DRAFT
3l6(a) TECHNICAL GUIDANCE—THERMAL DISCHARGES
September 30, 1974
Water Planning Division
Office of Water and Hazardous Materials
Environmental Protection Agency
DRAFT
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
I. Introduction '
I 9
II. Decision Guidance
III. Definitions l6
IV- Demonstration Type I: Absence of Prior Appreciable 25
Harm (Existing Sources)
V. Demonstration Type 2: Protection of Representative, 31
Important Species
VI. Demonstration Type 3: Biological, Engineering and Other 49
Data
VII. Engineering and Hydro logic Data 51
VIM. Mixing Zone Guidelines 58
IX. Thermal Load Analysis 71
X. Community Studies 75
Appendix A — Biological Value System for Establ ibih ing 82
Mixing Zones
Appendix B — Temperature Criteria 93
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RAT
3l6(a) DRAFT TECHNICAL GUI DANCE—THERMAL DISCHARGES
October 30, 1974
Delete subparagraph (d)(4)(D) from Chapter V (page 47) which reads:
"The information called for in subparagraph (c)(4)(D)
above, except that such information may be limited to
the area of the proposed discharge zone."
2. Chapter X, Community Studies, is amended as follows and included
in its entirety.
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INTRODUCTI ON
(a) Foreword.
This guidance manual describes the infoTmation which should be
developed and evaluated in connection with the possible modification,
pursuant to section 3l6(a) of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act,
as amended, 33 USC 1251, I326(a), and 40 CFR Part 122, of any effluent
limitation proposed for the control of the thermal component of any
discharge otherwise subject to the provisions of section 301 or 306 of
the Act. It is intended for use by EPA and State water quality agencies
in establishing or reviewing proposed thermal effluent limitations, by
owners or operators of point sources who may file applications under
section 3l6(a) and by members of the public who may wish to participate
in any 3l6(a) determination.
Three types of demonstration are defined—Absence of Prior Appreciable
Harm (Type I), Protection of Representative, Important Species (Type 2)
and Biological, Engineering and Other Data (Type 3) (see 3l6(a) Infor-
mation Flow Chart, below). Where preparation of a demonstration will
require a significant period of time after application has been made for
a permit to include alternative effluent limitations, a plan of study
and demonstration should be established, with the advice and consultation
of the Regional Administrator (or Director).-^ (See 40 CFR §122.5 (or
§122. ID.)
I. Throughout these guidelines the phrase "Regional Administrator (or
Director)" means the relevant permitting authority, unless the context
requires otherwise.
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3I6W INFORMATION
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Effluent Limitations Effluent Limitations Have not boon
316 (a) Thry will ploy
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Guidance Manual.
ative important species
impact includes fish
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HSIDERWICNS:
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Each informational item identified in this guidance for the selected
type(s) should be included in full in the demonstration unless the
established plan provides otherwise.
(b) Legal Requirements.
Heat discharged into water is a pollutant. (Section 502(6), FWPC
Act.) Point source dischargers of pollutants must achieve, not later
than July i, 1977, effluent limitations based on the best practicable
control technology currently available ("BPCTCA") or any more stringent
limitation required by certain State or Federal laws or regulations,
including applicable water quality standards; and they must further
achieve, not later than July I, 1983, effluent limitations based on the
best available technology economically achievable ("BATEA"). (Section
301.) The Administrator is required to publish regulations to define
BPCTCA for classes and categories of point sources (section 304(b)) and
establish Federal standards of performance for new sources within cer-
tain categories of sources. (Section 306.)
Effluent limitations guidelines under section 304(b) and new source
standards of performance under section 306 include limitations on heat
for those industries for which such limitations are appropriate.
Effluent Limitations Guide!ines and Standards, Steam Electric Power
Generating Point Source Category (40 C.F.R. Part 423), include such
I imitations.
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Effluent limitations proposed pursuant to section 301 or 306 for
th,e thermal component of a discharge may be modified or waived if the
owner or operator of the source is able to demonstrate that the effluent
limitations proposed for the thermal component of the discharge are more
stringent than necessary to protect the balanced, indigenous population
of shellfish, fish, and wildlife in and on the body of water into which
the discharge is made.Z/ The basis for modification is a casebycase
evaluation of the water quality impact of the individual discharge.
2. Section 3l6(a) provides:
"With respect to any point source otherwise subject to the
provisions of section 301 or section 306 of this Act, whenever the
owner or operator of any such source, after opportunity for public
hearing, can demonstrate to the satisfaction of the Administrator
(or, if appropriate, the State) that any effluent limitation pro-
posed for the control of the thermal component of any discharge
from such source will require effluent limitations more stringent
than necessary to assure the protection and propagation of a
balanced, indigenous population of shellfish, fish, and wildlife in
and on the body of water into which the discharge is to be made,
the Administrator (or, if appropriate, the State) may impose an
effluent limitation under such sections for such plant, with respect
to the thermal component of such discharge (taking into account the
interaction of such thermal component with other pollutants), that
will assure the protection and propagation of a balanced, indigenous
population of shellfish, fish, and wildlife in and on that body of
water."
Regulations describing requirements under section 3l6(a) should be
consulted in connection with any 3l6(a) presentation. (See 40 C.F R
Part 122.)
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Applicant's Demonstration.
An applicant, after consultation with the Regional Administrator
(for Director), may present evidence addressing any one or more appropriate
demonstration types. All demonstrations should be completed within a
time frame which will assure maximum progress towards compliance with
the statutory deadlines of sections 301 and 306.
Each demonstration item set forth in Chapters IV-VI for the subject
demonstration type will normally apply. The Regional Administrator (or
Director) may authorize or request an applicant to modify, reduce,
expand or eliminate any item as warranted by the circumstances of the
particular case. The advance concurrence or nonconcurrence of the
Regional Administrator (or Director) in a particular demonstration
should help all parties identify a relevant showing. However, the
statutory burden of proof for alternative effluent limitations is on the
applicant. Therefore, any advance agreement should not be taken as
reducing the applicant's responsibilities, nor should any disagreement
be allowed to prejudice the conclusion.
Any alternative effluent limitation imposed pursuant to section
3l6(a) must assure the protection and propagation of a balanced, indige-
nous community of shellfish, fish and wildlife. Therefore, the applicant
submitting evidence for a 3l6(a) evaluation should submit information on
all modes of discharge that he may be contemplating. For example, if
his information indicates that a closed system requirement is too stringent
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but does not justify the use of a simple once through discharge, then he
should have sufficient evidence to justify some other mode of discharge
(a diffuser or a "helper" cooling tower). This is imperative 'since time
may not allow for another long-term 3l6(a) study (due to BPCTCA and
BATEA deadlines). If this is the case and if there is not enough evidence
to assure protection of the balanced, indigenous community in using
another discharge cooling system, then there may be no other choice but
to require a closed cycle cooling system.
Since by law the burden of proof in any 3l6(a) demonstration is on
the applicant, effluent limitations proposed pursuant to sections 301 or
306 will not be modified if the weight of the evidence indicates that
such limitations are not unnecessarily stringent. Neither will they be
modified where the evidence is insufficient to allow the Regional Admin-
istrator (or Director) to determine whether they are unnecessarily
stringent or not. Modification will be granted only where the applicant
succeeds in making a demonstration which (I) affirmatively shows that
the proposed limitations are more stringent than necessary and (2) is
not outweighed by any evidence to the contrary.
(d) Format of Demonstration.
Each demonstration should include the following:
I. Pag i nation.
2. A table of contents.
3. Supportive reports, documents and raw data which are not from
the open scientific literature.
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4. Bibliographic citations to page number.
5. An interpretive, comprehensive narrative summary of the demon-
stration.
The summary should include a table of contents. Sources of data
used in the summary should be cited to page number. The summary should
include a clear discussion stating why the applicant's demonstration is
sufficient to assure that the proposed discharge will assure the protec-
tion and propagation of a balanced, indigenous community.
(e) AppI ication.
The following points may be helpful in the review and application
of these guidelines.
I. How is the Manual to be used: Are its requirements binding?
A. The guidance should normally be followed for each demon-
stration. However, specific demonstration items can be changed to fit
the circumstances of the particular case, with the advice and consultation
of the Regional Administrator (or Director). The applicant is encouraged
to develop its plan of study and demonstration promptly, in accordance with
the law's time constraints. Of course, a demonstration plan cannot be
binding on either the applicant or the Regional Administrator (or Director),
in view of the possibility that developing information may suggest changes
in the study; the potential for third party involvement or judicial
review, and the law's mandate that the burden of proof under section 3l6(a)
is on the appIicant.
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2. How should the right demonstration type be selected? Is there
any screening procedure?
A. No formal screening mechanism can adequately predict the
"right" demonstration type for each applicant. The applicant should
select its proposed demonstration type or types through consideration of
this guidance, the nature of its discharge (existing or new; low impact
or other, etc.) and the availability or attainability of information.
Consultation with the Regional Administrator (or Director) is also
encouraged.
3. How comprehensive must a demonstration be in order to provide
the required assurance of protection and propagation?
A. The study must provide reasonable assurance of protection
and propagation of the indigenous community. Mathematical certainty
regarding a dynamic biological situation is impossible to achieve,
particularly where desirable information is not obtainable. Accordingly,
the Regional Administrator (or Director) must make decisions on the
basis of the best information reasonably attainable. At the same time,
if he finds that the deficiencies in information are so critical as to
preclude reasonable assurance, then alternative effluent limitations
should be denied. It is expected in any case that after publication of
this guidance potential applicants will conduct monitoring and data
collection activities responsive to the applicable portions of this
document. In that way, as initial permits come up for renewal, subsequent
3l6(a) judgments may be made with increasing levels of confidence, and
new effluent I ijnitations may be imposed as necessary (except as provided
in section 3l6(c)).
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4. Will there be enough time to prepare the demonstrations called
for by the guidelines?
A. The statutory timetables are very tight, and the 3l6(a)
statutory test may require preparation of rather extensive information
in order to reach a reasonable conclusion. The time needed for individual
demonstrations will vary according to the demonstration type being
undertaken and the data which the applicant has already collected: No
applicant should lack existing useful data on its own discharge or
proposed discharge. Where a demonstration cannot be completed prior to
the date for issuance of a permit, a permit may be issued for a term of
up to five years which requires the source to achieve the initially
proposed effluent limitations no later than the date specified by applicable
law, regulations and standards, but the permittee may be afforded an
opportunity to request a hearing after additional information has been
developed. (See40C.F_R. §§l22.IO(b), I22.l5(b).)
5. Shouldn't a showing of compliance or noncompIiance with
applicable water quality standards be conclusive?
A. The statutory test established by section 3l6(a) is distinct
from the multiple statutory objectives of water quality standards.
In addition, standards may fail to address site-specific issues, such as
refined temperature limits to protect spawning areas or to reflect a
community which has become adapted to natural local conditions. Therefore,
compliance or noncompIiance with standards alone is not a sufficient
demonstration. The law indicates that standards should be modified
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where necessary to make them consistent with section 3l6(a) decisions.
Where such modifications have taken place, or wherever the standards are
fully consistent with the 1983 goals of the Act (see section IOI(a)(2)),
compliance or noncompliance with standards may be a persuasive factor in
the 3l6(a) evaluation.
6. Can the outcome of a proposed demonstration be predicted, so
that the appl leant* can commence any needed planning and construction?
A. Each demonstration involves a distinct case and a distinct
water body situation. Firm decision rules would be arbitrary, and their
application would fail to provide against excessive environmental risk
or unnecessarily stringent outcomes. Instead of firm rules, therefore,
the guidelines set forth for each demonstration type a series of factors
the presence of which would tend to indicate that section 3l6(a) relief
should not be granted. These non-binding guidelines should be useful to
show the types of considerations which may be determinative.
It Does completion of a satisfactory 3l6(a) demonstration
respecting the thermal component of its discharge assure the applicant
of relief from the requirements of sections 301 and 306?
A. No. All impacts of the plant must be analyzed and weighed.
Section 3l6(a) requires consideration of the interaction of the thermal
component of the discharge with other pollutants, such as chemicals or
the thermal discharges of other sources. In addition to considerations
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under section 3l6(a), other possible harmful effects of the plant's
operation and discharge must be prevented, including any excessive
impact on water resources or harmful effects caused by the intake
structure and/or entrainment. (See section 3l6(b) of the Act and 40
C.F.R. Parts 401, 402.) Guidance on entrainment will be forthcoming.
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DECISION GUIDANCE
This chapter provides guidance for section 3l6(a) decisions by
listing factors which suggest a failure to assure the protection and
propagation of the balanced, indigenous community. These factors should
be used solely as guidance, not as specific decision criteria for denial
of alternative effluent limitations. The weight given to particu-lar
factors will differ regionally in accordance with emphasis on specific
regional problems. Additional factors may also be considered.
NOTE: The factors set forth in this chapter relate solely to the
thermal impact of the applicant's discharge. A permit may be issued
only if the plant's operation and discharge will meet all applicable
requirements of law, including restrictions on intake and entrainment
effects and the chemical component of the discharge. Guidance on entrain-
ment will be forthcoming.
I . Type I: Absence of Prior Appreciable Harm.
A failure to demonstrate the absence of prior appreciable harm may
be suggested by any of the following:
(a) Evidence of damage to the balanced, indigenous community, or
•
community components, resulting in such phenomena as those identified in
the definition of appreciable harm. (See Chapter III, paragraph (10).)
(b) Absence of a convincing and otherwise satisfactory rationale
where needed to explain any information submitted by the applicant.
(See Chapter IV, paragraphs (b)(l)-(6).)
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(c) i-ailure to provide sufficient information to form the basis
for a determination.
(d) Any other evidence that the protection and propagation of the
balanced, indigenous community is not being assured.
2. Type 2: Protection of Representative, Important Species.
A failure to demonstrate that the discharge (existing or proposed)
is consistent with assurance of the protection and propagation of repre-
sentative, important species may be suggested by any of the following:
(a) Any one or a combination of the factors listed for a Type I
demonstration, paragraph (I), above, as those factors- wouId apply to the
existing or proposed discharge under consideration.
(b) Discharge zone receiving water temperatures outside the mixing
zone in excess of the upper temperature limits for survival, growth and
reproduction, as applicable, of any representative, important species
occurring in the receiving water.
(c) Receiving water temperature within the mixing zone which fails
to conform to minimum requirements for such area.
(d) Receiving water of such quality in the absence of the proposed
thermal discharge that the addition or continuance of the discharge may
select for excessive nuisance populations of phytoplankton, macroalgae,
fouling or borincj speci.es., scavenger species or encrusting species.
(e) Ins1 ,Tc-i-en.cy_~of information needed to select representative,
important species; to verify the selection, or to evaluate the effects
of the proposed discharge on the selected species. Sufficiency of
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information should be determined by the Regional Administrator (or
Director) on the basis of the specific case, considering the signifi-
cance of the species in question, the need for the information, its
availability or attainability (including time for attaining) and the
adequacy of the applicant's other information to allow appraisal of the
overall impact of the discharge. If data crucial to the evaluation are
not presented, the applicant's Type 2 application should be denied:
Prior consultation with the Regional Administrator (or Director) as to
informational needs should help avoid this result.
(f) Clear indications that the assurance of the protection and
propagation of the selected representative, important species will not
assure the protection and propagation of the balanced, indigenous com-
munity in and on the receiving water body segment.
3. Type 3: Biological, Engineering and Other Data.
A failure to demonstrate that the discharge (existing or proposed)
is consistent with the assurance of the protection and propagation of
the balanced, indigenous community by means of biological, engineering
and other data is suggested by any of the following:
(a) Any one or a combination of such factors listed for a Type I
or Type 2 demonstration as might be applicable. (Paragraphs (I) and
(2), above.)
(b) Inadequacy or rebuttal of the applicant's additional data and
information to demonstrate the assurance of the protection and propaga-
tion of a balanced, indigenous community.
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To the extent feasible, the Regional Administrator (or Director)
should define specific Demonstration Type 3 factors at the time the
applicant's proposed specific plan of study and demonstration is pre-
pared. (See Chapter I, subparagraph (e)(l).)
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DEFINITIONS
Definitions and descriptions in this section pertain to a number of
terms and concepts which are pivotal to the development and evaluation
of 3l6(a) studies. These are developed for the general case to aid the
Regional Administrator (or Director) in delineating a set of working
definitions and concise end points requisite to a satisfactory demon-
stration for a given discharge.
(I) Balanced, Indigenous Community.
The regulation provides (40 C.F.R. §122.I(h)):
The term "balanced, indigenous community" is synonymous with
the term "balanced, indigenous population" in the Act and means a
biotic community typically characterized by diversity,
the capacity to sustain itself through cyclic seasonal changes,
presence of necessary food chain species and non-domination
of pollution tolerant species. Such a community may
include historically non-native species introduced in
connection with a program of wildlife management and species
whose presence or abundance results from substantial,
irreversible environmental modifications. Normally, however,
such a community will not include species whose presence
or abundance is attributable to the introduction of pollutants
that will be eliminated by compliance by a I I sources with
section 30l(b)(2) of the Act, including alternative effluent
limitations imposed pursuant to section 3l6(a).
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A "community" in general is any:
• . . assemblage of populations living in a prescribed
area or physical habitat; it is an organized unit to the
extent that it has characteristics additional to its individual
and population components and functions as a unit through
coupled metabolic transformations.
Communities not only have a definite functional unity
with characteristic trophic structures and patterns of energy
flow but they also have compositional unity in that there
is a certain probability that certain species will occur
together.—
All communities typically have characteristics including but not limited
to:
(a) Diversity in its general sense (species richness, equitability
and age structure);
(b) Biological processes, cycles, and periodicities such as regard
productivity, reproduction, recruitment, short or long term
succession, energy flow and nutrient turnover;
(c) Spatial characteristics, which may be ordered by the biota as
welI as the hydrography and geomorphology.
I. Odum, E.P., Fundamentals of Ecology (W. B. Saunders Co.,
Philadelphia, Pa. (1971)), p. 140.
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A "balanced, indigenous" community means a desirable community
consisting of fish, shellfish and wildlife plus the biota at other
trophic levels which are necessary or desirable as a part of the food
chain or otherwise ecologically important to the maintenance of the
desirable community. In keeping with the objective of the Act, the
community should be consistent with the restoration and maintenance of
the biological integrity of the water. (See section 101(a).) However,
it may also include species not historically native to the area which:
• Result from major modifications to the water body (such as
hydroelectric dams) or to the contiguous land area (such as
deforestation attributable to urban or agricultural develop-
ment) which cannot reasonably be removed or altered.
• Result from management intent, such as deliberate introduction
in connection with a wildlife management program,
• Are species or communities whose value is primarily scientific
or aesthetic.
Thus, it is not necessary to show that the applicant's discharge is
compatible with a community which may have existed in a pristine environ-
ment but which has not persisted.
Community imbalance may be evidenced by any one or more of the
foI Iow i ng:
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• Blocking or reversing short or long term successionaI trends
of community development.
• A flourishing of heat tolerant species and an ensuing replacement
of other species characteristic of the indigenous community.
• Simplification of the community and the resulting loss of
stabiI ity.
An imbalanced or nonindigenous community could also be characterized by
excessive levels of:
• Species whose dominance results from the introduction of
polIutants.
• Species introduced and maintained in residence as a result of
habitat destruction by man's activities (for example, dredging).
• Species introduced by human activities (such as aquaculture)
which colonize or establish themselves at the expense of
endemic communities and which are beyond the limit of manage-
ment intent. (See section 318, FWPC Act, and 40 C.F.R. Part
I 15.)
(2) Representative, Important Species.
The regulation provides (§122.I(g)):
The term "representative, important species" means
species which are representative, in terms of their biological
requirements, of a balanced, indigenous 'community of
shellfish, fish, and wildlife in the body of water into
which the discharge is made.
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Species should be representative of the community in the sense that
a maintenance of water quality conditions assuring the natural completion
of their life cycles will also assure the protection and propagation of
the balanced, i.ndigenous community. "Natural completion of life cycles"
refers to species growth, development, reproduction, metabolism and
behavior adequate to maintain the species within the community. Species
can be important from a direct economic standpoint, as a food chain
organism for an economic species, or broadly from the ecological aspect
for normal community function and maintenance. For example, to maintain
a desired fish species, temperatures must be limited not only to meet
the thermal tolerance of the desired species itself but also to maintain
species of relevant biotic categories necessary as part of the food web
supporting the fish species.
(3) Biotic Categories.
Biotic categories include the following:
(i) Primary producers—autotrophic organisms that fix CO into
organic matter using radiant energy through photosynthesis.
Aquatic examples include but are not limited to phytoplankton,
periphyton, macrophytes, and macroalgae.
(ii) Macro i nvertebrates—an imaIs that are large enough to be seen
by the unaided eye and can be retained by a U.S. Standard No.
30 sieve (28 meshes per inch, 0.595 mm openings). Aquatic
examples include but are not limited to mollusks, insects,
annelids, and crustaceans.
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(iii) Fish—the common usage of this term.
(iv) Economically important species—plant and animal species of
present or potential recreational or commercial value as
objects of hunt or harvest.
(4) Principal Macrobenthic Species.
Principal macrobenthic species are those dominant macro invertebrates
and plants attached or resting on the bottom or living in bottom sediments.
Examples include but are not limited to crustaceans, mollusks, polychaetes,
and habitat forming species such as attached macroalgae, rooted macrophytes
and coraI.
(5) Nuisance Species.
Nuisance species are microbial, plant and animal species, most of
which are pollution-tolerant, present in the indigenous community or
recruitable from contiguous waters which, by virtue of the direct or
indirect effects of the discharge, will be given sufficient advantage to
appear in the zone of discharge in large numbers at the expense of other
members of the indigenous community. The concept is intended to carry
the connotation of "weeds" used in its agricultural sense and may refer
to a species with otherwise desirable features. However, any species
which indicates a hazard to ecological balance or human health and
welfare that is not naturally a feature of the indigenous community must
be defined as a nuisance species (e.g., large numbers of fecal streptococci
or new blooms of coccoid or blue-green algae).
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(6) Migrants.
Migrants are nonplanktonic organisms that are not permanent residents
of the area but pass through the discharge zone and water contiguous to
it. Examples include the upstream migration of spawning salmon and
subsequent downstream run of the juvenile forms, or organisms that
inhabit an area only at certain times for feeding or reproduction
purposes.
(7) Threatened or Endangered Species.
A threatened or endangered species is any plant or animal that has
been determined by the Secretary of Commerce or the Secretary of the
Interior to be a threatened or endangered species pursuant to the
Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended.
(8) Discharge Zone.
The discharge zone is that portion of the receiving-waters which
falls within the delta 2°C. isotherm of the plume 30$ or more of the
time, as defined by data representing a period of at least a few months
and preferably indicative of a complete annual cycle.
(9) Water Body Segment.
A water body segment is a portion of a basin the surface waters of
which have common hydrologic characteristics (or flow regulation patterns);
common natural physical, chemical, and biological processes, and which
have common reactions to external stress, e.g., discharge of pollutants.
(See 40 C.F.R. §130.2(m).) Where they have been defined, the water body
segments determined by the State Continuing Planning Process under
section 303(e) of the Act will apply.
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(10) Appreciable Harm.
Appreciable harm is damage to the balanced, indigenous community,
or to community components which results in such phenomena as the following:
• Substantial increase in abundance or distribution of any
nuisance species or heat tolerant community not representative
of the highest community development achievable in receiving
waters of comparable quality.
• Substantial decrease of formerly indigenous species, other
than nuisance species.
• Changes in community structure .to resemble a simpler suc-
cessional stage than is natural for the locality and season in
question.
• Unaesthetic appearance, odor or taste of the waters.
• Elimination of an established or potential economic or recrea-
tional use of the waters.
• Reduction of the successful completion of life cycles of
indigenous species, including those of migratory species.
• Substantial reduction of community heterogeneity or trophic
structure.
This definition describes harm which should be considered appreciable.
It is not intended that every change in flora and fauna should be considered
appreciable harm.
(II) Low Potential Impact.
An existing or proposed discharge may be determined to be a low
potential impact discharge, on a case-by-case basis, in either of the
following situations:
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• The thermal plume comprises or would comprise a relatively
small percentage of the shore to shore distance and cross-
sectional area of the fresh water body segment or stream flow
and is not in an area of high biological value.
• The discharge is an off-shore marine discharge which results
or would result in a plume which does not or would not impact
benthic or shoreline organisms,-off-shore migratory paths,
spawning areas of fishes or areas of upwelling.
Site-specific considerations which could influence the determination
of low impact include the amount of thermal loading in the water body
segment to which the discharge is to be made and lack of any important
spawning areas in the discharge zone.
(12) The definitions of the following terms contained in the regulations
shall be applicable to such terms as used in this guidance manuaJ :
"Effluent limitations," "alternative effluent limitations," "water
quality standards," "section 3l6(a)," "pollutant," "discharge of a
pollutant," "point source," "discharge" and "pollution."
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IV
DEMONSTRATION TYPE I: ABSENCE OF PRIOR
APPRECIABLE HARM (EXISTING SOURCES)
(a) Introduction.
An existing source may present information pursuant to this chapter
to demonstrate that the thermal component of Its discharge has not
caused appreciable harm to the balanced, indigenous community.
A Type I demonstration should include the information identified in
this paragraph, unless written modifications are developed following
consultation with the Regional Administrator (or Director). The demonstra-
tion may also include such additional information as the applicant may
wish to be considered, provided that the additional information is
accompanied by a rationale stating why such information Indicates the
absence of prior appreciable harm. Information to be submitted includes
the fol lowing :-V
• Water quality standards information. (Paragraph (b)(l).)
• Records of shutdowns. (Paragraph (b)(2).)
• Water quality related communications. (Paragraph (b)(3).)
• Species information. (Paragraph (b)(4).)
• Discussion of economic and recreational effects. (Paragraph
Other known reports on effects of the discharge. (Paragraph
I. Where field studies are carried out, sample repiication should be
adequate to determine the precision of the data generated and to conduct
appropriate statistical tests.
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• Engineering and hydrologic information. (Chapter VII.)
• Thermal load information, if needed. (Chapter IX.)
Information for a full Type I demonstration includes all of the
above items. Wherever the applicant can show to the satisfaction of the
Regional1 Administrator (or Director) that its discharge has a low potential
impact on the receiving water body segment, the Regional Administrator
(or Director) may provide in writing that the Type I demonstration may
be limited by omitting the species information described in paragraph
In demonstrating that no appreciable harm has been caused, it is
not necessary for the applicant to show that every species which would
occur under optimal conditions is present, as long as it demonstrates
that the community as a whole, and all major components thereof* are
intact. At the same time, the applicant's demonstration should show "the
effects of its discharge on species in the entire water body segment:
Demonstration of the absence of appreciable harm may not be wholly
dependent on exempting a portion of the waters for a mixing zone.
