and Controlling Instruments:
                Photographic, Medical, and Optical Goods: Watches
                and Clocks	     228
              Miscellaneous Manufacturing Industry	     246
References	     266
Appendix	     270

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                                   FIGURES
Number                                                                  Page
   1  Process for Manufacturing Mobile Homes	     10
   2  Process for Manufacturing Prefabricated Wood Buildings and
        Components	     12
   3  Basic Schematic  for  a Large  Furniture Plant 	     15
   4  Simplified Non-Wood  Furniture Assembly	     16
   5  Paper Coating  and  Glazing  	     18
   6  Envelopes	     20
   7  Bags, Except Textile Bags  	     22
   8  Die-Cut Paper  and  Paperboard and  Cardboard	     23
   9  Pressed and Molded Pulp  Goods	     24
  10  Sanitary Paper Products  	     26
  11  Production of  Stationary,  Tablets,  and Related Products  ....     27
  12  Production of  Folding Paperboard  Boxes	     29
  13  Production of  Set-Up Paperboard Boxes 	     30
  14  Production of  Corrugated and Solid  Fiber Boxes	     32
  15  Production of  Sanitary Food  Containers	     33
  16  Fiber Cans, Tubes, Drums and Similar Products 	     35
  17  Generalized Printing Process	     37
  18  Production of  Pharmaceutical Tablets and Capsules 	     43
  19  Production of  Liquid Pharmaceutical Preparations	     44
  20  Production of  Semi-Solid Pharmaceutical Preparations	     45
  21  Production of  Parenteral Pharmaceutical Preparations	     46
  22  Flow Diagram Milling Soap Bars	     48
  23  Production of  Pastes or Emulsions	     50
  24  Flow Diagram of  Manufacturing Process for Oil-Base Paints ...     52
  25  Flow Diagram of  Manufacturing Process for Water-Base
        Paints	     53
  26  Hide Glue Manufacture	     56
  27  Bone Glue Manufacture	     57

                                     vi

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List of Figures (Continued)
Number                                                                  Page
  28  Manufacturing Process  for  Casein  Glue	    58
  29  Fish Glue Processing	    59
  30  Waterbased Adhesives;  (A)  Emulsion Polymerization and
         (B) Dispersion Processes 	    63
  31  Synthetic Resin and Rubber Base Adhesives	    64
  32  General Flow Diagram  for the  Formulation  of Oil-Base Ink  ....    67
  33  Flow Diagram of Manufacturing Fireworks and Pyrotechnic
         Materials	    68
  34  Diagram for Typical Tire and  Camelback Production Facility  ...    72
  35  Flow Diagram of a  Typical  Inner Tube Production Facility  ....    75
  36  Flow Diagram for Production of a  Typical  Molded Item	    80
  37  Flow Diagram of a  Retread  Operation	    81
  38  Flow Diagram for Typical Mechanical, Pan  (Heater), and Wet
         Digester Reclaim 	    84
  39  Flow Diagram for the  Production of Typical Canvas Footwear
         Item	    85
  40  Plastic Tray Manufacturing	    87
  41  Generalized Process for Manufacturing Shoes	    91
  42  Manufacturing Process  for  Asphaltic Concrete  	    94
  43  Flow Diagram of Manufacturing Asphalt Felt Rolls and Shingles.  .    96
  44  Asbestos Floor Tile Manufacturing	    98
  45a Process Flow Diagram  for the  Mirror, Door, and Window  (Made
         From Purchased Glass) Industry  	    100
  45b Process Flow Diagram  for Products Manufactured from Purchased
         Glass	    102
  46  Process Flow Diagram  for Block and Brick  Manufacture 	    105
  47  Process Steps for  Concrete Products	    108
  48  Process Flow Diagram  for the  Plaster of Paris and Gypsum
         Products Industry	    Ill
  49  Process Flow Diagram  for the  Abrasive Buffs Industry 	    113
  50  Process Flow Diagram  for the  Abrasive Wheel Industry 	    114
  51  Process Flow Diagram  for the  Asbestos Textile Industry  	    117
  52  Process Flow Diagram  for the  Asbestos Insulation Industry.  .  .  .    119
  53  Process Flow Diagram  for the  Inorganic Acoustic and Building
         Insulation Industry	    121
                                     VII

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List of Figures (Continued)
Number                                                                  -PaSe
  54  Process Flow Diagram for the Inorganic Electrical Insulation
        Industry	1^3
  55  Metal Cans	128
  56  Hand Tools, Forged	129
  57  Hand Tools, Cast	130
  58  Plumbing  Fixtures  - Zinc	131
  59  Fabricated  Structural  Metal Products - Bridges	132
  60  Screw Machine  Products -  Bolts,  Nuts	133
  61  Steel Forgings	  134
  62  Galvanizing for the Trade	  135
  63  Cartridge Cases	  136
  64   Internal Combustion Engines 	  148
  65  Farm Machinery	
  66  Manufacture of Snowblower 	
  67  Manufacture of Bulldozers 	
  68  Manufacture of Underground Scraper/Loaders  	  153
  69  Manufacture of Rock Bits	  154
  70  Manufacture of Derricks	  155
  71  Engine  Lathe  (Tailstock)  Manufacturing	  157
  72  ECM (Electrochemical Machine)  Manufacturing 	  158
  73  Metal Working  Drill Bits  Manufacturing	  159
  74  Pasteurizing Equipment Manufacturing	  161
  75  Knitting  Machine Manufacturing	  162
  76  Hydraulic Gear Pump Manufacturing	  163
  77  Ball Bearing Manufacturing	   164
  78  Pattern Manufacruring  	   165
  79  Metal Melting  Furnace  Manufacturing 	   166
  80  Duplicating Machine Manufacturing 	   168
  81  Air Conditioner Manufacturing  	   170
  82  Power Transformer Manufacturing  	   181
  83  Electric  Motor Manufacturing	   183
  84  Motor Brush Manufacturing  	   185
  85  Welding Apparatus  (Electric) Manufacturing	   187

                                    viii

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List of Figures (Continued)
Number                                                                  Page
  86  Welding Apparatus (Electric) Manufacturing	    189
  87  Vacuum Cleaner Manufacturing	    191
  88  Food Mixer Manufacturing	    193
  89  Incandescent Light Bulbs Manufacturing	    195
  90  Phonograph Record Manufacturing 	    197
  91  PBX (Private Branch Exchange) Equipment Manufacturing 	    199
  92  Transistor Manufacturing	    200
  93  Ceramic Disc Capacitor Manufacturing	    202
  94  Lead-Acid Storage Battery Manufacturing 	    204
  95  Automobile Manufacture and Assembly 	    207
  96  Manufacture of Automobile Frames	    208
  97  Manufacture of Truck Trailers 	    209
  98  Manufacture of Aircraft	    212
  99  Manufacture of Ships	    214
 100  Manufacture of Fiberglass Boats 	    215
 101  Manufacture of Railroad Locomotives 	    218
 102  Manufacture of Bicycles	    220
 103  Manufacture of Missiles	    223
 104  Manufacture of Missile Nose Cones	    224
 105  Manufacture of Military Tanks 	    226
 106  Aircraft Integrated Data Systems (Aids) 	    230
 107  Thermostat Manufacturing	    232
 108  Mechanical Counting Devices Manufacturing 	    233
 109  Electronic Volt Meter Manufacturing 	    235
 110  Binoculars	    237
 111  Medical Scissors Manufacturing	    239
 112  Operating Table Manufacturing 	    240
 113  Eyeglass Manufacturing	    242
 114  Film Negative Manufacturing 	    244
 115  Camera Manufacturing	    245
 116  Clock Manufacturing  	     247
 117  Class Ring Manufacturing	     249
 118  Sterling Silver Plate Knife Manufacturing 	     251

                                     ix

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List of Figures (Continued)
Number
 119  Pin Piano Manufacturing	
 120  Trumpet Manufacturing	    254
 121  Wagon Manufacturing	    256
 122  Doll Manufacturing	    258
 123  Ball Point  Pen Manufacturing	    260
 124  Golf Club Manufacturing	    261
 125  Swimming Pool Manufacturing	    263
 126  Burial  Caskets Manufacturing 	    265

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                                   TABLES
Number                                                                  Page
   1  Major Industry Segments that Produce Compounded Organic
        Chemical Products	      41
   2  Materials for Synthetic Resin and Rubber Adhesives 	      61
   3  Adhesive Chemicals and Compounding Ingredients 	      62
   4  Summary of Potential Process-Associated Wastewater 	      74
   5  Process-Associated Wastewater Sources from the Production of
        Rubber Hose and Belting	      78
   6  Relative Levels of Pollution Intensities for Process Typically
        Associated with Manufacture of Fabricated Metal Products .   .      137
   7  Materials and Process Data for Metal Cans, Containers	      139
   8  Materials and Process Data for Cutlery, Hand Tools, Hardware  .      140
   9  Materials and Process Data for Plumbing Fixtures 	      141
  10  Materials and Process Data for Fabricated Structural Metal
        Products	      142
  11  Materials and Process Data for Screw Machine Products	      143
  12  Materials and Process Data for Metal Forgings and Stampings.   .      144
  13  Materials and Process Data for Coatings, Engravings,
        (Services)	      145
  14  Materials and Process Data for Ordance and Accessories ....      146
  15  Materials and Process Data for Engines and Turbines	      171
  16  Materials and Process Data for Farm and Garden Machinery and
        Equipment	      172
  17  Materials and Process Data for Construction, Mining and
        Materials Handling Machinery and Equipment 	      174
  18  Materials and Process Data for Metalworking Machinery and
        Equipment	      175
  19  Materials and Process Data for Special Industry Machinery,
        Except Metalworking Machinery	      176
  20  Materials and Processes for General Industrial Machinery and
        Equipment	      177
  21  Typical Material and Process for Office, Computing and
        Accounting Machines	      178

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List of Tables (Continued)

Number                                                                  Pa§e
  22  Materials and Processes Typical for Regrigeration and Service
        Industry Machinery	   179
  23  Materials and Processes Typical for Motor Vehicles and Motor
        Vehicles Equipment	210
  24  Materials and Processes Typical for Aircraft and Parts	213
  25  Materials and Processes Typical for Ship and Boat Building and
        Repairing	216
  26  Materials and Processes Typical for Railroad Equipment	219

  27  Materials and Processes Typical for Motorcycles, Bicycles, and
        Parts	221

  28  Materials and Processes Typical for Guided Missiles and Space
        Vehicles and Parts	   225

  29  Materials and Processes Typical for Miscellaneous Transportation
        Equipment (Travel Trailers, Campers, Tanks, and Other n.e.c.) .   227
                                     xii

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                               ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

     Many individuals contributed their advice and assistance to this study;
the Task Officer Ronald Turner of the Environmental Protection Agency de-
serves mention.  Also, Mr. Paul Spaite, Consultant, assisted in the pre-
paration of this report.  Staff members at Battelle-Columbus who contributed
to this study include, G. R. Smithson, J. B. Brown, and T. J. Thomas.
                                    xiii

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                                 SECTION 1
                                INTRODUCTION

    Industries in the United States fall into two basic categories—those that
process primary raw materials such as iron ore, logs, silica sand, animal
hide, etc., and those that fabricate or compound materials from primary pro-
cesses into various consumer goods.  This report assesses the potential
environmental impact of industries in the second category, the compounding and
fabricating industries.  The basic approach was to classify each industry by
type and major unit processes supported, and then to characterize the waste
streams produced by the unit processes.

     Specific objectives of the project were:

     (1)  To identify those industries that manufacture consumer products
          by fabrication and/or compounding of materials received from the
          primary processing industries

     (2)  To identify products or groups of products produced by a defin-
          able population of companies

     (3)  To identify the environmental impacts resulting from processing
          steps used by compounding or fabrication industries.

     Data used in this report were taken from the U.S.  Bureau of the Census
report series, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency(EPA) development  documents
for effluent limitation guidelines and standard of performance for various
point-source categories, and other EPA documents.   Some investigators of these
industrial groupings have either worked in or visited many of the firms within
these categories.  Therefore, their conclusions are the result of personal
observations over the years.

     Because of the preliminary nature of this study and the limited resources
and lack of readily available data, all industries were not studied in the
same depth.

     Listed below are the Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) categories
that were reviewed to identify compounding and fabricating industries.  These
categories were provided to the contractor in the scope of work.

     245-Wood buildings and mobile homes
      25-Furniture and fixtures
     264-Converted paper and paperboard boxes (except containers)

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       27-Printing, publishing, and allied services
     2834-Pharmaceutical preparations
      284-Soap, detergents, cleaning preparations,  perfumes,  etc.
      285-Paint, varnish, lacquer, enamels, and allied products
     2891-Adhesives and sealants
     2893-Printing ink
     2899-Chemicals and chemical preparations n.e.c.
     2952-Asphalt felts and coatings
       30-Rubber and miscellaneous plastics products
       31-Leather and leather products
      323-Glass products made of purchase  glass
     3271-Concrete block and brick
     3273-Ready-mix concrete
      329-Abrasive, asbestos, miscellaneous nonmetallic mineral products
       34-Fabricated metal products  (except machinery and transportation
          equipment)
       35-Machinery except electrical
       36-Electrical and electronic  machinery
       37-Transportation equipment
       38-Measuring, analyzing, and  controlling instruments; photographic,
          medical  and optical  goods; watches and clocks
      391-Jewelry, silverware, plated ware
      393-Musical  instruments
      394-Toys, etc., sporting goods
      395-Pens, pencils, and other office  and  artist supplies
      396-Costume  jewelry, etc
      399-Miscellaneous  (brooms,  signs,  caskets, linoleum)

APPROACH

     As a first step the products in the SIC codes were assessed.  A study  was
made of the character of the population  of companies producing them, the
economic importance of  the primary products, the degree to which products were
unique to establishments reporting in each SIC category (specialization ratio),
the degree to which the principal products were made by establishments
associated with other SIC industry categories  (coverage ratio) and the degree
to which the companies making the products employed similar processes and
used similar raw materials.  A first attempt then was made to identify real
world industries involved in the production of compounded and fabricated
products associated with the assigned SIC  groups.   This list of industries  is
included as Appendix A for future use in analysis of this category of
industries.

     For purposes of present analyses the assigned codes were divided into  15
categories for convenience in analysis of economic importance, manufacturing
operations, and waste streams associated with each category.   These categories
and associated SIC codes are listed below

     1.   Wood buildings and mobile homes (SIC 245)

     2.   Furniture and fixtures (SIC 25)

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     3.  Converted paper products (SIC 264)

     4.  Printed products (SIC 27)

     5.  Compounded organic products (SIC 2834, 284, 285, 2891, 2893, 2899)

     6.  Rubber and miscellaneous plastic products  (SIC 30)

     7.  Leather goods (SIC 31)

     8.  Flexible roofing, flooring, and paving products (SIC 2851, 2952,
         3996, 3292)

     9.  Inorganic mineral products (SIC 3271, 3273, 329)

    10.  Fabricated metal products  (SIC 34)

    11.  Machinery, except electrical products (SIC 35)

    12.  Electrical and electronic machines (SIC 36)

    13.  Transportation equipment (SIC 37)

    14.  Measuring, analyzing, and controlling instruments: photographic,
         medical, and optical goods; watches and clocks (SIC 38)

    15.  Miscellaneous manufacturing industry (SIC 39)

     Generally, the above-mentioned product groups conform to the 2- or 3-
digit SIC census data.  However, asphalt floor tile and vinyl asbestos tile
(3292) and hard floor covering (3996) were assigned to flexible roofing,
flooring, and paving products; the other products in SIC 3292 are studied
under inorganic mineral products.

     Given for each product group are descriptions of the industry, products,
and raw materials, a flow diagram of a representative product, and a dis-
cussion of the environmental impact of the waste streams.  On each flow
diagram, flags are used to indicate which waste stream (air, water, or solid)
is affected by the various manufacturing processes or unit operations.

     After development of the list of industries and the establishment of
categories for use in the study a search for information on the manufacturing
operations and waste streams produced was undertaken for each category.   The
sources of information included effluent guideline documents and other EPA
industry studies as well as information from industry publications and back-
ground available from past experience of Battelle personnel.

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                                 SECTION 2
                                CONCLUSIONS

     The fabricating and compounding industries include literally thousands
of small and large firms competitively engaged in the manufacture of products
as diverse as automobiles, generators, aspirins, paints, Christmas-tree
lights and microwave ovens.  The number of companies and establishments
listed in this report were taken from the Census of Manufactures reports.  No
doubt there is some double counting in the totals, since most establishments
produce more than a single product.  Nonetheless, these numbers provide some
appreciation for the level of magnitude of distinct plants.  Generally, all
of the products from the fabrication and compounding industries are end
products.  Many of these products will be used in other manufacturing process-
es, but they generally will not be consumed as raw products.

     Assessing the environmental impact of the many products  and manufacturing
processes is a formidable task.  To make this current report  more meaningful
as an operational guide, the unit processes identified in the conclusion
section of this report express the pollution levels in general terms, i.e.,
medium to high environmental impact.  This comment relates to a general level
rather than a diagnostic appraisal of the kinds of compounds  making up the
pollutants.

     Most of the manufacturing processes or unit operations used in the
compounding and fabricating industries have a recognized impact on the
environment.  Listed below are processes having a medium-to-high environmental
impact:

         Water                      Air                       Solid

     Pickling                   Casting                  Casting (slag, scrap)
     Painting                   Pickling                 Painting
     Lubricating                Lubricating              Machining (chips)
     Machining                  Hot working              Stamping
     Electroplating             Heating for forming      Sheet forming
     Baking (coatings)           Heat treating            Injection molding
                                                           (plastic)
     Bonderizing                Welding                  Welding (slags)
     Washing (detergent)        Torch cutting            Insulating (asbestos)
     Assembling                 Painting                 Electrochemical
                                                           machining
     Heat treatment (salts)     Degreasing               Asphalt batching

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     Etching (glass and metal)  Solvents for coatings    Woodworking machines
                                                           (sanders, saws,
                                                           etc.)
     Mixing/blending            Drying ovens (painting)  Molding (rubber)
     Paper coating and glazing  Mixing (paints)          Molding (block brick)
                                Varnish cooking

     It should be emphasized that many of the solids can be recycled as
process scrap, especially the trimmings from metal stamping and machining
operations.  Scrap plastics and some scrap metal are not valuable enough or
in enough quantity to warrant accumulation, segregation, and storage for
eventual sale to secondary material processors.  Generally, the smaller
manufacturing shops will merely dispose of the solid wastes in landfills and/
or through scrap dealers, who may in turn dump the waste scrap after salvaging
whatever is useful from the aggregated scrap materials.  Scrap plastics are
sometimes incinerated along with other combustible wastes.

     Generally, pollutants associated with the wastewater stream of compound-
ing and fabrication manufacturing plants are: oil, heavy metals, cyanide,
suspended solids, alkalis, acids, and organic materials, such as solvents,
adhesives, phenols, etc.  Solid lubricants from forming operations  are usually
heavy greases.  If separated, these wastes are combustible.  Most industrial
products that are painted are spray painted.  This is done in either a dry
booth (with air drawn through a filter) or water-spray booth.   The  water-
spray booth removes about 98 percent of the solid overspray particles from
the exhaust gas.  This permits the solids of pigments from the painting
operation to be recovered and resold as a lower grade pigment.  The waste-
water contains organic solvents and resins.

     The principal volume of plating consists of rack and barrel electroplat-
ing of copper, nickel, chromium, and zinc onto ferrous and nonferrous metals
and plastics.  This part of the plating industry accounts for about two-
thirds of all chemicals added to wastewater.

     Other electroplating processes involve not only the above metals, but
also iron, cadmium, tin, indium, gold, silver, and platinum.  The principal
pollutants associated with electroplating are:

     •  Heavy metals          •  Phosphates

     •  Cyanide salts         •  Suspended solids

     •  Alkalis               •  COD

     •  Acids                 •  BOD

     •  Oil and grease        •  Color

     Generally, pollutants entering the air waste stream are hydrocarbons
from the painting, printing, blending, or mixing operations,  degreasing
operations, and rubber and plastics processing. However, solid particles
enter the atmosphere from grinding, polishing, buffing, mixing, and blending

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operations.  Welding, brazing, and soldering operations emit fumes into the
atmosphere, but these fumes tend to be localized within the plant area.

     Of the toxic water pollutants listed in Section 307 Federal Water Pol-
lution Control Act PL 92-500 only polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) is noted in
this study.  However, several potentially objectionable materials that are
discharged include lead from paint, battery, and rubber fabricating plants,
chromium from chromic acid cleaning solutions, organic solvents from degreas-
ing operations, mercury compounds from paint and instrument manufacturing,
phenols from furniture and insulation manufacturing, cyanide from plating
processes and cadmium from coating processes.

     Of the hazardous air pollutants  listed  in  Section  112 of the Clean Air
Act only asbestos and vinyl chloride  are noted  in  this  study.  Other
potentially hazardous materials  discharged  into  the atmosphere include vola-
tilized hydrocarbons and chlorinated  hydrocarbons.  Sources of volatilized
hydrocarbons emissions include paint  bake ovens, manufacture of rubber and
plastic products, and printing drying ovens.  A major source of chlorinated
hydrocarbons identified in this  study is metal degreasing  operations.  The
two most frequently  used chlorinated  hydrocarbons  are trichloroethylene and
methyl chloroform -  both are  considered  to  be toxic compounds.  At present the
emission information available for  assessing the  impacts from the important
manufacturing operations is for  the most part strictly  qualitative.  The data
on composition of waste streams, number of  sources, population of people
impacted, and the like are very  scarce.  It  is apparent, however, from  the
general character of emissions and  from the  number of known problems which
have been identified, that the environmental  impacts associated with the
compounding and fabrication industries need  to be  understood and better con-
trolled.  It is believed that this  study has laid  a foundation for a future
program consisting in large part of field investigations, which will firmly
define environmental needs.

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                                  SECTION 3
                               RECOMMENDATIONS

     It is recommended that the unit processes presented in Section 2 and the
industries presented in Appendix A be used as a basis for design of a program
to define R&D needed to control the environmental impacts associated with the
compounding and fabrication industries in detail.  A study involving two
concurrent phases is visualized.

     One phase should involve collection mostly in the field of information
on all of the unit operations which have been identified as having medium to
high environmental impact.  The objective would be to define the nature of the
equipment variations, and variations in input and output matrixes, and collect
quantitative data on emissions.  All factors needed to define the nature of
the control problem would be examined.  Vendors of equipment and materials
would be contacted for information on products, and  users  of  equipment would
be contacted in a field inspection program which would lead to collection  of
all available data and define possible needs for sampling and analyses of
emissions.

     In the first phase, an attempt should be made to define the general
nature of all variations for each manufacturing operation.  This would lead  to
development of a data base to identify problems needing in-depth study,  eg.,
significant air emissions have been identified from the unit fabrication
methods employed by the plastics industry.  It is known, for example, that
the resin-supplying industry has adjusted the rate of free vinyl chloride
monomer in PVC to permit safe handling.  However, specific problems may exist
which would require additional studies to assess their importance.  Examples
of these "potential" problems might be the nitrile blowing agents used in
some foam manufacture and the isocyanates used in some blow molding and spray
application of urethane.  In-depth studies should concentrate on specific
materials such as, for example, styrene and acrylonitrile.  Both of these
materials give off sufficient odor during processing to attest to their
volatility.  However, it is assumed that styrene is held to acceptable con-
centrations and no problems exist with acrylonitrile.

     A second concurrent phase should involve inspection of selected plant
sites associated with the industries listed in Appendix A.  Key industries,
representative of all classes of industries would be selected e.g., con-
struction equipment might be studied to define problems associated with many
of the equipment industries which have been identified.  Selection of in-
dustries and plant sites for visitations would be done in a way that permit-
ted maximum coverage with a minimum amount of travel.

-------
                                  SECTION 4
                              RESEARCH APPROACH

     To accomplish the objectives of  this  study,  the  following methodology
was used:

     (1)  A literature search was conducted  to identify and
          obtain the necessary  documents.

     (2)  Standard Industrial Classification Code (SIC) cate-
          gories were examined  to identify candidate  industries
          involved in producing consumer products by  compounding
          and  fabrication.

     (3)  After industries were defined  for  consideration, in-
          formation sources  such as  the  Census of Manufactures
          and  trade associations were used to verify  the various
          industrial classifications.

     (4)  Unit operations and manufacturing  processes were analyzed
          for  each industry.  Waste  streams  were  identified as to
          their impact or potential  impact on the environment.

     The literature search emphasized the  identification of manufacturing
processes/unit operations, and  identification of  various waste streams that
have an impact on the environment.   The  products  involved in the various
categories were all compounded  or fabricated items.   Where this was not the
case, products involving other  processing  steps were  ignored.

     Industries were analyzed to verify  that  products were produced by a
definable population of companies that were engaged competitively in the
production of  similar or identical product lines.

-------
                                  SECTION 5


                           RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

WOOD BUILDINGS AND MOBILE HOMES

     This industry includes establishments that are primarily engaged in manu-
facturing mobile homes and prefabricated wood buildings and components for
same.

Mobile Homes

     This industry includes establishments primarily engaged in the manufac-
ture of mobile homes.  These homes are generally over 10.67 meters (35 feet)
long, at least 2.44 meters (8 feet) wide, do not have facilities for storage
of water or waste, and are equipped with wheels.  In addition to being used
as residential homes, these units can be used as offices and classrooms.
Shipments of mobile homes in 1972 represented 99 percent of the industry
total product shipments, while secondary shipment consisted mainly of pre-
fabricated wood buildings.  In 1972 there were 352 companies operating 682
plants in the United States.  They employed 72,200 people, purchased
materials valued at $2.227 billion, and shipped products valued at $3.252
billion. ^

Manufacturing Processes—

     Information on the manufacturing processes and unit operations in the
mobile home industry is not readily available.  The major input materials are
steel, aluminum, lumber, and plywood.  The following major processes are used
in the manufacture of mobile homes: sawing or cutting aluminum, lumber, and
plywood; finishing and painting of components; and assembling.  Figure 1
shows a simple flow diagram of the manufacturing process.

Waste Streams—

     Woodworking machines such as saws, planers, and sanders produce sub-
stantial  amounts of  solid waste.'^)  These wastes are generally exhausted to
air pollution control  devices.   Also solid waste is generated from cutting
or sawing of aluminum  strips,  and painting operations emit hydrocarbons into
 the atmosphere.

 Prefabricated Wood Buildings

      This industry includes establishments primarily engaged  in manufacturing
 prefabricated wood buildings, sections,  and  panels.  Shipments of prefabri-

-------
ALUMINUM,  STEEL,
 PLYWOOD,  LUMBER
CUTTING/SAWING
  OPERATION
 COATING
OPERATION
ASSEMBLE AND
    SHIP
                                                                                                     r>>
                                                                                     Air Emissions
             FIGURE 1.   PROCESS FOR MANUFACTURING MOBILE HOMES.
                                                                                     Water Emissions
                                                                                     Solid Emissions

-------
cated wood buildings represented 97 percent of the industry total shipments
in 1972.  Establishments that fabricate buildings on the construction site
are not included.

     The types of prefabricated wood building in this industry are: chicken
coops, corn cribs, farm buildings, marinas, and precut houses.  In 1972 there
were 268 companies operating 315 establishments.  They employed 25,500 people,
purchased materials valued at $619 million, and shipped products valued at
$1.06 billion. (D

Manufacturing Processes—

     The major unit operations or processes in this industry are cutting,
sawing, planing, finishing, or coating of the lumber.  Major materials that
are used in this industry that have an impact on the environment are: rough
lumber, plywood, particle board, paint, varnish, lacquers, and enamels.
Figure 2 shows a simple diagram of the manufacturing process.

Waste Streams—

     Woodworking machines produce large quantities of waste sawdust,  shaving
and chips that must be removed from the equipment site.(2)  Exhaust systems
are used with many types of woodworking machines that are capable of  pro-
ducing appreciable sawdust, chips, or shavings by drilling, carving,  cutting,
routing, turning, sawing, grinding, planing or sanding wood.   Woodworking
exhaust systems are somewhat unusual in that they are almost always equipped
with air-pollution control devices.  In addition to the wood waste, hydro-
carbons are emitted into the atmosphere from the painting and varnishing of
the finish lumber.

FURNITURE AND FIXTURES

     This segment of U.S. industry includes all establishments that are
primarily engaged in manufacturing household, office, public building, and
restaurant furniture.  Store and office fixtures are also included.  In  1972
there were 9,233 establishments in this industry, employing 462,400 people.
They purchased materials valued at $5.342 billion and shipped products valued
at $11.23 billion.(!)

     A very limited number of firms can supply their own raw materials and
form them into furniture.  More than 60 percent of the establishments in the
furniture industry have less than 20 employees and generate less than
$500,000 in annual sales.

     Of the 6,000 + companies which produce furniture, only 250 can be con-
sidered major trend-setting factors in the industry.  The 10 largest  firms
represent about 20 percent of the industry sales.  North Carolina is  the
leading furniture production state with 22 percent of the shipments of all
household furniture.  Metal office furniture production is highly concen-
trated in the Great Lakes areas.

     As might be expected, the manufacture of household furniture dominates

                                     11

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HARDWOOD,
SOFTWOOD,
PLYWOOD,
PARTICLE BOARD
PAINT
v
/
x« Xf
WOODWORKING
MACHINES

* >
>
PAINTING,
GARNISHING AND
LACQUERING

X
/

ASSEMBLE
AND
SHIPPING

                                                                               Air Emissions
                                                                              Water Emissions
                                                                               Solid Emissions
FIGURE 2.  PROCESS  FOR MANUFACTURING  PREFABRICATED WOOD BUILDINGS AND  COMPONENTS.

-------
this industry.  Establishments that are primarily engaged in manufacturing
household furniture represented 59 percent of the total establishments in the
industry in 1972, employed 68 percent of the people, spent 67 percent of the
money  spent for materials, and shipped 63 percent of the dollar value of
products.  The following four segments represent the bulk of the manufacture
of household furniture.

Wood Household Furniture

     In 1972, 2348 establishments were primarily engaged in manufacturing
wood household furniture.  They employed 133,800 people, spent $1,355 billion
for materials, and shipped products valued at $2.87 billion.

Upholstered Household Furniture

     In 1972, there were 1,308 establishments primarily engaged in manufactur-
ing upholstered household furniture.  They employed 92,000 people, spent
$1.018 billion for materials, and shipped products valued at $2.105 billion.

Metal Household Furniture

     There were 467 establishments in 1972 primarily engaged in manufacturing
metal household furniture.  They employed 34,400 people, purchased materials
valued at $452 million, and shipped products valued at $890 million.

Mattresses and Bedsprings

     In 1972, the 978 establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing
mattresses and bedsprings employed 31,600 people.  They purchased materials
valued at $570 million and shipped products valued at $1.048 billion.

Other Segments

     Other segments of the furniture and fixtures industry are significantly
smaller than the preceding four.  Other segments include manufacturers of
radio and TV cabinets, wood and metal office furniture, furniture for public
buildings, wood and metal partitions and office and store fixtures, drapery
hardware and blinds and shades, and furniture and fixtures not elsewhere
classified.

Wood Furniture

Manufacturing Processes—

     More than 70 percent of the furniture constructed in the United States
employs wood as the main material of construction.  Approximately 20 percent
utilizes metals for construction frames.  The increased use of pressboard
and hardboards in quality furniture is expected to increase the total con-
sumption of wood.

     The production of wood furniture can be simply described as prefinish-
ing, finishing, and packaging operations.  Prefinishing includes operations

                                     13

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to size, cut, bend, glue, metal fix, join veneer, and laminate.  The moisture
content of the wood is also controlled.  Finishing operations include wood
graining, bleaching, staining, sealing, topcoating, and polishing.

     Figure 3 shows the typical operations in a wood furniture plant.  Many
of the operations require skilled craftsmen and are labor intensive.

Waste Streams—

     The cutting and shaping operations produce solid wastes in the form of
sawdust and wood scraps.  Part of this waste may initially be airborne, and
is removed from the air by filters or baghouse facilities.

     In the wood furniture assembly business the effluents from the finishing
and laundry booths are identified as the major unit operations that impact
the environment via water, air, and sludge media.  To be specific, the wood
preserving, painting, polishing, and metal plating utilize chemical forms
that many prominent sources consider to be toxic materials.  The numerous
laundry operations generate copious volumes of varying degrees of degradable
detergents, emulsifiers, and soaking agents.  The effluent from the laundry
operations may further contain dyes, fungicides and, of course, the industrial
chemicals that were being absorbed by the rags or upholstery fabrics.

     The following is a listing of compounds that are expected to be found in
the sludges and volatilizing or evaporating within the confines of a furniture
plant.  It is understood that many of these wastes have been blended or
otherwise mixed and may be reduced, combined, or altered in many ways:

     Varnishes                    Ammonia
     Shellacs                     Titanium dioxide
     Lacquers                     Polyvinyl acetate
     Linseed oils                 Carbon black
     Tung oil                     Aliphatic hydrocarbons
     Epoxies                      Chlorinated hydrocarbons
     Polyurethane                 Solvents
     Phenolics                    Benzene
     Melamines                    Toluene
     Phenol-formaldehyde          Xylene
     Hydrogen peroxide            Naphthas
     Sodium hydroxide             Resins
     Alcohol (isopropyl)          Ketones

Non-Wood Furniture

Manufacturing Processes—

     Metals and plastics are used primarily in commercial and  institutional
furniture production.  Figure 4 shows a simplified diagram of  the assembly
of non-wood furniture.
                                     14

-------
 PLASTICS AND
   FINISHING
   MATERIALS
  PLYWOOD MILL
   VENEER MILL
  PLANING MILL
    SAW MILL
HARDBOARD MILL
 PARTICLEBOARD
     MILL
                            MACHINING AND
                             SIZING ROOM
GLUING BAY
SURFACE-CONDITIONING
      ROOM
                                                    SHIPPING
                                                                                      — r^
                                                                                        I
                                                                                             Air Emissions
                                                                                             Water Emissions
                                                                                             Solid Emissions
                        FIGURE 3.   BASIC  SCHEMATIC  FOR A LARGE FURNITURE PLANT.

-------
  METALS,  PLASTICS
(SIIiF.D,  CUT,  STAMPED,
 BOUGH  FINISHED  HEAT
   TREATED, MOLDED,
       ETC. )
 BLENDING,  BRAZING +
  WELDING,  MELTING
  BATHING,  RIVETING,
REINFORCED  FIBERGLASS/
   MOLDING  MACHINING
PLATING,  PAINTING,! V>
 DRYING POLISHING
      AND
    PRESERVING
CP-ATIXG AM)
 PACKAGING
  SHIPPING
                                                                                        Air Fmissions
                                                                                        Hater Emissions
                                                                                         Solid Emissions
          FIGURE 4.   SIMPLIFIED NON-WOOD FURNITURE ASSEMBLY.

-------
Waste Streams—

     Solid wastes arise from metal and plastic scrap and from packaging
materials.  Plating operations give rise to water pollutants, as do some
metal-forming operations.  Gaseous effluents result from painting and drying
operations.

CONVERTED PAPER PRODUCTS

     This industry includes establishments that are primarily engaged in
manufacturing fabricated paper products.  Of primary importance to this in-
dustry is that all products are made from purchased paper or board.  As such,
the environmental problems associated with producing raw paper are not con-
sidered in this section.  Environmental considerations are mostly limited to
paper waste, printing and coating materials, and glue.

     Two major literature sources were used extensively for this analysis.
Measures of industry structure were taken from Industrial Marketing Guide(3) ,
a recognized reference on the paper industry.  Descriptions of unit operations
and environmental considerations were liberally excerpted from an EPA Develop-
ment Document.'^'

     In the development document mentioned above, the authors note that the
only process group in this industry that has serious environmental con-
siderations is paper coating and glazing.  The remaining industries are low-
priority industries based on plant visits conducted by EPA.  Therefore, in
the report that follows, the environmental considerations noted are potential
rather than actual.

Paper Coating and Glazing

     This industry is composed of establishments primarily engaged in manu-
facturing coated, glazed, or varnished paper from purchased paper.  Also
included in this industry are establishments engaged in manufacturing pres-
sure-sensitive tape with backing of any material other than rubber.  Common
products in this category include cellophane (e.g., Scotch) tape, flypaper,
litmus paper, premoistened towelettes, and waxed paper.

     This industry is composed of 426 establishments operated by 341
companies.  In 1972 the four largest companies produced 26 percent of the
shipments valued.  The 50 largest companies accounted for 77 percent of the
value of shipments.

Manufacturing Processes—

     The processes used in this industry are distinguished by applying a
coating to the raw product, often leaving the shape unaffected.  Figure 5
illustrates the major processing steps in this industry.  The primary dis-
tinction between the many types of processes and products is the type of
coating used.
                                     17

-------

PREPARATION
Aro
BLENT- ING
PAPER


STOCK

APP
COA
PA
/°
1 .^» /
-ICATION
OF
riNG TO
PER WEB


DRYING


CALEbTlER
OR
FINISH



CUTTING OR
REWINDING,
INSPECTING
AND PACKAGING
^PPvODUCT
SHIPPED
                                                              Air Emissions
                                                      —--    Water Emissions
                                                              Solid Emissions
FIGURE 5.  PAPER COATING AND  GLAZING.

-------
     There are three major coating types used in this industry: aqueous-base,
solvent-base, and hot-melt.  The aqueous base is the cheapest coating because
water acts as the carrier.  Water is mixed with adhesives, pigments, and
various additives to make the coating.  Solvent-base coatings use organic
solvents (e.g., ester, alcohols) as the carrier.  These coatings are less
likely to produce water pollution because they can be readily recovered.  The
hot-melt coating system uses similar mixing materials as solvent-base.  The
coating is applied in molten form rather than as a solution or dispersion.

     Coating mixtures are prepared in batches and applied to the paper
through a variety of methods.  The paper may be dipped, casted, rolled,
brushed, sprayed, etc.  Following this the coated paper is dried and finished.
Finishing may involve "ironing" and/or the application of embossing rolls for
designs.  The final steps are cutting or rewinding, inspecting, packing, and
shipping.

Waste Streams—
                          (4)
     According to the EPA    there do not appear to be major environmental
problems in this industry.   Wastewaters are described as low in volume but
possibly concentrated in nature.  The general industry practice is discharge
to municipal sewers.  Complete control of effluents is indicated as possible.

     There is the possibility of air pollution from the driers and solid
waste generation from several operations.  Further investigation is required
to further document the potential problems.  Nonetheless,  the potential for
water pollution appears to be more critical than that for either air or solid
waste.

Envelopes

     The manufacture of envelopes is a medium-sized paper conversion industry
with shipments in 1972 of $587.7 million.  About 178 companies operate 247
different establishments.  It is not as highly concentrated as others, even
though the 50 largest firms account for 81 percent of industry shipments.

Manufacturing Processes—

     As shown in Figure 6, paper is brought into the plant in rolls, cut into
sheets, and then die-cut  in an envelope press.  The envelopes are either
printed or left plain, and window punching is optional.  The envelopes go
through a folding and gluing operation, then are packaged and shipped.

Waste Streams—

     Possible environmental impacts could occur from wastepaper, printing
fluids, and glue waste.

Non-Textile Bags

     This category includes both heavy duty bags (for cement, dog food, etc.)
and grocery type bags.  Over 460 companies produce bags at 583 establishments.

                                     19

-------
ROLL
PAPER
CUTTING
INTO
S:-:EETS
b

ENVELOPE
DIE-CUTTING
^>

PRINTING

1
1
WINDOW
PUNCHING

»"
1
FOLDING
AND
GLUING


PACKAGING
PRODUCE
SHIPPED
                                                            Air Emissions
                                                            Water Emissions
                                                            Solid Emissions
FIGURE 6.   ENVELOPES.

-------
This is one of the larger converted paper industries with 1972 shipments
totalling $1.8 billion.

Manufacturing Processes—

     One of two major  processes may be  employed  in  this  industry,  as  shown  in
Figure 7.  In the first process, roll paper is printed,  glued and  subjected
to shrink-oven operations (plastic covering, packaging.)  In another, rolls
of paper are passed through a bag machine (cut to tube length, glued  and
sewn, with shrink-oven operations optional before shipping.)

Waste Streams—

     There is potential environmental impact from paper waste, printing
fluids, and glue waste.

Die-Cut Paper and Paperboard and Cardboard

     This industry manufactures products such as postcards, filing folders,
and stencil cards.  Most of the products are relatively expensive  in  relation
to much of the paper industry.  In 1972, industry shipments totalled  $646.6
million from 309 companies and 374 establishments.  The 50 largest companies
account for 80 percent of industry output.

Manufacturing Processes—

     In making tabulating cards and special forms, roll paper is slit, print-
ed  (letterpress or offset) and die cut  to form standard cards.  They are then
packaged (which requires some gluing) and shipped.  Special forms require
some assembling and gluing before they  are packaged.

     To make single-ply business forms, roll paper is slit, printed,  folded
or rewound, and packaged.  For multiple plies, the forms are collated (carbon
insertion and gluing)  before they are packaged.  Figure 8 illustrates these
processes.

Waste Streams—

     Environmental considerations include wastepaper, printing fluids, and
glue.

Pressed and Molded Pulp Goods

     This is a highly  concentrated but  small industry.  Industry products in-
clude papier-mache' articles, egg cartons, etc.  Only 32 companies are in this
industry, operating 49 establishments.  The four largest companies account
for 75 percent of industry shipments.   Figure 9 illustrates the process in
this industry.

Manufacturing Processes—

     In general, processing consists of printing paper stock (if necessary),

                                    21

-------
ROLL ^S^
PAPER N.
BAG
y.ACHINE

PRINTING

^

CLUIXTC I 	 •••»•

SEWING
i
s^
CLUING 1 - 1--


SHRINK
- OVEN
^s. ROLL PRODUCT
/ PAPER ^ SHIPPZD
                                                                  Air Emissions
                                                                  Water Emissions
                                                             1^    Solid Emissio
sions
FIGURE 7.  BAGS, EXCEPT TEXTILE BAGS.

-------
ROLL
PAPER

SLITTING


PRINTING
/>

CUTTING
OR
REWINDING




ASSEMBLING,
FOLDING OR
COLLATING




PACKAGING
A»m
GLUING
/\
PRODUCT
SHIPPED
                                                                        Air Emissions
                                                                        Water  Emissions
                                                                        Solid Emissions
FIGURE  8.   DIE-CUT PAPER AND PAPERBOARD AND CARDBOARD.

-------
PAPER
STOCK
PRIMING
(OPTIONAL)


CUTTING AND
PRESSING
6

FINISHING


PACKAGING

PRODUCT
SHIPPED
                                                              Air Emissions
FIGURE 9.  PRESSED AND MOLDED  PULP GOODS.
                                                              Water Emissions
                                                              Solid  Emissions

-------
pressing and cutting, finishing  (lining, coating, etc.) and packaging.

Waste Streams—

     Environmental impacts include coatings  (see paper  coating  and  glazing),
wastepaper, printing fluids, and glue.

Sanitary Paper Products

    This is a highly concentrated industry,  including consumer  use  items
such as toilet tissue, paper napkins, and disposable diapers.   The  four
largest companies account for 65 percent of  industry shipments  valued at
almost $2.0 billion in 1972.  Only 72 companies operate in this large
industry.

Manufacturing Processes—

     Different types of paper are purchased  in the form of jumbo rolls.   They
are unwound, embossed (towels and napkins),  and printed, if necessary.   Paper
stock for towels and bathroom tissue is perforated, rewound and packaged,
which requires some gluing.  Napkins, tissues, and industrial wipes are cut
and folded after the printing operation and  then packaged.  For sanitary
napkins and diapers, the process is essentially a gluing operation to adhere
the fluffy pulp layers to the liners.  Figure 10 describes these operations.

Waste Streams—

     Environmental considerations include paper waste, glue,  and printing
materials.

Stationary Products Industry

     The stationary products industry produces tablets, desk pads,  etc.
Industry shipments in 1972 totaled $422.6 million.   The 50 largest companies
accounted for 64 percent of industry shipments.

