xvEPA
Office of Research
and Development
Washington, DC 20460
EPA 600/9-79-007
March 1979
Decision Series
A Small Oil Spill
at West Falmouth
\ /
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The Energy/
Environment R&D
Decision Series
Some of the most basic problems
facing our society today involve the use
of our energy resources and the effects
of this usage on our environment.
These problems affect everyone, and
everyone has an interest in their resolu-
tion. But the technical aspects of these
problems make it difficult for a major
portion of the interested public to
understand and participate in the
decision-making process. This volume
contributes to the bridging of this infor-
mation gap.
The Energy/Environment R&D
Decision Series was inaugurated late in
1976. The series presents, in an easily
understood and informative manner,
selected key issues and findings of the
Federal Interagency Energy/Environment
Research and Development Program,
which was initiated in fiscal year 1975.
Planned and coordinated by the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA),
the Interagency Program sponsors
more than 1,000 research projects
ranging from the analysis of health and
environmental effects of energy
systems to the development of pollu-
tion control technologies.
If you have any comments, please
write to Editor, RD-681, US EPA,
Washington, D.C. 20460. This docu-
ment is available through the National
Technical Information Service, Spring-
field, Virginia 22161. Mention of trade
names and commercial products herein
does not constitute EPA endorsement
or recommendation for use.
Editor: Francine Sakin Jacoff
Text: Dr. William Conner
Technical Review:
Dr. Paul Lefcourt, Environmental
Protection Agency
Dr. Donald Rhoads, Yale University
Dr. Howard Sanders, Woods Hole
Oceanographic Institution
Graphics: Craig R. Keith;
Vincent Maiello
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Site of Oil Spill
West Falmouth Harbor
,»*»
The West
Fa/mouth Spill
"The West Fa/mouth spill was
not large, but its effects were
catastrophic and long lasting. "
Sanders, H.L. 1974. "The West
Fa/mouth Saga."New Engineer.
Cape Cod Bay
Nantucket
Sound
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Preface
This is a report about oil and its ef-
fects in marine environments, a techni-
cally complex subject that is further
shrouded by controversy between con-
flicting interests. This report focuses on
an investigation of a modest oil spill
which occurred at West Falmouth,
Massachusetts in September, 1969.
The West Falmouth study was con-
ducted by Dr. Howard Sanders, the
late Dr. Max Blumer, and their col-
leagues from the Woods Hole Oceano-
graphic Institution. Substantially
supported by EPA's Office of Research
and Development, the work of Dr.
Sanders and his associates comprises
what is probably the most rigorous and
comprehensive investigation ever made
of a single spill event. The West
Falmouth study provides a solid ad-
vance in the understanding of oil pollu-
tion in the ocean, and its effects on
coastal areas.
'
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I
ean
"Oil. Essential for energy ...
And a major threat to the
ocean ecology." from Lietzell,
T.L. 1977. Marine Technology
Society Journal 71:1. '
't-
»
It «W V-9 *
I
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Normal or
Operational
Inputs
,__,.. ^fy>H|.y *t,
United States Sources of Petroleum Inputs to the Marine Environment
Source of Oil
Offshore Production
Normal Operations
Accidents
Subtotal
Tankers
Normal Operations
Accidents
Subtotal
Non-Tankers
Bilges Bunkering
Accidents
Subtotal
Coastal Refineries
Coastal Municipal Waste
Non-Refinery Industrial Waste
Urban Runoff
River Runoff
Atmosphere
Natural Seeps
Total
Thousand Metric
Tons Per Year
3
10
13
209
30
239
78
20
98
30
100
100
100
530
180
120
1,510
Percent of
Total
0.2
0.7
0.9
13.8
2.0
15.8
5.2
1.3
6.5
2.0
6.6
6.6
6.6
35.1
11.9
8.0
100.0
Source: National Academy of Sciences, 1974. Petroleum in the marine environment: Inputs,
techniques for analysis, fates and effects. Ocean Affairs Board, NAS, Washington, D.C.
Although less than 3% of all oil entering the marine environment results from tanker and off-
shore production accidents, oil spills are unique because they create high concentrations of oil
in the environment, and therefore pose a special kind of environmental threat.
How Does Oil Get
into the Oceans?
It is estimated that more than
1.5 million metric tons* of oil or
petroleum products enter United States
coastal waters each year. The bulk of
these inputs result from human activi-
ties, mostly from urban and river runoff
(42%), and normal tanker operations
which include cleaning tanks and
ballasting (14%). Although less than
3% of the oil enters coastal waters
because of tanker and offshore produc-
tion accidents, such oil spills are impor-
tant because they create higher con-
centrations of oil than do most other
sources of oil pollution, and, therefore,
pose a special kind of environmental
threat.
An oil spill can happen whenever oil
is transported, stored, handled or ex-
tracted from the earth. About 10,000
oil spills totalling 10 to 20 million
gallons of oil can be expected in or
near the territorial waters of the United
States every year. However, the annual
amounts of spillage are variable and
dependent on the frequency of major
oil spill disasters. A single accident in-
volving a supertanker could spill more
oil than the total annual spillage into all
U.S. waters. The Amoco Cadiz, for ex-
ample, lost over 60 million gallons of oil
when it broke up off the coast of
France in March of 1978. In U.S.
waters, spilled oil is more frequently a
problem in the Atlantic Ocean and the
Gulf of Mexico than in the Pacific
Ocean. A large portion of the spilled oil
enters near-shore areas where winds
and currents may transport the oil to
pollution sensitive river outlets and bay
areas (estuaries), tidal flats and
marshes.