The Type I demonstration is not available in either of the following
cases:
• The applicant has not been discharging the heated effluent
into the body of -water for a sufficient period of time (gen-
erally at leaf il-^earJ. prior to its 3l6(a) application to
aljow evaluation of the effects of the discharge.
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• The discharge has been made into waters which, during the
period of the applicant's prior thermal discharge, were so
despoiled as to preclude evaluation of the effects of ttie
thermal discharge on species of shellfish, fish and wildlife.
(b) Applicant's Information.
Information to be submitted includes the following:
(I) Evidence of compliance with applicable water quality
standards. The applicant shoujd submit sufficient evidence for the
Regional Administrator (or Director) to make a determination of compliance.
If any of the evidence reveals non-compliance with water quality standards
the applicant should submit a rationale stating why this evidence does
not indicate prior appreciable harm to the balanced, indigenous community.
(2) Records of shutdowns and their effects on the aquatic
biota. All shutdowns which resulted in the disruption (complete stoppage)
of heated effluent flow during the last five years should be documented
and some assessment of the known effects of each shutdown should be made
by the applicant. If the applicant's records are incomplete or if he
has no knowledge of harmful effects for a specific shutdown he should so
note and should describe his monitoring efforts in connection with such
shutdown. If any effects harmful to aquatic biota have resulted from
shutdowns, the applicant should submit a rationale stating why these
effects did not constitute appreciable harm to the balanced, indigenous
community.
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(3) Copies of all water quality related communications (which
indicate possible harmful effects) between the applicant and any regulatory
agency other than EPA during the last five years. The applicant should
submit copies of all such communications or show why he is unable to do
so, except that in the case of State administration of the permit program,
communications with the State need not be submitted but communications
with EPA should be included. For each communication the applicant
should also submit a rationale explaining why the concerns reflected in
the communication did not reflect appreciable harm to the balanced,
indigenous community.
(4)(A) A list, and an indication of the abundance, of threatened
or endangered species and nuisance species, at any trophic level; principal
macrobenthic species and species of fish, shellfish and wildlife, in:
(i) The discharge zone under existing conditions;
(ii) The water body segment just outside the discharge
zone under existing conditions; and
(iii) The water body segment under theoretical conditions
which would exist by including non-point source influences but excluding
stress from point source discharges.
All threatened and endangered species should be
except that no information should be requested that would require field
sampling prohibited by the Endangered Species Act, 16 USC 1531 et. seq.
The degree to which nuisance species, principal macrobenthic species and
species of fish, shellfish and wildlife are to be listed should be
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determined by consultation between the applicant and the Regional
Administrator (or Director).
Data should be provided for each of the following
seasonal conditions: summer maxima I temperature, fall transitional
regime, winter minimal temperature, and spring transitional regime. The
Regional Administrator (or Director) may request the applicant to conduct
more thorough sampling where needed for his analysis of the particular
case.
Information relating to the discharge zone should
represent conditions throughout the zone (i.e., from the point of discharge
to the 2°C. isotherm), unless the Regional Administrator (or Director)
designates a particular portion of the discharge zone for study.
The estimation (iii) of the species which would be
abundant under theoretical conditions should represent the applicant's
best approximation based on historical data or the biota of appropriate
(relatively unpolluted) nearby water bodies, e.g., at upstream control
stations. The basis and limits of comparability of such water bodies
should be stated.
(B) Identification of the reproductive period (dates) and
reproductive temperatures for each species of fish and shellfish listed.
(C) A map showing the location, within the discharge zone
of reproductive and nursery areas, migratory routes, and principal
macrobenthic forms.
(D) Where the Regional Administrator (or Director) has
reason to believe there may be a specific disease or parasitism problem
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as a result of the thermal discharge, information on the incidence of
disease and parasitism and on the condition of fish inhabiting the
discharge zone and water body segment just outside the discharge zone.
This information should include a comparison of affected vs. unaffected
populations.
(E) The data called for in subparagraphs (A)-(C) above
should be accompanied by a rationale stating why the information provided
does not suggest prior appreciable harm to the balanced, indigenous
community. This rationale should include a comparison of species and
abundance Iists and, where appropriate, estimates of areas impacted and
levels of impact for locations of similar habitat within areas (i), (ii)
and (iii), subparagraph (A) above, using a statistical method such as
coefficient of similarity or analysis of variance. If such statistical
methods are inappropriate, an appropriate method of comparison may be
substituted and the rationale should include the reasons for the sub-
stitution.
(5) A description and discussion of the effect the heated
effluent has had on economic and recreational uses of the balanced,
indigenous community.
(6) All other known existing reports concerning the effects
of the applicant's discharge on principal macrobenthic species; threatened
or endangered species or species of shellfish, fish and wildlife. If
any of these reports indicate effects harmful to any such species, the
applicant should submit a rationale stating why these effects did not
constitute appreciable harm to the balanced, indigenous community.
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DEMONSTRATION TYPE 2: PROTECTION OF REPRESENTATIVE, IMPORTANT SPECIES
(a) I nt reduction.
Any existing or new source may present information pursuant to this
chapter to demonstrate that the thermal component of its discharge will
assure the protection and propagation of representative, important
species whose protection and propagation, if assured, will assure the
protection and propagation of a balanced, indigenous community.
A Type 2 demonstration should include the information identified in
this paragraph, unless the demonstration is changed following consultation
with the Regional Administrator (or Director). The demonstration may
also include such additional information as the applicant may wish to be
considered, provided that the additional information is accompanied by a
rationale stating why such information indicates assurance of the protection
and propagation of the balanced, indigenous community. Information to
be submitted includes the following:—
• Mixing zone information. (Paragraph (c)(l) or (d)(l); see
also Chapter VIM and Appendix A.)
• Water quality standards information. (Paragraph (c)(2) or
• Record of shutdowns. (Paragraph (c)(3) or (d)(3).)
• Biotic communities information. (Paragraph (c)(4) or (d)(4).)
I. Where field studies are carried out, sample replication should be
adequate to determine the precision of the data generated and to conduct
appropriate statistical tests.
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• Representative, important species information. (Paragraph
(c)(5) or (d)(5); see also paragraph (b).)
• Discussion of economic and recreational effects. (Paragraph
(c)(6) or (d)(6).)
• Other known reports on effects of the discharge. (Paragraph
(c)(7) or (d)(7).)
• Engineering and hydrologic information. (Chapter VII.)
• Thermal load information, if needed. (Chapter IX.)
Information for a full Type 2 demonstration includes all of the
above items. Wherever the applicant can show to the satisfaction of the
Regional Administrator (or Director) that its discharge has or will have
a low potential impact on the receiving water body segment, selection of
representative, important species may be limited to fish and shellfish.
NOTE: The applicant should submit information on all modes of dis-
charge under consideration. See Chapter I, paragraph (c).
(b) Selection of Representative, Important Species.
(I) Genera I.
(A) The Regional Administrator (or Director) should
select representative, important species pursuant to 40 CFR il22.9(b)(2)
(or §122.I5(b)(2)). Such species should consist of one or more species
from each of the following biotic categories: macro!nvertebrates, fish
and economically important species; except that the Regional Administrator
(or Director) may determine, based on the characteristics of the receiving
water body segment, that species from one or more of these biotic
categories need not be included., (See also paragraph (a), above.)
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(B) In some cases those species most important in
controlling community function are little understood and act in a subtle
fashion, so that their role is only evident following environmental
degradation. Until such species are identified, it remains prudent in
selecting representative, important species in nonde-graded environments
to consider primarily community dominants. Dominant species include:
(i) those with high biomass, and (ii) those of greatest numerical abundance,
regardless of biomass. Included among these species would be many
species important to energy and nutrient cycling, community structure,
and habitat formation.
(C) Where species known to be temperature tolerant or
capable of withstanding passage through the proposed discharge are
selected as representative, important species (based on their community
abundance, potential economic importance or other factors Ce.g., American
oyster, blue crab, barnacle]), additional more thermally sensitive
species in the same biotic category should generally be selected as
well, in order better to reflect the thermal sensitivity of an entire
biotic category.
(2) Species Selection Where Information is Adequate.
Where information pertinent to species selection is
adequate, the Regional Administrator (or Director) should promptly select
representative, important species. The applicant may suggest species
for his consideration and may, as a part of its demonstration, challenge
any selection. Species should be selected as follows:
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(A) Applicable State water quality standards.
If the State's approved water quality standards
designate particular species as requiring protection, these species
should be designated, but alone may not be sufficient for purposes of a
Type 2 demonstration.
(B) Consultation with Director and with Secretaries
of Commerce and Interior.
In the case of species selection by the Regional
Administrator, he must seek the advice and recommendation of the Director
as to which species should be selected. The Regional Administrator must
consider any timely advice and recommendations supplied by the Director
and should include such recommendations unless he believes that sub-
stantial reasons exist for departure.
The Secretary of Commerce and the Secretary of the
Interior, or their designees, and other appropriate persons (e.g., uni-
versity biologists with relevant expertise) should also be consulted and
their timely recommendations should be considered. The Director should
also consult with the agency exercising administration of the wildlife
resources of the State.
(C) Threatened or endangered species.
Species selection should specifically consider any
present threatened or endangered species, at whatever biotic category or
trophic level, except that no information should be requested that would
require field sampling prohibited by the Endangered Species Act, 16 USC
1531 et. seq.
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(D) Thermally sensitive species.
The most thermally sensitive species (and species
groups) in the local area should be identified and their importance
should be given special consideration, since such species (or species
groups) might be most readily eliminated from the community if effluent
limitations allowed existing water temperatures to be altered. Consider-
ation of the most sensitive species will best involve a total aquatic
community viewpoint.
Thermal sensitivity data includes but is not limited
to the data described in paragraph (c)(5)(A), below. Reduced tolerance
to elevated temperature may also be predicted, for example, in species
which experience natural population reduction during the summer. Species
having the greatest northern range and least southward distribution may
also possess reduced thermal tolerance.
(E) Economically important species.
Selection of economically important species should
be based on a consideration of the benefits of assuring their protection.
(F) Far-field and indirect effects.
Consideration should include the entire water body
segment. For example, an upstream cold wa+er source should not be
warmed to an extent that would adversely affect downstream biota. The
impact of additive or synergistic effects of heat combined with other
existing thermal or other pollutants In the receiving waters should also
be considered.
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(3) Species Selection Where Information is Inadequate.
Where the available information is not adequate to enable
the Regional Administrator (or Director) to select appropriate represen-
tative, important species, he may request the applicant attempting to
make a Type 2 demonstration to conduct such studies and furnish such
evidence as may be necessary to enable such selection. Where species
selection is based on information supplied by the applicant, the appro-
priateness of the species as representative and important is an aspect
of the applicant's burden of proof.
The applicant's species selection studies or evidence
should normally consist of:
(A) Early submittal of the species information described
in paragraph (c)(4) or paragraph (d)(4), below, and the median tolerance
limit information described in paragraph (c)(5) or ^d)(5), below.
(B) Any available information regarding species identified
by community studies, if (i) such community studies have been conducted
at existing thermal discharge sites., (ii) the studied community included
species also found at the applicant's proposed discharge site, and (iii)
such studies have shown that any such species experienced appreciable
harm as a result of the thermal component of the discharge. (See Chapter X.)
(C) Other information necessary or appropriate to enable
the Regional Administrator (or Director) to address the considerations
set forth in paragraph (b)(l), above.
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(c) Applicant's Information—Existing Sources.
Information to be submitted by an existing source includes the
followi ng:
(I) Field data that the discharge conforms with an appropriate
mixing zone and zone of passage. (See Chapter VIM.)
(2) Evidence of compliance with presently applicable water
quality standards. The applicant should submit evidence sufficient to
enable the Regional Administrator (or Director) to make a determination
that water quality standards will be met. If any of the evidence reveals
possible noncompIiance with water quality standards, the applicant
should submit a rationale stating why the expected deviations from water
quality standards will not result in a failure to assure the protection
and propagation of the selected species. (See Chapter VIM.)
(3) Records of shutdowns (resulting in complete stoppage of
heated effluent flow) and their effects on the aquatic biota. All such
shutdowns during the last five years should be documented and some
assessment of the known effects of each such shutdown should be made by
the applicant. If the applicant's records are incomplete or if he has
no knowledge of harmful effects for a specific shutdown, he should so
note and should describe his monitoring efforts in connection with such
shutdown. If any effects harmful to aquatic biota have resulted from
shutdowns, the applicant should submit a rationale stating why these
effects did not interfere with the protection and propagation of the
balanced, indigenous community. Projections of expected shutdowns and
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their projected effects on the aquatic biota should also be made, and
the applicant should also submit a rationale stating why the projected
effects will not result in a failure to assure the protection and
propagation of the balanced, indigenous community. For freshwater fish
the nomograph in the Freshwater Thermal Criteria, Appendix B, should be
consulted to determine the maximum allowable temperatures of plumes for
various ambient temperatures. For non-fish and marine species appropriate
information, as available, should be consulted.
(4)(A) A list and data documenting the abundance of each
selected representative, important species; threatened or endangered
species and nuisance species, at any trophic level; principal macro-
benthic species; and other important species of fish, shellfish and
wildlife, including all dominants (see paragraph (b)(l)(B), above) in:
(i) the discharge zone-under exist i ng conditions,
(ii) the water body segment just outside the discharge
zone under existing conditions, and
(iii) the water body segment just outside the discharge
zone under theoretical conditions which would exist when all point
source dischargers of pollutants are in compliance with section 301(b)
of the Act.
All representative, important species and threatened
or endangered species should be listed, except that no information
should be requested that would require field sampling prohibited by the
Endangered Species Act, 16 USC 1531, et. seq. The degree to which
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nuisance species and other important species of shellfish, fish and
wildlife are to be listed should be determined by consultation between
the applicant and the Regional Administrator (or Director).
Data should be provided for each of the following
seasonal conditions: summer maximal temperature, fall transitional
regime, winter minimal temperature and spring transitional regime. The
Regional Administrator (or Director) may request the applicant to conduct
more thorough sampling where needed for his analysis of the particular
case.
Informafion relating to the discharge zone should
represent conditions throughout the zone (i.e., from the point of
discharge to the 2°C. isotherm) unless the Regional Administrator (or
Director) designates a particular portion of the discharge zone for
study.
The estimation (iii) of the species which would be
abundant under theoretical conditions should represent the applicant's
best approximation based on historical data or on the biota of appro-
priate (relatively unpolluted) nearby water bodies (e.g., at upstream
control stations). The basis and limits of comparability of such water
bodies should be stated.
(B) A scale map showing the location within the proposed
discharge zone of reproductive and -TV rer.y areas", migratory routes and
principal macrobenthic species.
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(C) The data called for in subparagraphs (A) and (B) above
should be accompanied by a rationale stating why the Information provided
does not suggest a failure to assure the protection and propagation of a
balanced, indigenous community. This rationale should include a comparison
of species and abundance lists and, where appropriate, estimates of
areas impacted and levels of impact for locations of similar habitat
within areas (i), (ii) and (iii), subparagraph (A) above, using a statistical
method such as coefficient of similarity or analysis of variance.
(5)(A) The 24-hour median tolerance limit of species of
macro invertebrates and fish which are dominant in the receiving water
body segment. If such data, are not available, the applicant should
conduct adequately designed laboratory studies to determine such temperatures.
Such studies should be conducted with summer populations or warm acclimated
organisms and should employ accepted procedures for median tolerance
tests for the particular species. Waters used for the tolerance tests
should resemble actual receiving water quality anticipated during the
period of the proposed discharge.
This information is for purposes of selecting and
verifying the selection of representative, important species. It is
useful primarily in predictive situations in the absence of reliable
field data. The number of species which should be covered should be
determined by consultation between the applicant and the Regional Admin-
istrator (or Director). Use of the 24-hour median tolerance limit is
preferable for uniformity of comparisons; however, if median tolerance
levels for some other time scale are the only data available, they may
be used.
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(B) The following life history thermal effects data for
each representative, important species.
(i) Life History Thermal Effects Data.—For each species,
the thermal criteria data identified in this subdivision should be
provided,_l_/ except that:
• If such data are not available for selected repre-
sentative, important species of macro!nvertebrates,
community studies of this group may be conducted at
the request of the Regional Administrator (or Director)
or at the applicant's option with the advice and
consultation of the Regional Administrator (or
Director). (See Chapter X.)
• An existing source sited on flowing waters may
conduct in situ drift studies to demonstrate that
plume temperatures will not be harmful to eggs,
larvae and adults of representative, important
macro i nvertebrate species. These studies may
substitute for appropriate components of life
history thermal effects data.
Thermal effects data to be provided are the following:
• Short-term maximum temperature for survival (upper
lethal temperature) of parent during reproduction.
(Use acclimation temperature comparable to expected
ambient temperature.)
I. This list identifies general categories of data which relate to a
wide range of species. In presenting thermal effects data, information
categories should be tailored to the individual species being considered,
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• Short-term maximum temperature for survival (upper
lethal temperature) of appropriate life stage during
the summer.
• Optimum temperature for growth of appropriate life
' stage (juveniles or adults).
• Minimum avoidance temperature (motile species).
• Maximum temperature at which normal incubation and
larval development occurs.
• Normal reproductive dates (site specific) and temp-
eratures (general) at which reproduction occurs.
The applicant's life history thermal effects data may be
based on criteria and information published pursuant to section 304(a)
of the Act; information set forth in Appendix A; adequately designed
laboratory or field studies, or published studies on latftudi na I ly
comparable populations, as provided in subparagraph (E) below. Thermal
effects data may be presented in tabular or narrative form, but in
either case detailed explanations of assumptions made should accompany
all data presented. All information should be footnoted as to source.
(ii) An evaluation of the effects of the proposed
discharge on the representative, important species. The evaluation
should be presented in tabular form as indicated on Sample Table A,
below. One table should be submitted for each representative, important
species. The evaluation should indicate the distribution and duration
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SAMPLE TABLE A
EVALUATION OF THERMAL DATA
SPECIES:
(Common Name)
(Scientific Name)
Biological Activity
to be Protected!'
Max. for Survival
of Parent!/
Max. for Summer
Survival
-t.
OJ
Optimum Growth
Minimum Avoidance
Max. for
Development
Normal Reproduction
Dates 4 Temperatures
Temperature
Data
Source and
Page
Area of
Discharge Zone
Exceeding Max. Temperature
(Acres Covered and What
Conditions, Including Time
Period)
Activity Excluded From
Discharge Zone by Heat
% of Area % Time of
Activity Excluded Exclusion
Effects
Outside Discharge
Zone
1
This table Identifies activities which relate to a wide range of species. In presenting thermal evaluations, activity categories should
be tailored to the Individual species being considered. The table headings constitute summaries of the thermal effects data list set
forth at subparagraph 5(b)(l), above.
2. Use acclimation temperature comparable to expected ambient temperature.
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of potential exposure of the species (i) in the discharge zone and (i!)
in the water body segment just outside the discharge zone during worst
case and average conditions during each season.
(iii) A rationale stating why the information submitted
pursuant to this subparagraph suggests that the heated discharge will
not result in a failure to assure the protection and propagation of the
selected species. Where data necessary to complete the life history
thermal effects data are unavailable and1 community studies have not been
substituted, the rationale should so note and indicate why obtaining the
data is not feasible or not necessary to the analysis of the effects of
the discharge or proposed discharge.
(C) When the Regional Administrator (or Director) believes
it is appropriate,.information on the chill requirements for gamete for-
mation of selected species.
(D)(i) Except as provided in subparagraph (ii), below, the
applicant's life history thermal effects data should consist of any
applicable data contained in water quality criteria published by the
Administrator pursuant to section 304(a) of the Act, when such data are
published as final (rather than proposed) criteria. Life history thermal
effects data compiled by EPA are provided in Appendix B and should be
used where 304(a) criteria are not available or inapplicable.
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(ii) Where 304(a) data or data provided by the Regional
Administrator are not applicable or the applicant wishes to contest any
of such data, the applicant may submit thermal tolerance data based on
we I I-documented field deduction, adequately designed laboratory studies
or published studies on latitudinally comparable populations. For
information based on laboratory studies, a detailed description of
methodology should be given or referenced. For information based on
published studies, the complete bibliographic reference, including page
number, should be given and the use of such other sources should be
explained and justified. For information based on latitudinaIly compara-
ble populations, the basis and limits of comparability should be stated.
(6) An assessment of the effect the heated effluent has had
and an indication of the expected effects it will have on economic or
recreational uses of the selected species.
(7) All other known existing reports concerning the effects
of the proposed discharge on the aquatic biota. If any of these reports
indicate a probability of effects harmful to aquatic biota, the applicant
should submit a rationale stating why the proposed discharge will nonetheless
assure the protection and propagation of the balanced, indigenous community.
(d) Applicant's Information—New Sources.
Information to be submitted by a new source includes the
follow!ng:
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(I) Data showing that the proposed discharge will conform
with an appropriate mixing zone and zone of passage. (See Chapter VIM.)
(2) Evidence of compliance with presently applicable water
quality standards. The applicant should submit evidence sufficient to
enable the Regional Administrator (or Director) to make a determination
that water quality standards will be met. If any of the evidence reveals
possible noncompliance with water quality standards, the applicant
should submit a rationale stating why the expected deviations from water
quality standards would not result i-n a failure to assure the protection
and propagation of the selected species. (See Chapter VIM.)
(3) Projections of expected shutdowns resulting in complete
stoppage of heated effluent flow, and their projected effects on the
aquatic biota. The applicant should submit a rationale stating why the
projected effects will not result in a failure to assure the protection
and propagation of a balanced, indigenous community. For freshwater
fish the nomograph in the Freshwater Thermal Criteria, Appendix B,
should be consulted to determine the maximum allowable temperatures of
plumes for various ambient temperatures. For non-fish and marine species
appropriate information, as available, should be consulted.
(4)(A) A list and an indication of the abundance of species
as called for in subparagraph (c)(4KA), above. These data should be
supplied for:
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(i) The proposed discharge zone under existing conditions
(ii) The water body segment just outside the proposed
discharge zone under existing conditions.
(iii) The proposed discharge zone under projected
conditions during discharge.
(iv) The water body segment just outside the proposed
discharge zone under projected conditions during discharge.
(v) The water body segment just outside the proposed
discharge zone under theoretical conditions which would exist when all
point source discharges of pollutants are in compliance with section
301(b) of the Act.
(B) A map as called for in subparagraph (c)(4)(B), above.
(C) A rationale as called for in subparagraph (c)(4)(C),
above. The rationale should state why the proposed discharge will
assure the protection and propagation of a balanced, indigenous community.
Where appropriate, the rationale should include estimates of areas which
may be impacted and levels of impact which may be expected to occur.
(D) The information called for in subparagraph CcK4HD),
above, except that such information may be limited to the area of the
proposed d i scharge- zone.
(5) Life history thermal effects data, evaluations and
rationale as called for in subparagraphs (c)(5)(A) and (c)(5)(B) and,
if appropriate, (c)(5)(C), above.
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(6) An assessment of the effect the heated effluent is expected
to have on economic or recreational uses of the selected species.
(7) All other known existing reports concerning possible
effects cf the proposed discharge on the aquatic biota^. If any of these
reports indicate a probability of effects harmful to aquatic biota, the
applicant should submit a rationale stating why the proposed discharge
will nonetheless assure the protection and propagation of the balanced,
indigenous community.
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DEMONSTRATION TYPE 3: BIOLOGICAL, ENGINEERING AND OTHER DATA.
(a) Introduction.
Any existing or new source may present biological, engineering and
other data to demonstrate that a proposed effluent limitation is more
stringent than necessary to assure the protection and propagation of a
balanced, indigenous community. The purpose of the Type 3 demonstration
is to provide for the submittal of any information which the Regional
Administrator (or Director) believes may be necessary or appropriate to
facilitate evaluation of a particular discharge. It also provides for
submittal of any additional information which the applicant may wish to
be considered. Each Type 3 demonstration should consist of information
and data appropriate to the case.
(b) Definition of Type 3 Demonstration; Written Concurrences.
Detailed definition of a generally applicable Type 3 demonstration
is not possible, because of the range of potentially relevant informa-
tion; the developing sophistication of information collection and
evaluation techniques and knowledge, and the case-specific nature of the
demonstration. Prior to undertaking any Type 3 demonstration, the
applicant should consult with and obtain the advice of the Regional
Administrator (or Director) regarding a proposed specific plan of study
and demonstration. (See Chapter I, subparagraph (c).) Decision guidance
may also be suggested. (See Chapter III, paragraph 3.)
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In general, Types I and 2 represent baselines for the depth of
analyses. While Type 3 information may be different in thrust and
focus, proofs should be at least as comprehensive as in those types and
should result in similar levels of assurance of biotic protection.
(c) RationaIes.
Each item of information or data submitted as a part of a Type 3
demonstration should be accompanied by a rationale stating why it
represents evidence that the proposed discharge will assure the protec-
tion and propagation of a balanced, indigenous community. The rationale
should include an explanation as to why this demonstration approach was
selected.
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VI I
ENGINEERING AND HYDROLOGIC DATA
(a) I introduction.
This chapter describes the engineering and hydrologic information
which should normally be included in any 3l6(a) demonstration. It also
suggests formats for presentation of such information. The Regional
Administrator (or Director) may request additional information or excuse
the applicant from preparation of portions of this information as the
situation warrants. The engineering and hydrologic information to be
submitted should consist of all information reasonably necessary for the
analysis. Where information listed in this chapter is not relevant to the
particular case, it should be excused.
The engineering and hydrologic information and data supplied in
support of a 3l6(a) demonstration should be accompanied by adequate
\
descriptive material concerning its source. Data from scientific litera-
ture, field work, laboratory experiments, analytical modeling, infrared
surveys and hydraulic modeling will all be acceptable, assuming adequate
scientific justification for their use is presented.
(b) Plant Operating Data.
(I) Cooling water flow. Complete Table B (indicate units).
(2) Submit a time-temperature profile graph indicating temp-
erature on the ordinate and time on the abscissa. The graph should
indicate status of water temperature from natural ambient through the
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TABLE B
COOLING WATER CHARACTERISTICS-
% Unit Load
40
50
.60
70
80
90
100
Unit Loading
% Time
1 ntake
Velocity*
Rate of Coo 1 i ng
Water Flow
Condenser
AT
Discharge
AT**
Rate of Total
Water Discharge
Ul
N)
\J If seasonal variations occur, this should be so Indicated.
