United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Environmental Monitoring
Systems Laboratory
P.O. Box 15027
Las Vegas NV 89114
EPA-600/4-79-049
August 1979
Research and Development
Toxic Trace Metals
in Mammalian Hair
and Nails
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RESEARCH REPORTING SERIES
Research reports of the Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, have been grouped into nine series. These nine broad categories
were established to facilitate further development and application of environmental
technology. Elimination of traditional grouping was consciously planned to foster
technology transfer and a maximum interface in related fields. The nine series are:
1. Environmental Health Effects Research
2. Environmental Protection Technology
3. Ecological Research
4. Environmental Monitoring
5. Socioeconomic Environmental Studies
6. Scientific and Technical Assessment Reports (STAR)
7. Interagency Energy-Environment Research and Development
8. "Special" Reports
9. Miscellaneous Reports
This report has been assigned to the ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING series This series
describes research conducted to develop new or improved methods and instrumentation
for the identification and quantification of environmental pollutants at the lowest
conceivably significant concentrations. It also includes studies to determine the ambient
concentrations of pollutants in the environment and/or the variance of pollutants as a
function of time or meteorological factors.
This document is available to the public through the National Technical Information
Service, Springfield, Virginia
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EPA-600/4-79-049
August 1979
TOXIC TRACE METALS IN MAMMALIAN HAIR AND NAILS
by
Dale W. Jenkins
3028 Tanglewood Drive
Sarasota, Florida 33579
Contract No. 68-03-0443
Project Officer
John A. Santolucito
Monitoring Systems Research and Development Division
Environmental Monitoring and Support Laboratory
Las Vegas, Nevada 89114
ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND SUPPORT LABORATORY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
LAS VEGAS, NEVADA 89114
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DISCLAIMER
This report has been reviewed by the Environmental Monitoring and
Support Laboratory-Las Vegas, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and
approved for publication. Approval does not signify that the contents
necessarily reflect the views and policies of the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, nor does mention of trade names or commercial products
constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.
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FOREWORD
Protection of the environment requires effective regulatory actions that
are based on sound technical and scientific information. This information
must include the quantitative description and linking of pollutant sources,
transport mechanisms, interactions, and resulting effects on man and his
environment. Because of the complexities involved, assessment of specific
pollutants in the environment requires a total systems approach that
transcends the media of air, water, and land. The Environmental Monitoring
and Support Laboratory-Las Vegas contributes to the formation and enhancement
of a sound monitoring data base for exposure assessment programs designed to:
• develop and optimize systems and strategies for monitoring
pollutants and their impact on the environment
• demonstrate new monitoring systems and technologies by
applying them to fulfill special monitoring needs of the
Agency's operating programs.
This report is a compilation of the available world literature concerning
the concentrations of selected trace elements in mammalian hair, fur, nails,
claws, and hoofs. The compilation is intended to serve as reference
information to assist in evaluating the usefulness of these tissues in
biological monitoring. For further information contact the Monitoring
Systems Research and Development Division, Environmental Monitoring and
Support Laboratory, Las Vegas, Nevada.
"" XT '
Georgj? B.-- Morgan
Director
Environmental Monitoring and Support Laboratory
Las Vegas
m
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I express sincere appreciation to Mr. George B. Morgan, Director, Environ-
mental Monitoring and Support Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Las Vegas, for assistance in planning and conducting this study. Also, I wish
to thank Dr. Richard E. Stanley, Deputy Director, for his interest and support.
The kind assistance of various libraries and data centers is gratefully
acknowledged, especially the following:
Library, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland
Libraries, Pan American Health Organization, Washington, D.C. and
Mexico City
Libraries, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Las Vegas, Nevada,
and Washington, D.C.
Library, National Research Council, Advisory Center on Toxicology,
Washington, D.C.
Biomedical Sciences Section, Information Center Complex, Information
Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee
(especially Ms. Emily D. Copenhaver)
I am most grateful to my wife, Mrs. Joanne F. Jenkins, for excellent
secretarial assistance.
IV
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Foreword i i i
Acknowl edgements i v
Tabl es vi i
Introduction 1
Uses Of Human Hair and Nail Measurements 4
General Comments 4
Biological Monitoring for Correlation with Environmental
Exposure Gradients 4
Occupational and Accidental Exposure 11
Disease Correlated with Excess and Deficiency 17
Geographic Di stribution 20
Historic Trends in Trace Elements in Hair 21
Forensic Medicine 22
Hair Sample Collection, Preparation and Analysis 25
Sample Collection 25
Location and Type of Human Hair on the Body 26
Age 26
Sex 29
Hair Color 32
Concentration Variation in Hair in Relation to
Distance from Scalp 33
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
Cleaning and Sample Preparation 37
Chemical Analysis 41
Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Hair 43
International Monitoring of Trace Elements in Human Hair
and Nai 1 s 45
Appendices
A. Compilation of Reference Data on Hair and Nails
in Human Beings 46
B. Compilation of Reference Data on Hair, Fur, Nails,
Claws and Hoofs in Other Mammals 134
References 161
VI
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TABLES
Number Page
Monitoring of Toxic Metals in Human Hair and Nails
in Various Regions of the World 5
Correlation of Toxic Metals in Human Hair with
Environmental Exposure Gradients 7
3 Correlation of Toxic Element Contents in Hair of
Populations with Different Exposure Levels 9
4 Correlation of Toxic Metals in Animal Hair with
Environmental Exposure Gradients 10
5 Comparison of Trace Element Content of Human
Blood and Hair 12
6 Reported Levels of Toxic Metals in Human Hair with
Tentative "Normal" and Toxic Levels 13
7 Comparison of Trace Element Concentrations in Human
Hair of Occupationally Exposed vs. "Controls" 15
8 Possible Clinical Use of Hair and Nails for Helping
Diagnose or Indicate Disease or Deficiency States 18
9 Comparison of Concentrations of Trace Elements in
Historic and Contemporary Human Hair Samples 23
10 Comparison of Concentrations of Trace Elements in
Scalp, Pubic and Axillary Hair 27
11 Correlation of Trace Element Content of Hair with
Sex 30
12 Variation of Trace Element Concentration in Hair in
Relation to Distance from Scalp 34
13 Record of Ni Concentration in Hair of Three Subjects
As a Function of Days After Exposure 38
14 Effect of Washing Hair on Trace Element
Concentration 40
vii
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TABLES (Continued)
Number Page
A-l Antimony in Human Hair 47
A-2 Arsenic in Human Hair 49
A-3 Arsenic in Human Nails 59
A-4 Boron in Human Hair 61
A-5 Cadmium in Human Hair 62
A-6 Chromium in Human Hair 68
A-7 Chromium in Human Nails 71
A-8 Cobalt in Human Hair 72
A-9 Copper in Human Hair 74
A-10 Copper in Human Nails 81
A-ll Lead in Human Hair 83
A-12 Lead in Human Nails 97
A-13 Mercury in Human Hair 98
A-14 Mercury in Human Nails 120
A-15 Nickel in Human Hair 121
A-16 Selenium in Human Hair 124
A-17 Selenium in Human Nails 128
A-18 Tin in Human Hair 129
A-19 Vanadium in Human Hair 130
A-20 Vanadium in Human Nails 132
B-l Antimony in Animal Hair 135
B-2 Arsenic in Animal Hair 136
B-3 Cadmium in Animal Hair 137
B-4 Chromium in Animal Hair 139
B-5 Cobalt in Animal Hair 141
B-6 Copper in Animal Hair 142
B-7 Copper in Animal Hoofs 144
B-8 Lead in Animal Hair 145
B-9 Mercury in Animal Hair 148
B-10 Mercury in Animal Claws and Hoofs 153
B-ll Nickel in Animal Hair 154
B-12 Selenium in Animal Hair 155
8-13 Selenium in Animal Nails and Hoofs 159
B-14 Vanadium in Animal Hair and Hoofs 160
vm
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INTRODUCTION
Toxic trace elements are being released into the biosphere in ever-
increasing quantities from more extensive burning of fossil fuels, more rapid
industrialization with discharges from metallurgical and chemical plants, and
more extensive use of chemicals. These trace elements and especially toxic
heavy metals have reached levels that create a stressed environment. A study
by Battelle Memorial Institute (Korte, 1974) of environmental stress indexes,
showed that toxic metals are presently the second most important
environmental nuisances that are hazards for "quality of life." These metals
predominate in forecasts of future pollutant priorities.
Man himself is a central target for these toxic metallic elements, which
normally occur in his body in relatively low concentrations. There is real
danger of his exposure to chronic long-term low levels resulting in
intoxication and diseased states, as well as exposure to accidental high
levels with serious immediate results. A major problem would result if man
became contaminated to levels giving rise to large-scale, harmful somatic or
genetic effects (IAEA, 1977). It is, therefore, an urgent problem today to
determine the initial or baseline levels of trace elements in man and the
extent of his contamination in areas where he is exposed to contaminated
food, water, and air, or occupational and other causes of exposure.
The problem of biological monitoring of levels of these trace elements
in man is complex and difficult. The trace element distribution and
composition of the whole body cannot be determined. If the critical organ
concept is followed, it would be necessary to determine the concentration of
trace elements in organs which can be critical (first producing symptoms or
pathology) and then determine effective dose (as in the case of incorporated
radionuclides (IAEA, 1977).
Biological monitoring is required to determine baseline levels, as well
as the present extent of contamination. Certain trace elements are
accumulated or bioconcentrated in various tissues of man and other mammals
and offer a potential for biological monitoring. What is needed are tissues
or substrates with trace element compositions that are fairly reliable
indicators of contamination and easily accessible for chemical analysis.
Specific toxic metallic trace elements are bioconcentrated or
accumulated in hair and nails of man and in hair, nails, claws, and hoofs of
other mammals. These tissues can be sampled readily without injury to the
host, and they have been used for relating to exposure to specific toxic
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metals. The Global Environmental Monitoring System (GEMS) of the United
Nations Environment Program selected human hair as one of the important
monitoring materials for world-wide biological monitoring.
The objective of the present report is to compile the available
representative world literature on levels of selected toxic trace elements in
hair and nails in man and in hair, nails, claws, and hoofs of other mammals.
The compilation of data is comprehensive, but is not intended to be complete
or exhaustive. These data should provide background baseline reference
information to help evaluate the usefulness of these tissues for biological
monitoring, and to help in establishment of national or worldwide biological
monitoring systems and networks.
Thirteen trace metals and metalloids have been selected for review on
the basis of various criteria, including relative toxicity, abundance, use,
importance, and present and potential exposure of man and his food organisms.
The selected metals or metalloids include: antimony (Sb), arsenic (As),
boron (B), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), cobalt (Co), copper (Cu), lead (Pb),
mercury (Hg), nickel (Ni), selenium (Se), tin (Sn), and vanadium (V). Other
metals, such as toxic beryllium (Be), are also of interest. There are almost
no data available for Be in hair and nails.
Data on toxic metal accumulation and concentration in hair and nails,
etc., have been compiled and presented in concise tabular form. The data are
organized first for human hair and nails, followed by animal hair, nails,
claws, and hoofs. The tables are then organized by toxic metal, with the
geographic area, number of subjects sampled, sex, age, exposure or gradient,
occupation, diet, and other factors, analyses in ppm with the range shown in
parentheses followed by the average and by the standard deviation or standard
error (if determined), and the authority and year. Some reports do not
present details on sex, age, and other important sample collection factors,
making interpretation of the data more difficult.
Data on uses of human hair have been compiled and reviewed. This review
includes use of hair for biological monitoring, for correlation with
environmental exposure gradients, for occupational exposure, and for diseases
of pathology correlated with excesses or deficiencies of selected trace
elements. Use of human hair is discussed with regard to geographic
distributions and variation in distribution of trace elements. Studies are
also reviewed with regard to historic trends in levels of certain trace
elements using dated historic hair samples in comparison with present day
samples. The use of human hair in forensic medicine is briefly discussed,
including identification and timing of poisoning and hair individualization
studies for identification.
Sample collection, preparation, and analysis are of importance in
interpretation of the validity of data. In sample collection of human hair,
there are a number of factors which may affect the results. These include
location and type of hair, age, sex, hair color, and distance from the scalp
and concentration variation along the shaft of hair. Data have been compiled
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and evaluated for each of these factors with regard to sample collection.
Sample preparation, including washing and use of chemicals for removal of
external contamination, is briefly discussed. The field of chemical analysis
is highly complex and sophisticated. This subject is outside of the scope of
this report; however, its importance is recognized and some critical reviews
of analytical methodology are referenced.
The advantages and disadvantages of using hair as a tissue for
biological monitoring are discussed. The consensus of most workers in the
field is that if hair samples are collected properly, cleaned and prepared
for analysis correctly, and analyzed by the best analytical methods using
standards and blanks, as required, in a clean and reliable laboratory by
experienced personnel, the data are reliable. These caveats would cast doubt
on some data, especially earlier determinations using methodology and
analytical apparatus, that do not compare with present sophisticated
analyses.
Examination of the tabular data in Appendix A entitled "Compilation of
Reference Data on Hair and Nails in Human Beings," shows that for specific
uses, human hair is a meaningful and representative tissue for antimony,
arsenic, cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, mercury, nickel, vanadium, and
perhaps selenium and tin. However, for boron and cobalt human hair is either
not meaningful or has not been studied sufficiently.
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USES OF HUMAN HAIR AND NAIL MEASUREMENTS
GENERAL COMMENTS
There is extensive literature on the use of human hair (and some for
nails) for biological measurement of trace elements. Concentration levels of
the selected trace metals in human hair have been determined in nearly all
regions of the world, with various monitoring or other objectives (see Table
1). Studies have been reported, including: 1) biological monitoring for
correlation with environmental exposure gradients (from smelters, mines,
highways, and other sources); 2) occupational exposure levels; 3) disease and
physiologic or pathologic effects of nutritional excesses or deficiencies; 4)
geographic distribution and variation; 5) historical trends; and 6) forensic
medicine. These and other data have been compiled in tables in the
appendices. The data for each of the major uses are summarized and discussed
briefly.
BIOLOGICAL MONITORING FOR CORRELATION WITH ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE GRADIENTS
Human and animal hair has been extensively analyzed to show correlation
with exposure to environmental gradients of certain trace elements. These
environmental gradients result from the production of high concentrations of
one or more toxic trace elements from a single source or combined sources.
These include gradients resulting from urban industrialized areas, refineries
and petrochemical complexes, smelters for Pb, Cd, As, Cu, and Zn mines and
mills, thermal power plants, and special manufacturing or special uses of
trace elements. Data from various studies have been reviewed and the results
are presented in Table 2 for human hair and in Table 4 for animal hair.
Correlations with environmental gradients are indicated according to
designations used by the research investigators as yes/no, or high/low. In
some cases the correlation is indicated by a number showing the ratio of
concentrations of metal in hair of exposed individuals (near the source) as
compared with the concentration in hair of unexposed "controls," i.e., hair
samples at the lower end of the environmental gradient at the greatest
distance from the source. The sampling of adults or children is also
indicated.
Examination of the summary in Table 2 shows high correlation between
concentration of As in human hair with environmental exposure gradients for
As for children, and for adults in two cases. For Sb in hair, one study
showed some correlation. For Cd in hair, there are mixed results, varying
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TABLE 1. MONITORING OF TOXIC METALS IN HUMAN HAIR AND NAILS
IN VARIOUS REGIONS OF THE WORLD
Sb
Canada G,S
United States S,H
Central America
South America S
Great Britain
Europe S
Middle East S
Africa 0
S. E. Asia
Australia and S
New Zealand
As Cd Cr
G,0,S
W G,S S
G.O.H G,0,S G,S,H
W
S,W S
G,0,S
H
G,0,H
S 0
S
0,S
S
Co Cu Pb
G,0,W
G,S 0 S
G,0,W
S,H G,S,H H,N
G,S,0
S S
G,S,N G,0
S S G,0,W
S G 0,F
0
S S
S 0,S
Hg Ni Se Sn V
S,0,W
G G,S G,S
G,0,F
H,N G,0,H G,S,H G G,S,H
G,S,0 G
S S S,G S,N
0,G,S
F,H
G.S.F
0 0 S,0
0,F,S S
S
F,S
S S
(Continued)
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TABLE 1. MONITORING OF TOXIC METALS IN HUMAN HAIR AND NAILS
IN VARIOUS REGIONS OF THE WORLD (Continued)
Sb As Cd Cr Co Cu Pb Hg Ni Se Sn V
- — — __
Japan S G,S F,W S S 6,0 0 S
New Guinea, Samoa N F N
Monitoring Objectives: G - Environmental gradient; 0 - Occupational exposure; S - Sampling base line;
F - Food; W - Water; H - Historical; N - Nails
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TABLE 2. CORRELATION OF TOXIC METALS IN HUMAN HAIR
WITH ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE GRADIENTS
Environmental
Exposure Gradient
Urban to rural gradient,
New York
Urban to rural gradient,
Panama
Urban with refineries
to rural^ Canada
Pb & Zn smelter town
to non-smelter^ U.S.
Pb, Cd, & As gradient
in cities^ Montana
Cu smelter gradient,
U.S.
Cu smelter gradient,
Washington
Smelter^ Japan
Pb processing plant,
Germany
Zn and Cu mine mil 1
rural vs. urban^ Ireland
Urban petrochemical complex
vs. rural^ Texas N.H.
Thermal power plant,
Czechoslovakia
Na arsenite mfg. exposure
gradient A Great Britain
Gradient from golf course
using CdCl?New York
As Sb
No
2.8X 1.8X
C&A C&A
High
C
12X
C
High
C
16X
C
6X
C
17. 5X
C
3.5X
C
8X
A
Toxic Trace Elements
Cd Cr Cu Pb Hq Ni Sn V
No Yes
C
3.4X
C&A
High
C
2.2X
C
Low
C
High
A
No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
C&A C&A C C C&A
5-9X
C&A
5X 2.3X 3.6X
C&A C&A C&A
No High
C C
No 5.8X
C C
Low Low
C C
3. IX
A
No No No
C C C
1.4X
A&C
Authority
Creason et al .,
(1975)
Klevay (1973)
Chattopadyhay
&Jervis (1974)
Hammer et al .,
(1971,1972a)
Hammer et al . ,
(1972bl
Hammer et al . ,
(1971,1972a)
Mil ham & Strong
(1974)
Suzuki et al . ,
(1974)
Aurand & Sonne-
born (1973)
Corridan (1974)
Eads & Lambdin
(1973)
Bencko (1966,
1970)
Hill & Faning
(1948)
Keil et al .
(1975)
High, Low, Yes or No = Degree of correlation
(No.) X = ratio of exposed over control
C = Children
A = Adults
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from high to low correlations for children exposed to smelters, with one high
correlation for adults exposed to Cd used on a golf course, and some
correlation between an urban area with refineries and rural gradient. Cr in
hair was studied only for correlation with one urban to rural gradient and a
positive correlation was found for children, but not for adults. For Cu in
hair, five studies showed no correlation with environmental exposure
gradients, except a low correlation for children from a Cu smelter gradient.
For Pb in hair, there was a high correlation with urban to rural gradients in
hair of both adults and children, a high correlation with a Pb and Zn smelter
gradient in hair of children, but low correlation with a Cu smelter gradient
and no correlation with a Zn and Cu mine and mill. There was a high
correlation in adult hair with a Pb processing plant gradient, and in hair of
adults and children with an urban petrochemical complex gradient, compared
with rural. Hg in hair showed a correlation in both adults and children with
urban to rural gradients, but no correlation in children with a Zn and Cu
mine and mill gradient. For Ni and Sn in hair, a correlation was shown in
children, but not in adults with an urban to rural gradient. For Ni, there
was a correlation between urban with refineries and rural, for both adults
and children. For V in hair, a correlation was found in both adults and
children in one study with an urban to rural gradient.
A detailed study (Table 3) was made in Canada and eight trace elements in
human hair were compared with degree of exposure in rural, urban, and urban
near refineries (Chattopadhyay and Jervis, 1974, and Roberts et al., 1974a,
b). This study shows that there were slight to greatly increased levels of
As, Cd, Hg, Ni, Pb, and Sb in an urban area with refineries compared with a
rural area. There was no significant increase for Co and Se between rural
populations and urban near refineries.
In studies of animal hair high correlations, shown in Table 4, were found
for As in cow and horse hair with a Cu smelter gradient, and for rabbit fur
with a power plant gradient. For Cd, a high correlation was found in horse
manes, with a Cu smelter gradient and in cow hair, with a Pb smelter
gradient. For Cr, a high correlation was found in cotton rat hair with drift
from a cooling tower. For Cu, no correlation was found. For Pb, there was a
high correlation in horse manes with a Cu smelter gradient and a very high
correlation in cow hair with a Pb smelter gradient. For Hg, there was a
correlation in rabbit fur with an Hg mine and plant gradient, and some
correlation in various animals with Hg in mineralized areas.
These studies show that hair from humans and other mammals can be used
effectively to show correlations with environmental exposure gradients for
specific trace elements. They also show the importance of age in using hair
from children as compared with adults, since children are more effective for
biological monitoring. Many other studies could be included, such as persons
exposed to eating fish (high Hg) or occupational exposures for various
metals, since they show high correlation with exposure, as compared with
unexposed "controls," but these do not show a geographical environmental
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TABLE 3. CORRELATION OF TOXIC ELEMENT CONTENTS IN HAIR
OF POPULATIONS WITH DIFFERENT EXPOSURE LEVELS
As
Cd
Co
Hg
Ml
Pb
Sb
Se
Rural
76 persons
(0.45-1.7)0.68
(0.25-2.7)1.2
(0.12-1.8)0.41
(0.28-3.5)1.2
(1.6-17.0)2.1
(0.5-25.0)9.1
(1.3-24.0)7.9
(0.32-4.8)1.8
Urban
45 persons
(0.4-2.1)0.75
(0.32-3.4)2.0
(0.15-2.6)0.48
(0.24-5.2)2.0
(1.2-20.0)2.4
(0.5-35.0)15.3
(1.5-33.0)9.7
(0.29-6.3)1.9
Urban near
Refineries
121 persons
(0.63-4.9)1.9
(0.45-8.2)4.1
(0.10-3.3)0.5
(0.2-5.5)2.3
(1.1-32.0)3.6
(10.0-350.0)45.3
(1.8-47.0)14.6
(0.27-7.4)2.3
(Range) and median are presented in ppm
After Chattapadhyay and Jervis (1974)
Roberts et al. (1974a & b)
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TABLE 4. CORRELATION OF TOXIC METALS IN ANIMAL HAIR
WITH ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE GRADIENTS
Environmental
Exposure Gradient Locality
Toxic Trace Elements
As Cd Cr Cu Pb Hg Authority
Cu smelter
Horse manes
Cu smelter
Cow hair
Montana
14X 8-30X
10-25X
Washington 20X
Lewis (1972)
Orheim et al.
(1974)
Pb smelter
Cow hair
Missouri
Hg mine & plant
Rabbit fur Yugoslavia
12X
Drift from
cooling tower
Cotton rat hair
& pelt
Hg mineralized
areas
Antelope, big-
horn sheep,
coyotes and
rodents
Power plant
Rabbit fur
Tennessee
11X
Idaho and
Wyomi ng
no 75X Dorn et al
(1974)
1.7X Byrne et al.
(1971)
Taylor et al.
(1975)
yes Huckabee et al
(1972,1973)
Czecho-
slovakia
yes
Bencko (1970)
exposure gradient, so that they were not included in this review. Some of
the correlation studies were excellent, with valid statistical sampling and
critical statistical evaluation, while others were not as carefully
controlled and evaluated.
In summary, human hair has been found to be of value for correlating
human exposure to environmental gradients for arsenic, antimony, cadmium,
lead, mercury, nickel, and vanadium, and, for children only, for chromium and
10
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tin. Boron and copper in hair were not found to be correlated with
environmental gradients. Animal hair was of value for correlating exposure
to environmental gradients for arsenic, cadmium, chromium, lead, and mercury,
but not for copper.
OCCUPATIONAL AND ACCIDENTAL EXPOSURE
People can be exposed to toxic trace metals as an occupational hazard or
by an accident. In breathing and by touching or ingesting, workers undergo a
long-term, low-level dose or a brief, high-level exposure. Accidents would
include eating mercury-contaminated food, like fish and shellfish, bread made
from treated seed or pigs fed contaminated grain. These doses may result in
toxic symptons or death. Biological monitoring is required to determine how
much metal was absorbed and to attempt to measure exposure.
Blood and urine samples have been used far more extensively than hair or
nails for determining exposure to toxic metallic trace elements. For very
recent exposures, blood and urine are excellent for certain toxic metals.
However, for measurement of levels of toxic metals for long periods or
especially of exposure to a dangerously high level during a past period, hair
appears to be superior to blood and urine for certain toxic elements
concentrated in the hair. A comparison is presented for concentrations of
trace elements in human blood and hair in Table 5. It should be pointed out
that "normal" levels in blood and "normal" levels in hair are not agreed upon
by experts, and various authorities will present different data. In this
comparison, levels in hair presented by Gordus et al. (1974) and a summary
from the present report are compared with blood. Various studies show lack
of correlation between levels in blood and hair, especially after a lapse of
time after exposure. Studies have also been conducted on using nails, bone,
liver, kidneys, and other tissues (dependent on specific trace metal
accumulation or bioconcentration) for determining absorbed dosage of trace
metals.
Reported levels of toxic trace metals in human hair are presented in
Table 6. The reported range and normal .ranges are shown, together with
levels of threshold effects and acute or chronic effects and death, where
these are known. These data are tentative estimates and the information is
incomplete. Again, it should be pointed out that experts do not agree on the
interpretation of the data. This area requires much analysis and especially
more critical data evaluation. It is hoped that this compilation, bringing
together diverse data, will aid in determining "normal" or baseline levels,
as well as those causing effects in humans.
Before discussing data on occupational exposure to toxic trace elements
in relation to levels in human hair, the time of occurrence of the elements
in hair should be considered. For chronic exposures over a long time, hair
is usually suitable. For studies immediately after acute exposures, urine
11
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TABLE 5. COMPARISON OF TRACE ELEMENT CONTENT
OF HUMAN BLOOD AND HAIR (ppm)
Antimony
Arsenic
Boron
Cadmi urn
Chromi urn
Cobalt
Copper
Lead
Mercury
Nickel
Selenium
Tin
Vanadium
Blood (a)
0.005
0.7
0.09
0.009
0.003
0.0005
1.5
0.4
0.005
0.03
0.2
0.015
0.02
Hair (b)
0.2
0.2
1.0
1.0
0.04
15.0
4.0
1.5
3.0
0.8
1.0
0.03
Hair (c)
0.03-9.0
0.0-2.0
0.02-0.08
0.1-3.0
0.0-4.0
0.0-1.0
7.8-120.0
0.0-70.0
0.01-30.0
0.0-11.0
0.3-13.0
1.0
0.006-1.0
a. Tinker (1971)
b. Gordus et al. (1974)
c. Tentative range of "normal" levels in this report. This is poorly
defined and not agreed upon by experts (see Table 6).
and blood samples may be preferable. The toxic elements appear in the blood
at intervals of time later and, for a short exposure, may appear only in a
small segment of the hair correlated with the time of exposure. Analysis of
the first two mm. of the root end (Henley et al., 1977) should correlate well
with the concentrations of trace elements in blood.