*0ne metric ton equals about 7 barrels.
One barrel equals 42 U. S. gallons.
-------
Amounts of Oil Spilled
Gallons of oil
discharged
Number of
discharges
Source: USCG. Polluting Incidents in and
around US Coastal Waters. 1975, 1976.
CG-487.
Location of Oil Spills (1976)
Open Internal
Waters, ^
0.5% XPorts and
\Harbors
Great Lakes
3.1% Pacific
5.3%
Beaches
Non-navigable
Waters
38.3%
Open Coastal
Waters
35.6%
Source: USCG. Polluting Incidents in and
around US Coastal Waters. 1975, 1976.
CG-487.
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Area of Comparison
Location of Spill
Cargo
Size of Spill
Shoreline Contaminated
Waterfowl Killed
Total Cost of Lost
Waterfowl (based on
monetary value assigned
to lost species)
Argo Merchant
Atlantic Ocean
No. 6 Oil
7,500,000 gals.
None
540
$5,535
Barge (STC-101)
Chesapeake Bay
No. 6 Oil
250,000 gals.
27 miles
31,000
$635,325
Source: Total Costs Resulting from Two Major Oil Spills. 1977. CED-77-71.
What Are The
Effects of
Oil Spills?
Each spill is a unique event, with a
number of factors interacting to deter-
mine the effects of a specific spill. For
example, two spills that occurred in
1976 have been compared by the
Comptroller General of the United
States. The Argo Merchant went
aground on shoals 30 miles southeast
of Nantucket, while the Barge
(STC-101) was grounded 4 miles off-
shore near the mouth of the Potomac
River.
Even though the Argo Merchant spill
was more extensive, spilling thirty times
more oil, the impact was greater on the
Chesapeake Bay as waterfowl were
flocking in great numbers during
seasonal migrations. Because the bay
enclosed and retained the oil, the effect
was prolonged and magnified. These
effects illustrate the difficulty of predict-
ing, except in a general way, what the
exact environmental impact of a given
spill will be. The type and amount of
oil spilled, the weather and the direc-
tion of ocean currents, the coastal
areas and organisms impacted, the
season, and the effect of cleanup at-
tempts each play a role in determining
the impact of an oil spill. Previous ex-
posure of marine plants and animals,
and their environment to spilled oil may
alter the sensitivity of such an
ecosystem to additional spills. The
significant environmental effects of
spilled oil, which result from oil toxicity
and physical coating, range from direct
kills of fish and wildlife to more insid-
ious sublethal effects such as reducing
the ability of organisms to reproduce or
to follow normal behavior patterns.
In the case of the 1969 West
Falmouth spill, very sensitive habitats
and organisms were exposed to oil.
The spill was of moderate size, about
175,000 gallons, but the highly toxic
No. 2 fuel oil contaminated the local
estuary and marshes and caused sig-
nificant losses to commercial fisheries
and serious long-term damage to the
marine ecosystem in the West
Falmouth area.
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The West Fa/mouth
Spill
"It was John L. R. French . . .
who first called the Coast Guard.
He was awakened about 12:30
a.m. by the stench of oil. Like
others, he thought first it was
from his own oil burner." from
The Falmouth Enterprise,
September 16, 1969.
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What Happened at
West Falmouth?
On the evening of September 15,
1969, a tug pulling a barge out of
Tiverton, Rhode Island, had started up
Buzzard's Bay bound for a power plant
on the Cape Cod Canal. During the
night, the radar failed and the towline
broke. In the fog, the barge Florida
went aground on submerged boulders
near the mouth of West Falmouth
Harbor. The Florida was damaged and
leaking her 2500 ton cargo of No. 2
fuel oil into the waters of West
Falmouth. Before the barge could be
lightened and freed from the rocks,
about 550 tons or 175,000 gallons of
the light refined oil were lost.
In the water, the oil formed a coffee
colored emulsion of water and oil that
was visible for several miles. The slick
was driven north-northeast by strong
winds toward Wild Harbor. Efforts at
containing or otherwise mitigating the
impact of the spilled oil included the
use of booms or floating barriers, and
two types of chemical dispersants to
break up the oil. These efforts had little
or no effect on the movement and im-
pact of the spilled oil. Miles of beach
were littered with windrows of dying,
dead, and decaying marine organisms.
With each tide, the windrows were
replenished with more casualties of
scallops, lobsters, finfish, marine
worms, and various other marine
organisms. The oil had obviously im-
pacted the marshes and tidal areas of
Wild Harbor.
At the time, the event attracted little
national attention. The spill was not
large and some oil spill professionals,
such as the president of the cleanup
company, predicted a full recovery in
four to six weeks. However, Town of
Falmouth Shellfish Constable George
Souza knew that the problem was
more serious. Mr. Souza made a per-
sonal survey of the local beaches,
marshes and waters. He estimated the
immediate loss to the local shellfishing
industry to be $250,000. Mr. Souza's
estimate included only the immediate
mortality of scallops and soft-shell
clams. He did not consider the loss to
other commercial fisheries products
such as lobsters, finfish and hard-shell
clams (quahogs), nor the secondary
impacts to fish processing, transport-
ing, wholesaling and retailing industries
that would be experienced in years to
come.
