ENVIRONMENTAL
HEALTH SERIES
Water Supply
and Pollution Control
ENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE
Public Health Service
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POLLUTION AND THE LIFE IN WATER
Kenneth M. Mackenthun, Aquatic Biologist
and
William Marcus Ingram, In Charge
Biological and Chemical Activities
Technical .Services Branch
Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE
Public Health Service
Division of Water Supply and Pollution Control
Cincinnati, Ohio 452Z6
GWtfcber
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The ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH SERIES of reports was estab-
lished to report the results of scientific and engineering studies of
man's environment: The community, whether urban, suburban, or
rural, where he lives, works, and plays; the air, water, and earth he
uses and re-uses; and the wastes he produces and must dispose of in a
way that preserves these natural resources. This SERIES of reports
provides for professional users a central source of information on the
intramural research activities of Divisions and Centers within the
Public Health Service, and on their cooperative activities with State
and local agencies, research institutions, and industrial organisations .
The general subject area of each report is indicated by the two letters
that appear in the publication number; the indicators are
WP - Water Supply
and Pollution Control
AP - Air Pollution
AH - Arctic Health
EE - Environmental Engineering
FP - Food Protection
OH - Occupational Health
RH - Radiological Health
Triplicate tear-out abstract cards are provided with reports in
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Reports in the SERIES will be distributed to requesters, as
supplies permit. Requests should be directed to the Division identi-
fied on the title page or to the Publications Office. Robert A. la ft
Sanitary Engineering Center, Cincinnati, Ohio 45226.
Public Health Service Publication No. 999-WP-ZO
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ABSTRACT
The study of aquatic organisms as they have been related to
water supply and water pollution problems since 1850 is detailed.
Significant contributions have been made that relate plankton, benthos,
periphyton, and fish to the definition of organic, toxic, thermal, and
silt pollution. Generally it is not realistic to isolate a particular
genus or even a species of aquatic organism to indicate the presence
or absence of pollutional wastes in water. It is the study of the
total aquatic biota that tells one most about water conditions. Never-
theless, something equated with the magnitude of the problem that may
be termed "reality" often dictates the type of study and the kinds and
numbers of samples collected.
Serious thought should be given in the reporting of data to ensure
that the final report is matched to the needs of the study and provides
answers to questions responsible for the instigation of the study.
(3 figures, 73 references)
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POLLUTION AND THE LIFE IN WATER
CHRONICLE
Since the turn of the century, and even before, biologists have
struggled to determine the impact of civilization's rejectamenta on
aquatic biota and to explain these phenomena to their associated disci-
plines and to the public. The chronicle of published effort began with
Hassall in 1850 (1850, 1856) who noted the value of microscopic exam-
ination of water for the understanding of water problems. Sedgwick
(1888) led in application of biological methods to water supply problems.
The Massachusetts State Board of Health was the first agency in the
United States to establish a systematic biological examination of water
supplies. In 1889 Sedgwick collaborated with George W. Rafter to
develop the Sedgwick-Rafter method of counting plankton. Whipple
(1899) produced a treatise that, in 1948, was in its fourth edition and
fifth printing; it has served through the years as an often-used ref-
erence in the water supply and water pollution field.
One of the first practical applications of biological data to the
biological definition of water pollution was contained in the "saprobien
system" of Kolkwitz and Marsson (1908, 1909). This system, based
on a check list detailing the responses of many plants and animals to
organic wastes, has been extensively used to indicate the degree of
pollution at a given site. That the sound basic judgment of these early
investigators has withstood the passage of time is shown by the fre-
quent references currently made to their works.
The survey of the Illinois River by the Illinois Natural History
Survey was one of the first that clearly demonstrated the biological
effects of organic pollution; a series of papers represents studies that
provided much impetus and professional status to biological stream
investigations in the United States (i. e. , Forbes and Richardson, 1913,
1919;Forbes, 1928). Richardson (1 921) showed that changes had oc-
curred in the bottom fauna of the Illinois River since 1913 as a result
of the increased movement of sewage pollution southward. Later,
Richardson (1928) noted that ". . .the number of small bottom-dwelling
species of the fresh waters of our distribution area that can be safely
regarded as having even a fairly dependable individual index value in
the present connection is surprisingly small; and even those few have
been found in Illinois to be reliable as index species only when used
with the greatest caution and when checking with other indicators. "
''" Presented at: Pymatunfng Laboratory of Field Biology of University of Pittsburg by
Kenneth M. Mackenthun , July 17, 1964.