Manufacturing Processes—

     Figure 11 describes the operations in this industry.   Roll paper is
ruled (tablets) or printed (stationary), followed by cutting.   All types of
printing are utilized, including some photography.   Covers are added, and the
items are bound by stitching, gluing, or sewing.   For plain stationary,  roll
paper is simply cut and packaged.

Waste Streams—

     Environmental considerations include wastepaper, printing, and photo-
graphic materials and glue.

Converted Paper Products, n.e.c.*

     The converted paper products n.e.c. industry produces diverse items such

* n.e.c. = notelsewhere classified.

-------
Towels, Bathroom Tissu£
JUMBO
ROLLS
	 TOWEL
1 EMBOSSING
1
1
UNWINDING
-o-

1
i
OPTIONAL
PRINTING
/

AND
REWINDING
-*•

ROLL
CUTTING
X
s\
PACKAGING
(GLUING)
PRODUCT
SHIPPED
Napkins, Facial Tissue, Industrial  Wipes
       JUMBO
       ROLLS
                     PRINTING
FOLDING
\

PACKING
                                                                        PRODUCT
Sanitary Napkins and Diapers
                     LINERS
JUMBO ROLLS
FLUITED PULP
GLUING


CUTTING AND
FOLDING
                                                             PACKAGING] I'KUIHV.:
                                                             (CHUNG)   I Silll'PL.U
                                                              Air Emissions
                                                              Water Emissions
                                                              Solid Er.\i;;sions
       FIGURE 10.   SANITARY  PAPER PRODUCTS.
                                     26

-------
ROLL
PAPER
RULING OR
PRINTING


CUTTING AND
PUNCHING
BINDING
(WIRING, STITCHING,
GLUING)


PACKAGING
                                                                                                   PRODUCT

                                                                                                   SHIPPED
N3
--J
                                                                                        Air Emissions
                                                                                        Water Emissions
                                                                                        Solid  Emissions
                        FIGURE  11.   PRODUCTION OF  STATIONARY, TABLETS,  AND RELATED PRODUCTS-

-------
as confetti, wall paper, and crepe paper.  Industry shipments totaled $285
million in 1972.  Because of the wide range of products, industry concen-
tration is low.

Manufacturing Processes—

     Because of the diverse number of products in this industry, no process
diagram is immediately available.  In general, this industry does not differ
from others in the converted paper products industry-  Purchased paper is
cut, printed or dyed (optional), glued and folded, and packaged for shipping.

Waste Streams—

     Environmental considerations include paper waste, printing and dyeing
materials, and glue.

Folding Paperboard Boxes

     This industry is marked by rather low concentration with the largest
50 firms accounting for 68 percent of the value of shipments.  About 450
companies operate over 500 establishments that shipped products valued at
$1.36 billion in 1972.

Manufacturing Processes—

     Large rolls of paperboard are first printed by rotogravure, offset or
letter press.  Some water-base inks are used although they are not common.
Printing may be followed by varnishing or coating to protect the surface.
The paper is then cut, creased, and folded.  The boxes are glued (usually
waterbase) and shipped.  Figure 12 describes the operation.

Waste Streams—

     Environmental considerations include paper waste, printing materials,
and glue.

Set-Up Paperboard Boxes

     The set-up (rigid) paperboard box is characterized by low concentration
with the 50 largest firms only accounting for 46.percent of industry ship-
ments.  In 1972, the value of shipments totaled $342.6 million.

Manufacturing Processes—

     Rigid boxes are made from four materials: paperboard, corner stays, ad-
hesive, and covering materials.  First, flat sheets of cardboard are cut and
scored to size.  Individual blanks are separated from the sheet and the
corners are cut out.  Next, the sides of the blank are folded and the corners
stayed.  Staying may be accomplished with adhering paper, cloth, or metal re-
inforcements.  The same process is repeated for the corner.  Decorative
coverings (wrappers) are adhered last.  Figure 13 illustrates this process.
                                     28

-------
ROLL
PAPERBOARD
PRINTING,
COATING

_-£»
CUTTING AND
CREASING
b

FOLDING AND
GLUING
PRODUCT
SHIPPED
                 FIGURE 12.  PRODUCTION OF FOLDING PAPERBOARD BOXES.
                                                                                           Air Emissions
VO
                                                                                           Water Emissions
                                                                                           Solid  Emissions

-------
UJ
o
BOXBOARD

CUTTING AND
SCORING

t>

CORNERING


-
FOLDING,
CORNER ADHERING
_/
SHEET
PAPER


PRINTING


D
WRAPPING


t
CUTTING
PRODUCT
f
SHIPPED
^
                                                                                         Air Emissions
                                                                                         Water Emissions
                                                                                         Solid Emissions
             FIGURE  13.   PRODUCTION  OF SET-UP PAPERBOARD BOXES.

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Waste Streams—

     Environmental considerations include paper waste and printing materials.

Corrugated and Solid Fiber Boxes

     This group of converted paperboard products is the largest in the entire
industry.  In 1972, 709 companies operating 1,265 establishments produced
products with a value of $4.2 billion.  The industry is not highly concen-
trated.

Manufacturing Processes—

     Unit processes are similar to  those for  folding boxes except for the base
material (corrugated paper and fiber paper).   In the corrugating machine, a
fluted medium is made on a die and  adhered to a Kraft liner at the "single
facer" with an adhesive solution of cornstarch, caustic, and borax.  This
single-faced sheet is then processed through  the double backer which applies
the second facing, forming a single wall.  This process may be repeated for
thicker walls.  Solid fiber boxes are made in a similar manner, but a different
based adhesive (usually polyvinyl acetate) is used and there is no fluting.
All types of printing are used in this industry.  Figure 14 describes these
processes.

Waste Streams—

     Environmental considerations include wastepaper, glue and printing
material.

Sanitary Food Containers

     This industry is concentrated  with four  firms accounting for 41 percent
of the shipments.  The value of shipments totaled $1.4 billion in 1972.
Traditionally, there has been much  competition in certain portions of this
industry between paper and plastic  containers.

Manufacturing Processes—

     To make paper cups and plates, roll paper is slit, moistened, printed
(usually water-base), cut, and formed.  Cups  and other containers may require
gluing.  The cups may be either waxed or made from polyethylene-coated paper-
board (which requires no seam gluing).  Milk  cartons and other containers
are made in similar operations.  Figure 15 describes these operations.

Waste Streams—

     Environmental considerations are wastepaper, glue, and printing fluids.

Fiber Cans, Tubes, and Drums

     The fiber cans, drums, and related materials had industry shipments of
                                      31

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ROLL ^
PAPER
CORRUGATING
AND
PASTING


CUTTING
AND
CREASING
^

PRINTING
-
FOLDING
AND
GLUING
PRODUCT
SHIPPED
                                                                 Air Emissions
                                                                  Water Emissions
                                                                  Solid Emissions
FIGURE 14.   PRODUCTION OF CORRUGATED AND SOLID  FIBER BOXES.

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                                                              CUPS, PLATES, CONTAINERS
10
OJ
               ROLL
               •W^«MM

               PAPER
SLITTING,
MOISTENING


PRINTING
                                                                             PACKAGING
                                                                                           PRODUCT
                                                                                           SHIPPED
CUTTING
  AND
FORMING
                                                              FOLDING
                                                              SEALING
                       PACKAGING
                                                                                         PRODUCT
                                                                      CARTONS
                                    SHIPPED

                                   Air Emissions



                                   Water  Emissions




                                   Solid  Emissions
                FIGURE 15.  PRODUCTION OF SANITARY FOOD CONTAINERS.

-------
$620 million in 1972.  Over 160 companies operate plants, and the four largest
producers account for 52 percent of the value of shipments.

Manufacturing Processes—

     Large rolls of paper are first slit to the desired width and an adhesive
is applied to one side as it is wound to the specified thickness and cut.
The units can be left plain, painted, or silk screened to customer specifica-
tions.  Cans and drums may be lined to accommodate the material they will be
carrying.

     Certain drums, etc., may require metal covers and/or parts at the ends.
Many plants have their own metal finishing operations.  Figure 16 describes
these processes.

Waste Streams—

     Environmental considerations include wastepaper, glue, and printing or
painting materials.  If metal finishing is included, this would involve cut-
ting fluids, oils, degreasers, varnishes, varnish remover, deburring sol-
utions, and special cleaners and surface preparation solutions.

PRINTING INDUSTRY

Printing and Publishing

     There were  39,206 establishments in the United States primarily engaged
in publishing and printing in 1972.  An additional 2,889 establishments were
engaged in direct services for the publishing and printing establishments.(1)

     These 42,095 establishments employed 1,063,000 people, spent $10.045
billion for materials, and shipped products valued at $30.132 billion.

     The printing of newspapers, periodicals, and books and commercial print-
ing  activities collectively accounted for about 81 percent of the establish-
ments, employed  78 percent of the people, accounted for 80 percent of the
value of materials purchased, and accounted for 80 percent of the value of
shipments of the entire  industry.

Newspapers—

     Newspapers  accounted for the greatest amount of printed matter produced
in the United States.  There were 8,116 establishments in  1972 primarily en-
gaged in publishing  and/or printing newspapers.  They employed 349,000 people,
spent $2.045 billion for material, and shipped products valued at $8.27
billion.  Some of these  establishments engaged in commercial printing, but
some others have part or all of their printing done by commercial printers.

Periodicals—

     There were  2,535 establishments primarily engaged in  publishing and/or
printing periodicals in  1972.  They employed 67,000 people, spent $1.41

                                     34

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                                                      METAL PARTS
ROLL
PAPER

SLITTING
b

\
/x
WINDING
AND
GLUING


PAINTING
(OPTIONAL)


t
ASSEMBLING
PRODUCT
SHIPPED
                                                                Air Emissions
                                                                Water Emissions
                                                                 Solid Emissions
FIGURE 16.  FIBER CANS, TUBES, DRUMS AND  SIMILAR PRODUCTS.

-------
billion for materials, and shipped products valued at $3.521 billion. Their
publications include magazines, trade journals, comic books, and statistical
reports.

Books—

     There were 1,905 establishments in 1972 primarily engaged in publishing
and/or printing and binding books and pamphlets.  These establishments
employed 98,000 people, spent $1.292 billion for supplies, and shipped prod-
ucts valued at $3.794 billion.

Commercial Printing—

     There were 21,584 establishments in 1972 primarily engaged in commercial
printing by letterpress and/or lithographic processes.  These establishments
employed 314,000 people,  spent $3.293 billion for materials, and shipped
products valued at $8.414 billion.   The average employment by these estab-
lishments is about 15 people, indicating many small establishments.  In fact,
12,108 such establishments employ fewer than 5 people, whereas only 40 employ
500 or more people.

     In addition to labels, wrappers, catalogs, directories, advertising,
financial,  legal,  and general job printing, some shops specialize in printing
newspapers  and periodicals for others.   These letterpress and lithographic
printers purchased 13 percent as much newsprint as did the newspaper pub-
lishers and printers.

Manufacturing Processes—

     Figure 17 shows a general flow sheet for the printing of newspapers,
periodicals, books, and the products of commercial lithographic and letter-
press printing.  Most of  these printing processes, regardless of the products,
share many  of the same unit operations.   The major difference between litho-
graphic and letterpress printing is the preparation of a plate from a photo-
graphic medium in the former and the use of some form of typesetting in the
latter.  Letterpress printing is gradually being replaced by lithographic  and
other photo-dependent processes.   The nature of the printed product dictates
the manner  in which it is finished, as shown in Figure 17-  In the following
paragraphs, unit operation will be discussed.

     Photography—Particularly for lithographic offset printing, the prepared
copy is first photographed.  This photographed material is subsequently trans-
ferred to a printing plate.

     Other  than the prepared copy,  the major materials used are photographic
film and processing chemicals.  The processing chemicals are complex mixtures
of organic  and inorganic  chemicals designed to perform developing, fixing,
and reducing functions to bring out the latent image in the photographic
emulsion.

     Preparation of Printing Plate—A lithographic or a photo-offset plate is
prepared from the photographic image.  Lithographic plates, generally


                                     36

-------
                                       PREPARED
                                     ART AND COPY
CHEMICALS —
    FILM  —
                                    ;	A
                    LITHOGRAPHIC
                    OFFSET  PI.ATK
                    PREPARATION
TYPSETTING
                        INK'
                      PAPER	>[pKINTING__]^>

                                                                    TYPE-METAL
                                                                     REMELT
  NEWSPAPERS
                                      CUTTING
                                   l_COLLATING._
\
FOLD]
\
x \
1 1 	
NO . _J [FAST
/ \

iNlNg
/
PAPERBOARD 	
FABRIC 	
GLUE . 	 )FB
THREAD 	 '
U
1ND1^
\
/
....
/


SPECIAL !
HANDLING i
\
/
                     PERIODICALS
                                                     BOOKS
                                                                       OTHER PRINTED
                                                                         PRODUCTS
                                                                      Air Emissions
                                                               -r
                   Water Emissions
                                                                      Solid Emissions
    FIGURE 17.   GENERALIZED PRINTING PROCESS.
                                       37

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aluminum, are covered with a polymeric coating.  Illumination through the
developed photographic transparency causes crosslinking and hardening of the
coating in some systems, or may cause depolymerization and softening in
others.  The non-hardened portions are subsequently dissolved off, leaving
hydrophobic areas as ink receptors for printing.

     Lithographic plates are generally made of aluminum and are not reused.
However, there is some usage of reusable zinc plates.   Disposable plastic
plates are coming into common usage, and bimetallic plates (copper or steel)
may be used for long runs.

     Coating materials may be diazo resins or various other synthetic
polymers.

     Chemicals used in processing the plates include various inorganic and
organic acids and a variety of organic solvents.

     Printing—For the printing operation, the printing plate or preset type
is affixed to the printing press.   As the press moves,  the printing plate or
type face picks up ink and transfers it to the paper.   The major input
materials are the carrier of the printing image (plate  or type), paper, and
printing ink.

     Type-Metal Remelt—In linotype printing,  which is  tending to become
obsolete, a line of type characters is cast on demand  from a keyboard as a
solid metal slug.  After use, the metal is remelted for reuse.

     Drying—After printing, the paper on which the wet ink has been placed
is run rapidly through an oven to dry the ink.  Depending on the type of ink
used, the drying process may involve crosslinking of a  liquid polymer and/or
vaporization of a solvent.  Some solvent-free, UV-curable ink resins are
coming into use.

     Cutting and Collating—The printed roll paper is  cut into sheets of the
appropriate size, which are arranged in proper numerical sequence.

     Binding—Books are bound in either hard-cover or paperback form.  Other
types of publications are generally bound in a simpler  manner.  Most periodi-
cals, for example, are stapled together and newspapers  are merely folded
together.

     Materials used in binding include thread for sewing book sections to-
gether, paperboard, glue, and preprinted fabric or special paper.  A thin
plastic sheet may be laminated to the outside of paperback books.

Waste Streams—

     In the following paragraphs, those unit operations that generate waste
products will be discussed.
                                     38

-------
     Photography—The major waste stream from this unit operation is the
wastewater stream containing used processing chemicals.  Some of these
chemicals have been oxidized or reduced in part to forms different from those
in which they entered the system.  In addition, unexposed silver halide has
been removed from the emulsion and is contained in the wastewater as silver
ferrocyanide, a soluble salt.  Some of the larger establishments can profit-
ably recover the silver values from this stream.

     There is also some potential for solid waste in the photographic section.
Once the copy has been reduced to a photographic image, the original has no
further use to the printer.  Furthermore, the containers in which both film
and chemicals are received must be disposed of.  It is assumed that, in most
cases, there will be little need for the production and ultimate disposal of
duplicate photographic images.

     Preparation of Printing Plate—The waste products from processing the
printing plates are liquid in nature and would be contaminants of wastewater.
Some of the solvents used are volatile and are modest air contaminants.

     The photographic material must be disposed of after the plate is made
and makes a contribution to solid waste.

     Printing—The major waste from the printing operation is the non-reusable
plate that must be disposed of as a solid waste.

     Type-Metal Remelt—There should be no waste stream other than gaseous
effluents from the fuel used to supply heat.

     Drying—Any solvent that is vaporized in the oven would constitute  a
gaseous effluent to the air.  High volume web printing systems can emit
significant quantities of air contaminants, and in some processes,  vaporized
resins and smoke.  Air pollutants from drying ovens are odorous,  and can be
irritating to the eyes.  When irradiated by sunlight in the presence of
oxides of nitrogen, even more noxious pollutants are formed.

     Cutting and Collating—The only waste stream from this operation is edge
trimmings and perhaps an occasional spoiled sheet, providing a modest amount
of paper as a solid waste.

     Binding—Only solid wastes arise from book binding.  These wastes com-
prise trimmings from the input materials and perhaps an occasional spoiled
cover or book.

COMPOUNDED ORGANIC CHEMICAL PRODUCTS

     Many types of chemical products are formulated or fabricated for use by
consumers or by other industries.  Examples of such products include pharma-
ceutical preparations, soaps and other detergents, cleaners, polishes,
sanitary preparations, textile agents, perfumes, cosmetics, paints, adhesives
and sealants, and printing inks.
                                     39

-------
      In  1972  there were  7,405 establishments primarily engaged in producing
 such  products.  They employed 351,400 people, purchased materials valued at
 $9.142 billion, and shipped products valued at $24.4 billion.C1)

      Five  segments of  this very diverse industry accounted for 64 percent of
 the total  establishments in the industry, 49 percent of employment, purchased
 77 percent of the dollar value of materials, and shipped 83 percent of the
 dollar value  of products.  Table 1 shows pertinent information on these five
 industry segments.  Manufacturing processes will be discussed for these and
 some  of  the smaller segments of the industry.

 Pharmaceutical Preparations

      Other segments of the pharmaceutical industry are primarily engaged in
 manufacturing biological products, medicinals, and botanical products in
 bulk.  The major activity of this segment of the industry is fabricating or
 processing drugs into  pharmaceutical preparations for human or veterinary use.
 Most  of  the ingredients used are purchased in bulk from other suppliers,
 although many of the larger companies manufacture some of the ingredients
 they use.

     Pharmaceutical preparations are classified as ethical or proprietary
 Ethical Pharmaceuticals are promoted to physicians, dentists, or veterinarians
 for their  direct use or to be prescribed for the public.   Proprietary phar-
 maceuticals are promoted directly to the public for over-the-counter sales
 for use on humans or animals.   Proprietary Pharmaceuticals account for about
 75 percent of the total value of shipments of all pharmaceutical preparations
 for human  and veterinary use.   Veterinary Pharmaceuticals (both ethical and
 proprietary) account for only about 3.5 percent of the value of shipments of
 all pharmaceutical preparations.

     About half (379) of the 756 establishments shown in Table 1 employed
 fewer than 10 people in 1972,  whereas 24 establishments employed 1000 people
 or more.   Average employment was 148 people per establishment.

Manufacturing Processes—

     Pharmaceutical preparations may be used in solid, semi-solid, liquid,
 or gaseous forms.   A wide variety of dosage forms exists, including tablets,
hard and soft gelatin capsules,  powders, microcapsules, ointments, creams,
 suspensions, solutions, syrups,  lozenges, aerosols, inhalants, injectibles,
 and others.  All establishments engaged in formulating pharmaceutical prep-
 arations  must be equipped to produce one or more of these dosage forms.

     Most of the equipment and the general processes used in formulating
pharmaceutical preparations are common to many other products.  However,  some
 aspects of the processing are unusual.   Most products are prepared in re-
 latively small batches, and different products are processed in the same
equipment.   This leads to an unusual amount of cleaning of equipment prior to
 changing from one product to another.   Many of the process operations are
 conducted in separate rooms to prevent any cross contamination of products.
Quality control is more important in the formulation of pharmaceutical

                                     40

-------
TABLE  1.  MAJOR INDUSTRY SEGMENTS THAT PRODUCE COMPOUNDED
           ORGANIC CHEMICAL PRODUCTS

$ Million
Industry
Segment
Pharmaceutical preparations
Soap and detergents
Cleaning, polishing, and
sanitary preparations
Perfume, cosmetics, and
toilet preparations
Paint, varnish, etc.
Establishments
756
642
1,108
646
1,599
Employees ,
1000
112.0
31.5
25.1
48.3
66.0
Cost of
Materials
1,576
1,374
759
1,243
2,061
Value of
Shipments
7,150
3,394
1,868
4,057
3,824

-------
preparations than it is in most other industries.  Finally, inventory control
is very important at all stages of production, packaging, labeling, storage,
and shipment.

     Very general diagrams are shown for production of the more common dosage
forms of pharmaceutical preparations.  Figure 18 is a generalized process for
fabricating tablets or capsules.  Tablets may be made by a wet or dry process,
depending on stability and other properties of the ingredients.

     Figure 19 shows a general process for producing liquid pharmaceutical
preparations.  Except for the need for sterile conditions and quality control,
this is a very simple process.

     Figure 20 shows a general process for producing semi-solid pharmaceutical
preparations, such as ointments, creams, and suppositories.  The relative
difficulty of working the ingredients together determines the type of milling
or emulsification required.

     Figure 21 shows a general process for producing parenteral solutions for
injection.  Since these solutions enter directly into the body without first
going into the intestinal tract, aseptic conditions are particularly
important.

Waste Streams—

     The most significant waste streams are probably the aqueous wastes gen-
erated in cleaning equipment.  These wastes contain many types of biological
agents.

     Dusting occurs in many of the process steps.  Since both air temperature
and humidity must be controlled, and dust must be kept away from both workers
and other products, an elaborate air-filtration system is required or a great
deal of outside air must be conditioned.  The dust is ultimately an air contam-
inant, water contaminant, or solid waste.

     When non-aqueous solvents are used, small amounts may be air contami-
nants or water contaminants from the cleaning operations.

     Shipping containers in which ingredients or preformed packaging units
are received make a contribution to solid waste.  Breakage may also make a
contribution to solid waste.

Soap and Detergents

     This segment includes establishments primarily engaged in the manufactur-
ing of soap, synthetic organic detergents, inorganic alkaline detergents, or
any combination thereof, and establishments producing crude and refined
glycerin from vegetable and animal fats and oils.

     Three large companies (out of over 300) dominate the household detergent
market with over 80 percent of the business.  They have a lesser position in
laundry detergents, other household cleaning products, and industrial cleaning


                                     42

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RECEIVING
\
,
/
WEIGHING
DISPENSING

/
DRY BLENDING
\
/
COMPRESSION
V
/
COMMINUTION



©


/
WET
GRANULATION
BLENDING
SCREENING
DRYING
LUBRICATION





©
s

CONTROL
/
BLENDING
MILLING
>
/
ENCAPSULATION
1 ^
LUBRICATION
COMPllESSIONf
    V
 COATING
 TABLETS
                         COMPRESSION
                            COATING
                              P-©
                            TABLETS
                                                        CAPSULES
 FIGURE 18.   PRODUCTION OF PHARMACEUTICAL TABLETS  AND CAPSULES.
              Source:  Versar Report.
                               43

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      WEIGHING
     DISPENSING
                         RECEIVING
SOLVENTS
  ETC.
                         BLENDING
                       FILTERING
                        STORAGE
         = QUALITY
           CONTROL
                         LIQUID
                       PACKAGING
FIGURE 19.  PRODUCTION OF LIQUID PHARMACEUTICAL PREPARATIONS.
                Source:  Versar Report
                            44

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                            RECEIVING
                                     QC
                             WEIGHING   |
                            DISPENSING  I
                            	^1
                              MILLING
                                                   QC
QUALITY
CONTROL

HEATED
BLENDING

i 	 "• 	 ~;

t \s
i i • i
ROLLER COLLOID HOMOGENTZER
MILL MILL (LIQUID
(SOLIDS) (GUMS) CREMES)


_0

^ £
viy c

PACKAGING ]
FIGURE 20.   PRODUCTION OF SEMI-SOLID PHARMACEUTICAL
             PREPARATIONS.
             Source:  Versar Report.
                                    (5)
                             45

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                AMPOULE
                FILLING
                  \/
             STERILIZING
                                     STERILE
                                    SOLUTIONS
                                      ROOM
                                   FILTERING
                                    STERILE
                                    STORAGE
                                   PACKAGING
                                   LABELING
ASEPTIC
AMPOULE
FILLING
FIGURE  21.   PRODUCTION OF PARENTERAL PHARMACEUTICAL PREPARATIONS
             Source:  Versar report.'.5)
                                  46

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compounds.  Overall in 1972, fifteen establishments (out of 642) accounted
for 47 percent of the value of shipments.

Manufacturing Processes—

     Basic raw materials are caustics,  fats,  oils, salts, and surfactants.
The soap-making processes, either those utilizing the alkaline saponification
of fats and oils or those employing the saponification of fatty acids, may be
either batch or continuous.  The steps or operations performed include saponi-
fication of the fats and oils by boiling in a caustic solution using live
steam, followed by "graining" or precipitating the soft curds of soap out of
the aqueous lye solution by adding sodium chloride.  The soap solution then
is washed to remove glycerine and color body impurities to leave the settled
or neat soap to form on standing.

     A typical product of this industry is bar soap.   Most bar soap today is
manufactured by the "milling" process.  Milled soaps, as they are called by
the industry, usually are manufactured by one of two processes.   In the older
and still more commonly used process shown in Figure 22, the soap stock is
batched in a mixer, called a "crutcher", with other ingredients.  The batch
is then flowed onto chill rolls, and then flaked off and passed through a
steam-heated hot-air dryer.  The flakes can be packaged as flake soap or
ground and packaged as powder.  When soap bars are made, the flakes from the
dryer are "plodded" (mixed in a screw or sugar tubular mixer) or mixed with
final ingredients such as perfume.  The plodded material then is fed to a
roll mill.  The flaky soap produced by the roll mill then is plodded again to
throughly mix ingredients and improve texture and is extruded in a continuous
bar shape for cutting, stamping, and wrapping.(^)

Waste Streams—

     All chemical processes and some of the other operations involved in mak-
ing soap, production of fatty acids, and the purification of glycerine have
odors as a common air pollution problem.  Blending, mixing,  drying, packaging,
and other physical operations are subject to the air-pollution problems of
dust emissions.  Process water is used to clean up the various pieces of
equipment, therefore the wastewater will be mainly soap.  Most of the soap
wastes would be recycled.  Solid waste results from the packaging operations.

Polishes, Bleaches and Sanitation Products

     This segment includes establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing
furniture, metal and other polishes; waxes and dressings for fabricated
leather and other materials; household, institutional, and industrial plant
disinfectants and deodorants; household bleaches; dry cleaning preparations;
and other sanitary preparations.  This segment is composed of 1108 establish-
ments operated by 1023 companies.

Manufacturing Processes—

     Most of the products of this industry segment are prepared as solutions,
emulsions, or pastes, although some are prepared in solid form.   Blending and


                                     47

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MIXER




CHILLING
ROLLER




r - ^




^

MIXER
PERFUME

f
ROLL
MILL



PLODDER


'
CUTTER
/>


CTAVDpTJ


s

BAR
PACI^GING
i
oo
                                                                                                      Air Emissions
                                                                                                      Water Emissions
                                                                                                      Solid Emissions
                             FIGURE 22.   FLOW DIAGRAM MILLING SOAP BARS.
                                                                              (2)

-------
mixing are common operations in this industry.  No specific process repre-
sentative of this industry segment was found.  The simplified diagram shown
in Figure 23 should be fairly typical of processes used in preparing
emulsions or pastes.

Waste Streams—

     Odors may be evolved in all of the process steps.  Some particulate
matter may also be evolved in the milling operations.  Water pollution should
not arise from the actual process operations, although cleanup of spills and
cleaning of equipment would contribute to water pollution.  Solid wastes
would include the containers in which starting materials were received.

Toilet Preparations

     This segment of the industry includes establishments primarily engaged
in manufacturing perfumes, cosmetics, and other toilet preparations.  This
segment also includes establishments primarily engaged in blending and com-
pounding perfume bases, and those manufacturing shampoos and shaving products.
This segment is composed of 646 establishments operated by 594 companies.

Manufacturing Processes—

     One of the leading products in this segment is shampoo.  The manufacture
of shampoos is relatively simple.  Generally, the only major equipment needed
are stainless steel manufacturing kettles jacketed for heating and cooling,
and equipped with adequate agitation.  Shampoos normally consist of water
solutions or suspensions of one or more cleansing agents combined with other
ingredients or additives.'"'

     Synthetic detergents are generally used as cleansing ingredients, al-
though soap also finds some application.  Additives include thickeners,
opacifiers, conditioners, lime-soap dispersants, sequestrants, solubilizing
and coupling agents, bacteriostatic and fungistactic materials, perfume,
color, etc.

Waste Streams—

     Water is used for cleaning the process kettles.  The wastewater includes
diluted shampoo.  Alcohol and solvents are also used to clean the process
kettles.  Air pollution could consist of various odors.

Paint and Allied Products

     This industry is composed of establishments primarily engaged in the
manufacturing of paints (in paste and ready-mixed form), varnishes, lacquers
enamels, and shellac; putties, wood fillers, and sealers; paint and varnish
removers; paint brush cleaners; and allied paint products.

     The paint and varnish industry is one of the oldest manufacturing in-
dustries in the United States.  The industry is made up of about 1,500 com-
panies currently operating about 1,700 plants.(7)  The industry is well

                                     49

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          SOLID
       INGREDIENTS
        MIXING
  LIQUID
INGREDIENTS
                          HEATED
                        BLENDING
                          MILLING
                             OR
                        HOMOGENIZING
                        PASTE  OR
                        EMULSION
\
/
PACKAGING
WAREHOUSING
                                             Air Emissions
                                             Water Emissions
                                             Solid Emissions

FIGURE 23.  PRODUCTION OF PASTES  OR EMULSIONS.
                             50

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distributed  geographically  throughout  the  country  and  production  volume  is
definitely related  to  density  of  population.   Even though  about 36  companies
account  for  about 64 percent of the  total  sales, the industry  is  one  of  the
few  remaining  which contains numerous  small  companies  that specialize in a
limited  product  line to  be  marketed  within a geographic  region.   There are
fewer  than 20  companies  that sell paint  nationwide.

Manufacturing  Processes—

     Paints  can  be  divided  into two  categories,  (1) water-base  paint and
(2)  oil-base  paint.   The major production difference  is in the carrying
agent—oil-base  paints are  dispersed in  an oil mixture,  while water-base
paints are dispersed in  water  with a biodegradable surfactant used  as the
dispersing agent.   The next significant  difference is  in the cleanup  pro-
cedures.  As the water-base paints contain surfactants,  it is much  easier to
clean  up the tubs with water.  The tubs  used to make oil-base paint are  gen-
erally cleaned with an organic solvent,  but  cleaning with  a strong  caustic
solution is  also a  common practice.(8>9)

     There are three major  steps  in  the  manufacturing  of oil-base paints:
(1)  mixing and grinding  of  raw materials,  (2)  tinting  and  thinning, and
(3)  filling  operations.  The flow diagram  in Figure 24 illustrates  these steps.

     At  most plants, the mixing and  grinding of raw materials for oil-base
paints are accomplished  in  one production  step.  For high-gloss paints,  the
pigments and a portion of the  binder and vehicle are mixed into a paste  of
a  specified  consistency.  This paste is  fed  to a grinder,  which disperses the
pigments by  breaking down particle aggregates  rather than  by reducing the
particle size.   Two types of grinders  are  ordinarily used  for this purpose:
pebble or steel  ball mills, or roll-type mills.  Other paints are mixed  and
dispersed in a mixer using  a sawtoothed  dispersing blade.

     In  the  next stage of production,  the  paint is transferred to tinting and
thinning tanks,  occasionally by means  of portable  transfer tanks but  more com-
monly by gravity feed  or pumping.  Here, the remaining binder and liquid, as
well as  various  additives and  tinting  colors,  are  incorporated.  The  paint is
then analyzed  and the  composition is adjusted  as necessary to obtain  the
correct formulation  for the  type of paint being produced.   The finished product
is then  transferred to a filling  operation where it is filtered, packaged and
labeled.(^,9)  jn a  large plant, these  operations are usually mechanized.

     Water-base  paints are  produced  by a slightly  different method  than  oil-
base paints.   Figure 25  illustrates  a  typical  process  for  manufacturing  water-
base paints.   The pigments  and extending agents are usually received  in  proper
size, and the  dispersion of the pigment, surfactant, and binder into  the ve-
hicle is accomplished  with  a saw-toothed disperser.  In  small plants,  the
paint is thinned and tinted in the same  tub, while in  the  larger plants  the
paint is transferred to  special tanks  for  final thinning and tinting.  Once
the  formulation  is  correct  the paint is  transferred to a filling operation
where it is  filtered,  packaged, and  labeled  in the same  manner as for oil-base
paints.
                                      51

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       PIGMENTS
                             OIL
                               I
                 MIXING
                  TANK
                STONE OR
                 ROLLER
                  MILL
 PEBBLE
   OR
BALL MIX
                              THINNING
                                AND
                               TINTING
                                TANK
                                                RESINS
                                TINT  AND
                                THINKERS
DISPERSION
   TANK
                                                          Air Emissions
                                                          Water Emissions
                                                         Solid Emissions
FIGURE 24.  FLOW DIAGRAM OF MANUFACTURING PROCESS FOR OIL-BASE  PAINTS.
                                                                             (10)
                                      52

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  PIGMENTS
RESINS OIL
SURFACTANTS
WATER
                                                   NX
                                     DISPERSING
                                        TANK
                                                  x\
                                       PAINT
                                      TINTING
                                      THINNING
                                      PACKAGING
                                        AND
                                       FILLING
                                       (PAINT
                                                       Air Emissions
                                                       Water  Emissions
                                                        Solid Emissions
FIGURE 25.  FLOW DIAGRAM OF MANUFACTURING PROCESS  FOR WATER-BASE PAINTS.
                                                                         (10)
                                     53

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Waste Streams—

     Air emissions result from the grinding and mixing operations of dry
materials and the addition of solvents to the tinting and thinning operations.
Solid waste in the form of sludge is a result of the cleanup operation.  Waste-
water is generated from the tubwashing operations in the manufacture of water-
base  paints.  The final cleanup for oil-base  paint tubs consists of flushing
with a petroleum solvent until clean.  The dirty solvent is then treated one
of three ways: (1) it is used in the next paint batch, (2) it is sold to a
solvent reclaiming company where it is sometimes redistilled and resold, or
(3) it is placed in a drum and the cleaner solvent decanted for subsequent
tank cleaning and return to drums until only sludge remains in the drum.  The
drum of sludge is then sent to a landfill for disposal.

Manufacturing Processes—

     Varnish cooking processes are conducted in two types of vessels—the open-
topped portable kettle and the newer, totally enclosed, stationary kettle.

     The open kettles are cylindrical vessels with dished or flat bottoms.
They usually are transported on a three- or four-wheel truck, and are heated
over an open flame.  This type of kettle usually varies in capacity from 185
to 375 gallons and is made of steel, copper, monel, aluminum, nickel, or
stainless steel.  Under most operating conditions, the kettle is charged in a
loading room and then moved to the fire pit.  It is heated over the fire pit-.
then, when the reaction is complete, transferred to another location for cool-
ing.  The thinning process involves pumping the hot varnish to another vessel
which contains cold solvent, and some solvent to volatilize to the atmosphere
during this operation.  In the past, it was common to manually agitate the
contents during cooking.  Materials in open kettles now are seldom agitated
manually.  Agitation is provided by air-driven or electrically driven mixers
and by sparging the contents with an inert gas, such as carbon dioxide or ni-
trogen.  The open kettle still is employed extensively in varnish-manufactur-
ing establishments.(2)

     The closed stationary vessels are almost exclusively found at chemical
companies engaged  in manufacturing of a wide variety of paint bases.

Waste Streams—

     Vapor or gases are emitted from the open kettles during the cooking pro-
cess.  Water pollution results when wet scrubbers are used to control air
emissions, and when the cooking tubs are cleaned, using a caustic cleaning
solution.  The caustic cleaning solution is reused and diluted or treated
before discharging to the municipal sewer system.  Solid wastes are treated
and shipped to landfills.

Adhesives and Sealants

     This industry is made up of establishments primarily engaged in manufac-
turing industrial and household adhesives, glues, caulking compounds, sealants,
and linoleum, tile, and rubber cements.  It can be further categorized by

                                      54

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product type as follows:

     1.  Natural base glues and adhesives

     2.  Synthetic resin and rubber  adhesives, and

     3.  Caulking compounds and sealants.

Essentially, this is a  compounding or  formulating industry.   In general, raw
materials are manufactured under other industrial classifications although
some companies may manufacture chemical raw materials for adhesives and seal-
ants and also manufacture the finished products.  The 1974-1975 adhesives Red
Book lists 745 companies and 1114 plants engaged in the manufacture of ad-
hesives, ranging in size from less than 5  to over 1,000 employees.  On the
other hand, the 1972 Census of Manufactures lists only 463 establihments as
being primarily engaged in manufacturing adhesives and sealants.  They employ-
ed 14,900 people, purchased materials  valued at $504 million, and shipped
products valued at $928 million. (-*-'  The synthetic resin and  rubber adhesives
category accounts for about 70 percent of  the value of shipments with the re-
mainder split between the other two  categories.

Manufacturing Processes—

     The manufacturing  processes vary  with raw materials and  type of product.

     Natural-Base Glues and Adhesives—The natural-base  glues include animal
glues (hide, bone), protein adhesives  (casein, blood, fish, soybean), vege-
table adhesives (starches, dextrins),  and  bituminous cements.  In the manu-
facture of animal glues the general  process consists of cleaning the hide or
bones, extraction with  hot water or  steam, filtration, evaporation and drying.
Figures 26 and 27 present the processes in more detail.

     Casein is prepared by acidifying  skimmed milk to pH 4.5  to precipitate
the solid curd from the liquid (Figure 28).  The curd is washed, dried and
ground.  Casein adhesives are prepared using alkali dispersing agents and
other additives such as preservatives,  plasticizers, viscosity-control agents,
and fillers.

     To prepare fish glue, selected  fish skins are washed free of preservative
(salt) and cooked with  hot water to  extract the protein (5-7 percent solids),
filtered, and concentrated to 40 to  50 percent solids.  A preservative is
added to the adhesive (Figure 29).

     Soybean flour is prepared from  dehulled, extracted, and  dried soybeans
keeping the temperature below about  160 F  to preserve the solubility of soy-
bean protein.  Soybean  flour is mixed  just before use with compounds to aid
wetting, dispersion, defoaming and optionally crosslinking, blending adhesive
resins, and fillers.

     Blood glues are prepared from fresh liquid blood collected in packing
plants.  The clotting substance is removed, preservatives added, and the
liquid spray-dried or vacuum dried at  carefully controlled temperatures.

                                      55

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       HIDES
                       WASH
                 WATER
MILK OF LIME
 CURE
                                    ->NON-GLUE PROTEINS
      WATER
MINERAL ACID 	H   TREAT
WASH
   HOT WATER 	^   COOK
                   I ..FILTER
                  EVAPORATION
                   r
DRYER
                     ADHESIVE
DILUTE ACIDS
                  EXTRACTED HIDES
                                      SOLIDS
                 WATER
WATER
                                      Air Emissions
                                      Water Emissions
                                      Solid limissions
 FIGURE 26.   HIDE GLUE MANUFACTURE.
                        56

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BONES
  STEAM	

   CYCLING

HOT WATER
                   CLEANED
EXTRACTOR
                   FILTER
                CENTRIFUGE
                 EVAPORATOR
                   DRYER
                  GRINDER
                  ADHESIVE
                   ->BONE
                                     .SOLIDS
                   .GREASE, FAT
                                   Air Emissions
                                   Water Emissions
                                   Solid  Emissions
 FIGURE  27.   BONE GLUE MANUFACTURE.
                      57

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           SK1MV!LD  MILK —
          ACID
          HC1 OR LACTIC
                          r
r-FT'N
                          I	
                                 CURD
                               (CASEIN)
LIQUID
                                WASHER
                                        /?
                                DRIER
                               GRINDER
                             ADDITIVES
                             ADHESIVE
                     ALKALI
                     OILS
                     FILLERS
                     VISCOSITY CONTROL
                    'PRESERVATIVES
                    "PLASTICIZERS
                                                      Air Emissiopc
                                                      Water Emissions
                                              "Tb
                                                      Solid Emissions
FIGURE  28.  MANUFACTURING PROCESS FOR  CASEIN GLUE.
                                 58

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  FISH SKINS
   WATER HOT
                         WASHER
     HOT
  EXTRACTOR
(5-7% SOLIDS)
                        FILTER
                       SALT,  ETC.
                                           -SKINS
BACTERICIDE
                                   J>
                      CONCENTRATOR
                     40-50 % SOLIDS
                        ADHESIVE
                                        Air Emissions
                                        Water Emissions
                                        Solid Emissions
  FIGURE 29.  FISH GLUE PROCESSING.
                          59

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Soluble and partly soluble blood is used for adhesives with appropriate
additives and fillers.

     Starch (corn, potato, wheat, and tapioca) can be degraded inexpensively
into a wide range of adhesive products including thin-boiling starches,
oxidized starches and dextrins.  Aqueous dispersions of these materials with
dispersing aids, defearners, fillers, etc. are widely used adhesive systems.

     Synthetic Resin and Rubber Adhesives—The range of raw materials for
synthetic resin and rubber-based adhesives include essentially all types
or organic polymeric compounds.  Table 2 lists the chief base materials for
adhesives.  Obviously, it is extremely difficult to make general statements
concerning emissions and waste streams.  Table 3 presents types of materials
used as compounding ingredients in adhesives.  This also covers a wide range
of chemical compounds.

     In general, the adhesives are manufactured as water dispersions or
solutions, solutions in organic solvents, or as solvent-free semisolid or
solid products.  Water-dispersed adhesives may be formed by emulsion poly-
merization of the base material or dispersion of pre-polymerized material
in water.  Figure 30 presents a flow chart of these processes.  Solvent
systems are prepared by dissolving the adhesive compound or compounds in an
organic solvent.  The physical properties of the raw material and the
viscosity of the product dictate the type of equipment necessary.  Low-
viscosity resins can use low-shear, high-speed stirrers while high-viscosity
products may require high-shear mills to produce solutions.  Hot-melt ad-
hesives may be prepared by hot milling ingredients and cooling the product.
Figure 31 outlines the steps in preparing synthetic resin-based adhesives.
Rubber-based adhesives may require milling of the rubber between steel rolls
at room temperature or elevated temperatures.  This softens the rubber and
renders it more soluble.

     Sealants are made from elastomeric materials, either alone or with
pigments and solvents.  Many types of sealants have been developed to solve
specific problems.  The physical properties of the sealant are varied by
varying the elastomer (high or low molecular weight compounds), pigment
(powder, fibrous, platelike), and sometimes solvents.  Sealants are formu-
lated for gun or knife application and (with solvents) brush or spray.
Manufacturing processes for sealants are similar to those for adhesives,
that is, the elastomers are blended with additives such as plasticizers
and pigments then diluted with solvents, if required.