Principal Falmouth shellfishing areas
were closed for several years following
the spill. Shellfishing in the Wild Har-
bor Basin and Wild Harbor River is still
restricted today, ten years after the
spill. Because of the severe local
economic impact of the spill, the Town
of Falmouth and the State of
Massachusetts filed suit against the
owner of the Florida. In an out-of-court
settlement, the Town of Falmouth
received $100,000 and the State of
Massachusetts received $200,000 in
payment of damages.
What About
Scientific Studies?
It is relatively easy to estimate the
dollar impact of the West Falmouth
spill on local fisheries. It is a much
more difficult matter to document, in-
terpret and understand the immediate
and long-term impacts of the spill to
the ecosystems of the West Falmouth
area. The spill occurred only a few
miles from the Woods Hole Oceano-
graphic Institution and the Woods Hole
Marine Biological Laboratory which are
among the most respected oceano-
graphic research centers in the world.
The chance proximity of the spill site to
Woods Hole provided an excellent op-
portunity for a scientifically rigorous
documentation and analysis of the ef-
fects of a single oil spill event. This is
precisely what the Woods Hole re-
searchers, led by Dr. Howard Sanders,
Mr. George Hampson and Dr. Max
Blumer, set out to do. Through the
years, twelve scientific investigators
have examined different aspects of the
West Falmouth spill. Research efforts
have included chemical analyses, sedi-
ment analyses, long-term studies of
benthic (bottom-dwelling) organisms,
studies of the marsh ecosystems and
detailed investigations of the biology of
fiddler crabs and killifish of Wild Harbor
marsh. Taken together, these studies
provide a detailed account of the ef-
fects of the West Falmouth spill, mak-
ing it the most studied and best
understood oil spill to date.
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Why Trace
Spilled Oil?
Gas Chromatography
Gas chromatography is an analytical tool
used to analyze petroleum hydrocarbons. This
technique separates the various constituent
hydrocarbon compounds according to the size
and structure of their molecules. The oil which
is in a sample, such as sediment or tissue, is
extracted with a solvent that isolates the
hydrocarbons. Each component or fraction of
these hydrocarbons can then be separated and
measured. As different fractions emerge from
the separation process, a recorder graphs the
amounts of hydrocarbon, forming a pattern or
chromatogram. This chromatogram is a sort of
"fingerprint" which identifies and distinguishes
between different types of oil.
Reports from the West Falmouth
area suggested that everything was
back to normal shortly after the
cleanup operations were terminated.
Bathers were enjoying the water, and
the beaches were as beautiful as
ever. These reports were misleading.
When spilled oil can no longer be
seen, it does not mean that the oil, at
toxic levels, is not present. Oil can be
lethal or have significant sublethal ef-
fects in very small concentrations,
concentrations as low as several parts
per billion.
Sensitive analytical techniques can
detect these very small, but impor-
tant, concentrations of oil. The
techniques of analytical chemistry can
also differentiate between hydro-
carbons from petroleum and the
naturally occurring or biogenic hydro-
carbons that are present in all living
things. One analytical technique, gas
chromatography, can even distinguish
between different types of oil.
Analytical chemistry provides the
tools used to trace oil as it disperses
into the environment, to monitor
changes in the oil that occur as a
result of weathering, and to relate
this information to biological surveys
and studies of organisms.
-A-
B
100
150 200 250
Temperature (°C)
300 100
150 200 250
Temperature (C°)
300
Gas chromatogram "fingerprint" of fresh No. 5 fuel oil (A) and the same* oil after weathering for 41/2 months (B).
Source: Cretney, W.J. et al.,1978. Long Term
Fate of Heavy Fuel Oil in a Spill-
Contaminated B.C. Coastal Bay. Journal of
Fisheries Research Board of Canada. 35, (5).
11
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12
-------
1240
Hydrocarbon levels in the sediment.
mg HC/
100g sediment
1969
1970
1971
Where Did the
Oil Go?
Once released into the water, the
fate of the No. 2 fuel oil from the
Florida was dictated by the physical,
chemical and biological characteristics
of the ecosystem. Initially the oil was
blown to the north-northeast and a
large amount was incorporated into the
sediments of the heavily oiled subtidal
area. Other subtidal areas were moder-
ately or lightly oiled. Fuel oil was also
found in the marshes of the Wild Harbor
River. In the weeks following the spill,
the No. 2 fuel oil continued to disperse.
Some sampling sites that were chemi-
cally and biologically "normal" im-
mediately after the spill were found to
be contaminated one to three months
later. During the chemical monitoring,
all polluting hydrocarbons were very
similar, by "fingerprint," to the oil
carried by the Florida. By the spring of
1970, the subtidal polluted area was ten
times larger than immediately after the
spill, covering 5,000 acres. At that time
500 acres of marsh and river were also
polluted.
Moderately Oiled Offshore
1969
1970
1971
Oiled Marsh
1969
1970
1971
Offshore Control
1969
1970
1971
Source: Sanders, H.L., et al. IN PRESS.