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Purdy (1916) demonstrated the value of certain organisms for
indicating areas of the Potomac River receiving sewage discharges.
The shallow flats of the Potomac River were found to be of great im-
portance in the natural purification of organic wastes; sunlight and
turbidity were observed to be prominent factors in the determination
of oxygen levels and in waste purification processes. Weston and
Turner (1917), Butterfield (1929), and Butterfield and Purdy (1931)
reported other studies that demonstrated the effects of organic en-
richment on a stream, the sudden change in the biota after the intro-
duction of the waste, and the progressive recovery of the biota down-
stream as the wastes were utilized.
ORGANIC
POLLUTION
TOXIC
WASTES
INORGANIC
SILTS
POPULATION
UNAFFECTED ACTIVE DECOMPOSITION RECOVERY UNAFFECTED
ZONE DEGRADATION ZONE ZONE ZONE
ZONE
STREAM FLOW (TIME OR DISTANCE)
Figure I. Response of benthos to pollution.
Butcher (1932, 1940) studied the algae of rivers in England
and noted that attached algal forms gave the most reliable indication
of the suitability of the environment of an area for the support of
aquatic life. In the United States, Lackey (1939, 1941a, 1942) worked
with planktonic algae and noted their response to various pollutants.
The work of Ellis (1937) on the detection and measurement of stream
pollution, the effects of various wastes on stream environments, and
the toxicity of various materials to fishes has served as a reference
handbook and toxicity guide through many years.
Cognizance has been taken of the biotic community and the effect
of pollution on the ecological relationships of aquatic organisms
(Brinley, 1 942; Bartsch, 1948). Bartsch and Churchill (1 949) graphi-
cally depicted (Figure 1) the biotic response to stream pollution and
related stream biota to zones of degradation, active decomposition,
recovery, and clean water. Patrick (1949) described a healthy
POLLUTION
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stream reach as one in which ". . .the biodynamic cycle is such that
conditions are maintained which are capable of supporting a great
variety of organisms, " a semihealthy reach as one in which the ecology
is somewhat disrupted but not destroyed, a polluted reach as one in
which the balance of life is upset, and a very polluted reach as one that
is definitely toxic to plant and animal life. Patrick separated the biota
into seven groups and demonstrated specific group response to stream
conditions by bar graphs. The number of species was used rather than
the number of individuals. Fjerdingstand (1950) published an extensive
list placing various algae and diatoms in zones or in ranges of stream
zones similar to those of Kolkwitz and Marsson.
ORGANISM RESPONSES
The "classical" benthic organism responses to organic wastes
have been detailed frequently in the literature (Hynes, 1960; Biglane
and Lafleur, 1954;Hirsch, 1 958; Dymond and Delaporte, 1952;Pente-
low, 1949; Van Horn, 1949, 1952; Bartsch and Ingram, 1959; and
Gaufin, 1958). Benthic organisms are directly subjected to adverse
conditions of existence as a result of their preferred habitat and their
general inability to move great distances by self motion. Different
types of organisms respond in a variety of ways to changes that may
occur in their environments. Some species cannot tolerate any ap-
preciable water quality changes, whereas others can tolerate a wide
range of water quality, and some very tolerant ones are able to live
and multiply under extremely adverse environmental conditions. Gen-
erally, a natural, unpolluted stream reach will support many different
kinds of organisms but relatively few individuals of a given species be-
cause of predation and competition for food and living space. The con-
verse most often exists in a stream reach polluted with organic wastes.
In such a reach, most predators are eliminated by water quality or
substrate changes, living space presents no problem because remain-
ing organisms must be well adapted to live in organic sludge, and food
is seemingly inexhaustible. Sludgeworm populations have, on occasion,
been calculated to exceed 50, 000 pounds per acre of stream bottom.
Patrick (1953) listed five conditions caused by wastes that may
be harmful to aquatic life: dissolved-oxygen deficiency, toxicity,
extreme temperature changes, harmful physical abrasion, and de-
posits that render the bottom substratum untenable for habitation.
