W62-12
WASTE GUIDE
THE
URANIUM MILTING INDUSTRY
•-
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH
EDUCATION, AND WELFARE
Public Health Service
-------
WASTE GUIDE
FOR THE URANIUM
MILLING INDUSTRY
by
E. C. Tsivoglou
R. L. 6'Connell
U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare
Public Health Service
Division of Water Supply and Pollution Control <
Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engineerong Ce'riter
Cincinnati, Ohio
1962
-------
CENTER PUBLICATIONS
The Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center is a
national laboratory of the Public Health Service for research.
training, and technical consultation in problems of water and
waste treatment, milk and food safety, air pollution control,
and radiological health. Its technical reports and papers are
available without charge to professional users in government,
education, and industry. Lists of publications in selected
fields may be obtained on request to the Director, Robert A.
Taft Sanitary Engineering Center, Public Health Service,
Cincinnati 26. Ohio.
11
-------
CONTENTS
Page
FOREWORD v
INTRODUCTION 1
Uranium Milling Industry 2
Raw Material - Uranium Ore 4
Radioactivity in Waste 5
MILL PROCESSES 9
Ore Receiving, Crushing, and Sampling 9
Grinding 9
Uranium Extraction 10
Liquid-Solid Separation H
Uranium Recovery 12
Ion Exchange (IX) 13
Solvent Extraction (SX) 14
Upgrading 14
PROCESS WASTES 21
The Mill Balance 21
Radium-226 26
Acid Leach - RIP 28
Acid Leach - Solvent Extraction 29
Alkaline Leach 30
Summary 31
Gross Alpha Radioactivity 32
Radium as Per Cent of Gross Alpha Radioactivity 35
Thorium 36
Uranium 37
Waste Solids 38
Water Usage 38
Chemical Characteristics 40
Alkaline Leach Process 40
Acid Leach Process 41
Ion-Exchange Recovery 42
Solvent Extraction Recovery 44
POLLUTIONAL EFFECTS OF WASTE 45
Radiological Pollutants 45
iii
-------
Radium 46
Chemical Pollutants 50
Effects on Stream Biota 50
Effects on Water Uses 53
Physical Pollutants 55
POLLUTION ABATEMENT METHODS 57
Tailings Ponds 58
Chemical Treatment 63
Waste Neutralization 63
Barite Treatment 64
Raffinate Treatment 65
Deep-Weil Injection 67
Solid Waste Disposal 68
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 71
Uranium Milling Industry 71
Process Wastes 72
Pollutional Effects 72
Mill Waste Treatment 73
Conclusions 73
BIBLIOGRAPHY 75
IV
-------
FOREWORD
Beginning in late 1957, the Public Health Service under-
took a series of in-plant surveys of uranium mills for the
purpose of developing detailed information regarding the char-
acteristics of wastes resulting from the extraction of uranium
from its ores. Although primary interest has been in the radio-
active wastes, especially Radium-226, data regarding the
chemical characteristics and toxicity of the wastes were also
obtained. Field studies of the fate of these wastes in the water
environment and their effects on water quality were also con-
ducted. This waste guide is a compilation of the findings of
these studies, and has resulted from the efforts and generous
cooperation of many persons, companies, and agencies.
The studies referred to here were conducted by the Radio-
logical Pollution Activities Unit, Division of Water Supply and
Pollution Control, Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center.
They were made possible by the participation and cooperation of
the Health Departments and Water Pollution Control Agencies of
a number of States, the companies that operate the uranium
mills, and other Federal agencies. Especially, the studies
could not have been completed without the cooperation and
assistance of the
Arizona State Department of Health
Colorado State Department of Public Health
New Mexico Department of Public Health
South Dakota State Department of Health
Utah State Department of Health
Wyoming State Department of Public Health
and the
Climax Uranium Company
Gunnison Mining Company
Homestake-New Mexico Partners
Homestake-Sapin Partners Company
Mines Development, Inc.
Uranium Reduction Company
Vanadium Corporation of America
-------
and of the
Grand Junction Operations Office of the
U. S. Atomic Energy Commission
This study was supported in part by funds made available
through the Environmental and Sanitary Engineering Branch,
Division of Reactor Development, U. S. Atomic Energy Com-
mission.
Aerial view of a uranium mill in the Grants - Ambrosia Lake area of
New Mexico. Its design capacity of 3,300 tons of ore per day is the
largest of any United States mill. Approximately 350 acres of ponds
are used to receive liquid and solid mill wastes. (Photograph courtesy
of Kermac Nuclear Fuels Corporation)
VI
-------
WASTE GUIDE
FOR THE URANIUM
MILLING INDUSTRY
INTRODUCTION
The relatively recent growth of uranium mining and mill-
ing to its present position as a major industry in the United
States has accentuated problems associated with disposal of its
waste materials. In recognition of the importance of safe dis-
posal of the wastes from this industry the United States Public
Health Service and the Atomic Energy Commission have
studied this matter extensively. Since 1957 the Public Health
Service has examined in detail the various uranium extraction
processes in use and the effectiveness of waste control mea-
sures in minimizing the discharge of harmful materials. 1-6 In
addition, the effects of uranium mill waste discharges on the
aquatic environment, the fate of these wastes in the stream,
and the resulting radiological hazards to downstream water
users have also received attention. '"" As a result of these
investigations as well as studies carried out by others, a
considerable body of information concerning uranium milling
wastes has been developed. It is the purpose of this industrial
waste guide to gather together this material and present a
definitive analysis and characterization of the wastes which
can be expected from uranium mills. The guide is intended
primarily for the use of public health and water pollution con-
trol agencies, mill operators, and others in their efforts (1)
to evaluate the potential hazards associated with mill wastes,
(2) to determine the effectiveness of existing mill waste con-
trol practices, (3) to estimate the effect of future mills on
their local stream environment and locate mill sites so as to
minimize such adverse effects, and (4) to find more effective
methods of waste control and treatment.
1
-------
URANIUM WASTE GUIDE
URANIUM MILLING INDUSTRY
The function of uranium mills is to extract uranium in
concentrated form from ore deposits containing this element
in quantities generally ranging from four to six pounds (as
UsOs*) per ton of ore. Many such ore deposits are located
in the Colorado Plateau area, and consequently, a number of
the uranium mills are found in this area. Other important
uranium-producing areas more recently developed in the
United States are in central Wyoming, Ambrosia Lake in
New Mexico, the western Dakotas. southern Oregon, north-
eastern Washington, and south Texas. Figure 1 shows the
location of the uranium mills and provides an indication of the
major ore-producing areas in the Western United States.
Mining of Colorado Plateau ores was started at the turn of
the century for radium values, later for vanadium, and most
recently for uranium. Since the early 1940's uranium ore pro-
Figure I. Uranium mill locations.
Uranium ore and mill product assays are conventionally
expressed in terms of uranium oxide (UgOg) content. One
pound of UgOg contains 0.85 pounds of uranium (U).
-------
Introduction
duction has climbed steadily, and presently the United States
is the world's largest producer of uranium ore and concentrate.
In 1961 the United States produced 8 million dry tons of ore,
more than twice the production four years earlier. ^ In spite
of increasing production levels the Nation's undeveloped ore
reserves remain high, the most recent estimate being 74
million tons containing UsOg at an average concentration of
0.25%.
At the end of 1961 there were 25 active uranium mills (and
two active concentrators) in the Western United States, as
listed in Table 1. These mills, ranging in size from 200 to
3300 tons per day. had an aggregate design processing capacity
of 20, 800 tons per day. One additional mill under construction
has an estimated capacity of 200 tons per day.
Table 1. URANIUM PROCESSING MILLS - 1961*
Company
Anaconda Co.
Climax Uranium Co.
Cotter Corp.
Dawn Mining Co.
Federal-Radorock-Gas Hills Partners
Globe Mining Co,
Gunnison Mining Co.
Homestake-New Mexico Partners
Homestake-Sapin Partners^3
Kermac Nuclear Fuels Corp.
Kerr-McGee Oil Industries
Lakeview Mining Co. ^
Mines Development. Inc.
Petrotomics Co. c
Phillips Petroleum Co.
Rare Metals Corp. of America
Susquehanna-Western. Inc.
Susquehanna- Western. Inc.
Texas-Zinc Minerals Corp.
Trace Elements Cj.
Union Carbide Nuclear Co.
Union Carbide Nuclear Co.
Uranium Reduction Co.
Utah Construction and Mining Co.
Vanadium Corp. of America
Vitro Chemical Co.
Western Nuclear, Inc.
Location of mill
Grants. New Mexico
Grand Junction. Colo.
Canon Citv. Colo.
Ford, Washington
Fremont Co. . Wyoming
Natrona Co. . Wyoming
Gunnison. Colorado
Grants. New Mexico
Grants. New Mexico
Grants. New Mexico
Shiprock. New Mexico
Lakeview. Oregon
Edgemont. South Dakota
Carbon Co.. Wyoming
Grants. New Mexico
Tuba City. Arizona
falls City. Texas
Riverton, Wyoming
Mexican Hat. Utah
Maybell. Colorado
Rifle. Colorado
Uravan, Colorado
M:.ab. Utah
Fremont Co.. Wyoming
Durango. Colorado
Salt Lake City. Utah
Jeffrey City. Wyoming
Figure 1
code No.
1
2
3
4
5
S
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
21
21
22
23
24
25
25
27
Design ore.
capacity.
T/day'
3. COO
330
200
400
520
490
20o
750
1.500
3.300
300
210
400
200
1.725
300
200
500
l.CCO
330
1. 000
1.003
1.500
980
750
P--.I
645
Estimated
cost of
mill. S
19,358.000
3. CSS. 000
1.800. 000
3. ICO. 000
3. 370.000
3. luO.COO
2.025. 000
5. 325. COO
9. ceo. oco
16. 009.000
3. 161.000
2.610, 000
1.9oO.OOO
1. SCO. 000
9. 500. 000
3. 600.000
2. O'.O. 000
3. 500. 000
7. 000. COO
2, 2-.8.COO
8, 500. 000
S.OOo.OOO
tl. 172.000
6.9'jO.OOO
813, 030
5. 5jO,COO
4. 3:0,009
CONCENTRATORS
Wyoming Mining and Milling Co.c
Union Carb-.de Nuclear Co.b
Union Carbide Nuclear Co,b
Vanadium Corp. ut America
Vanadium Corp. of America
-------
4 URANIUM WASTE GUIDE
On the basis of design capacity, 46 percent of the total
domestic ore produced is milled in the Grants, New Mexico,
area. The Colorado River Basin on the same basis accounts
for 30 percent of the national total. In 1961 United States
mills produced 17, 399 tons of uranium oxide (UsOs) in con-
centrates which had an approximate gross industrial product
value of $290 million dollars.
RAW MATERIAL - URANIUM ORE
Uranium-bearing ore, as it is delivered to the mills,
may have a uranium content of from 0. 1 to 1 or 2 percent as
UsOg, and generally averages about 0. 25 percent. This
uranium is present as uranium-238 and uranium-235, both of
which are naturally occurring radioactive parents of long
chains of radioactive daughter products. Natural uranium
contains about 99.28 percent uranium-238 and 0.71 percent
uranium-235;^ hence, the decay chain of uranium-238.
known as the uranium-radium family of elements, is of pri-
mary concern. The decay scheme of this chain is shown in
Figure 2. As presented in the figure, the parent element
uranium-238, which has a half-life of 4. 5 billion years, decays
by alpha emission to thorium-234. which has a half-life of
24.1 days and in turn decays by beta emission to protactin-
ium-234; the decay chain continues until stable lead-206 is
reached. In all the series contains eight alpha emitters and
six beta emitters. Two minor branches occur in the chain.
but are not shown since their effect is negligible.
The majority of ores contain this radioactive family of
elements in secular equilibrium, i. e.. the daughter products
are being formed at the same rate at which they are decaying.
with the amount of any member actually present remaining
constant. Roughly, one million years are required for pure
uranium to reach equilibrium. Selective natural leaching from
the ore of certain members of the chain will disrupt this equi-
librium, and some ores are produced where this has occurred.
Most are in equilibrium, however, and where this is the case
it is possible to estimate rather closely the amount of daughter
products present in the ore from knowledge of its uranium con-
tent. E
-------
Introduction
239 ^ 234 ^ pa234
92 Alpha 90 Beta 91 Beta
4 S'lO9 yr 24 1 day I i min
V 226 222
Alpha 88 Alpha 86 Aip^a
80*iQ4 yr 1620 yr 38 day
V 2l4 ~ 2'4
Beta gj Beta §4 Alpha
268min 19 7 min i6«iO"4sec
V 2I° ,. 206
Beta 34 Alpha 33
50 day 140 day STABLE
234 ^230
92 Alpha 90 ~N
2 5«I05 yr j
218 214
Po »• Pb .
84 Aipna 82 \
305mm j
210 210
Pt> *• 8> — x
82 B«ta 83 A
22 y j
Figure 2. Uranium-radium family - minor branches not shown.
total combined alpha and beta radioactivity of the ore is 2.1
millicuries (me) per pound of uranium. The total radioactivity
of the ore delivered daily to the mills in 1960 may then be
estimated at approximately 200 curies, of which 115 curies
per day is alpha and 85 curies per day is beta activity. Some
85 percent of this activity, or 170 curies daily, becomes mill
waste, the remainder being recovered in the uranium concen-
trate, l^ it is this large amount of radioactive waste material
which presents the major disposal problem of the uranium
milling industry.
RADIOACTIVITY IN WASTE
The gross radioactivity of the mill waste material is at-
tributable to each member of the uranium-radium series
originally present in the ore. Though milling processes are
designed to extract uranium from the ore. some small por-
tion (1 to 10%) of the total uranium remains in the waste
liquors and spent ore solids.
The relative degree of hazard presented by each of these
isotopes covers a wide range. Table 2 lists each of them in
order of increasing maximum permissible concentrations in
water. (MPCW values), or decreasing degree of hazard. The
first isotope listed, radium-226. is the most hazardous with
an MPCW of only 3.3 micromicrocuries per liter ( wc/1). It
-------
6 URANIUM WASTE GUIDE
has, in fact, the lowest MPCW of any of the 264 isotopes con-
sidered by the National Committee on Radiation Protection
(13) and the International Commission on Radiological Pro-
tection. 14*
Table 2. URANIUM-RADIUM FAMILY.
j, VALUESa
Isotope
Ra22S
Pb210
Po210
Th230
Th234
U234
y238
Bi210
Pa234
Po218
Po214
Bi214
Pb214
Rn222
MPCW
MM/1
3.3
33
233
667
6.667
10.000
13.300
13.300
b
b
b
b
b
(gas)
Critical
organ
Bone
Kidney
Spleen
Bone
GI tract
GI tract
GI tract
GI tract
_
_
-
_
_
Lung
Half- life
1.620 yr
22 yr
140 day
8 x 104 yr
24. 1 days
2. 5 x 105 yr
4. 5 x 109 yr
5 days
1. 1 min
3.05 min
1.6 x 10'4 sec
19.7 min
26.8 min
3. 8 days
Emission
Alpha
Beta
Alpha
Alpha
Beta
Alpha
Alpha
Beta
Beta
Alpha
Alpha
Beta
Beta
Alpha
aMPCw value is the maximum permissible concentration in water, for
average member of the general population (I/30th HB69 value for con-
tinuous occupational exposure). 13. 14
No value given.
The amount of radium-226 contained in the ore produced in
1960 is estimated to be about 5400 curies (or grams). This is
more than five times the estimated total United States inventory
of purified radium-226 for all medical and industrial uses. ^ By
any measure, the amount of radium-226 contained in the ore
delivered to uranium mills is very large relative to what are
considered safe concentrations. Essentially all of this radium
will be contained in the mill wastes, and so major waste con-
trol efforts are concerned with this isotope.
The isotope listed second in Table 2. Pb210 (Lead-210),
is a relatively new addition to the list of hazardous isotopes.
It was not listed in Handbook 5-2 (NCRP)1^, but did appear in
the 1960 revision of that document, Handbook 69. Thus, it
More recently, the Federal Radiation Council has also
provided guidance designed to limit radiation exposure
of the population. Their recommended exposure limits
generally agree with those of ICRP-NCRP. They have as
yet considered only four specific individual isotopes.
