Report *600/7-76-002
HEALTH, ENVIRONMENTAL
EFFECTS, AND CONTROL
TECHNOLOGY OF
ENERGY USE
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
-------
Proceedings of:
National Conference on
HEALTH, ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS,
AND CONTROL TECHNOLOGY OF
ENERGY USE
February 9-11,1976
Sheraton Park Hotel
Washington, D.C.
Sponsored by:
The Office of Energy, Minerals and Industry, within the
Office of Research and Development of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
-------
FOREWORD
Since fiscal year 1975, approximately $230-million has been
allocated to the coordinated Federal Energy/Environment Research and
Development Program. The success of the seventeen government
agencies participating in this program requires close cooperation
and timely exchange and dissemination of the results of the ongoing
research. To assist in this communications effort, the National
Conference on Health, Environmental Effects, and Control Technology
of Energy Use was held in Washington, D. C., February 9-11, 1976.
These proceedings include the addresses and papers reported at
the conference. We have also transcribed and edited the. questions
and discussions stimulated by each of the conference sessions.
The Office of Energy, Minerals, and Industry within EPA's
Office of Research and Development is pleased to have been able to
sponsor this symposium. We consider it to be an important part
of carrying out our responsibility to plan and coordinate the entire
Interagency Program. It is our hope that the dialogue presented in
this and other program 'documents will contribute to the necessary
task of information exchange within the organizations involved in
energy-related environmental research and development. We are
indebted to the participating individuals and to their agencies.
These proceedings represent a compendium of current and planned
work. I hope that you will find the publication of interest and of
use, especially in pursuit of our common national goal of increased
energy development in an environmentally compatible manner.
Stephen J. Gage
Deputy Assistant Administrator
Office of Energy, Minerals and Industry
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
iii
-------
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
More than one hundred authors contributed to the more than sixty
papers reported at the symposium. Comprehensive description of the
environmental program would not be possible without the invaluable
assistance of these individuals and their agencies.
Special acknowledgment should also be given to Mr. David J. Graham
of the Office of Energy, Minerals, and Industry who acted as the sym-
posium coordinator; Mr. Richard A. Kennedy, of The MITRE Corporation's
Energy, Resources and The Environment Division who provided technical,
planning and organizational support to the symposium coordinator; and
Mr. Harold Bernard, Information Transfer, Inc., who arranged the
symposium and provided for publication of these proceedings.
-------
CONTENTS
Foreword ill
Acknowledgements ±v
CHAPTER 1: WELCOME AND OVERVIEW
Welcome:
Wilson K. Talley, EPA 3
Keynote Address:
Honorable Russell W. Peterson, Council on Environmental Quality 5
Remarks:
Congressman George E. Brown, Jr., California 8
ERDA's Environmental Safety Programs:
James L. Liverman, ERDA 10
An Environmental Overview of United States Energy Futures
S. J. Gage, EPA 15
CHAPTER 2: ATMOSPHERIC TRANSPORT
Introduction 26
Atmospheric Transport and Transformations of Energy Related Pollutants
A. P. Altshuller, EPA 27
Environmental Transport Processes
H. R. Hickey and P. A. Krenkel, TVA 30
Transformation and Transport of Energy-Related Pollutants
William E.Wilson, EPA 33
Discussion 38
CHAPTER 3: MEASUREMENT AND MONITORING
Introduction .42
Energy Related Research Program In The Personal and Environmental Measurements
Program NIOSH
Paul A. Baron and Laurence J. Doemeny, NIOSH 43
Monitoring Western Energy Resource Developments
R. K. Oser, S. C. Black, D. N. McNelis, S. H. Melfi, G. B. Morgan, EPA 47
NOAA's Activities in Energy Related Measurement and Monitoring
Alden B. Bestul and W. Lawrence Pugh, NOAA 51
Measurement and Monitoring
H. R. Hickey and P. A. Krenkel, TVA 55
The Role of Standard Reference Materials in Environmental Measurements
J. R. McNesby, NBS 58
EPA/NASA Cooperation to Develop Remote Sensing and In Situ Sensors and
Techniques for Pollution Monitoring
James R. Morrison, John Mugler and E. L. Til ton, III, NASA 61
Water Measurement and Monitoring in Energy Developing Areas
Frederick A. Kilpatrick, USGA 69
Discussion
74
v
-------
CHAPTER 4: ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH EFFECTS
Introduction [[[ 78
Overview of NIOSH Energy Health Research Program 7q
Kenneth Bridbord, NIOSH [[[
Health Effects Related to Emerging Energy Technology Q7
John H. Knelson, EPA [[[ ^
Highlights of NIEHS Energy-Related Research or
Robert L. Dixon, NIEHS [[[
ERDA Program to Evaluate Health-Effects of Non-Nuclear Energy Technologies
George E. Stapleton, ERDA [[[ yi
95
Discussion [[[
CHAPTER 5: MARINE ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS
Introduction
98
An Overview of Environmental Effects
James L. Liverman, ERDA [[[ "
Assessing Impacts of Energy Development on Coastal Fish and Wildlife Resources
A. W. Palmisano, Fish and Wildlife Service ........................................ 1°1
NOAA Research on Marine Environmental Effects of Energy-Related Activities
James B. Rucker, NOAA [[[ 103
Participation of ERDA in the Transport and Ecological Effects Categories
of the Pass-Through Program
R. E. Franklin, D. S. Ballantine, J. 0. Blanton, D. H. Hamilton and C. M. White ...106
Discussion [[[ 119
CHAPTER 6: FRESH WATER ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS
Introduction [[[ 122
The Effects of Freshwater Withdrawals on Fish and Wildlife Resources
Robert P. Hayden, Fish and Wildlife Service ....................................... 123
USDA Research and Development on Effects of Energy Production and Use on
Freshwater Resources
Harry E . Brown , USDA ......... [[[ 1 26
Freshwater Ecological Effects
H. R. Hickey and P. A. Krenkel , TVA ............................................... 132
The EPA Research Program on the Freshwater Ecological Effects of Energy
Development and Use
-------
Terrestrial Effects of Energy Development on Fish and Wildlife Resources
Herbert B. Quinn, Jr., Fish and Wildlife Service 160
Air/Terrestrial Ecological Effects
H. R. Mickey and P. A. Krenkel, TVA 164
Terrestrial Effects of Pollutants from Energy Use and Progress in Reclamation
of Coal Strip Mine Areas
H. E. Heggestad, USDA 168
Discussion 172
CHAPTER 8: ENERGY RESOURCE EXTRACTION
Introduction 176
Environmental Assessment of Western Coal Surface Mining
El more C. Grim, EPA 177
Environmental Control Technology of Eastern Coal Development
Ronald D. Hill, EPA 180
USDA Research and Development for Reclamation of Lands Affected by Mining
David J. Ward, USDA 182
Energy Resource Extraction; Oil and Gas Production
J. Stephen Dorrler, EPA 186
Mining of Oil Shale
Eugene F. Harri s, EPA 192
Discussion 195
CHAPTER 9: FUEL PROCESSING
Introduction 198
Fuel Processing
John K. Burchard, EPA 199
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Program for Environmental Characterization
of Fluidized-Bed Combustion Systems
D. B. Henschel, EPA 205
Control of Atmospheric Pollution by Fluidized-Bed Combustion
G. Vogel, W. Swift and A. Jonke, ERDA 212
Cost Comparison of Commercial Atmospheric and Pressurized Fluidized-Bed Power
Plants to a Conventional Coal-Fired Power Plant with Flue Gas Desulfurization
John T. Reese, TVA 220
Assessment and Control of Environmental Contamination from Trace Elements in
Coal Processing Wastes
E. M. Wewerka, J. M. Williams and P. L. Wanek, ERDA 226
Physical and Chemical Coal Cleaning for Pollution Control
James D. Kilgroe, EPA 23Q
Coal Preparation
Albert W. Deurbrouck, U. S. Bureau of Mines 238
Environmental Control for Oil Shale Processing
Thomas J. Powers, EPA 241
Program for Environmental Aspects of Synthetic Fuels
William J. Rhodes, EPA 244
Discussion 247
vii
-------
CHAPTER 10: FLUE GAS TECHNOLOGY
Introduction [[[ 252
Flue Gas Cleaning Technology
Frank T. Princiotta, EPA [[[ 253
Flue Gas Desulfurization
H. W. Elder and G. A. Hollinden, TVA
Regenerable Flue Gas Desulfurization Technology for Stationary Combustion Sources
Richard D. Stern, EPA
The EPA Program for Control of SOX Emissions from Stationary Combustion Sources -
Nonregenerable Flue Gas Desulfurization
Michael A. Maxwell, EPA [[[ Z71
Development of Combustion Modification Technology for Stationary Source NOX Control
G. Blair Martin and J. S. Bowen, EPA .............................................. 275
The EPA Development Program for NOX Flue Gas Treatment
Richard D. Stern, EPA [[[ 28Q
Control of Fine Particulate Emissions from Stationary Sources
James H. Abbott, EPA [[[ 284
Control of Waste and Water Pollution from Flue Gas Cleaning Systems
Julian W. Jones, EPA [[[ 290
Discussion [[[ 295
CHAPTER 11: ENERGY CONSERVATION
Introduction [[[ 298
EPA Research in Emerging Power Technology
Robert P. Hartley and Harry E. Bostian, EPA ....................................... 299
The Wastes-As-Fuel R&D Program of the EPA Office of Energy, Minerals and Industry
George L. Huffman, EPA ............................................ .... ............ 303
Waste Heat Utilization/Reduction
Alden G. Christiansen, EPA [[[ 307
Energy Conservation
B. J. Bond, H. B. Flora and B. G. McKinney, TVA ................................... 311
Industrial Energy Conservation and its Potential Environmental Impact
Herbert S. Skovronek, EPA [[[ 314
Discussion . . [[[ 319
:HAPTER 12: INTEGRATED ASSESSMENT
-------
CHAPTER 1
WELCOME AND OVERVIEW
-------
Welcome Address
by
Dr. Wilson K. Talley
I am pleased to welcome you to the National
Conference dealing with research and development
programs on Health, Environmental Effects, and Con-
trol Technology of Energy Use. This large audience
indicates, I believe, the broad base of interest
in two of the Nation's principal concerns: energy
and the environment. The participation of many
representatives today from the private and public
sectors is indeed gratifying.
Before I introduce our speakers this morning,
I would like to describe briefly the role of re-
search and development in a regulatory agency. For
the most part, I will constrain my remarks to our
energy-related activities.
The Environmental Protection Agency is re-
quired to administer environmental legislation to
control and abate adverse impacts on the human en-
vironment—in a comprehensive and balanced manner—
consistent with the attainment of other national
goals. As a consequence, EPA and its predecessor
components have been concerned with pollution con-
trol for the energy-related industries for several
years. The legislation which EPA must administer,
bearing on energy development and use, includes the
Clean Air Act, the Federal Water Pollution Control
Act, the Resource Recovery Act and the Marine
Sanctuaries (Ocean Dumping) Act.
Some of this legislation specifies the con-
straints to be imposed, such as, best practical
control technology or best available control tech-
nology, to be required within given time periods.
The many activities that the agency is required to
engage in include:
(1) development of standards, regulations
and/or guidance
(2) performance of environmental monitoring
(surveillance and compliance assessment)
(3) performance of environmental impact
assessments
(4) providing training and technology
assistance.
In addition, we engage in research, develop-
ment and demonstration in areas such as health
effects, ecological effects, environmental pro-
cesses and quality, environmental management,
pollution control systems, and instrumentation.
While it is true that the National Environ-
mental Policy Act requires federal agencies to
assess the environmental impact of their respec-
tive activities, EPA has the further responsibility
to evaluate the environmental impact of all federal
programs in all areas of its expertise.
NEED FOR RESEARCH IN A REGULATORY AGENCY
Fundamental to any regulatory agency is the
need to have accurate and reliable information on
which to base decisions. Since the regulatory pro-
cess is dynamic, iterative and continuing, the
need for information is also dynamic, time-sensitive
and often very specific. The function of research
in a regulatory agency is to provide the necessary
data base and tools required by the agency to ful-
fill its obligations on a timely basis. The re-
search, therefore, should be mission-oriented, the
research mission being dictated (either explicitly
or implicitly) by the creating executive order
and/or the legislation to be administered.
Now, how should the research information re-
quired by a-regulatory agency be obtained? At one
extreme, specific regulatory agency offices can
carry out all of the needed research; at the other
extreme, the regulatory agency can rely solely on
whatever information is being generated outside its
own control.
While examples of each of these extremes exist,
most regulatory organizations operate somewhere in
the middle with the research information needed
coming from a combination of in-house and extra-
mural research programs, only a portion of which is
under the direct control of the entity having the
need.
ORGANIZATION OF ORD
Within EPA, a decision was made that the
Agency's research effort would be managed by a
separate research arm - the Office of Research and
Development. As an equal to the regulatory and
enforcement arms of the Agency, the research group
could assure that the best technical input could
be made on a timely basis and still maintain the
capability to look ahead and across the different
regulatory programs of air, water, noise, pesti-
cides, solid waste, radiation and toxic substances.
However, EPA's research arm need not do everything
itself, rather it is obliged to be aware of what
is going on outside the agency, to coordinate
efforts where possible and to perform research in
those areas specified by the legislation or inter-
agency agreement and, on those subjects not re-
ceiving-sufficient emphasis, to provide the infor-
mation required for agency decisions on a timely
basis. The Office of Research and Development is
EPA's focal point for specialized research, rely-
ing on processes of information and funding trans-
fer to make sure that the total research effort is
adequate and well articulated. As a consequence,
EPA's research is supplemented by general scienti-
fic and technical research in other governmental
agencies, colleges and universities, the industrial
sector, and elsewhere.
-------
The research program in EPA is carried out
through four major program offices and their re-
spective laboratories. These are the Office of
Energy, Minerals, and Industry, the Office of Air,
Land and Water, the Office of Health and Ecological
Effects, and the Office of Monitoring and Technical
Support. Because of the complexity of environmen-
tal research and development, the need to relate
our output to a variety of different users and the
need to avoid duplication of talent and other re-
sources, it has been necessary to differentiate
between planning and implementation of many of the
programs. Thus, for example, the entire program
on environmental impact of energy use is planned
in our Office of Energy, Minerals, and Industry
but is implemented by all four offices. To accom-
plish this objective, OEMI allocates the energy re-
lated budget amongst all offices during the plan-
ning process and transfers to the other three
offices the funds necessary to cover the planned
energy-related work being implemented by those
offices. The implementing office has the responsi-
bility for accomplishing the energy-related program
for which it has accepted funds. The managers of
the implementing laboratories are at liberty to
determine whether an intramural or extramural
approach will be used subject to their respective
constraints on manpower, facilities and funds. The
extramural programs include interagency, university,
and industrial cooperation.
During the next three days, detailed descrip-
tions of this coordinated effort will be provided
by technical experts from many federal agencies.
I trust you will find the proceedings to be inter-
esting and rewarding. I hope that a lively dia-
logue will develop in the discussion periods which
begin in Session II this afternoon.
-------
Keynote Address
by
Russell W. Peterson, Chairman
Council on Environmental Quality
TUO-HANDED SCIENTISTS:
According to revered tradition, the keynote
speaker in American life has a clearly defined
role: he is supposed to tell a few warm-up jokes
and then end on a solemn, inspirational note -- a
blend of Johnny Carson and Sermonette. Tradition-
alist that I am, I have always tried to honor these
conventions. In my previous incarnations, this was
reasonably easy to do: there are a few chemistry
jokes, lots of businessman jokes, and even a few
governor jokes. And as for solemnity, that's the
easiest part of the job: all one need do is bang
on the podium and summon the audience to meet,
quote, the challenge that lies before us, unquote.
Some day, just for fun, I would like to summon
an audience to meet the challenge that lies behind
us. I shall not do that today. Nor shall I open
with a joke, because the environmental movement
seems to have produced only one -- and we've all
heard it. Hence, I shall spare you Moses and his
environmental impact statement.
By way of recompense, let me recount a parable
instead. It was, as far as I can determine, either
invented or translated by the English writer
Somerset Maugham, and later borrowed by John O'Hara
for the title of his first novel. It goes like
this:
The chief steward of a wealthy merchant in
ancient Basra went into the marketplace one
day, and there he encountered Death, dressed
as an old woman. On seeing the steward, Death
suddenly drew back. In great terror, the
steward returned immediately to the merchant's
house and said, "Master, today I saw Death in
the marketplace, and she made a menacing ges-
ture at me. Please let me ride away to
Samarra, so that I can escape."
The merchant replied, "By all means, take my
fastest horse and ride." Later that same day,
the merchant himself went into the marketplace
and he, too, saw the old woman. He stopped
her and said, "My servant told me that he met
you here this morning, and that you threatened
him."
And Death replied, "Oh, no -- I did not
threaten him. I was just surprised to see him
here in Basra, because tonight I have an
appointment with him in Samarra."
As its most obvious level, this parable is
about fate: it suggests that man cannot avoid what
is in store for him no matter how hard he tries.
While such a fatalistic attitude may hold true in
other cultures, it would be rejected by most of us
as ridicuously exaggerated. Yet the additional
twist of the steward riding as rapidly as he can to
meet the very fate he fears contributes a thought-
provoking subtlety: it implies that man's dash
for apparent salvation, if undertaken impulsively
and with inadequate knowledge, can hasten rather
than circumvent his destruction.
The Arab oil embargo gave us a severe scare
in the marketplace in 1973, and has motivated us
to race into the development of advanced energy
technologies which, in normal circumstances, would
have been developed at a more leisurely pace. As
matters stand now, most air pollution is a result
of the production or use of energy. As we get into
new technologies, or expand those which are pre-
sently small in scope — from coal gasification to
breeder-reactors — we shall have to anticipate not
only an increase in the number of environmental
hazards, but also an increase in their complexity.
The Federal Interagency Energy/Environment
R&D program is an attempt to insure that our under-
standing of tne health effects of energy develop-
ment and use keeps pace with technological develop-
ment — to make sure that we do not begin using a
new technology on a widespread scale before we
know what it will do to our air, water, and soil --
and, ultimately, to human health.
As you undoubtedly appreciate, this could
prove a tricky juggling act. We are involved in
two kinds of research: into energy development,
and into the environmental effects of that develop-
ment. Though the two are clearly related, however,
they will not necessarily proceed at the same pace.
We may, for example, be able to establish the en-
vironmental effects of a new technology before we
can demonstrate its economic feasibility. In such
cases, we will probably be able to avoid harmful
side-effects entirely or, at a minimum, mitigate
those side effects through control technology.
But on the other hand, some energy research
and development may proceed more quickly than the
related environmental research. And in that case,
we may be in trouble. Already, for national secur-
ity as well as economic reasons, there is strong
pressure to tap new domestic energy sources as
rapidly as possible. Should a new source be ready
for commercial utilization before its environmental
implications are well understood, it's questionable
whether the necessary cautions from scientists will
be able to withstand popular demands for more energy,
As the Manhattan Project demonstrated, the
pressure of external events may successfully accel-
erate a certain line of scientific research. In
that case, a war speeded up R&D that had begun
years earlier, but was proceeding at a slow pace;
then the demands of national defense, which char-
acteristically throw all considerations of fiscal
constraint out the window, led us to devote an ab-
normal amount of money and highly trained manpower
to atomic fission. Thus a project which, under
normal circumstances, might have required 20 years
to accomplish was rushed — under the stress of
war -- to completion in four years.
-------
Yet money and expertise are not the only con-
straints on research, and science can be hurried
only up to a point. There is, in scientific in-
vestigation, an inherent process of sequential
analysis -- of taking one step after another --
that cannot be rushed, no matter how much urgency,
money, and manpower you are willing to devote to
the job. Luck may sometimes produce a short-cut,
but more resources do not necessarily speed the
process.
Cancer research is an example. A few years
ago, President Nixon declared a "War on Cancer,"
and substantially increased the amount of resources
that had been devoted to such research. Since
then, a considerable amount of worthwhile scienti-
fic work has been undertaken, and perhaps some has
been completed sooner than it normally would have.
Yet the ultimate goal -- a cure for cancer --
still eludes our grasp. We know that the funda-
mental nature of cancer is unrestrained growth of
cells. We know that this growth is associated
with a number of environmental causes: cigarette
smoking, the presence of certain chemicals in the
living or working environment, radiation from cer-
tain minerals and from the sun itself. Yet we
have not been able to define the cancer-causing
mechanism well enough to cure most cancers, despite
the stepped-up investment of funds.
An analogous case in a broader sphere was
President Johnson's "War on Poverty." Just as in
the case of the "War on Cancer," there seemed to
be an underlying assumption that if x_ dollars can
produce some good, K)x dollars can produce 10
times as much good in the same period of time. But
here again, even though we can associate poor
scholastic achievement, cultural deprivation, and
other symptoms of poverty with the basic fact of
poverty, we still do not understand the poverty-
causing mechanisms well enough to change their
operation. Lacking that fundamental understanding,
we tried to substitute dollars for science -- and
we reaped little more than disappointment from our
well-meant, but immature and expensive experiment.
The real pity is not that we may have wasted con-
siderable sums of money, but that the long, slow
process of social improvement may have lost popular
support for years to come.
Despite such failures, the fundamental mis-
conception that science can be hurried with money
probably remains in the popular and political mind.
Another misconception is an exaggerated belief in
the ability of scientists to produce certitude on
schedule. Years ago, President Truman was briefed
by the first chairman of the Council on Economic
Advisers. Exercising thp caution proper to his
discipline, this gentleman reputedly framed all his
remarks in the context of such statements as, "On
the one hand, this might happen ... But on the
other hand, that might happen." After an hour or
so of this, following the economist's departure
from the Oval Office, President Truman is said to
have complained to an aide, "What we need around
here is a one-handed economist."
This understandable impatience with ambiguity,
and a craving for certainty even though all the
facts are not in, characterizes most of us to_
some degree. It is particularly to be found in
decision makers, and it persists today. Last year,
for example, Senator Muskie called for "one-armed
scientists" after testimony from a number of them,
concerning the health effects of pollutants,
proved to be inconclusive. The decision-maker must
act — and more and more, in our age, the decision-
maker turns for "facts" that will simplify diffi-
cult choices.
In a better world, perhaps the critical
choices that we will have to make about energy in
the next years and decades would await the findings
of environmental scientists. No project would go
on line before we knew precisely what it would do
to our ecosystem, and had fashioned the proper
safeguards.
But for lack of a better world, we are forced
to make do with the one we have -- and it is a
world in which energy production appears to be the
great global imperative. Policymakers will be
pressing scientists for hard conclusions before any
conclusions are justified by hard evidence. It
would be simple to urge that we reject any such
pressures in the interest of scientific purity --
but in point of fact, we will probably have to
accommodate those pressures. Except in the face
of the clearest, most definitely established en-
vironmental hazards, energy development won't wait.
The problem, then, is not one of adopting high
principle, but of charting prudent strategy.
That means, first, establishing research
priorities. Prior to 1974, when this Federal inter-
agency research program was created, top priority
was assigned to investigating and preventing the
harmful health effects of coal-burning. The ra-
tionale for this choice was logical and sound: our
immense coal resources promised to make the most
immediate contribution to our energy requirements,
whereas other sources tended to be further off on
the horizon. Hence the questions we would have to
answer soonest were those related to coal-consump-
tion.
Now, however, the choice of priorities is be-
coming more difficult. Every technology has a
probable time-line -- a rough schedule, usually ex-
pressed in years, when one stage of development will
have to be made. Such decisions, for example,
might involve a shift from laboratory-scale tests
of a new technology to the construction of a pilot
facility; later on, from the pilot to a demonstra-
tion facility; and finally, from the construction
on a demonstration facility to full-scale, commer-
cial development.
Thus some decisions will have to be made in
the next couple of years, while others may not con-
front us for four, six, or more years. Research
priorities must be assigned in accordance with the
probable development schedule for each technology;
only such phasing-in will ensure that, at every
-------
decision-point, the appropriate environmental re-
search will be available. If it's not, non-scienti-
fic pressures -- including public demand for more
energy, and political demand for action to satisfy
the constituency -- are likely to force a decision,
even on the basis of inadequate data. Judging by
past experience, my hunch will be that energy
development, not environmental protection, will get
the benefit of the doubt.
It is partly CEQ's responsibility to oversee
your choice of priorities -- to make sure the
answers that will be needed two years from now are
being sought now. We simply do not have the luxury
of time. Every technology that we are considering
presents certain unknowns and -- if we had the
leisure that science requires -- we would insist
that energy development wait until each of those
unknowns was fully investigated. But our limited
resources -- above all, time -- make it impossible
for us to examine these unknowns with all the
thoroughness that each deserves. Relatively quick
and inexpensive analysis may suggest that some
negative environmental consequences are either so
likely or so unlikely that additional R&D would not
change the decision. Therefore, our environmental
R&D should be directed toward those unknowns where
the outcome is less clear but potentially signifi-
cant.
Second, we must make maximum use of Federal
leverage in energy development. Under normal cir-
cumstances, private enterprise would pay the bill
for developing new energy technologies. Owing to
the sensitivity of some of these technologies, how-
ever, the massive amounts of capital their develop-
ment requires, and the national urgency of tapping
new energy resources, the Federal government has
agreed to underwrite some of the risk involved,
through such devices as direct support for demon-
stration.
This offers the opportunity to make close
monitoring of environmental consequences an inte-
gral part of Federally supported energy development
projects. At present, much of the data we have on
emissions from new and emerging technologies is
based on information from pilot plants and small-
scale operations. The move from these small opera-
tions to commercial sized demonstration plants
gives us a unique opportunity to use these plants
as environmental laboratories. We should use this
opportunity, from the beginning of the R&D process,
to prevent the creation of environmental "white
elephants" -- projects that later require huge in-
vestments in add-on control technology.
A third priority must be to correlate emissions
and health effects. Over the last three years, CEQ
has encouraged the development of quantitative
methods for estimating the environmental impacts of
energy facilities. Examples of such work are the
MERES Study and the Energy Alternative reports,
with which most of you are probably familiar. Valu-
able as these efforts are, they do not yet allow
us to translate a given quantity of pollutants into
the number of cases of various human ailments that
will result.
But finally, we must bear in mind -- through
all this research — the fundamental interrelated-
ness of environmental impacts. Man breaks scienti-
fic endeavor down into specific disciplines for his
own convenience, and hence perceives reality from
different perspectives. Such specialization has
been necessary for scientific and technological ad-
vance; we have learned much more, and much more
quickly, by breaking phenomena down into various
compartments and studying them from the standpoints
of biology, physics, chemistry, and so forth.
But we must remember that our ecosystem does
not exist in compartments; it comes in single,
interrelated communities, each part of which affects
other parts. It does no good, for example, to con-
sider only the effects of oil-shale development in
one part of the country, when at the same time,
strip or deep mining is to be conducted in the same
region. Both will demand extensive water supplies,
and the drawing-down of the water table, plus the
disruption of coal veins that often serve as aqui-
fers under the ground, can affect agriculture,
grazing, and even human drinking supplies. Not by
energy alone does man live. While pursuing our
separate disciplines, each of us must strive to re-
late our work to that of other specialists, so
that we can regain -- by adding our individual
pieces to the total puzzle — a view of the unity
exemplified in nature.
This is, I realize, a tall order. It will not
be filled by one-handed scientists -- by suppress-
ing ambiguity in order to simplify decisions or to
avoid the wrath of impatient decision-makers. Nor,
on the other hand, will it be filled by the leisure-
ly pursuit of pure science. We are in a tough,
nuts-and-bolts situation, and we must do the best
we can to blend painstaking science with the sense
of urgency that the national energy situation re-
quires. Only by achieving this blend -- by making
haste slowly -- can we hope to obtain the informa-
tion we need when we need it.
We are not entirely at the mercy of a blind
fate. The entire history of science is the history
of man's attempt to understand natural forces and
shape them to his own benefit. The advent of an
environmental consciousness is not a repudiation of
our science, but a challenge to us to extend it.
It has taught us that man is not entirely master of
his environment, but a member of it, who must learn
to live in harmony with the natural world.
New energy technologies beckon us down many
different roads, with their promise of abundant
supplies of the fuels on which we have built our
civilization. Yet their promise must not be per-
mitted to blind us to the threat such development
poses to our ecosystem, on which man's very exis-
tence is built. It is up to you to ride ahead on
these many roads, and to discover as quickly as
possible where they lead. Only your scientific
scouting can guide us to the sufficiency we seek —
and prevent us from dashing, as quickly as we can,
to keep an appointment in Samarra.
-------
REMARKS OF THE HONORABLE GEORGE E. BROWN, JR.
Chairman, Subcommittee on Environment
and the Atmosphere of the Committee
on Science and Technology
A CONGRESSIONAL VIEW
I am delighted to be here today to address
this large group of people involved in making
energy use compatible with a clean and healthy en-
vironment. I believe this conference is an excell-
ent initiative by the Office of Research and Devel-
opment of the Environmental Protection Agency, and
I hope this type of activity continues in the fut-
ure. We, in Congress, are always pleased when we
see examples of interagency communication and coo-
peration.
As you probably know, the Subcommittee on En-
vironment and the Atmosphere, which I chair, is
part of the Committee on Science and Technology,
which until a little over a year ago was the Com-
mittee on Science and Astronautics. In late 1974,
the House of Representatives voted a partial reform
of its committee jurisdictions, which included a
consolidation of civilian research and development
in the reorganized Committtee on Science and Tech-
nology. Specifically included within this was
energy research and development and environmental
research and development. The Senate has no such
organizational structure. This reorganization is
new, and not totally accepted by Committees which
lost jurisdiction. For this reason, I can empath-
ize with the problem forcing the agencies repre-
sented here today in resolving your own jurisdic-
tional issues.
There is another problem which has affected
the smooth operations of Congressional Committees
and Executive Agencies, and that is the controver-
sial nature of many of our environmental laws and
regulations. The Congress and the Executive have
different views on such fundamental areas as clean
air legislation, strip mining legislation, toxic
substances legislation, clean water legislation,
land use legislation, and energy policy. This dis-
agreement makes it difficult to develop harmony in
the ranks, especially when residual differences
exist between, for example, the Department of
Agriculture and the EPA on pesticide regulations.
This difference on how to proceed with regu-
lations should not really affect the research and
development activities of the agencies involved.
In fact, in the area of research and development
there is very little disagreement about the goals,
and the importance of those goals. Except for
dollar ($) levels, most major points are agreed
upon.
In spite of this broad base of support for
environmental research, testimony before my .sub-
committee, and reports of the National Academy of
Sciences, the Congressional Office of Technology
Assessment, the General Accounting Office, and the
Congressional Research Service, among other groups,
indicates that there are serious gaps and weak-
nesses in our current efforts. The prime complaints
have dealt with the issues of interagency coordina-
tion and cooperation, as well as a failure to
address medium and long term research problems.
One example of an effort to remedy this prob-
lem, which is directly relevant to the meeting here
today, is the special environmentally related energy
money which was requested in 1974. The Office of
Management and the Budget, much to its credit,
created two task forces, the King-Muir task force,
and the Gage task force, which produced reports
spelling out how this money should be spent among
the more than a dozen agencies involved with these
issues. These two reports, and the interagency
cooperation and coordination which resulted from
their implementation, are distinguished by their
rarity. We, in the Congress, would be very pleased
to see this type of approach to emerging research
issues be expanded and perfected.
There still remains the need to provide ade-
quate funding for necessary research projects. Our
problem has been that until we know what is current-
ly being spent, throughout the Federal government,
we will not know what is adequate funding within a
particular agency. One of my Subcommittee's
thoughts on this matter is to have more medium to
long-range planning done by the agencies involved
with a particular issue, including plans for pro-
jected funding levels. With the availability of
such plans, say on a five-year basis, we could make
some determination about areas of sustained research
within particular agencies, and the adequacy of
funding within the government as a whole.
'Personally, I would prefer to see the environ-
mental research and development problems solved by
network actions between agencies, rather than by a
more authoritarian approach, such as a reorganiza-
tion of the Federal research establishment, even
with more clearly designated lines of command. I
have a bias against such organizational solutions.
I prefer to avoid bureaucratic, autocratic, and
relatively inflexible organizational structures.
Especially in the field of research, it seems that
we can solve problems of coordination and coopera-
tion within existing structures.
At this point I wish to digress somewhat from
the focus of your conference, which implies that we
must continue our exponential growth of energy use,
and present some of my own views on the subject of
energy use. In some respects the argument about
-------
energy growth and energy conservation has become
one of "growth" versus "no growth," which is a
false argument. This false argument is perpetuated
by those who have something to lose if our exponen-
tial growth curves are curbed. They have every
reason to fight any curbs in energy growth, but we
must keep in mind that exponential curves cannot
keep going up. The only questions are ones of
time, and the nature of the curve after it begins
to go down. The' reason why we should try to level
off this abnormal exponential growth of energy use
is to avoid the certain catastrophe that will occur
if we do not.
The Gross National Product, which is usually
cited as a measure of the strength of our country,
is not necessarily linked to energy use in any
physical sense. We tend to forget that the GNP
measures all economic activity, both that which is
good and that which is bad. We could quite easily
stabilize or reduce energy growth, while increas-
ing the GNP, simply by increasing energy prices.
We could also probably increase the GNP much
faster than we could energy use if we removed en-
vironmental controls, which would lead to increased
medical bills, hospital use, and the costs of food
by reducing agricultural productivity. My point
is that the relationship of energy use to the GNP
is variable, while the relationship of energy use
to environmental quality is direct. The more
energy we use the worse our environment will be.
What we need to do as a society is to evaluate
our uses of energy, and decide if using more energy
is worth it. The main reason to use more energy
today is to create more consumable goods and ser-
vices, together with a large, complex superstruc-
ture of society, and to generate leisure time.
But we don't seem to be able to use the leisure
creatively, or to escape the entangling complexi-
ties of our governments, our communities, our homes
and our personal possessions. We need energy to
have time to do more important things than physical
labor. Yet, the more important things we do with
our time is produce even more things. We seldom
seem to use this leisure that we are supposedly
creating by our use of energy.
The elites of our society have practiced con-
spicuous consumption, and the bulk of society has
attempted to keep up with this mass consumption.
If we are to enter a new age of energy and resource
conservation, the leaders of society will need to
practice a new conspicuous simplicity. One impor-
tant way to move towards this new conspicuous, or
creative simplicity, is through a vigorous energy
conservation research, development and demonstra-
tion program.
Such a program can help show us how to accom-
plish our essential social goals, with the least
impact on energy and material resources. In addi-
tion, this research program needs to examine the
social, economic, institutional and political re-
straints to developing an energy and resource
conscious society.
I am fairly optimistic, much more than most
Congressmen, that we can hold our energy growth
down far below the projections of most governmental
agencies. I believe our population will level off,
as will consumer demands. We are currently using
75 Quads (Quadrillion BTU's) of energy, with pro-
jections of up to 170 Quads in the year 2000. I
believe we can settle for 85 Quads by the year
2000, providing we do the proper research and we
work hard at it.
The reason for my optimism about reaching this
goal, and I admit it sometimes wanes, is that I
believe we are in one of those great periods of
change in human history. We are entering, or per-
haps in the United States have entered, a post-
industrial era that will lead to a basically
steady-state economy. Growth in society will occur
in different sectors of the economy than those in
which growth occured in the past. 'The effect of
all of these changes, in energy growth, population
growth, and the economy, will be to create a new
set of values, and new rules by which the society
will operate.
The transition to this steady-state economy
will take many years, and require a great deal of
solid information if we are to minimize the dis-
ruptions of the transition. One of the proposals
the Congress is considering to provide this infor-
mation is an energy extension service, molded after
the successful agricultural extension service which
was begun nearly a century ago. This new extension
service would operate similarly, hopefully by using
most of the existing superstructure in the field.
Its mission would be to teach people how to mini-
mize their use of energy and resources. It would
strive to instill the values of ecology, and it
would be able to provide technical assistance to
those who need it.
As you continue your Conference on the Health,
Environmental Effects and Control Technology of
Energy Use, I hope that you can develop an informal
means to share resources in an effective manner. I
also hope that you can develop means to get the
information presented here distributed to those
interested persons unable to attend.
Finally, let me congratulate the organizers
for your continuing effort to make governmental re-
search and development programs work. I hope this
isn't the last such meeting by the Executive Branch
in the field of environmentally related energy re-
search and development.
-------
10
ERDA's ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY PROGRAMS
Dr. James Liverman
Assistant Administrator for Environment and
Safety
It is my intent in the time allotted to me to
outline for you some of the underlying philosophies
of ERDA's environment and safety programs and how
they are "being coupled to the technology options.
The ERDA commitment is indicated in Figure 1. To
insure that this policy is viable, we must realize
that: (Figure 2).
In the creation of ERDA, the Congress tried
to ensure that a responsible official of standing
equal to any of the line officials shall be ap-
pointed to concern himself with environment, health,
and societal issues. That individual was the As-
sistant Administrator for Environment and Safety.
Clearly, the AES is faced with a large and
complex task, as Figure 3 indicates. I, as the AES,
must overview the adequacy of environmental R&D in
wastes, control technology and safety aspects for
each technology. I must perform supporting bio-
medical and environmental R&D. This demands that I
work closely with the other assistant administra-
tors to achieve these goals. Figures ^ and 5 in-
dicate the three major functions within the AES
structure and a breakdown of the responsibilities
which characterize these functions.
How do we insure that the appropriate R&D is
conducted so as to give rise to a safe, clean, en-
vironmentally acceptable energy supply? There are
four major matters that must be considered with re-
gard to the development and implementation of each
technology which are expressed in Figure 6.
Each of these must be considered at the ap-
propriate time and I believe ERDA's position is
that we must begin to consider these issues simul-
taneously with the beginning exploration of the
technology and to continue this concern throughout
the development of the technology. This idea is
illustrated in Figure ?•
Thus, in the development of the technology,
if any one of these factors indicates a problem,
the technology will be slowed or not developed at
all at this time -- if the technology itself is
questionable, it fails early.
If the economics or other issues seem too
negative, the technology can be put on the back
burner for awhile.
If, however, after initial steps everything
seems to go, then the technology R&D and the re-
lated environmental, health, and societal research,
including addressing of the institutional issues,
is accelerated. Thus, by the time the technology
is to be commercialized, we will be certain within
very narrow limits that no unsuspecting surprises
will crop up at the last minute to make a failure
of the technology because of something that was
overlooked.
Because of the continuim of health, biologi-
cal, and environmental concerns, it is essential
that regulatory agencies become involved at a
reasonably early stage to insure that the needed
information to promulgate standards exists.
Note that control technology is expected to
be an integral part of the development of the tech-
nology itself. Environment and Safety group and
regulatory agencies provide an overview to insure
the adequacy of these measures.
How do we in ERDA insure that we are linked
closely enough to the development of the technology
to insure that all factors are considered?
As shown in Figure 8, our strategy is basi-
cally to create an atmosphere and organization
wherein people from Environment and Safety work
closely enough with the technology people so that
they become very familiar with the processes being
developed and any associated health, environmental,
and societal issues. If this interaction -is effec-
tive, then it will be clear that the pace of the
technology is directly related to the Environment
and Safety activities, both budgetarily and pro-
grammatically. If one suffers, the whole suffers.
This approach should lead to more realistic pro-
grams as shown in Figure 9- It is essential that
we do this for each technology process. Thus, for
Coal Conversion (Figure 10), for instance, each
separate process must be examined for possible
effluents and constituents that may be in the pro-
cess or in the product that could have an impact.
Out of a series of such definitions for each
of the technologies comes the Environment and
Safety programs of ERDA, as shown in Figure 11. It
has been necessary to restructure my own internal
ERDA organization in order to accommodate this in-
teractive process with each of the technology
branches, developing focused programs in each of
the technology areas to the degree that the Tech-
nology Assistant Administrator and I both can feel
comfortable that our programs make sense.
Note in particular the MULTI-TECHOLOGY line
which indicates the existence of programs whose re-
sults, in fact, are applicable to several technology
areas. To the biological organism, it is of little
consequence that sulfur comes from coal combustion
or from geothermal wells or that heat comes from
coal-fired as well as nuclear-fired boilers. This
effort constitutes about 30 percent of the total
budget and is scattered rather widely through all
of the various processes on the left axis.
In addition, note the GENERAL SCIENCE line'
which is handled independently of the technology
programs. General science contributes to the under-
standing of the basic underlying scientific mecha-
nisms and is used to open up new options.
-------
11
It is, in fact, these two parts - the multi-
technology and the general science programs - that
made it possible for ERDA to move rather aggres-
sively into all of the technology areas with mini-
mum "budget increases. (Figure 12)
It does, however, become clear rather quickly
that EKDA alone does not have responsibility for
the total environmental and safety aspects of
energy R&D. In precisely the same sense that
EKDA's multi-technology programs cut across many
technologies, so the programs of ERDA as well as
those of EPA, HEW and others cut across many fields
of endeavor - not just energy related activity.
ERDA recognized this early and in connection with
the mandates of the Non-Nuclear Energy R&D Act of
19714. which requires the annual submission of a
National Energy R&D Plan, we determined that in
the Environment and Safety area it would be nec-
essary to compile into a meaningful format the
actual H&D work going on in the United States re-
garding energy related environmental and health
R&D. The following five (5) figures give you an
idea of: Participating Agencies (Figure 13);
Federal Inventory of Energy-Related Biomedical and
Environmental Research -- Objectives (Figure lU);
Federal Inventory of Energy-Related Biomedical and
Environmental Research -- Data Format (Figure 15);
Energy Technologies by Research Category (Figure
16); Fossil Energy Health Effects Research (Figure
17).
The net result of our first survey for Ff
1975 indicated about $270 million was allocated
for support of various agencies, with ERDA and EPA
carrying the predominate share of the activity.
Our request for appropriate automated data bases
for people to utilize to insure that no unnecessary
duplication or voids in effort occur.
In closing, let me make five points:
In demonstrating ERDA's commitment to en-
vironmental quality:
1. We will insure that from the first con-
cept of the technology that environmental,
health, societal and institutional issues
are given equal consideration with the
technology.
2. We will insure that our plans, policies,
and R&D efforts are discussed widely
with the public.
3. We will insure, through close cooperation
with regulatory agencies, that adequate
information of the right kinds is being
derived from the Nation's R&D program to
establish regulations.
h. We will cooperate fully with all the
agencies to insure that whenever possible
and whenever of interest to them, joint
programs of mutual benefit are developed
in conjunction with our technology de-
velopment programs.
5. We will insure that the data bases we
develop on federal R&D are accessible to
all agencies equally.
-------
JJ
Figure 1
ERDA ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY
THERE MUST BE A COMMITMENT TO:
• CREATION OF ENERGY TECHNOLOGY CHOICES THAT
ARE ENVIRONMENTALLY ACCEPTABLE
• WORKING WITH INDUSTRY, GOVERNMENT (FEDERAL,
STATE, LOCAL). AND PUBLIC TO HELP ENSURE THAT
ENERGY SYSTEMS REMAIN ENVIRONMENTALLY,
SOCIALLY, AND ECONOMICALLY ACCEPTABLE IN THE
MARKET PLACE
. AN OPEN ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT
PROCESS AIMED AT DEVELOPMENT OF TECHNOLOGY
ALTERNATIVES SPECIFICALLY WEIGHED TOWARD
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AND ENHANCEMENT
AES
Figure 2
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPLICATIONS
. NO SINGLE APPROACH CAN GUARANTEE ENVIRONMENTALLY
AND SOCIALLY ACCEPTABLE COMMERCIAL ENERGY SYSTEMS.
• NO SINGLE PUBLIC OR PRIVATE AGENCY HAS CONTROL OVER
THE FINAL ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL PERFORMANCE
OF COMMERCIAL ENERGY SYSTEMS.
. THEREFORE ESSENTIAL THAT THE PUBLIC EIA PROCESS BE
OPERATED TO INITIATE EARLY FEDERAL/STATE/LOCAL
GOVERNMENTS, INDUSTRY, AND PUBLIC INTERACTION
LEADING TO NEEDED INSTITUTIONAL, TECHNICAL, AND
FINANCIAL RESPONSES.
Figure 3
ERDA ADMINISTRATOR
EROA PROGRAM
ASSISTANT ADMINISTRATORS
ENVIRONMENTAL
•
OVERVIEW
FOSSIL
FUELS
NUCLEAR
CONSERVATION
SOLAR
GEOTHERMAL
NATIONAL
SECURITY
ENVIRONMENT
SAFETY
f.
OPERATIONAL SAFETY
BIOMEOICAL t, ENV RES
WASTE MANAGEMENT RSD
CONTROL TECHNOLOGY
NEPA ACTIVITIES
COORDINATION
WITHIN ERDA
WITH CED EPA
NRC ON RSR
Figure 5 AES RESPONSIBILITIES
RESEARCH
• SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPACT
« HEALTH EFFECTS
. ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS
• CHARACTERIZATION. MEASUREMENT AND MONITORING
• ENVIRONMENTAL TRANSPORT AND EFFECTS
• WASTE USE AND/OR CONTROL
OVERVIEW
. TECHNOLOGY MONITORING AND INTERACTION
. ANALYSIS AND ASSESSMENT
« COORDINATION W/STATE, FED. LOCAL
• PUBLIC DEMONSTRATION
COMPLIANCE
• EIA/EIS REVIEW AND DEVELOPMENT
. DEVELOPMENT AND COMPLIANCE WITH OTHER FEDERAL,
STATE AND LOCAL REGULATIONS
AES
Figure 6
TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT
AND
IMPLEMENTATION
• TECHNOLOGY RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
• ECONOMICS OF TECHNOLOGY
• ENVIRONMENT, HEALTH, SAFETY, SOCIETAL
ISSUES
• INSTITUTIONAL ISSUES
Figure 7
ENERGY FOR THE NATION
TECHNOLOGY COMMERCIALIZED
SUPPORTING BIOMEDICAL. ENVIRONMENTAL AND SAFETY RESEARCH AND
COORDINATION PROMULGATION AND ENFORCEMENT OF HEALTH, SAFETY,
AND ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS OVERVIEW OF ADEQUACY OF R&D
ON WASTES. CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES. SAFETY ASPECTS
Figure h
ERDA'S AES FUNCTION
TO ENSURE DEVELOPMENT OF CLEAN, SAFE,
PUBLICALLY ACCEPTABLE ENERGY
TECHNOLOGIES-ACHIEVED THROUGH:
.RESEARCH
• OVERVIEW
. COMPLIANCE WITH REGULATORY PROCEDURE
REGULATORY CONFIRMATIVE
ASSESSMENT R&D
A NO-GO TRY PROSPECTIVE COST
YIELD TOO LOW FOR NOW
-------
13
Fi
Fierure 12
ERDA's ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY STRATEGY
TECHNOLOGICAL THRUSTS
TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT PLAN
SOLAR ENERGY
A
0\ CLEAN,
ENVIRONMENTAL DEVELOPMENT PLAN> SAFE
•j o o o/i • o o • o o 9/} o • o • o • o/ ENERGY
NUCLEAR ENERGY ' JL \ FOSSIL ENERGY
•*»
UNDERLYING BIOMEDICAL AND
ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES
ENVIRONMENT R&D PLAN
Figure 9
PLAN FOR SINGLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGY
ECOLOGY GENETICS PHYSIOLOGY CHEMISTRY IMMUNOLOGY
IAND SYSTEMS AQUATIC SYSTEMS MARINE SYSTEMS
MEASUREMENTS TECHNOLOGY CHARACTERIZATION METHODS
Fi.Q-ure 13
TECHNOLOGY R&D PROGRAM
ENVIRONMENTAL R&D PROGRAM
Fiscure 10
COAL CONVERSION
GASIFICATION, LIQUEFACTION,
REFINED COAL
ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH
HEALTH EFFECTS, ENVIRONMENTAL
EFFECTS, CONTROL SYSTEMS, SITING
SAFE
CLEAN
ADEQUATE
ACCEPTABLE
ENERGY
SAFE
CLEAN
ADEQUATE
ACCEPTABLE
ENERGY
PARTICIPATING AGENCIES
• ENERGY RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION 1ERDAI
• ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY |EPA|
• TENNESSEE VALLEY AUTHORITY TVA
• NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION |NASA|
• DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH EDUCATION. AND WELFARE |HEW]
• NATIONAL INSTITUTES OF HEALTH JNIH]
• NATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH
[NIOSH]
• NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION (NSF|
• DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE
• NATIONAL OCEANIC AND ATMOSPHERIC ADMINISTRATION (NOAAJ
• OFFICE OF ENVIRONMENTAL AFFAIRS (OEA]
• NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS JNBSI
• DEPARTMENT OF INTERIOR
• BUREAU OF LAND MANAGEMENT |BLM|
• OFFICE OF BIOLOGICAL SERVICES FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE
[DBS FWS]
• US GEOLOGICAL SURVEY |USGS]
• BUREAU OF MINES |BM|
• BUREAU OF RECLAMATION |BR)
• DEPARTMENT OF AGICULTURE
• DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE |000|
Figure 11
Figure
CHARACTERIZATION
ENVIRONMENT
TRANSPORT
CONTROL
TECHNOLOGY
STANDARDS
o
tt
z
o
I-
MULTI TECHNOLOGY SUPPORT
FEDERAL INVENTORY OF ENERGY-RELATED
BIOMEDICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH
OBJECTIVES
• PROVIDE SOURCE OF INFORMATION OF FEDERALLY FUNDED BIOMEDICAL
AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENERGY-RELATED RESEARCH
• PROVIDE DATA BASE TO DETERMINE EXISTING RESEARCH DEFICIENCIES
AND UNDESIRABLE OVERLAP
PROVIDE DATA BASE TO FORMULATE FUTURE RESEARCH PROGRAMS
-------
J_4
Figure 15
FEDERAL INVENTORY OF ENERGY-RELATED
BIOMEDICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH
DATA FORMAT
• ORGANIZATION OF RESEARCH PROIECTS BY INTERAGENCY WORKING GROUP
CATEGORIES
• BIOMEDICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH CATEGORIES
• CHARACTERIZATION MEASUREMENT AND MONITORING
• ENVIRONMENTAL TRANSPORT PROCESSES
• HEALTH EFFECTS
• ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS
• INTEGRATED ASSESSMENT
• ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES
• COAL
• OIL AND GAS
• OIL SHALE
• GEOTHERMAL
• NUCLEAR
• SOLAR
• HYDROELECTRIC
• CONSERVATION
• MULTI TECHNOLOGY
• GENERAL SCIENCE
Figure 17
FOSSIL ENERGY HEALTH EFFECTS RESEARCH
OBJECTIVES S
METABOLISM AND m
FATE
DOSE EFFECT _
RELATIONSHIPS
MECHANISMS OF _
X CD
LJJ CD
CD CD
CD CD
C
_J
MULTI-TECHNOLOGY SUPPORT
H CTJ
-------
AN ENVIRONMENTAL OVERVIEW OF
UNITED STATES' ENERGY FUTURES
S. J. Gage
Deputy Assistant Administrator
Energy, Minerals and Industry - U.S.EPA
Washington, D.C.
For a country as large and complex as the
United States, it is unusual when new courses are
charted, when major new initiatives are undertaken.
The momentum of the Nation's activities is gener-
ally too great to change directions. We speak more
often of bold initiatives than we apply ourselves
to bringing such programs into action. But, we are
now witnessing, I believe, such a shift in national
mood, direction, and action.
Since both the mass and speed of our collec-
tive activities are great, the change toward energy
sufficiency, resource conservation, and environ-
mental protection is slow. The process is rather
like trying to turn a heavily laden supertanker-
it takes a lot of energy and a lot of room. And
the turn generates a lot of creaks and groans as
the entire ship is stressed.