12
-------
TABLE 6. REPORTED LEVELS OF TOXIC METALS IN HUMAN HAIR
AND TENTATIVE "NORMAL" AND TOXIC* LEVELS (ppm)
Antimony
Arsenic
Cadmi urn
Chromium
Cobalt
Copper
Lead
Mercury
Nickel
Selenium
Vanadium
Reported
Range
0.03-47.0
0.0-1 ,585.0
0.1-9.3
0.0-6.43
0.0-3.11
7.8-486.0
0.0-1,880.0
0.01-2,436.0
0.0-15.6
0.3-30.0
0.006-271
"Normal"
Range
0. 03-24. O(a)
0.0-2.0
0.1-3.o(b)
0.0-4.0
0.0-1.0
7.8-120.0
0.0-70.0
0.01-30.0
0.0-11.0
0.3-13.0
0.006-2.71
Acute or
Threshold Chronic
Effects Effects Death
Unknown
3.0 12.0
Levels not cor-
related with
toxicity
Unknown
Unknown
Unknown
12.5 infant 94.7-124.0
70.0 in children!0)
50.0-200.0 200.0-800.0 500.0+
Unknown
8.0-30.0 8.0-30.0
Unknown
*Levels are tentative estimates from visual inspection of data only. Data
are incomplete on toxic effects, and experts vary in interpretation.
(a) Most below 9.0
(b) One Cd worker with 1,000.0
(c) Exposed adults frequently over 100.0 with no symptoms
The correlation levels of toxic metals with time after ingestion or
exposure are of importance. In studies feeding 204Pb, the peak occurred in
facial hair in three male subjects about 125 days after start of feeding and
about 35 days after the peak of blood 204Pb (Rabinowitz et al., 1976). In
Pb tracer studies in rabbits, Pb in hair began to increase 2-4 weeks after
symptoms of Pb poisoning occurred and continued to increase 2 months after
13
-------
discontinuation of dosage. Arsenic has been found in the hair as early as 30
hours and as late as 9 years after ingestion (in Kyle, 1970). The As appears
in hair soon after ingestion, is transported even to hair tips, and the As
levels remain elevated in hair months after exposure (Shapiro, 1967). In
women acutely poisoned with Hg, there is a slightly prolonged period of
maximum Hg concentration and a delayed disappearance from the hair
(Giovanoli-Jakubczak and Berg, 1974). Mercury is deposited in hair following
exposure and on termination of exposure, the level in hair drops. This fact
was used to trace the history and extent of exposures of people to methyl
mercury, taking into account the growth rate (Giovanoli-Jakubczak and Berg,
1974) and dating exposure to Hg in a swimming pool (Martz and Larson, 1973).
In late 1971 and early 1972 an outbreak of alkylmercury poisoning
occurred in Iraq due to use of Hg-treated wheat seed to make bread. Mean
maximum hair Hg levels were 136.0+S.E. 17.8 ppm for 413 persons who ate
contaminated bread, compared with 5.0±S.E. 0.8 ppm for 1,012 persons who had
not, or 27.2x the unexposed. The mean blood levels were 0.034±S.E. 0.005 yg/
ml for those who ate contaminated bread compared with 0.007±S.E. 0.0009 ug/ml
for those who had not, or 4.8x the unexposed. These persons were over 5
years of age (Kazantzis et al., 1976a).
Eleven women who showed severe mercury poisoning with disability had mean
maximum mercury hair levels of 400.0 ppm. Nineteen women with mild or
moderate disability had Hg hair levels of 209.0 ppm (Kazantzis et al.,
1976b).
The concentration of mercury in hair was correlated with illness, by
Al-Shahristani et al. (1976). Peak mercury concentrations of 1.0-300.0 ppm
were found in persons who consumed Hg-contaminated bread but showed no
symptoms, corresponding to an average body burden of 10 pg to 2.2 mg Hg/kg
of body weight. People with mild symptoms had peak Hg hair concentrations of
120.0-600.0 ppm, corresponding to an average body concentration of 0.8-4.4 mg
Hg/kg of body weight. Moderate symptoms were observed in persons with peak
Hg concentrations in hair of 200.0-800.0 ppm, corresponding to an average
body concentration of 1.5-6.0 mg Hg/kg of body weight. Persons with severe
symptoms had peak Hg hair concentrations of 400.0-1,600.0 ppm, corresponding
to average body concentration of 3.0-12.0 mg Hg/kg of body weight.
Human hair has been used to determine levels of toxic trace elements in
an attempt to determine absorbed dose from occupational exposure.
Comparisons have been made between trace element concentrations in hair of
occupationally exposed workers and "controls" or "normals" (Table 7).
Antimony mine workers have been shown to have extremely high levels of Sb
in the hair; however, the threshold and toxic levels are unknown.
Arsenic in hair has been studied for persons exposed to manufacture and
use of arsenic products, including people in mines and smelters. Comparisons
have been made with unexposed "controls" showing significant differences.
14
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TABLE 7. COMPARISON OF TRACE ELEMENT CONCENTRATIONS IN HUMAN HAIR
OF OCCUPATIONALLY EXPOSED VS. "CONTRJDLS"
Exposed
"Controls"
Authority
Antimony
Sb mine workers
Arsenic
Mfg. of sodium-arsenite
Lab. using detergent shampoo
Industrial occup. exp. to dust
As mine workers
As production
Sn smelting
Agr. workers using As
Cadmi urn
Cd workers
Lead
Policemen
Policemen on motorcycles
Lead workers
Uranium miners
Lead workers
Lead battery workers
Rayon manufacture
Printing office - male
Printing office - female
Printers & metal workers
1,000.0
108.0
42.0
>300.0
to 1,000.0
(15.0-237.0)91.0
(2.2-753.0)88.0
(0.8-11.4)7.2
,000.0
132.5
183.3
51.7
1.42 pCi/g
>110.0
217.3
168.1
106.4
116.3
32.8
13.0
2.0
(0.01-0.35)0.15±S.D.
(0.01-0.35)0.15±S.D.
(0.01-0.35)0.15±S.D.
.34
,34
0.34
0.034 pCi/g
>30.0
Rodier & Souchere (1957)
Hill & Faning
Lenihan et al.
(1948)
(1958)
Poison & Tattersall
Van den Berg et al.
Dale et al. (1975)
Dale et al. (1975)
Dale et al. (1975)
(1969)
(1969)
Nishiyama & Nordberg (1972)
Speizer et al. (1973)
Speizer et al. (1973)
Barry (1972)
Jaworowski (1964)
10.4
Suzuki et
Nishiyama
Nishiyama
Nishiyama
Nishiyama
Reeves et
al
et
et
et
et
al
(1958)
al. (1957)
al. (1957)
al. (1957)
al. (1957)
. (1975)
(Continued)
-------
TABLE 7. COMPARISON OF TRACE ELEMENT CONCENTRATIONS IN HUMAN HAIR
OF OCCUPATIONALLY EXPOSED VS. "CONTROLS" (Continued)
Exposed
"Controls"
Authority
CTi
Mercury
Dentists
Occupational exp. to Hg
Hg smelter workers
Fishermen
Hg smelter workers
Inhaled Hg vapors
Tungsten refinery workers
Dentists
Tunafishermen
Dental assistants
Smelter workers
Hg miners
Nickel
Nickel workers exposed
to Ni carbonyl
1.0-34.0
5.0-10.0
3.0-48.85
27.6-46.6
25.0
20.4
10.1
9.8
19.9-45.0
10.1±S.D. 15.0
25.0±S.D. 6.1
4.0±S.D. 0.8
4.0-4.81
2.5
0.2-6.0
1.9
1.8
1.9-6.2
4.2
3.38±S.D. 3.4
1.8 ±S.D. 0.4
1.8 ±S.D. 0.4
(0.5-1.0)
Gutenmann et al. (1973)
Jervis et al. (1970)
De la Pina (1975)
Tejning (1970)
Cigna Rossi et al. (1976)
Ota (1966)
Akitake (1969)
Ohno et al. (1967)
Yamanaka et al. (1972)
Lenihan & Dale (1976)
Clemente (1976) & Cagnetti
et al. (1974)
Clemente (1976) & Cagnetti
et al. (1974)
Hagedorn-Gotz et al. (1977)
-------
Cadmium in hair has not been studied sufficiently with regard to
occupational exposure.
Lead in hair has been studied in relation to persons occupational!,/
exposed to lead, including policemen, lead metal workers in battery and rayon
manufacture, and printing office workers. Lead workers, uranium miners, and
printers showed high levels in comparison to "controls."
Mercury in hair has been studied for dentists, dental assistants, mercury
smelter workers, tungsten refinery workers, industrial workers, and tuna
fishermen. Dentists, Hg smelter workers, and tungsten refinery workers had
high levels of Hg in hair in comparison with hair of "controls."
Nickel in hair was studied in nickel workers exposed to Ni carbonyl in an
accident and were compared with unexposed "controls."
DISEASE CORRELATED WITH EXCESS AND DEFICIENCY
Hair and nails may be of value for diagnosing or correlating levels of
trace metals with disease states. Various diseases or deficiency states
caused by 14 selected toxic metals are shown in Table 8. These data have
been summarized from information by Schroeder and Nason (1971) on
"Trace-Element Analysis in Clinical Chemistry" and the data compiled in this
report. Hair and nails have already been used to diagnose some of these
diseases and could be of value for additional diseases related to specific
toxic metals.
Other researchers have correlated concentrations of toxic elements with
disease. These correlations are described starting on page 19.
17
-------
TABLE 8. POSSIBLE CLINICAL USE OF HAIR AND NAILS
FOR HELPING DIAGNOSE OR INDICATE DISEASE
OR DEFICIENCY STATES (Schroeder and Nason 1971)
Antimony — toxic to humans and animals
Arsenic -- arsenite is toxic; arsenical polyneuritis
Beryllium -- toxic; causes cancer of lung
Boron --low toxicity to mammals
Cadmium — toxic; causes arterial hypertension, pregnancy toxemia,
itai-itai disease; is most insidious and widespread health
hazard; causes congenital abnormalities
Chromium -- causes diabetes mellitus, cancer of lung; deficiency causes
atherosclerosis, hypercholesteremia, hyperglycemia; accumulates
in lung
Cobalt -- high Co implicated in myocardial insufficiency; may play a role
in immune reactions
Copper — absence of gene for Cu homeostasis causes hepatolenticular
degeneration; high Cu implicated in various collagen diseases,
rheumatoid arthritis, and infections
Lead — toxic; lead poisoning, subclinical states from moderate level,
with ill-defined asthenia, neurosis; mental retardation in
children
Mercury — methyl Hg is highly toxic; mercury poisoning, Minamata disease;
causes congenital abnormalities
Nickel -- causes cancer of lung; in myocardial infarction Ni increases in
blood; causes congenital abnormalities
Selenium -- essential element; excess causes alopecia; causes tumors
Tin -- toxic; accumulates in lung
Vanadium -- may have a role in cholesterol and fatty acid metabolism;
accumulates in lung
18
-------
Antimony. -- High levels of Sb in hair have been correlated with Sb
toxicity in Sb miners (Rodier & Souchere, 1957).
Arsenic. -- High levels of As in hair have been correlated with As
poisoning by various authorities. High As in fingernails and presence of
white striae are said to usually be diagnostic of arsenical polyneuritis
(Mees, 1919).
Cadmium. — High Cd levels in hair are not usually correlated with
toxicity and are not effective for clinical diagnosis of itai-itai disease.
Chromium. -- No available studies of Cr in hair have yet been correlated
with excess or deficiency diseases of humans. Cr is lower in fingernails of
atherosclerotic persons (Masironi, 1974), and periungal sites have been
identified as sites of Cr ulcers (National Academy of Sciences, 1974).
Cobalt. -- No available studies of Co in hair or nails have yet been
correlated with disease in humans.
Copper. -- Low Cu of hair has been associated with Menkes kinky hair
syndrome (Singh & Bresman, 1973).
Lead. — High levels of Pb in hair have been correlated with lead
poisoning with various symptoms and death, by several authors. High Pb in
hair was correlated with decreased elongation and strength of hair (Suzuki et
al., 1958).
Mercury. - High levels of Hg in hair have been correlated with Hg
poisoning with various symptoms (including blindness, convulsions and death)
by many investigators.
Nickel. — High concentrations of Ni in hair have been correlated with
weak respiratory symptoms in an occupational accident (Hagedorn-Gb'tz et al.,
1977).
Selenium. -- High Se causes alopecia, loss of hair (Rosenfeld & Beath,
1964).
Tin. — No available data on Sn in hair has been correlated with human
disease.
Vanadium. -- High V in hair was correlated with decreased cystine of
nails (Stokinger, 1963; Hudson, 1964; Mountain et al., 1955).
In summary, high levels of Sb, As, Pb, Ni, and Hg in hair have been
correlated with toxicity or poisoning in humans. High levels of Se caused
loss of hair and high levels of V decreased cystine. Low levels of Cu have
been associated with Menkes kinky hair syndrome. No correlations with excess
or deficiency diseases or conditions have been found in available reports for
Cd, Co, and Sn.
19
-------
GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION
The levels of trace elements in human hair may vary geographically if
there is a high or low natural level of an element in an area, if the people
are exposed to high levels from proximity to smelters, industry, etc., or
from eating or drinking contaminated food or water. The elements are
reviewed below to determine areas with levels significantly different.
Antimony -- The levels of Sb in human hair in the United States, Japan,
and New Zealand are comparable. In Canada, Chattopadhyay and Jervis (1974)
reported very high levels of Sb in hair in rural, urban, and urban a'reas near
refineries. Levels of Sb in hair of antimony mine workers in Morocco were
extremely high.
Arsenic -- Levels of As in hair were high in Mexico and Chile due to
natural high levels of As in drinking water and were high around Cu, Pb, and
Zn smelters or Cu and As mines in various countries, including the United
States, Canada, Ireland, Scotland, Czechoslovakia, and Japan.
Cadmium -- The Cd level in hair is sometimes slightly correlated with
higher levels of exposure, but there do not appear to be significant
differences in levels with geographic areas.
Chromium -- The Cr level in hair in Venezuela and Iraq appears to be
higher than in the United States, Canada, and Japan.
Cobalt — The level of Co appears to be high in Venezuela.
Copper -- The data vary widely, but there do not appear to be any
significant differences in Cu levels in human hair in the various countries.
Lead — While no obvious differences in concentrations of Pb in human
hair appear between countries, the United States, Canada, Panama, Great
Britain, France, and Japan, and New Zealand report high levels correlated
with proximity to large cities, occupational exposure, or other factors.
Mercury -- Ukita (1968) and Al-Shahristani and Al-Haddad (1972)
characterized average "normal" levels of Hg in hair as 4.0-6.0 ppm in North
America and most European countries, 6.0-8.0 ppm in Japan, and 1.0 in Iraq.
It appears that few countries have "normal" hair levels higher than average,
but high levels occur in many countries, which can be ascribed to eating fish
or grain with high levels of Hg, or exposure to smelters or occupational
exposure.
Nickel -- Levels of Ni in hair of Amazonian Indians in Venezuela are more
than 10 times the average levels in the United States, Canada, or Germany.
20
-------
Selenium — There is a significant difference in level of Se in human
hair from high and low Se areas within the United States and in Central and
South America (Rosenfeld and Beath, 1964). Levels were fairly high in
Venezuela and Iraq.
Tin — Data only in the United States.
Vanadium — No significant differences in geographical levels of V in
hair were observed.
In summary, there are significantly higher levels in human hair of As in
Mexico and Chile due to naturally high levels of As in water, and higher or
lower levels of Se correlated with natural excesses or deficiencies in
various regions of North and South America. Other differences, such as high
levels of Hg, are correlated with high intake of Hg-contaminated fish and
proximity to contamination. Co, Cr, Ni, and Se levels were high in
Venezuelan Indians. For As and Pb there are high levels correlated with
pollution and occupational exposure.
There are insufficient data for human nails and from animal hair, nails,
claws, and hoofs to make geographical comparisons.
HISTORIC TRENDS IN TRACE ELEMENTS IN HAIR
Preserved hair and bones have been used to compare levels of certain
trace elements in humans over historic periods to determine possible trends
(Table 9). Antique hair samples were frequently saved by many Americans and
Europeans, with locks of hair (usually female) encased in lockets, airtight
boxes or woven in floral designs which frequently were preserved without
known contamination. The dates of preservation and the ages of the females
were often recorded.
Concentrations of lead were studied by Weiss et al. (1972) in historic
and contemporary hair samples. Hair samples from 36 children (under 16 yrs.
of age) from 1871-1923 averaged 164.24±S.E. 20.7 ppm compared with 16.23±S.E.
0.97 ppm from 119 children's hair samples in 1971. Historic samples are
10.12 times contemporary samples and significant at P =<0.01 using a t test.
Hair samples from 20 adults from 1871-1923 averaged 93.36±S.E. 16.3 ppm
compared with 28 adult hair samples in 1971 with 6.55±S.E. 1.17 ppm.
Historic samples are 14.36 times higher than contemporary samples and
significant at P =<0.01 using a t test. This study is confirmed by Gordus et
al. (1974), who found median levels of lead in 3 female hair samples in the
1800's to be 1,250.0 ppm, in 13 female hair samples from 1900 to 1930 to be
106.0 ppm, and in 20 males in 1971 to be 4.1 ppm. This finding is 304.8
times levels in present hair, comparing with young men, or 77 times,
comparing with children in 1971. The results by Weiss et al. (1972) were
21
-------
discussed by Locheretz (1973). There are problems in attempting to correlate
exposure to Pb and levels in hair since in historic times hair was washed
less frequently, and external contamination may have occurred during storage
of some samples. However, the lead levels have decreased so greatly from
historic to present times that the data are probably valid. Lead was
commonly used for cosmetics, for kitchen utensils, water conduits, and other
purposes so that exposure levels were higher despite present higher
atmospheric and street dust levels in the environment (Jenkins, 1972).
Comparison of the trace element concentrations in historic hair samples,
up to 200 years old, with modern samples based on geometric means in female
scalp hair (Table 9) shows that there has been an increase in Cu, Ni, and V
and a decrease in Sb, As, Cr, and perhaps Hg. If comparisons are made
between the historic female sample medians and 1971 male medians, there has
been an increase in Cd and a great decrease in Pb (Gordus et al., 1974,
1975).
Arsenic shows a significant decrease in two studies (Table 9), a drop
that is probably correlated with decreased use of arsenical medicines and
germicides and with substitution of DDT and other pesticides for lead
arsenate and paris green (Jenkins, 1972, 1976).
The increase in V and small increases of Ni, Cd, and Cu in modern hair is
probably correlated with actual increase in exposure to these elements
(Gordus et al ., 1975). Even for those trace elements which show little
increase or decrease, there may have been an increase in exposure in the last
100 years. As stated above, hair was probably washed less in historical times
than modern, and historic samples are often clippings of distal ends which
for Cu have higher levels than proximal ends. The possible contamination of
historic samples must be considered, but some samples are known to have been
sealed or protected from contamination. With these caveats, the most
significant changes in trace element levels in hair appear to be a
significant increase in V and a significant decrease in As and Pb.
FORENSIC MEDICINE
Forensic medicine is a highly complex specialized field and no attempt is
made to review it here since it is mainly outside of the scope of this
report. However, the data in this field contribute knowledge on levels of
toxic trace metals in hair and nails. In forensic science, hair and nails
are used extensively to attempt to demonstrate, prove, and to date poisoning
and exposure to various toxic metals, especially arsenic, cadmium, chromium;
lead, mercury, and nickel.
Abnormal concentrations of trace elements, such as As and Hg in hair,
have served in a number of investigations as an evidence of ingestion of
abnormal amounts of toxic substances (Lenihan and Smith, 1959; Forshufvud et
al., 1961; Smith, 1964; and Shapiro, 1967). The concentration along the
22
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TABLE 9. COMPARISON OF CONCENTRATIONS OF TRACE ELEMENTS
IN HISTORIC AND CONTEMPORARY HUMAN HAIR SAMPLES
(in ppm)
1890 1890-1910 1910-1935 1972 1971
Female Female Female Female Male
After Gordus et al
(1974. 1975)
Geom. Geom. Geom. Geom.
Mean Med. Mean Med. Mean Med. Mean Med.
Comparison of Means
Antimony .476 .5 .779 .63 .507 .63 .084 .154
Arsenic 2.5 5.2 1.5 0.8 1.2 0.8 0.4 .14
Cadmium .21 .53 .53 .47
Cobalt .125 .13 .069 .053 .054 .053 .106 .037
Chromium 2.4 2.6 3.8 3.2 3.9 3.2 1.4 1.5
Copper 13. 18. 12. 12. 11. 12. 21. 16.
Lead 1250. 106. 106. 4.1
Mercury 3.5 3.6 1.8 2.0 1.6 2.0 2.8 1.8
Nickel 3.1 2.7 2.5 3.2 4.0 3.2 6.3 3.1
Selenium .62 .58 .47 .55 .62 .55 .54 .67
decrease by 5.66x
decrease by 62.5x
(increase by 2.24x
in. medians)
no significant
change
decrease by 1.7x
increase by 1.6x
(decrease by 304.8x
in medians)
decrease by 1.25x
increase by 2x
no significant
change
Vanadium .014 .009 .02 .006 .016 .006 .054 .024 increase by 3.86x
1790-1849
Geom. mean
Arsenic 3.81
Mercury 3.62
1850-1899
Geom. mean
3.74
6.14
1900-1949 1973-
Geom. mean Geom.
0.78 0.13
1.27 2.41
1974 After Dale et al .
mean (1975)
decrease by 29. 3x
decrease by 1 .5x
Lead-adults
Lead-children
1871-1923
Average
93.36
164.24
1971
Average
6.5
16.23
After Weiss et al .
(1972)
decrease by 14.36x
decrease by 10.12x
23
-------
length of the hair can be used to reveal the history of the poisoning (see
section below on Concentration Variation in Hair in Relation to Distance from
Scalp). The pattern of concentration variation of Hg along hair was shown to
be a more reliable criterion for hair indivisualization identification than
average concentration values (Al-Shahristani and Al-Haddad, 1972; Bate,
1966). Perkons and Jervis (1962) found large differences occurred in samples
of the same individual over several years.
Hair is being studied for use of trace element concentrations for hair
individualization and identification in a manner similar to identification by
fingerprint analysis. There are many problems in hair individualization
analyses. Nails are also used in forensic science to determine poisoning and
evidence of ingestion of abnormal amounts of toxic trace elements, such as
arsenic.
24
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HAIR SAMPLE COLLECTION, PREPARATION AND ANALYSIS
SAMPLE COLLECTION
Statistical considerations of biological monitoring of human hair should
include the human target populations at risk, for example, around sources,
such as smelters, mines, local high concentrations in soil and water supply,
urban areas, including metal processing industry, manufacturing areas, and
populations at risk from occupational exposure and eating contaminated foods.
It is also necessary to monitor unexposed human control populations in rural
and isolated areas to determine background baseline levels. For many of
these trace elements there are now regional baseline or control data to
compare with exposed populations at risk. These data should be validated by
statistical evaluation requirements for additional data determined. Until
this is accomplished, the magnitude of a proposed monitoring program is still
subject to the outcome of the evaluation.
The optimal descriptive information required for each individual sample
includes the following:
1. Age, sex, race, skin, and hair color.
2. Occupation, length of time in occupation, other occupational history.
3. Exposure to toxic metals.
a) Urban or rural
b) Occupational special exposure
c) Hobbies, vacations, special foods, water, use of pottery,
smoking habits
d) Cosmetics, hair care, washing frequencies, dyes
e) Environment -- live near smelters, mines, traffic, metal
industries, etc.
4. Hair sample — location on scalp or elsewhere, distance from scalp,
how collected, date, amount.
25
-------
5. Special remarks -- disease, alopecia, skin, or other disorders,
illness, hospital or medical history, if applicable. Living or dead,
cause of death, if applicable.
6. Special remarks -- e.g., socioeconomic group, education.
It is necessary to agree on an international standardization of the size
of hair sample, location on body or location on scalp, distance from scalp,
and length of hair.
LOCATION AND TYPE OF HUMAN HAIR ON THE BODY
Human hair has been analyzed from the scalp, facial beard, axillary,
chest, and pubic areas. This is important with regard to evaluating external
contamination, particularly of the exposed scalp. In addition, various areas
of scalp hair have been evaluated and the nape of the neck has been stated to
be least exposed to external contamination.
All human hair data in this report are for scalp hair, except data quoted
below. Levels of some elements have been correlated between scalp and pubic
hair and between scalp and axillary hair as shown in Table 10.
There is significantly less Cu, Hg, and Pb in pubic hair than in scalp
hair for the few comparisons made. One comparison made between scalp and
axillary hair showed axillary hair to be 2.5 times greater than scalp hair,
which may be due to perspiration contamination, but there are insufficient
data to make a valid comparison. Factors, such as growth rate, distal vs.
proximal hair and other factors in addition to contamination, must be
evaluated before valid comparisons can be made.
Facial beard hair has been used for determining As in a hospitalized case
poisoned from As containing sheep dip. The beard hair decreased from 3.12
ppm weekly to 1.79 to 0.84 and 0.94. No comparison was made with scalp hair
(Lenihan & Smith, 1959). Beard hair of three 25-to 53-year-old males with no
occupational exposure had (13.2-16.0)14.7 ppm, but no comparison was made
with scalp hair (Rabinowitz et al., 1976). Se was found in beard hair of a
man using Se medication (23.0 ppm) (Fuller et al., 1967).
AGE
Differences in trace element levels in human hair have been reported
correlated with age. This has resulted in many research workers selecting
children instead of adults for studying trace element levels in hair.
26
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TABLE 10. COMPARISON OF CONCENTRATIONS OF TRACE ELEMENTS
IN SCALP, PUBIC, AND AXILLARY HAIR (in ppm)
ro
Gu 50 Ohio females
Pb 50 Ohio females
Black females
White females
Hg "Normal", no known exposure
Hg 46 dental technicians, Scotland
Hg Kenyans using Hg skin lightening
cream within 6 mos. of sampling
Hg Kenyans discontinuing using Hg
skin lightening creams more than
6 mos. prior to sampling
Hg Kenyans who never used Hg creams
Scalp
(17.3-18.4)17.9
(30.0-33.0)31.5
49.3
15.5
5.5
10.1+S.D. 15.0
Pubic
(12.8-13.2)13.0
(16.0-17.2)16.6
21.8
9.1
1.6
4.14+S.D. 4.80
Baumslag et al., (1974)
Baumslag et al., (1974)
Baumslag et al., (1974)
Baumslag et al., (1974)
Rodger & Smith (1967)
Dale et al. (1975)
(20.5-9,220.0)2108.0 (5.2-1,470)335.0 Dale et al . (1975)
(2.768.0)137.0
(0.5-23.4)11.0
(4.2-1,490.0)159.0 Dale et al. (1975)
(0-85.0)18.4 Dale et al. (1975)
Pb Yugoslavia, fatal case ate Pb-concen-
trated flour
Seal i
4.0
Axillary
10.0
Danilovic (1958)
-------
Antimony - Ohmori et al. (1975) found no significant difference (1.1
ratio) in Sb in hair of age _>20 years (0.068) in comparison with <20 years
(0.061 ppm).
Arsenic -- There was more (1.5 times) As in hair of age >20 years (0.095
ppm) as compared with age <20 years (0.063 ppm) according to Ohmori et al.
(1975).
Cadmium -- There was a decrease in Cd levels from younger females 1-30
years (2.59±0.379 ppm) to older females 40 to 70 years (0.92±0.153 ppm) with
(P = <0.001, t = 3.87). There was a decline in Cd in females after age 70.
Grey hair depigmentation was also correlated with low Cd (Schroeder and
Nason, 1969). Eads and Lambdin (1973) found no difference in Cd hair levels
in young and old aged males, but there was a decline in levels in female hair
in subjects aged 37 to 72 years. Petering et al. (1973) found that Cd levels
increased in male hair with age up to 20 years and then decreased slightly.
In females, Cd levels increased in hair up to a peak at age 40 to 50 years
and then decreased slightly, but the level remained high. Keil et al. (1975)
showed an increase in Cd in hair with age.