*lntake velocity data should be provided at the point where the cooling water first enters the
intake structure. Variations in intake velocity with changes in ambient conditions (e.g., river
flow, tidal height, water level) should be noted.
**Discharge AT = Discharge Temperature-Intake Temperature. (In many cases, condenser AT is
equivalent to discharge AT. However, for plants with supplemental cooling facilities, this
is not the case.)
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cooling system and discharge until its return to ambient. Worst case,
anticipated average conditions, and ideal (e.g., minimum time/ temperature
impact) conditions should be illustrated, preferably on the same graph.
(3) Submit a graph or table indicating the total heat rejected
via the discharge as a function of time, including short-term (daily)
and long-term (annual) fluctuations.
(4) For plants using fresh water, complete Table C, indicating
units.
TABLE C
Water Use Table
Maximum Design
Monthly**
Average Annual
Fresh Water
Consumption
Receiving Water
Evaporation*
* Increase in evaporation caused by the thermal discharge.
**lf variable, please indicate degree of variations by percent or
extremes. This may be illustrated graphically.
(c) Hydrologic Information.
(I) Flow: Provide the information called for in paragraph
(i), (ii), (iii) or (iv), as applicable to the site:
(i) Rivers: flow — monthly means and minima (7 day, 10
year low flows).
(ii) Estuaries: freshwater input, tidal flow volumes,
net tidal flux — monthly means and minima for each.
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(iii) Reservoirs: flow through time, release schedules —
monthly means and minima.
(iv) Oceans: tidal heights and information on flushing
characteristics.
(2) Currents: Provide the information called for in paragraph
(i), (ii) or (iii), as applicable to the site:
(i) Rivers: maximum, minimum, and mean current speed,
giving seasonal (or monthly) fluctuations.
(ii) Estuaries: tidal and seasonal changes in current
speed and direction.
(iii) Large lakes and oceans: offshore prevailing currents;
local tidal and seasonal changes in current speed
and direction.
(3) Tabulate or illustrate monthly means and summer extremes
in stratification characteristics and salinity variations in the vicinity
of the intake and discharge. If intake and discharge conditions are
identical, so state and provide only one tabulation or illustration.
(4) Tabulate or illustrate ambient temperature of the receiving
waters, giving monthly means and extremes for the preceding 10 years as
data availability permits. If comparable site waters are used, indicate
the basis and limits of comparability.
(5) Indicate intake and receiving waters depth contours at
0.5 m. intervals. Provide other significant hydrological features
(e.g., thermal bar characteristics).
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(d) MeteoroIog1caI Data.
If energy-budget computations are included as part of the 3l6(a)
demonstration, provide the following meteorological data for the plant
site, giving both monthly means and seasonal extremes. Indicate units.
(I) Wet bulb air temperature.
(2) Dry bulb air temperature.
(3) Wind speed and direction.
(4) Long wave (atmospheric) radiation.
(5) Short wave (solar) radiation.
(6) Cloud cover.
(7) Evapotranspiration.
(e) Outfall Configuration and Operation.
Provide the following information on outfall configuration and
operation, indicating units expressed.
(I) Length of discharge pipe or canal
(2) Area and dimensions of discharge port(s)
(3) Number of discharge port(s) ^
(4) Spacing (on centers) of discharge ports
(5) Depth (mean and extreme)
(6) Angle of discharge as a function of:
A. horizontal axis
B. vertical axis
C. current direction(s)
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(7) Velocity of discharge:
A. maximum
B. most usual
(f) Thermal Plume Characteristics.
Provide the following information on thermal plume characteristics:
(I) Scale drawings accurately depicting the plume's configura-
tion under various hydrological conditions. Drawings should provide
isotherms in at least 2°C. increments and should indicate 3 spatial
dimensions to the extent possible. Such drawings should be supplied for
low and slack tides or low and average flows during each of the four
seasons.
(2) Indicate by similar illustration the expected variation
in plume isotherms under variable conditions of climate. A qualitative
discussion of the effect of changes in relevant meteorological parameters
may be provided if adequate information is available.
(3) Graph plume velocity vs. distance.
(i) a long center Iine
(i i) along bottom
(g) Chemical and Water Quality Data.
Section 3l6(a) specifies that the thermal component of the discharge
must be evaluated "... taking into account the interaction of such
thermal component with other pollutants. . . ." While data on such
synergistic effects are limited, certain information will assist the
Regional Administrator (or Director) in assessing potentially harmful
interactions. The following information should be provided:
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(I) 'The amount of chlorine used daily, monthly and annually,
the frequency and duration- of ch lori nation, and the
maximum total chlorine residual at the point of discharge
obtained during any chlorination cycle.
(2) A list of any other chemicals, additives, or other discharges
which are contained in the cooling water discharge including
the name, amount (including frequency and duration of
application and the maximum concentration obtained prior
to dilution), chemical composition and the reason for
add ition.
(3) The effect of the thermal discharge on the dissolved
oxygen levels in the plume and in the receiving waters in
increments of 0.5 mg/l.
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VI I I
MIXING ZONE GUIDELINES-
(a) Introduction
(I) Genera I
The protection and propagation of a balanced, indigenous
community in the receiving water body segment must be assured. Consis-
tent with achieving this assurance, in many cases one or more areas of
a segment may be designated as mixing zones. Within such zones, reduced
water quality may be allowed, provided that the zones, individually and
in combination with other point and nonpoint source influences on the
segment, are so limited as not to preclude the statutory protection and
propagation requirement.
The mixing zone to be employed should be the zone set forth in
applicable water quality standards. Where the language of the standards
is not sufficiently precise to identify the mixing zone with certainty,
the Regional Administrator (or Director) should promptly identify the
mixing zone called for by the standards. In the case of any new source,
the Regional Administrator (or Director) should specifically identify an
appropriate zone of passage at the outset of the demonstration.
If the applicant is seeking alternative effluent limitations
which would be based on a mixing zone other than the mixing zone provided
by the applicable water quality standards, the submittal should describe
I . See also Appendix A.
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the location, size and shape of the desired zone and the water quality
within the zone. This information should be accompanied by a rationale
stating why the existence of such a zone will be consistent with the
assurance of the protection and propagation of the balanced, indigenous
community. The rationale should consider the mixing zone materials
accompanying this guidance and should include an evaluation of the
relationship of the recommended mixing zone with other discharges (present
and potential, thermal and non-thermal) to the receiving water body
segment. The rationale may also include such other information as the
applicant may wish to present.
Any mixing zone must be limited to a temporal and spatial
(area, volume, configuration and location) distribution which will
assure the protection and propagation of a balanced, indigenous com-
munity of shellfish, fish and wildlife in and on the receivi'ng water
body. If the applicant's submittal involves review of the mixing zone,
the Regional Administrator (or Director) should:
• Consider the principles set forth in this chapter and
Appendix A, as appropriate.-L/
• Consider applicable water quality standards. =J
I. Guidelines for mixing zones in fresh water are set forth in paragraph
(b-) of this chapter; guidelines for marine mixing zones are included at
paragraph (c). Appendix A contains additional materials which may be
considered in connection with fresh water mixing zones. The guidelines
may be supplemented with information on mixing zones contained in the
report of the National Academy of Sciences, "Water Quality Criteria"
(1973).
2. The statutory rule of section 3l6(a) that effluent limitations
should "assure the protection and propagation of a balanced, indigenous
population" requires maintenance of receiving water body characteristics
which will assure that protection and propagation, notwithstanding any
possible departure from otherwise applicable water quality standards,
including their mixing zone provisions.
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• In the case of a determination by the Regional Adminis-
trator, consult with the Director.
• In the case of interstate or international waters, con-
sult with the responsible water quality management agencies
of such other jurisdictions.
• Consider of any pertinent information submitted by the
applicant or however obtained.
(2) Definition.
A mixing zone is an area contiguous to a discharge where
receiving water quality does not meet the requirements otherwise applicable
to the receiving water. Description and delineation of mixing zones
pose difficult regulatory problems. It is obvious that any time an
effluent is added having lesser quality than the receiving water, there
will be a zone of mixing. The definition as used here is that receiv.ing
water area where exceptions to otherwise applicable water quality standards
are granted. It is important to recognize that by this definition the
effluent or plume may be identifiable at distances or in places outside
the defined mixing zone. This definition should not be confused with
engineering usages, often employed in designing outfalls, and that refer
to the area before compIete mixing occurs. The mixing zone is a place
to mix and not a place to treat effluents.
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(3) General Principles.
There are several principles that are applicable to most
mixing zones and provide the basis upon which to establish conditions
for them. A most important principle is that since by their definition
mixing zones provide for exceptions to otherwise applicable water
quality standards and damage may occur, the permissible size of the
mixing zone is dependent on the acceptable amount of damage. For obvious
regulatory reasons, as well as biological ones, the size and shape of
the mixing zone should be specified so that both the discharger and the
regulatory agency know its bounds. A mixing zone should be determined
taking into consideration unique physical and biological features of the
receiving water, but there are principles about the size and shape that
can aid in decision making.
(4) Physical Size.
For physical reasons, the size of the mixing zone may neeci to
be larger for very large discharges than for very small ones. The
permissible size depends in part on the size of the receiving water; the
larger the body of water, the larger the mixing zone may be without
exceeding a given portion of the total receiving water. The acceptable
size for a mixing zone depends also on the number of mixing zones on a
body of water. The greater the number, the smaller each must be in
order to keep the area devoted to mixing zones sufficiently small. In
this connection, future growth of industry and population must be considered
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(5) Quality Within Zones.
There are upper limits to the permissible degree of degradation
within mixing zones. All mixing zones should be free of:
(i) Materials that will settle to form objectionable
deposits.
(ii) Floating debris, oil, scum, and other matter.
(iii) Substances producing objectionable color, odor,
taste, or turbidity.
(iv) Substances and conditions or combinations thereof
in concentrations which produce nuisance aquatic life.
The conditions that may exist in the mixing zone should be
determined for each site but general principles can guide. There should
be no conditions permitted that are rapidly lethal to locally important
and desirable aquatic life. Therefore, rapid mixing is desirable. Many
planktonic organisms are such weak swimmers that they must drift through
the mixing zone and and will be exposed to its conditions for the period
of time required to drift through and in lakes or reservoirs thi.s may be
an extended period. Therefore, toxicity or adverse conditions should be
such that these organisms can survive without undue damage or stress
while they are passing through. There are concentrations of some pollu-
tants that attract animals but are also lethal or clearly adverse. Such
pollutants that attract aquatic life are more troublesome than those
pollutants that are avoided. For example, crowding together in a heated
plume enhances disease susceptibility and transmission. Concentrations
exceeding the 96-hour LC should not be permitted.
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(6) Fresh Water/Marine Water Distinction.
For purposes of this chapter, water may be delineated as fresh
water or marine water on the basis of salinity or tide. Marine waters
include all oceanic waters and those under the influence of the ocean.
Specifically, they include waters of the coastal region and those extending
into bays, estuaries, river mouths, and other lowlands to that point at
which either (a) the salinity falls below 0.5 parts per thousand, or (b)
a predictable tide no longer persists. All waters above this point
should be considered fresh water. At boundary locations, the Regional
Administrator (or Director) may indicate, based on the hydrological and
biological features of the site, whether the mixing zone, if any, should
be evaluated on the basis of fresh water or marine water principles.
(b) Fresh Water Mixing Zones.
(I) Summary.
The following discussion is a tool to aid decision-making when
mixing zones are established. It cannot replace knowledge of local
areas or common sense, but it can assist in identifying key elements
upon which to base decisions.
The basic components are:
(i) Delineation of the most valuable areas and consideration
of biological values.
(ii) Selection of a level of protection for each area and
determination of the portion of the area to be allocated to all mixing zones
(iii) Limitation of the permissible conditions of quality
in the mixing zones.
(iv) Allocation to present and future dischargers.
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NOTE: This paragraph discusses general principles regarding
fresh water mixing zones. A proposed optional system for
establishing fresh water mixing zones based on receiving
waters' biological value is set forth at Appendix A.
(2) Biological Considerations.
From a biological standpoint, the location of the mixing zone
is important. It is generally true that an offshore discharge has a
lesser potential for adverse effect than a comparable onshore discharge
into shallow water. Shallow water in lakes, reservoirs, and rivers is
generally more biologically valuable and productive. There are several
reasons and some of them are critical during site selection.
Food production is greater in the shallow water zone because
light penetration is sufficiently deep to support growth of periphyton,
attached algae, and rooted vegetation; nutrients from runoff are commonly
more plentiful; terrestrial food organisms are more plentiful; there is
a greater variety of substrates (sand, sediment, and rubble as contrasted
to mostly fine sediment in deeper water) that provide habitat for many
kinds of food organisms; and oxygen concentrations are more favorable
because wave action and diffusion processes transport oxygen to the
bottom.
The density and variety of fish are greater in shallow water
because most fish spawn in shallow areas and their progeny utilize these
areas as nursery grounds; prior to spawning migrations into tributary
streams, numerous fish species concentrate in shallow waters until
conditions are optimal for spawning runs; cover provides more protection
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from larger predators; the more diverse substrates support a greater
variety of species in larger numbers than in the more uniform habitat of
deep waters; and, in rivers and streams, many fish species migrate
through the shallow shore zones. Shallow, protected bays and coves on
large lakes and reservoirs are often the most biologically important,
probably for the above reasons, but also because wind and wave action
are reduced and the bottom is more stable.
Mixing zones in shallow water affect a greater benthic area as
the result of limited dilution volume and natural turbulence resulting
in top to bottom mixing. In some instances, however, the very shallow
water (less than a few meters) can be less productive due to an unstable
substrate of shifting sand and sediment caused by wave action by wind or
shipping activities.
The location of mixing zones should consider migratory routes
of important species, and they should not be positioned so as to form a
block to such movements. If less than one-half the width of a stream or
river is used, then discharges on opposite sides will not constitute a
block. In this connection, future dischargers must also be considered.
Thus it is good practice to limit single mixing zones to one-third or
one-quarter of the width of a stream or river.
Recreational uses, such as water contact sports and sport
fishing, are concentrated in the shore zone also. This zorv s itnporta-nt
to the aesthetic appeal of water bodies, as well.
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(3) Positioning.
The positioning of mixing zones relative to each other is
important. Special concern is needed where mixing zones contain
different components (such as heat and copper) and may be adjacent or
overlap. Overlapping or superimposed mixing zones are acceptable if
there is not an additive effect and the toxicity limits given below are
met. In this way, less area is used for a given number of dischargers
but regulatory problems may be made more difficult.
(4) Shape.
The shape of mixing zones is important because the boundaries
must be easily located for compliance purposes. Actual plumes are not
fixed in either size or shape and therefore cannot be used as boundaries.
The prudent approach is to adopt a simple configuration that is easy to
locate in the body of water and yet avoids excessive impingement on
important areas. A circle with a specified radius is preferable. Other
shapes could be used, depending upon unusual site requirements. "Shore-
hugging" plumes should be avoided.
An accepted fact is that the plume will not conform exactly to
arbitrary configurations but within some portion of that configuration
mixing to quality as good as receiving water standards must occur. It
is true that water currents may cause the plume to bend different directions
on different days, but the intent is to require that the plume quality
be as good as receiving water standards by the time the boundary is
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reached. It is obvious then that the practice of calling the plume a
mixing zone is prohibited. Indeed, some sites may require diffusers or
other devices to meet the requirements. For future discharges, these
limitations may force site selection considerations and if so—everyone
will gain.
(c) Marine Water Mixing Zones.
(I) Introduction.
General recommendations are presented to aid in defining
mixing zones for heated water discharge into estuarine and coastal
waters. New sites should be selected to permit effective employment of
a near bottom diffuser discharge. This is recommended to optimize the
dissipation of heat by vertical diffusion through the water column and
minimize the surface area impacted by excessive temperature. Considerations
of location, configuration and maximum size are outlined for single
mixing zones. In summary, specific recommendations for marine mixing
zones include:
(A) Location at sites with good flushing characteristics
and a bottom community of minimal ecological importance.
(B) Siting which will not result in thermal addition to
the intentIda I zone.
(C) Discharge at depth sufficient to permit good sub-
surface dilution of the heated effluent without excessive impact to the
bottom nor excessive loss of cross-sectional water column area for
pelagic and planktonic life.
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(D) Maximum width of the mixing zone at slack water not
exceeding ten percent of the shore-to-shore distance of a waterway nor
of the cross-sectional area of a waterway.
Final delineation of a mixing zone must take into consideration
other mixing zones as well as pertinent socio-economic factors, which
are highly site specific. These guidelines must be supplemented by
careful consideration of such factors. Two cases in point are (a) local
water quality conditions and (b) mixing zones, thermal or non-thermal
and existing or potential. Factors such as these can greatly influence
permissible size and location of a new thermal mixing zone. However,
guidelines to weight these factors have not yet been developed for the
marine environment.
(2) Location Guidelines.
(A) Mixing zones should not impinge over five percent of
the time on shallow shoreline waters subject to appreciable natural
summer atmospheric heating which normally experience wide tidal or
diurnal fluctuations in temperature. Maintenance of normal temperature
fluctuations, both in amplitude and frequency, is imperative for protection
of the indigenous shallow water and intertidal community. Shallow water
is defined for this purpose as the extreme low water line minus three
feet for sites having a maximum shoreline current in excess of 0.5
knots; or as extreme low water minus six feet at sites having less
shore Iine current.
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(B) Sites having good flushing characteristics are
preferable.
(C) Sites having a dense, well-developed bottom community
are not desirable.
(D) Open coastal waters are more preferable for mixing
zones than the estuary due to the letter's dominant role as a plankton
dependent nursery ground.
(E) Sites bordered by a narrow intertidal zone are
preferable; sites bordered by wide intertidal flats or marshes are
undesirable due to the potential adverse influence of a heated discharge
on these shallow, highly productive habitats.
(3) Size and Configuration Guidelines.
(A) The slack water maximum dimension of any mixing zone
should not exceed ten percent of the respective shore-to-shore dimension
of a waterway, nor occupy over ten percent of its cross-sectional area.
A 90 percent zone of passage should be maintained for the passive flow
of planktonic algae, zooplankton and developmental stages of invertebrates
and fishes and for the active passage of highly motile forms such as
fishes and Crustacea.
(B) The cross-sectional area devoted to a mixing zone
should be minimized. Biologically, loss of surface area can be as
important as volume consideration in the marine environment. At well-
selected new sites, near-bottom diffuser discharge should be at a depth
which would not only meet receiving water criteria at the surface
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but which also results in a mixing zone without excessive horizontal
d imensions.
(4) Multiple Mixing Zone Considerations.
The maximum number of mixing zones that are ecologically
permissible, existing or potential, in a single estuary or adjacent open
coastal strand is dependent on variations in hydrography, geography and
local thermal and biotic characteristics. Thus, the question can only
be resolved on a case-by-case basis, and analysis of the total thermal
load on the segment may be appropriate. (See Chapter IX.) The characteristics
enumerated in paragraph (2) regarding preferable mixing zone location
also pertain to the question of multiple mixing zones. Where site
conditions are highly favorable, multiple mixing zones may be considered.
A potentially preferable site could be a coastal strand which does not
receive estuarine waters. Long-shore migration of fishes, the nature of
the bottom community and other factors would have to be taken into
consideration as well. In contrast, within small estuaries, multiple
power plant siting may be precluded entirely by the increased adverse
impact on planktonic life caused by cooling water pumping of an additional
plant or by other thermal or non-thermal mixing zones, existing or
proposed.
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IX
THERMAL LOAD ANALYSES
Introduction
For 3l6(a) evaluations, the major emphasis is on developing infor-
mation to support a determination as to the assurance of the protection
and propagation of the balanced indigenous community (Chapters IV-VII)
and the determination of an allowable mixing zone based on biological
considerations (Chapter VIM). While the "mixing zone" approach may
constitute the primary means of evaluating thermal discharges in specific
cases, at times an additional calculation of the total thermal load on
the receiving water body segment is needed. Such a calculation should
be made whenever there is indication that the effect of one or more
thermal discharges discharging during critical hydrologicai (low flow),
meteorological or biological conditions may cause critical temperature
conditions in the segment.
Basically the approach in thermal load analyses is to measure total
heat contribution from all discharges entering a water body, determining
the volume and/or surface area of the receiving water under consideration,
and compare the possible physical changes in the receiving water with
pertinent water quality standards and criteria (temperature, temperature
change, BTU's, etc.) or other temperature requirements determined as a
part of the 3l6(a) process. The need for total thermal load calculation
should be especially considered in the case of new sources to be located
near existing facilities or the reservation of thermal load allocations
to future discharges to certain receiving waters.
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The following outline addresses several points to consider:
I. When is the load analysis required?
A. When there are occurring or suspected violations to water
quality standards and/or criteria relating to temperature (including
standards which are in existence and any changes to them which have been
proposed by the State or which the Regional Administrator has requested
the State to adopt) during critical conditions (low flow, adverse meteorology,
intense local biological activity [e.g., spawning season], peak output
of pI ant, etc.); or
B. When there are several thermal discharges in close proximity
or where future growth plans indicate the installation of several new
facilities (power plants, steel mills, etc.); or
C. Where thermally loaded waters are specifically identified
under Section 303(d)(l)(B) and (D) of P.L. 92-500.
II. When is the load analysis sufficient?
A. When the analysis has identified the probable compliance
with or violations of water quality standards and criteria relating to
temperature (whether such standards are in existence, proposed by the
State or requested of the State by the Regional Administrator) for daily
variations of plant operation or receiving water conditions, various
seasons, extremes of low flow and weather, etc*; and
B. When the analysis provides sir »?Ienf detail regarding the
control strategy(ies) which are needed (i.e., the rate of heat rejection
limits Ce.g., in BTU/hr,3 allocated to each discharger under consideration);
and
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C. If models are used for the analysis, when the accuracy of
these models is firmly established. Therefore, specific accuracy levels
for the model being used in a particular case should be reported by the
applicant (temperature, heat load, etc.).
III. Information to be obtained by the applicant.
A. See Chapter VII "Engineering & Hydrologic Information."
B. If the applicant is the only significant thermal discharger
on the receiving stream where violations are suspected, he will bear the
burden of supplying data for the entire study (both near and far field).
C. If there are several dischargers within the study area,
each discharger is responsible for data collection in his immediate
area.
I. All dischargers in the study area should collect data
useful for the specific model being used.
2. The Regional Administrator or State Director may be
responsible for requesting data collection by dischargers other than the
applicant, for organizing all data and for conducting the overall load
allocation study. Exceptions include:
a. If one facility is discharging nearly all the
heat, it should carry the burden of the study.
b. Joint studies by major heat dischargers should be
conducted.
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IV. Information to be supplied by the Regional Administrator or
State Permit Program Director.
A. Applicable water quality standards and/or criteria relating
to temperature, including standards which are in existence and any
changes to them which have been proposed by the State or which the
Regional Administrator has requested the State to adopt.
B. Where there are multiple dischargers, it may be necessary
for the Regional Administrator (or Director) to conduct the overall load
analysis (far field).
V. Procedures.
Thermal load analyses require the use of acceptable analytical
methods and techniques. Several methods are illustrated in the technical
literature and range from those using very simplified techniques of low
level accuracy to others which incorporate complex computer programs.
Therefore, prior to commencing its analysis the applicant should submit
information on the methodology to be employed; provide justification -for
its selection and use, and obtain the written concurrence of the Regional
Administrator (or Director) in the proposed methodology.
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X
Community Studies
(a) Introduction
This chapter identifies community studies which may be appropriate
in any 3l6(a) demonstration. In particular, the applicant may submit
results of such studies as a substitute for certain information items of
a Type 2 demonstration (see Chapter IV, paragraphs (c)(5)(B) and (d)(5),
above) or as a supplement to any demonstration; or the Regional Admin-
istrator (or Director) may request such studies as a supplemental Information
item.
For purposes of Section 3l6(a), community studies for the groups,
primary producers, zooplankton, and macroinvertebrate^, are appropriate.
These studies focus on parameters which are indicative of an array of
species within a biotic category. They seek, therefore to relate the
effects of a discharge or proposed discharge to the community of organisms
of a given biotic category, rather than to individual species in that
category.
Studies described herein are neither exhaustive nor all-inclusive.
The Regional Administrator (or Director) may expand or delete listed
informational items as site-specific conditions may warrant. For greater
detail the following references may be consulted:
(I) Biological field and laboratory methods for measuring
the quality of surface waters and effluents, C. I.
Weber (ed.). National Environmental Research Center,
Office of Research and Development, U. S. EPA, Cincinnati,
Ohio (1973).
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(2) American Nuclear Society Standards 18.4: Guidelines for
aquatic ecological surveys for nuclear power plants (near
compIetion).
(b) Data Col lection
(I) Genera I. The informational items described below are some of
the possible community studies which can be undertaken. Collection of
data during all four seasons is preferable; however, the Regional Admin-
istrator (or Director) may determine that less information is adequate
for a particular study. The taxonomic level to which organisms are
identified depends on needs, experience, and available resources. This
level should be determined and kept constant in each major group for the
whole study. For existing plants samples should be collected within the
discharge zone, just outside the discharge zone, and at a comparison
site upstream of the plant, if appropriate, or in a nearby similar
waterway unaffected by thermal discharge. Where baseline data exist,
comparison may instead be based on conditions at the discharge site
(within and just outside the discharge zone) before and after the beginning
of plant operation. Comparisions should be based on samples taken from
similar habitats and bases and limits of comparability should be stated.
For new plants samples should be collected from the proposed discharge
zone. Comparisions will necessarily be predictive in nature. These
will be discussed in greater detail below (see paragraph (c)(2)). Where
field studies are carried out, sample replication should be adequate to
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determine the precision of the data generated and to conduct appropriate
statistical tests.
For some of the parameters enumerated below, when taken alone, it
is difficult to interpret whether a community is imbalanced and under
stress, or not. Yet, when taken as an aggregate, they may prove useful
in evaluating the degree of similarity between a community receiving a
thermal discharge and the community at a comparable site which is not
receiving heat.