We are now moving in a different direction
than we were three years ago. We have to watch
carefully, for the rate of change can be deadly
slow at times, as if the ship were dead in the
water. In other instances, certain changes can be
dizzying.
It is my job this morning to give an overview
of the environmental consequences of this new
course we are on. You have already heard about the
likely shape of our energy futures and have heard
about the commitment to avoid many of the environ-
mental mistakes of the past, as we attempt to mold
our energy futures. I want to present a setting
for what is to come during these three days of the
conference. I would like to paint a backdrop for
the environmental research and development activi-
ties that you will hear described. While it would
be impossible for me to cover every environmental
aspect of each energy fuel and technology, existing
and potential, in the time I have, I will attempt
to paint in broad strokes so that the distinguished
speakers who follow me can enrich the picture in
color and detail.
Before turning to the real and potential en-
vironmental problems associated with the major
energy alternatives, I should reiterate several
facts about our present and future energy consump-
tion patterns. First, the Nation is hooked on oil
and gas. As you can see in Figure 1, the bulk of
our energy—over three-fourths—is supplied by
petroleum and natural gas. But, as ERDA Assistant
Administrator Roger LaGassie has indicated, that
pattern has to change. The nagging fear that our
oil and gas resources will eventually run out has
become a stark reality. We have gone to the well
once too often.
There is good geologic reason to believe that
there is still oil and gas offshore but not enough
to offset both our growing demand and the declin-
ing production from existing wells.
15
King Coal, which had lost control of the
energy market and had become a Black Prince at
best, is due to be enthroned again. Although coal
supplies less than 20 % of our energy now, most
experts believe that the use of coal will double,
possibly even triple, before the turn of the cen-
tury. In the near-term, more coal would be used
for the generation of electrical power; within the
next two decades, synthetic products from coal
should become available to offset the significant
shortfall in domestic gas and liquid fuel pro-
duction.
A highly conjectural fuel production of our
future energy supplies is presented in Figure 2 to
illustrate the relative timing of emerging energy
supplies and technologies. These curves are not
meant to present a quantitative picture. At this
time, the best anyone can hope to do is to present
a range of energy supply scenarios. For simpli-
city's sake, I will use this diagram throughout the
talk to give an idea of when energy supply alterna-
tives might come into play, what the nature of the
environmental threats are, and how much time we
will have to develop the required environmental
safeguards.
Nuclear fission reactors are already playing
an increasingly large role in electrical power
generation. However, their long-term viability
will depend upon an adequate supply of uranium ore,
adequate enrichment and fuel reprocessing capacity,
and probably ultimately the availability of the
breeder reactor to utilize the much more plentiful
fertile uranium isotope U-238. Looming large also
are questions of reactor operational safety and
radioactive waste disposal.
In the intermediate term, advanced energy
technologies such as solar and geothermal may play
an important role, particularly in the South and
Southwest. The promise of fusion also may be
realized by the turn of the century.
Finally, energy conservation has to become a
way of life today and tomorrow. Shifts toward
smaller, more efficient automobiles, more efficient
building design, and more efficient industrial pro-
cesses should continue to take the edge off our
energy supply problems. Conservation will not pro-
duce any new BTU's but it will delay the need for
new energy by making better use of the BTU's we
have available.
Now, I would like to turn to our current and
future energy supply alternatives. First, I would
like to discuss the nation's oil supply alterna-
tives.
OFFSHORE OIL AND GAS OPERATIONS
Oil and gas development on the Gulf of Mexico
and California Outer Continental Shelf began with
exploration of nearshore shallow waters, the first
offshore platform being constructed in 1897 off
Santa Barbara. Fifty years later, the first plat-
form beyond sight of land began operating off
-------
16
Louisiana. Since then, the industry has continued
to advance into deeper waters and, in the North
Sea, into a much more hostile environment.
The offshore oil and gas industry has made
substantial progress in technology and work prac-
tices since the highly publicized Santa Barbara
blowout in 1969. To date, over 17,000 wells have
been drilled in U.S. coastal waters, mostly in the
Gulf of Mexico such as those from the platform
shown in Figure 3. However, a Council on Environ-
mental Quality study indicated frontier OCS regions
would likely confront harsher conditions than had
been previously faced in other United States off-
shore areas. For example, conditions in the Gulf
of Alaska are more severe than the industry has
yet experienced anywhere in the world. Consequent-
ly, the risk of environmental damage from offshore
oil operations varies from area to area. The CEQ
study pointed out that development of the Georges
Bank off New England and of the central Baltimore
Canyon would involve relatively lower environ-
mental risk than development of the northern
Baltimore Canyon, the Southeast Georgia Embayment,
and the Gulf of Alaska—all higher risk areas.
Ecological impacts in the marine and coastal
environments may result from both permanent and
temporary stresses created by offshore oil opera-
tions. Permanent stresses result from development
of harbors and construction facilities, dredging
and filling operations, placement of platforms and
pipelines, alteration of drainage patters, and
construction of refining and petrochemical com-
plexes. Chronic pollution by the operational dis-
charge of brines from active fields may also be
considered to be permanent since these discharges--
which also contain some oil--continue and actually
increase with the age of the field.
Temporary ecological impacts are generally
associated with accidents such as well blowouts,
loss of drilling muds, and oil spills. These acci-
dents often occur during drilling operations but
can also occur during production and transportation
phases. They can be costly and destructive and
can threaten human life, Red Adair and John
Wayne notwithstanding. Massive oil spills can
significantly reduce biological productivity within
the impacted area. After a sufficient time has
elapsed, the affected ecosystem will recover to a
point where the normal biota and ecosystem activity
are restored, although the time required may be
many years.
Crude oil and natural gas liquids may be
transported to shore processing facilities by pipe-
line, tanker, or barge. Natural gas is transported
only by pipeline. All the natural gas now pro-
duced in the Gulf of Mexico and off Southern Cali-
fornia is transported to shore by pipeline. All
the oil produced off California and 97 to 98% of
the Gulf oil is piped to shore. Because most of
the U.S. offshore geological formations with oil
and gas potential lie within 200 miles of shore,
pipelines will probably continue as a preferred
OCS transportation mode, although tankers may well
be used for transporting oil during the early
phase of the field development in areas remote
from established producing fields. Production can
begin earlier, particularly far offshore, if tank-
ers are loaded from offshore moorings in or near
the field. One commonly used.is the single point
mooring (SPM). Production has begun in the North
Sea Ekofisk and Auk Fields, although the pipelines
for these fields have not yet been completed.
Figure 4 shows a tanker connected to a SPM in the
Ekofisk Field.
Single point moorings have specifically been
developed to reduce the hazards to tankers of
storms and to minimize oil spills during loading.
Over 100 SPM's are in use throughout the world.
Because the mooring and hosing can circle the buoy,
the tanker moves to head into waves, tides, and
storms. The SPM thus allows a tanker to remain
moored in 15 to 20 foot waves accompanied by winds
and currents. These conditions could not be
tolerated at a fixed mooring.
In addition to oil pollution, tankers and
barges pollute with their sewage, untreated gar-
bage, and human wastes. A tanker of 35,000 dead-
weight tons generates about 1000 gallons per day
each of sewage and domestic waste. If they are
not treated, they can significantly degrade water
quality, particularly in harbors and bays.
Crude oil may be a mixture of more than a
thousand different hydrocarbons, together with
trace amounts of such compounds as sulfur and
nitrogen. The processes used in a refinery in-
clude distillation, sulfur removal, cracking, and
reforming. Process equipment in a typical re-
finery is shown in Figure 5. The refining pro-
cess, if uncontrolled, can lead to unacceptable
water and air pollution. Uater residuals include
dissolved solids, suspended solids, nondegradable
organics, and biochemical and chemical oxygen de-
mands. Air emissions include NOx from heaters and
boilers, SOx primarily from catalytic cracking,
and hydrocarbons from crude oil and product stor-
age. The most troublesome solid wastes are oily
sludges from crude oil storage which cannot be dis-
posed of in ordinary landfills. Land use require-
ments may become significant if storage, loading
areas, buffer zones, and room for expansion are
included.
COAL
Turning next to our most abundent fuel, it is
likely that coal will continue to be used in in-
creasing quantities in direct firing of utility
and industrial boilers. Four major'areas--Rocky
Mountain, Northern Great Plains, Interior, and
Eastern—contain more than 90% of all coal re-
sources in the Contiguous 48 States. These areas
are shown in Figure 6. There are major differences
between the coals in these areas in terms of the
quantity, quality, depth, seam thickness, and
ownership. Availability of water resources, as
well as competition for surface area usage, also
vary widely. The Northern Great Plains and Rocky
-------
Mountain Coal Provinces contain approximately 70%
of the U.S. coal resources and most of the nation's
low sulfur coal. There are, however, large re-
serves of higher quality, lower sulfur coal in
Appalachia, which are capable of meeting new source
performance standards, although a substantial frac-
tion requires washing to remove pyritic sulfur.
Until recently, most U.S. coal was mined
underground. Surface mining, however, has been in-
creasing for several decades, as shown in Figure 7.
Both types of mining cause environmental problems.
It is essential that we take every possible mea-
sure to minimize these ecological impacts as we
expand both surface and underground mining.
One of the most difficult problems caused by
coal mining has been acid mine drainage which re-
sults from the oxidizing of pyritic materials in
the overburden above the coal seam and the leach-
ing of the acid from the mine. Where underground
mines have been breached or spoils from surface
mines have not been properly covered, acidic
drainage can pollute surface streams. Sometimes,
it is possible to treat the water before discharg-
ing; other times not. Approximately 80% of acid
mine drainage in Appalachia originates from
abandoned underground coal mines and affects
thousands of miles of streams in that area.
Many mining activities have imposed huge
social costs on the public at large. These costs
will last for years and are in the form of stream
pollution, floods, landslides, sedimentation, loss
of fish and wildlife habitats, nonproductive un-
reclaimed land, and the impairment of natural
beauty. As the Nation attempts to increase domes-
tic energy production, care must be taken not to
repeat the problems which haunt this and future
generations.
In Eastern surface mining operations, care
must be taken to provide adequate reclamation of
mined areas, including restoration to original con-
tours and minimization of erosion during mining
and revegetation phases. Much mining is done on
steep slopes in Appalachia in the manner shown in
Figure 8. It has only been in the last several
years that integrated mining and reclamation tech-
niques have been available so that steep slope
mining could be done without severe environmental
consequences. One of these methods—the "haul-
back" method—offers considerable promise.
The Northern Great Plains Province contains
half of the remaining coal resources in the U.S.
The two largest regions, Fort Union and Powder
River, contain almost 1.5 trillion tons of coal,
much of which is owned by the Federal government.
Most of the coal within the Province is relatively
low in quality, with lignite in the Fort Union
region and thick deposits of sub-bituminous in the
Powder River region. Although seam depth and
thickness vary considerably, some beds are quite
thick (50 to 100 feet) and sufficiently near the
surface to allow surface mining. Water supplies
are not abundant, and most of the surface water is
17
found in the Northern Missouri River Drainage
Basin. The average annual runoff amount ranges
from less than 1 inch to 10 inches.
Reclamation in the West presents a serious
challenge. Knowledge of'reclamation procedures is
inadequate. At this time, it is generally im-
possible to guarantee complete success of reclama-
tion efforts. Problems of revegetating strip mine
areas in the arid and semi-arid West differ drasti-
cally from those in the humid areas of the East,
as shown in the photograph of a mined area in
Eastern Montana in Figure 9. From the standpoint
of plant growth, climatic conditions are extreme.
Seventy-five percent of the area receives less
than 20 inches annual precipitation available for
plant growth. In addition, there are seasonal
temperature variations from -60 degrees to 120 de-
grees F, short frost-free periods, wide variations
in overburden material and lack of adequate top
soil. In some cases, the saving and spreading of
top soil-can do more harm than good; for instance,
where the calcium carbonate layer underlying much
arid land soil is mixed with the nitrogen rich
organic layer and the biologic carbon nitrogen
balance is destroyed. The success of revegetation
efforts can vary widely, with water being a key
factor in any successful western reclamation pro-
gram.
One of the most difficult aspects of develop-
ment to cope with is the effect upon the people who
live in impacted areas. The social system and
culture of the Northern Great Plains is dominated
by three distinct groups of people: farmers and
ranchers, townspeople, and Indians. The first two
groups share one culture, while the Indians have a
separate, yet related, culture.
Coal development will accelerate the "boom
town" phenomena that is occurring in the Northern
Great Plains region. Impacts of sudden growth will
be greatest on the persons and communities close to
development sites. Families are crowded together
in mobile homes in a 'strange environment. Newly
arriving families, particularly the blue-collar
families, seek acceptance into the community.
Social cohesion suffers as alienation and emotional
distress feed on each other; and crime, suicide,
and alcoholism rates tend to increase. In short,
the quality of life of persons, both newcomers and
residents of the area, is degraded.
COAL UTILIZATION
Most of the coal used in the United States
during the next two decades will be burned in
steam boilers. Coal-fired steam electric boilers
are primarily located east of the Mississippi, with
the heaviest concentration in the industrial upper
Midwest. In addition, many new coal-fired power
plants are being constructed in the West, such as
the new plant being constructed at Col strip,
Montana, pictured in Figure 10.
-------
18
At the present time, coal provides 42% of the
fuel needs of electric power generation and 217. of
those for industrial process heat. In striving for
the National goal of energy self-sufficiency, sign-
ificantly increased amounts of coal must be burned
in these applications. It is essential to have
available air pollution control technology which
can mitigate the environmental impact of directly
using coal in boilers and furnaces pending the
development of processes to convert coal to clean
synthetic liquids and gases.
It has been shown that, in combination, sulfur
oxides and particulate matter from power plant
stack gases can increase the death rate due to
chronic disease and can aggravate these diseases.
In addition, they can be a causal factor in the
occurrence of chronic bronchitis in children and
adults.
The oxides of nitrogen lead to photochemical
smog reactions. These reactions require hydro-
carbon vapors, oxides of nitrogen, and sunlight.
Adverse health and environmental effects include
eye and respiratory irritation, production of ozone
in the atmosphere, interference with visibility,
and characteristic forms of vegetation damage. In
concentrations of several parts per million, nitro-
gen dioxide can lead to a condition in experimental
animals that resembles pulmonary emphysema in man.
The most convincing case for the severity of
effects of air pollution, as well as for the effects
of air pollution on mortality of persons who are
chronically ill, has been based on the experience
of the population of London during the December,
1952 air pollution disaster. During that critical
two week period, deaths exceeded several hundred
per day, and approached 1009 deaths on the day of
maximum sulfur dioxide concentration. Total deaths
from all causes exceeded the seasonal norm by near-
ly a factor of three.
One of the major near term objectives of the
Nation's energy research and development program is
to develop and demonstrate commercial viable pro-
cesses for cleaning of fossil fuel combustion flue
gases. The processes include those to control
emissions of sulfur dioxide and its derivatives,
particulates , nitrogen oxides, and hazardous mater-
ials from coal and residual oil combustion gases.
Shown in Figure 11 is the successful demonstration
of one scrubbing process—the MagOx process—at
Boston Edison's Mystic Station.
SYNTHETIC FUELS
Several processes are now being developed to
convert coal to clean burning synthetic natural gas
and lower heat content power gas. Other processes
are being developed for conversion of coal to low
sulfur and low ash liquids or solids for non-pollut-
ing fuels. ERDA is now in the process of awarding
contracts for several synthetic fuel demonstration
plants, including the large COALCON synthetic fuel
plant to be constructed in Southern Illinois.
The conversion processes in such a plant, how-
ever, include various operations which can release
particulates and hydrocarbons into the atmosphere,
and potentially hazardous chemicals to water
supplies. The environmental implications of coal
conversion processes are viewed in terms of primary
impacts—air emissions and water effluents, the
solid waste produced and the land requirements; and
secondary impacts—those connected with associated
industries, population shifts, employment, housing
and municipal, public and commercial services. It
is expected that the water effluents from a gasi-
fication plant, before treatment, will contain sus-
pended solids, phenols, thiocynates, cyanides,
ammonia, dissolved solids such as chlorides, car-
bonates and biocarbonates, many sulfur compounds,
trace elements and tars, oils and light hydro-
carbons. Potential discharge of many other pollu-
tants and the environmental effects these dis-
charges may cause are currently undergoing study.
Potentially hazardous substances which are sus-
pected in coal conversion plant process streams in-
clude polynuclears such as benzoCa)pyrene, and
organo-metallics such as nickel carbonyl—both are
known carcinogens. The particulare emissions are
especially important since carcinogenic compounds
may be particulates themselves, or adsorbed on
particulates which can be respired and retained in
the lungs.
FLUIDIZED BED COMBUSTION
A promising technology for using coal in an
environmentally acceptable manner is fluidized bed
combustion—a technology under development by ERDA
and private industry. Fluidized bed combustors
(FBC) burn coal under closely controlled conditions,
thus reducing particulates and nitrogen oxides
formation and allowing for the capture of the sul-
fur oxides by sulfur-scavenging materials such as
limestone.
Of particular concern is hot particulate
cleanup, especially below five microns. The effi-
ciency of mechanical dust collectors drops off
rapidly in this range, and high temperature filters
may be required to protect gas turbines and to
minimize atmospheric emissions. Environmental tests
of an advanced FBC system are being run on EPA's
miniplant in New Jersey, shown in Figure 12.
Finally, disposal of sulfur dioxide sorbent
material and ash wastes poses an environmental
problem for FBC systems and adds an economic pen-
alty to the plants. Development of a suitable re-
generation scheme which produces a salable by-
product and returns sorbent to the system is needed.
OIL SHALE
The U.S. Geological Survey estimates that U.S.
oil shale deposits contain more than 2 trillion
barrels of oil. However, only a very small portion
of these resources could be classified as reserves.
About 90% of the identified oil shale resources of
the U.S. are located in a single geological forma-
-------
19
tion in western Colorado, Utah and Wyoming known as
the Green River formation, as shown in Figure 13.
Conceptually, oil shale may be exploited in
one of two ways--the oil-bearing rock can be mined
and then processed (or retorted) on the surface,
or the rock can be fractured and processed under-
ground (in situ) and the resulting liquids with-
drawn by wells.
Just as for many other minerals, surface min-
ing and retorting of oil shale creates many types
of residuals such as air and water pollutants as
well as massive quantities of spent shale which
must be disposed of on the surface.
Air pollution may be minimized if the retort
towers are tightly controlled and dust emission is
suppressed by water sprays. The latter may be a
difficult job in such dry areas. Total control of
water pollutants will require that surface runoff
be directed away from the mine, that seepage be
used for dust control and reclamation, and that any
other contaminated water be either injected into
deep wells or purified before being released. Tbe
feasibility of these controls for a commercial scale
mine has not yet been demonstrated. Contamination
of ground water supplies by saline mine water is a
possibility, but that depends on the local geo-
logic structures.
Disposal of solid wastes from oil shale opera-
tions can be a formidable task. For example, if a
surface mine with an average overburden of 450 feet
is supporting a 100,000-barrel-per-day processing
operation, it will produce an average of nearly
90,000 tons of solid wastes per day--an amount that
would cover 25 acres to a depth of one foot.
Runoff water from waste piles clearly consti-
tutes a water pollution danger. Water coming off
spent shale piles under a condition where runoff
rate equals rainfall rate has been estimated to
contain as much as 45 milligrams per liter of sul-
fates, carbonates, sodium, calcium, and magnesium
salts. Reclamation of the waste piles remains
problemmatical and a primary environmental impact
of reclamation is likely to be its consumption of
water. Uater consumption estimates for oil shale
development suggest a need for between 121,000 and
189,000 acre feet of water per year, or about 10%
of the total water usage in the Colorado part of
the upper Colorado River basin in 1970.
Many of the same problems exist with under-
ground mining techniques because part of spent shale
must be disposed of on the surface. Depending on
the economics, possibly all of the shale would go
into surface land disposal.
The in situ approach involves fracturing the
oil shale underground, introducing heat to cause
pyrolysis underground, and collecting and with-
drawing the shale oil through wells to the surface
for upgrading. Environmental problems associated
with in situ retorting schemes includes subsidence,
air emTs s ions, and disruptions of aquifers.
NUCLEAR POWER
Conventional light water fission reactors are
commercially available and now represent approxi-
mately eight percent of the Nation's electrical
generating capacity. Reactors, such as Niagara
Mohawk's Nine Mile Point plant shown in Figure 14,
are expected to be a major source of new electrical
power generating capacity for the next twenty years.
Breeder reactors are being developed but their
entry into commercial markets will probably not
occur until the end of the century.
The major impact of uranium mining is typical
of that of large surface mineral mines. Paren-
thetically, one of the largest uranium stripmines
is in the vicinity of the large coal development
areas in Eastern Wyoming. The main residuals
associated with the milling process are the solid
and liquid talings. All the radioactive effluents
are low level emissions, about 2 to 24% of current
standards.
In a nuclear fuel fabrication plant, the re-
siduals are associated with the chemical processing
steps, that is, the conversion of "yellowcake" to
U0(2) to UF(6) and back to 110(2). These can be
handled by conventional disposal methods.
The major pollutants from light water reactors
are waste heat and radioactive emissions. For a
1000 megawatt plant operating at a 75% load factor,
a 32% efficient nuclear plant would emit approxi-
mately one-third more waste heat than a 38% effi-
cient fossil plant. Relatively minor amounts of
radioactivity are released from nuclear plants.
Radioactive waste management is another unique
and necessary process, and one of the most critical
ones for nuclear power generation. Nuclear waste-
cannot be allowed to enter the environment until
the radioactivity has decayed below harmful levels.
Certain of these wastes must be isolated from the
environment for thousands of years.
To bury the residuals (both high level and
other than high level) resulting from the various
steps in the fuel cycle requires approximately 0.2
acre per year per 1000 magawatt reactor. Typical
quantities of residuals to be buried per 1000 maga-
watt LWR per year are: 114 cubic feet of solidi-
fied fission products and 72 cubic feet of cladd-
ing. The total low level waste is approximately
14,000 cubic feet per 1000 megawatt LWR. While
these quantities are quite small, the high level
wastes are especially danqerous and must be either
committed to stable geologic structures or other-
wise secured for thousands of years.
During reprocessing, the main radioactive re-
leases into the atmosphere will be tritium and
Kr-85. The main radioactive release to the water
will be tritium. The exposure to the general public
from these releases is expected to be indistingu-
ishable from background.
The Breeder Reactor is under development, as
I'm sure you know, by the Energy Research and
-------
20
Development Administration. The time frame for the
breeder is such that the breeder will probably not,
even if everything goes well in the demonstration
program, have a commercial impact before the turn
of the century. In other words, we have many years
to understand and compensate for any unique prob-
lems associated with the breeder. Of course, the
required research will build on over 30 years of
intensive radiation biology experimentation spon-
sored primarily by tha forner Atomic Energy Com-
mission and now carried on by ERDA and the new
Nuclear Regulatory Commission.
GEOTHERMAL
Generation of electricity from geothermal
steam resources occurred for the first time in 1904
in Larderello, Italy. The only commercial geo-
thermal production in the U.S. is the Geysers area
of California and dates from about 1960.
There are three basic sources of geothermal
energy: natural steam, hot water, and hot dry
rock. To date, geothermal steam has been used
mainly to generate electricity, such as in the
Geysers field in Northern California shown in Fig-
ure 15. Hot water has been largely employed for
heating purposes in a few locations. Technologies
for hot water and hot dry rock application to
power generation are now being actively considered.
Geothermal electricity production is distinc-
tive in that all steps of the fuel cycle are local-
ized at the site of the power production facility.
Aside from steam transport from the wellhead to the
power plant, the only transportable item is elec-
tricity.
During testing and bleeding of the wells, all
the non-condensable gases contained in the steam
are vented to the atmosphere. Hydrogen sulfide,
reaching concentrations of 500 ppm in the steam, is
the principal air pollutant of concern because of
toxicity and nuisance odor. Mercury and radon gas
occur in geothermal steam in trace amounts. Since
methyl mercury accumulates in the food chains,
monitoring of the mercury pathway after emission is
needed. Radon is a natural radioactive material
and could build up in the environment of geothermal
facilities. The environmental impact of the mer-
cury and radon emissions is not known.
A typical geothermal brine in the Imperial
Valley consists of 250,000 ppm dissolved solids--
primarily silicon, calcium carbonate, sodium chlo-
ride, boron, ammonia, and argon. Because the na-
ture of these materials and their concentrations
preclude release in surface or ground water, the
brine generally must be reinjected into the forma-
tion from which it was extracted. As an indication
of the magnitude of this problem, disposal of an
estimated 50 billion gallons of brine per year con-
taining 50 million tons of solids would be required
for a 1,000 Mwe plant in the Imperial Valley. Re-
injection of the waste water, in addition to eco-
nomic and environmental advantages over other dis-
posal methods, may have the added effects of pre-
venting land subsidence and facilitating greater
steam production. Other problems include noise,
ground water contamination, land use problems,
ground motion, and the general problem of heat dis-
posal. This latter item also relates to otner
thermal cycles.
SOLAR ENERGY
Solar heating and cooling of buildings will,
in my estimation, become very important in the
near-term. Nearly everyone, especially those with
environmental interests applaud the much expanded
solar R&D program sponsored by ERDA. It's hard to
say anything bad about such uses of solar energy.
So, in the interests of brevity, let me suggest
that the worst environmental impact associated with
solar energy that I'm familiar with is sunburn,
which just emphasizes that too much of a good
thing may lead to bad results.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
During this presentation, I have tried to
give a balanced view of energy supply developments
and their potential environmental impacts. While
it may be difficult to maintain balance and ob-
jectivity at all times, I believe it is important
to keep trying. In some cases, energy developers
may be very vocal in their demands that environ-
mental restrictions be set aside; in other in-
stances, environmental advocates may be shrill in
their attempts to delay or derail specific develop-
ment proposals. However, both sides should keep in
mind that the Nation's multiple objectives must be
served over the long run. In a way, both sides
need each other so we come out with the right re-
conciliation of energy and environmental goals.
I think the point can be best illustrated
with a story.
A young Catholic girl, let's call her Mary
O'Hara, was in love with John and he was in love
with her. But, Mary confided in her mother, "John
is a Baptist and very much against marrying a
Catholic."
"Mary," said her mother, "let's use some
salesmanship about this." "John's an intelligent
lad, so talk to him about our great church. Tell
him about the great beliefs, the noble saints, the
wonderful cathedrals and the beauty of the Service.
Now go out and give him a good selling job!"
Mary dried her eyes and went to see him. The
morning after their next date, Mary was again sobb-
ing. Her mother, comforting her, asked, "What's
the matter? Didn't you sell him?"
"Sell him," sobbed Mary. "I oversold him.
Now he wants to become a priest."
So, during the next few days, you may be
hearing from both priests and sinners. But from
my personal acquaintance with most of them, I sus-
pect that you will be hearing about the best
efforts of the Federal science and technology dis-
ciples. I believe that you, too, will judge their
efforts to be among the "good works" of our age.
-------
Figure 1
Figure 4
-------
22
Figure 6
Figure 9
Figure 7
Figure 10
Figure 8
-------
23
Figure 11
Figure 13
-------
CHAPTER 2
ATMOSPHERIC TRANSPORT
-------
26
INTRODUCTION
Energy related pollutants are often carried
from the point of emission to the point of effect by
atmospheric transport. During this transport process
new pollutants may be formed. Finally, the pollu-
tants are removed from the atmosphere by a variety
of wet and dry deposition processes. The pollutants
produce a number of health and welfare effects during
the transport process and after deposition.
The scale of interest in these effects varies
enormously with regard to distances and time. Some
emissions from automobile exhausts are most damaging
only close to the roadway, for periods measurable in
minutes. In contrast, pollutants effecting ozone in
the upper atmosphere, have global ramifications
which will accrue over many years.
The ability to predict the relationship between
emissions and the resulting air quality is an essen-
tial ingredient in the development of cost-effective,
control strategies. These relationships are also a
link in the determination of the ultimate fate of
the pollutant and an understanding of the final
effects.
Research includes development of atmospheric
models of transport, deposition and diffusion, and
chemical models of transformation and removal.
Extensive sampling and measurement is being con-
ducted to develop a statistical base.
-------
27
Atmospheric Transport and Transformations
of Energy Related Pollutants
A. P. Altshuller
Environmental Sciences
Research Laboratory
EPA, RTP, N. C.
INTRODUCTION
Atmospheric pathways are important routes for
movements of many pollutants. The scales of
interest specially and in time for such movements.
can vary enormously. For example, the sulfuric acid
problem associated with some types of catalytical'ly-
equipped vehicles is of concern within roadways
and out to less than 100 meters from roadways. The
time scale of interest is of the order of seconds '.to
minutes. The potential impact on ozone depletion
and climatic variations of fluorocarbons, other
halocarbons, nitrogen oxides and related species is
global in extent and the time scale involved is
from 1 to over 100 years.
In between these two extremes, local, urban and
regional scales of importance can be identified.
The local scale is of concern with respect to fumi-
gation by hazardous substances emitted directly from
lower level industrial sources on nearby residential
areas. The spacial and time scales of significance
are within about 10 kilometers from the source and
within 1 hour of the source. On a large urban scale
of 10 to 100 kilometers and perhaps 1 to 10 hours
transport time, the system of concern involves a
mixture of primary and secondary (atmospherically
formed) pollutants associated with combustion,
vehicular and industrial sources. On a regional
scale of 100 to 1000 kilometers and perhaps 10 to
100 hours of transport time, the secondary (atmo-
spherically generated) gaseous and aerosol pollutants
from large combustion sources are of the greatest
concern.
The current emphasis in energy-related atmo-
spheric transport research has been focused on the.
impact of increased fossil fuel combustion, on trans-
port and transformation of combustion derived
pollutants on an urban-regional scale. In parti-
cular the role of sulfur oxides on the urban-regional
scales of transport and transformation is receiving
substantial attention. The impact of these sources
on transport and transformation of nitrogen oxides
and the formation of ozone in plumes also has'been
receiving consideration.
Experimental measurements have been made down-
wind of coal-fired power plants and adjacent or
overlapping urban plumes. Measurements also are in
progress in oil-fired power plants and on plumes
from petroleum complexes. A large fraction of the
available resources have been allocated to field
experiments on power plant and urban plumes. How-
ever, modelling activities and laboratory simulation
experiments also are being supported currently to
provide as complete an assessment as possible.
Other related research by the utility industry and
ERDA is gettinq underway, but much of this activity
is not yet operational.
Traditionally, the concern as to emissions from
power plants has emphasized the dispersion of
gaseous sulfur dioxide on a local-urban scale. Ex-
perimental measurements and dispersion modelling
have led to the belief that use of tall stacks
along with intermittent reductions of sulfur dioxide
emissions by use of lower sulfur fuels or reduced
power load will solve the sulfur oxides problem
around power plants. It should be evident that
the evaluation of the overall impact of the sulfur
burden from combustion of fuels of higher sulfur
content is much more involved. There now is ample
experimental evidence that sulfate aerosols formed
downwind'in plumes are in the accumulation mode.
The mean size for such sulfate aerosols occurs near
0.3 HID. Aerosols in this size range have lifetimes
of. a- number of days .with respect to removal pro-
cesses. The transport of sulfate aerosols formed
downwind in plumes has been demonstrated by direct
experimentation out to several hundred kilometers.
Transport of sulfate aerosols to these distances
and much further is consistent with the chemical
and physical properties of these aerosols in the
atmosphere.
The concern about sulfate aerosols relates both
to their effects in suspended form on man and
animals and, when sulfate aerosols are removed in
precipitation, the effect of acidity on soils, lakes
and aquatic life. The amounts of acidity measured
in precipitation have been consistently associated
predominantly with acid sulfates both in the U. S.
and in northern Europe.
Those control strategies which disperse sulfur
oxides downwind do not necessarily improve regional
problems. The use of lower sulfur fuels on an
intermittent basis to eliminate local fumigations
from a particular power plant have not been
shown, to be of benefit on a regional scale. It
certainly is unlikely that such strategies can
reduce exposures over longer averaging times on
a regional scale to man, animals, soil or aquatic
life. Whether intermittent control techniques
will reduce exposures during regional scale
episodes also has not been evaluated.
-------
28
The use of continual removal techniques by appli-
cation of scrubber technology or continuing use of
lower sulfur fuels has been the subject of much
current discussion. The resolution of the differ-
ences of opinion so often voiced depend to a sub-
stantial degree on well designed, executed and
analyzed field experiments on the transport and
transformation of sulfur dioxide and sulfate. Such
studies can provide the Administrator of EPA and
other policy-making officials with scientifically
defensible answers to these critical regional prob-
lems .
PROJECT MISTT
1. Technical Discussion
The following results have been obtained in the
course of summer period studies in the Missouri-
Illinois area:
(1) Very little conversion of sulfur dioxide
occurs within the first 10 kilometers or first
hour of plume flow. The rates of conversion in-
crease to 1 to 2% per hour between 10 and 30 kilo-
meters. Between 30 and 50 kilometers the rate in-
creased to 5% per hour. The overall sulfur
depletion within transport distances of 50 to
100 kilometers was small or negligible.
(2) In the power plant plumes conversion of
nitric oxide to nitrogen dioxide occurred by re-
action with ambient ozone mixing into the plume.
The mass flow of nitrogen dioxide was equal to
the decrease in the ozone mass flow within the
plume volume. Ozone was depleted within the plume
volume over 50 kilometer ranges.
(3) In the urban-industrial plume the 1/e
decay distance for sulfur decay was 90 kilometers.
These results would be consistent with rapid uptake
rates of sulfur by vegetation downwind. The experi-
ments were conducted during a summer period during
which removal by forest and agricultural canopies
would be favored.
(4) Within the urban-industrial plume, com-
pared to background increments in ozone concen-
trations and light scattering aerosols were
measured out to 160 kilometers. Ozone and light
scattering aerosols were the predominant consti-
tuents in the plume at 50 kilometers and more
downwind and continued to increase further above
the regional background to over 100 kilometers
downwind of the urban sources.
(5) The patterns of behavior with time of the
nitric oxide, nitrogen dioxide, ozone, sulfur
dioxide and sulfates were consistent with a homo-
geneous photochemical mechanism but also are not
inconsistent with reaction of ozone with sulfur
dioxide in droplets.
The experiments related to coal-fired power
plant plumes do not indicate that conversion ot
sulfur dioxide to sulfate by reactions with primary
emissions is of any importance. This lack of in-
fluence of trace metals or other constituents may
well reflect the high particulate collection
efficiences now available. Conversion of sulfur
dioxide to sulfate only occurs after a delay time
corresponding to the time needed to convert nitric
oxide to nitrogen dioxide in the plume. As in
ground level reactions and smog chamber simulation,
the elimination of the suppress!ve effects of nitric
oxide on conversion reactions is essential. The
scale of distance over which sulfate formation
accelerates needs additional definition. Also out
to 50 kilometers depletion rather than augmentation
of ozone prevails. These results indicate little
positive impact of coal-fired plants on sulfates
or ozone on an urban scale. It is only after travel
distances associated with movement across urban
areas and beyond that sulfate conversion rates be-
come substantial. Therefore, coal-fired plumes with
tall stacks are likely to impact less on ambient
sulfates within the air quality control regions in
which the emissions originate than adjacent or even
more distant air quality control regions.
Despite considerable depletion of sulfur
dioxide in urban plumes by surface removal processes,
substantial formation of ozone and light scattering
aerosols including sulfates are observed well down-
wind of the urban source. Again as for coal-fired
power plant plumes, rapid formation of these secon-
dary pollutants only occurs well downwind of the
urban source so the impact will occur on communities
or rural areas removed from the urban area in which
the plume originates.
2. Program Discussion
The largest single component of the energy
related air transport program funded by the Federal
Interagency R/D program has been project MISTT. The
Midwest Interstate Sulfur Transformation and Trans-
port Project Project MISTT - was initiated by
EPA's Environmental Sciences Research Lab RTP, in
the summer of 1974 (in the St. Louis area) with
support from EPA's base air transport programs.
Subsequent support has come from energy funding.
The purpose of this project is to measure the
chemical and physical transformations of the pollu-
tants in power plant and urban-industrial plumes.
A number of papers reporting project results have
been published or will be presented at the April
1976 American Chemical Society meeting in New York
City.
Related experiments on coal-fired plumes are in
progress with a similar array of aircraft measure-
ment techniques as part of the TVA program on
energy related pollutants.
3. Projection
The FY 76 MISTT experiments will include cold
weather and night conditions. The behavior of
-------
29
emissions also will be examined during periods of
stagnating anticyclones.
OTHER FIELD PROJECTS
The mesoscale sulfur balance project (MESO)
managed by the Environmental Sciences Research Lab.
RTF of EPA involves the determination of the
proportion of aerosol in ambient rural air asso-
ciated with sulfates formed during long distance
transport. A group of 6 to 12 measurement sites
will be operated between eastern Nebraska and
western Pennsylvania. Samples will be collected
with 6 hour time resolution to provide diurnal
variations during varying meteorological conditions
and to give resolution times comparable to the
trajectory calculations. Air mass movements will
be computed from trajectories and the input of sul-
fur dioxide will be determined from emission in-
ventory data. The project is designed to test
whether successive S02 sources across the midwest
cause an accumulation of sulfates at a rate sub-
stantially greater than overall removal rates.
The measurement system is scheduled to become
operational in June 1976.
The aerosol composition, effects and sources
(ACES) project of EPA is concerned with the sources
of urban aerosol. Measurements will include the
size distribution and composition of ambient
aerosols in Miami, Florida, St. Louis and
Pittsburgh. The aerosol species will be associ-
ated with natural and anthropogenic sources
and classified as primary or secondary. The
results will be compared with emission inventories
and aerosol formation and removal models.
A small EPA project has been in progress in St.
Louis at RAMS sites to investigate damage to mater-
ials from energy related emissions.
Existing models for power plant plume dispersion
are inadequate for predictions over rugged complex
terrain. An EPA energy related project will be
initiated to acquire a data base for sulfur oxides,
nitrogen oxides and meteorological parameters for
a large coal-fired power plant in complex terrain.
The measurements will be used to develop improved
predictive plume models. The Clinch River Power
Plant at Carbo, Virginia in the Appalachian
mountains has been selected as a site with field
measurements scheduled to begin in May 1976.
A model to predict transport of sulfates from
the TVA power region is being developed. The
model will use an up-dated SOp-emission inventory
and air trajectories along with the regional
meteorological data to predict impact on eastern
urban areas of emissions from the TVA area.
LABORATORY PROJECTS
In addition to the projects discussed above,
EPA and TVA are conducting a number of chamber
simulation studies. The EPA projects in progress
are investigating both homogeneous and heterogeneous
processes for conversion of SO,, and NO, to sulfates
and nitrates. The TVA project is scheai
in January 1977.
luled to start
ADDITIONAL INDUSTRY AND FEDERAL ACTIVITIES
EPA is cooperating with both the Electric Power
Research Institute (EPRI) and ERDA in the planning
and coordination of studies on transport and trans-
formations of sulfur oxides.
Project SURE (Sulfur Regional Experiment) is a
scaled up verison of EPA's Project MESO. However,
the measurement program in MESO should be well
underway before SURE is operational. Therefore,
SURE should benefit from input from the MESO project.
ERDA is planning a program, MAP S (Mesoscale
Area Power Production Pollution Study). This pro-
ject appears to have features in common with SURE
and MESO, therefore close coordination is desirable.
A member of EPA's Environmental Sciences Research
Laboratory-RTP scientific staff is a member of the
SURE Advisory Committee.
RESOURCE ALLOCATION
Since the late 1960's, a small continuing effort
has been in progress in EPA's program to develop
techniques for plume measurements and conduct plume
experiments. EPA's base program on sulfate for-
mation and transport in power plant and urban plumes
was greatly augmented by Interagency energy funds
in FY 74 and subsequent years. The laboratory and
modelling development projects continue to be
funded largely from the base program. The total
resource allocations since 1974 and,projected
through 1976 are as follows ($ x 10 ).
Base
FY 74
Inter-
Agency
0.3 0.8
CONCLUSIONS
Base
0.5
FY 75
Inter-
Aqency
2.5
FY 76
Base
0.7
Inter-
Agency
1.95
The plume studies program funded by EPA with
resources from the Federal Interagency R/D program
are unique in directly measuring the flow from
specific sources into adjacent regions. Both in
these projects, as in MESO and ACES, a key objective
is to relate specific types of emission sources
to air quality on a regional scale. Continuation
of such projects is essential to provide results
as inputs not only to proper usage of domestic
energy resources but to provide an adequate basis
for determining the most effective regulatory
options available.
-------
30
Environmental Transport Processes
H. R. Hickey and P. A. Krenkel
Tennessee Valley Authority
Chattanooga, Tennessee
INTRODUCTION
Practical application of TVA's knowledge of the
atmospheric dispersion of coal-fired steam plant
effluents has extended1 beyond its primary expected
use—the design of stacks for power plants. It has
resulted in defining an option for meeting ambient
S02 standards available for an indefinite period.
This option, the controlled release of atmospheric
effluent, is called the "SDEL" program (sulfur dioxide
emission limitation program). While there are still
uncertainties to be resolved before these control
programs can be full' evaluated—the main uncertainty
being long-range tra sport of sulfate particles and
their effects on human health—the option itself
would not be available without prior years of inves-
tigation. These studies have included 12 coal-fired
steam plants under a variety of meteorological and
topographical conditions. New studies are required
to better define atmospheric chemical.interactions
and long-range transport of sulfate particles.
Dispersion modeling capabilities have been
augmented and applied to the dispersion of radionu-
clides from nuclear power plants for plant design
and environmental impact analysis. Predictions will
be compared with actual results in the dose model
verification study.
Better understanding is needed of the dispersion
of thermal effluents in streams and reservoirs. This
is the objective of the third environmental transport
project, which will test 'a 3-dimensional model formu-
lated at Louisiana State University.
For possible use in the exchange of information
or coordination,, the names of principal investiga-
tors, research investigators, and responsible admin-
istrators are included after the title of each task.
DISCUSSION
1. Atmospheric Transport and Transformation of
Emissions from Coa'l-Fired Power Plants
A. Atmospheric Interaction Studies
1. Full-Scale Field Studies—0. Huff,
T. L. Montgomery
The primary objective of this project is to
determine the chemical interactions of constituents
of atmospheric emissions from coal-fired power plants
with particular emphasis on ascertaining the fluxes
of sulfate, the rates of oxidation of SO, and the
effect of particulates on these rates. Instruments
are carried by aircraft to measure the fluxes of the
constituents through the plume at various distances
downwind. Relevant meteorological parameters, such
as temperature and humidity, vertical temperature
profiles, wind speed and direction, and solar radia-
tion are measured with instruments in aircraft and
at ground stations.
A field study has been completed and another
is currently underway. In the completed study
measurements of S02, NO, N02, 03, MONO, toluene,
total sulfur and particulates (by number) were
taken across the centerline of the plume. A modi-
fied high-volume sampling system equipped with
impregnated filters was used to collect samples for
analysis by the sulfur isotope ratio tracer method
(Brookhaven National Laboratory) in determining the
rate of oxidation of S02 in the plume. In the
current field study, airborne total sulfur, NO,
N02, 03, total hydrocarbons, temperature, and dew
point are measured. A high-volume sampling system
is used to collect particulates on special filters
for mass-volume measurements. These filters will
also be analyzed for sulfate deposits by flash
vaporization flame photometry. Data are collected
under varied power plant electrostatic precipitator
efficiencies. Relevant meteorological parameters
are measured at ground stations. A third field
study under different meteorological conditions is
planned for early spring 1976.
2. Chamber Studies—L. Stockburger III,
G. W. Shannon, T. L. Montgomery
The primary objective of the chamber project
is to provide data similar to that of the airborne
studies under well-defined and controlled conditions
to determine the individual reactions most effective
in overall plume chemistry and the effects of vari-
ous factors on the oxidation of S02. Another impor-
tant objective is to determine initial plume
conditions more exhaustively than compliance-
oriented emission measurements permit. The chamber
will use either sunlight or artificial radiation._
The chamber study will allow controlled introduction
of stack effluent (including particulates), simula-
tion of exposure under varied meteorological parame-
ters, variation of conditions needed for the identi-
fication of intermediate species involved in the
course of the reactions, and also will provide
important kinetic information on those reactions
which proceed more rapidly under initial plume
conditions. This project is in its initial phase
of detailed chamber design with the first experi-
ments planned for January 1977.
The initial experiments will compare results
for tests on C3H6, NOX and air, and S02 and air
mixtures with chamber results from Battelle, Calspan,
and the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill.
Then, a series of experiments on the homogeneous
photooxidation of S02 in clean air is planned. The
variables to be measured include concentrations of
S02 and sulfates, solar radiation, light intensity,
-------
31
temperature, and relative humidity. The next series
of experiments will provide data on the photooxida-
tionofS02 in the presence of filtered and unfiltered
ambient air. The variables to be measured include
S02, NO, N02, 03, hydrocarbons, sulfates, nitrates,
fine particulates, solar radiation, light intensity,
temperature, and relative humidity. The last series
of experiments will study the photooxidation of S02
in filtered and unfiltered diluted stack gas. The
variables to be measured will be the same as in the
previous series of experiments.
B. Regional Atmospheric Transport of
Coal-Fired Power Plant Emissions—
V. Sharma, L. M. Reisinger, T. L. Montgomery
Coordinated efforts have been initiated between
state control agencies and TVA to establish an up-
to-date S02-emission inventory for the region. This
inventory should be completed by June 1976.
Development of a conservation model describing
the transport of S02 and the formation and transport
of sulfates has been initiated. The modeling region
is tentatively defined by a 500- by 800- by 10-km
rectangular box centered over the Tennessee Valley
watershed. Meteorological input for this model will
come from TVA and NWS sources, including 12 rawin-
sonde sites, 8 pilot balloon sites, and 19 meteoro-
logical tower sites.
Weather patterns and air trajectories are being
analyzed to determine and classify the most "typical"
meteorological conditions influencing air mass move-
ments in the region. Preliminary weather pattern
analytical results show that anticyclones (high pres-
sure) centered NE-SE of the area are the most domi-
nating synoptic situations (31 percent) while
anticyclones centered NW-NE are next in frequency of
occurrence (14 percent). "Backward" trajectory fre-
quencies for a number of large cities surrounding the
Tennessee Valley region are being analyzed. These
analyses are divided into 6-hour trajectory steps up
to a maximum 24-hour trajectory forecast. Interest-
ing tentative results show that air parcels originat-
ing from the model area rarely affect New York City
or Washington, D.C., especially for the 6- and 12-
hour forecast periods. The prevailing trajectory
direction emanating from the TVA region is from the
southwest to the northeast with the next prevalent
direction being from the west-northwest to the
east-southeast.
Isopleths of sulfate concentration are being
mapped on a quarterly and annual basis for an exten-
sive area centered on the Tennessee Valley watershed
to obtain a better understanding of regional sulfate
distributions.
2. Evaluation and Improvement of Models Used for
Radiological Impact Assessment of Gaseous
Releases from Nuclear Power Plants—J. H. Davis,
W. H. Wilkie, R. L. Doty, E. A. Belvin,
J. A. Oppold
Radiation exposure limits applicable to the
nuclear power industry are established at levels
believed to be as low as practicable consistent with
current technology and societal objectives. Approval
for the construction of nuclear power plants is
dependent on the assurance of safe operation in com-
pliance with these limits. Because this assurance
is demonstrated by analytical methods, the validity
of the models and the accuracy of assumptions are of
utmost importance for the timely and economical
development of nuclear power. In 1974 a plan was
developed by 17 Federal agencies for a research
program on effects of energy use upon human health
and the environment. One identified need was for
confirmation or refutation of existing models, espe-
cially those models used to describe the environ-
mental transport of radionuclides from nuclear power
plants in the atmosphere. High priority was assign-
ed to the development of applied research programs
to address that need.
TVA is conducting a comprehensive program to
collect experimental data on potential doses received
by persons in the vicinity of nuclear power plants.
Mobile pressurized ionization chambers will be used
to measure direct radiation in the vicinity of an
operating nuclear power reactor. Direct radiation
from reactor components and from airborne effluents
will be measured. Records from these mobile and
other units will be correlated with records of (1)
radioactivity release rates, (2) wind speed and
direction, and (3) atmospheric stability parameters.
A parametric analysis of the dispersion aspects
of the radioiodine dose model will also be included.
Results from the parametric studies and the experi-
mental data collected during actually occurring
combinations of release rate and meteorological con-
ditions over an extended time period will be used to
evaluate the existing atmospheric dispersion and
dosimetry models. In the final phase of the research
refined analytical models will be developed as indi-
cated by the results of the initial phases. However,
this project was conceived to operate in conjunction
with data from other programs which are still uncer-
tain; plans must be tailored accordingly.
Plans and Progress: Mobile pressurized ioniza-
tion chambers (PIC) will be used to measure external
radiation exposure levels in the vicinity of the
Browns Ferry Nuclear Plant (BFNP). Direct radiation
from within nuclear plant components and also from
radioactivity in gaseous effluents will be measured.
During periods of plant operation, data will be
correlated with plant operating conditions, radio-
activity release rates, and meteorological conditions
Development of two computer codes using the experi-
mental data will be required to calculate the two
components of gamma radiation exposure.
The BFNP is not operating presently but is
scheduled to resume operation in the first quarter
of 1976. In the interim, mobile PIC's are being
-------
32
used to gather background radiation data at various
locations around the plant.
Efforts will be made to coordinate this project
with another radiation monitoring project which is
in progress in the vicinity of BFNP This particu-
lar project involves TVA, the EPA's Eastern Environ-
mental Radiation Facility, and the Alabama Department
of Public Health. Data gathered from both programs
will be used to the extent possible. Currently,
background radiation data are being gathered at
three of the fixed-location TVA/EPA monitoring
stations. The data from these locations yield addi-
tional background information, and the locations
serve as reference instrument checkpoints.
The atmospheric dispersion portion of the proj-
ect will involve a parametric analysis of the vari-
ables in the dispersion model which is incorporated
in the radioiodine dose model. Discussions have
been held with Atomic Industrial Forum personnel re-
garding effluent dispersion experiments which are
being considered for several operating nuclear
power plants. A few studies of this type have been
completed and the data are available for verifica-
tion of the dispersion computer codes. Work is
currently underway to compare dispersion code re-
sults with various data and also with selected
parametric changes. Terrain model, maximum wind
speed for elevated release, and plume-rise equations
appear to hold promise for making realistic improve-
ments in the model .
Status: Delivery of the high pressure ioniza-
tion chambers was delayed; however, most of the
instruments have been delivered and are being
performance-tested and readied for operation. As a
result of the delay, background data collection has
been hampered. Some background data are being
gathered using a borrowed PIC and the fixed-location
EPA monitors.
Actual operational data collection will start
when BFNP returns to operation.
Some initial dispersion code modifications
have been made. Preliminary results have been ob-
tained using basic parametric changes in the gaseous
effluent dispersion model.
Except for the uncertainties of instrument
delivery and BFNP startup, activities are proceeding
according to projected schedules.
3. Simulation of Thermal Dispersion and Fluid
Mechanics at Critical Locations in Streams and
Reservoi rs--W. R. Waldrop, R. C. Farmer, R. J.
Ruane, W. R. Nicholas
The purpose of this study is to augment exist-
ing efforts to collect thermal field data and to
promote the development of conceptual predictive
models. Existing models for reservoir water
quality have been valuable for preparation and
explication of environmental impact statements for
proposed TVA facilities. The scope of this project
will include the development of predictive analytical
models, recommendations for future field or laboratory
studies, and a continuing review of available data
and analytical techniques.
Progress: Surface heat and momentum exchange
with theatmosphere, turbulent exchange, and diffuse-
river interactions are physical phenomena that con-
trol thermal effluent dispersion. These are not
adequately modeled with present computer codes.