Waste Streams—

     Natural-base  adhesives processing presents the possibility of generat-
ing volatile material during the digestion steps.  Usually there is solid
waste (unextractable portion of bones, hides, etc.).  These are usually
processed further into by-products such as fertilizer.  Cleanup of processing
equipment may result in waterborne waste.
                                    60

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   TABLE 2.  MATERIALS FOR SYNTHETIC RESIN AND RUBBER ADHESIVES
Thermoplastic Adhesives
     Aerylate-vinyl acetate
     Acrylic-ethylene
     Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene
     Cellulose acetate
     Cellulose acetate butyrate
     Cellulose caprate
     Cellulose nitrate
     Chlorinated polyethylene
     yanoacrylate
     Ethyl cellulose
     Hydroxyethyl cellulose
     Methyl cellulose
     Polyacrylate
     Polyacrylic esters
     Polyamide

Thermosetting Adhesives
     Epoxy
     Epoxy ester
     Epoxy/bitumen
     Furan
     Melamine formaldehyde
     Phenol formaldehyde
     Phenol formaldehyde-resorcinol
     Phenolic

Rubber-Based Adhesives
     Butadiene acrylonitrile rubber
     Butadiene-polyacrylate rubber
     Butadiene-styrene rubber
     Butyl rubber
     Chlorinated rubber
     Cyclized rubber
     Depolymerized rubber
     Natural rubber

Hot-MeIt Adhesive
     Polyamides
     Polycarbonates
     Polyesters
     Polyolefins
     Polyvinyl acetate
Polyester
Polyether
Polyimide
Polymethacrylate
Polystyrene
Polysulfone
Polyvinyl acetal
Polyvinyl acetate
Polyvinyl alcohol
Polyvinyl butyral
Polyvinyl chloride
Polyvinyl formal
Vinyl acetate-ethylene
Vinyl chloride-vinyl acetate
Vinyl chloride-vinylidene
Phenolic-epoxy
Polyester
Polyethylene imine
Polyisocyanate
Polyurethane
Resorcinol formaldehyde
Silicone
Urea formaldehyde
Polybutadiene
Polychloroprene
Polyisobutylene
Polyisoprene
Polysulfide
Polyurethane rubber
Reclaimed rubber
Silicone rubber
                                    61

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TABLE 3.  ADHESIVE CHEMICALS AND COMPOUNDING INGREDIENTS
            Accelerating and vulcanizing agents
            Antioxidants
            Bleaches
            Collodial stabilizers
            Crosslinking and insolubilizing agents
            Defoamers
            Dyes and pigments
            Extenders and fillers
            Humectants
            Liquifiers
            Perfuming and masking agents
            Plasticizers
            Preservatives
            Softners
            Solvents
            Tackifiers
            Thickeners
            Ultra-violet absorbers
            Wetting agents
            Miscellaneous chemicals
                            62

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    MONOMERS
  EMULSION
POLYMERIZATION
   POLYMER
  DISPERSION
    ADHESIVE
     (a)
ADDITIVES
                                   Air Emissions
                                   Water Emissions
                                    Solid Emissions
                             POLYMER
                                                           DISPERSION
                                                             ADHESIVE
                              (b)
 FIGURE 30.   WATERBASED ADHESIVES;  (A)  EMULSION POLYMERIZATION AND
             (B) DISPERSION PROCESSES.
                                   63

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        SOLVENT
     IF REQUIRED
       ADDITIVES
     Air Emissions
     Water Emissions
                                 ADHESIVE
                                    BASE
                                    RESIN
                                BLENDER
                                 PACKAGE
     Solid Emissions
FIGURE 31.   SYNTHETIC RESIN AND RUBBER BASE ADHESIVES.
                           64

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     Often the raw materials for synthetic resin and rubber-based adhesives
are manufactured at a site other than the adhesive formulation installation.
In this case the manufacturing process consists essentially of dissolution
and blending ingredients and packaging the resultant mixture.  There may be
volatile components of the resins and the volatile organic solvents used
present possible emissions to be controlled.  If fillers such as clay are
used, particulate emissions may be a problem.  Liquid waste may be generated
in clean-up operations.  Wastewaters from synthetic resin and rubber based
products contain high dissolved solids, heavy metals, total suspended solids,
BOD, COD, and hexane extractibles.

     Specific statements for the industry as a whole are difficult because of
the very wide range of chemical compounds used as base materials and addi-
tives.  Some manufacturers produce a wide range of products while others
produce only one type with possibly several grades.

Printing Ink

     This industry consists of establishments primarily engaged in manufact-
uring of the following types of inks:

     Bronze ink
     Gold ink
     Gravure ink
     Ink, duplicating
     Ink, printing: base or finished
     Lithographic ink
     Printing ink
     Screen process ink.

     The ink manufacturing industry is similar to the paint industry in that
it is essentially a formulation industry.

     Printing ink production in the United States now exceeds one billion
pounds per year.  The industry comprises over 250 printing ink producers.
However, seven companies share over 50 percent of the market: Inmont, Sinclair
and Valentine, Sun Chemical, Cities Service (F. H. Levey), Tenneco Chemicals
(California Ink), Borden, and Flint Ink.  Many large-volume users are
captive producers as, for example, American Can, Reuben H. Donnelly, Bemis
Bag and others. (H'

Manufacturing Processes—

     Both oil- and water-base inks can be made in the same factory.  Many of
the same raw materials are used and the inks are produced with, generally,
the same equipment.  Some oil-base pigments may be blended into the extenders
and carriers before being dispersed by roll or ball mills.  The various oils
and resins, lacquers, clays, pigments, and dispersing agents used are gen-
erally the same.  The major difference is the use of either oil or water as
the dispersing medium.  The production of ink products consists of milling,
dispersion and mixing operations.
                                     65

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     The processes and equipment used by the ink industry are very similar to
those used by the paint industry and will not be discussed here.

     Figure 32 shows a typical flow diagram for the ink industry.

Waste Streams—

     Solvent vapor emissions occur in almost every phase of manufacturing and
in numerous locations throughout individual plants.  Typical emission points
are:

     Blending tanks
     Grinding
     Dispersion
     Holding tanks
     Filtering
     Packaging
     Storage tanks.

The loading or unloading of pigments and other dry solid into grinding and
dispersion equipment results in dust emission into the surrounding plant
areas.

     The only process wastewater from ink formulation is the water used for
tubwashing.  However, sometimes this water is recycled and the sludge is
transported to landfills.

Fireworks and Pyrotechnics Industry

     This industry consists of establishments manufacturing a wide array of
pyrotechnic items and fireworks for military and civilian uses.  Military
pyrotechnics include light effects for illumination and signalling (flares),
smoke, noisemakers, and specialized heat sources.  Civilian pyrotechnics
comprise all types of fireworks, railroad and highway fuses, railroad tor-
pedoes, and specialized heating devices.  The scope of this industry varies
widely from, for example, toy caps to 2-million-candlepower illuminating
flares.  This industry appears to depend on empirical, practical, and pro-
prietary processes and formulations.  According to the 1972 Census of Manu-
facturers,  the industry annually ships products worth about  $40  million.^
Thomas Register 1976 lists 36 companies engaged in one or more parts of this
industry.

Manufacturing Processes    '

     The manufacture of pyrotechnics is a hazardous industry and adherence
to  safety regulations is of utmost importance.

     The overall process involves formulation of the pyrochemicals and
assembling  the pyrotechnical material within the container or package
(Figure 33).  The complexity of the finished device varies from  paper caps
(small powder charge between paper layers) to display fireworks  with numerous
charges of  different composition and complex fusing arrangement  to control


                                     66

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                                                                 SOLVENT
              STONE
                OR
            ROLLER MILL
          FEEBLE
            OR
         BALL MILL
DISPERSING
  TANK
                     THINNING
                       TANK
	If
  FILLING
 PACKAGING
    AND
  SHIPMENT
                                                      Air Emissions
                                                      Water Emissions
                                                      Solid Emissions
FIGURE 32.  GENERAL FLOW DIAGRAM FOR THE FORMULATION OF  OIL-BASE  INK.
                                                                            (12)
                                     67

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      ACCESSORY
      MATERIALS
                                  OXIDIZERS
BLEND
                                    PACK
                                     \s
                                   PRODUCTS
                                                    Air Emissions
                                                    Water Emissions
                                                    Solid Emissions
FIGURE 33.  FLOW DIAGRAM OF MANUFACTURING FIREWORKS AND PYROTECHNIC
            MATERIALS.
                                     68

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ignition and propulsion for desired effects.  Complex timing devices that
result in the ejection of the pilot from aircraft or separation systems in
astronautics are examples of sophisticated pyrotechnic applications.

     Formulation of the pyrochemical materials consists of blending combina-
tions of the following items:

     Fuels.  Historically charcoal and sulfur, but now includes
     a large variety of materials such as metallic powders (mag-
     nesium, aluminum, iron, titanium, zirconium, manganese
     molybdenum, tungsten, lead, etc.); nonmetals, such as silicon
     and boron; and some organic materials such as gallic acid,
     picrates, carbohydrates, oils, and waxes.

     Oxidizers.  Nitrates of sodium, potassium, strontium, and
     barium; potassium chlorate and potassium perchlorate;
     fluorocarbon polymers; and hexachloroethane, etc.

     Binders.  Dextrins, gum arabic, cellulose nitrate, poly-
     esters, shellac, etc.

     Accessory Materials.  Dry-flow control and mining aids,
     liquid desensitizers, moisture-barrier materials, and
     neutralizers.

     Blending procedures depend on the texture and sensitivity of the result-
ing mixture.  Loose powders are blended by simple tumbling or in a V-shaped
tubular blender.  Some mixtures require  a more vigorous action with alter-
nate squeezing and plowing as with a steel muller.  The latter methods are
used with formulations containing polymeric binders.

     The pyrochemical mixture, ranging from loose powder to plastic mass, is
then loaded into the final package or device.  This varies from hand pouring
to automatic metering for the loose materials.  Other materials are packed
into paper or metallic tubes, depending on the end product.  The charges may
be packed with light pressure to form pellets, cylindrical columns, or a long
chain.  Military devices may require high-pressure hydraulic forces to pack
steel or brass tubes or molds.  Hand packing or hydraulic presses are used
depending upon degree of consolidation required and the degree of automation
attained.

     Most pyrotechnic items involve more than one compound of different
chemical or physical properties.  For example, an aerial display piece re-
quires igniting fuse, propelling charge, fusing for secondary propulsion of
"stars", colored or explosive charges, plus any special-effect charges.  De-
tails of these separate formulations and especially techniques for prepara-
tion are generally proprietary.

     The processing of pyrotechnical materials is primarily dry with liquids
used as volatile compounds or as processing aids and binders for forming
solid masses of materials.
                                     69

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Waste Streams—

     During compounding, dry materials are generally mixed in closed containers,
often with wetting liquids to reduce sensitivity.  Possible emissions  consist
of volatiles from organic liquids or binder  solvents and solid particulate
material from ingredients.  The hazardous nature of these materials would
seem to dictate that any loose material would be minimized.

     During packing or loading, because of the hazardous nature  of compounds,
special care is taken to minimize material losses.  Materials at this  stage
are essentially dry solids.

RUBBER AND MISCELLANEOUS PLASTICS PRODUCTS

     The rubber-processing industry is a highly diversified one  involving the
synthesis of polymers as well as the fabrication of polymers and natural
rubber into finished products.  It is also quite fragmented; over 2000 plant
locations have been identified.  The segments of the rubber industry covered
in this analysis consist of the following industries:

      •  Tire  and  inner  tubes

      •  Rubber and plastics  footwear

      •  Reclaimed  rubber

      •  Rubber and plastics  hose  and belting

      •  Fabricated rubber  products

      •  Retread tires.

 The miscellaneous  plastics products industry consists  of  7,698  establishments,
 and employs  347,000 people,  producing  a wide diversity of  products.

 Tires  and Inner Tubes

      The  tire and  inner tube  industry  consists  of  56  plants producing  172
 million  tires and  53 million inner  tubes  annually  for  a total  rubber con-
 sumption  of  2.5 million tons  per  year.(19)   Tire  and  inner tube plants are
 located primarily  in Ohio  and southeastern   U.S.   A few are  located  in
 northern  U.S.  and  the  remainder  are scattered widely  throughout the  country.

 Manufacturing Processes—

      The  raw  materials  used  in manufacturing tires consist of  rubber (natural
 and synthetic),  oil,  fabric,  wire,  carbon black,  and  various  additives such
 as antioxidants,  antiozants,  curing agents,  and catalysts.  Soapstone
 although  not  a raw material, is used extensively in the tire  industry to pre-  ,
 vent uncured  rubber from  sticking to  itself.  Soapstone comprises a  major
 source of suspended solids in the effluent waste  from tire plants.
                                      70

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     The typical tire manufacturing process consists of the following:

     1.  Preparation or compounding of the raw materials

     2.  Transformation of these compounded materials into
         the five tire components

     3.  The building, molding, and curing of the final
         product.

     A flow diagram for the typical plant is shown in Figure 34.  The basic
machinery units used in the compounding operation are the Banbury mixer and
the roller mill.  A Banbury mixer is a batch-type internal mixing device and
is the hub of this compounding operation.  After mixing, the compound is
sheeted out in a roller mill, extruded into sheets, or pelletized.  The pro-
cess depends on the type of batch (reactive or non-reactive) and the manu-
facturer.  Pelletizing of a non-reactive batch permits the weighing and mix-
ing of the stock to be done automatically.  The reactive compounded rubber is
always sheeted out.

     The rubber stock,once compounded and mixed, must be molded or transformed
into the form of one of the final parts of the tire.  This consists of several
parallel processes by which the sheeted rubber and other raw materials, such
as cord and fabric, are made into the following basic tire components: tire
beads, tire treads, tire cords, and tire belt (fabric).

     In the formation of tire treads, the rubber stock as it is received from
the compounding section is manually fed to a warm-up roller mill.  Here the
rubber is heated and further mixed.  Heat is provided by the conversion of
mechanical energy.  Temperature control is provided by the use of cooling
water within the rolls of the mill.

     To produce tire cords and belts, rubber stock must be impregnated onto a
pretreated fabric.  The fabric is led off a roll, spliced onto the tail of
the previous roll (either adhesively or by a high-speed sewing machine), and
fed under controlled tension (via a festooner) to a latex dip tank.  After
dipping and while still under tension, the fabric is fed past vacuum suction
lines or rotating beater bars to remove the excess dip before the fabric
rises through a drying and baking oven.

     In the processing of rubber stock to tire beads, the rubber is extruded
onto a series of copper-plated steel wires, which are then cemented, wrapped,
and cut.  The rubber stock is pretreated, as before, in a warm-up mill and
strip-feed mill.  Excess rubber is trimmed from the bead before it leaves
the extruder and is fed back to the strip feed mills.  To apply cement the
coated wire is passed through a trough or set of brushes.  The cement is
necessary to insure the proper adhesion of the bead when it is wrapped.

     The tire is molded and cured in an automatic press.  Here a rubber
bladder bag is inflated inside the tire, causing the tire to take its charac-
teristic doughnut shape.  The mold is simultaneously closed over the shaped
tire.  Heat is applied by steam via the mold and bladder bag.  Excess rubber


                                     71

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ho
                Rubber, Dry
                 Compound
              Fabric and Wire
                 Storage


Green Tire
Inspection
ar.d Painting


Tire Molding
and Curing


Inspection
Storage
Shipping


Tire
Finishing
.
77

                                                                                                   Air Emission*
                                                                                                   Water Emission*
                                                                                                    Solid Emissions
            FIGURE  34.  DIAGRAM FOR TYPICAL TIRE  AND CAMELBACK PRODUCTION
                         FACILITY.

                         Source:  Tire and Synthetic, EPA 440/1-73/013

-------
and trapped air escape through weepholes.   After a timed, temperature-con-
trolled cure, the press is cooled, the bladder is deflated via a vacuum, and
the tire is removed.  The tire is next inflated with air and left to cool in
the atmosphere.  This last inflation insures product quality and uniformity
by allowing the tire to "set up" or achieve the final limits of its cure
under controlled conditions.

     After the molding and curing operations, the tire proceeds to the grind-
ing operation where the excess rubber which escaped through the weepholes is
ground off.  If the tire is designated to be a whitewall, additional grinding
is performed to remove a black protective strip.  Most tires receive further
grinding of the tread in order to balance the tire.

     After the grinding operations, the whitewall portion of a tire receives
a protective coat of paint.  The paint is generally water based.  This
operation usually occurs in a hooded area.  Solids from any wet air pollution
equipment or runoff due to overspraying of the paint will create pollution
problems.  After inspection and possibly some final repairs, the tire is
ready to be shipped.

Waste Streams—

     Table 4 presents a review of the potential sources of wastewater
streams.  Air emissions result  from the compounding, green tire printing,
and tire finishing operations.  Solid waste results from the grinding
operations.

 Manufacturing Processes—

     Inner tube manufacturing is very similar to tire manufacturing in that
the process consists of the following steps:

     1.  Preparation or compounding of raw materials

     2.  The extension or compounding of raw material to
         form a tube

     3.  The building, molding and curing to form the final
         products.

A flow diagram for the typical process is shown in Figure 35.

     The basic machinery used in the compounding operation is similar to that
used in tire manufacturing, namely, Banbury mixers and roller mills.

Waste Streams—

     Pollutants are emitted by the Banbury mills operation when carbon black
is added to the mill.
                                     73

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             TABLE 4.   SUMMARY  OF POTENTIAL  PROCESS-ASSOCIATED WASTEWATER
Plant Area
                              Source
                             Nature and Origin of Wastewater Contaminants
Compounding
Bead, tread, tube
 formation
Cord and belt
 formation

Green tire painting
Molding and curing
Tire finishing
Run off

Washdown, spills, leaks,
 discharges from vet air-
 pollution equipment
Washdown, spills, leaks
Washdown, spills, leaks
Washdown, spills,  air-
 pollution equipment
Washdown, leaks
Washdown, spills,  air-
 pollution equipment
Oil

Solids from soapstone  dip  tank
Oil from seals in  roller mills
Oil and solids from Banbury  seals
Solids from air-pollutior.  equipment discharge

Oil and solvent-based  cements from  the  cementing
 operation
Oil from seal? in  roller mills

Organics and solids from dipping operation
Oil from seals in  roller mills,  calenders,  etc.

Organics and solids from spray-painting operation
Soluble organics and solids  from air  pollufion-
 equipnent discharge

Oil from hydraulic system
Oil from presses

Solids and soluble organics  from painting operation
Solids from air-pollution  equipment discharge
SOURCE:  Tire and Synthetic Segment,  EPA  440/1-73/013
                                                     (20)

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 Carbon
 Black
 Rubber
and Dry
Compound
Storage
Extender
  Oil
Storage
                                              Tube
                                            Formation
u
Inspection, Packaging,
and Shipping


Tube Slicing,
Molding,
and Curing
•^ —
                                                                                   Air Emissions
                                                                                   Water Emissions
                                                                                   Solid Emissions
                FIGURE   35 .   FLOW DIAGRAM OF A TYPICAL  INNER TUBE PRODUCTION FACILITY-

                      Source:  Tire  and  Synthetic Segment, EPA 440/1-73/013

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Rubber Hose and Belting

     This industry consists of establishments engaged primarily in the manu-
facture of rubber hose and belting, including garden hose.  The establish-
ments that manufacture these products include the major rubber companies and
several others.  At present 68 companies manufacture hose and belting.  Many
of the companies manufacture mechanical goods in the same plant.  In 1972,
90 establishments in this industry shipped products valued at $1.02 billion
and employed 31,900 persons. (*•'

Manufacturing Processes—

     Hose manufacture can be classified according to the manner in which the
hose is produced.  Such factors as service, size, production volume, and cost
usually determine the method by which the hose is made.  The greatest pro-
portion of all hose manufactured today is produced by highly mechanized
equipment specially designed for the purpose.  Three fundamental methods of
hose manufacture exist, producing the following types of hose:(21)

     1.  Machine-wrapped ply hose

     2.  Hand-built hose

     3.  Braided and spiralled hose.

     Hand-Built Hose—The term hand-built hose applies to two general types
of hose, non-wire reinforced and wire reinforced, which are made by hand on
a steel mandrel.  The hose is made by hand when it is too large in diameter,
too long to fit in the three-roll making-machine, or when the hose is made
with special ends.  The hand method is also used frequently when the fabric
reinforcement must be applied one ply at a time.  The mandrel is mounted on
a series of double roller stands and one end of the mandrel is held in the
jaws of a powerdriven chuck to rotate the mandrel during the making
operations.

     Braided and Spiralled Hose—The term braided hose identifies a type of
hose construction and method of manufacture in which the strands of rein-
forcement are interlaced or interwoven in addition to spiralling around the
tube.  Braided hose is produced in size ranging from 5 to 200 millimeters
(0.2 to 8 inches) internal diameter.  A variety of methods are available for
manufacture.  Factors such as internal diameter, length, burst strength,
production rate, and cost dictate to a large extent how the hose is made.

     Manufacturing commences with the extrusion of a tube supported on a
flexible mandrel or a non-supported tube in lengths up to 50 meters (165
feet) or in continuous lengths.  Non-supported tube must be firm enough in
the unvulcanized state to resist deformation and stretching under normal
processing conditions.  A high percentage of braided hose is made with a
non-supported tube.  When the tube is too thin or too soft to withstand
subsequent processing or when the internal diameter must be kept within a
narrow range, it is supported on a flexible mandrel.  The mandrel is at least
as long as the hose to be made, has a round cross-section, and can be coiled


                                     76

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in a small diameter.  It is made of rubber or plastic material and may have
a wire core to prevent stretching.

     Belting—The other major product in this industry is belting.  Compound-
ing is carried out inthe conventional manner as in tire plants.  The com-
pounded rubber is then calendered onto fabric and cured in an autoclave or by
continuous cure.  V-belts are made on special equipment.  They have wire
reinforcement centers and are covered with rubberized fabric.  The rubber is
mixed by standard methods, i.e., in intensive mixers.  The stock is then
calendered onto fabric, slit, and wrapped on wire by means of special
equipment.

Waste Streams—

     Table 5 shows the origin of the wastewater from the production of rubber
hose and belting.  Air emissions result from the compounding operations.

Fabricated Rubber Products

     This industry consists of establishments primarily engaged in manufac-
turing industrial and mechanical rubber goods, rubberized fabrics and
vulcanized rubber clothing, and miscellaneous rubber specialties and sun-
dries.  In 1972 there were 1,103 establishments, employing 99,000 persons,
which shipped products valued at $2.83 billion.Cl)

Manufacturing Processes—

     Processes employed in this industry segment are varied.  Processes used
are compounding, milling, fabrication, molding, vulcanization, and extrusion.
The manufacture of molded rubber products is representative of the process
in this industry.

     Several methods are used to mold rubber products.   The selection of a
particular molding technique is dependent on the nature of the product, the
type of rubber, and production economics.   The principal methods used for
the manufacture of general molded products are the compression, transfer,
and injection-moIding processes.  In many cases all three techniques are used
at one plant location.

     Rubber molding processes typically consist of the following:

     1.  Compounding of the rubber stock

     2.  Preparation of the mold preforms or blanks

     3.  Molding

     4.  Deflashing.

     Compression Molding—Compression molding is the oldest method of making
molded parts.   The uncured rubber is formed to the approximate shape, re-
ferred to as a preform,and placed in the individual cavities of the mold.


                                    77

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           TABLE 5.   PROCESS-ASSOCIATED WASTEWATER  SOURCES  FROM THE PRODUCTION OF RUBBER HOSE  AND
                      BELTING
00
             Plant Unit or Area
             Oil storage

             Compounding
             Extrusion
             Calendering
             Curing(a)
             Testing
                                                            Source
Spills and leaks

Washdown, spills,  leaks,  and
 discharges from wet  air-
 pollution control equipment
Cooling waters,  spoils,  and
 leakages

Spills and leaks
Condsnsate
Spills and leaks
                                      Nature and Origin of
                                    Waste Water Con-./\nin.?nts
Oil pick-ap by stor^, run-off

Solids from soapstone dip  tank.
Oil and water leaks  from nixers
 and mills.  Solids  fro:n wet  air-
 pollution control  equipment  dis-
 charges.

Anti-tack agent- in  cooling tank
 overflows, oil fro™ raachiriery

Solids from soapstone dip  tank.
Oil and water leaks from mixers
 anc' mills

Organics and lead leached  by  steam
 vul~anizer condensate

Oil pick-up hydraulic testing water
             (a)  Waste waters generated by curing  operations are essentially limited to hose manufacture.

             (b)  Test in;; waters .ire used only in hose  manufacture.
             Source:  Fabricated and Reclaimed  Rubber,  EPA 440/]-74/030
                                                                      (21)

-------
As the mold is closed under pressure, the compound conforms to the shape of
the cavity and the excess material is forced out into a flash groove.

     Transfer Molding—Transfer molding involves the transfer of the uncured
rubber stock from one part of the mold to another.  The stock, in the form
of blanks, is placed in a recess called the pot or transfer cavity.  The pot
is fitted with a ram or piston which is inserted over the stock.  The force
of the press when applied to the ram plus the heat from the mold causes the
stock to be softened and flow through runners into the previously empty mold-
ing cavities, where the stock is cured in the desired form.

     Injection Molding—Injection molding is the newest method of molding and
requires the greatest degree of sophistication both from the standpoint of
materials and mold design.  Basically, it is the same as transfer molding
with the exception that the stock is injected into the cavities.  There are
essentially three different types of injection-molding machines.  One machine
uses a ram to force the stock through runners into the cavities; another uses
a screw; the third is a combination of the first two and is a reciprocating
screw.  Figure 36 shows a typical flow diagram for a molded item.

Waste Streams—

     Airborne particles generated during the compounding operations are
controlled by wet-scrubbing devices.  Solid waste is generated during de-
flashing operations.  When metal-bonded items are produced, the metal is
degreased with a solvent and sometimes the metals are pickled.  The spent
degreasing solvent is generally drummed and hauled from the plant, while the
pickle liquor requires containerization or treatment before it is discharged.

Tire Retreading

     Tire retreading is an industry dominated by independents.  Approximately
4,500 retreading shops or plants are currently registered with the Federal
Department of Transportation and the number of tires retreaded by the in-
dustry as a whole approaches 32 million each year.(21)  There are a few
large retreading plants which are operated by the major tire companies:
Firestone, Goodyear, Goodrich, and General, etc.  In most aspects these are
very comparable to a plant manufacturing new tires.  An average retreading
requires approximately 10 pounds of rubber per passenger tire and 35 pounds
per truck tire.

Manufacturing Processes—

     Figure 37 shows a typical tire-retreading operation.  The majority of
retreading shops purchase the rubber stock from an outside supplier in the
form of camelback tread or extruded spaghetti rubber.  The work tire is first
visually inspected to ascertain its suitability for retreading.  The satis-
factory worn tire is first ground and buffed with a grinding wheel to remove
the old, worn tread rubber.  The buffing is stopped when the tire carcass is
reached.

     The bare carcass is coated with rubber cement and the camelback tread or


                                     79

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oo
o
                        Compound
                         Mixing
                        Milling
Metal
Parts


.
*-
Surface
Preparation


Injection
Molds
Deflashing
  System
 Finishing
    I
 Molded
Finished
Product
                                                                                                 A'r Emissions
                                                                                                 Water Emissions
                                                                                                  Solid Scissions
          FIGURE 36.   FLOW DIAGRAM FOR PRODUCTION  OF A TYPICAL MOLDED ITEM.

                        Source:  Fabricated  and Reclaimed  Rubber,  EPA 440/1-
                                  74/030.

-------
                          Camel Back
                      and  Rubber Cement
                          Inspection
                        and  Shipping
                                            Air Emissions
                                            Water Emissions
                                            Solid Emissions
FIGURE 37-   FLOW DIAGRAM OF A RETREAD  OPERATION.
                             81

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spaghetti rubber is applied around the tire and cut to length.  The tire with
tread rubber is placed in the curing mold and the mold is closed.  Most of
the curing molds are steam heated and the steam condensate is recycled to the
boiler.  Some molds are heated with electricity; these are generally older
than the steam-heated molds.

     After curing, the tire is removed from the mold.  The rubber flash is
buffed off the tire before it is inspected and shipped.

Waste Streams—

     Solid waste is generated by the buffing and grinding operations and
the fine buffings are emitted into the air.  Worn tires that  are found un-
suitable for retreading are removed from the shop as solid waste.

Reclaimed Rubber

     The category includes establishments which are engaged primarily in
reclaiming rubber from scrap rubber tires, tubes, and miscellaneous waste
rubber articles by processes which result in devulcanization, depolymeriza-
tion,  or regeneration of products that contain added ingredients.  These
products are sold for use as raw materials in the manufacture of rubber
goods, sometimes mixed with crude or synthetic rubber, sometimes not.

     The quantity of scrap rubber being reclaimed and reused  and the number
of rubber reclaiming plants operating in the United States have both steadily
declined over  the past decade.  Some of this reduction is probably due to
development of new rubbers not compatible with reclaimed rubber, but the
major  decreases  are undoubtedly the result of cost, quality,  and environmental
considerations.

     By  far the most important source of raw material is tire scrap.  The
supply is plentiful and well distributed so that it is relatively easy to
collect.  The  quality of rubber in tires is high, giving an unusually high
percentage of  rubber hydrocarbon at low cost.  The whole tire creates pro-
blems  due to the  tire-cord fiber contained in the carcass portion.  This
fiber  has to be removed either by mechanical means or by chemical methods
such as  those  used in the digester process.  In 1972 there were  20 establish-
ments  employing  900 persons that shipped products valued at  $23  million.

Manufacturing  Processes—

      Reclaimed rubber  is  the product resulting  from  the  treatment  of  ground
 scrap  tires,  tubes, and miscellaneous waste rubber articles  with heat  and
 chemical agents.   Substantial  devulcanization or  regeneration of the  rubber
 compound to  a  plastic  state is effected,  thus permitting  the product  to  be
 reprocessed,  compounded,  and revulcanized.  The  term "devulcanization" which
 is frequently  associated with  reclaiming  is a misnomer.  Devulcanization
means  breaking the  chemical bonds  at crosslinking sites.   Actually,  all  the ,
 commercial  reclaiming  processes employed  are based on  depolymerization of
 the rubbers.   This depolymerization  can occur either  by  promoting  thermal
                                     82

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scission or breaking of the polymer chain by oxidation at points other than
at crosslinking sites.  Some scission of the existing crosslinks may also
occur.

     Three basic techniques are used at existing plants to produce reclaimed
rubber: the digester process, the pan process, or the mechanical process.  A
generalized material flow diagram for the three processes is shown in
Figure 38.

Waste Streams—

     Wastewater results from the wet digester reclaim processes and air
emission results from the various grinding processes, while solid waste is
generated from the processes that separate the rubber from the fiber and
metal.

Rubber Footwear

     This industry consists of companies that manufacture all rubber and
plastics footwear, waterproof fabric upper footwear, and other fabric upper
footwear having rubber or plastic soles vulcanized to the uppers.  This
report covers plants that make products of PVC as well as rubber.

     This industry shipped products valued at $600 million and 107 establish-
ments employed 31,500 persons in 1972.^

Manufacturing Processes—

     The process description presented below pertains to canvas shoe pro-
duction, which utilizes all the major processing technologies commonly found
in the manufacture of general fabricated products.  A schematic flow diagram
for a typical canvas shoe production facility is shown in Figure 39.

     The various rubber stocks consumed in a canvas shoe plant are compounded
in Banbury mixers or compounding roll mills and then sheeted out.  The sheet-
ed rubber is dipped in an anti-tack solution to prevent sticking during
storage.

     The canvas shoe is built from four major components:  soles,  canvas
uppers, boxing, and inner soles.   These components are made separately by
varying operations before being brought together in the fabrication operation.

     The soles are generally molded by injection, compression, or transfer
molding techniques.  (All molding processes can produce oil spills and leaks;
however, compression and transfer molding equipment generally produce more
oil spillage than the injection molding machines.)

     The molded soles are deflashed, usually in a buffing machine, before
coating with latex adhesive.  The latex coating is dried in an oven.

     The canvas components for footwear are made from two- or three-ply
fabric.  The fabric is received at the plant as single sheets.  Latex is


                                      83

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Rubber
Scrap



Grinding.
Cracker Mills,
Magnetic
Separators ,
Screens
00
                           9
                                                                                  Mechanical
                                                                                Depolyraerizatlon
                                                   Depolyr.erizati.on
                                                   Oils and Agents
                          De?oly=erization
                          and refiberization
                          Agents and Oils
       FIGURE  38.
                                                 VET DIGESTER RECLAIM PROCESS


FLOW DIAGRAM FOR  TYPICAL  MECHANICAL, PAN (HEATER),  AND WET
DIGESTER RECLAIM.

NOTE:   Some  reclaim facilities  operate  more  than one  processes

Source:  Fabricated and Reclaimed Rubber, EPA 440/1-74/030.
                                                                                                         Air Emissions
                                                                                                         Water Emissions
                                                                                                         Solid Emissions

-------
                                    Rubber,  Pigment
                                   and Mix Compound
                                      Mixing  and
                                      Compounding
                            Compression
                              Molds
Extrusion
                                  Inspection, Packing
                                      and Storage
Extrusion and
 Calendering


1
Def lashing j^



/\
Shoe Building


                                                                   Air Emissions
                                                                   Water Emissions
                                                                   Solid Emissions
FIGURE  39.   FLOW DIAGRAM  FOR THE PRODUCTION OF  TYPICAL CANVAS FOOTWEAR ITEM.
                                                                              (21 ")
             Source:   Fabricated and  Reclaimed Rubber, EPA  440/1-74/030.
                                        85

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applied to the plies, which are pulled together and passed over a heated drum.
The sheets are stacked and the multilayer canvas is stamped to shape.  The
different canvas components making up the shoe uppers are stitched together
on sewing machines.

Waste Streams—

     Latex is used in several applications as an adhesive.  Spills, leaks, and
cleanout wastewaters, laden with uncoagulated latex solids, are frequently pro-
duced.  At the end of the curing cycle the ammonia/air mixture is vented to
the atmosphere.  Air-pollution control devices are used and no air-pollution
problems or requirements appear to be associated with this practice.  Solid
wastes are generated from the buffing machines.

Miscellaneous Plastics Products

     This industry includes establishments primarily engaged in molding
primary plastics for the trade, and fabricating miscellaneous finished
plastics products.  Establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing fab-
ricated plastics products or plastics film, sheet, rod, nontextile monofila-
ments and regenerated cellulose products, and vulcanized fiber are classified
in this industry, whether resins are purchased or produced in the same plant.
Establishments primarily engaged in compounding purchased resins are also
classified in this industry.

     Miscellaneous plastics products were produced by 7,698 plants, in 1972,
averaging 45 workers each.'I'  Most of these plants (57 percent) employ fewer
than 20 workers.  This industry shipped products valued at $10.7 billion.  A
wide diversity of products are manufactured from plastics.

Manufacturing Processes—

     Thermoplastic and thermosetting resins are the major raw materials with
the principal manufacturing operations being physical property modification,
molding and forming, assembly operations, and material coating.

     In general, plastics products are made by forcing the compounded raw
material to conform to a mold shape, usually by the application of heat and
pressure, and then causing the material to solidify to the mold configuration
by cooling or curing.  Additional work may be done on the molded part such
as machining to a finer tolerance or joining of the part to another of a
similar or dissimilar nature.  After fabrication a functional or decorative
coating or other surface alteration may be applied to the part in a finishing
operation.

     The manufacture of plastic trays is representative of the plastics in-
dustry manufacturing processes.  A typical operation presently in use in the
plastics products industry is shown in Figure 40.  The raw material, usually
polyethylene, polypropylene, or polystyrene, is received in a standard pre-
compounded form from a volume supplier.  The manufacturer usually has a wide
choice of standard formulations available to meet his particular functional
and esthetic requirements.  The resin as received may be dried in a

                                     86

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              RAW  	
              PLASTIC
BLEND
DRY
INJECTION
  MOLD
CLEAN
oo
                                                                    HOT STAMP
                                                             FINISHED
                                                               TRAY
                                                                                         Air Emissions
                                                                                         Water Emissions
                                                                                         Solid Emissions
            FIGURE 40.   PLASTIC TRAY MANUFACTURING.
                         Source:  Machinery  and mechanical products  manufacturing.
                                                       (22)

-------
circulating air oven depending upon its hygroscopic properties and the ambient
relative humidity.

     The raw dried  plastic,  usually in the form of pellets, is processed by
injection molding.   Injection molding is a thermoplastic process in which a
quantity or "shot"  of material in plasticated form is injected into a closed,
cooled mold cavity  and allowed to harden to the shape of the mold.  The part
is removed from the mold and then trimmed of excess material.  The use of a
"paintable" mold-release agent negates the need for any further cleaning
operation.  The tray is now  ready for finishing,  which consists of applying a
decorative design by hot stamping.   Hot stamping is a process in which a heat-
ed die is applied to a "color foil" which is in intimate contact with the
tray.  The die configuration is thereby transferred to the tray as a colored
pattern.

Waste Streams—

     Process water  may be used for the following purposes:

     1.  Direct contact cooling as in the extrusion process

     2.  Direct contact heating as in the preexpansion and
         compression molding of polystyrene foam

     3.  Washing of oils or  water-soluble heating/cooling/
         lubricating fluids  from a plastic part if such were
         used during a machining, annealing, or molding pro-
         cess (mold release  agents)

     4.  Removal of dust or  paint mist generated in a grinding
         or spray painting operation

     5.  Rinsing of plastic  parts following an electroplating
         process

     6.  Washing of processing equipment contaminated in any
         of the above processes or in an otherwise clean pro-
         cess such  as slush  molding.

     Solid waste is generated when parts are machined or trimmed.  Pollutants
emitted to the atmosphere from plastic manufacturing plants include partic-
ulates  and hydrocarbons.  The particulate emissions are resin powders, dust
and solid additives.  Hydrocarbons consist of blowing agents, monomers,
dimers, solvents and additives.

     Significant air waste streams can be identified from the unit fabrication
methods employed by this segment of the plastics industry.  It is known, for
example, that the resin-supplying industry has adjusted the rate of free
vinyl chloride monomer in PVC to permit safe handling.  However, specific
problems may exist  which would require additional studies to assess their
importance.  Examples of these specific "potential" problems might be the
nitrile blowing agents used  in some foam manufacture and the isocyanates used

                                      88

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in some blow molding and spray application of urethane.  In-depth studies
should concentrate on specific materials such as, for example, styrene and
acrylonitrile.  Both of these materials give off sufficient odor during
processing to attest to their volatility.  However, it is assumed that styrene
is held to acceptable concentrations and no problems exist with acrylonitrile.
Both of these suppositions bear further investigation.

LEATHER GOODS

     The leather goods industry fabricates many consumer products from
leather and other materials.  The major types of products include shoes, hand-
bags, purses, wallets, gloves, and luggage.

     Many of the products are no longer strictly the province of leather.
Many other materials are now used in conjunction with leather or in place of
leather.  However, these other materials are used by the same establishments
that manufacture leather goods, and products including the other materials
must be considered as part of the output of the leather goods industry.

     There were 2,684 establishments in 1972 primarily engaged in the pro-
duction of leather goods and related products.  They employed 944,000 people,
purchased materials valued at $1.953 billion, and shipped products valued at
$4.71 billion.t1)

     Virtually all of the leather goods industry is embraced within the
segments that produce shoes, personal leather goods, and luggage.

Personal Leather Goods

     Personal leather goods include women's handbags, purses, and pocketbooks,
leather gloves and mittens, billfolds, card cases, glasses cases,  cigar cases,
cigarette cases, key cases, jewelry cases, tobacco pouches, and other
personal items.

     There were 794 establishments in 1972 primarily engaged in fabricating
such personal items.  They employed 39,000 people; purchased leather valued
at $70 million, fabrics and other sheet goods valued at $87 million, and
other materials worth $115 million; and shipped products valued at $705
million.(1)  It is noteworthy that the value of non-leather sheet goods ex-
ceeded by nearly 25 percent the value of leather purchased.

Luggage

     Luggage includes suitcases, traveling bags, trunks, valises,  shoe kits,
satchels, sample cases, briefcases and attache cases, cases for musical in-
struments, camera bags and cases, and hat boxes (except paper and paperboard).

     There were 277 establishments in 1972 primarily engaged in manufacturing
such products.  They employed 17,000 people; spent $5 million for leather,
$39 million for fabrics and other sheet goods, and $102 million for other
materials; and shipped products valued at $365 million.^'  These statistics
show clearly that leather is no longer a very important material of


                                     89

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construction in the luggage segment of the leather goods industry.  Further-
more, the value of hardware and other non-sheet materials purchased far
exceeds the value of all sheet materials purchased as linings, walls, and
pockets for luggage.

Shoes
     The manufacture of shoes includes the cutting of boot and shoe stock
and the production of shoes, boots, house slippers, and other footwear (ex-
cept rubber) for men, women, and shildren.  In 1972, there were 1,165 U.S.
establishments primarily engaged in fabricating shoes of leather and other
materials.  They employed 881,000 people; spent $600 million for leather,
$274 million for other sheet goods, and $594 million for other materials; and
shipped products valued at $3.479 billion.(1)

                       (23)
Manufacturing Processes

     The manufacturing processes for shoes are more complex than are those
for other leather goods.  Because of the dominant position of shoe manu-
facturing in the leather goods industry and the complexity of the shoemaking
process, no other processes will be discussed.

     The basic operations in shoe manufacturing are cutting, forming, and
fastening, but these are broken down into several suboperations.  Further-
more, due to the advent of many new materials and new machinery, there are
many variations in the shoe-manufacturing process.

     Figure 41 shows a generalized process for the manufacturing of shoes.
This process should be approximately correct for shoes of any conventional
manufacture, although it does not apply to any type of molded footwear.
Different manufacturers may combine these operations in various ways.

     The shoe industry has descriptive names for process operations, or  the
rooms in which they occur, that may not be readily understood by those out-
side the industry.  The activities that occur in these various operations
will be discussed briefly in the following paragraphs.

     Cutting Room—The parts for the shoe upper are cut here with dies.  In
the case of leather uppers, the dies must be so placed on the leather as to
provide appropriate characteristics for the different parts of the shoe  and
care must be taken to avoid color mismatches.  A great deal of money can be
lost through careless or unskilled cutting.

     In addition to leather, upper parts of fabric, vinyl, or other materials
are cut here, as well as liner materials.

     Stitching Room—In the stitching (fitting) room, the edges of the die-
cut leather uppers are skived (tapered) to provide a bevel for good fit.
Some areas of the uppers may be split to provide thinner leather in some
parts of the shoe.  The parts are appropriately sewed together and the seams
are rubbed or taped to make them smooth.  Reinforcing materials may be added
here, and an inner lining may be cemented on.  Top edges are folded and

                                     90

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           LEATHER,  VINYL,
             FABRIC,  ETC.
               CUTTING
                ROOM
CEMENT 	
THREAD 	

 LACES —;
                                               INSOLE MATERIAL
                                               OUTSOLE BLANKS
                      EYELETS
            STICH1NG
             ROOM
                           UPPERS
                 REINFORCING	

                   STAPLES
                   CEMENT
                    FILLER 	
                 LOW HEELS
                 HIGH HEELS
                     STAIN  -

                       WAX —
        TOP DRESSING
PACKAGING MATERIALS
                             FINISHING
                                ROOM
                                                                           I
                                                               STOCK
                                                              KITTING
                                                               ROOM
                                                          INSOLES
                                           — TACKS
                                             THREAD
.
\


LASTING
ROOM
~ 1 v


BOTTOMING
AND MAKING
ROOM

Y ^

(

                                                           OUTSOLES
                                    TREEING AND
                                     PACKAGING
                                       ROOM
                                                                 Air Emissions
                                                                 Water Emissions
                                                                 Solid Emissions
     FIGURE 41.   GENERALIZED PROCESS FOR MANUFACTURING SHOES.
                                                             (23)
                   Source:   Practical leather technology.
                                       91

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cemented or stitched,  eyelets are placed, and laces are put in place.

     Stock Fitting Room—In this area, insoles are die-cut from appropriate
materials and outsole  blanks are reduced in thickness near the edges or
otherwise prepared for use, depending on the type of construction to be used.

     Lasting Room—The upper, insole, and reinforcing parts of the shoe are
brought together in the lasting room.  Operations vary somewhat, depending
on the type of construction being used.  In a typical operation, the insole
is first tacked to the last, then the upper is fitted to the last and tacked
on.  The toe is pulled over with a machine, then the component parts are
fastened together by stitching, cementing, or stapling, depending on the
particular construction.

     Bottoming Room—The outsole is attached to the shoe in the bottoming and
making room.  In some  types of construction, a filler is placed between the
insole and the outsole before final attachment.  The sole may be attached by
sewing or cementing, perhaps with some use of tacks or staples as well.  Low
heels are attached while the shoe is still on the last.

     Two recent developments that help reduce manufacturing costs are the
direct-molded sole and the injection-molded sole.  In the direct-molding
operation, the preformed upper and insole assembly is placed on top of the
precut sole in a mold.  Heat and pressure applied to the mold force the sole
into the desired shape and vulcanize the sole in a firm bond with the upper.
In the injection-molding operation, the preformed upper insole assembly is
placed in a mold and the molten outsole material is forced into the lower
part of the mold, forming and bonding the sole in place.