(2) Primary producers
(A) Phytoplankton
(i) quantitative measure of taxonomic composition
(ii) species diversity (including equitability)
(iii) total cell counts
(iv) standing crop biomass (mg/l)
(v) chlorophyll content
(v i) productiv ity
(B) Periphyton
(i) quantitative measure of taxonomic composition
(ii) standing crop biomass
(iii) chlorophyll content
(iv) productivity
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(C) Macrophyton and macroalgae
(i) quantitative measure of taxonomic composition
(ii) standing crop biomass
(iii) chlorophyll content
(iv) product iv ity
(3) Zooplankton
(A) quantitative measure of taxonomic composition
(B) species diversity (including equitabiI ity)
(C) standing crop biomass
(4) Macro i nvertebrates
(A) quantitative measure of taxonomic composition
(B) species diversity (including equitabiIity)
(C) standing crop biomass
(D) benthic community respiration
(5) Fouling or boring communities. For marine waters studies of
fouling or boring communities may be conducted by maintaining
panels at several stations distributed throughout the discharge
zone, just outside the discharge zone and at a comparison site
or through before and after comparisons at the discharge site
(see paragraph (b)(l), above). Sets of panels should be
suspended horizontally to collect benthic components as well
as being placed vertically. The resulting fouling or boring
communities may indicate consequences of thermal addition for
the indigenous community. Such consequences may include
78
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competitive exclusion due to the flourishing of heat-tolerant
and nuisance species, failure of larval settlement of certain
species, and economic loss due to fouling or boring.
(c) Data Evaluation.
The data called for in paragraph (b) above, should in each case, be
accompanied by a rationale stating how the information presented suggests
the assurance of the protection and propagation of a balanced
indigenous community.
(I) For existing sources the rationale should include a com-
parison of affected vs. unaffected communities using standard
statistical analysis. It should be noted that a statistically
significant difference in any community parameter does not
necessarily indicate detriment and also that lack of such a
difference does not insure protection; scientific judgment
should prevail since no hard and fast decision rule is available
given the present state of the art. Where a potentially
adverse statistically significant difference between an affected
and unaffected area is found (e.g., a large decrease in
either the total number of species present or the diversity
index, the applicant should present an estimation of the
physical area covered by this difference and an explanation
why this difference does not suggest a failure to assure
the protection and propagation of a balanced, indigenous
community.
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(2) For new sources, comparisons will necessarily be predictive.
In such cases the data called for in paragraph (b) should
serve as a baseline to the predictive comparisons described
below. Because these methods are predictive and therefore
less precise analytical tools, any assumptions which are
made should be clearly defined. Predictive comparisons
i nclude:
(A) Predictive modeling of biological response to a thermal
discharge, using a specific ecological model developed
for that purpose. Verification should be carried out
using data from a comparable existing source, making
the assumptions necessary to do so. Bases and limits
of comparability and their effects upon modeling results
should be explained.
(B) Extrapolation of future community effects using community
data from a well studied existing thermal discharge
which is comparable to the proposed discharge.
Features of comparability include similar geomorphology,
substrate type, environmental regime, hydrography, water
quality, latitude and discharge size and design, or
, existence of a highly similar biological community. It is
recognized that a comparable site may not exist in a majority
of cases.
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For predictive modeling, the rationale should include a discussion
of the validity of the model, including the verification procedure,
and a showing of long-term (e.g., one or more years) system stability.
For extrapolation from other communities, the rationale should include
a discussion of the comparability of the studied site and the
proposed discharge site, and should also include an explanation why
the existing discharge is consistent with the protection and propagation
of a balanced, indigenous community.
-------
For predictive modeling, the rationale should include a discussion
of the validity of the model, including the verification procedure,
and a showing of long-term (e_._g_., one or more years) system stability.
For extrapolation from the comparability of the studied site and the
proposed discharge site, and should also include an explanation why
the existing discharge is consistent with the protection and propagation
of a balanced, indigenous community.
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APPENDIX A
Biological Value System for Establishing
Mixing Zones
This appendix sets forth a proposed system for establishing fresh
water mixing zones based on allocation of the biological value of the
receiving waters. Use of the system is optimal
(a) Delineation of Biotic Zones.
The total area allocated to mixing zones can be more easily and
accurately allocated than can areas for individual ones. This is so
because the error, if any, is distributed proportionately to each
mixing zone and the decision considers the potential combined effects of
all discharges. This must be done by competent staff but only nee.ds to.
be decided once.
The mixing zone discussion in Chapter VIII identifies certain biotic
zones (e.g., shore zone) that are more important than others and are
related~towater depth. Depth than can be used as a convenient tool
to delineate the various zones.
The licht intensity at which oxygen production in photosynthesis
and oxygen consumption by rer.plr.-iiion of the plants concerned are equal,
is known as the compensation point, and the depth at which the compensa-
tion point occurs is called the compensation depth. This depth will vary,
of course, in any segment and is dependent upon season, time of day,
cloudiness of the sky, condition of the water (turbidity), and other
factors. An approximate determination of the compensation depth as
the means of differentiating the shallow and deep water zones is simpler
than conducting a thorough biological characterization.. If such a
characterization, based on the various biological populations, is
available in adequate detail, it should be used but if not, the following
can be substituted.
In general, the compensation depth is that depth at which light
intensity is about 1 per cent of full sunlight intensity. This depth
should be determined using photometric techniques and measurements should
be obtained with a frequency capable of establishing the average condition.
As an alternative, Secchi disk readings represent the zone of light
penetration down to about 5 per cent of the solar radiation reaching the
surface and a depth 3-1* times the Secchi disk depth is a good approxima-
tion of the compensation depth. Either technique should suffice and there
are usually more data available on Secchi disk readings than photometric
measurements.
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The use of lieht penetration to distinguish the -hallow .-vnU dt-t.-p
water zones should be art acceptable means of delirr.tir.r the r.;.{••• r re luct-
Ive and biologically shallow water zone and the deeper, Ler.c cr\':.'-. ~:ii
(and, therefore, !*> :s sensitive) zones. Stratified writer in w:;i-.::i. durir.£
summer c.ontii_>, trou . and sal:".?n nre restricted, ;. i;:;t;r ,.1 tc"-;; ••••:•• -..--e.
to the deeper, hypolimetic waters, cannot be dif icrr:iti.u.ti.-d u:; rvi.iily
since the deeper, cooler water is critical to the-continued pr-.^-'.-nce of
these valued species.-- -Once the compensation depth has been determined,
a depth contour is used to calculate the surface area of each -onu.
(b) Biological Value.
Since some biotic zones are more important than others, mixing zones
should be located in the less important ones or in those that are larger
in area. A relative biological value for the various zones is needed in
order to allocate portions of each zone for mixing.
To be sure, this biological valuation cannot be strictly objective
but must utilize professional, expert opinion of biologists fa-.iliar
vith the local situation. Highly valued trout waters ill two-r.tory lakes
or areas inhabited ty endan~cre i species can be given an infinite- value
and no nixins zones allowed in those areas. Biolocical value can be
based on the species diversity of the zones and the value ni'irlc proportion.
to the ratio of species diversity in various zones. Current-swept mid-
channels of lar^e rivers or deep waters, devoid of D.O. in larr.e l-ikes,
both can be given low value. V.'nere data are inadequate, it my be
possible to use only two valuer—a value of two for one ^one known to be
more important thrm the second zone. A value of ten for a "highly"
important zone' could be given j nstead of a value of two as in the
prcccecur.c situation.
Occasions will arise yhen there is not a competent data base upon
which to establish biological value. In such cases, one may assume the
biological value to be the same for both areas, (i.e., the value of a
unit area is inversely proportional to the total area in each zone).
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Assignment of total biological value is important because it defines
upper limits on the amount of each biotic zone that may be used for mix-
ing. This assignment offers dischargers a chance to select better sites
for installation and allows the Regional Administrator (or Director) to
encourage dischargers to locate in the areas least likely to be damaged.
The biological value "weighs" the various zones, thus allowing the
same percent of the value of each (but not area) to be used for mixing.
without stressing one zone more than another.
(c) Level of Protection (Degree of Risk).
What percent of total biological value, then, should be used? Conditions
necessary for all life history processes E*a.y not be provided in nixing
zones. When an excessively large percent of a segment is made up of
mixing zones, the population of some species will decline and an unpredict-
able chain of events nay ensue. Furthermore, estimates of an acceptable
percent of an aquatic environment that can be allocated to mixing zones
must be conservative, since predictive capabilities are uncertain.
Determination of the amount of a segment's biological value to be
allocated to mixing zones is based on a variety of criteria, including
type of vater body, water velocity, depth, the number and type of habitats,
migration patterns, and the nature of the local food chain. Level of
productivity, water temperature, ability of tributary waters to provide
recruitment, human value (aesthetic, commercial and sport fishing,
recreational), endangered species, and other criteria must all be
considered.
It is acknowledged that any estimate of the amount of area assigned
to mixing zones, that will not have an unacceptable effect on a water
segment, must be based on expert opinion. However, it is apparent that
there are varying degrees of protection desired or required for different
water bodies or in different word:;, the acceptable risk differs with
location. Consequently, degree:; of protection are recommended: Maximum
level of protection for unique or fragile environments; low level of
protection for ttie less valuable environment or an environment most
capable of withstanding insults; and a moderate level of_ protection
intermediate between the two. The per cent of biological value to be
consicned to mixing zones could be one per cent for maximum protection
and ten percent for a low level of protection with specific values
from one to ten being selected J'or intermediate protection.
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(d) Allocation Alternatives.
(1) The final step is not a biological one, but an administrative
process of allocation to present and to future dischargers. This
decision cannot be universal. However, there are several considerations
that should be given attention when making this decision. Available
projections on future municipal-industrial growth can be evaluated to
estimate the potential future need for mixing zones. The planned
plant closures due to obsolescence, etc. should be known. Also, sane
classes of industry are utilizing production or waste treatment tech-
nology based on more efficient use of surface waters (e.g., closed-
cycle cooling, water reclamation and re-use).
Basically, the determination of specific mixing zone sizes is a
process of allocation of vhich there are several options:
(A) All mixing zones the same size.
Advantages—simple, direct an^ easy to calculate.
Disadvantages—lurce volume discharges would require
a much greater level of treatment than vould small
volume discharges. Allovs small volume dischargers
to discharge relatively large quantities of persistent
pollutants.
(B) Each discharger in a. general class of discharges (paper
mills, metal finishing, municipal waste, pover plant) is given the
same size mixing zone, but different classes are given different
sizes.
Advantages—simple and direct, could better allow
for general differences in volume of discharge, could
take into account general persistence or toxicity of
different classes of discharges.
Disadvantages-—there is a rather large variation in
discharge volumes in any given class. Penalizes large
plants and favorr, small ones.
(C) i.xing sshe directly proportional to the volume "of the
the discharge (e.g., for each unit volume the mixing zone would
be a unit area).
Advantages—calculation simplified, superficially
fair to all dischargers.
Disadvantages—encourages dilution pumping to obtain
a larger zone.
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(D) Mixing zone proportional to some monotonic increasing
function of the discharge volume, that has a finite upper bound.
Advantages—in contrast to "(C)" would discourage dilution
pumping and vould not unduly favor large volume discharges.
(E) Mixing zone apportionment based on toxic units that
consider toxicity and volume of waste.
This approach has an a basis the actual cause for concern—
hazard to aquatic life. Its chief disadvantage lies in the probable
frequent need for toxicity tests before decisions can be made.
(2) Example.
To illustrate how these suggestions might be employed to establish
mixing zone sizes and placement, consider the following general example.
Assume that on the basis of the foregoing considerations a water
segment has been divided into m zone types, with knownareas (Ai , A2, •••
Am) and correspondingly assigned relative biological values (BVi, BV"2, •••
BVm). Also, assume that there are presently n dischargers on the segment
with relative flow rates of (QI , Q2, •••, Qn). From this information,
ve must establish a policy for mixing zones for the present and any future
dischargers on this segment.
Several decisions of critical importance/must be made before we
may proceed. The level of protection l%_£p£lO%and the fraction of
biological value 0
-------
The fraction of this to be allocated to an individual discharger
is to be made proportional to some- as yet unspecified function f(Q)
of a discharger's flow rate. Thus, if we define
8n = f(Qj) + f(Q2) + -v 4- f(Qja)
the amount of biological value to be given to a discharger with flow
rate Qk is
f(Qk)
(E) The only task remaining in order to explicitly define Uk is to
give f(Q) a specific form.
The choice of f(Q) is dependent upon the goals desired in a segment
and thus is not unique, but should as a minimum be monotonically increas-
ing and have a finite upper bound. One such function that meets these
criteria is
f(Qk) = Qk
Qk + Q (W-l)
where Q~ = (Qi + $2 + ** + Q*0/n is the average flow rate and l£Wtf> is the
ratio of the biological value that would be allocated to a theoretical
discharger with an infinite flow rate to that allocated to a discharger
with flow rate Q~. The larger W is, the more biological value is alloted
to large dischargers. If W=l, then all dischargers would receive the
same number of biological units independent of their flow rates. It W=»,
then each discharger would receive an amount that is in the same propor-
tion as the flow rate. (See figure 2)
A compromise between these two extremes would be to linearly
Interpolate to find a half-way point. Since one value is infinite,
the interpolation would have to be done on a reciprical scale, thus
interpolating half way between the reciprocals we have, that
1, !/«= 0 halfway is 1/2 = 1/W or W = 2.
Using W=2, our function f(Qk) has the simple form
f(Qk) = Qk
Qk + 15
and the allocation formula in this instance may be expressed as
U. = QpBVQk
Sn(Qk + Q-)
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(F) Once Uk is specified, it is up to the individual discharger to
choose his own mixing zone as he sees fit, subject only to the constraints
that it is circular in form and contains no more than his allocated number
of biological units. In order to protect the very shallow shore areas
and give the discharger incentive to discharge into deeper water, any
land in the discharger's chosen circle can be given the same biological
value as the water zone in his circle with greatest biological value.
If the mixing zone circle is contained totally in one type, of
zone, then the radius r^ of a circle in the Jth zone allocated to a
discharger of flow rate Q^ is
Uv
* BV3
If a mixing zone is in more than one zone type, the radius of the circle
must be obtained by trial and error, where a radius is specified and the
number of biological units in the circle is computed to be:
A PV + . . . H
A2 krV2 *
Al A2 Am
+v» +v*
where AJk is the area of the circle in the j n zone given to the k6
discharger. The radius is then adjusted until the computed biological
units are eqxal to the allotted number of biological units.
Present dischargers are free to obtain a mixing zone according to
this formula and future dischargers can be issued psrmits on the same
basis, until the total number of allocated biological units are exhausted.
In addition, it should be noted that by using this procedure, it is
possible to utilize a proportion pBV/BVj of the area of the J zone type
for mixing zones. Thus, an upper bound for each type zone might also be
established that would limit the total area that could be taken for any
one type of zone by not issuing any permits in that type of zone, once
this upper limit was met.
As a guide to following these concepts, consider the following
concrete numerical example.
A segment, shown in Figure 1, is divided into two zones on
the basis of a compensation point which occurs at a 30-meter depth.
The areas (Aj, A2, m = 2) and corresponding relative biological values
(BVi, BV2) of each zone are specified and the total biological value
computed as indicated in Figure 1. We shall also assume that we have
three (n=3) diccharcers on the r.egment with relative flow rates shown
in Table 1. Choosing (p • ,02, o « -5. W = 2) we obtain the allocation
formula
Ufc e .02182 Qk
Ok + 3
and the allocation of biological units also indicated in Table 1.
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with relative flow rate of 9 was to have his circle
e:itrr'i..\y in ^hc first zone, hi3 radius would be
.02182)9 (3?) « .3019
(9*3) U)(2)
c.y nr. individual with relative flov rate of .5 units, all in zone 2, vould
hr/ra i radius of size
_(.02182)(.5)(25) = ,2792
(.5+3) (1)
Cone'I us Ion
In essence, the approach in these guidelines focuses on the need
tc consider the collective effects of all discharges to the segment or
lerge portion of the segment. The guidelines identify critical overall
considerations and suggest decisional alternatives. They discuss allo-
cation of the total acceptable mixing zone area among present and future
discharges.
The Regional Administrator (or Director) can employ the decision-
making process of these guidelines and still use available local expertise
and common sense. Thus, the determinations will be visibly rational and
consistent among discharges; at the same time each decision will be
tailored to the local situation.
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Table 1.
p ~ ,0£, S ~ .5s, W = 2
Numerical Example
k Qk
»
I 1
2 3
3 5
£ 9
f'(Qk) = _£K_
Qk+3
.25
.50
.625
1.375
Uk = (.5X.02X3)f(Qk) =
1-375
-005l)>
.01091
.0136U
.03
.02l62f(Qk)
^= (1 + 3 + 5)/3 = 3
Sn = .25 + .5 + .625 = 1.375
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i^-L^-MULiM:-]
-------
&»Vt.t--i "TO .•'-:
ITH A Fi,cw
iW" tfj TABLE J. . ::
iiii^iiiiiiiiiiiiMii^::?::;
~-™ "' '•"•• w—•-•• '"'"'"'" '" ' *"""4'
::^!":'i ; "'•'• '•',' '..':' '.]••:'.•• -i'-'.'-.l.^'l':-'.-:'.:' : /
V '//• [- '!-' -'I' -:
./ //.; •••: •::--::r---. •
. .
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APPENDIX B
I
FRESH WATER TEMPERATURE CRITERIA
Acceptable temperature iivnits in frc-r.li water curii:^ any tiir.;- of Loo
year are:
a. A in.'iximur: weekly average temperature thai':
1. In receiving -waters during the warmer months (approximately
April through October in the North, and March through November in rhe. SouLh)
is one-third of the range between the optiimm temperature for growth and
the ultimate upper incipient lethal temperature for the most sensitive
important .species (or appropriate, life stage) that is normally found at the
location at that tiiue (see Table 1).
2, In the heated plume, during the cooler months (appro:-. "Jr.iate] y
mid-October to mid-April in the North and December to February in the South)
corresponds to the appropriate ambient teiriperav.ure ju the nomograph in
Figure 1. This should protect against inost fish mortality when the temperature
to which the fish are exposed in the plume rapidly drops to the ambient
temperature. In some, areas this limit may also be applicable in the sunder.
3. During reproduction seasons (generally April-June and
September-October in the North and March-May and October-Xovember in the
South) raeet;3 specific site requirements for successful maturation, migration,
spawning, egg incubation, fry rearing, and other reproductive functions
of important species ac presented in part in Table 2.
or 4. At a specific K-; t.e is found necessary to preserve normal
species diversity or prevent undesirable: ,<,iov;iii of nuisance erg,.ai.:;,.;•..
and b. maximum temperature::, iur :;hort-lcrm expos-jres at any r.eir.on
ns developed i't- i.pg t.'ie resistance: t'ii.e eejii.'itiou:
loj; (';ir,ii: in iniii.) - a t- h (Tcri^. in ""t!)
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o
vherr? a and b respectively are Intercept 'and slope., which arc characteristics
of each acclivr.a tion temperature for each specins (see later detailed discussion).
During the cpav.Tiing season this limitation, vh.i.r.h was designed to prevent
juvenile and adult fish mortality, 'would not be adequate'ly protective of repro-
duction. Consequently, this limitation v;ill be superseded by short-term maximum
temperatures based on maximum successful spawning and egg incubation temperature;;
. Local requirements for rcprodxictioii should supersede all other require-
ments when they are applicable. Detailed ecological analysis of both natural
and man-modified aquatic environments is necessary to ascertain when these
requirements should apply.
Available data on temperature requirements for growth and reproduction,
lethal limits for various acclimation temperature levels, and various
temperature-related characteristics of many of the more important freshwater
fish species are included in Appendix A.
RationajLe (Temperature) :
Living organisms do not respond to the quantity of heat but instead,
to degrees of temperature or to temperature changes caused by transfer of
heat. Organisms have upper and lower thermal tolerance limits, optimum
temperatures for growth, preferred temperatures in thermal gradients, and
temperature limitations for migration, spawning and egg incubation.
Temperature also affects the physical environment of the aquatic medium
(e.g., viscosity, degree of ice cover, and oxygen capacity); therefore,
the composition of aquatic communities depends largely on temperature
characteristics of the environment.
Because temperature changes may affect the. composition of an aquatic
community, an induced change in the. thermal characteristics of an ecosystem
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may be. detrimental. On the other hand, altered thermal characteristics
may be beneficial, as evidenced in some of the nevrcr fish hatchery practices
and at other aquacultural facilities. The general difficult}7 in developing
suitable criteria for temperature (which would limit the addition of he.nt)
is to determine the deviation from "natural" teir.pernture a particular body
of water can experience without adversely affecting its desired biota.
Whatever requirements are suggested, natural diurnal and seasonal cycles
must be retained, annual spring and fall changes in temperature must be
gradual, and large unnatural day-to-day fluctuations should be avoided. In
view of the many variables, it seems obvious that no single temperature
rise limitation can be applied uniformly to continental or large regional areas;
the requirements must be closely related to each body of water and to its
particular community of organisms, especially the important species found
in it. These should include invertebrates, plankton, or other plant and
animal life that may be of importance to food chains or otherwise interact
with species of direct interest to man. Since thermal requirements of
various species differ, the social choice of the species to be protected
allows for different "levels of protection" among water bodies. Although
such decisions clearly transcend the scientific judgments needed in
establishing thermal criteria for protecting selected species, biologists
can aid in making these decisions. Some measures useful in assigning levels
of "importance" to species are: (1) high yield or desirability to commercial
or sport fisheries, (2) large biomass in the existing ecosystem (if desirable),
(3) important links in food chains of other species judged important for
other reasons, and (4) "endangered" or unique status. If it is desirable, to
attempt strict preservation of an existing ecosystem, then the most sensitive
species or life stage may dictate the. criteria selected.
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Criteria for making recommendations for water temperature to protect.
desirable aquatic life cannot be simply a maximum allowed change from natural
temperatures. This is principally because a change of even one degree from
an ambient temperature has varying significance for an organism, depending
upon where the ambient level lies within the .tolerance range. In addition,
historic temperature records or, alternatively, the existing ambient
temperature prior to any thermal alterations by man are not always reliable
indicators of desirable conditions for aquatic populations. Multiple
developments of water resources also change water temperatures both upward (e.
upstream power plants or shallow reservoirs) and downward (e.g., deepwater
releases for large reservoirs) so that ambient and natural temperatures at a
given point can best be defined only on a statistical basis. Criteria for
temperature should consider both the multiple thermal requirements of aquatic
species and requirements for.balanced communities. The number of distinct
requirements and the necessary values for each require periodic reexamination
as knowledge of thermal effects on aquatic species and communities increases.
Currently definable requirements include:
• Maximum sustained temperatures that are consistent with maintaining
desirable levels of productivity (growth minus mortality);
• Maximum levels of thermal acclimation that will permit return to
ambient winter temperatures should artificial sources of heat cease;
• Temperature limitations for survival of brief exposures to
temperature extremes, both upper and lower;
• Restricted temperature ranges for various stages of reproduction,
including (for fish) gonad growth and gamete maturation, spawning' migration,
release of gametes, development of the embryo and larva, commencement of
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5
independent feeding (and other activities) by juveniles; and temperatures
required for metamorphosis, emergence, and other activities of lower forms;
• Thermal limits for diverse compositions of species of aquatic
communities, particularly where reduction in diversity creates nuisance, growths
of certain organises, or where important food sources or chains are altered;
• Thermal requirements of downstream aquatic life where upstream warming
of cold water sources will adversely affect downstream temperature requirements.
Thermal criteria must also be formulated with knowledge of how man
alters temperatures, the hydrodynamics of the changes, and how the biota can
reasonably be expected to interact with the thermal regimes produced. It is
not sufficient, for example, to define only the thermal criteria for sustained
production of a species in open waters, because large numbers of organisms
may also be exposed to thermal changes by being pumped through the condensers
and mixing zone of a power plant. Design engineers need particularly to
know the biological limitations to their design options in such instances.
Considerations such as impingement of fish upon intake screens, mechanical
or chemical damage to zooplankton in condensers, or effects ofl altered
current patterns on bottom fauna in a discharge area may reveal non-thermal
impacts of cooling processes that may outweigh temperature effects. The
environmental situations of aquatic organisms (e.g., where they are, when
they are there, in what numbers) must also be understood. Thermal criteria
for migratory species should be applied to a certain area only when the
species is actually there. Although thermal effects of power stations are
currently of greater interest, other less dramatic causes of temperature
change including deforestation, stream channelization, and impoundment of
flowing water must be recognized.
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6
Available data for temperature requirements for growth and reproduction,
lethal limits for various acclimation temperature levels, and various
temperature-related characteristics of many of the more desirable freshwater
fish species are included in the Appendix, General temperature criteria for
these species are summarized in Tables 1 and 2.
Termino logy_ _Defined
Some basic thermal response of aquatic organisms will be referred to
repeatedly and are defined and reviewed briefly here. Effects of heat on
organisms and aquatic communities have been reviewed periodically (e.g.,
1, 2-, 3, 4, 5, 6). Some effects have been analyzed in the context of thermal
modification by power plants (7, 8, 9, 10, 11). Bibliographic information
is available in various publications (12, 13, 14, 15, .16, 17).
The thermal tolerance range is adjusted upward by acclimation to warmer
water and downward by cooler water, although there is a limit to such
accommodation. The lower end of .the range usually is at zero degrees
centigrade (32° F) for species in temperate latitudes (somewhat less for
saline waters), while the upper end terminates in an "ultimate incipient lethal
temperature" (18). This ultimate threshold temperature represents the
"breaking point" between the highest temperatures to which an animal can be
acclimated and the lowest of the temperatures that will kill the warm-
acclimated organism.
At the temperatur alrove and below the upper and lower incipient
lethal temperatures, survival depends not only on the absolute temperature
but also on the duration of exposure, with mortality occurring more rapidly
the further the temperature departs from the threshold.
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7
P.ccause the equations b::?ed on research on thermal tolerance predict
50 percent mortality, a safety factor is needed to as.snrc no mortality.
Several studies have indicated that a two degree centigrade (3.6° F) reduction
of an upper lethal temperature results in no mortalities within an equivalent
exposure, duration (19, 20). The validity of a two degree safety factor was
strengthened by the results of Coutant (21), which showed that for median
mortality at a given high temperature, for about 15 to 20 percent of the expo run-
time there was induced selective predation on thermally shocked salmon and
trout. This also amounted to reduction of the effective stress temperature
by about two degrees centigrade. Unpublished data from subsequent predation
experiments showed that this reduction of about two degrees centigi'ade also
applied to the incipient lethal temperature. The level at which there is
no increased vulnerabilitj' to predation is the best estimate of no-stress
exposure that is currently available.
Maximum Weekly Average Temperature for Growth
Occupancy of habitats by most aquatic organisms often is limited within
the. thermal tolerance range to temperatures somewhat below the ultimate upper
incipient lethal temperature. This is the result of poor physiological
performance at near lethal temperatures (e.g., growth, metabolic scope for
activities, appetite, food conversion efficiency), interspecies competition,
disease, predation, and other subtle ecological factors. This complex
limitation is evidenced by restricted southern and altitudinal distributions
of many species. On the other hand, optimum temperatures (such as those
producing fastest growth rates) are not generally necessary at all times to
maintain thriving populations and are often exceeded in nature during summer
99
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8
months. Moderate temperature fluctuations can generally be tolerated as
long as a summer maximum upper limit is not exceeded for long periods.