Chromium -- Concentrations of Cr in hair in men did not decline with age
and was maintained in women after age 40 (Schroeder and Nason, 1969). Cr
levels in hair of 3-8 month infants was significantly higher than in 2 to 3
year old children (Hambidge and Rodgerson, 1969). There was no difference
(ratio 1.0) in Cr in hair of 2.20 years (0.6 ppm) in comparison with <20 years
(0.6 ppm) according to Ohmori et al. (1975).
Cobalt -- The level of Co in hair in men did not decline with age and was
maintained in women after age 40 (Schroeder and Nason, 1969).
Copper -- There was a decrease in Cu levels in hair from younger females
1-30 years (86.2±16.67 ppm) to older females 40-70 years (16.6±1.58 ppm) with
(P = <0.001, t = 3.89). The level of Cu in hair in men did not decline with
age (Schroeder and Nason, 1969). Eads and Lambdin (1973) did not find any
change of Cu levels in hair correlated with age in males, but there was a
decline of Cu in female hair of subjects from age 37 to 72. Hair samples
from persons <40 years were not significantly different from samples >40
years (Hutchinson et al., 1974). There was less Cu (ratio 0.78) in age >20
years (9.3 ppm) than in age <40 years (12.0 ppm) according to Ohmori et al.
(1975).
Lead — There was a decrease in Pb levels from younger females 1-30 years
(24.5±4.90 ppm) to older women 40-70 years (8.4±1.16 ppm) with (P = <0.001,
t = 3.76). Pb did not accumulate with age in men (Schroeder and Nason,
1969). Eads and Lambdin (1973) found there was no significant change of Pb
with age in males, but there was a decline in Pb with age in female hair in
subjects aged 37-72 years. Weiss et al. (1972) found a significant decrease
in levels of Pb in hair of children under 16 years (16.23±0.97 ppm) to adults
over 16 years (6.5±1.17 ppm) with significance P = <0.01, and in antique hair
28
-------
(1871-1923) from children under 16 years (164.24+20.7 ppm) to adults over 16
years (93.36±16.3) with significance P = <0.01. Lead in human hair in age
groups 1-21, 22-42, 43-87 years did not show any significant differences of
the means for any age groups at the 90% confidence level (Reeves et al.,
1975). In Panama, Klevay (1973) found a significant decrease with age in Pb
levels in hair of males, but not females. Petering et al. (1973) found a
decrease in levels of Pb in hair of males, and in female hair found an
increase up to age 35 and then a sharp decrease.
Mercury -- There was no age difference correlation in Hg levels of hair
in men, but there was a decline of Hg in female hair in subjects aged 37-70
years (Eads and Lambdin, 1973). There was no difference in Hg levels in hair
correlated with age (Giovanoli-Jakubczak, 1974). In females, the Hg level in
hair increased to a maximum in age group 41-60 years and decreased slightly
after 61 years. In males, the maximum Hg level was in age group 11-20 years
and decreased slightly after 21 years (Benson and Gabica, 1972).
Nickel -- There was no increase in Ni in hair with age (Schroeder and
Nason, 1969). There was a fairly uniform distribution of Ni levels in both
males and females in different age groups (Eads & Lambdin, 1973).
Vanadium -- Ohmori et al. (1975) found less V (ratio 0.62) in age >_20
years (0.021 ppm) than in age <20 years (0.034 ppm).
In summary, there was no significant change in levels of antimony,
chromium, cobalt, and nickel with age. There were usually decreases in
levels of Cd and Cu with age in females, but no decreases in males. There
was an increase in As with age over 20 years in one study. For lead, the
results are mixed, but in general there were more decreases found in levels
of Pb in hair for both present and historic samples. For mercury, the
results are mixed for the three studies reported. There was a decrease of V
with age over 20 years, in one study.
SEX
Differences in trace element levels have been reported between male and
female hair samples by some authors, as summarized in Table 11 and below:
Antimony -- Coleman et al. (1967) showed higher levels of Sb in male than
female hair, but possible age differences were not evaluated. There was
slightly more (1.3 times) Sb in female (0.071 ppm) than in male hair (0.055)
(Ohmori et al., 1975).
Arsenic -- Levels of As were significantly higher in male hair than in
female in a population of over 1,000 samples (Lenihan & Smith, 1959). There
was no significant difference between As levels in college age males and
females (Gordus et al., 1974, 1975). Arsenic was appreciably higher in male
29
-------
TABLE 11. CORRELATION OF TRACE ELEMENT CONTENT
OF HAIR WITH SEX (in ppm)
Female
Male
Signif.
Author
Sb Higher
0.071 geom. mean 0.055 geom. mean
Coleman et al. (1967)
1.3x Ohmori et al. (1975)
173x Ohmori et al. (1975)
Lenihan & Smith (1959)
0 Gordus et al.(1974,1975)
As 0.11 geom. mean 0.048 geom. mean
Signif. higher
No significant difference (col. age)
Cd No significant difference 0
Higher, 40-50 yrs.
No significant difference 0
gray hair higher
Eads & Lambdin (1973)
Petering et al. (1973)
Schroeder & Nason (1969)
Schroeder & Nason (1969)
"Co0.28±S.D. 0.0430.17±S.D. 0.482P=<0.02Schroeder & Nason (1969)
t=2.32
Cr 0.6 geom. mean 0.6 geom. mean
No significant difference
No significant difference
l.Ox Ohmori et al. (1975)
0 Schroeder & Nason (1969)
0 Coleman et al. (1967)
Cu 13.0 9.4
55.6+S.D. 10.27 16.US.D. 1.19
No significant difference
Pb 34.6 mean 24.5 mean
17.9 med. 11 .4 med.
19.0 17.8
higher age 35-50
higher
No significant difference
No significant difference
Hg 5.9 2.45
No significant difference
No significant difference
Ni 4.09±S.D. 1.091 1.07±S.D. 0.178
No significant difference
V 0.025 geom. mean. 0.026 geom. mean
1.4x
P=<0.001
t=4.86
0
0
0
1.6-3.2X
0
0
0
0.96x
Ohmori et al . (1975)
Schroeder & Nason (1969)
Eads & Lambdin (1973)
Klevay (1973)
Klevay (1973)
Schroeder & Nason (1969)
Petering et al . (1973)
Shabel 'nik (1968)
Reeves et al . (1975)
Eads & Lambdin (1973)
Benson & Gabica (1972)
Eads & Lambdin (1973)
Nord et al . (1973)
Schroeder & Nason (19fi9)
Eads & Lambdin (1973)
Ohmori et al . (1975)
30
-------
than in female hair (cited in Gordus et al., 1974). Ohmori et al. (1975)
found 2.3 times more As in female (0.11 ppm) than in male hair (0.048 ppm).
Cadmium -- There were no significant differences in Cd levels between
males and females (Eads and Lambdin, 1973). There was a significantly higher
level of Cd in 40-50 year old females than in similar males (Petering et al.,
1973). There were no significant differences in Cd levels between males and
females, but grey hair of women had less Cd than male grey hair (Schroeder
and Nason, 1969).
Chromium -- There was no significant difference between Cr levels in male
and female hair (Schroeder and Nason, 1969). Coleman et al. (1967) showed
similar Cr levels in male and female hair. Ohmori et al. (1975) found 0.6
ppm Cr in both male and female hair.
Cobalt -- Female hair averaged 0.28±0.043 ppm, while male hair had 0.17±
0.483 ppm. The female hair was significantly more contaminated (P = <0.02,
t = 2.32) than the male, according to Schroeder and Nason (1969).
Copper -- Schroeder and Nason (1969) found Cu levels in female hair
higher than in male hair. The females averaged 55.6±10.27 ppm and male
16.1±1.19 ppm (P = <0.001 , t = 4.86). No significant differences in Cu
levels were found between male and female hair by Eads and Lambdin (1973).
Ohmori et al. (1975) found 1.4 times more Cu in female (13.0 ppm) than in
male hair (9.4 ppm).
Lead -- Klevay (1973) in Panama found that Pb in female hair was
significantly higher (17.9 ppm median, 34.6 ppm mean) than male hair (11.4
ppm median, 24.5 ppm mean), with age and geographic location taken into
account. Kraut & Weber (1944) found a mean level of Pb of 19.2 ppm for
females and 14.7 ppm for males (P = <0.001 , t = 3.38). No significant
difference was found by Schroeder & Mason (1969) between Pb levels in females
(19.0 ppm) compared with males (17.8 ppm). Petering et al . (1973) found
higher Pb levels in females than males 35-50 years old. Shabel'nik (1968)
found higher Pb levels in female hair than in male hair. Reeves et al.
(1975) did not find significant differences between female and male Pb hair
levels. Eads and Lambdin (1973) did not find significant Pb level
differences between males and females.
Mercury -- The mean level of Hg in female hair was 5.90 ppm and in male
hair was 2.45 ppm. Females had 1.6 to 3.2 times higher Hg levels than males,
based on hair from over 1,000 residents in Idaho (Benson & Gabica, 1972). No
significant difference was found between levels of Hg in male and female hair
by Eads and Lambdin (1973). Nord et al. (1973) found no difference in Hg
levels between male and female hair samples.
Nickel -- There was more Ni in natural colored hair of females
(4.09±1.091 ppm) than similar hair in males (1.07+0.178 ppm), Schroeder and
Nason (1969). Eads and Lambdin (1973) found no significant difference in Ni
levels between female and male.
31
-------
Vanadium - There was no significant difference in V (0.96 times) between
female (0.025 ppm) and male hair (0.026 ppm), according to Ohmori et al.
(1975).
It is difficult to summarize the effect of sex on levels of trace
elements because age differences and distance from scalp were not always
considered. In general, there were higher levels of Cd, Co, Cu, Pb, Hg, and
Ni in female hair, but there were also reports of no difference between sexes
for Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, Hg, Ni, and V. Until more critical studies including the
effect of other factors are carried out, it is difficult to find clear-cut
differences based on sex.
HAIR COLOR
In comparing levels of trace elements with hair color, a few differences
have been found, particularly in female hair that has become depigmented,
where there is less Cu, Cd, and Pb, but this is not true of men's grey hair.
There is also less Cd in black hair and perhaps more Ni in red than brown
hair.
Arsenic -- Comparisons were made of As in black, brown, blonde, and grey
hair by Schroeder and Balassa (1966), and no significant differences were
found in the few samples tested.
Cadmium — No significant correlation was found by Eads and Lambdin
(1973) between levels of Cd and hair color. There was significantly less Cd
in grey-haired females than in natural colored female hair or in grey-haired
males. Young female hair had higher levels of Cd than hair from older women.
In males, there was less Cd in black hair than in hair of other colors
(Schroeder and Nason, 1969).
Chromium -- Schroeder and Nason (1971) found 0.69±0.062 ppm in 48 males
with natural hair color and 0.73±0.148 ppm in 14 males with grey and white
hair. Five females with grey and white hair had 0.96±0.049 ppm and nine males
with red hair had 0.39±0.048 ppm. In comparisons with larger populations,
there does not appear to be any significant differences between hair colors.
Cobalt -- Schroeder and Nason (1969) and Schroeder et al. (1967) compared
single samples of red, black, and white hair from different ages and sexes so
no comparison can be made.
Copper -- Kikkawa et al. (1958) reported higher levels of Cu in pigmented
than white hair, and Eads and Lambdin (1973) found a high Zn/Cu ratio for
dark hair. Anke and Schneider (1962), comparing 22 males and females, found
levels of Cu were slightly higher in black than in brown, blonde, grey, or
white hair. Schroeder and Nason (1969) found grey-haired females had
significantly lower levels of Cu than those with natural colored hair.
However, this was not found in males, so it is unlikely to be associated with
greying. Cu may be absorbed externally on hair.
32
-------
Lead -- Eads and Lambdin (1973) found no significant differences in lead
levels related to hair color. Schroeder and Nason (1969) found lower levels
of Pb in grey-haired females (but not in males) than in those with pigmented
hair.
Mercury -- No differences in Hg level>s were found in relation to hair
color by Eads and Lambdin (1973).
Nickel -- No differences were found in Ni levels in relation to hair
color by Eads and Lambdin (1973). Schroeder and Nason (1969) found that
natural colored hair of females had more Ni than natural colored hair of
males and more Ni in red than brown hair.
Selenium -- Schroeder et al. (1970) compared Se levels in brown, red,
grey, and black and white hair but found no significant differences in the
few samples tested.
CONCENTRATION VARIATION IN HAIR IN RELATION TO DISTANCE FROM SCALP
Variation in concentration of trace elements along the shaft of the hair
from the scalp outwards is extremely important in collection of hair samples.
Scalp hair grows at a rate of about 1 cm per month, an average of 50-100
strands of hair are lost per day, and the average person has about 100,000
strands of scalp hair (Gordus et al., 1974). Growth rate of hair ranges from
0.75 to 1.35 cm/mo, and is influenced by age, sex, and pregnancy (in
Giovanoli-Jakubczak, 1974). Growth rate of hair was also calculated using
mercury exposure. Growth rate of adult hair is 0.3 mm/day or about 1 cm per
month (Snyder et al. 1974), and the rate for the newborn is 0.2 mm/day,
increasing to 0.3-0.5 mm/day.
Two millimeter lengths of root ends of human hairs have been analyzed by
Henley et al. (1977). These should reflect the most recent internal milieu
and correlate closely with blood as well as exclude externally adhered
constituents, such as those of hair treatment and atmospheric pollutants.
Copper and chromium have been analyzed by this technique.
Variation in concentration of trace elements along the shaft of the hair
has been studied for antimony, arsenic, cadmium, chromium, cobalt, copper,
lead, mercury, nickel, and selenium (Table 12). For these metals, the
concentration at specific sites along the hair appears to be correlated with
time of exposure. However, for copper it appears that it is concentrated at
the distal ends of the hair. Research data on concentration variation in
hair are summarized for these metals.
Arsenic -- In a case of subacute poisoning of several weeks duration, the
greatest amount of arsenic was in the proximal 5 cm. and from one-tenth to
one-twentieth less in the more distal parts of the hair. Al-Shahristani and
Al-Haddad (1972) state that As, once introduced into the hair through
metabolic functions, appears to be fixed and is not affected by washing or
perspiration. In a study of arsenic content of hair in acute arsenic
33
-------
TABLE 12. VARIATION OF TRACE ELEMENT CONCENTRATION
IN HAIR IN RELATION TO DISTANCE FROM SCALP (in ppm)
Sb
Cd
Cr
Co
Cu
Cu
Cu
Cu
Hg
Hg
Hg
Hg
Hg
Hg
Pb
Ni
1
0.033
0.15
1.8
0.5
15.0
15.0
30.0
36.0
1.7
30.0
12.0
10.0
8.0
6.0
6.86
0.4
Length of Hair (in cm)
11 21 31 41
0.03
0.35
11.4
1.0
—
50.0
40.0
2.3
50.0
200.0
350.0
6.0
6.0
13.65
39.9
0.027 0.038 0.063
1.0 0.5 1.0
1.5 2.0 2.7
— 63.0
50.0
80.0
54.0 52.0 62.0
2.7 3.0 5.2
30.0 250.0 850.0
5.0
5.0
14.0
4.0
Authority
51 61
Obrusnik et al . (1973)
Parker et al . (1973)
Obrusnik et al . (1973)
Obrusnik et al . (1973)
Renshaw et al . (1973)
Gordus et al . (1975)
Gordus et al . (1975)
65.0 110.0 Gangadharan & Sankar
Das (1976)
Obrusnik et al . (1973)
Gangadharan & Sankar
Das (1976)
Al-Shahristani &
Shibab (1974)
Clarkson (1977)
Al-Shahristani &
Al-Haddad (1972)
Al-Shahristani &
Al-Haddad (1972)
Dresch & Fortman (1976)
Hagerdorn-Gotz et al .
(1977)
Se 5.0 33.0 70.0 80.0 83.0 Obrusnik et al. (1973)
34
-------
poisoning, it was found that arsenic appears in sweat soon after ingestion
and that sweat can carry the dissolved poison along the hair shafts where the
arsenic can bind with the sulfur in hair (Lander et al ., 1965).
Cadmium -- Cadmium was measured at 0.5 cm intervals along the shaft of
washed hair. Cd averaged 0.1 to 0.2 ppm in the basal half and increased to
0.3 to 0.4 at 11 to 13 cm in the distal part. This measurement was not
correlated with any known exposure history. Parker et al. (1973) stated that
a profile of Cd concentration along the hair can be determined and that the
concentration of Cd in the hair is an indication of the total amount of Cd
ingested. It is not known whether Cd accumulates at the distal end of the
hair or whether these measurements were correlated with previous exposure.
Chromium -- Cr levels in hair changed with increasing distance from hair
roots (Hambidge et al ., 1972a).
Copper — Hair samples from males and females aged 18 to 22 years showed
a significant increase in Cu from the basal to the distal parts of the hair
shaft (Gordus et al., 1975). Some of the more pronounced variations were
30 to 80 ppm and 15 to 50 ppm from the proximal to the distal end. It was
proposed that this difference may be due to exposure to sweat, but this was
not proven. Bate and Dyer (1965) found an increase in concentration of Cu
from the scalp to the distal end by about a factor of two. Renshaw et al .
(1973) showed that in a 30-cm sample of hair from a female, the proximal part
was 15.0 ppm while the distal ends were 64.0 ppm. In 17 females and 40
males, the Cu levels increased from the root to the tip with greater
variation at the distal end.
Lead -- As hair grows from the scalp, the concentration of lead is
relatively constant, if exposure is continuous. When exposure is episodic,
division of hair into sections permits detection of episodes of previous lead
exposure. Kopito et al. (1969) found good correlation between hair lead
concentration and increased body stores in lead-exposed children. However,
Barry (1972) found poor correlation between hair lead levels and blood lead
content. This finding could be due to the sampling distance from the scalp in
relation to time of exposure or to external contamination. Studies have
shown that the concentration of lead in the hair is an indication of the
total amount of metal ingested, so that long after blood and urine
concentrations have returned to normal, the evidence of even a brief exposure
is stored in the hair (Kopito et al., 1967).
Much higher lead levels in the proximal segment were taken as evidence of
abnormal lead intake during a period of several weeks prior to sampling.
Suzuki et al. (1958) found that, with increased Pb absorption, Pb content
increased, and elongation and strength of hair decreased.
Mercury -- The concentration variation along the length of hair can be
used to reveal the history of Hg poisoning. The pattern of concentration
variation along hair was shown to be a more reliable criterion for hair
individualization identification than average concentration values
35
-------
, - 4. - A fli HarMarl 1972) Hair growth rate is not constant over
(Al-Shahristani a"^^"^nJentratlois do not appear at exactly the same
SMSSZ «£-war- - -
^^^J^^S&Sxit?"
$$ (Gin-the° in " *"S 'f^.li.jSl.U I™. -J. had eaten the
bLfSiSr ti^r0rsr,^f,2;?i?L;r j. s-^
»^ws^:i©^^^^^^
for
:-.!Kss
133 persons (Kazantizis et al . , 1976a).
180
120
BO
40
10 15 20 25
HAIR (CM. FROM GROWING END)
30
35
Figure 1. Mercury concentration distribution along hair shafts in high
exposure individuals.
Dating of mercury exposure 18 months earlier was done by Mart z and Larsen
(1973) in girls with hair over 30 cm in length. Benson and Gabica (\VI£)
state that in measuring Hg in hair, the terminal end of hair 45 cm in length
would represent the Hg body burden experienced 12-18 months previously.
Analysis of segments of long hair enabled determination of the peak period or
Hg intake (Irukayama, 1966). In persons who had inhaled Hg vapors, the hair
near the scalp was 20.4 ppm and decreased 7 months later to 4.6 ppm (Ota,
1966).
36
-------
Nickel -- Nickel levels were dated back to nearly one half of a year.
The half life of Ni in the body was approximately calculated from hair
analyses and was in the same order of magnitude found in the turnover of Ni
in serum. The relative concentration of Ni in hair of 3 persons (Table 13)
dropped from about 48-28 ppm to about 4.0 ppm in 50 days and to about 0.4 ppm
in 160 days (Hagedorn-Gbtz et al., 1977).
CLEANING AND SAMPLE PREPARATION
Chemical analysis of toxic trace element levels of biological samples
always requires consideration of the possibility of any contamination from
external or other sources. Hair surface can be contaminated from hair dyes,
shampoos, soaps, cosmetics, free oils, hair sprays, and lacquers, as well as
dirt and dust from hands and from the atmosphere.
The cleaning procedures that have been developed by various investigators
are diverse and no standardized method has been used. A critical review of
the effectiveness of the various methods is outside the scope of this report.
However, the importance of cleaning of external contamination of hair and
nail samples is of importance for validity of results and for interpreting
data, so that a brief discussion is presented on different methods and
problems.
Most investigators wash hair samples with detergents, solvents, and/or
other substances. In cases where scalp hair is suspected of being externally
contaminated, especially in women's hair or occupationally exposed men,
axillary or pubic (or chest or facial beard) samples can be compared with
scalp hair (Table 10). Some investigators have recommended collection of
scalp hair at the base of the neck, since the nape area may be less exposed
to external chemicals. It has been recommended that hair samples be
collected near the scalp with samples about 1.5 to 3.0 cm in length.
There has not been a standardized washing procedure for cleaning the
external surface of hair (Wilson et al., 1974). Various procedures and
combinations have been used, including organic solvents (Bate, 1965),
anhydrous alcohol, ethyl ether, acetone, and carbon tetrachloride and boiling
water, soaps and detergents (ionic or non-ionic), EDTA ethylenediamine
tetraacetate (chelating agent), and dilute nitric acid. Only a few studies
compare the effectiveness of the various agents to remove exogenous surface
contamination without affecting the endogenous toxic metals. Wilson et al.
(1974) found that some types of shampoo contain mercury additives that can
apparently penetrate the lipid barrier of the hair to bind endogenously,
directly with the sulfhydryl, thiol, or amino groups of the hair proteins.
This has also been found for cadmium. This study shows that hair from any
person with high levels of toxic metal who has not been exposed to a known
source should always be held in suspicion, and pubic or axillary hair should
be checked, and a sample taken from the nape of the neck (Sorenson and
Petering, 1974). Also, long hair can be segmented and a determination can
37
-------
TABLE 13. RECORD OF Ni CONCENTRATION IN HAIR OF THREE SUBJECTS
AS A FUNCTION OF DAYS AFTER EXPOSURE
Subject
Days
0
14
27
40
53
66
79
92
105
118
131
144
156
169
1
Ppm
48.1
7.4
10.5
1.6
4.0
1.4
<0.4
<0.4
0.8
2.7
0.8
0.8
<0.4
<0.4
Days
0
10
19
28
38
47
58
67
76
85
94
104
113
123
131
142
150
160
169
Subject 2
Ppm
39.9
11.5
5.0
4.9
3.3
4.0
2.6
3.7
2.8
2.5
2.4
2.0
2.0
2.0
3.1
4.2
4.2
<0.4
<0.4
Days
0
13
24
36
49
62
72
85
99
108
117
133
145
160
Subject 3
Ppm
28.0
7.5
4.9
5.0
7.0
3.3
5.0
9.2
3.9
4.1
2.6
<0.4
<0.4
0.9
Hair cut in 5mm lengths, in ppm (after Hagedorn-Gotz et al., 1977)
38
-------
be made as to whether the metal content is continuous or discontinuous during
the growth history of the hair. Sorenson and Petering (1974) recommend
removing external contamination by using an acetone wash followed by an
anionic detergent wash, such as sodium lauryl sulfate. Hammer et al. (1971)
used multiple washing with detergent, distilled water, ethanol, and boiling
EDTA solution. Lead was removed by the detergent (probably external
contamination), none by ethanol, and some was removed by the EDTA solution.
The effect of washing hair on trace element concentration before and after
cutting is shown in Table 14.
A recommended standardized procedure for collecting and treating hair
samples has been proposed by the International Atomic Energy Agency and the
World Health Organization (IAEA/WHO 1975). The recommended standardized
procedures for hair are:
Hair sample should be taken from the occipital region of the
head as close to the scalp as possible. A bundle of hair the
size of a matchstick should be cut with special plastic
scissors.
The hair should be cleaned with Soxhlet extraction using
diethyl ether for two hours. This removes the oxidized
natural greases from the outside of the hair but has little
effect on the major or minor elements in the hair itself.
It is preferable that hair samples be stored under deep freeze
conditions, but this is not required.
A recommended standardized procedure for collecting and treating toenails
has also been proposed by the IAEA/WHO (1975). The recommended standardized
procedures for toenails are:
Population groups normally walking barefooted may pose an
insuperable problem in relation to dirt accumulation on the
toenails and should, therefore, be excluded from the study.
At least 20 mg of toenail clippings should be collected using
stainless steel scissors or nail clippers (any Cr or other
contamination from stainless steel should be removed by
washing). Scrape all visible dirt with scissors before
cutting. Clippings from two big toes usually give a large
enough sample, if each clipping is the full width of the
toenail. If needed, include clippings from other toes.
A washing solution of 90 parts absolute ethyl alcohol and 10
parts 30% \\2$2. (in water) should be used. The nail samples
should be placed in a 150 ml Ehrlenmeyer flask and washed 3
times with 30 ml volumes (each time) of the washing solution.
39
-------
TABLE 14. EFFECT OF WASHING HAIR ON TRACE ELEMENT CONCENTRATION (ppm)
Sb
As
Cd
Co
Pb
Hg
Ni
Se
V
Before Cutting (geom.
Washed
20 or >x/mo.
0.21
1.20
0.19
3.10
2.10
0.76
0.036
mean)a
Washed
2 or
-------
scraping and washing in 0.1N HC1 (Kopito et al., 1965), washing in distilled
water and acetone (Petrushkov et al., 1969), and other methods with alcohol
and acetone, in Teepol, in ether, 7X-0-matic, detergent and ethyl alcohol.
It appears that scraping excess dirt from nails and use of a detergent is
effective in removing any external metal contamination.
While there has been much debate in the literature on interpretation of
data in relation to external contamination of hair and nails, the consensus
of opinion is that these samples, when carefully collected and properly
cleaned, provide valid and reliable analysis.
Sample preparation requires international agreement and standardization
of collecting and washing procedures and detergents, organic solvents, and
chelating agents. The international use of the standardized procedures
proposed by IAEA/WHO will contribute greatly to obtaining valid results.
CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
Chemical analytical methodology of toxic trace metals is a broad, highly
complex, and sophisticated field, which is changing as new and improved
methods are developed. Hhile the importance of evaluation of analytical
methods is recognized in interpreting the validity of the data (especially
older determinations), this is not within the scope of the present report and
is left to analytical methodology experts.
Analytical methodology for toxic trace elements has been critically
reviewed, both for the general field, and in detail for specific trace
elements. In a general critical review for various trace metals, Lisk (1974)
listed various analytical methods, including atomic absorption, anodic
stripping, voltimetry, colorimetry, emission spectrometry, fluorescence
analysis, gas-liquid chromatography, neutron activation analysis, and
polarography.
Each metallic element requires a specific evaluation with regard to
sensitivity, accuracy, precision, ranges of measurements, cost, convenience,
and time with each analytical method. For example, analysis of cadmium has
been evaluated by Fleischer et al . (1974) and in an unpublished review by Oak
Ridge National Laboratory.
Accurate and optimal methods of chemical analysis should be agreed upon
for each trace element and standardized analytical samples should be used.
The results should be reported in standardized units, such as ppm or yg/g
41
-------
(preferably oven dry weights) and accuracy of analysis should be reported.
The number of samples, range, average, arithmetic and geometric means,
median, standard deviation, or standard error, and other statistical data and
tests of significance should be reported as appropriate.
The International Atomic Energy Agency started a research project in
1975 on "Nuclear-based methods for analysis of pollutants in human hair."
The nuclear-based analytical methods include: 1) Photon activation analysis,
2) Charged particle activation analysis, 3) Fast neutron activation analysis,
4) Proton-induced X-ray emission, and 5) Reactor neutron activation analysis.