Anatomy of an Oil Spill: The West Falmouth
Study. (Submitted to EPA)
13
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"Fingerprints" of Sediment Oil
Wild Harbor,
May 1974
No. 2 fuel oil
Falmouth Harbor,
June 1974
Source: (A) Sanders, H.L., et al., IN PRESS. Anatomy of an Oil Spill: The
West Falmouth Study (submitted to EPA). (B,C, D) Michael, A.D., C.R.
Van Raalte and L.S. Brown. 1975. Long-Term Effects of an Oil Spill at
West Falmouth, Massachusetts. Proceedings of Conference on Prevention
and Control of Oil Polution. API.
Gas chromatography shows that the hydrocarbons in
the sediment at Wild Harbor were more similar to No. 2
fuel oil than to hydrocarbons commonly found in nearby
Falmouth Harbor.
How Persistent
Was the Oil?
At West Falmouth, the spilled oil
has persisted for over ten years. Even
today, relatively fresh No. 2 fuel oil
can be found in the marshes of Wild
Harbor. In general, hydrocarbon
levels in the sediments of oiled sta-
tions have tended to decrease slowly
over time. The major processes
responsible for this decrease are
dissolution, or dissolving into the
water, and biodegradation, which is
breaking down of matter by living
organisms.
Once in the environment, oil may
be redistributed, dispersed or concen-
trated as time passes. For example, in
March 1970 there was a dramatic in-
crease in the amount of sediment oil
at the heavily oiled Wild Harbor
sampling station. The "fingerprint"
technique showed that the hydro-
carbons in Wild Harbor sediments, as
late as 1974, were more similar to
those of No. 2 fuel oil than to the
hydrocarbons found in the sediments
of Falmouth, a nearby polluted har-
bor. The source of this oil is thought
to be the sponge-like marshes of the
Wild Harbor River, where the original
No. 2 fuel oil is still leaching out.
Organisms within the ecosystem
absorb, ingest, accumulate, and
distribute petroleum hydrocarbons.
Woods Hole researchers K.A. Burns
and J.M. Teal found traces of
polluting hydrocarbons in the plants
and animals of Wild Harbor marshes
twelve to eighteen months after the
West Falmouth spill. The lingering
residue of No. 2 fuel oil was found in
birds, algae, marsh grass, mussels,
and fish from the Wild Harbor River
area, but samples from the nearby
Sippewissett Marsh control station
were uncontaminated.
14
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Collected about six months after the spiff, these musse/s demonstrate some sublethal effects of the
West Fa/mouth oil spiff. The Wild Harbor musse/s on the left are emaciated compared to the healthy
mussels from nearby Sippewissett Marsh which are plump with eggs and sperm.
Where is the
West Falmouth
Oil Today?
Oil is a complex mixture of slowly
degrading hydrocarbons. The degrada-
tion of oil is especially slow in environ-
ments such as mud flats, marshes and
muddy bottom sediments. The West
Falmouth studies show that in areas
where heavy oiling occurred, chronic
oil pollution has lasted for years.
Although techniques of analytical
chemistry have documented the fate of
the oil spilled by the Florida, the key to
further understanding of the impact of
the spill is in looking at the biological
effects.
Fate of Oil
Heavy oiling occurred at subtidal
and intertidal areas.
Plants and animals were contam-
inated with No. 2 fuel oil.
The No. 2 fuel oil persisted for
years after the spill, clearly
refuting the frequently stated as-
sumption that all light oils are
quickly dissipated in the environ-
ment.
Heavy oiled areas served as
sources of low level chronic oil
repollution: a single spill can
cause a chronic oil pollution
problem.
15
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Effectsj)f
"The effects «£ the spill wefS » ,
A^L* f
ca tastrophic and Hhg-fajjilngi -^ * *^.
the*region jftmaximum impvc\^ 9**\
alm(& tfftSHf* eradicated . . . At
the heavily oiled . . . areas of
Wild.mrbor the»bmtogical
vacuum was fiffecf^tt^the classic
maeiQe opportunist Capitella
caj^ffltM, r.t Sanders.
New Engineer.
F »~
*i
I**-2E~
% -*
'<
- g»-j
-------
What Kind of
Research Was
Done?
The researchers at the Woods Hole
Oceanographic Institution were
presented with the problem of develop-
ing an experimental design that would
best document the effects of the West
Falmouth spill on benthic (bottom-
dwelling) communities of marine
animals, whether the effects were
gross, subtle or non-existent. This
involved deciding where, when and
how bottom samples would be taken,
processed and analyzed. The major
factors considered in making these
decisions were the distribution of the
oil, the expected rates of change in the
benthic communities, and the state-
of-the-art of benthic sampling and
sample processing.
Sampling Methods
Where Chemical analysis of bottom samples
was used to determine where biological samples
would be taken. The aim was to sample heavily
oiled, moderately oiled and lightly oiled or con-
trol stations. This allowed comparison of com-
munity response to different levels of pollution.
Two types of communities were sampled, the in-
tertidal marsh and the subtidal offshore. Sedi-
ment types found at sampling stations were
compared to ensure that subtidal stations
represented the same basic bottom community
type.
When Deciding when and how frequently to
sample is difficult. Seasonal and spatial dif-
ferences in normal benthic communities are con-
siderable, and communities under stress may
vary even more dramatically. On the other hand,
to acquire and process benthic samples is time
consuming and costly. Sampling was initiated
immediately after the spill, and it was decided to
sample frequently, every month when possible.
As time passed the frequency of sampling
decreased somewhat.