Gaufin and Tarzwell (1952, 1956) described extensive studies
of Lytle Creek, which received organic pollution. In the septic zone
it was found that 40 percent of the benthic population was Diptera,
20 percent Coleoptera, 20 percent segmented worms, 10 percent
Hemiptera, and 10 percent Mollusca. All insects were characterized
by having some means of using atmospheric oxygen. Hawkes (1963)
observed that the riffle community is remarkably sensitive to changes
in the organic loading of the water, and since organic and mineral
matter and organisms are constantly being lost by the streambed com-
munity, most stream communities rely on sources outside the stream
itself for their basic materials. Butcher (1959) stated that with gross
and the life in water
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organic pollution the flora of a river consists of "sewage fungus, " and
the fauna, of tubificid worms and Chironomus larvae. As the organic
matter decomposes (with increasing distance from the source of pollu-
tion), Asellus replaces Chironomus, then mollusks appear, and finally
caddisfly larvae and fresh-water shrimp.
Ingram (1957) discussed the pollutional index value of mollusks
and stated that "Apart from systematic morphological studies, it is
not realistic to isolate a single group of organisms such as mollusks
from other animals and plants that are associated under similar eco-
logical conditions in clean or polluted water. It is the study of the
total biota which tells one most about water conditions. "
Groups of related organisms have, however, been used to indi-
cate water quality. Palmer (1957) stated that "...it appears evident
to many workers that particular genera or even species of algae, when
considered separately, are not reliable indicators of the presence or
absence of organic wastes in water. However, when a number of kinds
of algae are considered as a community, that group may be reliable as
such an indicator. '' Lackey (1941b) listed a number of algae that thrive
best in polluted water. Patrick (1957) stated that diatoms are a desir-
able group for use to indicate stream conditions because they need no
special treatment for preservation. The diatom flora of a normal
stream is made up of a great many species and a great many individ-
uals, and diatoms as a group vary greatly in their sensitivity to chemi-
cal and physical conditions of water. She also concluded (Patrick,
1948) that the attached forms give the most reliable indication of the
suitability of the environment for the support of aquatic life.
Czensny (1949) observed the effects of different types of pollu-
tion on fish, on fish food, and on the over-all fisheries resource.
Doudoroff and Warren (1957) stated that ". . .only fish themselves can
be said to indicate reliable environmental conditions generally suitable
for their own existence." Katz and Gaufin (1953) studied the effects of
sewage pollution on the fish population of a midwestern stream and con-
cluded that the presence of black bass and darters is good evidence
that organic pollution is not a major limiting factor in an area. Mills
(1952) stated that the fish population itself is the index or pointer to the
other small forms that need to be considered. Katz and Howard (1954)
found a significant difference in the length of fish of the same year-
class in the various pollutional zones, with the greatest length attained
in the enriched lower portion of the recovery zone. In this study, no
relation between growth of fishes and volume of bottom organisms was
apparent.
Toxic wastes have a severe impact on aquatic biota. Notwith-
standing the variation in response to a specific concentration of a toxi-
cant among aquatic animals and plants, a toxic substance eliminates
aquatic biota until dilution, dissipation, volatilization, etc. , reduce
the concentration below the toxic threshold (see Figure 2). There is
no sharp increase in certain forms as there is with organic wastes;
rather there is an abrupt decline in both species and population
followed by a gradual return to normal stream inhabitants at some
point downstream. The bioassay is, therefore, an important tool in
the investigation of toxic effluents.
4 POLLUTION
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The effects of inert silts on the benthos is similar to those of
toxic wastes, but usually not so severe. Generally, both the number
of species and the total population following silt pollution (Cordone and
Kelley, 1961) are depressed. The algal population is also often much
reduced from the population occurring in areas not laden with silt.
Lakes and other standing waters do not usually support the variety
of benthos found in streams. As -with streams, however, organic pol-
lution eliminates many benthic forms and results in population increases
among the more tolerant varieties (Surber, 1953). Surber (1957)
stated that "A survey of the lake reports showed that an abundance of
tubificids in excess of 100 per square foot apparently truly represented
polluted habitats. " Changes in the benthic population structure are es-
pecially evident in the alluvial fans produced in lakes by polluted influ-
ent streams (see Figure 2). Along with changes in the benthos, the
nutrients contributed by organic pollution may stimulate aquatic growths
that will have a severe impact on the recreational use of the water.