-------
Introduction
has received little attention to date as a contaminant in uranium
mill waste discharges. A very few reported values ^ for
Colorado River waters show Pb^lO to be present, in one
instance, significantly above background levels. The extent
to which Pb^lO may be present in uranium mill waste dis-
charges has not been established, however, and future studies
should consider the actual degree of hazard presented by this
isotope.
The MFC values climb rapidly as one proceeds down the
list shown in Table 2. For this reason, none of the other iso-
topes listed have been demonstrated to present a significant
hazard when radium-226 is also present. For example, some
earlier doubt as to the relative hazard of thorium and radium
has been resolved^ with evidence that the hazard due to thorium
was near negligible, as compared to the radium-226 present.
The uranium MFC's given in T^ble 2 are based on the chemical
toxicity of uranium rather than on its radioactive properties.
Such levels of uranium in mill effluents are not normally en-
countered since they would represent a major economic loss
to the industry. It is generally true, therefore, that effective
control of radium-226 pollution from uranium mill process
wastes precludes any dangerous contamination of receiving
waters by the other radioisotopes of the uranium-radium
family.
-------
MILL PROCESSES
The process of uranium extraction varies among the mills,
this variation being primarily due to the differences in the
characteristics of the ores being handled. Process steps
which are basic to all mills, however, are crushing, grinding,
leaching wherein the uranium is dissolved from the crushed
ore, and recovery. The latter step involves the selective re-
moval of the uranium from the leaching solution for prepara-
tion of the concentrated product. The variety of actual pro-
cesses now in use are generally described below. 1 •• •*•
ORE RECEIVING. CRUSHING. AND SAMPLING
Uranium ore is usually transported from the mines to the
mill by truck, and at the mill is transferred to hopper bins
from which it is fed to the process. The first step is a crushing
operation which reduces the ore to a uniform maximum size.
generally about 3/4 inch. During the crushing operation a
precise repetitive sampling procedure is carried out to ob-
tain a representative sample, usually 0.1 percent (2 pounds
per ton), of the incoming ore. This sample is assayed for its
uranium (^Og) content and is the basis for payment to the
mine. The crushed ore is either stored for later blending or
fed directly to the next processing step. Blending is necessary
when the raw ore is delivered to the mill from different sources
and has significantly different compositions. Adjusting the
feeding of these ores stabilizes the input to the mill process.
and fewer variations in chemical feed rates and other process
control procedures are required.
GRINDING
The crushed ore is conveyed to a ball or rod mill which is
usually followed by a spiral classifier, and in some cases a
cyclone separator. Water is usually added to the ore as it
enters the ball mill to form a slurry, or a recycled mill solu-
tion may be added in place of water to form the slurry. The
maximum particle size of solids in the effluent slurry from the
ball mill will vary depending upon the characteristics of the ore.
-------
10 URANIUM WASTE GUIDE
and may be less than 65 mesh. After classifying, the ore solids
are in a physical state suitable for dissolution of the uranium
by a leaching process. Thickening of these solids may be
carried out just prior to leaching by passage through sedimen-
tation tanks. The underflow from these tanks is fed to the
leach circuit, thereby reducing the volume of slurry to be
handled there.
In the case of carnotite ores which may contain valuable
amounts of vanadium, the grinding process may be carried
out dry following passage of the fine ore through a rotary dryer
to reduce its moisture content. At one such mill? dry NaCl
(5% of weight or ore) is added after grinding and the ore is
then roasted (approximately 1 hour at 1500°F). The purpose
of the roasting is to convert insoluble vanadium compounds
in the ore to soluble sodium vanadates. The roasted ore is
slurried in a quench tank with recycled leach solution and is
then delivered to the leach tanks for recovery of vanadium
and uranium from the ore solids.
URANIUM EXTRACTION
Uranium is extracted from the ground ore slurry by leach-
ing with sulfuric acid at 21 of the mills listed in Table 2. The
leaching circuit generally consists of a series of tanks to which
the ground ore slurry and sulfuric acid are added; pH is main-
tained near 1.0. Agitation is provided and the total leaching
time generally exceeds 12 hours. Heating of the leach tank
contents is sometimes practiced to speed the dissolution rate
of uranium and reduce leaching time. Figure 3 presents a
flow diagram of an acid leach mill.
Alkaline carbonate leaching is practiced in six mills where
the ore has a high carbonate content (high lime ores) which
makes the acid requirements for leaching excessive. A typi-
cal carbonate leach circuit consists of a number of tanks or
autoclaves in series, each having a detention period of several
hours, giving a total leaching period of from 10 to 72 hours.
Heat and often pressure are provided to maintain leaching
temperatures up to 250°F. If uranium is to be dissolved, it
must be in the hexavalent form. The leach tanks are aerated,
therefore, to oxidize the reduced uranium present. Copper sul-
fate and ammonia, or other catalysts, may be added to ac-
celerate the oxidation reaction. An alkaline leach mill flow
diagram is shown in Figure 4.
OPO B2S890-2
-------
SWIRLING AND CRUSHING
GRINDING
AND
LEACHING
ORE » ACID SOLUTION
SANDS-SLIMES SEPARATION
ANICN ICN EXCHANGE CIRCUIT
ELUTING SOLUTION MAKE-UP
PRECIPITATION
SLIME TAILS NEUTRALIZATION
21!* * SC;,= - CalCHlji^; CaSOlj * 2H20
AND
TRYING CF PRCCUCT
ELUTIKG SOLUTION
! pH KDICATOR
L_RE_COI!BEJ(__j
t>ISTRI3'JTO«
(EACH SE!*£»T WILL
FEED A GIVEN SAKK)
6 / / HILL FEED AKY BAUK
f 3 T S . .P J T S
I SLIK THIS F3QM A»r 0«E 3A» Ci(OH)2 __T K95
LEGEND:
IX - lOlt EXCHAUSE
P - PRE3KAHT LHUOR
B - BAH);
T - TAILS
S - SUROE
E - ELUTIKS SOLUTIOH
« - HES IK
FCY - FLOW CO»TBOL »»LYE
»IP - «E5I« in PULP
CRE SAMPLES
FOB AHALTSIS
(C.IS OF MISIWL ME)
T° SLI*S PCW Figure 3. Flow diagram of acid-leach resin-in-pulp process.
GFO 82589O—3
-------
Mill Processes
11
. J. "p|LF I *1 CffiiStf* J L. SC^ENS
'
S?Ct-S3W-' ..,,
[ T'» "• Fl-£
TQ-P : sis
TO TAILINGS PC«D
Figure 4, Flow diagram - alkaline leach process.
LI QUID-SOLID SEPARATION
The slurry (or pulp) flow as it leaves the leaching circuit
carries the uranium dissolved in the leach liquor as well as a
large quantity of spent ore solids, generally about 50 to 65
percent by weight. The first step in the recovery of this dis-
solved uranium is, therefore, the separation of the spent solids
from the liquid. This is accomplished by sand-slime separa-
tion, counter current decantation washing in classifiers and
thickeners, or filtration.
The separation method used is dependent to a large extent
upon whether acid or alkaline leaching is practiced. The al-
kaline leaches attack the ore solids less severely, and fewer
slimes or very fine solid particles are formed. In order to
permit recycling of the leach solution and thereby conserve
their reagent values, alkaline leaches are processed directly
by multiple-stage filtration. Prethickening may be employed,
and a synthetic polymer flocculant such as Separan is often
used. The resulting filter cake, or "tailings, " is a waste ma-
terial which is discarded. The filtrate, or pregnant liquor.
-------
12 URANIUM WASTE GUIDE
may be further clarified by aeration-flotation for hydrocarbon
removal prior to transfer to the pregnant liquor storage tank.
Since acid leaching results in destruction of the excess
acidity, which cannot be regenerated, acid leach pulps are
clarified by more economical countercurrent decantation
methods (see Figure 3). The sands and slimes are handled
separately, the sands being removed by classifiers and the
slimes by flocculation and sedimentation in thickeners. Floc-
culant aids used include gums, glues, starches, and synthetic
polymers. The washed sands and slimes are discarded as
tailings, and the clarified pregnant liquor is stored for sub-
sequent uranium recovery steps.
URANIUM RECOVERY
Once the uranium content of the ore has been put in soluble
form by the leaching process and the unwanted spent ore solids
have been removed from the process flow, the next step is
recovery of the dissolved uranium. The simplest method is
straight chemical precipitation. A relatively clear pregnant
liquor containing few dissolved impurities is required. Car-
bonate leaching dissolves little else from the ore other than
the uranium, and as a result direct precipitation may be
applied to these leach liquors. Sodium hydroxide is normally
used to bring about the precipitation of sodium diuranate at a
pH near 12. The precipitated uranium is removed as thickener
tank underflow and filtered. This filtrate and the tank overflow
are then filtered, and the resulting barren liquor is recarbon-
ated and recycled for use as mill solution in the initial grind-
ing step. This procedure reduces the amount of make-up
water and alkalinity required (see Figure 4). The filtered
uranium precipitate is heat-dried, ground, and packaged for
shipment. This final uranium concentrate is called "yellow-
cake. "
Acid leach liquors contain dissolved impurities which would
interfere with the simple chemical precipitation recovery meth-
ods. In order to produce a high-grade uranium concentrate
product from acid leach liquors, recovery processes utilizing
ion-exchange or solvent-extraction principles are used. These
processes produce relatively pure and concentrated uranium
solutions which are suitable for recovery of uranium by chemi-
cal precipitation methods.
-------
Mill Processes 13
Ion Exchange (IX)
Recovery of uranium by ionic-exchange methods (see
Figure 3) is a relatively recent development which was found to
be advantageous for use in processing ores containing rela-
tively low uranium concentrations. The ion-exchange process
has the added advantages of providing a high uranium recovery
and a final uranium product of high purity.
The ion-exchange process utilizes the ability of certain
anionic resins to selectively adsorb uranium from acid or al-
kaline leach solutions. When the resin becomes uranium
saturated, it is eluted, the uranium being desorbed in a highly
concentrated and relatively pure eluate. Alkaline precipitation
of this solution removes the uranium and the precipitate, when
filtered, yields a high-grade yellowcake.
The principle of ion exchange is applied in practice in two
different ways. These are the column-ion-exchange and resin-
in-pulp (RIP) processes. In the former process, which is used
at three mills, a clarified pregnant liquor solution is passed
through fixed beds or solumns packed with the exchange resins.
The uranium is adsorbed by tne bed resins, and the barren
effluent from the exchange unit is recycled for further use or
discharged as waste. The RIP process which is used at eight
mills, is designed to extract uranium directly from the leach
pulp without the necessity for first clarifying the pulp. In this
process pulp and resin are contacted countercurrently in a
series of tanks. The resin may be confined in screened bas-
kets or it may be fed to the open tanks. In the latter case.
shaking screens are used to separate the resin between stages.
After the resins have become saturated with uranium ions,
they are eluted with acidified solutions of nitrate or chloride
salts. Intricate piping and valving systems are required for
the entire cycle of operations, and because of the value of the
eluting solutions, it is operated essentially as a closed circuit
to minimize losses. In addition, the uranium values of flushing
and back-washing waters dictate their conservation by recycling.
Following elution of the uranium from the resins, the eluate
is treated with NH3, MgO, or NaOH to bring about the alkaline
precipitation of the dissolved uranium. The insoluble uranium
precipitate is recovered and filtered, the filter cake being
dried and packaged for shipment as yellowcake. The uranium
-------
14 URANIUM WASTE GUIDE
recovery procedure for RIP eluates may require an additional
step of clarification for slimes removal prior to uranium
precipitation. Clarification (usually by lime precipitation)
followed by filtration produces a "whitecake" which is repulped
and returned to the leach pulp feed to the RIP process.
Solvent Extraction (SX)
Uranium recovery by the solvent extraction process (see
Figure 5) is used in 10 Western United States mills. This pro-
cess employs an organic solvent such as alkylated phosphoric
acid or secondary or tertiary amines dispersed in a kerosene
diluent which is mixed with clarified leach liquors containing
dissolved uranium. The uranium transfers to the solvent, which
is stripped of its uranium content when brought in contact with
a second aqueous solution which alters the form of uranium so
that it preferentially transfers back to the aqueous phase.
Stripping agents used include sodium carbonate and acidic
chloride or nitrate solutions, the selection of which is dictated
by the solvent extractant being used. The stripped or barren
solvent is recycled and may be used indefinitely with periodic
additions to make up losses. Aqueous raffinate, which is the
barren leach liquor, is discarded after the entrained solvent
has been scavenged and may be used in pulping waste tailings.
Scavenging of the entrained solvent is not complete and some
amount of organic solvent leaves the mill in the raffinate waste
effluent.
As with ion-exchange eluates, uranium is recovered from
solvent extraction strip liquors by chemical precipitation and
filtration. The chemicals used in this step are alkaline ma-
terials such as MgO, MaOH, or NH3 which raise the pH to the
point where insoluble uranium compounds are formed.
UPGRADING
Four of the plants shown in Figure 1 are classified as con-
centrators or upgraders. At these plants a wet sand-slime
separation of the ground ore is carried out in classifiers. The
coarse sands, which constitute much of the ore bulk but con-
tain little of the uranium, may be acid-leached and washed be-
fore being discarded. The uranium in the acid liquor is pre-
cipitated by neutralization with ammonia. This precipitate,
called green sludge, is combined with the unleached slimes and
filtered. The resulting filter cake is then dried and shipped
GPO 825890—4
-------
'/ Sfj-Cs:;
Fl« OBF_f|OH
CRU3HIIH} PLANT
O
2
G
•\
*„>•'
Fe SLUDGE
(IHUMCimilT)
^ run. «.2co,
EMjSOii
STFAM
HgO
niTr» p«fcip.
*" PlfSS —•• TA«I — "
J
PRESS "I-*" FURMCF — (-— »- VELLtWCAKE
7 (j\ IPRODUCT1
J "'
Figure 5. Flow diagram - solvent extraction process.
o
o
rt>
w
01
ft)
tn
Q-- SAHPLIHA fOIHTS
-------
16 URANIUM WASTE GUIDE
for use as feed material for a complete process mill. The
neutralized leach liquor from which the uranium has been pre-
cipitated is used in pumping the leached sands to the tailings
pile.
The upgrading circuit reduces considerably the bulk of
material which must be shipped to the uranium mill. This up-
grading process thereby permits the economic development of
ore bodies remote from the main mill which otherwise could
not be competitively developed.
The foregoing constitutes a general description of the
uranium extraction processes in use. For complete details
on circuits, equipment, etc., in use, the reader is referred
to the detailed process descriptions contained in the reports
of individual mills, 1~5 or to a detailed reference work. ^
-------
Uranium ore being delivered by truck to the mill. The ore is weighed
and moisture content determined. (Photograph courtesy of Mines
Development, Inc.)
The ore is stored in separate piles according to uranium content.
The various grade ores are blended prior to processing in order to
stabilize the input to the mill. (Photograph courtesy of Mines devel-
opment, Inc.)
-------
After being crushed the ore is mixed with water or mill solution and
ground. A rod mill, as shown above, is often used. (Photograph cour-
tesy of The Anaconda Company)
The ground ore slurry is pumped to these tanks where the uranium
is leached from the ore. (Photograph courtesy of The Anaconda
Company)
-------
The solids are removed from the leached ore slurry in classifiers. A
rake classifier is shown. {Photograph courtesy of The Anaconda
Company)
Where the resin-in-pulp process is used, ion-exchange resins contain-
ed in metal baskets are used to extract the uranium from the pulp
slurry. (Photograph courtesy of Mines Development Company)
-------
The dissolved uranium is precipitated and filtered. A plat* and frame
filter press is shown. (Photograph courtesy of The Anaconda Co.)
The filtered yellowcake is dried and packaged for shipment in 55-
gallon drums. (Photograph courtesy of The Anaconda Company)
-------
PROCESS WASTES
THE MILL BALANCE
The raw materials and the processing procedures pre-
viously described, make it clear that numerous opportunities
exist for the production of liquid-borne waste materials de-
trimental to the aquatic environment. To determine the exact
quantitative and qualitative nature of the waste flows which
can be expected from the various ore refining processes des-
cribed, extensive field studies were carried out at a number of
mills representative of each major type of process. The
objective of these studies was to establish a materials balance
for each mill, so that the important constituents of the raw ore
as well as materials added during processing could be accounted
for as the ore passed through the individual processing steps.