Experimental data describing surface heat and momen-
tum exchange have been reviewed, and empirical
representations of such data have been selected for
inclusion in our models. Initial efforts to include
these data are underway. Better methods for repre-
senting turbulent exchange are known, but the running
time of the model must be reduced before such
improvements can be fully utilized. A more gener-
alized model of bottom conditions is needed.
Generalizing the boundary conditions on the gov-
erning model equations will also allow diffuser flow
to be described. Methods of accomplishing these
generalizations are being studied.
In adapting thermal effluent models to our
computers both a 2-dimensional and a 3-dimensional
model will be used to expedite the studies. The
2-dimensional model will serve as a test vehicle for
adding new physical phenomena to the model. As new
phenomena are correctly modeled in this program,
they will then be added to the more comprehensive
3-dimensional model.
Status: Problems to date on this study have
been of a mundane nature. Our laboratory does not
yet have experience in using programs as large as
these models require, nor established operating
procedures for expediting such calculations. The
experience and procedures are being developed_
rapidly. No long-term problems are expected in
accomplishing the objectives planned for this
research.
-------
33
TRANSFORMATION AND TRANSPORT OF
ENERGY-RELATED POLLUTANTS
William E. Wilson
Environmental Sciences Research Laboratory
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Research Triangle Park, MC 27711
INTRODUCTION
Energy related pollutants are carried from the
point of emission to the point of effect by atmos-
pheric transport. During this transport process,
new pollutants may be formed. For example, S02
may be converted into sulfate aerosol, and organic
vapors and nitrogen oxides may undergo photochemical
reactions to yield ozone. The primary and secondary
pollutants produce a number of health and welfare
effects and are removed from the atmosphere by a
variety of wet and dry deposition processes. The
Environmental Sciences Research Laboratory, Office
of Research and Development, EPA is concerned with
the meteorological processes that control dilution
and transport of pollutants; the chemical and physi-
cal processes that affect transformation and removal
of pollutants; welfare effects such as visibility
reduction, materials damage, and climatic change;
and mathematical models that relate emissions to
ambient air quality.
The ability to predict relationships between
emissions and ambient air quality—as influenced
by physical, chemical, and meteorological parameters-
-is an essential ingredient in the development
of cost-effective control strategies. This has
become increasingly important with the realization
that emissions affect not only the air quality
in their immediate vicinity, but may extend their
influence for hundreds of kilometers.
TECHNICAL DISCUSSION
Currently, the atmospheric transport portion
of EPA's Energy Research and Development Program
is largely devoted to sulfur pollutants, SO2 and
sulfate. Sulfur pollutants are being emphasized
because SO2 emissions are expected to increase
substantially with the predicted increase in the
use of coal, and sulfates appear to be a health
problem. The sulfur program, therefore, involves
studies of the primary pollutant, SO2, and the
secondary pollutant, sulfate. Both gaseous and
aerosol pollutants are involved, and consideration
must be given to wet and dry deposition processes.
The techniques developed in this program and many
of the experimental results will apply to other
energy-related pollutants.
The sulfur program is also emphasized because
of the need to answer a multi-billion dollar
question: Are scrubbers needed to remove SO2
from power plant stacks, or will tall stacks with
supplemental controls be adequate to maintain requir
ground level S02 concentrations and provide for
adequate control of sulfur oxides? The energy
related studies of ESRL are designed to provide
the administrator of EPA with adequate information
to give a reasonable and scientifically defensible
answer to this question.
First, it is necessary to determine the source
of sulfate aerosol, which is observed to be rather
evenly distributed over the greater northeastern
portion of the United States. The most likely
hypothesis is that sulfate is formed by the atmos-
pheric conversion of S02 from power plants and
that the sulfate aerosol is transported over long
distances. A substantial effort is being devoted
to the determination of the rates and mechanisms
for transformation of S02 to sulfate in power plant
and urban plumes. Studies are made under a variety
of conditions for both medium (0-100 km) and long
range (0-1000 km) transport. Other hypotheses
to account for sulfate, such as sampling anomalies,
biogenic sources, and primary emissions, are also
being examined.
If power plant SO2 emissions, which are trans-
formed to sulfate during long range transport,
are indeed the major sources of sulfate, the next
step is to develop relationships between S02 emission
rates and ambient sulfate levels. This involves
developing meteorological models of transport,
deposition, and diffusion and chemical models of
transformation and removal. It is of special concern
to determine if control of power plant S02 will
produce proportional control of atmospheric sulfate.
If sulfate is proportional to the concentration
of S02, i.e., if the transformation mechanisms
are first order in SO2, control of S02 will produce
proportional control of sulfate. However, if the
transformation processes do not depend on the SO2
concentration (or depend only weakly on the S02
concentration), and are controlled by the concentra-
tion of ammonia, of catalytic metals, of fine aero-
sols, or of oxidizing gases, then S02 control will
not produce a proportional reduction in sulfate.
If 95 or 99% SO2 removal is required before sulfate
control is apparent, it may be uneconomical or
unfeasible to control sulfate by this mechanism.
Such considerations are critical to the establishment
of cost-effective control strategies. Studies
of the rates and mechanisms of S02 reactions in
laboratory smog chambers and field studies are
aimed at answering these questions.
PROGRAM DISCUSSION
Midwest Interstate Sulfur Transformation and
Transport (Project MISTT)
The purpose of this program is to measure
the transformations and transport of energy-related
pollutants in power plant and urban plumes. This
study began during the summer of 1974 with support
from the Regional Air Pollution Study and the ESRL
base program. Field studies have, therefore, been
-------
concentrated in the St. Louis area. The acronym
MISTT was introduced when additional support was
obtained from the energy program. Information from
field studies conducted during summer-74 and summer-
75 are now being analyzed and reported. Two papers
have been submitted to Science. Six papers will
be presented at the April, 1976, American Chemical
Society meeting in New York City. The major accom-
plishments of MISTT and their significance are
summarized below.
1. Accomplishments
- In contrast to earlier work (which indicated
that, except at very high relative humidity,
there was little or no conversion of S02
to sulfate in power plant plumes), consistent
conversion rates for SO2 to sulfate of
several percent per hour were measured.
In power plant plumes, NO is converted to NC>2
by reaction with ambient 03 mixing with the
plume. Conversion of SO2 to sulfate aerosol
is slow in the early stages of the plume.
Measurements of sulfate and of aerosol volume
demonstrate that, after NO conversion is
nearly complete, the rate of conversion
of S02 to sulfate increases.
- In urban plumes, which are well-mixed to
the ground, S02 mass flow decreases rapidly
due to ground removal by reaction with
vegetation and other surfaces. The S02 dry
deposition rates vary with vegetation and
ground surface types and with time of year.
- In power plant plumes from tall stacks, the
decrease in S02 mass flow is much lower since
the plume is isolated from the ground for a
longer time and the concentration of SO2
is lower when the plume reaches the ground.
- Ozone is generated in urban plumes ten's of
kilometers downwind from the urban area. The
reaction times and pollutant ratios are
similar to those observed in smog chamber
studies of auto exhaust.
- Urban plumes have been sampled as far as
250 km from their sources and power plant
plumes as far as 60 km.
- An analytical diffusion and transport model
has been developed that includes the effects
of stack height, first-order sulfate forma-
tion, and S02 dry deposition.
A reactive plume model has been developed and
used to calculate, the coagulation of primary
aerosol and the reaction of plume NO with
ambient 03.
2. Significance
- Tall stacks reduce ground level concentrations
of SO2 but increase sulfate aerosol concen-
trations by reducing surface losses of SO2
and permitting increased reaction times.
- To determine SO2 conversion rates in plumes,
measurements must be made at longer distances
or in more disperse plurr.es than has been
the practice previously.
- Sulfate, generated from SO2 in power plant
plumes, and ozone, generated from hydrocarbons
and nitrogen oxides in urban plumes, may be
transported at least hundreds of kilometers
and cause air pollution incidents far from
the source of pollution. These air pollution
problems cannot be controlled by the political
unit where the air pollution impact occurs.
The FY-76 MISTT program will attempt to
develop a better statistical base for plume trans-
formations and pollutant transport. Measurements
will be made during cold weather and at night.
Techniques are being developed to follow a more
nearly Lagrangian flight path in the plumes, i.e. to
follow the same air mass as it moves downwind.
Efforts will also be made to extend the spatial
scale of measurements. An attempt will be made
to examine pollutant behavior during stagnating
anticyclone weather patterns and to sample plumes
from a power plant complex.
Mesoscale Sulfur Balance Study (MESO)
The purpose of this study is to determine
the fraction of aerosol, collected in ambient
rural air, which may be attributed to sulfate
formed during long range transport. A network
of 6-12 measurement stations will be established
between eastern Nebraska and western Pennsylvania
and operated for a period of one year. An X-ray
fluorescent technique will be used to measure
sulfur and elements heavier than sodium. Air
mass movements to each sampling site will be calcu-
lated (6-day back trajectories), and the input of
S02 into each trajectory will be determined from
emission inventory data. The relationship among
high sulfate measurements, meteorological conditions,
and S02 input will be examined. The results will
be used in the development of a long range transport
model.
The hypothesis to be tested is that as air
masses move across the country they pass over
successive sources of S02, generally large power
plants. Since sulfates are only slowly removed
by natural processes, a substantial buildup of
sulfate can occur from repeated emissions of S02-
An inexpensive two-stage sampler has been
designed and a prototype built. A 6-hour time
resolution has been selected to give separate samples
during night (low mixing depth), day (high mixing
depth), morning and evening periods, and to give
resolution time comparable to the trajectory calcu-
lations (every 6 hours). The sampler will run
unattended for three weeks. Every three weeks the
samples, collected on two 4-inch diameter filters,
will be returned to the laboratory where all 168
samples can be analyzed within 6 hours. The sampler
will undergo a field test in April. The 6-12 mea-
surement sites are scheduled to start operation
June 1.
-------
35
Attempts are currently being made to add rain
chemistry and turbidity measurements to the MESO
network.
Complex Terrain Study
Emissions of SC>2 from power plants can be
decreased by flue-gas cleaning or use of low sulfur
fuel. However, both of these control techniques
involve an economic penalty. Air quality may also
be controlled by adjustment of power loads and
selection of high or low sulfur fuels in accordance
with the changing capacity of the atmosphere to
disperse the pollutants. These techniques are
known as intermittent or supplementary control
systems (ICS or SCS). Such systems require operation
of real-time ambient air quality monitoring and
meteorological prediction services in the vicinity
of the power plant.
Although there has been concern for years
about the transport and diffusion of pollutants
from large power plants, only a relatively small
amount of pertinent, reliable aerometric data are
readily available—and most of these data are for
plants in relatively uncomplicated terrain. This
dearth of information 'is particularly critical
in areas of complex terrain, areas in the United
States where large power plants are proliferating.
In spite of these difficulties reasonably valid
predictive models exist for a non-reactive pollutant,
emitted from an isolated single source in flat,
open terrain. However, existing models, even those
with topographic input, fail to predict the special
influences of rugged, complex terrain on pollutant
behavior or the effects of pollutant transformation
and removal on concentrations. The purpose of
the complex terrain study is to develop a data
base on measured concentrations of SC>2, sulfate,
NO, NC>2, and meteorological variables for a large
coal-fired power plant located in an area of complex
terrain. This data base will then be used to develop
improved predictive techniques.
A contractor has been selected and a literature
survey initiated. Field measurements are scheduled
to begin in May, 1976. The Clinch River Power
Plant at Carbo, Virginia, in a rugged part of the
Appalachian mountains, has been selected for the
experimental site. Six remote stations will monitor
SC>2, sulfates, NO, N02, and meteorological variables.
Stack emissions of S02, NO, and NO2 will be monitored
continuously. A mobile ground station and an instru-
mented helicopter will also be used.
Aerosol Composition, Effects, and Sources (Project
ACES)
The purpose of this study is to determine
the sources of urban aerosol. Measurements of
the composition and size of ambient aerosols have
been made in selected cities. The aerosol components
are assigned to natural and anthropogenic sources
and classified as primary or secondary in nature.
These results are compared with emission inventory
data. New and unsuspected aerosol pollutants are
sometimes observed. Models, which include aerosol
removal mechanisms and secondary aerosol formation
mechanisms, can be used to relate primary sources
of aerosol and precursor gases to ambient aerosol
concentrations. Thus, it is possible to identify
those sources that need to be controlled to provide
reduction in total aerosol loading or specific
aerosol components.
The optical properties of the aerosol are
used to infer the contribution of various sources
to visibility reduction. Field studies have been
performed in cooperation with EPA's Office of
Air Quality Planning and Standards (OAQPS) in Miami
and St. Louis and with EPA Region III in Pittsburgh.
Data reports have been prepared and distributed
to OAQPS personnel and their contractors. Interpre-
tive reports are now in preparation. Of special
note is the substantial amount of organic aerosol
found in St. Louis during the photochemically active
season.
INTERAGENCY PARTICIPATION
Tennessee Valley Authority Programs
ESRL serves as technical project coordinator
for TVA studies. These studies include: measure-
ments of sulfate formation in power plant plumes;
chamber studies of sulfate formation utilizing
stack gases; and the development of a long range
transport model utilizing the TVA regional monitoring
network.
ERDA and Industry Programs
ESRL also cooperates with the Electric Power
Research Institute (EPRI) and the Energy
Research and Development Administration (ERDA)
in the planning and coordination of their studies
of the transformation and long range transport
of sulfur pollutants.
EPRI is now seeking a contractor for Project
SURE (Sulfur Regional Experiment). This will be
an expanded version of EPA's Project MESO (SURE's
projected funding level is 20 times that of MESO)
with the addition of substantial aircraft measure-
ments. However, the MESO study will begin 6 months
to a year sooner than SURE. Therefore, MESO will
provide useful input into the SURE•program. MESO
will utilize the emission inventory being developed
by EPRI for SURE.
ERDA's program, MAP3S (Mesoscale, Area Power
Production Pollution Study), is less well-defined
than SURE and also will not be operational until
sometime in FY-77. This program will also cover
the northeast. It will feature extensive use of
instrumented aircraft to map pollutants.
ESRL. will cooperate with these programs to
the maximum extent that appears to be useful.
An ESRL staff member serves on the SURE advisory
panel. At least one SURE and MESO station will
probably be co-located for quality control purposes.
Even though ERDA and industry are supporting
-------
36
a substantial effort in long range transport
of sulfur pollutants, it is important for EPA
to maintain a minimal program in this area. EPA's
MESO differs from SURE and MAP3S in that it is di-
rected more toward an understanding of the meteoro-
logical, physical, and chemical processes that
govern transformation and transport. This type
of research program is needed to provide results
that can be generalized and applied to other
situations.
-------
37
RESOURCE ALLOCATION
COS: Transport and Fate of Energy-Related Pollutants in Ecosystems
SOS: Chemical, Physical and Meteorological Studies in Energy-Related
Pollutants in the Atmosphere
PE EHE 625 RTP/ESRL
Major Studies
1000$
FY75 FY76
Status
Midwest Interstate Sulfur Transformation
and Transport. Project MISTT. Study of
transformation of energy-related pollutants
plumes out to ^ 250 km.
595 565 Field Studies #1 and #2 complete. Six
papers to be presented at NY, ACS, 4-75.
Transformation of SO,, to sulfate aerosol
and
NO to NO in power plant plumes documented.
Formation of ozone and light scattering
aerosol in urban plumes documented.
Complex Terrain. Develop and validate
procedures for predicting atmospheric
transport and dilution of pollutants
from coal utilization by electric
utilities in complex terrain.
500 350 Contractor and field site selected. Experi-
mental phase of Project will be initiated
in May.
Petroleum Complex. Study the effect of
emissions of a petroleum refinery
complex on oxidant transport.
115 65 Two field studies completed.
report received.
Preliminary
Transformation of Pollutants in
Oil-fired Plumes.
185
30
Field studies underway.
Aerosol Composition, Effects, and
Sources. Project ACES. Determine
the fraction of primary and secondary
aerosols, collected in ambient urban
air, which may be attributed to energy-
related sources in several cities.
215 30 Field studies completed in Miami and St.
Louis (with OAOPS) and in Pittsburgh (with
Region III). Data reports delivered.
Interpretive reports being prepared.
Mesoscale Sulfur Balance. Determine
the fraction of aerosol mass, collected
in ambient rural air, which may be
attributed to sulfate formed from
power plant emissions during long
range transport.
285 185 Field program starts June 1976. Aerosol
collector designed, trajectory program
operational. Stagnant air mass tracked for
two weeks using airport visibility and long
range trajectories.
Heterogeneous Conversion of SO and
NO to Sulfates and Nitrates.
x
85
85
First draft of critical review finished.
New NO -SO -surface interaction discovered.
Gas-aerosol reaction studies initiated.
Homogeneous Conversion of SO and MO
to Sulfates and Nitrates.
145 125 Rate of CH CO +SO measured. Smog chamber
studies on atmospneric chemistry from
energy related activities initiated.
Chemical Characterization of Model and
Atmospheric Aerosols.
30 30 Model aerosols examined for organic sulfur.
Collection and analysis of organic aerosols
in St. Louis planned.
Damage to Materials by Energy Related
Emissions.
40
35
Exposure study initiated in St. Louis at
25 RAMS sites. Damage varies with site.
-------
38
DISCUSSIONS TO ATMOSPHERIC TRANSPORT SESSION
Question: Does the fact that the panel discussed only sulfur oxides and sulfates mean that sulfuric
acid is not a problem?
Panel Response: Most of the measurement techniques that were employed did not differentiate sulfuric
acid from other sulfates. However, there are some measurements of sulfuric acid. Another panel member
added: no sulfuric acid measurements were made with the aircraft used to obtain the other measurements.
A thermal technique used during ground measurements did differentiate between sulfuric acid and ammonium
sulfate and ammonium bisulfate. During a six week test program, 'it was found that acidic conditions
occurred approximately one-third of the time. Sulfuric acid measurements in reality had been made in-
directly. One method used aerosol volume change measurements and calculations with an assumption that
sulfuric acid is in equilibrium with water vapor, and on other used microscope observations by comparing
the morphology of aircraft sample aerosols with that o.f sulfuric acid aerosols.
Question: Please comment on the impact of non-degradation regulations that EPA might be initiating
and any impact it may have on various neighboring regions.
Panel Response: Congress is now considering this aspect in the Clean Air Act Amendments. The pre-
sent concepts of non-degradation are directed towards primary' S02 and total suspended particulates
originating within a clean region. Secondary pollutants are yet to be considered as part of the non-
degradation regulations.
Question: Could the panel respond to the effect of the emissions plume on any ozone increase in the
piume?
Panel Response: There is a controversy on this phenomena mentioned in a Chemical Engineering News
article suggesting that SOo in power plant plumes, through a series of reactions, could result in ozone
formation. While fhis mechanism has not been proved or disproved, there is substantial information to
suggest that is it unnecessary. There is some information.on gas-fired power plant plumes where there
are no SOo emissions. The article suggests, however, that ozone increases in these plumes. Findings
by Dr. Douglas Davis who initiated the SOo mechanisms indicate th-at there are ozone bulges or increased
ozone zones in the plume when the power plaat plume mixes with another source of organic vapors. Find-
ings indicate that ozone formation in plumes is generally on the basis of classical photo-chemistry be-
tween nitrogen oxide and hydrocarbons* in the plume.. The plume merely adds nitrogen oxides to an existing
atmosphere which has hydrocarbons in it. In other words, there are sufficient hydrocarbons in the air
which mixes with the plume with the nitrogen oxides and which in turn lead to the classical photo-chemistry
for the formation of ozone.
Question: Is there any work going on for sulfite removal from power plants?
Panel Response: No studies have been made on power plants with scrubbers. As plants with large
scale or full scale scrubbers go operational, a selected few of such power plant scrubber systems will
be tested.
Question: From a health effects standpoint, is there any data on the half-life of sulfuric acid or
the individual sulfate forms from emissions at ground level?
Panel Response: There have been studies which differentiate between sulfuric acid and ammonium bi-
sulfate or sulfate, and studies that differentiate between the acid form and the acid salt in a fully
neutralized zone. Unfortunately, however, the monitoring and measuring techniques used were not reliable.
A number of programs are now being planned to develop.methods which can be used to differentiate the
various sulfate forms. These new, more reliable techniques, will be integrated into the program just as
soon as they become applicable to the operational scale field studies.
Question: Have there been any findings regarding the effect that temperature has on sulfate forma-
tions?
Panel Response: Data from Brookhaven National Laboratory on coal-fired plumes over a sufficient
range of water concentration, temperature, and relative humidity indicate that it is extremely difficult
to separate the role of water vapor and temperature in the formation of sulfates. However, there is a
very good correlation between the sulfate conversion and the function involving temperature multiplied by
relative humidity. It would appear that as both temperature and water vapor increase, there is an in-
crease in the rate of conversion. As the above are both day-time measurements, they are probably best
explained by homogeneous reactions. There is also a rapid conversion at night-time which is presumed to
-------
39
be heterogeneous.
Question: Newer power plants have more efficient electrostatic precipitators than older plants.
Will this factor make it difficult to compare older studies with the newer studies?
Panel Response: There is a lack of data on atmospheric chemistry of transport of scrubber plumes.
For example, scrubbing removes only approximately 80% of sulfur leaving 20% of the sulfur available to
react. In addition, the plume is momentarily saturated with water vapor. There is very little known
about the increase rate of oxidation in the plume and what occurs at or toward ground level.
Question: Are there any increases in particulate nitrate from coal-fired plumes?
Panel Response: Measurement techniques are not sufficiently sensitive to take measurements from
aircraft for nitrate concentrations and chemistry in the time scale occurring in the emission plume.
There are some measurements available that indicate that conversion does occur from NO to N02. However,
it is extremely difficult even in a ground level laboratory to make measurements of nitrate or nitric
acid.
Question: A slide previously shown indicated the growth of the sulfur concentration with altitude
as one of the processes downwind from St. Louis. Were there observations of any such complex profiles
for sulfate other than those summarized in that presentation?
Panel Response: A sulfate analysis requires several minutes to collect the sample so that type of
variation with altitude for sulfate could not be obtained. However, laboratory studies using light
scattering techniques indicated that a type of layering that is seen with ozone did not occur with sul-
fate. Additional comments indicated that about a year ago there were two government groups asked to
examine possible explanations for the relatively high concentrations of sulfate found in certain monitor-
ed areas. Long-range transport of sulfate was one explanation by one group but refuted by another group.
The main reason for the one group feeling that long-range transport of sulfate could not be an explana-
tion was the feeling that plumes from power plants located in cities would be greatly diluted during the
transport of up to 100 kilometers or so. At high levels of sulfate of the order of 30 micrograms per
cubic meter would not be observed under those conditions. One slide of a sulfate plume shown previously
indicated that the size of the plume as it starts out from the city did not increase appreciably. This
means that under certain conditions, which are somewhat common, there are plumes which maintain a con-
sistency for quite a long range, even up to 100 kilometers or more, with dilution of only a factor of 2
or so. For example, a plume from St. Louis moving into Iowa and measured for about 18 hours indicated a
high concentration of approximately 60 micrograms per cubic meter. Both groups now believe that long-
range transport can, under certain conditions, account for high levels of sulfate over long distances.
Question: This question referred to the previous discussion and wished an explanation for the co-
incidence of the increase of sulfate along with the increase of sulfur dioxide and rapid fall in sulfate
measurement.
Response: This work was done in St. Louis in the summer of 1975. From the data, it appears that
there was another power plant interferring with the plume which added S02 to the plume resulting in an
increase of sulfate concentrations in the measurement.
Question: Were hydrocarbon concentrations obtained, if so, what were the concentrations with dis-
tance from the source and did they mix well with the sulfate, sulfur, ozone mixture?
Response: No, the techniques utilized were not adequate for aircraft sampling and monitoring. Im-
proved techniques have been developed and these will be tried in the sampling program planned for the
summer of 1976.
Question: Where and when will reports of a St. Louis program be published?
Panel Response: Two articles have been submitted to Science; six papers will be given at the Ameri-
can Chemical Society meeting in April; a large status report which documents techniques used would have
been published had it not been for the sulfate problem which required an extra field trip this past fall
and substantial additional time. The techniques now used are quite different than techniques used in
earlier plume studies. In earlier plume studies, there was measurement of generally SOo to sulfate ratio
or an S02 to some inert tracer. These were taken by flying back and forth across the plume with the re-
sult samples taken were only characteristic of the pieces of the plume that were flown through. In
current studies, the aircraft flies through the plume in a vertical spiral pattern obtaining a number of
measurements of the plume concentration in vertical and horizontal cuts. This is transformed into a two-
dimensional concentration profile. With measurements of the wind speed and direction as a function of
height, a true dimensional mass concentration profile of pollutant concentration can be reconstructed.
-------
40
By calculating mass flow through the plume plus ground level sampling, the fate of the SCL can be as-
certained and reasons for SCL concentration changes can be postulated. Other programs are planned to
sample and characterize the same volume of air mass as it is transported downwind.
Question: Wasn't the variation of S02 to sulfate due to the passage of the plume over or through
regions in which high hydrocarbon concentration could be expected such as from cities?
Response: As mentioned previously, hydrocarbon measurements from airplanes were unsuccessful. The
program will be repeated with different techniques plus hydrocarbon sampling experts in the future. A
problem with hydrocarbon sampling is that hydrocarbon emissions from coal are generally located in large
communities and must contend with the nitrogen oxide emissions especially from auto exhausts. NO does
inhibit the oxidation of S02 in that the NO appears to be the first compound oxidized and practically
nothing else is converted until the NO is converted. In addition, most of these studies were accomplished
over rural areas which have a fairly constant hydrocarbon concentration, so variations of SCX with NO
could not be obtained. Other panel members responses confirmed the lack of information on hydrocarbons
and the need for additional R&D funding to better characterize hydrocarbon transport and fate.
-------
CHAPTER 3
MEASUREMENT AND MONITORING
-------
42
INTRODUCTION
The program for protection of the national
environment requires the development of control
technologies which will reduce the emission of pollu-
tants resulting from development and exploitation of
energy resources. Development of these control
technologies must proceed in accordance with a series
of strategy and priority trade-offs aimed at achiev-
ing predetermined standards. These standards, in
turn, will be established to reflect understood
tolerance of the environment to the ecological
effects of the pollutants. Measurement and monitor-
ing techniques are an essential factor in the
process.
As an example, the provisions of the Clean Air
Act Amendments of 1970 and the Federal Water Pollu-
tion Control Act of 1972 include requirements to
limit the emissions of pollutants from various points
of discharge such as automobile tailpipes and waste-
water effluents. It is fairly obvious that such
measures are required if we are to maintain our air
and water in a sufficiently clean state for protec-
tion of the public health and welfare. What is not
obvious is the exact extent to which it is necessary
tp limit individual discharges in order to reach
desired purity of the whole. As long as costs rise
exponentially with the degree of purification, there
will be public interest in control which provides
adequate protection, but no more.
There are two elements which are fundamental
to such an endeavor. First, the dose-response
relationships much be established so that ambient
air and water quality standards can be properly set.
Secondly, the relationships between pollutant con-
centrations at the point of discharge and at the
point of human contact must be established.
Accurate measurements are requisite to the determina-
tion of these relationships. These measurements,
will in turn, require extensive development of new
measuring devices and techniques.
Programs in the area of measurement and monitor-
ing are directed at research and development of the
necessary techniques and instrumentation.
Work in progress is characterized by its
variety: water measurements to assess suspended
solids and sedimentation; exotic measurement devices
employing lidar, laser and satellite techniques;
shipboard sampling; and the development of reference
standard materials.
-------
43
ENERGY RELATED RESEARCH PROGRAM IN THE PERSONAL
AND ENVIRONMENTAL MEASUREMENTS PROGRAM-NIOSH
Paul A. Baron, Ph.D.
Laurence J. Doemeny, Ph.D.
National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health
Cincinnati, Ohio
INTRODUCTION
The National Institute for Occupational Safety
and Health (NIOSH) is committed to the protection
of the worker from harmful materials and conditions
in the working environment. Toward this end, the
Personal and Environmental Measurements (PEM) pro-
gram in the Engineering Branch aids in accomplish-
ing this goal by investigating methods and
instrumentation used to collect and measure harmful
agents in the workplace air. Three different levels
of methods and instrumentation are used to effec-
tively monitor the workplace air: personal monitors,
survey instruments, and area monitors.
The Occupational Safety and Health Standards1
require the determination of worker exposure to air
contaminants. The exposure is determined for ceil-
ing levels or for 8-hour, time-weighted average
levels. NIOSH has found that the most accurate
method for measuring compliance with the standards
is to obtain personal, breathing zone samples which
can be analyzed for specific contaminants. To
obtain these personal samples, sampling systems
have been devised that consist of a light-weight,
self-contained pump, that is generally attached to
the worker's belt, and a sampling head that contains
an efficient medium for the specific type of air
contaminant of concern. The sampling head is
attached to the worker's clothing within his/her
breathing zone. Air is drawn through the sampling
medium at a measured rate and for a measured length
of time. The sampling medium is then sent to an
analytical laboratory for analysis to determine a
worker exposure. The sampling medium typically
consists of a filter for particulates and a solid
sorbent tube or liquid sorbent system (impinger or
bubbler) for gases and vapors and particulates.
To assess areas of contamination in the work-
place, it is very useful to have portable survey
instrumentation that is light-weight, accurate,
agent-specific, and capable of rapid measurement
of contaminant levels. These survey instruments
are used by Occupational Safety and Health Adminis-
tration (OSHA) inspectors to pinpoint areas of
possible non-compliance for further investigation,
by the employer to monitor contaminant levels and
target areas to be subjected to engineering
controls, and by NIOSH to evaluate problem areas,
bearing on the accuracy and collection of epidemio-
logical data, and the effectiveness of personal
sampling methods.
The third monitoring method is area monitoring.
This includes less portable instrumentation that has
recording capabilities to determine contaminant
level variation over an extended period of time at
a given location. Additional possibilities for such
monitors include feedback to warning devices in case
of dangerous contaminant levels and to engineering
and process controls to keep contaminant levels, be-
low the prescribed threshold.
TECHNICAL DISCUSSION
In response to the rising need for air monitor-
ing instrumentation as a result of the increased
emphasis on energy self sufficiency, the PEM program
is using interagency funds from EPA to effect
improvements in such instrumentation in energy
related areas. Four projects are under way in this
interagency program.
(1) Evaluation of personal sampling devices in
cold environments;
(2) Development of a fibrous aerosol survey
monitor;
(3) Development of a miniature gas chromatograph;
and
(4) Development of a portable microwave spectro-
metric analyzer.
These four areas of investigation will be
carried out under contract. The contracts are
presently in various stages of the review and bid-
ding process.
1. With the development of United States energy
resources in sub-zero environs, such as Alaska,
there is an increasing need for information
relative to the current air sampling instru-
mentation and methodology available for
industrial hygiene investigations in sub-
zero weather.
In field use, cold temperatures may alter the
response of such air sampling instruments as
personal sampling pumps. Some basic problems
to be investigated associated with the opera-
tion of air sampling instruments in sub-zero
environs are: (1) greases and oils freezing;
(2) bearings freezing up; (3) piston units
freezing and sticking; (4) pump diaphragms
becoming brittle; (5) valves sticking; (6)
decreasing battery efficiency; and (7)
fatiguing of electronic components. Different
air sampling instruments may encounter certain
problems depending on their particular design
characteristics.
-------
44
Since it is necessary to use personal sampling
pumps for field industrial hygiene surveys,
including compliance work by OSHA, data must
be obtained to establish the reliability and
operating characteristics of personal sampling
pumps in these sub-zero investigations. In
addition, investigations will be made to pin-
point other problem areas related to sample
collection and analysis under extreme condi-
tions.
2. The assessment of occupational hazard due to
fibrous aerosols has become of great impor-
tance especially in light of past experience
with asbestos.2 In addition to asbestos, other
fibrous materials such as fibrous glass, tex-
tile fibers may require methods for their
detection as new occupational exposure levels
are set. These fibrous materials are extreme-
ly important in energy conservation as insul-
ators.
The Occupational Safety and Health Standards
requirement to measure the exposure of workers
is presently fulfilled for asbestos aerosols
by collection of air samples on filters and
analysis of the filters using phase contrast
light microscopy. A fibrous aerosol survey
instrument will be built to monitor aerosol
properties related to toxicity on a continu-
ous and real-time basis. The filter collec-
tion/light microscope analysis technique is
not presently adaptable to this latter
application.
Fibrous particles have a number of unique
properties that can be used to indicate their
presence quantitatively. Some of these pro-
perties include the aerodynamic shape factor,
magnetic and electrostatic polarizability,
light scattering properties and large surface
area per unit mass.3 These and other pro-
perties of fibers can be used and combined to
form the operational principles of a fibrous
aerosol monitor
The properties of fibers that seem to be
related to their toxicity, especially in the
case of asbestos, include the aerodynamic
size, the physical dimensions, and the number
concentration of the fibers. The aerodynamic
size of the fibers is related to the ability
of the fibers to penetrate to the lower
respiratory tract. Once the fibers reach this
site, the physical size of the fibers is
related to the ability of the fibers to pene-
trate to the lower respiratory tract. Once
the fibers reach this site, the physical size
of the fibers impedes their removal by the
ususal body elimination mechanisms. Epidem-
iological studies indicate that the biological
response due to asbestos exposure is largely
related to number concentration x exposure
time, i.e., the effects are cumulative.
3. With the advent of heightened emphasis on
increased production and research in the area
of energy, workers may be exposed to greater
levels of air contaminants and a greater
variety of gases and vapors.
Currently several types of portable, direct-
reading instruments are available for monitor-
ing single contaminants. These instruments
can be used to monitor large work areas to
obtain a record of a contaminant concentration
in a general area and also to provide a warn-
ing if dangerously high concentrations of a
contaminant are encountered in this area. The
major problem with these instruments is that
they do not measure an individual worker's
exposure, thus ignoring the worker's mobility
and fluctuation in contaminant concentration
around the plant. The vast majority of exist-
ing instrumentation can measure only a single
contaminant at a time and so one instrument
must be obtained for each contaminant to be
monitored.
The purpose of this study is to look at the
current state-of-the-art relative to the
development of a pocket gas chromatograph5
designed to monitor worker exposure, to prove
on paper the feasibility of such a system, and
outline the necessary research to have it
developed. Such an instrument may provide an
alternative to present personal sampling
systems and be capable of determining worker
exposure to several gases at the same time.
4. The need exists for a portable gas monitor
which is capable of selectively detecting
several trace contaminants of a hazardous or
toxic nature in air. Very few techniques are
available which are based upon a physical
measurement and have the required specificity
and sensitivity. It is felt that microwave
spectrometry is a technique which can fulfill
these requirements and be used in a portable
instrument. A brief description of this tech-
nique follows.
All gas phase molecules are freely rotating
in an air mixture, but their rotational speeds
are quantized. Because some molecules are
polar, electromagnetic radiation (microwave)
can interact with them at discrete frequencies
to increase their rotational speeds. Colli-
sions between the polar molecules, with air
molecules and with the container walls cause
the molecules to give up the added energy and
return them to their original rotating speeds,
but in the overall process, a net absorption
-------
45
of microwave radiation takes place. This
absorption can be detected to indicate the
presence of partiuclar kinds of molecules in
a mixture with air
This technique is highly selective for two
main reasons. One is that the rotational
speeds for all different types of molecules
are different; therefore, the discrete fre-
quencies of microwave radiation that they can
interact with are unique.
Secondly, microwave source produces radiation
monochromatically by electronic oscillations,
and can be readily tuned to any discrete
frequency. Thus, at low pressures, where
rotational absorption lines are very narrow,
this spectrometric technique has a resolution
and specificity superior to almost all other
detection methods.
A feasibility study by Lawrence Livermore
Laboratory (LLL) of the University of Cali-
fornia of the portable microwave rotational
resonance (MMR) analyzer has been completed.4
The factors affecting sensitivity for ten
different gases and vapors were investigated
and the results of these investigations
indicate that an instrument can be built for
the ten gases in Table I with the correspon-
ding sensitivities. With the present state-
of-the-art for such an instrument, it does
not seem possible to make the prototype
completely portable, i.e., battery operable.
One aim of the new contract will be to make
the instrument as compact, light and rugged
as possible, with the view that the next
generation MRR analyzer may be a completely
self-contained, portable instrument.
PROJECTION
Work beyond the contract efforts in the four
areas mentioned will include:
1. Further investigation into aspects of samp-
ling gases and particulates in cold environ-
ments as deemed necessary by the initial
study. There are problems with the collec-
tion of materials that undergo phase tran-
sitions from solid to liquid and liquid to
gas and acquire significant vapor pressures
when taken from the cold environment to the
room temperature environment of the analyti-
cal laboratory.
2. The fibrous aerosol monitor will require
extensive field and laboratory testing to
ensure its utility as an accurate monitor
of asbestos and other fibrous materials. The
information gained from the contract and from
in-house research may provide the impetus
for other types of fiber detection instru-
ments suited to analyzing personal samples
and to area monitoring.
3. Based on indications of feasiblity in the
initial study, further development and con-
struction of a prototype miniature gas
chromatograph is envisioned.
4. In addition to testing and evaluation of the
instrument produced under the present con-
tract, further work will be needed on the
engineering design and packaging of the
microwave resonance analyzer to reduce the
size and power requirements and increase
portability and utility as a field instru-
ment.
INTERAGENCY PARTICIPATION
The majority of the energy related research in
the Personal and Environmental Measurements program
is being funded by Interagency energy allocations
totaling $350,000 supplied by EPA. The fiber
monitor is being partially funded by the Bureau
of Mines. NIOSH is providing one man-year of
effort during FY-76 for this energy related
research.
TABLE I
THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUES OF 10 GASES AND ESTIMATED
DETECTION LIMITS BY MICROWAVE SPECTROMETRIC ANALYSIS
MINIMUM DETECTABLE LIMIT
(smU
2
20
50
1
0.1
25
1.5
50
4
5
COMPOUND TLV
(ppm)1
Acetonitrile 40
Acetaldehyde 200
Acetone 1000
Ammonia 256
Carbonyl Sulfide *
Ethanol 1000
Ethylene Oxide 50
iso-Propanol 400
Methanol 200
Propylene Oxide 100
*No TLV has been set
REFERENCES
1. Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and
Health Standards, 1910.93, Federal Register,
June 27, 1974.
2. Occupational Exposure to Asbestos, Criteria
Document, DHEW, NIOSH, 1972.
3. Fuchs, N.A. Mechanics of Aerosols. New York,
Pergammon Press, 1964.
4. Final Report, Interagency Agreement, NIOSH 75-29.
-------
46
5. Terry, S.C. A Gas Chromatography System Fabri-
cated on a Silicon Wafer Using Integrated
Circuit Technology, NASA Technical Report
No. 4603-1. (1975)
6. Threshold Limit Values for Chemical Substances
in Workroom Air, ACGIH, 1975.
-------
47
MONITORING WESTERN ENERGY RESOURCE DEVELOPMENTS
R. K. Oser, S. C. Black, D. N. McNeils,
S. H. Melfi, G. B. Morgan
Environmental Monitoring and Support Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Las Vegas, Nevada 89114
INTRODUCTION
Meeting the projected energy requirements of
our nation will require expanded development of
both current sources (fossil fuel, geothermal, and
nuclear) and proposed sources (oil shale, tar
sands, solar radiation, and tides). This expansion
will not only increase the burden of known con-
taminants and the alteration of land and water re-
sources, but may introduce new contaminants which
have not yet been recognized as problems. It is
accordingly most prudent to study each energy
source to the fullest extent so that problems may
be anticipated and controls instituted as early as
possible in the resource development. Such studies
must include collection of data on known and sus-
pected contaminants both before and after resource
development. Comparison of these levels will then
indicate the environmental impact of the resource
development and the effectiveness of applied
pollution control measures. It will also assist in
the development of new controls.
To illustrate some of the facets of the problem
let us consider the development of an oil shale
resource. Although oil shale strata exist else-
where in the country, the most commercially attrac-
tive deposit is the Green River Formation of
Wyoming, Utah, and Colorado. It has been estimated
that 600 billion barrels of oil exist in the higher
grade shale of this formation. Development of this
valuable resource will not, however, be without its
own set of environmental problems. The potential
for water pollution is high. Salinity changes to
the watershed and groundwater supply can occur
from the highly saline water removed from the shale
during mining and processing and from runoff from
the spent shale. The increased permeability of in
situ fractured shale and tailings also provides for
possible trace metal and organic compound additions
to scarce water resources which are required for
agricultural and municipal uses. Air pollution
from shale extraction and conversion also presents
a problem. In-situ retorting of the shale requires
detonation of conventional or nuclear explosives to
fracture the formation prior to application of heat.
These explosives will introduce nitro compounds or
radioactive materials which may escape with the off-
gases or may be collected by the oil as it drains
through the rubble. External retorting will emit
to the atmosphere significant amounts of particu-
lates, S02, NO , CO, trace metals, natural radio-
nuclides and hydrocarbons. Finally, there are
land disturbance problems associated with extract-
ing the shale and disposing of the spent shale.
These are some of the environmental problems
associated with the development of just one energy
resource. Other problems, such as water avail-
ability and socio-economic effects, must also be
addressed. The real magnitude of the problem comes
into focus when one considers the great geographic
area that will require surveillance as the extrac-
tion, conversion and utilization of coal, oil shale,
geothermal, offshore and onshore oil and gas, uran-
ium, and other energy resources proceed. It is
essential, however, that monitoring be done to help
ensure that the expanding energy resource develop-
ment is accomplished in a manner consistent with
the national commitment to protect the environment.
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's
(EPA) monitoring and measurement research and devel-
opment program in the Western Energy Resource Devel-
opment area is designed to obtain environmental
baseline information on air, surface-water, ground-
water, and soil quality. Interagency participation
is stressed particularly in monitoring system de-
sign, data integration and quality assurance areas.
The baseline data coupled with predictive models
applicable to the specific industry and site and
supplemented with data gathered over several years,
will enable decision makers to assess the environ-
mental impacts from energy resource development
and related activities.
PROGRAM DISCUSSION
The basic approach to monitoring the impact of
projected energy developments is relatively
straightforward. A set of pollutants to be expected
in the various media (air, land, water, and bio-
logical) is derived, an optimized monitoring system
is designed, and appropriate cost-effective instru-
ments and techniques are developed and applied to
the measurement of the candidates. Concurrent with
methods research, a comprehensive quality assurance
program is designed to develop procedures for
assuring the accuracy and reproducibility of
measurements, as it is essential that monitoring
data be scientifically valid and legally defensible.
The EPA's Environmental Monitoring and Support
Laboratory in Las Vegas, Nevada (EMSL-LV) is in-
volved in a number of projects which utilize this
approach to determine the environmental impacts
associated with expanded energy development in the
West. Overviews of these programs are presented
below.
Air Monitoring. The air monitoring program in-
volves the development of an inventory of energy-
related emission sources and of air-quality and
meteorological monitoring sites in the Western
United States. The EPA, other Federal, State, and
industrial monitoring sites, particularly those
which measure multiple air-quality and meteorologi-
cal parameters, will be incorporated into this
activity. Their data will be integrated and inter-
preted to develop an air-quality baseline, assess
trends and evaluate air quality for significant
deterioration. The airborne monitoring capability
of the EMSL-LV will be used to complement the over-
all effort by developing the three-dimensional
-------
48
aspect of air quality phenomena, conducting inten-
sive site-specific studies to obtain data for com-
plex terrain and complex plume modeling and model
validation, and describing plume or air parcel
transport and transformation. Data collected by
the Ute Research Laboratory for the EMSL-LV will
complement this effort by providing information on
the hazardous element distribution in air over a
large geographical area of Utah, Colorado, New
Mexico and Arizona.
The EMSL-LV also serves as technical project
coordinator for a climate modification study being
conducted by the National Oceanographic and Atmos-
pheric Administration (NOAA). At three sites in
the western area (Colstrip, Montana, the Four
Corners area and northern Utah) the fraction of
aerosols with cloud nucleating properties will be
determined as a function of plume transport time.
Particular attention is given to the production
rate and nucleating properties of sulfates result-
ing from conversions of gaseous S02 to particulate
sulfates. The effects of moisture, oxides of nit-
rogen, ammonia and heavy metals on the conversion
rate are also under investigation. The EPA's
Environmental Monitoring and Support Laboratory at
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, is provid-
ing quality assurance for the analytical aspects
of the air monitoring program. This latter effort
combined with the monitoring activities will yield
a unique product: uniformly validated air-quality
data for a large geographical area of the Western
United States necessary to assess the impact of
energy-related activities and to develop national
environmental policies.
Water Quality Data Integration. The water
quality program is analogous to the air monitoring
effort in that data collected from existing net-
works of the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), other
Federal and State agencies, universities and pri-
vate industry are being integrated to establish
surface and ground water quality baselines for the
western energy area. The data will also be used
to evaluate trands, to assess the environmental im-
pact of on-line energy-related activities and to
predict the additional insult from future develop-
ments. The EPA's Environmental Monitoring and
Support Laboratory at Cincinnati, Ohio, is provid-
ing the quality assurance effort to the participat-
ing analytical laboratories in support of this
program. This again allows for the Agency to pro-
vide a unique product of properly and uniformly
validated data and data interpretation for use in
the decision process at the national level. The
EMSL-LV also serves as technical project coordina-
tor to the USGS in their surface-and ground-water
monitoring and appraisal efforts in coal mining
areas across the continental United States and
Alaska.
Remote Sensing. The large geographical area
to be monitored demands the application of tech-
niques which are capable of providing synoptic en-
vironmental assessment with a relatively short time
frame. Airborne remote sensing offers such a tech-
nique through the application of proven, operational
procedures and the promise of increased utility
with further refinement and on-going research and
development efforts.
The primary emphasis of operational remote
sensing to date has been the use of instrumentation
and techniques such as photography (black and white,
color, and color infrared), thermal infrared and
multi-spectral scanners and laser terrain profiles
(through cooperation with the National Aeronautics
and Space Administration (NASA) to define an en-
vironmental baseline for the Western United States.
Through the use of both manual, photo-interpre-
tation and automated data analysis, airborne acqui-
red information may be used to determine or assess:
(1) aerial extent of strip mining impact, (2) the
efficacy of reclamation activities associated with
disturbed land, (3) vegetation damage related to
mining and energy conversion, (4) revegetation
practices, (5) drainage patterns, and (6) impact on
fresh water resources. The ma-in objective of this
effort is to develop operational aerial techniques
capable of determining the success of extraction
and processing site rehabilitation.
Three remote sensing techniques are being de-
veloped at the EMSL-LV which have a direct bearing
on monitoring pollutants related to energy develop-
ment. All use lasers as an interrogating signal
and operate aiming down from airborne platforms.
These techniques will be used operationally to pro-
vide environmental data on energy operations.
The first technique is the downlooking airborne
LIDAR (Ujht Detection tod Ranging) System. The de-
vice senses and ranges aerosol concentrations be-
neath the airborne platform. One LIDAR system de-
veloped and constructed at the EMSL-LV, has been in
use for over 2 years in studies to determine point-
source plume dimensions, urban plume dimensions and
mixing-layer height over large geographical areas.
A second technique utilizes two pulsed lasers, oper-
ating in the infrared spectrum, which are of nearly
identical frequency but bracket a particular adsorp-
tion band of a pollutant or tracer gas. The device
is designed to operate from an airborne platform
with the earth as a reflector. It records the inte-
grated quantity of the selected gas beneath the air-
craft. One device has been constructed for monitor-
ing ozone with subsequent devices planned to measure
SOg and other gaseous pollutants. This pulsed laser
technique is also being developed to map tracer
gases released to simulate power plant effluents
prior to actual construction of the facility. The
third technique under consideration is laserfluoro-
sensing. Fluorescent signatures arising from laser
illumination can be highly specific, and spectral
information obtained over a period of time can yield
trend data. Two uses for this technique are the re-
mote sensing of vegetation stress and the identifi-
cation of oil species released during energy extrac-
tion or conversion activities.
Radiological Pollutant Monitoring and Technique!
Development. The continuing development of the
breeder reactor for future energy production has
-------
49
caused widespread concern as to the possible envir-
onmental effects resulting from the plutonium fuel
cycle. This concern may be attributed, at least
in part, to the paucity of information concerning
plutonium releases from plants involved in the
plutonium fuel cycle and the lack of standardized
methodology for monitoring plutonium in the envir-
onment.
The approach to this problem at the EMSL-LV
has consisted of (1) detailed characterization of
the airborne effluent from appropriate facilities
involved in the plutonium fuel cycle, and (2) re-
commendation and collaborative testing of methods
to monitor plutonium in soil, air, and water.
To date, airborne effluents have been collected
in the stack of a fabrication facility during 80
days of the fabrication process of plutonium-
uranium oxide.fuel for the Fast Flux Test Facility
(a breeder reactor). Air samples were also taken
in the environs of this facility. Efforts are cur-
rently underway to quantitate and characterize
plutonium and/or uranium particles in these samples.
A method has been recommended for monitoring plu-
tonium in soil and is being collaboratively tested
by 11 laboratories. Methods for the monitoring of
plutonium in air and water are now undergoing in-
tensive evaluation prior to their collaborative
testing.
Future activities include completing the
characterizations of the samples already collected
and characterizing the effluent from the Barnwell
Fuel Reprocessing Plant and the Fort St. Vrain
high-temperature gaseous reactor.
The EMSL-LV also serves as the EPA technical
program coordinator for the following three radio-
logical monitoring projects which are covered under
Interagency Agreements:
1. Evaluation and development of models used
for radiological impact assessment of gaseous re-
leases from nuclear power plants (Tennessee Valley
Authority).
2. Development of specifications for instru-
ments, methods, and systems for measuring radio-
active effluents released from uranium mills, fuel
fabrication and reprocessing plants, high-tempera-
ture gas-cooled reactors, and liquid metal fast
breeder reactors (Lawrence Livermore Laboratory).
3. Evaluation of state-of-the-art measurement
and instrumentation techniques for monitoring plu-
tonium and uranium particulates released from nu-
clear facilities (Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory).
Radiological Monitoring Quality Assurance.
The Radiation Quality Assurance Program which the
EMSL-LV conducts for the EPA has continually ex-
panded its three basic programs (Calibrated Sample
Distribution, Intercomparison Studies, and Metnods
Development and Evaluation) to meet the Agency's
needs. With the advent of the Energy Program, a
need for additional reference materials, cross-
checks, methodology and quality assurance guide-
lines became evident.
One study currently in progress is concerned
with the identification of potential radioactive
pollutants for which quality control standards, re-
ference materials, and procedures will be needed as
a result of expanded nuclear power, fossil fuel ex-
traction, and geothermal activities. Another pro-
ject is concerned with the design and development
of an improved instrument for measuring beta
activity, and the preparation of quality control
guidelines for technicians, analysts, and managers.
Other soil reference materials, including those
containing uranium-235, -238, and thorium, as well
as uranium mill tailings, have been prepared for
distribution to participating laboratories.
The EMSL-LV is also the technical program co-
ordinator for two quality assurance projects covered
under Interagency Agreements with the National
Bureau of Standards (NBS) and the Tennessee Valley
Authority (TVA), respectively. The NBS has been
providing the EMSL-LV with standards containing
mixed gamma emitters, which are being used in a
"round-robin" study of laboratories interested in
measuring alpha emissions or polonium-210. The
NBS is also analyzing radium in Mancos shale which
will be used by the EMSL-LV as a reference material.
The TVA is developing an approach to the optimiza-
tion of nuclear power surveillance programs, evalu-
ating a least-squares technique (Alpha-M Program)
to obtain qualitative and quantitative information
from gamma spectroscopy, and developing a users'
quality control manual.