Resultant algal blooms concomitant with recycling and reuse of nu-
trients within the lake basin contribute to and hasten inevitable
eutrophication.
The estuarine and marine environments have not been studied as
extensively as the fresh-water habitats. Reish (I960) cited Wilhelm
(1916) to the effect that the polychaete Capitella capitata (Fabricius)
plays a role in marine waters similar to that the oligochaete Tubifex
plays in fresh water. Filice (1954) and Reish (1960) found three benthic
zones surrounding a major pollutional discharge: one essentially lack-
ing in animals, an intermediate zone having a diminished fauna, and an
outer zone unaffected by the discharge. Filice (1959) found the crab
Rhithropanopeus harrisii (Gould) present more abundantly than expected
near industrial outfalls: this crab and Capitella capitata (Fabricius)
were present in large numbers near domestic outfalls. Hedgpeth (1957)
reviewed the biological aspects of the estuarine and marine environ-
ments.
and the life in water
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V
o
f
r
p
ACTIVE DECOMPOSITION
ZONE
RECOVERY
ZONE
Figure 2. Benthic zones of pollution (organic wastes).
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REALITY AND FIELD OPERATIONS
Biological surveys may be tedious, time consuming, specialized,
demanding, and sometimes expensive, but they are never monotonous
and are seldom routine. Surveys can involve many facets of the aquatic
biota or they may concentrate on one group of organisms (see Figure 3).
mg/kg
Figure 3. Pollution evaluation requires a solid foundation supplied only by interrelating
many disciplines.
Something that may be termed "reality, " equated with the magnitude of
the problem, most often dictates the type of study and the kinds and
numbers of samples to be collected. To those faced, for example,
with an administrative request for a report in 3 weeks on 100 miles of
stream with 30 outfall sewers clustered within a metropolitan area,
reality dictates the extent and scope of field studies. .Biological sam-
pling downstream from each outfall would not be feasible and indeed it
would not be biologically possible to distinguish among many of those
outfalls in close proximity to each other.
and the life in water
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Excluding routine plankton collections, a biologist should always
collect his own samples. Nowhere in the sanitary sciences is more
sound field judgment required than that required of the biologist in
taking his samples and in observing the environment from which the
sample came. Much of his field value lies in his astute observation
of change -within the growth patterns of those biota subject to any ad-
versities within the environment.
Many streams, because of their physical makeup, do not lend
themselves to benthic sampling with routine tools such as the Ekman
dredge, Petersen dredge, and Surber square-foot sampler. Cooke
(1956) reviewed the literature on colonization of artificial bare areas;
Scott (1958) described sampling with brush boxes in nonproductive
stream areas; and Hester and Dendy (1962) described the use of a mul-
tiple-plate sampler made from 3-inch masonite squares separated on
a rod by 1-inch masonite squares. The multiple-plate sampler has
been found to be an effective tool in several streams throughout the
United States. Lund and Tailing (1957) and Sladeckova (1962) described
sampling methods for the algal and periphyton communities. Many
sampling procedures and techniques were detailed by Welch (1948).
The biologist should relate all routine sampling procedures to Standard
Methods for the Examination of Water and Waste-water (APHA, 1960),
or his report should contain a description of those techniques that differ.
SELLING THE PRODUCT
Too often the vital message that biology can bring to the definition
of the pollution problem has been lost because of the obscurity of pre-
sentations sprinkled liberally with vague generalities and because of
lack of understanding and appreciation of the language used to couch
the message. Often basic facts become mired in technical explanation.
The biologist presently must travel more than halfway if he is to sell
the products of his science to the reader. Good, concise, assertive
reporting supported by uncluttered, pertinent graphical material does
much to please and stimulate the reader to greater comprehension of
the findings of fact. One of the biologist's challenges is to present in-
formation that is understandable, meaningful, and helpful to associated
disciplines, to administrators, and to the general public who are the
financial supporters as well as the benefactors of a pollution abate-
ment program.