With the information thus developed, it is possible to charac-
terize the waste streams which could be expected from each
method of ore processing. The findings of five such mill studies
have already been reported. 1-5
A balance of materials for the mill processes described is
achieved by a combination of field and laboratory data. At the
mill, slurry flows are sampled at enough stations to provide an
adequate description of the total process. Process flow charac-
teristics should be measured with sufficient frequency that fluc-
tuations arising from batch type operations are incorporated
into the data. Representative composite samples of the flow.
whether as a slurry or as solids, are necessary. Analysis of
these samples provides information on the physical and chemi-
cal characteristics of the process stream. Radioactivity analy-
ses are also carried out for determination of radium-226 and
gross alpha and beta activity concentrations.
Combining the flow data with the physical characteristics
of the process stream permits the calculation of average liquid.
dissolved solids, and suspended solids flows passing each sam-
pling station. With careful selection of sampling locations and
adequate frequency and duration of sampling, a balanced solids-
liquids flow chart for the process can be established with
21
-------
22 URANIUM WASTE GUIDE
reasonable accuracy. After a liquid solids-flow balance is
achieved, the suspended and dissolved radioactivity concen-
trations can be applied to develop a balance for these materials
as well. The net result of these computations should present
a clear picture of the changing composition of the process
stream as it proceeds through the mill, and a quantitative
and qualitative characterization of the waste flows leaving the
mill.
The materials balance obtained for an alkaline leach mill^
illustrates the methods used. At this mill process sampling
was conducted during two consecutive sampling cycles of 72
hours each. At 11 of the 14 sampling stations a single repre-
sentative sample was obtained for each cycle by compositing
volumes proportional to the flow every 2 hours for the duration
of the cycle. Each composite sample then was made up of 36
portions. Portions of the official mill sample of the raw ore
lots were obtained and composited according to the tonnage of
each lot processed during the cycle. In a similar manner,
composite yellowcake samples representative of the ore pro-
cessed during each cycle were collected. An automatic sam-
pling device was used to collect a representative sample from
the waste slurry discharged to the tailings pond. The mill
balance was performed on each cycle, and average values
were presented because of the close agreement obtained be-
tween cycles.
The results of laboratory analyses, as shown in Table 3,
and knowledge of the ore tonnage made possible the calculation
of a solids balance across each circuit in the mill process.
A schematic process flow diagram is shown in Figure 6.
Knowledge of the rate of raw ore feed (and its moisture content)
at Station 1, the total weight of collected samples, and analy-
tical information on specific gravities of the slurries and dry
solids (Table 3) can be used to calculate solids, liquid, and
slurry flows across the ball mill and classifier circuit. This
is accomplished by preparing simultaneous equations based on
the conservation of material. For example, the slurry flow at
Station 3 must be accounted for at Stations 1 and 2. This applies
to solids (suspended and dissolved) as well as liquids. Similarly
the flows at Stations 4 and 5 should equal that at Station 3.
Other circuits within the process are handled in the same
manner. The flows shown on Figure 6 are the result of such
an analysis. These calculated flows may be checked against
-------
Process Wastes
23
KEY:
1C gpm
ICC gpm
I 10 gpp
(I)
CTAILINGS POND
C
«o WELL WATER
MISC. WATER ~C
75
TO TAILINGS POND
Figure 6. Schematic flow diagram, flow balance - alkaline leach mill.
actual slurry flow measurements made at a number of points
in the process.
The slurry flows thus obtained may be used together with
the dissolved and suspended solids concentrations (Table 3) to
develop a solids balance for the mill as in Figure 7. Here
again the solids flow entering a junction point in the process
must equal that leaving. For example, the raw ore feed
(Station 1) and mill solution (Station 2) have a combined input
to the classifier circuit of 2898 (1258 + 1640) tons per day as
compared to the output of 29GO. This 2900 tons per day is
also the input to the primary thickeners whose combined out-
-------
24 URANIUM WASTE GUIDE
Table 3. PROCESS STREAM CHARACTERISTICS3- - ALKALINE LEACH MILL0
Slurry Dry sus- Specific Dissolved Suspended
Station specific pended solids gravity of solids, solids (dry
gravity by weight, % dry solids mg/1 of slurry weight).
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
Ore feed
Mill solution
Classifier overflow
Primary thickener
overflow
Feed to leach
Leach discharge
Filter feed
Pregnant liquor
Barren liquor
Yellowcake
Repulped tails
Tails pond water
Well water
Softened water
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
_
12
19
12
50
50
56
11
13
-
26e
01
00
00
_
d
13.9
51
50
54
d
.2
.2
.6
d
d
-
34. 6e
d
d
d
2.
2.
2.
2,
2.
_
-
.60
-
,46
.59
,50
-
-
-
40
-
-
-
138,
126.
137,
87,
94,
91,
159,
162.
12,
14.
1.
1.
c
000
000
000
900
500
300
000
000
c
200
.800
880
700
165,
765.
752,
854.
435,
c
850
000
780
000
000
000
145
50
c
000
198
8
56
aAverage of Cycles I and II.
^Reference 4.
cSolid sampie.
^Liquid sample (negligible solids).
eBased on Cycle I only.
put was calculated to be 2896 (1067 + 1829) tons per day. Al-
though the total solids flow across the digesters should remain
constant (1829 in, 1824 out), it is apparent that 15 to 20 tons of
the entering suspended solids left as dissolved solids. Across
the entire process 1669 tons per day enter the mill. 1640 in the
raw ore at Station 1. 5. 8 tons in return water at Station 12, 5
tons in the well water at Station 13, and 18 tons in the form of
caustic soda at the precipitation tanks. This agrees with the
calculated total solids leaving the process as waste to the tail-
ings pond (1666 tons per day. Station 11) and in the yellowcake
product (2. 5 tons per day. Station 10).
Once a satisfactory solids balance has been obtained for
the mill process, as in Figure 7, a similar balance can be
attempted for the radioactivity contained in the solids. Table
4 shows the radium-226 concentrations in the dissolved and
suspended solids, as determined by laboratory analysis, for
the alkaline leach mill shown in Figures 6 and 7.
These radium-226 concentrations, as well as the majority
of all others mentioned in this report, were determined by the
radon emanation technique. The use of this method precludes
obtaining radium-226 values which are too high because of the
imperfect chemical separation required in other methods. For
determination of dissolved radium-226. care was also taken in
sample preparation to avoid high results. Separation of sus-
-------
Process Wastes
25
pended solids in the sample was accomplished by filtration
through a membrane filter. The necessary sample acidifica-
tion step was performed after solids separation to avoid the
dissolution of radium-bear ing particulate matter.
KEY:
DISSOLVE" SOLI:- ic TCNS'OAY
SI'SPFNPFn SOLIDS - I.CC TQS'PAY
TOTAL SOLID? - IT TONS'DAY
MILL
I2EC
© '
1 1 i'fS-
±J
ORE
STORAGE
1
IALL MILLS
CLASSIFIERS
L
I ON
SGE SEPJRAN
4^ ivERFLCW
IC67
SEPARA
§_ *
-r
CO
sL
wr
1666
-^
PR iMARY
THirxENFRS
ii-
I61C
I26C
I6UC
29CC „.
_i
--
,w
a.
2C'4
1824
CVFRFLCW
I62C
179*
GUM
Q.
-
PPFGNANT
LPl'O*
STORAGE
--CD
TIOH TANKS
t
THirKFNFS
SAMPLING STATION NO
224
NsOH ~'§
•* 77T 7^
i-c (YELLOWr.AKF)
€= ~i • _
Z u., , z g
ROTARY
,
r-»:FR
.SOFTEXFP |£
t-,'4T?r e O
n^ ^- r ^
~C '
~C BARREN SOLU-
TION STORAGE
~"^3 2.5
*%£??
2.5
TWER
235
S 23
_j 1 SETU'N HATFR FROM I
A 5.8 T4ILINGS POND
FLL 5.8
MISC. WATER ~
C
~ RECAR3 V.l-
75
75
Q
TO TAILIWS °ONO
Figure 7. Schematic flow diagram, solids balance - alkaline leach mill.
Applying the concentrations found at each station to the
solids flow at that station results in the radium-226 flow dia-
gram shown in Figure 8. Here we see that the 739 milligrams
per day of radium-226 entejring the process agrees well for this
type of balance with the 766 milligrams leaving; 750 in the
waste effluent (Station 11) and 16 in the yellowcake product
-------
26
URANIUM WASTE GUIDE
Table 4. RADIUM-226 CONCENTRATIONS* -- ALKALINE LEACH MILLb
Station
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
Radium-226
Dissolved
.
9.560
8.300C
8.790
5.160
6.620
5.280
18.900
59
-
34
35
5.4
4.2
.nugll of slurry
Suspended
_
1.220
83.900
d
328.000
370.000
380.000
286
5.4
-
222.000
d
d
d
Dry suspended
solids. A/ig/g
497
1.440
508
d
500C
492
445
1.970
107
7.190
510
d
d
d
aAverage of Cycles I and II.
^Reference 4.
cMost probable concentration.
'•'Not determined (negligible solids).
(Station 10). The balances around individual circuits in the
mill process are in equally good agreement. A balance such
as jn Figure 8 is revealing as regards the fate of the radium
content of the entering raw ore. It makes possible an under-
standing of the portion of the radium which is dissolved from
the ore. the point at which this dissolution occurs, and the
ultimate fate of the dissolved radium.
The results of such balances performed for mills employ-
ing various milling processes have been used in the succeeding
sections to describe the flow of radioactivity, primarily rad-
ium-226, through the mills and to characterize the various
resulting waste flows.
RADIUM-226
Raw ore as it enters the mill process contains 150 micro-
grams of radium-226 per pound of uranium, if secular equili-
brium exists. This radium is entirely in solid or undissolved
form. As the ore passes through the various unit operations
within the mill, a small portion of the radium is dissolved.
This dissolved radium may be partially precipitated to appear
in solid form in the yellowcake uranium concentrate, while
the remainder of the dissolved radium leaves the mill in the
-------
Process Wastes
27
K E r:
DISSOLVED RADIUM-226
SUSPFNPFD RADIW-226
TOTAL PAPIUM-226
- 1C mg/day
-ICC mq'day
IIC ing.day
~0
.isa
75C
WELL WATER
MISC. WATER
TO TAILINGS POND
Figure 8. Schematic flow diagram, radium-226 balance - alkaline leach mill.
liquid waste effluents. The radium remaining undissolved
during passage through the mill, which comprises all but a
small percentage of that entering, can be found in the solid
ore tailings which are discarded by the mill as waste. The
amount of radium which is dissolved during milling, the
percentage precipitated in the concentrate, and the amount
to be found in the mill waste streams all vary within a small
range depending on the particular milling process being
employed.
-------
28
URANIUM WASTE GUIDE
Acid Leach - RIP5
A mill using this process was studied, and the radium
balance shown in Figure 9 developed. In this case, of the
300 milligrams of radium entering the mill per day, 2
milligrams (Stations 3 and 4) were dissolved during acid
leaching. Of the total radium, 27 percent, including 60
micrograms of the dissolved radium, was discharged to waste
KEY.
DISSOLVED RADIUM - 226 I0mg/day
SUSPENDED RADIUM-226 lOOmg/doy
TOTAL RADIUM-226 HOmg day
SAMPLING STATION NOS. O
ELUANT
MAKE-UP
o.ietesU
'
Figure 9. Schematic flow diagram, radium-226 balance • acid
leach-RIP mill
-------
Process Wastes 29
with the leached sands. Of the dissolved radium remaining
in the process, 150 micrograms was extracted from the slimes
along with the uranium and became a part of the uranium con-
centrate product or yellowcake. The slimes tails leaving
the ion-exchange banks contained 1.9 milligrams of dissolved
radium and 223 milligrams in an undissolved state. Neutraliza-
tion of these slimes resulted in the precipitation of a substan-
tial fraction (85%) of the dissolved radium present.
Thus, in this process 0. 7 percent of the radium input was
dissolved by acid leaching. 0. 05 percent appeared in the yellow-
cake, and the difference, 0.65 percent, left the process in a
dissolved state. Neutralization prior to discharge to the
slimes tailings pond, however, reduced to G. 12 percent the
fraction of radium input leaving the mill in the dissolved
state.
Acid Leach - Solvent Extraction*
Figure 10 illustrates the radium balance found for a'mill
using this process. Here 146 milligrams of radium-226 en-
tered the mill per day. and 560 micrograms (sum of Stations
3, 4. and 5) were dissolved in leaching. The waste sands con-
tained 26 milligrams, whereas the wasted slimes carried
considerably more radium, or 116 milligrams per day. Of
the radium dissolved during leaching. 90 micrograms left
the mill with the sands and slimes and the remaining 470
micrograms entered the solvent extraction step. Of this
amount. 25 micrograms per day was extracted with the
uranium and could be found in the yellowcake. The dissolved
radium remaining in the raffinate or barren acid liquor was
discharged to the tailings pond.
At this mill, therefore, about 0. 38 percent of the radium
entering in the ore was dissolved in the acid leach tanks. A
very small portion. 0. 02 percent of the input, was extracted
and precipitated with the uranium and left the mill in the
yellowcake. The remaining dissolved radium. 0.36 percent
of the input, left the process in waste flows; 0. 06 percent and
0.30 percent of the input in the sand-slime wastes and raffi-
nate. respectively. Part of the raffinate was used to repulp
the washed sand-slime mixture and as a result it appears that
about 90 micrograms of radium was precipitated so that the
total dissolved radium discharged to tails was actually only
0. 31 percent of the radium input. The bulk of the radium
-------
30
URANIUM WASTE GUIDE
DISSOLVED RADIUM-226 10. mg/day
SUSPENDED RADIUM-226 100. mg/doy
I 10 mg/day
TOTAL RADIUV 226
SAMPLING STATION NOS. - Q
0.47
PREGNAN
LIQUOR
0.14
0,04
0.18 RAFFINATE
.32 *
-09
.41
Figure 10. Schematic flow diagram, radium-226 balance - acid
leach-SX mill.
input (99. 7^) remained undissolved. 18 percent of this con-
tained in the sands and 82 percent in the slimes.
Alkaline Leach^
Significantly higher dissolution of radium has been
encountered where the alkaline leach process is used. As
shown by the radium balance found for such a mill (Figure 8).
739 milligrams of radium-226 per day enters the mill in an
undissolved state. The ore enters the ball mill - classifier
GPO exsaao-e
-------
Process Wastes
31
circuit, where recycled mill solution containing a high dis-
solved radium content is added. Radium dissolution begins
at this step and continues through the thickening and leaching
tanks. The pregnant liquor that overflows from the secondary
thickening step following leaching contains about 20 milligrams
of dissolved radium per day. All of this radium is precipitated
from solution along with the uranium and may be found in the
yellowcake. The underflow from the secondary thickeners
contained about 13 milligrams of dissolved radium as it
entered the filtration circuit. This filtrate which contains
the dissolved radium is recycled back into the process, and
an essentially dry filter cake is produced. Fresh water and/or
return water from the tailings pond is used to repulp this filter
cake to form a slurry which is discharged to the tailings pond.
For alkaline leach mills, the, it may be expected that
about 2 per cent of the radium-226 input will be dissolved and
that essentially all of this will subsequently be found in the
uranium concentrate product. The process waste is essentially
a dry filter cake containing very small amounts of dissolved
radium.
Summary
The alkaline leach process causes greater dissolution of
radium from the ore than does acid leaching; however, virtually
all of the dissolved raium in the alkaline process leaves the
mill in the yellowcake (see Table 5). In contrast, the yellow-
cake produced by acid mills contains very little radium, about
5 per cent of that dissolved during leaching. That dissolved
radium which does not appear in the yellowcake is discharged
to the tailings ponds.
Table 5. DISSOLVED RADIUM-226 IN URANIUM MILL PROCESS FLOWS
Process
Acid Leach
Solvent extraction3-
Raffinate
Sands and slimes
Resin-in-pulpb
Alkaline Leachc
<7C of Total Ra
dissolved by
leaching
0.4-0.7
1.5-2.2
%of
Dissolved Ra
leaving mill
in Tailings flow
(80)
(15)
95
93
in Yellowcake
5
7
100
Reference 1.
Reference 5.
cReferences 3 and 4.