Ground Water and Geothermal Monitoring and
Techniques Development. Heavy metals, radionuclides,
and other substances which are known or suspected
to be toxic, carcinogenic, mutagenic, or terato-
genic are contained in most energy resources. There-
fore, it is necessary to develop monitoring strate-
gies which will detect the movement of the pollu-
tants from the resource development activities to
the surface water and then to the ground water en-
vironment, to predict the amounts of these pollut-
ants going into storage, and to apprise decision-
making officials of the expected impact. The
EMSL-LV has several monitoring studies currently
underway which will help determine the impact of
coal, oil shale, and geothermal development on the
ground-water environment.
At oil shale and coal strip mining areas and
at a potential geothermal development site studies
are underway to identify the lithologies and aqui-
fers, locate the recharge areas, identify possible
pollutants, and develop, implement, and operate a
monitoring strategy to determine the contributions
of these energy developments to ground water pollu-
tion. A similar study will be conducted in an
energy complex consisting of coal mining, oil and
gas drilling, power generation sites, a large amount
of commerce and industry, and urban and suburban
populations which use a significant amount of ground
water. The kinds and amounts of pollution from each
of these sources will be identified and a monitoring
-------
50
strategy will be developed and implemented to de-
termine the nature of ground-water pollution re-
sulting from these activities. These strategies
will be systematic approaches which can be applied
to other similar areas.
RESOURCE ALLOCATIONS
When the EPA was created in 1970, the Las
Vegas facility was given the responsibility for
developing, testing, and optimizing methods and
strategies for monitoring the condition of the en-
vironment with regard to the source, movement and
fate of pollutants, and their change with time.
When the EPA energy/environmental program was de-
fined in 1974, the existing programs provided a
logical base for energy-related monitoring research
and development projects. Funds for energy-related
projects constitute about 20% of the current
EMSL-LV budget. Approximately 60% of the energy
funds is used for extramural (contracts and inter-
agency agreement) projects with the balance being
used to accelerate and redirect existing inhouse
capabilities.
CONCLUSION
In order for the United States to achieve
energy self-sufficiency in an era of dwindling oil
and gas reserves and increased national demand, it
will be necessary to accelerate the development of
our energy resources. It is the responsibility of
the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency to develop
and implement multi-media monitoring systems which
can be used at the Federal, State, and local levels
to help ensure that this development is in concert
with the national commitment to maintain and im-
prove environmental quality. The projects outlined
in this paper describe the role of the Environmental
Monitoring and Support Laboratory-Las Vegas in
helping to discharge this responsibility.
-------
51
NOAA's ACTIVITIES IN ENERGY RELATED
MEASUREMENT AND MONITORING
Alden B. Bestul and W. Lawrence Pugh
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
Rockville, Maryland
INTRODUCTION
This paper describes the activities of the
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
(NOAA) in energy related measurement and monitoring
under the Interagency Health and Ecological Effects
Program of the Presidential Five-Year Energy R&D
Plan. These activities are directed at developing
and applying techniques and instrumentation for
impact assessment measurements and continuing
monitoring of environmental pollutants arising from
existing and future energy related facilities.
Four projects are devoted to oceanic investigations,
and three to atmospheric investigations.
OCEANIC INVESTIGATIONS
Some areas of our Continental Shelf are
presently undergoing intensive study. This is due
in part to the impending increased usage of our
Continental Shelves for the production and trans-
portation of energy resources and the possible
siting of offshore power generating plants.
Critical to these and similar studies is an
understanding of Continental Shelf circulatory
processes; the development of underway sampling
systems; and the development and use of realistic
data quality assurance procedures. NOAA's oceanic
measurement and monitoring projects are aimed at
obtaining a better understanding of these problem
areas. NOAA has four oceanic measurement and
monitoring projects. The projects and the project
managers are as follows:
Ocean oil spill concentration and trajectory
forecast. Celso Barrientos NWS/Systems
Development Office.
Underway water sampling system.
Robert Etkins, NOS/Engineering Development
Laboratory.
Shipboard environmental data acquisition
system. Roy Wyett, NWS/Systems Development
Office.
Standardized and intercalibrated techniques
for marine monitoring. Robert Farland,
NOS/National Oceanographic Instrumentation
Center.
1. Oil Spill Concentration and Trajectory Forecast
Petroleum hydrocarbons are obiquitous in the
marine environment. These hydrocarbons can be
introduced inadvertently from offshore oil wells,
through tanker accidents and deballasting during
shipping, from natural seeps and a number of other
sources. The objective of this project is to
develop a numerical simulation model which can be
used in real time to predict the concentrations of
petroleum and its trajectory in the ocean as a
function of time and space from available meteoro-
logical and oceanographic data. The model will
include provisions for considering the local
currents, winds, and wave fields.
Project Plan
To develop this model, the following tasks
are being carried out:
Surface wind field. The surface winds are
used as an input to derive surface currents,
wind drag and sea-air transfer.
Three dimensional currents. The current
field will be defined considering tidal and
wind effects as well as bottom topography.
Direct wind drag effects. A boundary layer
model will be developed to better evaluate
the wind effects on floating pollutants.
Wave transport. The effects of waves on the
dispersion of a surface pollutant are not
well known. This task will address the
"surfboarding effects" and the effects of
variation in the current fields as caused by
nonlinear wave properties.
Sea air pollutant transfer. Evaporation and
the subsequent concentrating and altered
composition of a surface pollutant are
important variables that will be addressed.
Horizontal diffusion. A model will be
developed to provide information on the
spreading of surface pollutants in the
absence of wind and waves.
Overall model integration.
Project Status
All tasks are progressing. Contact and consul-
tations have been made with personnel at the
Universities of Delaware and New York, Texas ASM,
Woods Hole, Virginia Institute of Marine Science,
MIT, and the Coast Guard R&D Center. To date, two
proposals have been submitted, one from MIT to work
on the horizontal diffusion task and the second
from the University of Delaware to work on the
three dimensional current task.
2. Shipboard Environmental Data Acquisition
System (SEAST~
The goal of this project is the development of
-------
52
an automated environmental data observation system
for shipboard. Upon completion, this system will
have the capability to provide real-time, broad-
scale monitoring of meteorological and selected
oceanographic parameters from ships-of-opportunity
and also from fixed platforms such as oil rigs and
offshore terminals. The environmental data
observed will be transmitted via satellite to the
National Weather Service. This system has the
capability of providing observations from oceanic
areas that are data sparse and provide valuable
information to all users in Continental Shelf
areas who need and depend on accurate real-time
marine weather forecasts, warning services and
pollution transport advisories.
Program Plan
The SEAS project will be developed in two
phases. The first is the development of an
engineering model (SEAS-1). The primary objective
of this model will be to demonstrate the practi-
cability of using an automated system on board
ship for the acquisition and communication of
environmental data in an operational mode.
Incorporated into this model will be sensors
to automatically observe and communicate the
following environmental data: air temperature,
surface pressure, wind speed and direction, sea
surface temperature and surface salinity. In
addition, procurement of an automated expendable
bathythermograph system (XBT) and a dew point
sensor is planned for later incorporation.
The second phase will be the development of a
prototype system (SEAS-2). The current design
plans for this model include a full sensor set
multiplexed into a microprocessor for transmission
and for local display aboard ship. In addition to
the sensor capabilities of the SEAS-1 model, the
prototype SEAS-2 will have a ship's position
finding and movement (speed and direction)
capability. Design plans also include the
possible addition of an automated wave sensor and
an expendable salinity-temperature profiling
device.
Project Status
Procurement of the SEAS-1 model has been
initiated and delivery is expected in June 1976.
Inclusion of the dew point sensor and development
of the automated XBT is expected in 4th quarter
1976. The SEAS-2 prototype is expected in April
1977 with model testing and evaluation to run
until August 1977 at which time the prototype
system is expected to be operational.
3. Underway Water Sampling Program
The goal of this project is the development
of a shipborne dynamic scanning interactive data
acquisition system whose purpose is to obtain
measurements with which to determine the concentra-
tion, distribution, and transport of energy-
related pollutants in the water column down to
100 meters. These pollutants include both
dissolved petroleum hydrocarbons and suspended
particulate matter. In addition, measurements of
related physical and chemical variables such as
temperature, conductivity and current velocity as
a function of depth will be taken.
program Plan
The analysis for petroleum hydrocarbons and
suspended particulate matter will be done on board
ship using water samples pumped through a faired
cable. Design plans also include an optical sensor
to measure suspended particulate matter to
correlate their optical properties with their
physical-chemical properties as determined in the
water sample analyses.
A Doppler sonar system will be utilized to
measure current and ship speed as well as the
depth of the water column. The resultant data,
from the water sample analyses, sensor and Doppler
systems will be fed into a POP 11/40 computer to
provide near real time data.
Project Status
The system design is scheduled to be completed
by March 1, 1976. The basic design for the CTD
sensor system has been completed and a detailed
design of electronic modules is now in process.
The POP 11/40 data processing system has been
received and is now being evaluated. The technical
specifications for the Doppler current/depth system
has been completed and RFP documentation has been
initiated. Requirements for the hydrocarbon
sampling are being studied prior to the preparation
of procurement specifications.
4. Standardized and Intercalibrated Techniques
for Marine Monitoring
Quality marine measurements are at present
the exception rather than the rule. The develop-
ment and mandatory utilization of data quality
assurance protocols are essential to the credi-
bility of any environmental program. The objective
of this project is to develop common techniques
for the standardization and intercalibration of
sampling and analytical methodologies presently in
use in the marine environment.
The development of these improved standards
and techniques will allow intercomparison of
monitoring and assessment results and pooling of
data from many different sources.
Project Plan
This project is divided into three tasks:
(1) standards development, (2) investigations and
(3) data logger system.
1. Standards development. To assure inter-
calibration and the intercomparability of data
taken from different sources, the following
standards are being developed:
-------
53
An operational field and laboratory dissolved
oxygen standard.
Transfer standard for interlaboratory calibra-
tion. A CTD System will be procured
initially because it represents three
measurement parameters that are of concern
to most all monitoring and assessment studies.
Dynamic test standard for current meters.
Current meters are currently tested and
evaluated in the steady state. A dynamic
standard will add a new and much needed
dimension toward the accurate measurement
of ocean currents.
2. Investigations. Recent increase in usage
of Continental Shelf areas has correspondingly
produced an influx of various in situ instruments
being used to measure water quality. This is a
radical change from the previous standard methods
of laboratory analysis. Therefore, an initiative
is underway to assess and determine if there is
measurement traceability from the in situ
instruments to the laboratory chemical standards.
3. Data logger. A water quality instrument
data logger system is being developed to automate
the collection of calibration and testing data that
is compatible with computer processing.
Project Status
A contract has been awarded to design the
dynamic test standard. Delivery is expected in
May 1976. A contract has also been awarded on the
data logger system with delivery scheduled early in
FY77. In addition, an RFP has gone out on the
development of the laboratory dissolved oxygen
standard.
ATMOSPHERIC INVESTIGATIONS:
NOAA's atmospheric measurement and monitoring
projects are concerned with: (1) Lidar and Doppler
lidar measurements of pollutant particulates and
their transport processes, (2) cloud and precipita-
tion modification effects of pollutants, and (3)
meteorological trajectory and removal behavior of
pollutants. The lidar work is led by Dr. Vernon
Derr and Dr. Ronald Schwiesow of NOAA's Wave
Propagation Laboratory. The cloud and precipita-
tion modification investigations are conducted
under Dr. Rudolph Pueschel of NOAA's Atmospheric
Physics and Chemistry Laboratory. The trajectory
and removal project is conducted under Dr. Lester
Machta, Director of NOAA's Air Resources Laboratory.
1. Lidar Measurements
At present, pollutant particulates are usually
detected and analyzed by ground or airborne in situ
sampling devices. Those methods are of limited
usefulness because of the inability of point
samples to provide representative average values
of the aerosol concentration and composition, which
fluctuate greatly in time and space.
Current techniques for remote sensing of
pollutant particulates by laser ranging devices
(lidar) offer the advantages of operating continu-
ously over ranges of tens of kilometers and of
scanning over the entire hemisphere of the sky.
However, these techniques are now capable only of
approximate quantitative measurements because the
single parameter measured is back-scatter radiance.
The purpose of the present project is to
further develop lidar techniques to obtain more
definitive quantitative information on size
distribution and spatial and temporal measures of
concentration, as well as some general information
concerning the shape of pollutant particles. This
development should be possible by exploiting
characteristics of multiwavelength, polarization
sensitive back-scatter and absorption measurements
by lidar.
A second task of this project is to develop
Doppler lidar techniques to determine the velocity
structure of the atmospheric boundary layer under
particulate loading conditions. This is necessary
to trace the motion of pollutant particulates in
the boundary layer and to determine the effect of
boundary layer mixing and diffusion processes on
particulate pollutant transport.
1.1. Particle Characteristics:
A new dual wavelength laser transmitter with
accurate polarization properties has been mounted
on an existing lidar apparatus, and the dual wave-
length detector has been designed and is now under
construction. This equipment is planned to be put
into operation in January 1976 for the measurement
of stack emission versus natural aerosols in the
Boulder, Colorado, area.
An investigation of the depolarization
properties of man-made and natural aerosols has
begun with an examination of data from Fraser and
Boulder, Colorado, and from Colstrip, Montana.
Man-made aerosols from hot sources, such as furnaces
and automobiles, frequently approximate spherical
shapes so that depolarization in back-scatter is
minimal; natural aerosols such as dust (not pollen)
are flat and show strong depolarization. Polariza-
tion is the first identifier being investigated;
multiple wavelength scatter, differential absorption
and inelastic scatter are also planned. Preliminary
theoretical studies on multiple wavelength back-
scatter have been made to determine the required
density of wavelength relative to the size
distribution of aerosols.
1.2. Velocity Structure:
Doppler lidar techniques have been developed
which have been used to measure profiles of mean
wind and turbulent intensity in desert, seacoast,
and urban environments. Currently, equipment is
operational which yields two dimensional plots of
the in-plane wind component for scans having either
fixed range with variable elevation or fixed eleva-
tion with variable range. The technique is shown
-------
54
to be an effective way of obtaining micro-
meteorological data for diffusion models.
Remote measurement of three dimensional winds
at a point without conical scan is shown feasible
by differential Doppler result recently obtained.
This demonstration of differential Doppler
scanning provides a technologically superior
method than conical scanning for meeting task
objectives on ventilation factor (product of mean
height of mixing layer and velocity of flow
through the mixing layer). The companion project
for the urban ventilation problem, to measure the
large-particle mixing depth by FM-CW lidar sounding,
has been analyzed theoretically, and hardware
procurement is underway.
Velocity profiles have been measured across
localized atmospheric vortices of sufficient
intensity to be potentially damaging. One such
case has been submitted for publication in the
January 1976 issue of Applied Optics on subvortex
flow in a large vortex.
2. Cloud and Precipitation Modification:
The purpose of this project is to develop
criteria by which to assess the impact of effluents
from coal-fired power plants on local weather,
especially on clouds and precipitation. Measure-
ments of significant effluent components and
products are being taken in the vicinity of power
generating plants using a mobile ground laboratory
and specially instrumented light aircraft and
helicopters. Included are continuous and point-
sample in situ measurements of concentrations of
cloud condensation nuclei, ice nuclei, and Aitken
nuclei and concentrations of several gases and
other constituents including S02, NO, NOX, 03, and
NH3. Radiation measurements and light-scattering
measurements are also being made. Laboratory
analyses of aerosol deposits collected in situ on
membrane filters are providing information on the
size, shape, and elemental composition of power
plant aerosols. The effects of the pollutants on
shortwave and longwave radiation are being evalu-
ated using the radiation and scattering measure-
ments and calculations based on measured size
distribution and elemental composition.
Three sites selected for measurements are the
Colstrip, Montana, Power Plant, the Four Corners
Power Plant near Farmington, New Mexico, and the
Kennecott, Utah, Copper Smelter. Two field
measurement projects have been conducted at both
Colstrip and Farmington and one at Kennecott.
Preliminary analyses of nuclei data from the
Colstrip and Farmington sitesstrongly suggest that
the power plant effluents have significant impact
on local and downwind concentrations of both ice
nuclei and condensation nuclei.
Farmington samples collected from the plume
20 km downwind of the power plant indicate that
the greater number of particles are found in the
smallest size range (0.08 to 0.04 m diameter) with
concentrations about two orders of magnitude higher
than typical "clean-air"values. The aerosols
collected both within the outside and plume were
predominantly in the form of glassy beads as con-
trasted with the irregularly shaped particles that
are derived from natural sources.
Particle size distribution within the plume at
a point about 2 hours downwind of the Four Corners'
stack indicates that particle formation was pro-
ceeding at a faster rate than reduction by
dispersion and agglomeration, resulting in a net
increase in aerosol concentration. Particle counts
(especially in the 0.2 m to 0.4 m size range) in
the surrounding atmosphere were also elevated as a
result of contamination by the previous day's
emissions, which had been carried westward by down-
slope flow beneath an inversion and then carried
back into the Farmington area by prevailing winds.
The Farmington aerosols contained notable
occurrences of calcium, titanium, iron, and copper,
in addition to the ever present aluminum and silicon.
Particulate sulphur present in the air mass domin-
ated by the power plant plume is situated prefer-
entially in the smaller sized particles (0.2 to
0.3 m) and is likely to be in the form of soluble
sulfate, thus adding to the numbers of cloud
condensation nuclei. Elevated numbers of cloud
nuclei were, in fact, measured in this contaminated
air mass.
The aerosols collected near Colstrip were
found to be rich in sulphus and zinc, and to have
greater incidences of some of the heavy metals
(namely, palladium, titanium, and iron) than the
usual aerosol. The presence of heavy metals pro-
vides an increased likelihood of ice nucleating
capability in the aerosol; the ice nucleus concen-
tration was indeed greater than is the usual back-
ground aerosol by a factor ranging from 2 to 10.
Cloud condensation nuclei concentration was also
higher than expected by a factor of 2 to-4; this
was probably a consequence of the relative abundance
of sulphur.
3. Trajectory and Removal Meteorology:
This project is being planned in direct support
of the EPA Environmental Monitoring and Support
Laboratory (EMSL) in Las Vegas, Nevada, through the
direct cooperation of existing NOAA personnel and
EPA personnel located there. A meteorologist is
being recruited by NOAA to conduct the investigation.
Techniques for establishing trajectory -and
removal patterns will first be investigated for S02
from existing industrial plants in the western
United States. Existing atmospheric S02 data,
collected mainly from such plants, will be assembled.
These data are of a considerably limited nature and
quality. They will be analyzed to identify the gaps
which are necessary to fill for a more adequate
analysis of techniques for defining trajectory and
removal meteorology. The data gaps identified will
be filled with supplementary data to be obtained by
measurements from aircraft of the EMSL fleet. On
the basis of the complete data set comprised of the
existing, plus the supplementary gap-filling measure-
ments, an analysis will be made of the trajectory
and removal meteorology of the western U S in
relation to energy activities.
-------
55
Measurement and Monitoring
H. R. Mickey and P. A. Krenkel
Tennessee Valley Authority
Chattanooga, Tennessee
INTRODUCTION
TVA's responsibility for planning, designing
and operating its mixed nuclear, fossil, and hydro-
electric energy system necessarily entails a compre-
hensive program for measuring and monitoring a wide
range of activities and parameters. We must have
ready access to information arising from national
and regional programs in agriculture, forestry,
fisheries, and wildlife development, disease vector
control and environmental planning.
Participation in the Federal energy research
program measurement and monitoring activities will
allow TVA to aid in the development of improved
methodology for the types and integrity of informa-
tion needed to quantify the environmental residuals
and impacts of energy systems.
TVA's contribution in the measurement and moni-
toring activities of the energy research program
will entail (1) development of methods for chemical
analyses of waterborne pollutants, (2) development
of improved radiological surveillance programs, and
(3) development and demonstration of remote sensing
techniques for monitoring environmental effects of
power plant emissions.
For possible use in the exchange of information
or coordination, the names of principal investigators,
research investigators, and responsible administra-
tors are included after the title of each task.
DISCUSSION
1. Isolation and Identification of Waterborne
Pollutants Associated with the Power Industry—
L. H. Howe, L. E. Scroggie, C. W. Holley
The reportswill summarize results of laboratory
studies to improve analytical procedures and provide
acceptable alternate analytical methods for several
pollutants in water samples from energy-critical
areas in the Ohio and Tennessee River Valleys.
Specific tasks for which improved methods are
being developed are: Acrolein by voltammetry at
positive potentials; cadmium, lead, copper, zinc,
simultaneously by voltammetry; compare digestion
techniques for suspended and dissolved metals by
atomic absorption; compare total arsenic by voltam-
metry, atomic absorption, and colorimetry; sulfate
by high speed colorimetry.
Progress: Work was completed on acrolein in
July 1975.A differential pulse polarographic method
was developed for the determination of acrolein in
natural and condenser cooling water. It is based on
electrochemical reduction of acrolein at negative
potentials at the dropping mercury electrode, ihe
sample solution is buffered at pH 7.2 with a phos-
phate buffer solution, and ethylenediaminetetraace-
tic acid (EDTA) is added (0.09%) to prevent inter-
ference from zinc. The height of the polarographic
peak at about-1.2 V vs. the saturated calomel elec-
trode (S.C.E.) is measured and referred to a stand-
ard curve. The recovery of acrolein was unaffected
by pH in the 6.8-7.6 range and by zinc at 2.0 mg/1.
The range of the method is from 0.05 to at least 0'.5
mg/1 of acrolein. Replicate analyses of standard
solutions containing 0.1 and 0.3 mg/1 of acrolein
gave relative standard deviations of 7.2 and 4.1%
and relative errors of 2.8 and 3.3%, respectively.
Acrolein can also be determined by differential
pulse voltammetry at the glassy carbon electrode.
The acrolein is measured indirectly by forming
the acrolein-sulfite complex and oxidatively measur-
ing uhreacted sulfite at positive potentials in a
phosphate buffer solution at pH 7.2. This procedure
does not require lengthy deaeration to remove oxygen,
but its sensitivity (10 mg/1) makes it less attrac-
tive than the polarographic method.
Sulfite was tested as a preservative for acro-
lein samples. Acrolein could not be quantitatively
recovered from solutions containing excess sulfite.
On the basis of this work, sulfite is not recommended
as a preservative.
The Laboratory Branch successfully employed a
gaseous hydride method for arsenic by atomic absorp-
tion. We also have active methods for arsenic by
voltammetry and colorimetry. Comparative experi-
mental work is scheduled for completion by the end
of February 1976.
An electrolyte purification apparatus was pur-
chased to purify ammonium citrate buffer for deter-
mining cadmium, lead, copper, and zinc by anodic
stripping voltammetry.
A literature review is being conducted on all
tasks except acrolein.
Status: A galley proof of the draft milestone
report for acrolein was submitted to EPA on December
1, 1975.
The draft milestone report for arsenic will be
submitted to EPA by September 30, 1976.
2. Development and Evaluation of an Integrated
Approach to the Optimization of Nuclear Power
Plant Radiological Surveillance Programs—I. G.
Kanipe, B. B. Hobbs, R. L. Doty, E. A. Belvin,
J. A. Oppold
This study will identify and develop an optimum
radiological surveillance program for nuclear power
-------
56
plants, providing results which will facilitate the
efficient, reliable, and economical design of moni-
toring systems. In the first segment of the study,
the objective will be optimization of the environ-
mental radiological monitoring program. The second,
concurrent segment of the study will be oriented
toward the development of model quality assurance
procedures for radiological surveillance programs.
Operators of nuclear power plants are required
to conduct radiological surveillance programs to make
certain any radiation exposures to plant employees
and the general public are within safe limits. As
part of these programs, numerous analyses are made at
one or more laboratories for radioactive materials
within the plant, at potential effluent release
points, and in the environment. It is imperative
that the accuracy and precision of the analytical
data be assured. It is also necessary that in-plant
and environmental data be comparable in order to
develop and test models used for calculating poten-
tial movements of radionuclides from plant to envi-
ronment. It is highly desirable that data generated
throughout the nuclear power industry be comparable
in order to assess regional and national effects of
energy production by nuclear power. Research needs
were identified within the nuclear technology regard-
ing interlab quality control for radioanalytical
laboratories and radiation monitoring guidelines.
High priority was given to the collection of infor-
mation and the development of programs pertinent to
those needs.
TVA proposed a comprehensive program leading to
the development of guideline information for the
nuclear power industry. This program, using TVA's
radioanalytical laboratories, included development of
uniform quality assurance procedures through inter-
laboratory studies, development of methodologies, and
evaluation and calibration of equipment. Procedures
will be evaluated for reliability and comparability
of data generated by different laboratories and their
practicability for routine use in an operating sur-
veillance program.
Because of its experience with nuclear power
plant design and operations, TVA will develop uniform
procedures for radiological surveillance. Partici-
pating laboratories will be operated by TVA which
would reduce communication problems that might exist
in an arrangement of plant operator and outside con-
tractor. Further, assimilation of the proposed pro-
gram into TVA's existing radiological surveillance
operations could be accomplished at minimal cost
compared to establishment of a separate surveillance
program. Therefore, in response to the proposal,
TVA was funded in fiscal year 1975 to initiate
studies related to radiation monitoring guidelines
and quality control.
Progress: All equipment for the project has
been ordered. A pulse height analysis system
(Nuclear Data ND-100) has been received and is under-
going performance-testing and calibration.
The exact needs of each participating laboratory
are being determined in order to tailor the standards,
methods, and inter!aboratory studies to specific
requirements in the development of the analytical
quality control program.
The computer program "ALPHA-M" -(E.G. Schonfeld)
is being studied in detail to evaluate its applica-
tion in gamma spectroscopy at environmental activity
levels. A standard version of the program has been
prepared and presently is being tested. Limits of
detection (MDA) for single nuclide and multiple
nuclide cases are being determined. Further studies
of optimum library size and background subtraction
options are being conducted.
An analytical quality control (AQC) manual for
radioanalytical laboratories is being reviewed and
revised prior to submission to EPA.
Status: Upon delivery, all counting equipment
will be performance-tested and readied for operation.
Upon completion of review, the AQC manual will be
submitted to appropriate EPA staff. Work will con-
tinue on the establishment of criteria to evaluate
monitoring data.
Project activities are proceeding on projected
schedules. Some delays in administrative arrange-
ments and in transfer of funds will require the revi-
sion of milestone completion dates. However, all of
the specified tasks are expected to be completed
within the projected duration of the project.
3. Remote Sensing of SO? Effects on Vegetation--
A. L. Bates, H. C. Jones, W. R. Nicholas
The principal visible symptom of S02 injury to
vegetation is discoloration of foliage. Delineation
of these effects and documentation of their preva-
lence and severity is necessary for estimating air
quality impacts in the vicinities of point or area
sources. However, ground survey methods are costly
and time-consuming for the following reasons:
1. The sizes of areas requiring inspection
are relatively large (several hundred
square miles).
2. Affected areas, fields, stands, etc., can
be missed because of inaccessibility.
3. Rapid recovery of affected vegetation may
mask effects.
4. Costs for obtaining statistically sound
data on the degree and extent of effects
can be prohibitive.
Remote sensing from aerial platforms could
provide routine surveillance of large areas with
permanent, quantitative documentation of the extent
and severity of effects that could be compared with
future data to determine trends. Furthermore, more
-------
57
subtle effects resulting from chronic exposure to
pollutants might be detected more readily because
site specific factors that mask pollutant effects
would be averaged over large areas. The objective
of this task is the testing and refinement of remote
sensing techniques for detecting air pollution
effects on terrestrial vegetation, primarily those
caused by emissions from coal-fired power plants.
Depending on current issues and funds, this may be
expanded to include thermal effects from power plants
in general. Initial studies involve comparison of
ground effects on vegetation with color, color infra-
red, and multi-spectral imagery obtained by conven-
tional aircraft. If these methods prove satisfac-
tory, then the feasibility of satellite imagery for
effects surveillance will be evaluated.
Progress: Aerial overflights of S02-affected
agronomic crops, mainly soybeans and tobacco, were
conducted in July 1975 following ground-level S02-
exposures associated with the Shawnee and Joppa Steam
Plants near Paducah, Kentucky. Color infrared, black
and white infrared, aerial Ektachrome, and multi-
spectral scanning imagery at different scales was
obtained by NASA and TVA aircraft over the affected
area and over appropriate control fields. No EPA/TVA
pass-through funds were provided to NASA for this
work. Concomitant ground-truth data were obtained on
the physiological condition of the crop species and
on edaphic characteristics. Soil and plant samples
were collected for chemical analyses of soybean and
plant crops, but have not yet been analyzed.
Although a large portion of the imagery has been
processed, interpretation of the imagery will not be
completed until NASA has completed the upgrading of
their computer facilities.
Status: Plans for 1976 are to repeat the
studies for effects on soybeans and to initiate
studies on the feasibility of remote sensing for
detecting S02 effects on forest species. The study
will be redirected, insofar as possible, to provide
information on the Ohio Valley region between
Paducah, Kentucky, and Cincinnati, Ohio, as a part
of a special EPA integrated study.
-------
THE ROLE OF STANDARD REFERENCE MATERIALS
IN ENVIRONMENTAL MEASUREMENTS
J. R. McNesby
National Bureau of Standards
Washington, D. C.
The provisions of the Clean Air Act
Amendments of 1970 and the Federal Water
Pollution Control Act of 1972 include re-
quirements to limit the emissions of pol
lutants from various points of dicharge
such as automobile tailpipes and waste-
water effluents. It is fairly obvious
that such measures are required if we are
to maintain our air and water in a suffi-
ciently clean state for protection of the
public health and welfare. What is not
obvious is the exact extent to which it is
necessary to limit the discharges in order
to reach sufficient purity. As long as
costs rise exponentially with degree of
purification, we may expect public pressure
to control only enough for adequate pro-
tection and no more. This economic fact
underlines the critical necessity for the
development of a valid environmental
measurement system. There are two elements
that are fundamental to such a system.
First, we must establish as accurately as
possible dose-response relationships so
that ambient air and water quality stan-
dards can be set properly. Secondly, we
must establish the relationship between
pollutant concentrations at the point of
discharge and at the point of human
contact. Basic to this measurement system
are the requirements that (1) health
effects can be measured with requisite
accuracy. (2) An accurate model is avail-
able. (3) The pollutant measurements at
ambient and source concentrations are
internally consistent. The part of the
measurement system with which we at the
National Bureau of Standards have been
primarily concerned is the third of these.
In the discussion that follows, it is
presumed that the other two requirements
are met.
The dissipation of a discharged pol-
lutant depends upon a variety of param-
eters—wind, temperature, chemistry, sun-
light, surface morphology, rain, biological
conversion, etc. Modeling of such a
complex system is relatively undeveloped.
Recourse is taken to the so-called roll
back or proportional model which is an
admittedly oversimplified empirical model.
This model, however, is acceptable to the
EPA for state implementation of air quality
regulations.1 The proportional model is
applied here to air pollution control.
1Federal Register 36_, No. 158, p.
August 14, 1971.
15490,
However, the conclusions regarding accurate
measurement will be equally valid for water
pollution.
The proportional model is defined by
the assumption that the ambient pollutant
concentration, C, is proportional to the
total emission rate, %, which is the sum
of the natural background emission rate,
RB, the auto exhaust emission rate, RA,
and the rate of emission from stationary
sources, Rg.
JVrp
/-i
RT
R
A
Rr
A
V
Implied is the assumption that the contri-
butions of the various sources to C are
additive and are each themselves identically
proportional to the respective emission
rates .
= CT
kRr
The achievement of an air quality standard,
C°, requires a fractional reduction, F, in
all source emissions.
R,
T
RT
"B
The term Rf is the total emission rate at
which the standard, C°, is just met. The
fractional reduction in source emissions,
therefore, exceeds the fractional reduction
in ambient pollutant concentration (C-C0)/
C because of the dependence of F upon Cg,
the natural background concentration. From
these considerations , it may be concluded
that the fractional reduction in the total
stationary source emission rate is
Rr
Fs -
(C
~
C
Rr
(C
C
The measurement of the ratio (C-C )/C
requires only precision and not accuracy
since any bias in the measurement of C will
cancel the same bias in the measurement of
C° (assuming linear response over the
concentration range). However, RA/^S an<^
can only be obtained by independent
measurement of RA, Rg, and Rg each of
which is done by a different method
because of the greatly different circum-
stances of the measurements. There is no
2
See J. R. McNesby, Berichte der Bunsen-
Gesellschaft 7_8_, 159 (1974) for a detailed
mathematical treatment.
-------
59
reason to expect that a bias in the measure-
ment of RA will be the same as in the
measurement of Rg and Rg. Therefore, the
measurement of each of these parameters
must be done without bias (accurately).
The rate Rg is determined by measuring
Cg and k since RB = (l/k)CB. The
quantities RA and Rg are determined by
measuring the concentrations in auto
exhaust emissions, CA, and in stack
effluents, GS, along with the respective
rates of flow. It follows that CA, Co,,
and Cg must be accurately measureable if
implementation of the air quality regu-
lations are to be successful and econom-
ically acceptable.
It is for these reasons that the Na-
tional Bureau of Standards has undertaken
to develop Standard Reference Materials
whose purpose is to help eliminate bias
from the measurement of CA, Cg, and Cg.
Accurate measurement of CA is facilitated
by NBS Standard Reference Materials of
propane in air, carbon monoxide in
nitrogen and nitric oxide in nitrogen.
Accuracy of measurement of C$ is provided
by NBS Standard Reference Materials CO in
nitrogen and NO in nitrogen. There
remains to be developed the S02 in nitrogen
Standard Reference Material which should
be completed by the end of 1976. This and
other Standard Reference Materials are
being developed under an agreement with
EPA's Office of Energy, Minerals and
Industry. The development of a Standard
Reference Material of nitrogen dioxide in
air is envisioned by June 1977 under the
same agreement.
In the development of Standard Refer-
ence Materials for elimination of bias
from the measurement of CA and Cg, primary
standard gas mixtures are prepared
gravimetrically or volumetrically and are
analyzed by other absolute techniques.
Their stability is carefully studied both
in the short and long term by NBS
scientists. Next, a large supply of
commercial gas cylinders containing nominal
pollutant concentrations is purchased and
concentrations are established and
certified by comparison with the primary
standards.
Standard Reference Materials
applicable to accurate measurement of Cg
and to ambient pollutant concentrations
generally include the sulfur dioxide
permeation tube and the nitrogen dioxide
permeation tube. Under development is the
carbon monoxide in air Standard Reference
Material which is expected to be issued in
December 1976.
It should be understood that all SRMs
are not intended to function directly as
calibrating materials for measuring
instruments. This is due to the fact that
interfering substances may be present in
real samples which might produce an illusory
signal on a measuring instrument. Further,
if the response of an instrument is not
linear, a one point calibration can be
misleading. Under these circumstances, the
purpose of an SRM is to provide the analyst
with a material of known composition with
which he can test his ability to perform
accurate analysis.
Although the rationale describing the
National Bureau of Standards' program in
environmental measurement has been presented
here in terms of air pollution, it is
apparent that Standard Reference Materials
are needed in water pollution for quite
similar reasons. The National Bureau of
Standards water pollution program is very
young and has just issued its first Standard
Reference Material of mercury in water at
the ppm and ppb levels. Standard Reference
Materials needs associated with new or
increased energy usage will form the focus
of our efforts over the next few years.
We must anticipate the measurement and
Standard Reference Materials needs that
are likely to arise as new energy sources
develop. To this end, NBS is conducting a
series of workshops designed to reveal
probable pollutants associated with the
various emerging energy technologies. Four
such workshops have already been held — Off-
shore Oil Drilling, Oil Shale Processing,
Coal Gasification and Liquefaction and De-
sulfurization. Other workshops to be-
conducted by June 1976 include those on
power plant operation, uranium mining, mine
drainage and geothermal energy utilization.
Table I lists a number of materials
currently being evaluated for issuance
as NBS Standard Reference Materials along
with target dates for completion of the
feasibility studies.
-------
60
Table I
Projected Energy Related SRMs
Target Date
St. Louis Particulate 6/79
Raw Oil Shale 6/77
Spent Oil Shale 1/79
Toxic Metals in Water 6/76; 6/77
Organics in Water 6/78; 6/80
Organics in Sediment/Biota 6/79; 6/80
210Po 1/76
Ra in Soil; Mixed gamma
emitter solution, 239Pu 1/77
Mixed gamma emitter soil 1/78
230Th) 238pU) 241pu 1/78
241Am, 242Am, 235U, 238U 1/79
210pb> 232^ 243Cm;
Other Standard Reference Materials relevant
to the energy program which are already
available from the National Bureau of
Standards are Sulfur in Residual Fuel Oil,
Lead in Reference Fuel, Sulfur in Coal,
Trace Metals in Coal, Fuel Oil and Coal Fly
Ash. A detailed listing of available NBS
environmental SRMs may be found in NBS
Special Publication 260, Catalog of NBS
Standard Reference Materials, page 33.
-------
61
EPA/NASA COOPERATION TO DEVELOP REMOTE
SENSING AND IN SITU SENSORS AND
TECHNIQUES FOR POLLUTION MONITORING
James R. Morrison
John Mugler and E. L. Tilton, III
National Aeronautic & Space Administration
INTRODUCTION
On May 2, 1975, the EPA and NASA con-
cluded an Energy Memorandum of Understand-
ing under which two projects are going
forward at present. These relate to
developing remote and in situ sensors and
techniques to the measurement and charac-
terization of power plant and other source
effluents, and to obtaining baseline data
and thereafter to monitor the rehabilita-
tion of surface mining areas over a wide
part of the Western United States. These
two projects are discussed in some detail
below.
REMOTE AND IN SITU INSTRUMENT DEVELOPMENT
As a result of the Clean Air Act, many
large power plants have been required to
burn low sulfur fuels. These fuels are
becoming increasingly expensive and more
difficult to obtain and consideration is
being given to reverting to fuels with
higher sulfur content if the environmental
impact is acceptable. Thus, it is impor-
tant to better characterize the effects of
fuel quality (sulfur and ash content) on
the local environment. This characteri-
zation must include a better understanding
of effluent composition, dispersion
processes, chemical reactions, and the
influence of local meteorology and tooog-
raohy to guide decisions regarding fuel
grade acceptability and plant siting, and
thus minimize the impact of environmental
regulations on our national resources. To
achieve this understanding, improved
remote and in situ measurement techniques
are needed for proper study of stack
effluent composition and dispersion
processes. In addition, techniques are
needed to measure emissions from other
types of stationary and mobile sources.
The objective of this project is to
develop and apply advanced electro- optical
techniques to the measurement and
characterization of power plant and other
source eff1uents .
DESCRIPTION OF WORK
To meet the project objectives, five
tasks have been identified where additional
funding would both complement the NASA
research programs and meet specific needs
of EPA. A description of each task is
given below.
Task 1
Raman Lidar
The objective of this task is to
evaluate Raman lidar for remote measurement
of the concentration of SOo at a powerplant
stack exit. Raman optical radar systems
have been developed at NASA and successful-
ly applied in the measurement of water
vapor and density profiles in the Earth's
atmosphere (ref. 1). More recently, field
tests have been conducted wherein the
Raman technique was used to detect S02 in
powerplant stack plumes (ref. 2); however,
quantitative measurements of S02 require
additional modifications and calibration
of the lidar system. The necessary system
modifications and calibrations have been
done under this task. The modifications
include reassembly of the lidar system
used in reference 2 using a more compact
telescope, improvements to the detection
and data acquisition systems, and reform-
ulation of data analysis programs (ref. 3).
All modifications have been completed and
a photograph of the modified system is
shown in figure 1. Also, a calibration
facility was constructed to calibrate the
Raman lidar system for SOo and other gases.
A schematic and photograph" of this facility
are shown in figures 2 and 3, respectively.
The 2-meter diameter, 20-meter long cali-
bration tank is charged with the calibra-
tion gas which is mixed with air in the
tank to a known concentration. Raman lidar
measurements are then made through a known
volume and concentration of calibration
gas. Calibration of the lidar system for
S02 has been completed and the results
reported in reference 3. These results
show that, at a range of 300 meters and
night background light levels, the Raman
lidar system can measure S02 concentrations
of 1,000 ppm to within 10% with a 30-minute
measurement time.
Task 2 Plume Dispersion Studies
The objective of this task is to apply
aerosol scattering lidar techniques to the
study of plume dispersion under various
atmospheric conditions. NASA has developed
lidar techniques for atmospheric measure-
ments and for dispersion studies of plumes
from rocket launches (ref. 4). EPA has
developed plume dispersion analytical
-------
62
models to be used in studies relative to
siting fossil fuel powerplants and lidar
techniques can assist in the experimental
validation of these models. Under this
task, a NASA lidar system suitable for
plume dispersion measurements will be
assembled on a mobile platform. (See
fig. 4) With this system, the laser back-
scatter from particles in the plume will
be recorded and displayed to show three-
dimensional profiles of the return signal.
By averaging the returns over various time
scales, the instantaneous and Gaussian
aerosol profiles of the plume can be
determined as a function of downwind range
from the stack. After system checkout and
calibration, the system will be used in a
joint EPA/NASA field test to study power-
plant plume dispersion under various
atmospheric conditions and experimental
results will be compared to model predic-
tions. This task was originally scheduled
for completion in October 1976; however,
it appears that budget constraints will
delay completion until late 1977'.
Task 3 - IR DIAL
The objective of this task is to
develop and apply the tunable infrared
(IR) differential absorption lidar (DIAL)
technique to the remote measurement of
molecular plume effluents. A large number
of molecules have absorption lines in the
infrared portion of the spectrum. Also,
the differential absorption technique,
in which a sequentia-1 measurement is made
first on an absorption line and then at a
nearby wavelength off the absorption line
(see fig. 5), can provide range-resolved
data for particular gases. Thus, the IR
DIAL technique has the potential for pro-
viding range-resolved concentrations for a
wide variety of pollutant species. The
tunable IR laser system will be calibrated
using the calibration 'System described
in task 1 and evaluated in joint EPA/NASA
field tests at powerolant plumes selected
by EPA. This is a four year developmental
task with an initial evaluation and
decision point occurring in May 1977.
Task 4 - Laser Heterodyne Detector
The objective of this task is to
evaluate the use of the laser heterodyne
detector technique as a means to increase
the sensitivity of long path continuous
wave absorption measurements using diffuse
reflectors. Optical heterodyne techniques
have been developed by NASA and success-
fully applied in solar radiometry and
laser communications (refs. 5 and 6).
More recently., optical heterodyne
techniques have been studied by NASA for
atmospheric pollution monitoring from
aircraft and satellites in both active and
passive modes. These studies show that the
use of laser heterodyne detection offers
advantages,of high spectral resolution,
high sensitivity, reduced interference from
other pollutants or atmospheric constituents
and vertical resolution of pollutant species
(ref. 7). EPA has developed long path
(approx. 600 meters) laser pollution moni-
toring systems which utilize mirrored
reflectors and direct detection of the
reflected signal. These systems could have
wider application if diffuse reflectors
such as mountains or buildings could be used
in place of retroref1ectors . However, when
diffuse reflectors are used in existing
systems, the weaker return signal coupled
with the relatively low sensitivity of the
detector degrades system performance to
unacceptable levels. The use of a laser
heterodyne detector in the long path laser
monitoring system with diffuse reflectors
shows promise of improving performance to
levels equal to or better than for a system
with mirrored retroreflectors. The purpose
of this task is to evaluate the use of a
laser heterodyne detector in systems of this
type. The evaluation will consist of
theoretical studies and laboratory and/or
field tests with a NASA-developed laser
heterodyne detector such as that shown in
figure 6. This task is scheduled for
completion in Seotember 1976.
Task 5 - HC1 Monitor
The objective of this task is to
develop and deliver to EPA an improved
in situ HC1 chemi1uminescent monitor
evaluated at concentrations as low as 5 opb
HC1 in ambient and polluted air. In support
of its. launch vehicle monitoring program,
NASA has develooed a chemi1uminescent HC1
monitor which can detect HC1 concentrations
from 50 ppb to 100 ppm. A photograph of
this monitor in the field is shown in
figure 7 and the instrument is described in
reference 8. In October 1974, at EPA's
request, NASA used this instrument in the
Gulf of Mexico to monitor HC1 concentrations
downwind of an incinerator ship burning
chlorinated hydrocarbon waste (ref. 9).
Based on the performance of the instrument
in measuring. HC1 concentrations in a
combustion plume, EPA felt that, with some
refinements, the instrument could provide
a much needed technique for measuring
ambient HC1 levels (>5 ppb). The necessary
refinements are being conducted under this
task, which is scheduled to be completed in
December 1976. At that time, an improved
instrument will be delivered to EPA along
with a technical report containing a
description of instrument characteristics
and an evaluation of the instrument per-
formance at HC1 concentrations as low as
5 ppb.
-------
63
WESTERN ENERGY RELATED OVERHEAD MONITORING
INTRODUCTION
Our most abundant domestic fossil fuel
is coal, and much of it occurs at depths
where it can be mined by surface methods.
Surface mining destroys existing natural
communities completely and dramatically.
Indeed, restoration of a landscape disturbed
by surface mining in the sense of recreating
the former conditions is not possible.
Nevertheless, rising energy consumption,
coupled with increasing difficulty in
securing adequate supplies of natural gas
and low sulphur crude oil, is focusing
attention on coal.
The controversy over surface mining has
been centered mainly in the eastern
United States, but now it is shifting to
the American West. Unfortunately, the
methods of rehabilitating mined areas in
Appalachia, Europe, and other humid
environments are not directly transferable
to the arid and semi-arid West. Approxi-
mately 57% of our remaining coal reserves
lie in the West, about one-quarter of
which can be mined by surface methods.
The coal lands of the Western United
States are quite different from others in
the nation. They occur primarily in
sparsely populated, mostly arid environ-
ments. Annual mean precipitation is low,
ranging from four inches (100 mm) or less
in some of the hot deserts to twenty or
more (500 mm) in the higher mountains.
When precipitation does occur, it may come
as high intensity, short duration storms
or as snowfall when plants are dormant.
Extreme fluctuations in both annual and
seasonal temperatures are to be expected.
The ecological process of vegetative
succession, or the orderly process of
community change, is extremely slow under
such arid conditions. Where natural
revegetation of a disturbed site may
develop in five to twenty years on a high
rainfall eastern U. S. site, it may take
decades or longer for natural revegetation
to develop in a desert. Not only should
the condition of the site be evaluated
thoroughtly in advance of any disturbance,
but the consequences, benefits and costs
of the prospective action should also be
evaluated as they relate to both the
potential for rehabilitation and the
broader environmental and societal impacts.
The extent to which any disturbed
landscape can be rehabilitated depends on
many conditions--physical, ecological,
geological, social, economic, and techno-
logical—and on the value people place on
such conditions. Discussion of the problems
of rebuilding disturbed land is further
confused by vague terminology used to
describe the concept of landscape recon-
struction. Therefore, for the purposes of
this document, we define our understanding
of "rehabilitation" to mean that the land
will be returned to a form and productivity
in conformity with a prior land use plan
including a stable ecological state that
does not contribute substantial 1y to
environmental deterioration and is consis-
tent with surrounding aesthetic values
DESCRIPTION OF WORK
The Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) has requested NASA to develop
techniques that would assist in the moni-
toring of energy extraction sites. A
cooperative project, titled Western Energy
Related Overhead Monitoring, was formally
initiated in June 1975. The primary
objective of the Project is to develop
operational remote sensing techniques to
rapidly monitor the success with which an
energy-related extraction site has been,
or is being, rehabilitated to a state
suitable for its intended usage. This
includes the determination of environmental
baselines for the purpose of establishing
rehabilitation criteria as well as environ-
mental effects of mine mouth power plants.
Because of the large amount of area and
total number of sites to be monitored, an
automated and quantitative analytical
procedure is desired. Aircraft and
satellite multispectral data collection and
processing techniques appear to be the most
promising approach for the near-term future.
The hardware and software techniques for
processing remote sensing data would be
transferred from NASA to EPA throughout the
five-year project. Both presently avail-
able hardware and software techniques and
those developed during the course of the
project would be transferred. This would
allow the EPA to establish and man a fully
operational energy-related overhead
monitoring system and to make maximum
utilization of their present aircraft
capability while developing the processing
facilities and personnel skills required to
make further utilization of remote data
acquired by satellite. Although maximum
use would be made of present LANDSAT
capability, Landsat resolution mav not be
adequate. However, it is anticipated that
the 30-40 meter resolution to be provided
by future satellites in the 1978 to 1980
time period may be adequate for monitoring
energy activity. The capability for
-------
64
processing these data has been initiated
using simulated 30 meter data acquired
from ai rcraft.
Initially the program will concentrate
on the development of aerial remote
sensor techniques to monitor environmental
factors of coal extraction and rehabilita-
tion. It is anticipated that roughly 50%
of the total effort will be to monitor
these activities in the Northern Great
Plains, Utah, Colorado, and Arizona. Sites
of planned activity (e.g., within two
years) and active sites will be included.
Consideration of environmental impact on
surface and near-surface water, soil
condition and slopes, subsidence manifes-
tation, vegetation density and speciat ion
and other rehabilitation aspects will be
included.
It is projected that approximately
30% of the program scope will be dedicated
to monitoring environmental impact from
mine mouth fossil fuel power plants. Both
on-line and planned development sites will
be monitored. In addition to activity in
the Northern Great Plains, sites in Utah,
Colorado, Four Corners, Arizona and Nevada
will be considered. Specific parameters
of environmental concern are impacts on
surrounding vegetation vigor and density
(e.g., from particulate and SO? emissions),
and degradation of synootic visibility.
It is projected also that approximately
15-20% of the work will relate to problems
associated with oil shale extraction,
conversion and rehabilitation. Monitoring
the extent of environmental impact
associated with accumulation of spent shale
and potential related surface run-off into
the drainage system will be considered.
Fugitive dust from spent shale may be of
concern depending on the effectiveness of
revegetation efforts. Most of the initial
coverage will be of undeveloped potential
oil shale sites. Monitoring will continue
as extraction and rehabilitation activities
proceed.
A minor effort will be made to develop
monitoring techniques applicable to the
development of geothermal prospects:
The project will be conducted in three
phases, as shown in Fig. 8. The initial
data acquisition activity deals with
technique development associated with on-
line coal surface mining sites. Such
sites were chosen because of mine activity
being of most immediate concern to EPA
and because of other ongoing complementary
ground investigations. The fourteen coal
surface mining sites selected by EPA on
this basis are presented in Fig". ?.
Following the final definition of
system'parameters, a large scale demon-
stration will be conducted. Hardware for
a low-cost data system has been specified,
and low-cost system hardware is being
procured and transferred to EPA along with
the aopropriate software. Throughout the
project, NASA and EPA personnel will
cooperate in all phases of data acquisition,
processing, analysis and evaluation. All
phases of the project w-i 1 1 be documented.
EPA will be responsible for determining
ing whether or not to initiate an EPA
operational system at the end of Phase 2
of the project.
EPA is responsible also for providing
and coordinating the ground measurements
of site- or activity-specific terrain
parameters which, when remotely measured,
will provide the basis for determining
quantitative environmental impact assess-
ment. Examples of these key parameters
of features include surface contours,
vegetative density, vigor and types,
subsidence features, synoptic visibility,
etc.
The present status of the project is
as follows. Aircraft data have been
acquired during the 1975 green peak in
July at altitudes of 1, 3, 6, 12 and 60
thousand feet on fourteen surface mine sites
Airborne terrain profiler data was acquired
at 1 and 3 thousand feet to measure surface
slope an'd roughness while mul ti spectral
scanner data was acquired at 3 through 12
thousand feet. Photograohic data was
acquired at all altitudes. One strip mine
'site, Amax Coal Company in Campbell County,
Wyoming was selected for initial data
processing because it was representative of
the other sites, data quality was good from
all altitudes, and because extensive sur-
face data was available at this site.
