United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Office of Water
4601 .
EPA 811-F-95-O02m-T
October 1995
. . _ Primary Drinking
Water Regulations
Nickel
CHEMICAL/ PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
CAS NUMBER: 7440-02-0 .
COLOR/ FORM/ODOR: Nickel is a silvery metal found only in
combined form in nature. •
SOIL SORPTION COEFFICIENT: N/A; sorption related to that of iron/
manganese oxides, organic matter.
BIOCONCENTRATION FACTOR: N/A; not expected to bioconcentrate
• COMMON ORES: sulfide- chalcopyrite, heazlewoodite (disulfide);
sulfate- morenosrte; carbonate- zaratite; oxide- bunsenite;
others- pyrrhotite, pentlandite, gamierite, niccolite, millerite
SOLUBILITIES:
acetate-
carbonate-
carbonyl-
chloride-
cyanide-
disulfide-
fluoride-
hydroxide-
iodide-
nitrate-
oxide-
sulfate-
17% at 65 deg C
93 mg/L at 25 deg C
insoluble •
642 g/L at 20 deg C
insoluble
insoluble
40 g/L at 25 deg C
0.13 g/L cold water
1242 g/L at 0 deg C
48.5.Wt%at20degC
0.11 mg/L at 20 deg C.
293 g/L at 0 deg C
DRINKING WATER STANDARDS
MCLG:
MCL:
HAL(child):
0.1mg/l
0.1 mg/l
1-to 10-day: 1 mg/L
as follows: transportation, 25%, chemical industry, 15%;
electrical equipment, 9%; construction, 9%; fabricated
metal products, 9%; petroleum, 8%; household appli-
ances, 7%; machinery, 7%; and other, 11%.
^wn^d idrn. w.w? III^/L.
NOTE: The MCLG and MGL for nickel are being re-
manHpff •
1 1 icu.iviwW* • • ..
HEALTH EFFECTS SUMMARY
Acute: EPA has not found nickel to potentially cause
health effects from acute exposures at levels above the
MCL.
Short-term exposures in drinking water considered
"safe" for a 10-kg (22 Ib.) child consuming one liter of
water per day: a one- to ten-day exposure to 1 mg/L; upto
a 7 year exposure to 0.5 mg/L
»
Chronic: Nickel has the potential to cause the follow-
ing health effects from long-term exposures at levels
above the MCL: decreased body weight; heart and liver
damage; dermatitis.
Cancer: There is no evidence that nickel has the
potential to cause cancer from lifetime exposures in
drinking water.
••'-_.
USAGE PATTERNS
Production of nickel was 84.6 million Ibs. in 1986,
down slightly from 1982 report of almost 90 million Ibs.
In 1 986 it was estimated that industries consumed nickel
Toxic RELEASE INVENTORY -
RELEASES TO WATER AND LAND:
Water
TOTALS (in pounds) 709,236
Top Ten States *
OR 459
AR 4.250
ID 1,000
IN 28,050
PA 19,680
AZ' 767
^^^f **
TX 0
MD 77,200
CA 6,687
GA . 61,100
Major Industries*
Primary nonferrous meta 16,874 .
' Blast furnaces + steel 304,891
Ind inorganic chems • 22,689
Ind organic chems 109,141
Petroleum refining 186,499
Primary copper 1,272
Iron+steel foundries , 500
Gray iron foundries 3,326
Inorganic pigments 62,394
1 987 TO 1993
Land
26,079,419
6,256,532
5,622.900
2,200,250
2.098,196 :
2,052.736
984,817
^m^m*m Af\f\
777,400
666.637
285,731
193.111
12,053,688
6,784,227
2,519,468
1,105.934
949,411
996,817
409,000
334,524
193,111
* Water/Land totals only include facilities with, releases
greater than a certain amount - usually 1000 to 10.000 Ibs.
October 1995
Technical Version
Printed on Recycled Paper
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Nickel carbonate is used in nickel catalyst production
for organic chemical manufacture, petroleum .refining
and edible oil hardening. Nickel oxide consumption in
1972 (representing over 30 million Ibs. contained nickel)
is estimated to have been as follows: 60% for stainless
arid heat resisting steels, 27% for other steel alloys, 8%
for other nickel alloys, 2% for cast irons, and 3% for other
uses.