How Bottom samples were collected with a
hand-held coring device at the intertidal marsh
stations, and with a remote operated grab at the
subtidal stations. A small portion of each sample
was frozen and stored for chemical analysis. The
biological samples were washed using a fine
sieve, and the material retained on the sieve, in-
cluding the animals, was placed in a preservative
solution. In the laboratory, the animals were
sorted from the debris using a microscope; iden-
tified and counted. The data analysis ranged
from simple tallies of species and individuals to
various statistical characterizations of the
benthic communities.
17
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Why Study Benthic
Communities?
Most people don't have any direct
contact with the abundant but small
organisms that live in marine bottom
sediments. Therefore, it may be diffi-
cult to appreciate the importance of
benthic communities even though we
are all familiar with some of the larger
bottom-dwellers such as the crabs,
lobsters, clams and shrimp that are
commonly enjoyed seafood items. But
close study shows that ecosystems, in-
cluding those of the benthos, are com-
plex. The existence of one component
of this system, such as crabs, depends
on the normal functioning of all
ecosystem components from bacteria
to top predators such as striped bass.
Many delicately balanced variables
create an intricate marine ecosystem in
which each component has some in-
fluence on all the others.
And so benthic communities are closely
studied because the stationary lifestyle of
such organisms makes them good pollu-
tion indicators, and because benthic
communities play an essential role in
the functioning of the ocean ecosystem.
Importance of
Benthic Communities
Food Web Functions - One phenomenon ob-
served in ecosystems is the transfer of energy
up the food web, from plants to plant eaters or
herbivores, to predators. Benthic organisms
have a critical role in the transfer of energy to
fish species, especially juveniles, the young of
the species, and bottom feeding fish. Some
benthic organisms concentrate food and energy
from the water column by filtering out minute
plants and animals. Others ingest sediment, in
order to digest out the myriad microorganisms
that in turn survive by breaking down dead plant
and animal matter. Thus the benthic community
might be thought of as an array of energy
packets distributed at different sediment depths
and available in different sizes and types. These
energy packets may be grazed upon by a variety
of finfish and shellfish, many of which are com-
mercially important species.
Provision of Habitat - A structured or shelter-
ing habitat is needed by many marine animals.
The plants found in marshes and grass beds,
which are associated with near-shore benthic
communities, provide the habitat that helps
make these areas so highly productive. These
plants supply protected spawning areas, hiding
places for small fish, and points of attachment
for a host of sessile or attached marine species
that are low in the food web, such as barnacles.
This promotes the use of marshes and grass
beds as nursery areas for many marine animals,
including off-shore and commercially important
species.
Lack of Motility - Many benthic organisms
cannot relocate. Once the free-swimming larvae
settle out of the water column and change into
adults, they stay in the same location for the re-
mainder of their existence. Although some ben-
thic organisms are capable of relocating, for
most it is a slow, poorly directed process, not at
all comparable to the motility enjoyed by finfish.
18
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Immediate Effects on Marine Communities
Control Station
October 16, 1969 Moderately Oiled
Station
September 22, 1969
Number
of
Species
Number
of
Individuals
(per square
meter)
Heavily Oiled Station
September 25, 1969
Source: Sanders, H.L., et al. IN PRESS.
Anatomy of an Oil Spill: The West Falmouth
Study. (Submitted to EPA)
What Were the
Immediate Effects
of the Oil Spill?
Initial observations and samples
taken soon after the West Falmouth
spill revealed mass mortality in the ben-
thic communities. Bottom dwelling
species such as the lobster, tomcod
and scup washed up on the beaches,
indicating that subtidal benthic com-
munities had been impacted. To con-
firm this, the researchers trawled the
bottom off New Silver Beach in about
ten feet of water. The results of the
trawl were dramatic. The catch con-
sisted of several species of fish,
worms, crustaceans and other marine
invertebrates. About 95% of the
animals were dead, the rest, dying.
The results of this and similar observa-
tions prompted the initiation of a com-
prehensive study of the effects of the
West Falmouth spill on the benthos.
The initial samples clearly demon-
strated the severity of the spill impact.
Compared to control areas, oiled areas
were reduced in both numbers of
species and densities of benthic
animals. This was true for both off-
shore and marsh sampling sites. When-
ever oil was found in the sediment,
there was mortality. The greater the
concentration of oil, the greater was
the observed mortality. Shortly after
the initial impact, an opportunistic or
"weed" species of worm called
Capitella capitata underwent an im-
pressive population explosion. Like
weeds on a cleared lot, the prolific and
resistant worm species took advantage
of the biological void created by the
spill at heavily oiled stations. In
February 1970, 99% of the individuals
at marsh Station IV were Capitella as
compared with the finding of no
Capitella at a similar non-oiled site
nearby.
19
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How Did
the Benthic
Communities Recover?
For years after the initial mortality,
the benthic communities were in
various stages of recovery. While
recovering, the communities were
characterized by reduced numbers of
species, and several abnormal varia-
tions in community structure. From
chemical monitoring, it was apparent
that, in many cases, the capacity of
the community to recover was com-
promised by the repollution, multiple
exposures, and persistence of the
No. 2 fuel oil in the environment.
The communities that were recover-
ing after oiling showed many basic dif-
ferences when compared to normal
benthic communities which were repre-
sented by control stations.