A true temperature limit for exposures long enough to reflect metabolic
acclimation and optimum ecological performance must lie somewhere between
the physiological optimum and the ultimate upper incipient lethal temperature.
Examination of literature on physiological optima (swimming, metabolic
rate, temperature preference, growth, natural distribution, and tolerance)
of several species has yielded an apparently sound theoretical basis for
estimating an upper temperature limit for long-term exposure. The most
sensitive function for which data are available appears to be growth rate.
A temperature that is one-third of the range between the optimum
temperature for growth and the ultimate incipient lethal temperature can be
calculated by the formula:
Optimum + Ultimate incipient lethal temp - optimum temp for growth
temp ~
for growth
This formula offers a practical method for obtaining allowable limits, while
retaining as its scientific basis the requirements of preserving adequate rates
of growth. This formula was used to calculate the summer growth (on a monthly
basis) criteria in Table 1.
The criterion for a specific location would be determined by the most
sensitive life stage or the sensitive important species likely to be present
in that location at that time. Since many fishes have restricted habitats
(e.g., specific depth zones) at many life stages, the thermal criterion must
be applied to the proper zone. There is field evidence that fish avoid
localized areas of unfavorably warm water. This has been demonstrated both
in lakes where coJdwater fish normally evacuate warm shallows in summer
100
-------
9
and at power station heated plumes. In most large bodies of water there are
both vertical and horizontal thermal gradients that mobile organisms can
follow to avoid unfavorable high (or low) temperatures. The summer maxima
must apply to restricted local habitats such as lake hypolimnia or thermoclines,
that provide important summer sanctuary areas for coldwater species. Any
avoidance of a warm area within the normal seasonal habitat of the species will
mean that less area of the water body is available to support the population
and that production may be reduced. Such reduction should not interfere
with biological communities or populations of important species to a degree
which is damaging to the ecosystem or other beneficial uses. Non-mobile
organisms that must remain in the warm zone will probably be the limiting
organisms for that location. Any upper limiting temperature criteria must
be applied carefully with understanding of the population dynamics of the
species in question in order to establish both, local and regional requirements.
Maximum Weekly Average Temperature for Winter
Although artificially produced temperature elevations during winter
months may actually bring the temperature closer to optimum or preferred
temperature for important species, and therefore attract fish, metabolic
acclimation to these higher levels can preclude safe return of the organism
to ambient temperatures should the artificial heating suddenly cease or the
organism be driven from the heated area. The lower limit of the range of
thermal tolerance of important species must, therefore, be maintained at
the normal seasonal ambient temperatures throughout cold seasons. This can
be accomplished by limitations on temperature elevations in such areas as
discharge canals and mixing zones where organisms may reside, or by insuring
101
-------
10
that maximum tuniocratures occur only in areas not accessible to important
aquatic life for lengths of time sufficient to allow metabolic acclimation.
Such inaccessible areas would include the high-velocity zones of diffusers
or screened discharge channels. This reduction of maximum temperatures
would not preclude use of slightly warded areas as sites for intense winter
fisheries.
This consideration may be important in some regions at tiroes other than
in winter. The Great Lakes, for example, arc susceptible to rapid changes
in elevation of the thermocline in summer which may induce rapid decreases
in shoreline temperatures (upwelling) . Fi:.h acclimated to exceptionally
high temperatures in discharge, canals may be killed or severely stressed without.
changes in power plant operations.
Some numerical values for acclimation temperatures and lower limits of
tolerance ranges (lower incipient lethal temperatures) for several species
are given in Appendix A. Lower winter temperature is necessary for some
species such as yellow perch for egg maturation and lake whitefish for egg
incubation.
Figure 1 is a nomograph that demonstrates the relationship between the
maximum weekly average temperature acceptable in heated plumes and different
ambient temperatures. The nomograph was calculated using lower incipient
lethal temperature data that would, after applying the 2° C safety factor,
ensure protection against partial lethality for most fish species for which
there are data (22). At an acclimation (heated plume) temperature of 10° C
(50° F) or less, warm water fishes can tolerate a drop in temperature to
any lower ambient temperature. Conversely (see Fig. 1), whenever the ambient
102
-------
11
tur.peracure is 1-ss than 2.5° C (37C r) , the heated plu~3 ncy be as w^i^
as 10° C (50° V) . However, trout and s-.!~on cannot withstand ccr.pnrr.blc
temperature declines and the r.or.cgrapu should be used doT-~ tc an anbic-.it;
temperature of 0° C (32C F). At this temperature a ir.aximun pi tine terperstvre
of 5° C (41° F) is pemisrlMe.
The maxinu.u weekly average tervperr.tures during the winter months are
applicable to the heated plinnt rather than the receiving water since the
principal concern for most fish at that time is to protect against excessive
rapid decline in temperature. At the time that the earliest spawning should
occur, the appropriate maximum weekly average temperature for the receiving
water must be applied again. If species similar to yellow perch or lake
whitefish are to be protected, a maximum weekly average temperature in the
receiving water during the winters should be necessary as well as the
limitation in the plumes.
Short-term Exposure to Extreme Temperature
To protect aquatic life and yet allow other uses of the water, it is
essential to know the lengths of time organisms can survive extreme
temperatures (i.e., temperatures that exceed the 7-day incipient lethal
temperature). The length of time that 50 percent of a population will survive
temperature above the incipient lethal temperature can be calculated from
a regression equation of experimental data as follows:
log (time in min.) = a + b (Temp, in °C)
where a and b are intercept and slope, respectively, which are characteristics
of each acclimation temperature for each species (22). In some cases the
103
-------
12
time-temperature relationship is more complex than the semilogarithraic
model given above. This equation, however, is the most applicable, and is
generally accepted by the scientific community (5). Caution is recommended
in extrapolating beyond the data limits of the original research. Thermal
resistance may be diminished by the simultaneous presence of toxicants or
other debilitating factors. The most accurate predictability can be
derived from data collected using water from the site .under evaluation.
It is clear that adequate data are available for only a small percentage
of aquatic species, and additional research is necessary. Thermal resistance
information should be obtained locally for critical areas to account for
simultaneous presence of toxicants or other debilitating factors, a consideration
not reflected in the Appendix data.
The resistance time equation discussed earlier was used to calculate
tolerance limits for many species of *fish for several time intervals up
to 10,000 minutes. The results of these calculations revealed a uniform
relationship between these species that would permit establishing maximum
acceptable temperatures for spring, summer, and fall that would protect fish
against lethal conditions when subjected to occasional temperature levels
exceeding the maximum weekly average temperature during these seasons. These
limits, applicable to the receiving water, are summarized in Table 1 and are
based on the 24-hour median tolerance limit, minus the 2° C (3.6° F) safety
factor discussed earlier using the maximum weekly average temperature as
the acclimation temperature.
Since these temperatures exceed those permitting satisfactory, albeit
sub-optimal growth, unnatural excursions above the maximum weekly average
104
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13
temperature to the maximum temperature should be permitted only in extreme
instances and then only for short time periods.
A procedure has been developed and discussed for the evaluation of
specific thermal discharge sites using a rearrangement of the resistance-time
equation (22). This useful procedure allows the summation of specific
effects on aquatic organisms during passage through condensers, discharge
canals and heated plumes.
During the spawning season short-term maxima determined using the
resistance time equation will protect the spawning population from lethal
temperatures. However, spawning and egg incubation temperature requirements
are more restrictive (lower) and these biological processes would not be
protected by those maxima. The upper temperature limits for successful
spawning and egg incubation for a given fish species are essentially the
same and these limits are the recommended short-term maxima during the
spawning season (Table 2).
Reproduction and Development
The sequence of events relating to gonad development, spawning migration,
release of gametes, development of the egg and embryo, and commencement of
independent feeding represents one of the most complex phenomena in nature,
both for fish (23) and invertebrates (6). These events are generally the
most thermally sensitive of all life stages. The erratic sequence of
failures and successes of different year classes of lake fish attests to
the unreliability of natural conditions for providing optimum reproduction
each year.
Uniform elevations of temperature by a few degrees during the spawning
period, while maintaining short-term temperature cycles and seasonal thermal
105
-------
14
patterns, appear to have little overall effect on the reproductive cycle
of resident aquatic species, other than to advance the timing for spring
spav.'ncrs or delay it for fall spawners. Such shifts are often seen in
nature, although no quantitative measurements of reproductive success have
been made in this connection. For example, thriving populations of many
fishes occur in diverse streams of the Tennessee Valley in which the date of
spawning may vary in a given year by 22 to 65 days. Examination of the
literature shows that shifts in spawning dates by nearly one month are common
in natural waters throughout the U. S. Populations of some species at
the southern limits of their distribution are exceptions - the lake whitefish
(Coregonus clupeaformis) in Lake Erie that require a prolonged, cold incubation
period (24) and species such as yellow perch (Perca flavescens) that require a
long chill period for egg maturation prior to spawning (25).
Highly mobile species that depend upon temperature synchrony among
widely different regions or environments for various phases of the
reproductive or rearing cycle (e.g., anadromous salmonids or aquatic insects)
could be faced with dangers of dis-synchrony if one area is warmed, .but another
is not. Poor long-term success of one year class of Fraser River (British
Columbia) sockeye salmon (Oncorhyiichus nerka) was attributed to early (and
highly successful) fry production and emigration during an abnormally warm
summer followed by unsuccessful, premature feeding activity in the cold
and still unproductive estuary (26).
Changes in Structure of Aquatic Communitins
Significant change in temperature or in thermal patterns over a period
of time may cause some change in the composition of aquatic communities
106
-------
15
(i.e.. the species represented and the numbers of individuals in each
species). Allowing temperature changes to significantly aJ tier the corv.mnity
structure in natural waters may be detrimental, even though species of
direct importance to man are not eliminated.
Alteration of aquatic communities by the addition of heat may ocoatrj onally
result in growths of nuisance organisms provided tnat other environmental
conditions essential to such growths (e.g., nutrients) exist.
Data on temperature limits or thermal distributions in which nuisance
growths will be produced are not presently available due in part to the
complex interactions with other growth stimulants. There Js not sufficient
evidence to say that any temperature increase will necessarily result in
increased nuisance organisms. Careful evaluation of local conditions is
required for any reasonable prediction of effect.
EXAMPLE
The nuances of developing freshwater aquatic life criteria for
temperature can best be understood by an example (Table 3). Tables 1 and 2
and Figure 1 and the Appendix are the principal sources for the criteria.
The following additional information about the specific environment to
which the criteria will apply is needed.
1. Species to be protected by the criteria. (In this example, they
are bluegill, largemouth bass, and white crappie).
2. fcocal spawning seasons for these spe.cies. (Bluegill - May to July;
white crappie - April to June; largemouth bass - May to July).
3. Normal seasonal rise in temperature during the spawning season.
(Since spawning may occur over a period of a few months and only a single
107
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16
maximum weekly average temperature for optimal spawning i.s given for a
species (Table 2), one would use that optimal temperature for the middle
month of the spawning season. In a normal season the criterion for the
first month of a three-month spawning season should be below the maximum
weekly average temperature for spawning for the species to be protected,
and the last month should be above this temperature. Such a pattern should
simulate the natural seasonal rise .
4. Normal ambient winter temperature. (In this case it is 5° C
(41° F) in December and January and 10° C (50° F) in November, February,
and March. These will be used to determine permissible plume temperatures in
the winter (Figure 1).)
5. The principal growing season for these species. (In this example
it jft July through September. Criteria in Table 1 will be used).
6. Any local extenuating circumstances, (If certain non-fish species
or food organisms are especially sensitive and thermal requirement data are
available, these data should be used as well as the criteria considered for
the fish species).
In some instances there will be insufficient data to determine each
necessary criterion for each species (Table 3). One must, make estimates
based on any available data and by extrapolation from data for species for
which there are adequate data. For instance, if the above example had
included the white bass for which only the maximum weekly average temperature
for spawning is given, one would of necessity have to estimate that its summer
growth criterion would approximate that for the white crappie which has a
similar spawning requirement.
108
-------
17
The choice of desirable fish species is very critical. Since in this
example the white crappie is the most temperature sensitive of the three
species, the maximum weekly average temperature for summer growth is based
on the white crappie. Consequently, the criteria would result in lower than
optimal conditions for the bluegill and largemouth bass. An alternate approach
would be to develop criteria for the single most important species even if the
most sensitive is not well protected. The choice is a socioeconomic one.
109
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18
REFERENCES
1. Bullock, T. II, 1955. Compensation for temperature, in the. metabolism
anO activity of poikilotherins. Biol, Rev. (Cambridge) 30:311-342.
2. Bra!t, J. R. 1256. Some principles in the thermal requirements of
fishes. Quart. Rev. Biol. 31:75-87.
3. Frv, F.E.J. 1947. Effects of the environment on animal activity.
Univ. of Toronto Stud. Biol. Ser.. No. 55 Publ. Ont. Fish. Res. Lab.
No. 68:1-62.
4. Fry, F.E.J. 1964. Animals in aquatic environments: fishes temperature.
effects Chapter 44. Handbook of Physiology, Section 4: Adaptation to
the Environment. Amer. Physiol. Soc., Washington, D. C.
5. Fry, F.E.J. 1967. Responses; of vertebrate polkilotherms to temperature
(review). In: Thermobiology, A. H. Rose, ed. (Academic Press, New
York), pp. 375-409.
6. Kinne, 0. 1970. Temperature—animals—invertebrates, in marine ecology,
0. Kinne, ed. (John Wiley & Sons, New York), vol. 1, pp. 406-514.
7. Parker, !•'. L. and P. A. Krenkel, eds. 1969. Engineering aspects of
thermal pollution. (Vanderbilt University Press, Nashville, Tennessee),
351.
8. Krenkel, P. A. and F. L. Parker, eds. 1969. Biological aspects of thermal
pollution. (Vanderbilt University Press, Nashville, Tennessee), 407 p.
9. Cairns, J., Jr. 1968. We're in hot water. Scientist and Citizen
10:187-198.
10. Clark, J. R. 1969. Thermal pollution and aquatic life. Sci. Amer.
220:18-27.
11. Coutant, C. C. 1970. Biological aspects of thermal pollution.
I. Entrainment and discharge canal effects. CRC Critical Rev. Environ.
Contr. 1:341-381.
12. Kennedy, V. S. and J. A. Mihursky. 1967. Bibliography on the effects
of temperature in the aquatic environment (Contribution 326) (University
of Maryland, Natural Resources Institute, College Park). 89 p.
13. Raney, E. C. and B. W. Menzel. 1969. Heated effluents and effects on
aquatic life with emphasis on fishes: a bibliography, 38th ed. (U. S.
Department of the Interior, Water Resources Information Center,
Washington, D. C.) 469 p.
,10
-------
1°
14. Coulant, C, C. ].%<°,. Thermal pollut:) on— -biul o;.:i ml effects: a
review of ii,.. literature uf 1S67. J. Water I'./lim-. Contr. Fed.
40:1047-105:'..
15,. Ccnir.ant, C, C. 1969. Tornnal pollution — biological effects: a
re- view ol" tha literature, of 1968. .7. Water Pollut. ConLT. ]'ed ,
41:1036-105:-;.
16. Coi;tant, C. C. .1970. Thermal po] In 1::! on — biological effects: a
rev .lew of i.ha literature of 1969, J. Water Pollut. Con IT. Fed.
42:1025-1057.
17, Coutant, C. C. 1971. Thermal pollution—biological effects.
Literature review. J. Water PolluL. Contr. Fed, 43: 1292--1334-.
18. Fry, F. E. J., J. S. Hart, and K. F. Walker. 1946. Lethal temperature
relations for a sample of young speckled trout, Salvelinus f ontinalip .
University of Toronto -biology series no. 54. The University of
Toronto Press. Toronto. pp. 9-35.
19. Fry, F. E. J., J. R. Brett, and G. H. Clavson. 1942. Lethal limits
of temperature for young goldfish. Rev. Can. Biol. 1:50-56.
20. Black, E. C. 1953. Upper lethal temperatures of some British Columbia
frephwater fishes, J: "Fi^h. Kep= Bo.--rd Can. 1 0: ] 96-210,
21. Coutant, C. C. 1970. Thermal resistance of aduLt coho (Oacorhvnchus
kisutcli) and jack chinook (0. t s h awy t G ch a ) salmon, and the adult
steel head trout (Saljno pairdnerii) from the Columbia River.
[SEC BIWL-ISOS] , Battelle Nortlwest, Richland, Washington. 24 p.
22. Water Quality Criteria of 1972. NAS Report - In press.
23. Brett, J. R. 1970. Temperature — animals — fishes. In: Marine Ecology.
0. Kinne, ed. John Wiley & Sons, New York. Vol. 1. pp 515-560.
24. Lawler, G. H. 1565. Fluctuations in the success of year-classes of
white-fish populations with special reference to Lake Erie. J. Fish.
Res. Board Can. 22:1197-1227.
25. Jones, B. R. , K. E. F. Hokanson, and J. H. McCormick. 1974. Winter
temperature requirements of yellow p, rc*?i, Perca- f lavescens (Mitchill) .
Manuscript. National Water Quality moratory-, Duluth, Minnesota.
26. Vernon, E. 11. 1958. An examination of factors affecting the abundance
of pink salmon in. the Fra:-;er River. Progress report no. 5. International
Pacific Salmon Fisheries Commission. New Westminster, British Columbia.
Ill
-------
TABLE 1
Maximum Weekly Average Temperatures for Growth and Short-Term
"/laxima lor Survival for Juveniles and
Adu]i:5; During thr- Suiuuier
Atlantic Salmon
Bigiiiouth BuLfalo
Black Crappie
Brook Trout
Carp
Channel Catfish
Coho Salmon
Emerald Shiner
Freshwater Drum
Lake Herring (Cisco)
Largemouth Bass
Northern Pike
Rainbow Trout
Sauger
Smallmouth Bass
SinRllmouth Buffalo
Sockeye Salmon
Striped Bass
Threadfin Shad
White Bass
White Crappie
White Sucker
Yellow Perch
Gr ow t h
20 (63)
-
27 (81)
29 (84)
19 (66)
32 (90)
18 (64)
30 (86)
--
17 (63)
32 (90)
28 (82)
19 (66)
25 (77)
29 (84)
—
18 (64)
27 (81)
28 (82)
22 (72)
Ha:x iina
23 (73)
32 (90)
23 (73)
36 (97)
24 (75)
31 (88)
-
25 (77)
34 (93)
30 (86)
24 (75)
22 (72)
29 (84)
Based on 24-hour median lethal limit minus 2° C (3.6° F) and accli-
mation at the maximum weekly average temperature for summer growth.
Based all or in part on data for larvae.
12
-------
TABLE 2
Maximum Weekly Average Temperature for Spawning and Short-term
Maxima for Embryo Survival During the Spawning Season
(Centigrade and Fahrenheit).
Species Spawning Maximum
Atlantic Salmon 5 (41) 7 (45)
Bigmouth Buffalo 17 (63) 27 (81)
Black Grapple - -
Bluegill 25 (77) 34 (93)
Brook Trout 9 (48) 13 (55)
Carp 21 (70) 26 (79)
Channel Catfish 27 (81) 29 (84)
Coho Salmon 10 (50) 13 (55)
Emerald Shiner 23 (73) 27 (81)
Freshwater Drum 21 (70) 26 (79)
Lake Herring (Cisco) 3 (37) 8 (46)
Largemouth Bass 21 (70) 27 (81)
Northern Pike 12 (54) 19 (66)
Rainbow Trout 9 (48) 13 (55)
Sauger 10 (50) 21 (70)
Smallmouth Bass 17 (63) 25 (77)
Smallmouth Buffalo 17 (63) 21 (70)
Sockeye Salmon 10 (50) 13 (55)
Striped Bass 18 (64) 24 (75)
Threadfin Shad 18 (64) 31* (93)
White Bass 19 (66) 24 (75)
White Grapple 18 (64) 23 (73)
White Sucker 10 (50) 21 (70)
Yellow Perch 12 (54) 20 (68)
13
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TABLE 3
Criteria Developed for Example'
(Centigrade, and Fahrenheit)
aximum Weekly Average
Temperat ure
Decision Basis
Receiving
Water
JAN
FCI:
MAR
APR
MAY
JUN
JUL
AUG
SF.P
OCT
NOV
DEC
18
21
25
27
27
27
21
a
a
a
(64)
(70)
(77)
(80)
(80)
(80)
J70)
a
Heated
Plume
15
25
25
25
15
(59)
(77)
(77)
-
-
-
-
-
-
(77)
(59)
Protection against temperature drop
Protection against temperatare drop
Protection against temperature drop
White crappie spawning
Largemouth bass spawning
Bluegi.ll spawning and white crappie growt:!i
White crappie growth
White crappie growth
White crappie growth
Normal gradual seasonal decline
Protection against temperature drop
Protection against temperature drop
Short-Term Maximum
Decision Basis
JAN
FEE
MAR
APR
MAY
JUN
JUL
AUG
SEP
OCT
NOV
DEC
26 (79)
29 (84)
32 (90)
32 (90)
32 (90)
32 (90)
29 (84)
Bluegill. survival (estimated)
Bluegill survival (estimated)
Bluegill survival
Bluegill survival
Bluegill^ survival
Bluegill survival
Bluegill survival (estimated)
If a species had required a winter chill period for gamete
maturation or egg incubation, receiving water criteria would
also be required.
No data available for the slightly more sensitive white crappie.
-------
30(86)
on
LU
0.
^
LU
25(77)
LU 20(68)
ID
CL
LU
~J
CQ
10
S 15(59)
LU
a.
10(51)
5(41)
WARMWATER
FISH SPECIES
COLDWATER
FISH SPECIES
0(32)
5(41) 10(50)
AMBIENT TEMPERATURE
15(59)
FIGURE 1. NOMOGRAPH TO DETERMINE THE MAXIMUM WEEKLY
AVERAGE TEMPERATURE OF PLUMES FOR VARIOUS AMBIENT
TEMPERATURES, °C (°F).
-------
FISH TEMPERATURE DATA SHEET
Atlantic salmon Salmo salar
acclimation
T 7,-1-hal threshold: temperature larvae juvenile adult
Tipper 5 22*
6 22
in 23*.
20 23 * '
27.5 27.5
lower *30 daYs after hatch
II. Growth:— larvae juvenile adult
Optinum and . ifi" i a
[range— ]
'
II. Reproduction: optimum range month (s)
Migration. adults 23 or less, smolt 10 or less
Sp awn-? ng 5- 6 f 9 > Oc t-Be c f 8 Y
Incubation
and hatch Q..5-7
acclimation
IV. Preferred: 'temperature larvae juvenile adult
A 14C21
Summer 17(5) 14-16(6")
data
source—
1
i -jf,;
-~"'.l ~ .'
.- -— S3
M-^J
'"T*
-,*
4
7
ft^q
3
2
5,6 _
— As reported or net grcwth (growth in wt. minus wt. of mortality).
21
— As reported or to"> 50% of optimum if data permit.
— List sources on back of page in numerical sequence.
116
-------
Atlantic salmon
References
1. Bishai, H. M. 1960. Upper lethal temperatures for larval salmonids.
Jou. Du Conseil 25(2):129-133.
2. Fisher, Kenneth C. and P. F. Elson. 1950. The selected temperature of
Atlantic Salmon and Speckled"Trout and the effect of temperature on the
response to an electrical stimulus. Physiol. Zoology 23:27-34.
3. Dexter, R. 1967. Atlantic salmon culture. U.S. BSFW (mimeographed).
In: DeCola, J.N. 1970. Water Quality Requirements for Atlantic
Salmon. U. S. Dept. of the Interior, Federal Water Quality Administration
Report CWT 10-16.
4. Markus, H. C. 1960. Hatchery reared atlantic salmon sniolts in ten
months. Prog. Fish. Cult. 24:3.
5. Javoid, M. Y-. • and J. M. Anderson. 1967. Thermal acclimation and temperature
selection in Atlantic Salmon, Salmo salar and rainbow trout, S. gairdneri.
J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 24(7).
6. Ferguson, R. G. 1958. The preferred temperature of fish and their midsuinaer
distribution in temperate lakes and streams. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada
15:607-624.
7. Meister, A. 1970. Atlantic Salmon Commission, Univ. of Maine (personal
communication). In: DeCola, J.M. 1970. Water Quality Requirements for
Atlantic Salmon. 'USDI, Fed. Water Qual. Admin. Report CWT 10-16-
8.. Carlander, K. D. 1969. Handbook of Freshwater Fishery Biology. Vol. 1.
Iowa State Univ. Press, Ames, Iowa.
9- DeCola, J. II. 1970. Water quality requirements for atlantic salmon. U.S.D.I.
Fed. Water Qual. Admin. Report COT 10-l6.
10. Garside, E. T. 1973. Ultimate upper lethal temperature of Atlantic
Salmon Salmo salar L. Can. J. Zool. 51:898-900.
17
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PISH TEMPERATURE DATA SHEET
Bigmouth buffalo, Ictiobus cyprinellus
I.
II.
III.
IV.
acclimation
7^1-Kal threshold: temperature larvae juvenile adult
Upper
Lower
Growth:— larvae juvenile adult
Optimum and
2/
[range— ]
Reproduction: optimum range month (s)
Migration
Spawning 17 14-27 Aor-Juna
Incubation
and hatch 14^-17
acclimation
Preferred: temperature larvae juvenile adult
Summer 31-34*
*Ictiobus sr
JLtlj.u
data
source—
1 ,2,^,4,6
2,5.6
7
D .
l/
— As reported or net growth (growth in wt. minus wt. of mortality).
2/
— As reported or to 50% of optimum if data permit.
— List sources on back of page in numerical sequence.
18
-------
Bigpouth buffalo
References
1. Johnson, R. P. 1963. Studies on the life history and ecology of the
bigmouth buffalo, Ictiobus cyorinellus (Valenciennes). J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canadc
20:1397-1429.
2. Eddy, S. and T. Surber. 1947- Northern fishes. Univ. of Minn- Press.
3. Walburg, C. H. and W. R. Nelson. 1966. Carp, river carpsucker, smallcouth
buffalo and bigmouth buffalo in Lewis and Clark Lake, Missouri
River. Bur. Sport Fish, and Wildl. Research Report 69.