A preliminary classification of
surface materials was prepared using the
multispectral scanner data from 12
thousand feet and spectral pattern recog-
nition processing techniques. The results
showed large areas of uncl assified material s
indicating inadequate initial training of
the pattern recognition programs and a
greate'r separability, of soils and natural
vegetation at this 10 meter resolution
than originally anticipated. Additional
training samples were selected and the data
reclassified. The classification has been greatly
-------
65
improved and the improved separability of
two key parameters, natural vegetation and
soils, is encouraging with respect to
higher altitude monitoring. As the 12
thousand foot data is refined, processing
has started on the 3 thousand foot data
and the 12 thousand foot data has been
degraded to 30 meter resolution to deter-
mine the effects of resolution on monitoring
capabi1i ty.
With regard to hardware,, all processing
equipment for the EPA low-cost data system
has been ordered and is scheduled for
delivery in February 1976. The system
should be operational in late March 1976
allowing the commencement of data proces-
sing on all remaining data from July 1975.
In addition to the aircraft data, some
cloud-free Landsat data have been located
over the surface mine sites in the July
1975 time frame and will be processed to
determine utility in monitoring sites at
80 meter resolution.
REFERENCES
1. McCormick, M. P.; and: Fuller, W. H.,
Jr.: Lidar Applications to Pollution
Studies. Joint Conference on Sensing
of Environmental Pollutants, Palo
Alto, California, November 8-10, 1971.
2. Melfi, S. H.; Brumfield, M. L.; and
Storey, R. W., Jr.: Observation of
Raman Scattering by SO in a Generat-
ing Plant Stack Plume. Applied
Physics Letters, vol. 22, no. 8,
April 1973, pp. 402-403.
3. Poultney, S. K.; Brumfield, M. L.;
and Siviter, J. S.: A Theoretical/
Experimental Program to Develop
Active Optical Pollution Sensors:
Quantitative Remote Raman Lidar
Measurements of Pollutants from
Stationary Sources. Technical Report
PGS-TR-PH-75-12, Old Dominion
University Research Foundation,
October 1975.
4. McCormick, M. Patrick; Melfi, S. Harvey;
Olsson, Lars E.; Tuft, Wesley L.;
Elliott, William,?.; and Egami , Richard:
Mixing-Height Measurements by Lidar,
Particle Counter, and Rawinsonde in the
Willamette Valley, Oregon. NASA
TN D-7103, December 1972.
5. McElroy, J. H.: Infrared Heterodyne
Solar Radiometry. Applied Optics,
vol . 11 , July 1972, pp. 1619-1622.
6. Peyton, B. J., et al.: High Sensi-
tivity Receiver for Infrared Laser
Communication. IEEE Journal of
Quantum Electronics, QE-8, February
1972, pp. 252-263.
7. Allario, Frank; Seals, R. K., Jr.;
Brockman, Philip; and Hess, R. V.:
Tunable Semiconductor Lasers and
Their Application of Environmental
Sensing. 10th Anniversary Meeting of
the Society of Engineering Science,
November 5-7, 1973.
8. Gregory. Gerald L; Hudgins, Charles H.
and Emerson, Burt R., Jr.: Evaluation
of a Chemi1uminescent Hydrogen
Chloride and a NDIR Carbon Monoxide
Detector for Environmental Monitoring.
1974 JANAF Propulsion Meeting,
October 22-24. 1974.
9. Wastler, T. A.; Offutt, Carolyn K.;
Fitzsimmons, Charles K.: and Des
Rosiers, Paul E.; Disposal of
Organochlorine Wasters by Incineration
at Sea. EPA Report EPA-430/9-75-014 ,
July 1975.
10. After "Rehabilitation Potential of
Western Coal Lands" by National
.Academy of Sciences, 1974; and
"Rehabilitation Potentials and
Limitations of Surface-Mines Land in
the Northern Great Plains" by USDA
Forest Service, 1974
-------
66
Figure 1. - Photograph of Raman lidar system.
Figure U.- Photograph of plume dispersion lidar system.
Figure 2. - Schematic of lidar calibration facility.
LIDtR CALIBRATION CHAMBER
Figure 5. - Differential absorption lidar concept.
RECEIVER LASER
Photograph of lidar calibration facility.
I
-------
67
Figure 6. - Photograph of laser heterodyne detector. Figure 7. -
PACKAGED INFRARED HETERODYNE RADIOMETER
ELECTRONICS SKJNAL/LO COMBINER
BUACRBWT
LOCAL OSCILLATOR LASER
MOUNTING PLATFORM
Photograph of hydrogen chloride
monitor in the field.
1.8"
Hydrogen Chloride Monitor
Figure 8
WESTERN ENERGY RELATED OVERHEAD MONITORING PROJECT
5 YEAR PROJECT TASK SUMMARY
PHASE 1
MONITORING TECHNIQUE DEVELOPMENT
July 75 - Dec 76
PHASE 2
MAJOR DEMONSTRATION
Jan 77 - July 78
PHASE 3
OPERATIONAL IMPLEMENTATION
• and NEW TECHNIQUE TRANSFER
July 78 - July 80
STRIP MINE RELATED
« inventory all selected sites
o Verify/evaluate existing techniques
(LANDSAT, A/C data with ADP)
o Compare capability to low altitude
A/C data
o Evaluate accuracy/cost
o Develop/document new techniques
as required
e Define demonstration system and
techniques (hardware/software)
POWER PLANT RELATED
o Evaluate capability to determine
vegetation stress clue to energy-
related processing emissions
OIL SHALE RELATED
o Map oil shale site for pre-
development baseline
GEOTHERMAL RELATED
ALL AREAS OF EMPHASIS
e Extend techniques and system
to all sites
o Total inventory and periodic
monitoring (progress/change)
o Major demonstration of monitoring
capability over a large number of
test sites
e Training of EP\ personnel
o Transfer of known techniques, e.g.
acreage measurement system,
acreage cluingt detection
ALL AREAS OF EMPHASIS
o Software/hardware modifications
o Continuation of training
o
Consultation
(To be determined)
-------
68
Figure 9
Site # EPA Site *
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
7E
IDE
13E/M
15E/M
16E/M
19E/M
21E/M
25E
26E
30E
41B
43B
44A/S
46A/S
Mine
Glen Harold
Indian Head
Savage
Big Sky
Colstrip
Sarpy Creek
Decker Coal
Hyodak
Amax
Dave Johnston
Henry Mountain
Black Mesa
[•Java jo
McKinley
County/State
Oliver/ND
Mercer/ND
Richland/MT
Rosebud/MT
Rosebud/MT
Bigharr/MT
Big Horn/MT
CampbellA'Y
Campbell/WY
Converse/WY
Garfield/LIT
/AR
San Juaii/il.'i
KcKinlsy/NM
Comments
Potential winter synoptic visibility study
Large homogeneous training areas
Good natural mix of training area types
Intensive ground truth activities being conducted
Intensive ground truth activities being conducted
Small site
Good site for ERTS and EOS test
Year to year regeneration study being conducted
-------
69
WATER MEASUREMENT AND MONITORING
IN ENERGY DEVELOPING AREAS
Frederick A. Kilpatrick
U.S. Geological Survey
Reston, Virginia
INTRODUCTION
The U.S. Geological Survey became officially
involved in environmental monitoring in 1902 with
the formation in the agency of the Division of
Hydro-economics. This was 10 years before the
formation of the Public Health Service. During
this early life of the organization emphasis was
placed on stream pollution studies; in fact, as
early as 1911 a report on stream pollution by
Kansas mine water was issued (U.S. Geol. Survey
Water-Supply Paper 273)
Thus the Survey has been active in environmen-
tal monitoring for many years and assistance to
numerous Federal, State, and local agencies is
commonplace. The Survey has always been known as a
research and basic-data-oriented organization based
on a strong in-house capability. While this capab-
ility is often strained, the Survey has been able
to maintain its objective, scientifically-oriented
position as an unbiased agency in water monitoring.
It is the intention to continue this neutrality in
water monitoring as being in the best public
interest.
WATER MONITORING PROGRAM
Long before the energy crisis, the U.S. Geo-
logical Survey operated a rather extensive water
quality, quantity, and sediment monitoring network
in the Rocky Mountains and Northern Great Plains
States where there now is great interest in devel-
opment of major fossil fuel resources. With the
sudden emphasis on investigations in this region,
the Survey, with assistance from the U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency and other agencies, began
promptly to increase the number of monitoring
stations and to upgrade existing stations.
Although expansion of the program emphasizes
regional investigations, site-specific studies of
mine-related problems are also being expanded else-
where in the belief that much can be learned from
past experience, and that coal production in exist-
ing mining areas will also expand to meet
anticipated needs. Thus the scope of the monitor-
ing program that will be described is nationwide,
but is confined to that part financed by the EPA.
WATER MONITORING INSTRUMENTATION DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM
The development of fossil fuel resources in the
arid and semi-arid lands of the West has placed
increased strain on available measuring techniques
and equipment for monitoring water quality, quan-
tity, and sediment. Indeed, there is probably no
more difficult an area in which to accurately
measure the various parameters involved in assess-
ing the impacts of mining and related industries.
Research to support the monitoring program is con-
cerned with the development of instrumentation for
sampling, measuring, and/or monitoring water pollu-
tants and sediments associated with energy-related
developments, especially petrochemicals, toxic
substances and sediment, and sediment-laden flows.
PROGRAM DISCUSSION
1. Water Monitoring Instrumentation Development
Research in this program is aimed at improve-
ment and/or development in essentially five areas
of need in water measurement and monitoring. The
objective of each along with progress to date are
discussed below.
a. Development of Methods for Characterizing
and Monitoring Levels of Chronic Toxicity
Standard methods for characterizing and mon-
itoring toxic substances at sub-lethal concentra-
tions in aquatic ecosystems have not yet been
established. Field data (and data from experimental
streams) on effects of continuing low concentrations
of toxicants on composition and productivity of
aquatic ecosystems, are largely lacking. The
general objective of this investigation is to
determine, through detailed studies of organisms,
simplified models of ecosystems and natural sites,
the extent to which trace contaminants (especially
trace metals) in different aquatic environments are
available for biological uptake, influence the
production and structure of plant assemblages,
affect the growth and production of animals, and
thus determine the trophic relationships and
composition of aquatic communities.
Critical reviews have been conducted of the
published literature and an analysis made of
experiences of other research workers with proce-
dures for measuring effects on aquatic organisms
and aquatic ecosystems of chronic exposures to
trace contaminants. Responses to many inorganic
and organic toxicants have been considered but
emphasis has been placed on substances released to
the environment as a consequence of fuel extraction
and combustion.
-------
70
Assessment of the relative availabilities of
Ag, Cd, Co, and Zn from six different physicochem-
ical forms of bound metal have been completed. It
was shown that uptake of sediment-bound metals is
less rapid than uptake of solute metals. The rates
of uptake of the former may vary as much as three
orders of magnitude among sediment types for a
given metal. Combinations of certain chemical
extractions appear to be useful in allowing predic-
tion of relative biological availability from
sediments. Attempts to verify these predictive
techniques using field data are in progress.
b. Development of Instrumentation for High-
Volume Analysis of Petrochemical and
Associated Compounds
The objective of this study is to develop
guidelines in choosing equipment, analytical
methods, and data processing ware for automation to
accomplish the high volume analysis of petrochem-
icals and associated compounds. Initial efforts
have been directed at computer automation of gas
chromotography equipment and gas chromotography-
mass spectrography equipment.
c. Development of an In-Situ Suspended Solids
Sensor
The objective of this research is to develop
an in-situ instrumentation system capable of
measuring the mass concentration of sediment in
water. Following laboratory tests of one or more
commercially available sensors, and the design of
an automatic data logging system, a complete pack-
age of components will be tested in the laboratory
and eventually in the field. Although the equip-
ment survey is only partially complete, a Dynatrol
density gage has been selected for laboratory tests.
This is a flow-through device with an electrical
output signal. Signal frequency is a function of
fluid density that, in turn, is a function of
sediment concentration. Tests have been performed
on a -variety of sediments that include glass beads,
blasting sand, and soil samples. At low sediment
concentrations, random errors become significant.
For concentrations between 100 and 500 mg/litre,
random errors are approximately + 150 mg/litre.
For concentrations exceeding 500 mg/litre, concen-
tration can be determined within approximately +
15% of the true value. The dynamic range exceeds
two log cycles. Concentration as high as 130,000
mg/1 have been tested with no significant departure
from a linear response.
Alternate methods of data storage and trans-
mission are being studied. Data may be stored or
recorded at the site by using a cassette tape
recorder or a strip chart recorder. Transmission
by telephone or even a satellite are other possibil-
ities .
d. Development of Bedldad Samplers for
Measuring Stream Sediment
Expansion of mining for accelerated energy
development has the threat of increased erosion and
delivery of sediment to existing stream channels.
Much of the sediment will be transported as bedload.
In order to assess effects of sedimentation on water
quality and stream ecology, and to plan remedial
measures, it is essential to quantify bedload trans-
port by actual measurements. At the present time,
no existing samplers are completely satisfactory
for measuring bedload transport. The objective of
this investigation is to develop an acceptable
sampler(s) for measuring the discharge of bedload
particles that range in size from about 2 to 64
millimetres.
The sampler testing and calibration program
will be carried out at the University of Minnesota's
St. Anthony Falls Hydraulic Laboratory in a flume 9
feet wide, 6 feet deep, and about 250 feet long with
a discharge capacity of 300 cubic feet per second.
With this flume, hydraulic variables can be adjusted
to produce bedload transport rates of up to at least
3 pounds per second per foot of width across the
full 9-foot width and with depths of at least 3 feet
Samplers to be tested initially are being construct-
ed. One of the samplers of primary interest is the
Helley-Smith sampler, which is a pressure-differ-
ence-type sampler that has been used recently by
several investigators.
e. Development of Flumes and Weirs for
Measuring Sediment-Laden Stream Flows
The measurement of sediment concentration alone
does not adequately measure total sediment dis-
charge; along with the measurement of sediment
concentration must be the measurement of water dis- •
charge. Because of the unstable nature of natural
channels and the flashiness of runoff events in the
arid and semi-arid regions of the West, new and/or
improved flow measurement devices and techniques
are needed. The objective is to develop and field
test flumes, weirs, and other types of control
structures particularly suitable for measuring sedi-
ment and debris-laden flows.
To date two experimental weirs have been
installed on the Belle Fourche River in Wyoming; two
are planned for the Piceance Creek in Colorado; five
are planned for various streams in the Uinta Basin
of Utah; and two experimental pre-calibrated
-------
71
measuring flumes have been installed on a tributary
of the North Fork of the Kentucky River, Kentucky.
The suitability of these experimental devices will
be determined in use.
2. Water Monitoring Program
The USGS-EPA program in water monitoring can
be divided into programs covering the Northern
Great Plains and Rocky Mountains States, the area
of greatest immediate concern; and site-specific
studies that are being conducted elsewhere in the
Western and Eastern sections of the country in coal
fields with long histories of operation. These
monitoring programs are concerned with the measure-
ment of a complete suite of parameters in both
ground-water and surface-water regimes. The prin-
cipal purpose in all areas of the monitoring
program is to provide the baseline data coverage
necessary to assess any changes that may occur as a.
result of energy industry development. The monitor-
ing program will be discussed as pertinent to each
region and regime.
a. Surface-Water Monitoring in the Northern
Great Plains and Rocky Mountains States
The surface water monitoring program in the
Rocky Mountains and Northern Great Plains States
both supplements and complements on-going work of
the Water Resources Division of the U.S. Geological
Survey in these States. The water quality monitor-
ing stations on the tributaries of the Colorado
River draining the oil shale regions of Colorado
have been increased in number and the suite of
analyses being performed broadened. In the oil
shale region of Utah the suite of parameters has
been broadened and includes biological coverage.
The number of monitoring stations and the
suite of parameters being acquired have been aug-
mented in the coal regions of the Yampa, Yellow-
stone, and Tongue Rivers, the Upper Missouri River
tributaries, and tributaries of the Green River
draining eastern Utah and Wyoming.
Table 1 summarizes the location and frequency
of sampling at 47 stream sites in the Northern
Great Plains and Rocky Mountains States. This
table also shows the types of analyses being per-
formed starting in August 1975. No attempt will be
made to discuss results at this early date.
b. Ground-Water Monitoring in the Northern
Great Plains and Rocky Mountains States
The ground-water monitoring program in the oil
shale regions focuses on the collection of geochem-
ical data in the Piceance Creek Basin of Colorado
and the Uinta Basin of Utah. Beside the use as a
baseline against which any future impacts may be
assessed,these data are also required to help
calibrate models that can be used to predict the
impact of oil shale extraction, waste disposal, and
water storage reservoirs on the ground-water
systems.
Ground-water studies in the coal regions of
Colorado, Wyoming, Utah, Montana, and North Dakota
are principally aimed at obtaining geohydrologic,
geochemical, and physical data describing the
ground-water systems in order to facilitate the
prediction of potential mining impacts. As with
the oil shale monitoring, the data will also provide
a basis for assessing future impacts.
Table 2 summarizes the parameters being
analyzed. The data collection period is too brief
to warrant meaningful discussion of results at this
time.
c. Surface-Water and Ground-Water Monitoring
in the Western and Eastern United States
While emphasis has been placed on the effects of
developing the energy resources of the Rocky
Mountains and Northern Great Plains States, the
environmental impacts of increased coal mining must
be expected in most of the United States. In dis-
tricts with long operational histories much can be
learned by assessing the impacts on hydrologic
systems. Moreover, there is a Federal obligation
to acquire baseline data in on-going mining areas
where new mining is imminent as a basis for ration-
al decision-making at the National level.
The following seven EPA-supported projects are
part of the comprehensive surface-water/ground-
water monitoring and hydrologic assessment program
taking place at actual and potential mining sites
in the Western and Eastern areas of the country:
1. Black Mesa Area, Arizona -- Effect of Strip
Mining on the Hydrology of Small Watersheds
2. The Centralia Mine, Washington -- Coal
Strip Mining, Land Reclamation, and Water
Quality Monitoring Practices
3. New River Basin, Tennessee -- Assessment of
the Hydrologic Effects of Strip Mining
4. Wabash River in Indiana — A Reconnaissance
of the Effects of Strip Mining and
Reclamation
5. Southeastern Ohio — Characterization of
Mine Drainage
-------
72
6. Illinois — Characterization of Mine
Drainage
7. Alaska — A Preplanning Study of the Hydro-
logic Effects of Development of Alaska's
Coal Resources
The first four studies are' site-specific,
investigating the impacts of existing or impending
localized mining.
The Black Mesa Study involves the hydrologic
modeling of three small watersheds in northeastern
Arizona prior to mining; to be followed by monitor-
ing of conditions throughout the period of mining
and rehabilitation.
The Centralia Mine Study is an assessment of
an existing mining and reclamation project where
practices appear to conform to most of the regula-
tions proposed in the strip mine legislation now
before Congress.
The New River Study focuses on the assessment
of water quality throughout a basin where there is
extensive strip mining and in the determination of
downstream changes in sediment load and associated
metals.
The study in the lower headwaters of the
Wabash River in southwest Indiana is concerned with
monitoring pre to post mining water quality changes
in a hydrologic system adjacent to an area to be
mined.
The studies in Ohio and Illinois are reconnais-
sance level evaluations of the occurrence and
distribution of basic inorganic and organic constit-
uents in surface and ground waters in the coal
mining regions of the two States. These studies
will relate'water quality to basin characteristics
and make the -data available to those seeking a
solution to water degradation in mined areas.
The Alaska study will evaluate the probable
hydrologic effects and establish the kinds of
hydrologic data needed to asses the environmental
impact of coal mining operations in Alaska. It
will outline the most likely areas for development
of mining operations and anticipated hydrologic
problems peculiar to those areas.
Time and space do not permit more elaboration
on these studies as each is worthy of -a report and
will be reported on as progress warrants.
FY 75
USGS EPA
0.242 0.565
0.197 0.199
0.783 0.179
FY 76
USGS EPA
0.250 0.380
0.240 0.175
0.850 0.125
RESOURCE ALLOCATION
A breakdown of the funding by the EPA and the
U.S. Geological Survey for ground-water and surface-
water monitoring and the related instrumentation
development projects in which the two agencies are
cooperating is as follows:
($ x 106)
Instrumentation Dev..
Monitoring: Rocky Mts
S N. Great Plains
SW
GW 0.783
Monitoring: West S
East United States
SW & GW .... 0.127 0.295 0.150 0.309
It should be noted that U.S. Geological Survey
funds listed are just for those programs discussed
in this report and comprise only a small part of
the Survey's total energy-related program.
CONCLUSIONS
The U.S. Geological Survey, with the financial
assistance of the Environmental Protection Agency,
has well underway comprehensive nationwide programs
to monitor surface-water and ground-water regimes
in new as well as long established coal fields and
oil shale mining areas. While emphasis is placed
on the rapidly developing Rocky Mountains and
Northern Great Plains States, other studies in
which EPA is cooperating are looking at the impacts
being experienced in existing coal mining areas
nationwide. In addition, a program of instrumenta-
tion development is focusing on upgrading capabil-
ities in obtaining accurate data so that better
assessments can be made.
These programs have been in progress only a
relatively short time. Coal mining, reclamation,
and the conversion and utilization of our fossil
fuels in their many forms, as well as the ensuing
impacts will be with us ad infinitum, so our efforts
to monitor, assess, and live with this industry in
an environmentally acceptable manner must be looked
upon as a long-range effort.
-------
73
Surface-rater monitoring sites
of the Northern Great Plains and
Rocky Mountains States
Stream site
COLORADO
Yanpa R. downatr from Yampa Project
Williams Fork R. nr Hamilton
White R. below Meeker
White R. above Rangely
Utgan Wash at mouth
MONTANA
Yellowstone R. at Myers
Tongue R. below Hanging Woman Cr .
Yellowstone R. near Terry
Yellowstone R. at Laurel
Yellowstone R. near Sidney
NORTH DAKOTA
Spring Cr . at Zap
Knife R. nr Hagen
Missouri R. at Schmidt
UTAH
Duchesne R. nr Randlett
Price R. at Woodside
WYOMING
Little Powder R. at State line
Stream site
Haras Fork below Kemmerer
Big Sandy below Eden
Twin Cr. at Sage
Tongue R. at Monarch
Powder R. at State line (Moorhead)
Tongue R, near Dayton
Tongue R. at State line
Clear Cr . near Arvada
Belle Fourche R. at Devils Tower
M=Monthly
j
I
3 -
II
3
1 i
Q
C
e
Q
Q
,-1
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
•H
1
U
H
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
H
H
I/
M
M
M
Treq
B
S
3
z
H
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
H
H
H
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
uency of
•^
1
Q
Q
B
fi
M
M
M
H
Q
a
Q
e
c
B
B
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
H
M
Q
0
Q
B
0
r-l
E
fi
5
Q
B
B
B
fi
Q
Q
Q
Q
fi
fi
B
fi
fi
fi
fi
B
fi
0
e
c
fi
c
Q
fi
8
fi
Q
obs
">.
I
M
M
H
M
H
H
M
M
M
H
M
M
H
M
M
M
H
M
erva
c
E
1
•8
1
O,
1
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
H
M
H
H
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
tion
>.
•D
J3
g
M
H
M
M
M
M
H
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
H
M
M
M
M
H
H
M
M
Q=Ouarterly
S
1
Q,
>,
£
M
H
M
Q
Q
Q
Q
M
M
M
H
H
M
M
M
H
M
§
£•
%
1H
Q
fi
0
C
Q
fi
1
fi
fi
C
Q
e
fi
B
Q
5
B
a
I
H
H
M
H
M
M
M
M
M
M
J
tu
I/
I/
I/
I/
I/
I/
I/
I/
I/
I/
I/
I/
I/
I/
I/
I/
y
i/
y
i/
i/
i/
i/
i/
i/
y
H
M
y
M
M^Mont ily Q=Quarterly
'e a
fi o
i
s
e
T3
M
M
M
M
M
2/
2/
?/
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
j:
M
M
!_/
M
H
I/
I/
I/
JY
M
M
£
M
M
M
;i
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
:i
•s
P'
C
C
Q
Q
p
Q
' Q
V
2
0
fi
c
0
B
B
fi
fi
Q
fi
~~
Tl
8
M
M
M
M
M
H
M
M
M
M
M
E
1
Ti
1
d
V
I/
y
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
1
M
M
H
M
M
M
I/
I/
M
M
§
0
s;
H
M
0
£
o
Q
Q
I
0
M
M
M
M
M
I/
I/
f>
S
M
M
I/
M
I/
I/
I/
I/
I/
I/
I/
I/
I/
Table 2 Parameters to be analyzed on selected ground-water samples
in the coal and oil shale regions of the Rocky Mountains
and Northern Great Plains
and alkalinity.
Chemical - calci
carbonate, chloride, sulfate, dissolved solids (calculated), and boron.
Mo, Hi, Se, V, and Zrt) .
1• Dissolved Solids 25.
2. Alkalinity 26.
3. Dissolved Silica 27.
4. Dissolved Aluminum 28.
5, Dissolved Iron 29.
6. Dissolved Manganese 30 .
7. Dissolved Calcium 31.
8. Dissolved Magnesium 32.
9. Dissolved Sodium 33 .
10. Dissolved Potassium 34.
11. Bicarbonate 35.
12. Carbonate 36.
13. Dissolved Sulfate 37.
14. Dissolved Chloride 38.
15. Dissolved Fluoride 39.
16. Dissolved Bromide 40.
17. Dissolved Nitrite and Nitrate 41.
18. Dissolved Ortho-Phosphorus 42.
19. Dissolved Barium 43 .
20. Dissolved Boron 44 .
21. Dissolved Lead 45.
22. Dissolved Lithium
^3. Dissolved Molybdenum 46.
24. Dissolved Selenium 47.
Total Strontium
PH
Carbon Dioxide
Dissolved Arsenic
Dissolved Copper
Dissolved Cadmium
Dissolved Mercury
Dissolved Zinc
Dissolved Oxygen
Specific Conductance
Suspended Solids or Sediment
Beryllium
Chronium
Nickel
Vandium
Radioactivity (a & y)
Turbidity
Dissolved Organic Carbon
Radon
Coliform, Fecal and Total
Micro-and Macro Invertebrate
Analysis
Phytoplankton
Periphyton
y Specific conductance, pH,
programs.
and dissolved i
-------
74
DISCUSSIONS TO MEASUREMENT AND MONITORING SESSION
Question: Does NOAA plan to implement a measuring or monitoring program to advance the State-of-the-
Art with respect to the fate of radionuclides in offshore nuclear power plant ecosystems?
Panel Response: Fate of radionuclides generally is the jurisdiction of ERDA. However, NOAA is
developing an extensive program to monitor pollutants in the marine environment. Current programs in-
clude building instrumentation for a more efficient monitoring system for underway vessels or from
single point source location such as oil rigs. These facilities when constructed and operational could
be utilized to monitor offshore nuclear power plants.
Question: What are the USGS's plans for developing monitoring and instrumentation equipment neces-
sary for these systems to determine chronic effects in groundwater systems from pollutants released to or
impact with the ground?
Panel Response: It is actually a system package of available instrumentalonal methods that is be-
ing synthesized. As far as is known, there is no actual new instrumentational hardware being produced
to provide this physiological approach.
Question: What techniques are used to monitor either thermal or chemical pollutants in groundwater?
Panel Response: As stated previously, groundwater monitoring programs utilize existing or modified
instrumentation or techniques. First, the pollutant is characterized with time and exposure to the ele-
ments. Its transport to the groundwater is then determined. Then the method for monitoring is evaluated
and tested.
Question: Are the current methods that are under development for aerosol characterization adequate
for interpretation for health effect studies?
Panel Response: The National Bureau of Standards and the University of Minnesota have a cooperative
project to develop a real time sulfur particulate analyzer which is fundamentally based on the iron
mobility analyzer and which uses photometry as a detection element. Considerable amount of work is also
going on at RTF to look at particle sizes and distributions and species in various urban atmospheres.
Attempts to use the electron microscope and optical microscopy to identify particles is also being con-
ducted. The use of EPA's lidar system was amplified. It is used only to determine the height of the
inversion layer and where the particulates are located; it has no quantitative capability, however, it
does provide qualitative information very rapidly. Other responses indicated that EPA is also studying
the use of laser photosensing techniques for various crops and pollutants. In addition to the above
panel responses, an EPA representative from the floor indicated that EPA has an extensive R&D program
for measurement which is not funded by energy-related sources such as collecting aerosols, analyzing for
sulfates and sulfuric acid, development of fundamentals of upwind pointing lidar, use of spectrometers,
and active type ozone and CO laser systems.
Question: Wished the TVA panel member to amplify on progress to develop capabilities for sensing
effects of S0£ on vegetation.
Response: TVA is just getting into this particular program and developing its capabilities. During
the past growing season in conjunction with NASA and EPA, TVA used remote sensing imagery to attempt to
evaluate cumulative effects of emissions from one of the TVA's plants. The data is still being evaluated.
Other crop species are to be evaluated in future .programs.
Question: How is the USGS's program on runoff erosion and sediment runoff related to similar pro-
grams by USDA?
Panel Response: The USGS Water Resources Division is actively involved in only two specific areas:
(1) currently mined areas or future areas to be mined, plus, (2) the ongoing USGS widespread monitoring
program covering all the Rocky Mountains Region and the Great Plains Area.
Question: Has any federal agency conducted any programs to determine the emissions of heavy metals,
toxic elements and radionuclides from Western coals used in coal-fired power plants?
Panel Response: TVA is developing a residual output model but the elements that are to be included
in the model are still being considered. Additional panel responses indicated that there appears to be
extensive measurements already available on radionuclides and mercury in Western coal and that ERDA has
an extensive program to determine the extent and fate of various constituents in coal
-------
75
Question: Are there any programs for monitoring and measurement which involve the large-scale analy-
sis of human blood samples to utilize the human being as a means of monitoring for pollutants?
Panel Response: The program that can respond to that question is in the NIOSH exposure monitoring
program that is described in Chapter 4.
-------
CHAPTER 4
EN VI RON MENTAL HEALTH EFFECTS
-------
78
INTRODUCTION
The number and variety of potentially toxic
chemical agents to which occupational groups and
segments of the general population can be exposed as
a result of development of fossil energy conversion
facilities is enormous. There are also many ways in
which these agents may be encountered. This
encounter may take place with gaseous pollutants,
respirable particulates, waste liquids and solids,
or the fuel products themselves.
The effects of pollutants or chemical agents
may be classified as to the nature of their expected
or suspected effect on human health. Such classifi-
cation might reflect the toxic propensity for muta-
genesis, teratogenesis, carcinogenesis or production
of reproductive disorders, behavioral and learning
anomalies, endocrine disfunction, organ toxicity
and metabolic changes. The net result remains a
complex problem of predicting and determining the
identity and mechanism by which energy related
pollutants exert detrimental effect on human health.
This determination is essential to developing the
strategies, technologies and priorities for control
of energy related processes.
Research aimed at the objectives of protecting
occupational and community health are being pursued
by agencies in the energy, environmental and health
fields.
-------
79
Overview of NIOSH Energy Health
Research Program
Kenneth Bridbord
National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health
Rockville, Maryland
INTRODUCTION
It is a pleasure to represent the National
Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
today at this conference and to present an over-
view of our Institute's contribution to a national
research effort relating to the health and
environmental effects of energy technologies.
The program to be described represents primarily
the NIOSH contribution, an approximately $2.5
million annual research effort, in the area of
health effects. This effort is being performed
as part of a special multiagency R&D program
related to energy coordinated by the Environ-
mental Protection Agency. My presentation does
not embrace the full spectrum of energy related
research performed by NIOSH in its base program,
much of which is supported under the Coal Mine
Health and Safety Act. Coal mine health and
safety research is an established NIOSH program
with which I hope many of you are already familiar.
Before joining NIOSH, I served in one of
the EPA research facilities whose mission included
assessing the community health implications related
to energy technologies. From my experience in
both community health and now in occupational
health, it has become increasingly evident that
the occupational and community health problems
associated with energy technologies are real,
are important and are very much related to each
other. The pollutants encountered in the community
are frequently similar chemically to those which
are found in the workplace. Further, the levels
of occupational exposures are usually much greater
than among the general population, making surveil"
lance of working populations a mandatory component
of any system designed for detection of early
effects related to environmental agents.
DISCUSSION
In truth there is a continuum between
occupational and community health. They cannot
be viewed as distinct and separate entities.
Data obtained from studies of workers, for
example, may frequently be relevant to the
community situation and vice versa. This is
particularly true in the case of chronic health
effects attributable at least in part to long
term exposures to chemicals. Such effects are
most easily studied among workers and when
an excess risk among workers is found, we should
assume that a similar but more subtle risk could
occur as a result of community contamination.
There is no doubt in my mind that health
considerations must play a major role in future
policy decisions with respect to expansion of
existing energy facilities and development of
new energy technologies. In the past several
years for example there have been increasing
concerns as to the effects upon health of
exposure to sulfur oxides emitted from-power
plants.
While I was at EPA, I participated in a
multidisciplined effort to assess the health
effects of community exposures to sulfur oxides.
Our studies suggested that sulfur oxide gas per
se may not be the primary health problem but
that sulfur oxides might be converted to aerosols
containing sulfur compounds which are potentially
irritating to the respiratory tract. Studies
related to effects of sulfates upon the respira-
tory tract and other organs are of course
continuing. The data as they presently exist
have, however, allowed policy makers to seriously
consider the health effects of sulfates in making
decisions regarding conversion of oil fired
power plants to coal and In determining the
siting for new power plants.
As we look further into the sulfur oxides
questions we are likely to find that the problem
is more complex than originally anticipated.
Included in these concerns are the possible
interactive effects between acid aerosols and
other workplace and community pollutants including
carcinogens. No doubt a considerable portion
of our effort under the energy program will be
directed to the sulfur oxides problem. In this
regard we should not lose perspective that sulfur
oxides may also pose a hazard in certain occupa-
tional groups as well.
Accordingly our Institute's research plans
call for investigation of public utility and other
workers exposed to sulfur oxides and sulfate
aerosols for possible effects that such exposures
may have upon chronic respiratory disease as well
as mortality. In preliminary studies from our
Salt Lake City laboratory it would Appear that
workers exposed to sulfate aerosols in combination
with nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbon emissions
associated with diesel repair work incur a 2 to
5 fold increased prevalence of chronic respiratory
disease symptoms compared to similar age and
smoking groups among the general population. Use
of diesel engines in underground mining to increase
-------
80
our supplies of coal or to obtain needed raw
materials for use in building new energy facilities,
unless properly controlled, could present an impor-
tant occupational health problem. NIOSH is investi-
gating this situation in its base program.
By analogy to the sulfate problem there has
been relatively little attention given to effects
caused by other acid aerosols including nitric
acid and nitrogen oxides. It has been estimated
that emissions of oxides of nitrogen from stationery
combustion sources contribute substantially to
atmospheric loading by these pollutants. There
is reason to believe that as with sulfur oxides and
sulfates, chemical reactions in the atmosphere will
lead to formation of new nitrogen compounds inclu-
ding new organic complexes. Such compounds have
not been well studied as to their health effects
and may pose an important health problem. Included
in our suspicions related to effects of nitrogen
oxide aerosols are the potential to aggravate
preexisting cardiac and respiratory problems,
possible decreased resistance to infectious agents
and the possible role that such compounds may play
in the development of chronic disease, including
cancer.
Recently concerns have been expressed about
chemical reactions between nitrogen oxides in the
ambient air and amines to form nitrosamine compounds,
a class of potential carcinogens based upon studies
in experimental animals. While to date we have no
documented cases of cancer in man from exposure
to nitrosamines this may conceivably be explained
by lack of adequate studies of such effects.
Among the groups potentially at risk from such
exposures are workers and there are at least
theoretical concerns that nitrosamines could be
an important exposure problem in coal gasifica-
tion and liquefaction plants where simultaneous
emissions of nitrogen oxides and amines are
likely to occur. We also know that hydrazines
are at times employed to control oxygen levels in
coal fired power plants. Hydrazines themselves
may be carcinogenic or may break down to form
nitrosamines and again workers may be among those
most heavily exposed. NIOSH is currently involved
in a preliminary assessment of the hydrazine
situation as part of its energy program and we
are currently exploring ways to select appropriate
working populations exposed to nitrosamines for
long term followup study.
The potential for chemicals to contribute
to the development of chronic disease including
cancer appears to be a major public health
problem and this potential must be addressed in
any health research program related to energy.
The consensus of many experts is that environ-
mental factors play a major role in the etiology
of cancer and that reducing exposures to carcino-
genic chemicals in the workplace and in the
general environment will likely have substantial
public health benefits in the years to come.
Among the carcinogenic substances which
may be related to energy processes are arsenic,
beryllium, cadmium, nickel and chromium among
the metals, vapor phase and particulate .poly-
nuclear aromatic compounds among the organics
and asbestos and related fibers which are used
in insulation materials. If one considers all
the chemicals which have been identified as
suspect carcinogens in animal test systems then
the list of potential energy related carcinogens
increases substantially. Clearly there are many
lessons to be learned from our past experience
including vinyl chloride which was once considered
relatively safe. How many more surprises such as
this are there likely to be in the future?
Particularly in the energy area where the rapid
expansion of existing and new technologies will
impact many people, we need to examine closely
the potential for these processes to cause
adverse health effects before large capital
investments are made.
A good illustration stems from our expe-
riences with coke oven emissions. Here the
evidence of carcinogenic risk, especially for
lung cancer, is substantial. It is noteworthy
that poorly contained coal gasification and/or
liquefaction processes are likely to produce
similar exposures as occur in coking operations.
This is an area that requires significant effort
not only to prevent long term effects in workers
but in the general population as well. A
concerted effort combining epidemiology and
toxicology both In vivo and in vitro is required
to adequately address this problem. With the
development of rapid and increasingly more
reliable in vitro test systems as possible
predictors of carcinogenic activity, one may be
able to selectively prioritize suspicious com-
ponents in complex mixtures related to energy
processes for further investigation. We should
not lose sight of the interactions among chemicals
which may be responsible for the ultimate biologic
effect.
In this regard NIOSH is planning compre-
hensive morbidity and mortality studies of workers
exposed during coal liquefaction and gasification
processes to clarify the possible risk of life
shortening illness and hopefully to identify the
nature of emissions associated with the disease
process. Our Institute's experience with the
complex problems of coke oven emissions should
hopefully prove valuable in such an effort. In
a related area of concern NIOSH is also evaluating
-------
81
the health experience of workers exposed to oil
shale.
No discussion of energy related health
problems would be complete without a considera-
tion of energy conservation including the impact
of such efforts upon-worker health. For example,
expanded requirements for new and existing
insulation materials could mean increased health
problems among workers engaged in the manufacture
of these materials. Accordingly NIOSH has
included a mortality study of workers exposed
to insulation materials in its energy research
program.
Energy conservation in residential and
commercial buildings has been an additional
suggestion to stretch our available energy
resources. However, in our desire to conserve
energy in residential and commercial buildings
we may inadvertently be aggravating an existing
or creating a new indoor air pollution problem.
Recirculation of exhaust air to reduce heating
or cooling of make up air is one conservation
technique being considered. As part of the
energy program, NIOSH is developing criteria
for recirculation systems to eliminate potential
occupational health problems. Decreases in the
air turnover rate can have a major impact upon
the concentration of a given pollutant when there
exists an indoor source for that pollutant.
Among the sources of indoor pollutants
which are particularly worrisome are halo-
genated hydrocarbons from aerosol products and
solvents, nitrogen oxides and carbon monoxide
from gas stoves and space heaters, sidestream
cigarette smoke, hydrocarbon emissions from
cooking, off gas products from plastic materials
and asbestos fibers present in duct work and
other construction uses. Here, too, there
may be important occupational health problems.
Recently available data suggest elevated
concentrations of asbestos inside office
buildings. If air turnover is decreased, this
would potentially increase the level of conta-
mination by asbestos.
Also present in the indoor environment of
commercial buildings is sidestream cigarette
smoke. We know from studies of workers
exposed to asbestos that the risk of lung
cancer is greatly increased among smoking
asbestos workers. The possible health impli-
cations for millions of office workers poten-
tially exposed to asbestos and sidestream
cigatette smoke is unknown but of substantial
concern. NIOSH is currently conducting a
preliminary evaluation of this situation as
part of its energy effort. Another conserva-
tion effort being investigated by NIOSH
involves the possible hazard to workers in
situations where waste materials are used
as supplemental fuels.
Any efforts to reduce ventilation in
industrial situations as a means to conserve
energy must also be considered in conjunction
with the possible ensuing health implications.
Even if such conservation efforts were not to
violate any existing health standard this action
could potentially increase health risk to
employees by increasing exposure to a given
agent, particularly when long term low level
exposure to that agent may be associated
with increased risk of developing chronic
disease.
Before closing, I should also note that
NIOSH is conducting research directed at the
development of countermeasures for the protec-
tion of energy industry workers. The initial
effort in this area has been primarily
directed at commercial divers involved with
offshore oil. In the area of countermeasures,
I should also point out that a considerable
portion of the effort in this national research
program is being directed toward the develop-
ment of control technology to reduce community
exposures to energy associated pollutants.
A portion of that effort should be directed
to develop control techniques for reducing
worker exposure as well.
Additionally, I might mention that NIOSH
is developing various devices to measure and
monitor the occupational environment for energy
industry related pollutants, which will be
described in more detail later at this conference.
I should also add that our Institute is endeavoring
to maintain as flexible a posture as possible so
that we may respond to newly emerging occupational
problems related to energy. In this regard
mechanisms are being worked out to identify and
respond rapidly to new potential energy associated
problems.
CONCLUSIONS
The rationale for NIOSH's energy health
research effort has been presented. Unless the
health and safety of workers in energy related
industries can be assured, this will be an impor-
tant limiting factor in our nation's ability to
achieve energy self-sufficiency.
-------
82
HEALTH EFFECTS RELATED TO EMERGING
ENERGY TECHNOLOGY
John H. Knelson, M.D.
Health Effects Research Laboratory
EPA Research Triangle Park, NC
INTRODUCTION
The energy-related health effects research
program being conducted by EPA in Research Triangle
Park, NC, is primarily oriented to technologic
changes anticipated for the near-future. These
include major conversion from oil and gas to coal
combustion, coal gasification and liquefaction,
shale oil extraction, increased nuclear power produc-
tion, and decreased energy use for transportation.
The Health Effects Research Laboratory in North
Carolina (HERL/RTP) is the major focus of EPA's
resources in epidemiology, clinical research, and
toxicology being used to assess the relative public
health impact of alternate energy-producing technolo-
gies. Research conducted by EPA's Cincinnati Health
Effects Research Laboratory is carefully coordinated
with that of HERL/RTP.
TECHNIQUES
The objective of the administration of HERL/RTP
is to conduct a balanced program of intramural and
extramural research, coordinating work on high
priority EPA problems with the nation's high priority
of energy independence. Thus a significant part of
the HERL/RTP "base" research program under the Office
of Health and Ecological Effects is tailored to
complement that part performed under the aegis of
the Office of Energy, Minerals, and Industry (OEMI).
This research program is organized along disci-
plinary lines, with various categories of pollutants
investigated using many techniques, resulting in a
matrix approach to problem-solving.
The Population Studies Division conducts
community studies by measuring environmental factors
to assess population exposures and relate them to the
health status of those populations. Their energy-
related work is largely oriented toward the relation-
ship between levels of sulfur oxides, nitrogen
oxides, and trace metals to cardio-respiratory
disease experience in populations of various age
groups and special susceptibilities. A new program
of mortality studies has been initiated to relate
death by specific cause (especially specific neo-
plasms) to industrial as well as demographic data
by area of residence.
The Clinical Studies Division conducts a coordi-
nated program of animal and human studies. A major
national resource, developed over the past five
years, allows sophisticated simulation of urban
atmospheres in two large controlled environmental
laboratories designed for human clinical research.
Addition of aerosol generating and monitoring equip-
ment to one of these laboratories will permit con-
trolled clinical studies of human health effects of
airborne respirable particulate matter as well as
gaseous pollutants. The particulate matter of most
concern in this program is water soluble sulfates.
In addition to the controlled environmental
laboratories, two mobile laboratories equipped with
nearly identical cardiopulmonary physiologic and
computerized data acquisition equipment are nearing
completion. These mobile physiologic laboratories
will be used to study specific problems, such as
those in the vicinity of a power station converting
to coal burning, by teams of scientists from the
Population Studies as well as Clinical Studies
Divisions.
The Environmental Toxicology Division incorpor-
ates resources for a wide range of basic toxicologic
evaluation of complex organic molecules expected to
result from coal conversion and shale oil extraction.
Multi-route exposure facilities for animals ranging
from rodents to primates exist. Toxicity screening
systems employing the basic techniques of histo-
pathology, metabolism, and physiology have been
advanced in these laboratories over the past several
years, in vitro mutagenicity testing systems using
mammalian cell lines complement the basic toxi-
cology techniques. Sophisticated biochemical and
analytic methods development capability are used
in support of the toxicity testing programs of this
Division.
The Experimental Biology Division has conducted
a series of studies over the past several years
directly related to energy production. These consist
of animal toxicity testing of tritium and krypton-85
which result from nuclear fuel reprocessing. In
addition, this Division conducts all animal neuro-
biology and reproductive studies for HERL. It is
expected that many of the effluents from emerging
energy technologies will pose hazards that must be
carefully evaluated in these test systems. Animal
resources are provided by this Division, assuring
the integrity and quality of all animal experiments
throughout the Laboratory.
PROGRAMS
The seven components of the HERL Energy
Accomplishment Plan are listed, and their coordi-
nation with the described discipline/pollutant
matrix is discussed:
-------
Evaluate, via Clinical and Epidemiological
studies, Effects in normal, Susceptible and Stressed
Population Groups, from Exposure to Effluents Associ-
ated with Coal Conversion and Utilization.
Determine the Dose-Effect Relationship for
•Behavioral, Physiological, and Metabolic Effects
resulting from Exposure to Effluents from Coal
Utilization and Conversion Sources.
Develop More Sensitive and Rapid Cytologi-
oal, Biochemical and Physiological Indicators to
Establish Dose and Damage to Man from Effluents
.related to Coal Conversion and Utilization.
Identify Carcinogenic, Mutagenic, Terato-
genio, and other Toxic Substances related to Coal
Conversion and Utilization using Biological Screen-
ing Systems.
Determine the Dose-Effect Relationships
for Behavioral Teratological, and Carcinogenic
Effects Resulting from Exposure to Effluents from
Nuclear Fuel Utilization and Processing.
Evaluate the Health Implications Resulting
from Exposure to Indoor Air Pollutants as These
Relate to Energy Conservation Measures Reducing
Indoor/Outdoor Ventilation.
Evaluation of Potential Toxic Hazards
Arising from Extraction, Processing and Utilization
of New Energy Sources such as Shale Oil.
COAL CONVERSION AND UTILIZATION
Evaluation via clinical and epidemiologic
studies of effects in normal, susceptible and
stressed population groups is being conducted by the
Clinical Studies and Population Studies Divisions
working together- The major effort here is con-
centrated in completion and improvement of facilities
for population exposure assessment and controlled
environmental laboratory clinical research, as well
as operation of the mobile physiologic laboratories.
Cardio-pulmonary disease experience, changes in
cardio-pulmonary physiology, immune and metabolic
;status as well as neoplastic disease experience
:all associated with effluents from coal conversion
:and utilization are being studied in this aspect of
the Energy Program. Funding from OEMI in this area
is $2,100 K.
Determination of dose-effect relationships for
behavioral, physiologic and metabolic effects is
being conducted using many of the techniques
described with respect to the clinical and epidemio-
logic research. In addition, animal and clinical
studies have been initiated specifically to determine
the^relative toxicity of sulfates having different
cationic components. OEMI funding for these studies
is $240 K.
83
Development of more sensitive and rapid cytolo-
gical, biochemical and physiologic indicators has
been given high priority in the overall program of
HERL. Expansion of the mammalian cell line in vitro
test system is in progress. Studies of metabolic
alterations that will serve as bioindicators to
quantify sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides exposure
in man are underway. Significant improvements in
non-invasive assessment of cardiac function are
being developed in HERL by computer techniques
applied to ST segment analysis, systolic time
interval determination, and myocardial mechanical
function measurement using ultrasound. OEMI fund-
ing in this area is $400 K.
Carcinogenic, mutagenic, and teratogenic
screening systems are being developed or are
already in use to study interactions between
fibrous amphiboles and other potentially co-
carcinogenic material, benzo(a)pyrene in the
isolated perfused lung, interaction between known
pulmonary carcinogens and fine sulfuric acid
aerosol, as well as in vitro toxicity testing of
crude airborne particulate matter filtered from
urban atmospheres. In addition, in vitro screening
of selected air pollutants for chemically induced
neoplastic transformation is being conducted. OEMI
funding in this area is $1,200 K.
NUCLEAR FUEL UTILIZATION AND PROCESSING
Long-term exposure to tritium to determine
effects on growth and development, especially
of central nervous system function, are in progress.
In addition, HERL is conducting research to identify
a population of laboratory rodents with particular
sensitivity to tritium induced neoplasia. Prolonged
exposure to krypton-85 under 6-infinite cloud
conditions has been initiated. OEMI funding in this
area is $500 K.
ENERGY CONSERVATION AND THE INDOOR ENVIRONMENT
A modest program to characterize the indoor
(home, office, school, non-industrial workplace)
environment through inventory of household products
as well as indoor/outdoor air quality assessment is
in progress. The focus of this effort is to
characterize and assess the health implications of
air pollution levels in the indoor environment with
particular attention given to those sources of
pollution which originate indoors. Examples include
exposure to chemicals from aerosol products,
solvents, cigarette smoke, cooking and insulation
materials (i.e., asbestos and asbestos-like fibers).
Where relevant, health information will be sought
from occupational groups with exposures that resemble
those found in the indoor home environment, i.e.,
cooks, cosmetologists and workers in dry cleaning
establishments. A model will be developed to
predict exposures and project potential health
effects. OEMI funding for this program is $200 K.
-------
TQXICITY OF PRODUCTS ARISING FROM NEl-J ENERGY
SOURCES SUCH AS SHALE OIL
The initial activity in this area is the
establishment of a chemical respository for
materials likely to be generated from New Energy
Sources. Following establishment of and standardi-
zation of the repository, toxicity screening tests
such as those described for coal combusiton and
conversion processes will be initiated. OEMI
support for these studies is $825 K.
CONCLUSION
The resources, priorities, rationale, techni-
ques, and specific approaches to the problem of
health evaluation of emerging energy technologies
has been summarized. All funding for HERL/RTP
programs from OEMI have been FY 1975 figures. The
total is $4,515.4 K. It must be realized that
shifts in funding level must occur as the programs
evolve and new problems as well as opportunities
arise. Therefore these figures are meant to
reflect relative level of effort and may not remain
accurate.
The Energy Program for FY 1976, as would be
expected, is closely related to and extends that of
1975. The total level of funding anticipated from
OEMI is $4,037 K. Because such a large fraction of
the non-energy related portion of the overall
HERL/RTP program supports in one way or another that
part funded by OEMI, it is impossible to ascertain
with any precision the total energy-related budget.
This seems inevitable in a highly integrated inter-
disciplinary program.