     Finishing Room—The attached outsoles are trimmed and smoothed in the
finishing room, and the edges are stained and waxed.  If the shoe is to have
a high heel, it is removed from the last before attaching the heel with nails
driven from inside the shoe into the heel.

     Treeing and Packaging Room—The completed shoes are cleaned and may be
given a top dressing.   After buffing and inspection, they are packaged and
stored for inventory and shipment.

Waste Streams—

     The activities that produce waste streams will be discussed briefly in
the following paragraphs.

     Cutting Room—Considerable cutting scrap arises from this operation.  To
the extent that it is  not reusable, it makes a significant contribution to
solid waste.

     Stitching Room—Material removed in skiving, splitting, and the placing
of eyelets constitutes a modest solid waste.

     Stockfitting Room—Significant solid waste arises from these cutting and
trimming operations.


                                     92

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     Lasting Room—There should be no significant waste stream from lasting
other than thread ends and an occasional bent tack or staple.

     Bottoming Room—There should be no significant waste stream from con-
ventional bottoming and making operations.  Some air pollutants are emitted
when soles are direct-molded or injection-molded.

     Finishing Room—Some solid waste is generated in trimming and burnishing
the sole edges.  Solvents used in the staining and waxing formulations create
modest air pollution.

     Teeing and Packaging Room—Solvents used in top dressing formulation
cause modest air pollution.

FLEXIBLE ROOFING, FLOORING, AND
PAVING PRODUCTS

     This industry includes establishments that manufacture asphalt materials
for roofing, asphalt and vinyl-asbestos floor coverings, and asphalt and tar
paving materials.  In 1972 there were approximately 1,240 such plants that
employed about 35,400 people and shipped products valued at $2.142 billion.

Asphalt Paving Mixtures and Blocks

     This industry includes plants primarily engaged in the manufacture of
asphalt and tar paving mixtures and paving blocks made of asphalt, creosoted
wood, and various compositions of tar and other materials.  Shipments of
paving mixtures and blocks in 1972 represented 93 percent of the industry
total product shipment.  The census of manufactures reported 586 companies
and 964 plants in 1972 producing paving mixture and blocks in the United
States.(l)  They employed 13,900 people and shipped products valued at
$923 million.

     In addition, there are approximately  4,800 asphalt paving plants in the
United States that use paving products.(15)  An estimated 1,200 plants are
mobile plants operated by highway contractors.(^)  Xo the extent that the
paving plants prepare their own paving products, they would have waste
streams comparable to those of the paving mixtures and block industry.  These
paving contractors also have waste streams associated with use of the paving
products.  However, they are not included in this study of compounding and
fabricating industries.

Manufacturing Processes—

     Asphaltic concrete is the combined product of sand or gravel with as-
phalt, as shown in Figure 42.  The sand or gravel is heated and dried in a
rotary drier.  The dried sand or gravel is transported to a mixing hopper
where a weighed amount of asphalt is introduced.^17)

Waste Streams—

     Asphalt concrete has been recognized as a major source of particulate


                                     93

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                ASPHALT
                                    SAND  OR GRAVEL
                                                    Air Emissions
                                                    Water Emissions
                                                     Solid Emissions
FIGURE 42.  MANUFACTURING PROCESS FOR ASPHALTIC CONCRETE.
                                  94

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emissions  in  the  United  States.1?    Fabric  filter  and medium energy
scrubbers  preceded by  a  cyclone  are  used  to  collect dust  from the  dryer-   The
dry collection  system  is  the most widely  used  system in the industry today.
Mineral fines collected  in  the dryer are  used  in  the hopper mixer.  Emissions
also occur  from the asphalt storage  tank.  The wet  system is  costly to  in-
stall and maintain.  The  resultant slurry is usually discharged  to an open
pit, where  settling occurs  and the clear  water is recycled.   Fugitive dust
is also an  environmental  problem in  this  industry.

Asphalt Felts and Coatings

     This  industry comprises establishments  primarily engaged  in the manu-
facture of  asphalt-saturated felts in roll or  shingle form, either smooth
or faced with grit, and  in  manufacturing  roofing  cements  and  coatings.  In
1972 there  were 225 asphalt roofing  plants in  the United  States.(1)  The
shipments of  this industry  were  valued at  $869.5  million  in 1972.

Manufacturing Processes—

     The raw  material consists  of felt,  asphalt, sand, mica,  granules, and
talc.

     Asphalt  roofing and  shingles are manufactured  on high-speed continuously
operating machines.  Some types  are  produced at a rate as high as 500 feet
per minute.

     The process  consists of saturating the  felt, coating  the  surfaces with
asphalt, coating with  pulverized or  granular minerals, cooling, cutting, and
packaging.  (Figure 43).

     Saturation of Felt—A  roll  of felt is installed  on a  felt reel, then  is
subjected to  a hot saturating process.  The  usual saturation temperature is
between 232 and 260 C.  The function  of the  asphalt  saturant is to fill the
voids in the  felt, help bind the felt fibers,  and "prime"  the  felt to assure
good coating  adhesion  and improve the weather  resistance of the felt without
damaging the weather-resistant coating.

     Coater—After saturation, the sheet  is  carried  to the coater where the
coating asphalt is applied  to both the top and the bottom surfaces.  The
temperature of the coating  asphalt is  usually  in  the  range of 177-204 C.

     Mineral Surfacing Application^—When smooth-roll  roofing is being made,
talc or mica or another parting  agent  is applied  to the two sides of the
roofing sheet and pressed into the coating by  the press rolls.  When mineral
surface is  being prepared,  colored granules  are added from a hopper and
spread thickly on one  side, and  backing material on the other side.

     Finish or Cooling Looper—The function  of the looper is to cool the
sheet down  to a point where it can be cur  and packed without damage to the
material.   The cooling of the sheet is  accomplished by either splashing water
or by spraying water on the hot  sheet.
                                     95

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            FELT
ASPHALT



GRANULE
TALC



SATURATOR


/

COATER
                          SURFACE APPLICATION  i
                                             r


COOLING LOOP



                                                            Air Emissions
                                                           Water Emissions
                                                            Solid Emissions
FIGURE  43.   FLOW DIAGRAM OF MANUFACTURING ASPHALT  FELT ROLLS  AND
             SHINGLES.
                                   96

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Waste Streams—

     Low-boiling-point hydrocarbon oils in the form of  dense white  air
emissions varying  in opacity  from 50  to 100 percent  are  generated  from the
saturation of felt; dust is emitted from  the mineral application process.
The wastewater is  generally pollution-free except for  suspended particulates
of coatings granules washed off  the felts.

Hard-Surface Floor Covering

     This industry includes establishments that manufacture floor  covering
such as vinyl-asbestos tile, vinyl sheet, and  asphalted  felt-base  coverings
(linoleum).  However, linoleum is slowly  being phased  out and being replaced
by newer vinyl floor covering.   Most  floor tile manufactured today uses a
vinyl resin, although some asphalt tile is still being produced.  The  value
of shipments in 1972 was $153.5  million for vinyl-asbestos floor tile  and
$25 million for asphalt floor tile.'  '
                       / -1 Q \
Manufacturing Processes    —

     The tile-manufacturing process,  shown in  Figure 44, involves several
steps: ingredient weighing, mixing, heating, decoration, calendering,  cool-
ing, waxing, stamping, inspecting, and packaging.  The ingredients are
weighed and mixed dry.  Liquid constituents, if required, are then added and
thoroughly blended into the batch.  After mixing, the batch is heated  to
about 150 C and fed into a mill  where it  is joined with  the remainder of a
previous batch for continuous processing  through the rest of the manufactur-
ing operation.

     The mill consists of a series of hot rollers that squeeze the mass of
raw tile material down to the desired thickness.  During the milling
operation, surface decoration in the  form of small colored chips of tile
(mottle) are sprinkled onto the  surface of the raw tile sheet and pressed in
to become a part of the sheet.   Some  tile has  a surface decoration embossed
and linked into the tile surface during the rolling operation.   This may be
done before or after cooling.  After milling,  the tile passes through
calenders until it reaches the required thickness and is ready for cooling.
Tile cooling is accomplished in  many ways and  a given tile plant may use one
of several methods.  Water-contact cooling in which the file passes through
a water bath or is sprayed with  water is used  by some plants.   Others use
non-contact cooling in which the rollers are filled with water.   In some
plants, the sheet of tile passes through a refrigeration unit where cold air
is blown onto the tile surface.  After cooling, the tile is waxed,  stamped
into squares, inspected,  and packaged.  Trimmings and rejected tile squares
are chopped up and reused.

Waste Streams—

     Direct contact cooling water from the cooling baths or sprays becomes
contaminanted.  Air emissions result from the mixing of the raw ingredients.
                                     97

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                        RAW MATERIALS
                   ASBESTOS, PVC RESINS,

                        PIGMENTS,

                         FILLERS
                             V—
                           MIXING
                          FORMING
                          ROLLING
                             ^/
                          COOLING
                        FINISHING,
                          CUTTING
                         PACKAGING
                                            A
                                            Air Emissions
                                            Water Emissions
                                            Solid Emissions

FIGURE 44.  ASBESTOS FLOOR TILE MANUFACTURING.
                             98

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 INORGANIC  MINERAL PRODUCTS

      This  large  industry consists  of establishments  primarily engaged in
 manufacturing  finished  products  from clay,  glass,  concrete and other in-
 organic minerals.   The  segments  of industry engaged  in mining operations or
 in  producing the raw materials used in the  finished  products are not included.

 Mirrors Made from Purchased  Glass

      Mirrors manufactured  from purchased  glass  are included in this  industry.
 Primary products are mirrors either framed, unframed,  truck, or automobile.

      Numerous  manufacturing  plants in the United States produce one  or  more
 of  the above products.   These plants are  distributed throughout the
 states. (2Zf)

      In 1972,  shipments  of mirrors from purchased  glass amounted  to  $254.5
 million.   Framed,  unframed,  and  automobile  mirrors accounted for  33,  36,  and
 31  percent, respectively,  of the value of shipments.^)

 Manufacturing  Processes—

      The process for manufacturing mirrors  from purchased  glass consists  of a
 series of  sizing and finishing operations,  as shown  in  Figure  45a.  Glassware
 is  usually received  at manufacturing facilities in bulk and  is  scribed and
 broken or  cut  into desired sizes.   Although much of  this glass  is used as-
 received,  some of  the glass  is shaped.  For store-security mirrors, for
 example, the glass is made convex  by heat treatment.  After  shaping, this
 glass undergoes  several  finishing  operations including  polishing and heat-
 tempering.

      Mirrors undergo a coating operation  before final finishing and assembly.
 After rinsing  the mirror surface with  stannous  chloride, the surface is
 coated with silver nitrate.  Coatings  are bonded to  the glass by firing
 coated glassware at  elevated temperatures.(25)  After firing, mirrors are
 cooled and undergo a series  of final finishing  operations.   These operations
 include polishing, etching,  and  engraving.  About  33 percent of these mirrors
 are assembled  into frames, while 36  percent are sold unframed.  The remainder
 are used for automobile mirrors.

Waste Streams—

     Three types  of  waste  streams  are  involved  in  the manufacture of mirrors
 from purchased glass.  These are air,  water, and solid.  This industry is
generally not  considered a major polluter and,  as  a  result, little attempt
has been made  to  reduce emissions.   Air emissions  include glass particulates.
Other air emissions  are dependent  upon the  type of fuel used for curing
coatings.   Water emissions include  glass particulates and silver nitrate.
Solid-waste stream emissions consist almost exclusively of glass.

     Glassware-finishing operations  are sources of particulate emissions into
air-waste streams.   Grinding, polishing,  and engraving of glass surfaces are


                                     99

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                                                            Other Raw
                                                            Materials
                                                            Received
                                        Addj tional
                                        Finishing
                                     	E
                              Final Product
                               Assembled
                                                           Air Emissions
                                                           Water Emissions
                                                           Solid Emissions
FIGURE  45a.   PROCESS  FLOW DIAGRAM FOR THE MIRROR,  DOOR, AND  WINDOW
              (MADE  FROM PURCHASED GLASS)  INDUSTRY.
                                 100

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usually hooded operations and the emissions generally are collected on fabric
filters.  Thus, few of these particulates are discharged into the atmosphere.

     The firing of surface coatings also results in airborne emissions.
These emissions are generally dependent upon the type of fuel used.  Natural
gas, for example, could result in NOX  (NO or NC^), particulates, CO, and
hydrocarbons.  Fuel oils, on the other hand, could additionally result in
SOX (S02 or 803) emissions.  Electric  fuel-fired lehrs are virtually "clean"
and should result in little, if any, air emissions.(26)

     Coating and finishing operations  are both sources of water pollutants.
In both cases, water is used for cooling purposes.  This water is generally
reused numerous times before discharge.  Discarded water is generally dis-
charged into a sewer or septic system  or into a settling pond.  This water
generally contains a glasseous sludge  and heat, either of which could present
a pollution problem.

Other Products Made from Purchased Glass

     The manufacture of products from  purchased glass is included in this
industry.  Several of these products are:

     Aquariums
     Art glass
     Artificial flowers, foliage, fruits, and vines
     Christmas-tree ornaments
     Cut and engraved glassware
     Decorated glassware: chipped, engraved, etched, sandblasted, etc.
     Doors
     Grass, artificial
     Marbles
     Mosaics
     Scientific and technical glassware
     Windows.

There are over 200 glass plants producing one or more of the above products.
These plants are distributed throughout the United States, with the largest
proportion of volume, over 53 percent, in New Jersey, New York, Ohio, and
Pennsylvania.  New York accounts for almost 25 percent of the plants.(24)

     In  1972, shipments of novelties made from purchased glass exceeded
$180 million.  This amounted to an increase of 27 percent over 1967 value
of  shipments.(1)

Manufacturing Processes—

     The manufacturing process of products  from purchased glass consists of a
series  of  sizing and finishing operations,  as shown in Figure 45b.  Glassware
and other  raw materials are usually received at manufacturing facilities in
bulk.   Before  the  glass is processed,  it is sized by cutting and scribing  and
breaking.  Although much of this glass is used as-received, some of the  glass
is  shaped  by heat.  Artificial flowers, foliage,  fruits, and so forth, are

                                     101

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                     Raw Materials
                       Received
                        Glass
                        Sized
                           t
                        Glass
                        Shaped

i ?,
\ Glass
| Finished
"£



9 °
•' /\ //\
Glass
Coated
£? ^J Additional
| Finishing
I
t?
                     Final Product
                       Assembled
                      Storage and
                       Shipment
                                                 Air Emissions
                                                 Water Emissions
                                                 Solid Emissions

FIGURE 45b.  PROCESS  FLOW DIAGRAM FOR PRODUCTS MANUFACTURED FROM PURCHASED
             GLASS.
                                    102

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 heated  to  the glass  melting point  and bent  to the desired shape.   Once  the
 glass is in the desired shape, it undergoes several finishing-type operations.
 These operations  include  polishing,  heat  tempering, etching,  and  engraving.
 After finishing,  aquariums,  art  glass,  doors,  mosaics,  and windows are
 assembled.  Christmas-tree  ornaments and  most  scientific  and  technical  glass-
 ware, on the  other hand,  are coated  with  enamels,  decals,  or  other materials.
 Enamels and some  decals are  bonded to the surface by heat.  Other decals  and
 decorating materials are  stuck to  the surface  of  the ornaments by using a
 commercial adhesive.   These  various  types of  glass products are stored  until
 they can be loaded for shipment.

 Waste Streams—

     This industry is  generally  not  considered a  major  polluter and, as a
 result, little attempt has been  made to reduce emissions.  Air emissions
 include glass particulates  and other emissions, depending  upon the type of
 fuel used for shaping.  Water emissions include glass particulates and heat.
 Solid-waste stream emissions  consist almost exclusively of glass.

     Glassware-finishing  operations  are sources of particulate emissions  into
 air-waste streams.   Grinding, polishing,  and engraving  of  glass surfaces  are
 usually hooded operations and the emissions generally are  collected on fabric
 filters.  Thus, few  of these particulates are  discharged into the atmosphere.

     During the shaping operation, various types of pollutants can be emitted.
 These emissions are  generally dependent upon the  type of fuel used.

     Coating  and  finishing operations are both sources of water pollutants.
 In both cases, water is used for cooling  purposes.  This water is generally
 reused numerous times  before discharge.   Discarded water is generally dis-
 charged into  a sewer or septic system or  into  a settling pond.  This  water
 generally contains a glasseous sludge and heat, either of which could present
 a pollution problem.

     Solids are generally emitted from the sizing, shaping, finishing,  and
 assembly operations.   These emissions consist of a glasseous solid and  are
 normally returned  to the glass plant as cullet.  This  solid waste is  not
 expected to present a  pollution problem.
                                 *
 Concrete Building Block and Brick

     This classification includes concrete and cinder  blocks and  concrete
brick as major products.   Minor products include:

     Concrete  decorative block (split, slump,  shadowal.1)
     Precast  terrazzo plinth blocks
     Sand-lime blocks
     Building  blocks and bricks  made  from other material.
   Unfired brick only.   The common-fired clay brick is  included in the
   refractories industry.

                                    103

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Over 1300 manufacturers operate block and brick plants in the United States.
Most plants are located from 50 to 100 miles from active construction areas.
Because of the high population density and subsequent large amount of con-
struction, the southeast, northeast, and north-central areas(5) contain
approximately 74 percent of these plants.

     In 1972, this industry employed over 22,800 people in 1388 establish-
ments and had total shipments of about 94 million blocks and bricks, valued
at $856 million.(1)  By 1973, the number of people employed had decreased
slightly, while the number of blocks and bricks shipped increased to over
98 million.

Manufacturing Processes—

     Building blocks and bricks are manufactured from a variety of materials,
with the most common manufactured from portland cement concrete.  Other
materials used include: lava, lightweight concrete, gypsum, granite, cinders,
and s and-1ime.

     Typical steps in block and brick manufacture, along with expected waste
streams, are shown in Figure 46.  Controlled mixtures of a bonding material
(e.g., portland cement), aggregates (e.g.,  sand, gravel,  etc.) and water are
batched and mixed at the block and brick plant.  After the batch has been
blended to the desired consistency, the material is formed and compacted with
vibration and pressure in steel molds.   These formed blocks and bricks are
then discharged from the molds and cured by high-pressures steam,  low-pres-
sure steam, or ambient air.   Steam curing is essential for high production
and volume operations, as well as sand-lime and cinder block manufacture.
Only in small operations are products air cured.  After curing, blocks and
bricks are cubed, strapped,  stacked, and stored until they can be loaded for
truck shipment.

Waste Streams—
                     (27 28)
     Previous studies   '    indicate that this industry is not a major pol-
luter and, as a result, little attempt has  been made to reduce emissions.
Emissions generally reflect the raw materials used except during curing.
Curing-operation emissions reflect the type of fuel used as well as the
decomposition of the curing-room shell.

     Emissions occur in the air-waste stream during raw materials unloading,
batching, mixing,and steam curing; particulates are emitted into the atmos-
phere.  The composition of these particulates generally reflects that of the
raw materials.  However, emissions from steam curing are dependent upon  the
type of fuel used.

     Molding, racking,and steam curing are sources of water-waste stream
emissions.  For steam curing, water is used for steam and for boiler cooling.
Steam is driven off into the air-waste stream.  Cooling water, however,  is
either reused, recycled, or discarded.  Discarded cooling water either enters
                                    104

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o
                  9
                                                                                                      Air Emissions
                                                                                                      Water Emissions
                                                                                                      Solid Emissions
        FIGURE 46.   PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM  FOR BLOCK AND  BRICK MANUFACTURE.

-------
the plant's water-waste stream or is discharged into a pond.  The discarded
water generally contains suspended participates and has an elevated temp-
erature. (29)

     During molding and racking operations, water is used to rinse the molds
and racks.  Although this water is often reused, it eventually is discharged
into a waterway or settling pond.  Particulates and some solids are discharged
in this manner. (-29'

     Solid wastes are usually discharged during the molding, racking,  and
cubing operations.  Most of these emissions from molding and racking are
reused, while most solid wastes from cubing are discharged.   These solid
wastes are composed of broken or "scrap" blocks and bricks and could rep-
resent a pollution problem.

Other Concrete Products

     The manufacture of concrete products (except block and brick) from a
combination of portland cement and aggregate is included in this industry.
Major products include ready-mixed concrete, precast-concrete products, and
prestressed concrete.  Other concrete products include:
     Areaways, basement window: concrete
     Art marble, concrete
     Ashlar, cast stone
     Bathtubs, concrete
     Battery walls and boxes, concrete

     Building materials, concrete:
       except block and brick
     Building stone, artificial: concrete
     Burial vaults, concrete
     Cast stone, concrete
     Catch basin covers, concrete

     Ceiling squares, concrete
     Central-mixed concrete
     Chimney caps, concrete
     Church furniture, concrete
     Columns, concrete

     Concrete, dry mixture
     Copings, concrete
     Covers, catch basin: concrete
     Cribbing, concrete
     Crossing slabs, concrete

     Door frames, concrete
     Drain tile, concrete
     Fireplaces, concrete
     Fountains,  concrete
     Garbage boxes, concrete
Grave markers, concrete
Grave vaults, concrete
Grease traps, concrete
Housing components, prefabricated:
  concrete
Incinerators, concrete

Joists, concrete
Laundry trays, concrete
Lintels, concrete
Manhole covers and frames,
  concrete
Mantels, concrete

Mattresses for river revetment,
  concrete articulated
Meter boxes, concrete
Monuments, concrete
Panels and sections, prefabricat-
  ed: concrete
Paving materials, prefabricated
  concrete, except blocks

Pier footings, prefabricated
  concrete
Ready-mixed concrete
Septic tanks, concrete
Shower receptors, concrete
Shrink-mixed concrete
                                    106

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     Sills, concrete                            Transit-mixed concrete
     Silo staves, cast stone                    Well curbing,concrete
     Silos, prefabricated concrete              Window sills, cast stone
     Slabs, crossing: concrete
     Steps, prefabricated concrete

     Stone, cast concrete
     Storage tanks, concrete
     Tanks, concrete
     Thresholds, precast terrazzo
     Tombstones, precast terrazzo or concrete

     There are over 10,000 concrete-product plants making two or more of the
above products.  There are approximately 500 plants producing prestressed
concrete, 5,000 producing precast concrete, and the remainder producing ready-
mixed concrete.(29)  These plants are distributed throughout the United
States with the largest proportion of the volume in the north-central and
southern sectors.  Location of plants is dependent upon the construction
requirements in the various areas.

Manufacturing Processes—

     The manufacturing process for concrete products is relatively simple,
as shown in Figure 47.  Portland cement products are prepared by weighing out
predetermined quantities of cement, aggregates (sand, lime, gravel),  and
water into a mixer and blending.  This mixing is either accomplished  on a
truck mixer (hence the name transit- or ready-mixed) or at the site.   After
the batch has been blended to a desired consistency, it is poured into
"forms" or "molds" for shaping.  These formed concrete shapes are then
"cured" until they have hardened sufficiently to be handled.  Curing  is done
in either ambient air or by forced warm moist air.  After the concrete has
hardened sufficiently, the forms are removed and the products continue curing
in air.  These products are then stored until they can be loaded for  truck
or rail shipment.
Waste Streams—
                     (27,28)
     Previous studies        indicate that this industry is not a major
polluter and, as a result, little attempt has been made to reduce emissions.
Before mixing, the emissions generally reflect the raw materials used.  After
mixing, the emissions are primarily a cementitious solid.

     Particulate emissions from raw material unloading, batching, and mixing
are discharged into the air-waste stream.  The composition of these parti-
culates generally reflects that of the raw materials.
     Warm moist air curing also results in airborne emissions.
emissions are generally dependent upon the type of fuel used.
These
     Pouring and form removal are both sources of water pollutants.  In both
cases, water is used for cleaning purposes.  Usually this water is discharged
                                    107

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                    Acquire raw
                     materials
                   Materials are
                 batched and mixed
                   Mix is poured
                        into
                   member forms
        Warm, moist
         air  cure
                   Member forms
                   are  removed
                      Ambient
                     air  drying
                      Products
                     are  stored
                      Products
                     are  loaded
                    for  shipments
Air Emissions
                                             Water Emissions


                                             Solid Emissions

FIGURE 47.  PROCESS STEPS  FOR CONCRETE PRODUCTS.
                        108

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although it is sometimes reused once or twice before discharge.  Discarded
water goes onto the ground, into a sewer or septic system, or into a settling
pond.  This water generally contains a cementitious sludge that could present
a pollution problem.
/

     In addition to the aforementioned water emissions, pouring and form re-
moval are sources of solid wastes.  These emissions consist of a cementitious
solid and are normally discarded.  Form materials may also contribute to the
solid waste.  These solid wastes could present a pollution problem.

Plaster of Paris and Gypsum Products

     The manufacture of products from plaster of paris, papier mache, gypsum,
or scagliola is contained in this industry.  Major products include numerous
types of statuary.  Other products include:

     Architectural sculptures, plaster of paris: factory production only
     Art goods: plaster of paris, papier mache, and scagliola
     Brackets, architectural: plaster of paris, factory production only
     Columns: papier mache or plaster of paris
     Ecclesiastical statuary: gypsum or papier mache, factory production only

     Floor composition, magnesite
     Flower boxes, plaster of paris: factory production only
     Fountains, plaster of paris: factory production only
     Gravel painting
     Images, small: gypsum, clay, or papier mache, factory production only

     Moldings, architectural: plaster of paris, factory production only
     Ornamental and architectural plaster work: mantels, columns, etc.
     Panels, papier mache or plaster of paris
     Pedestals, statuary: plaster of paris or papier mache, factory only
     Plaques: clay, plaster, or papier mache, factory production only

     Sculptures, architectural: gypsum, clay, or papier mache, factory only
     Statuary: gypsum, clay, papier mache, scagliola, and metal, factory only
     Stucco
     Synthetic stones, for gem stones and industrial use
     Urns, gypsum or papier mache: factory production only
     Vases, gypsum or papier mache: factory production only.

More than 40 companies produce these products.

     The larger plaster of paris and gypsum-product companies are diversified
companies or division of diversified companies engaged in other aspects of
the construction industry or other business.  These plants are distributed
throughout the United States and are generally located according to the
United States population distribution.(29,30)

Manufacturing Processes—

     Plaster of paris and gypsum products are made from a slurry of water,


                                    109

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gypsum, aggregate (sand, glass fibers), and a lightweight filler.   In
addition, surface-active agents are added to stucco and papier mache for
bonding.  After these raw materials are batched and mixed, they are poured
into molds or forms for shaping.  Initially, some of the excess water is
removed by ambient air drying.  When enough water is removed so that the
structure can support itself, the forms are removed.  After formal removal,
the various products are either ambient-air or kiln dried.  The products are
then painted or stained with various commercial decorating agents.  These
decorating agents are ambient-air dried.  Occasionally,  a commercial sealant
is sprayed over the decorated object.  Once dry, the products are stored
until  they can be loaded for shipment.  A process-flow diagram for  this in-
dustry  is shown in Figure 48.

Waste  Streams—

     Air emissions include  particulates representative  of the raw materials
used.   Other air emissions  are dependent upon  the  type  of fuel used for kiln
drying.  Water emissions include dissolved  solids,  suspended  solids,  and
substances contributing  to  increased alkalinity.   Solid-waste-stream emissions
consist almost entirely  of  waste plaster of paris  and  gypsum  products.

     Raw-material receiving, batching, and  mixing  are  sources of  particulate
air emissions.  These emissions  generally reflect  the  raw materials being
used.   Since  the majority of these  particulates  can be  captured in fabric
 filters,  they  are not expected  to present a pollution  problem.(31)   Kiln  dry-
 ing could also result in airborne emissions.   These emissions are generally
 dependent upon the  type  of  fuel  used.

      Water wastes  are emitted  from  batching, mixing,  shaping, and decorating
 operations.   In  each  of  these  areas, water  is  used for  cleaning purposes.
 This water is  sometimes  reused  before  discharge.   Discarded water is gen-
 erally discharged  into  a sewer  or septic system  or into  a settling pond.
 This water generally  contains  dissolved solids,  suspended solids, and sub-
 stances contributing  to  increased alkalinity.  A previous study(27) indicated
 that this could  present  a pollution problem.

      Solid wastes  are  discharged  from  shaping  and  decorating  operations.
 These emissions  consist  of  a cementitious material and  are generally dis-
 carded.  This  solid waste could present a pollution problem.

 Abrasive Buffs

      The production of  abrasive buffs  from  various kinds of natural and
 synthetic materials is   included  in this  industry.   Products  manufactured by
 this industry include  cloth and paper  buffs,  as  well as sandpaper and soap-
 impregnated  scouring  pads and  sponges.

      There are numerous  manufacturers  of  these products distributed through-
 out the United States.
                                     110

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              Ambient Air
                 Drying
                             Raw Materials
                               Received
                             Batching and
                                Mixing
                               Products
                                Shaped
                                            o
Kiln Drying
,

Storage and
Shipment
                                                -r
                                                        Air Emissions
          Water Emissions
                                                        Solid Emissions
FIGURE  48.   PROCESS  FLOW DIAGRAM FOR THE PLASTER OF PARIS  AND
             GYPSUM PRODUCTS INDUSTRY.
                                 Ill

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Manufacturing Processes—

     Most of these products undergo similar processing operations, as shown
in Figure 49.  Abrasive buffs are manufactured from bricks, cloth, paper,
steel, sticks, and stones using both natural and synthetic abrasive grains.
Some of the more common grains used today include garnet, emery, aluminum
oxide, and flint.  These various grains are attached to the buff material
by using an epoxy and pressing.  For soap-impregnated scouring pads and
sponges, the buff material usually is immersed in a soap solution under
vacuum.  All of these buffs are then air dried, packaged, and stored until
they can be loaded for shipment.(32)

Waste  Streams—

     Air emissions include particulates representative of the raw materials
used.  Water emissions include soap particulates.  Solid-waste-stream
emissions consist almost exclusively of waste buffs.

     Raw-material receiving, batching, and mixing operations are sources of
particulate emissions.  These operations, however, are usually done under
hoods  which are usually discharged through fabric filters.  Thus, few of
these  particulates are discharged into the atmosphere.

     Soap impregnation of buffs is the major source of water pollutants.
Water  is generally used in the soap slurry as well as for cleaning.  The
slurry, however, is  reused and recycled.  Thus, the only emissions would be
from cleaning.  This water is expected to contain the same ingredients  found
in the soap as well  as some metal and sponge fibers, each of which could
present a pollution  problem.

     Solids are generally emitted from batching, mixing, pressing, and
impregnating operations.  These emissions generally consist of a cementitious
material (epoxy) and waste buffs.  Small amounts of these solids are reused or
recycled.  Thus, this solid waste could present a pollution problem.

Abrasive Wheels

     The production  of abrasive wheels from diamonds and synthetic materials
is  included  in this industry.  There are numerous producers of these pro-
ducts  distributed throughout the United States.  Most abrasive wheel manu-
facturing facilities, however, are located near their raw material supply.

Manufacturing Processes—

     Most of these products undergo similar processing operations, as shown
in Figure 50.  Abrasive grains (natural diamond and synthetic materials) are
combined with a resinous ceramic binder material and pressed or poured  into
desired shapes.  Many of these pieces are heated to elevated temperatures
(e.g., 2375 F).  Pressed pieces that are not heated are usually dried in
fuel-fired dryers.   After firing and drying, these pieces are cooled in
ambient air and stored until they can be loaded for shipping by rail or
truck.(32)


                                    112

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                  Pressing
                             Raw Materials
                              Received
                                           ?
                               Batching
                              and Mixinp
   Soap-
Impregnation
1

Storage and
Shipping
                                                         Air Emissions
                                                         Water Emissions
                                                         Solid Emissions
FIGURE 49.  PROCESS  FLOW DIAGRAM FOR THE ABRASIVE BUFFS INDUSTRY.
                                   113

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Low
Temperature
Curing


Raw Materials
Received


Batching


Mixing


Forming

9
/ ^s^


|



Ambient Air
Drying
?
o

o
High
Temperature
Curing
i

-
                                Storage and
                                 Shipment
                                                          Air Emissions
                                                          Water Emissions
                                                          Solid Emissions
FIGURE  50.   PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM FOR THE ABRASIVE  WHEEL INDUSTRY.
                                   114

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Waste Streams—

     The manufacture of abrasive wheels involves air, water, and solid-waste
streams.  Air emissions include abrasive grain particulates.  Other air
emissions are dependent upon the type of fuel used for drying and firing.
Water emissions include abrasive grain particulates.  Solid-waste-stream
emissions consist almost exclusively of a cementitious sludge.

     Raw material receiving, batching, and  mixing  are sources  of  particulate
emissions into air waste streams.  These particulates are composed of fine-
grained raw materials.  Since these operations are usually hooded, the
streams generally pass through fabric filters.  Thus, few of these parti-
culates are discharged into the atmosphere.

     Forming and curing operations are both sources of water pollutants.  For
curing, water is used for cooling purposes.  This water is generally reused
numerous times before discharge.  Discarded water is generally discharged
into a sewer or septic system or into a settling pond.  This water generally
contains suspended particulates  and heat, each of which could present a
problem.

     Water is used during the forming operations primarily for cleaning pur-
poses.  This water is used once or twice before discharge into a sewer or
septic system or into a settling pond.  Discarded water could contain both
suspended and dissolved solids which could present a pollution problem.

     Solids are generally emitted from forming and ambient air drying
operations.  These emissions consist of a cementitious material (hardened
resins, cements, and discarded abrasive wheels).   In general, few wheels are
disposed of, so this is not considered a pollution problem.  However, little
of the discarded epoxy is reused or recycled and it could present a pollution
problem.

Asbestos Textiles

     Textiles made from asbestos are included in this industry.  Major prod-
ucts include blankets, cloth, and felt.  Other asbestos textile products are:

     Carded fiber
     Cord
     Rope
     Table pads and padding
     Tape
     Thread
     Wick
     Yarn.

There are at least 11 asbestos textile manufacturers operating 15 plants dis-
tributed throughout the United States.  Most facilities, however, are located
near their raw material supply.
                                     115

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Manufacturing Processes—

     In making asbestos textile products, no process water is used with the
asbestos fibers.  Instead, a variety of organics, such as vinyl resins,
textile coatings, and solvents are batch ingredients.  These products are
made by the usual textile processing methods, as shown in Figure 51.  After
asbestos fibers are dispersed in a carrier material, the product is shaped
by a pressing or extruding operation.  Shaped products are then cured by
either high-pressure steam, low-pressure steam, ambient air, or chemical
reaction.  After cooling, products are stored until they can be loaded for
truck or rail shipment.v33)

Waste Streams—

     Although this industry is, in general, not a major polluter, an attempt
has been made to reduce asbestos fiber emissions.  Air emissions include
minor amounts of asbestos fiber.  Other air emissions are dependent upon
the type of fuel used for curing.  Water emissions include suspended and
dissolved  solids.  Solid waste-stream emissions consist almost exclusively of
asbestos fibers encased in resin.

     Raw material receiving and dispersing are sources of particulate air
emissions.  These operations, however, are generally conducted under a hood
which usually is discharged through fabric filters.  As a result, few of
these particulates are discharged into the atmosphere.

     High- and  low-temperature curing operations also result in airborne
emissions.  These emissions are generally dependent upon the type of fuel
used.

     Curing and cleaning operations are both sources of water pollutants.
For curing, water is primarily used for cooling purposes.  This water is
generally  reused numerous times before discharge.  Discarded water is
generally  discharged into a sewer or septic system or into a settling pond.
This water generally contains suspended particulates and is not expected to
present a  pollution problem.

     Cleaning water is rarely reused or recycled and is generally discharged
into municipal  sewer systems.  This water contains both, suspended and dis-
solved solids and could present a pollution problem. (™'

     Solids are generally emitted from the forming and cooling operations.
These emissions consist of a cementitious material and are generally dis-
carded.  This solid waste could present a pollution problem.

Asbestos Insulation

     Manufacture of high-temperature insulation from asbestos is contained in
this industry.  Products include:

     Blankets,  insulating for aircraft
     Boiler covering

                                    116

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                                               9
                                Raw Materials
                                  Received
                                               9
                               Asbestos  Fibers
                                  Dispersed
Pressing
                        sing
 High-Pressure
    Steam
    Curing
   Low-Pressure
      Steam
      Curing
Chemical
React ion
 Curing
                                                                         I
1

Storage and
Shipping
                                                               Air Emissions
                                                               Water Emissions
                                                               Solid Emissions
FIGURE 51.   PROCESS  FLOW DIAGRAM  FOR THE  ASBESTOS TEXTILE INDUSTRY.
                                    117

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     Insulsleeves (foundry materials)
     Molded asbestos
     Pipe and boiler covering
     Tubing.

     This industry consists of over 14 companies operating some 20 manufact-
uring plants.

Manufacturing Processes—

     Asbestos insulation is made from asbestos fibers combined with an in-
organic or resinous binder, as shown in Figure 52.  After mixing, the coated
asbestos fibers are extruded into a mat, poured into forms, or cast into
tubing.  These shaped products are usually cured under high-pressure steam.
After cooling, the cured product is  then subjected  to appropriate finishing
operations for the particular product, such as compressing or the application
of a backing sheet (i.e., aluminum foil).  Insulation is  then packaged and
stored until it can be loaded for truck or rail shipment.

Waste Streams—

     Waste streams involved in the manufacture of asbestos insulation may
include air, water, and solid.  This industry is generally not considered a
major polluter and, as a result, little attempt has been  made to  reduce
emissions.  Air emissions include minor amounts of  asbestos fibers.  Other
air emissions are dependent upon the type of fuel used for curing.

     Water emissions include dissolved and suspended solids.  Solid-waste-
stream emissions consist almost exclusively of coated asbestos fibers.

     Raw material receiving and curing are sources  of air particulate
emissions.  Raw material receiving,  however, is usually done under a hood
which  discharges  through fabric filters.  As a result, few of these particu-
lates are discharged into the atmosphere.

     Curing operations also result in airborne emissions.  These  emissions
are  generally dependent upon the type of fuel used.

     Cleaning after forming operations results in water emissions.  Cleaning
water  is rarely reused or recycled and is generally discharged into municipal
sewer  systems.  This water contains  dissolved and suspended solids and could
present a pollution problem.(27)

     For curing, water is primarily  used for cooling purposes.  This water  is
generally reused numerous times before discharge.   Discarded water is gen-
erally discharged into a sewer or septic system or  into a settling pond.
This water  generally contains suspended particulates and  is not expected to
present a pollution problem.

     Solids are generally emitted from the mixing and forming operations.
These  emissions consist of resin-encased asbestos fibers  and are  generally
discarded.  This solid waste could present a pollution problem.

                                     118

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              Pouring
             into Molds
                                              9
                                Raw Materials
                                  Received
                                   Mixing
                                 with Binder
   Mat
Extrusion
                                High Pressure
                                    Steam
                                   Curing
  Castii.g
into  Tubing
                                                            Air Emissions
                                                       1     Water Emissions


                                                       |v  Solid Emissions
FIGURE 52.   PROCESS  FLOW DIAGRAM FOR THE ASBESTOS  INSULATION INDUSTRY.
                                      119

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Inorganic Acoustical and Building
Insulation*

     This industry includes the manufacture of acoustical and low-temperature
building thermal insulation.  Insulation fiber glass accounted for 66 percent
of the total tonnage production in 1971.  Other products include:

     •  Acoustical board and tile

     •  Ceramic fiber batts, etc.

     •  Glass wool batts, etc.

     •  Mineral wool, batts, etc.

Relatively few companies manufacture inorganic acoustical and building in-
sulation.  These plants, which are distributed throughout the United States,
are relatively large.  The smallest produces on the order of 5 million pounds
of insulation per year.(35)

Manufacturing Processes—

     The inorganic acoustical and building insulation contained in this
category are made from ceramic fiber, fiber glass,  glass wool,  and mineral
wool.  These fibers are combined with a thermosetting phenolic binder in a
diluted aqueous solution, as shown in Figure 53.   This binder sometimes also
contains a colored dye.  After mixing, the fibers are formed into a mat which
is cured and cooled.  The cured mat is then subjected to appropriate finish-
ing operations for the particular product, such as compressing or the
application of a backing sheet such as aluminum foil.  Insulation is then
packaged and stored until it can be loaded for truck or rail shipment.

Waste Streams—

     Air emissions include glass fibers.  Other air emissions are dependent
upon the type of fuel used for curing.  Water emissions include suspended
solids.  Solid-waste-stream emissions consist almost exclusively of glass
fibers.

     Raw material receiving and curing are sources of air particulate
emissions.  Raw material receiving, however, is usually done under a hood
which discharges through fabric filters.  As a result, few of these particu-
lates are discharged into the atmosphere.

     Curing operations also result in airborne emissions.  These emissions
are generally dependent upon the type of fuel used.
   This classification does not include foam-type insulation.
                                    120

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                                                  9
                                    Knw Materials
                                      Received
                                       Mixing
                                     with Binder
                                         Mat
                                      Extrusion
                                       Curing
                                       Coo]ing
                                  r
Finishing
1'ackaging


Storage
                                                              Air Emissions
                                                              Water Emissions
                                                              Solid Emissions
FIGURE  53.  PROCESS FLOW  DIAGRAM FOR THE INORGANIC ACOUSTIC AND BUILDING
             INSULATION INDUSTRY.
                                       121

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     Cleaning and curing operations result in water emissions.  For curing,
water is primarily used for cooling purposes.  This water is generally reused
numerous times before discharge.  Discarded water is generally discharged
into a sewer or septic system or into a settling pond.   The  curina water  gen-
erally contains  suspended  particulates  and  is  not  expected  to present  a pol-
lution problem.   Phenolic  compounds  are also present  in the  wastewaters.

     Cleaning water is rarely reused or recycled and is  generally discharged
into municipal sewer systems.  This water contains suspended  solids and could
present a pollution problem.(35)

     Solids are generally  emitted from  the mixing and forming  operations.
These emissions consist of resin-encased fibers and are  generally discarded.
This solid waste  could present a pollution problem.

Inorganic Electrical Insulation

     The manufacture of inorganic electrical insulation  from mica and  fused
quartz is contained in this industry.  Two major products are  laminated mica
and quartz tubing.

     Relatively  few companies manufacture electrical insulation.  These
plants, which are distributed throughout the United States, are believed  to
be relatively large.(15)

Manufacturing Processes—

     Laminated mica and fused quartz tubing are made from a series of  re-
latively simple  operations as shown in  Figure  54.  These operations include:
raw material receiving, batching, and mixing;  forming; heat treating;  cool-
ing; finishing;  and packaging.  Laminated mica is primarily made from  sheet
mica which is then impregnated with a monomer.  Sheets of mica are generally
stacked before high-pressure impregnation.  After forming, they are shaped
by punching or cutting and then finished.  Laminated mica insulation is
packaged and stored until  it can be loaded for shipment.(28)

     Fused quartz, on the  other hand, is made  from silica (Si02) and an
organic binder.   After mixing, the tubes are cast or pulled and then the
silica is fused  at a high  temperature   (2800 F).  Upon  cooling, tubes  are
sized and finished.  Fused quartz insulation is then packaged  and stored
until it can be  loaded for shipment by  rail or truck.(28)

Waste Streams—

     Air emissions include silica (Si02) and mica particulates.  Other air
emissions are dependent upon the type of fuel  used for  heat  treatment.  Water
emissions include dissolved and suspended solids.  Solid-waste-stream
emissions consist almost exclusively of mica and fused  quartz.

     Raw material receiving, batching,  and mixing are sources  of air parti-
culate emissions.  These operations, however,  are usually done under hoods
which discharge  through fabric filters.  As a  result, few of  these particulates

                                     122

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                                       RAW
                                    MATERIALS ARE
                                      RECEIVED
                                   BATCHING AND
                                    MIXING WITH
                                     BINDER
                                  PACKAGING AND
                                      STORAGE
                                    ELECTRICAL
                                   INSULATION
                                                              Air Emissions
                                                              Water Emissions
                                                              Solid Emissions
FIGURE 54.  PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM FOR THE INORGANIC ELECTRICAL INSULATION
             INDUSTRY.
                                       123

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are discharged into the atmosphere.