4. Harlan, J. R. and E. B. Speaker. 1956. Iowa Fish and Fishing State
Conservation Commission.
5. Walker, M. C. and P- T. Frank. 1952. The propagation of buffalo. Prog.
Fish. Cult. 14:129-130.
6. Swingle, H. S. 1955. Experiments on conaercial fish production in ponds.
Proc. S. E. Assoc. Game and Fish Conniission for 1954, pp. 69-74.
7. Gammon, J. R. 1973. The effects of thermal inputs on the population of
fish and macroinvertebrates in the Wabash River. Tech. Rept. No. 32.
Purdue Univ. Water Resources Research Center.
-------
FISH TEMPERATURE DATA SHEET
acclimation
T 7.pt-hal threshold: temperature. larvae juvenile adult
TTpp er
29 . 33*
*Ultimate incipient It
Lower
[I. Growth:— larvae juvsnile adult
Optimum and 22-25
[range^7] (11-30)"=
^limits of zero growth
II. Reproduction: optimum range. month (s)
Migration
Spawning 14-18 (4)* Mar (4) -July
Incubation
and hatch
~begin spawning
acclimation
r.V. Preferred: "'temperature larvae juvenile adult
•Summer 13-20(5) 24-34(1)
data
source—
2
vel
1 2
i
1 2
3) 3,4
1,5
— As reported or net growth (growth in wt. minus wt. of mortality)
2/
— As reported or to- 50% of optimum if data permit.
— List sources on back of page in numerical sequence.
120
-------
Black crappie
References
1. Neill, W. H., J. J. Magnuson and G. G. Chipsan. 1972. Behavioral thermo-
regulation by fishes - new experimental approach. Science 176 (4042:1443)
2. Hokanson, K.E..F. and C. F. Kleiner. 1973. Effects of constant and diel
fluctuations in temperature on growth and survival of black crappie.
Unpublished data, National Water Quality Laboratory, Duluth, Minnesota.
3. Breder, C. M. and D. E. Rosen. 1966. Modes of reproduction in fishes.
Nat. History Press.
4. Goodson, L. F. 1966. Crappie. In: Inland Fisheries Management.
A. Calhoun, lid., Calif. Dept. Fish and Game.
5. Faber, D. J. 1967= Limnetic larval fish in northern Wisconsin lakes.
Jour. Fish.. Res. Bd. Canada. 24:927-937.
121
-------
FISH TEMPERATURE DATA SHEET
Bluegill, Lepomis macroc.hirus
acclimation
T. lethal threshold: temperature larvae juvenile adult
Upper 15(2), 12(8) 27(8) 31 (2)
?n . tf 32
^VrTV- ?^rs ™™ ™ m
3& ~JT5 34
33 j j/'
lower 15(2),~l2|8) 3 (8) 3 (2)
'.-$1
20 — 5
25(2), 26(8) 10 (8) 7 (2)
30 n
33 15
II. Growth:— larvae juvenile adult
Optimum and 24-?7fT)
2/i
[range— J (16fl')^3nfM')
III. Reproduction: optimum range month (s)
Migration
Spawning 25 T51) 19 (5) -32 (6) Aor-AuK.
Incubation ^^
and hatch 22~24 22~34
acclimation
IV. Preferrprl: tenoerature larvae juvenile adult
32
data .
source—
2,8
2
9 R
2
2,8
7
2,8
2
8
,
1 .4
1.5,6
8
9
— As reported or net growth (growth in wt. minus wt. of mortality)
21
— As reported or to 50% of optimum if data permit.
— List sources on back of page in numerical sequence.
122
-------
Bluegill sunfish
References
1. Emig, J. W. 1966. Bluegill sunfish. In: Inland Fisheries Mgt.
A. Calhoun ed., Calif. Dept. Fish and Game.
2. Hart, J. S. 1952. Geographical variations of some physiological and
morphological characters in certain freshwater fish. Univ. Toronto
biology series No. 60.
3. Anderson, R. 0. 1959. The influence of season and temperature on growth
of the bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus). Ph.D. Thesis, Univ. Mich.
4. Maloney, John E. 1949. A study of the relationship of food consumption
of the bluegill, Lepomis macrochirus^Rafinesque, to temperature,
M.S. Thesis, Univ. of Minn. 43 pp.
5. Snow, H., A. Ensign and John Klingbiel. 1966. The bluegill, its life
history, ecology and -management. Wis. Cons. Dept. Publ. No. 230.
6. Clugston, J. P. 1966. Centrarchid spawning in the Florida Everglades
Quart. Jour. Fla. Acad. Sci., 29:137-143.
8. Banner, A. and J. A. Van Arman. 1972. Thermal effects on eggs, larvae and
juvenile of bluegill sunfish. Report, EPA Contract Ko. 14-12-913.
9. Ferguson, R. G. 1958. The preferred temperature of fish and their midsummer
distribution in temperate lakes and streams. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada.
15:607-624.
123
-------
FISH.-TEMPERATURE DATA SHEET
Brook trout .Salvelinus; fontinalis
oy eu-i-tis> .
acclimation
T. lethal threshold: temperature larvae juvenile adult
'3 23
Upper 11 25
12 20*, 25**
15 25
?n ?s
25 25
*Newly hatched
Lower **Swimup-
II. Growth:— larvae juvenile adult
Optimum and 12-15(2) 16(1)
[range^7] (7-18) (2) . (10-19) (1)
II. Reproduction: optimum range month (s)
Migration
Spawning <9 -12 Sept. -Nov.
Incubation
and hatch 6 -13
acclimation
IV. Preferredr temperature larvae juvenile adult
14-19*
*age not given
data
source—
3
3
2 .
3
3
3
1,2
1,2
1
1
4
— As reported or net growth (growth in wt. minus ut. of mortality)
2/
— As reported or to- 50% of optimum if data permit.
— List sources on back of page in numerical sequence.
124
-------
Brook trout
References
1. Hokanson, K.E.F., J. H. McCormick, B. R. Jor.es, and J. H. Tucker. 1973.
Thermal requirements for maturation, spawning, and embryo survival of
the brook trout, Salvelinus fontinalis (Mitchill). j. Fish. Res. Bd.
Canada, 30(7):975-984.
2. McCormick, J. H., K.E.F. Hokanson, and 3. R. Jones. 1972. Effects of
temperature on growth and survival of young brook trout, Salvelinus
fontinalis. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada. 29:1107-1112.
3. Fry, F.E.J., J. S. Hart, and K.F. Walker. 1946. Lethal temperature
relations for a sample of young speckled trout, Salvelinus fontinalis.
Univ. Toronto Studied, Biol. Ser. 54, Publ. Ontario Fish Res. Lab.
66:1-35.
4. Carlander, K. D. 1969. Handbook of freshwater fishery biology. Vol. 1,
3rd Ed. The Iowa State Univ. Press, A=es, Iowa.
125
-------
FISH TEMPERATURE DATA SHEET
Carp, Cyprinus carplo
acclimation
I. Lethal threshold: temperature larvae juvenile adult
Upper 20 31-3A*
26 36*
V
*24 hr. TL5Q
Lower
i /
.1. Growth:— larvae juvenile adult
Optimum and
2/
[range— ]
II. Reproduction: optimum range month (s)
Migration
Spawning 19-23 (2) 16 (4) -260 Mar-Auef5
Incubation
and hatch 17-22, C7)
Abnormal larvae after 35° shock of embry
acclimation
.V. Preferred: temperature larvae juvenile adult
25-35(6) 31-32(6)
Summer 33-35
10 i7
data .
source—
3
3
7.4.5
7
1
6
8
6
— As reported or net growth (growth in wt. minus wt. of mortality).
2/
— As reported or to- 50% of optimum if data permit.
3/
— List sources on back of page in numerical sequence.
126
-------
Carp
References
1. Frank, M. L. 1973. Relative sensitivity of different stages of carp to
thermal shock. Thermal Ecology Symposium, Nay 3-5, 1973, Augusta, Ga.
2. Swee, U. B. and II. R. McCriniraon. 1965, Reproductive biology of the carp,
Cyprinus carpio L., in Lake St. Lawrence, Ontario. Trans. Amer.
Fish. Soc. 95:372-380.
3. Black, E. C. 1953. Upper lethal temperatures of some British Columbia
freshwater fishes. J. Fish. Res. 3d. Can. 10:196-210.
4. Sigler, W. F. 1958. The ecology and use of carp in Utah. Utah Agric. Exp
Sta., Bull. 405.
5. Carlander, 1C. 1969. Handbook of Freshwater Fishery Biology, Vol. 1,
Iowa State Univ. Press, p. 105.
6. Pitt, T. K., E. T. Garside, and R. L. Hepburn. 1956. Temperature
selection of the carp (Cyprinus carpio Linn.). Can. Jour, Zool.
34:555-557.
7. Burns, J. W. 1966. Carp. In: Inland Fisheries Management. A. Calhoun,
ed., Calif. Div. Game and Fish.
8. Gammon, J.. R., 1973. The. effect of them=1 inputs on. the population of
fish and macroinvertebrates in the '.'abash. River.. Tech... Rept. No. 31
Purdue Univ. Water Resources Res. Center.
127
-------
FISH TEMPERATURE DATA SHEET
acclimation
T. Lethal threshold: temperature larvae juvenile adult
Upper 15 31(3)* 30C?)
25 3sm 33 (9 1
30 37
35 38
*No acclimation temperature give
Lower 15 0
20 0
25 0
I. Growth:— larvae juvenile adult
Optimum and 29-30(3) . 28-3DT10)
[range^7] (27-31) (3) (22-34) (4)
I. Reproduction: optimum range month (s)
Migration
Spawning 27(5) 21-29(5) Apr- July (6
Incubation
and hatch 22(8) 18(7)-29(5)
acclimation
V. Preferred: temperature larvae juvenile adult
"Summer 30-32*
*
*field
data
source—
2.3
1 9
1
1
'2
2
7
V10
3,4
•
5,6
1
5,7,8
9
I/
— As reported or net growth (growth in v:t. minus wt. of mortality)
2/
— As reported or to 50% of optimum if data permit.
3/
— List sources on back of page in numerical sequence.
128
-------
Channel catfish
References
1. Allen, K. 0. and K. Strawn. 19b8. Heat tolerance of channel catfish,
Ictalurus punctatus. ProCo Conf . of S. E. Assoc. of Game and Fish
Comm. 1967.
2. Hart, J. S. 1952. Geographical variations of some physiological and
morphological characters in certain freshwater fish. Univ. Toronto
Biological Series No. 60.
3. West, B. W. 1966. Growth, food conversion, food consumption and survival
at various temperatures of the channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus
(Raf inesque) . Blaster.' s •- Thesis , :- Univ,- :.Ark, .
4. Andrew, J. W. and R. R. Stickney. 1972. Interaction of feeding rate and
environmental temperature of growth, food conversions and body
composition of channel catfish. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc., 101:94-97-
5. Clemens, H. P. and K. F. Sneed. 1957. The spawning behavior of the channel
catfish, Ictalurus punctatus. USFWS, Special Sci. Kept. Fish No. 219.
6. Broxm, L, 19.42, Propagation of the. spotted channel catfish., Ictalurus
lacustris punctatus. Kan. Acad. Sci. Trans., 45:311-314.
7. McClellan, W. G. 1954. A study of southern spotted channel catfish,
Ictalurus punctatus (Rafinesque) . M> s> Thesis, K. Texas St. College
Cited in: Carlander, K. D. , 1969. Handbook of Freshwater Fishery °
Biology. Vol. 1, Iowa State Univ. Press, Ames, Iowa.
8. Hubbs, C. L. and E. R. Allen. 1944. Fishes of Silver Springs, Florida
Proc. Fla. Acad. Sci., Vol. 6, 1943-44.
9. Gammon, J. R. 1973. The effect of thermal inputs on the populations of
fish and macroinvertebrates in the Wabash River. Tech Rept. 32,
Purdue Univ. Water Resources Res. Center.
10. Andrews, J. W. , L. H. Knight, and Takeshi Murai. 1972. Temperature
requirements for high density rearing of channel catfish from fingerling
to market size. Prog. Fish. Cult. 34:240-241.
129
-------
—-*~r i^TT r •»•*•""> *~1 —*T> t 1^1———i —•
PlSH lEi-IriiR.-i.io--v-
Cisco (Lake herring), Coregonus artedli-
I. Lethal threshold:
Upper
Lov/er
II. Growth:—
Optimum and
r' 2/,
[range—' J
III. Reproduction:
Migration
>Sp awning
incubation
and hatch
IV. Preferred:
acclimation.
temoerature larvae juvenile adult
2(3), 3(2) 20(2) 20(3) 20(4^6)*
5(3), <10(5) 22(3) <24C5)
>13 26
20 26
25 26
*accl. temp. \>
2 3
5 .5
10 3 '
20 5
25 10
larvae juvenile adult.
16
(13-18)
optinur. range month (s)
To spawning grounds at = 5
3 1-5 Nov-Der.
6(1) 2-8(1) Apr-May
(8-9)
acclimation
temperature larvae juvenile adult
13
! data
source—
2,3,4
3,5
,6
3
3
3
iknown
i 3
3
3
i 3
3
2
i 9
|
7
7,8,9
1,8,9 .
6
— As reported or net growth (growth in vt. minus wt. of inortality)
2/
— As reported or to"' 50% of optimum if data permit.
3/
— List sources on back of page in numerical sequence.
130
-------
Cisco
References
1. Colby, P. J. and L. T. Brooks. 1970. Survival and development of the
herring (Coregonus artedii) eggs at various incubation temperatures.
In: Biology of Coregonids, C. C. Lindsay and C. S. Woods, ed.,
Univ. Manitoba, pp. 417-428.
2. McCormick, J. H. , B. R. Jones and R. F- Syrett. 1971. Temperature
requirements for growtK-aud survival of larval ciscos (Coregonus
artedii). J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 28:924-927.
3. Edsall, T. A. and P. J. Colby. 1970. Temperature tolerance of young-of-
the-year Cisco, Coregonus artedii. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 99:526-531.
4. i'rey, D. G* 1955. Distributional ecology of the Cisco (Coregonus artedii).
Investigations of Indiana Lakes and Streams. 4:177-228.
5. Colby, P. J. and L. T. Brooke. 1969. Cisco (Coregonus artedii) mortalities
in a Southern Michigan lake, July 1968. Limnology & Oceanog. 14:958-960.
6. Dryer, W. R. and J. Beil. 1964. Life history of lake herring in Lake
Superior. U. S. Fish. Bull. 63:493-530.
7. Cahn, A. R. 1927. An ecological study of southern Wisconsin fishes, the
brook silversides (Labidesthes sicculus) and the cisco (Leucichthys
artedii, LeSueur). 111. Biol. Monogr. 11:1-151.
8. Carlander, K. D. 1969. Handbook of Freshwater Fishery Biology. Vol. 1,
Iowa State Univ. Press, Ames, Iowa.
9= McCormick, J. H. 1973. Personal observations.
131
-------
FISH -TEMPERATURE DATA SHEET
Coho salmon, Oncorhynchus kisutch
opeuJ-ca. _
I. Lethal threshold:
Upper
Lower
II. Growth :-
Optimum and
[range— ]
III. Reproduction:
Migration
Spawning
Incubation
and hatch
IV. Preferred:
acclimation t
temperature larvae juvenile adult
5 23
10 24 21* (3)
15 24
20 . 25
23 25
*Accl . temp
5 0.2
10 2
15 3
20 5
23 6
larvae juvenile adult
15*
(5-17)
*unlimited food
optimum range month (s)
7-16 (5)
7-13 (3) Fall
acclimation
'temperature larvae juvenile adult
'"Winter 13
data
source—7
1
1,3
1
1
1
unknown
•1
1
1
1
j_
2
6
5
3
4
— As reported or net growth (growth in v;t. minus wt. of moirtalitv)
2/
— As reported or to' 50% of optimum if data permit.
3/
— List sources on back of page in numerical sequence.
132
-------
Coho salmon
References
1. Brett, J. R. 1952. Temperature tolerance in young pacific salmon, genus
Oncorhynchus. J. Fis. Res. Bd. Can. 9:265-323.
2. Great Lakes Research Laboratory, 1973. Growth of Lake trout in the laboratory
Progress in Sport Fishery Research. 197.1. USDI, Fish and Wildlife
Service, Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife.
3. Anonymous. 1971. Columbia River thermal effects study. Vol. 1,
Environmental Protection Agency.
4. Edsall, T. 1970. Personal communication to J. H. McCormick, National
Water Quality Laboratory, Duluth, Minnesota.
5. Burrows, R. E. 1963. Water temperature requirements for maximum
productivity of salmon. Proceedings of the 12th Pacific N. W.
Symposium on Water Poll. Res.
6. Averett, R. C. 1968. Influence of temperature on energy and material
utilization by juvenile coho salmon. Ph.D. Thesis,- Oregon State Univ.
133
-------
FISH TEMPERATURE DATA SHEET
acclimation
I Lethal threshold: temperature larvae juvenile adult
5 22-23
Upoer 10 27
15 29
20 31
25 31
Lower
15 2
20 5
II. Growth:— larvae juvenile adult
Optimum and 29.
[range^] (24-31)
II. Reproduction: optimum range month (s)
Migration
Spawning 20m-27f61 Mav-Au* m
Incubation ^)
and hatch
acclimation
V. Preferred: temperature larvae juvenile adult
Summer 25*
Winter 27*
^unknown age
data
source—
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
1.3,5,6
3
4
— As reported or net growth (growth in vt. minus wt: of mortality)
j-t t
2/
— As reported or to 50% of optimum if data permit
3/
— List sources on back of page in numerical sequence.
134
-------
Emerald shiner
References
1. Carlander, R. D. 1969. Handbook of freshwater fishery biology. Vol. 1,
Iowa State Univ. Press, Ames, Iowa.
2. McCorroick, J. H. and C. F. Kleiner. 1970. Effects of temperature on growth
and survival of young-of-the-year emerald shiners (Notropis atherinoides)
Unpublished data, National Water Quality Laboratory, Duluth, Minnesota.
3. Campbell, J. S. and H. R. Mac Crimmon. 1970. Biology of the emerald shiner
Notropis atherinoides Rafinesque in Lake Simcoe, Canada. J. Fish. Biol.
2(3):259-27X
4. Wapora, Inc. for the Ohio Electric Utilities Inst. 1971. The effect of
temperature on aquatic life in the Ohio River. Final Report.
5. Flittner, G. A. 1964. MorphomeLry and life history of the emerald shiner,
Notropis atherinoides.'Rafinesque. Ph.D. Thesis, Univ. of Mich.
6. Gray, J. W., 1942. Studi.es on. Notropis atherinoides athernoides Rafinesque
in the Bass Islands Region'of Lake Erie. Master's. .Th.esivs', Ohio State
Univ.
135
-------
FISH TEMPERATURE DATA SHEET
Species: Freshwater drum, Ap.lodinot-r,- orrnnr»i'e>ns
acclimation
T T^thal threshold: temperature larvae juvenile adult
Tipper .. . . . .
Lower
I. Growth:— larvae -juvenile adult
Optimum and
2/
[range— ]
.1. Reproduction: optimum range month (s)
Migration
Spawning 21 IQ 74. >jav T,,no •
Incubation
and hatch 22-26
acclimation
IV. Preferred: 'temperature larvae juvenile adult
Summer 29—31*
*Field
data ,
source—
1 ,7,-^^fi
1,4,6
7
I/
21
As reported or net growth (growth in wt. minus wt. of mortality)
— As reported or tcr 50% of optimum if data permit.
3/
— List sources on back of page in numerical sequence.
136
-------
Freshwater drum
References
1. Wrenn, B. B. 1969. Life history aspects of smallmouth buffalo and
freshwater drum in Wheeler Reservoir, Alabama. Proc. 22nd Ann.
Conf. S. E. Assoc. Game and Fish Coma., 1968. p. 479-495.
2. Butler, R. L. and L. L. Smith, Jr. 1950. The age and rate of growth of
the sheepshead, Aplodinotus grunniens Rafinesque, in the upper
Mississippi River navigation pools. Trans. Arner. Fish. Soc.
79:43-54.
3. Daiber, F. C. 1953. Notes on the spawning population of the freshwater
drum, Aplodinotus grunniens (Rafinesque) in western Lake Erie.
Amer. Mid. Nat. 50:159-171.
4. Davis, C. D. 1959. A planktonic fish egg from freshwater. Limn. Ocean
4:352-355.
5. Edsall, T. A. 1967. Biology of the freshwater drum in Western Lake Erie.
Ohio Jour. Sci. 67:321-340.
6.. Swedberg, P. V. aad C. H.. Walburg., 1970.. Spawning and early life history
of the freshwater drum in Lewis, and Clark Lake, Missouri. River.
Trans. Am. Fish.. Soc. 9.9;560-571.
7. Gammon, J. R. 1973. The effect of thermal inputs on the populations of
fish and nacroinvertebrates in the Wabash River. Tech.. Rept. 32. Purdue
Univ. Water Resources Research Center.
137
-------
FISH TEMPERATURE DATA SHEET
I. Lethal threshold:
Upper
Lower
II. Growth:—
Optimum and
[range— ]
III. Reproduction:
Migration
Spawning
Incubation
and hatch
IV. Preferred:
acclimation
temperature
20
25
30
35
20
25
30
larvae
27
(20-30)
optiDim
21(4)
20(5)
acclimation
temperature
larvae juvenile adult
"33
35
36
36
5
7
11
juvenile adult
30(3)
23-31(8)
range month (s)
, ,,. Apr-June(3)
16-. / (4) Kov-Mav(4)
13(o) -26 (9)
larvae juvenile adult
30-32*
""season not given
data
source—
1
1
1
1
.1
1
1
2,8
2,8
3,4
5,6,9
7
I/ ,
— As reported or net growth (growth in ^:z. sinus wt. of mortality)
2/
— As reported or to~ 50% of optimum, if data DerT:it.
3/
— List sources on back of page in numerical sequence.
138
-------
Largemouth bass
References
1. Hart, J. S. 1952. Geographic variations of some physiological and
morphological characters in certain freshwater fish. Univ. Toronto
Biological Series No. 60.
2. Strawn, Kirk. 1961. Growth of largemouth bass fry at various temperatures,
Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc., 90:334-335.
3. Kramer, R. H, and L. L. Smith, Jr. 1962. Formation of year class in
largemouth bass. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc., 91:29-41.
4. Clugston, J. P- 1966. Centrarchid spawning in the Florida Everglades.
Quart. Jour. Fla. Acad. of Sci., 29:137-143.
5. Badenhuizen, T. 1969. Effect of incubation temperature on mortality of
embryos of largemouth bass'Micropterus salmoides Lacepede. Master's
Thesis, Cornell. University.
6. Kelley, J. W. 1968. Effects of incubation temperature on survival of
largemouth bass eggs. Prog. Fish. Cult. 30:159-163.
7. Fergusoa, IU G. 1958. The preferred temperature of fisK and their
midsummer distribution, in. temperate lakes and streams. J. Fish. Res.
Bd. Canada 15:607-624.
8. Lee, R. A. 1969- Bioenergetics of feeding and growth of largemouth bass
in aquaria and ponds. MS Thesis, Oregon State University.
9. Carr, M. H. 1942. The breeding habits, embryology and larval development
of the largemouth black bass in Florida. Proc. New Eng. Zool. Club,
20:43-77.
39
-------
FISH TQtPERATURE DATA SHEET
Northern pike, Esox lucius
accliraation
T. Lethal threshold: temperature larvae juvenile adult
Tipper 18 25,28*
25 32
27 33-
30 33**
*At hatch and free swimming, res
I/wer **UltiTnate incipient level
18 3*
*At hatch and free swimming
II. Growth:— larvae juvenile adult
Optimum and 21 26
[range — ]- (18—26)
II. Reproduction: optimum range month (s)
Migration
Spawning 4 (4) -19 (3, Feb-June (
• .
Incubation
and hatch 12 7-19
acclimation
IV. Preferred: temperature larvae juvenile adult
24,26*
*Grass pickrel and mi
data .
source—
2
1
! i
i
actively
2
2
2
) 3,4,5
2
6
sky, respec
— As reported or net growth (growth in wt. minus wt. of mortality).
2/
— As reported or to 50% of optimum if data permit.
3/
— List sources on back of page in numerical sequence.
140
-------
Northern pike
References
1. Scott, D. P. 1964. Thermal resistance of pike (Esox lucius L.)
muskellunge (E. roasquinongy, Mitchell) and their F hybrid.
J. Fish.. Res. Bd. Canada 21:1043-1049.
2. Hokanson, K.E.F., J. H. McCormick and B. R. Jones. 1973. Temperature
requirements for embryos and larvae of the northern pike, Esox lucius
(Linnaeus).. Trans. Amer, Fish. Soc. 102:89-100.
3. Fabricus, E. and K. J. Gustafson. 1958. Some new observations on the
spawning behavior of the pike, Esox lucius L. Rep. Inst.
Freshwater Res., Drottningholm 39:23-54.
4. Threinen, C. W. , C. VJistrom, B. Apelgren and H. Show. 1966. The northern
pike, its life history, ecology, .and management. Wis. Con. Dept. Publ.
No. 235, Madison.
5. Toner, E. D. and G. H. Lawler. 1969. Synopsis of biological data on
the pike Esox lucius (Linnaeus 1758). Food and Ag. Org.
Fisheries synopsis No. 30jRsv. 1,
6. Ferguson, R. G. 1958. The preferred tenperature of fish and their
midsummer distribution in temperate lakes and streams. J. Fish.
Res. Bd. Canada 15:607-624.
141
-------
FISH TEMPERATURE DATA SHEET
Species: Rainbow trout, Salmo gairdneri
II. Growth:
III.
acclimation
-1 threshold: teraoerature larvae juvenile adult
er 18 27
19 ' 21
rex
h. larvae juvenile adult
iiuun and 17-1 9
nge^] (3(8) - )
duction: optimum range month (s)
^ration
ivming 5-13(6) Nov-Feb(7)i
data ,
source—
1
2
5
8
6,7
Incubation
and hatch
IV. Preferred:
5-7(9)
acclimation
temperature
No t given
5-13(4)
Feb-June(
larvae juvenile adult
14
I/
2/
As reported or net growth (growth in v:t. ninus wt. of mortality)
— As reported or to 50% of optimum if data permit.
3/
— List sources on back of page in numerical sequence.
142
-------
Rainbow trout
References
1. Alabaster, J.S. and R. L. Welcomme. 1962. Effect of concentration of
dissolved oxygen on survival of trout and roach in lethal temperatures.
Nature, Lond. 194(4823), 107-.