-------
HIGHLIGHTS OF NIEHS ENERGY-RELATED RESEARCH
Dr. Robert L. Dixon
National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
INTRODUCTION
NIEHS activities focus on a number of toxicol-
ogy subdisciplines essential to the understanding
and assessment of potential toxic effects of envir-
onmental factors on human health. These include:
1. Indicators of toxicity; 2. Biochemical mechanisms
of toxicity; 3. Mechanisms of incorporation, meta-
bolism, disposition, and turnover; 4. Dose-effect
relationship for toxic effects; 5. Extrapolation of
laboratory models to man; 6. Mutagenesis, develop-
mental toxicity, and carcinogenesis.
These concepts support and evolve from studies
of a wide spectrum of externally-derived bioactive
chemical and physical agents. Those related to
energy production and conservation activity are of
special importance. Broadly these can be catego-
rized as: 1. Gaseous air pollutants; 2. Suspended
particulates; 3. Industrial by-products and inter-
mediates; 4. Trace metals; 5. Physical factors.
An attempt has been made to briefly describe
highlights of these activities. The impossibility
of defining precise categories accounts for the
obvious overlaps between these two general activi-
ties.
1. Indicators of Toxicity
Efforts are being made to develop reliable j_n_
vitro and in vivo systems for the measure of toxic
effects induced by energy related hazardous agents.
The focus is. on tests designed to both identify and
quantify a wide variety of agents and effects.
Efforts are being applied to improving systems for
rapid prescreening. However, the major emphasis is
on mammalian systems which will facilitate trans-
lation of test results to man.
In vitro eel Is and tissues and lower animal
test systems offer the possibility of reliable
toxicity test systems which are more rapid and less
expensive than whole animal tests. Blastocysts,
prenatal ovarian tissues, and bone marrow cells in
culture as well as a number of more routine cell
lines are currently being studied.
2. Biochemical Mechanisms of Toxicity
NIEHS is supporting efforts to compare effects
of toxic agents on various systems of differing
biological complexity so as to identify key sites
involved in producing toxic effects as well as to
validate use of simpler test systems in understand-
85
ing the site and mechanism of action of toxic
chemicals. Test systems range from isolated organs,
through tissue slices or cultures to intracellular
organelles, isolated enzyme systems, and purified
macromolecules. Toxic agents include air and water
pollutants whose sources are primarily energy-
technology derived. These studies provide important
knowledge of initial or early cellular lesions.
A great deal of laboratory research is ongoing
which seeks to improve our understanding of toxic
mechanisms and provide improved test systems. The
reliability of the extrapolation of laboratory
animal data to man must be demonstrated in a con-
clusive manner. Model systems which incorporate
pharmacokinetic parameters should eventually allow
a more exact extrapolation to the human population.
3. Mechanisms of Incorporation, Metabolism,
Disposition, and Turnover
A number of studies are being supported to
determine the mechanisms of incorporation, metabo-
lism, deposition, and turnover of energy-related
hazardous agents. Pharmacokinetic aspects of
inhaled, orally absorbed, and local exposure are
being investigated. Absorption studies to deter-
mine the permeability of biological barriers that
separate the blood (or critical tissues) from the
external environment are important. Metabolism
studies must include a careful consideration of
both activation and degradation mechanisms. The
biological distribution of agents is being studied
with special emphasis on "barrier protected"
tissues, e.g., central nervous system, testis,
fetus. The deposition, storage, and translocation
of agents need to be investigated as well as their
pulmonary, hepatobiliary, and/or renal excretion.
Studies are being undertaken to characterize
the processes involved in transfer of energy-
related hazardous agents from particulates to body
tissues and fluids. This necessitates the develop-
ment of methods for generating well-defined aero-
sols containing particulates of different sizes and
hazardous chemical "load."
4. Dose-effect Relationship for Toxic Effects
Studies are being supported to consider the
dose-response relationships for biochemical and
toxic effects of energy related agents. Major organ
toxicity is being determined as well as the predic-
tiveness of clinical signs and the reversibility of
toxic lesions. Effects on behavior, blood and other
body fluids, liver, nerve-muscle, kidney, respira-
tion, circulation, endocrine function, reproduction,
etc., are being studied. A comparison of acute,
subchronic, and chronic effects are being made as
well as consideration of both prenatal and postnatal
exposure.
5. Extrapolation of Laboratory Models to Man
Mathematical and statistical methods are being
developed for the extrapolation of animal and
cellular data to man for low dose risk estimation.
Both stochastic models of the carcinogenic process
and statistical techniques pertinent to extrapola-
tion are being studied. Attention is also being
-------
86
focused on the problem of species-to-species varia-
bility. As part of this effort, existing data
bases are being reviewed and evaluated to determine
if they can be used to make meaningful interspecies
comparisons. In addition, new data sources that
can be utilized to quantify species-to-species
variability are being produced.
6. Mutagenesis, Developmental Toxicity, and
Carcinogenesis
Mutagenesis. Methods by which the frequency
of somatic point mutations at several genetic loci
in experimental animals and human beings can be
measured are being developed. Detection of mamma-
lian somatic mutations provide advantages in muta-
tion research for the following reasons: (1) human
cell samples could possibly be used for the study of
mutation rates in man, (2) in mutagenic test sys-
tems, the animal's own cells would be used, which
would avoid the immunological reactions occurring
in the host-mediated assay, and (3) chronic studies
of compounds in low doses could be initiated.
Point mutations in male germinal tissue are
being studied. The purpose of this investigation
is to develop methods by which point mutations can
be detected directly on spermatogonia, spermatid,
and sperm. The mutant cells are being detected by
differential histochemical stains. Several enzyme
systems are being employed, some common for somatic
cells and the germinal tissue, some specific for
the sperm.
Sperm samples are relatively easy obtained in
the human population and these methods can be used
to monitor the human population for the mutation
rates and possibly detect fractions of the popula-
tion at high risk.
It is generally felt by geneticists that an
increase of the mutation rate in the human popula-
tion would be detrimental, yet there is no system
developed to monitor the human population for point
mutations.
A system for mutagenicity testing using a tier
concept facilitates the assessment of potential
hazards associated with human exposure to drugs and
other chemicals. The proposed system is a hierar-
chical system containing three tiers or levels of
testing. Using relatively rapid and inexpensive jn_
vitro microbial tests, the first tier will serve as
a prescreen to determine priorities for further
testing. Tier two assesses mutagenicity in more
complex systems involving higher organisms. Tier
three considers mutagenic compounds from tier one
and two and is designed to give quantitative
results about mutagenic effects on mammals under
defined use conditions.
NIEHS is supporting EMIC to compile the past
and present literature on mutagenesis testing of
energy related pollutants. This information is then
processed into EMIC's data bank noting bibliographic
details and keywording of chemicals, organisms, and
systems studied, and is available to investigators
throughout the world.
Developmental toxicity. Ongoing studies
include assessment of the effects of environmental
agents on oogenesis and spermatogenesis. Longer
term objectives include a much more expanded effort
to identify environmental factors which account for
male and female infertility. Close working rela-
tionships are being established with infertility
clinics and scientists working in the area of epide-
miology.
The NIEHS is seeking to develop mechanisms for
the selection of environmental chemicals for terato-
genicity testing and to establish priorities for
testing. Standardization of test protocols is an
important aspect in the conduct of the actual test-
ing which is performed by contract. A new teratol-
ogy information service is also being designed to
bring together the world's literature on teratology.
Longer term objectives involve the use of "embryo
culture" to study the mechanisms of teratogenic
effects and perhaps develop methods to rapidly pre-
dict human teratogens.
Current studies with DES emphasize the unique
sensitivity of the embryonic period with regard to
chemical insults which result in infertility and
perhaps cancer later in life. These "biological
timebomb" areas include, in addition to reproductive
and carcinogenic effects, potential toxic effects
on nearly all biological and physiological func-
tions. An area which we consider to be of primary
importance relates to the latent effects of gesta-
tional chemical exposure on physiologic functions,
such as cardiovascular and behavioral responses.
Carcinogenesis. Laboratory and clinical
studies related to carcinogenesis are described in
the following section.
As mentioned previously, bioactive chemical
and physical agents from energy production and con-
servation activities can be grouped into five broad
categories. These categories are used in the fol-
lowing account of research highlights.
1. Gaseous Air Pollutants
Nitrogen dioxide and ozone. Important contri-
butions are being made by a number of NIEHS-
supported investigators toward understanding the
etiology, pathogenesis, and other relations of NCL
and 0- to pulmonary and extrapulmonary disorders.
Rats exposed intermittently for a lifetime to 15
ppm NCL develop a chronic obstructive lung disease
with features much like those of human emphysema.
0, was shown to be approximately 20 times more
injurious than NO,,. The disease it induces is simi-
lar to that caused by N02> but there are certain
significant differences. Insight into the molecu-
lar bases of cellular injury is being provided by a
number of investigators.
In addition to effects directly on lung tissue,
a number of studies show that 0, and N0? produce
other kinds of toxicity as well: Macrophages are
damaged by exposure to 25 ppm N0? which reduces the
in vivo bactericidal capacity of alveolar macro-
phages. Thus, in addition to direct damage to lung
tissues, individuals exposed to the gases may
become prone to infectious pulmonary diseases.
Sulfur oxides. A considerable body of evidence
suggests that there may be discernible human health
effects from exposure to concentrations of sulfur
oxides approximating the current standards.
-------
Several projects are being supported by NIEHS
to gain further information about the effects of
sulfur oxides on selected populations and the dis-
tribution, fate, and reactions of sulfur oxides in
the body. A study was initiated this year on the
deposition and effects of sized sulfuric acid drop-
lets in the lungs. Epidemiologic data are being
collected from selected sites to determine the
effects of particulates and sulfur oxides in com-
bination on adults and children.
Automobile exhaust. Epidemiological and aero-
metric studies have been conducted over the past
several years. Personal monitoring of carbon monox-
ide, nitrogen dioxide, respirable mass total parti-
culates, and respirable mass lead particulates is
being initiated.
The second year of environmental sampling of
tunnel-turnpike workers is now being completed. The
environmental measurements focused mainly on the
toll booth operators' exposure to automobile
exhaust at three toll plazas. Air sampling is con-
ducted for nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, total
hydrocarbons as methane, respirable and total sus-
pended particulates, and lead in both the total and
respirable fractions. As yet, no significant dif-
ferences in mortality, pulmonary disorders, or car-
diovascular disease pf these workers are being evi-
dent when compared to controls exposed to lower
levels of automobile exhausts.
Carbon monoxide. NIEHS supports a substantial
number of epidemiological and basic studies designed
to provide a better understanding of the extent and
nature of the hazard presented by inhalation of car-
bon monoxide alone and in combination with other
toxic agents.
Many aspects of carbon monoxide distribution
and intoxication are being studied. It is generally
agreed that one of the more important effects is the
reduction in oxygen-carrying capacity of the red
blood cells which results from preferential binding
of CO to the oxygen binding sites of hemoglobin.
Epidemiological studies of cigarette smokers show
that 35 to 40 percent of the hemoglobin may be in
the form of carboxyhemoglobin during periods of
heavy smoking.
The consequence of reduced oxygen carrying
capacity is variable from individual to individual
and is related to other disorders. Patients with
circulatory insufficiencies and with various forms
of anemia are most susceptible to physiological
disorders resulting from oxygen insufficiency, and
data are now available which show significantly
higher mortality rates in smokers with circulatory
and blood disorders.
CO effects other than a simple reduction of
oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood are also
becoming evident. It is being shown that CO com-
bines with muscle myoglobin, cytochrome oxidase,
cytochromes A3 and P-450, catalase and peroxidases,
i.e., many ceflular constituents containing the
heme moiety. There are also possible behavioral
effects of CO at low levels. Long-term studies
suggest that moderate CO levels eventually lead to
effects on the central nervous system which may not
be due simply to the decreased oxygen-carrying
capacity of the blood.
87
Benzene and other solvents. It is estimated
that more than 2 million people are exposed to ben-
zene and related solvents to a substantial degree.
NIEHS supports several projects toward localizing
and understanding the toxic action of industrial
solvents. Metabolic studies in mice suggest that
one major metabolite, e.g., phenol, is formed from
benzene in the body and that the compound is
rapidly excreted in the urine as the sulfate or
glucuronide conjugate. Metabolism is stimulated by
pretreatment with microsomal enzyme inducers, such
as phenobarbitol, or by benzene per se.
2. Suspended Particulates (Aerosols)
Model studies. Because of the ubiquity of
hazardous aerosols and their importance in man's
health, a great deal of effort is being supported to
elucidate the interrelationships of particle size,
composition, and deposition to various respiratory
disorders.
Particle clearance. While much of the particle
deposits in~ the lungs are cleared within 24 hours of
exposure, considerable material remains uncleared
for prolonged periods thereafter and can be detected
in the lungs even a year later. It is also being
shown for the case of iron oxide that residues of
the inhaled particles subsequently become stored as
hemosiderin-like deposits in macrophages widely dis-
tributed throughout reticuloendothelial tissues of
the body. In the lungs, particle clearance was
found to occur predominately by way of the bronchial
passages. Novel approaches are being developed in
attempts to standardize mammalian test systems for
the study of respiratory tract clearance.
Recent studies have shown that many toxic trace
elements and compounds such as lead, cadmium, zinc,
bromide, sulfate, and benzopyrene are present in
respirable aerosols. It is also being shown that
trace metals are extracted more efficiently by the
body from these small respirable aerosols. Finally,
airborne particles most likely to adsorb materials
are of a size that is most likely to penetrate into
the deep lung.
Effects of inhaled particles on macrophages.
Most respiratory disease is either initiated by, or
at least complicated by, the inhalation of particles
and gases. Emphysema, bronchitis, pneumoconiosis,
neoplasms, and infectious diseases all may be conse-
quent to inhalation of obnoxious particles. The
severity of resultant disease may be influenced by
the number of particles deposited as well as their
site of deposition and their ultimate fate. The
pulmonary macrophage is being emphasized since it is
a central figure not only in clearance processes but
in the pathogenesis of some lung diseases as well.
Pathogenesis and epidemiological studies.
Epidemiological studies on industrial dusts such as
granite and talc have been underway for several
years. A prospective study of 633 granite workers
exposed to quartz dust is in process. It is found,
as might be expected, that those workers who have
the greatest exposure have the greatest loss of pul-
monary function.
Asbestos. Perhaps the most important particu-
lates from the standpoint of numbers of people seri-
ously exposed is asbestos. Intensive and wide-
-------
ranging investigations into this problem continue by
a number of investigators. A major portion of this
work is devoted to obtaining information concerning
aspects of environmental asbestos disease, including
disease associated with household exposure, disease
among residents living near asbestos plants, and
disease in the general community. An important
aspect of the studies on asbestos and other particu-
lates as well is the relationship of cigarette smok-
ing to disease risk. A significantly increased risk
of death of bronchogenic carcinoma among asbestos
workers is being well established.
Soot, carbon black, and benzo(a)pyrene. Sev-
eral projects are being supported on the relation-
ships between soot and associated benzo(a)pyrene
and other carcinogens. These studies assume
increased importance in the use of low grade fossil
fuels, especially in conjunction with cigarette
smoking.
Some calculations are already being completed,
and results indicate that heavy occupational expo-
sure to benzo(a)pyrene is associated with increased
mortality from lung cancer. Of course, since the
fumes from hot pitch contain various other agents
in addition to benzo(a)pyrene, the findings in this
study could be due to one or more of the other fac-
tors or to their combined effect.
An extensive study of the health status of
printing trades workers, exposed to carbon black
(as well as other substances) is being initiated.
Simultaneously, an epidemiological mortality study
is being conducted. It is expected that these
studies will provide information useful in the
assessment of carbon particles in other trades and
occupations and in the general population.
Coal dust. Extensive studies on the pulmonary
effects of coal dust and the role of specific com-
ponents of the dust in the etiology and pathogenesis
of pneumocom'osis are being conducted. Correlates
betweem the incidence of pneumocom'osis in miners in
Pennsylvania and Utah show that the former is signi-
ficantly higher, which is in accord with the high
nickel and iron contents of the coal.
3. Industrial By-products and Intermediates
Though a multitude of chemical agents may be
viewed as peripherally energy-related, a few
directly associated with manufacture of insulation,
use of heat transfer agents, and power transmission
are of particular concern.
Since many polymers are used in energy related
activities, intensive studies are underway in a
number of laboratories of monomeric intermediates.
These include bis(chloromethyl)ether and its homo-
logues, vinyl chloride, and other chlorinated
alkanes and alkenes, certain amides, diisocyanates,
styrene, and related compounds.
Bis(ch1oromethyl)ether. Bis(chloromethyl)-
ether has been identified as a potent carcinogen for
skin. Its high activity for the lung is also demon-
strated. Cases of lung cancer are now being found
in industries using this compound. An industry-
wide epidemiological study to develop definitive
information on the health consequences of its indus-
trial use is being conducted.
Vinyl chloride and related compounds. Health
effects of vinyl chloride are being investigated in
several laboratories. Over 1,200 polymerization
workers employed by three companies in the United
States are being examined.
Studies on structure-activity relationships of
chlorinated alkylating agents to carcinogenicity
have led to identification of important parameters
in carcinogenic activity. It might soon be possible
to predict with some confidence the carcinogenicity
of compounds within this class. Studies concerning
hepatic angiosarcomas are being extended.
Studies are also being initiated on the muta-
genicity of vinyl chloride. It is found that the
mutagenic effect of vinyl chloride is enhanced by
mouse or rat liver extracts. However, extracts
from mice pretreated with vinyl chloride or with
the potent enzyme inducer polychlorinated biphenyls
are no more effective in enhancing VC dependent
mutagenesis than extracts from untreated animals.
The hazard of vinyl chloride has led to
increased concern about many related haloalkanes
and alkenes. The recent announcement of carcino-
genicity of trichloroethylene in animals has raised
the question whether this potential carcinogen
increases cancer risk in humans.
Styrene oxide has been found to be mutagenic
in animals. It is under further study, along with
its metabolites.
Toluenediisocyanate. Studies on molded foam
workers are being continued. The data now show
that there is a significant decrease in the venti-
latory capacity of all workers in the plant during
the working day.
Nitroso compounds. Because of the mutagenicity
of N-nitroso compounds as a class and the possible
formation of such compounds from nitrogen oxides,
many projects dealing witji these compounds are being
supported by the NIEHS. Individuals may be exposed
to nitroso-compounds through a wide variety of pos-
sible sources. In each of the exposure circum-
stances described, evaluation is being made of the
number of individuals potentially exposed, and of
possible epidemiological procedures for further
studies.
Polychlorinated biphenyls. Polychlorinated
biphenyls (PCBs) are a group of chlorinated organic
compounds, of which some 200 homologues are known.
About 100 have been identified. Mixtures of PCBs
are important industrial products. Prior to the
environmental concern about the persistence and
accumulation of the compounds, they were used in a
wide variety of applications in commerce. However,
beginning in 1971, their use was restricted.
Research in several laboratories designed to
further our knowledge of the persistence and metab-
olism of the PCBs, the mechanisms of hepatotoxicity
and carcinogenesis, and the mechanisms of long-term
reproductive effects is being supported.
4. Trace Metals
Trace metals constitute a major class of pollu-
tants. Though the major emphasis is on lead and
mercury and their compounds, investigations are
-------
increasing on cadmium, chromium, copper, manganese,
arsenic, and some of the rare earth elements.
Mercury. Studies o-f human occupational expo-
sure to elemental mercury vapor are continuing.
Following almost complete retention of vapor in the
lung, it is excreted from the body slowly with a
biological half time of about 58 days. This indi-
cates that workers occupationally exposed jto the
vapor continue to accumulate the metal for about
one year. From the practical point of view, blood
and urinary mercury levels would not be -a useful
index of exposure until the worker had been
employed for one year.
Studies on volunteers also reveal a new path-
way of excretion of mercury in man. Significant
amounts (about 7 percent of the inhaled dose) are
excreted from the lungs as volatile mercury. The
data suggest that measurement of exhaled mercury
could be used as an index of recent exposure to
mercury.
Prenatal low dose methyl mercury in the chicken
and rat produces lasting effects. Exposure early in
development renders the chick more sensitive to
chemically and electrically induced seizures and
less capable of learning tasks when compared to con-
trols or older embryos injected with the same or
lower doses at a later stage of development. The
effects of mercury on the cytology of the central
and peripheral nervous system is being studied in
mamma 1s.
Attempts are being made to define further the
effects of congenital chronic low-dose exposure of
the rat fetus. During the past year, testing of a
group of adolescent Rhesus monkeys' given small
daily doses of methylmercury to establish a chronic
dose-response baseline was completed. All of the
animals were tested on a behavioral task which is
sensitive to changes in the peripheral visual
fields and to eye-hand coordination. Further,
their general cage behavior was observed, and move-
ment disorders,.when they occur, were documented
with videotape. These studies indicate that chronic
exposure for up to one and one half years -at blood
levels below 2.0 ppm do not produce obvious symp-
toms in adolescent Rhesus monkeys. When the blood
levels were gradually raised between 2.0 and 2.5
ppm, all of the animals exhibited a rapid onset of
neurological symptoms. Although the exact constel-
lation of disorders differed somewhat between
animals, there were radical changes-in emotional
behavior, anorexia, loss of fine control of the
digits, and inefficient mastication.
Lead. Lead in its various environmental forms
continues to be a major concern, and numerous pro-
jects are supported by NIEHS on various aspects of
the problem.
Attempts are being supported to develop tech-
niques for measurements of free erythrocyte porphy-
rins (FEP) on blood samples collected on filter
paper and evaluate the clinical significance of
FEP elevation in regard to both Pb intoxication and
Fe deficiency anemia. The molecular mechanisms of
protoporphyrin binding in both Pb intoxication and
erythropoietic protoporphyria is also to be studied.
Studies on the role of lead in brain dysfunc-
tion are being supported. Under conditions of
39
chronic ingestion of relatively low levels of lead
from birth to adulthood, leading to increases in
brain lead content and altered states of behavior,
dopamine metabolism is either unchanged or partially
slowed. Norepinephrine turnover is increased by as
much as 30 percent and leaves the brain 14 percent
more rapidly in lead-treated animals than in con-
trols. Whether the increased turnover of nor-
epinephrine is causative or associative to the
experimental conditions under study is unknown.
Effects of chronic, low-level lead exposure on the
behavior of developing rats is being examined.
Exposure of newborn mice to lead in the milk
-they receive during nursing from mothers given lead
in their drinking water results in a hyperactivity
that persists for extended periods of life. These
hyperactive mice exhibit no other overt symptoms of
lead intoxication. Thus, this type of behavioral
abnormality represents a very sensitive indicator
of lead toxicity. As with hyperactivity in chil-
dren, this animal model of hyperactivity responds
paradoxically to amphetamine and phenobarbital.
Attempts are being made to determine the lead levels
and stages of development of the rat at which the
brain is sensitive to damage, using both biochemical
and behavioral parameters.
. Trace metals affect experimental infections.
Administration of lead augments the severity of
Candida and Listeria infections in mice. No such
augmentation of staphylococcal infections is found.
These findings occur at various lead levels,
including those comparable to blood concentrations
found in man.
A number of investigators are attempting to
design agents useful for clearance of heavy metals
from the body and therapy of intoxications. Sev-
eral classes of possible heavy metal binding agents
are being examined by use of a computer Each
class is based on a naturally occurring compound.
The most interesting class so far has been the
steroids.
Cadmium. Cadmium is under investigation in
several projects supported by NIEHS. Attempts are
being made to develop a clearer picture of body
levels of cadmium relative to specific disorders,
using the rat as a model. Blood pressure of male
rats on a basal diet containing a large amount of
Cd (150 ppm) increased gradually from about 115
mmHg to 150 mmHg after 16 weeks exposure.
In addition to effects on blood pressure, it
is found that Cd affects the humoral immune system,
and the effects are detectable well before any overt
signs of Cd toxicity. The implications of these
events in the breakdown of resistence to infectious
diseases are profound and are being investigated
further.
The teratogenic effects of mercurials, lead,
chromium, and ytterbium are also being explored.
The major manifestation of embryonic damage with
inorganic mercury includes an increased resorption
rate as well as an increased frequency of small,
retarded, and edematous embryos. Comparative
studies on the teratogenicity of chromium and lead
show that the metals have similar effects and that
mixtures of the two are additive.
-------
90
5. Physical Factors
There is growing concern about the effects of
noise, microwaves, laser radiation, light, and other
physical factors on human health. The many ramifi-
cations of physical factors on health remains a
relatively little studied area.
Heat. Attempts are being made to assess heat
stress. Effort is being devoted to understanding
the physical characterization of the thermal envi-
ronment in terms of a useful index of heat stress
and of heat strain.
Light. NIEHS is continuing to support studies
of effects of physical factors on the endocrine
system. The influence of light on hormonally-
controlled processes in mammals is being explored.
The studies are concerned with the basic molecular
events through which neuroendocrine effects are
initiated and carried out. These studies provide
probably the first available information on the
action spectrum for any nondermatological or non-
visual effects of light on intact animals.
Studies involving laser radiation are in prog-
ness. Laser radiation has potentially significant
therapeutic applications, but may also be a health
hazard. Research is concerned with establishing an
understanding of the mechanisms and consequences of
laser excitation at the molecular level. Work has
recently begun on the laser photolysis of visual
pigments and related compounds.
Other studies are continuing on several
aspects of the biologic effects of light. Concern
is growing recently about possible alteration of
the earth's atmosphere with resultant changes in
the quality of light reaching the earth's surface.
In addition, there is concern about the plethora of
photoactive chemicals to which the population as
a whole is being exposed.
Skin cancer can now be induced reliably in
animals by use of the new equipment and techniques.
The techniques also provide predictive capability
with respect to the consequences of diminishing
atmospheric ozone and the interaction of light and
chemicals in photocarcinogenesis of the skin.
Noise. Investigations on the ototoxic effects
of lead and mercury in monkey are being supported.
It is being demonstrated that ototoxicity of lead
is not very great even at levels so high as to
cause debilitation and death. Recent work on oto-
toxicity of methylmercury reveals severe changes in
auditory processes, and the hearing losses extend
well into the middle (4,000 H ) and high tone
(16,000 H ) regions of the auoMo spectrum, with some
threshold shifts greater than 85dB.
Electromagnetic fields. The increased use of
nuclear power plants will undoubtedly be the
initial approach toward meeting our energy require-
ments without further dependence on oil. Associ-
ated with these nuclear power plants will be trans-
mission lines with projected voltages of 1100-1200
kilovolts (Kv). Most high voltage transmission
lines used today are of the order of 300-500 Kv.
Commercial power systems in the U. S. operate at a
frequency of 60 Hz. The most often reported effects
of electromagnetic radiation has been on the central
nervous system. Effects of electromagnetic fields,
similar in character and intensity to those result-
ing from high voltage transmission lines, on the
central nervous system of mammals are being investi-
gated. The effects on behavior are being studied
and correlated with measured changes in brain
rhythms and neuronal membrane structure.
The highlights obviously represent only part
of the NIEHS research activities in the areas of
environmental health science related either directly
or indirectly to the potential health effects asso-
ciated with the development and use of domestic
energy sources. However, they do provide some indi-
cation, however sketchy, of the spectrum of research
activities and interests of the NIEHS in this impor-
tant new health area.
-------
91
ERDA PROGRAM TO EVALUATE HEALTH-EFFECTS
OF NON-NUCLEAR ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES
George E. Stapleton
Division of Biomedical and
Environmental Research
Energy Research and Development Administration
Washington, D.C. 20545
INTRODUCTION
Prior to the establishment of the Energy
Research and Development Administration, most of
the health effects program resided in the Atomic
Energy Commission and encompassed primarily an
evaluation of potential health problems associated
with all aspects of the nuclear fuel cycle from
extraction to processing to end use and ultimate
disposal of radioactive materials. This program
is continuing under ERDA but is not to be the sub-
ject of this presentation.
Rapid expansion of research and development
under the ERDA plan is aimed at providing a number
of choices for energy production from sources of
non-renewable energy that still exist in abundance
while at the same time maintaining the options for
use of renewable sources. Heavy emphasis for the
near-term is placed on fossil fuel sources. It
is recognized by those responsible for the massive
chemical and engineering development to provide
substitute fuels that some major problems at ad-
vanced stages of development will be possible
restrictions imposed by new or modified health and
environmental protection standards and guidelines.
It is now possible to provide the required quanti-
tative health effects information in concert with
large-scale industrial development and in a time
frame consistent with it. This is the basis for
the program described herein.
The nature of the fossil fuels program planned
by ERDA provides an opportunity to treat the
potential health problems associated with a variety
of chemical agents common to a number of processes,
for example, trace and heavy metals, in a generic
sense. However, we must consider the unique
health problems associated with each major techno-
logical process as decisions are made to expand
from bench-top, to pilot and demonstration plant
before full commercialization. A proper balance
must be maintained in programming for research
that addresses the generic problems associated with
emissions and waste and those which address the
product and byproducts of a specific process
marked for rapid expansion to commercialization.
The program now in place addresses potential
health problems associated with several high
priority coal liquefaction and gasification pro-
cesses. The ERDA national laboratories provide the
mechanism for organizing large multidisciplinary
efforts ranging from sophisticated analytical
chemistry to in vivo evaluation of dose-effect
relationship in model experimental animals.
Moreover, the ERDA-regional energy research
centers involved in the chemical and engineering
aspects of coal and shale conversion at the labor-
atory and small pilot plant scale provide much
analytical chemistry as well as backup samples for
biological testing. Some of the ERDA laboratories
have developed expertise in specific disciplinary
areas such as inhalation toxicology, aerosol
physics and chemistry and in vivo metabolism and
fate of toxic agents. These laboratories are
conducting work in these specific disciplines to
answer problems related to coal, combustion and
conversion and shale oil technologies.
TECHNICAL DISCUSSION
The number and variety of potentially toxic
chemical agents to which both occupational groups
and segments of the general population can be
exposed as a result of development of large-scale
fossil energy conversion facilities is enormous.
Many of these agents are-encountered in a number
of ways, for example, as gaseous pollutants, com-
bined with .respirable particulates, in process
and waste water, in waste residues or in products
or byproducts of most of the planned processes
for 'production of synthetic fuels from coal or oil
shale. In situ processing of fossil fuels can
overcome these problems but it is unlikely that
large-scale commercialization of in situ process-
ing will be feasible in the near-term.
Large-scale animal bioassay for toxicity as
used today cannot provide a useful strategy to
provide evaluation of the numerous individual
chemical agents for the variety of damaging
effects they might produce. Fortunately, the past
several years has seen the development of a
battery of rapid in vitro and in vivo biological
screening techniques which can provide presumptive
identification of carcinogenic and mutagenic
agents. By use of such screens it is now possible
to prioritize chemical agents and thus drastically
reduce the number which must be subjected to the
more elaborate, expensive and time-consuming
animal bioassays to provide dose-effect relation-
ships for mutagenesis and carcinogenesis. These
rapid microbial and multitier screening' methods
combined with sophisticated analytical chemistry
constitute Phase 1 of the ERDA health effects
research program.
Although a number of screening methods are
available to provide presumptive identification of
mutagens and carcinogens, there are very few
reliable or rapid methods that can be applied to
either human or animal populations as early indi-
cators of physiological damage or the progression
of an already induced disease state. Availability
of such early indicators would be a tremendous
advantage in human clinical or epidemiological
studies as well as in experimental toxicological
studies. These efforts a.re now an important part
of the energy related programs of NIEHS, ERDA and
EPA.
-------
92
At present, there is no simple and straight-
forward method to derive human risk estimates for
late effects from model experimental animals, or
from rapid in vitro screening methods. Carefully
conducted dose-effect studies on several animal
species plus accurately determined information on
dose to the tissue at risk and innovative theoreti-
cal modelling appear to be the only plausible
approach. A coupling of such efforts with whatever
human clinical and epidemiological data that exist
or become available comprise a logical approach to
formulation of guidelines or standards for human
exposure. All health agencies fund efforts in
one or another or all of these aspects of research
for pathophysiological, teratological, mutagenic
and carcinogenic effects of energy-related chemical
pollutants.
Ultimately a solution to some of the problems
we presently encounter in attempting to extrapolate
experimental data to man will come from basic
understanding of both the fundamental molecular
interactions that lead to cellular damage and the
repair and recovery processes that compensate for
the initial damage. Such efforts should constitute
a fair share of any "balanced plan" to evaluate
the health effects of chemical pollutants. It is
also important to recognize that such studies have
been and will continue to supply new useful systems
for ''rapid" screening of environmental pollutants.
PROGRAM DISCUSSION
Interagency funding in FY 1976 coupled with
reprogramming efforts in the health program of
ERDA permitted initiation and growth of major
activities addressing the problems of the non-
nuclear energy technologies of ERDA.
Figure 1 describes the ERDA strategy for
evaluation of the potential hazard of a large
number and variety of potentially hazardous agents
to which segments of the occupational and general
population might be exposed in the course of
development and commercialization of advanced
fossil fuel conversion facilities. The following
elements are shown and correspond closely to the
main health objectives in the Interagency Working
Group Report'- ' often referred to as the King-Muir
Report.
1. Chemical identification of chemical agents
present.
2. Bioidentification of presumptive toxic agents.
3. Determination of the dose-effect relations
for identified toxic agents.
4. Theoretical and experimental modelling to
facilitate extrapolation of animal data to man.
5. Use of experimental information to predict
risk estimates for man.
Two research elements are shown that relate
to the dose-effect effort, namely, (a) metabolism
and fate of toxic agents in experimental animals
and in man as tissue samples bec'ome available,
which relate the local dose to tissues at risk;
and (b) development and use of sensitive and
early indicators of tissue damage which relates
directly to early identification of toxic effects,
CHEMICAL IDENTIFICATION
1. Program Discussion
Major programs are underway at ERDA energy
centers to identify and quantitate trace and heavy
metals and organic compounds in process streams,
products, byproducts, and aqueous and solid resi-
dues and effluents of laboratory and pilot plant
facilities involved in synthetic fuel production
from coal and oil shale. ERDA National Labora-
tories and Energy Centers collaborate in measure-
ments as well as development of advanced analytical
methods and systems. These facilities also provide
crude and separated fractions of product and waste
for biological testing.
2. Projection
As the bioassay programs expand there will be
a need for large-scale preparation and standardi-
zation of isolated and purified samples for bio-
logical testing. We have projected this need as
well as one that involves a development program in
analytical chemistry to provide more sensitive and
rapid analysis for trace organics and inorganics
in tissue residues and body fluids.
BIOIDENTIFICATION OF TOXIC AGENTS
1. Program Discussion
Major programs are underway to perfect and
apply rapid in vitro and in vivo methods to identi-
fy carcinogenic and mutagenic agents in coal and
oil shale synthetic products, byproducts and resi-
dues. In vitro systems utilize organisms which
range from bacteriophage, through bacteria, to
mammalian and human cell transformation systems
including in vivo transplantation to confirm cell
transformation. For mutagenesis screening one
large mutagenesis testing laboratory has been set
up at Oak Ridge National Laboratory which utilizes
a multitier system ranging from bacteria, to
Drosophila, mammalian cells to specific locus and
somatic cell mutations in mice. In addition, a
number of cell systems are being developed using
fast-flow fluorometry to detect chromosomal changes
and sperm cell morphological changes which may be
applied to exposed animal and human populations.
2. Projection
It is important to note that rapid screening
systems developed for mutagenesis screening, espe-
cially bacterial and bacteriophage systems, are
more reliable indicators of carcinogenic activity
than for mutagenic activity. Much more effort is
required by all agencies to perfect simple rapid
screens for the variety or kinds of damage to the
genetic material that may be expressed as muta-
genesis. ERDA and NIEHS conduct efforts aimed at
perfecting systems capable of providing rapid
screening for mutagenesis. There is a real need
for continuous exchange of information between
these agencies and ultimately collaborative
-------
interagency efforts to ensure that promising leads
are adequately funded.
DOSE-EFFECT RELATIONSHIP FOR PRODUCTION OF MUTA-
GENIC, CARCINOGENIC, TERATOGENIC, AND PATHOPHYSIO-
LOGICAL EFFECTS
1, Program Discussion
Major programs have been initiated to obtain
information on acute, subacute and latent effects
of gaseous and particulate effluents from coal
combustion and conversion facilities. Heavy empha-
sis is placed on aerosol sulfates at one laboratory
and particulate-sulfate interactions as well as
fly-ash and trace and heavy metals at another. The
nature of the pollutants predetermines the primary
interest in inhalation problems and production of
subacute and latent diseases to the respiratory
tract.
At Oak Ridge a large program is in place to
evaluate the carcinogenic effect of organic and
inorganic chemical agents encountered at all
stages of coal liquefaction and gasification faci-
lities. These studies involve the sequential
strategy described earlier, namely, rapid in vitro
and in vivo screening, in vitro and in vivo cell
and organ culture and finally long term dose-effect
studies on mice and other short-lived rodents.
Most of the efforts carry with them the
necessary elements of metabolism and in vivo fate
to define the tissue'dose-effect relationship.
At Oak Ridge National Laboratory, a complete
mutagenesis testing unit is also in place which
includes dose-effect studies for specific locus and
chromosomal mutations in mice. As mentioned pre-
viously, the testing unit includes most of the se-
quential elements in the ERDA health effects plan.
Small programs are underway in several labora-
tories to evaluate teratogenic potential of heavy
metals and hydrocarbons associated with fossil
fuel technologies.
2. Projection
Most of the programs described are in their
infancy in that the large integrated programs in
several laboratories have progressed only to the
stage of large-scale screening. As new agents
are identified as presumptive carcinogens or muta-
gens they must be demonstrated to show such acti-
vity in the more elaborative, expensive and time
consuming animal bioassays. Expansion of these
efforts will coincide with the reduction in some
of the large-scale studies of the same type pre-
viously devoted exclusively to problems in nuclear
energy technology.
It is recognized by all agencies involved in
evaluation of environmental pollutants that poten-
tial synergism exists among mixed pollutants in
"real life" exposure of the human population. This
type of interaction is not easily evaluated in any
of the rapid in vitro screening techniques, and
thus compounds the time and expense of large-scale
93
animal bioassay. Development of new innovative
methods to obtain such information should receive
high priority in the interagency plan and a speci-
fic interagency task force should address this need.
THEORETICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL MODELLING TO IMPROVE
PREDICTION OF HUMAN RISK ESTIMATES
1. Program Discussion
A large part of the ERDA program which pre-
sently addresses health problems associated with
nuclear energy has progressed to the stage of
theoretical and experimental modelling. Much of
the emphasis is on prediction of life-shortening
and carcinogenicity at very low doses and predic-
tions of risk to man from information obtained
with experimental animals.
Likewise, theoretical and experimental model-
ling for human mutagenesis is a key element in the
ERDA program with major emphasis on extrapolation
of animal data to man at low doses.
Several programs have been initiated to devel-
op the same type of effort for chemical pollutants.
At the present time most of the effort concerns
the temporal aspects of tumorigenesis for known
hydrocarbon carcinogens, and attempts to define the
role of initiation and promotion in tumorigenesis.
2. Projection
Much more effort should be made in both theo-
retical and experimental modelling not just for
carcinogenesis but for mutagenesis and pathophysio-
logical effects as well. Most of the productive
efforts are multidisciplinary in that teams of
mathematicians and biologists are required. We
are beginning to receive proposals from multi-
disciplinary teams in the National Laboratories
and Universities and should project funding of
select ones that address health problems relevant
to developing energy technologies.
INTERAGENCY PARTICIPATION
A substantial portion of the ERDA non-nuclear
health studies program was initiated with inter-
agency supplemental funds. Most of the work ini-
tiated is conducted in the national laboratories
with about seven percent conducted in universities.
About 50 percent of the interagency funds will
appear in the ERDA base-budget in FY 1977.
RESOURCE ALLOCATION
ERDA had a small effort in chemical mutagenesis
and carcinogenesis for several years prior to the
interagency energy supplement. The interagency
funding coupled with reprogramming in efforts sup-
ported by the base program in FY 1975 augmented the
health studies substantially. The total health
studies budget devoted to non-nuclear energy tech-
nologies is shown below ($ x
-------
94
FY 1974
FY 1975
FY 1976
Base Interagency Base Interagency Base Interagency
0.8 0 8.0 6.0 17.0 2.6
CONCLUSIONS
.(1)
The Interagency Working Group Reportv~' pro-
vided a. first step in interagency planning to
provide health effects information required for
large-scale technological development to accomplish
national independence for energy sources in the
near and intermediate term.
Within ERDA, with the help of interagency
supplemental funds, a large-scale research effort
has been initiated which addresses primarily the
potential health problems associated with advanced
and emerging energy technologies notably those
involved in synthetic fuel production from fossil
energy resources.
The ERDA plan for evaluation of health impact
of new energy technologies and the strategy for
implementation of research, while sequential in
nature, corresponds in a general way to that pro-
posed in the Interagency Working Group Report.(1) .
Most of the ERDA effort is made in the nation-
al laboratories with emphasis on integrated efforts
encompassing several or all of the key objectives
set out in the ERDA plan.
The interaction and collaboration of the ERDA
National Laboratories and Energy Centers provides
an information exchange and a recognition of real-
life problems associated with advanced technology,
The ERDA health effects program represents a
large effort still in its infancy and will require
major expansion if it is to supply the information
required by a rapidly developing industry.
There are missing gaps in ERDA's program which
must be filled. Likewise there is a great need
for "new" experimental and theoretical approaches
to accomplish the ultimate goals of the national
energy program.
REFERENCES
1. The Report of the Interagency Working Group on
"Health and Environmental Effects of Energy
Use," November 1974.
2. National Plan for Energy Research, Development
and Demonstration, .Vol. 1 and Vol. 2 (ERDA-48).
3. The Balanced Program Plan of the Division of
Biomedical and Environmental Research, Vol. 1
(in press).
Figure 1. Research Strategy
DEVELOPMENT AND
VALIDATION OF
RAFI") SCREENS
I
BIO-IDENTIFICATION
OF PRESUMPTIVE
MUTACE;:S-CARCISOCF.N:
METABOLIC
TRANSPORT'AND
MODIFICATION
I
EVALUATION OF
DOSE-EFFECT
RELATIONSHIP
I
THEORETICAL
EXPERIMENTAL
MODELLING
EXTRAPOLATION
RISK
(ESTIMATES
FOR MAN
EARLY INDICATORS
OF DAMAGE
-------
95
DISCUSSIONS TO HEALTH EFFECTS SESSION
Question: What are the health affects on a population in a given region of a single installation?
What is the value of such an analysis? Can it be accomplished using a reservoir of 500 people such as
a nursing home?
Panel Response: The Environmental Protection Agency plus many other agencies have conducted many
extensive population studies from single sources and multiple sources. It is very difficult, however,
to dissect the contribution of one source in any metropolitan area from all the other sources. As far as
the nursing home population used as an example of susceptible populations, it was pointed out that there
is a hazard using a susceptible population whose disease processes are so far advanced that the incre-
mental effects of environmental factors may be masked by the natural processes taking place within the
population.
Question: What current or proposed programs are there in the area of extrapolation of data from
laboratory experiments to man?
Panel Response: NIH has two programs both related to carcinogenesis, trying to understand the
temporal aspects of tumorigenesis and looking at the actual chemical dose to the tissues. The program
is also designed to determine whether a chemical agent is acting as an initiator or producer of cancer
and other cell malfunctions.
Question: Are there other programs outside the cancer program that are underway that can be used
to extrapolate effects to man?
Panel Response: The Cancer Institute is very active in extrapolation of data. There will be a
meeting in March in Pinehurst extrapolating the results of animal studies to man and focusing on carcin-
ogensis and chronic toxicity. In the area of immunization technology, there are several toxicology
models available that could pertain to extrapolation to man. Human respiratory diseases are relatable
to environmental factors under a variety of circumstances. Potential differences between laboratory
animals and man, the different ways various species toxify, detoxify, or metabolize chemicals will
greatly influence the ability to extrapolate laboratory data from animal studies to effects on man.
These processes can also vary within species either due to genetic background differences or the effects
of other environmental agents which can modify the basic processes.
Question: How would the panel compare the overall impacts on health and environment from under-
ground mining with strip mining on a national level?
Panel Response: No simple answer can be provided. It is necessary to understand the problems of
each mining method and to make every effort to resolve the problems whatever they may be.
Question: Would the panel respond to the general analogy between fuel gasification and petro-
chemical plants from the viewpoint of hazards to the workers?
Panel Response: Both deal with the emissions of polynuclear aromatics; combining emissions of
TNA's perhaps with trace metals plus possibly arsenic and certain sulfur compounds, all of which are
very suspicious by themselves no matter what the total of interaction may be. In addition, there is
concern about the gasification process being not very well controlled at this stage of development.
Accordingly, at this stage, additional studies may be necessary to determine or compare the hazards of
emissions of various gasification concepts with those of coal gasification process which has much more
data available. The gasification processes at this time project carcinogenic risk to workers and per-
haps to general populations surrounding that facility until proven otherwise.
Question: Are there any studies being conducted which compare the total environmental and health
impact of one system versus another all the way from extraction to the generation of electricity or
steam, such as in the nuclear or coal gasification systems?
Panel Response: A group at Brookhaven National Laboratory is looking at the full cycle of health
problems with a variety of different energy alternatives.
Question: In view of the rapidly changing social and legal attitudes towards human experimentation,
what are the bans or difficulties that are foreseen in future clinical studies selecting human experi-
mental data that we must have?
Panel Response: No real problem is foreseen -- the attitude and restraints expresssed by society
-------
96
and Congress, is on the balance, quite healthy. The clinical research has been designed and conducted in
such a way that they are well within the limits that can be foreseen. Any changes in legislation are
not expected to jeopardize any research planned in this area.
Question: What is being done to bring the health effects, environmental effects, and the occupation-
al effects experts into the early stages of engineering decision-making so that effective and meaningful
trade-offs can be made and still meet the environmental, health, and cost objectives?
Panel Response: A strenuous conscious effort is necessary to realize the need for such cooperation.
Dr. Liverman, the Assistant Administrator for Environment arid Safety at ERDA, has principal responsi-
bility for insuring this type of cooperation for ERDA and ERDA interagency projects. Other agencies
realize the cooperative effort required and have made similar assignments.
Question: Are there any studies being conducted on secondary effects such as from the bioaccumula-
tion of heavy metals, organics, etc. through the food chains from coal gasification plants, mining opera-
tions , and so on?
Panel Response: In the past, fresh water and ultimately salt water were the dumps for almost every-
thing. This has ceased to a large extent. Many agencies are now conducting meaningful research in this
area. These will be described in subsequent sessions of this conference.
Question: Are the human dose-response relationships for radiation and for fossil fuel, particularly
coal, sufficiently well-known at this point to perform a quantitative social balance between these two
technologies for the generation of electricity?
Panel Response: The dose-response relationships with respect to radiation are very well-known.
The dose-response relationships with respect to constituents emitting from coal are not well defined,
albeit there is information available that can be used to make some decisions. It is felt at this time
to be far better to try to make an educated guess than to do nothing. As has already been mentioned,
there are some concerns involved with polyaromatic hydrocarbons some of which are carcinogenic. Other
concerns are the impact of heavy metals on carcinogens. This knowledge can be taken in consideration
in the design of subsystems to remove or mitigate the environmental impact of these two pollutants.
-------
CHAPTER 5
MARINE ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS
-------
INTRODUCTION
The narrow coastal zone fringing the conti-
nents, and the surface layer of the sea, to only a
few meters in depth, comprises less than one per-
cent of the volume of the oceans. Yet this area,
comprises more than 90 percent of the seas primary
productivity and living biomass. These land-water-
air interfaces are also sites of disproportionately
high human activity.
Our ability to alter the environment continues
to increase at a rate that far exceeds our ability
to predict the environmental consequences of our
actions. As the nation seeks to develop its energy
resources, this capacity for environmental altera-
tion will impact heavily on this sensitive coastal
portion of the marine environment.
Environmental alteration of the marine environ-
ment results from materials intentionally dumped or
spilled in the oceans, runoff of pollutants from
rivers and streams, and emissions from facilities
located on or close to the coastline.
Heavy metals and petroleum hydrocarbons are
pollutants known to be entering the marine eco-
system and known to adversely effect marine organ-
isms.
Spectacular oil spills result in less than two
percent of the global input of petroleum hydrocar-
bons to the oceans. The major source of this and
other pollutants entering marine waters results
from routine transport of energy related emissions.
Additionally, generation of electric power in
coastal regions will affect the marine environment
through regional increase in water temperatures in
proximity to the plants, and entrainment and
destruction of marine organisms.
A case can be made that all environmental
changes are not necessarily harmful, nor are all
changes caused by human activities. Natural
changes in coastal water temperatures have resulted
in corresponding changes to the local marine eco-
system. Whether such a change is harmful may be a
matter of opinion. However, it remains that mater-
ials are being released to the marine environment
which are persistent and toxic to marine life. Our
lack of ability to accurately predict the effect of
these pollutants, leaves the question of whether
the natural functions of the oceans themselves
might be in jeopardy.
Ecological efforts of several agencies in this
field are concerned with the development of eco-
logical information, impact assessment, and basic
research through a series of in depth studies of
selected oceanic areas.
-------
99
AN OVERVIEW -OF ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS
by
Dr. James L. Liverman
Assistant Administrator for Environment and Safety
U.S. Energy Research and Development Administration
Washington, D.C.
It is over two years since the Arab oil em-
bargo and the urgency of an energy shortage may be
overshadowed by our celebration of the Bicentennial
Yet as people "rediscover" America, it may be dif-
ficult to reconcile Jefferson's vision of a "pas-
toral paradise" with the realities of today's in-
dustrial society. Since 1776 we have built a
nation and created a life style based on seemingly
unlimited resources of land, minerals, and energy,
with little concern for resource allocation or en-
vironmental effects. Now the days of a plentiful
energy supply are gone and we have a grossly in-
sulted environment which can't stand much more
abuse.
We have come to recognize that energy at the
expense of the environment is no bargain or vice
versa. Unless we are willing to accept radical
changes, a balance must be achieved between our
need for energy and our concern for the environ-
ment. ERDA was created to provide the needed new
technology options which will permit us to meet the
Nation's technology needs in an environmentally
acceptable manner. Society's decision regarding
the acceptability of an energy technology will de-
pend largely upon the availability of environmental,
health, and socioeconomic data as well as the
status of environmental control technology. And
the options chosen in 1976 may well have as much
impact on our future as did our decisions of 1776.
I don't need to tell you that we haven't al-
ways been this cautious in the environmental area.
It is because of our previous short sightedness
that we are now discovering and coping with our
earlier haphazard approach to energy development
and use. Even though none of us are completely
green in this area, take almost any non-nuclear en-
ergy process, and our knowledge of its pollutants
and their effects is limited. In addition, the
complexity of a pollutant's interaction with eco-
logical systems in the environment, its chemical
alterations and hazardous effects, have yet to be
determined. Not enough attention has been paid to
these kinds of problems in the past, and we are
just now determining the magnitude of their impact.
The National Plan which ERDA presented to
Congress last year (and which is undergoing re-
vision for 1977) recognizes a number of energy
technological options which are being developed
for the short, mid, and long term, including coal
gasification, liquefaction, extraction, and combus-
tion; oil shale; geothermal; solar; and nuclear
fission and fusion. A strong integrated technology
program, coupled with an equally strong environ-
mental overview and assessment program, is essen-
tial to ensure that all these options are constant-
ly surveyed for potential environmental and health
impacts and that the right questions are being
asked from the start. We can't afford any sur-
prises in this area nor can we afford any delays.
Unfortunately, however, the environment recog-
nizes no neat energy insult categories. Whether a
pollutant comes from the burning of coal for elec-
tric generation or from the steel-making process,
its effect will be equally devastating to the en-
vironment. Congress and the OMB recognized long
before the creation of ERDA that solutions to
energy-related environmental concerns could not
come from one federal agency alone. No one agency
can effectively harness all the talent and re-
sources needed to get the job done. Instead, by
interacting with one another, by agreeing on joint
projects, and by pooling resources, each concerned
agency can lend its unique talents, perspective
and ongoing efforts to the goal of providing ade-
quate, safe, clean energy to the Nation.