In addition to these accelerator-based analytical methods, other
nuclear-based methods being used include: 6) 252r,f activation analysis, 7)
X-ray fluorescence analysis, 8) Emission spectrographic analysis, and 9)
Atomic absorption spectrometry. The IAEA is coordinating the results of
studies using these methods (IAEA, 1977).
42
-------
ADVANTAGES ANO DISADVANTAGES OF USING HAIR
There are advantages and disadvantages of using hair as a tissue for
biological monitoring:
A. Advantages
1. Certain toxic metals accumulate or bioconcentrate in hair.
2. Some metals are retained and provide a linear historic record, over
time, of the time and period of exposure (do not decrease as rapidly
as in blood and urine after cessation of exposure). Hair and nails
are stable and samples several hundred years old have been analyzed.
3. Samples are easily obtained by clipping hair from subjects, from
barber shops, and using historic hair samples and other sources,
with minimum legal problems.
4. Hair requires only plastic sacks or simple containers for storage.
5. Hair does not require dry ice or refrigeration for storage and
transport.
6. Hair is easily transported and has little weight or volume.
7. Standardized methods can be made available for collecting hair
samples.
8. Standardized methods can be made available for washing and
preparation of samples.
9. Standardized methods are available for analysis and use of
standards.
10. Storage of aliquots is simple for reanalysis and study of historic
trends (no decomposition or changes reported).
11. For certain metals there is excellent correlation with environmental
exposure gradients, e.g., distance from smelters, mines, and other
sources.
43
-------
12. For certain metals, as Se or As, there is good correlation with
natural geographic occurrence.
13. For certain metals correlation with excess ord deficiency disease
states is good.
14. For certain metals correlation with occupational exposure is
excellent.
B. Disadvantages
1. External contamination of hair can be a source of error. This can
come from hair dyes, shampoos, soaps, cosmetics, free oils, hair
sprays, and lacquers, as well as dust and dirt from hands and the
atmosphere.
2. In cases where external contamination of scalp hair is suspected, it
may be necessary to compare scalp hair with axillary, pubic, chest,
or face hair. Hair at the base of the scalp in the rear of the head
(nape) has been recommended as the area probably least contaminated
by external sources.
3. Washing procedures before analysis may affect the results for some
metals depending on the procedure used. Detergents, organic
solvents, and especially chelating agents remove various amounts of
exogenous surface contamination. Standardized sample preparation
procedures must be used.
4. The level of metals varies with distance from the scalp, depending
on the exposure history. The distance of hair from the scalp must
be measured and reported.
5. Levels of some trace elements in hair vary in relation to sex of the
subjects.
6. Levels of some trace elements in hair vary with age of the
subjects. Many investigators have found children of school age to
be the best age group for sampling.
7. Levels of some trace elements in hair vary with type and location of
hair on the body.
8. Levels of some trace elements in hair vary with hair color, but
this is not as important as distance from scalp, type, and location
of hair, age, and sex. All of these factors must be taken into
account in sampling and design of experiments.
44
-------
INTERNATIONAL MONITORING OF TRACE
ELEMENTS IN HUMAN HAIR AND NAILS
A report on the Global Environmental Monitoring System (GEMS) written by
a SCOPE committee recommended that the United Nations Environment Program
utilize human hair as one of the important materials for biological
monitoring. Hair was proposed in a world-wide monitoring network to indicate
levels of trace metals in human beings.
The International Atomic Energy Agency became concerned with applications
of nuclear methods for the analysis of trace pollutants in 1975. The first
two research projects were "Neutron activation analysis of pollutants in
human hair using research reactors", and "Accelerator-based techniques for
the analysis of pollutants in human hair." These two projects are now being
implemented as a research coordination program "Nuclear-based methods for
analysis of pollutants in human hair." This is aimed at establishing
patterns for contents of trace pollutants in human hair for the normal
population in different geographic and economic regions and revealing groups
or individuals with increased levels of the pollutants. This program has
shown that the chemical composition of human hair reflects the exposure to
many trace element pollutants. About 40 scientists from over 20 countries
are participating in the program.
The IAEA and the World Health Organization have a joint research program
on trace elements in cardiovascular diseases using hair and toenails. The
recommendations from this program for collection and treatment of hair and
nail samples was presented above in the section on Cleaning and Sample
Preparation. Masironi et al. (1976) published a report in this program
relating trace element concentrations in toenails with blood pressure in New
Guinea villagers.
An International Workshop on Biological Specimen Collection was held in
Luxembourg, 18-22 April 1977, sponsored by WHO, Commission of the European
Communities and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. The use and value
of hair as a biological monitoring material was discussed (Clarkson, 1977;
Jenkins, 1977).
A coordinated world-wide biological monitoring program and network, using
human hair and nails, by the GEMS program of UNEP with assistance and
coordination from IAEA and WHO would be of great value in determining levels
and trends of toxic trace metals in human beings.
45
-------
APPENDIX A
COMPILATION OF REFERENCE DATA
ON HAIR AND NAILS IN HUMAN BEINGS
This review of available world literature is intended to be
comprehensive, but not complete or exhaustive in coverage. This field is
expanding very rapidly and data are being published throughout the world
literature, including a wide variety of scientific journals in disciplines in
medicine, physiology, biology, and ecology, environment, chemical analysis,
and forensic medicine. Data are also published in popular magazines, the
press, proceedings of various meetings, critical reviews, contract and annual
reports, and private and governmental reports. About 400 reports have been
used. Many articles containing data primarily on hair sample preparation and
chemical analytical methodology have not been cited.
All available critical data have been concisely presented in tabular
form. Many reports do not cite the age, sex, number of subjects, and other
critical data. All data have been cited as ppm, (or pCi/g) for data on
radionuclides. The data on ranges are put in parentheses followed by the
average and the standard error (SE) or standard deviation (SD), if these are
available. Some references (particularly foreign) were available only from
abstracts or reviews and the presentation of these data may not be complete.
This is the first known comprehensive review for toxic trace elements in
human hair and nails.
46
-------
TABLE A-l. ANTIMONY IN HUMAN HAIR
Locality
No. & types of persons
& special conditions
Analysis - PPM Authority
United States
Tennessee 33 adults and children
United States
United States 32 young males in Navy
" " 32 young males 5 mos.
later
" " 32 young males 17 mos.
later
Bate & Dyer (1965)
Schroeder & Nason
(1971)
Gordus et al.(1974)
Canada
108 young males in Navy
70 young males 5 mos.
later
56 young males 17 mos.
later
14 females 1800-1900
43 females 1900-1930
24 young males in Navy
41 females age 18-22
U. Mich, students
27 females age 12-40 yrs.
1910-1935
11 females age 12-40 yrs,
1890-1910
10 females age 12-40 yrs.
before 1890
12 residents in Yellow-
Yellowknife, knife, 1.5-23 yrs.
NWT
(0.5-4.0)1.5
6.5
(means)
0.107
0.254
0.166
(medians)
0.073
0.19
0.2
0.5
0.63
(0.03-1.5) Gordus (1973)
(geom. means) Gordus et al.(1975)
0.084
0.507
0.779
0.476
(0.2-0.97)0.54 O'Toole et al.(1971)
47
(Continued)
-------
TABLE A-l. ANTIMONY IN HUMAN HAIR (Continued)
No. & types of persons
Locality & special conditions
Analysis - PPM Authority
Canada
Toronto
Canada
Venezuela
Poland
Iraq
Morocco
76 rural residents of
central Canada
45 urban residents
(0.0-10.0)
(1.3-24.0)7.9
med.
(1.5-33.0)9.7
med.
Perkons & Jervis
(1965)
Chattopadhyay &
Jervis (1974)
121 urban near refineries (1.8-47.0)14.6
med.
Environmental location influences the Sb content
of hair significantly
11 Amazonian Indians
(<0.4-3.1)1.25 Perkons (1977)
1.7 med.
Cone, of Sb was similar from
1-66 cm. in 3 cm. sectional
analyses of hair
175 rural and urban
residents
115 workers in antimony
mines
Dybczynski &
Boboli (1976)
(<0.1-8.0)1.9 Al-Shahristani
(1976)
"more than
1 g/kg of
Sb was found
in hair samples"
= 1,000.0 ppm'.
Rodier & Souchere
(1957)
Japan
New Zealand
Hasting
43 rural residents
(0.009-4.3)
0.2±S.D. 0.66,
0.065 med., Ohmori et al.
0.077 geom. mean (1975)
33 elementary school boys (0.1-1.4)0.69 Bate & Dyer
(1965)
Napier 33 elementary school boys (0.0-4.4)0.36
48
-------
TABLE A-2. ARSENIC IN HUMAN HAIR
Locality
No. & types of persons
& special conditions
Analysis - PPM Authority
United States
United States
2.0
Hair samples used to
monitor As
7 persons analyzed:
Age
Hair color Sex
80 yrs.
66 yrs.
58 yrs.
35 yrs.
35 yrs.
20 yrs.
3 yrs.
black
red
grey
brown
bleached
black
brown
blonde
male
male
male
f emal e
f emal e
f emal e
f emal e
1.1
0.72
0.83
0.21
0.28
0.49
0.12
United States "Normal hair"
United States Maximum level of "normal"
hair
United States As is probably arsenite,
bound in keratin
0.036-0.88
1.0
Schroeder &
Nason (1971)
Strain & Pories
(1972)
Schroeder &
Balassa (1966)
Vallee et al.
(1960)
Rothman (1954)
Schroeder &
Balassa (1966)
United States
Montana
E. Helena
Helena
Bozeman
United States
Washington
Tacoma
4th grade school boys:
16 boys, area heavily
polluted from smelters
13 boys, some pollution
from smelters
Hammer et al.
(1972b)
(<1.0-39.0)5.2±S.D.
6.0, Median 4.0
(<1.0-1.0)0.84±S.D.
0.33, Median 0.7
28 boys, little pollution (<1.0-1.0)0.44±S.D.
0.27, Median 0.4
13 children, 3-4 grade Milham & Strong
300 yds. from Cu smelter (20.0-100.0)60.0 (1974)
49
(Continued)
-------
TABLE A-2. ARSENIC IN HUMAN HAIR (Continued)
No. & types of persons
Locality & special conditions
Analysis - PPM Authority
United States
Washington
Tacoma
United States
Chicago
United States
United States
United States
7 children, 3-4 grade
8 mi. from Cu smelter (0-5) 3.0
Hair of children nearer
to the smelter were much
higher (20X). This
correlated with levels
in urine
Determined "normal" levels of
As in hair
Determined "normal" levels of
As in hair of non-exposed
persons
Determined "normal" levels of
As in hair
33 young males in Navy 0.19
Mil ham &'Strong
(1974)
33 young males 5 mos.
later
33 young males 17 mos.
later
0.13
0.13
131 young males in Navy 0.13 median
70 young males 5 mos. later 0.17 median
55 young males 17 mos. later 0.12 median
14 females 1800-1899 5.2 median
43 females 1900-1930 0.8 median
Camp & Gant
(1949)
BoyTen & Hardy
(1967)
Shapiro (1967)
Gordus et al.
(1974)
(Continued)
50
-------
TABLE A-2. ARSENIC IN HUMAN HAIR (Continued)
Locality
United States
Michigan
ii n
H n
United States
n n
n n
Canada
M
No. & types of persons
& special conditions
12 males age 18-22
washed hair 2X/mo.
12 males, age 18-22
washed hair 20X/mo.
41 females, age 18-22,
students
27 females, age 12-40,
1910-1935
11 females, age 12-40
1890-1910
10 females, age 12-40,
before 1890
Various occupations, male
femal e
Analysis - PPM Authority
Gordus et al .
0.21 (1975)
0.35
0.04
1.2
1.5
2.5
1.5-120.0 Herman (1954)
0.1-0.4
Canada
Yellowknife
Canada
Canada
Canada
12 residents for 1.5-
23 years
45 urban residents of
Toronto
(1.04-25.3)13.5
1.0-2.5
(0.4-2.1)0.75
med.
O'Toole et al.
(1971)
Perkons & Jervis
(1965)
Chat to pad hy ay
& Jervis (1974)
121 urban near refineries (0.63-4.9) 1.9
med.
76 rural residents of
central Canada (0.45-1.7)0.68
med.
(Continued)
51
-------
TABLE A-2. ARSENIC IN HUMAN HAIR (Continued)
No. & types of persons
Locality & special conditions
Analysis - PPM Authority
Mexico
Peubla
Venezuela
Chile
Antofagasta
22 children, age 7-14 yrs.
living near 43 wells with
>0.01 ppm As in water and
9>0.05 ppm
As poisoned sick children,
5 male, 3 female
14 children, apparently well:
7 males
5 females
2 females
Normal limits As 0.5-2.1 ppm
in hair
11 Amazonian indians
Gonzales et al
(1972)
(<0.2-1.15)0.5
0.65 med.
130,000 inhabitants drank
water with 0.8 ppm As for
12 yrs. Hair of 83% of over
1800 samples had abnormally
high As; 30% of population
had cutaneous lesions
of 204 persons, 168 or
82.6%
of 204 persons, 36 or
17.4%
Mean
5 persons, July '68
3 persons, Nov. '68
Water treatment started
May 1970
52
Perkons (1977)
Borgono
& Greiber
(1972)
9.2
(0.56-1.4)1.05
(0.47-1.58)0.95
(Continued)
-------
TABLE A-2. ARSENIC IN HUMAN HAIR (Continued)
Locality
No. & types of persons
& special conditions
Analysis - PPM Authority
Chile
Antofagasta 3 persons, July '69
6 persons, Jan. '71
103 persons (1969)
10 normal skin
Iquique
Chile
Toconee
Siloli
Antofagasta
Argentina
Argentina
Great Britain
93 abnormal skin
pigmentation
(No arsenic in water,
control, 1969)
26 persons, normal skin
0 persons, abnormal
pigmentation
Water 0.6-0.8 ppm As
Trace As in water
35 mummies
As affects sulfhydryl
groups & goes in hair
& nails
"Normal" values given
for hair
Chemical workers making
sodium-arsenite (at three
levels of exposure
Unexposed controls
(0.0-0.22)0.14
(0.0-0.08)0.03
4.2
3.2
6.1
0.08
(0.0-83.4)10.2
(0.0-15.5)4.0
0.8-38.3
108.0
85.0
64.0
13.0
Borgono &
Greiber
(1972)
Astolfi (1971)
Guatel1i
(1961)
Hill & Faning
(1948)
(Continued)
53
-------
TABLE A-2. ARSENIC IN HUMAN HAIR (Continued)
No. & types of persons
& special conditions Analysis - PPM Authority
Locality
Ireland
Scotland
Glasgow
Scotland
Glasgow
Scotland
Rural area near zinc
copper mine:
21 children age 5-12 yrs.
Composite of 3 samples
Rural children, unexposed
Children near mine had
17.5 X As than unexposed
rural children
82 persons
(0.3-6.1)2.1
S.D.±1.34
2.25
(0.08-0.18)0.12
(0.038-0.53)0.13
geom. mean
Female laboratory technicians
using detergent shampoo with 42.0
74 ppm As
"Normal" 2.0
Suspect poisoning >3.0
Chronic poisoning 12.0
Industrial occupational
exposure (dust in air) >300.00
1,250 samples
Over 1,000 subjects
Arsenic content of male
hair significantly higher
than female
(0.02-8.17)0.65
±S.D. 0.698
median 0.46
80% less than
1.0
Corridan
(1974)
Dale et al.
(1975)
Lenihan et al.
(1958)
Poison &
Tattersall
(1969)
Smith (1964)
Smith (1970)
Leniham &
Smith
(1959)
54
(Continued)
-------
TABLE A-2. ARSENIC IN HUMAN HAIR (Continued)
Locality
No. & types of persons
& special conditions
Analysis - PPM Authority
Scotland
Switzerland
France
France
Male sheep dip worker
with As poisoning:
Wks. after
admission in
hospital
beard hair
0
1
3
4
3.
1.
0.
0.
9.
12
79
84
94
7
A 22-mo. girl ate
As-contaning chalk.
After 2 mo. treatment
with BAL higher than
normal levels of As
were found in hair
Napoleon's hair - 2 samples
tested
Napoleon's hair -
intermittent accumulation
in sections
Czechoslovakia "Controls" - 10 yr. old
normal boys
" 10-yr. -old boys in As
containing area around a
thermal power plant
emitting 1 ton As/day
10.3
3.27-3.75
3.5 x controls
Czechoslovakia Hair levels showed correlation
with environmental gradient of
As from source
Leniham & Smith
(1959)
Billeter et al
(1923)
Dequidt et al.
(1972)
Smith et al.
(1962)
Forshufvud
et al.
(1961)
Bencko (1966)
Bencko et al.
(1971)
(Continued)
55
-------
TABLE A-2. ARSENIC IN HUMAN HAIR (Continued)
No. & types of persons
Locality & special conditions Analysis - PPM Authority
Germany
Iraq
Sri Lanka
Taiwan
Japan
New Zealand
Hastings
Napier
Hair may have had some (4.0-1,585.0)411.0
external contamination
of As
175 rural and urban
residents
(<0.08-1.4)0.4
Residents of Sri Lanka (0.01-0.35)0.15±
S.D. 0.34
83 cases carcinomas of nose
(also high Ni)
Patients showed 87% higher
As in hair than "normal"
8 As patients drank As
contaminated powdered milk (10.0-60.0)
"Normal" As in hair
(1.5-2.0)
7 - 2nd grade boys near (0.05-12.0)1.87
smelter geom. mean
Exposed were 6 x control (0.07-0.5)0.3
geom. mean
41 rural residents
33 school boys
33 school boys
(0.01-0.58)0.13
±S.D. 0.12
0.095 med.,
0.083 geom. mean
(0.4-7.9)2.4
(0.7-5.3)1.8
Schwarz (1932)
Al-Shahristani
(1976)
Dale et al.
(1975)
Fresh et al.
(1967)
Okamura et al.
(1956)
Suzuki et al.
(1974)
Ohmori et al.
(1975)
Bate & Dyer
(1965)
(Continued)
56
-------
TABLE A-2. ARSENIC IN HUMAN HAIR (Continued)
Locality
No. & types of persons
& special conditions
Analysis - PPM Authority
Country
Unspecified
Country
Unspecified
1,000 subjects
1,000 subjects
(0.03-74.0)0.81 Smith (1964)
Median 0.51,
95% <2.0
99% <4.5
As level over 3.0 is
probably arsenic poisoning
"Normal" values of As in (0.25-1.0)
hair
Six patients with As
poisoning
As appears in sweat soon
after ingest ion and sweat
carries dissolved As along
hair shafts and it binds
with S in the hair
Hair of workers in arsenic
ore mines (without
simultaneous increase in
urine)
(17.6-85.0)48.8
(0.5-2.1)1.1
Kyle (1970)
Smales & Pate
(1952)
Lander et al .
(1965)
Van den Berg
(1969)
to 1,000.0
No.
4th
As grade Geom. Arith.
Type of Locality exposure boys Mean Median Mean S.D.
Copper smelting highest 31 9.1 9.1 10.6 7.0 Hammer et al
(1971)
Lead & Zn
smelting
high 16 3.0 4.0 5.2 6.0
(Continued)
57
-------
TABLE A-2. ARSENIC IN HUMAN HAIR (Continued)
No.
4th
As grade Geom. Arith.
Type of Locality exposure boys Mean Median Mean S.D.
Lead & Zn mining inter-
& smelting mediate 32
Govt. &
commercial
Education &
farm trading
inter-
mediate
low
13
28
1.2 1.1
0.7 0.7
0.3 0.4
120 hair As levels
reflected environ-
mental exposure
gradient in 1969
76 hair As levels in
1970 reflected environ-
mental exposure gradi-
ent with a correlation
r of 0.74 with a P value
of <0.001
1.7 1.48
0.8 0.33
0.4 0.26
Hammer et al
(1971)
58
-------
TABLE A-3. ARSENIC IN HUMAN NAILS
No. & types of persons
Locality & special conditions Analysis - PPM Authority
United States
Mexico
Scotland
1.5-4.0 Vallee et al. (1960)
0.087-0.63
Found As in fingernails
43 wells had over 0.01 ppm
As in water, and 9 over 0.05 ppm
22 children age 7-14 yrs. lived
near contaminated wells
8 As poisoned sick children:
4 male
3 female
1 male
14 apparently wel 1:
2 female
5 male
7 female
Normal limits of As
in nails
124 samples
Country Fingernails
Unspecified
Toenails
>3.5
>3.5
<3.5
>3.5
<3.5
<3.5
0.82-3.5
Cooper & Langford
(1972)
Gonzales et al.
(1972)
D (0.02-2.9)0.362 Smith (1970)
±S.D. 0.313
median 0.3
0.82-3.5
0.52-5.6
Smales & Pate
(1952)
(Continued)
59
-------
TABLE A-3. ARSENIC IN HUMAN NAILS (Continued)
Locality
Country
Unspecified
Taiwan
France
Country
Unspecified
No. & types of persons
& special conditions Analysis - PPM
Presence of white striae
in fingernails is usually
diagnostic of arsenical
polyneuritis
Broad white band observed
in heavy poisonings
87% of cancer patients
showed higher As in finger-
nails than normal (also
high Ni)
22 mo. girl ate As in chalk
and had high As level
in nails
Authority
Mees (1919)
Six patients with As
poisoning
Cumulative arsenic poisoning
resulting in death has been
established by analysis of
nail sections progressively
nearer to the matrix
(0.0-420.0)
102.8
17.2
Fresh et al. (1967)
Dequidt et al.
(1972)
Kyle (1970)
Shapiro (1967)
Billeter et al
(1923)
60
-------
TABLE A-4. BORON IN HUMAN HAIR
Locality
No. & types of persons
& special conditions
Analysis - PPM Authority
United States Age 15-70, hair colors
dark brown, black, or
gray
New York
United States
Boron in scalp hair did
not display significant
association with environ
mental gradients
0.02-0.08
7.0
Goldblumet al .
(1953)
Creason et al .
(1975)
Schroeder & Nason
(1971)
61
-------
TABLE A-5. CADMIUM IN HUMAN HAIR
No. & types of persons
Locality & special conditions
Analysis - PPM Authority
United States 165 hair Cd levels
reflected environ-
mental exposure
gradient in 1969
114 hair Cd levels
in 1970 reflected
environmental exposure
gradient with a cor-
relation r of 0.28
with a P value of <.001
" " Hair Cd levels are not
correlated with toxicity
United States 40 persons, atomic absorp-
tion spectrophotometry
using method of additions
" " 40 persons, atomic absorp-
tion spectrophotometry
using method of inter-
polation
" " Cd hair levels are not
related to toxicity
" " Cd varied along length
of hair indicating
past Cd exposure
United States 12, various areas, age
12-60 yrs.
86% Cd was extracted
from hair by HN03
Hair samples of Cd taken
a year apart correlated
well in the same individuals
2.86±0.35
2.6±0.02
0-9cm,0,l-0.2
9-14 cm,0.2-0.43
(0.6-6.9)
2.33
Hammer et al
(1971)
Hammer et al
(1972a)
Sorenson et al.
(1973b)
Fairhall (1957)
Parker et al.
(1973)
Hinners et al.
(1974)
Hammer et al.
1972a)
(Continued)
62
-------
TABLE A-5. CADMIUM IN HUMAN HAIR (Continued)
Locality
No. & types of persons
& special conditions
Analysis - PPM Authority
New Hampshire
Hanover 82 males
47 females
" 24 females, age 1-30 yrs
22 females, age 40-70 yrs.
12 males, 70-102
" 50 males, natural color
" 38 females, natural color
" 40 males, grey & white
" 15 females, grey & white
" 5 females, natural color,
age 40-70
" 15 females, grey & white,
age 40-70
7 males, blonde
" 25 males, brown
" 8 males, black
" 7 males, red
" 8 females, red
New Hampshire In males there was less
Cd in black than in other
colors. Female grey hair
had less Cd than in male
grey hair
2.76±0.483
1.77±0.239
2.59±0.379
0.92±0.153
1.56±0.417
2.74±0.255
2.6±0.289
2.21±0.439
0.78±0.138
1.46±0.444
0.78±0.138
2.83±0.529
2.7U0.431
0.78±0.193
3.93±0.746
3.08±0.53
Schroeder & Nason
(1969)
Schroeder & Nason
(1969)
(Continued)
63
-------
TABLE A-5. CADMIUM IN HUMAN HAIR (Continued)
Locality
New York
New York
New York
Riverside
Queens
Bronx
Michigan
No. & types of persons
& special conditions
Analysis - PPM Authority
Environmental exposure
gradients of Cd displayed
no significant association
of adult and child hair Cd
levels. Scalp hair Cd levels
for males and females were
not significantly different
Human hair levels were
highest in adults living
closest to Cd usage areas
(golf course). High Cd
levels of hair were corre-
lated only with elevated
diastolic blood pressure:
23 persons age up to 12 yrs.
ave. 9.7 yrs.
16 persons age 13-21 yrs.
ave. 15.3 yrs.
7 persons age 22-35 yrs.
ave. 30.0 yrs.
86 persons
age over 36 yrs,
ave. 50.9 yrs.
43 persons
31 persons
28 persons
12 males, age 18-22 yrs.
washed hair 2 x/mo.
12 males, age 18-22 yrs.
washed hair 20 x/mo.
1.7±S.D.1.6
1.7±S.D.2.5
4.5±S.D.8.8
3.8±S.D.7.5
0.915
1.264
0.599
1.2
1.4
Creason et al
(1975)
Keil et al.
(1975)
Pinkerton et al
(1973)
Gordus et al
(1975)
(Continued)
64-
-------
TABLE A-5. CADMIUM IN HUMAN HAIR (Continued)
Locality
Ohio
Ohio
Texas
Port Arthur
No. & types of persons
& special conditions
Analysis - PPM Authority
Determined Cd levels
in hair in relation
to age and sex:
95 white males, age 2-88 yrs. 2.2±0.2
" 2 yrs. 1.4
' 7 yrs. 2.0
' 20 yrs. 2.5
white males, age 30 yrs. 1.8
" 80 yrs. 1.8
83 white females, age
14-84 yrs.
2.43±0.26
1.2
1.5
2.5
2.1
1.6
14 yrs.
30 yrs.
40 yrs.
50 yrs.
80 yrs.
Petrochemical Industry:
26 males, age 9-60 yrs. (0.1-9.3)2.2
21 females, age 13-72 yrs. (0.2-3.6)1.0
Cd was fairly uniformly
distributed in both male
and female
Peteri ng et al
(1975)
Petering et al
(1973)
Eads & Lambdin
(1973)
(Continued)
65
-------
TABLE A-5. CADMIUM IN HUMAN HAIR (Continued)
No. & types of persons
Locality & special conditions Analysis - PPM Authority
Montana
E. Helena
Hammer et al.
(19725)
4th grade school boys:
25 boys, heavily pol- (<1.0-6.0)2.0±S.D. 1.54
Helena
Bozeman
luted from smelter
complex
21 boys, some pol-
1ution from smelter
37 boys, little
pollution
Median 1.6
(<1.0-6.0)1.3±S.D. 1.3
Median 0.9
(<1.0-3.0)0.9±S.D. 0.58
Median 0.8
The differences between the Cd
content of the hair follows an
environmental gradient
Central Canada 76 rural residents (0.25-2.7)1.2 med.
45 urban, Toronto
121 urban near
refineries
Sweden
Finland
Japan
(0.32-3.4)2.0 med.
(0.45-8.2)4.1 med.
occurred
in human hair & the amount
was related to hair acidity
Cd workers had Cd in hair
after detergent washing >1000.0
Autopsy of 6 Finnish hair 1.36% of
samples showed 33% pos- dry weight
Hive (over 0.002% of ash) of ash
36 females sampled from
epidemic Cd district. 25
males sampled from epidemic
itai-itai disease area, and
6 females sampled from safe
districts.
Chattopadhyay &
Jervis (1974)
Nishiyama &
Nordberg (1972)
Forssen (1972)
Ishizaki et al.