2. Coutant, C. C. 1970. Thermal stress of adult coho (Oncorhynchus kisutch)
and jack chinook (.0. tshawytscha) salmon, and the adult steelhead
trout (Salmo gairdneriij from the Columbia River. AEG BNWL 1508.
3. Ferguson, R. G. 1958. The preferred temperature of fish and their midsummer
distribution in temperate lakes and streams. J. Pish. Res. Bd.
Canada, 15:607-624.
4. McAfee, W. R. 1966. Rainbow trout. In: Inland Fisheries Management.
A. Calhoun, (.ed.,;, Calif. Dept. Fish & Game, pp.192-215.
5. Hokanson, K.E.F. and C. F. Kleiner. 1973. Unpublished data, National
Water Quality Laboratory, Duluth- Minnesota.
6. Rayner, H. J. 1942. The spawning migration of rainbow trout at
Skaneateles Lake, New York. Trans. Araer. Fish. Soc. 71:180-83.
In: Carlander, K. D. 1969. Handbook of Freshwate^ Fishery Biology.
Vol. 1.
7. Carlacder, K. D. 1969. Handbook of Freshwater Fishery Biology. Vol. 1,
The Iowa State Univ. Press, Ames, Iowa.
8. Uojno, T. 1972. The effect of starvation and various doses of fodder on
the changes of body weight and chemical composition and the survival rate in
rainbow trout fry (Salmo gairdneri, Richardson) during the winter. Roczniki
Nauk Rolniczych Series H - Fisheries 94, 125. In: Thermal effects. A
review of the 1973 literature, C. C. Coutant and H. A. Pfuderer.
9. Timoshina, L. A. 1972. Embryonic development of the rainbow tro^t (Salmo
gairdneri irideus, Gibb.) at different temperatures. Jour. Icthyol. (USSR),
12, 425. In: Thermal effects, a review of the 1973 literature, C. C. Coutant
and H. A. Pfuderer.
143
-------
Sauger, Stizostedion ca'nad'eas:
9-21
75-92%*
12
97
30
26
*sur~.-ival 31
larvae
22
adult
ODtinur.1
Ir-cubatic
and hat
10 (^ 6(1)-14C3>) Apr-Mpyn
12-15* 10-16*
*Max. egg -survival *>50% survival
accliLir-atior.
' tem'Dorr.tare "^ c — ;.T-2. •"•veii" « acu1:;
iq*
Summer 27-29
A .C • ~ 1 J
ii
1) 1.3.4
!
s
;
:
! 2
• f,
\
I
*field
^ported or net growth (growth ir. -.:-. r.ir.us wt- cf mortality) .
144
-------
Sauger
References
1. Nelson, W. R. 1968. Reproduction and early life history of sauger,
Stizostedion canadense, in Lewis and Clark Lake. Trans. Amer.
Fish. Soc. 97:167-174.
2. Ferguson, R. G. 1958. The preferred temperature of fish and their midsummer
distribution in temperate lakes and streams. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada.
15:607-624.
3. Hall, G. E. 1972. Personal communication, TYA.
4. Hassler, W. U. 1956. The influence of certain environmental factors on
the growth of Norris Reservoir sauger Stizostedion canadense canadense
(Smith). Proceedings of Southeastern Assoc. of Game and Fish
Commissioners Meeting, 1955. p. 111-119.
5. Smith, L. L. 1973. The effect of temperature on the early life
history stages of the Sauger, Stizostedion canadense (Smith).
Preliminary data, EPA Grant.
6. Gammon, J. R. 1973. The effect of thermal input on the populations
of fish and macroinvertebrates in the Wabash River. Tech. Rept. 32,
Purdue Univ. Water Resources R.es. Center.
145
-------
FISH TEMPERATURE DATA SHEET
Species: Smallmouth bass, micropterus doloiaieui
acclimation
Lethal threshold: temperature larvae juver.ile
adult
Upoer
Lover
Growth:-'
Optinum and
[range^]
ill I. Reproduction:
Migration.
Spawning
Incubation
and hatch
XV. Preferred:
33*
35(3)
15C3-)
4(9)
source—
9.
not given
2(3)
18
22
26
ID-
3.9
*accliziation temperature not given
larvae
28-29(2)
juvenile
26(3)
adult
month (s) !;
17-18(5). 13(8)-21f7) May-July (8!) 5,7,8
accliiaation
temperature
_Suituner
Winter
larvae juvenile adult
21-27
>8*(l)-28(4)
1.4
*Life stage unknown
I/
21
3/
As reported or net growth (growth in "~. riir.us wt. of mortality).
As reported or to 50% of optimum if data permit.
List sources on back of page in numerical sequence.
146
-------
Smallmouth bass
References
1. Munther, G. L. 1968. Movement and distribution of siaallmouth bass
in the Middle Snake River. Master's Thesis, Univ. Idaho.
2. Peek, F. W. 1965. Growth studies of laboratory and wild population
samples of small-mouth bass. Master's ihesis, Univ. Arkansas.
3. Horniiig, W. B. and R. E. Pearson. 1973. Temperature requirements for
juvenile srnallmouth bass (.Micropterus dolomieui) : growth and lower
lethal temperatures. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada (in press).
4. Ferguson, R. G. 1958. The preferred temperature of fish and their
midsummer distribution in temperate lakes and streams. J. Fish.
Res. Bd. Canada. 15:607-624.
5. Breder, C. M. and D. E. Rosen. 1966. Modes of reproduction in fishes.
Natural History Press.
6. Emig, J. W. 1966. Smallmouth bass. In: Inland Fisheries Hgt., A. Calhoun,
ed; Calif. Dept. Fish and Game.
7. Hubbs, C. L. and R. M. Baily. 1938. The Smallmouth bass. Cranbrook
Inst. Sci. Bull. 10.
8. Surber, E. W. 1943- Observations on the natural and artifical propagation
of the snallmDUth black bass, Micropterus dolomieui. Trans. Aiaer.
Fish. Soc. 72:233-245.
9. Larinore, R. W. and M. J. Duever. 1968. Effects of temperature
acclimation on the swimming ability of Smallmouth bass fry. Trans.
Aner. Fish. Soc. 97:175-184.
147
-------
FISH -TEMPERATURE DATA SHEET
Spe
I.
II.
III.
IV.
cies' Smallmouth buffalo, Ictiobus bubal us
acclimation
Lethal threshold: temperature. larvae juvenile adult
Tipper
Lower
Growth:— larvae juvenile adult
Optimum and
[range— ]
Reproduction: optimum range month (s)
Migration
Spawning .17(1,3) • 14(1)197 n 9^ Mar-Jun
Incubation ' '
and hatch 14(1)-21(2)
acclimation
Preferred: temperature larvae juvenile adult
31-34*
*Ictiobus
sp. field
data ,
source—
1,2,3
1,2
4
— As reported or net growth (growth in vt. ninus wt. of mortality)
2/
— As reported or to 50% of optimum if data permit.
— List sources on back of page in numerical sequence.
148
-------
Smallmouth. buffalo
References
1. Wrenn, W. B. 1969. Life history aspects of smallinouth buffalo and
freshwater drum in Wheeler Reservoir, Alabama. Proc. 22nd Ann.
Conf. S. E. Assoc. Game & Fish Comm., 1968. pp. 479-495.
2. Walburg, C. H. and W. R. Nelson. 1966. Carp, river carpsucker, smallmouth
buffalo and bigmouth buffalo in Lewis and Clark Lake, Missouri River.
Bur. Sport Fish, and Wildl. Res. Rep. 69.
3. Walker, M. C. and P. T. Frank. 1952. The propagation of buffalo. Prog.
Fish. Cult. 14t129-130.
4. Gammon, J. R. 1973. The effect of thermal input on the populations of
fish and macroinvertebrates in the Wabash River, Tech. Rept. 32,
Purdue Univ. Water Resources Research Center.
149
-------
FISH TEMPERATURE DATA SI-IBS']
a/
Sockeye salmon, Oncorhynchus nerka~
Srsccxes: J ~
acclimation
I. Lethal threshold: tervoerature larvae luver.ile acult
U^cr 5 22
10 23
15 24
20 25
lower 5 0
10 3
15 4
20 5
23 7
II. Growth:— larvae juvenile adult
Gptinu~ and 15 C6) 15 C2)*
[range^7] 10-15
*Max. with excess food
II. Reproduction: optimum rar.s;e raor.th(s) i
Migration 7-1 6
Spawning 7-13 Fal 1
Incubation
and hatch 5-13
acclimation
IV Preferred: temperature larvae juvenile adult i
Summer 15 !
i
li
1
' data 3/
! source—
1
1
1
1
1
]
i
i 1
J
1
Z.ff
5
5
7
4
•^
— As reported or net growth (growth in we. rr.inus wt. of mortality).
— As reported or to 50% of optimum if data permit.
3/
— List sources on back of page in numerical sequence.
a/
— Data for sea-run Sockeye, not Kokanee
150
-------
Sockeye salmon
References
1. Brett, J. R. 1952. Temperature tolerance In young pacific salmon,
genus, Oncorhynchus . J. Fis . Res. Bd. Can. 9:265-323.
2. Griffiths, J. S. and D. F. Alderdice-. 1972. Effects of acclimation
and accute temperature experience on the swinging speed of
juvenile coho salmon. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 29:251-264.
3. Ferguson, R. G. 1958. The preferred temperature of fish and their
midsummer distribution in temperate lakes and streams. J. Fish.
Res. Bd. Can. 15:607-624.
4. Combs, B. D. and R. E. Burrows. Iy57. Threshold temperatures for the
normal development of chinook salmon eggs. Prog. Fish. Cult. 19:3-6.
5. Burrows, R. E. 1963. Water temperature requirements for maximum
productivity of salmon. Proceedings of the 12th Pacific N. W.
Symposium on Water Poll. Res.
6. Shelbourn, J. E. 1973. Effect of temperature and feeding regime on the
specific growth rate of sockeye salson fry (Oncorhynchus nerka) with
a consideration of size effect. Jour. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 30, 1191
No. 8
7. Anonymous. 1971. Columbia River thermal effects study. Vol. 1,
Environmental Protection Agency.
151
-------
FISH-TEMPERATURE DATA SHEET
Spe
I.
II.
II.
IV.
cies: Striped bass, Morone. saxat-il-ia
acclimation
Lethal threshold: tempe-rature larvae juvenile adult
Upper
Lower
Growth:— larvae juvenile adult
Optinuia and
2/
[range— ]
Reproduction: optimum range month (s)
Migration
Spawning 17-19 13-22 Apr-July
Incubation
and hatch 16-24
acclimation
Preferred: temperature larvae juvenile adult
data .
source—
1,2,3,4,5
1
— As reported or net growth (growth in wt. minus wt. of mortality)
21
— As reported or to 50% of optimum if data permit,
3/
— List sources on back of page in numerical sequence.
152
-------
Striped bass
References
1. Shannon, E. H. 1970. Effect of temperature changes upon developing
striped bass eggs and fry. Proc. 23rd Conf. S. E. Assoc. Game
and Fish Comm. October 19-22, 1969, pp. 265-274.
2. Goodson, L. F., Jr. 1966. Landlocked striped bass. In: Inland
Fisheries Mgmt, A. Calhoun, ed.j Calif. Dept. Fish & Game.
3. Talbot, G. B. 1966. Estuarine environmental requirements and
limiting factors for striped bass. In: "A Symposium on Estuarine
Fisheries," Amer. Fish. Soc. Special PubI.""No. 3,
pp. 37-49.
4. Pearson, J. C. 1938. The life history of the striped bass or rockfish
Bull, of the Bureau of Fisheries 4S (28):825-851.
5. Raney, E. C. 1952. The life history of the striped bass. Bull.
Bingham Oceanogr. Coll. 14:5-97-
153
-------
Threadfin shad Dorosoma peteuense
9*
.JZ/
*lowest permitting
sproe survival. _
'eni.j.a £.cuj.t
Raprocuctior.:
rar.cre
r.or.th(s) ji
Incub-ticn
and hatch
Preferred:
tl GrilD GT d
14-21(3,4) Apr-Aug (4)! 3.4
17-27(6)
5,6,7
— As reported or not growth, (cjrGuth in \-:t. r.inus vz. of mortality) .
2f
— .'^ --.----in--^' .-.-.- to oO/,' of oT)tiT.Ui.T. if data ncr.T.ic.
o or
— List sources on back of •oare in nu~orical EC
154
-------
Threadfin shad
References
1. Strawn, K. 1963. Resistance of threadfin shad to low temperatures.
Proc. l?th Ann. Conf. Southeastern Assoc. of Game and Fish Comm.
pp. 290-293.
2. Adair, W. D. and D. J. DeMont. 1970. Effects of thermal pollution upon
Lake Norman fishes. N. Carolina Wildlife Res. Comm., Div. Inland
Fisheries. Summary Report, led. Aid Fish Restoration Project
F-19-2. 14 p.
3. Maxwell, R. and A. R. Essbach. 1971. Eggs of threadfin shad successfully
transported and hatched after sp£%Tning on excelsior mats. Prog.
Fish. Cult. 33:140.
4. Carlander, K. D. 1969. Handbook of freshwater fishery biology. The
Iowa State Univ. Press, Ames, leva.
5. Shelton, W. L. 1964. The threadfin shad, Dorosoraa petenense (Gunther):
Oogenesis, seasonal ovarian changes and observations on life history.
Master's Thesis, Oklahoma State Univ. 49 p.
6. Breder, C. M. and D. E. Rosen. 1969. Modes of reproduction in fishes.
Natural History Press.
T. Hubbs, C. and C. Bryan. 197^. Maximum incubation temperature of the
threadfin shad, Dorosoma petenense. Trans. Amer. Fish Soc.
103:369-371.
155
-------
White bass Morone chrysops
£.cclir.:c.tion
teninsratura larvae juvenile adult
SZ'-
,ce^
I/
Z.—un an
grator.
and hatch
ferred:
17
larvae
optimum
16-17
accliir.aticn
temperature
Summer
14*
*% mortality not given
juvenile adult
23-24*
!: 4
*good growth in S.D. reservoir
|
rar.se .ncnth(s) I
ij
14-24 (north) Apr- Jul (North)
12- (Tenn.) Mar-May (Term)
j!
(i
|i
jj
larvaa iuivanile adult jj
28-30* [| 5
J!
i»
1:
!!
1
1
2
*Field"
d or net grov;ch (growth in wt. niinus wt. o
-i.3 rCOOi. i-c:
epcrtec. or tu jo/j u^. opu.u;:uii: -^- c^.i.ii
sources on back of pc^c in nu~erical sequence.
f mortality)
156
-------
FISH TEMPERATURE DATA SHEET
Species: Whi.te crappie; PomoxiB a
I.
II.
:n.
IV.
ji
acclimation data
Lethal threshold: temperature larvae juvenile adult source^-
Upper
--"
- -
33* «;
*Ultiinate incipient ijkyal
Lower • j| -
.
1
Growth:— larvae juvenile adult
Optimum and 25
[range— ]
Reproduction: optimum range month (s)
Migration
Spawning 16*-2Qf6) 14^-23 T6)" Jul-'P)
T v -• 18-20 G»l*
Incubation ., ^ "-
and hatch ,. ^ *be^-n spawning
Hatch, in 24-27-1/2 hrs. at 21-23
acclimation
Preferred: temperature larvae juvenile adult
28-29
5
3.4.6
2
1
— As reported or net growth (growth in wt. minus wt. of mortality)
2/
— As reported or to' 50% of optimum if data permit.
3/
— List sources on back of page in numerical sequence.
157
-------
White crappie
References
1. Gammon, J. R. 1973. The effect of thermal input on the populations of
fish and macroinvertebrates in the Vabash River. Tech.Rept. 32,
Purdue Univ. Water Resources Research Center.
2. Breder, C. M. and D. E. Rosen. 1966. Modes of reproduction in fishes.
Nat. History Press.
3. Morgan, G. D. 1954. The life history of the white crappie (Pomoxis
annularis) of Buckeye Lake, Ohio. J. Sci. Lab. Denison Univ.,
Granville, Ohio. 43:113-144.
4. Goodson, Lee F. 1966. Crappie. In: Inland Fisheries Management
A. Calhoun, Ed., Calif. Dept. Pish & Game.
5. Kleiner, C. F. and K. E. F. Hokanson. 1973. Effects of constant temperature
on growth and mortality rates of juvenile white crappie, Pomoxis
annularis Rafinesque. Unpublished data, National Water Quality
Laboratory, Duluth, Minnesota.
6. Siefert, R. E. 1968. Reproductive behavior, incubation and mortality
of eggs and post larval food selection in the White crappie. Trans'.
Aner. Fish. Soc. 97:252-259.
158
-------
White sucker Catostoraus coimnersoni
— i-_* _ dct -~O_-_C, .
• er
r3^
SSSS
5
10
15
20(2), 21(1)
25
25-26
-20
21
25
_
28 (1)
31 (1)
30 (1)
*7-day
6*
26(2)
* 28(2)
29(2)
29(2)
29
31
TL50 for swimup
2-3
6
: C£t.l ^ ;
2
: 1,2
1,2
1,2
:; 2
3
i'- 2
-- 1
'••• 1
../
Larvae
27
(24-27)
*7-day TL50 for sx^imup
Tjvar.ile adult
^cubatiovi
and hatch
10(5)
15
8-21
(2).
4-18(5,6) Mar-June 2,5,6
19-21
i
- -.5 raporrec ov net grov/th (grove;-, ir.
. /
- As reported or to 50Z of optir.ur. if .
• /
- List sources or. back of pa^o in nur.c-
159
-------
White sucker
References
1. McCornick, J. H. , B. R. Jones, and K.E.F. Hokanson. 1972. Effects of
temperature on incubation success arid early growth and survival of the
white sucker, Catostomus coimersorii (Lacepede) . Unpublished data,
National Water Quality Laboratory, Duluth, Minnesota.
2. Carlander, K. D. 1969. Handbook of freshwater fishery biology. Vol. 1,
3rd Ed., The Iowa State Univ. Press., Asies,-Iowa.-.
3. Brett, J. R. 1944. Some lethal temperature relations of Algonquin Park
fishes. Publ. Ont. Fish. Res. Lab., 63:1-49.
4. Horak, D. L. and-H. A. Tanner. 1964. The use of vertical gill nets in
studying fish depth distribution. Horsetooth Reservoir, Colorado.
Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. , 93:137-45.
5. Webster, D. A. 1941. The life history of some Connecticut fishes.
Conn. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey Bull. No. 63. A Connecticut
fishery survey, Section III, pp. 122-227.
6. Raney, E. C. 1943. Unusual -spawning habitat for the common white sucker
Catostomus c. commersonii Copeia. 4:256.
160
-------
Yellow perch Perca flavescens
acclimation
H. lethal threshold: tGmoerature larv?e •jvve->-"~=' adu~-
w"-pper 5 21
11(1), 10(4) 10(4)* 25(1)
.15(1), 19(4) '191(4)* 28(1)
25 30*
25 * swim-up 32*x
^otrar *winter
*"su3ner
25 "4
"•"I. Growth:— larvae iuvar^le adult
Q^-r-,,-, £_d
[rang^j 13(-6)-20(7)
i
:"*"!. Reo-oducr-or.: optimum ran? a r.or.th(s) i
v-.-c..-^---.^ !'
STJ-.-T-?-^ 12(3> 7(5)-15(3) Mar-JunS j|
Incubation j;
ard natch 10 up l°/day 7-20 i,
to 20 (|
acclination. |i
IV •srofe-- -e^- 'teisooratura larvaa iuvar.ile adult ' j-
"Uipt-pr 29 fs) ?T f2) !
Summer .24 j|
' 24 20-23 18-20 '
!
; ^^
• 1
1,4
1,4
1
1
1
•6,7
3,5
4
8.2
2
9
" ""
rer-cr^cd or net grov.'th (srcvrh in v:t. r.inus v;t.
re^or^cd or to 50% of optir:.ur.i if data parr.it:.
rces or. back of page in nu~erical sccuanca.
16!
-------
Yellow perch
References
1. Hart, J. S. 1947. Lethal temperature relations of certain fish in
the Toronto region. Trans. Roy. Soc. Can., Sec. 5 41:57-71.
2. Ferguson, R. G. 1958. The preferred temperature of fish and their
midsummer distribution in temperate lakes and streams. J. Fish.
Res. Bd. Canada 15:607-624.
3. Jones, B. R. , K. E. F. Hokanson and J. H. McCormick. 1973. Winter
temperature requirements of yellow perch. Unpublished data.
National Water Quality Laboratory, Duluth, Minnesota.
4. Hokanson, K.E.F. and C. F. Kleiner. 1973. The effect of constant and
rising temperature on survival and development rates of embryonic
and larval yellow perch, Perca flavescens (Mitchill). Submitted
for publication at International Symposium in the early life
history of fish, Oban, Scotland, 1973.
5. Breeder, C. M. and D. E. Rosen. 1966. Modes of reproduction in fishes.
Natural History Press.
6. Coble, D. W. 1966. Dependence of total annual growth in yellox? perch
on temperature. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada. 23:15-20.
7. Weatherley. 1963. Thermal stress and interrenal tissue in the perch,
Perca fluviatilus (Linnaeus). Proc. Zool. Soc., London,
Vol. 141:527-555.
8. Mildrim, J. W. and J. J. Gift. 1971. Temperature preference, avoidance
and shock experiments with estuarine fishes. Ichthological Associates
Bulletin 7, 301 Forest Drive, Ithaca, K.Y.
9. McCauley, R. W. and L. A. A. Read. 1973. Temperature selections by
juvenile and adult yellow perch (Perca flavascens) acclimated to 24 C. J.
Fish. Res. Bd. Canada. 30:1253-1255.
162
-------
11
MARINE TEMPERATURE CRITERIA
The philosophy underlying criteria for marine and estuarine
cooling water is that volumes shall be minimized to reduce plant pas-
sage of planktonic organisms. Accordingly, there shall be no dilu-
tion pumping.
a. The maximum acceptable increase in surface temperatures is
2.2eC (4°F) during fall, winter, and spring.
b. The maximum acceptable increase in surface temperatures is
1.1°C (28F) during the summer (defined as July-September
north of Long Island and the northern extremity of California;
June-September south of those points).
e. Alteration of characteristic daily temperature cycles in
either frequency or amplitude is unacceptable.
d. Exceeding the following summer maxima is unacceptable;
Maximum True Daily Mean*
Tropical Regions 32.2eC (90°F) 30°C (86eF)
(South of Cape Canaveral and
Tampa Bay, Florida, Puerto
Rico, Pacific tropical islands)
Cape Hatteras, N.C. to Cape 32.2°C (90°F) 29.4°C (85eF)
Canaveral, Florida
Long Island (south shore) to 30°C (86eF) 27.8°C (82"F)
Cape Hatteras, N.C.
*True Daily Mean = the daily average of 24 hourly temperature readings.
Data presently are not sufficient to prescribe general upper limits
for other regions of the country. Nonetheless, development of ceilings
on a case-by-case basis using best available data is recommended.
e. Rapid temperature decreases associated with plant shutdown
are unacceptable when ambient water temperature is less than
15CC (59°F).
RATIONALE
The preceding criteria summarize temperature conditions necessary
to protect marine ecosystems and represent constraints which can be
163
-------
met by using submerged discharge. Volume of the vertical diffusion
zone in which temperature criteria do not apply is intended to be
minimized by siting on relatively deep and well flushed waters. Near-
bottom diffuser discharge should be at a depth which would not only meet
summer receiving water criteria at the surface (i.e. a delta 2°F rise)
but which also results in a mixing zone without excessive horizontal
dimensions. Biologically, loss of surface area is as important as
volume considerations in the marine environment. As shallow portions
of estuaries are highly productive and represent important nursery
areas, shallow water discharge is not recommended.
An instantaneously measured ambient temperature is to serve as the
baseline for permissible elevations. Baseline thermal conditions shall
be measured at a site in which there is no unnatural thermal addition
from any source, which is in reasonable proximity to the power plant,
and which has similar hydrography to that of the receiving waters at
the discharge point. Measurements shall be made 6 inches below the
surface.
Estuarine and coastal communities normally experience diurnal and
tidal temperature variations. Laboratory studies have demonstrated
that thermal tolerance is enhanced when animals are maintained under
a diurnally fluctuating temperature regime rather than at constant
temperature (Costlow, 1971). in addition, a daily cyclic regime is
protective as it serves to reduce the duration of single exposures
of supraoptimal temperatures. This has been observed in the inter-
tidal blue mussel (Mytilus edulis) (Pearce, 1969; Gonzalez, 1972).
>-^~
A mussel bed can tolerate brief exposure to summer low tide tempera-
tures of 29-30°C if it is flooded intermittently by cooler tidal water.
In the laboratory, constant exposure to 30°C caused mussel death in 9-
12 hours, while 6-hour cyclic exposures from 30 to 25°C were tolerated
for over 40 days.
It is also necessary to maintain the natural annual temperature
cycle. This should approximate the historical thermal regime under
which local biota evolved and indigenous communities developed. Regular
thermal events, such as the diurnal cycle and irregular phenomena including
164
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atmospheric frontal passages, are examples of components of this
historical regime. These natural heterogeneous temperature patterns
must be maintained. A permissible incremental rise over ambient con-
ditions is presently the best approach to define ecologically safe
thermal elevations for the marine community.
During late fall, winter, and spring, natural temperature condi-
tions are usually well below critical upper thermal limits for most
life functions. More subtle effects of artificial heat on the biota,
particularly from a total system standpoint, are not well documented
for these seasons. Some marine species, including winter flounder and
cod, require periods of cold water temperatures for maintenance of
physiological condition, development, reproduction, and survival and
growth of eggs and larvae (Rogers, in press; Johansen & Krogh, 1914).
The recommended constraint of 2.2eC (4°F) elevation over ambient
represents an increase of approximately 50 percent of the range of
diurnal fluctuation in temperature commonly observed in well-mixed
es'tuarine waters. The permissible elevation should meet environmental
requirements of cold water species. It falls well within the tolerance
range of most motile marine organisms passing through a thermal discontinuity
Also protected are benthic or intertidal species confronted with thermal
pulses resulting from tidal circulation of warm water.