In light of this evidence, there is no
question that the normal functioning of
benthic communities was profoundly
affected for years after the West
Falmouth spill.
Stages of Recovery-
Number of Bottom Dwelling Species
80
Heavily Oiled Station
1969
1970
1971
Moderately Oiled Station
Recovery of Affected
Communities
Smaller numbers of species.
Community dominance by oppor-
tunistic species.
Increased fluctuation, over time,
in the numbers of benthic
organisms making up the com-
munity.
Greater variation, over time, in the
species composition of the
recovering community.
1969
1970
1971
Source: Sanders, H.L., et at., IN PRESS. Anatomy of an Oil Spill:
The West Falmouth Study. Draft Submitted to EPA.
pp. 85, 86, 87.
20
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Domination of Weed Species
Percentage of Capitella in Community
80-
60-
40-
20-
80i
60-
40-
20-
Heavily Oiled Offshore Station
1969
1970
1971
Oiled Marsh Station
1969
1970
1971
Source: Sanders, H.L., et al., IN PRESS. Anatomy of an Oil Spill:
The West Falmouth Study. Draft Submitted to EPA.
pp. 85, 86, 87.
Nature of Recovering Communities
Numbers of Species - The heavily oiled sta-
tion showed a greatly reduced number of
species for at least two years after the spill and
subsequent studies showed significantly reduced
numbers of species for years afterwards. In addi-
tion, the number of species was much more
variable through time at the oiled stations than
at the offshore control station.
Opportunistic Species - In the first year after
the spill, the opportunistic worm Capitella
capitata exploited the biological vacuum that
was caused by the spill. Marine opportunistic
"weed" species are similar to weed species
found on land, and are characterized by high
rates of reproduction, short life cycles, im-
pressive powers of dispersion, and a general
hardiness and adaptability. The marine worm
Capitella becomes fully mature in several weeks,
is very prolific, and is resistant to many types of
pollution, including oil.
21
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%
0
I
22
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What About
Sublethal Effects?
So far, we have looked at the initial
mortality from the spill and the recovery
of affected communities. Other studies
of specific species have demonstrated
significant sublethal effects from chronic
exposure of animal populations to oil.
These effects are reflected in the
physical defects and abnormal behavior
observed in affected animals. Sublethal
effects are more subtle than direct mor-
tality and are important to consider
because they may occur at very low
concentrations of oil and can have
serious long term implications in the sur-
vival of a species in an affected area.
A study of the Wild Harbor marsh
fiddler crab (Uca pugnax) demonstrated
the severe chronic effects of the West
Falmouth spill population densities
were still reduced seven years after the
spill. The fiddler crab is important in salt
marsh food webs and in energy flow
between the marshes and open waters.
Krebs and Burns concluded that "oil
spilled in certain environments may
have rather short-term effects on ben-
thic organisms, oil stranded in marsh-
lands contaminates the sediments and
becomes incorporated in the tissues of
marine organisms affecting the survival
and recovery of marine populations for
many years. Recovery from even this
small spill of fuel oil at West Falmouth
is still incomplete after seven years."
These effects were detailed in the
study of a single marsh species.
Laboratory experiments and studies of
other spills have shown that oil pollu-
tion also disrupts the functions of
whole communities and ecosystems.
These disruptions are less obvious
than mass mortality. In a finely bal-
anced ecosystem they are no less
dangerous. The West Falmouth study
has shown that chronic oil pollution
and its insidious long term effects can
be caused by a single, small spill.
Sublethal Effects on
Fiddler Crabs
Caused behavioral problems such
as disorientation and loss of a
rapid escape response.
Triggered physical disorders such
as increased molting and inappro-
priate display of mating colors.
Contributed to heavy winter mor-
tality through abnormally shallow
burrows.
Reduced the ratio of females to
males.
Prevented normal settlement of
juveniles, thereby disrupting the
age class distribution.
Sublethal Effects on
Ecosystems
Disruption of normal behavior
feeding, breeding, locomotion
Interference with thermoregula-
tion control of body tem-
perature in birds and mammals
Abnormal biological processes
Reproductive rates
Growth rates
Competitive balance
Predator-prey interactions
Population age structure
Fiddler Crab (Uca pugnax)
23
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Implications 6}
West Fa/mouth
"A very important quest/on fs
why, in this case, can effects be
shown after such an extended
time period. Does the West
Fa/mouth oil spill represent a
special case?" A. D. Michael,
C. R. Van Raalte, and L. S.
Brown, Marine Biological
Laboratory, Woods Hole,
Massachusetts.
PROHIBITED AREA
CLAMS, MUSSELS
PROHIBITED BY LAW
SffllWOf HEALTH
24
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What Did the West
Falmouth Studies
Show?
Taken together, the several research
efforts directed at the West Falmouth
spill provide irrefutable evidence of the
effects of this particular spill. Contam-
ination with oil from the barge Florida
was demonstrated by chemical analysis
and correlated with ecological impacts
ranging from mortality to behavioral
disturbances.
Effects of the West Falmouth
Oil Spill
There was severe local mortality
of the plants and animals of inter-
tidal marsh and subtidal soft-
bottom communities.
Impacted communities required
years for recovery. Communities
in early recovery phases were
characterized by reduced species
numbers, dominance of oppor-
tunistic species, and large fluc-
tuations in populations.