     Heat-treating operations also result in airborne emissions.  These
emissions are generally dependent upon the type of fuel used.

     Cleaning and heat-treating operations result in water emissions.  In
heat treating, water is primarily used for cooling purposes.  This water is
reused numerous times before discharge.  Discarded water is normally dis-
charged into a sewer or septic system or into a settling pond.  This water
generally contains suspended particulates and is not expected to present
a pollution problem.

     Cleaning water is rarely reused or recycled and is generally discharged
into municipal sewer systems.  This water contains suspended solids and could
present a pollution problem.

     Solids are normally emitted from the forming and finishing operations.
These emissions consist of laminated mica and fused quartz chunks and are
generally discarded.  This solid waste could present a pollution problem.

FABRICATED METAL PRODUCTS

     This major group includes establishments engaged in fabricating ferrous
and nonferrous metal products such as metal cans, tinware, hand tools, cut-
lery, general hardware, nonelectric heating apparatus, fabricated structural
metal products, metal forgings, metal stampings, ordnance (except vehicles
and guided missiles), and a variety of metal and wire products not elsewhere
classified.  Certain important segments of the metal-fabricating industries
are classified in other major groups, such as machinery, transportation
equipment, including tanks, professional scientific and controlling instru-
ments, watches and clocks, and jewelry and silverware.

     There were 29,526 establishments in 1972 primarily engaged in producing
metal products ranging from cans and nut and bolts to large structures made
up from steel structurals (e.g., bridges).  These establishments employed
1.454 million people and shipped products valued at $51.74 billion.^)

Manufacturing Processes —

     A relatively limited number of unit operations are used in various
combinations to manufacture the great diversity of products that are fab-
ricated by this industry.  These unit operations and the types of wastes
they generate are discussed first.   Several flow charts are then
presented that illustrate the sequence of operations in typical metal-
fabrication processes.

     Melting  and  Casting  of Metals—Metals are  generally melted  and  cast by
companies  involved  in  the foundry industry, but  there  are many  metal-fabrica-
tion companies that have  captive melting  and  costing  operations  for  producing
fabricated metal  products.  The melting and costing operations  have  continued
to be  identified  as sources of air, water, and  solid-waste  pollution.   The
chief  forms of pollution  come  from  the vaporization of metal  and the  slags

                                    124

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 formed  during  melting  and  from  the burn-off of binders during the solidifica-
 tion  of metals in  the  sand molds.  Solid wastes include the hydrocarbons
which burn  off  or are vaporized  during casting.  Dust-collection systems in
 use at  many modern foundries have been effective in substantially reducing
 the airborne solids coming from the melting operations.  Control of the gas-
 eous  emissions is  accomplished  by controlling the compounds used in sand and
 core  binders.   The American Foundrymen's Society issues several health and
 safety  guides  especially related to some of the more noxious chemicals (e.g.,
 urethane resins).  Some of such  compounds are used for core binders and can
 cause skin irritations while in  concentrated liquid or vapor forms.  Such
 compounds  include  toluene, phenol, triethylamine, alkyd oils, polyesters,
 and polyethers.  These are but  a few of the hydrocarbons associated with
 high-quality core  making.  Other compounds such as ammonia, isocyanates, and
 alcohols are also  used in foundries.  Many of such compounds are baked off
 in core ovens  and  vented to the atmosphere.

     The foundry industry is associated with contributions to all waste
 streams and has been the subject of review by OSHA representatives.  Pre-
 sumably, the foundries captive among the fabricated metal products industries
 are also experiencing similar reviews.

     Welding and Torch Cutting of Metals—As a process, welding is applied by
 perhaps half of the industries engaged  in fabricating metal products, either
 to the products or to the construction  of tooling used to manufacture metal
 components.  Dies used in forging,  die  casting,  sheet forming, and stamping
 are generally welded either in the  form of hard  facing or as a repair method.
 The various welding processes  most  commonly used include stick electrode
 welding, sub-arc welding,  metal inert gas welding,  and resistance welding
 (usually the flash  butt types).   There  are many  other welding processes.
 Associated with welding is the oxy-gas  torch cutting of metals and especially
 the carbon electrode oxygen process  of  cutting metals (sometimes referred to
 as arc-air cutting).   Both of  these  processes can result in the development
 of large volumes of dust-like  materials which can cause much concern among
 those working nearby.   The carbon arc-air/oxygen process is by far the most
 productive of dust  which contains various metal  oxides, depending on the
 metal being cut.  Of course slag forms  also from the molten metal exposed to
 air.   Thus, the waste streams  which  are developed from these processes in-
 clude metal oxides, slags, and silicates.

     The majority  of the dust-like wastes are usually confined to the
 immediate  area of  the individuals performing the operations but the stick
 electrode  welding  and the arc-air cutting can result in more widely scattered
 waste which is very difficult to control unless the welding is performed in
 booths  or  tents.

     Soldering is  also included  as a means of fastening metal, but as used
 commercially it does not produce waste streams.   Any runoff goes back into
 the bath.  There may be some hazard, however, in heating soldered scrap
 because of the lead contained in solder alloys.

     Metalworking  operations—There are several types of metalworking opera-
 tions involved in  the  manufacture of fabricated metal products including

                                     125

-------
     Forging         Stamping
     Rolling         Blanking
     Extrusion       Shear forming
     Rollforming     Drawing
     Spinning        Machining.

     These processes are carried out either cold or hot depending on the
material being formed.  Hot forming usually involves the use of lubricants
which are either oil-base  or water-base  suspensions of graphite applied
to the tooling and workpieces and are, therefore, likely to produce airborne
solids and hydrocarbons.  The cold-forming processes usually are lubricated
with solid films including stearate soaps and molybdenum disulfide.  These
lubricants are usually applied in batch tanks prior to the metal-forming
process.

     Furnaces used for the hot-forming operations are usually fueled with
natural gas, oil, or electricity, oil being associated with the highest
levels of smoke and unburned hydrocarbons.  Most fuel-fired furnaces are less
than 15 percent efficient and a large percentage of the furnaces are not
equipped with sufficient controls to ensure complete combustion of the fuels.
On the other hand, much of the unburned fuel is burned after the products of
combustion leave the furnaces, thereby minimizing the potentially adverse
effects of CO and other partially combusted products which would otherwise
cause pollution problems.

     Lubricating—While is truly part of metal-forming processes, it is iden-
tified as a distinct process step because of the potential environmental
impact.  Some of the best lubricants contain such metal oxides as cadmium
oxide and lithium oxide and certain copper-containing compounds.  Such com-
pounds are toxic to varying degrees.  Thus, most companies have abandoned
their uses except for rare cases in which the greases are not likely to be
exposed to conditions which would cause them to vaporize or otherwise get
into the environment.  Major emphasis during the past few years has been
directed to the use of water-base lubricants wherever possible to avoid the
smoke from oil-base compounds.

     Cold forming requires lubrication also but the compounds are different,
usually involving water solutions or suspensions of graphite or compounds of
the stearate soap types.  The waste streams coming from these lubricants
usually are in the wastewater with very little air pollution.  Current
practices for dealing with soaps include the use of settling tanks to convert
the compounds to solids which are then disposed of in land fills.

     Thermal Treatments—A wide variety of thermal treatments are applied to
fabricated metal products, including the heating for hot working, annealing,
heat treating, baking (drying of slurries and coatings), and furnace brazing.
Depending on the products being heated and the purposes, heating operations
can result in a variety of pollutants to the airstreams.  Products of com-
bustion,  evaporated solvents, and other gaseous types are sometimes rather
plentiful near furnaces/ovens being used for this purpose.

     Surface Treatments and Coatings—Surface treatments which are applied to

                                    126

-------
the fabricated metal products include sand blasting, polishing, and various
forms of acid or caustic pickling.  Sand blasting results generally in waste
products which are eventually disposed of in land fill areas (solid waste).
Polishing usually results in water suspensions of solids which either go
directly into the waste streams or are passed through settling basins which
in turn are periodically cleaned of sediments that are used for land fill.
The surface treatments which can result in the most noticeable water pol-
lution are the pickling operations.  Many companies use reaction ponds to
neutralize the pickle liquors before diluting and flushing them into the
waste streams.

     Surface-coatings processes are used to apply a protective coating onto
the  surface of fabricated metal products and include electroplating, paint-
ing/varnishing/lacquering, enameling, bonderizing, tinning, and galvanizing.

     All of these processes can result in waste streams, especially the
electroplating and painting processes.  Electroplating solutions contain
various metal salts which can reach the waste streams if not neutralized and
removed.  The use of electrostatic painting has substantially reduced the
entry of over-spray into the waste streams.  Otherwise, the spray booths are
flushed with water curtains which carry away the over-spray to either settl-
ing basins or directly to the sewage systems.  The solvents/carriers of these
coatings generally evaporate and are exhausted either directly to the air or
after baking in ovens which are vented to the air.

Typical Processes—

     Generalized flow charts are shown for production of the following fab-
ricated metal products:

     Product                                        Figure Number

     Metal cans                                          55
     Hand tools, forged                                  56
     Hand tools, cast                                    57
     Plumbing fixtures, zinc                             58
     Fabricated structural metal products - bridges      59
     Screw-machine products - bolts, nuts                60
     Steel forgings                                      61
     Galvanizing for the trade                           62
     Cartridge cases                                     63

These charts show the manner in which unit operations are combined for the
various processes and show the natures of waste streams arising from the
operations.

Waste Streams—

     Table 6 summarizes the relative levels of air, water, solid-waste, and
noise pollution arising from the various unit operations typically associated
with the manufacture of fabricated metal products.  Also shown is a relative
measure of whether a particular waste is general throughout the plant or


                                    127

-------


Slitting
and
Roll Forming


Soldering


Coating
(organic)


is:
oo
                 lids
                            Stamping
 Coating

(organic)




•

rac



-R-
1


age









X



                                                                            SHIP
                                                                                     -f
                                         Air Emissions
                                                                                            Water Emissions
                                                                                            Solid Emissions
                                     FIGURE 55.  METAL CANS.

-------
                                             />


Heat


Forge


Heat
Treat


Machine
^>

                            Assemble
                            Package
                             SHIP
                                               Paint
Polish
                                                      Air Emissions
                                                      Vater Emissions
                                                      Solid Emissions
FIGURE 56.  HAND TOOLS, FORGED.

-------
                              MOLDS
                              SAND
                           INVESTMENT
U)
o
                                                                        Paint
                                                        Assemble,
                                                        Package
                                                            I
                                                          SHIP
        Polish
                                                                                            _
                                                                                            7}
-r
                                                                                  Air Emissions
Water Emissions
                                                                                   Solid Emissions
                                FIGURE  57.  HAND TOOLS, CAST.

-------
                                               Polish
                             SHIP
                                              Electroplate
                                               Air Emissions
                                               Water Emissions
                                               Solid Emissions
FIGURE 58.   PLUMBING FIXTURES  - ZINC.

-------
to
                                 Cut to Length
Assemble
                                                   ,o
                                      Gas Torch
                                      Mechanical
Weld
                                                                                 Fasten
                                                                              Rivets, Bolts
                                                                 ASSEMBLY)-*



Paint
P

                                                                                        Air Emissions
                                                                                -r
                              Water Emissions
                                                                                        Solid Emissions
               FIGURE 59.   FABRICATED STRUCTURAL METAL PRODUCTS - BRIDGES.

-------

I
1
!
1
t
Electroplate



                            SHIP
                                                                              Trim
                                                                              Air Emissions
FIGURE 60.  SCREW MACHINE PRODUCTS - BOLTS,  NUTS.
                                                                              Water Emissions
                                                                               Solid Emissions

-------
               Cut  to Length
                                                SHIP
                                                                  Water Emissions
                                                                  Solid  Emissions
FIGURE 61.   STEEL FORCINGS.

-------
                       Zinc Pig
Ul
       Pickle and
         Rinse
                                     i
Degrease
                                                               Centrifuge
                                                     Hot Dip
Cool/Wash
                                                                     -r
                                                                            Air Emissions
                                                   Water Emissions
                                                                            Solid Emissions
                                                                                                  SHIP
                            FIGURE 62.   GALVANIZING FOR THE TRADE.

-------
UJ
                           Multi-Station

                             Extrude


                                 i
                            Lubrication
-r
                                Air Emissions
                                Water Emissions
                                Solid Emissions
   SHIP


(or Store)
                                                                                AIT
                                                                                Assembly
                                                                                           >-
                                                                                1—  -- j  Projectiles
                                                                                 ' ----- !
Explosives
                              FIGURE 63.   CARTRIDGE CASES.

-------
TABLE 6.   RELATIVE LEVELS OF  POLLUTION INTENSITIES FOR PROCESSES
           TYPICALLY ASSOCIATED WITH MANUFACTURE  OF FABRICATED
           METAL PRODUCTS.
Pollution Intensity
Manufacturing Process
Melting of netals
Casting (mold making)
Welding (stick electrode)
Metalworking
Forging
Rolling
Extrusion
Rollforming/
spinning
Machining
Stamping/shearing
Lubricating
Thermal treatments
Heating for hot work
Annealing
Heat treatment
Baking/Drying
Brazing
Surface treatment
Sand bias ting (open air)
Polishing
Pickling/ rinsing
Surface coating
Electroplating
Paint ing/ varnishing
Enameling
Bonder iz ing
Galvanizing
Air
H/G
H/G
H/L

L/G
L/G
L/C
L/G
L/G
L/G
H/G

M/G
L/G
L/G
M/G
M/G

H/L
L/L
L/G

M/G
M/G
L/G
L/G
L/G
Water
L/G
M/G
L/L

M/G
L/G
L/G
L/G
L/G
L/G
H/G

L/G
L/G
L/G
L/G
M/G

L/G
M/G
H/G

H/G
M/G
L/G
H/G
M/G
Solid
M/G
M/G
L/G

H/G
H/G
L/G
L/G
L/L
L/G
M/G

L/G
L/G
L/G
L/G
L/G

H/G
M/G
M/G

L/G
M/G
M/G
L/G
M/G
Noise
H/G
M/L


H/L, M/G
M/G
M/G
M/G
L/L
H/L, M/G
-

H/G
M/L
M/G
L/G
L/G

M/L
M/L
L/L

L/L
L/G
L/G
L/G
L/G
       Code:   H - High
              M - Medium
              L - Low
G - General Pollution in Plant
L - Local Pollution within
    work area of employee
                                   137

-------
local to the immediate area in which a given operation is performed.  This
table provides guidance regarding the general level of emphasis which would
be required to reduce the pollution levels.  The processes rating high/gen-
eral in terms of the intensity of pollution require first attention.  However,
this comment relates more to the general level rather than to a diagnostic
appraisal of the kinds of compounds making up the pollutants.  Careful
measurement and analysis would be required to determine the toxicity levels
of each material passing into the waste streams..  Such measurements are be-
yond the scope of this study.

     Several tables are included that elaborate on the flow charts  that were
shown earlier.  These tables show the unit operations, the wastes and the
media in which they occur, the potential levels of pollution  (low,  medium or
high), and actions that are currently taken to alleviate pollution.  Tables
illustrating these elements are shown for the following types of fabricated
metal products:

     Metal cans, containers
     Cutlery, hand tools, hardware
     Plumbing fixtures
     Structural metal products
     Screw machine products
     Forgings and stampings
     Coatings, engravings
     Ordance  and accessories.

 MACHINERY EXCEPT ELECTRICAL

     This major grouping  includes establishments engaged in manufacturing
 machinery and equipment other  than electrical equipment and transportation
 equipment.   Machines powered by built-in or detachable motors ordinarily are
 included in  this major grouping with the exception of electrical household
 appliances.   Portable tools, both electrical and pneumatic powered, are
 included in  this group, but hand tools are classified elsewhere.

     This group of manufacturing firms often starts with fabricated metal
 products as  part of  the raw materials used in building the machinery.  The
 majority of  companies in  this  category depend heavily on suppliers  of  cast-
 ings ,forgings, screw machine products, tubing, rolled sheet and plate, wire
 and other semifinished products which are  then machined for eventual
 assembly into the machines.  On the other hand, these manufacturing firms
 utilize  a wide variety of manufacturing processes as related  to the assembly
 of subcomponents and components.

     There were 40,309 establishments, which employed 1,819,700 people and
 shipped  primary products valued at $65.6075 billion  in 1972  in  this major
 industry category.(1)

     The segments of the machinery industry included in this  analysis  con-
 sist of  the  following categories:

     •   Engines and  turbines


                                    138

-------
  TABLE 7.   MATERIALS AND PROCESS DATA FOR METAL  CANS,  CONTAINERS.

Operations
Waste/Media
Potential Levels
of Pollution
Current
Action
Stamping
Roll form/welding
Drawing
Spinning
Acid pickling
Electroplating
Tinning
Galvanizing
Annealing
Lubricating
Lubricating
Painting
Baking
Welding
Spent liquor/water
Spent liquor/water
Fumes/air
Fumes/air
Fumes/air
HC fumes/air^
Oil/water
HC fumes/air^
Fumes/air
Fumes/air
Medium
Medium
Low
Low
Low
Low
Medium
Medium
Low
Medium/local
Neutralizing
Neutralizing
Venting
Venting
Skimming
Venting
Venting
Venting
(a)   The following raw materials are used in these operations:   sheet  steel,
     sheet aluminum,  lubricants, paints,  tin pig/electrodes,  zinc,  and
     acids.
(b)   HC = hydrocarbon
                                   139

-------
     TABLE 8.  MATERIALS AND PROCESS DATA  FOR CUTLERY,  HAND TOOLS,
               HARDWARE.
Operations 'a'
Waste /Media
Potential Levels
of Pollution
Current
Action
Casting
Forging
Stamping
Welding
Sanding
Electroplating
Machining
Fumes/air             Medium to high
Lubricants/air,water  Low
Lubricants/air,water  LOW
Fumes/air             Medium/local
Dust/air              LOW
Spent liquor/water    Medium
Neutralizing
Annealing
Heat treating
Lubricating
—
Painting
Baking
Acid pickling
Fumes /air
Fumes /air
Fumes /air
Oil/water
HC fumes (b)
Fumes
Spent liquor/water
Low
Low
Low
Medium
Low
Low

—
—
—
Oil separators
—
Venting
Neutralizing
(a)   The following raw materials  are  used  in these operations:   Bar steel,
     castings,  sheet  steel,  forgings, wire,  paint, acids,  and sands.
(b)   HC  = hydrocarbon.
                                    140

-------
       TABLE  9.  MATERIALS  AND PROCESS DATA  FOR PLUMBING FIXTURES.

/ \
Operations ^ '
Waste /Media
Potential Levels
of Pollution
Current
Action
   Casting
   Forging
   Machining
   Electroplating
   Baking
   Heat  treating
   Enameling
   Tube  forming
   Die casting
                    Fumes/air
                    Spent liquor/water
                    Fumes/air
                    Fumes/air
                    Fumes/air
                    Fumes/air
Lubricating(process)Oils/water
Blanking
Welding             Fumes/air
Brazing             Fumes/air
Medium
Medium
Low
Low
Low

Low
Medium

Medium/local
Low
Venting
Neutralize
Venting
                                                              Venting
                                                              Venting
(a)   The following raw materials are used in these operations:  steel  scrap,
     iron scrap pig,  brass,  zinc, rubber, and plastics.
                                    141

-------
 TABLE 10.  MATERIALS AND PROCESS DATA FOR  FABRICATED  STRUCTURAL METAL
            PRODUCTS.
fa")
Operationsv '
Waste/Media
Potential Levels
of Pollution
Current
Action
    Welding
    Riveting
    Forming
    Forging
    Heat treating
    Torch cutting
    Drilling
    Galvanizing
    Annealing
    Painting
    Preheating
    Lubrication
Fumes/air
Fumes/air
Fumes/air
Fumes/air
Fumes/air

Oil/water
Medium/local
Low
Medium/local
Low
Medium

Low
                                        Venting
(a)   The following raw materials  are  used  in these operations:   steel plate,
     structurals,  sheet aluminum,  extrusions,  roll-formed shapes, rebar,
     and paints.
                                    142

-------
     TABLE 11.   MATERIALS  AND PROCESS  DATA FOR SCREW MACHINE PRODUCTS.
                                            Potential Levels    Current
    Operations             Waste/Media         of Pollution      Action
  Machining
  Cold  forging         Stearate soaps/water  Medium
  Stamping                    —                 —
  Lubricating          Oil/water             Low
  Electroplating       Liquors/water         Low
  Pickling             Liquors/water         Low
(a)   The following raw materials  are  used  in  these operations: wire, sheet
     steel,  plastic tubing,  steel bar,  and copper bar.
                                   143

-------
           TABLE 12.  MATERIALS AND  PROCESS DATA FOR METAL  FORCINGS  AND
                      STAMPINGS.
  Operations
             (a)
   Waste/Media
       Potential Levels    Current
         of Pollution      Action
Forging
Stamping
Shearing
Punching
Bending
Rolling
Spinning
Welding
Machining
Galvanizing
Painting
Baking
Tinning
Heating
Annealing
Heat treating
Lubricating

Sand blasting
Polishing
Fumes/air

Fumes/air
Fumes/air (HC)
Fumes/air
Fumes/air
Fumes/air
Fumes/air
Fumes/air
Fumes/air
Oils/water
(b)
Low

Low
Medium
Medium
Low
Medium
Low
Low
Medium/local
Medium
                          Venting
                          Cascade separation
(a)   The following  raw materials  are  used  in  these  operations:  steel billet,
     steel bar,  die steels,  nonferrous  billet,  nonferrous bar,  stainless
     steel,  steel sheet/plate,  glass  frits, lubricants,  and paints.
(b)   HC =  hydrocarbon.
                                     144

-------
       TABLE 13.   MATERIALS AND PROCESS DATA FOR COATINGS,  ENGRAVINGS,
                  (SERVICES).

Operations(a)
Acid etching
Anodizing
Painting
Tinning
Galvanizing
Polishing
Electroplating
Waste/Media
Spent acids/water
Spent acids/water
Vapors/air
Vapors/air
Vapors/air
Dust/air
Ac ids /water
Potential Levels
of Pollution
Medium
Medium
Low
Low
Low
Medium/ local
Low
Current
Action
Neutralizing
Neutralizing
—
—
—
—
Neutralizing
(a)   The following raw materials are used in these operations;
     chromium,  nickel, copper,  precious metals,  soaps,  paints/varnishes,  hy-
     drocarbon  coatings,  aluminum pig,  zinc pig,  and tin pig.
                                     145

-------
  TABLE 14.  MATERIALS AND PROCESS DATA FOR ORDANCE AND ACCESSORIES.
   Operations
                   Waste/Media
                                      Potential Levels    Current
                                        of Pollution      Action
 Extrusion
 Forging
 Drawing
 Stamping
 Casting
 Rolling
 Swaging
 Machinery
 Lubricating

 Sand blasting
 Painting
 Baking
 Heat treating
 Annealing
 Load/pack
                Scale/solids
                Fumes-dust/air

                Scale/solids

                Fumes/air
                  oil/water
                Dust/solid
                Fumes/air
                Fumes/air
                Dust/air
                                      Medium
                                      Medium
                                      Low
                                      Medium
                                      Low
                                      Medium
                                      Low
                                      Medium
Precipitators
Separation

Electrostatic
Venting
(a)
(b)
The following raw materials are used in these operations: brass strip,
steel strip, acids, pig iron, bar/billet, paint (HC), lubricants,
explo|ives, paper, wood, caustics, (tool steels), hydraulic fluids
(HC1 ^  .  nlasMrs. sanHe  Vn'riHovo ('ur'\\®'  and quenching oils
         plastics, sands, binders (HC)
HC - hydrocarbon.
                                   146

-------
      •  Farm and garden machinery and equipment

      •  Construction,  mining and handling machinery and equipment

      •  Metalworking machinery and equipment

      •  Special and general industrial machinery and equipment

      •  Office, computing,  and accounting machines

      •  Refrigeration  and  service industry machinery.

 Engines  and  Turbines

      Companies  in this group are primarily engaged  in the manufacture  of
 steam turbines;  hydraulic  turbines;  gas turbines (except aircraft);  steam,
 gas,  and hydraulic turbine  generator units;  steam engines;  and  internal
 combustion engines.  Establishments  in this  industrial grouping generally
 do  not have  an  integrated operation  involving  the manufacture of such  basic
 raw materials as castings,  forgings,  bar stock,  rolled structurals,  extrusions,
 etc.   Such items are ordinarily purchased for  subsequent fabrication into
 components and  subcomponents.   On the other  hand, industrial firms in  this
 grouping have extensive machine tools for machining,  blanking,  shearing,
 drilling, simple forming, welding, and assembling of the final  products.
 There are exceptions.  For  example,  two of the leading producers  of  outboard
 motors have  their own  in-house  capability  for  casting  certain components in-
 cluding  motor blocks,  pistons,  and heads.

 Manufacturing Processes—

      In  general  internal combustion  engines  are  made by  drilling, tapping,
 and machining a  cast block  to  accept  other machined  components  such  as
 cylinder wall linings, pistons  and connecting  rods,  crankshafts and  valve
 assemblies.'3')   A flow diagram is given in  Figure 64  showing some of  the
 steps  involved  in manufacturing small to medium  internal combustion  engines.

 Waste  Streams—

      Other than  the  casting  operations  and the local pollution  associated
 with welding, this  industrial  grouping  is  not  associated with a serious
 impact on the environment.   Most  of  the scrap  steel and nonferrous materials
 used by  this industry  group  are recycled.

 Farm and Garden  Machinery
 and Equipment

     This segment  includes establishments  primarily engaged in manufacturing
 farm and garden  machinery and equipment  such as wheel  tractors,  agricultural
weeding machines,  lawn mowers,  and garden  tractors.  Some of the larger
 companies in this  industry also produce  castings, forgings,  stampings,  and
many other fabricated metal  products.
                                     147

-------

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-r
                                                            Air Emissions
                                                            Water Emissions
                                                            Solid Emissions
FIGURE 64.  INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES.

-------
Manufacturing Processes—(37)

     Farm tractors and attachments are fabricated from a variety of piece
parts including major purchased parts (motor, transmission, seats, gages,
etc.) and parts manufactured by the industry (frame, axles, housings, covers,
etc.)-  A typical operation for manufacturing farm machinery is shown in
Figure 65.

     Manufacture of garden and lawn equipment includes cutting, bending, and
welding the frame and mounting the engine, wheels, handles, and trim to this
frame.  All components are generally painted except for gears, bearings and
sprockets which are heat treated to improve wear characteristics.  A typical
operation in the manufacture of a snowblower is shown in Figure 66.

Waste Streams—

     Painting and welding operations seem to be the dominating factors in
the development of pollution from this grouping.  The relative volume of
scrap turnings and trimmings is usually high enough to encourage recycling
to the mill suppliers of the metals or to scrap dealers.

Construction, Mining and Handling
Machinery and Equipment

     This industry grouping produces heavy machinery and equipment used
largely by the construction, mining, drilling, and other manufacturing in-
dustries.  The products are often one of a kind requiring extensive machining
and welding operations.  Some of the companies have their own foundries for
manufacturing heavy components.  However, the majority of companies purchase
forgings, castings, and other structural materials from companies manufac-
turing fabricated metal products.

Manufacturing Processes—

     In contrast to the companies involved with the manufacture of passenger
automobiles, the companies in this grouping are not usually associated with
highly automated assembly lines.  The manufacture of bulldozers can be
considered as reasonably typical, including some hot forming,  extensive
shearing and cutting, welding, and mechanical fastening followed by painting
and final assembly.  A simplified flow diagram for the manufacture of bull-
dozers is presented in Figure 67.

     Flow diagrams are also shown for the production of the following
products in this industry grouping to illustrate the wide diversity of manu-
facturing operations associated with this classification of industries:

                 Products                    Figure Number

     Underground scraper/loaders                  68
     Rock bits                                    69
     Derricks                                     70
                                    149

-------
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o
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METAL STOCK
LIGHT SHEET fc
METAL STOCK
f
i
SHEAR.
SAW

SHEAR,
SAW
BAR
STOCK
AW METAL
TOCK


	 »-
FORM.
BEND,
STAMP


DRILL,
PUNCH

FORM,
BEND,
STAMP

SHEAR,
SAW,
SHAPE

CAST








DRILL,
PUNCH

GRIND,
HONE,
LAP

TURN.
MILL.
LAP

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CLEAN
RINSE


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CLEAN,
RINSE

DRILL,
TAP,
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PHOSPHATE
tOAT

PHOSPHATE
COAT

DEBURR


O

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COAT

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— »»
— fc-
FINISHED
FRAME
ft FLOORING

FINISHED
COVERS,
HOUSING
TRIM, ETC.

FINISHED
AXLES
STRUCTURAL
MEMBERS

FINISHED
CAST
PARTS

PURCHASED
PARTS

















MECHANICAL
FASTENERS

WELD

BRAZE

FINISHED
^ INSPECTS ^ FARM
TEST MACHINERY
r>

                                                                                                       Air Emissions




                                                                                                 i ^   Water Emissions





                                                                                                 1^   Solid Emissions
                          FIGURE 65.   FARM MACHINERY.

-------
RAW SHEET
STOCK (HEAVYl"
RAW SHEET
STOCK 'LIGHT)
RAW SHEET
STOCK 'HEAVY)"
                                                                                             Air  Emissions
                                                                                             Water Emissions
                                                                                             Solid Emissions
                      FIGURE 66.  MANUFACTURE OF  SNOWBLOWER.

-------
                            ..J
                            RIAL """ |
                 RAW
                MATERtAU
Ui
N)
                                                                                            Water Emissions
                                                                                            Solid Emissions
                              FIGURE  67.  MANUFACTURE OF BULLDOZERS.

-------
J-1
•Ui
Co
                                                     Solid Emissions
                      FIGURE 68.  MANUFACTURE OF UNDERGROUND SCRAPER/LOADERS.

-------
Ul
                                                               FORGE AND
                                                                 COOL
HEAT
TREAT
                                                                            o
BRAZE
	 1, MATHTNF. s ASRFMRT.K L flARRTDK

/' BEARINGS \
( PINS I
BUSHINGS /
\ ETC . /
J p INSERTS V
\


MACHINE U
N
^
_>>
. j Air Emissions
i
INSPECT 	 ^
cujp 1 Water Emissions
                                                                           Solid Emissions
                                FIGURE 69.  MANUFACTURE  OF ROCK BITS.

-------
(Ji
Ui
                                   RAW MATERIAL
POUR
5 CONCRETE
V

REMOVE
MOLD
                                                               ROLLED
                                                              LOW CATJ50H
                                                                STEEL'
                                                                   Air Emissions
                                                                   Water Emissions
                                                                    Solid Emissions
INSPECT
& TEST
V

FINISHED
DERRICK
                                 FIGURE 70.   MANUFACTURE  OF DERRICKS.

-------
Waste Streams—

     The processes having the greatest impact on the environment are the
casting, welding, flame cutting, machining, and painting operations.  Oils
are used in the metal forming operations and to lubricate the various
assembly operations.

Metalworking Machinery and Equipment

     Companies involved in the manufacture of machine tools (laths, boring
mills, drill presses, etc.), metal-forming equipment (presses, hammers,
shears, heading machines, etc.), and other types of equipment for tooling
and machining, stamping, forging, extrusion, grinding, hot rolling, drilling,
etc. , are typically integrated back to the machining and assembly operations
for manufacturing their products, and few of the companies actually produce
forgings or castings for their own use.  Since the advent of foundry emission
controls, some of those companies which, in fact, had their own foundries
have since closed them because of the relatively higher cost of operation
and new capital equipment required.  Erie Foundry is a good example.  This
company is a leader in the manufacture of hot-forming presses and formerly
cast many of its press components.  The foundry now operates only on a very
limited basis and the company now purchases many of its castings from
commercial sources.

                         (37)
Manufacturing Processes—

     Generally, metal-forming machine tools are made by forming, machining,
and welding plates into a specific machine configuration.  These plates are
then assembled along with associated accessories and the final product
painted.  Figures 71 and 72 show flow diagrams for an engine lathe and
electrochemical machine respectively.

     Generally, machine tool accessories are made by machining the part to
shape from forgings, castings, bar stock, or plate.  Parts are then ground
and polished to obtain the desired size and finish and are finally heat
treated.  Figure 73 shows a flow diagram for manufacturing drill bits.

Waste Streams—

     The main sources of waste products from companies in this general in-
dustrial area are associated with the metal-forming, machining, and assembly
operation.  The machining operations result in large quantities of turnings
which are almost always stored and eventually resold as scrap.  Welding
operations, grinding, and machining and the associated cutting oils and
painting operations represent the chief sources for pollutants.  Flame scarf-
ing and torch cutting are also practiced extensively and are associated with
high levels of smoke and dust.

     It should be noted that this grouping of industries is an extensive user
of such subassemblies as motor bearings, vacuum pumps, hydraulic pumps,
gears, and transmissions which are more often produced by companies in other
industrial groupings.


                                    156

-------
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                                                                                                    Water Emissions
                                                                                                    Solid Emissions
                             FIGURE 71.  ENGINE  LATHE (TAILSTOCK)  MANUFACTURING.

-------
Ln
00
                                              RAW _
                                             MATERIAL"
                                   PLATE
                                   STEEL
                      SHEET
                      STEEL"
                                                                                                     FINISHED
                                                                                                     ELECTROCHEMICAL
                                                                                                     MACHINE
                                     Solid Emissions
                  FIGURE 72.   ECM  (ELECTROCHEMICAL MACHINE)  MANUFACTURING.

-------
RAW
STOCK








































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HEAT
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                                                                            Water Emissions
FIGURE 73.  METAL WORKING DRILL BITS MANUFACTURING.
                                                                            Solid Emissions

-------
 Special  and  General  Industrial
 Machinery  and Equipment

     This  rather broad grouping of  industries produces  products  ranging from
 food processing devices  to patterns for  casting  and  from printing  equipment
 to  packaging machinery.   In many respects  the manufacturing  operations  are
 similar  to those used in the manufacture of metalworking machinery and  equip-
 ment.  The materials differ somewhat in  that much more  stainless steel  is
 used for food processing and for the printing machinery.  Because  this
 category also includes many types of small hand-operated machines,  there is
 a wider  use  of wood  and  plastic for handles, levers, wood patterns, etc.
Manufacturing Processes
                        (37)
     General manufacturing processes are described for the following in-
 dustries: food products machinery, textile machinery, pumps and compressors,
 ball and roller bearings, industrial patterns, and furnaces and ovens.

     Food products machinery is made by assembling manufactured and purchased
 parts.  Since contamination is a serious concern in the food products in-
 dustry, stainless steel, unit construction, and manufacturing parts for quick
 and easy disassembly and cleaning are used.  Figure 74 shows a diagram for
 manufacturing pasteurizing machinery.

     Textile machinery is produced by assembling assorted manufactured and
 purchased parts.  In general, moving parts are machined, heat treated, and
 finished to close tolerances.  Figure 75 shows a flow diagram for manufactur-
 ing a knitting machine.

     Pumps and compressors are produced by casting and machining housing and
 pistons, nobbing gears, forging and machining crankshafts, and making or
 purchasing all other essential parts.  Figure 76 shows a flow diagram for
 making a simple hydraulic gear pump.

     Ball and roller bearings are produced in four parallel line operations,
 one for each of the bearing elements (two race balls, balls, and retainers).
 The races are machined and ground, the balls are formed in a die and the
 retainers are blanked, pierced, and formed.  Not all bearing manufacturers
 produce their own rolling elements and, for some roller bearings, the re-
 tainers may be purchased.  Figure 77 shows a flow diagram for manufacturing
 ball bearings.

     Industrial patterns are produced by making a clay mockup for visualiza-
 tion.   Then precision formed (by machining and bench hand tooling) wooden
 patterns are made to establish the shape on experimental or limited produc-
 tion castings. When in production, a metallized pattern is usually cast from
 the master.   Figure 78 shows a flow diagram for pattern manufacturing.

     Furnaces and ovens are made by fastening together heavy formed plates by
welding and riveting.   The interior is then lined with durable nonflammable
material.   Then the entire outer surface of the furnace is painted.  Figure
79 shows a flow diagram for manufacturing a Heroult type direct-arc electric

                                     160

-------
STAIRLESS
 STEEL
 STRIP
                                                                                              Vater EreisDlons
                                                                                              Solid Emissions
          FIGURE 74.   PASTEURIZING EQUIPMENT MANUFACTURING.

-------
           HIGH
          CARBON
          COILED"
          STEEL
KJ

PIERCE
^
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FORGING
LOW
CARBOh
STEEL
HEAT
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                                            Solid Emissions
                                       FIGURE  75.   KNITTING MACHINE MANUFACTURING.

-------
  RAW 	
MATERIAL
  RAW 	
MATERIAL
                                                                                     Air Emissions
                                                                                     Water Emissions
                                                                                     Solid Emissions
               FIGURE 76.  HYDRAULIC GEAR PUMP  MANUFACTURING.

-------
                       XX.



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BEARING
FIGURE  77.   BALL BEARING MANUFACTURING.

-------
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PATTERN
                                                                                                 Air Emissions
                                                                                                 Water  Emissions
                                                                                                 Solid  Emissions
                            FIGURE  78.   PATTERN MANUFACTURING.

-------
MATERIAL
 RAW 	
MATERIAL
                                                                        Air Emissions
                                                                        Water Emissions
                                                                        Solid Emissions
            FIGURE 79.  METAL MELTING  FURNACE MANUFACTURING.

-------
furnace.

Waste Streams—

     Lubricating oils are typically found associated with most of the assem-
bly operations and usually end up in the wastewater.  Acid pickling also is
extensively practiced and could represent a problem if the wastewaters are
not properly neutralized.  The operations of welding, flame cutting, machin-
ing, assembling, metal forming, painting, cleaning, etc. are major contri-
utors to waste products. Plastics and plastic-coated materials are likely
to become part of the waste products and can result in air pollution when
these materials are heated during the remelting operations by the companies
which purchase scrap materials from companies in this grouping.  This is
more of an indirect source of waste products which do not show up until the
scrap metal reaches the  steel mills.

Office, Computing, and
Accounting Machines

     This segment includes establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing
office machines and devices and typewriters.  Office machines and typewriters
were produced in 217 establishments, by 33,900 employees, and primary prod-
ucts shipped were valued at $1.2323 billion  in 1972.

Manufacturing Processes

     Office machines are made by sawing or shearing low-carbon steel and then
forming it into a frame  configuration.  The  machining operations for the
frame and internal parts include milling, notching, turning, drilling, tap-
ping, grinding, buffing, and tumbling.  The  various parts are joined by
welding, soldering, riveting, and staking.   Parts  are then phosphated,
painted, inspected, and  shipped.  Figure 80  shows  a flow diagram for making
duplicating machines.

Waste Streams—

     Process water is used mainly for  cleaning after machining operations
for plating.  Operations such as machining,  buffing, drilling, and grinding
contribute to the solid  waste stream.  Air emissions result from such
operations as welding, painting, and baking.

Refrigeration and Service
Industry Machinery

     This segment includes establishments primarily  engaged in manufacturing
refrigeration equipment  and systems and  similar  equipment  for  commercial  and
industrial use; complete air conditioning units  for  domestic,  commercial,  and
industrial use; and warm air furnaces, except  electric.  Establishments
primarily engaged in manufacturing  soda  fountains  and beer-dispensing  equip-
ment and humidifiers and dehumidifiers,  except for room humidifiers  and dehu-
midifiers, are  also  classified  in  this industry.
                                     167

-------
oo
                                LOW
                               CARBON _
                              BARSTOCK
                              OR CASTING
                                                 Air Emissions



CLEAN


INSPECT
4 TEST


FINISHED
DUPLICATING
MACHINE

                                            p^  Water Emissions



                                            (^   Solid Emissions
                     FIGURE 80.  DUPLICATING MACHINE MANUFACTURING.

-------
     In 1972 there were 758 plants producing refrigeration and service in-
dustry equipment.  These plants employed 149,800 people and shipped products
valued at $7.0331 billion.
-------
SHOT
                                                                                        Water Emissions
                                                                                        Solid Emissions
                  FIGURE  81.   AIR  CONDITIONER MANUFACTURING.

-------
     TABLE 15.  MATERIALS AND PROCESS DATA FOR ENGINES AND TURBINES.

Xa)
Operations
Casting
Machining
Roll forming
Stamping
Welding
Heat treating
Assembling
Riveting
Mechanical Fastenings
Lubricating
Painting
Electrochemical
machining
Degrease
Waste/Media
dust/air, solids
chips/solid
oil/water
oil/water
fumes /air
HC/air
oil/water
—
—
oil/water
vapor/air , water
—
liquors /water
vapors /air
Potential Levels
of Pollution
high
medium
low
low
low
low
low
—
—
medium
low
—
medium
locally high
Current
Action
filters
recycle
—
—
vent
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
neutralize
vent

(a)   The following raw materials  are used in these operations: metals (sheet, bar, wire castings,
     forgings,  extrusions),  aluminum alloys, alloy & stainless steels, nickel alloys, cobalt
     alloys,  titanium alloys,  screw-machined products, plastics, oils, greases, acids, paints,
     ceramics,  and degreasing  agents.

-------
NJ
          TABLE 16.  MATERIALS AND PROCESS DATA FOR FARM AND GARDEN MACHINERY AND
                     EQUIPMENT.

Operations'3'
Sheet forming
Machining
Welding
Die casting
Galvanizing
Electroplating
Heat treating
Painting
Waste/Media
oils/water
chips/solid
fumes/air
fumes /air
fumes/air
liquors/water
fumes/air
fumes/air , water
Potential Levels
of Pollution
low
medium to high
medium/ local
low
low
low
low
medium
Current
Action
—
recycle
vent
vent
vent
neutralize
vent
vent /water
curtains

       (a)   The following raw materials are used in these operations:  metals (bar, sheet, wire forgings,
            castings structurals),  steels, zinc, copper, aluminum, fasteners, welding rod/wire, plastics,
            wood, paints, solvents, motors, and transmissions.

-------
     •  Construction, mining and materials handling machinery and
        equipment - Table 17

     •  Metal working machinery and equipment - Table 18

     •  Special industry machinery, except metal working machinery -
        Table 19

     •  Materials and processes for general industrial machinery -
        Table 20

     •  Typical material and process for office computing and
        accounting machines - Table 21

     •  Materials and processes typical for refrigeration and
        service industry - Table 22.

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC MACHINERY

     This product group includes establishments engaged in manufacturing
machinery, apparatus and supplies for generation, storage, transmission,
transformation and utilization of electrical energy.  The manufacture of
household appliances is also included in this group.  Products include such
diverse items as generators, Christmas tree lights, and microwave ovens.
Although no single company or group of companies dominates this industry,
General Electric and Westinghouse are probably the largest firms.  In 1972
this industry product group consisted of 11,964 plants, employed 1,650,000,
persons and shipped products valued at $96.7233 billion.

     The segments of the electrical and electronic machinery industry in-
cluded in this analysis consist of the following categories:

     •  Power, distribution, and specialty transformers

     •  Motors and generators

     •  Carbon and graphite products

     •  Welding apparatus, electric

     •  Household cooking equipment

     •  Household vacuum cleaners

     •  Electric housewares and fans

     •  Electric lamps

     •  Phonograph records and prerecorded magnetic tape

     •  Telephone and telegraph apparatus
                                     173

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TABLE 17.  MATERIALS AND PROCESS DATA FOR CONSTRUCTION,  MINING AND MATERIALS
           HANDLING MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT.
  Operations
             (a)
    Waste/Media
Potential Levels
  of Pollution
  Current
  Action
Sheet-forming
Torch cutting
Welding
Machining
Electroplating
Painting
oil/water
fumes/air
fumes/air
oils/water
liquors/water
fumes,overspray/
        air^water
 low
 high/local
 medium/local
 medium
 low
 medium
vent
vent/water
     curtains
Baking
Heat treating
Pickling
Bonderizing
Forging
Casting
Assembling
Fastening
fumes/air
fumes (HC) /air
liquors/water
liquors/water
scale, scrap/solids
vapors
oils/water
—
low
low
medium
low
low
medium
medium
—
vent
vent
neutralize
neutralize
—
—
—
—

(a)  The following raw materials are used in these operations:  metals (sheet,  plate,  structurals,
     wire, bar, forgings, castings), steels, copper alloys,  aluminum, brazing  alloys,  fasteners,
     batteries, plastics, oils, greases, acids, rubber products,  glass,  electromagnets,  fab-
     ricated components, wheels and bearings, steering gear, pumps,  and  radiators.