Let me mention only a few of the issues we
must address collectively: Obviously, we need to
pursue those technologies which will permit an
immediate major expansion of existing energy re-
sources, such as direct use of coal by utilities,
nuclear converter reactors and enhanced recovery
of oil and gas. At the same time, we need to em-
phasize conservation in all aspects of our daily
life - in buildings, industry, transportation
efficiency, consumer products, and waste conversion
techniques.
While all these alternatives are in place at
the present time, there are many potential long
term and cumulative environmental and health
effects which we must continue to evaluate, as well
as new methods to control pollutants and waste
problems.
In the fossil fuels program, for example, our
health studies must address such areas as epidemio-
logical studies on coal conversion plant workers;
screening for mutagenic, carcinogenic, and embryo-
toxic effects; quantitative assessment of dose-
effect relationships following exposure to fossil
related effluents; and toxicity relationships of
trace elements in the various stages of mammalian
development, to name only a few.
Our biological programs must further address
the problems associated with inhalation, such as
research on lung cells in culture, the pollutant-
induced changes in lipoproteins and enzymes of
lipid metabolism in lung membranes, and the reac-
,tion of free radicals of polycyclic hydrocarbons
with nucleic acids.
These programs must be supplemented by re-
search in the environmental areas so that we will
know how fossil-related effluents are transported
and interact within ecological systems on land, in
the atmosphere, and in aquatic systems, as well as
-------
100
the major pathways of transfer and the rates of
occurrence. The MAP3S (Multistate Atmospheric
Power Production Pollution Study) is one program
through which EPA, NOAA, and ERDA are obtaining
valuable information on the effects of airborne
coal combustion contamination in the atmosphere.
In addition, we need to collectively address the
problems associated with acid mine drainage and
stream transport of toxic substances; land reclama-
tion, including revegetation, soil/plant/nutrient
relationships, and wildlife habitats. With In-
creased offshore drilling, we must determine the
toxicological effects of crude oil and other petro-
leum derivatives on marine biota.
Finally, we must develop models to aid us in
predicting various phenomena such as the mechanisms
of ionic clustering and particulate accretion, or
the characterization of pollutants in mine drain-
age or solid waste runoff. Then we must perform
analysis and assessment studies to determine the
impacts of these technologies on a regional, state
and local level in order to make cost/risk benefit
or tradeoff analyses; for instance, the impact of
an accident on an ecosystem and the resulting
social consequences.
But for all our research, we must keep in
mind that neither ERDA alone nor any other federal
agency can assure the development and commerciali-
zation of environmentally acceptable energy sys-
tems. Environmental acceptability represents a
societal judgment based on the perceived benefits
and detriments of the energy systems implementa-
ti on.
Clearly, another area of environmental concern
must be how to bring the information we gain to
the people, regional, state, and local, who will
have to live in proximity with the newly commer-
cialized technologies and extraction processes.
In many cases, we are talking about areas of the
country that have known little previous develop-
ment. The environmental, aesthetic, ecological,
social, cultural, and economic impacts must be
completely, accurately and objectively assessed--
and people must be made aware from the start of
the costs of accepting or rejecting the benefits/
costs of energy production. That is why we must
pay increased attention to the assessments of
regional impacts of an energy technology.
ERDA is conducting a regional studies program,
designed to predict and evaluate the socioeconomic,
human health, and environmental and institutional
impacts related to the development of all on-line
and prospective energy sources. Six ERDA labs are
coordinating the program on a regional basis and
have direct contact with state governments. While
this program is designed to provide information to
ERDA on potential environmental problems, it is
also designed to provide "feedback" to the states
for use in energy policy decision making.
Endeavors of this nature are particularly im-
portant because there are few simple solutions or
technological "quick-fixes" in the ecological world.
To ensure that permanent and long lasting ecologi-
cal damage does not occur, we must further assess
the effects of our actions on the ecosystems them-
selves. Which leads me to believe that we must
give additional attention to development of actual
outdoor laboratories where the impacts and inter-
actions of pollutants and the resulting effects may
be monitored. As you know, ERDA has two National
Environmental Research Parks in place, Savannah
River and Idaho, which are designed to fill just
this function. We have proposed additional sites
for designation: Los Alamos, Oak Ridge, Hanford,
and the Nevada test site. The establishment of a
network of NERP's is a logical outgrowth of the
environmental goals and requirements stated in the
National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA). the
Energy Reorganization Act (ERA), and the Non-
Nuclear Energy Research and Development Act (NNERDA),
These NERP's would provide us with the capa-
bility to: (1) develop methods to quantify and
continuously assess and monitor environmental im-
pacts from man's activities, (2) develop methods to
estimate or predict environmental response to pro-
posed and ongoing activities, and (3) demonstrate
the impact of the various activities on the environ-
ment and evaluate methods to minimize adverse im-
pacts. But even more importantly, each NERP could
be used by the entire federal sector to determine
needed ecological information which in turn could
be used to provide the public with an assessment
of the environment and land use options open to
them. These would provide another coordinating
mechanism whereby the unique capabilities of each
concerned agency could be brought to bear on the
problems, arriving at workable solutions.
There are just a few of the things that we
should consider as we continue our research for the
answers to energy-related environmental and eco-
logical problems. Nowhere is an overview more
important. We must work closely and cooperatively
and share our different perspectives if we are to
provide the "answers" to the technology questions
being raised.
At present, our need for energy alternatives
is great; their development essential; their im-
pact on our environment in many ways uncertain.
Yet concern for the environment will not be sacri-
ficed in our haste to bring alternative techno-
logies into use. Future decisions will be made in
tbe larger context of our continuing effort to im-
prove the quality of life. The definition of
"improvement" may depend quite a bit on what we
know about the health, environmental and safety
aspects of our energy alternatives. If we haven't
taken the steps necessary to integrate the concerns
for preservation, enhancement and protection of the
environment within our energy options, we will most
likely have lost our ability to choose. ERDA's
environment and safety program is designed to en-
sure that this does not happen. But, it is not
our job to do alone. We must work closely and
cooperatively not only with the technologies and
with each other but also with regional, state and
local governments, industry and the public to
achieve our goals. Working together, the decisions
won't always be easy not our interactions always
smooth; but out of our efforts we will create a
stronger, more viable energy base for the Nation.
-------
101
ASSESSING IMPACTS OF ENERGY DEVELOPMENT
ON
COASTAL FISH AND WILDLIFE RESOURCES
A.M. Palmisano
Office of Biological Services
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Washington, D.C.
INTRODUCTION
The narrow coastal zone fringing the con-
tinents and the surface layer of the sea, to only
a few meters in depth, comprises less than one
percent of the volume of the oceans yet represents
more than 90 percent of the seas primary product-
ivity and living biomass. These land-water-air
interfaces are also sites of disproportionately
high human development activities. Though coastal
areas have been used for centuries by man for
transportation, food production and habitation,
only since the turn of the century has our tech-
nology developed to the point where major eco-
systems and possibly the natural functions of the
oceans themselves might be jeopardized. This poses
a significant problem to those of us trying to
plan for a future with both a high standard of
living and a high quality of life. Our ability to
alter the environment continues to increase at a
rate that far exceeds our ability to predict the
environmental consequences of our actions. The
present energy dilemma which we face will almost
certainly broaden this range of relative ignorance.
Impact assessment state-of-the-art relative to
coastal and marine systems has not developed be-
yond an approach which involves avoiding the actual
or potential "big bads".
FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE RESPONSIBILITIES AND
ACTIVITIES
Historically the FWS has performed a number
of functions for the administration. The first
half of this century saw the Biological Survey
undertake basic life history studies of many forms
of wildlife both game and non-game. The emphasis
gradually changed to land management for wildlife
which involved acquisition of refuges and activ-
ities to enhance the production of wildlife on
both public and private lands. By mid-century the
Service had become primarily a management agency,
managing its own refuge lands, and through hunting
regulations, the nations vast waterfowl population.
A considerable ecological capability was housed in
the Service which, when,in the sixties, the public
acquired an environmental consciousness, could
assist decision-makers in developments requiring
environmental impacts. The role of the Service as
an ecological advisor has steadily increased since
that time.
Presently the FWS has management responsibil-
ities for migratory birds, endangered species,
selected marine mammals, anadromous fishes and
national wildlife refuges. In its advisory role,
the Service reviews and comments on environmental
impact statements and many permits requiring ap-
propriate federal participation. The agency also
provides technical assistance in activities in-
volving comprehensive natural resource planning
at national, regional, state and local levels.
The Office of Biological Services has recent-
ly been established to improve FWS advisory cap-
abilities by: 1) development of appropriate
ecological information; 2) improved impact assess-
ment; 3) development of information transfer
mechanisms to bring information effectively to
bear on decision-making processes.
DEVELOPMENT OF ECOLOGICAL INFORMATION
The varied nature of the disturbances and the
diversity of resources subject to impact require
a broad base of information to adequately assess
development impacts in the coastal zone. The
approach being developed by the Service to devel-
op this base involves a comprehensive character-
ization of coastal ecosystems. Environmental
Characterization may be briefly defined as a
structured approach to ecological information
development, synthesis and analysis designed to
provide an understanding of the functional pro-
cesses and natural resource elements comprising
complex coastal ecosystems. The procedure makes
maximum use of existing information essential to
the resource assessment and in providing guidance
to the development of future studies. A descrip-
tion of significant natural resources and function-
al process of the ecosystem are highlighted in
the characterization. EPA pass-through energy
R & D funds are being used to develop the approach
to environmental characterization.
In addition to characterization, special
studies are conducted to monitor environmental
changes attributable to development. Ecological
indicators are evaluated and selected as repre-
sentative of some aspect of the ecosystem. An
example is the bioaccumulation of environmental
contaminants in animal tissues representing var-
ious trophic levels or change in community struc-
ture indicating increasing salinities resulting
from alternation of fresh water flows.
IMPACT ASSESSMENT
The Service provides technical assistance to
other federal agencies in the preparation and
review of EIS and the issuance of permits for
development activities in the coastal zone. Im-
proved impact assessment capabilities is a primary
objective of the Office of Biological Services.
-------
102
Analysis of industry activities related to
OCS development is presently being undertaken to
determine the nature of the environmental dis-
turbances to be anticipated and an evaluation of
optional' approaches. All phases of development
must be considered and a comprehensive environment-
al studies program designed to provide timely plan-
ning information-for each step of development.
Environmental studies should be scheduled to pro-
vide essential resource information early in the
leasing program to determine tracts which should
be excluded from the sale and to establish appro-
priate lease stipulations. Exploratory drilling
requires permits and often detailed ecological
information near the platform site. Production
and transportation of petroleum initiates a series
of development activities often removed from the
lease area. Pipelines, navigation dredging, chron-
ic and acute spills, near and onshore development
of storage and service facilities are only a part
of the total environmental impact of production and
the coastal zone will undoubtedly feel the brunt
of these impacts.
Information provided by the environmental
characterization will identify the distribution
of the significant living resources as well as
essential and unique habitats. Extensive permanent
alteration of these resources should be considered
a "big bad" to be avoided in the course of normal
development. Other 1iving- resources are addressed
in the impact analysis but are considered more
"expendable" than the significant resources and do
not necessarily dominate the decision process.
In addition to living resources, processes
which drive the coastal ecosystems are also subject
to alteration by development. Living resources are
part of the web of life and significant disruption
of processes such as nutrient cycling, hydrologic
patterns, successional trends and trophic relation-
ships can have a severe detrimental impact. The
state-of-the-art is generally inadequate for pre-
dicting such changes but the potential threat is
no less real. Studies designed to improve predic-
tive modeling of major coastal ecosystems will
probably occupy the time of investigators for many
years to come before adequate models can be devel-
oped which quantitatively predict impacts. '
The Service's approach makes maximum use of
the state-of-the-art relative to impact analysis.
To make full use of presently available technology,
four separate.1ines of investigation are being
persued: 1) Literature Review; 2) Case history
studies; 3) Consultation with acknowledged ex-
perts in the respective fields; 4) An analysis of
the permit process within the FWS.-
In addition to maximizing available informa-
tion on impact effects, a major effort has been
undertaken with EPA pass-through funds to assess
the toxicological and physiological effects of
hydrocarbons on coastal water birds. Initial ex-
periments will subject wild strains of mallards to
low level concentrations of petroleum compounds to
determine toxicological and physiological effects
and to further develop appropriate analytical pro-
cedures. In subsequent studies, experiments will
be performed on seabirds to determine deviations
from results experienced in the laboratory.
The volume of environmental information
presently being developed staggers the imagination.
Sophisticated information transfer mechanisms are
required to make full use of even a fraction of
the data available. The Service is developing an
information transfer network designed to provide
maximum use of systems currently in use and to
store and retrieve information being developed by
ongoing studies. Development decisions and com-
prehensive planning efforts are underway and de-
cisions are being made now. The best decisions
will be made in light of the best information
available.
-------
103
that are involved with implementing significant
portions of the research were represented on the
technical task team. The components included:
NOAA RESEARCH ON MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL
EFFECTS OF ENERGY-RELATED ACTIVITIES
James B. Rucker
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
Rockville, Maryland
INTRODUCTION
As this nation seeks to develop more fully its
energy resources it is clear that energy-related
activities will affect the marine environment.
Based on the premise that expansion in selected
areas of environmental research and development is
needed to cope with environmental impacts that may
result from an acceleration in developing energy
resources, NOAA submitted eleven proposals for
environmental/energy research to EPA for energy-
related pass-through funding. This past summer a
NOAA-EPA Interagency Energy Accomplishment Plan was
finalized and funding was made available to
implement the program. Three of the eleven
research and development projects deal with the
effects of selected energy-related activities on
the marine environment. These projects and names
of the project managers are:
o An Environmental Assessment of Northern
Puget Sound and the Strait of Juan de
Fuca - Dr. Howard S. Harris, NOAA-ERL,
Seattle, Washington
o An Environmental Assessment of an Active
Oil Field in the Northwestern Gulf of
Mexico Dr. Joseph W. Angelovic,
NOAA-NMFS, Galveston, Texas
o Fate and Effects of Toxic Metals and
Petroleum Hydrocarbons on Selected
Ecosystems and Organisms Dr. Douglas
A. Wolfe, NOAA-ERL, Boulder, Colorado
The purpose of this paper is to describe the
approach and progress of these three projects.
The other NOAA energy-related projects deal
principally with atmospheric effects, and measure-
ment and monitoring. These projects are being
addressed separately in these proceedings.
The three NOAA projects were all new initia-
tives and the first step in implementing these
projects was to expand the Interagency Energy
Accomplishment Plan into a complete five-year
project development plan. Project managers were
assigned the responsibility of drafting the
detailed plans. All three projects are of an
interdisciplinary nature, and all involve tasks
that must be accomplished by a number of NOAA
mainline components. Therefore, a technical task
team was assembled to review and critique the
draft project development plans. NOAA components
o National Marine Fisheries Service
o National Ocean Survey
o Environmental Research Laboratories
o Environmental Data Service
o Office of Sea Grant
Draft project development plans were submitted
to the technical task team in August, and in early
September project managers met with the technical
task team to finalize the project development
plans. The effective date for actually initiating
the projects was September 1975.
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT OF NORTHERN PUGET
SOUND AND THE STRAIT OF JUAN DE FUCA
This project is designed to develop ecological
data needed for assessing the potential impact of
petroleum hydrocarbons on the ecosystem. The
results of this research will be immediately
applicable to regional management and development
decisions on the location of deepwater ports,
expansion of refinery capacity at existing sites
versus the development of new sites, and the
regulation of tanker traffic in parts of the Sound.
Petroleum Related Activities
The petroleum industry within the Puget Sound
region has generally experienced growth commen-
surate with the region's population and industrial
growth. Recently, however, the amount of tanker
traffic through the Strait of Juan de Fuca has
increased, and a further intensification of
petroleum transport and refining activities is
anticipated during the next few years. There are
several factors which account for this expansion.
Until recently much of the oil requirement of the
Pacific Northwest has been supplied by Canadian
crude oil delivered to U.S. refineries via
pipeline. This flow now has been substantially
reduced, and Canada plans total phaseout in the
early 1980's. Not only has this required addi-
tional tanker traffic to make up the U.S. deficit,
but also it results in a surplus of crude oil in
western Canada which is shipped out from terminals
near Vancouver through the Strait.
Because of its proximity to the termination
of the Trans-Alaska pipeline, some thought has
been given to making the Puget Sound region a
transshipment point for other marketing areas.
The Oceanographic Commission of Washington, in a
study done for the state legislature, has
evaluated several scenarios of this type, and it
estimates that Puget Sound refinery capacity could
double by 1980 and that tanker transport of
crude oil could be increased by as much as tenfold
by the turn of the century.
The waters of the greater Puget Sound region,
with few exceptions, have not been subjected to
massive oil spills or the environmental problems
associated with continued release of small amounts
-------
104
of oil, despite a long history of petroleum trans-
port and refining. However, with the dramatic
increase in tanker traffic and refinery activity
that has been predicted for the next decades, a
catastrophic spill or the realization of serious
biological effects due to chronic low-level
emissions cannot be discounted. It is the aim of
this EPA-funded energy-related research project to
develop an understanding of the ecology of the
system and to provide environmental data needed to
assess the potential impact of petroleum-related
activities on the ecosystem.
Project Design
The project research is organized into four
major tasks. The first of these is to characterize
the major marine biological populations subject to
impact by pollution resulting from petroleum trans-
portation and refining. The second task is to
determine the existing distribution and concentra-
tion of pollutants within the ecosystem which are
associated with refinery effluent and petroleum.
A third task is to characterize the principal
processes and major pathways by which petroleum
moves through the marine ecosystem. The final
task is to provide decision-makers with environ-
mental and ecological information and predictions
of the effects of oil-related activities upon the
ecosystem.
Project Progress
A data management system was developed and
initiated in December 1975 to provide storage and
retrieval for project data as well as bibliographic
support for project investigators. This effort is
being conducted by the NOAA Environmental Data
Service. Acquisition of principal existing data
sets on the region has been accomplished. An
assessment of the existing meteorological network
covering the study region, and recommendations for
upgrading the network to support the project has
been completed by the project office. An upgraded
meteorological network is scheduled to support
project oceanographic studies for February 1976.
Proposals for investigating the intertidal
communities and water circulation and mixing of the
region are being evaluated. And a proposal for
investigation of plankton distribution is under
review. These investigations are scheduled to
begin this winter.
AN ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT OF AN ACTIVE OIL
FIELD IN THE NORTHWESTERN GULF OF MEXICO
The goal of this five-year project is to
develop an environmental assessment of an active
oil field in the northwestern Gulf of Mexico and
to compare conditions that have developed in the
established oil and gas field to those in a similar
but unaltered area. The objectives are twofold:
(1) describe the existing ecosystems and the
variability in their major components, both in
time and space, for an active oil field and an
unaltered area; and (2) compare the concentrations
of pollutants in the water, in the sediments, and
in the biota, found in an active oil field with
those of an unaltered area and identify those
changes attributable to oil exploration and
production.
Buccaneer Oil Field
The area selected for study is the operational
Buccaneer Oil Field located approximately 32 miles
southeast of Galveston, Texas. Its proximity to
the NMFS Gulf Coastal Fisheries Center in Galveston,
Texas, simplifies logistics and reduces the cost of
the research. This field has been in production
for about 15 years, which has allowed time for full
development of the oil field-associated climax
marine communities. Its isolation from other
fields facilitates the selection of an unaltered
area for comparison near or adjacent to the field.
The Buccaneer Oil Field was developed by the
Shell Oil Company in four lease blocks during the
years 1960 through 1968. The total area leased
is 14,670 acres or approximately 23 square miles.
During the development of the field, 18 platforms
have been built; two are major platforms, two
are auxiliary platforms, and 14 are satellite
platforms. Initial exploratory drilling began
about mid-summer of 1960 with mobile drilling rigs.
Following exploratory drilling permanent type
drilling platforms were established. All subse-
quent drilling and production activities have been
conducted from these platforms.
There has been no history of reported oil
spills from this field. Although there undoubtedly
have been minor losses due to failure of equipment
or human error, there have been no major spills.
Project Design
Project activities have been organized into
five tasks. The first task is to develop a data
base to identify information deficiencies and to
provide bibliographic support to the various
researchers involved in the study. The second
task is to establish a data management system to
provide availability and exchange of project-
generated data among individuals working in the
several research disciplines. The third task is to
identify the biological, chemical, and physical
alterations in the ecosystem attributable to oil
field development. This task is quite compre-
hensive and includes surveys to investigate the
hydrography, water characteristics, sediments,
pollutants, and .the abundance, distribution,
diversity and habitat of major planktonic, benthic,
and pelagic communities. A separate survey will
be conducted to define the effects of the platforms
on the local ecosystem, including community
composition and aggregation of species. The fourth
task is to determine the presence of selected
heavy metal and hydrocarbon pollutants and identify
pathways' and effects on the various components
of the ecosystem. Lastly, a major task will be
to develop the capability of predicting the impact
of oil field development on the ecosystem and
applicability of extrapolation to other areas
along the continental shelf.
-------
Project Progress
A pilot study was initiated in November 1975
to determine whether or not the Buccaneer Oil Field
is in fact a suitable study site, to obtain pre-
liminary physical and biological data, and to
establish a statistically valid sampling distribu-
tion and frequency. The pilot study will be
concluded in late February 1976. However, interim
results suggest that the Buccaneer Oil Field will
be a suitable study area. These results also
suggest that there is a pronounced decrease in the
macrofaunal population in the vicinity of the two
major platforms and a concomitant increase in the
raeiofaunal population.
A request for proposal was developed and
issued in late December 1975 to solicit potential
university contractors for work on seven work
units dealing with sedimentology, benthic fauna,
effects of structures, hydrocarbon levels, heavy
metals, total organics and hydrodynamic modeling.
Work on these topics will begin in late February
1976. Similarly within NOAA, work will begin on
bibliographic and data mangement activities by
the Environmental Data Service and the National
Marine Fisheries Service Fisheries Engineering
Laboratory. Investigations on current, tempera-
ture and salinity regimes, demersal fishes,
macrocrustaceans, pelagic and reef fish and
plankton will be initiated in late February 1976
by the National Marine Fisheries Service.
FATE AND EFFECT OF PETROLEUM HYDROCARBONS AND
SELECTED TOXIC METALS ON SELECTED MARINE
ECOSYSTEMS AND ORGANISMS
Heavy metals and petroleum hydrocarbons are
known to affect adversely marine organisms, through
both short-term acute or long-term chronic exposure
levels. Both heavy metals and petroleum hydro-
carbons are concentrated or released by energy
development activities. This project is designed
to provide laboratory and field investigations
of the effects of these pollutants on marine
organisms and the ecosystem. Emphasis is placed
on subarctic environs.
Project Design
The overall approach of this project is to
study specific processes controlling the effects,
both physiological and ecological, of petroleum
hydrocarbons and selected toxic metals in subarctic
marine ecosystems to facilitate the assessment of
the impacts of pollutant releases in this ecosystem
type. The project includes four interdependent
tasks which are coordinated with the other NOAA
energy-related projects in Northern Puget Sound
and the Gulf of Mexico, as well as the Alaskan
Outer Continental Shelf (DCS) Program, and the
Marine Ecosystems Analysis (MESA) Program.
The first of the four tasks is to establish a
national analytical capability for petroleum
hydrocarbons and toxic metals in the marine
environment for the purpose of standardizing
analytical techniques, providing intercalibration
services and conducting routine analysis.
105
The second task is to identify information gaps
in our understanding of impacts of subarctic
marine ecosystems, and to design a comprehen-
sive program of laboratory and field research
to fill those gaps. The third task is to conduct
selected laboratory experiments on fate and effects
of metals and hydrocarbons. Finally, there is the
task of conducting controlled experimental ecosystem
research to determine changes at the ecosystem level
and to test our ability to predict ecological and
biological impacts in subarctic ecosystems. These
experiments will be initiated during the third
year of the project and be located in the coastal
portion of the Northeastern Gulf of Alaska, at a
yet unspecified study site.
Project Progress
Funds have been committed for establishing
the NOAA analytical facility at the NMFS Northwest
Fisheries Center in Seattle, Washington. Procure-
ment of equipment and recruitment of personnel are
in progress. It is expected that the facility will
be fully established by July 1976.
Planning is underway for a symposium and work-
shop on the adequacy of research to date as a basis
for reliable prediction of consequences of con-
tamination of subarctic marine environs. A
provisional date for this workshop has been set for
November 1976. The results of the workshop will
be most important in developing direction for
further experimental subarctic ecosystem research.
Two laboratory research experiments have been
initiated. One is to study the effects of petroleum
hydrocarbon exposure on bioaccumulation and toxicity
of methyl mercury and of chlorinated hydrocarbon
residues in selected fish and shellfish. This
research was initiated in December 1975 and is being
conducted by NOAA researchers at the NMFS Northwest
Fisheries Center in Seattle, Washington. The other
experiment in progress is to determine the effects
of petroleum hydrocarbons on equilibria of toxic
metals across marine sediment - water interfaces.
This research was initiated in November 1975 and
is being conducted by researchers at the NOAA
Environmental Research Laboratories in Boulder,
Colorado.
SUMMARY
The projects described in this paper constitute
the NOAA research effort on the marine environmental
effects of energy-related activities. First-year
funding provided wholly by EPA interagency funds
is 2.17 million dollars. Second-year funding will
be approximately 2.10 million dollars. Planned
funding for the third, fourth and fifth years is
2.1, 1.9 and 1.7 million dollars, respectively.
Although the projects are only in their
beginning stages, schedules are being met and
significant progress is being made by researchers
in several NOAA components and from contract
agencies and institutions.
-------
106
PARTICIPATION OF ERDA IN THE
TRANSPORT AND ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS CATEGORIES
OF THE PASS-THROUGH PROGRAM
R. E. Franklin, D. S. Ballantine, J. 0. Blanton,
D. H. Hamilton and C. M. White
U. S. Energy Research and Development
Administration
Washington, D. C. 20545
INTRODUCTION
Approximately $4 million was made available to
ERDA through the pass-through program late in
FY 1975 for environmental research. These funds
were associated with a variety of tasks, objectives,
subcategories, and categories in the working group
report. They were reorganized by ERDA for implemen-
tation and management into six major program areas
to focus on specific problems and to group-related
tasks regardless of the original category. These
six program areas and the allocation of funds with
respect to the interagency categories are shown in
Table 1. These programs are managed and adminis-
tered within ERDA by the Environmental Program
staff of the Division of Biomedical and Environ-
mental Research.
Several points listed below should be under-
stood to appreciate the interagency program.
1) The report of the working group is in no
sense a comprehensive plan. It is a collection of
tasks which if successfully completed would con-
tribute to a better appreciation of environmental
impacts.
2) There was no evaluation of existing base
programs by the working group.
3) Nuclear, geothermal, and solar technolo-
gies were excluded from consideration on the basis
that the NSF and the AEC were already receiving
adequate or a "fair share" of funds to deal with
the problems associated with these technologies.
The only exception to this was a minor amount of
funds originally allocated to the AEC for some
physical and chemical oceanography related to off-
shore power plants. Oil shale was almost com-
pletely eliminated from consideration largely due
to the limited funds which were available, and the
expected contribution of that technology in the
near-term.
4) The objectives used to classify the
research tasks are general and do not group the
tasks according to common technological problems or
practical research objectives.
5) The tasks are so broad and so ambitious,
in most cases, that only through merging the efforts
with on-going programs and through sustained effort
will the objectives be realized.
The major impact of the pass-through funds has
been to permit implementation of research plans
sooner than would otherwise have been possible.
This was particularly important in the case of ERDA
since the Energy Reorganization Act was implemented
midway in the fiscal year, and the environmental
budget was grossly inadequate to provide for the
research needs of the vast array of technological
responsibilities given to the Agency.
The Environmental Programs within ERDA
include, in principle, the scope of two of the
interagency categories, Transport and Ecological
Effects, and a portion of the characterization,
measuring and monitoring category (CMM). However,
for purposes of dealing with pass-through funds
the CMM category is managed by the Physical and
Technological Programs within ERDA. The Environ-
mental Program budget for FY 1976 was approxi-
mately $39 million. As indicated in Table 2,
about one-half of that was in support of research
directly related to one or more of the six program
areas associated with the pass-through funds.
In most cases the pass-through funds provide
a modest but useful supplement to ERDA's on-going
effort in these areas. In the case of land recla-
mation and the Alaskan oil program, the supple-
mental funds are a significant complement.
The major items in the remaining portion of
the ERDA budget, (cf. Table 2) which are related
to the transport and effects categories, are as
follows:
Nuclear Fuel Cycles, Excluding $7.9 Million
Offshore Power
Geothermal Power 0.8 Million
Fundamental Support In 4,0 Million
Applied Science
Operational Programs 6.5 Million
The applied science includes research in
meteorology and other atmospheric sciences,
terrestrial ecology, limnology, oceanography, soil
science, etc. The operational programs include
such things as support to National Environmental
Research Parks, military programs, laboratory
site management, and the upper atmospheric pro-
gram.
Finally, we should recognize that any attempt
to orchestrate the total national effort which is
related to the environmental and health effects of
all fuel cycles would probably be futile. How-
ever, we can accomplish a great deal by working
to increase the awareness, both at the Agency
and the individual investigator level, of the true
national effort at the program- and problem-area
levels.
-------
The remaining text will describe the new ERDA
projects in the six program areas.
LAND RECLAMATION
Nine tasks for which ERDA has responsibility as
outlined in the interagency report deal with surface
mine reclamation and related problems. l»'ith the
exception of one task that is specially tailored to
oil shale extraction, these tasks relate to coal
extraction and utilization at mine-mouth plants.
The major research efforts involve a diversified
program conducted by the Land Reclamation Laboratory
at Argonne National Laboratory (ANL), and the Ames
Laboratory, Iowa State University. The Ames study
is a cooperative venture with the University of
Montana, Montana State University, and the Pacific
Northwest Laboratory. Study sites are located in
the Southwestern, Northern Great Plains, and Central
coal resource regions. The program is built around
a series of mine and mine-related sites. The scope
and direction of the program can best be understood
through the description of the study sites, which
follow.
1. Northern Great Plains
There are four study areas in the Northern
Great Plains coal region which are related to this
program. They range from the lignite fields in
North Dakota to the Green River Formation in South-
eastern Wyoming.
1.1. Colstrip Site
The objective of the Ames project (Gordon and
O'Toole) is to evaluate the significance of changes
in trace element concentrations in the grassland
system surrounding Colstrip, Montana, as a result
of mining operations and coal utilization in the
area. Initial efforts have been to determine indi-
genous levels of trace metals and other potential
contaminants in vegetation and wildlife of the area.
The goal is to provide biological transfer rates
and potential effects data which can be used in the
assessment of the ecological impact due to develop-
ment of the region. Naturally, this study is
expected to provide only a portion of the input for
such an assessment.
About two-thirds of the financial support for
this project comes from the trace contaminants pro-
gram.
1.2. Jim Bridger Mine Site
This study area is located in the Green River
region near Rock Springs, Wyoming. The project is
a cooperative effort between the Operator, Pacific
Power, and Idaho Energy Resource Company, and ANL
(Carter and Cameron). The complex includes a
mine-mouth power plant producing 1000 Mwe. This
site is particularly important because it repre-
sents a region which may undergo considerable
development in the future. Low rainfall (6-8"
annually), short growing season (42-82 days), and
harsh terrain characterize the region.
107
The primary objectives of this project are
focused on efficiency of utilization of available
water through improved infiltration and water har-
vesting techniques. The first series of experiments
includes the use of mulches, ground surface manipu-
lations and snow fences on test plots to capture
and retain the maximum amount of precipitation.
1.3. Indian Head Mine Site
This study area is located in Mercer County,
North Dakota. The mine has been in operation since
1922. Production of lignite has been about one
million tons/year since 1967. Prior to 1967, annual
production was about 0.2 million tons/year. The
main environmental problems at this site are associ-
ated with the salinity and high clay content of the
overburden, leading to difficulties in establish-
ment of vegetation on reclaimed areas.
The research includes salinity, drought toler-
ance, and root morphological studies on species
which can be used for revegetation efforts; soil
placement, segregation, and handling studies with
the emphasis on mobilization of toxic elements by
soil microflora; and soil chemical and physical
modification, particularly as related to nitrogen
and sulfur cyclic processes in stored topsoil.
Research on soil microbiology is conducted by
ANL staff (Carter and Cameron) in cooperation with
scientists from Arizona State University and New
Mexico State University.
1.4. Big Horn Mine Site
This study area is situated in the Powder River
Basin near Sheridan, Wyoming. The research is con-
ducted as part of the ANL program (Carter and
Cameron) in cooperation with the mine operator,
Peter Kiewit and Sons Mining Company. The impacted
area is traversed by Goose Creek and the Tongue
River, which makes it particularly useful for evalu-
ating water quality, sediment transport, and overall
aquatic ecosystem effects related to mining.
Furthermore, the mine has been in operation about
20 years, a time sufficient to permit significant
assessment relative to the accumulation of effects
and impacts. The challenge will be to interpret
the current characteristics of the site, and inter-
pret other observations in terms of the so-called
"undisturbed" state. The experimental design will
permit this type of assessment to be made.
The overall objectives are to identify factors
that could potentially inhibit or enhance long-term
productive use of disturbed land and to maximize
the usefulness of reclaimed lands in this region.
Included in the experimental design are evaluations
of various methods of overburden removal, spoil
handling, spoil placement, spoil pile modification.
surface amendments, irrigation, and various revege-
tative techniques.
2. Southwestern Region
The ANL program includes three study areas in
-------
108
the Southwestern Coal Region; one associated with
the Black Mesa mine near Kayenta, Arizona, and the
other two in Northern New Mexico associated with
the San Juan and Navajo Mines. As with other ANL
studies these projects are cooperative ventures
with the mine operators, and in each case regional
universities are major participators in the
research.
2.1. Black Mesa Mine Site
This project is a feasibility study that invol-
ves a cooperative effort between the Peabody Coal
Company, Arizona State University, and AIJL (Carter
and Cameron) in an evaluation of water harvesting
techniques. The research utilizes a study initia-
ted in 1974 by the University of Arizona to explore
the coupling of recontoured spoil areas with
impoundments to provide water for improved land use
after mining. Should the results appear promising,
a larger area of more realistic size would be
developed to explore large-scale water harvesting
possibilities to provide for family subsistence,
crops, irrigation for reclamation purposes, live-
stock use, as well as rearing fish. Water availa-
bility is a key factor in reclamation efforts since
precipitation occurs primarily in short duration,
high intensity rain. Water harvesting techniques
offer considerable benefit in terms of lowering
the overall impact of regional development. The
expected outcome of this research will be a model
to predict optimal land allocations for water
harvesting, crop production, and grazing based on
water runoff and other environmental restrictions.
2.2. San Juan Mine Site
This project (Carter and Cameron) involves the
Western Coal Company, New Mexico State University,
and ANL. The area is located in San Juan County,
New Mexico.
The main thrust of this research is related to
problems in establishment of vegetation due to high
salinity of the topsoil.
2.3. Navajo Mine Site
This project (Carter and Cameron) is in the
conceptual stage. It will combine plant breeding
and selection techniques with plant growth,
development, reproduction, and successional studies
of plants and plant communities in a medium- to
long-term effort to produce varieties useful to
insure self-perpetuating landscapes on reclaimed
areas where soil moisture and related stresses may
limit revegetation. The study will be a joint
effort between the operator, Utah International,
and ANL.
3. Central Region
Two study areas related to the interagency
program are located in the Central Region, one
near Morris, Illinois; the other near Staunton,
Illinois.
3.1. Goose Lake Prairie State Park Site
This site in Grundy County is about 50 acres
in size. Although mining operations ceased over
30 years ago, 75 percent of the area remains barren
due to strongly acidic mine spoils and continual
erosion of the surface. This project (Carter and
Cameron) will involve a demonstration effort in
cooperation with the State of Illinois, coupled
with an ANL research program to evaluate the effec-
tiveness of reclamation activities that include
the use of chemical soil stabilizers and soil
amendments such as lime, sewage sludge, fly ash,
and straw. The plan is to revegetate the site with
prairie grasses, as is being done in an adjacent
state park.
The experience gained from this project will
guide restoration efforts for similar problem areas
in the state.
3.2. Staunton Deep Mine Refuse Site
This site in Macoupin County, like the Goose
Lake Prairie State Park Site, represents a common
set of environmental problems related to abandoned
coal mines and refuse piles. Over 6,000 acres of
land in Illinois alone are covered with barren,
acidic refuse piles. Similar areas exist in other
parts of the Central Region. Macoupin County con-
tains 100 such sites. These waste areas represent
significant sources of pollution to surrounding
areas. This project (Cater and Cameron) will
represent another cooperative effort by ANL, in
this case with the State of Illinois and the
Illinois Institute for Environmental Quality, in
an effort to establish better methods for disposal
and utilization of wastes and restoration of
affected lands. The results are expected to be of
considerable benefit to mine operators in recla-
mation of land and to legislators in drafting
legislation.
The research/demonstration project will
include assessment of infiltration, run-off, and
quality of water on the site and on adjacent,
impacted areas. Both laboratory and field experi-
ments will be performed to evaluate effects of
chemical and physical treatments on plant growth
and establishment, and on microbial transformations
of nitrogen and sulfur compounds.
4. Other Activities
Two other tasks from the interagency program
are included in this area, one relating to oil
shale extraction, the other to data management.
The oil shale study, conducted by the Pacific
Northwest Laboratory (Routson), involves develop-
ment of a model to predict movement (either solvent
or solute) through spent shale or disturbed
strata under areas where shale has been extracted.
Data storage and management systems (software)
being developed in a joint effort between Oak Ridge
National Laboratory (Strand) and ANL will ulti-
mately provide two-way exchange of information
-------
109
between Federal agencies, other public agencies,
the professional community, and the coal industry.
The system is planned to permit storage and retriev-
al of bibliographies and abstracts of reclamation
research programs, data, or reports including evalu-
ations and comments. The level of funding for this
task is not commensurate with the broad scope and
somewhat idealistically ambitious objectives of the
working groups'report. (This is unfortunately the
case with many interagency tasks.) Consequently,
only by merging efforts supported by this program
with current programs can these objectives be
approached or attained.
TRACE CONTAMINANTS FROM COAL COMBUSTION AMD
PROCESSING
The 1976 level of coal use in the United States
was approximately 600 million tons, and forecasts
indicate that this could double by the late 1980s as
the nation turns to coal to alleviate dependence on
foreign oil sources. Most of the environmental con-
cern has been focused on sulfur dioxide, sulfates,
and particulate emissions. This has resulted in
great pressures for removal of sulfur prior to com-
bustion and for development of more efficient con-
trol technology systems. The projects in this
program area deal with another growing concern of
whether trace elements, which are found in coal,
constitute a potentially serious long-term environ-
mental problem.
The composition of coal varies considerably,
and there is no typical coal composition.
Some of the trace elements of concern are cadmium,
mercury, selenium, arsenic, lead, chromium, copper,
and zinc. Trace element concentrations in different
coals and even coals from the same area may vary as
much as two to three orders of magnitude for a
given trace element. However, 10 ug/g is a common
concentration for many of these elements. Such a
concentration could result in the annual release of
6,000 tons of such hazardous elements as mercury,
arsenic, and cadmium at the current level of usage.
The projects included in this program are designed
to determine the characteristics, transport, and
fate of these trace elements in coal following com-
bustion or conversion to synthetic fuels, and their
effects on various compartments of the environment.
Some of the projects address the determination
of which elements are released via a utility stack
and how they are distributed in the vicinity of the
plant. Another group of projects deals with the
determination of trace elements in the residual fly
ash and furnace ash and their mobilization following
burial at disposal sites. Closely related studies
address the way in which any mobilized elements
are retained by different type soils.
Another aspect of this program is consideration
of the manner in which the trace contaminants are
cycled biogeochemically and the extent to which they
are concentrated by aquatic and terrestrial organ-
isms. In addition, some of the projects deal with
effects on plant and animal species in several
regions of the country.
Finally, two of the projects will attempt to
identify biological indicators which would serve
as early warning systems for detection of deleteri-
ous effects.
The results of these investigations are of
necessity quite preliminary and will be discussed
under five headings: (1) transport and fate of
trace contaminants released to the atmosphere,
(2) studies on trace elements in fly ash, (3) bio-
logical effects, (4) biological indicators, and
(5) coal conversion trace contaminant studies.
1. Transport and Fate of Trace Contaminants
Released to the Atmosphere
One of the major pathways for introduction of
trace contaminants into the environment is via
particulate releases to the atmosphere from
combustion stacks followed by deposition on the
surrounding environment. In one study being con-
ducted at the Savannah River Laboratory (Crawford),
measurements are being made of the trace element
composition of the plant fuel, ash, and stack dis-
charge to develop material balance data on trace
contaminants released from a large power plant which
has operated for about 20 years without an electro-
static precipitator. Measurements are also being
made of the concentration of trace contaminants in
soil, vegetation, mammals, micro-organisms, and
aquatic organisms along several transects through
the plant. These data will be correlated with
source term and meteorological data in the overall
assessment.
Another feature of this project will be the use
of fly ash on southeastern U.S. forests and field
crops to determine whether such practices could be
beneficial. A number of field plots will be estab-
lished and the effect of fly ash application
measured.
The Col strip study (Gordon and O'Toole) men-
tioned in the first section (involving the Ames
Laboratory, the Pacific Northwest Laboratory, the
University of Montana, and Montana State University)
is similar in several respects to the study at the
Savannah River Laboratory. Several sampling sites
have been established around the Col strip operation.
Fluoride, S02, and particulate samples are being
collected. Baseline data indicate that the air
quality in the region is currently very good.
Samples of vegetation and soils have also been
collected as part of the baseline program and
analyses for various trace contaminants are in
progress.
Aquatic ecosystem studies have involved the
selection and description of various water impound-
ment areas for pollution assessment and evaluation
of existing water quality. Biological sampling of
the aquatic ecosystems has been initiated and
macrophyte species have been harvested and identi-
fied in preparation for pollutant uptake studies.
Calculation of the macrophyte production in a
number of the impoundment sites is underway.
-------
2. Studies of Trace Elements in Fly Ash
Three projects deal with the mobilization and
transport of trace elements from fly ash buried at
various disposal sites. One is at Notre Dame, one
at State University of New York-Fredonia, and the
third at the Savannah River Ecology Laboratory.
The project at Notre Dame (Theis) deals with
the Teachability of trace elements in fly ash
through soil columns. Included are both laboratory
and field studies at actual disposal sites using a
variety of soil types and coal ash. The rate and
extent of fixation of these leached elements by
different soils is also under study. These latter
studies involve equilibrium-type measurements of
adsorption isotherms and dynamic column studies in
which "breakthrough" measurements are made. In
the field, experiments and test wells have been
drilled to permit validation of laboratory findings
and models.
The study site for the SUNY-Fredom'a project
(Wood) is in Chautauqua County, New York. The work
is focused on effects on aquatic systems related
to principal fly ash dumps. The initial phases of
the work are directed toward establishment of ana-
lytical methods and procedures to be used in
monitoring of stream water, lake water, around
water, sediment, and biota.
The project at the Savannah River Ecology
Laboratory (Smith) has two facets. One like the
SUNY project deals with impacts of fly ash disposal
on aquatic biota. Samples have been taken of sedi-
ments and organisms from locations at various dis-
tances from the main disposal site. The area is
characterized by acid "Blackwater" streams and
cypress-gum swamp, two biological systems common
to the southeast. The second facet of this work
deals with the aerial deposition of fly ash from
the power plant stack onto a small spring fed pond
with special emphasis on trophic level bioaccumula-
tion. A mass balance for trace contaminants will
be constructed using input and output data esti-
mates from rain gauge and outfall weir data.
3. Biological Effects
The third group of projects deals with the
ecological effects of trace contaminants. Most of
the research in this section is concentrated in
the West where the effects can be exacerbated by
limited water availability.
One study site is in the Mojave desert where
the Laboratory of Nuclear Medicine and Radiation
Biology, University of California-Los Angeles
(Turner) is studying the concentration of trace
elements in animals and plants around the Southern
California Edison's Mojave Generating Station.
Initial emphasis is on comparison of uptake of
different elements on an intraspecies and inter-
species basis. Work is closely coordinated with
similar work being conducted at Four Corners, New
Mexico, by the Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory
(Johnson).
The third project (Wolf) in this group, con-
ducted by the Pacific Northwest Laboratory (PNL),
is directed toward the effect of coal-related
pollutants on the behavioral patterns of fish. An
extensive review has been prepared which estimates
the concentration of various pollutants from coal
conversion processes and evaluates their potential
toxicity. It also covers the various behavioral
pattern studies used to determine sublethal effects,
Instrumentation is being adapted and developed for
the effects studies. One instrument being tested
for use in behavioral effects is the polygraph.
4. Biological Indicators
The first project, which is with the Virginia
Polytechnic Institute (Cairns), is concerned with
techniques for measurement of the effect of pollu-
tant stresses on the functional processes of
various trophic levels in aquatic communities. The
program is broad and encompasses both laboratory
and field investigations. The general areas being
examined include:
1) Structural and functional aspects of auto-
trophic and heterotrophic attached microbial
communities in lotic systems. A major emphasis on
the development of techniques for measuring the
effect of stress on the assimilation and metab-
olism of carbon, sulfur, and nitrogen.
Six artificial experimental streams, designed
and constructed at Appalachian Power Company on
the New River in Virginia, will be used to evalu-
ate the sensitivity of functional parameters to
various energy-related pollutants (copper,
chlorine, etc.).
2) Use of protozoan invasion and extinction
rates to assess the eutrophication process as
related to energy development. Studies have been
initiated in a series of lakes in Northern
Michigan which have been found to be in various
degrees of eutrophication and in Smith Mountain
Lake near Roanoke, Virginia.
3) Detrital processing by macroinvertebrates
to assess the effects of stress on community
function. The general objective of this approach
is to evaluate the potential for using detritus
processing rates as a pollutant stress assess-
ment technique. Three field sampling stations
have been established near the Glen Lyn Power
Plant on the New River in Virginia. Observations
will be correlated with changes in temperature,
photoperiod, flow regime, and timing and sequenc-
ing of the macroinvertebrate community.
4) Development and testing of methods to
determine the functioning of plankton communities.
This sub-project is concerned with the effects of
temperature, slimicide, and physical shock on
zooplankton function as affected by power plant
cooling systems. Laboratory studies have been
started on Daphnia pu1_ex and field experiments
will be initiated shortly.
-------
Ill
A second project, at Lawrence Berkeley
Laboratory (Harte and Levy), is utilizing micro-
cosms to evaluate biological indicators. Prelimi-
nary work has been directed to defining conditions
for establishment of microbial communities of the
diversity encountered in natural systems and to
selection of larger zooplankton and fish. Several
novel experiments are under study to evaluate hypo-
thesized stability indicators. These include the
activity levels of the major enzyme groups associ-
ated with decomposition and mineralization and bio-
chemical indicators which may characterize the
healthiness of the microbial decomposer.
5. Coal Conversion Trace Contaminant Studies
Three projects (Gehrs) conducted at Oak Ridge
National Laboratory are concerned with the trans-
port and effect of trace elements and trace organic
pollutants generated or released during coal con-
version to synthetic fuels. Included is research
on the chronic, low-level effects of contaminants
as well as investigations into the persistence,
fate, transformation, and food chain kinetics of
these substances.
OFFSHORE OIL EXTRACTION AND RELATED PROBLEMS
The major part of the effort in this program
is centered in the Puget Sound region under the
direction of scientists at the University of
Washington and the Pacific Northwest Laboratory
(Carpenter and Templeton). The major objective is
to assess the potential effects of long-term
exposure to petroleum-derived hydrocarbons on
selected ecological communities in Puget Sound.
The studies combine laboratory and field experi-
ments. The program is closely coordinated with
NOAA's program in Puget Sound.
Also at PNL (Vanderhorst), scientists are
looking at the laboratory response to mysids and
amphipods (later Dungeness crabs will be included)
to varying concentrations of specific hydrocarbons
and aqueous phase petroleum. They plan to assess
the effects of soluble petroleum on key factors in
the life cycle of these organisms.
In coordination with these laboratory studies,
an extensive field sampling program will be con-
ducted in Puget Sound (Bean). Emphasis will be
placed on Cherry Point Anacortes and Port Angeles,
two locations that are receiving oil wastes from
refineries. Scientists will analyze petroleum
contaminants in water, organisms and sediments.
These data will be compared with field samples from
relatively pristine Puget Sound localities such as
Sequim Bay. Also included in the field program are
studies to examine the potential biological availa-
bility and effects of petroleum hydrocarbons bound
to sediments. The effects of continuous exposure
to low levels of petroleum hydrocarbons released
from sediments is being investigated by following
the compositional changes of established and
recruited infauna populations.
An important contribution to the Puget Sound
program is being conducted by University of
Washington scientists who are determining the dis-
tribution of the natural versus man-made hydro-
carbons in local marine organisms (phytoplankton,
zooplankton, neuston) and in sediments and water.
Sediment cores have been dated with a lead 210
technique which leads to a time history of hydro-
carbon input to the sediments. The investigators
will also use the 13C/KC ratio to separate
recently biosynthesizea hydrocarbons from ancient
fossil fuel hydrocarbons. Presently, the labora-
tory at the University of Washington will handle
all of the low-level analyses (> 10"^ ppm) for
hydrocarbons usinq liquid chromotography and ultra-
violet fluorescence techniques. Guidance on the
use of these technologies has been furnished to
scientists at NOAA and at PNL who are cooperating
in the total program.
A smaller study has been initiated at
Lawrence Livermore Lab (Spies). Investigators
there are comparing the benthic community structure
at two sites in the Santa Barbara oil lease area:
one site is an active oil-seep area; the other is
in a clean area untouched by oil contaminations.
Ten replicate cores obtained by divers are col-
lected each two months. Each area is clearly
marked for easy and repetitive location. The
intent of this study is to identify differences in
the benthic community structure between these two
areas
The investigators at LLL also plan to initiate
studies of the effects of drilling on selected
benthic organisms with emphasis on the ways in
which organisms assimilate the toxic components of
drilling muds.
Another part of this program is concerned with
the transport and dispersion of refinery wastes in
freshwater coastal regions. Funds were used to
supplement a major program at Argonne National
Laboratory (Harrison) in coastal transport and
diffusion in southern Lake Michigan. The dynamics
of oil-fouled receiving waters are being examined
in a series of experiments conducted off the
Calumet Region of Illinois and Indiana where five
oil refineries discharge oil processing water into
the Lake via the Indiana Harbor Canal.
In a given experiment, a quantity of canal
water is tagged with a small amount of an inert,
non-toxic rare earth in aqueous solution. At the
same time and place, a quantity of oil-refinery
waste is released; this release is tagged with an
oil-soluble solution of a different rare earth.
Both tagged quantities move into the Canal and
into the Lake, dispersing in the normal fashion.
Several such experiments are planned under
different environmental conditions which will be
useful for adjusting dispersion coefficients in
numerical models of oil waste transport. These
data will be used to test a numerical model of
nearshore water transport developed at Case-Western
University under EPA sponsorship.
-------
112
IMPACTS ASSOCIATED WITH OFFSHORE POWER PLANTS
The coastal oceanography program at ERDA
supports a wide variety of research projects on _
the transport and fate of radionuclides and toxic
substances on the continental shelf and in estuar-
ies. The ERDA cooling system program and this
effort are both aimed at development of knowledge
of how substances such as Cu, Zn, heavy and poten-
tially toxic metals, and tritium are moved and
recycled in the nearshore region, and their
possible effects on economically or ecologically
important organisms. This knowledge is directly
applicable to material likely to be ejected from
coastal and offshore power systems.