During summer, natural thermal maxima can occur in magnitude suf-
ficient to cause heat death or emigration by motile forms. This is
particularly common in the tropics and warm temperate zones (Vaughan,
1918; Glynn, 1968; Chin, 1961). Natural thermal kills also occur in
more northern waters, e.g. a winter flounder kill in Moriches Bay,
Long Island, N.Y. (Nichols, 1918). Temperature incremental ceilings
are applicable during the period of maximum natural heating when
further thermal addition could be deleterious. These increments may
be lower than prevailing water temperatures in some coastal embayments
for certain periods, yet these are nonetheless times of thermal stress
for the marine system. Some organisms continue to populate waters
having a warmer daily regime, but thermally sensitive species are
absent. Addition of heat from artificial sources at such sites during
periods of maximum heating is not appropriate. For these regions of
the country where data presently are not sufficient to prescribe general
165
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upper thermal limits, development of ceilings on a case-by-case basis
is recommended.
Boundaries for regional ceilings are demarcated by biogeographic
provinces. Species composition of the marine system, and most impor-
tant, responses to elevated temperature, are generally similar within
a region. Boundaries of a biotic province are characterized by sig-
nificant thermal discontinuities. Boundary areas are maintained
during summer or winter due to combined forces of current, wind, and
coastal geomorphology. On the east coast, Cape Canaveral, Fla., Cape
Hatteras, N.C., and Cape Cod, Mass., represent these boundaries. On
the west coast, Ft. Conception in southern California marks the limit
of warm and cold temperate zones.
Recommended thermal criteria are based on scientific evaluation of
best available data. Selected representative data are tabulated below
for an array of ecologically diverse marine organisms, grouped by
biotic region. Data largely document limitations of thermal addition
during summer. Unless otherwise noted, cited studies deal only with
summer or warm-acclimated organisms. Results of sublethal effects
studies are cited also. Twenty-four hour TLm (median tolerance limit)
data have been adjusted by subtracting 2.2°C to estimate the upper
thermal protection limit for the life history stage in question (Mihursky,
1969). Recognized biological variables such as recent environmental
history, nutritional state, size, sex, and age are considered for all
thermal effects investigations. Likewise, contrasting methods of
study are considered.
Normally, thermal effects data derived in one biotic region should
not be applied to another. Latitudinally separated populations of
widely distributed species may exhibit significant generic variability
and usually have experienced different recent environmental histories.
The manner in which data relate seasonally to a local temperature
regime is illustrated by the Cold Temperate Zone (southern portion)*
superimposed on the 20-year mean temperature curve of the Pawtuxet
River at Solomons, Md. (Figure 1) . It should be recognized that mean
temperature curves show only the thermal norm, and not short-term
extremes which are ecologically the more significant.
166
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Boreal ^one^A^l&ntic Coast: This region extends from Cape Cod,
Mass., to the Gulf of Maine. Insufficient data are available for
setting regional temperature limits. Upper limits should be deter-
mined on a case-by-case basis using best available data for the site
and its environs.
In the boreal region, maintenance of a general temperature regime
resembling natural conditions is particularly important during winter
months. Some boreal species require periods of uninterrupted low
water temperatures to fulfill environmental requirements for successful
maturation of sexual products, spawning, and subsequent egg and larval
survival. Winter flounder (Pseudopleuronectes americanus) have an
upper limit for spawning of 5.5°C (Bigelow and Schroeder, 1953).
Spawning occurs during the winter.
Ten °C is the upper thermal limit for Atlantic salmon (Salmo
salar) smolt migration to the sea, which normally occurs in June.
Twelve "C inhibits maturation of sex products (DeCola, 1970). De-
velopment of winter flounder (Pseudopleuronectes americanus) eggs to
hatching is reduced 50% at 13°C (Rogers, in press). Blood worm
(C41ycera americana) spawning is induced when temperatures reach 13 °C
(Greaser, 1973). Fifteen °C is the upper limit for spawning Atlantic
herring (Clupea harangus) (Hela and Laevastu, 1962), and of an amphipod,
Psammonx nobilis, (Scott, unpublished). In Atlantic herring, there is
above normal incidence of a protozoan disease at 15eC (Sinderman, 1965);
and at 16CC, there is a prevalence of erythrocyte degeneration (Sherburne,
1973). Field mortality of yellowtail flounder larvae (Limanda ferruginea)
was observed at 17.8°C (Colton, 1959). The protection limit for yearling
Atlantic herring (48-hr TLm - 2.2eC) is 19.0°C (Brawn, 1960). At 21°C,
embryonic development ceases in the amphipod, Gammarus deuben (Steele
and Steele, 1969). Above 21.1°C, spores are killed and growth is re-
duced in the macroalga, Chondrus crispus, which is commerically har-
vested as Irish moss (Prince & Kingsbury, 1973).
Cold Temperate Zone. Atlantic Coast; Temperature ceilings are
particularly critical in the southern portion of this region (south
shore of Long Island to Cape Hatteras, N.C.) where enclosed sounds
167
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and large coastal-plain bays and rivers are prevalent. Maximum tem-
peratures should not exceed 30°C (86°F) . The true daily mean should
not exceed 27.8°C (82°F) . Were 30°C to persist for over 4 to 6 hours,
appreciable stress or direct mortality would occur among juvenile
winter flounder, striped mullet larvae, Atlantic silversides eggs,
larvae, and adults; adult northern puffer, adult blue mussel, and
adult soft shell clam (Mya arenaria) . Specific critical temperatures
for £h~ese- s- ies are detailed in Figure 1. Adult protection limit
(XLm -~2~.~2*, is 28.8°C for sand shrimp (Cranp,on septemspinosa) and
~ f
30. 8°C-f-orj opossum shrimp (Neomysis americanus) . Both are important
food organisms for fish (Mihursky & Kennedy, 1967) . Respiration rate
is depressed above 30°C in the mole crab (Emerita talpoida) (Edwards &
Irving, 1943). At 31.5°C, there is 67% mortality in coot clam (Mulinia
lateralis) when exposed for 6 hours (Kennedy, et al, 1974).
A limit of 27.8°C approximates the upper limit for larval growth
of the coot clam (27.5°C; Calabrese, 1969) and the upper tolerance limit
for soft shell clam adults (28.0°C; Pf itzenmeyer , unpublished). Between
2.8 and 30°C juvenile amphipods (Corophium insidiosum) leave their tubes
and thereby lose natural protection from predation (Gonzelez, 1972).
Such elevated temperatures may also have subtle sublethal effects,
such as reducing feeding and growth. In the quahaug (Mercenaria mer-
cenaria) . growth is optimum at 20°C (Ansell, 1968). Growth is in-
hibited above 24°C in a rock weed (Ascophyllum nodosum) (Southland &
Hill, 1970). Prolonged locomotion is markedly reduced at 22°C in the
rock crab, Cancer borealis; at 28°C in £. irroratus (Jeffries, 1967).
An oyster pathogen (Dermocystidium marinum) proliferates readily only
above 25°C (Andrews, 1965).
High temperature will usually elicit avoidance response in fishes.
Avoidance is triggered at 298C in Atlantic menhaden (Brevoortia tyrannus).
and at 26.5°C in sea trout (Cynoscion regal is) (Meldrin & Gift, 1971).
Breakdown of the avoidance response in striped bass occurs at 30°C
(Gift & Westman, 1971) . Maximum reported temperature for capture of
spotted hake (Urophycis regisj is 24.8°C in Chesapeaka Bay (Barans,
1972).
168
-------
0\
30 -—A-
ABSOLUTE CEILING (30")
X XT
LJ
CC
*•
4
A I / $ X^
/ V t
\ \
PSfr. . X N
X
x~
X
^
/ /" K
K
U
H
g
»- w ^
1
/I
/ i 1 1
1 1 \
, 1
A M
PISHES
EGGS &>
LARVAE
ADULT
IN.VERTEBRATES-
MOLLUSC3
BIVALVE C?
EGGS JV
LARVAE <^P
MORTALITY X
AVOIDANCE 7s
BEHAVIOR,
DISTURBANCE
DEVELOPMENT OF GROWTH
UPPER LIMIT j
0
35
15
*
MAXIMUM RISE PERMIT
ABOVE AMBIENT
-/
MONTHLY
MAXIMUM
-MONTHLY
MEAN
JFMAMJJASOND
Figure 1. THERMAL EFFECTS ON MARINE SPECIES
-------
TABLE 1. SELECTED THERMAL REQUIREMENTS 4 LIMITING TEMPERATURE DATA
Atlantic Cold Temperate Biotic Province (Southern Portion):
South of Long Island, N.Y. to Cape Hatteras, N.C.
Figure Temperature
Designation *C *F
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
— H
•-J
o
I
J
K
L
M
N
0
p
30
29.8
29. A
29.1
29.0
29.0
29.2
28.0
27.5
26.9
26.5
26.0
25.5
24.8
24.6
20
86.0
85.6
84.9
84.3
84.2
84.2
82.7
82.4
81.5
80.4
79.7
78.8
77.9
76.7
76.2
68.0
Effect
Avoidance response breakdown
(CTM)
Behavior-reduced feeding and
behavior altered
Survival-eggs (50% optimal
survival)
Survival-larvae (TLm)
Survival-adult protection
limit (TLm - 2.2°C)
Avoidance response
Survival-adult protection
limit (TLm - 2.2*C)
Survival-adult limit
Development-upper limit
larval development
Survival-Juvenile pro-
tection limit (TLm - 2.2*C)
Avoidance response
Survival-adult
Avoidance response
Occurrence-maximum tem-
perature for occurrence
in Chesapeake Bay
Survival-larvae (TLm)
Growth-optimum
Species •
Morone snxatilis
(striped bass)
Pomatomus saltatrix
(bluefish)
Menldla menidia
(Atlantic sllverside)
Mugil cephalus
(striped mullet)
Sphaeroides maculatus
(Northern puffer)
Brevoortia tyrannus
(Atlantic menhaden)
Menldla menidia
(Atlantic silverside)
Mya arenarla
(soft shell clam)
Mulinia lateralis
(coot clam)
Pseudopleuronectea americanus
(winter flounder)
Cynoscian regalis
(sea trout)
Mytilus edulis
(blue mussel)
Leiostomus xanthrus
(spot)
Urophycis rpRuis
(spotted hake)
Menidia menidia
(Atlantic silverside)
Mercenaria mercenaria
Seasonal Occurrence
April-November
May-October
May- June
January-April
(coastal waters)
January-December
April-October
April-November
January-December
March-October
April-December
May-October
January-December
January-December
January-December
May-June
January-December
Reference
Gift f> VJcstman,
Olla, 1971
Everlch & Neves
(unpublished)
1971
Cortenay 4 Roberts,
1973
Hoff & Westman,
Meldrim 4 Gift,
Hoff & Westman,
Pf itzenmeyer
(unpublished)
Calabrese, 1969
Hoff & Westman,
Gift 4 Weatman,
Gonzalez, 1973
Gift 4 Westman,
Barann, 1972
Everlch & Neves
(unpublished)
Ansell, 1968
1966
1971
1966
1966
1971
1971
(Northern quahaug)
-------
North of Long Island, a 1.1°C rise above summer ambient provides
reasonable protection. For example, maximum short-term temperatures
in Narragansett Bay. Rhode Island, usually would not exceed 23.4°C in
August (judging from 15-year mean temperature data for Fox Island).
Larval Atlantic silversides, juvenile winter flounder, and blue mussel
should be protected by that thermal limitation. Thermal protection
limit (TLm - 2.2°C) for juvenile winter flounder (Pseudopleuronectes
americanus) is 26.9°C (Gift & Westman, 1966). Everich and Neves
(unpublished) found that exposure to 24.6°C for 15 days caused 50%
mortality of Atlantic silverside larvae (Menidia menidia). Repeated
exposures to 25°C would stress the blue mussel (Mytilus edulis),
causing cessation of feeding (Gonzalez, 1972) and arrest of embryonic
development and larval growth (Hrs-Brenko, unpublished). Diurnal
summer maxima exceeding 22°C can alter normal metabolic rates in
embryonic tautog (Tautoga onitis) (Laurence, 1973) and cause feeding
problems for adult winter flounder (Olla, 1969) and the sand-collar
snail (Polinices duplicata) (Hanks, 1953).
Optimum for summer development of the rock crab larva (Cancer
irroratus) is 20°C; at 25°C, mortality precludes completion of larval
development. Optimum for the northern crab (C_. borealis) is 15°C,
with development blocked at 20°C (Sastry, unpublished). Between 15
and 20°C, activity of the amphipod (Gammarus oceanicus) is much re-
duced (Halcrow & Boyd, 1967). Initiation of spawning is often cued
by temperature. Blue mussel spawning occurs when spring temperatures
reach 12°C (Engle & Loosonoff, 1944). A minimum of 106C is required
for their embryonic development (Hrs-Brenko & .Calabrese, 1969) and
spawning occurs at 15°C. Migration occurs among striped bass, blue
fish and Atlantic silversides (Hennekey, unpublished) at 15eC. Peak
spawning runs of American shad (Alosa sapidissima) into rivers occurs
at 19.5°C (15 year average, Connecticut River); downstream migration
of juveniles occurs as temperature falls below 15.5°C (Leggett &
Whitney, 1972). Menhaden migrate at 10°C (Bigelow & Schroeder, 1953);
striped bass (Morone saxitallis) migrate into or leave rivers at 6 to
7.5°C (Merrimim, 1941). In the fall and winter, fishes congregate in
17!
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discharge plumes which exceed these temperatures. These fishes exhibit
increased incidence, of disease and a general loss of physiological con-
dition (Mihursky, et al, 1970).
W11—_i_JTp'.u.pc:.rat^ Zone, Atlantic and Gulf Coasts: This region extends
from Cr.pe Hatteras, K.C., to Cape Canaveral, Fla., and on the Gulf
Coast frcra Tampa, Fla., to Mexico. A maximum of 32.2°C is the recom-
mended ceiling. Exposures to temperatures above this level would ad-
versely effect portions of the biota. The upper incipient lethal tem-
perature for two dominant estuarine fishes, mullet and pinfish, is 33°C
(Ceck, unpublished). At 33°C, bay anchovy (Anchoa mitchilli) embryonic
development is reduced to 50% of optimum (Rebel, 1973) . The upper
tolerance limit for coot clam embryos (Mulinia lateralis) and for embryos
and larvae of American oyster and quahaug is 32.5°C (Anon, 1969). The
upper limit for growth of juvenile white shrimp (Panaeus setiferus) is
32.5°C (Zein-Eldin & Griffith, 1969). A decline in field abundance of
brown shrimp (F_. aztecus) at temperatures above 30°C was reported by
Chin (1961).
Protection limits (50% of optimal survival) of two sardines (Haren-
gula .1 a guana and II. pensacolae) for development of the yolk sac larval
stage are 31.4°C and 32.2°C, respectively (Rebel, 1973; Sakensa, et al,
1972). The critical thermal maximum (CTM) is exceeded for striped bass
at 30°C (Gift & Westman, 1971). Larval pinfish (Lagodon rhompoides),
and spot (Leistomus xanthurus) have CTM's of 31.0°C and 31.1°C, res-
pectively (Hoss, Hettler & Coston, 1973). Protection limit (TLm - 2.28C)
for young-of-the-year Atlantic menhaden is 30.8°C (Lewis & Hettler, 1968).
Upper limit for adult growth of the quahaug (Mercenaria mercenaria) is
31°C (Ansell, 1968).
Mean temperatures exceeding 29°C would result in mortality of
striped mullet (Mugil cephalus) eggs. Their 96-hr TLm is 26.48C
(Courtenay & Roberts, 1973). Egg and yolk sac larval survival of
sea bream (Archosargus rhomboidalis) is reduced to 50% of optimal at
29.1°C. For yellowfin menhaden (Brevoortia smithi). exposure to 29.8CC
reduced survival of egg and yolk sac larvae to 50% of optimal (Rebel,
1973) . Sublethal but potentially damaging ecological effects could
172
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occur at levels well below 29eC. For example, the upper limit for
optimal growth of post larval brown shrimp (Penaeus aztecus) is 27.5eC
(Zein-Eldrin & Aldrich, 1965); in the American oyster CCrassostrea
vlrRinica) it is 25°C (Collier, 1954). Developing embryos and fry of
striped bass cannot tolerate 26.7°C in fresh water (Shannon, 1969).
This report may also apply to fry in waters at the head of estuaries.
This species spawns in early spring. Elevation of winter temperatures
above 20°C in St. Johns River, Florida, could interfere with upstream
migration of American shad (Alo_sa sapidissima) (Leggett & Whitney,
1972).
Tropical Regions; Ceilings for tropical regions such as south
Florida (Cape Canaveral and Tampa southward), Puerto Rico, and tropical-
zone Pacific Islands are an instantaneous maximum 90°F (32.3°C) and a
true daily mean not exceeding 86°F (30°C). A review by Zieman and
Wood (in press) suggests that the thermal optimum is 26-28°C (79-82°F)
for tropical marine systems, with chronic exposure to temperatures
between 28 and 30°C causing heat stress. Death of the biota is
readily discernible between 30CC and 32°C (86-89°F). , Mayer (1914)
recognized that nearshore tropical marine biota normally lives at
temperatures only a few degrees below their upper lethal limit. A
study of elevated temperature effects on the benthic community in
Biscayne Bay, Florida, resulted in the following data (Roessler, 1971):
Temperature for High Temperature for 50%
Phylum Species Diversity (°C) Species Exclusion (°C)
Molluscs 26.7 3K4
Echinoderms 27.2 31.8
Coelenterates 25.9 29.5
Porifera 24.0 31.2
Other thermal data for tropical biota include a 25.4-27.8°C optimum for
fouling community larval settlement (Roessler, 1971); 25°C optimum for
larval development of Polyonyx gibbesi, a commensal crab (Gore, 1968);
27°C for growth and gonad development in sea urchins (Lytechinus vari-
egatus) and for growth in a snail (Cantharus tinctus) (Albertson, 1973);
27 to 28°C optimum for larval development of pink shrimp (Penaeus
duorarum) (Thorhaug, et al, 1971); and 30°C optimum for turtle grass
(Thalassia testidinum) gjoductivity (Zieman, 1970). Kuthalingham (1959)
studied thermal tolerance of newly hatched larvae of ten tropical marine
fishes in the laboratory. When held at a series of constant temperatures
173
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10
for 12 hours, immediately following hatch, optimal survival for all
species fell between 28-30°C, but their tolerance limit ranged from
30-32°C.
Thermal stress of the fouling community is seen in 50% reduced
settlement rate at 28°C (Roessler, 1971). Fifty percent reduction in
gonadal volume of the sea urchin (Lytechinus varigatus) occurs at 29.9°C
(Thorhaug, et al, 1971 b), These workers also report irreversible
plasmyolysis of the macroalga (Valonia ventricosa) at 29.9°C and of
V_. macrophysa at temperatures above 29.7°C. Survival of developing
embryos to the yolk sac larval stage reduced to 50% of optimal at 29.1°C
among sea bream (Archosargus rhomboidalis). At 29.8°C, yellowfin men-
haden (Brevoortia smithi); and at 31.4°C scaled sardines (Harengula
jaquana) suffer similar mortalities during early development (Rebel,
1973). Temperatures in excess of 31-33eC can interfere with embryonic
development in six species of mangrove-associated nematodes, even though
adults can tolerate 2 to 7°C additional heat (Hopper, et al, 1973).
Upper limit for larval (naupliar) metamorphosis in pink shrimp (Penaeus
duorarum) is 31.5°C (Thorhaug, et al, 1971 b). Upper lethal temperatures
include 31.5°C for five species of Valonia (Thorhaug, 1970); death in
3-8 hours for five Hawaiian corals at 31-32°C (Edmondson, 1928; Jokiel &
Coles, 1974); a 32°C -TLm (95 hr) for the sea squirt (Ascidia nigra) and
sea urchin (Lytechinus varigatis) (Chesher, 1971). Average daily tem-
peratures near 31°C for three to ten days results in decreased growth
in seagrass, Thallassia testudinium and red macroalgae, Laurencia
poitei. Between 32 and 33°C, health and abundance of these species
declines markedly (Thorhaug, 1971, 1973). Replacement of seagrass
is slow, especially if rhizomes are damaged due to excessive consump-
tion of stroed starch during heat stress (Zieman, 1973). Recovery of
Thallassia beds may take decades (Zieman & Wood, in press).
Pacific Coast: Fewer thermal effects studies have been conducted
on West Coast species. However, the concept of seasonal restrictions
for temperature elevations above ambient are well supported in several
East Coast provinces and is deemed applicable to the West Coast as a
general biological principle. Data are not sufficient to develop
specific regional ceilings. These must be determined on a case-by-
174
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case basis until specific principles emerge.
ine Pacific Coast consists of two distinct biogeographical regions.
The cold temperate province ranges north fro- Pt. Conception, California;
the warn temperate region from Pt. Conception south. Published data on
thermal effects are surmarized by biotic province. These should pro-
vide a general guideline to prevent possible adverse effects on indigenous
species by excessive thermal discharge.
Pacific Cold Temperate Zone: Some winter and spring spawning tem-
perature ranges include 3-6°C for Pacific herring (Clupea pullasi)
(McCauley & Hancock, 1971); 7-8°C for English sole (Parophvrs
vetulus) (Alderdice & Forester, 1968); 13eC for May and June spawning
of razor clams (Silioua patula) (McCauley & Hancock, 1971) and 12-14°C
for native little neck clams (Protothaca staninea) (Schink & Woelke,
1973). Optimal growth occurs at 10°C in the small filamentous red
algae (Antithamnion spp) (West, 1968), and 12-168C is optimal for
growth and reproduction of various red and brown algae, including
kelp (Macrocvstis pvrifera) (Druehl & Eisiao, 1969). Twelve to 16eC
favors sea grasses, Zostera marine and Plyllospadix scouleri (McRoy,
1970). Spawning migration of striped bass (Morone saxitilis) occurs
at 15-18°C (Albrecht, 1964); in American shad (Alosa saoidissima).
spawning runs occur at 16.0-19.5CC (Leggett & Whitney, 1972). At Van-
couver Island, B.C., distribution of a kelp (Laminaria gzaenlandica)
is temperature influenced. (The long stipe form is not found above
13CC; the short stipe form does not occur above 17°C. In the labora-
tory, elevation of temperature to 13°C produces abnormal sporaphytes
(Druehl, 1967).) Dungeness crab (Cancer naeister) larval development
is optimal at 10 and 13.9eC, survival is reduced at 17.8'C, with no
survival to megalops at 21.7°C (Reed, 1969). Upper thermal limit for
razor clam embryonic and larval development is 17°C (McCauley & Han-
cock, 1971). Upper growth limit for small filamentous red algae (e.g.
Antithamnion spp) is 18°C (West, 1968). King salmon migration into
San Juaquin River may be delayed by estuarine temperatures in excess
of 17.8°C (Dunham, 196S).
The sea grass (Phyllospadix scouleri) begins to die off at 20°C
(McRoy, 1970), and the pea pod borer (Botula rule ta) ceases to develop
175
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12
(Fox & Corcoran, 1957). Twenty °C is also the upper limit for embryonic
and larval development of the summer-spawning horse clam (Tresus nut-
talli) and native little neck clam (Protothaca staminea) (Schink &
Woelke, 1973) . Upper incipient lethal temperature for the mysid
shrimp (Neomysis intermedia) is 21.7°C (Hair, 1971). This value is
collaborated by reports of a drop in field populations of this im-
portant fish food organism above 22.2°C in the San Joaquin estuary
(Heubach, 1969). Twenty-two °C is the upper tolerance limit for
embryological development of the wooly sculpin (Clinocttus analis)
(Hubbs, 1956). A four hour exposure to 23°C results in significant
mortality of the adult razor clam (Siliquo patula) (Woelke, 1971) and
the sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) (Brett & Alderdice, 1958).
Striped bass (Morone saxatilis) are believed stressed at temperatures
above 23.9°C (Dunham, 1968). Sexual maturation in a gobiid fish
(Gillicthys mirabilis) is blocked at high temperatures. Gonadal
regression begins at 22eC in females; at 24°C in males. Gonadal
recrudescence will not occur at 24°C or above, regardless of photo-
period (DeVlaming, 1972). The 36 hour TLm for red abalone adults is
23°C when acclimated to 15°C; for the embryos, 26°C, when exposed for
30 hours (Ebert, 1974). Sea urchin (Strongylocentrotus purpuratus)
upper tolerance limit is 23.5eC for adults (Conor, 1968); 25°C is
lethal to embryos and renders adults limp and unresponsive after 4
hours (Farmanfarmaian and Giese, 1963).
Pacific Warm Temperate Zone; The thermal threshold for spawning
in Pacific sardine (Sardinops caerulea) is 13°C (Marr, 1962). Re-
ports of temperature optima for spawning include 15°C ir a cteno-
phore (Pleurobranchia bachei) (Hirota, 1973); 16°C in the spring
spawning wooly sculpin (Clinocottus analis) (Graham, 1970); 17.5°C
for northern anchovy (Engraulis mordax); 19°C for opaleye fish (Girella
nigricans) (Norris, 1963). Larval survival is best at 16-18°C in
white abalone (Haliotis sorenseni) (Leighton, 1972).
Limiting effects of temperature include scarcity of the kelp
isopod in the beds above 17,8°C (Jones, 1971). Upper limit for growth
in P_. bachei is 17°C; 20°C is the upper tolerance limit for the adult
'76
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13
ctenophore (Hiret.i i.9?3). Twenty °C also causes limited survival in
recently settled juvenile white abalone (Leighton, 1972). Limiting
effects for wooly sculpin include the upper limit of optimal growth
at 21 C; at 22°C, a 50% reduction in successful development of eggs;
at 246C, the upper limit for embryonic development is reached (Hubbs,
1966). Sea urchins (j>tr_ongvlocentrotus sp.) are weakened or killed
at 24-25°C (Leighton, 1971). At 25°C, partial osmoregulatory failure
occurs in staghorn sculpin (Leptocottus armatus) at 37.6'o/oo (Morris,
1960). A maximum temperature of occurrence of 25°C is reported for
top smelt (Atherinops affinis) by Doudoroff (1945) and northern an-
chovy (Engraulis mordax (Baxter, 1967). For topsmelt, the upper
limit at which larvae hatch is 26.8eC (Hubbs, 1965).
Natural summer temperatures are stressful to beds of giant
kelp, Macrocystis pyrifera. in southern California. This precludes
any thermal discharge in the vicinity of these beds. Deterioration
of surface blades is evident from late June onward, due in part to
reduced photosynthesis (Clendenning, 1971). Several weeks' expo-
sure to 18.9°C is harmful to the beds (Jones, 1971), while tempera-
tures over 20°C results in pronounced loss of kelp (North, 1964).
Brandt (1923) reported some 60% reduction of kelp harvest when the
average temperature was 20.65°C and that a bacterial disease, black
rot, thrives on kelp at 18-20°C. One day exposure to 22°C is quite
harmful to cultured gametophytes of giant kelp (North, 1972).
177
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14
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