RELEASE PATTERNS
Nickel is found in many ores as sulfides, arsenides,
antimonides & oxides or silicates; chief sources include
chalcopyrite; others are pyrrhotite, pentland'rte, gami-
erite, niccolite, millerite. The principal natural form of
nickel oxide occurs in admixture with nickel sulfides in
varying proportions in weathered ore. Nickel carbonate,
found as the mineral zaratite, is a potential atmospheric
and surface water pollutant.
Inadvertent formation of nickel carboriyl can occur in
various industrial processes that use nickel catalysts,
such as coal gasification, petroleum refining, and hydro-
genatipn of fats and oils. Nickel oxide has been identified
in residual fuel oil and in atmospheric emissions from
nickel refineries. Trihickel disulfide is a major component
in nickel refinery flue dust.
From 1987 to 1993, according to the Toxics Release
Inventory nickel releases to land and water totalled nearly
27 million ibs., of which most was to land. These releases
were primarily from nickel smelting/refining and steel-
works industries. The largest releases occurred in Or-
egon and Arkansas. The largest direct releases to water
occurred in Maryland and Georgia.
ENVIRONMENTAL FATE
Nickel is one of the most mobile of the heavy metals in
the aquatic environment. The mobility of nickel in the
aquatic environment is controlled largely by the capability
of various sorbents to scavenge it from solution. Although
data are limited, it appears that in pristine environments,
hydrous oxides of iron and manganese control nickel's
mobility via co-precipitation and sprption. In polluted
environments, the more prevalent organic material will
keep nickel soluble. |n reducing environments, insoluble
nickel sulfide may be formed. Nickel chloride is water
soluble and would be expected to release divalent nickel
into the water.
The atmosphere is a major conduit for nickel as par-
ticulate matter. Contributions to atmospheric loading
come from both natural sources and anthropogenic activ-
ity, with input from both stationary and mobile sources.
Various dry and wet precipitation processes remove
particulate matter as wash out or fallout from the atmo-
sphere with transfer to soils and waters. Soil borne nickel
may enter waters by surface runoff or by percolation into
ground water.
Once nickel is in surface and ground water systems,
physical and chemical interactions (complexation, pre-
cipitation/dissolution, adsorption/desorption, and oxida-
tion/reduction) occur that will determine its fate and that
of its constituents. .
The only gaseous nickel compound of environmental
importance is nickel carbonyl. Under ambient conditions
in moist air, it decomposes to form nickel carbonate.
Thus, in the atmosphere at concentrations near the ppb
level, it has a half-life of about 30 minutes. The removal
of nickel carbonyl by precipitation or by adsorption on
surfaces has not been documented. Since this com-
pound is soluble in water, precipitation scavenging is
possible. Nothing is known about its reaction with natural
surfaces or its uptake by vegetation. Thus, dry deposition
rates cannot be predicted until some experimental inves-
tigations have been conducted.
Although nickel is bioaccumulated, the concentration
factors are such as to suggest that partitioning into the
biota is not a dominant fate process.
OTHER REGULATORY INFORMATION
MONITORING:
- FOR GROUND WATER SOURCES:
INITIAL FREQUENCY- 1 sample once every 3 years
REPEAT FREQUENCY- If no detections for 3 rounds, once every 9 years
- FOR SURFACE WATER SOURCES:
INITIAL FREQUENCY- 1 sample annually • .
REPEATFREQUENCY- If no detections for 3 rounds, once every 9 years
- TRIGGERS - If detect at > 0.1 mg/L, sample quarterly.
ANALYSIS:
REFERENCE SOURCE
EPA 600/4-79-020
NTISPB 91-231498
Standard Methods
METHOONUMBERS
249.1:249.1
200.7; 200.8; 200.9
3111B; 3113; 3120
TREATMENT
BEST AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGIES
Ion Exchange, Lime Softening, Reverse Osmosis
FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION:
A EPA can provide further regulatory and other general information:
• EPA Safe Drinking Water Hotline - 800/426-4791
4 Other sources of toxicological and environmental fate data include:
; Toxic Substance Control Act Information Line - 202/554-1404
• Toxics Release Inventory, National Library of Medicine - 301/496-6531
• Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry - 404/639-6000
October 1995
Technical Version
Page 2
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