The No. 2 fuel oil was persistent,
especially in the sponge-like
marsh areas which served as a
source of recontamination by
continuously oozing oil. Years
after the spill, traces of fuel oil
were found in plants and animals
of oiled areas. The recovery
capacity of the communities was
compromised by the persistent
and shifting fuel oil.
Sublethal effects of chronic oil
pollution were apparent for at
least seven years after the spill.
Pollution Effects on
Marsh Ecosystems
The dominance of opportunistic
species in recovering commun-
ities reduces the diversity of food
items offered to bottom feeders,
thereby interfering with the nor-
mal transfer of energy from lower
to higher levels of the food web,
including man.
Loss of marsh grass reduces the
effectiveness of a marsh as a
nursery area for marine organ-
isms, a runoff water purification
system, and a land stabilization
mechanism.
Are These Effects
Significant?
Pollution impacts are often con-
sidered in terms of financial loss. This
type of loss certainly occurred at West
Falmouth where the local shellfishing
and tourist industries experienced im-
mediate and obvious damage. But we
must also recognize the importance of
a healthy biosphere to man. Recreation
and aesthetic enjoyment are aspects of
a healthy environment that are certainly
important. Beyond aesthetics are the
basic life support services that nature
provides for humans and all other
organisms. At the most fundamental
level, these include the provision of
clean air and water, and the transforma-
tion of solar energy into usable food
items. These natural life support services
are provided by complex interactions
between different types of organisms
and their environments: the functioning
ecosystem. Control mechanisms have
evolved to form systems that are
resilient by virtue of their complexity.
Scientific studies clearly show that
pollution and the altering of habitats
challenge the resiliency of natural
ecosystems and undermine the func-
tioning of nature as a life support
system.
25
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What About Other
Spills?
No other oil spill has been as thor-
oughly studied as was West Falmouth.
Indications are that every spill does not
cause the long-term damage observed
at West Falmouth, and it must be
remembered that this spill affected a
relatively small area. Offshore regions
and rocky habitats are thought to be
less sensitive than the marsh and
shallow tidal areas. Other factors that
are important in determining the sever-
ity of oil spill effects are: the size of the
spill, the toxicity of the spilled oil, the
time of year, and the sensitivity of the
organisms exposed to oil. In some
cases, it is clear that oil spills can cause
serious long-term damage. Ecosystems
may also be exposed to additional oil
spills before they have completely
recovered from previous pollution inci-
dents. For example, the oil spilled by
the Amoco Cadiz off the Brittany Coast
in 1978 impacted some of the same
areas as the Torrey Canyon spill of
1967. Small local spills occur with great
frequency along all of our coastlines.
Because complete recovery of com-
munities can require up to ten years, or
perhaps longer, the possibility of per-
manently changing the biological sys-
tems of our coasts through chronic ex-
posure to spilled oil is a very real one.
26
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Is More Research
Needed?
Yes. The West Falmouth researchers
have shown the value of rigorous,
multi-disciplinary research. If other
spills had been more thoroughly investi-
gated, would more serious impacts
have been discovered? Further research
can answer this question. Workers in
the field of oil pollution have identified
the following research needs including
long-term effects of spills, field studies
of ecosystems where chronic contam-
ination exists, and combined field and
laboratory studies addressing the sig-
nificance of sublethal effects. The West
Falmouth spill has emphasized the im-
portance of the persistence of oil and
the significance of sublethal effects.
Such research is costly, especially
offshore oceanographic research which
involves the use of ships and compli-
cated hardware in the field, and long
hours of laboratory effort for sample
processing. Analysis of data is also
costly because of the need for compu-
ters in state-of-the-art analyses. But
this research can answer important
questions about the effects of
pollution.
What Is the Federal
Government Doing?
Federal agencies are conducting
research to learn more about spilled oil
and its ecological effects. The principal
research programs are administered by
the Department of the Interior, Bureau
of Land Management; the Department
of Commerce, National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration; National
Science Foundation; and the Environ-
mental Protection Agency. Research is
aimed at developing spill detection and
cleanup procedures, investigating
ecological effects, documenting base-
line environmental conditions and
projecting the likely impacts of offshore
petroleum resource development and
oil transport.
The federal government is also con-
cerned with emergency response to oil
spills. The National Response Team
(NRT) is a multi-agency organization
that is responsible for oil spill contin-
gency planning at the national level.
The primary agencies represented on
the NRT are the Department of Trans-
portation (U.S. Coast Guard), Depart-
ment of Commerce (National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration),
Environmental Protection Agency,
Department of the Interior, and Depart-
ment of Defense. The NRT, through
the provisions of the National Contin-
gency Plan, ensures that appropriate
spill cleanup operations are undertaken.
The Environmental Protection Agency
supplies quick response technical sup-
port on national and regional levels to
provide the scientific expertise needed
to make decisions about cleanup
operations, to assess the ecological
damage resulting from a particular spill,
and to coordinate research efforts in
the spill area. Through these and
related programs, the federal govern-
ment is attempting to reduce the
frequency of oil spills, to effectively
mitigate the impacts of spills when they
occur, and to learn more about the ef-
fects of oil pollution.
I
27
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In Overview . . .
Oil is at once a necessary compo-
nent of our energy budget and a
demonstrated threat to the marine en-
vironment. Judiciously conducted
research will further describe the en-
vironmental price that society is paying
for oil pollution. It is the responsibility
of citizens and decision makers to plan
a reasonable course of petroleum
resource development considering both
energy requirements and the environ-
mental consequences of energy use.