(1969)
(Continued)
66
-------
TABLE A-5. CADMIUM IN HUMAN HAIR (Continued)
Locality
Japan
No. & types of persons
& special conditions
Analysis - PPM Authority
The hair of young females had
highest Cd in non-epidemic
districts. There was no
remarkable difference
between epidemic and
non-epidemic districts.
Cd in hair was not very
effective for clinical
diagnosis.
Ishizaki et al
(1969)
Country "Normal" range
Unspecified
United States
0.2-2.0
Friberg et al.
(1971)
Cd
No.
4th
grade Geom.
Arith.
Type of Locality exposure boys Mean Median Mean S.D.
2.1 2.1 3.5 4.94 Hammer et al.
(1971)
1.5 1.6 2.0 1.54
1.0 1.0 1.3 0.99
1.0 0.9 1.3 1.30
0.7 0.8 0.9 0.58
Lead & zinc
mining &
smelting
Lead & zinc
smelting
Copper
smelting
Govt. &
commercial
Education &
farm trading
high
high
low
low
low
45
25
37
21
37
165
67
-------
TABLE A-6. CHROMIUM IN HUMAN HAIR
Locality
No. & types of persons
& special conditions
Analysis - PPM
Authority
United States
II II
United States
United States
New York
New born baby hair
Maternal hair
Premature infant hair has
low Cr. The Cr level in
hair of fetus increases
with age.
Cr in hair of parous
women
Nul liparous women
Repeated pregnancies result
in significant decrease of
hair Cr of mother
25, age 0-7 days
6, age 3-6 months
8, age 8 months
11, age 10-12 months
23, age 1-2 years
20, age 2-3 years
Cr in 3-8 mo. infants sig-
nificantly higher than in
2-3 yr. old children
Cr of hair is not related
to external environment Cr,
but to Cr nutritional status
of individual
Cr environmental exposure
gradients were reflected in
children's hair only
0.974
0.382
(0.04-1.14)
(0.2-2.81)
0.91±S.E. 0.139
1.493±S.E. 0.386
0.85±S.E. 0.106
0.631±S.E. 0.062
0.525±S.E. 0.059
0.412±S.E. 0.047
Hambidge (1971)
Hambidge & Baum
(1972)
Hambidge
& Rodgerson
(1969)
Hambidge et al
(1972b)
Creason et al.
(1975)
68
(Continued)
-------
TABLE A-6. CHROMIUM IN HUMAN HAIR (Continued)
Locality
No. & types of persons Analysis - PPM Authority
& special conditions
United States 63 males
5 females
United States
48 males, natural
hair color
14 males, grey & white
5 females, grey 8. white
9 males, red hair
68 persons
Cr in hair relatively
constant with age
32 males, age 18-22
in Navy
32 males, age 18-22
5 mos. later
32 males, age 18-22
17 mos. later
122 males, age 18-22
in Navy
70 males, age 18-22
5 mos. later
57 males, age 18-22
17 mos. later
14 females, 1800-1899
43 females, 1900-1930
0.69±0.063
0.96±0.049
0.69±0.062
0.73±0.148
0.96±0.049
0.39±0.048
(0.0-2.2)
Means
1.4
1.6
1.5
Medians
1.3
1.6
1.7
2.6
3.2
Schroeder & Nason
(1971)
Schroeder & Nason
(1969)
Gordus et al.
(1974)
(Continued)
69
-------
TABLE A-6. CHROMIUM IN HUMAN HAIR (Continued)
Locality
No. & types of persons Analysis - PPM Authority
& special conditions
United States
Canada
Yellowknife
Canada
Country
Unspecified
Venezuela
Japan
Iraq
41 females, age 18-22
U. Mich. 1972
Geom. means
1.4
Gordus et al
(1975)
27 females, age 12-40 yrs.
1910-1935 3.9
11 females, age 12-40 yrs.
1890-1910 3.8
10 females, age 12-40 yrs.
before 1890 2.4
12 residents, 1.5-23 yrs. (0.0-6.43)2.46 O'Toole et al.
(1971)
(2.0-5.5)
(2.0-4.0)
Perkons & Jervis
(1965)
Quittner et al.
(1970)
11 Amazonian indians (7.4-8.9)8.3 Perkons (1977)
Median 8.3
4 rural residents (0.1-14.0)1.4±S.D. 3.0 Ohmori et al
Median 0.6 (1975)
Geom. mean 0.6
175 rural and urban
<0.8-20.0)5.7 Al-Shahristani
(1976)
70
-------
TABLE A-7. CHROMIUM IN HUMAN NAILS
Locality No. & types of persons Analysis - PPM Authority
& special conditions
Country Cr is lower in fingernails Masironi
Unspecified of atherosclerotic persons (1974)
" Periungual sites are sites Nat. Acad.
of Cr ulcers Sci. (1974)
71
-------
TABLE A-8. COBALT IN HUMAN HAIR
Locality
United States
No. & types of persons Analysis - PPM Authority
& special conditions
United States 19 males
11 females
12 males, age 40-70 yrs.
1 male, 102 yrs.
31 persons
8 males & 1 female,
age 5-19 yrs.
1 female, red hair,
age 17 yrs.
1 female, black hair,
age 18 yrs.
1 male, white hair
age 102 yrs.
Estimated daily
excretion in hair
32 males, age 18-22 yrs.
in Navy
32 males, age 18-22 yrs.
5 mos. later
32 males age 18-22 yrs.
17 mos. later
132 males age 18-22 yrs.
in Navy
70 males age 18-22 yrs.
5 mos. later
57 males age 18-22 yrs.
17 mos. later
0.17±0.026 Schroeder & Nason
(1971)
0.28±0.043
0.13±0.039
<0.1
(0.0-0.5)
0.54
0.71
0.43
3.11
2.4 yg/day Howells (1967)
Means
0.041
0.028
0.03
Medians
0.045
0.036
0.03
Schroeder et al
(1967)
Gordus et al.
(1974)
72
(Continued)
-------
TABLE A-8. COBALT IN HUMAN HAIR (Continued)
Locality
United States
n n
Michigan
No. & types of persons
& special conditions
14 females, 1800-1899
53 females, 1900-1930
12 males, washed hair
Analysis - PPM
0.13
0.053
0.19
Authority
Gordus et al .
(1974)
n
Gordus et al .
United States
Canada
Yellowknife
Canada
Canada
Venezuela
Italy
Iraq
2x/mo.
12 males, washed hair
20x/mo.
0.13
41 females, age 18-22 yrs., 0.106
1972
27 females, age 12-40 yrs.,
1910-1935 0.054
11 females, age 12-40 yrs.,
1890-1910 0.069
10 females, age 12-40 yrs., 0.125
before 1890
12 residents for
1.5-23 yrs.
(0.026-0.47)0.25
(0.0-1.0)
76 rural & urban (0.12-1.8)0.41
residents of Central med.
Canada
43 urban residents of (0.15-2.6)0.48
Toronto med.
121 urban near refineries (0.1-3.3)0.5
med.
11 Amazonian indians (0.53-2.83)1.7
median 1.52
8 persons in Amiata Mt. 0.11
175 rural and urban (<0.1-1.2)0.4
residents
(1975)
O'Toole et al.
(1971)
Perkons & Jarvis
(1965)
Chattopadhyay &
Jervis (1974)
Perkons (1977)
Clemente (1977)
Al-Shahristani
(1976)
73
-------
TABLE A-9. COPPER IN HUMAN HAIR
Locality
No. & types of persons
& special conditions
Analysis - PPM
United States
New Hampshire 79 males
New York
Riverhead
Queens
Bronx
New York
Virginia
47 females 55.6±10.27
24 females, age 1-30 yrs. 86.2±16.67
22 females, age 40-70 yrs. 16.6±1.58
12 males, age 70-102 yrs. 12.7±1.8
1 male, age 62 (washed hair (425.0-486.0)
in high Cu-containing water)
50 males, natural color 18.4±1.94
38 females, natural color 66.7±12.06
38 males grey & white 14.2±1.1
16 females, grey & white 14.6±1.6
5 females, natural color 19.4±2.13
15 females, grey & white 14.7±1.7
7 males, red color 22.4±7.05
7 females, red color 24.1±4.25
43 persons
31 persons
28 persons
13.88
17.94
11.29
Concentrations of Cu in scalp
hair was not associated with
environmental exposure gradients
Scalp hair of females was higher
than males
Authority
Schroeder & Nason
(1969)
Pinkerton et al
(1973)
Creason et al
(1975)
short samples near nape
of neck
74
(10.0-24.0)13.
5 Harrison et al.
(1969)
(Continued)
-------
TABLE A-9. COPPER IN HUMAN HAIR (Continued)
Locality
Michigan
H
ii
United States
H H
H H
Michigan
Tennessee
Ohio
n
H
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
No. & types of persons
& special conditions
12 males washed hair
2 x/mo.
12 males washed hair
20 x/mo.
41 females, age 18-22
yrs. 1972
27 females, age 12-40
yrs., 1910-1935
11 females, age 12-40
yrs., 1890-1910
10 females, age 12-40
yrs., before 1890
18 persons, age 15-70
yrs., hair color dark brown
black, or grey
33 adults and children
211 persons, age 1-80 yrs:
male age 2 yrs.
male age 12 yrs.
male age 40 yrs.
male age 80 yrs.
female age 15 yrs.
female age 20 yrs.
female age 30 yrs.
female age 50 yrs.
female age 80 yrs.
Analysis - PPM Authority
24.0 Gordus et al .
(1975)
32.0
21.0
11.0
12.0
13.0
, Goldblum et al .
31.2-128.0 (1953)
(7.8-234.0)34.1 Bate & Dyer
(1965)
Peteri ng et al .
(1971)
13.0
60.0
18.0
9.0-10.0
19.0
18.0
30.0
20.0
25.0
Ohio
95 males, age 2-88 yrs,
34.7±6.7
83 females, age 14-84 yrs. 29.6±2.8
Petering et al
(1973)
(Continued)
75
-------
TABLE A-9. COPPER IN HUMAN HAIR (Continued)
Locality
Ohio
Cincinnati
Ohio
Texas
No. & types of persons
& special conditions
Analysis - PPM
50 females (inner city, 17.9±S.D. 11.0
low socio-economic status,
non-lactating)
50 scalp, female
51 pubic, female
37 scalp, newborn
Maternal age 15-19 yrs.
infant hair
Maternal age 20-24 yrs.
infant hair
Maternal age 25-29 yrs.
infant hair
Maternal age 30-39 yrs.
infant hair
white newborn
black newborn
Parity 1, black newborn
Parity 2-3, black newborn
Parity 4 or more, black
newborn
20 males, age 9-60 yrs.
(95% conf. int.)
(17.3-18.4)17.9
(12.8-13.2)13.0
(10.5-11.3)10.9
(8.7-16.6)12.0
(8.0-15.0)11.0
(3.5-21.4)8.7
(2.1-42.3)9.3
18.4
10.5
7.8
9.8
15.1
(10.7-41.6)22.6
14 females, age 13-72 yrs. (11.4-61.4)23.0
Authority
Baumslag &
Petering (1976)
Baumslag et al
(1974)
Eads & Lambdin
(1973)
(Continued)
76
-------
TABLE A-9. COPPER IN HUMAN HAIR (Continued)
Locality
No. & types of persons
& special conditions
Analysis - PPM
United States 12 persons, age 12-60 yrs. (9.4-31.0)16.7
various areas
" " 33% Cu was extracted from
hair by HN03
United States 33 males, age 18-22 yrs. medians
in Navy 8.0-30.0
42 males, age 18-22 yrs. 19.0
in Navy
42 males, age 18-22 yrs. 14.0
5 mos. later
42 males, age 18-22 yrs. 15.0
17 mos. later
" " 120 males, age 18-22 yrs. means
17.0
78 males, age 18-22 yrs. 15.0
64 males, age 18-22 yrs. 14.0
" 52 females, young 14.0
12 females, 1800-1899 18.0
28 females, 1900-1930 12.0
United States 40 persons, method of 70.0±9.31
additions
" " 40 persons, method of 71.25±1.51
interpolation
" single female, 30 cm. of 15.0
hair - proximal
single female, 30 cm. of 63.0
hair - distal ends
11 " In 17 females and 40 males
Cu levels increased from root
to tip with greater variation
in distal end
77
Authority
Hinners et al.
(1974)
Gordus (1973)
Gordus et al.
(1974)
Sorenson et al
(1973b)
Renshaw et al.
(1973)
(Continued)
-------
TABLE A-9. COPPER IN HUMAN HAIR (Continued)
United States
Type of City
Lead & zinc
mining &
smelting
Copper smelting
Lead & Zinc
smelting
Govt. &
commercial
Education &
farm trading
Cu
exposure
inter-
mediate
inter-
medi ate
low
low
low
No. 4th
grade
boys
45
37
25
21
37
165
Geom.
Mean
17.1
13.9
10.4
11.5
14.4
Median
13.0
12.0
11.0
11.0
11.0
Arth.
Mean
25.7
15.3
11.8
12.6
22.5
Hammer et al .
(1971)
S.D.
28.1
7.5
3.0
6.0
34.7
United States
United States
Canada
Hair Cu levels did not fo.llow
the estimated exposure gradient,
but the distributions were
positively skewed. Since the Cu
exposure gradient was only low
to intermediate, this relative
homogeneity was not unexpected.
In the following year, 115 boys
in the 4th grade were re-tested
with the same results that Cu
hair levels did not reflect
environmental exposure gradients.
Menkes' kinky hair syndrome is
associated with low Cu in hair.
135 vegetable producers Ave. 16.0
75 vegetable producers, male 15.0
60 vegetable producers, female 16.6
18 packers, male 11.8
Hammer et al.
(1971)
Hammer et al.
(1972a)
Singh & Bresman
(1973)
Hutchinson et al
(1974)
(Continued)
78
-------
TABLE A-9. COPPER IN HUMAN HAIR (Continued)
Canada
Venezuela
Scotland
Glasgow
Ireland
Ireland
Cork City
60 packers, female
57 growers, male
Males vs. females
16.6 Hutchinson et al .
16.6
X2=6.96 not signif.
Packers vs. growers X2=11.43 P=0.01
(Male)
Males vs. females
(packers)
X2=13.37 P=0.001
<40 yrs. vs. >40 yrs. X2=2.72 not signif.
40 years intensive "
cultivation resulted
in marked accumulation
of Cu in cultivated
soils
11 Amazonian indians (2.5-102.0)18.2 Perkons (1977)
med. 8.2
29 samples
29 "normal"
29 persons
(7.64-54.5)23.1±S.D. 11.7 Smith (1970)
median 19.1
(7.64-54.5)23.0 Smith (1967)
(7.6-55.0)20.6 Dale et al.
geom. mean (1975)
Rural area near
zinc copper mine:
Corridan
(1974)
18 males age 5-12 yrs.
3 females age 5-12 yrs. (12.0-46.1)22.5
20 children, 18 males
& 2 females
Corridan
(6.5-14.9)10.85 (1974)
German Democratic
Republic 25 females, age 1-63 40.8±S.D. 15.2 Weisner et al.
yrs. 36.6 med. (1974)
Germany
22 males + 22 females
Cu was slightly higher in
black than brown, blonde,
grey, or white hair
79
Anke & Schneider
(1962)
(Continued)
-------
TABLE A-9. COPPER IN HUMAN HAIR (Continued)
Iran
Africa
Botswana,
Kalihari Desert
Hair Cu content varied
with rural or urban areas
Reinhold et al
(1966)
Kung Bushmen, 12 young (5.0-32.0)12.0± Baumslag &
wnmpn .S.D. in.(1 Pet.prina ('
Republic of
South Africa
Johannesburg
Japan
New Zeland
Hastings
Napier
Country
Unspecified
women
11 lactating women
15 postmenopausal women
8 men
Bantu
37 lactating women
61 rural residents
S.D. 10.0 Petering (1976)
(2.0-14.0)8.0±
S.D. 4.5
(1.0-37.0)12.01
S.D. 14.0
(9.0-19.0)11.01
S.D. 3.0
9.91S.D. 4.5
(1.8-69.0)11.01
S.D. 11.0
10.0 med.
9.6 geom. mean.
33 boys, elementary school:
(7.0-93.0)30.0
11 (8.0-150.0)15.5
11 (20.0-170.0)38.0
Determined Cu in human hair
using detergent and dry ashing
(0.1-1.0)
Ohmori et al.
(1975)
Bate & Dyer
(1965)
Backer (1969)
Briggs et al.
(1972)
Quittner et al
(1970)
80
-------
TABLE A-10. COPPER IN HUMAN NAILS
Locality
Scotland
Country
Unspecified
New Guinea
No. & types of persons
& special conditions
33 samples
10 males, age 1-78
19 samples
7 females, age 1-78
63 samples
17 persons, age 1-78
82 samples total
9 males
13 adults
6 children
6 males
7 females
3 persons
Analysis - PPM
(3.18-58.2)18.1
±S.D. 12.1
median 14.9
(28.0-53.0)44.0
(44.0-102.0)62.0
(28.0-102.0)54.0
(9.4.81.0)
(29.3-74.0)51.1
(42.1-131.1)86.4
(8.1-18.9)14.8
(6.8-15.3)10.6)
0
Used atomic absorption
analysis of Cu in nails
Cu content of nails was
determined in normals and
those with Wilson's disease
50 fathers, age 46±8 yrs. 4.3±S.D.2.8
toenails median 3.9
geom. mean 3.4
50 mothers, age 41±8 yrs. 4.2±S.D. 3.4
toenails median 3.8
geom. mean 2.7
Authority
Smith (1970)
Harrison &
Tyree (1971)
Goldblum et al
(1953)
Kanabrocki et
al. (1968)
Martin (1964)
Petrushkov et
al. (1969)
Barnett & Kahn
(1972)
Martin (1964)
Masironi et al.
(1976)
(Continued)
81
-------
TABLE A-10. COPPER IN HUMAN NAILS (Continued)
Locality No. & types of persons
& special conditions
New Guinea 34 male teenagers,
age 15±2 yrs., toenails
23 female teenagers,
age 15, toenails
Analysis - PPM
4.5±S.D. 2.9
median 4.7
geom. mean 3.6
3.8±S.D. 3.7
median 3.4
geom. mean 2.2
Authority
Masironi et al
(1976)
differences not significant
82
-------
TABLE A-ll. LEAD IN HUMAN HAIR
Locality
No. & types of persons
& special conditions
United States 78 males
New Hampshire
47 females
24 females, age 1-30
yrs.
22 females, age 40-70
yrs.
12 males, age 70-102
yrs.
47 males, natural color
38 females, natural color
39 males, grey & white
16 females, grey & white
5 females, age 40-70,
natural color
15 females, age 40-70,
grey & white
7 males, blonde
24 males, brown
7 males, black
5 males, red
8 females, red
141 persons
26 children to 8 yrs.
(normal)
13 boys to 8 yrs.
83
Analysis - PPM
17.8±S.E. 2.17
19.0±S.E. 2.95
24.5±S.E. 4.9
8.4±S.E. 1.16
13.9±S.E. 6.44
16.3±S.E. 2.03
24.7±S.E. 3.24
18.7±S.E. 3.77
5.94±S.E. 0.873
15.4±S.E. 1.93
5.8±S.E. 0.92
14.0±S.E. 3.01
18.4±S.E. 2.86
7.86±S.E. 2.025
7.0±S.E. 1.625
19.3±S.E. 1.93
(0.0-95.0)
(3.0-85.0)
23.6
Authority
Schroeder &
Nason (1969)
(Continued)
-------
TABLE A-ll. LEAD IN HUMAN HAIR (Continued)
Locality No. & types of persons Analysis - PPM Authority
& special conditions
United States 13 girls to 8 yrs. 39.8 Schroeder &
New Hampshire Nason (1969)
Boston 265 policemen, 0-1.5 cm. ave. 17.6 Speizer et al
from scalp (1973)
" 265 policemen, 0-1.5 cm. Seven over 60 ppm, "
from scalp with range (61.0-
1,139.0)
256 policemen, 1.5-3.5 ave. 28.8
cm. from scalp
" 256 policemen, 1.5-3.5 Fourteen over 60 ppm. "
cm. from scalp with range (61.0-
2,080.0)
" 69 policemen, inside jobs 118.6 "
" 88 policemen, in cruisers 118.1 "
" 8 policemen, part in cruisers 131.9 "
and part in traffic
" 79 policemen, on foot in 147.9 "
traffic
20 policemen, in traffic 183.3 "
on motorcycle
" 9 policemen, age 20-29 97.7 |'
57 policemen, age 30-39 148.4
" 112 policemen, age 40-49 125.9 "
" 72 policemen, age 50-59 131.2 "
" 14 policemen, age 60-69 132.4 "
" 264 policemen, all ages 132.5 "
and duties
" Head hair levels high in "
14 of 267 men, or 5.2%
(Continued)
84
-------
TABLE A-ll. LEAD IN HUMAN HAIR (Continued)
Locality
Boston
Unitd States
II II
II II
Pennsylvania
Analysis - PPM
No. & types of persons
& special conditions
Of 705 children tested,
98 had high Pb levels in
hair and these averaged
lower mental ability
41 normal unexposed (2.0-95.0)±24.0
children under age 8 yrs.
High level of Pb in hair
occurred in children with
chronic Pb poisoning
Lead intoxication
in children
20 children, acute and
chronic poisoning
New York
Riverhead
Queens
Bronx
New York
43 persons
31 persons
28 persons
Scalp hair
ave. 282.0
80.0
(70.0-975.0)276.0
9.904
14.784
12.046
adults and children and
were significantly associated
with environmental exposure
gradients
Adult male hair had higher
values than female
36, under 16 yrs.
1871-1923
20, over 16 yrs.
1871-1923
164.24±S.D. 20.7
93.36±S.D. 16.3
119, under 16 yrs., 1971 16.23±S.D. 0.97
28, over 16 yrs., 1971 6.55±S.D. 1.17
16, under 16 yrs. Phila- 16.49±S.D. 2.9
del phi a, Chestnut Hill
85
Authority
Pueschel et al.
(1972)
Kopito et al.
(1967)
Kopito et al .
(1969)
Pinkerton et al
(1973)
Creason et al.
(1975)
Weiss et al.
(1972)
(Continued)
-------
TABLE A-ll. LEAD IN HUMAN HAIR (Continued)
Locality
No. & types of persons
& special conditions
Analysis - PPM
Pennsylvania 16, under 16 yrs. Phil a- 19.44±S.D. 2.8
del phi a, Kensington
16, under 16 yrs. Phila- 16.74±S.D. 2.7
del phi a, Germantown
16, under 16 yrs. Phila- 13.96±S.D. 2.2
del phi a, Lawdale
Michigan
Ohio
Ohio
16, under 16 yrs.,
Newtown
39, under 16 yrs.
W. upper peninsula
11.08±S.D. 2.2
17.63±S.D. 1.7
Pb decrease in hair in
last 100 years despite
increase of Pb in atmosphere
50 females, scalp
51 females, public
43 newborns, scalp
Hair of newborn is higher
than older children and
many adult groups. Shows
that lead is transferred
from mother to fetus
Female, black, scalp hair
Female, black, public hair
Female, white, scalp hair
Female, white, pubic hair
95 males, white, age 2-88
yrs.
males, white, age 2 yrs.
males, white, age 20 yrs.
(95% conf. int.)
(30.0-33.0)31.5
(16.0-17.2)16.6
(13.1-14.7)13.9
means, 49.3
21.8
15.5
9.1
18.3±1.8
25.0
14.0
Authority
Weiss et al
(1972)
Baumslag et
al. (1974)
Petering et al
(1973)
86
(Continued)
-------
TABLE A-ll. LEAD IN HUMAN HAIR (Continued)
Locality
Ohio
Michigan
Tennessee
Montana
East Helena
Helena
Bozeman
Texas
Port Arthur
No. & types of persons
& special conditions
males, white, age 85 yrs.
83 females, white, age
14-84 yrs.
females, white, age 14 yrs.
females, white, age 35 yrs.
females, white, age 84 yrs.
Analysis - PPM Authority
12 males, washed hair
2 X/mo.
12 males, washed hair
20 X/mo.
18 persons, age 10-49
yrs. EDTA washed
18 persons, age 10-49
yrs. ether washed
25 boys, 4th grade,
heavily polluted area
industrial smelting
21 boys, 4th grade
light pollution
38 boys, 4th grade
little pollution
10.0
24.4±2.7
4.0
40.0
2.0
3.1
Petering et al.
(1973)
7.7
(2.3-38.3)16.8±2.0
(2.6-40.3)19.1±4.3
(0-199.0)44.3±
S.D. 49.3
Median 20.0
(0-74.9)12.1±
S.D. 11.4
Median 7.9
(0-38.0)7.6±
S.D. 5.0
Median 6.5
Gordus et al
(1975)
Clark & Wilson
(1974)
Hammer et al.
(1972b)
(Petrochemical industry) (10.6-191.0)26.7
26 males, age 9-60 yrs.
21 females, age 13-72 yrs. (7.6-61.0)24.1
Eads & Lambdin
(1973)
(Continued)
87
-------
TABLE A-ll. LEAD IN HUMAN HAIR (Continued)
Locality
No. & types of persons
& special conditions
Analysis - PPM
California (No occupational exposure)
male, age 53 yrs., 5-day
beard
male, age 49 yrs., 5-day
beard
male, age 25 yrs., 5-day
beard
15.1
13.2
16.0
Each male then received 100
ug/day of Pb204 stable non-
radioactive Pb for 100 days.
Peak level in beard occurred at
125 days or about 35 days follow-
ing peak level in blood. Blood
level rose rapidly but had
declined rapidly when Pb in
beard peaked.
United States 18, age 15-75, dark hair
white, male, "normal"
exposure
150 accidental deaths
15 g hair ave
0.4-1.0
(0.05-1.5)0.75 mg
of Pb
United States 12 persons, age 12-60 yrs. (2.0-141.0)34.3
Various areas
United States "normal"
Severe poisoning
20 males, age 18-22 yrs.
in Navy
3 females, 1800-1899
13 females, 1900-1930
1.0-3.0
>5.0
4.1
1,250.0
106.0
Authority
Rabinowitz et
al. (1976)
Goldblum et al
(1953)
Schroeder &
Tipton (1968)
Hinners et al.
(1974)
Dick &
Skogerboe (1973)
Gordus et al
(1974)
(Continued)
-------
TABLE A-ll. LEAD IN HUMAN HAIR (Continued)
Locality
No. & types of persons
& special conditions
Analysis - PPM
United States 25, hair cosmetics were tested
and showed no increased head hair
Pb levels
Canada
Canada
Ottawa
British
Columbia
Ontario
Panama
40 persons (method of
additions)
40 persons (method of
interpolation)
76 rural
45 urban, Toronto
121 urban near
refineries
39.0±0.02
42.26±4.32
(0.5-25.0)9.1 med.
(0.5-35.0)15.3 med.
(10.0-350.0)45.3 med,
Authority
Speizer et al.
(1973)
Sorenson et al.
(1973a)
Chattopadhyay &
Jervis (1974)
Blood levels and head hair examined
for Pb; levels showed no correlation
with high Pb levels in water from
electric kettles.
100 smelter workers and families with 3
levels of exposure of Pb related to
husbands' exposure. Head hair of persons
from Trail and Nelson B.C. (control city)
were compared.
Hair Pb levels were normal, but there were
differences between vegetable growers &
packers between males & females & between
age groups.
For all 242 females the arith. mean was 34.6
geom. mean 18.6±S.D. 0.3
Lead content of hair was correlated with place of
residence, and the differences between sexes was
highly significant with females having high Pb
levels. The highest Pb levels were in Panama City
with higher exposure. The gradient falls with
distance from Panama City and Canal Zone to rural
areas and is correlated with lower Pb in hair
Wigle (1975)
Neri et al.