Recently several methods have been proposed for the presenta-
tion of biological data. Beck (1954, 1955) grouped benthic organisms
into five classes based on their sensitivity to environmental change and
proposed a numerical biotic index that represented a summation of
those species that tolerate no appreciable pollution and those that toler-
ate only a moderate amount. Beak (1963) modified Beck's reporting
method to include three groups in which all occurring species are
placed: those very tolerant of pollution, those occurring in both pollu-
ted and unpolluted situations, and those intolerant of pollution. Points
are arbitrarily assigned to each group, and a biological score results
from adding the points at a given station.
POLLUTION
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Wurtz (1955) developed for each station a four-column histogram
in which the columns represent basic life forms: burrowing organisms,
sessile organisms, foraging organisms, and pelagic organisms. Col-
umns are plotted as a frequency index in which the total number of
species found at any station represents a frequency of 100 percent for
that station.
Beak et al. (1959) used bivariate control charts to describe
changes in benthos adjacent to the site of a large chemical plant. Bur-
lington (1962) statistically calculated a "coefficient of similarity" among
stations; for each specific group of organisms, he used "prominence
values" that take into account both density and frequency of observation.
Patrick and Strawbridge (1963) stated that it is relatively easy to deter-
mine the presence of large amounts of pollution, but that the determina-
tion of definite but borderline deterioration of water quality is in some
cases difficult. They presented a mathematical method whereby the
limits in variation of natural populations, especially diatoms, can be
defined.
Ingram and Bartsch (I960) pleaded for the use of common,
understandable terms in presentations on biology. They pointed out
the value of photographs to depict unusual environmental conditions
and showed a number of different graphical presentations used in in-
vestigational reports.
Serious thought should be given the methods and techniques of
reporting data to ensure that the final report meets the needs of the
study and provides answers to questions originally responsible for the
initiation of the study. Often less thought and consideration are given
to reporting data than to collection and analyses of data, even though
each is equally important to a successful contribution.
and the life in water
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Anon.
1960. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and
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Bartsch, A. F.
1948. Biological aspects of stream pollution. Sewage Works
Journal, 20(2): 292-302.
Bartsch, A. F. , and W. S. Churchill
1949. Biotic responses to stream pollution during artificial
stream reaeration. Limnological Aspects of Water
Supply and Waste Disposal, American Association Ad-
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Bartsch, A. F. , and W. M. Ingram
1959. Stream life and the pollution environment.
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Beak, T. W.
1963. Refinements in biological measurement of water pollution.
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Beak, T. W. , C. de Courval, and N. E. Cooke
1959. Pollution monitoring and prevention by use of bivariate
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Beck, W. M. , Jr.
1954. Studies in stream pollution biology. I. A simplified ec-
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Beck, W. M. , Jr.
1955. Suggested method for reporting biotic data. Sewage and
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Biglane, K. E. , and R. A. Lafleur
1954. Biological indices of pollution observed in Louisiana
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1962. Quantitative biological assessment of pollution. Journal
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10
POLLUTION
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Butcher, R. W.
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Butcher, R. W.
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1959. Biological assessment of river pollution. Proceedings
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1929. Experimental studies of natural purification in polluted
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1931. Some interrelationships of plankton and bacteria in
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1956. Colonization of artificial bare areas by microorganisms.
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Cordone, A. J. , and D. W. Kelley
1961. The influence of inorganic sediment on the aquatic life
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Doudoroff, P. , and C. E. Warren
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1954. An ecological survey of the Castro Creek area in San
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and the life in water
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Filice, F. P.
1959. The effect of wastes on the distribution of bottom inverte-
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1958. The effects of stream pollution on a midwestern stream.
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1952. Aquatic invertebrates as indicators of stream pollution.
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12 POLLUTION
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Hester, F. E. , and J. S. Dendy
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Hirsch, A.
1958. Biological evaluation of organic pollution of New England
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Ingram, W. M.
1957. Use and value of biological indicators of pollution:
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Ingram, W. M. , and A. F. Bartsch
1960. Graphic expression of biological data in water pollution
reports. Journal Water Pollution Control Federation,
_32_(3): 297-310.
Katz, M. , and A. R. Gaufin
1953. The effects of sewage pollution on the fish population of
a mid-western stream. Transactions American Fish-
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Katz, M. , and W. C. Howard
1954. The length and growth of zero-year class of creek chubs
in relation to domestic pollution. Transactions Ameri-
can Fisheries Society, ^4: 228-238.