-------
 TABLE 18.   MATERIALS AND PROCESS  DATA FOR METALWORKING MACHINERY AND
            EQUIPMENT.
    Operations
              (a)
    Waste/Media
Potential Levels
  of Pollution
Current
Action
Casting
Forging
Machining
Plate forming
Welding
Brazing
Grinding and Polishing
Torch cutting
Heat treating
Painting
Electroplating
Lubricating
fumes,slags/air,solids        medium
fumes/air
chips/solids                  high
oil/water                     low
fumes/air                     medium
fumes/air                     low
solids                        low
fumes,slags/air,solids        medium
fumes HC/air                  low
vapors,solids/air,water       medium
liquors/water                 low
oils/water                    medium
                       recycle
                       vent
                       vent
                       neutralize
(a)  The following raw materials are used in these  operations: metals  (castings, forgings
     structurals, wire, tubing, sheet,  plate),  carbon  and  alloy steel, copper and alloys,
     aluminum, brazing alloys, tool steels,  fasteners,  and glass.

-------
TABLE  19.   MATERIALS  AND PROCESS DATA FOR SPECIAL  INDUSTRY MACHINERY, EXCEPT
            METALWORKING MACHINERY.
           Operations
                    (a)
    Waste/Media
Potential Levels
  of Pollution
  Current
  Action
       Plate forming
       Stamping
       Machining
       Welding
       Brazing
       Soldering
       Grinding & Polishing
       Torch cutting
       Lubricating
       Bright Annealing
       Heat  Treatment
       Electroplating
       Pickling
       Painting
       Baking
       Adhesive bonding
       Coining
       Assembling
oils/water
oil/water
chips/solid
fumes/air
fumes/air
fumes/air
dust/air,water,solid
fumes/air
oil/water
fumes HC/air
fumes/air
acids/water
acids,alkali/water
HC/air.water
HC/air
HC/air.water

oils/water
 low
 low
 low
 medium
 low
 low
 medium
 medium/local
 low
 low
 low
 medium
 low
 medium
 low
 low

 low
recycle
vent
vent
vent
water/fill
vent
      (a)  The following raw  materials  are used in  these operations:  metals  (sheet, structurals
           plate,  castings, forgings, wire), iron,  carbon and alloy steels,  stainless steels, zinc
           alloys,  copper and alloys, nickel (plating),  chromium (plating) brass and bronze
           (bearings), aluminum alloys,  lead alloys,  oil, grease,  plastics,  paints, solvents,
           acids/alkali, and  wood.

-------
TABLE 20.  MATERIALS AND PROCESSES FOR GENERAL INDUSTRIAL MACHINERY  AND  EQUIPMENT.
Operations^3)
Waste/Media
Potential Levels
of Pollution
Current
Action
 Casting

 Plate forming
 Stamping
 Machining
 Welding
 Brazing
 Soldering
 Heat treating
 Grinding & Polishing
 Electroplating
 Pickling
 Painting
 Riveting
 Assembling
 Lubricating
 Lining of furnaces
fumes(HC),slags/air,
        solid,water
oil/water
oil/water
oil/water
fumes/air,solids
fumes/air
fumes/air
fumes/air
dust,solids/air,water
metal salts/water
acids/water
fumes(HC)/air,water

oil/water
fumes,HC/water,air
dust,asbestos/air,
            water
high

low
low

medium
low
low
low
low
medium
medium
medium

low
low

medium
vent
vent
vent
                                                                                    vent
(a)  The following raw materials are used in these operations:  metals  (sheet,  plate  structurals,
     castings forgings, bar, billet wire, tubing), steel (carbon,  alloy)  aluminum, zinc  alloys,
     copper and alloys, iron, plastics, wood, oil, grease,  paints,  solvents, acids/alkali,
     refractories, and asbestos.

-------
         TABLE  21.
          TYPICAL MATERIAL AND PROCESS FOR OFFICE,  COMPUTING AND ACCOUNTING MACHINES.
                Operations
                           (a)
                                    Waste/Media
                              Potential Levels
                                of Pollution
                         Current
                         Action
00
 Die Casting
 Sheet forming
 Powder compaction
 Sintering
 Stamping
 Blanking
 Brazing
 Painting
 Molding
 Baking
 Lubricating
 Welding
 Pickling
 Machining
 Phosphating
Assembling
Fumes/air
oil/water

f times (HC)/air
oil/water
trimmings/solid
fumes/air
fumes(HC)/air,water
oils/water
fumes(HC)/air
oils/water
fumes/air
acid/water
chips/solid
soaps/water
oil/water
low
low

low
low
low
low
low
low
low
low
low
low
low
medium
low
                                                                                             vent
                                                                                             vent
                                                                                             vent
       (a)  The following taw materials are used in these operations: metals (die castings sheet,
            structurals, extrusions, powders, wire, stampings) steel, aluminum alloys, zinc alloys,
            copper and alloys, lead, tin, plastics, paint, oil, acids/alkali, fiber board, and rubber.

-------
 TABLE 22.  MATERIALS AND PROCESSES TYPICAL FOR REFRIGERATION AND SERVICE INDUSTRY
            MACHINERY.
      Operations^3)
    Waste/Media
Potential Levels
  of Pollution
   Current
   Action
Casting(die)
Plate and Sheet  forming
Machining
Welding
Brazing
Soldering
Grinding and  polishing
Heat treating
Electroplating
Pickling
Painting
Baking
Assembling
Charging of Freon
fumes/air
oil/water
oil/water
fumes,slag/air,solid
fumes/air
fumes,lead/solid
dust/water,solid
fumes(HC)/air
fumes,acids/air.water
liquors/water
fumes(HC)/air.water
fumes(HC)/air
oil/water
Freon/air
 low
 low
 medium
 medium/local
 low
 medium
 medium
 low
 medium
 low
 medium
 low
 medium
 relatively high
  for  industry
vent
vent
neutralize
(a)   The following raw materials  are  used  in  these operations: metals (sheet, plate, wire,
     powders,  castings forgings,  tubing),  steel, aluminum alloys, copper and alloys, tin,
     lead,  zinc,  iron, fasteners, plastics, wood, oil, grease, paints, and freon.

-------
     •  Semiconductors and related devices

     •  Electronic capacitors

     •  Storage batteries.

     Descriptions of manufacturing processes and flow diagrams were excerpted
from Reference  37.

Power, Distribution, and
Specialty Transformers

     This industry includes establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing
power, distribution, instrument, and specialty transformers.  Power, dis-
tribution and specialty transformers were produced by 216 plants and had a
value of primary products shipped at $1.3874 billion in 1972.  Most of these
plants (64 percent) employ more than 20 workers.  Approximately 67 percent of
the transformers produced are fluorescent lamp ballasts, 31 percent are
specialty transformers, and 2 percent are for miscellaneous uses.

Manufacturing Processes—

      Steel insulated wire and cable, copper and copper-based alloys, and
aluminum and aluminum-based alloys are the major raw materials.  The prin-
cipal manufacturing operations are mechanical material removal, material
forming, and material coating.

      In general, transformers are made by stamping out steel core laminations,
binding them together, fitting a prewound coil over the core, drying and
sealing the core, and assembling the coil and core in a sheet metal tank.

      The manufacture of power transformers (Figure 82) is representative of
the transformer industry.  The manufacturing starts with silicon steel stock
which is pretreated in a pickling bath and then rinsed.  The laminations are
cut,  punched,and then coated with varnish and bonded together.  The coils
are then wound on the forms and impregnated with a sealer such as oil.  The
coil  is then installed on the core and the core/coil assembly is dried.  The
assembly is then installed in an oil tank made from paint structural steel.
This  tank has plumbing to circulate the oil for cooling.  Some transformers
are filled with a cooling oil containing polychlorobiphenyls (PCBs).

Waste Streams—

      Process water used by the industry is used mainly for a water rinse
after a pickling operation in a bath, usually a 5-80 percent concentration
of sulfuric acid at 65-88 C (150-190 F) .   Vapor degreasing is also done with
solvents such as trichloroethylene, perchloroethylene, or trichloroethane
which must be rinsed away using water.   Air emissions result from coating,
grinding, and degreasing operations.  Solid waste results from shearing,
cutting, and punching operations.
                                     180

-------
oo
              SILICON
              STEEL
              STOCK
           PAPER8OARO.
           STOCK
                      HAW  	
                      MATERIAL
                                                                                                       Air Emissions
                                                                                                       Water Emissions
                                                                                                       Solid Emissions
                FIGURE 82.   POWER TRANSFORMER MANUFACTURING.

-------
Motors and Generators

     This industry includes establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing
electric motors (except starting motors) and power generators; motor  gen-
erator sets; railway motors and control equipment; and motors, generators,
and control equipment for gasoline, electric,  and oil-electric buses  and
trucks.

     Motors and generators were produced by 426  plants,  and had  a value of
primary products shipped at $2.1448 billion in 1972.  Most  of  these plants
(60 percent) employ more than 20 workers.  Of  all the motors and generators
manufactured in 1972, 96 percent were  fractional horsepower motors, 2 percent
were  integrated horsepower motors, less than 1 percent were prime mover
generator sets and less than 1 percent were motor generator sets.

Manufacturing Processes—

      Steel,  copper,  aluminum castings  and  semiconductors are the major raw
materials.   The principal manufacturing operations are mechanical material
 removal, material  forming, material coating, and assembly operations.

      In general, motors and generators are made  by forming the rotor  and then
 winding the rotor  and stator.  The body frame  and end bells are  then  formed
 and assembled with the rotor, stator,  and  other  piece parts.  The unit is
 then cleaned, painted,and  tested.

      The manufacture of motors  (Figure 83) is  representative of  the industry.
 A typical motor is constructed by  starting with  silicon  steel  stock that is
 cleaned in a pickling bath and rinsed. This stock is then used  for the
 laminations which   are formed by insulating, shearing into strips and blank-
 ing into circles.   Next,  the  stator laminations  are  notched.  The laminations
 are then stacked  and tack welded together  forming the rotor and  stator cores.
 The rotor and stator cores are next wound, dipped in lacquer,  and baked.

      The body frame and bells are  made from rough castings which are
 machined,  cleaned, and primed.  The motor  shaft  is machined and  chamfered,
 and a key-way cut.   The motor shaft is pressed into  the  rotor  and then the
 rotor is balanced.

      The stator is assembled  to the frame  and  the rotor  and bearings  are
 installed.   The assembled motor is cleaned, painted,  and tested.

 Waste Streams—

      Process water is used mainly  for  the  pickling bath  rinse.   Otherwise,
 this industry uses little  or no water. Air emissions result from baking,
 painting,  welding,  and grinding operations.  Solid waste results from grind-
 ing, shearing,  and drilling operations.

 Carbon and Graphite  Products

      This  industry includes establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing

                                    182

-------
00
                ROUGH
                CASTING
                                    Air Emissions
                                    Water Emissions



CLEAN





x°


INSPECT
4 TEST



FINISHED
MOTOR

                                    Solid Emissions
                        FIGURE 83.   ELECTRIC  MOTOR MANUFACTURING.

-------
lighting carbons;  carbon, graphite, and metal-graphite brushes and brush
stock; carbon or graphite electrodes for thermal and electrolytic uses; and
other carbon, graphite, and metal-graphite products.  The major products are:

     •  Brush blocks, carbon or molded graphite

     •  Brushes and brush stock contacts: carbon, graphite,
        etc. - electric

     •  Carbon specialties for electrical use

     •  Carbons, electric

     •  Electrodes, for thermal and electrolytic uses:
        carbon and graphite

     •  Lighting carbons.

      Carbon  and graphite products were produced by 72 plants, and had a value
 of  primary products shipped at $374.8 million in 1972.  Most of these plants
 (62 percent) employ more than 20 workers.  Forty percent  of the dollar value
 produced in  this category is from electrodes, 17 percent from brushes, con-
 tacts and brushplates, and 43 percent from other carbon and graphite
 products.

 Manufacturing Processes—

      Carbon, insulated wire, and cable and copper are the major raw
 materials.   The principal manufacturing operations are mechanical material
 removal, material  forming (metals), and casting and molding (metals).

      Carbon  and graphite products such as motor brushes are made by pressing
 the carbon into the desired form, baking it in a furnace and treating with
 a metallic halide.

      The manufacture of motor brushes (Figure 84) is representative of the
 carbon  and graphite products industry.  A mixture of carbon and a metal
 (powder) such as silver or copper is pressed in a mold to form the brushes.
 Sometimes a  pigtail is embedded into the carbon before molding to provide
 electrical contacts.  The pigtail is formed by cutting insulated extra
 flexible stranded wire to the proper length, stripping the two ends of in-
 sulation, and twisting the leads.  A contact lug is sometimes crimped onto
 the exposed  end of the wire.  After pressing, the motor brush is then baked.
 The brush is finally treated by dipping with a metallic halide such as lead
 iodide which is sometimes added prior to pressing and baking.  The lead
 iodide produces a lubricating film which helps to increase the life of the
 brush.

 Waste Streams—

     Process water is used mainly for cleaning.  Air emissions result from
 the  baking and mixing operations.

                                    184

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                                        PURCHASED
                                        PARTS
           INSULATED
           WIRE
                                         RAW
                                         MATERIALS
00



BAKE

,0


DIP IN
METALLIC
HALIDE


INSPECT
& TEST



FINISHED
BRUSH

                                                                                              Air Emissions



                                                                                         I     Water Emissions


                                                                                         |v   Solid Emissions
                        FIGURE 84.  MOTOR BRUSH MANUFACTURING.

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Welding Apparatus, Electric

     This industry includes establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing
electric welding apparatus and accessories.  Establishments primarily en-
gaged in coating welding wire from purchased wire or from wire drawn in the
same establishments are also included.

     Electric welding apparatus was produced by 166 plants, and shipped
primary products were valued at $524.4 million in 1972.  Most of  these plants
(54 percent) employ fewer than 20 workers.  Approximately 30 percent of the
electric welder products manufactured are arc welders, 69 percent are arc-
welding electrodes, and 1 percent are resistance welders.

Manufacturing Processes—

     Steel, insulated wire and cable, aluminum and aluminum-based alloys and
copper castings are the major raw materials.  The principal manufacturing
operations  are mechanical material removal, material coating, and assembly
operations.

     In general, electric welders are made by assembly of the transformer,
control panel, fan, and cable harness into a metal enclosure.

     The manufacture of AC transformer welding apparatus (Figure  85) is re-
presentative of the welding apparatus industry.  The sheet metal  stock is
first pretreated in a sulfuric acid bath.  The metal components such as the
cabinet are fabricated and the skids are welded to the baseplate.  The
covers, skids, and other metal components are then painted.  The  transformer,
which can either be purchased or manufactured in-house, is assembled to the
baseplate along with the control panel, fan and cable harness.  The unit is
then inspected and tested, the covers are assembled, and the unit is cleaned.

Waste Streams—

     Process water is used mainly for rinsing after pretreating and degreas-
ing.  The pretreating consists of a sulfuric acid bath with a water rinse.
Vapor degreasing is done with trichloroethylene or trichloroethane.  Air
emissions result from the welding and painting.

Household Cooking Equipment

     This industry includes establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing
household cooking equipment, both electric and nonelectric types.  The major
products are:

     •  Barbecues, grills, and braziers for outdoor cooking

     •  Cooking equipment, household

     •  Gas ranges, domestic

     •  Microwave ovens,  household


                                    186

-------
         SHEET _
         METAL"
oo
ACID
BATH


RINSE


SHEAR
\

BLANK


FORM


FINISHED
COVER, SKIDS
& BASE PLATE


WELD


PAINT


                                                                         Air Emissions
                                                                         Water Emissions
                                                                         Solid Emissions
                           FIGURE 85.  WELDING APPARATUS  (ELECTRIC) MANUFACTURING.

-------
     •  Ovens, household: except portable

     •  Ranges: electric, gas, etc. - household

     •  Stoves, disk.

     In 1972, household cooking equipment was produced by 82 plants and had a
value of primary products shipped at $763.8 million.  Most of these plants
(60 percent) employ more than 20 workers.  Fifty-six percent of the house-
hold cooking equipment is electric ranges and ovens and 44 percent is non-
electric cooking equipment.

Manufacturing Processes—

     Steel, aluminum and aluminum-based alloys, castings, electric motors,
and timers  are the major raw materials.  The principal manufacturing
operations  are material forming (metal), material coating, mechanical
material removal, and casting and molding (metals).

     In general, household cooking equipment is made by bending and forming
sheet steel stock into the outer housing shape, welding it, and assembling
components  to  it.

     The manufacture of electric ranges  (Figure 86) is representative of the
household cooking equipment industry.  Sheet steel stock is first cleaned
and galvanized.  It  is then cut and trimmed to the proper size and holes are
cut for burners, controls, etc.  The stock is next bent and formed for the
side panels,  top surface, control box, oven sidewalls, and doors.  The frame
is then cut and welded together.  The unit is cleaned in a pickling bath and
vapor degreased with trichloroethylene, perchloroethylene, or trichloro-
ethane, and all surfaces are primed.  The outside surfaces are painted with
a high heat-resistant compound and the fixtures and trim are electroplated.
Electric burners are made by embedding resistance coils in fused magnesium
oxide powder or refractory cement.  The oven sidewalls are installed on the
frame and they are packed with fiber glass or asbestos insulation and
assembled with sheet metal screws.  The burner and controls are installed
next and wired.  The oven is then inspected and tested.

Waste Streams—

     Process water is used mainly for cleaning of the metal stock after
pickling and vapor degreasing.  Air emissions result from galvanizing,
welding, pickling,  vapor degreasing, enameling, and plating.  Solid waste
results from the cutting and trimming, and shearing operations.

Household Vacuum Cleaners

     This industry includes establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing
vacuum cleaners for household use.

     Household vacuum cleaners were produced by 36 plants, and shipped
primary products were valued at $372 million in 1972.

                                     188

-------
SHEET
STEEL.
STOCK
yX
PICKLE



GALVANIZE

fS~


SHEAR

^>

TRIM

^>

BEND



FORM



SIDE PANELS,
TOP SURFACE,
CONTROL BOX,
OVEN SIDEWALLS,
DOORS


                                        STOCK
                                        METAL'
S^J /^
CUT

^>

WELD








FINISHED
FRAME


  PICKLE
  AND
  VAPOR
  DECREASE
PACK WITH
FIBERGLASS
AND ASBESTOS

                                                         PORCELAIN
                                                         ENAMEL
                                                         OUTSIDE
                                                         SURFACES
PAINT OVEN
SURFACES WITH
HEAT RESISTANT
COMPOUND
                                                         INSTALL
                                                         BURNERS
                                                         AND
                                                         CONTROLS
   INSPECT
   AND
   TEST
                                                                                          Air Emissions


                                                                                          Water Emissions



                                                                                          Solid Emissions
                               FIGURE  86.   WELDING APPARATUS  (ELECTRIC)
                                            MANUFACTURING.

-------
Manufacturing Processes—

     Steel, insulated wire and cable, copper and copper-based alloys,
aluminum and aluminum-based alloys, castings, and electric motors' are the
major raw materials.  The principal manufacturing operations are mechanical
material removal, material forming, material coating, and electrochemical
processing.

     In general, vacuum cleaners are made by casting and machining the body,
then fabricating the components, and finally assembling these parts to the
body.

     The manufacture of canister vacuum cleaners (Figure 87) is represent-
ative of the vacuum cleaner industry.  Initially two plastic halves which
form the canister body are molded and the excess plastic is trimmed.
Handles, covers, and attachments (such as brush housings) are also molded in
plastic.   The wands are rolled metal tubing with knurled ends or extruded
plastic.   Metal  trim is stamped, degreased, pickled, and electroplated.  This
trim is then screwed or bonded to the canister halves.  Purchased motors,
switches and wires are installed next, and the canister halves are bolted
together and covers attached.  The vacuum cleaner is tested and then pack-
aged along with  accessories.

Waste Streams—

     Process water is used mainly for rinses after cleaning, vapor degreas-
ing, and postplating rinses.  Air emissions result from the plating, welding,
and degreasing operations.  Solid waste results from trimming and stamping
operations.

Electric Housewares and Fans

     This  industry includes establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing
electric housewares for heating, cooking, and other purposes; and electric
fans, including ventilating and exhaust household-type fans.

     Electric housewares and fans were produced by 299 plants and shipped
primary products were valued at $1.3184 billion in 1972.  Most of these
plants (56 percent) employ more than 20 workers.  Twelve percent of the
products produced in this category are electrical fans, 6 percent are
electric razors, and 82 percent are other small appliances.

Manufacturing Processes—

     Steel, copper and copper-based alloys, aluminum and aluminum-based
alloys,  castings, timing mechanisms, and electric motors are the major raw
materials used by this industry.  The principal manufacturing operations are
material forming (metals), material coating, and mechanical material removal.

     Electric housewares and fans are made by a wide range of manufacturing
processes.   Most typically, machining or plastic molding is used to manu-
facture  the shell of the unit.  Welding is used to attach parts, some of

                                    190

-------
                   RAW
                   PLASTIC
SHEET
METAL-
STOCK
                                   RAW
                                   PLASTIC








TEST



FINISHED
VACUUM
CLEANER

                                                                     -t*
                                                                     -r
                                                                     ~ib
Air Emissions
Water Emissions
                                                                            Solid Emissions
            FIGURE 87.  VACUUM CLEANER MANUFACTURING.

-------
 which are electroplated.   Finished products are usually painted.

      The manufacture  of  food mixers  (Figure 88) is representative  of  the
 electric housewares and  fans industry.  The shell of  the mixer  is  made by
 turning and grinding  a rough metal casting or by plastic molding.  Rolling,
 swaging, bending,  and forming are used  to make the beaters which are  then
 tumbled to remove  any burrs, and electroplated.  Two  halves of  the unit are
 butted together to form  the assembly which is then cleaned by pickling and
 neutralized in an  alkaline solution.  The unit is then electroplated  or
 painted.  Plastic  parts  are either molded in-house or purchased.   Assembly of
 all components is  the last operation and includes soldering of  electrical
 connections.   Electric motors are either purchased or manufactured.   Gears
 are formed by machining  and tempering or by plastic molding.

 Waste Streams—

      Process  water, which  constitutes 43 percent of the gross water used by
 the industry, is used mainly for cleaning prior to and after such  processes
 as  bright dipping, and in  rinses in electroplating.   Other sources of
 effluent water are air scrubbers used in the painting operation.   Air
 emissions result from the  electroplating, painting, welding, and grinding
 operations.

 Electric Lamps

      This industry includes establishments primarily  engaged in manufacturing
 electric bulbs,  tubes, and related light sources.  Important products of this
 industry include:

      Bulbs, electric  light: complete
      Electrotherapeutic  lamp units for  ultraviolet and infrared radiation
      Flashlight  bulbs, photographic
      Glow lamps
      Infrared lamps
      Lamps, electric:  incandescent filaments, fluorescent, and  vapor
      Lamps, sealed beam
      Light bulbs,  electric: complete
      Photoflash  and photoflood lamps
      Pilot lights, radio
      Strobotrons
      Tubes, electric  light
      Ultraviolet lamps.

      Electric  lamps were produced by 142 plants and shipped primary products
were  valued at $1.025 billion in 1972.  Half of these plants (50 percent)
employ more than 20 workers.   Of the products produced in this  category.
33 percent are photographic incandescent bulbs, 34 percent are  large  incan-
descent bulbs, 20 percent are miniature incandescent  bulbs, 8 percent are
electric discharge, and 5 percent are Christmas tree  lamps.
                                    192

-------
                                                                              p
          SHEET
          STOCK'
to
U>
ROLL



BEND


FORM


SWAGE


WELD


PLATE


FINISHED
BEATERS


                 ROUGH _
                 CASTING
/
GRIND
>>










/\
CLEAN


PLATE
OR PAINT
/x\,


FINISHED
MIXER
SHELL


PURCHASED
MOTOR
& PARTS

WELD

SOLDER

MECHANICAL
FASTENERS

/>
>>


THERMOPLASTIC 	 ^_
RESIN




MOLD


ASSEMBLE


TEST AND
INSPECT





FINISHED
PLASTIC
ACCESSORIES


FINISHED
FOOD
MIXER



                                                                                             Air Emissions
                                                                                             Water Emissions
                                                                                             Solid Emissions
                                     FIGURE 88.   FOOD MIXER MANUFACTURING.

-------
Manufacturing Processes—

     Glass and glass products are the major raw materials, with  the principal
manufacturing operation being mechanical material removal.

     In general, electric lamps are made by drawing and forming  the filament,
assembling the filament to the base, and then cleaning, electroplating,  and
assembling the final product.  The manufacture of incandescent lightbulbs
(Figure 89) is representative of the electric lamp industry.  The  filament
wire is drawn and the filament is formed and attached to a stamped base.
The filament and base unit is then pickled, cleaned, rinsed, electroplated,
and dried.  The glass envelope is blown and then assembled to the  base and
filled with inert gas.  The bulb is tested and packaged.

Waste Streams—

     Process water is used mainly in a vapor-degreasing process  following
machining operations and in rinses following electroplating.  Hydrofluoric
acid is used to "frost" the bulbs and the exhaust gas is vented  to an ammonia
scrubber.  The wastewater contains ammonium fluoride which is a  disposal
problem.  Air emissions result from the vapor-degreasing and soldering
operations.

Phonograph Records and Prerecorded
Magnetic Tape

     This industry includes establishments primarily engaged in  manufacturing
phonograph records and prerecorded magnetic tape.  The major products are:

     Master records or tapes
     Phonograph record blanks
     Phonograph records (including preparation of the master)
     Prerecorded magnetic tape
     Record blanks, phonograph
     Records, phonograph.

     Phonograph records and prerecorded magnetic tapes were produced by  564
plants and shipped primary products were valued at $563.9 million  in 1972.
Most of these plants (79 percent) employ fewer than 20 workers.  About 58 per-
cent of the products produced in this category are 45 rpm records  and 41
percent are 33-1/3 rpm records.  Prerecorded cartridge tapes and cassette
tapes account for less than 1 percent of the total production.

Manufacturing Processes—

     Plastic and magnetic tapes are the major raw materials, while the prin-
cipal manufacturing operations are molding and forming (nonmetals) and
chemical/electrochemical operations.

     In general, phonograph records are made by molding plastic  from a
negative master disc.   Prerecorded magnetic tapes are made by passing Mylar
tape coated with iron oxide in front of a recording head.


                                    194

-------
\f>
Ln
                                                                                                Air Emissions
                                                                                                Water Emissions
                                                                                                Solid Emissions
               FIGURE 89.  INCANDESCENT LIGHT  BULBS MANUFACTURING.

-------
     The manufacturing operations for fabricating phonograph records are
shown in Figure 90.  The first step in the manufacture of phonograph records
is to machine a metal disc which serves as the master disc.  Next, this disc
is coated with plastic which is then grooved by the recording cutter.  The
disc is then coated with lacquer and a negative is made by electroforming.
If this negative master is to be used to make a large quantity of records,
it is made from high-grade steel.  The negative master is then used as a mold
in a plastic molding operation which is usually done under pressure with
heat.

     The plastic, if it is for low-cost records, is a synthetic thermoplastic
containing fillers.  High-quality records are made with vinyl plastic without
filler because the fillers cause a scratching sound when played.

     Pre-recorded magnetic tapes are made from thin sheets of mylar that are
coated with iron oxide and slit into strips of 6.35 mm or 3.175 mm width.
The magnetic tape is then wound on plastic spools.  It is recorded by passing
the tape at a constant speed through a recording machine.  Many manufacturers
of pre-recorded tape simply purchase the magnetic tape and do only the
recording themselves.

Waste Streams—

     Process water is used mainly for removing dust and dirt from the master
disc.  Air emissions result from the lacquer coating of the disc.

Telephone and Telegraph Apparatus

     This industry includes establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing
wire telephone and telegraph equipment, and parts especially designed for
telephone and telegraph use.

     Telephone and telegraph apparatus was produced by 200 plants and shipped
primary products were valued at $4,531 million in 1972.  Most of these plants
(56 percent) employ more than 20 workers.  Forty percent of the dollar value
produced in this category is from telephone switching and switchboard equip-
ment, 12 percent is from telephone carrier equipment, 40 percent is from
telephone instrument sets, 7 percent is from telegraph apparatus, and 1 per-
cent is from other equipment.

Manufacturing Processes—

     Steel,  wire, copper, aluminum, castings, resins, electron tubes, and
semiconductors are the major raw materials.  The principal manufacturing
operations are mechanical material removal, material forming, material coat-
ing,  chemical/electrochemical operations, physical property modification,
and molding  and forming (non-metals).

     Telephone and telegraph equipment is made by a wide range of diverse
manufacturing processes.   Typically, the chassis and cabinet are manufactured'
and the components are installed and wired.
                                    196

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METAL 	
STOCK """
MACHINE
METAL DISC


COAT WITH
PLASTIC


CUT GROOVES


LACQUER
COAT DISC


                       ELECTRO-
                       FORM NEGATIVE
vo
PLASTIC
RECORD
                                             COMPRESSION
                                                  MOLD
LABEL
                     ADHESION
                     BOND
FINISHED
RECORD
                                                 PLASTIC
                                                   DISC
                                                                                        Air Emissions
                                                                                        Water Emissions
                                                                                         Solid Emissions
                                  FIGURE 90.   PHONOGRAPH RECORD MANUFACTURING.

-------
     The manufacture of PBX (Private Branch Exchange) equipment shown in
Figure 91 is representative of the telephone and telegraph industry.  First
the cabinet and chassis are formed by stamping, shearing, bending, spot
welding, grinding,' pickling, and painting.  The chassis is then drilled and
the components such as purchased pre-wired circuit boards, relays, and
transformers are installed.  These parts are assembled either by soldering
or wire wrapping.  Wire wrapping is now being used through the industry
because of its superior mechanical and electrical properties.  It is also a
dry process as opposed to dip soldering.

Waste Streams—

     Telephone shells are molded plastic.  Process water is used mainly for
electroplating, etching, painting, anodizing, cleaning, and air scrubbing.
Air emissions result from the plating, painting, and grinding operations.
Solid waste results from shearing, stamping, and drilling operations.

Semiconductors and Related Devices

     This industry includes establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing
semiconductor and related solid state devices, such as semiconductor diodes
and stacks, including rectifiers, integrated microcircuits (semiconductor)
networks), transistors, solar cells, and light sensing and emitting semi-
conductor (solid state) devices.

     Semiconductors and related devices were produced by 325 plants and
shipped products were valued at $2.1633 billion in 1972.  Most of these plants
(59 percent) employ more than 20 workers.  Thirty six percent of the
products produced in this category are transistors, 44 percent are diodes
and rectifiers, 16 percent are integrated circuits, and 4 percent are other
semiconductors.

Manufacturing Processes—

     Steel insulated wire cable, aluminum, copper, castings, silicon, ger-
manium, and resins are the major raw materials.  The principal manufacturing
operations are mechanical material removal, chemical/electrochemical
operations, and material forming (metals).

     In general, semiconductors are made from silicon or germanium wafers
that are doped with impurities.  These are joined together and lead wires
are attached.

     The manufacture of transistors (Figure 92) is representative of the
semiconductors industry.  (Crystals of silicon are first grown by the
Czochralski or Float Zone methods.  They are then cut and polished to form
wafers.)  The wafers are cast and sorted, then bonded together, and wires
are bonded to the joined wafers.  The unit is washed in ultra pure water,
dried,  and baked.  A cap is finally soldered into place and the unit tested.
                                   198

-------
         METAL_
         STOCK"
VO

SHEAR
*>


STAMP
^


BEND



SPOT
WELD
f

a
/ s\ XS.
GRIND


PICKLE




R
PAINT


DRILL
b

FINISHED
CHASSIS


                                                                                             Air Emissions
                                                                                             Water Emissions
                                                                                             Solid Emissions
                         FIGURE 91.   PBX (PRIVATE BRANCH EXCHANGE) EQUIPMENT MANUFACTURING.

-------
to
O
o
L 	 »-


GROW
CRYSTAL



CUT

/\
WASH


DRY




POLISH


BAKE



P

SORT


WELD
CAP


PURCHASE
CAP


P

DIE BOND


WIRE
BOND


FINAL
TEST




FINISHED
TRANSISTOR




                                                                                             Air Emissions
                                                                                             Water Emissions
                                                                                             Solid Emissions
                     FIGURE 92.   TRANSISTOR MANUFACTURING.

-------
Electronic Capacitors

     This industry includes establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing
electronic capacitors.  The major products are:

     Capacitors, electronic: fixed and variable
     Condensers, for electronic end products.

     Electronic capacitors were produced by 113 plants, and shipped primary
products were valued at $454.4 million in 1972.  Most of these plants (90 per-
cent) employ more than 20 workers.  Of the capacitors produced, 18 percent are
electrolytic capacitors,  76 percent are ceramic capacitors, and 6 percent
are mica capacitors.

Manufacturing Processes—

     Various metal stock, wire, and dielectric materials are the major raw
materials.  The principal manufacturing operations are material coating,
assembly operations, and physical property modification.

     In general, capacitors are made by forming discs, applying a silver
surface to both sides, oven drying, attaching lead wires, and plastic coating
the unit.

     The manufacture of ceramic disc capacitors (Figure 93) is representative
of the capacitor industry.  First a ceramic disc is formed and oven fired.
A silver surface is applied to each side of the disc and it is oven dried.
The discs are then loaded into a magazine where wires which have been
previously stripped, cut, and bent are attached by dip soldering.  The disc
assembly is cleaned in a detergent or solvent.  A plastic coating is applied
and the capacitor is dried.  Identification is printed on the capacitor and
a wax coating is applied.  The wire leads are then sheared and samples of
the capacitors are tested.

Waste Streams—

     Process water is used mainly for cleaning after the leads are dip
soldered in place.

Storage Batteries

     This segment includes establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing
storage batteries, and the products include:

     Alkaline cell storage batteries
     Lead-acid batteries (storage batteries).
                                     201

-------
           RAW    _
           MATERIAL
FORM
CERAMIC
DISC


OVEN
FIRE


APPLY
SILVER
SUFACE
(ONE SIDE)


OVEN
DRY


APPLY
SILVER
SURFACE
(OTHER SIDE)


OVEN
DRY


FINISHED
DISCS


                                                                               WIRE-
STRIP a
CUT WIRES


BEND
LEADS





DIP
SOLDER
LEADS TO
DISCS


X\
WASH


DRY



APPLY
COATING



OVEN
DRY



IDENTIFY



WAX
DIP


N>
O
KJ



SHEAR
LEADS



SAMPLE
ft TEST



WEIGH
«< PACK



FINISHED
CAPACITOR

                                                                                               Air Emissions



                                                                                         I     Water Emissions




                                                                                         I^   Solid Emissions
           FIGURE  93.  CERAMIC DISC CAPACITOR MANUFACTURING.

-------
Storage batteries were produced by 213 plants, and had a value for primary
products shipped of $971 million in 1972.  Most of these plants  (56 percent)
employ more than 20 workers.  Seven percent of the storage batteries produced
are automobile replacement batteries, 2 percent are lead-acid batteries for
other than motor vehicles, and 70 percent are for other uses.

Manufacturing Processes—

     Lead, purchased plastic cases, litharge, and sulfuric acid are the major
raw materials.  The principal manufacturing operations are molding and
forming, material forming, and assembly operations.

     In general, storage batteries are made by casting the plates out of
lead, spreading a lead oxide and sulfuric acid paste on the plates, drying,
assembling, and adding the acid.

     The manufacture of lead-acid storage batteries (Figure 94) is represen-
tative of the storage battery industry.  First lead is cast to form the
grids.  A paste is then made by mixing lead oxide with sulfuric acid and
water.  The paste is spread onto the lead grids to form plates which are
cured and dried.  The plates are stacked with a spacer material between them
to form the battery cells.  At this point in the assembly, the operations
vary for wet-charged and dry-charged batteries.  The wet-charged battery
cells are assembled in a plastic or rubber case, interconnected, sealed,
tested, and filled with sulfuric acid.  An electrical charge is applied to
the battery terminals which converts the negative plates to lead sponge and
the positive plates to lead peroxide.  This operation, called forming,
completes the battery manufacture.

     The dry-charge batteries are shipped and stored without sulfuric acid
to extend the battery shelf life.  For the dry-charge battery, the forming
operation is accomplished by connecting the battery cells and immersing them
in forming tanks containing sulfuric acid for the actual forming.  The cells
are then removed, washed, and assembled in the battery case.  Then they are
tested, decorated, and readied for shipment.  Some manufacturers of dry-
charged batteries are able to conduct the forming operations with the cells
in the battery case.

Waste Streams—

     Process water, is used mainly for cleaning and rinsing.  Unused
                                    203

-------
                                                                      Air Emissions
                                                                      V.'ater Emissions
                                                                      Solid Emissions
FIGURE  94.   LEAD-ACID  STORAGE BATTERY  MANUFACTURING.

-------
sulfuric acid is a major source of waste.  Wastewaters are comprised of
sulfuric acid (typically 2-4%) and suspended and dissolved lead.  Scrap waste
from the various processes, for example, grids, paste mix, reject plates, are
recovered and sent to a lead smelter for processing as secondary lead and
reused.

TRANSPORTATION EQUIPMENT

     This major industry includes establishments engaged in manufacturing
equipment for transportation of passengers and cargo by land, air,  and water.
There were 8,802 establishments in 1972 primarily engaged in the manufacture
of transportation equipment.  They employed 1,719,000 people and shipped
products valued at $94.7 billion.

     Important products produced by establishments classified in this major
group include motor vehicles,  aircraft, guided missiles and space vehicles,
ships, boats, railroad equipment, and miscellaneous transportation equipment
such as motorcycles, bicycles, and snowmobiles.  Thus, the manufacturing
operations vary quite extensively and cannot be typified in a simple way.
However, the manufacturing processes are quite similar in many respects to
those discussed under fabricated metal products.

Manufacturing Processes

     There are some basic processes and/or manufacturing steps which can have
an impact on the environment (air, water, solids).  The foundry activities of
the companies in this category rank rather high in pollution potential.  The
many surface-finishing operations including electroplating, pickling, anodiz-
ing, painting, enameling, all have potential for contributing to an
environmental impact.  Lubrication of the various metal-forming and fabricat-
ing processes can contribute to problems, especially in those plants where
such fabrication processes are practiced extensively.  A considerable amount
of plastics is used in the manufacture of both automobiles and aircraft.
Waste plastics are disposed of either by burning or in the form of solid
waste, which probably ends up in some landfills.  Welding is a potential
source of pollution in the manufacture of equipment.  However, the MIG/TIG
welding practices commonly used are not likely to create pollution to the
extent associated with stick electrode welding used in the fabrication of
larger structures.  An exception to this is observed in the manufacture of
ships and boats where the fumes from stick electrode welding are an even
more serious problem for the welders than in field erection of towers and
other large fabrications.  This is due in part to the fact that the operators
are more likely to be confined to smaller quarters.  This is also true in the
welding of tank hulls.

Motor Vehicles and Motor Vehicle Equipment—

     This is by far the largest segment of the transportation equipment
industry.  In 1972 there were 3,391 establishments primarily engaged in the
manufacture of motor vehicles, bodies for passenger cars, trucks, and buses,
                                    205

-------
parts and accessories, and truck trailers.  These establishments employed
807,400 people and shipped products valued at $63.9 billion.  This segment
included 39 percent of the establishments in the transportation equipment
industry, employed 47 percent of the work force for the industry, and shipped
67 percent of the dollar value of products.

     The four leading establishments engaged primarily in the manufacture of
passenger automobiles are quite heavily integrated, having facilities for
conducting the majority of part-making operations within one or more of their
manufacturing plants.  For example, General Motors has one of the largest
foundries in the country and Ford has a forge shop which produced nearly
5 percent of the Nation's total output of forgings.  Thus, many of the pro-
cesses identified under fabricated metal products as having an impact on the
environment are also represented by this industrial classification.  There
are, of  course, several smaller firms in vehicle manufacture which purchase
such components as part of their raw materials.  Checker Motors, for example,
purchases nearly all components except the bodies and frames, for taxicabs.
The waste streams from these organizations differ in magnitude and cannot be
simply classified as an industrial grouping with regard to pollution poten-
tial.  Similarly, the manufacturers of truck bodies, tractors and buses all
represent varying degrees of integration.  Caterpillar Co., for example, has
extended its integration to the manufacture of both forgings and casting
while Fruehauf has largely confined its manufacturing to forming, assembling,
fastening, and welding of truck bodies.

     Three manufacturing processes were selected that are typical of the
transportation equipment industry.  Flow charts are shown for automobile
manufacture and assembly (Figure 95), manufacture of automobile frames
(Figure  96) and manufacture of truck trailers (Figure 97).

Waste Streams—

     Table 23 shows the raw materials and operations used in manufacturing
motor vehicles and equipment, the wastes engendered, and the media in which
the wastes are emitted.  It also shows the general levels of pollution and
the current actions,  if any, taken to reduce pollution.

Aircraft and Parts—

     This is the second largest segment of the transportation equipment
industry.  In 1972 there were 1094 establishments primarily engaged in this
industry.  They employed 438,700 people and shipped products valued at $15.5
billion.

     The major manufacturers of aircraft have concentrated their manufactur-
ing operations on sheet metal forming, joining (riveting, welding, adhesive
bonding, mechanical fastening), extensive machining, and assembly of air-
craft.   Virtually all subcomponents, not considered as part of the basic
airframes,  are purchased (engines, landing gear, drive systems, etc.).
There are over 600 firms engaged in the manufacture of such components for
aircraft.  Furthermore, part-making firms are likely to purchase such fab-
ricated metal products as extrusions, forgings, and castings which are then


                                    206

-------
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FRAME









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                                                                                                            ]  ASSEMBLE
                                                                                                                Air F.ir.isslons
                                                                                                                Water End^sions
                                                                                                                Solid Kalsslons
                                   FIGURE  95.   AUTOMOBILE  MANUFACTURE AND  ASSEMBLY.

-------
N)
O
00
           RAW

           MATERIAL









SHEAR

. /\ , r , x\ .
"b >>

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A


ASSEMBLE


». PAINT -^ INSPECT FINISHED
& ALIGN ^ FRAME
y
/ s\
WELD

BRAZE

MECHANICAL
FASTENERS
,0 D .
/ / Air Emissions
— T^
Water Emissions
^ Solid Emloslnna
                              FIGURE 96.  MANUFACTURE  OF  AUTOMOBILE FRAMES.

-------
              RAW
           MATERIAL'
           PURCHASE

             RAILS
SHEAR
^

BLANK


PUNCH
Z7

FORM


FINISHED
PANELS
N3
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ASSEMBLE
FRAME

WELD
BRAZE

MECHANICAL
FASTENERS


LINE INSIDE
WITH
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ADHESION
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MECHANICAL
FASTENERS


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*
ASSEMBLE ASSEMBLE ASSEMBLE ASSEMBLE
"" WHEELFD
-------
            TABLE 23.   MATERIALS  AND  PROCESSES TYPICAL FOR MOTOR VEHICLES AND MOTOR VEHICLES EQUIPMENT.
N3
M
o
               Operations
                          (a)
 Sand casting

 Die casting
 Stamping
 Sheet  forming
 Machining
 Hot forging
 Cold forging
 Welding
 Electroplating
 Heat treating
 Painting
 Baking
 Sanding/polishing
Lubricating
Pickling
Bonderizing
Assembling
                                Waste/Media
                              Potential Levels
                               of Pollution
                         Current
                         Action
                                     Fumes HC/air/water
                                     Fumes/air
Chips/solids
Scale/solids
Soaps,phosphates/water
Fumes/air
Metallic salts /water
HC/air(b)
                                     HC/water
                                             (b)
                                     HC/air(b)
                                     Solids/water
                                     Oils/water
                                     Acids/alkali/water
                                     Acids/water
                                     Oils/water
                                    High

                                   Medium
     Medium
     Medium
     Medium
 Locally high
     Medium
      Low
     Medium
      Medium
      Low
Medium to high
     Medium
     Medium
     Medium
                   Dust collection/
                            vent
                          Vent
      Recycle
     Land fill
    Neutralize
       Vent
    Neutralize
       Vent
Vent/water screen
       Vent
     Water screen
    Separators
     Neutralize
     Neutralize
      Separators
          "(a)  The following raw materials are used in these operations: metals (sheet, bar, wire, forging,
               castings, P/M parts), aluminum and alloys, copper and alloys, steel, zinc (Cor die casting),
               iron (for cast irons), chromium (plating), nickel (plating), lead (batteries), fasteners,
               metal powders, solder, cloth/fabric, plastics/glass, wood, acids/alkali, oils, greases,
               resins/adhesives, solvents/paints, rubber products, and freon.
          '(b)  HC = hydrocarbon.