(1975)
Hutchinson et
al. (1974)
(Continued)
89
-------
TABLE A-ll. LEAD IN HUMAN HAIR (Continued)
Locality
Great Britian
London
Great Britian
Ireland
France
Paris
France
Fed. Rep.
Germany
No. & types of persons
& special conditions
210Pb
32 lead workers
8 children non-
occupational ly exposed
Rural area near zinc
copper mine:
21 children aged
5-12 years
18 males and 3 female
urban children
52 yr. old man, Pb
poisoning from water
0.9 mg. Pb/1
2 deaths from Pb pipes
with drinking water with
2.3 mg. Pb/1
18 persons, lived near
lead processing plant
53 "control persons,"
city dwellers
Analysis - PPM
0.034 pCi g
(24.0-1,880.0)51.7
ave. 20.0
(0.4-12.2)3.1
(2.04-22.8)5.5
14.0
94.7-124.0
(9.0-95.0)39.0
(0.5-59.0)12.5
Authority
Jaworowski
(1964)
Barry (1972)
Barry & Mossman
(1970)
Corridan (1974)
Worms et al.
(1957)
Fourcade & Caron
(1954)
Aurand &
Sonneborn (1973)
Only 5 city dwellers in range
of mean or above those near
lead plant
Germany
"Normal," not working with
lead products
Adult males
Adult females
Sexual difference is
highly significant
17.0
Kraut & Weber
(1944)
14.7
19.2
(t= 3.38, P=<0.001)
90
(Continued)
-------
TABLE A-ll. LEAD IN HUMAN HAIR (Continued)
Locality
Italy
Poland
Warsaw
Poland
Bulgaria
No. & types of persons
& special conditions
4 mo. old infant had lead
poisoning due to mother
using lead nipple shields
9 subjects, stable Pb
9 subjects, 210Pb
Analysis - PPM
12.5
10.0
0.034 pCi/g
Authority
Portigliatti-
Barbos (1961)
Jaworowski
(1964)
57 uranium miners, 210Pb (0.34-3.72)1.42±
0.93 pCi/g
This is 50 x higher 210Pb
than unexposed
Miners working >10 yrs. 210Pb 1.83±0.96pCi/g
was 2.5 x higher
than miners <10 yrs.
There was 30% more 210Pb
in hair than in ribs of
2 U miners
21 females
"Normal" healthy people
0.73±0.33 pCi/g
Jaworowski
(1965a)
(4.85-20.7)8.9 Jaworowski
(1965b)
" 37 people with endemic
nephritis
" There was a higher Pb
level in sick women
Yugoslavia Normal scalp hair
Fatal case, eating
Pb contaminated flour:
scalp hair
axillary hair
7.66-10.13
3.8-12.76
Ivanov et al.
(1962)
0.2-0.6
Danilovic
(1958)
4.0
10.0
(Continued)
91
-------
TABLE A-ll. LEAD IN HUMAN HAIR (Continued)
Locality
United Arab
Republic
India
Japan
No. & types of persons
& special conditions
67 workers exposed to Pb
had high Pb in hair
correlated with bio-chemical
and clinical findings
Excessive head hair level
Analysis - PPM
30.0
Bengali women using red lead
cometics had high concentrations
of Pb in hair
112 Pb exposed workers, >110.0
dangerous exposure
" occupational normal 30.0-110.0
22 control non-occupational <30.0
"normal" Pb exposure
With increased Pb absorption,
Pb content increased and elon-
gation and strength of hair
decreased
Pb content of hair indicates
amount of exposure:
negligible <30
moderate 30-110
serious >110
30 lead workers + 14 miners,
hair was less strong than normal
112 Pb exposed workers:
workers in storage
battery plants
rayon manufacturer
(37.5-550.0)217.3
(46.7-616.8)168.1
Authority
El Dakhaklany &
El Sadik (1972)
Bagchi et al
(1940)
Suzuki et al
(1958)
Nishiyama
et al. (1957)
Suzuki &
Matsuka (1957)
Nishiyama et al
(1957)
(Continued)
92
-------
TABLE A-ll. LEAD IN HUMAN HAIR (Continued)
Locality
Japan
Country
Unspecified
Country
Unspecified
No. & types of persons
& special conditions
measuring instrument
manufacture
automobile painting
bobbin painting
newspapr printing, male
female
Pb exposed workers in
small printing offices
male
female
Pb of hair indicates
degree of exposure to Pb
male printers
female printers
rayon manufacture
Male "normals"
Female "normals"
Female subject had higher
Pb levels than males and Pb
content of hair increased
with age
Analysis - PPM
11.3
6.1
22.5
30.9
93.3
Authority
Nishiyama et al
(1957)
106.4
116.3
(3.9-196.1)75.9
(13.4-215.3)115.4
(13.9-616.8)163.3
9.9
14.6
35.0
Suzuki et al.
(1958)
Shabel'nik
(1968)
Spector (1956)
(Continued)
93
-------
TABLE A-ll. LEAD IN HUMAN HAIR (Continued)
Locality
New Zeland
II II
II II
No. & types of persons
& special conditions
250 subjects
Analysis - PPM
Authority
(2.0-360.0)12.8
Geom. mean
95% conf. limits
11.4-14.4 of geom.
mean. Arith. mean 21.8
Reeves et al
(1975)
(2.1-360.0)13.6
(2.0-145.0)12.0
(2.5-68.5)13.0
(2.0-219.0)13.3
(2.3-283.0)12.4
(2.1-360.0)12.7
(2.5-219.0)15.8
133 males
117 females
28, age 1-10 yrs.
83, age 1-21 yrs.
87, age 22-42 yrs.
80,age 43-87 yrs.
36 males, age 1-21 yrs.
47 females, age 1-21 yrs. (2.0-99.5)11.8
51 males, age 22-42 yrs. (2.3-283.0)13.5
36 females, age 22-42 yrs. (3.3-86.6)11.0
46 males, age 43-87 yrs. (2.1-360.0)12.3
34 females, age 43-87 yrs. (3.1-145.0)13.4
28 printers, metal workers (3.4-360.0)32.8
44 office workers, student (2.5-82.8)10.4
61 farmers, salesmen, etc. (2.1-121.0)11.1
There is no significant difference
between male and female, between
age groups, at 90% conf. level.
Occupational groups show very
significant higher level (99.9% conf.)
of printers, metalworkers, mechanics,
and machinists, compared with office
workers, farmers, and other occupations.
94
(Continued)
-------
TABLE A-ll. LEAD IN HUMAN HAIR (Continued)
Locality
New Zeal and
United States
Locality
Lead & zinc
mining &
smelting
Lead & zinc
smelting
Copper
smelting
Government &
commercial
Education &
farm trading
Total
Lead & zi nc
mining &
smelting
Lead & zinc
smelting
Copper
smelting
Government &
commercial
Education &
farm trading
No. & types
& special
of persons Analysis - PPM
conditions
4 males used hair preparation
containing 1.2% Pb acetate.
These were removed from study
Exposure
highest
high
low
low
low
highest
high
low
low
low
No. 4th
grade Geom.
boys Mean
45 57.7
25 22.3
37 10.5
21 8.9
37 6.1
165
27
17
28
9
21
. (1,050.0-2,410
ppm in hair
Arith.
Median Mean
52.0 107.1
20.0 44.3
13.0 14.3
7.9 12.1
6.5 7.6
45.9 80.2
19.2 32.2
11.2 14.3
7.3 13.5
6.8 8.2
Authority
Reeves et al .
(1975)
.0)1,725.3
±
S.D.
Hammer
et al .
138.8 (1971)
49.3
. 14.1
11.4
5.0
109.4
29.2
12.5
13.2
5.2
Total
102
95
(Continued)
-------
TABLE A-ll. LEAD IN HUMAN HAIR (Continued)
Panama 184 males
Panama City (arith.
mean)
Panama "
Darien "
Cocl e
Herrera (arith.
mean)
Nat. Guard "
Chiriqui "
Los Santos "
Veraguas "
age 0-10 yrs.
ppm
46.3
52.1
20.7
27.0
8.9
—
28.2
13.8
9.0
age 11-20 yrs.
ppm
21.4
30.6
22.7
6.0
7.8
6.0
1.1
6.3
4.6
age 20 yrs.
ppm
29.9
33.5
5.4
36.5
15.1
9.2
8.9
4.5
3.3
Klevay
(1973)
»
11
n
»
"
"
"
n
n
For all 184 males and arith. mean was 24.5,
geom. mean 12.1±S.D. 0.32
242 non-
pregnant,
non-lacta-
ting females age 0-10 yrs. age 11-20 yrs. age 20 yrs.
Panama City (arith.
mean)
Panama "
Darien "
Code "
Herrera "
Chiriqui "
Los Santos "
Veraguas "
78.7
66.4
24.8
29.6
14.1
16.5
16.0
8.3
45.1
37.7
26.6
23.3
18.8
16.4
8.7
18.3
55.0
42.7
19.4
17.9
14.3
17.8
14.6
12.7
96
-------
TABLE A-12. LEAD IN HUMAN NAILS
Locality No. & types of persons Analysis - PPM Authority
& special conditions
United States 18 male "normals," white, 0.97-2.4 Goldblum et al.
age 15-70 yrs. (1953)
United States Pb occurred in 98% of nail Cooper
samples, with levels 10-100 Langford (1972)
times greater than normal
Pb blood levels
97
-------
TABLE A-13. MERCURY IN HUMAN HAIR
Locality
New York
New York
New York
Buffalo
New York
Rochester
No. & types of persons
& special conditions
115 dentists
115 dentists, 89% above
"normal" of 2.5
41 with tuna & swordfish
diets
19 non-tuna diet (control)
Tuna and swordfish dieters:
9-16 ug Hg/150 Ib men/day
(Hg in blood)
17-26 pg Hg/150 Ib men/day
(Hg in blood)
27-38 ug Hg/150 Ib men/day
(Hg in blood)
40-75 pg Hg/150 Ib men/day
(Hg in blood)
Analysis - PPM Authority
(1.0-34.0)
(0.8-40.7)8.8
(0.9-12.8)3.1
(blood) (hair)
0.006 5.3
0.0064 4.9
0.012 9.4
0.0173 14.4
Scalp hair Hg levels of adults
and children were significantly
correlated with environmental
exposure gradients
Urban areas
Rural areas
12 "normals", age 4-48 yrs.
9 occupationally exposed
age 25-40 yrs.
4 Japanese living in
Rochester, age 3-32 yrs.
1.49±2.18
l.Oltl.53
0.88±0.34
2.13±0.67
1.71±0.14
Gutenmann et al
(1973)
McDuffie (1971)
Creason et al .
(1975)
Cited in
Giovanoli-
Jakubzak (1974)
Giovanoli-
Jakubzak (1974)'
(Continued)
98
-------
TABLE A-13. MERCURY IN HUMAN HAIR (Continued)
Locality No. & types of persons
& special conditions
Analysis - PPM Authority
New York
Rochester
Tennessee
Hair Hg levels of "normals"
are 350 times levels in blood
33 adult and children
"normals"
Nashville 230 mothers
94 infants, age 6 wks.
Ohio
Cleveland 3 males
" 4 females
Michigan 12 males, washed hair
2 X/mo.
" 12 males, washed hair
20 X/mo.
41 females, age 18-22 yrs.
1972
United States 27 females, age 12-40 yrs.
1910-1935
11 females, age 12-40 yrs.
1890-1910
" " 10 females, age 12-40 yrs.
before 1890
Idaho
1,000 residents:
males, (ave.)
females, (ave.)
male, age 1-10 yrs.
(0.1-33.0)7.6±1.4
D 1.38 (median)
D 2.59 (median)
2.4U1.32
1.6U0.32
2.1
3.1
2.8
1.6
1.8
3.5
(0.12-139.0)4.18
2.45
5.9
(0.26-8.0)2.04
Giovanoli-
Jakubzak (1974)
Bate & Dyer
(1965)
Baglan et al.
(1974)
Yamaguchi et al.
(1971)
Gordus et al.
(1975)
Benson &
Gabica (1972)
(Continued)
99
-------
TABLE A-13. MERCURY IN HUMAN HAIR (Continued)
Locality
Idaho
No. & types of persons
&special conditions
female, age 1-10 yrs.
Analysis - PPM
(0.56-12.0)3.21
Authority
Benson &
" male, age 11-20 yrs.
female, age 11-20 yrs.
" male, age 21-40 yrs.
female, age 21-40 yrs.
" male, age 41-60 yrs.
" female, age 41-60 yrs.
" male, age 61+ yrs.
" female, age 61+ yrs.
Texas
Port Arthur 25 males, age 9-60 yrs.
near refineries
20 females, age 13-72 yrs.
" " 1 female, age 29 yrs.
23 college students, some
California
Angwi n
used pool
(0.13-107.0)3.28
(0.25-104.0)6.99
(0.33-17.6)2.01
(0.24-43.8)4.92
(0.2-100.0)2.37
(0.26-139.0)7.64
(0.12-24.6)2.55
(0.64-120.0)6.72
(0.2-12.4)6.2
(0.1-30.0)5.5
139.0
(0.3-60.5)3.46±3.04
Gabica (1972)
Eads & Lambdin
(1973)
Martz &
Larsen (1973)
22 children used swimming pool
treated with algaeide phenyl-
mercuric acetate (ave.) 39.6±38.2
15 children did not use pool (ave.) 3.43±1.79
37 children (ave.)(1.1-135.9)24.9±34.3
13 adults (ave.)(0.6-3.3)1.64+0.81
California 1 fish eater with interrupted
diet
Pasadena
98 women
4.4
(ave.) 29.6
100
Giovanoli-
Jakubzak
(1974)
Nord et al.
(1973)
(Continued)
-------
TABLE A-13. MERCURY IN HUMAN HAIR (Continued)
Locality
Pasadena
n
"
New Mexico
Los Alamos
"
"
"
"
California
No. & types of persons
& special conditions
98 women
98 women
woman
woman
80 men
80 men
145 women
146 women
64 white males
Analysis - PPM Authority
(geom. mean) 25.0 Nord et al .
(1973)
(range)(5. 0-410.0)
(max.) 410.0
(max.) 680.0
(ave.) 20.1
(geom. mean) 18.0 "
(ave.) 20.8
(geom. mean) 18.9 "
(0.0-6.0)1.6 Verghese
51 white females
(0.0-18.0)6.0
New Mexico
Alamorgordo Huckelby family ate pork fed
Hg contaminated grain
Father 186.1
Dorothy Jean 2,436.0
" Mother ate Hg contaminated
pork in early pregnancy 186.0
" Child had myoclonic convulsions,
could not sit up and was blind
United States "normal" 10.0
Highest levels found
Fatal case
United States "normals"
96.0-185.0
500.0
0.01-2.5
et al.(1973)
Krehl (1972)
Pierce et al
(1972)
Eyl et al.
(1970)
Cited in
Nord et al
(1973)
Joselow et al
(1972)
101
(Continued)
-------
TABLE A-13. MERCURY IN HUMAN HAIR (Continued)
Locality
United States
No. & types of persons
& special conditions
United States 32 males, age 18-22 yrs.
in Navy
32 males, age 18-22 yrs.
5 mos. later
" " 32 males, age 18-22 yrs.
12 mos. later
119 males, age 18-22 yrs.
in Navy
71 males, age 18-22 yrs.
5 mos. later
56 males, age 18-22 yrs.
17 mos. later
14 females, 1800-1899
43 females, 1900-1930
Alaska
Coastal
Alaska
Inland
Anchorage
17 Eskimo females ate much
marine mammal meat
Analysis - PPM
6.0
means
2.2
1.5
1.8
1.9
1.7
1.7
3.6
2.0
4.257±0.621*
11 female Eskimoes
10 female Eskimoes
Authority
Schroeder &
Nason (1971)
Gordus et al.
(1974)
Galster (1975)
Pribilof Is.
Alaska 13 Eskimoes ate seal
liver and muscle
3.574±0.740*
4.045±0.796*
*expressed as nanograms/g
5.0-6.0
Canada
Ate contaminated fish
Small group
USPHS (1970)
75% "high levels" Jervis et al.
(1970)
1.1-55.3
Perkons &
Jervis (1965)
102
(Continued)
-------
TABLE A-13. MERCURY IN HUMAN HAIR (Continued)
Locality No. & types of persons
& special conditions
Analysis - PPM Authority
Canada
An individual, 1947
Same individual, 1961
600 persons
776 ate contaminated
fish several times week
8.0
53.3
(0.0-19.0)1.7±0.98
50.0-100.0
Jervis et al.
(1965)
"Normal" population (1.0-3.0) statistical Perkons &
mode 1.5 Jervis (1966)
Ontario
Kenora
9 ate no fish (2.0-14.0)
21 ate some fish <10.0
9 persons 10.0-25.0
3 persons 25.0-50.0
" 4 persons 50.0-100.0
" Person with high recent
fish consumption 96.0
Lake St. Clair 5 persons (2.0-9.1)
Female ate fish 2-5 x/week 49.9
Northwest
Territory
Yellowknife 12 residents 1.5-23 yrs. (3.96-78.8)6.9
St. Lawrence 2 persons ate fish
River 3-4 x/week
(2.0-5.0)
Alberta
Female used shampoo with 80 118.0
and 124 ppm Hg
Male used shampoo with 80 and 47.0
124 ppm Hg
103
Mastromatteo
Sutherland
(1972)
O'Toole
et al. (1971)
Mastromatteo &
Sutherland
(1972)
Wilson et al.
(1974)
(Continued)
-------
TABLE A-13. MERCURY IN HUMAN HAIR (Continued)
Locality
Alberta
Canada
Mexico
Zacatecas
Quere'tero
No. & types of persons
& special conditions
Analysis - PPM
Survey (1.0-5.6)1.5
"Control" 2.34
"Control" washed in detergent 1.94
"Controls," unexposed 0.2-6.0
Authority
Wilson et al
Jervis et al.
(1970)
Occupational exposure to Hg
5.0-10.0
45 urban residents, Toronto (0.24-5.2)2.0 med. Chattopadhyay
&Jervis
(1974)
76 rural residents, central (0.28-2.5)1.2 med.
Canada
121 urban near refineries
Hg smelting worker age 70 yrs.
exposed 20 yrs.
Hg smelting worker age 45 yrs.
exposed 5 yrs.
Hg smelting worker age 35 yrs.
exposed 7 yrs.
Hg smelting worker age 32 yrs.
exposed 15 yrs.
Hg smelting worker age 30 yrs.
exposed 18 yrs.
Hg smelting worker age 45 yrs.
exposed 3 yrs. (but had not
worked for 1 yr=)
(0.2-5.5)2.3 med.
38.01
3.89
5.4
30.93
48.85
0.96
De la Pina
(1975)
Hg smelting worker age 35 yrs. ex- 5.32
posed for 2 yrs. (but had not
worked for 8 yrs.)
(Continued)
104
-------
TABLE A-13. MERCURY IN HUMAN HAIR (Continued)
Locality No. & types of persons
& special conditions
Queretero Hg smelting worker age
43 yrs. exposed 5 yrs.
Mexico City 6 "controls"
(ages 20-70 yrs.)
Analysis - PPM
3.1
Authority
De la Pina
(1975)
(1.48-2.14)1.9±S.D.
0.11
Mexico
Smelter worker, hair sample
before washing
14.7
Venezuela
Upper Orinoco
Venezuela
Bolivia
After washing
24 Yanomamo indians
5.6
(0.3-1.4)1.0±0.3
11 Amazonian indians (1.7-4.15)2.98
Japanese who emigrated had very low
Hg hair levels after living in Bolivia
Sweden 4 "normals"
Lake Vanern
1.3
51 fish eaters ate (0.81-31.0)7.9±S.E.
0.45 kg/wk (0.84 ppm in fish) 0.85
22 fish eaters ate 0.45 kg/wk 10.131±S.E. 1.563
1-60 yr. fishermen ate 0.75 kg.
Hecker et al.
(1974)
Perkons (1977)
Suzuki et al.
(1972)
Lofroth (1969)
Tejning (1970)
Sweden
of fish daily
"Normal" never ate fish
"Normal", never ate fish
5 "normals"
4 "normals"
27.6-46.6)
<2.0
0.92
1.6
1.35
0.15 mg. intake of Hg/day from 40.0
fish
Berglund et al,
(1971)
Tejning (1970)
Birke et al.
(1967)
Birke et al.
(1972)
(Continued)
105
-------
TABLE A-13. MERCURY IN HUMAN HAIR (Continued)
Locality No. & types of persons
& special conditions
Sweden 0.1 mg intake of Hg/day from
fish
0.036 mg intake of Hg/day from
fish
0.015 mg intake of Hg/day from
fish
" 0.815 mg intake of Hg/day
from fish
" 0.11 mg intake of Hg/day
from fish
" 12 persons
Analysis - PPM
31.0
8.7
2.2
185.0 (160.0 MeHg)
15.0 (13.0 MeHg)
(1.0-180.0)
Biological half life of Hg in hair
is (65-250) ave. 160 days; after sub-
traction of background it is (33-120)
ave. 80 days. In Japanese data on
hair, the Hg half life is 60-70 days.
Threshold effect of Hg is 0.2-0.3 ppm
of Hg in blood equivalent to hair
of — (50.0-90.0)
Biological half-life of methyl-
mercury in man is 200 days based
on studies of hair of fish eaters
who stopped eating fish
Equivalent to level of 0.2 ppm
Hg in blood 60.0
29 ate 450 g. contaminated
fi sh/week
51 ate 450 g. contaminated
fish/week
1 ate 220 g. contaminated
fi sh/week
22 ate 450 g. contaminated
fish/week
6.222±S.E. 0.809
(0.81-31.0)7.9±
S.E. 0.85
3.1
10.13US.E. 1.563
Authority
Birke et al.
(1972)
Skerfving
(1972a & b)
Westermark
(1969)
Skerfving et
al. (1969)
Tejning (1970)
106
(Continued)
-------
TABLE A-13. MERCURY IN HUMAN HAIR (Continued)
Locality No. & types of persons AnaVysis
& special conditions
Sweden 7 ate 450-1400 g. contaminated
fish/week
" 17 ate 35-3, 030 g. contaminated
fish/week
" 18 ate "high" amount of
fish/week
" 3 ate 2,000 g. contaminated
fish/week
" 0.3 mg. Hg/day/70 kg man (equiva-
lent to 0.2 ppm in blood)
(1.
(3.
(2.
(6.
- PPM
0-11.2)
9-33.8)
2-185.0)
8-56.0)
60.0
Authority
Tejning (1970)
"
"
11
Berglund et
al. (1971)
" Hair to blood ratios for methyl-
Hg are approximately 300
Safety factor of 10, safe level
Finland 3 non-fish eaters
" 20 fish eaters ate fish
with 1.0-5.0 ppm Hg
Ate 300 g fish/day
Ate 300 g fish/day
Ate 150 g fish/day
Ate 135 g fish/day
Ate 65 g fish/day
Ate 65 g fish/day
Ate 55 g fish/day
Ate 50 g fish/day
Ate 35 g fish/day
6.0
(0.3-4.3)2.3
Sumari et al.
(1969)
(3.0-56.0)17.3
56.0
26.9
6.8
11.5
15.4
15.5
11.1
8.2
26.7
(Continued)
107
-------
TABLE A-13. MERCURY IN HUMAN HAIR (Continued)
Locality
Finland
H
ii
11
No. & types of persons
& special conditions
Ate 20 g fish/day
Ate 5 g fish/day
Ate 5 g fish/day
Female, age 45 yrs., ate
goosander eggs containing
Analysis - PPM
14.0
33.8
7.7
2.8
Authority
Sumari et al .
(1969)
it
ii
Wahlberg et
al. (1971)
(0.3-3.5)1.4 ppm Hg
"Normals" in Finland
Italy
Naples 4 fishermen & families
methyl Hg
4 fishermen & families
total Hg
Italy
Cesenatico 2 fishermen & families
methyl Hg
2 fishermen & families
total Hg
Porto Corsini
10 fishermen & families
methyl Hg
"10 fishermen & families
total Hg
Marina di 1 fisherman (near factory
Ravenna discharge) methyl Hg
Total Hg
Casal Borsetti
10 fishermen & families,
methyl Hg
"10 fishermen & families,
total Hg
1.5
(0.34-0.86)0.52
(1.52-2.22)1.86
(3.07-4.76)3.92±S.D.
0.83
(3.93-5.96)4.95±S.D.
0.99
(0.45-5.53)3.54±S.D.
1.5
(1.56-11.61)5.8±S.D.
3.01
5.25
7.54
(1.33-5.69)2.19±S.D.
1.28
(1.84-9.42)4.31±S.D.
2.29
Ui & Kitamura
(1971)
Ui & Kitamura
(1971)
108
(Continued)
-------
TABLE A-13. MERCURY IN HUMAN HAIR (Continued)
Locality No. & types of persons Analysis - PPM Authority
& special conditions
Tuscany 7 male Hg smelter workers (7.6-50.0)25.0±S.E. Cigna Rossi et al.
(high exposure) 6.1 (1976)
13 male Hg miners (1.4-8.8)4.0±S.E.
0.8
12 male unexposed "normals" (0.8-4.5)1.8±S.E.
0.3
Hg content of hair was correlated "
with the Hg exposure levels
Amiata Mt. 8 residents (0.9-4.5)1.8±S.D. Cagnetti et al.
1.1 (1974)
France 4 fishermen & families, (0.75-7.16)3.03±2.48 Ui & Kitamura
Nice methyl Hg (1971)
4 fishermen & families, (1.58-7.39)3.88±2.15
total Hg
Ireland 14 rural children near zinc Corridan (1974)
copper mine ave. 0.48
11 20 urban children, unexposed (0.05-0.69)0.215 "
Scotland 70 "normals" died of violence Howie & Smith
Glasgow (0.03-24.0)5.52 (1967)
" "Normals", no known exposure 5.0-8.0 "
to Hg
Great Britain
840 subjects:
female (ave.) 5.1±S.D. 0.37 Coleman et al.
(1967)
" male (ave.) 6.9
" " Daily intake 7.5 pg/man/day 2.88 Ministry of Agr.
(1971)
Scotland
Glasgow 82 residents (0.37-16.5)3.38±S.D. 3.4 Dale et al.
2.41 geom. mean (1975)
(Continued)
-------
TABLE A-13. MERCURY IN HUMAN HAIR (Continued)
Locality No. & types of persons
& special conditions
Analysis - PPM Authority
Great Britain
adults not occupationally
exposed (ave.)
4.0
Poland
Warsaw 12 "normals," age 25-65 yrs. 0.69±0.31
Cracow
Gdynia
Yugoslavia
Idrija
Iraq
Lenihan et al.
(1971)
Giovanoli-
Jakubczak (1974)
7 exposed to Hg, age 30-55 yrs. 1.39±0.87
15 "normals" 17-67 yrs. 0.59±0.18
5 "normals" 0.4-40 yrs. 0.75±0.21
3 males
3 females
1 male, age 3 yrs.
1 male, beard
(0.15-1.97)0.79
(0.15-0.51)0.27
0.086
0.412
Byrne et al.
(1971)
workers' & students' beards, 11 (0.5-4.2)2.24
Several hundred people:
"Normal" uncontaminated areas (0.1-4.0)1.0
Contaminated areas (1.0-12.0)4.0
Consumed methyl-Hg contaminated
grain, no symptoms 5.0-300.0
Consumed methyl-Hg contaminated
grain, mild symptoms (slight
tremor, mild ataxia, blurred
vision) 120.0-600.0
Kosta et al .