-------
32 URANIUM WASTE GUIDE
It has been observed that the radium contained in the slimes
fraction comprising about a third of the total waste solids re-
presents a large portion (70 to 80cc) of the total radium origi-
nally present in the ore. Analysis of a tailings sample from
an acid leach mill showed that the minus-400-mesh particles
have a radium concentration more than seven times that found
in the plus-200-mesh particles. 20 At the acid leach mills
discussed above, the radium concentration in the slimes par-
ticles was three times that in the sands in one case, and 22
times greater in the other. It is clear that the slimes repre-
sent the major source of undissolved radium waste from acid
leach mills.
Table 5 is a summary of findings pertaining to the content
of dissolved radium-226 in process flows. The figures given
there may be applied to a particular mill to provide an estimate
of dissolved radium discharged as waste. For example, an
acid leach - solvent extraction mill processing 1000 tons of
"six pound ore" (0. 3;c l^Og) per day would have a radium
input of about 765 milligrams per day if secular equilibrium
exists in the ore (857 U/U^On x 6 Ib U/ton x 1000 ton/day x
O O
0. 150 mg Ra/lb U). About 3 to 5. 5 milligrams per day would
be dissolved during leaching. 80 percent, or 2.4 to 4.4
milligrams per day, would be discharged in the raffinate.
15 percent or 450 to 800 micrograms per day, with the sands
and slimes, and 5 percent or 150 to 300 micrograms per day.
could be expected in the yellowcake.
Others have reported 20 radium dissolution during acid
leaching up to an order of magnitude higher than the values
shown in Table 5. The reason for this lack of agreement is
not known. The methods used for radium analyses differed
in each case, however, and this may represent a possible
source of disagreement. The radon emanation method of
radium analysis as used herein is more selective for radium-
226 and is recommended for use.
GROSS ALPHA RADIOACTIVITY
At each of the mills discussed previously where a radium
balance was obtained through the process, a similar balance
was attempted for gross alpha activity. The amount of gross
alpha activity entering the mill in the ore can be estimated from
knowledge of its uranium content. Uranium-238 is the parent
isotope of a long chain of radioisotopes which includes eight
-------
Process Wastes 33
alpha emitters. If no selective leaching has occurred during
its geologic history, secular equilibrium can be expected in
the ore, viz.. the daughter elements are being formed at the
same rate at which they are decaying. The activity of each of
the eight alpha emitters in the chain, therefore, would be the
same. The total alpha actvity then should amount to about eight
times the acti\rity associated with a pound of uranium-238, or
about 1200 microcuries per pound of uranium-238.
The actual amount of alpha activity detected in a sample of
ground ore has generally been found to be somewhat less than
the theoretical amount calculated above. This is due in part
to the assumption of secular equilibrium, which may not exist
because of natural selective leaching of the ore vein. This
leaching diminishes the content of one or more of the isotopes
in the chain. The effect of this disruption of the decay chain
is to lower the gross alpha activity of the uranium ore. In
addition, preparing the sample for analysis (involving such
steps as grinding and heating) may permit some of the radon-
222, a gas. to escape. Unless special steps are taken in the
analytical procedure to permit the reformation of radon-222
in the sample, this loss of radon, together with its short-lived
daughters, results in an apparent alpha activity somewhat
below the amount actually present in the undisturbed ore. The
amount of gross alpha activity actually found by analysis in ores
as they enter the mill process has varied from 80 to 96 percent
of the amount theoretically present at secular equilibrium. 1- 3-5
A good average figure for use is 90 percent. It is probable
that the major part of this discrepancy results in most cases
from losses of radon-222 and daughters during mining and
transport of the ore and that secular equilibrium does usually
occur, to quite close approximation, in the undisturbed ore
body before mining.
Proceeding into the mill process. Figure 11 illustrates
the disposition of the alpha activity as it passes through a typ-
ical alkaline leach mill. It will be noted that a balance over
the mill has not been achieved in that the gross alpha activity
leaving the mill is but three-fourths, approximately, of that
entering in the ore. This phenomenon has been observed in
all types of mills, as shown in Table 6. At these same mills
excellent radium balances were obtained (radium output/input =
100 - 4'-c).
This loss of alpha activity within the mill process is attri-
buted primarily to the loss of some portion of the gaseous emit-
-------
34
URANIUM WASTE GUIDE
KEY:
DISSOLVED ALPHA RADIOACTIVITY 2000mc^o)T
SUSPENDED ALPHA RADIOACTIVITY 500mc/day
TOTAL ALPHA RADIOACTIVITY 2500mc/doy
SAMPLING STATION •
| FILTRATE
17 1
7 •
24
~ C
FILTERS
T WELL WATER
"I
1
-0 I
TAILIN3S POND
WATER
Figure 11. Schematic flow diagram, gross alpha radioactivity -
alkaline leach mill.
ter. radon-222, plus the same portion of at least two of its
short-lived daughters, polonium-218 and polonium-214, at
those points in the process where crushing, grinding, heating.
and other ore-handling procedures are carried out. In Figure
11, the observed losses in alpha activity appear to occur pri-
marily during grinding of the ore and in multistage filtration
of the spent ore. following alkaline leaching. Approximately
13 percent of the entering gross alpha activity is solubilized
when brought into contact with the mill solution in the grinding
circuit and an additional 4 percent in the leach tanks. About
-------
Process Wastes 35
Table 6. GROSS ALPHA RADIOACTIVITY IN MILL OUTPUT
Mill process
Alkaline leach
Alkaline leach
Acid leach - SX
Acid leach - RIP
Average
Reference
(3)
(4)
(1)
(5)
Alpha activity
Yellowcake
11
15
15
14
14
as ~c of observed input
Waste
effluent
66
54
65
62
62
Total
output
77
69
80
76
76
aUsing method of analysis described in Reference 9.
11 percent of the gross alpha input appears in the pregnant
liquor, and esssntially all of it is precipitated and can be found
in the yellowcake product. The spent sands, which are pumped
to the tailings ponds, contain some 66 percent of the gross
alpha mill input, and 99. 4 percent of this activity is in undis-
solved form. The percentage of alpha activity in waste streams
in dissolved form was found to be higher for both the acid leach -
solvent extraction process (2%) and for the acid leach - RIP pro-
cess (6.5%).
Thus, in general, the total alpha activity of mill wastes is
about 3. 3 millicuries per ton of ore processed (for a "six pound
ore"). A small amount of this activity (0. 5 to 6. 5%) is in dis-
solved form, i.e., about 20 to 40 microcuries per ton for alka-
line leach mills and 100 to 200 microcuries per ton for acid
leach mills.
RADIUM AS PERCENT OF GROSS ALPHA RADIOACTIVITY
The percentage of gross alpha activity in mill samples at-
tributable to radium-226 will usually vary within a small range
at a particular location in a given mill, depending upon the
source of the sample. It is often useful to establish a general
relationship between radium content and gross alpha activity
for specific sampling points; this latter analysis can then be
used for certain routine monitoring purposes. Since the gross
alpha analysis is a considerably simpler procedure, an im-
provement in process control from the standpoint of radioactive
waste disposal can be obtained with little increase in analytical
costs.
Table 7 lists radium - gross alpha relationships found in
some mills. The range of values found for some types of mill
-------
36
URANIUM WASTE GUIDE
Table 7. RADIUM AS PERCENT OF GROSS ALPHA ACTIVITY IN MILL
SAMPLES
Waste to tailings
Process
Alkaline leach
Alkaline leach
Acid leach - RIP
Acid leach - RIP
Acid leach - SX
Acid leach - SX
Input
16
16
17
18
11
19
Dissolved
1.8
0.4
3.7
7.1
1.0
1.3
7.0
0. 5ac
Suspended
23
31
15 (sands)
20 (sands
and slimes)
31 (sands)
19 (slimes)
18 (sands)
17 (slimes)
Yellowcake
2.1
2.3
0.06
0.07
0.01
0.01
Reference
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(1)
(2)
samples is small; for example, in raw ores where radium ac-
counted for 11 to 19 percent of the gross alpha activity and in
alkaline leach yellowcakes where the range was 2. 1 to 2. 3
percent. Radium in tailings solids \vas from 15 to 31 per-
cent of the gross alpha, while that dissolved in mill discharges
to tails varied from 0.4 to 7.1 percent. The variability of this
latter type of sample is dependent to some extent upon whether
or not recirculation of tailings pond water is practiced.
Relationships such as those in Table 7 may be established
for particular locations in a given mill. So long as no major
changes in process or ore sources occur, gross deviations from
this relationship will indicate possible errors in analysis.
THORIUM
There are two isotopes of thorium in the uranium-radium
decay chain shown in Figure 2. These are thorium-234, which
is a beta emitter, and thorium-230, which decays by alpha
emission and is the parent of radium-226. In a typical uranium
ore which is at secular equilibrium, the activities due to these
two isotopes will be approximately equal. According to Table 2
the long-lived alpha emitter, thorium-230, presents an internal
human hazard 10 times greater than thorium-234, which has a
24.1-day half-life. Actually the short-lived thorium-234 will
decay out following its separation from its parent, uranium-238.
For these reasons thorium-230 is the thorium isotope of pri-
mary interest in mill wastes.
It has been reported*^ that alkaline leaching does not dis-
solve any thorium, since its compounds are insoluble at neutral
-------
Process Wastes 37
or higher pH levels. As a result, essentially all of the thorium
entering with the ore leaves the mill process in suspended form
with the waste tails and only negligible dissolved thorium con-
centrations can be expected in liquid waste streams for alkaline
mills.
It is probable that acid leaching does, however, cause the
dissolution of some thorium-230 from the ore. 20 This isotope
would then contribute to some extent to the higher dissolved
alpha activity of acid leach effluents which were previously
noted to contain from two to ten times as much dissolved alpha
activity as alkaline leach mill wastes. It is not certain what
portion of the dissolved alpha activity is attributable to thorium-
230, though concentrations higher than the MFC are possible;
however, since this thorium precipitates at a neutral or higher
pH. it would not be expected in solution in most natural waters.
URANIUM
Uranium is one of the most toxic elements chemically,
although it is absorbed into the body only with difficulty. It
is this toxic property rather than its radioactivity which has
determined its MFC value. The MFC given for uranium-238
in Table 2, 13. 300 micromicrocuries per liter, corresponds to
a concentration of 40 milligrams per liter (or ppm).
During leaching, solubilization of over 90 percent of the
uranium in the ore is usually achieved. Recovery of this
soluble uranium during subsequent processing steps is very
efficient, reaching 99 percent in the ion-exchange and solvent-
extraction processes. The unrecovered dissolved uranium
appears in the mill effluent and amounts to 1 percent or more
of that originally present in the ore. Processing a "six pound
ore, " at the rate of 500 tons per day. for example, would re-
sult in a dissolved uranium waste flow of 30 pounds per day or
more. At one mill using both alkaline and acid leaching it
was found that dissolved uranium losses could have been as
much as 160 pounds per day from 514 tons of ore processed
daily. ' in this exceptional case the uranium dissolved in the
waste flows was about 7. 5 percent of that entering in the ore.
Ordinarily, it can be expected that uranium losses will be
kept to a minimum since its separation and recovery is the
objective of the milling process. Dissolved uranium in waste
flows, therefore, will usually be at least 15 to 50 grams per
-------
38 URANIUM WASTE GUIDE
ton of ore processed, depending upon the grade of the ore and
the efficiency of the recovery step.
WASTE SOLIDS
Uranium ore enters the mill process as a solid, and for
each ton of ore entering the mill 1 ton of solids, in either dis-
solved or suspended form, must leave the mill. All of this solid
material, except-that incorporated in the final uranium concen-
trate product, leaves the mill as waste.
The extent to which the ore is dissolved during processing
varies somewhat with the ore composition. Generally 1 to 3 per-
cent of the ore input is dissolved although even higher values
may be encountered. This means that the ore would contribute
20 to 60 pounds of dissolved solids per ton of ore processed to
the liquid waste streams. In addition to the dissolved ore
solids, the large chemical additions during processing contri-
bute to the final dissolved solids content of the mill waste.
The solids leaving the mill as yellowcake product are but
0. 2 percent (four pounds per ton) of the raw ore solids entering
the mill. All but a small fraction of the ore solids input, then,
can be expected to be discharged as suspended solids or tailings.
Since these undissolved solids also contain the bulk of the ra-
dium and other radioisotopes originally present in the ore,
handling and disposal of the solid waste materials from uranium
mills represent a very significant aspect of the total waste dis-
posal problem.
WATER USAGE
As indicated in the various process flow diagrams, fresh
water enters the milling process at several points. The amount
of water used in the process affects the concentration of waste
materials found in the mill effluents and also determines the
magnitude of the liquid waste disposal problem to be handled.
The ore as it enters the mill brings with it a small amount
of moisture, about 5 percent by weight, or 10 gallons per ton of
ore. In wet grinding the ore in the alkaline leach process,
recirculated mill solutions are used whereas in acid leach mills
fresh water in large amounts is usually added to the process
stream at this point. Fresh water may also enter the nrocess in
the feeding of reagents, in filter washing, filter cake repulping
counter-current washing of sands and slimes in classifiers and
thickeners, in flushing and backwashing of ion-exchange columns
-------
Process Wastes 09
where this process is used, and in various other operations.
Losses of water from the process are slight, being confined to
evaporation from heated leach tanks and from the drying of the
yellowcake product. Such losses are of the order of 5 gallons
per ton of ore.
The magnitude of liquid waste flows from uranium mills is
greatly dependent upon the milling process used and the extent
to which solutions are recirculated within the mill. In some
cases the amount of water used is partially determined by the
availability of water from local sources. Table 8 gives water
consumption values encountered in mill surveys. From these
data, it is apparent that acid leach mills use considerably
greater quantities of water than do alkaline leach mills. It has
been reported elsewhere^* that the alkaline and acid leach pro-
cesses use 1 and 4 tons of water per ton of ore, respectively,
or 240 and 960 gallons per ton. This generally agrees with the
figures in Table 8. Even lower water use may be encountered
in alkaline mills where waste tails are repulped exclusively
Table 8. LIQUID WASTE VOLUMES
Process
Alkaline leach
Alkaline leach
Acid leach - RIP
Acid leach - RIP
Acid leach - SX
Acid leach - SX
Acid ieach - SX
Ore input.
tons/ day
1640
881
517
2320
330
560
515
Net flow to
tailings pond,
gpm
403
81
193
1950
219
222
361
Net
waste volumes.
gal/ ton
354
132
538
1210
955
572
1000
Reference
(4)
(3)
(5)
(6)
(1)
(2)
(8)
with recirculated tailings pond waters. In one such case a net
\vater use of 67 gallons per ton of ore has been found. 22
In general, it would appear that liquid flows to be expected
at alkaline leach mills average 250 gallons per ton of ore pro-
cessed, and may range from 100 to 400 gallons per ton. Acid
leach mills produce larger flows, ranging from about 500
to 1200 gallons per ton and averaging about 850 gallons per ton.
The higher water consumption for the acid process is due pri-
marily to the procedures used for liquid-solids separation fol-
lowing leaching. Alkaline pulps are filtered directly after
-------
40 URANIUM WASTE GUIDE
leaching to conserve valuable leaching reagents, which are not
irrevocably lost during contact with the ore. In acid processes,
however, the sulfuric acid is completely used up during leach-
ing and the barren leach liquor has no further value. In the
latter case, the cheaper procedure of countercurrent decantation
is employed to separate the spent ore solids from the pregnant
liquor. As a result, acid process waste flows are on the average
three to four times greater than those from alkaline systems.
As mentioned, some mills recirculate tailings pond water
to repulp the separated sands, forming a slurry which may then
be transferred to the tailings pond. Water requirements for
this purpose are very high. If the slurry formed is 20 percent
solids, for example. 4 tons of water is required for each ton of
ore, or about 1000 gallons per ton. It can be seen, then, that
where tailings water recirculation is not practiced, net waste
flows from the mill are greatly increased.
CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Alkaline Leach Process
In the alkaline leach process a pH slightly above 10. 0 is
maintained in the leach tanks by the addition of sodium carbonate
and bicarbonate to the recycled barren mill solution as needed.