Kolkwitz, R. , and M. Marsson
1908. Oekologie der pflanzlichen Saprobien. Berichte deutschen
botanischen Gesellschaft, 26a: 505-519.
Kolkwitz, R. , and M. Marsson
1909. Oekologie der tierischen Saprobien. Internationale
Revue gesamten Hydrobiologie Hydrographie, Zj. 126-152.
Lackey, J. B.
1939. Aquatic life in waters polluted by acid mine wastes. Public
Health Reports, _54( 18): 740-746.
Lackey, J. B.
1941a. Two groups of flagellated algae serving as indicators of
clean water. Journal American Water Works Associa-
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and the life in water 13
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Lackey, J. B.
1942. The effects of distillery wastes and waters on the micro-
scopic flora and fauna of a small creek. Public Health
Reports, 57: 253-260.
Lund, L. W. G. , and J. F. Tailing
1957. Botanical limnological methods with special reference to
the algae. The Botanical Review, 23(849): 489-583.
Mills, K. E.
1952. Some aspects of pollution control in tidal waters.
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BIBLIOGRAPHIC: Mackenthun, K. M. , andW.M,
Ingram. Pollution and the life in water. PHS Publ.
No. 999-WP-20. fipAlf 16 pp.
ABSTRACT: The study of aquatic 'orgsrnisms as they
have been related to water supply and water pollution
problems since 1850 is detailed. Significant contri-
butions have been made that relate plankton, benthos,
periphyton, and fish to the definition of organic,
toxic, thermal, and silt pollution.. Generally it is
not realistic to isolate a particular genus or even a
species of aquatic organism to indicate the presence
or absence of pollutional wastes in water. It is the
study of the total aquatic biota that tells one most
about water conditions. Nevertheless, something
equated with the magnitude of the problem that may
be termed "reality" often dictates the type of study
and the kinds and numbers of samples collected.
Serious thought should be given in the reporting
of data to ensure that the final report is matched to
the needs of the study and provides answers to ques-
tions responsible for the instigation of the study,
(3 figures, 73 references)
ACCESSION NO.
KEY WORDS:
BIBLIOGRAPHIC: Mackenthun, K. M. , andW.M.
Ingram. Pollution and the li/e in water. PHS Publ.
No. 999-WP-20. 1964. ffl^pf. 1965
ABSTRACT: The study of aquatic organisms as they
have been related to water supply and water pollution
problems since 1850 is detailed. Significant contri-
butions have been made that relate plankton, benthos,
periphyton, and fish to the definition of organic,
toxic, thermal, and silt pollution. Generally it is
not realistic to isolate a particular genus or even a
species of aquatic organism to indicate the presence
or absence of pollutional wastes in water. It is the
study of the total aquatic biota that tells one most
about water conditions. Nevertheless, something
equated with the magnitude of the problem that may
be termed "reality" often dictates the type of study
and the kinds and numbers of samples collected.
Serious thought should be given in the reporting
of data to ensure that the final report is matched to
the needs of the study and provides answers to ques-
tions responsible for the instigation of the study.
(3 figures, 73 references)
ACCESSION NO.
KEY WORDS:
BIBLIOGRAPHIC: Mackethun, K.M., andW.M.
Ingram. Pollution and the life in water. PHS Publ.
No. 999-WP-20. 1964. f^)£# 1965
ABSTRACT: The study of aquatic organisms as they
have been related to water supply and water pollution
problems since 1850 Is detailed. Significant contri-
butions have been made that relate plankton, benthos,
periphyton, and fish to the definition of organic,
toxic, thermal, and silt pollution. Generally it is
not realistic to isolate a particular genus or even a
species of aquatic organism to indicate the presence
or absence of pollutional wastes in water. It is the
study of the total aquatic biota that tells one most
about water conditions. Nevertheless, something
equated with the magnitude of the problem that may
be termed "reality" often dictates the type of study
and the kinds and numbers of samples collected.
Serious thought should be given in the reporting
of data to ensure that the final report is matched to
the needs of the study and provides answers to ques-
tions responsible for the instigation of the study.
(3 figures, 73 references)
ACCESSION NO.
KEY WORDS:
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