(1972)
Al-Shahristani
& Al-Haddad
(1972)
(Continued)
110
-------
TABLE A-13. MERCURY IN HUMAN HAIR (Continued)
Locality
Iraq
Bagdad
Iraq
Iraq
villages
No. & types of persons
& special conditions
Analysis - PPM Authority
Consumed methyl-Hg contaminated
grain, moderate symptoms (partial
paralysis, tunnel vision, hearing
problems, and disarticulation)
Consumed methyl-Hg contaminated
grain, severe symptoms (complete
paralysis, loss of vision, loss
of hearing, loss of speech,
coma)
Consumed methyl-Hg contaminated
grain, age 60 yrs., no obvious
symptoms
Consumed methyl-Hg contaminated
grain, age 60 yrs., no obvious
symptoms
200.0-800.0
Al-Shahristani
& Al-Haddad
(1972)
400.0-1,600.0
1,000.0
100 persons
1 "normal" age 30 yrs.
1,065.0
(0.1-5.5)1.0,1.3 med.
1.0
175 rural & urban residents (<0.09-5.0)0.82
2 patients Hg poisoned
550.0, 725.0
3 aged 25-30 ate bread made with
methylmercury coated wheat for
2-2.5 mos.:
female
female
female
649.0
564.0
535.0
Al-Shahristani
& Al-Haddad
(1973)
Giovanoli-
Jakubczak
(1974)
Al-Shahristani
(1976)
Bakir et al.
(1973)
Giovanoli-
Jakubczak &
Berg (1974)
(Continued)
111
-------
TABLE A-13. MERCURY IN HUMAN HAIR (Continued)
Locality No. & types of persons
& special conditions
Iraq 385 persons who ate Hg
contaminated bread, >5
years of age
" 1,160 persons who did not
eat Hg contaminated bread,
>5 yrs. of age
Nepal
Silgarhi 31 males, ate no fish
Doti & Dhangarhi
" 14 females, ate no fish
Burma Japanese who emigrated to
Burma had a decrease of Hg
in hair
East After 10 mo. in Bangladesh there
Pakistan was no significant decrease in Hg
in hair of emigrated Japanese.
Bangladesh people had about same
Hg hair level as Japanese
Analysis - PPM Authority
136.0±S.E. 17.8
Kazantzis
et al. (1976a)
5.0±S.E.0.8
0.163±0.187
0.457±0.484
Yamaguchi
et al. (1971)
Suzuki et al.
(1972)
Japan 67 male "normals"
27 female "normals"
94 "normals"
14 male Americans living
in Fukuoka, Japan
Japan 24 persons
12 male patients in mental
hospitals
(0.0-11.99)4.48 Yumaguchi
et al. (1971)
(1.0-7.99)3.53
(0.0-11.99)4.21
ii
(0.69-4.23)1.89±1.04
4.6±1.94 Aoki (1970)
(1.0-3.19)2.09
Yamaguchi et al
(1971)
21 female patients in mental
hospitals (0.69-3.05)2.02
6 males, hair unwashed
(4.75-16.1)11.1
(Continued)
112
-------
TABLE A-13. MERCURY IN HUMAN HAIR (Continued)
Locality No. & types of persons
& special conditions
Japan 6 males, after washed
9 females, hair unwashed
9 females, after washed
12 persons
Analysis - PPM Authority
(0.89-3.72)2.71 Yamaguchi et al
(1971)
(2.36-17.59)5.69
(1.56-6.44)4.48
(4.1-146.0) Saito (1967)
22 victims of Minamata
disease
22 victims of Minamata
disease (had 1.32 ppm
Hg in blood)
Niigata victims of Minamata
disease
Niigata victims showed
symptoms, long time after onset
Niigata, onset of Minamata
disease
2,500 persons examined,
127 persons
2,500 examined, 36 persons
2,500 examined, 6 persons
Consumption of 0.3 mg Hg/day
in fish
Minamata diseased persons
(15.6-763.0)
430.0
(52.0-570.0)
10.0-20.0
200.0
>50.0
>100.0
>200.0
50.0
500.0
Highest Minamata diseased person 750.0
Analysis of segments of long hair
enabled determination of peak
period of Hg intake
Saito (1967)
Takeuchi
(1972a & b)
Berglund et al.
(1971)
Berglund et al.
(1971)
Birke et al.
(1967)
Krehl (1972)
Irukayama (1966)
(Continued)
113
-------
TABLE A-13. MERCURY IN HUMAN HAIR (Continued)
Locality
Japan
Japan
Tokyo
Japan
No. & types of persons
& special conditions
Analysis - PPM Authority
Persons dying with Mihamata (14.0-39.0)
disease
Minamata disease victims
15 members of their families
Severe intoxication
Threshold of mercury effects
Inhaled Hg vapors, hair
near scalp
Inhaled Hg vapors, hair
near scalp 7 mos. later
Unexposed workers
94 "normals"
73 "normals"
515.0
565.0
763.0
15.0-412.0
700.0
200.0
20.4
4.6
1.9-6.2
(<0.99-12)4.2
(0.98-23.0)6.OtS.D.
2.9
7, fish eaters, age 15-32 yrs. 6.2±2.0
369.0
ratio)
Niigata, 22 persons with
Minamata Bay, fatalities (cal-
culated 300-1 blood-hair ratio)
Minamata disease
(56.8-570.0)239.08
Kurland et al.
(1960)
Berglund & Berlin
(1969)
Skerfving et al.
(1970)
Ota (1966)
Ota (1966)
Yamaguchi &
Matsumoto (1968)
Hoshino et al.
(1966)
Giovanoli-
Jakubczak (1974)
Dinman & Hecker
(1972)
Tsubaki (1969)
Kumamoto, 25 persons with Kitamura et al .
Minamata disease (2.46-705.0)138.2 (1960)
(Continued)
114
-------
TABLE A-13. MERCURY IN HUMAN HAIR (Continued)
Locality
Japan
No. & types of jiersons
& special conditions
Threshold for signs and
Analysis - PPM
50.0
Authority
Berglund et al .
Ikitsuki
Island
symptoms of methyl mercury
poisoning (equivalent
to 0.2 ppm in blood)
Threshold effect of Japan and 50.0-90.0
Sweden fish eaters (equivalent
to 0.2-0.3 ppm in blood)
74 "normals"
101 Tokyo citizens
52 Tokyo males
49 Tokyo females
104 Tokyo males
87 Tokyo females
Male fish retailer (ate 200 g
tuna 7 x/wk.; ate 1000 g other
fish 7 x/wk)
6.02
(1.0-15.0)3.85
(1971)
Skerfving
(1972a & b)
Ukita (1968)
Nishima et al.
(1971)
6.35±4.04
3.9±1.04
(2.6-17.7)6.9±2.8
(1.0-7.8)3.8±1.5
64.7
Press Release
(1973)
Male fish retailer (ate 100 g 44.4
tuna 3 x/wk; ate 80 g other fish
7 x/wk)
Fish retailer (ate 100 g tuna 41.2
7 x/wk; ate 100 g other fish
7 x/wk)
178 residents ate 84 g
fish/day
111 males 4.35±2.45
67 females 3.94+2.03
89 tuna fishermen 4.83±2.31
Press Release
(1973)
Yamaguchi et al
(1971)
(Continued)
115
-------
TABLE A-13. MERCURY IN HUMAN HAIR (Continued)
Locality No. & types of persons
& special conditions
Niigata Bay 45 (7 subjects above
180 ppm)
Analysis - PPM
(20.0-325)
Japan
Fish eaters, 735 (intake
of 0-0.8 mg/day)y2 = 150 x + 1.66
"Normal" Japanese 4.22±2.39
Americans living in Japan 1.89±1.04
Occupational ly exposed 5.67±1.61
Tungsten refinery workers 10.1±1.7
23.85±14.87
Minamata disease patients
8-9 yrs. after onset
Hg was higher in males
than females
15 farmers 7.5±4.8
8 dental doctors 9.8±2.9
Tokyo citizens:
62 males ate rice 3 x/day 6.99
32 females ate rice 3 x/day 3.94
34 fish eaters ate rice 3 x/day 20.75
32 males ate rice 1-2 x/day 6.87
51 females ate rice 1-2 x/day 3.74
45 fish eaters ate rice 1-2 x/day 18.62
3 male bread eaters 5.63
4 female bread eaters 2.9
Authority
Tsubaki (1972)
Kojima & Araki
(1972)
Akitake (1969)
Suzuki et al
(1972)
Ohno et al.
(1967)
Nishima et al
(1973)
(Continued)
116
-------
TABLE A-13. MERCURY IN HUMAN HAIR (Continued)
Locality
Japan
No. & types of persons
& special conditions
1 bread and fish eater
Analysis - PPM
34.4
Authority
Nishima et al.
(1973)
65 males prefer fish-eating
42 females prefer fish-eating
70 prefer fish-eating, heavy fish
consumers
7.54
4.21
20.52
38 males did not prefer fish-eating 5.79
45 females did not prefer fish-
eating 3.37
10 heavy fish consumers 14.12
Japanese intake 45.6 pg/man/day 5.14
Takizawa (1974)
River Oyabe 83.6 pg/man/day or 15.6 methyl-Hg
pg/man/day 6.69 methyl-Hg
Japan
Japan
Kumamoto
Heavy fish-eaters near River, 17.2
193.7 pg/man/day
Japanese crew tuna fishing boat 19.9
119.1 pg/man/day
Japanese Niigata patients 1,481.7 249.5
pg/man/day
3 inhabitants in polluted district
of Niigata:
758.7 pg/man/day 116.8
216.7 pg/man/day 40.1
49.7 pg/man/day 18.4
1,645 persons living near
polluted area:
85 persons 0-1.0
117
Matsushima &
Doi (1962)
(Continued)
-------
TABLE A-13. MERCURY IN HUMAN HAIR (Continued)
Locality
Japan
Kumamoto
Indian
Ocean
Japan
Tokyo
Samoa
Western
Shore
No. & types of persons
& special conditions
255 persons
1,044 persons
245 persons
35 persons
6 persons
1 person
1 person
1 person
1 person
1 person
5 crew on tuna boat ate
300 g tuna/day
Analysis - PPM Authority
1.0-10.0
10.0-50.0
50.0-100.0
100.0-150.0
150.0-200.0
200.0
233.0
357.0
600.0
920.0
(30.3-45.7)45.0
58 male tuna fishermen (7.0-45.7)19.9±9.9
22 male and female fish
market workers
92 male sushi makers
84 male fish dealers
63 male tuna fishermen
37 male tuna fishermen
(2.58-25.6)10.7±5.5
(to 52.0)14.8±6.12
(4.7-64.7)19.3±10.4
(5.2-69.0)24.4±13.2
(4.8-39.7)18.9±9.0
11 fish eaters (age 24-46 yrs.) 7.2±2.2
Matsushima &
Doi (1962)
Yamanaka et al.
(1972)
Doi (1973)
Nishima et al.
(1971)
Nishima et al.
(1973)
Kondo &
Take hiro (1973)
Giovanoli-
Jakubczak
(1974)
(Continued)
118
-------
TABLE A-13. MERCURY IN HUMAN HAIR (Continued)
Locality
New Zeal and
Hastings
Napier
15
Countries
Country
Unspecified
15
Countries
Country
Unspecified
No. & types of persons
& special conditions
"Normals" 33 boys,
elementary school
"Normals" 33 boys,
elementary school
70 persons
Analysis - PPM Authority
(0.3-34.0)2.2±S.D. 1.3
(0.5-5.3)1.8±S.D. 0.88
(0.03-24.4)
5.52±S.D. 5.21
26 of 37 persons exceeded 6 ppm
(acceptable level of Berglund)
"Normal" no known exposure:
head hair 5.5
pubic hair 1.6
From 12 countries other than
Japan (0.89-4.19)
Dental assistants Ave. 32.0
Industrial workers in contaminated
laboratory to 98.0
For methyl mercury, the cone, in hair
ratio to cone, in blood is 250.
The concentration ratio relation-
ship between cone, of Hg in hair
and whole blood is from 230 to 280
based on analysis of 123 subjects
Bate & Dyer
(1965)
Goldwater
(1972)
Liebscher &
Smith (1968)
Lambou (1972)
Rodger &
Smith 1967)
Saito (1967)
Underwood
(1973)
Clarkson
(1976)
119
-------
TABLE A-14. MERCURY IN HUMAN NAILS
Locality No. & types of persons
& special conditions
Country 25
Unspecified
No known exposure:
fingernails
toenails
Hg in nails determined
Analysis - PPM
(0.8-33.8)
7.27+S.D. 8.39
7.3
2.4
Pennsylvania
Patients with certain dermatological
conditions have more pigmentation of
nails after treatment with ammoniated
Mercury ointment. The dermatoses include
psoriasis, seborrheic dermatitis, alopecia
areata, atopic & stasis dermatitis, & pit-
ting of nails
Country Determined fingernail cystine content
Unspecified in persons with chronic mercury exposure
Authority
Goldwater (1972)
Liebscher & Smith
(1968)
Rodger & Smith
(1967)
Cooper & Langford
(1972)
Butterworth &
Strean (1963)
Kleinfeld et al.
(1961)
120
-------
TABLE A-15. NICKEL IN HUMAN HAIR
Locality No. & types of persons
& special conditions
United States 63 males, natural color
New Hampshire hair
Analysis - PPM
1.07±0.178
Authority
Schroeder &
Nason (1969)
New York
Country
Unspecified
24 females, natural color 4.09±1.091
hair
16 males, grey & white 0.54±0.088
1 female, grey & white 1.0
15 males, red hair 1.74±0.618
7 females, red hair 3.19±0.424
All ages (0.0-11.0)
Ni in scalp hair of children only
only was correlated with environmental
exposure gradients
Clipped hair 2-5 cm from scalp used
for environmental and occupational
exposures to Ni
North East
United States 30 male residents
New York
Riverhead
Queens
Bronx
United States
Various
areas
Texas
30 female residents
43 samples
31 samples
28 samples
l.OltS.D. 0.44
4.2US.D. 1.0
0.569
0.849
0.726
(0.8-15.6)3.7
Creason et al
(1975)
Nechay & Sun-
derman (1973)
Katz & Samitz
(1974)
Pinkerton
et al. (1973)
12 persons, age
12-69 yrs.
52% Ni was extracted from hair
by 1% HN03
22 males, age 9-60 yrs. (0.9-7.2)1.9
Hinners et al.
(1974)
Eads & Lambdin
(1973)
121
(Continued)
-------
TABLE A-15. NICKEL IN HUMMAN HAIR (Continued)
Locality No. & types of persons
& special conditions
Texas 21 females, age 13-72 yrs,
Analysis - PPM Authority
United States
United States 32 young males in Navy
" " 32 young males, 5 mos. later
" " 32 young males, 17 mos. later
" " 124 young males
" " 70 young males, 5 mos. later
" " 56 young males, 17 mos. later
14 females, 1800-1900
43 females, 1900-1930
(0.7-7.5)3.4
0.0075
(means)
2.8
3.4
3.5
(medians)
3.2
3.2
2.8
2.7
3.2
Eads & Lambdin
(1973)
Schroeder &
Nason (1971)
Gordus et al.
(1974)
United States 41 females, age 18-22 yrs., (geom. means)
U. Mich. 1972 6.3
27 females, age 12-40 yrs.
1910-1935 4.0
11 females, age 12-40 yrs.
1890-1910 2.5
10 females, age 12-40 yrs.
before 1890 3.1
" Preliminary data show a significant
increase of Ni in hair of females
age 12-40 yrs. from before 1890 to
the present.
Gordus et al.
(1975)
(Continued)
122
-------
TABLE A-15. NICKEL IN HUMAN HAIR (Continued)
Locality
Canada
Venezuela
Germany
No. & types of persons
& special conditions
Analysis - PPM Authority
45 urban residents of (1.2-20.0)2.4 med.
Toronto
76 rural residents of
Central Canada (1.6-17.0)2.1 med.
Chattopadhyay
&Jervis (1974)
121 urban near
refineries
(1.1-32.0)3.6 med.
11 Amazonian indians (43.0-71.0)59.0 med. Perkons (1977)
Nickel workers scalp hair 0.2-0.96
German Democratic
Republic 5 workers breathed Ni
carbonyl (first 10-15 days (4.0-48.1)25.2
after exposure)
" " 5 workers (15 to 170 days
after exposure) (0.4-17.5)3.0
The half-life of Ni in 23.7±S.D. 5.0 days
hair is
Hagedorn-Gbtz
&Kuppers (1975)
Hagedorn-Gbtz
et al. (1977)
123
-------
TABLE A-16. SELENIUM IN HUMAN HAIR
Locality No. & types of persons
& special conditions
United States
Tennessee 33 adults and children
United States Males
Analysis - PPM Authority
Country
Unspecified
Females
People lose hair from
high Se
(1.0-11.0)6.4
0.3
13.0
New York
Organic selenosis occurs in
people in seleniferous areas.
Hair levels of affected 8.0-30.0
persons are
Se was measured in scalp hair
of adults and children, but no
correlation was found with
environmental exposure
United States Females, age 3-5 yrs., brown
0.6
Male, age 7 yrs., red 0.5
Male, age 16 yrs., ash brown 0.55
Female, age 23 yrs., red brown 0.58
Male, age 49 yrs., dark brown 0.74
Female, age 68 yrs., grey 0.61
Female, age 71 yrs., grey
Male, age 84 yrs., black
& white
Mean
0.36
0.60
0.57±0.038
Bate & Dyer
(1965)
Schroeder &
Nason (1971)
Rosenfeld &
Beath (1964)
Oel schlager
(1970)
Creason et al.
(1975)
Schroeder et al
(1970)
(Continued)
124
-------
TABLE A-16. SELENIUM IN HUMAN HAIR (Continued)
Locality No. & types of persons
& special conditions
Analysis - PPM Authority
United States Male—beard hair of man using Se
medication for face & skin 23.0
" " Use of Se disulfide shampoo makes
hair unreliable as index of Se
toxicity in man
United States 32 young males in Navy
" " 32 young males, 5 mos. later
" " 32 young males, 17 mos. later
means
0.97
1.06
1.15
medians
0.76
121 young males
71 young males, 5 mos. later 0.66
56 young males, 17 mos. later 0.58
Some men used Se-containing hair
shampoo and some had over 2.0 ppm Se
Females, 14 samples, 1800-1900 0.58
Females, 41 samples, 1900-1930 0.55
Fuller et al
(1967)
Gordus et al
(1974)
Michigan
United States
12 males, washed hair 2 x/mo. geom. means Gordus et al
0.76 (1975)
12 males, washed hair 20 x/mo. 0.80
41 females, age 18-22 yrs., 1972 0.54
27 females, age 12-40 yrs.,
1910-1935 0.62
11 females, age 12-40 yrs.,
1890-1910 0.47
10 females, age 12-40 yrs.,
before 1890 0.62
(Continued)
125
-------
TABLE A-16. SELENIUM IN HUMAN HAIR (Continued)
Locality
Canada
Yellowknife
Canada
No. & types of persons
& special conditions
Analysis - PPM Authority
(1.0-2.5) Perkons &
Jervis (1965)
12 residents in Yellowknife,
1.5-23yrsi (1.72-5.64)2.7 O'Tooleetal.
(1971)
45 urban residents of
Toronto
(0.29-6.3)1.9 Chattopadhyay &
med. Jervis (1974)
Venezuela
76 rural residents of (0.32-4.8)1.8 med.
Central Canada
121 urban near refineries (0.27-7.4)2.3 med. "
11 Amazonian indians (2.15-5.45)3.68, 3.15 Perkons (1977)
med.
Central & Alopecia occurs in people in
South America high seleniferous areas
Rosenfeld & Beath
(1964)
Italy
Tuscany
Amiata Mt.
7 males, Hg smelter (0.213-0.664)0.449 Cigna Rossi
workers ±S.E. 0.13 et al. (1976)
13 males, Hg miners
(0.41-0.45)0.43
±S.E. 0.021
12 males, unexposed (0.218-0.505)0.332
"normals" ±S.E. 0.061
Se content in blood was higher
with higher Hg exposure, but
Se in hair was not correlated
with higher Hg exposure.
Amiata Mt.
Iraq
8 residents
175 rural and urban
residents
0.35
Clemente (1977)
(0.18-4.0)3.68, Al-Shahristani
3.15 med. (1976)
(Continued)
126
-------
TABLE A-16. SELENIUM IN HUMAN HAIR (Continued)
Locality
New Zealand
Hastings
Napier
Country
Unspecified
No. & types of persons
& special conditions
Analysis - PPM Authority
33 "normal" elementary school
boys (0.4-12.2)0.53
33 "normal" elementary school
boys (0.4-0.9)0.69
(0.5-3.0)
Bate & Dyer
(1965)
Quittner et al
(1970)
127
-------
TABLE A-17- SELENIUM IN HUMAN NAILS
Locality No. & types of persons Analysis - PPM Authority
& special conditions
Country Organic selenosis occurs Oelschlager
Unspecified in seleniferous areas. (1970)
The nails of affected persons
contain (8.0-30.0)
128
-------
TABLE A-18. TIN IN HUMAN HAIR
Locality
New York
United States
No. & types of persons
& special conditions
Sn in scalp hair of children
only was correlated with
environmental exposure
gradients
Military academy and
university students'
scalp hair
Analysis - PPM Authority
Creason et al
(1975)
1.0
Gordus et al.
(1974)
129
-------
TABLE A-19. VANADIUM IN HUMAN HAIR
Locality
New York
No. & types of persons
& special conditions
Analysis - PPM
V in scalp hair in adults and
children was significantly cor
related with environmental ex-
posure gradients
New Hampshire Female, age 3 yrs., blonde
" Female, age 40, brown
" " Female, age 65, red
United States 42 young males in Navy
" 42 young males 5 mos. later
" 42 young males 17 mos. later
" " 122 young males in Navy
" " 78 young males 5 mos. later
" " 64 young males 17 mos. later
" " 54 young males in Air Force
12 females, 1800-1899
25 females, 1900-1930
Michigan 12 males, washed hair 2 x/mo.
12 males, washed hair 20 x/mo.
41 females, age 18-22 yrs. 1972
United States 27 females, age 12-40 yrs.,
1910-1935
" 11 females, age 12-40 yrs.,
1890-1910
Authority
Creason et al.
(1975)
Schroeder et al
(1963)
0.0
2.59
2.71
means Gordus et al.
0.032 (1974)
0.025
0.021
medians
0.026
0.024
0.02
0.041
0.009
0.006
0.036
Gordus et al.
(1975)
0.094
0.054
0.016
0.020
130
(Continued)
-------
TABLE A-19. VANDIUM IN HUMAN HAIR (Continued)
Locality No. & types of persons
&specia1 conditions
Analysis - PPM Authority
United States
Venezuela
Japan
10 females, age 12-40 yrs.}
before 1890 0.014
Preliminary data show a significant
increase of V in hair of females
age 12-40 years from before 1890
to the present.
V lowers cystine content of hair,
but there is normally much var-
iation so nail cystine was used
for determining V levels
Gordus et al .
(1975)
11 Amazonian indians
45 rural residents
(0.03-0.7)0.23
med. 0.14
(0.004-0.093)0.03±
S.D. 0.02
median 0.034
geom. mean 0.023
Hudson (1964)
Perkons
(1977)
Ohmori et al.
131
-------
TABLE A-20. VANADIUM IN HUMAN NAILS
Locality
Colorado
Peru
North
America
New Guinea
No. & types of persons
& special conditions
Vanadium at very low concen-
tration decreases cystine
content of fingernails (at
1 ppm/g of tissue)
850 fingernail specimens were
analyzed for cystine value in
workers with carnotite ore, am-
monium metavanadate, and oil
industry workers
Workers processing patronite ore
and in contact with vanadium pen-
toxide. The average nail cystine
content of each vanadium-exposed
group was consistently lower than
its corresponding control group,
and ranged from 8.2 to 9.6% cystine
As the urinary V is increased, the
nail cystine decreased
Normal cystine of white males
was 10.0%
Nail cystine was used for determining
V levels
Analysis - PPM Authority
50 fathers, age 46±8 yrs.
toenails
50 mothers, age 41±8 yrs.
34 male teenagers, age
15±2 yrs.
0.04±.D. 0.05
median 0.02
geom. mean 0.02
geom. dev. 3.53
0.07±S.D. 0.07
median 0.05
geom. mean 0.04
geom. dev. 3.61
0.12±S.D. 0.14
median 0.05
Stokinger
(1963)
Mountain
et al. (1955)
Hudson (1964)
Masironi
et al.(1976)
(Continued)
132
-------
TABLE A-20. VANADIUM IN HUMAN NAILS (Continued)
Locality No. & types of persons
& special conditions
New Guinea 23 female teenagers, age
15 yrs.
Analysis - PPM Authority
O.lfttS.D. 0.10 Masironi et al
median 0.07 (1976)
60 parents [drinking water Ca Masironi et al
(1.2-3.2)2.4] toenails (0.004-0.205)0.023 (1976)
20 parents [drinking water Ca "
(7.2-15.3)9.6]toenails (0.007-0.029)0.036
32 teenagers [drinking water "
Ca 2.4] toenails (0.006-0.416)0.05
20 teenagers [drinking water "
Ca 9.6] toenails (0.012-0.625)0.083
Drinking water with lower Ca
had higher blood pressures "
There is a significant decrease in "
V toenails of parents vs. children.
It was concluded that V in toenails
reflects V in diet and not soil
contamination of toenails, so scraping
of toenails effectively removed con-
tamination.
133
-------
APPENDIX B
COMPILATION OF REFERENCE DATA ON HAIR, FUR,
NAILS, CLAWS, AND HOOFS IN OTHER MAMMALS
This review of world literature is intended to be comprehensive, but not
complete or exhaustive in coverage.
The tissues selected are the hair, fur, or pelt, and the appendages on
the feet—nails from fingers and toes, claws from feet and flippers, and
hoofs from ungulate feet.
There are relatively limited data on toxic trace elements in these
tissues in mammals other than humans.
The data show that animal hair and fur are meaningful and representative
tissues for biological monitoring and can be used for correlation with
environmental gradients and disease correlated with excesses and
deficiencies.
134
-------
TABLE B-l. ANTIMONY IN ANIMAL HAIR
Species
Pronghorn antelope
Antilocapra
amencana
Coyote
Cam's latrans
Elk
Cervus canadensis
Red-backed vole
Clethrionymys
gapperi
Chipmunk
Eutamias sp.
Vole
Microtus longicaudus
Mountain vole
Microtus montanus
Meadow vole
Microtus
pennsylvanicus
Richardsons vole
Microtus
richardsoni
Mule deer
Odocoileus hemionus
Mountain goat
Oreamnus americanus
Bighorn sheep
Ovis canadensis
Shrew
Sorex vagrans
Mouse
Zapus princeps
ii H
Locality & Special
Conditions
Idaho
Wyoming, 19 specimens
Idaho
Wyoming
Wyomi ng
Idaho
Wyomi ng
Wyomi ng
Wyomi ng
Idaho
Idaho
Wyoming
Wyoming
Wyoming
Idaho
Analysis - PPM
(0.4-0.97)0.86
(0.09-1.8)0.67
(0.9-13.0)4.2
(0.1-0.6)0.3
1.8
2.4
1.9
1.3
0.7
(0.06-12.0)4.2
0.28-0.29
1.0
(0.3-2.5)1.14
0
0.6
Authority
Huckabee
et al. (1972)
M
H
n
n
n
ii
n
n
n
n
ii
n
135
-------
TABLE B-Z. ARSENIC IN ANIMAL HAIR
Species
Locality & Special
Conditions
Analysis - PPM Authority
Cow
Bos bovis
Horse
Equus caballus
Rabbit
Oryctolagus
Cuniculus
Sheep
Ovis aries
Rat
Rattus rattus
Washington; 10 dairy cattle
10-13 mi. downwind from Cu
smelter
10 dairy cattle 37 mi. from
Cu smelter (controls)
(3.7-19.0)8.9
Orheim et al
(1974)
(0.13-0.84)0.46
The data from hair indicates a
twenty-fold increase in As. Data
from blood and milk were low but
showed double the increase over
control.