Bicarbonate is necessary to prevent the pH from becoming too
high and thereby allowing the uranium to precipitate during
extraction. Following extraction the spent ore solids are
filtered from the pregnant liquor and are discharged as waste
to the tailings area. The moisture in the filter cake is highly
alkaline and tends to raise the pH of the repulping water.
The pregnant liquor filtrate is treated with caustic soda to
achieve a pH of 12, at which point the uranium will precipitate.
The resulting barren solution is recarbonated to destroy excess
alkalinity, create carbonate and bicarbonate ions, and reduce
the solution pH to about 10. While this solution is recycled, a
small bleed-off is usually required to prevent build-up of
interfering constituents. 23 As a consequence, the pH of waste
streams from alkaline process mills is near 10. 0 though it may
be reduced slightly below that figure by dilution when fresh
water is used to transport waste tails.
Another important chemical characteristic of alkaline pro-
cess waste streams arises from the use of oxidants in the leach-
ing circuit. In natural ores, uranium is found in either the
-------
Process Wastes 41
quadrivalent (uranous) or the hexavalent (uranyl) state. For
dissolution of the uranium in the carbonate leach the uranous
form must first be oxidized to the uranyl form. This is ac-
complished by bubbling air through the ore slurry in the pre-
sence of catalysts or by adding chemical oxidants. Catalysts
most often used with air oxidation are copper sulfate and am-
monia. Chemical oxidants include permanganate and cyanide
compounds. Table 9 lists reported values of chemical usage
for these and other purposes in alkaline mills.
Significant chemical constituents in waste flows are also
derived from the raw ore itself. Elements such as boron,
selenium, lead, fluorine, and arsenic may be present in some
uranium ores, in addition to organic compounds. These
materials, if present in the ore, are leached out to some de-
gree during processing and appear in the waste flows. The
actual concentrations encountered are specific for each ore
Table 9. CHEMICAL USAGE IN ALKALINE LEACH MILLS1
Chemical
KMn04
NaCN (and Fe)
CuSO4
NH3
Separan
Guar (gum
Na£CO3
NaOH
Purpose
Oxidant
Oxidant
Catalyst
Catalyst
Flocculant
Filter aid
Leaching
Precipitation
Usage. lb/ ton of ore
7.5
0.4
2-4
3.3 -6.5
0.023
0.052
2.65
17 - 31
References 19. 3. and 4.
and process, however. Table 10 shows waste stream concen-
trations which have been reported from alkaline mills. These
waste analyses reflect the make-up of the particular raw ore
being processed and the chemicals added during processing.
Acid Leach Process
The waste streams from these mills differ in composition
depending upon chemical usage and the uranium recovery pro-
cess used, i. e., ion exchange or solvent extraction. Ail such
effluents, however, are highly acidic, since the leaching cir-
cuit requires the maintenance of a pH near 1. 0 to 1. 5. Sui-
furic acid is universally employed to provide the needed
acidity, and hence, all acid leach liquors can also be expected
-------
42
URANIUM WASTE GUIDE
Table 10. CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MILL EFFLUENTS AS DISCHARGED TO TAILS
(Concentrations in ppm}
Acid leach mills
Besin-i.i-pu.ip
Solvent extraction
Alkaline leach mills
Cl 353 275 256 Si
S04 Z46° - - 17t>°
MS 10
N03 73
Cu .005
Be -
Fe .52 - - 0.1
Mn < . 1 5 -
Pb ....
As < .01 0. 20 0.49
B -
U 5.6
Na - 2953 - 3450
Ca - - - -=10
HC03 - - - 1100.
C03 ... 4613.
F 2.0 - - -
y ...
TDS 7530 - - 8270
Total
pH 10.0 9. 6 - 10.6
Reference (29) (3) (4) (24)
a
190
3:60 2210
535 42
1270 2630
I. 3 ^1. 3
42. 0.1
110.
0.65 G.04
0.21 -10.01
C.I 0.2
2.9 0.25
910
530 315
-
I. 2
-
-
3,3 7.7
(24) (24)
Sands
OfUV
240
21BO
120
0
7.
-
-
-
570
-
(5)
Slimes
onlv a
205
2330
75
2230
0. 14
-
_
730
-
(5)
Alkyl-
amine
1 10
2910
72
-
-
220
30
-
.
520
-
3.8
4370
2. 6
(24)
EHPA
235
11, 000
0. 2
2.2
67.
11.
_
14. 5
-
-
1055
13.
0,04
-
2. 1
(U
Amine
_ TBPb
3740
7500
-
3. 6
O.S
5. 4
9. 1
4. 9
-
34.
5400.
-
8.0
34.
19,300
2. 1-4. 1
(7) (3)
*After neutralization.
^Effluents from tails, weighted average.
to have high sulfate concentrations. Other chemicals commonly
used in acid leach mills are shown in Table 11.
Table 11. CHEMICAL USAGE IN ACID LEACH MILLSa
Chemical
H2S04
Fe (powder)
MnO2
NaClO3
MgO
NH3
NaOH
EHPA. Alkyl-
mine and others
Kerosene
NH4NO3
Na2CO3
NaCl
NH4NO3
NaCl
NaCl
Purpose
Leach
emf adjustment
Oxidant
Oxidant
U ppt (pH adj)
U ppt (pH adj)
U ppt (pH adj)
Solvent extraction
Solvent diluent
Solvent stripping
Solvent stripping
Solvent stripping
IX-eluant
IX-eluant
Roasting (vanadium
ores)
Usage,
Ib/ton of ore
30 - 500
variable
3 - 10
1 - 3
1-3
1 - 30
1-4
0.01-2.0
3.4
1.3
10-15
10-15
15-20
7
50-160
aReferences 1. 5. 8. 10, 24. 25. and 26.
Ion-Exchange Recovery
Following acid leaching, the sands and slimes are re-
moved from the pregnant liquor and discarded as waste. In
-------
Process Wastes 43
the case of the resin-in-pulp process only the sands are wasted
at this point. Powdered iron may then be added for emf adjust-
ment if ferric iron (Fes) or vanadium (¥5) is present in the
leach solution. Vanadium in its oxidized pentavalent state
adsorbs on the resin but is not eluted, resulting in a poisoning
of the resin. By proper adjustment of potential, the vanadium
can be maintained in quadravalent form.
The pregnant liquor (containing the slimes in the case of
the RIP process) then enters the anionic ion-exchange circuit
where one of the following reactions takes place, depending
upon whether chloride or nitrate is used in the elution cycle:
-4
4RNO3 + [UO2(SO4)3] " T R4UO2(SO4)3 + 4NOg
or
-4
4 RC1 + [UO2(SO4)3J "7 R4UO2(SO4)3 + 4Cl"
These reactions indicate that each uranium disuifate anion
removed from the pregnant solution is replaced by two nitrate
or chloride anions. As a result the barren liquor slimes stream,
as discharged to waste, contains a high concentration of one
or the other of these ions, depending upon which is used for
resin regeneration.
After the uranium-bear ing resin is eluted with an acidic
nitrate (or chloride) solution, magnesium oxide, sodium hy-
droxide, or ammonia are added to the pregnant eluate, pro-
ducing an insoluble uranium precipitate. This precipitate is
filtered out to produce yellowcake, and the filtrate is adjusted
with acid and nitrate (or chloride) to make fresh eluant. Thus,
elution is a recirculating circuit. The only waste produced is
a bleed-off, which is necessary to prevent a build-up of sul-
fate ions. This waste flow, on the order of 3. 5 gallons per
ton of ore, ^ has a near neutral pH and contains relatively
high dissolved values of magnesium (or sodium or ammonia),
nitrate (or chloride), calcium, and other mineral salts.
Table 10 shows the chemical character of waste which can
be expected from a resin-in-pulp uranium mill. This effluent
reflects the use of a nitrate elution cycle rather than a chloride
cycle.
-------
44 URANIUM WASTE GUIDE
Solvent Extraction Recovery
Wastes from acid leach mills using the solvent extraction
process for uranium recovery have chemical characteristics
somewhat different from the wastes from mills using ion-
exchange methods. Following liquid-solids separation, the
pregnant acid liquor enters the solvent extraction tanks where
it is mixed with an organic solvent which preferentially picks
up the dissolved uranium from the aqueous phase. The loaded
solvent and barren acid liquor, or raffinate, are gravity sep-
arated, and the raffinate is discharged to waste. The loaded
solvent may be stripped of its uranium content by an Na2CC>3
(or acidified chloride or nitrate) solution; the barren organic
is recirculated for reuse; and the loaded stripping solution is
treated with sulfuric acid and MgO or NHg for uranium recovery.
Although the solvent is entirely recirculated some losses to
the raffinate do take place. These are estimated to be usually
no greater than 1 to 2 pounds of solvent per ton of ore treated.
This amount may then be expected in the raffinate waste stream
and a combined mill effluent concentration of about 150 to 330
ppm would result. 24 The solvents primarily used include di-
2ethylhexyl-phosphoric acid (EHPA) and alkylamines, with
kerosene commonly used as a diluent for the solvents. Tri-
butyl phosphate (TBP) is sometimes added in minor amounts
as a supplement to improve the solvent characteristics. The
use of Na2CO3 and H2SO4 during uranium recovery results in
high concentrations of sodium and sulfate ions in the raffinate
waste stream. Table 10 shows the reported concentration
ranges of these and other important chemical constituents of
wastes from acid leach - solvent extraction mills. Reported
chemical usage is shown in Table 11.
-------
POLLUTIONAL EFFECTS
OF WASTES
The liquid wastes produced in uranium milling operations
capable of producing significant adverse effects upon receiving
stream waters if they are discharged without adequate treat-
ment. The radioactivity in the waste sands and slimes and
that dissolved in the waste streams are of greatest signifi-
cance. In addition, the chemical characteristics of these un-
treated waste flows are such that, where adequate dilution by
receiving streams cannot be provided, direct toxic effects on
the aquatic biota and interference with the usefulness of the
receiving water as a municipal or agricultural supply can re-
sult.
RADIOLOGICAL POLLUTANTS
In order to properly evaluate actual or potential radio-
logical contamination of the environment by uranium mill
'.vastes. it is necessary to consider appropriate radiation
protection criteria, which have been developed to assist in
controlling human exposure. These criteria or standards have
oeen promulgated primarily by three organizations: the Inter-
national Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP), the
National Committee on Radiation (NCRP). and most recently,
the Federal Radiation Council (FRC). Publications of these
organizations^. 14. 18 give limiting standards for human ex-
posure to all man-made sources of radiation. The primary
standards are in terms of radiation dose rate and are essen-
tially the same for all three organizations. Although they set
permissible or acceptable levels of human exposure, each of
these groups stresses the importance of minimizing to the
greatest feasible extent the radiation dose received by the pub-
lic, and urges that the actual radiation dose be kept as far be-
low the permissible levels as possible.
Direct measurement of the human dose resulting from in-
gestion of radioactive materials is not possible. This dose can
45
-------
46 URANIUM WASTE GUIDE
be computed, however, if the amount and distribution of radio-
active materials in the body are known. The limiting dose,
therefore, leads directly to a limiting "body burden" or amount
of radioactive material retained in the body. Knowledge of rate
of biological accumulation and elimination of a particular isotope
by the body permits the further calculation of a limiting intake
of radioactive material which corresponds to a limiting ex-
posure. For practical control measures, the maximum per-
missible intake of radioisotopes is the parameter of greatest
usefulness. For convenience, these maximum permissible in-
take levels have been converted to permissible concentrations
in drinking water (or MPCW values) by dividing the intake level
by 2. 2 liters per day, the amount of water consumed by the
"standard" man. By these procedures the ICRP and NCRP have
selected MPCW values for over 250 radioisotopes. These values
are applicable to radiation workers and must be reduced by
appropriate factors in order to protect the general public ade-
quately. The MPCW values for members of the uranium-radium
family shown in Table 2 are those given by ICRP and NCRP.
They are derived from occupational limits which must be re-
duced by a factor of 30 for application to the average member of
the general public.
To evaluate radiation exposure of the public due to radio-
active waste discharges completely and adequately, it is neces-
sary to determine the total radioisotope intake from all sources,
which may include several environmental media, i. e., food,
milk, water, and air. It is useful, however, to utilize the MPC
in water values as shown in Table 2, for a general assessment
of the degree of contamination of receiving waters resulting
from waste discharges.
Radium
Radium-226, with the lowest MPC of all radioisotopes, is
the radiological contaminant of greatest concern in uranium
mill waste discharges. From the data in Table 5 it can be es-
timated that for a typical ore approximately 3 to 5 micrograms
of dissolved radium will be found in acid leach mill wastes for
each ton of ore processed. In order not to exceed the MPC for
radium in the receiving stream, the untreated waste discharge
from a 1000 ton per day mill of this type, for example, would
have to be diluted by a corresponding receiving stream flow of
about 400 to 600 cfs.
OPO 82389O-3
-------
Pollutional Effects of Wastes 47
A potentially more important waste component is the radium
which remains undissolved through the mill process. The sus-
pended radium which is contained in the waste ore tailings re-
presents all but 1 or 2 percent of the radium originally present
in the ore. If tailings are permitted to enter the stream, these
solids will be deposited and will accumulate for long periods on
the stream bed within a short distance from the discharge point.
The undissolved radium will be leached from these solids to
the overlying waters, increasing the dissolved radium content
of the stream. This has been observed to result, in one in-
stance. ^' in a dissolved radium content downstream from a
uranium mill of 12 micromicrocuries per liter - about four
times the MFC, and more than 20 times higher than would be
expected on the basis of the dissolved radium discharged by
the mill to the stream. A brief series of laboratory experi-
ments on the leachability of radium-bear ing river muds ob-
tained from a stream bed below another mill indicated that
from 0. 1 to 1.0 percent of the radium in such mud may be
leached out with only brief mixing. ^ The actual degree to which
radium will leach out of stream bed muds depends upon the
stream velocity, degree of turbulence, and bottom agitation.
Detailed laboratory studies have been conducted on the
leaching of radium-226 from uranium mill waste solids and
river sediments. 36 jne mm solids most thoroughly studied
were sand and slime mixtures from mills utilizing the acid -
leach solvent extraction process for uranium recovery. These
solids and the river sediments studied were collected from
representative locations in the Colorado Plateau area of the
United States. The leaching agents used on these solids were
distilled water, various inorganic reagents, and natural river
waters.
These studies showed that the most important single para-
meter affecting the leaching of radium was the liquid-to-solid
ration (ml/g). The liquid-to-solid ratios studied ranged from
10:1 to 10. 000:1; the amount of radium leached from sands and
slime mixtures ranged from 0. 10 to between 40 and 50 percent
of the total radium associated with the solids. The effect of
liquid-to-solid ratio was greater on acid leach waste solids than
on river sediments and greater on acid leach waste solids than
on alkaline leach waste solids.
-------
48 URANIUM WASTE GUIDE
The studies also showed that time was not an important
factor in the amount of radium leached, an equilibrium amount
being leached in about 10 to 15 minutes. Natural river waters
leached no greater amount of radium than distilled water, and
of the inorganic ions Na"1". K~ . Mg~ ~ . Ca—. Si~ ~ . and Ra^ *
only barium exerted a significant effect on radium leachability.
The hydrology of western streams strongly affects the pat-
tern of accumulation of radium-bearing solids on the stream
bed. These streams are typically unregulated, and most of the
total annual flow occurs within a short period of 2 or 3 months
during late spring. Many of these streams run dry or nearly so
in the late summer and fall months. Discharged radium-bearing
solids build up during such periods of low flow only to be scoured
from the point where they were originally deposited by the high
flows the following spring. This flushing action can effectively
cleanse a badly silted stream below a uranium mill, but the
solids which are removed are merely transferred to a down-
stream location and eventually come to rest in the major res-
ervoirs of the river system. Recent examination of the muds
in Lake Mead, on whose tributaries are many of the country's
uranium mills, has shown them to have a radium content four
times as high as the natural, or background, levels. 28 These
findings may be used, together with estimates of the volume of
Lake Mead sediments involved, to arrive at a rough estimate of
the total amount of radium-226 added to this impoundment by
uranium milling operations over the last 20 years. Such cal-
culations, together with a parallel computation based upon ore
tonnage processed, earlier practices regarding discharge of
waste tails, etc.. indicate that some 2500 curies of radium-226
has accumulated in the sediments of Lake Mead since 1940. In
the case of a long-lasting contaminant such as radium-226.
with its half-life of 1620 years, such an accumulation is highly
undesirable and dictates that the spent ore solids be retained
indefinitely at their source as is presently the practice.