-------
machined and assembled into the subcomponents.  Figure 98 shows a general
flow chart for airplane manufacturing.

Waste Streams—

     The very nature of aircraft and parts manufacture is such that very
little solid nonrecyclable waste is formed during the manufacturing oper-
ations.  On the other hand, the use of composites, plastics, and fabrics
can result in potential environmental impact if such materials are not
properly disposed of.  Such materials can form noxious fumes if disposed
of by burning.  The extensive machining operations usually associated with
aircraft manufacture are the sources of water-soluble cutting oils which
are often disposed of in the local sewage systems.  Depending on the levels
of use, this can have an environmental impact.  Other than the fumes formed
during welding and the vapors coming from the painting operations, there are
few sources of air pollutants associated with the manufactures of aircraft.
Table 24 summarizes these wastes and their approximate levels.

Ship and Boat Building and Repairing—

     This is a medium-size segment of the transportation equipment industry.
In 1972 there were 2,232 establishments primarily engaged in building and
repairing boats and ships of all varieties, including barges, dredges,
drilling platforms, and floating drydocks as well as more conventional
vessels.  These establishments employed 185,200 people and shipped products
valued at $4.3 billion.

     Figure 99 shows a general flow chart for the manufacture of steel
vessels.  The production of glass-fiber-reinforced boats is significantly
different, and is shown in Figure 100.

Waste Streams—

     From the standpoint of environmental impact, perhaps the most notice-
able operations associated with manufacture of large steel ships are the
extensive torch cutting and welding operations that are used to cut the
large plates to size and for subsequently joining them to the frames and
bulkheads.  Riveting is extensively used, but the major source of pollution
from this process is in the heating of the rivets, and the extent depends on
the types of furnaces being used for the purpose.  Painting is also exten-
sively used during and after assembly.  Scrap steel makes up the majority of
waste originating from shipbuilding operations.

     By contrast, the manufacture of fiber-glass  boats  is  a relatively clean
operation involving mostly layup and curing of the resins used in the join-
ing of layers and sections of both the skins and bulkheads.  Disposal of
the waste resins can represent an environmental impact if they are burned.

     Table 25 summarizes the waste streams from both types of operations.
                                    211

-------
N5
                     RAW 	
                   MATERIALS
                                      Solid Emission*
                              FIGURE 98.   MANUFACTURE OF AIRCRAFT.

-------
TABLE 24.  MATERIALS AND PROCESSES TYPICAL FOR AIRCRAFT AND PARTS.

(a)
Operations
Forming
Riveting
Bonding
Welding
Electroplating
Heat treating
Lubricating
Anodizing
Pickling
Chemical machining
Sand ing /polishing
Machining
Grinding
Painting
Baking
Elect rod is charge
machinery
Assembling
Waste/Media
Lubricants /water
HC/water, air
Fumes/air
Metal salts/water
Fumes/air
Oils/water
Chemicals /water
Acids/water
Acids/water
Dusts, metal fines/
water ,so?.ids
Chips/solid
Dust /water .solids
HC/air, water
HC/air(b)
Metallic fines/solids
Oils/water
Potential Levels
of Pollution
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Medium
Low
Low
Medium
Low
Medium
Low
Medium
Medium
Medium
Low
Current
Action
—
Vent
Vent
—
Vent
Separation
Neutralize
Neutralize
Neutralize
—
Recycle
Vent
Vent
Settling tanks
Sewage

     (a)  The following raw materials are used in these operations: metals (sheet, bar, wire,
         forging, casting, extrusion), aluminum alloys, copper and alloys, steels, titanium
         alloys, heat-resistant alloys, magnesium alloys, nickel (plating), chromium (plating),
         glass, plastics, resins, fiberglass, solvents, rubber products, paints, oils, greases,
         cloth/fabric propellants, and acids/alkali.

     (b)  HC = hydrocarbon.

-------
  RAW
MATERIAL
                                                                                   Water  Emissions
                                                                                   Solid Emissions
                     FIGURE  99.   MANUFACTURE OF SHIPS.

-------
to
I-1
Ui
          RAW

          MATERIAL '
            TUBE

            STOCK'
                                     Air Emissions
                                     Water  Emissions
                                     Solid  Emissions
                     FIGURE  100.   MANUFACTURE OF  FIBERGLASS  BOATS.

-------
         TABLE 25.  MATERIALS AND PROCESSES TYPICAL FOR SHIP  AND  BOAT  BUILDING AND  REPAIRING.

(a)
Operations
Plate forming
Welding
Waste /Media
Oils/water
Fumes /air
Potential Levels
of Pollution
Low
High/local
Current
Action
Runoff
Vent /masks
 Riveting
 Mechanical fastening
 Torch cutting
 Molding of plastics
 Sand blasting
 Fabrication

 Adhesive joining
 Machining
Fumes,dust/air,solids
Fumes/air
Dust/air.solid
Oils/water
Scrap/solids

Solid chips
Medium/local
Medium

Low
Medium
Masks,vent
Runoff
recycle
Recycle
(a)   The following raw materials are used in these operations:  metals  (castings,  forcings,
     plate,  sheet, bar wire,  extrusion)  steels,  aluminum alloys,  nickel alloys,  copper
     alloys, welding rod/flux,  plastics,  rope, wood,  plywood,  resins,  rubber,  fiberglass,
     epoxies, plexiglass,  glass, motors,  diesel, gasoline,  and electric.

-------
Railroad Equipment—

     This is a small segment of the transportation equipment industry,
accounting for only about 3 percent of both employment and value of ship-
ments.  In 1972 there were 163 establishments primarily engaged in manu-
facturing railroad equipment.  They employed 50,800 people and shipped prod-
ucts valued at $2.446 billion.  If coal is to fulfill its projected role in
the U.S. energy picture by 1985, the manufacture of railroad equipment must
be greatly increased.

     Figure 101 shows a general flow chart for the manufacture of railroad
locomotives.

Waste Streams—

     In many respects the manufacture of railroad equipment has much in
common with the manufacture of trucks from the environmental standpoint, in
that both types of manufacturers usually purchase most of the components and
assemble them by riveting, welding, and mechanical fastening.  The welding
operations stand out as a major factor as do the painting operations.  Waste
products include scrap metal and various forms of runoff from rinsing,
pickling,and painting operations.  Table 26 summarizes the waste streams
from this type of operation.

Motorcycles, Bicycles, and Parts—

     This is a very small segment of the U.S. transportation equipment in-
dustry, accounting for only about 1 percent each of employment and value
of shipments for the entire industry.  There were 222 establishments in the
United States in 1972 primarily engaged in manufacturing motorcycles,
bicycles, and parts.  They employed 17,600 people and shipped products
valued at $660 million.

     This U.S. manufacturing industry produces only a fraction of the motor-
cycles, bicycles, and parts that are purchased in the United States.  Most
motorcycles are imported, as are most expensive, lightweight bicycles.  Also,
many parts are imported for bicycles that are assembled in the United States.

     Figure 102 shows a general flow chart for the production of bicycles,
which represent over 90 percent of the products produced by this industry.

Waste Streams—

     The environmental impacts of the manufacturing steps involved are re-
latively low with the possible exception of the painting operation where the
overspray is relatively high for tubular frames (in comparison with the
painting of products having sheet metal construction.)  Welding and brazing
are processes which have a modest impact on the environment.  Otherwise the
manufacture of bicycles and parts can be considered to have little impact on
the environment.  Table 27 shows this clearly.
                                   217

-------
                  T>VI  |    [7-7     I  U.V.CDI
                  p*i- rt>*~ | ^ I «tL3 (-^—  MIHT -*- CAB CO.THCL 	
                  J   I    r i    l  i     p^~.rL   i
                                                           Air Emissions
~r

   I     Water Emissloas


   IV   Solid Emissions
FIGURE  101.  MANUFACTURE OF  RAILROAD LOCOMOTIVES.
                              218

-------
   TABLE 26.   MATERIALS AND PROCESSES  TYPICAL FOR RAILROAD  EQUIPMENT.

(a)
Operations
Welding
Forging (wheels)
Casting
Machining
Wire winding
Sheet forming
Torch cutting
Machining
Assemb] ing
Painting
Lubricating
Pickling
Sandblasting
Waste/Media
Fumes /air
Smoke, scale/air, solids
Fumes , dust /air , water ,
solids
Oils/water
—
Oils/water
Vapor, slags/air, solids
Chips/solid
—
Overspray /water , air
Oils /water
Spent liquors/water
Solids
Potential Levels
of Pollution
Medium/local
Medium
High
Medium
Low
Low
Medium/local
Medium
—
—
Medium
Medium
Medium/local
Current
Action
Vent
Vent
Filters
—
—
—
Vent
Recycle
—
—
—
—
—
.
(a)   The following raw materials are used in these operations:  metals  (plate,  sheet,  forgings,
     castings,  bar, wire),  steel, aluminum,  copper, iron (castings), brazing alloys,  solder,
     wood,  plastic, acids/alkali, oils,  greases,  paints, and solvents.

-------
to
ro
o
                                                                                            Air Emissions
                                                                                            Water Emissions
                                                                                            Solid Emissions
                               FIGURE 102.   MANUFACTURE OF BICYCLES.

-------
          TABLE 27.  MATERIALS AND PROCESSES TYPICAL FOR MOTORCYCLES, BICYCLES, AND PARTS.
ro
to

Operations 'a'
Roll forming
Welding
Stamping
Machining
Electroplating
Acid pickling
Polishing
Heat treating
Painting
Lubricating
Assembling
Waste/Media
Oil
Fumes/air
Trimmings /solids
Chips/solids
Metal salts/water
Liquors/water
Dust/air, solid
HC/air (b>
HC/air .water $ )
HC/air, water ^ )
Oil/water
Potential Levels
of Pollution
Low
Medium/ local
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Medium
Low
Low
Current
Action
—
Vent
Recycle
Recycle
Neutralize
Neutralize
__
Water curtain
—
—

          (a)  The following raw materials are used in these operations: metals (strip, tubing bar, castings

              stampings, forgings, steel, aluminum alloys, brass, brazing alloys), rubber products, paint,

              acids, oils, greases, leather, batteries, and motors.


          (b)  HC = hydrocarbon.

-------
Guided Missiles and Space Vehicles and Parts—

     This is a medium-size segment of the transportation equipment industry.
There were 147 establishments primarily engaged in this industry segment in
1972.  They employed 160,100 people and shipped products valued at $5.628
billion.

     Figure 103 shows a general flow chart for the manufacture of guided
missiles.  The nose cone is an integral part of every missile system, and
Figure 104 shows a flow chart for production of nose cones.

Waste Streams—

     This grouping can be considered to have impact on the environment similar
to the aircraft industry, except where the propellants represent poten-
tial pollution problems.  This is especially true when the missiles are
dismantled and either replaced or refueled.  The manufacturing processes
which stand out as contributing to environmental problems include the
machining, lubricating of materials during metal forming processes, and weld-
ing.  The welding processes used, however, are not nearly as serious as the
stick electrode welding used in some other industries.

     Table 28  summarizes the waste streams from manufacturing guided missiles,
space vehicles  and parts.

Miscellaneous  Transportation Equipment—

     This  catch-all grouping of transportation equipment includes such dis-
parate  products as travel trailers and campers, military tanks and components,
electric golf  carts, all-terrain vehicles, snowmobiles, pushcarts, wheel-
barrows, midget autos (power driven), go-carts, and utility automobile
trailers and chassis.

     This  small segment of the transportation equipment industry is charac-
terized  by a rather large number of fairly small establishments.  In 1972
there were 1,553 establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing mis-
cellaneous transportation equipment.  These establishments employed 59,100
people  and shipped products valued at $2.269 billion.

     Figure 105 shows a flow chart for the production of military tanks.

Waste Streams—

     The manufacturing processes most likely to have a significant impact on
the  environment are the welding and painting of tank components and assemb-
lies.   The other manufacturing processes and environmental impacts compare
with those for the manufacturing of trucks and buses.  Table 29 summarizes
the  waste  streams from the production of miscellaneous transportation equip-
ment.
                                    222

-------

ERIAL
^RTS
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SHEAR
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WELD


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FINISHED UPPER
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ho
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                               Air Emissions
                               Water Emissions
                               Solid Emissions
BOLT GUIDANCE 6

  CONTROL TO

ENGINE ASSEMBLY
                                                                                           INSTRUMENTATION

                                                                                           GUIDANCE CONTROL,

                                                                                           ATTITUDE CONTROL.

                                                                                               ETC.
                                                                                             PURCHASED

                                                                                               PARTS
                                        FIGURE 103.   MANUFACTURE  OF MISSILES.

-------
N>
                                          SHEET
                                          STOCK
                                                                 Air Emissions
                                                                 Water Emissions



COAT


ATTACH
INSTRU-
MENTS.
ETC.


                                                                                            RESIN



INSPECTS
TEST


FINISHED
NOSE
CONE

                                                                 Solid Emissions
                          FIGURE 104.   MANUFACTURE OF MISSILE NOSE CONES.

-------
            TABLE 28.  MATERIALS AND PROCESSES TYPICAL FOR GUIDED MISSILES AND SPACE VEHICLES AND PARTS.
to
ro

(a)
Operations
Sheet forming
Machining
Waste/Media
Oil/water
Chips/solid
Potential Levels
of Pollution
Low
Medium
Current
Action
Recycle chips
Electrochemical
   machining
Material molding
Anodizing
Pickling
Painting

Heat treatment
Lubricating
Assembly
Load propellants,
     explosives
Metallic fines
fumes,slag/air,solid
Acids/water
Liquors/water
Vapors,overspray/air,
             water
unburned gases/air
Fumes/air
Oils/water

Chemicals/water
Low
Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium

Low
Low
Low

Low
Vent
Neutralize
Neutralize
                                                                                         Vent
                                                                                         Vent
          (a)  The following raw materials are used in these operations:  metals (sheet, plates,  extrusions,
               bar, wire, forgings, castings), steel, aluminum alloys, refractory metals, magnesium alloys,
               titanium alloys, copper alloys, nickel alloys, ceramics, fiberglass,  adhesives, resins,
               paints, oils, solvents, propellants, and acids/alkali.

-------
                                   MOUNT
                                   TURRET
                                  PLATFORM
                                  ft PILOTS
                                   CUPOLA
                      Solid Emissions
FIGURE  105.   MANUFACTURE OF MILITARY TANKS

-------
         TABLE 29.   MATERIALS  AND PROCESSES  TYPICAL FOR MISCELLANEOUS  TRANSPORTATION EQUIPMENT
                    (TRAVEL TRAILERS,  CAMPERS,  TANKS,  AND OTHER NEC).
NJ
N>
•-J

Operations (a)
Welding
Torch cutting
Machining
Riveting
Lubricating
Sheet forming
Stamping
Painting
Waste/Media
Fumes /air
Fumes/air , solid
Chips/solids
—
HC/air, water
Oil/water
Oil/water
HC/air, water
Potential Levels
of Pollution
Medium/ local
Low
Low
—
Medium
Low
Low
Low
Current
Action
masks /vent
—
—
—
—
—
—
Venting

            (a)   The following raw materials  are  used in  these  operations: metals  (sheet, plate,  castings,
                 forgings,  metal powder parts,  bar, wire),steel,  aluminum, iron  (castings),  solder,
                 plastics,  rubber products, oils,  glass,  paint, batteries, acids/alkali, fiberglass,
                 and resins.

-------
MEASURING, ANALYZING, AND CONTROLLING
INSTRUMENTS; PHOTOGRAPHIC, MEDICAL, AND
OPTICAL GOODS: WATCHES AND CLOCKS

     This industry product group includes establishments engaged  in manu-
facturing instruments (including engineering and scientific)  for  measuring,
testing, analyzing, and controlling, and their associated accessories;  optical
instruments and lenses; surveying and drafting instruments;  surgical, medical
and dental instruments, equipment and supplies; ophthalmic goods;  photo-
graphic equipment and supplies; and watches and clocks.

     In 1972  this industry product group consisted of 5,866  establishments
which employed 442,600 people, and shipped products valued at  $15.3521 billion.
Descriptions  of manufacturing processes were excerpted from  Reference  (37).

     The  segments of  the  measuring, analyzing, and controlling instruments;
photographic, medical, and optical goods; watches and clocks industry
included  in this analysis consist of the following categories:

      •  Engineering,  laboratory, scientific and research instruments
         and associated equipment

      •  Automatic  controls for  regulating residential and commercial
         environments  and  appliances

      •   Totalizing  fluid  meters and counting devices

      •   Instruments for measuring  and  testing  of electricity and
         electrical  signals

      •   Optical instruments  and lens

      •   Surgical and  medical instruments and apparatus

      •   Ophthalmic  goods

      •  Photographic  equipment  and supplies

      •  Watches,  clocks,  clockwork-operated devices, and parts.

 Engineering,  Laboratory,  Scientific,
 and Research Instruments  and
 Associated Equipment

      This segment  includes establishments primarily  engaged in manufacturing
 engineering,  laboratory,  and scientific instruments,  including nautical,
 navigational, aeronautical,  surveying,  and  drafting  equipment, and instru-
 ments  for laboratory  work and scientific research.

      Engineering and  scientific instruments were  produced  in 1972 by 721
 plants,  averaging  51  workers each.  Most of these  plants  (65 percent)  employ-
 ed less  than 20 workers.   Fifty-two percent of the production was in the area


                                     228

-------
of aeronautical and navigational instruments, while 31 percent was in the lab-
oratory and scientific instrument category.  The remaining 17 percent con-
sisted of miscellaneous instruments.

Manufacturing Processes—

     Materials used include copper, aluminum, steel, electric motors, vacuum
tubes, bearings, and semiconductors.  The principal manufacturing operations
are mechanical material removal, material forming, assembly operations and
material coating.

     A wide range of manufacturing processes are used in the scientific
instrument industry.  This is so mainly because of the differing raw materials
and the variety of products produced.

     The manufacture of an airborne integrated data system (AIDS) is repre-
sentative of the scientific instrument industry.  As shown in Figure 106,
sheet metal stock is stamped, punched, drilled, bent, and formed to make
various parts of the chassis.  These parts are then assembled by welding
and, after assembly, are usually surface treated by anodizing or a similar
process.  Electrical components are then installed in the completed chassis
and wired to complete the AIDS controller itself.  To operate, electronic
circuit cards must be added to the chassis and interconnections added to out-
side sensors and systems.

Waste Streams—

     Water is used mainly for surface treatment operations and cleaning.
Solid waste results from the stamping, drilling and welding operations.

Automatic Controls for Regulating
Residential and Commercial Environ-
ments and Appliances

     This segment includes establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing
temperature and related controls for heating and air-conditioning installa-
tions and refrigeration applications, which are electrically, electronically,
or pneumatically actuated, and which measure and control variables such as
temperature and humidity; and automatic regulators used as components of
household appliances.

     In 1972, environmental controls were produced by 129 plants, averaging
228 workers each.  About half of these plants (47 percent) employed more than
20 workers.  On a dollar basis, about 50 percent of the environmental
controls were temperature-responsive thermostats with the balance being dis-
tributed among various other types of environmental controls.

Manufacturing Processes—

     Raw materials such as carbon steel, alloy steel, copper, aluminum, and
castings  are required to produce automatic controls.  Several operations are
performed on these raw materials, including mechanical material removal,


                                    229

-------
      SHEET
      METAL.
      STOCK
STAMP


PUNCH


DRILL
^>

FORM


BEND


FINISHED
CHASSIS
PARTS


                      WELD
                                       ANODIZE
INSTALL AND
WIRE ELECTRICAL
COMPONENTS
to
O
TEST AND
INSPECT
FINISHED
AIDS
                                                           ELECTRICAL
                                                          COMPONENTS
                                 Air  Emissions
                                                                                         Water Emissions
                                                                                         Solid Emissions
                           FIGURE 106.   AIRCRAFT INTEGRATED DATA SYSTEMS  (AIDS).

-------
material forming, assembly operations, and material coating.

     In general, environmental controls are made by forming mechanical com-
ponents in linkages to sense the desired environmental parameter and produce
a corresponding mechanical output.  These are then mounted in a case along
with a dial, pointer, and transparent cover.

     The manufacture of thermostats is representative of the environmental
coiatrols industry.  Figure 107 describes this manufacture.  Initially, raw
mill stock is stamped, shaped, formed, bent, etc., to the configurations
required in the final thermostat.  The bimetal strip is fabricated by bonding
two dissimilar metal strips together.  The bimetal strip is then drilled and
riveted to a ceramic back plate, and an electrical contact is staked onto
the bimetallic strip.  Metallic parts (except bimetal strip) are usually
finished by plating, anodizing, or applying similar surface treatments.
Other components such as the dial cover lens are then assembled to form the
final thermostat.

Waste Streams—

     Process water is used mainly for plating and cleaning operations and
ultrasonic machining.  Air emissions result from painting and plating
operations and solid waste is generated from stamping, drilling, and grinding
operations.  Mercury get into the water effluent from the manufacture of
mercury switches.

Totalizing Fluid Meters and Counting Devices

     This segment includes establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing
totalizing (registering) meters for monitoring fluid flows, such as water
meters and gas meters.  It also includes producers of mechanical and electro-
mechanical counters and associated metering devices.

     Fluid meters and counting devices were produced in 1972 by 56 plants,
averaging 150 workers each.  Most of these plants (73 percent) employed more
than 20 workers.  Sixty-five percent of the products shipped involved
totalizing fluid meters, 14 percent counting devices, and 21 percent
nonelectrical motor vehicle instruments.

Manufacturing Processes—

     Various stock metals, motors, tubes, and semiconductors are the major
identified raw materials.  The principal manufacturing operations are
mechanical material removal, material forming (metal), assembly operations,
and material coating.

     In general, fluid meters and counting devices are made by die casting
or stamping the indicating wheels and cases which are then surface finished
and assembled into the meter.

     The manufacture of mechanical counting devices (Figure 108) is repre-
sentative of the fluid meter and counting devices industry.  The shell of


                                     231

-------
OJ
                           Air Emissions









                      I     Water Emissions







                      |v   Solid Emissions
                       FIGURE 107.  THERMOSTAT MANUFACTURING.

-------
CO
CO
RAW
M*Tf RIALS ^











],
STA,,P U-^.
1











1
1

HAW
M ATER 1 AL^ ^*"











DIE
CAST



B AV,
M A T F R 1 A L





























^


^>



V^
^^












DRILL




^


^



V*.
^-^

















^i FINISHED
SHELL
/5
FINISHED
1 WHEELS


1
1 FINISHED
SHAFTS
































.
nW-







—












MECHANICAL
FASTENERS



FINISHED
COUNTER
JU


J^




                                                                                 -f
Air Emissions
                                                                                        Water Emissions
                                                                                        Solid Emissions
                          FIGURE  108.   MECHANICAL COUNTING DEVICES MANUFACTURING.

-------
the counter is stamped and formed from heavy-gauge  sheet  stock with a window
blanked into the case for viewing of the counter mechanism.  Holes  are drilled
for mounting bushing blocks, etc.  The counter mechanism  wheels  are die cast,
deburred, and drilled.  Numbers are painted onto  the wheel  edge  and the wheels
placed on a length of steel shaft previously  cut  to length  and drilled.   The
shaft  and wheels are assembled into the case  along  with a bottom plate (also
previously stamped).  The case is plated inside and the outside  is painted.
A molded plastic cover (clear) is installed in the  case in  front of the
counter wheels to seal the case and insure readability.

Waste  Streams—

     Process water is used mainly for cleaning, plating,  and  surface-finish-
ing operations.  Air emissions result  fr"»m the painting  and  plating
operations.  Solid waste results from debarring and drilling  operations.

Instruments for Measuring and
Testing of Electricity and
Electrical Signals

     This segment includes establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing
instruments for measuring the characteristics of  electricity  and electrical
signals, such as voltmeters, ammeters, wattmeters,  watt-hour  meters,  demand
meters, and equipment for testing the electrical  characteristics of
electrical, radio, and communication circuits and of internal combustion
engines.

     Instruments to measure electricity were produced by  622  plants,  in 1972,
averaging 87 workers each.  Most of these plants  (60 percent) employed fewer
than 20 workers.  Sixty-one percent of the production in  this category was
for test equipment for testing electrical, radio, and communications  circuits,
while  14 percent was for integrating instruments, and 25  percent for  miscel-
laneous test instruments.

Manufacturing Processes—

     Metal mill forms, motors, electron tubes, and  semiconductors  are the
major raw materials.  The principal manufacturing operations  are material
forming, assembling, chemical/electrochemical processing, and material
coating.

     In general, instruments for measuring electricity are made  by forming
a chassis and cabinet from metal and/or plastic, and then mounting electronic
components and printed circuit boards onto the chassis and wiring  these
components to the required electric circuit.

     The manufacture of an electronic voltmeter is representative  of  this
industry.   As shown in Figure 109,  sheet metal is stamped, sheared,  and bent
to form the chassis, the corners of which are then  spot welded.  The  chassis
is drilled  and punched  to accept  electrical component mounting.   Sheet metal  "
theins truant    ShGared'  bent'  folded>  and "elded to form the outer  case of


                                    234

-------
N3
OJ
SHEET
METAL-
STCCK
'o

BEND


STAMP
>>

SHEAR
>

BEND


                                            Air Emissions


                                     	r-^  Water Emissions



                                       |V  Solid Emissions










ADD
TRIM
                                                                                                   FINISHED
                                                                                                   CASE
                                               r~
CHASSIS
TO CASE
  TEST &
CALIBRATE
 ELECTRON.C
I VOLT METEH
                                                    MECHAr.lCAL
                                                    FASTENERS
                       FIGURE 109.   ELECTRONIC VOLT  METER MANUFACTURING.

-------
     Electrical components are next mounted on the chassis, printed circuit
boards installed, and interface connectors installed on the front panel and/
or rear chassis apron.  The electrical components on the chassis are  then
wired together.  After fabrication, the case is painted and trim pieces and
handles are installed.  The chassis is installed in the cabinet and affixed
with hardware, usually by machine or sheet metal screws.  The instrument is
then tested and calibrated.

Waste Streams—

     Process water is used mainly for plating and rinsing operations.  Air
emissions result from the painting and welding operations.

Optical Instruments and Lenses

     This segment includes establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing
instruments that measure an optical property; apparatus except photographic
that projects or magnifies such as binoculars, prisms, and lenses; optical
sighting and  fire-control equipment; and related analytical instruments.

     Optical  instruments and lenses were produced in 1972 by 482 plants,
averaging 38 workers each.  Most of these plants (72 percent) employed fewer
than 20 workers.  Seventy-eight percent of the shipment value was for
analytical, optical, and scientific instruments and 22 percent for miscel-
laneous sighting and fire-control systems.

Manufacturing Processes—

     Mill shapes of steel and aluminum are the major raw materials. The
principal manufacturing operations are mechanical material removal, material
forming of the raw materials, and molding and forming  nonmetals.

     In general, optical instruments are made by fabricating a housing or
other supporting structure to hold the optical elements which are ground
and polished prior to installation in the housing.

     The manufacture of binoculars (Figure 110) is representative of  the
optical instruments and lens industry.  Standard commercial prismatic bino-
culars are generally manufactured with molded plastic cases and glass lenses.
The various portions of the case are slush molded.  The individual pieces are
then deburred and lens and prism mounting areas are machined for a precise
fit.  The lenses and prisms are then ground, polished, and mounted in the
case.  After installation and adjustment of the lens, the lens retainers are
installed and final adjustments are made in the optic system.  Lens covers
are installed to complete the binoculars.

Waste Streams—

     Process water is used primarily for plating and painting, and as a sus-
pension medium for grinding and polishing compounds in making lenses.
                                    236

-------
           PLASTIC
           RESINS
                            LENS
                            BLANKS
NJ



ADJUST



INSTALL
LENS
RETAINERS



FINAL
CALIBRATION



FINISHED
BINOCULARS

                                                                                              Air Emissions
                                                                                              Water Emissions
                                                                                              Solid Emissions
                                     FIGURE 110.   BINOCULARS.

-------
Surgical and Medical Instruments
and Apparatus

     This segment includes establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing
medical, surgical, ophthalmic, and veterinary instruments and apparatus.

     Surgical and medical instruments were produced in 1972 by 487 plants,
averaging 66 workers each.  Most of the plants (61 percent) employed fewer
than 20 workers.  Surgical instruments and hypodermic syringes constituted
40 percent of the production and hospital furniture about 11 percent.

Manufacturing Processes—

     Raw materials include metal mill forms, plastics, and fabrics.  The
principal manufacturing operations are mechanical material removal, molding
and forming, and material coating.

     In general, surgical and medical instruments are made by metal-working
operations,  such as turning, drawing, and grinding to form and finish the
raw stock into  the desired surgical instrument.  Process water is used mainly
for plating, cleaning, and sterilization of the products.

     Because of the diversity of products and materials used in the surgical
and medical  instruments industry, no single product can be considered typical.
However, the manufacture of medical scissors (Figure 111) and operating
tables  (Figure  112) illustrate many ,of the manufacturing processes used in
this industry.  Scissors for medical purposes are stamped from stainless
steel sheet  stock.  The mating halves are then ground, buffed, and formed.
One half section is drilled and tapped, while the other is clearance drilled
for a mounting  screw.  The halves are assembled using a machine screw and
the scissors are then cleaned.

     Operating  room furniture, such as an operating table, is made of heavy
gauge metal  for stability.  The base is cast and machined at the mounting
surfaces and at the junction of the base and bed sections.  The upper bed
portion is die  cast, machined at the mounting interface, and buffed.  Cross
braces are welded to the base and a sheet plate is welded to the braces as
a platform for  the mattress.  Holes are drilled and tapped for control levers,
if required, to rotate or otherwise change the position of the bed.  The bed
assembly is  completed by plating, and cleaning.

Waste Streams—

     Process water is used in the cleaning and plating operations.  Air
emissions result from the grinding, buffing, welding, and brazing operations.

Ophthalmic Goods

     This segment includes establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing
ophthalmic frames, lenses, and sunglass lenses.

     In 1972 this industry was composed of 499 establishments, averaging  54


                                    238

-------
SHEET 	 ^
STOCK *""
STAMP


GRIND
^

BUFF
b

r~
FORM


DRILL


TAP
IS5
U>
VO
                                                              ASSEMBLE
INSPECT &
TEST
                                                             MECHANICAL
                                                             FASTENERS
FINISHED
SCISSORS
              Air Emissions
                                                                                               Water Emissions
                                                                                               Solid Emissions
                              FIGURE 111.   MEDICAL  SCISSORS MANUFACTURING.

-------
RAW
MATERIAL ""

CAST



MACHINE


P P
WELD


BUFF
b

DRILL
0

TAP


ro
*>
o
PLATE


CLEAN


INSPECT
& TEST


FINISHED
TABLE
     Air Emissions






I ^  Water Emissions







| ^  Solid Emissions
                              FIGURE 112.  OPERATING TABLE MANUFACTURING.

-------
employees each.  They shipped primary products valued at $465 million.

Manufacturing Processes—

     Glass blanks for lenses and metal and/or plastic for frames are the
major raw materials.  The principal manufacturing operations are mechanical
material removal in forming the glass lenses and material forming with sub-
sequent chemical processing in making metal frames.  Plastic frames are made
by injection-molding techniques.

     The manufacture of eyeglass lenses and frames is representative of the
ophthalmic goods industry.  A typical operation for making eyeglass lenses
and frames is shown in Figure 113.  The glass blanks are first ground using
an emery slurry, then rinsed.  Next a polishing operation is performed using
a metallic oxide compound.  This is followed by a second rinse.  The blank is
then edged on a grinding wheel to obtain a smooth, even edge on the lens.

     Plastic eyeglass frames are generally made by injection molding of
plastic formulations.  The molded members are polished and then assembled
with hinge hardware, etc.

     Metal frames are fabricated from sheet stock by stamping and bending
operations.  The formed sections are then assembled by spot welding and
riveting.  Following assembly, the metal is electro-finished by any of
several technqiues such as plating or anodizing.

Waste Streams—

     Process water is used mainly as a suspension medium for grinding and
polishing compounds in the lens manufacture.  It is also used for plating
rinses in the manufacture of metal rims.

Photographic Equipment and Supplies

     This segment includes establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing
(1) photographic apparatus, equipment, parts, attachments, and accessories,
such as still and motion-picture cameras and projection apparatus; photocopy
and microfilm equipment; blueprinting and diazotype (white printing) appara-
tus and equipment; and other photographic equipment and (2) sensitized film,
paper, cloth, and plates, and prepared photographic chemicals for use there-
with.

     Photographic equipment and supplies were produced in 1972 by 616 plants,
averaging 152 workers each.  Most of these plants (63 percent) employed fewer
than 20 workers.  About 50 percent of the production was in the area of
cameras and equipment, and 50 percent in the photosensitized material
category.

Manufacturing Processes—

     A wide range of raw materials are used in this industry.  The principal
manufacturing operations are chemical processing in manufacturing of film,


                                    241

-------
                                Air Emissions
                                Water Emissions
                                Solid Emissions
FIGURE 113.   EYEGLASS MANUFACTURING.
                242

-------
plastic molding and assembly in the making of cameras, and mechanical
material removal and material forming (metals) in the manufacture of photo-
graphic equipment, such as projectors, and cameras.

     Because of the diversity of products and materials used in the photo-
graphic industry, no single product can be considered typical.  However, the
manufacture of negative film and cameras are good examples of the types of
manufacturing processes used in this product area.  These manufacturing
processes are illustrated in Figures 114 and 115.   As shown in Figure 144,
film is made by preparing an emulsion of silver salts, gelatine, and other
special-purpose chemicals which are then spread in a  thin uniform layer on a
clear acetate or other plastic base.  The negative film is then dried and
packaged in a variety of configurations, e.g., sheet,  cartridge, and roll.

     The manufacturing of a camera is a good example of the manufacture of
photographic apparatus (Figure 115).  In the case of a pocket-type camera
(chosen because of the high volume of sales) plastic parts such as the case,
lens, and lens cover are injection molded.  Metal parts, for the shutter,
battery contacts, etc., are stamped and formed to the desired configurations.
The parts are then assembled to form the completed camera.

Waste Streams—

     Process water is used mainly for the processing of film emulsions and
other photosensitized materials, and for plating and cleaning in the making
of cameras.  Solid waste results from the deburring operations, grinding and
polishing of the lens.

Watches, Clocks, Clockwork
Operated Devices, and Parts

     This segment includes establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing
clocks (including electric), watches, watchcases,  mechanisms for clockwork-
operated devices, and clock and watch parts.  This industry includes estab-
lishments primarily engaged in assembling clocks and watches from purchased
movements and cases.  Principal products are:

     •  Appliance timers

     •  Chronographs, spring wound

     •  Chronometers, spring wound

     •  Clock materials and parts, except crystals and jewels

     •  Clocks, including electric

     •  Mechanisms for clockwork-operated devices

     •  Movements, watch or clock

     •  Timers for industrial use, clockwork mechanism only


                                     243

-------
to
-e-
MIX


PRECIPITATE


RIPEN


GELL


SHRED


              SILVER NITRATE

              POTASSIUM OR

              AMMONIUM HALIDE


S^
WASH


r*
FINAL
ADDITIONS


r-

COAT



DRY



FINISHED
FILM NEGATIVE

                                                                                            Air Emissions
                                                                                            Water Emissions
                                                                                            Solid Emissions
                                  FIGURE 114.   FILM NEGATIVE MANUFACTURING.

-------
          PLASTIC
          RESINS  -
INJECTION
MOLD


GRIND
b

DEBURR
>

WASH


FINISHED CASE
AND PLASTIC
PARTS


                                           GLASS
                                           STOCK
GRIND
>

POLISH


FINISHED
LENS


ro
-P»
en
                              -r
                                      Air Emissions
Water Emissions
                                      Solid Emissions
                                                                                      PHOTOCELL
                                                                                      AND
                                                                                      OTHER
                                                                                      COMPONENTS



ASSEMBLE
UNIT



FINISHED
CAMERA

                                      FIGURE  115.   CAMERA MANUFACTURING.

-------
     •  Watchcases

     •  Watches and parts:  except crystals and jewels.

     Watches, clocks,  and watchcases were produced in 1972 by 202 plants,
averaging 157 workers  each.  About half of these plants (49 percent) employed
more than 20 workers.   The  largest product group was clocks, with a pro-
duction of over 24 million, followed by watches (with imported movements)
with over 9 million units.

Manufacturing Processes—

     Timing motors, watchcases, and watch movements are the major raw
materials.  The principal manufacturing operations are mechanical material
removal and material forming on watch and clock parts, plastic molding
operations, electrochemical processing, and assembly operations.

     In general, clocks and watches are made by assembly of precision
mechanical parts into  a metal or plastic case that is then equipped with a
face and clear cover.

     The manufacture of clocks is representative of the watch and clock
industry.  Figure 116  describes the manufacturing operation for clocks.  The
plastic case and accessory  plastic parts are generally injection molded.  The
various timing gears for the clock movement are produced by stamping (for
the larger gears) and  by extrusion and cutting (for the small, thick gears).
Grinding, deburring, and cleaning of the gears precedes assembly.  The frame
members for the movement are formed by stamping, blanking and bending
operations.  Holes are drilled and tapped, and bushings installed where
required.  The movement is  then assembled, and a timing motor (manufactured
in-house or purchased) is installed.  The movement is then inserted in the
case along with the face and fastened to the case.  Hands, which may be
stamped or formed, are fastened to the movement.  A clear plastic lens and
bezel assembly is installed, completing the clock.  The clock is inspected
and packaged for shipment.

Waste Streams—

     Process water is  used  mainly for plating, machining, and cleaning
operations.  Air emissions  result from the plating and welding operations.
Solid waste results from grinding and drilling operations.

MISCELLANEOUS MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY

     This product industry  includes establishments primarily engaged in
manufacturing products not  classified in any other manufacturing product
group.  Industries in  this  group fall into the following categories: jewelry,
silverware and plated  ware; musical instruments; toys, sporting and athletic
goods; pens, pencils,  and other office and artists' materials; buttons,
costume novelties, miscellaneous notions; brooms and brushes; caskets;  and"
other miscellaneous manufacturing industries.
                                    246

-------
to
-p-
        SHEET. BAR.

         & TUBE 	1

         STOCK
SHEET

ft TUBE .

STOCK
                                                                                    Air Emissions
                                                                                    Water Emissions
                                                                                    Solid Emissions
                            FIGURE 116.   CLOCK MANUFACTURING.

-------
     This product group consisted of 15,012 establishments, employed 443,800
persons and shipped products valued at $12.041 billion in 1972.  Descriptions
of the manufacturing processes and flow diagrams were excerpted from
Reference 37-  The segments of miscellaneous manufacturing industry included
in this analysis consist of the following:

     •  Jewelry, precious metal

     •  Silverware, plated ware, and stainless steel ware

     •  Musical instruments

     •  Games, toys, and children vehicles; except dolls and bicycles

     •  Dolls

     •  Pens, mechanical pencils, and parts

     •  Sporting and athletic goods

     •  Burial caskets.

Jewelry,  Precious Metals

     This segment includes establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing
jewelry and other articles worn on or carried about the person, made of
precious  metals with or without stones (including the setting of stones where
used), including cigarette cases and lighters, vanity cases and compacts>
trimmings for umbrellas and canes and jewel settings and mountings.

     Precious metal jewelry was produced by 1524 plants, and shipments of
primary products were valued at $947 million in 1972.  Most of these plants
(80 percent) employed  fewer than 20 workers.

Manufacturing Processes—

     Gold, silver, platinum and solder preforms are the major raw materials
used to produce rings, necklaces, broaches, and other jewelry items.

     The  principal manufacturing operations are material forming, physical
property  modification, mechanical material removal, and assembly operations.
In addition, casting is used to obtain intricate patterns in large items
such as class rings.

     In general, jewelry is made by forming the basic raw materials into the
desired configurations by casting or other means.  Then a surface treatment
such as a precious metal plating is applied.

     The  manufacture of a gold class ring  (Figure 117) is representative of
the precious metal jewelry industry.  A gold alloy is melted and poured
into a mold to form the crown of the ring.  Once the gold has set, the crown
is removed from the mold, deburred and polished.  The surface is then


                                    248

-------
N>
•C-
VO

CAoT





DEBURR
GOLD
ALLOY
^>
—
POLISH

CUT

>


CHEMICAL
CLEAN


FINISHED
CROWN

BEND


FINISHED
LOOP

^
SOLDER LOOP
TO CROWN


POLISH
^

SET
STONE



FINISHED
RING




                                         Air Emissions
                                         Water Emissions
                                         Solid Emissions
                                          FIGURE 117.   CLASS RING MANUFACTURING.

-------
chemically cleaned using a sulfuric acid pickling solution to remove the
black compound formed on the ring's surface during casting.  A loop is formed
around an arbor and is gold soldered to the crown.  A stone is then set into
the crown.

Waste Streams—

     Process water is used mainly for cleaning prior to and after surface
treatments.

Silverware, Plated Ware, and
Stainless Steelware

     This segment includes establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing
flatware  (including knives, forks, and spoons), hollow ware, toilet ware,
ecclesiastical ware, and related products made of sterling silver; of metal
plated with silver, gold, or other metal; of nickel silver, of pewter; or of
stainless steel.  Silverware and plated ware were produced by 205 plants,
and primary products shipped were valued at $308 million  in 1972.  Most of
these plants  (65 percent) employed fewer than 20 workers.

Manufacturing Processes—

     The major raw materials used in this industry are steel, copper and
precious metals.  The principal manufacturing operations are mechanical
material  removal, material forming, and electrochemical processing.

     In general, silverware is made by forming the base metal to the desired
shape by  stamping and forming sheet steel and then finishing the metal sur-
face by plating.

     The manufacture of sterling silver plated knives (Figure 118) is repre-
sentative of  the silverware industry.  The blade is first stamped from a
stainless steel sheet to the desired configuration.  It is then ground to
produce a cutting edge and deburred, if necessary.  The handle is extruded
from a silver alloy, such as nickel silver, to form a hollow shell.  One end
is closed, while the other has a slit for the blade.  The handle is polished
and then silver plated and the blade is inserted and silver soldered.
Finally, the whole knife is polished.

Waste Streams—

     Process water is used mainly for plating and cleaning.  Air emissions
result from polishing and grinding operations.  Solid waste results from the
grinding and polishing operations.

Musical Instruments

     This segment includes establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing
pianos, with or without player attachments; organs; other musical instru-
ments; and parts and accessories for musical instruments.
                                    250

-------
STERLING 	
SILVER *"~
STAMP


GRIND
>

DEBURR


FINISHED
BLADE


HANDLE
STOCK *""
EXTRUDE


FORM


PLATE


FINISHED
HANDLE


Ui
                                                 ASSEMBLE
                                                  SILVER
                                                  SOLDER
        FINISHED
        KNIFE
     Air Emissions


I ^  Water Emissions



1^  Solid Emissions
                           FIGURE 118.   STERLING SILVER PLATED KNIFE MANUFACTURING.

-------
     Musical instruments were produced by 344 plants, and shipped primary
products were valued at $521 million in 1972.  Most of these plants  (68 per-
cent) employed fewer than 20 workers.