Montana, 39 horses, manes
Montana, SSE of smelter 1.0
miles
Montana, N of smelter 1.0
miles
Montana, E of smelter 2.9
miles
Montana, SE of smelter 5.3
miles
All other sites
Switzerland, Feeding As pro-
duced local pigmentation in fur
Rabbits 1 km from power plant had
high accumulation of As in fur
13 rabbits exposed had As in
hair and claws
1.4 mg/kg As fed daily, As
found in wool
Radioarsenic accumulated in hair
(0-7.5) Lewis (1972)
Ave. 4.2
3.9
0.3
0.3
0
Robert &
Zlircher (1950)
Bencko (1970)
Bencko et al.
(1971)
Lancaster
et al. (1971)
Strain &
Pories (1966)
136
-------
TABLE B-3. CADMIUM IN ANIMAL HAIR
Species
Moose
Alces alces
glgas
Cow
Bos bovis
Goat
Capra hircus
Locality & Special
Conditions
Analysis - PPM
Alaska, 608 moose Cd was two (0.2-1.6)0.8
times higher in July to October
than November to June over a
3-year period.
Missouri, farm animals exposed
to Cd from lead smelter and
trucking Pb concentrate
Missouri, 4 exposed cattle
on test farm:
fall 1.29
winter 1.74
spring 2.8
summer 0.67
Missouri, 4 unexposed cattle on
control farm:
fall 0.06
winter 0.13
spring 0.05
summer 0.04
Cd in cattle hair in terminal
summer sample was 12x higher
than control cattle hair
0.112% of oral dose of 109Cd
was in hair
1.88% of I.V. dose of 109Cd
was in hair
Authority
Flynn
et al.(1975)
Dorn
et al. (1974)
Miller
et al. (1968)
(Continued)
137
-------
TABLE B-3. CADMIUM IN ANIMAL HAIR (Continued)
Species
Locality & Special
Conditions
Analysis - PPM Authority
Horse
Equus cabal!us Montana, 39 horses, manes (0.2-9.6)
Montana, NE of smelter 2.9
miles 9.0
Horse Montana, E of smelter 2.6
Equus caballus miles 2.9
Montana, SSE of smelter 1.0
miles 2.4
11 Montana, NW of smelter 1.4
miles 2.2
Montana, N of smelter 1.0
miles 2.2
" " Montana, W of smelter 3.0
miles 1.7
Montana, E of smelter 2.9
miles 1.4
Montana, NNW of smelter 1.9
miles 1.3
Montana, WNW of smelter 7.6
miles 1.3
" " Montana, E of smelter 4.7
miles 1.0
" " Proximity of stacks of the
smelter correlates with in-
creased levels of Cd in horse
manes and are consistent with
Cd in soil and pasture grass
Mouse
Mus musculus
44 days after injection
of Cd 0.00011±0.00005
112 days after injection
of Cd 0.00007±0.000033
Lewis (1972)
Lewis (1972)
Nordberg &
Nishiyama
(1972)
138
-------
TABLE B-4. CHROMIUM IN ANIMAL HAIR
Species
Locality & Special
Conditions
Analysis - PPM
Pronghorn antelope
Antilocapra
americana
Idaho, 30 with Cr.
Wyoming, 7 with Cr.
(1.9-640.0)
(0.3-130.0)
Coyote
Canis latrans
Elk
Cervus canadensis
Wyoming, 15 of 19 with Cr (0.7-12.0)
Idaho, 15 with Cr
Porcupine
Erethizon dorsatum Wyoming, hair
Chipmunk
Eutamias sp.
Vole
Microtus
longicaudus
Wyoming, quills
Wyomi ng
Idaho
Mountain vole
Microtus montanus Wyoming, 16
(1.9-570.0)
0.9
0.8
29.1
1.7
(4.7-180.0)
Meadow vole
Microtus
pennsylvanicus
Richardson's vole
Microtus richardsoni Wyomi ng
Mule deer
Odocoileus hemionus Idaho, 9 of 11 with Cr
Mountain goat
Oreamnus americanus Idaho, 2
Wyoming, 2 of 14 with Cr (5.6-8.2)
10.0
(13.0-630.0)
(4.0-5.5)
Bighorn sheep
Ovis canadensis
Wyoming, 1
0
Authority
Huckabee
et al. (1972)
(Continued)
139
-------
TABLE B-4. CHROMIUM IN ANIMAL HAIR (Continued)
Species Locality & Special Analysis - PPM Authority
Conditions
Rat
Rattus rattus blCr is retained in rat hair Strain et al.
(1964)
Cotton rat
Sigmodon hispidus Tennessee, control, pelt 0.092±S.E. 0.007 Taylor
et al. (1975)
" " Tennessee, exposed to "
drift from cooling tower,
pelt 1.056±S.E. 0.133
Tennessee, control, hair 0.395±S.E. 0.021
" " Tennessee, exposed to drift,
hair 4.397±S.E. 0.555 "
" " There was a 10 fold increase "
in Cr in both pelt and hair
when rats ate vegetation with
high levels of Cr.
" " Tennessee, 100-130 m from
source, pelt (0.93-1.2) "
Tennessee, 100-130 m from "
source, hair (3.9-4.8)
Shrew
Sorex vagrans Wyoming, 1 of 10 with Cr 15.0 Huckabee
et al. (1972)
Western jumping mouse
Zapus princeps Wyoming, 3 (23.0-45.0) "
140
-------
TABLE B-5. COBALT IN ANIMAL HAIR
Species
Cow
Bos bovis
Locality £ Special
Conditions
Germany, Dietary sup-
plement of Co signif-
icantly increased the
level of Co in dairy
cow hair in 112 days.
Rat
Rattus rattus 58Co was taken up
and accumulated
Mammalian hair
Analysis - PPM
Authority
Anke (1966)
15.0
Strain et al
(1964)
Bowen (1966)
141
-------
TABLE B-6. CUPPER IN ANIMAL HAIR
Species
Cow
Bos bovis
Locality & Special
Conditions
Analysis - PPM
United States (Missouri)
4 cattle exposed to lead
smelter:
fall 8.26
winter 7.76
spring 6.94
summer 7.99
4 cattle, controls, unexposed:
fall 7.25
winter 7.84
spring 6.81
summer 7.41
Sum of squares test showed
no significant difference
of Cu levels in hair of ex-
posed and control cattle.
Belgium, 536 cattle sampled
3 x/yr., but sampling method
was too uncertain for diagnosis
of Cu deficiency.
East Germany, Dietary supplement
of Cu significantly increased
the level of Cu in dairy cow
hair in 112 days.
East Germany, Cu level in hair
after extraction by diethyl ether
and hot water did not change Cu level.
Authority
Dorn et al
(1974)
Chauvaux
et al. (1965)
Anke (1966)
(Continued)
142
-------
TABLE B-6. COPPER IN ANIMAL HAIR (Continued)
Species
Guinea pig
Cavia porcellus
Guinea pig
Cavia porcellus
Mouse
Mus musculus
Rabbit
Oryctolagus
cuniculus
Pig
Sus scrofa
Locality & Special
Conditions
Analysis - PPM
3 black 23.0±2.0
3 white 23.7±2.0
3 black piebald 19.7±9.2
3 white piebald 15.2±4.7
No significant differences
in Cu content and hair color
6 black 17.7±2.3
5 white 11.3±1.1
Difference not significant
11 black 17.4±2.1
11 white 18.6±2.4
Difference not significant
4 black 17.1±1.9
4 white 17.6±0.9
Difference not significant
Authority
Kikkawa
et al. (1958)
143
-------
TABLE B-7. COPPER IN ANIMAL HOOFS
Species Locality & Special Analysis - PPM Authority
Conditions
Horse
Equus cabal 1 us Austria, 50 horses hoofs Weiser et al
were examined for Cu. No (1965)
differences were found in
Cu content of younger and
older parts of the hoof
frog, and Cu was indepen-
dent of sex, age, color of
horse, or of hoof pigmentation.
144
-------
TABLE B-8. LEAD IN ANIMAL HAIR
Species
Locality & Special
Conditions
Moose
Alces alces gigas Alaska, 608 moose
Analysis - PPM
(3.5-10.0)6.0
Cow
Bos bovis
(Pb in shoulder hair was
low in Jan.-July, and high
from August to Dec.)
Missouri, 4 exposed to Pb
smelter and near to trucking
of Pb concentrate:
fall 94.13
winter 87.5
spring 96.5
summer 66.0
4 controls, unexposed farm:
fall 2.19
winter 3.92
spring 2.13
summer 0.88
Exposed cows had 75 times
amount of Pb in hair com-
pared with controls. Hair
washed with soap and 10%
SNOOP solution
Correlation of hair and
liver concentration of Pb
in cattle with chronic lead
poisoning was highly signi-
ficant (P=<0.01)
Authority
Flynn et al
(1975)
Dorn et al.
(1974)
Russel &
Schoberl
(1970)
(Continued)
145
-------
TABLE B-8. LEAD IN ANIMAL HAIR (Continued)
Species
Guinea pig
Cavia porcellus
n 11
Horse
Equus cabal! us
n M
n n
n n
n M
n n
n n
n n
n H
n n
n n
n n
n ii
n n
Locality & Special
Conditions
Michigan, Detroit
10 breathed filtered
air, pelt
Michigan, Detroit
19 breathed city air
(2.5 ug Pb/m3), pelt
Montana, 39 horses, manes
Distance-smelter
NE 2.9 miles
SE 2.6 miles
NW 1.4 miles
NNW 1 .9 miles
SSE 1 .0 miles
N 1 .0 miles
WNW 7.6 miles
E 2.9 miles
SE 5.3 miles
W 3.0 miles
WNW 2.3 miles
E 4.7 miles
NNW 2.3 miles
Analysis - PPM Authority
Smith et al .
(1970)
0.12±S.D. 0.08
n
0.18±0.11
: Lewis (1972)
35.0
18.0
12.0
10.0
8.0
7.4
7.1
5.2
4.8
4.1
3.4
3.2
1.4
(Continued)
146
-------
TABLE B-8. LEAD IN ANIMAL HAIR (Continued)
Species
Horse
Equus cabal!us
Locality & Special
Conditions
Analysis - PPM
Proximity to stacks of the
lead smelters correlates
with increased levels of
lead in the manes of horses
taking into account wind
direction, residence time,
and food sources. 50% of
horses had lead levels 2-5
times greater than controls.
Authority
Lewis
(1972)
White-tailed deer
Odocoilus
virginianus
Rabbit
Qryctolagus
cuniculus
Sheep
Ovis aries
Ohio, 8 deer, 6 with Pb (0.0-14.4)5.92±
S.D. 5.11
median 2.18
Michigan, Detroit
12 breathed filtered
air, pelt
Michigan, Detroit
14 breathed city air
(2.5 ug/m3), pelt
Poland, 21°Pb in hair
was 70% of 21°Pb in
femurs 19 days after
injection.
Poland, resting hair took
up only a fraction of Pb
taken up by growing hair.
Sheep wool
Bulgaria, determined lead
in sheep wool and cattle
hair in areas with humans
affected by nephritis.
0.19±S.D. 0.18
0.20±S.D. 0.13
Lynch (1973)
Smith et al.
(1970)
Jaworowski
et al.
(1966)
10.0-30.0
Dankwortt
(1942)
Ivanov et al
(1962)
147
-------
TABLE B-9. MERCURY IN ANIMAL HAIR
Species
Pronghorn antelope
Antilocapra
americana
Locality & Special
Conditions
Analysis - PPM
II II
Northern fur
seal Callorhinus
ursinus
Idaho, doe
Idaho, 5 wk. preterm
fetus (from above)
Idaho
Idaho & Wyoming, 44
tested, Hg found only
in a herd near a chem-
ical plant
Alaska, cows
Alaska, new born pups
Alaska, 2 mo. old pups
0.01
0.3
(0.01-2.0)0.8
4.87
3.68
5.36
Coyote
Cam's latrans
Wyoming, 19 samples (0.008-2.8)0.57
" Wyoming, 85% had over
0.008 ppm in hair
Elk
Cervus canadensis Idaho, 10 (0.008-0.5)0.095
40% had over 0.008 ppm
Red-backed vole
Clethrionymys Wyoming, 13
gapperi
<0.008
Hood seal
Cystophora
cristata
Quebec, Magdalen Isl.,
3 males (2.64-7.63)5.06
Authority
Huckabee et
al. (1972)
Kim et al
(1974)
Huckabee et
al. (1972)
Sergeant &
Armstrong
(1973)
(Continued)
148
-------
TABLE B-9. MERCURY IN ANIMAL HAIR (Continued)
Species
Porcupine
Erethizon
dorsatum
ii
Chipmunk
Eutamias sp.
Cat
Pel is domesticus
ii ii
ii M
n H
ii n
Gray seal
Halichoerus
grypus
Locality & Special Analysis - PPM
Conditions
Wyoming, hair
Wyoming, quills
Wyomi ng
Japan, Minamata:
natural
experimental
Yatsushiro City, along sea
Shiranui-cho, along sea
Amakusa-seto, along sea
Ushifuka, along sea
Nova Scotia, 3 females
0.2
0.02
0.3
39.8-52.0
21.5-70.0
46.6-51.0
9.8
117.0-117.5
17.6-33.1
Hg(l. 8-16. 0)7.0
Authority
Huckabee et
al. (1972)
n
n
Kitamura,
Cited in
Doi (1973)
n
n
n
n
Freeman &
Home
(1974)
Otter
Lutra canadensis
Nova Scotia, 2 females
Nova Scotia, 3 males
Nova Scotia, 3 males
Georgia, Piedmont, 3
Georgia, Lower coastal
plain, 6
Methyl Hg
(0.24-2.5)1.4
Hg(l.4-12.0)5.0
Methyl Hg
(0.2-2.8)1.12
(9.3-26.8)15.9 Cumbie
(1975)
(15.8-67.9)37.6
(Continued)
149
-------
TABLE B-9. MERCURY IN ANIMAL HAIR (Continued)
Species
Locality & Special
Conditions
Rhesus monkey
Macaca rnu1atta& Not fed methyl mercury
Macaca iris (control 0)
" " Fed methyl mercury
(0.01 mg/kg/day)
" " Fed methyl mercury
(0.03 mg/kg/day)
Analysis - PPM
0.3
4.8
19.0
Authority
Ikeda & Tobe
(1972)
Rhesus monkey
Macaca mulattaS.
Macaca iris
Fed methylmercury
(0.1 mg/kg/day) 44.0
Fed methyl mercury
(0.3 mg/kg/day) 202.0
Vole
Microtus
longicaudus
Mountain vole
Microtus montanus
Meadow vole
Microtus
pennsylvanicus
Richardson's vole
Microtus
richardsoni
Mink
Mustela vison
Idaho 0.03
Wyoming, non-Hg area <0.008
Wyoming, Hg-bearing area <0.008-0.07
Wyoming, non-Hg area <0.008
Wyoming, Hg-bearing area 0.08
Wyoming, Hg-bearing area 0.09
Michigan, control, no Hg 1.13±0.08
Huckabee et
al. (1972)
Aulerich et
al. (1974)
(Continued)
150
-------
TABLE B-9. MERCURY IN ANIMAL HAIR (Continued)
Species
Mink
Mustela vison
Mule deer
Odocoileus
hemionus
Muskrat
Ondatra
zibethica
Mountain goat
Oreamnus
americanus
Rabbit
Oryctolagus
cuniculus
Bighorn sheep
Ovis canadensis
Locality & Special
Conditions
Fed 5 ppm Methyl-Hg
1 mo. (lethal)
Fed 10 ppm HgCl 5 mo.
(no effect)
Georgia, Piedmont, 5
Analysis - PPM Authority
1.22±0.12
1.23
(2.3-17.3)10.7
Georgia, Lower coastal
plain, 2 (5.9-15.4)10.7
Idaho, 11
Canada
Idaho, 2
Yugoslavia, in mercury
area mine & plant
In control area
Yugoslavia, in contaminated
area 9 wks.
Wyoming
Wyomi ng
<0.008
0.363-0.874
0.'
0.5
0.3
293.3
17.0(?)
<0.008
Aulerich et
al. (1972)
Cumbie
(1975)
Huckabee et
al. (1972)
Jervis et
al. (1970)
Huckabee et
al. (1972)
Byrne et al.
(1971)
Kosta et al.
(1972)
Huckabee et
al. (1972)
Huckabee et
al. (1973)
(Continued)
151
-------
TABLE B-9. MERCURY IN ANIMAL HAIR (Continued)
Species
Locality & Special
Conditions
Analysis - PPM
Authority
Harp seal
Phoca
groenlandica
Harbour seal
Phoca vitulina
Canada, 6 mothers
Canada, 10 pups
Nova Scotia, male
Sable Is!., 8 male &
female
Shrew
Sorex vagrans Wyoming, 10
Black bear
Ursus americanus Idaho, 4 males
Western jumping mouse
Zapus princeps Wyoming, 3
California sea
lion Zalophus
californianus Oregon coast, 2
(2.1-3.8)3.2±0.25 Freeman &
Home (1974)
(0.63-3.6)1.7±0.26
1.8
(0.75-3.8)1.56
<0.008
Sergeant &
Armstrong
(1973)
Huckabee et
al. (1972)
(0.11-0.275)0.18 Benson et
al. (1974)
(0.3-0.8)0.16 Huckabee et
al. (1973)
(11.5-19.7)15.6+4.1 Buhler &
Mate (1971)
152
-------
TABLE B-10. MERCURY IN ANIMAL CLAWS AND HOOFS
Species
Locality
& Special
Analysis - PPM
Authority
Conditions
Bearded seal
Eringnathus
barbatus
it
Gray seal
Halichoerus
gryous
n
Muskrat
Ondatra
zibethica
Harp seal
Phoca
groenlandica
n
ii
n
Quebec,
Quebec,
Canada,
Canada,
Canada
Canada,
Canada,
Canada,
Canada,
4 males
5 females
3 males
3 female
7 females
10 pups
1 mother
1 father
(0.41-2.3)1.04
(0.057-2.2)1.2
(4.4-9.8)7.7
(3.2-8.6)6.7
1.97
(2. 2-5. 4)3. 7±0. 41
(0.8-3. 6)1. 8±0. 27
8.6
2.9
Freeman &
Home (1974)
M
n
Jervis et
al. (1970)
Freeman &
Home (1974)
n
n
n
Ringed seal
Phoca hispida
Harbour seal
Phoca vitulinus
Quebec, 11 males
Quebec, 3 females
Nova Scotia, 1 male
(0.77-3.6)1.79
(1.4-4.2)2.3
1.8
153
-------
TABLE B-ll. NICKEL IN ANIMAL HAIR
Species
Guinea pig
Cavia porcellus
Rabbit
Oryctolagus
cuniculus
Locality & Special
Conditions
Analysis - PPM
Black hair
White hair
Difference not significant
2, black hair
2, white hair
Difference not significant
trace
trace
Mammalian hair
0.18±0.08
1.70±0.41
6.0
Authority
Kikkawa
et al. (1958)
Kikkawa
et al. (1958)
Bowen (1966)
154
-------
TABLE B-12. SELENIUM IN ANIMAL HAIR
Species
Pronghorn antelope
Antllocapra
americana
Locality & Special
Conditions
Cow
Bos bovis
Coyote
Cam's latrans
Idaho, 38 samples
Wyoming, 11 samples
Wyoming, pregnant doe
Wyoming, pre-term fetus
Alkali disease causes
alepacia in cattle fed
feed with 25-50 ppm Se
Loss of hair with daily
intake of 0.5 mg/kg Se
Ontario, calves sick or
dead from white muscle
disease (Se deficiency)
had low Se in hair
Ontario, no white muscle
disease with hair of
Analysis - PPM
(0.08-17.0)
(2.6-9.3)
4.5
4.8
0.06-0.23
0.25
Ontario, Se content of cattle
hair is helpful factor in
diagnosing white muscle disease
Wyoming, 19 specimens
Elk
Cervus canadensis Idaho, 10, 7 had Se
Red-backed vole
Clethrionymys
gapperi
Wyoming, 13 specimens
0.8-13.0
(0.8-2.0)1.2
(0.1-0.9)0.5
Authority
Huckabee et al
(1972)
Radeleff (1964)
Muth & Binns
(1964)
Hidiroglau
et al. (1965)
Huckabee et al.
(1972)
(Continued)
155
-------
TABLE B-12. SELINIUM IN ANIMAL HAIR (Continued)
Species
Horse
Equus cabal 1 us
Locality & Special
Conditions
Analysis - PPM
Horses lose hair with high Se
Alkali disease is a form of
selenosis causing alopecia.
It may be caused by feeding
25-50 ppm Se in feed.
Horses fed high Se diet
develop malformed hoofs.
S. Dakota, U.S. cavalry at
Fort Randall had severe
losses due to abnormal hoofs,
due to high Se in pasture
plants.
Alkali disease is subacute
form of organic selenosis,
causing elongated weak and
cracked hoofs, also caused
by feeding feeds with 25-50
ppm Se
Porcupine
Erethizon dorsatum Wyoming, hair
Chipmunk
Eutamias sp.
Wyoming, quills
Wyoming
1.0
0.6
3.4
Cynomolgus monkey
Macaca Canada, fed 10 ppm
fascicularis
Vole
Microtus
longicaudus
40 days
90 days
Idaho
2.35±0.45
1.56±0.25
0.4
Authority
Rosenfeld &
Beath (1964)
Radeleff (1964)
Rosenfeld &
Beath (1964)
Harr & Muth
(1962)
Radeleff (1964)
Huckabee et al.
(1972)
Huckabee et al.
(1972)
Loew et al.
(1975)
Huckabee et al.
(1972)
156
(Continued)
-------
TABLE B-12. SELENIUM IN ANIMAL HAIR (Continued)
Species
Locality & Special
Conditions
Analysis - PPM
Authority
Mountain vole
Microtus montanus Wyoming
Meadow vole
Microtus
pennsylvanicus Wyoming, 13 specimens
(1.2-1.6)1.4
(0.2-27.0)5.4
Richardson1s vole
Microtus
richardsoni
Mouse
Mus musculus
Mule deer
Odocoilus
hemonious
Sheep
Ovis aries
Shrew
Sorex vagrans
Wyoming
Fed 3 ppm Se as Na selenite
had poor coats of hair
1.2
Huckabee et al
(1972)
Schroeder &
Mitchener
(1972)
Idaho, 11 sampls
Alopecia caused by feed
with 25-50 ppm Se
(0.5-16.0)5.05 Huckabee et al
(1972)
Radeleff (1964)
Wyoming, 10 specimens (2.1-68.0)12.09 Huckabee et al.
(1972)
Pig
Sus scrofa
United States
Fuller et al
(1967)
Bighorn sheep
Ovis canadensis
Rat
Rattus rattus
Wyoming
Loss of hair with dietary
exposure of 1 ppm Se and
water containing 0.5 to
2.0 ppm Se
United States, Selenate
fed, age >600 days
3.1 Huckabee et
al. (19 72)
Muth & Binns
(1964)
Schroeder et
3.91 al.(1970)
(Continued)
157
-------
TABLE B-12. SELINUM IN ANIMAL HAIR (Continued)
Species
Rat
Rattus rattus
Locality & Special
Conditions
United States, Selenate
fed, age 994 days
United States, Selenite
fed, age >600 days
Control, no Se, age
>600 days
United States, As £
Selenite fed, age 81 days
United States, As &
Selenite fed, age 81 days
United States, As &
Selenite fed, age 63 days
Analysis - PPM
9.92
3.81
0.6
12.4
9.67
12.26
Western jumping mouse
Zapus princeps Wyomi ng
"Animals"
"Bats"
Idaho, mineralized area
Significant amounts of Se
are found in the hoofs of
poisoned animals
New York, 3 specimens
1.6-2.4
4.0
Authority
Schroeder
et al. (1970)
Huckabee et
al. (1972)
Heinreich &
Kelsey (1955)
Schroeder et
al. (1970)
158
-------
TABLE B-13. SELENIUM IN ANIMAL NAILS AND HOOFS
Species Locality & Special Analysis - PPM Authority
Conditions
Cynomolgus monkey
Macaca
fascicularis 10 ppm of Se in diet Loew et al.
caused loss of nails (1975)
159
-------
TABLE B-14. VANADIUM IN ANIMAL HAIR AND HOOFS
Species
Locality & Special
Conditions
Analysis - PPM
Deer
Odocoilus virginianus
New York, hoof
Rat
Rattus rattus
2.55
Vanadium pentoxide in
diet of 25.0-1.000.0
ppm had lowered cystine
in hair
Coarse sparse hair re-
sulted from high V in
diet
48V was taken up and
accumulated in the hair
of laboratory animals
Authority
Schroeder et
al. (1963)
Mountain et
al. (1953)
Strain et al.
(1964)
160
-------
LITERATURE CITED
Akitake, K. 1969. Diagnostic significance of mercury content in hair in
relation to mercury poisoning. J. Kurume Med. Assoc. 32:885-904.
Al-Shahristani, H. 1976. Neutron activation analysis of pollutants in human
hair using research reactors (survey of trace elements in hairs of
normal and affected Iraqis). Report to IAEA.
Al-Shahristani, H., and I. K. Al-Haddad. 1972. Mercury content of hair from
normal and poisoned persons. Proc. 2nd Intern. Conf. on Forensic
Activation Analysis, Glasgow, pp. 2-15.
Al-Shahristani, H. and I. K. Al-Haddad. 1973. Mercury content of hair from
normal and poisoned persons. J. Radioanal. Chem. 15:59-70.
Al-Shahristani, H. and K. M. Shibab. 1974. Variation of biological
half-life of methyl-mercury in man. Arch. Environ. Health
28(6):342.
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184
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
1. REPORT NO.
EPA-600/4-79-Q49
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
2.
TOXIC TRACE METALS IN MAMMALIAN HAIR AND NAILS
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION-NO.
5. REPORT DATE
August 1979
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
'. AUTHOR(S)
Dale W. Jenkins
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO,
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
National Institute of Scientific Research
Rancho Santa Fe, Box 1617
California 92067
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
1HD775
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
68-03-0443
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency-Las Vegas, NV
Office of Research and Development
Environmental Monitoring and Support Laboratory
Las Veaas. NV 89114
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
EPA/600/07
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
For further information, contact the author at 3028 Tanglewood Drive,
Sarasota, Florida 33579
is.ABSTRACTpata have been compiled from the available world literature on the ac-
cumulation and bioconcentration of selected toxic trace metals in human
hair and nails and other mammalian hair, fur, nails, claws, and hoofs. The
toxic trace metals and metalloids include antimony, arsenic, boron, cadmium,
chromium, cobalt, copper, lead, mercury, nickel, selenium, tin, and vanadium.
These have been tabulated by toxic metal, geographic area, subjects, sex,
age, exposure gradient, analyses in ppm, and authority, from over 400
references. This compilation should provide background baseline reference
information to help evaluate the usefulness of tissues for biological monitor-
ing, and to help in the establishment of national or worldwide biological
monitoring systems and networks.
The various uses of hair for biological monitoring are reviewed for
correlating with environmental exposure gradients, diseases associated with
excesses and deficiencies, geographic distribution, and historic trends.
The advantages and disadvantages of using hair for biological monitoring
are discussed. It appears to be that if hair and nail samples are collected,
cleaned, and analyzed properly with the best analytical methods under con-
trolled conditions by experienced personnel, the data are valid. Human
hair and nails have been found to be meaningful and representative tissues
mnm'tnring fnr mnst. nf thp<;p rnvir mpfalg
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b.IDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
c. COSATI Field/Group
Trace elements
Biological monitoring
57B, 57S
3. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
RELEASE TO PUBLIC
19. SECURITY CLASS (ThisReport]
UNCLASSIFIED
21. NO. OF PAGES
194
20. SECURITY CLASS (Thispage)
UNCLASSIFIED
22. PRICE
A09
EPA Form 2220-1 (9-73)
^U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1979-683 091
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