Where the stream in question is used as a source of muni-
cipal water supply, suspended radium-bearing solids may be
bound in the filter sand beds of the water treatment plant. They
remain there even after backwashing of the filters to slowly re-
lease radium into the treated water supply. These effects have
been demonstrated in studies of the pollution of the Animas Ri-
ver. 27
-------
Pollutional Effects of Wastes 49
It can be concluded from the above that undissolved ore tail-
ings, if released from uranium mills to streams, represent a
highly significant source of very long-term contamination of
receiving waters.
If the receiving stream is used as a source of municipal
water supply, its dissolved radium content, of course, cannot be
allowed to exceed generally recognized standards and should be
kept as far below this level as possible. If. in addition, the
stream water is used as irrigation water, consideration must
be given to possible radium contamination of crops which are
raised for human consumption. Radium ingestion via contami-
nated crops must be included in estimating total intake by the
general public in such cases. Studies on the Animas River, a
tributary of the Colorado, showed an average radium content for
edible crops from irrigated farms below a uranium mill to be
about double that of foods from farms above the mill. ^ If cattle
feed is grown on irrigated lands, it is possible that significant
concentrations of radium may be found in both meat and milk.
In streams receiving radioactive wastes, an uptake of the
activity by aquatic organisms can generally be observed. These
organisms provide a good indication of past contamination, since
they retain the activity taken up during prior periods. Fish.
being highly mobile, present a relatively erratic pattern of con-
tamination. Attached algae and aquatic insects, on the other
hand, reflect contamination history at a specific place and.
therefore, provide a good picture of past contamination longi-
tudinally along the stream.
During a uranium mill survey, samples of attached filamen-
tous algae, bottom dwelling aquatic insects, and fish were col-
lected and analyzed for gross'radioactivity and radium content.
An analysis of these data 30 indicates that the radium content of
either the attached algae or the aquatic insects reflects fairly
'.veil the dissolved radium content of the stream. Because of
this fact the more easily collected algae should be useful as an
indicator of radium-226 pollution. This relationship is shown
in Figure 12. The natural radium content of attached algae was
found to range from 2.0 to 10 micromicrograms per gram of
ashed weight, averaging 4. 5 micromicrograms per gram.
The average natural dissolved radium content of the associated
flowing water was 0. 35 micromicrogram per liter. In radium-
polluted waters the algal radium content was found to be much
-------
50
URANIUM WASTE GUIDE
X
1/1
1,000
800
600
O
? 400
Q
z
<
Z
200
• ALGAE, 1958
a INSECTS, 1958
A ALGAE, 1959
5 10 15
DISSOLVED Ra226 IN WATER,
Figure 12. Radium-226 content of algae and fnsects versus
that of water - Animas river.
higher. From Figure 12 it can be seen that, with a dissolved
radium concentration of 15 micromicrocuries per liter in the
stream, for example, the insect and algal concentration could
be expected to lie in the range from 200 to 500 micromicro-
grams per gram. This uptake of radioactivity by aquatic or-
ganisms, which serve as food for edible fish and shellfish,
provides another mode of entry for human intake of radioactive
materials which must be considered in evaluating total intake.
CHEMICAL POLLUTANTS
Effects on Stream Biota
The Animas River, receiving wastes from a 500-ton-per-
day mill using a combination alkaline leach and acid leach -
-------
Pollutional Effects of Wastes 51
solvent extraction process with vanadium recovery was studied
extensively in this regard.^ A census of bottom-dwelling or-
ganisms above and below the mill discharge was conducted on
this stream which, at the time, had a flow of 300 cfs, about 50
percent higher than its annual average minimum 30-day flow.
Below the mill virtually complete elimination of bottom-dwell-
ing aquatic insects was observed. Partial recovery was indi-
cated at a station 36 miles below the mill, where the number of
species of organisms present increased. However, the total
bottom fauna population did not approach normal proportions
until the river had flowed for some 45 miles after receiving the
mill discharge. Fish populations and types were greatly re-
duced in these reaches.
In conjuction with these stream investigations, bio-assay
studies were performed on the various mill effluents. These
tests, in which local fish species are placed in various mixtures
of waste effluent and unpolluted stream water, are designed to
measure waste toxicity in terms of the amount of dilution re-
quired to prevent deaths in the local fish population. Speci-
fically, a median tolerance limit (TLm) is determined, i. e.,
that waste concentration at which 50 percent of the test fish
will survive a specified exposure period, usually 72 or 96
hours. To permit all of the fish to survive indefinitely, a con-
centration much lower than the TLm must be maintained in the
receiving stream. The TLm is, therefore, reduced by an "ap-
plication factor, " which may range from 3 to 10, depending upon
the fish food organisms to be protected, variability of the waste,
temperature. pH, and chemical characteristics of the river
water.
The TLm values observed for the waste effluents from this
acid leach - solvent extraction mill are shown in Table 12. At
the minimal application factor of 3, a stream flow of 600 cfs
would be required to protect the fishery resources of the stream.
From these data it is apparent that at the normally expected
annual minimum 30-day stream flow of 200 cfs large numbers
of fish would die. On the basis of the mill processing rate of
500 tons per day, the required receiving stream flow for this
particular stream would be from at least 1. 2 to as much as 4
cfs per ton of ore processed per day by the acid leach - solvent
extraction process, depending upon the application factor se-
lected.
-------
52
URANIUM WASTE GUIDE
Table 12. BIOLOGICAL TOXICITY OF EFFLUENTS DISCHARGED TO THE
ANIMAS RIVER - 1958a
Waste stream
(a) Final tailings effluent
(b) Primary tails overflow
(c) Vanadium filter tray wash
(d) Raffinate
(e) Composite sample of (b). (c). and (d)
TLm range.
1.3 to 3.3
13 to 18
0.82 to 4.2
0.09 to 0.21
0. 31 to 7.6
Equivalent
dilution
flow. b
cfs
6 - 16
2.6 - 14
34 - 79
7 - 193
aReference 7.
bBased upon waste flow discharged.
Subsequent changes in waste treatment and disposal carried
out by the mill reduced considerably the amount of suspended
solids and organic waste which entered the stream. 8 These
modifications resulted in marked improvements in the variety
of aquatic biota found in the stream below the mill.
The most toxic single waste noted in Table 12 is the organic-
bearing raffinate which had a TLm of one-tenth the next most
toxic waste. For mills using a uranium recovery process other
than solvent extraction, the over-all waste toxicity and the re-
sulting dilution stream flow requirement would undoubtedly be
considerably less than those discussed above. Because of the
variation in chemical content of streams and the importance of
this factor of waste toxicity, generalization in this regard is not
appropriate and each stream that receives a mill waste discharge
must be evaluated as an individual case. Such evaluations have
been conducted at a number of mills, 28 ancj Table 13 summarizes
the results of these studies.
Table 13. URANIUM MILL EFFLUENT BIOASSAYSa
Mill location
Moab. Utah
Rifle. Colorado
Mexican Hat. Utah
Slick Rock. Colo.
Uravan. Colorado
Shiprock. New Mexico
Waste stream
Tailings pond effluent
Vanadium plant waste
Organic-bearing raffinate
Organic-bearing raffinate
Waste tails
Tailings seepage and ground water
Uranium-Vanadium effluent
Redcake (Vanadium) tails
Yellowcake filter pond
Organic-bearing raffinate
TLm. :c
32 - 42
2.4
0.25
0.20 - 0.39
1.5 - 2.4
100
0.42 - 0.75
4.2-8.0
2.4
0.41
aReference 28.
-------
Pollutional Effects of Wastes
53
It is apparent from these results also that the organic-bear-
ing raffinate is the mill waste component most toxic to fish. The
TLm value of this raffinate varied between 0. 2 to 0.75 percent
meaning that these wastes, if discharged to a stream, would re-
quire a minimum dilution factor of 400 to 1500 (l/TLmx3) in the
stream. Wastes from vanadium processing circuits exhibited
about one-tenth the toxicity of the organic-bearing raffinate.
Effects on Water Uses
A comparison of the chemical content of untreated or neu-
tralized mill effluents (Table 10) with commonly used drinking
water standards. 31 as shown in Talbe 14. indicates that sev-
eral chemical components of the waste are present in relatively
high concentrations.
Table 14. DILUTION REQUIREMENTS FOR CHEMICAL POLLUTANTS
Chemical constituent
Arsenic
Barium
Carbon chloroform extract
Chloride
Chromium (+ 6)
Copper
Cyanide
Fluoride^
Iron
Lead
Manganese
Nitrate
Suifate
Total dissolved solids
Uranium6
Limiting
concentration. a
mg/ 1.
0.01
1.0
0.2
250
0.05
1.0
0.01
2.0
0.3
0.05
0.05
45.0
250
500
40
Basis
for
limitb
P
P
A
A
P
A
P
P
A
P
A
P
A
A
P
Ratio of
required
stream flow
to waste flowc
1450
-
-
15
-
1.6
_
4.0
734
13
2200
60
45
39
0.9
aPublic Health Service Drinking Water Standards. ISSljReference 31).
P = Physiological effects; A = Aesthetic considerations.
cUsing maximum waste concentrations in Table 10; assumes concentra-
tion in dilution flow is zero.
^Varies from 1.4 to 2.4. depending upon average air temperature.
e!CRP-NCRP Standard.
The last column of Table 14 shows the ratio of diluting
stream flow to waste flow required to assure that the particular
chemical pollutant concentration will not exceed its limiting con-
-------
54 URANIUM WASTE GUIDE
centration in the receiving stream. The pollutant concentration
used in these calculations was the highest value reported in
Table 10. Thus, all of these ratios do not apply to a single mill
effluent, although one or more apply depending upon the process
used.
It is clear that manganese can be a major waste problem
wherever it is used as an oxidant in the mill process if liquid
wastes are released to a stream. The dilution ratio shown in
Table 14 for manganese indicates that for a particular acid mill
waste a ratio of receiving stream flow to waste flow of 2200. or
about 3000 cfs for a 1000-ton-per-day mill, would be required
if neutralization were not practiced. Such a dependable flow
is far in excess of that available at most mill sites. A ratio of
stream flow to waste flow of 1450 would be required to dilute
wastes from the SX mill of Table 10 to prevent excessive ar-
senic concentrations in the receiving stream, if wastes from
that mill were released to the river. (In practice, they are
confined in the tailings pond.) This element originates in
certain uranium ores, and it is a potential problem only at
mills using such ores. Iron dissolved from the ore or abraded
from the grinding equipment, or metallic iron used for emf ad-
justment will be found in unneutralized acid mill effluents, which
require a high dilution stream flow. However, simple neutral-
ization of the waste reduces the soluble iron content to negligible
proportions, as Table 10 shows.
In mills using nitrate elution of ion-exchange resins, ni-
trates can be expected in relatively high concentrations in
waste streams. Where nitrate compounds are used for solvent
stripping, somewhat lower, though still significant, concentra-
tions of nitrate are produced.
Of the potential chemical contaminants listed in Table 14
the more serious involve those which are capable of causing
physiological damage to persons using the receiving stream for
drinking water. These include elements such as arsenic.
barium, chromium, fluorine, and lead which may be contained
in raw ores. Compounds containing cyanide and nitrate used
in ore processing may be found in waste streams in significant
concentrations. The limiting uranium concentration usually is
not approached in waste flows, except possibly in some alkaline
mills where both water usage and uranium recovery efficiencies
are lower than those normally found.
-------
Pollutional Effects of Wastes 55
The remaining contaminants listed are objectional pri-
marily for aesthetic reasons: taste, odor, or appearance.
Some mill effluents contain excessive amounts of the hardness-
producing cations, calcium, and magnesium. The hardness
concentration of one mill effluent following lime neutralization
was computed to be near 4000 ppm (as CaCC^). Drinking waters
with hardness levels exceeding about 250 ppm are usually con-
sidered "very hard" and undesirable for domestic use. Certain
mill effluent constituents, such as sodium, boron, chlorides.
and total dissolved solids, could cause degradation in the
stream's value for irrigation use.
Discussion of the pollutional effects of mill effluents on
the aquatic environment has been directed primarily to surface
waters, although much of the foregoing applies equally well to
ground waters. Mill wastes are commonly stored in tailings
ponds, and the opportunity thus exists for contamination of
ground waters by seepage of the pond contents downward toward
water-bearing strata. Pollution of this type where the ground
waters are used or are usable can be quite significant because
of the permanency of ground water contamination. Once the dis-
charge of contaminants to surface waters ceases a fairly rapid
recovery of the stream to its former quality can be expected:
this is not the case, however, with ground waters. Suspected
cases of ground water contamination due to seepage from mill
tailings ponds have been reported^, 4 where dissolved radium
concentrations significantly above background levels have been
found at test well depths to 95 feet.
In another instance 35 nitrate pollution of ground waters by
seepage from tailings ponds was demonstrated. The 3. 9 tons
per day of nitrates (as N) contained in wastes from a resin-in-
pulp mill caused observable contamination of shallow ground
waters at distances up to 6.3 miles from the mill. It was es-
timated that 87 percent of the waste volume discharged to a
70-acre tailings pond, which had no surface overflow, was lost
by seepage at the rate of 0.17 feet per day. The possibility of
significant ground water pollution in the vicinity of uranium mills
should not be overlooked.
PHYSICAL POLLUTANTS
In addition to the radioactivity contributed to the stream
by discharged ore tailings, as discussed previously, these spent
-------
56 URANIUM WASTE GUIDE
ore solids can smother the bottom organisms normally found on
the bed of an unpolluted stream. The aquatic insects, algae.
and other organisms living on the river bottom are important
sources of food for fish life. The depostition of ore solids in
the stream can cause a marked decrease in productivity of
bottom-dwelling fish food organisms by blanketing the stream
bottom, thus forming an undesirable physical environment that
inhibits their growth. Such a reduction of bottom fauna brings
about a corresponding reduction of fish life in the stream.
The discharge of very fine and not readily settleable ore
particles, or slimes, causes the receiving stream to become
turbid, reducing its suitability as a habitat for biological forms
and increasing the difficulty of water treatment for municipal
and some industrial uses. Highly colored mill waste streams
create aesthetically objectionable conditions in the receiving
stream. In a number of cases it has been observed that the
release of low pH effluents (pH of 1. 0 to 2. 0) to the slightly
alkaline stream has resulted in the formation of a fine floe
that may persist for miles and is most unsightly.
-------
POLLUTION
ABATEMENT METHODS
The preceding discussions of the pollutional capabilities of
uranium mill wastes clearly indicate the necessity for contain-
ment of certain wastes and treatment of others prior to dis-
charge to surface waters. Treatment for reduction of radium,
both dissolved and suspended, is of primary importance to
minimize human internal radiation exposure. Waste treatment
to protect the biological life of the receiving stream is necessary
and interference with legitimate uses of the down-stream waters,
such as municipal, industrial, or irrigation water supply, must
be prevented.
Waste treatment and control practices in the uranium in-
dustry have improved greatly during the past 5 years. Direct
radium-226 pollution or the release of undesirable chemical
wastes at significantly high levels occurs in only a few isolated
cases. Other more subtle problems such as the leachability of
radium-226 from tailings and refinement of waste treatment
practices are under study. It is now general practice through-
out the uranium industry to retain wastes in tailings ponds, or
lagoons, and this single measure is of real value in preventing
many of the potential water damages discussed in previous sec-
tions. Under these conditions settieabie waste ore solids are
retained at the mills and the total amount of radium entering
the country's rivers is kept to a low level, most certainly far
less than the estimate of 1000 curies per year which was made
recently. ^8 This is readily apparent since all of the radium
dissolved by the milling industry amounts to less than fifty
curies each year and even a large majority of this is not dis-
charged to surface waters. Additional waste treatment mea-
sures are often required, however, and these are discussed
in detail below.