Manufacturing Processes—

     A large variety of raw materials are involved in this industry,ranging
from wood to precious metals.  The principal manufacturing operations are as
varied as the musical instruments produced.  For instance, pianos are pri-
marily manufactured by woodworking, whereas horns are fabricated by material
forming of brass tubing.

     Because of the diversity of products and materials used in the  musical
instrument industry, no single product can be considered typical of  the manu-
facturing operations performed.  However, the manufacture of pianos  and
trumpets are good examples.  As shown in the process flow diagram of
Figure  119, pianos are constructed primarily of wood, with a cast iron string
frame and steel strings.  The string frame, after being cast,  is machined
as  required for mounting to  the sounding board, and for proper insertion
of  the  string tension adjustment pins.  The remainder of the construction is
primarily woodworking—cutting, planing, glueing, bolting, etc.

     The manufacturing of a  trumpet, shown in Figure 120, is representative
of  the  manufacturing of brasswind instruments in general.  The operation
starts  with a tube of  the base material, usually brass, which  is bent in
sections to form the various pieces  of the instrument.  The valve housings,
also made of tubing, are machined to a precision inside dimension and drilled
in  appropriate  locations for mounting to the interconnecting tubing. The
various tubing  sections are  then brazed to the valves.  Another section of
tubing  is then  drawn and flared to form the bell of the trumpet, and it is
brazed  to the pipe section on the horn.  The entire instrument is then
plated  and polished prior to insertion of  the valve mechanisms, which are
machined and finished  in a separate  operation.

Waste Streams—

     Process water is  used mainly for plating operations, rinsing,  and  lub-
ricant  in some  metalworking  operations.  Solid waste is generated by the
various woodworking operations.  Air emissions result  from  the coating  and
plating operations.

Games,  Toys, and Children's  Vehicles;
Except  Dolls and Bicycles

     This segment includes establishments  primarily  engaged in manufacturing
games and game  sets for adults and children,  and mechanical and nonmechani-
cal toys.

     Games,  toys and childrens vehicles were produced  by  665 plants, and
primary products shipped were  valued at  $V39 billion in  1972. Most of
these plants  (58 percent) employed fewer than  20 workers.
                                    252

-------
             RAW
             MATERIAL
N)
                           -r
Water Emissions
                                   Solid Emissions
                                                                          FINISHED
                                                                          STRING
                                                                          FRAME
                                       FINISHED
                                       SOUNDING
                                       BOARD
                                                                          FINISHED
                                                                          CASE
                                                                          PURCHASE
                                                                          PARTS



INSPECT



TUNE



FINISHED
PIANO

                                         FIGURE 119.  PIN PIANO MANUFACTURING.

-------
N3
Ui
BRASS
TUBE *"
BRASS
TUBE
HONE

	 »•-

BEND

MILL
BRASS
TUBE


	 »*-
_/' Air Emissions
• 	 r— ^
Water Emissions
V
Solid Emissions
FORM

DRILL

DRAW
BRASS _
STOCK"


2>

— »~
DRILL

THREAD

FLARE

TURN

^




FINISHED
HORN
SECTION

FINISHED
VALVE
HOUSING

FINISHED
BELL
SECTION

FINISHED
MOUTHPIECE











ASSEMBLE


o
BRAZE
1
ASSEMBLE




1


O
PLATE




FINISHED
TRUMPET

                                  FIGURE 120.  TRUMPET MANUFACTURING.

-------
Manufacturing Processes—

     Metal mill shapes, plastics, fabrics, and paperboard containers are the
major raw materials.  The principal manufacturing operations are mechanical
material removal, material forming, plastic molding, and material coating.

     A wide range of diverse manufacturing processes are used in the games,
toys, and children's vehicles industry.  This is due to the differing raw
materials and to the diversity of finished products in this industry.

     Because of the diversity of products and materials used in the games,
toys, and children's vehicles industry, no single product can be considered
typical.  However, the manufacture of wagons is a good example of the manu-
facturing operations performed in this industry.  As shown in Figure 121, the
body of the wagon is stamped from a piece of sheet metal stock, then bent and
formed to make the sides and lip of the body.  The body is drilled to accept
mounting hardware, then cleaned and painted.  Brackets for the wheels are
stamped, bent, formed, drilled and painted.  Steel tube or rod is cut to
length to form axles.  The handle is stamped, formed, and rolled and then
riveted to the front wheel assembly.  Plastic wheels are molded, and nylon
bushings inserted into the wheel hub.  Assembly is most frequently left to
the purchaser, so the final production step is packaging of the individual
components.  Nuts, bolts and sheet metal screws are used in assembling a
wagon.

Waste Streams—

     Process water is used mainly for plating and cleaning of metal parts.
Air emissions result from the painting operations.  Solid waste is generated
from drilling, cutting, and stamping operations.

Dolls

     This segment includes establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing
dolls, doll parts, and doll clothing.  Establishments primarily engaged in
manufacturing stuffed toy animals are also included in this industry.   The
major products are:

     •  Animals, stuffed: toy

     •  Dolls, doll parts, and doll clothing except wigs

     •  Toys, stuffed.

Dolls were produced by 243 plants, and primary products shipped were valued
at $190 million in 1972.  Most of these plants  (57 percent) employed fewer
than 20 workers.

Manufacturing Processes—

     The major raw materials include thermoplastics, fabrics, paperboard
containers, and metal mill forms.  The principal manufacturing operations are


                                    255

-------
          SHEET
          STOCK'
CUT
~0

STAMP


BEND


FORM


DRILL
£}









FINISHED
BODY


NJ
Ui
                                 SHEET
                                 STOCK'
STAMP






FORM


DRILL
$

PAINT


FINISHED
BRACKETS


                                                      TUBE OR
                                                      ROD
CUT
£>

DEBURR
2>





FINISHED
AXLE


                                       Air Emissions
                                       Water Emissions
                                       Solid Emissions
                                                             THERMOPLASTIC
                                                             RESIN
MOLD


INSERT
BUSHING


FINISHED
WHEEL
ASSEMBLY





ASSEMBLE


FINISHED
WAGON

                                    FIGURE  121.   WAGON MANUFACTURING.

-------
plastic molding and assembly operations.

     In general, dolls are made by molding and assembling plastic parts, such
as heads, arms, legs and trunks, into the finished doll.

     The manufacture of dolls, Figure 122 is representative of the doll
industry.  The various features of the doll, heat, arms, torso, etc.> are
slush molded.  Specific color features for eyebrows, lips, etc.j are hot
stamped.  The plastic parts are then machined and assembled, and the
doll is dressed and then packaged for sale.   Hair is plastic and clothing is
purchased either complete or as already colored material to be made into
clothing.

Waste Streams—

     Solid wastes are generated from the cutting of the fabric and machining
of plastic parts.

Pens, Mechanical Pencils,
and Parts

     This segment includes establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing
pens, pen points, fountain pens, ball point pens, refill cartridges, porous
tipped felt tip markers, and parts.  The major products are:

     •  Cartridges, refill: for ball point pens

     •  Fountain pens and fountain pen desk sets

     •  Markers, soft tip (felt, fabric, plastic, etc.)

     •  Meter pens

     •  Nibs (pen points): gold, steel, or other metal

     •  Pen points: gold, steel, or other metal

     •  Pencils and pencil parts, mechanical

     •  Penholders and parts

     •  Pens and pen parts: fountain, stylographic and ball point.

Pens and mechanical pencils were produced by 116 plants and primary products
shipped were valued at $283 million in 1972.  Most of these plants (55 per-
cent) employ more than 20 workers.  Over 3 billion pens were produced in the
U.S. in 1972.

Manufacturing Processes—

     Raw materials are metals (including some exotic metals), plastics, and
gum for erasers.  The principal manufacturing operations are mechanical

                                    257

-------
          THE" RMOS PLASTIC

          RESIN
                  FABRIC
                             Air Emissions
N>
Ul
oo
                             Water Emissions
                             Solid Emissions
                                                    FIGURE 122.  DOLL MANUFACTURING.

-------
material removal, plastic molding, and assembly operations.

     In general, pens and mechanical pencils are made by cutting, stamping,
swaging and crimping metals and plastic to form the case to which is added a
graphite or ink cartridge.

     The manufacture of ball point pens (Figure 123) is representative of
the pens and mechanical pencil industry.  The case of the pen is slush molded
of clear or colored (as desired) plastic.  The ink container is a section of
extruded plastic tube with a tip assembly installed in one end.  The top
assembly is the key to the pen's operation and is manufactured by extruding
and forming a case (usually brass) in which is installed an iridium ball
bearing.  A stop is placed behind the base to prevent its slipping out of
the case.  The plastic ink tube is attached to the tip and filled with ink.
Then the tip assembly along with ink tube is installed in the molded case.

Waste Streams—

     Process water is used mainly for plating and cleaning, with a minor
amount used in metal working along with a lubricating oil.  Air emissions
result from plating operations.

Sporting and Athletic Goods

     This segment includes establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing
sporting and athletic goods, not elsewhere classified, such as fishing
tackle; golf and tennis goods; baseball, footballs basketball, and boxing
equipment; roller skates and ice skates; gymnasium and playground equipment;
billard and pool tables; and bowling alleys and equipment.

     Sporting and athletic goods were produced by 1554 plants, and primary
products shipped were valued at $1.454 billion in 1972.  Most of these
plants (70 percent) employ fewer than 20 workers.

Manufacturing Processes—

     A wide range of raw materials are used in the manufacture of sporting
goods because of the wide array of finished products.  Stock metals,
plastics, broadwoven fabrics, and leather are the major raw materials.  The
principal manufacturing operations are determined by the product and range
from casting and molding of plastics to mechanical material removal and
material forming of metal.

     A wide range of diverse manufacturing processes are used in the sport-
ing and athletic goods industry.

     Because of the diversity of products and materials used in the sporting
and athletic goods industry, no single product can be considered typical.
However, the manufacture of golf clubs and swimming pools are good examples
of the type of manufacturing processes used in this industry.  Golf club
manufacture, as illustrated in Figure 124, starts with the shaft, usually
made of steel tubing which is pickled, rinsed, heat treated, drawn, cut,


                                   259

-------
                      BRASS
                      STOCK'
EXTRUDE


SHEAR
*>


r ORM


FINISHED
TIP
ASSEMBLY


                               THERMOPLASTIC
                               RESIN
EXTRUDE


SHEAR
*>

FINISHED
INK TUBE


to
ON
O
ASSEMBLE
   TIP
 TO TUBE
FILL TUBE
WITH INK
            THERMOPLASTIC
            RESIN
  SLUSH
  MOLD
 FINISHED
 CASE
                                                                            INSTALL
                                                                            TUBE& TIP
                                                                            IN CASE
                                                             FINISHED
                                                             PEN
                                                                                  Air Emissions
                                                                                  Water Emissions
                                                                                   Solid Emissions
                                 FIGURE  123.  BALL  POINT PEN MANUFACTURING.

-------
           SHEET
           METAL
           STOCK
ON
SHEAR
£}

PUNCH


STAMP


BLANK






PAINT


FINISHED
WALL
SECTIONS


                         TUBE »
                         ANGLE -
                         STOCK
                               Air Emissions
                               Water Emissions
                               Solid Emissions
                                                 PLASTIC
                                                 STOCK
CUT
£>





GRIND
^

CLEAN


PAINT


FINISHED
FRAME


CALENDER


CUT
t>

GLUE


FINISHED
PLASTIC
LINER





ASSEMBLE
ON
SITE


FINISHED
SWIMMING
POOL

                                    FIGURE 124.   SWIMMING POOL MANUFACTURING.

-------
tempered, cleaned,  plated,  and cleaned again.   The metal head of the club is
forged or cast and  machined.   It is then drilled to fit the shaft, heat
treated, plated,  and cleaned.   The head and shaft are joined to form the
club, and a handle  grip is  added.   Then it is  balanced, polished, inspected,
and tested.

     Swimming pools (above  ground, over 15 foot diameter, metal), as illu-
strated in Figure 125 are made from various mill forms or sheet metal,
usually steel.  The wall sections  are sheet steel which is sheared, punched,
stamped, blanked,.cleaned,  and painted.  The bracing members of the frame
work of the pool are built  up  with angular stock, tubing, and rolled sheet
stock.  Rolled sheet metal  forms the top edge  of the pool and all metal
parts are painted.   The vinyl  liner is made by calendering vinyl into a
large continuous sheet of the  appropriate size for the pool.  The liner is a
purchased item for  many of  the pool manufacturers.

Waste Streams—

     Process water  is used  mainly  for plating  and cleaning at various stages
of manufacture of such products as golf clubs, fishing tackle, etc.  Air
emissions result from the painting, polishing, welding and plating-  Solid
waste results from the shearing, stamping, machining and drilling operations.
Burial Caskets

     This segment includes establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing
burial caskets and cases including shipping cases of wood or other material
except concrete.  Specific products are:

     •  Burial cases, metal and wood

     •  Burial vaults, fiber glass

     •  Casket linings

     •  Caskets, metal and wood

     •  Grave vaults, metal.

     Caskets were produced by 515 plants, and primary products shipped were
valued at $382 million in 1972.  Most of these plants (64 percent) employed
fewer than 20 workers.  Metal caskets comprise almost half of the production
and over half of the dollar value of this industry.  Wood and other types of
caskets account for the remainder of the production in this industry.

Manufacturing Processes—

     Metal mill forms, wood, fiber glass, and fittings are the major raw
materials.  The principal manufacturing operations are material forming,
mechanical material removal, assembly operations and material coating.
                                   262

-------
                                    STEEL

                                    TUBING
          RAW

          MATERIAL"
IsJ
(^
Co
                                                                              Water Emissions
                                                                              Solid Emissions
                                   FIGURE 125.   GOLF CLUB MANUFACTURING.

-------
     In general, caskets are made by cutting the pieces of the shell and
then forming these pieces.   These shell pieces are then joined to form the
completed casket shell and plated.   Casket linings of cloth material are
next placed inside the casket shell.  Hardware such as handles and ornamenta-
tion can be cast, forged or rolled to the desired shape or form and then
plated to finish the piece.

     The manufacture of a metal casket shell (Figure 126) is representative
of the casket industry.  First, the sides, ends, bottom, and cover are
stamped from sheet stock and then formed to their final shapes.  The shell
is then assembled and the seams welded.   The cover and shell are pickled
and plated.  Frequently epoxy is applied by a dipping process.  For preser-
vation, the cover is attached to the shell with hinges and the interior is
fitted and decorated as desired.

Waste Streams—

     Process water is used mainly for plating and cleaning operations.   Air
emissions result from the plating,  and painting operations and from welding.
Solid waste is generated by grinding operations.
                                  264

-------
SHEET
METAL """
STAMP


FORM


WELD


GRIND
^

PICKLE


PLATE
(OPTIONAL)


ISJ
ON
t-n


A
PAINT


EPOXY
DIP


p-

ASSEMBLE
BOX &
COVER



FINISH
INTERIOR



INSPECT
& TEST



FINISHED
CASKET

FABRIC

ETC.
                                                                                        Air Emissions
                                                                                        Water Emissions
                                                                                        Solid Emissions
                           FIGURE  126.   BURIAL  CASKETS MANUFACTURING.

-------
                                 SECTION 6
                                REFERENCES

1.  1972 Census of Manufactures, Report Series MC72(2), Bureau of the Census,
    U.S. Department of Commerce (1974-1975).

2.  Air Pollution Engineering Manual AP-40, Second Edition, U.S. Environmen-
    tal Protection Agency, Office of Air and Water Programs, Office of Air
    Quality Planning and Standards, Research Triangle Park, N.C., May, 1973.

3.  C. H. Kline Co., Industrial Marketing Guide, Pulp and Paper Industry,
    1973.

4.  Development Document for Proposed Effluent Limitations Guidelines and New
    Source Performance Standards for the Converted Paper Products Point
    Source Category, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Denver Center,
    April, 1974.

5.  Versar, Incorporated, Industrial Energy Study of the Drug Manufacturing
    Industries, prepared for the Federal Energy Administration/U.S. Depart-
    ment of Commerce, PB-238994, September 30, 1974.  208 pp.

6.  Hair Preparations, Kirk-Othmer, Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology,
    Second Edition, Volume 10, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1966,
    pp 768-808.

7.  Noble, Patricia (editor), Marketing Guide to the Paint Industry, C. H.
    Kline & Co., Inc., Fairfield, N.J., 1969.

8.  Barrett, W. J., Mooneau, G. A., and Ridig, J. J., Waterborne Wastes of
    the Paint and Inorganic Pigments Industries, Southern Research Institute,
    Birmingham, Ala., EPA 670/2-74-030, July, 1973.

9.  Field Notes and Chemical Analyses - Survey of Paint and Ink Manufacturers
    in Oakland, Calif., U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Field
    Investigations Center, Denver, Colo., October, 1973.

10.  Development Document for Proposed Effluent Limitations Guidelines and New
    Source Performance Standards for the Paint Formulating and the Ink Formu-
    lating Industries, EPA-440/1-75/050 Group II, U.S. Environmental
    Protection Agency, February, 1975.
                                     266

-------
11.  Development Document for Proposed Effluent Limitations Guidelines and
     New Source Performance Standards for the Synthetic Resins Segment of the
     Plastics and Synthetic Materials Manufacturing Point Source Category,
     U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D. C. , August, 1973.

12.  Air Resources, Incorporated, Air Pollution Control Engineering and Cost
     Study of the Paint and Varnish Industry, PB-238-058.

13.  Ellern, Herbert, Military and Civilian Pyrotechnics. Chemical Publishing
     Co. , New York, 1968.

14.  Ellern, Herbert, Pyrotechnics, Kirk-Othmer, Encyclopedia of Chemical
     Technology, Second Edition, Volume 16, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New
     York, 1968.  pp 824-840.

15.  Economic Analysis of Proposed Effluent Guidelines - Paving and Roofing
     Material (Tar and Asphalt) U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, EPA
     230/1-74-055, September 1974.

16.  Nowacki, Lou and Ewing, R. A., Cost of Implementation and Capabilities
     of Available Technology to Comply with P.L. 92-500, for National
     Commission on Water Quality, July 3, 1975.

17.  Development Document for Proposed Effluent Limitations Guidelines and
     New Source Performance Standards for Paving and Roofing Materials (tar
     and asphalt) Point Source Category, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
     EPA 440/1-74-049, (Group II, December 1974).

18,  Development Document for Proposed Effluent Limitation Guidelines and
     New Source Performance Source Performance Standards for the Building
     Construction and Paper Segment of the Asbestos Manufacturing Point
     Source Category, EPA 440/1-73/017, Effluent Guidelines Division, United
     States Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D. C. ,  October,  1973.
19.  tfigg> D. M. (Battelle's Columbus Laboratories) Cost of Implementation of
     Capabilities and Available Technology to Comply with P.L. 92-500,
     Volume III, Industry Category No. 21, for National Commission on Water
     Quality, July, 1975.

20.  Roy F. Weston, Inc., Development Document for Proposed Effluent
     Limitations Guidelines and New Source Performance Standards for the
     Tire and Synthetic Segment of the Rubber Processing Point Source
     Category, EPA 440/; -73/013, Effluent Guidelines Division, U.S.
     Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D. C. , September,  1975.

21.  Roy F. Weston, Inc., Development Document for Proposed Effluent
     Limitations Guidelines and New Source Performance Standards for the
     Fabricated and Reclaimed Rubber Segment of the Rubber Processing
     Point Source Category, EPA 440/1-74/030, Effluent Guidelines Division,
     U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.  C. ,  August, 1974,
     213 pp.
                                    267

-------
 22.   Hamilton Standard,  Development Document for Effluent Limitations
      Guidelines  and Standards  of  Performance for the Machinery and Mechanical
      Products Manufacturing Point Source Category,  Volume 3, Draft (Contract
      No.  68-01-2914),  Effluent Guidelines Division, U.S.  Environmental
      Protection  Agency,  Washington,  D.  C.,  June, 1975.

 23.   Thorstensen,  Practical Leather Technology,  Van Nostrand Reinhold Company,
      New York (1969),  pp 245-251.

 24.   Gussow,  D., "Secondary Glass Manufacturers", The Glass  Industry, 56^ (10),
      89-109  (1975).

 25.   Shand,  E. B.,  Glass Engineering Handbook, Second Edition,  McGraw Hill
      Book Company,  New York,  (1958), pp  176-184.

 26.   Schorr,  J.  R.,  Hooie,  D.  T.,  Sticksel,  P. R.,  and  Brockway,  M.  C.,
      "Source  Assessment  Glass  Container  Manufacturing Plants",  Battelle
      Memorial Institute,  EPA Contract No. 68-02-1323, Task 37,  B14-B16
      (1976).

 27.   Hooie, D. T.  and  Lennon,  J.  W. , "Cost of Implementation and  Capabilities
      of  Available  Technology to Comply with  P- L. 92-500,  Volume  II,  Industry
      Category 27,  Concrete,  Gypsum,  and  Plaster  Products", for  the National
      Commission  on Water Quality,  Battelle Memorial Institute,  pp. 27-1  to
      27-6  (1975).

 28.   Personal Communications with  Manufacturers  and Trade  Associations.

 29.   Jensen,  Gordon  F.,  "Industrial Energy Study of the Concrete, Gypsum, and
      Plaster  Products  Industries", Stanford Research  Institute, pp. 31-124
      (1974).

 30.   Schorr,  J.  R.,  Snyder, M. J.  , Barr, H. W. , Duckworth, W. H. , Hooie,
      D. T., Lennon, J. W., Spinosa, E.  D., and White, A. M. , "Development
      and Establishment of an Energy Efficiency Improvement Target for SIC 32:
      to°75-201?1976?d GlaSS Products"'  BatteHe Memorial Institute, PP 75-1


 31.   Swift, P., "Dust Control Related to Bulk Delivery of Particulate
     Materials",  The Chemical Engineer,  pp 143-150  (1975).

 32.  Ref 30,  pp 81-1 to 91-11.

 33.  Ref 30,  pp 92-1 to 92-17.

34.  Hooie, D. T.,  "Cost  of Implementation and Capabilities of Available
     Technology to Comply with P-  L.  92-500,  Volume II,  Industry Category 28,
     Asbestos Manufacturing", for  the National Commission on Water Quality,
     Battelle Memorial Institute,  pp. 28-1 to 28-31 (1975).

35.  Ref. 27,  pp 29-1 to 29-18.
                                    268

-------
36-   The Thomas Register, Vols. 1-6 (1975).

37.   Development Document for Effluent Limitation Guidelines and Standards of
     Performance for the Machinery and Mechanical Products Manufacturing Point
     Source Category,  Volume II,  Prepared by Hamilton Standard Division of
     United Technologies, Contract No. 68-012914, for United States Environ-
     mental Protection Agency,  June 1975.
                                    269

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                                  APPENDIX

     The assigned SIC codes  for the subject report all covered a number of
industries as they are defined by the SIC Manual.   For purposes of analyses
of environmental impacts the products in each category were examined to
determine whether they seemed to be good approximations of real world in-
dustries which could be defined in terms of populations of companies com-
petitively engaged in the production of similar products using similar input
materials and the same kinds of unit processes and unit operations.  For the
categories examined there appeared to be a reasonable degree of correspon-
dence between some SIC category and industries as  they are operating in
commercial practice.  Because of the number and complexity of the industries
covered by the study it was  necessary to use readily available information
and exercise considerable judgement in defining "industries" to be used as a
basis for further investigation.  It is felt however, that this list which
has been developed is a reasonable starting point  for further study of the
industries under consideration.

     The table which follows presents the industries identified for each
assigned SIC category.  The  industries identified  are all equatable to 4-
digit codes (industries), 5~digit codes (product groups) or 7-digit codes
(products) as defined by the Census of Manufactures.  The titles as shown
in the table may or may not  correspond with SIC titles.  The associated SIC
code numbers in the table do however identify products which have been taken
to represent the product slate for the identified  industry. The dollar value
of shipments for the SIC categories associated with each defined industry is
shown to proyide a rough index of the relative economic importance for each
industry.   Further information on what products are included in each industry
is available from the Census of Manufactures.

     It should be noted that all subdivisions of every assigned SIC category
have not been covered in the industries identified.  In some categories,
especially those involving "Miscellaneous Products" or products "not else-
where classified", small categories which are not catalogable as compounded
or fabricated products or which were not considered of sufficient importance
from the standpoint of economic importance or potential for environmental
impact were dropped out.  Despite this, a very high percentage of the products
included,  judged in terms of value of shipments, have been accounted for.

     The extent to which industry and product statistics may be matched with
each other is measured by two ratios.  The first of these ratios, called
primary specialization ratio, measures the proportion of product shipment
(both primary and secondary) of establishments classified in the industry to  "
total shipments of such products by all manufacturing establishments.  The
second ratio, defined as coverage ratio, is the proportion of primary


                                     270

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products shipped by  the  establishments  classified in the industry to total
shipments of  such products by  all manufacturing  firms.
     It should be further noted that the table of industries has all assigned
SIC categories arranged in numerical order.  The subgroups shown under each
assigned category are not in all instances those normally included subgroups.
Some defined industries equatable to SIC groups outside of the assigned
categories  have been included where it seemed logical to do so.  Where this
was done a  note of explanation is identified.

     Finally it should be stated that the value of shipment data shown are
taken directly from the 1972 Census of Manufactures.  For each principal
product the value of primary product shipments made in all industries was
used.  While this is probably not of great importance to the intended use
of the data,the Census of Manufactures should be consulted by readers who
wish to understand how the data were collected.
                                     271

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Table A-l. LISTING OF  INDUSTRIES  IDENTIFIED  FROM ASSIGNED SIC CATEGORIES
Industries Identified From
Assigned SIC Categories
SIC Group 245
Mobile homes
Prefabricated wood buildings
SIC Major Group 25
Wood household furniture
Upholstered furniture
Metal household furniture
Mattresses and bedsprings
Wood TV and radio cabinets
Wood office furniture
Metal office furniture
Public building and related furniture
Wood partition and fixtures
Metal partitions and fixtures
Drapery hardware blinds and shades
SIC Group 264
Coated printing paper
Waxed paper
Laminated or coated rolls and sheets
Gummed products
Pressure sensitive tape
Commercial envelopes •
Grocers and variety bags
Specialty bags and liners
Shipping sacks and multi-wall bags
Office supplies
Pressed and molded pulp goods
SIC Code(s)
Included
2451
2452
2511
2512
2514
2515
2517
2521
2522
2531
2541
2542
2591
26411
26412
26417
26413
26414
2642
26431
26432
26433
26451
26462
Value of
Shipments
(Millions of $)
3190
1001
2716
1990
859
1079
283
259
781
496
772
713
311
111
153
356
139
574
588
513
819
408
342
136
Notes
(1)












(2)




(3)





                                 272

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Table A-l  (continued 1
Industries Identified From
  Assigned SIC Categories
SIC Code(s)
 Included
   Value of
   Shipments
(Millions of $)
Notes
   SIC Group 264 (continued)
Sanitary napkins and tampons
Sanitary tissue health products
Stationary
Tablets and related products
Wrapping paper (gift wrapping etc)
Wall paper
   SIC Group 265
Folding paperboard boxes
Setup paperboard boxes
Corregated and solid fiber boxes
Sanitary food containers
Fiber cans, drums and related products
   SIC Major Group 27
Newspapers
Periodicals
Book printing
Commercial printing (letterpress)
Commercial printing (lithographic)
Engraving and plate printing
Commercial printing (gravure)
Manifold business forms
Greeting card publication
Blank books, looseleaf binders
Bookbinding
Typesetting
Photoengraving
Electrotyping and stereotyping
Lithographic platemaking
   SIC Group 284
Soap and other detergents
  26471
  26472
  26481
  26482
  26492
  26493

   2651
   2652
   2653
   2654
   2655

   2711
   2721
   2731
   2751
   2752
   2753
   2754
   2761
   2771
   2782
   2789
   2791
   2793
   2794
   2795

   2841
     281
    1692
     118
     219
     181
      83

    1372
     342
    4196
    1381
     620

    7908
    3197
    1049
    3404
    4919
     205
     759
    1381
     583
     566
     369
     508
     321
      35
     263

    2851
                                     273

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Table A-l (Continued)
Industries Identified From
  Assigned SIC Categories
SIC Code(s)
 Included
   Value of
   Shipments
(Millions of $)  Notes
   SIC Group 284 (continued)
Polishes and sanitation goods             2842
Surface active agents                     2843
Toilet preparations                       2844
   SIC Group 285
Paint and allied products                 2851
   SIC Group 289
Natural base glues and adhesives         28913
Synthetic resin and rubber adhesives     28914
Caulking compounds and sealants          28915
Printing ink                              2893
Fireworks and pyrotechnics             2899529
   SIC Group 295
Paving mixtures and blocks                2951
Asphalt felts and coatings                2952
Bituminous fiber pipe                    26461
   SIC Major Group 30
Tires and inner tubes                     3011
Plastic and rubber footwear               3021
Reclaimed rubber                          3031
Rubber and plastic hose and belting       3041
Sponge and foam rubber goods             30693
Rubber floor and wall coverings          30694
Hard rubber mechanical goods
Molded rubber mechanical goods

Rubber soles and heels                   30696
Druggists and medicalrubber goods        30697
Retread tires                             7534
   SIC Group 31
Boot and shoe cut stock                   3131
                 1735
                  580
                 4247

                 3520

                  119
                  671
                  121
                  498
                   39

                  893
                  902
                   21

                 4898
                  493
                   52
                  886
                  350
                   98
  30695  11,15,18  98
  30695  21,23,25,629
         29
                  154
                  116
                  196
                (4)
                (5)
                (6)
                               (7)
                                     274

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Table A-l  (Continued1)
Value of
Industries Identified From SIC Code(s) Shipments
Assigned SIC Categories Included (Millions of
SIC Group 31 (continued)
Slippers
Shoes (mens, womens and childrens)
Luggage
Personal leather goods
SIC Group 323
Mirrors
Tempered glass
Laminated glass
Scientific and industrial glassware
SIC Group 327
Concrete block and brick
Concrete and other precast construction
3142
3143,3144,
3149
3161
3151,3171,
3172
32315
32316, 81,83
32113
32316 38
3271
32721,32722,
159
2965
321
654
254
153
534
156
795
1517
$) Notes

(8)

(8)

(9)
(10)
(11)


  products                                 32723
Ready-mixed concrete                      3273          3578
   SIC Group 328
Cut stone and stone products              3281           286
   SIC Group 329
Abrasive products                         3291           892
Asbestos products                         3292           742
Gaskets, packing and sealing devices
Mineral wool products                     3296           391
   SIC Major Group 34
Metal cans                                3411          4224
Metal shipping containers                 3412           509
Kitchen and table cutlery                34211           183
Scissors and shears                      34212
Blade razors and blades                  34212           207
Handtools                                 3423,3425     1315
Furniture hardware                       34292           205
                                     275
(12)

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Value of
Industries Identified From SIC Code(s) Shipments
Assigned SIC Categories Included (Millions of $) Notes
SIC Major Group 34 (continued)
Insulated bottles, jugs and chests
Binders hardware
Plumbing fixtures
Plumbing fittings and brass goods
Hot water and steam heating systems
Prefabricated structural metal
Metal doors sash and trim
Fabricated platework (boiler shops)
Sheet metalwork
Architectural metalwork
Prefabricated metal buildings
Reinforcing rods and other metal
construction products
Screw machine products
Bolts, nuts, rivets, washers
"Custom" iron and steel forgings
"Custom" non-ferrous forgings
Stamped metal parts
Crowns and closures
"Custom" plating and polishing
Metal coatings (organic)
Small arms and ammunition
Military arms and ammunition
Coil and leaf springs
Valve and pipe fittings
Wire products
SIC Major Group 35
Turbine and tubrine generator sets
Stationary internal combustion diesel
engines

34293
34294
3431
3432
34333,34335
3441
3442
3443
3444
3446
3448
34494,34495

3451
3452
3462
3463
3465,3469
3466
3471
34790,61,71,81
3482,3484
3483,3489
3493
3494
3495,3496

3511
35193


85
928
315
673
220
3305
1902
3265
2650
589
578
856

1083
1988
1838
280
7739
339
1008
351
756
1757
361
2876
3448

2079
604



















(13)

(14)
(14)









276

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Table A-l
Industries Identified From
  Assigned SIC Categories
SIC Code(s)
 Included
   Value of
   Shipments
(Millions of $)  Notes
   SIC Major Group 35 (continued)
Stationary internal combustion
  gasoline engines
Outboard motor
Diesel engines for buses and trucks
Farm machinery and equipment
Lawn and garden equipment
Construction equipment
Mining equipment
Oil field equipment
Elevators and moving stairs
Conveyors and conveyor equipment
Hoists, cranes and monorails
Industrial trucks and tractors
Machine tools - metal cutting
Machine tools - metal forming
Special dies, tools, jigs and fixtures
Machine tools accessories
Power driven handtools
Rolling mill machinery
Welding and cutting apparatus
Automotive maintenance equipment
Food products machinery
Textile machinery
Woodworking machinery
Paper industries machinery
Printing trades machinery
Chemical manufacturing machinery
Foundry equipment and equipment
Plastic working machinery
Rubber-working machinery
  35191,35192     450

  35195           425
  35194           634
   3523          4143
   3524          1143
   3531          5653
   3532           729
   3533           980
   3534           412
   3535           825
   3536           446
   3537          1004
   3541          1258
   3542           670
   3544          2713
   3545          1151
   3546           622
   3547           247
  35493            93
  35494  11       111
   3551           867
   3552           738
   3553           411
   3554           381
   3555           736
   3559  11       212
  35592           132
  35593           434
  35594           137
                 (15)
                                     277

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Table A-l (Continued)
Industries Identified from
  Assigned SIC Categories
SIC Code(s)
 Included
   Value of
   Shipments
(Millions of $)
Notes
Pumps and pumping equipment
Ball and roller bearings
Air and gas compressors
Blowers and fans
Industrial patterns
Typewriters
Electronic computers
Calculating and accounting machines
Scales  and balances
Duplicating machines and photo  copying
   equipment
Automatic merchandising machines
Commercial laundry equipment
Industrial and commercial AC  and
   heating

Room A.C. and dehumidification
Warm air furnaces
Measuring and dispensing pumps
Commercial cooking and cleaning
   equipment
Carburetor, pistons, rings,  and valves
    SIC  Major  Group 36
Transformers
Switchgear and switchboard  apparatus
Motor and generators
 Industrial controls
Welding apparatus, electric
 Carbon  and graphite products
 Capacitors
 Retifying apparatus
   3561
   3562
   3563
   3564
   3565
   3567
   3573
   3574
   3576
   3579

   3581
   3582
    1632
    1418
     722
     682
     234
    1046
    6108
     694
     182
    1046

     306
     183
(16)
(16)
   35851,35852,    4867
    35853,35854,
    35857
                  (17)
   35856
   35858
    3586
    3589

    3592

    3612
    3613
    3621
    3622
    3623
    3624
   36291
   36292
     679
     384
     183
     864

     791

    1436
    2058
    2635
    1245
     570
     335
     112
     132
                                     278

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Table A-l
Industries Identified  from
  Assigned SIC Categories
SIC Code(s)
 Included
   Value of
   Shipments
(Millions of $)
Notes
Household cooking equipment
Household refrigerators, home and
  farm freezers
Household laundry equipment
Electric housewares and fans
Household vacuum cleaners
Sewing machines
Household water heaters
Dishwashing machines
Food waste disposal units
Electric lamps
Current carrying wiring devices
Non current carrying wiring devices
Residential electric lighting fixtures
Commercial, industrial and institutional
  electric light fixtures
Vehicular light equipment
Radio and television receiving sets
Phonograph records and recorded tapes
Telephone and telegraph apparatus
Radio and television transmitting
  equipment
Radio and television receiving
  electron tubes
Cathode ray television picture tube
Transmitting, industrial and special
  purpose electron tubes
Semiconductors and related devices
Electronic capacitors
Resistors for electronic application
Electronic coils
Connectors, for electronic applications
   3631          1027
   3632          1419

   3633          1289
   3634          1448
   3635           439
   3636           152
  36391           119
  36394  12,14    359
  36394  71        66
   3641          1089
   3643          1206
   3644           832
   3645           746
   3646           701

   3647           358
   3651          3608
   3652           537
   3661          3973
   3661          8376

   3671           189

   3672           633
   3673           366

   3674          2360
   3675           454
   3676           438
   3677           385
   3678           523
                 (18)
                                    279

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Table A-l (continued)
Industries Identified from SIC Code(s)
Assigned SIC Categories Included
SIC Group 36 (Continued)
Storage battage
Primary battery dry, wet
X-ray apparatus and tubes
Electrical equipment for internal
combustion engines
Lamp bulb components
Appliance wire and cord
SIC Major Group 37
Motor vehicles
Truck and bus bodies
Motor vehicle parts and accessories
Truck trailer
Aircraft
Aircraft engines and engine parts
Air parts and auxilliary equipment
Ship building and repairing
Boat building and repairing
Railroad equipment
Bicycles and parts
Motorcycles and parts
Guided missiles and space vehicles
Space propulsion units and parts
Guided missiles and space vehicle
parts and auxiliary parts
Travel trailers and campers
Tanks and tank components
SIC Major Group 38
Engineering and scientific instruments
Building interior environmental controls
Process control instruments

3691
3692
3693
3694

36992
36996

3711
3713
3714
3715
3721
3724
3728
3731
3732
3743
37511
37512
3761
3764
3769

3792
3795

3811
3822
3823
Value of
Shipments
(Millions of $) Notes

952
316
383
1781

332
366

41045
1444
19417
1079
7538
3069
3436
3200
1031
2284
396
112
3705
740
825

1276
285

1106
658
794
                                    280

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Industries Identified from
Assigned SIC Categories
SIC Ma.jor Group ^R 1:irmed'>
Fluid meters and counting devices
Instruments to measure electricity
Measuring and controlling devices
Optical instruments and lenses
Surgical and medical instruments
Surgical appliances and supplies
Dental equipment and supplies
Ophthalmic goods
Still picture equipment
Sensitized photographic film
and plates
Prepared photographic chemicals
Photo copying equipment
Motion picture equipment
Clocks
Watch cases
Watches
SIC Major Group 39
Jewelry precious metal
Silverware and plateware
Jewelers materials and lapidary work
Musical instruments
Dolls
Games and toys
Bicycles childrens vehicles
Sporting and athletic goods
Pens and mechanical pencils
Lead pencils and art goods
Marking devices
Carbon paper and inked ribbon
Value of
SIC Code(s) Shipments
Included (Millions of $) Notes
3824
3825
3829
3832
3841
3842
3843
3851
38611
38616,38619,
38615,38617
38618 11
38612
38613
38731
38737
38734,38735
3911
3814
3915
3931
3942
39441,39442
3944
3949
3951
3952
3953
3955
327
1329
585
584
984
1142
352
483
616
2406
286
1455
191
329
52
477
981
317
336
525
277
1214
126
1538
311
174
163
317
281

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Table A-l (Continued)
Industries Identified from
Assigned SIC Categories
SIC Major Group 39 (Continued)
Costume jewelry
Artificial flowers
Buttons
Needles, pins, fasteners
Brooms and brushes
Signs and advertising displays
Burial caskets
Hard surface floor covering
Chemical fire extinguishing equipment
Matches
SIC Code(s)
Included
3961
3962
3963
3964
3991
3993
3995
3996
39991
39993
Value of
Shipments
(Millions of $) Notes
441
101
100
553
391
1098
387
300
125


Notes:
(1)  Does not include recreational vehicles.
     and campers.
See SIC 3792 travel trailers
(2)  Classification of industries included under SIC Group 264 is considered
     more speculative than most other industries because of difficulty in
     interpretation of product descriptions.

(3)  Includes all types of envelopes except stationary which is covered
     under SIC Product Group 26481.

(4)  Fireworks and pyrotechnics represent group of minor economic importance
     under SIC Industry 2899 which by its nature is considered worthy of
     environmental assessment.

(5)  Bituminous fiber pipe (SIC Product  Group 26461)  is listed under SIC
     Group 295 with industries involving use of asphalt binders.

(6)  Hard rubber mechanical goods and molded mechanical goods may have more
     environmental significance than other products under miscellaneous
     category.

(7)  Retread tires, included under service industries in SIC system is felt
     to present problems similar to those of other industries being d under
     considered under SIC major group 30.  Since retread tires are
     considered to be a non-manufacturing industry by  the Census  of
     Manufactures there is no value of shipment data reported.
                                   282

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 (8)  Data on shoe industries and personal leather goods were not adequate to
      determine with confidence whether shoe manufacture represented one or
      more industries.  For present purposes it has been considered a single
      industry.

 (9)  Sales data for some species of tempered glass were not available.   Total
      shown is reported figure for reported categories.

(10)  Laminated  glass is manufactured  by  companies  in the glass industry and
      from purchased glass.   Division  in  terms  of volume is  not known.

(11)  Scientific and  industrial  glassware volume of sales are reported only as
      part of  a  larger  group.

(12)  SIC category  34211 contains a  collection  of products roughly divisible
      as  shown,  which probably come  from  a number of different industries.

(13)  All stamped metal parts  (automotive and other)  have been combined  for
      analysis as one industry.

(14)  Custom plating  and polishing and "metal coatings  (organics)" have  been
      defined  as industries  for  further investigation of possible environ-
      mental impacts  which will  not  appear in other categories.

(15)  Dual-fuel  engines are  included with diesel engines.

(16)  Separate data could not  be published for  industry  3572 typewriters,
      without  revealing the  operations of individual companies.   Accordingly
      industry 3572 typewriters  has  been  combined with industry 3579,  office
      machines,  n.e.c.  for 1972.

(17)  The total  value of shipments of  refrigeration machinery includes ex-
      tensive  duplication resulting  from  the use of products of some estab-
      lishments  in  the  industry  as materials by others within the same
      industry.

(18)  This category includes a wide  variety of  transmission  equipment  includ-
      ing alarm  systems, military equipment, etc.
                                     283

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                                  TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
                           (Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
1. REPORT NO.
  EPA-600/2-77-160
                             2.
                                                           3. RECIPIENT'S
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
  Potential Environmental  Impact of Compounding  and
  Fabricating Industries:  A Preliminary Assessment
               . REPORT DATE
                 August 1977 issuing date
               6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7.AUTHORIS) R>  Clark5 j. Burch,  R.  Ayers,  D. Brown, R.  Dick
I.  J.  Henning, D. Hooie, and R.  Sharp
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
  Battelle
  Columbus Laboratories
  505 King Avenue
  Columbus, Ohio  43201
               10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
                1BB610     1AB604
               11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.

                Contract 68-02-1323
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
  Industrial Environmental  Research Laboratory~Cin.
  Office of Research  and Development
  U.S. Environmental  Protection Agency
  Cincinnati, Ohio  45268
           OH
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
      Final	
               14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE


                EPA/600/12
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
16. ABSTRACT
              The overall  objectives of this research  effort were to identify
         compounding and fabricating industries from a selected number of Stand-
         ard Industrial Classification codes, and identify the environmental
         impact resulting  from processing steps used by fabrication or com-
         pounding industries.

              Industries in  the United States fall into two basic categories—
         those that process  primary raw material such  as  iron ore, logs, silica
         sand, animal hide,  etc.,  and those that fabricate or compound these
         raw materials into  various consumer goods.    This report assesses the
         potential environmental impact of industries  in  the second category,
         the compounding and fabricating industries.   The basic approach was
         to classify each  industry by type and major unit processes supported,
         and then to characterize  the waste streams produced by the unit pro-
         cesses.   Examples of  industries that are classified as compounding
         and fabricating industries are the automobile industry and the surface
         coating industry.
17.
                                KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
                  DESCRIPTORS
                                              b. IDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
                               COSATI Field/Group
    Manufacturing;  Pollution;  Industrial
    Wastes, Industrial Waste Treatment
   Manufacturing  Processes
                 13B
13. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
   Release  to Public
                                              19. SECURITY CLASS (This Report)
                                                Unclassified
                             21. NO. OF PAGES
                                 298
  20. SECURITY CLASS (Thispage)
    Unclassified
                                                                         22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (9-73)
 OU.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1977-757-056/6517
284

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