28
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For Additional
Information
Local Oil Spill. G.R. Hampson and
H.L. Sanders. Oceanus, Vol. 25,
pp. 8-11 (1969).
Description of the immediate effects
of the West Falmouth spill.
An Ocean of Oil. M. Blumer, H.L
Sanders, J.R. Grassle, and G.R.
Hampson. Environment, Vol. 13,
No. 2, pp. 2-12(1971).
An informative, easily understood
presentation of the short-term im-
pacts of the West Falmouth spill.
A Reporter at Large A Small
Spill. W. Wertenbaker. The New
Yorker, Nov. 26, 1973.
A personal look at the West
Falmouth spill.
The West Falmouth Saga. H.L.
Sanders. New Engineer, pp. 32-36
(1974).
The rebuttal of a respected scientist
to misinterpretation of his own
research.
Aftermath of an Oil Spill: A Black
Seven years. Science, Vol. 112,
No. 6, p. 84 (1977).
A one page summary of a seven-year
study on the effects of the West
Falmouth spill as felt by the fiddler
crab.
Effects of Oil on Marine Eco-
systems: A Review for Adminis-
trators and Policy Makers. O.R.
Evans and S.D. Rice. Fishery
Bulletin: Vol. 72, No. 3, pp. 625-638
(1974).
An easily understood review of
ecological effects of oil spills.
Oil Spills: Issues and Actions. T.L.
Leitzell. Marine Technology Society
Journal, Vol. 11, No. 1, pp. 26-29
(1977).
A review of technical and legal
aspects of oil spills.
The Disaster That Didn't. D.
Dedera. EXXON USA, Vol. XVI, No.
3, pp. 11-15 (1977).
The oil industry looks at oil spills.
Being Prepared for Future Argo
Merchants. J.H. Milgram.
Technology Review, Vol. 79, No. 8,
pp. 14-27 (1977).
A popular analysis of the Argo
Merchant incident.
Technical
References
National Oil and Hazardous
Substances Pollution Contingency
Plan. Federal Register, Vol. 40, No.
28, pp. 6281-6302 (1975).
A discussion of federal response to
oil spills, including agency respon-
sibilities and contingency operations.
Oil Spills EPA Research Sum-
mary. Mark Schaefer, ed. EPA-600/
8-79-007. February 1979.
A description of EPA research pro-
grams dealing with oil spills.
Photo Credits:
Cover Carl T Herrman/MITRE Corporation
2 Benjamin S. Harrison, Buzzards Bay, MA
3 Carl J. Herrman/MITRE Corporation
4 EPA Documerica
7 William Lang, US EPA Environmental
Research Lab, Narragansett, Rl
8 Courtesy Falmouth Enterprise
10 William Lang, US EPA Environmental
Research Lab, Narragansett, Rl
12 Carl T Herrman/MITRE Corporation
15 (top) G.R. Hampson, Woods Hole
Oceanographic Institute
15 (bottom) William Lang, US EPA
Environmental Research Lab,
Narragansett, Rl
16 US EPA National Marine Water Quality
Lab, Narragansett, Rl
17 Paul Dix, US EPA Environmental
Research Lab, Narragansett, Rl
18 William Lang, US EPA Environmental
Research Lab, Narragansett, Rl
22 (top left, Planktoniella sol [diatom])
Dr. Paul Hargraves, Graduate School of
Oceanography, University of Rhode
Island
22 (top right, Scaleworm) Dr. John Sieburth,
Graduate School of Oceanography,
University of Rhode Island
22 (middle, Crab) William Lang, US EPA
Environmental Research Lab,
Narragansett, Rl
22 (bottom, Horseshoe Crab) Cart T.
Herrman/MITRE Corporation
24 EPA Documerica
25 NOAA
26 (top) US EPA Environmental Research
Lab, Narragansett, Rl
26 (middle) UPI
26 (bottom) NOAA
27 EPA Documerica
28 EPA Documerica
Blumer, M. and J. Sass. 1972. Oil Pollution Per-
sistence and Degradation of Spilled Fuel Oil.
Science 176: 1120-1122.
Farrington, J.W. 1977. Oil Pollution in the
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Gilfillan, E.S. 1975. "Decrease of Net Carbon
Rux in Two Species of Mussels Caused by Ex-
tracts of Crude Oil." Marine Biology 29: 53-58.
Grassle, J.R. 1972. "Species Diversity, Genetic
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Grassle, J.F. and J.P. Grassle. 1974. "Oppor-
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Marine Benthic Polychaetes." Journal of Marine
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Krebs, C.T. and K.A. Bums. 1977. "Long-Term
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484-487.
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at West Falmouth, Massachusetts." In
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Sanders, H.L. IN PRESS. "Florida Oil Spill Im-
pact on the Buzzards Bay Benthic Fauna: West
Falmouth." Draft of a paper presented at Oil/
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Sanders, H.L., J.F. Grassle, G.R. Hampson, L.
Morse, and S. Gamer-Price. IN PRESS.
"Anatomy of an Oil Spill: The West Falmouth
Study." Draft submitted to EPA under Grant
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mental Changes After an Oil Spill." Journal of
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Services Worth?" Science 197: 960-964.
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