The Atomic Energy Commission, under whose licensing
authority the uranium mills operate, has established limits
57
-------
58 URANIUM WASTE GUIDE
for the radioactivity content of liquid effluents discharged by
the mills. 32 These limits, expressed as radioisotope concen-
trations in the effluent before release, are one-tenth of the
MFC values given in the National Bureau of Standards Hand-
book 69 for continuous occupational exposure limits. 13 jn
addition, the regulations provide for the possibility of higher
concentrations in the effluent at a particular mill if it can be
demonstrated that it is not likely that any individual will be
exposed to radioisotope concentrations greater than the pre-
scribed limits. In the issuance or renewal of Source Material
Licenses for uranium mills, the Atomic Energy Commission
indicates what exceptions to the prescribed limits have been
approved. The license also contains additional specific dis-
charge requirements. These additional requirements now call
for effluents to be substantially free of settleable solid materials
and may also limit volumes to be discharged. Requirements for
frequency of reporting on analysis of waste flows and receiving
waters and maintenance of data records are also usually stated
in the Atomic Energy Commission license.
Thus, the Atomic Energy Commission regulations provide
guidelines for mill operators in carrying out pollution abate-
ment measures. The ultimate test of the success of such mea-
sures, however, is the maintenance of receiving waters at a
level which permits the full development of all legitimate down-
stream water uses. In addition, the total radiation exposure of
downstream populations from ail man-made sources must re-
main within prescribed limits and should be minimized to the
greatest feasible extent.
TAILINGS PONDS
A universal minimum treatment step for mill wastes is the
impoundment of liquid-borne wastes in ponds. These ponds,
which are used to retain solid ore residues (tails), are usually
referred to as tailings ponds. Because of the large amount of
solids or tailings to be handled, the peripheral dikes of many
such ponds are in fact composed of the tails material itself.
These ponds gradually fill with solids and in this manner they
tend to "grow" in size and/or elevation. The original dam or
dike behind which the slurried tailings are retained is often of
earthen construction. The tailings solids which accumulate be-
hind this dike are then used to extend the tickness and height of
the earthen dam until ultimately they become its major consti-
tuent. In practice, advantage is taken of the more readily sep-
-------
Pollution Abatement Methods 59
arable coarse sands for use in covering the exterior surface of
the dam. thus leaving the slimes to settle out of the slurry and
form the interior surface of the dam wall. Excessive use of
uniformly sized tails in any one portion of the dam wall leads
to instability and should be avoided.
The amount of overflow from the tailings ponds is a function
of net liquid input and the evaporation and seepage which occur.
It is not uncommon for these ponds to produce no overflow for
long periods of time, or in some cases, indefinitely. Where
extensive land area is available, advantage is taken of natural
ground contours to create ponds or lagoons which may be as
large as 300 acres.
As a minimum accomplishment, such ponds can success-
fully remove substantially all settleable solids. In addition,
they serve as reservoirs for water which may be recycled to
the mill process, thereby reducing the total water consumption
and the quantity of liquid waste for disposal, minimizing the
required pond area. Tailings pond water is commonly used to
repulp the waste tails filter cake that results from the last
stage of liquid-solids separation following alkaline leaching.
Although this procedure reduces significantly the net quantity
of liquid to be disposed of, the daily quantity of dissolved radio-
activity, as well as most other dissolved contaminants produced
in the milling process, remains unchanged. As a result the
concentration of dissolved radium and other constituents tend
to build up to higher levels in tailings ponds where recircula-
tion is practiced.
At two alkaline mills, 3. 4 for example, though the dis-
solved radium leaving the mill process was found to be negli-
gible during the period of the mill survey, the dissolved ra-
dium content of the tailings pond water was 35 micromicro-
curies per liter in one case, and 160 in the other. Dissolved
radium concentrations in tailings pond waters can be expected
to vary greatly, even among mills using the same process. In
addition to recirculation, this variation is brought about by dif-
ferences in the raw ore, size of ponds, evaporation rates, mill
solution bleedoff rates and other factors, including coprecipita-
tion of radium. Thus, although the daily quantity of dissolved
radium wasted from a given milling process may be expected
to be in a relatively narrow range on a per ton basis, the actual
concentration in the tailings pond discharge (overflow or seep-
age) may vary greatly among them.
-------
The waste ore slurry Is pumped to a tailings pond where the solids
are separated and retained.
One of the industry's most extensive tailings pond areas is shown
above. In this case liquid is decanted from the pond and injected
into a deep well for ultimate disposal. (Photograph courtesy of The
Anaconda Company)
-------
The light-colored tailings pile dominates this scene. Wind-blown
particles of waste ore solids may be scattered over a wide area.
Waste tails are pictured next to an abandoned uranium mill. The
Colorado River flows by at the right. Permanent retention of such
solids is a most important pollution control measure.
-------
62 URANIUM WASTE GUIDE
It may be noted at this point that the only liquid waste result-
ing from the alkaline-filtration process is the moisture con-
tained in the final tails filter cake, which is usually about 80
percent solids. Instead of repulping this relatively dry filter
cake with additional water (fresh or recirculated), it could be
disposed of as a solid waste. It appears probable that the
slight moisture which these solids contain would be lost rapidly
through evaporation, thereby eliminating the liquid waste
problem for this type of mill.
As noted previously, the amount of liquid overflow from
tailings ponds is dependent upon the amount of inflow, the net
liquid loss or gain from rainfall and evaporation, and losses
from seepage. Reduction in the amount of dissolved pollutants
which may be discharged, however, is affected primarily by
seepage. The output of dissolved radioactive isotopes could
actually increase if significant amounts are leached from the
waste tails during the contact period in the pond. Volume re-
duction by seepage is desirable except where ground water pol-
lution is of significance. In this event, steps to prevent seepage,
such as lining the pond bottom, may be required.
Tailings ponds, then, are beneficial as a pollution abatement
measure in several ways, including (1) removal of settleable
solids; (2) recovering water for reuse; (3) permitting evapora-
tion; (4) providing opportunity for seepage, thereby reducing the
amount of pollutants which reach the receiving stream; (5) re-
taining wastes during dry periods of low stream flow for re-
lease during high flow periods when greater dilution is avail-
able; and (6) retaining radioactive pollutants, temporarily per-
mitting the decay of shorter-lived materials.
Undesirable features of such ponds are (1) the inherent por-
osity of the tails, permitting seepage laterally or vertically;
(2) the prolonged contact between the liquid and the tails, pro-
viding the opportunity for continued leaching of radioactive con-
taminants; and (3) their observed tendency to fail structurally
and release their contents, if the walls are not properly con-
structed or maintained.
Where it is found necessary to minimize seepage, mea-
sures to reduce the porosity of the pond bottom and sides is
required. Minimization of contact between the liquid and the
waste solids could be achieved by providing two or more ponds
GPO 825890-7
-------
Pollution Abatement Methods 63
in series. Removal of settleable solids could be accomplished
in the first pond if a short liquid detention period is provided.
The overflow from this pond could then be contained for further
evaporation (and seepage if desirable) in a second, larger
pond with dikes constructed of material other than tails.
The problem of tailings pond dike failures is a most signi-
ficant one. Accidental releases of mill tailings pond contents
to the environment by this means have occurred at several
mill locations during the past 10 years. 28 jn a recent instance,
a considerable volume of highly acid liquor with a high radium
concentration spilled from a storage pond to an adjacent river
over a period of a few hours. It is estimated that as much as
1 millicurie of dissolved radium-226 may have been released.
Some portion of this dissolved radium probably precipitated as
a result of neutralization of the waste by the stream alkalinity.
Evidences of an extensive fish kill due to chemical toxicity were
observed downstream of the mill immediately following the
spill. Although downstream river uses included municipal water
supplies, it was concluded that significant human over-exposure
to radiation did not occur because of the short duration of the
release, the quantity of radium released, and the available di-
lution afforded by the prevailing river flow. Considerably lower
flows in this stream and others adjacent to uranium mills are
common, however, so that dilution of the released material
could have been much less under other circumstances.
Such accidental releases present a distinct hazard to down-
stream aquatic populations and a potential hazard to humans.
Accordingly, appropriate measures should be taken to preclude
their occurrence. A protective secondary dike surrounding the
tailings pond area would, if properly designed and constructed,
contain wastes accidentally released by tailings pond dike fail-
ures and prevent their entrance into nearby surface waters.
Such a dike would also prevent the washing away of tails by
excessive surface water runoff. This or similarly reliable
measures should be employed.
CHEMICAL TREATMENT
Waste Neutralization
The relatively simple step of neutralization is quite effec-
tive in reducing the pollutional potential of acid leach mill
wastes. In addition to eliminating the quite significant harm-
-------
64 URANIUM WASTE GUIDE
ful effects of excess acidity on the aquatic life of a receiving
stream, the solubility of certain radioactive and chemical
pollutants is greatly reduced, causing their precipitation and
subsequent retention in the waste ponds.
Of greatest significance is the removal of dissoU'ed radium
in acid leach effluents by neutralization to a pH of 7. 0. An 83
percent reduction was observed at one mill^ and slightly higher
values to (90^) have been reported elsewhere. 20 jn addition,
the dissolved thorium would be precipitated. The concentra-
tions of certain chemicals in solution, such as sulphate, phos-
phate, iron, copper, cobalt, arsenic, uranium, and vanadium.
likewise are reduced by neutralization. Lime is most commonly
used as a neutralizing agent.
The addition of sulfuric acid to alkaline mill wastes for pH
reduction may also bring about some removal of soluble radi-
um. 20 The extent of removal observed in bench-scale labor-
atory tests was variable, however. The observed removals
probably resulted from the presence of finely divided solids
and precipitates formed during neutralization, and the mech-
anism of dissolved radium removal was adsorption onto solid
particulate surfaces. Because of this tendency of radium to
be bound to the finer solid particles, the best sedimentation
practice is required following neutralization if maximum re-
movals are to be achieved.
At a few mills both acid and alkaline leaching of ores is
practiced. At these mills combination of the respective acid
and alkaline waste streams is an obvious and practical treat-
ment step.
Barite Treatment
A reduction of dissolved radium in acid leach wastes by a
factor of ten, as obtained by neutralization, is often insuf-
ficient to meet discharge requirements, and further treatment
steps may be required. One procedure which has been found
effective for dissolved radium removal employs the crude min-
eral form of barium suifate. referred to as barite. This ma-
terial has been tested on a pilot scale and is presently in use
at several mills.
Soluble radium removals up to 90 percent and higher by
barite treatment have been obtained in bench-scale tests of
neutralized acid and alkaline mill wastes. ^0 The amount of
-------
Pollution Abatement Methods 55
removal actually achieved was found to be dependent primarily
upon the mesh size of the barite, the intimacy and time of con-
tact, and the method of application. The most efficient treat-
ment procedure is to percolate the waste through a column of
barite. which results in a chemical consumption of about 300
milligrams of barite per liter of waste treated and results in
an apparent radium-226 removal in excess of 90 percent.
Treatment may also be carried out by percolation of the liquid
waste through a shallow bed of barite. or by batch treatment in
which the barite is added to the waste in agitated or quiescent
tanks. The barite requirements for this latter mode of treat-
ment are higher for comparable radium removals and recycling
or series treatment may be necessary. Thus the combination
of acid mill waste neutralization, which can remove up to 90
percent of the dissolved radium, followed by barite treatment
where an additional 90 percent removal may also be possible,
would result in an over-all removal of 99 percent or a reduc-
tion in soluble radium content by a factor of 100.
Various methods of barite treatment are now being used by
several mills to determine whether the laboratory findings pre-
viously described are as effective in full-scale applications.
There is some indication that a more refined form of barium.
i. e., barium carbonate or barium chloride, may be a more
effective treatment agent, with little or no increase in the cost
of treatment. The total cost of chemicals for the neutralization-
barite treatment for acid mill wastes is estimated to be about
20 to 40 cents per ton of ore processed, 80 to 90 percent of
which represents the cost of neutralization.
An effective treatment for dissolved radium removal from
alkaline leach mill waste liquids has been found in laboratory
tests with copperas (FeSC^Tf^O) as a flocculating agent together
with barite. 20 A two-step treatment, in which copperas is added
in the first step followed by two-settling stages and barite is
added in the second step, yielded over-all removals of 97 per-
cent. This level of removal would ordinarily result in a treated
effluent which meets Atomic Energy Commission limits for dis-
solved radium-226, if it is as effective in full-scale mill opera-
tions as in tests.
Raffinate Treatment
In discussions of the pollutional effects of mill wastes, the
organic-bearing raffinate from the solvent extraction process
-------
66
URANIUM WASTE GUIDE
v tf*-.
Organic-bearing raffinate is stored in ponds of this type. Because of
its toxicity to aquatic life, this material should be disposed of by
seepage or treated prior to discharge.
has been cited as the most toxic to aquatic life. This waste
contains significant quantities of both the costly solvent and its
diluent, kerosene, and is highly acidic. Because of the nature
of the waste, it may be impounded separately in retention ponds.
as has been done in at least one case. & from which evaporation
or seepage may be sufficient to preclude its overflow. Prior
to entering the ponds this waste usually is passed through a
holding tank to permit any possible further recovery by skim-
ming. An added treatment step for further entrained organic
removal which suggests itself at this point is the addition of
make-up kerosene. The additional organic removed as a re-
sult could be recycled to the uranium extraction process with
attendant savings in solvent cost. Such extra kerosene could
easily be added in a small flash mixer ahead of the holding
tank, and no loss of the diluent should result since the waste
is undoubtedly fully saturated and charged with kerosene on
leaving the extraction tank. Even more thorough treatment
could be provided by vacuum or pressure flotation procedures.33
For instance, air could be dissolved under pressure in the
raffinate by inserting a pump and small pressure tank ahead of
-------
Pollution Abatement Methods 67
the decantation tank. Air and excess kerosene could be added
at the suction side of the pump. Upon reaching the decantation
tank, the dissolved air would come out oi" solution as minute
bubbles which, in rising to the surface, would tend to separate
the immiscible kerosene and solvent present. These materials
could be skimmed off for return to the uranium extraction pro-
cess. Any solvent dissolved in the raffinate rather than en-
trained would be unaffected, however.
Very little dissolved radium is extracted by the solvent, and
the treated effluent from the decantation step would still contain
substantial quantities (See Figure 10). This effluent, if treated
as outlined above, could then be impounded separately or added
to the tailings pond contents for further treatment for dissolved
radium removal.
DEEP-WELL INJECTION
The Anaconda Company at Grants. New Mexico, recently
put into operation a deep-well injection system for disposal of
tailing water from its acid-leach, resin-in-puip mill. The in-
jection well was drilled to 2511 feet with an original diameter of
slightly less than 8 inches. The disposal zone extends down-
ward from 950 feet for a distance of almost 600 feet.
The acidic waste waters are decanted from the tailings
pond, treated with copper sulphate (for slime control) and a
sequestering agent, then passed through circular leaf filters
for turbidity removal. The treated waste is injected into the
well by gravity at a rate of 400 gallons per minute. The static
water level of 240 feet provides a natural hydrostatic injection
pressure of about 100 pounds per square inch.
Upon entry of the waste water into the underground forma-
tion, neutralization, precipitation, ion exchange, and dilution
by the ground waters take place. Calculations of the porosity
and ion-exchange capacity of the sands in the disposal forma-
tions indicate a useful life expectancy of the system of more
than 10 years.
Special care has been taken in casing the well to prevent
the possible contamination of the major potable water aquifer
at a higher elevation. A monitoring well has been located in
this aquifer some 300 feet away in the direction of the hydraulic
gradient. Weekly samples have indicated that no leakage is
taking place. A regional monitoring program of all fresh water
-------
68 URANIUM WASTE GUIDE
sources in a 20-square-mile area surrounding the well has
also been instituted.
The successful operation of this deep-well injection sys-
tem is most encouraging and points the way toward what may be
one of the most satisfactory available methods for disposal of
liquid mill wastes.
SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL
The methods of waste treatment discussed above have as
their objective the conversion of dissolved radioactivity, speci-
fically radium, to an insoluble form which can be precipitated
from the waste solution prior to discharge. The radium thus
removed from solution, together with the large amount of solid
ore tailings, is retained in ponds while the treated liquid is
disposed of by evaporation, seepage, and/or discharge to sur-
face waters. These retained solids contain a considerable quan-
tity of radium, all but a minute fractional percentage of that or-
iginally present in the raw ore. Hence, the tailings piles repre-
sent a great reservoir of potential radium contamination of
nearby surface and ground waters and must be controlled ac-
cordingly. The magnitude of this reservoir is indicated by the
amount of tailing solids accumulated to date, which is esti-
mated to be 34 million tons. ^
The radium contained in these solids is known to be leach-
able by contact with water. This is especially true of the pre-
cipitated solids from neutralization and barite treatment pro-
cesses. Therefore, these solids should not be permitted to
enter natural bodies of water. Heavy rainfall, flooding of
nearby streams, and wind erosion of the dry tailings piles all
present opportunities for the movement of these materials into
the aquatic environment. Excessive seepage from the base of
such tailings piles provides an early indication of potential
structural failure of the wall. Whatever measures are needed
at any particular mill site to prevent such movement, should be
carried out. These measures may include, for example, the
avoidance of flood plains, river banks, and dry wash areas as
locations for tailings piles and the construction and maintenance
of pond dikes to preclude their rupture due to the hydraulic head
within the pond. Cementation of the exterior surfaces of aban-
doned tailings piles is worthy of consideration at some locations
to minimize wind-borne dust. Abandoned mines may make a
-------
Pollution Abatement Methods 69
suitable long-term repository for waste tailings solids, and
this method of disposal, as practiced elsewhere in the mining
industry, 34 may of necessity receive more attention in the
future. Proposals have been made to use these tails as land-
fill material for highway and other construction projects. A
thorough evaluation of possible hazards associated with this
means of disposal, which would be required in each case, has
not been made to date. This type of containment of waste tails,
however, may merit further study. The indiscriminate use of
tailing sands by nearby residents in concrete, mortar, or plas-
ter mixes, for children's sand boxes or as a garden soil additive
should certainly be prevented, for obvious reasons.
It must be emphasized strongly that any steps taken toward
reduction of the dissolved radioactivity entering a stream will
have been to no avail if the radioactive solids are not perma-
nently controlled. The half-life of radium, 1620 years, clearly
indicates the importance of permanent retention and control of
this solid waste material.
-------
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
URANIUM MILLING INDUSTRY
The extraction of uranium from its ores has become a
major industry in the United States since the end of World War
II. The United States now ranks as the world's largest producer
of uranium ore, and of uranium concentrate, the final product
of the milling process. The location of major ore deposits is
largely centered in the Colorado Plateau and Ambrosia Lakes
areas and in Wyoming, with the result that most of the indus-
try's milling capacity is located in the Colorado River Basin
and the Grants, New Mexico, area.
The most significant waste materials from this industry are
the radioactive daughter products of uranium-238, each of which
is found in uranium ores at or near the same level of activity as
the parent isotope. The greatest human internal hazard of the
14 radioisotopes in the decay series is presented by radium-226,
a long-lived alpha emitter. Of the 264 radioisotopes considered
by the ICRP-NCRP. the maximum permissible concentration in
water (MPCW) consumed by the general public is lowest for
radium-226, that is, 3. 3 micromicrocuries per liter. The next
most hazardous isotope is lead-210, which has an MPCW of 33. 3
micromicrocuries per liter. Thorium-230 and uranium-238,
whose MPCw's are 200 and 4, 000 times higher, respectively,
than radium, have also received attention as radioactive pollu-
tants having potential significance in uranium mill wastes.
Uranium mills employ acid or alkaline leaching to dissolve
the uranium content of the ore following grinding. Once the
uranium has been put into solution, it is recovered by chemical
precipitation, which, in some cases, is preceded by a concentra-
tion step in which ion-exchange or solvent-extraction methods
are used. The liquid and solid wastes from these operations
contain potentially hazardous amounts of radioactive materials,
as well as chemical water pollutants which are undesirable from
a toxicological. aesthetic, or economic standpoint.
71
-------
72 Uranium Waste Guide
PROCESS WASTES
During acid leaching about 0. 5 percent of the radium-226
content of the ore is usually dissolved and discharged in the
mill waste streams. Alkaline leaching has been found to dis-
solve a greater amount of radium-226 or about 2 percent of that
present in the ore. However, in this case, essentially all of
that dissolved is precipitated together with the uranium and
leaves the mill in the final concentrate product. The radium
which is not dissolved during processing leaves the mill as
waste in the spent ore.
Uranium and thorium have been shown to be of much less
significance as water pollutants than radium-226. Little is
presently known of the possible significance of lead-210 as a
radioactive pollutant in uranium mill waste discharges.
Chemical constituents of mill wastes are of concern in
some instances. Chlorides, nitrates, sulfates, hardness, total
dissolved solids, manganese, iron, lead, arsenic, fluoride,
organics, and possibly other materials may be present at rela-
tively high levels in uranium mill wastes, depending upon the
particular raw ore composition, the milling process, and the
chemical reagents used during processing.
POLLUTIONAL EFFECTS
Where uranium mill wastes containing radioisotopes, es-
pecially radium-226, are allowed to enter adjacent surface
waters, a human internal radiation hazard is presented to down-
stream water users. This hazard arises from ingestion of
radioactive materials in drinking water, and in crops irrigated
with contaminated water, and from ingestion by other routes
involving animal feed crops such as hay and alfalfa. The de-
gree of hazard is directly related to the amount of both dis-
solved and undissolved radium discharged to the stream. Spent
ore tailings contain virtually all of the radium originally present
in the ore and are important reservoirs of potential contamina-
tion. If discharged to streams, these solids settle to the bottom
where their radium content is gradually leached into the overly-
ing waters.
Liquid mill wastes, particularly the raffinate from solvent
extraction mills, are capable of causing severe destruction of
the aquatic life in streams. The excess acidity of certain mill
-------
Summary and Conclusions 73
wastes can produce similar effects. The other chemical pollu-
tants mentioned above as being present in mill wastes are also
capable of impairing the stream's usefulness as a source of
municipal water supply.
Many of the undesirable effects described apply equally to
ground waters. Vertical seepage of liquid mill wastes from
holding ponds to the ground water table has been demonstrated,
resulting in excessive chemical and radioisotope concentra-
tions in water drawn form nearby test wells. The extent of
underground travel of these pollutants has not been completely
established.
MILL WASTE TREATMENT
Impoundment of mill wastes in tailings ponds is widely
practiced in the industry. With proper operation and main-
tenance of such ponds, it is possible to greatly restrict dis-
charges to nearby streams, depending upon the size of ponds
in relation to mill waste output and meteorological and soil
conditions. These ponds, in addition, are usually successful
in removing most settleable solids. The dikes of many such
ponds are made of uncompacted tailings solids, resulting in
lateral seepage from the pond and occasional dike failure with
the loss of pond contents to the environment.
Mill waste neutralization is an effective treatment step
which can bring about dissolved radium reductions of up to
90 percent. Further treatment of neutralized wastes by the
addition of barium compounds makes additional reductions of
dissolved radium possible.
Organic-bearing raffinate may be impounded separately to
allow for evaporation and vertical seepage into the ground. In
this way discharge to surface waters with attendant harmful
effects on the aquatic biota can be avoided.
CONCLUSIONS
The uranium milling industry is a major potential source
of radiological pollution of the aquatic environment. The mag-
nitude of mill operations and the particular isotopes involved
present a very real potential threat of excessive human internal
radiation exposure. It is only by employing the most careful
and deliberate waste control measures that this potential threat
can be prevented from becoming an actuality. Improvements in
-------
74 Uranium Waste Guide
presently available waste treatment and control procedures
should continue to be pursued; however, existing methods, if
carefully applied, can provide a reasonably adequate degree of
protection.
During the past 5 years the uranium milling industry has
made substantial improvements in waste-handling and disposal
procedures. As a result, environmental contamination in the
vicinity of many mills can be considered to be near a desirable
minimum level. Sound radiation protection philosophy dictates.
however, that wherever additional reductions in the amount of
activity released to the environment can be obtained by reason-
able means such reductions should be accomplished. In addition.
continued study of the more subtle areas of possible or potential
contamination is warranted. Chemical or radiological pollution
of ground waters by uranium mill wastes has been shown to oc-
cur, for example, and continued investigation of this problem is
desirable. In addition, the importance of lead-210 as a mill
waste constituent should receive attention.
The extremely long half-life of the major radioisotope in-
bolved, that is, radium-226, whose half-life is 1620 years,
means that permanent control of ore residues is required. Ac-
ceptable methods of very long-term storage and retention, there-
fore, need to be found. Reliable measures to preclude the acci-
dental release of tailings pond contents and waste ore solids are
also needed. Finally, continuous monitoring of the environment
is necessary to ensure that waste treatment and confinement
methods are producing the desired results.
-------
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Shearer. S. D. , Sponagle, C. E., Jones, J. D. , and
Tsivoglou, E. C. , Waste Characteristics for the Acid-
Leach Solvent Extraction Uranium Refining Process. I.
Gunnison Mining Company. Technical Report W62-17,
Health Service, R. A. Taft San. Engrg.
Center, Cincinnati, Ohio. 1962.
2. Cohen, J. B. , Sponagle, C. E. , Shaw. R. M. , Jones,
J. K. . and Shearer, S. D. , Waste Characteristics for
the Acid- Leach Solvent Extraction Uranium Refining Pro-
cess. II. Climax Uranium Company, Technical Report
W62-17, U. S. Public Health Service, R. A. Taft San.
Engrg. Center, Cincinnati, Ohio. 1962.
3. Cohen, J. B. , Pahren, H. R., Lammering, M. W. ,
Waste Characteristics for the Carbonate Leach Uranium
Extraction Process. I. Homestake-New Mexico Partners
Company. Technical Report W62-17, Cincinnati, Ohio.
1962.
4. Pahren, H. R. , Lammering. M. W. , Hernandez, Waste
Characteristics for the Carbonate Leach Uranium Ex-
traction Process. II. Homestake-Sapin Company, Tech-
nical Report W62-17, U. S. Public Health Service, R. A.
Taft San. Engrg. Center, Cincinnati, Ohio. 1962.
5. Tsivoglou, E. C., Kalda, D. D. , Dearwater, J. B. .
Waste Characteristics for the Resin-in-Pulp Uranium Ex-
traction Process, Second United Nations International
Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy. Paper
No. 2359, 21 pp. June 1958.
6. Shearer. S. D. Jones, J. D. , Tsivoglou. E. C. , Survey
of Uranium Reduction Company Mill. Moab. Utah. U. S.
Public Health Service, R. A. Taft San. Engrg. Center.
Cincinnati, Ohio. Unpublished report.
75
-------
76 Uranium Waste Guide
7. Tsivoglou, E. C., et al., Survey of Interstate Pollution of
the Animas River (Colorado-New Mexico). U. S. Public
Health Service, R. A. Taft San. Engrg. Center, Cincinna-
ti, Ohio. May 1959.
8. Tsivoglou, E. C.. et al., Survey of Interstate Pollution
of the Animas River (Colorado-New Mexico). II. 1959
Surveys. U. S. Public Health Service. R. A. Taft San.
Engrg. Center, Cincinnati, Ohio. Jan. 1960.
9. Tsivoglou. E. C., et al., Effects of Uranium Ore Refinery
Wastes on Receiving Waters. Sew. and Ind. Wastes, 30.
p. 1012.1958.
10. Data provided by Grand Junction Operations Office, Atomic
Energy Commission.
11. Halliday. D.. Introductory Nuclear Physics. John A.
Wiley and Sons. Inc. . New York. N. Y. 1950.
12. A Description of Uranium Mines and Mills and Radioac-
tive Wastes. Working Group No. 6. Subcommittee N5. 2.
ASA Sectional Comm. N5. ASA. (Draft) May 1962.
13. Maximum Permissible Body Burdens and Maximum Per-
missible Concentrations of Radionuclides in Air and Water
for Occupational Exposure. NCRP. Nat. Bur. of Stds.
Handbook 69. Wash. . D. C. June 1959.
14. International Commission on Radiological Protection,
ICRP Part 2. Report of Committee II on Permissible
Dose for Internal Radiation. Pergamon Press. London.
1959.
15. Terrill. J. G. . Ingraham. S. C.. and Moeller. D. W..
Radium in the Healing Arts and Industry. Public Health
Reports. 69. No. 3. Mar. 1954.
16. Maximum Permissible Amounts of Radioisotopes in the
Human Body and Maximum Permissible Concentrations
in Air and Water. NCRP. Nat. Bur. of Stds. Handbook
52. Wash.. D. C. 1953.
-------
Bibliography 77
17. Rama Minoru Korde and Goldberg. E. C.. Lead 210 in
Natural Waters. Science. Voi 134. July 14. 1961.
18. Federal Radiation Council. Radiation Protection Guidance
for Federal Agencies. Federal Register. May 1960, and
Sept. 1961.
19. Clegg and Foley. Uranium Ore Processing, Addison-Wes-
ley Publ. Co.. Inc.. Reading. Mass. 1958.
20. National Lead Co., An AEC Research and Development
Report from Winchester Laboratory. Topical Report
WIN-112, Winchester, Mass. Feb. 1960.
21. Hearings Before the Special Subcommittee on Radiation
of the Joint Committee on Atomic Energy. Industrial
Radioactive Waste Disposal, Vol. I, pp. 37. 58. U. S.
Govt. Printing Office. 1959.
22. DeSesa, M. A.. Second Interim Report on Investigations
into the Problem of Radioactive Pollution of Uranium Mill
Effluents. Nat. Lead Co.. Inc.. Topical Report WIN-111,
Winchester. Mass. April 1959.
23. Marvin. G.. et al., Recovery of Uranium from its Ores.
Proc. UN Conf. on Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy. UN
519, Geneva. 1955.
24. Whitman. A. and Porter, E. C.. Chemical Stream Pollu-
tion from Uranium Mills. Nat. Lead Co.. Inc. Topical
Report WIN-99, Winchester. Mass. June 1958.
25. Whitman. A. and Beverly, R. G., Radium Balance in
Monticello Acid RIP Uranium Mill. Nat. Lead Co.. Inc.
Topical Report WIN-113, Winchester. Mass. Dec. 1958.
26. Hollis. R. F.. and McArthur, C. K.. The Resin-in-Pulp
Process for Recoverv of Uranium. Proc. UN Conf. on
Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy. UN526, Geneva. 1955.
27. Tsivoglou. E. C.. et al.. Estimating Human Radiation
Exposure on the Animas River. Journ. AWWA, 52. 10,
1271. Oct. 1960.
-------
78 Uranium Waste Guide
28. Transcript of Conference on Pollution of the Interstate
Waters of the Colorado River and its Tributaries. Second
Session. Las Vegas, Nev. May 11, 1961.
29. Pahren. H. R.. Sponagle, C. E., and Anderson, J. B.,
Stream Surveys in the Vicinity of Uranium Mills. II.
Area of Moab. Utah - Aug. 1960. Colo. R. Basin Water
Quality Control Project, U. S. Public Health Service.
Sept. 1961.
30. Anderson. J. B. Tsivoglou, E. C., and Shearer. S. D..
Effects of Uranium Mill Wastes on Biological Fauna of
the Animas River, Presented at Symposium on Radioec-
ology. Fort Collins. Colorado. Sept. 11, 1961.
31. U. S. Public Health Service Drinking Water Standards.
Federal Register, 26 F. R. 6737. July 27. 1961.
32. U. S. Atomic Energy Commission. Standards for Pro-
tection Against Radiation, Federal Register, 25 F. R.
8598. Sept. 7, 1960.
33. Gurnham. C. R., Principles of Industrial Waste Treat-
ment. John A. Wiley and Sons. New York. N. Y. 1955.
34. Harrison. A. C.. Ore Dressing Wastes and Mine Waters:
The Problem of Their Disposal, in Disposal of Industrial
Waste Materials, Society of Chemical Industry, London.
MacMillan Co. , New York, N. Y. 1957.
35. Report of an Investigation of Ground Water Pollution.
Grants-Bluewater. New Mexico, New Mexico Dept. Pub-
lic Health with U. S. Public Health Service. Aug. 1957.
36. Shearer. S. D.. The Leachability of Radium-226 from
Uranium Mill Waste Solids and River Sediments, Ph.D.
Dissertation, Univ. of Wisconsin. 1962.
37. West. S. W.. Disposal of Uranium Mill Effluent Near
Grants. New Mexico. Paper No. 421. Geological Survey
Research 1961, USGS Prof. Paper 424-D. U. S. Govt.
Printing Office. Wash. D. C. 1961.
38. Calder. Ritchie. Livi'hg with the Atom, p'. 78. The Uni-
versity of Chicago Press, Chicago, 111. (1962).
GPO 825890—6
------- |