The EPA pass-through funds for projects includ-
ed in this program are integrated with our coastal
oceanography program in transport of pollutants in
estuaries and on the continental shelf. One of our
principal contractors (Cross) is the Atlantic
Estuarine Fisheries Center (NOAA) at Beaufort,
North Carolina, which is working to (1) develop a
dynamic model of the cycling and fate of copper,
nickel and zinc in coastal waters in North Carolina
and (2) determine the effects of dissolved organic
compounds originating from watersheds and marshes
on the physical transport and biological availabil-
ity of copper to marine organisms, particularly
phytoplankton and larval fish.
Work has already begun on establishing base-
line concentrations of nickel, copper and zinc in
Onslow Bay sediments, pore waters, and benthic
fauna. Cruises will begin this spring to collect
samples for analysis of copper, nickel and zinc in
water within Onslow Bay, including the area near
the ocean outfall of the Brunswick Nuclear
Generating Plant. Experiments will be conducted
in the laboratory to assess the environmental
factors controlling sediment-water exchange of
these metals.
Complexation of copper by natural organic
matter is to be investigated with respect to the
following parameters: concentration and chemical
composition of dissolved organic matter, concen-
tration of copper, presence of competing metals,
acidity, salinity, temperature, and time, i.e.,
kinetics. Ultimately, we wish to be able to esti-
mate spatial and temporal variations in copper
speciation and to determine at least some of the
important factors that control copper complexation
in natural waters.
So far, research indicates that only a minute
fraction of the total copper in estuarine is
present as free cupric ion. Calculations show that
the high degree of copper complexation in the water
cannot be accounted for by the formation of inor-
ganic complexes, thus indicating that the pre-
dominant portion of the copper is present as
organic complexes.
Complexation of copper by dissolved organic
matter is highly dependent on pH, apparently due
to competition between hydrogen ions and cupric
ions for coordination with organic ligands. River
pH has been measured at values as low as 5.4 indi-
cating rather large spatial and temporal variations
in this parameter. Changes in pH should be an
important parameter affecting natural copper com-
plexation in the Newport River and estuary.
Chelation reduces copper toxicity and bio-
logical availability. Experiments are being
designed to determine the sensitivity of fish eggs
(spot, croaker, flounder and silversides) to both
free cupric ion and to copper complexes. Prelimi-
nary results from this investigation suggest that
fish eggs are sensitive only to free cupric ions
and that these levels of toxicity are similar to
those observed for algae.
This work, just begun, is important to our
study of the complexation of copper to natural
ligands and to determine what effect this process
has on trace metal cycling, including biological
availability. Such information is of great impor-
tance in predicting the impact of elevated levels
of copper and other heavy metals introduced by
power plants on fishery resources.
POWER PLANT COOLING SYSTEMS
As indicated in the introduction, pass-through
funds in the power plant cooling systems area have
been applied in toto to augmentation of a substan-
tial program already in place. This program is
currently operating at a level of about $3.8
million per year as shown in Table 2. The concep-
tual framework of the ERDA cooling systems program
is given in Figure 1. Indicated on the figure
are areas where four pass-through projects classi-
fied in this program are focused. These projects
are discussed below.'
1. Effects of Temperature on the Behavior of
Marine Invertebrates
Several years of experience have made it
increasingly apparent that the circulation charac-
teristics of most Steam-Electric-Station (SES)
sites are such that direct mortalities of important
organisms due to waste heat discharge are not
likely to be of quantitative significance, since
the areas impacted by an appreciable temperature
increase are generally quite small. ERDA has
accordingly supported for several years a program
on the effects of small temperature increases on
various parameters of fish behavior, conducted at
the National Marine Fisheries Service Laboratory
at Sandy Hook, New Jersey (Olla). The program is
directed at evaluation of the importance of sub-
lethal effects.
Pass-through funds are being used to expand
the program to include the effect of temperature
increase on the behavior of marine invertebrates
representative of mid-Atlantic coastal environ-
ments. Feeding activity, shelter dependence, and
social interactions such as aggression and
territorial ity are representative of the behavioral
measures studied. The blue-crab, Callinutes
sapidus, has been selected as the initial species
for evaluation, and current efforts are directed
-------
113
at the establishment of baseline data for crabs
maintained in laboratory aquaria.
2. Synergistic Effects on Invertebrates
Some of the more significant impacts of once-
through cooling systems in aquatic environments may
be manifested in the development, composition and
community metabolism of fouling communities as
influenced by toxicants such as copper leached from
the condensers or chlorine and its derivatives
associated with fouling control procedures. Scien-
tists at the Pacific Northwest Laboratory's marine
facility at Sequim, Washington, are utilizing pass-
through funds to evaluate the significance of these
kinds of effects (Thatcher). Polyvinylchloride
substrata are used in situ to permit development of
normal fouling communities. Then they will be
exposed in the laboratory to the following regimes:
(1) unfiltered ambient sea water; (2) heated sea
water; (3) heated sea water and chlorine; (4)
heated sea water and copper; (5) heated sea water
and chlorine and copper; (6) ambient sea water and
chlorine; (7) ambient sea water and copper; and
(8) ambient sea water and chlorine and copper.
To date exposure panels 100 cm2 and 400 cm2
in area have been placed in the Straits of Juan de
Fuca 40 feet below mean low water. They are in-
spected once a month with SCUBA; temperature is
continuously monitored. Initial panels are being
transferred to the laboratory at the time this is
being written. Ultimately laboratory results will
be verified at a Pacific Gas and Electric plant
site and estuarine sites for submerged panels will
be established at Willapa Bay or Gray's Harbor. A
typical panel is illustrated in Figure 2.
3. Chemical Effects of Chlorine and Derivatives
Although recent estimates suggest that only a
small percentage of the total chlorine added to the
Nation's waterways each year enters in the effluent
from once-through cooling systems, interest in
potential problems arising from power plant cooling
water chlorination has increased dramatically.
This is particularly true for marine and estuarine
environments where little information exists, and
th? possibility of interactions with high ammonium
ion concentrations and other factors is great.
Pass-through funds are being applied to the
expansion of an ongoing program also at the Pacific
Northwest Marine Laboratory at Sequim, Washington,
to support bioassay determinations for LC50
chlorine dosages for a spectrum of marine organisms
(Tempieton). Preliminary experiments on oyster
larvae, Dungeness crab eggs, coon stripe shrimp
eggs, and amphipods have been completed. Replica-
tions of these determinations are planned as well
as experiments on eggs and larvae of flounder,
herring, smelt, and sandlance. A substantial
portion of the overall effort is devoted to reso-
lution of problems in the analytical techniques for
determination of "total residual chlorine."
4. Condenser Effects
Direct mortality to organisms passing through
power station cooling systems may represent the
most significant impact on the biota of receiving
water supplies. Significant damage can be caused
by purely physical aspects, such as abrasion and
pressure changes, of cooling system passage.
Previous work at Oak Ridge National Laboratory
with an experimental condenser loop has indicated
that condenser passage itself is not a significant
source of mortality, and that the probable site of
most physical damage to plankton may be the high
speed, high volume pumps used to supply the cooling
system. This portion of the ERDA cooling systems
program is devoted to construction of an experi-
mental pump-condenser loop system which will be used
to determine the source of mechanical damage to
typical freshwater and marine ichthyoplankton.
Attention will be focused on features of pump design
and operation such as speed and net positive suction
head (Coutant).
Specifications and design criteria for con-
struction of the experimental system have been
completed and bids received for a scaled down model
of a condenser-pump system. The program is on
schedule and initial experimentation will begin as
planned this spring.
5. Other Projects
One other project unrelated to the above but
included in this program for administrative purposes
deals with atmospheric effects of cooling towers
(Gifford). This research which deals with the
atmospheric effects of large cooling towers, opera-
ting singly and in clusters, and is being con-
ducted by NOAA's Atmospheric Turbulence and
Diffusion Laboratory (ATDL) at Oak Ridge, Tennessee.
A numerical cloud growth model is being con-
structed drawing on previous experience at ATDL and
elsewhere. The sensitivity of the model to para-
metric variations will be investigated. The model
predictions will be compared with field data. Wind
tunnel studies will be used to examine the effects
of the geometry and placement of cooling towers in
simulated environmental settings on the behavior of
the plumes. Problems of plume down wash and inter-
actions between plumes are being investigated.
The possibility of large heat and moisture
fluxes from energy centers affecting local and
regional weather conditions is being examined theo-
retically. Field experiments are being considered.
ALASKAN OIL
As a result of the Prudhoe Bay, Alaska oil
strike in 1968, there was thought to be about two
billion barrels of crude oil and some 7.4 trillion
cubic feet of natural gas in that field. By 1973
the proven reserves of crude oil for the U. S.
and Canada, except the Arctic, were estimated to
be 1.3 billion net barrels. Currently, Alaska's
Arctic Slope is estimated to have something under
10 billion barrels of crude oil and about 22.5
trillion cubic feet of natural gas. None of the
values given for Alaska include estimates for
-------
114
presumed Outer Continental Shelf reserves. Thus,
Alaska will figure importantly in the Nation's
future petroleum production/planning.
The Atomic Energy Commission was involved for
many years in ecological research and studies of
man's impact on the arctic. For example, the study
of the Cape Thompson region resulted in the most
detailed characterization of any arctic region yet
published. This experience and related projects
were inherited by ERDA and form the core for the
future research program related to development of
Alaskan resources.
Given this potential of the region combined
with the difficulties of technology, exploitation,
and production in this remote and rigorous environ-
ment, the questions in need of answers are many and
diverse. ERDA has responsibility for three tasks
related to these problems, as follows:
1) Oil persistence in the tundra and its
impact on the below-ground ecosystem,
2) Effects of oil on tundra thaw ponds, and
3) Effects of construction on tundra lakes.
Although these studies were funded June 1,
1975, most of them could not be effectively started
prior to late June. Therefore, few results are
available and those which are available are only
preliminary in scope.
1. Oil Persistence in Tundra and Below-Ground
1.1. Technical Discussion
The presence of natural oil seeps in the
Arctic have been known for several decades. Their
existence certainly exceeds several hundreds of
years and perhaps thousands. They provide somewhat
of an index to the impact of oil on the tundra and
adaptation modes or processes within the micro-
biotic communities surrounding such seeps. The
natural fate of oil pollutants involves physical,
chemical, and biological processes. The bio-
degradation depends on the oil's composition, the
microbial community, nutrient levels, temperature,
soil respiration rates, etc.
Soil microorganisms are essential components
of Arctic ecosystems, especially in elemental
transformations including the cycling of carbon,
nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur. These cycling
processes may be altered by pollutants.
1.2. Program Discussion
The contractor for this research is Virginia
Polytechnic Institute and State University (Miller).
Study sites were selected at Barrow and at the
IBP Tundra Biome study site at Footprint Creek near
Barrow. Both are on the coastal plain. In order
to assess long-term effects, natural seeps will be
visited near Cape Simpson (coastal plain) and old
spills will be examined at Cape Thompson (coastal
plain) and Umiat (foothills).
Objectives are to:
1) Monitor species composition of filamen-
tous fungi, yeasts, and bacteria in oil treated
areas.
2) Follow impact of oil on fungi, bacteria,
and plant roots through one growing season.
3) Monitor physiological changes in micro-
organisms with emphasis on altered respiratory
quotients and changes in energy availability,
determine how changes which occur affect soil-
water relationships, and relate the changes to
rate of oil degradation.
4) Isolate and culture species of bacteria
and fungi able to use oil as a substrate or grow
and function in areas of high oil pollution.
To date there has been documentation of a
significant lowering of populations of fungal bio-
mass exposed to Prudhoe crude, marked depression
of mycorrhizal root activity, shifts in soil bac-
teria, and a strong increase in soil respiration
following treatment (this response is usually
followed by a drop in activity).
Oil may penetrate to depths of 8 cm in soil
or may stay on top of the soil with little mobil-
ity, apparently as a function of the microvegative
cover. At a highly contaminated natural oil seep
at Cape Simpson, only a single plant species,
Dupontia fisherii, remains. Bacterial populations
are high, fungal populations are low, and physio-
logical differences in the root action of
Dupontia have occurred, allowing it to exist in
the highly contaminated area.
2. Effects of Oil on Tundra Thaw Ponds
2.1. Technical Discussion
In 1970 a rather heavy concentration of oil,
10 1/m , was spilled on a tundra pond near Barrow,
Alaska. Results of that spill showed massive
organism die off and a slow recovery. The phyto-
plankton species composition changed and has not
returned to the pre-spill status in the five years
to date. Zooplankton has returned to about nor-
mal densities and diversity while the aquatic
insects are still at different densities and
species composition as compared to the control
ponds. The littoral margins (about 33 percent of
the pond area at high water) are still covered
with a tar-like residue and the macrophytes have
not returned to this area. This presents a con-
dition that merits a comparative analysis with
ponds receiving much smaller doses of oil to
determine differences in mortality and recovery
rate.
2.2. Program Discussion
North Carolina State University (Hobbie) is
responsible for this research. Ponds near Barrow
-------
115
were used as study sites.
Within the above general framework, the objec-
tives of this study are to determine:
1) The process by which an oil spill changes
species composition of phytoplankton.
2) The process by which an oil spill kills
zooplankton and whether all species are equally
sensitive.
3) the concentrations of oil necessary to
kill plankton species and the sublethal effects
produced by oil.
4) The process that prohibits reproduction in
benthic animals.
5) The effect of oil on bacterial numbers in
plankton and sediments.
6) The long-term effect on rooted aquatic
plants.
7) The rate of degradation of crude oil and
its components parts in arctic ponds.
The primary interests were in recovery times
and toxic effects of small spills. Two ponds „
received concentrations of 0.12 1/m2 and 0.24 1/mS
respectively, of Prudhoe crude in 1975 to compare
with the 1970 spill. Within eight hours post-spill
the ponds showed a marked increase in phytoplankton
response (such a response is similar to that pro-
duced by a shock or stimulus to phytoplankton).
About two weeks later, the following effects were
observed:
1) Macrophyte growth was unaffected.
2) There was no change in phytoplankton pro-
duction or biomass, but species composition change
was in the same fashion as in the 1970 spill.
3) Zooplankton disappeared.
4) Litter decomposition was inhibited.
5) No effect was detected on bacteria.
6) Large numbers of insects were killed and
reproduction of species which lay eggs on water
surfaces or marginal vegetation stopped. Species
which deposited eggs pre-spill (in some cases three
years earlier) showed normal emergence.
7) Oil disappeared in an exponential fashion
from spill areas.
3. Effects of Road Construction on Tundra Lakes
3.1. Technical Discussion
Road construction and maintenance in the arc-
tic imposes severe difficulties both in terms of
providing a stable, relatively permanent structure
and of minimizing serious impact on adjacent
undisturbed tundra. A gravel substructure must be
built. Grading is kept to a minimum. Because of
road structure, few drainage pipes under the road
are used. Thus, snow melt ponds tend to form.
Further, dust from the roads tends to cause earlier
snow melt and affect the suddenness of the summer
snow melt.
A major question concerns the effects of
altering watershed drainage increasing sedimentation
as a result of road construction. Such effects are
associated with the dumping of large amounts of
gravel into water, leaching of minerals from the
gravel, increased sediment loading within lake
waters, and alteration of the sediments on lake
bottoms.
The two previous studies on lakes suggest the
nature of the range of disturbances that can be
expected to occur in arctic lake systems. Baseline
data are needed from lakes where no human distur-
bance is yet involved to better understand the
quantity or quality of potential changes.
3.2. Program Discussion
This project (Alexander), which is conducted
by the University of Alaska, was designed to
answer certain questions on not only the biological
effects of increased turbidity on lakes, but also
on physical and biological alterations. In part,
the objectives complement the studies on oil spills
on ponds. Those biological parameters that could
be most easily measured concern changes in micro-
bial, benthic, and plankton populations or in pri-
mary production. Both quality and rate of food
intake by zooplankton or visual-feeding fish may
be altered.
Physical and chemical alterations are most
easily demonstrated by documenting runoff and water
turnover changes, light penetration, chemical cycle
composition (pH, dissolved oxygen, etc.) changes
and effects on thermal regimes or geochemical
budgets.
A survey of the highway along the pipeline
route revealed that there were 83 bodies of water
adjacent.to the highway. Of these, 26 percent were
thaw ponds or lakes (caused by melting of ground
ice), 25 percent were block drainage ponds (created
along roadside by the road construction process),
24 percent were beaded stream ponds, 12 percent
were old ox bows or meanders of the river, 8 percent
were glacial or kettle lakes, and 5 percent were
of other types. The seasonal chemistry was inten-
sively studied in block drainage, thaw, and meander
ponds. Ponds on the coastal plain were alkaline
while those in the foothills were acid. Extensive
sampling showed that block drainage ponds created
within the past year had higher primary productivity
than large bodies of water such as Toolik Lake.
Dust effects were minimal beyond about 50 meters
from the road, but within that range
could be markedly reduced.
As a means of evaluating the effects of man-
caused water turbidity and assessment of suspended
-------
116 . .
sediments two other lakes unaffected by man will
be used. Lakes Peters and Schrader on the north
side of the Brooks Range are being used to assess
effects of suspended sediments. The lakes are
situated in a narrow glaciated valley, and are
joined by a narrow channel. They have a common
source yet they contrast strongly in turbidities
because of their relative positions. In addition,
productivity and phytoplankton regimes have been
previously studied in these lakes providing base-
line information for comparative purposes.
The backbone of the study will be to make sedi-
ment load determinations in the lakes along tran-
sects and correlate them with the spectral band
sensed by special water penetrating color film
(Kodak SO-224) in aerial photographs and high alti-
tude ERTS imagery. Trace metal and nutrient dis-
tribution and limnological factors related to light
penetration and primary productivity will be
measured.
PROGRESS AND FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS
All of the projects described herein were
initiated during late June to July of 1975. In
most cases progress has been limited to site
reconnaissance and survey, and development of
detailed experimental designs. In no case was a
complete growing season available for implemen-
tation of research plans.
PROJECT REFERENCES
Alexander, V., University of Alaska, Fairbanks.
Bean, R. M., Pacific Northwest Laboratory,
Richland, Washington.
Cairns, J., Virginia Polytechnic Institute,
Blacksburg, Virginia.
Carpenter, R., University of Washington, Seattle,
Washington, and W. L. Templeton, Pacific
Northwest Laboratory, Richland, Washington.
Carter, R. P. and R. Cameron, Argonne National
Laboratory, Argonne, Illinois.
Crawford, T. V., DuPont de Nemours (E.I.) & Co.,
Savannah River Laboratory, Aiken, South Carolina.
Cross, F. A., National Marine Fisheries Service,
Beaufort, North Carolina.
Coutant, C. C., Oak Ridge National Laboratory,
Oak Ridge, Tennessee.
Gehrs, C. W., Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak
Ridge, Tennessee.
Gifford, F. A., Atmospheric Turbulence and
Diffusion Laboratory (NOAA), Oak Ridge, Tennessee.
Gordon', C. C., and J. O'Toole, University of
Montana, Missoula, and Ames Laboratory, Iowa.
Harrison, W., Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne,
Illinois.
Harte, J., and D. J. Levy, Lawrence Berkeley
Laboratory, University of California, Berkeley.
Hobbie, J. E., North Carolina State University,
Raleigh, North Carolina.
Johnson, L. J., Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory,
Los Alamos, New Mexico.
Miller, 0. K., Virginia Polytechnic Institute,
Blacksburg, Virginia.
Olla, B. L., National Marine Fisheries Service,
Sandy Hook Laboratory, Highlands, New Jersey.
Routson, R., Pacific Northwest Laboratory, Richland,
Washington.
Smith, M. H., Savannah River Ecology Laboratory,
University of Georgia, Aiken, South Carolina.
Spies, R. B., Lawrence Livermore Laboratory,
University of California, Livermore, California.
Strand, R. H., Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak
Ridge, Tennessee.
Templeton, W. L., Pacific Northwest Laboratory,
Richland, Washington.
Thatcher, T. 0., Pacific Northwest Laboratory,
Richland, Washington.
Theis, T. L., University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame,
Indiana.
Turner, F. B., Laboratory of Nuclear Medicine and
Radiation Biology, University of California,
Los Angeles, California.
Vanderhorst, J. R., Pacific Northwest Laboratory,
Richland, Washington.
Wolf, E. G., Pacific Northwest Laboratory,
Richland, Washington.
Wood, K. G., State University of New York,
Fredonia.
-------
117
TABLE 1
ALLOCATIONS OF FUNDS FOR ERDA PROGRAMS ACCORDING TO CATEGORIES OF THE
INTERAGENCY WORKING GROUP ON HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF ENERGY USE I/
'Program and Objective
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
I/
Orientation
Land Reclamation
Trace Contaminants
Offshore Oil
Offshore Power Plants
Power Plant Cool ing
Systems
Alaskan Oil
Based on the report of
Transport
Air Water Soil
($1000s)
75 90
130
310
175
80
70
Interagency Category
Ecological Effects
Terrestrial Freshwater
($1000s)
235 270
600 770
200
116
the working group dated November 1974, prepared for the Office of
Marine TOTAL
670
1500
485 795
175
305 585
186
Management and Budget.
TABLE 2
COMPARISON OF BASE BUDGET AND PASS-THROUGH SUPPORT
FOR ERDA PROGRAMS RECEIVING SUPPLEMENTAL FUNDS
Program
Land Reclamation
Trace Contaminants
Offshore Oil
Offshore Power Plants
Power Plant Cooling Systems
Alaskan Oil
Coastal Zone Impacts I/
TOTALS
Base Budget
(Millions)
0.5
5.7
2.6
2.1
3.8
0.4
3.8
18.9
Pass-Through
(Millions)
0.7
1.5
0.8
0.2
0.6
0.2
0
4.0 2/
I/ The coastal zone impact program consists of physical and chemical oceanography in the nearshore region. The
applications are multitechnological, and the research is in support of four of the programs listed: trace
contaminants, offshore oil and related problems, offshore power plants, and power plant cooling systems,
2/ The difference with Table 1 is due to rounding error. The actual value is $3.911 million.
-------
118
FIGURE 1
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK OF THE ERDA COOLING SYSTEMS PROGRAM
TRACE METALS
ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS
OF COOLING SYSTEMS
DISCHARGES
DIVERSION DEVICES (4)
ENTRAPMENT
AND
IMPINGEMENT
EVALUATION OF ADEQUACY
OF INTAKE-OUTFALL SAMPLING
MODELS OF EFFECTS OF
CONDENSER MORTALITY
ON RECRUITMENT
EFFECTS OF REDUCED
RECRUITMENT ON YIELD
CHEMICAI
EFFECTS
CI2 AND
DERIVATIVES
OZONE
TEMPERATURE EFFECTS
FISH
SYNERGISTIC
EFFECTS
FRESH WATER
INVERTEBRATES
MARINE &
ESTUARINE
'
PLANKTON
ROOTED
PLANTS
FISH
OTHER
VERTEBRATES
INVERTEBRATES
FIGURE 2 ARTIFICIAL SUBSTRATA FOR EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES
OF MARINE FOULING COMMUNITIES
(Courtesy C. I. Gibson, PNL)
-------
119
DISCUSSION FOR MARINE EFFECTS SESSION
Comment from the Floor on Preceedlng Rapporteur Presentation: It is difficult to summarize the en-
tire fate and effect of oil on the marine ecosystem. A number of projects and studies have been support-
ed by the American Petroleum Institute, EPA and the U.S. Coast Guard. Much of this work is detailed in
the proceedings of the Joint EPI EPA U.S. Coast Guard Proceedings of the Symposium on Oil Spill Preven-
tion Control held in San Francisco, March 1975.
Panel Response: The panel agreed that there is considerable work currently in progress in the area
of marine effects of petroleum and petroleum by-products. This work is intended for presentation at the
next EPA EPI U.S. Coast Guard Symposium on Oil Spills that will be held later this year. There will be
some contradictory evidence which suggests that more sophisticated]response measuring is needed to
adequately assess the toxicity of various levels of crude oil on the marine organism. Crude oils are only
one input to the system, other inputs consist of refined products. Wave and wind conditions in the local
ecosystem have a profound effect on fate of oil spills. Mortality of soft-shelled clams transported to
an area which had been subject to a spill twelve years earlier will be reported.
Question: Mention has been made of studies showing the effects of chlorine residuals on adult
fishes. Are there plans to extend these studies to fingerlings in other species of fish such as shad and
other Atlantic Coast species not covered in the studies which have been done or implied by the panel?
Panel Response: NOAA is doing similar work with other fish species although it is not known if shad
are included. ERDA is also supporting work at Woods Hole which will involve larval fish as well as
different plankton. These studies are directed at the effects of chlorine,ammonia and temperature.
Battelle is also doing similar studies involving larval fish, larval crustacean and other juvenile
species.
Question: A number of projects have been outlined which relate to Mid-Atlantic Northern warm and
cold water areas of the United States. Are there programs addressed to coral reefs or mangrove areas
such as occur in Southern Florida?
Panel Response: There is a substantial amount of work which has been reported in manuscripts but
not yet published. This work includes the effects of thermal influences on the determination of seed-
lings in the mangroves along with the composition and structure of ecological communities associated with
the mangroves. Reference was made to the First Thermal Ecology Symposium Proceedings for the symposium
held in Augusta, Georgia a year ago last spring.
Texas A&M has done extensive work with respect to oil on coral reefs. It is understood that these
studies purport to show that particular types of coral are not affected by oil spills even when the tide
exposes the coral heads allowing contact with the oil.
EPA is currently conducting work on the effect of low-level, long-term temperature changes on marine
organisms. Substantial analysis has been conducted on large amounts of data. This analysis indicates
that a temperature increase of slightly more than one degree in an embayment will result in changes in
species composition and diversity. Consequently, if power plants are built on bays or estuaries, changes
to the biome in these areas can be expected. In the marine area, this temperature increase is sometimes
referred to as thermal-pollution. This reference to marine thermal pollution is a misnomer. The local
long-term heat addition results in changes in species. New species will come in and old species will
evacuate. This is not pollution. However, what happens is unpredictable. Historically, warming has
taken place at Cape Cod not induced by man. This has resulted in the green crab, a preditor, devastating
the population of soft-shelled clams in the area. Without present knowledge and capabilities, such
long-term effects are not predictable, whether resulting from natural or man-induced causes and should
be regarded as a crucial issue requiring future research.
Question: A slide displayed during the previous presentation depicted fairly sizeable input of
hydrocarbons from river waters into the marine ecosystem. What is the form of the hydrocarbons from
river waters to the marine system, and what is the fate and persistence of the pollutant?
Panel Response: A doctoral thesis for a degree earned at the University of Atlanta has been publish-
ed which is concerned with the fate of polynuclear aromatics associated with river and sewage input into
Narragansett Bay. Increases in hydrocarbons were observed in the marine organisms and sediments which
decreased markedly at distances of 40 km down the Bay from the shore. The biological process did not
appear to result in decomposition of these petroleum products, nor did the petroleum seem to be of immed-
iate harm to the marine organisms in the open sea.
-------
CHAPTER 6
FRESH WATER ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS
-------
122
INTRODUCTION
Although the long term energy needs of the U.S.
depend on the development of energy sources other
than fossil fuels, it is evident that at least for
the remainder of the century, we will continue to be
heavily dependent on fossil fuels. These needs will
require greatly increased use of coal, continued
reliance on oil and possible utilization of novel
sources and processing technologies such as oil
shale and coal gasification. What is not yet appar-
ent is the ecological effects that extraction,
transport and conversion of these energy sources
will have upon the fresh water ecosystem.
It is recognized that the ecological balance of
the fresh water, marine and terrestrial systems are
closely interrelated. The aquatic aspects are
delineated here as a matter of organizational con-
venience.
The preservation of adequate water quality is
fundamental to the maintenance of the nation's
agricultural production, preservation of habitat for
fish and wildlife, and the general ecological bal-
ance. Competition for these water resources can be
expected to increase with demands of agriculture,
reclamation and the industrial processes themselves.
In the nineteenth century, sanitary engineering,
the technique of managing water supply and waste
treatment became the first recognized professional
environmental discipline. In contrast, the investi-
gation of more subtle aquatic impacts of thermal and
chemical effluents is a fairly recent development in
environmental science and engineering.
Special emphasis is currently placed on deter-
mining the impacts of energy technologies on aquatic
ecosystems. This emphasis will include identifica-
tion of pollutants released to the system and the
effects on aquatic flora and fauna. Also implied is
the development of remedial procedures to reclaim
damaged areas and the prevention of other ecological
damage in the future.
Much of the current reclamation activity is
associated with strip mine drainage and the strate-
gies for stabilization and reve&etation of lands dis-
turbed at various periods in the past. Preventa-
tive attention will include newly developing regions
such as Alaska. In recognition of the vast oil
reserves estimated in Alaska's Arctic Slope, and the
ecological frailty of the area, special attention
will be provided. This attention will center on
concerns with possible effects of oil spills and
pipeline construction activities on arctic lakes,
rivers and small watersheds.
-------
123
THE EFFECTS OF FRESHWATER WITHDRAWALS
ON FISH AND WILDLIFE RESOURCES
Robert P. Hayden
Project Leader
Western Water Allocation
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
INTRODUCTION
The Fish and Wildlife Service is identifying,
evaluating, and attempting to solve energy related
problems which threaten the water quality and
quantity essential for maintenance of viable aquatic
and terrestrial habitats. As we move towards na-
tional energy self-sufficiency, competition for the
water supply remaining available for utilization can
be expected to accelerate and spread from those
areas in the Western United States where it is al-
ready intense to major portions of the country.
Energy related decisions regarding water allocation
and use may adversely affect fish, wildlife, and
environmental values unless appropriate factual
information is provided in a timely manner and this
information is carefully considered in planning and
decisionmaking processes.
1.
Technical Discussion
The preservation of adequate water quality and
quantity in existing natural systems is a critical
factor in the maintenance of habitat viability for
fish and wildlife. This applies not only to aquatic
habitats but also to terrestrial habitats where
surface water satisfies the consumptive needs of
wildlife and supports riparian vegetation. Although
water is important in all climatic conditions it is
critical in the arid portions of the Western United
States where evaporation exceeds precipitation.
In the West, water has long been recognized as
the key to economic development as well as habitat
preservation. Over the years, numerous projects
have been constructed to irrigate arid lands, gen-
erate electrical power, and provide drinking and
industrial water supplies. During the next decade,
competition for the limited water remaining avail-
able for allocation and utilization is expected to
be intense, particularly for energy development
processes. The water allocation and use decisions
that will be made in the next few years may adverse-
ly affect fish and wildlife. This can possibly be
avoided with adequate planning which considers fish
and wildlife values.
Western coal and oil shale development will be
combined with related chemical, industrial and
expected municipal growth to bring great pressures
for rapid development of western water reserves.
No comprehensive investigations have been made to
determine environmental water requirements. Such
studies are needed to provide a sound basis for
future water allocation decisions. The Northern
Great Plains Resources Program and Westwide Study
provide some preliminary water requirement data.
However, these data are lacking in both the scope
and detail required to properly allocate western
surface water resources. Analyses stemming from our
involvement in river basin planning indicates that
adequate knowledge of long-term potential impact on
fish and wildlife and the resultant uninformed im-
plementation of action plans could virtually elimi-
nate many entire populations of fish and wildlife.
Water allocation and use decisions involve
natural system elements, but occur within a broader
social, administrative, legal, economic, and polit-
ical planning and management context. A basic
problem is that although we may recognize that
habitat preservation requires adequate water supplies,
fish and wildlife are commonly not legally considered
beneficial or consumptive uses of water. Therefore,
water is frequently allocated to other uses until a
stream is dried up or reduced to a small trickle.
To insure that fish and wildlife values are fully
recognized and considered in land and water resource
development decisions, biological assessments must
occur within the broader societal planning and
management context. We are, therefore, initiating
projects and supplying information to decisionmakers
on three levels:
(1) Technical
(2) Current Planning
(3) Broad Overview 'and Management
On the technical level we will be developing
methodologies for determining instream flow needs
for fish and wildlife, determining the location and
habitat requirements of endangered species, and
determining the effects on fish and wildlife of
water use and development alternatives.
On the current planning level we will be
determining the extent and location of unallocated
water, establishing fish and wildlife priorities
for individual rivers and determining the water
quantity needs of fish and wildlife.
On the broad overview level we will initially
be trying to determine the new and emerging decision-
making arenas to enable us to supply decisionmakers
with appropriate information in a timely manner.
In the long run we will be developing management
strategies and improving policy and decisionmaking
processes.
2. Program Discussion
The Fish and Wildlife Service's freshwater
energy activity is integrated with our other energy
programs and regular functions. Our operational
-------
124
elements include a Western Energy and Land Use Team
in Ft. Collins, Colorado, and Activity Leaders in
our Regional organizations. Staffing objectives
have been to create an interdisciplinary capability
and appropriate scientific disciplines to adequately
address potential energy impacts. For example, in
addition to traditional fish and aquatic biologists,
we have included a hydrologist, mining engineer,
economist, and a political scientist who is expert
on water policy, a. part of our Ft. Collins Team.
The Team will provide a national focus on both the
terrestrial and aquatic effects of energy develop-
ment and work closely with Regional Activity Leaders
on regional energy problems. This interaction
assures an integrated energy program both geograph-
ically and functionally.
We are placing a major emphasis on the develop-
ment of improved methodologies and tools to assist
our regular field personnel in the evaluation of
energy development effects on water. Our overall
strategy for accomplishing the Service's freshwater
program include:
(1) Define the key problems for which solu-
tions are critical and develop a plan of
action for solving these problems.
(2) Provide the necessary tools required to
minimize water use impacts on fish and
wildlife.
(3) Develop improved means to enter into
decisionmaking and water resources manage-
ment processes in order to ensure that
fish and wildlife values are fully
considered.
(4) Provide information in its most useful
form to decisionmakers within the Fish
and Wildlife Service, other Federal and
State agencies, private developers, and
the general public.
During FY 1976 we will be involved in the
following major activities:
(1) Initiating a major effort to develop
adequate methodologies and field capa-
bility to determine stream maintenance
flows for fish and wildlife.
(2) Determining fish and wildlife values and
characteristics of streams in energy
development areas.
(3) Funding studies in the most critical
energy development areas to establish
interim water needs while methodologies
are being developed.
(4) Initiating studies to determine the
distribution and migration patterns of
selected endangered species in potential
energy development areas.
(5) Determining water allocation arenas,
physical availability of water, and
institutional variables for the Western
States.
(6) Communicating initial study results to a
broad range of audiences.
A recently completed workshop at Utah State
University evaluated the state-of-the-art of
methodologies to determine instream flow needs. The
study indicated that this field has developed to the
point where a concerted effort is needed to refine
and apply methodologies of promise to streams under
stress from water development. A major effort of
the Service during FY 1976 will be the creation of
a "Cooperative Instream Flow Service Group" as a
satellite to our Western Energy and Land Use Team in
Ft. Collins. The Service Group will serve as a focal
point for the numerous efforts in determining in-
stream flow needs. It will provide service to
practitioners who must use and develop methodologies
and prepare, maintain, update, and distribute a hand-
book on instream flow methodologies, as well as
develop improved methodologies.
During FY 1976 we will also be producing a series
of reports covering all potential energy development
areas and establishing for each area the current
status of fish and wildlife, potential fish and
wildlife value, and the ranking of waters according
to relative value in fish and wildlife terms. The
reports will be useful to potential developers in
their planning processes to avoid sensitive areas
and minimize impact on fish and wildlife resources.
The fish and wildlife community can utilize the
reports in establishing priorities in planning
processes as well as analyzing individual projects
and evaluating alternatives.
Late in FY 1976 we will begin a preliminary
project to establish the instream flow requirements
at specific locations necessary to maintain the
viability of important fish and wildlife species
present in the Upper Colorado and Upper Missouri
Basins. Information on instream flow from specific
projects will be assembled and evaluated. The best
current available methodologies will be selected
within the time and monetary limits of the project.
The requirements established will remain our best
estimate of instream flow requirements until
improved methodologies are developed and applied.
Another major activity will be the initiation
of studies to determine the distribution, habitat,
and water quality requirements of endangered species
in potential energy development areas. This will
be a 3-year effort. The project will identify
high potential development areas, select priority
species to be studied,and identify, locate, and
monitor the activities of individual species. The
habitat requirements and mitigation alternatives
for these species will be assessed. Methodologies
will be developed to evaluate the impact of energy
and industrial development in these species.
-------
A handbook and guidelines will be published. During
FY 1976 studies will be initiated to determine the
distribution and migration patterns of selected
endangered species.
3. Projection
One of the first functions of our Regional
Activity Leaders has been to determine where and how
the water use decisions are being made in the States
within their Regions. We know these are changing
rapidly in some cases. This is essential informa-
tion to enable us to fund studies which will furnish
decisionmakers with appropriate information and to
develop methodologies which address the critical
questions that will be asked. Concurrently to these
determinations we have initiated studies to identify
critical research needs. We are now pulling together
the results of these studies and examining them in
the light of the new and emerging trends in water use
decisionmaking identified by our Activity Leaders.
We anticipate that a number of high priority infor-
mation needs will emerge from this process.
The following topics have already been
identified:
(1) Evaluation of the impact on ecosystems
of alternative energy development programs.
(2) Loss of critical habitat associated with
wetlands destruction.
(3) Social aspects in western water law.
INTERAGENCY PARTICIPATION
A substantial portion of the Fish and Wildlife
Service's freshwater energy program is being funded
by interagency supplemental energy funds. Acceptable
results from many of the studies require greater
cooperation among State and Federal agencies. In the
case of determining fish and wildlife priorities, the
Fish and Wildlife Service is initiating the study and
providing the mechanism, but the actual determinations
will be developed cooperatively with State fish and
game agencies providing the major input.
The Cooperative Instream Flow Service Group will
be multi-agency in character. Since many agencies
have responsibility and interest in instream flow
studies, staffing will include State participation,
through provisions of the Intergovernmental Personnel
Act and participation by other Federal agencies
through assignment. Direct services can be provided
to a variety of Federal and State agencies. Funding
in addition to the basic operating level is being
sought from other Federal agencies to broaden the
service capability of the group. We anticipate that
further financial support will come from the Energy
Research and Development Administration, Water
Resources Council, U.S. Forest Service, Corps of
Engineers, and others.
125
RESOURCE ALLOCATION
For many years, the Fish and Wildlife Service
has actively participated in water resources planning
and the evaluation of projects which would affect
fish, wildlife, and environmental values. During
FY 1975 and FY 1976 the Fish and Wildlife Service
budget provided $350,000 for the development of
improved tools and methodologies to strengthen the
inland aquatic portion of this effort, specifically
in energy related aspects. Interagency energy
supplemental funds are being used to augment these
Fish and Wildlife Service base funds. Total resource
allocations since 1975 and projected through 1976
are as follows:
Western Water Allocation Project
(in thousands of dollars)
FY 1975*
FY 1976*
Base Interagency Total Base Interagency Total
350 700 1,050 350 643 993
* Budget for tools and methodologies develop-
ment only. Fish and wildlife participation
in marine and fresh water resource planning
and evaluation was in the $8 million range
during FY 1976.
CONCLUSIONS
The Fish and Wildlife Service has actively
participated in water resource planning for many
years and is now identifying, evaluating, and
attempting to solve energy related problems which
threaten fish, wildlife, and environmental values.
This is a new thrust for the Service with a major
goal of providing information to appropriate
decisionmakers in a useful form and timely manner
which will ensure that fish and wildlife values are
carefully considered.
In the freshwater efforts area the data needed
relates principally to the determination of the
water quality and quantity that must be preserved in
existing natural systems to maintain viable habitats
for fish and wildlife. Improved methodologies and
new approaches are required and these are being
developed by the Service's freshwater energy activ-
ities. Success of the entire effort depends on
interagency and State cooperation. Interagency
supplemental funds are permitting an increased rate
of methodology development. The program is expected
to result in a greater understanding of the trade-
offs between alternatives and accelerated energy
development decisions in non-sensitive areas.
-------
126
USDA RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ON
EFFECTS OF ENERGY PRODUCTION AND
USE ON FRESHWATER RESOURCES
Harry E. Brown
USDA Forest Service
Washington, D. C.
INTRODUCTION
Because agriculture is one of the biggest
users of water in the United States, it is vitally
concerned with the increasing impacts that energy-
related activities are having on the Nation's
water resources. U. S. Department of Agriculture
agencies conducting programs directly concerned
with management of agricultural and forest lands
must bear responsibility for maintaining the qual-
ity and availability of water resources in the face
of these impacts. Of particular concern are pol-
lutants resulting from fuel extraction and diver-
sion of water from agricultural to energy uses (8) .
The purpose of this paper is to provide a
brief description of the overall energy research
program of USDA, with particular emphasis on
research dealing with effects of fuel extraction
on water resources.
The 0. S. Water Resources Council and National
Commission on Materials Policy have identified
some of the potential impacts resulting from energy
development. These include sediments associated
with mining, thermal wastes, acid mine drainage,
pollutants resulting from coal washing, and con-
centration of pollutants and decreased streamflow
resulting from increased consumptive use (5,9).
Energy-related impacts on water quality may also
result from energy conservation practices used in
the production of food, fiber, and forest products.
Another major concern is the possible impact on
agricultural production of transfers of water from
agricultural to energy uses.
On the plus side, there are often positive
effects on water resources resulting from energy
development. For example, well planned water
impoundments in strip mined areas can enhance rec-
reation and wildlife values.
Water rights, as well as numerous Federal
statutes enacted over the years, affect control
and development of surface water resources of the
United States. The 1872 Mining Law and 1920
Mineral Leasing Law, along with the Federal Water
Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972 (Public
Law 92-500) are examples of pertinent statutes.
PL 92-500 is particularly significant because it
requires control of pollution from mining activ-
ities. Among other things, it requires that guide-
lines be provided — "for identifying and evalu-
ating the nature and extent of nonpoint sources
of pollutants and processes, procedures, and
methods to control pollution resulting from —
mining activities, including runoff and siltation
from new, currently operating, and abandoned
surface and underground mines."
USDA ENERGY RESEARCH PROGRAM
The U. S. Department of Agriculture has
initiated an energy research program of broad
scope that is addressing water pollution as well
as other energy-related problems. Its overall
goals are to conserve scarce fuel supplies and
maintain environmental values and quality of rural
living while expanding agricultural and forestry
production to meet growing U. S. and rural needs.
The following program objectives are identi-
fied:
A. Conservation -- Increase the efficiency
of energy use in the production, process-
ing, marketing, and utilization of agri-
cultural and forestry products and devel-
op systems less dependent on petroleum
and natural gas. This includes research
in environmental effects of energy con-
servation technologies.
B. Bioconversion and photochemical — Devel-
op technology for biomass production and
for conversion of agricultural and for-
estry products and wastes into useable
energy fuels, petrochemical substitutes,
and other products.
C. Nonfuel sources — Develop technology for
the utilization of solar, wind, and geo-
thermal energy in agriculture, forestry,
and rural development.
D. Reclamation and environment — Develop
technology to reclaim mined lands and to
protect and enhance the environment and
quality of rural living as affected by
energy shortages and energy development.
E. Resources — Develop technology to assure
supplies of plant nutrients, land, water,
and other vital inputs as they are in-
fluenced by energy supply.
Of these objectives, only "Conservation11 and
"Reclamation and Environment" are dealt with
further in this paper because of their important
implication for water resources.
The USDA agencies involved in the program
are those that conduct programs directly concerned
with the management of soil, water, plants, and
animals on rural private and public lands. They
include the Agricultural Research Service, Coop-
erative State Research Service, Economic Research
Service, Extension Service, Forest Service, and
-------
the Soil Conservation Service. Limited additional
funding in support of the program is made available
by the Bureau of Mines, Environmental Protection
Agency, Energy Research and Development Adminis-
tration, Federal Energy Administration, and the
National Science Foundation.
The U. S. Water Resources Council (10) de-
scribes the water and energy-related programs of
three USDA agencies in Table 1. In addition, the
Cooperative State Research Service is involved in
water and energy research through the State Agri-
cultural Experiment Stations, Colleges of Forestry,
the 1890 Colleges of Agriculture, and Tuskegee
Institute. The Economic Research Service is in-
volved through socio-economic research aimed at
achieving a proper balance between agricultural
production and the use and quality of natural re-
sources.
Within the context of this overall energy re-
search program and relevant agency responsibilities,
we can examine some specific examples of USDA
studies dealing with effects of energy-related
activities on freshwater. These particular studies
are concerned with effects of energy conservation
practices and mining on freshwater from Sections A
and D of the USDA Energy Research Program.
Studies of Effects of Energy Conservation Practices
on Freshwater
1. Effects on freshwater of energy-efficient tech-
niques for establishing forest trees. Estab-
lishment techniques such as prescribed fire
could result in substantial energy savings
compared with use of heavy machinery. However,
more needs to be known about effects of alter-
native techniques on water quality.
2. Effects on freshwater of energy-efficient cut-
ting systems in major forest types. New re-
search will establish the most energy-efficient
cutting practices consistent with acceptable
quality of stream runoff from harvested water-
sheds.
3. Effects on water quality of energy-efficient
timber harvesting practices and logging road
designs.
4. Effects of energy-efficient nutrient management
practices on water quality. Practices aimed at
reducing the need for energy intensive fertil-
izers could have favorable implications in
terms of water quality. For example, if nitro-
gen fixing plants are developed to replace
nitrogen fertilizer, there could be a consid-
erable reduction in nutrient pollution of run-
off water. On the other hand, water quality
could be affected adversely by sewage wastes
applied to the land as an energy conservation
measure or by increased use of pesticides as
substitutes for more energy-intensive tillage
127
practices.
Studies of Mined Land Reclamation
A major USDA reclamation program has been
initiated with support from the Environmental
Protection Agency and other Federal agencies.
Portions of this program are described in accom-
panying papers by David Ward, Howard Heggestad,
and John Schaub, so only the parts dealing with
water resources will be touched on here. Water-
related objectives of the reclamation program are
as follows:
1. Effects of coal and oil shale extraction
on freshwater.
a. Develop baseline information for use
in evaluating potential effects of
energy technologies on freshwater
ecosystems.
b. Determine the immediate and long term
effects and biological fate of energy
related pollutants on freshwater re-
sources and ecosystems and evaluate
ways to minimize these effects.
c. Determine the immediate and long term
nonpollutant effects of energy tech-
nologies on freshwater resources and
ecosystems and evaluate ways to mini-
mize these effects.
2. Integrated assessments.
a. Estimate social, economic, and cultur-
al consequences of alternative energy
production and pollution control tech-
nologies. Included here are (1) eval-
uations of economic effects of energy-
related activities on demand for water
and economic life of aquifers, (2)
development of implications for inter-
regional transfers of water, and (3)
evaluation of effects of increased
water demand on agricultural indust-
ries, environmental quality, and rural
resource use.
3. Technologies for controlling effects of
mining and related activities on agricul-
tural, forest, and range lands.
Some examples of studies of freshwater effects
follow:
1. Baseline studies. Studies are being
implemented to describe premining surface
and subsurface water resources on agri-
cultural and forest lands in terms of
quantity and quality. A Technical Infor-
mation Service, SEAM INFO, is being devel-
oped to alert those needing information
-------
128
on reclamation of surface mined lands to
new documents and their sources and to
refer them to existing data bases and
services.
2. Effects and biological fate of energy-
related pollutants on freshwater resources.
In a study at Rapid City, South Dakota,
the quality of water in water bodies in
strip mined areas is being investigated
as it relates to the habitat for aquatic
organisms and wildlife species associated
with these water bodies. This study will
utilize existing information to establish
water quality limits and guidelines. It
will also provide information needed for
design and management of water impound-
ments in strip mined areas in the Northern
Great Plains. Another study will assess
the effects of mining-related transpor-
tation systems on water resources. Others
are directed at determining the movement
in water channels of pollutants associated
with the mining activities.
3. Nonpollutant effects of energy technolog-
ies on freshwater resources and ecosystems.
Studies are being conducted to determine
effects of mining activities on surface
runoff and runoff-infiltration relation-
ships on mine spoils. Investigations are
being made of mining techniques that will
utilize minimum quantities of water. In-
cluded in all the above is development
of modelling technologies for predicting
hydrologic responses to mining.
4. Control technology studies. Technologies
are being evolved for ameliorating adverse
effects of mining and related activities
on freshwater resources. Examples in-
clude: (1) procedures for characterizing
overburden and associated ground water in
advance of mining, (2) procedures for
revegetating mine spoils in such a way as
to stabilize the spoils and prevent ero-
sion and sedimentation of runoff waters,
(3) designs of interceptor ditches, struc-
tures , and other methods of controlling
runoff and sedimentation, and (4) evalu-
ation of various techniques and equipment
for treating polluted water from mined
lands.
RESULTS OF ONGOING RESEARCH
Following are some recent results of investi-
gations Of effects on freshwater of surface mining:
1. Effects of strip mining on small stream
fishes in east-central Kentucky were re-
ported by Branson and Batch (I) . Con-
tinued siltation from strip mined oper-
ations in two streams prevented the
recovery of fish populations. Fish were
forced downstream and several species
are now absent. During the 2 year period
of this study the monthly low and high
turbidity readings averaged 95 and 544
Jackson Turbidity Units, respectively.
2. Measurements of sediment accumulation in
debris basins below surface mined lands
in eastern Kentucky showed highest sedi-
ment yield during the 'first 6 months
after mining (3_) . The erosion rate di-
minished to fairly low levels within 3
years. Methods of mining and handling
spoil affected sediment yield as did the
speed with which vegetative cover was
established. The lower sediment yields
appeared to be associated with "head-of-
the-hollow" fills which caused less ex-
posed surface area on steep slopes.
Ridge tops removed after making the
initial cuts and hollow fills resulted
in relatively flat areas less subject to
erosion. Vegetation that had been re-
moved and windrowed across the slope
along the toe of spoils trapped much of
the sediment. Seeding to a mixture of
grasses and legumes soon after disturb-
ance produced a quick cover of protective
vegetation.
3. Chemical pollution of streams may take
place following mining if toxic over-
burden is left on the surface where it
is exposed to rapid erosion and leaching (2).
By burying these materials and conducting
other reclamation practices these effects
can be minimized. On four study water-
sheds in West Virginia where mining and
reclamation were conducted in accordance
with current laws and regulations adverse
effects on water quality were minimal.
Reclamation practices here included bur-
ial of suspected toxic material, control
of slope length, bench regrading, and
revegetation (&) .
4. Evaluation of overburden material before
the start of mining is suggested as the
most reliable means of predicting spoil
quality and devising mining and reclam-
ation plans. This can best be accomp-
lished by core drilling the proposed area
and making chemical analyses of the cores.
Color, pyrite, and pH are field guides
used to determine the potential toxicity
of exposed overburden strata (4_) .
5. An exploratory study in the Northern
Great Plains was aimed at determing how
runoff from spoil materials is affected
by surface treatments (7). Without
treatment nearly all of the precipitation
left the plot as runoff; whereas with
-------
129
various combinations of treatments, run-
off was reduced to as little as one-fourth
of the precipitation. The treatments in-
cluded various combinations of gypsum,
sulphur, straw, and topsoil. This study
provides an indication of the degree of
on-site water conservation that can be
achieved by runoff control practices.
PROJECTED PROGRAM ACTIVITIES
The following national energy goals provide
guidance for future environmental research:
1. Protect and enhance the general health,
safety, welfare, and environment related
to energy research and development.
2. Seek means for the development of environ-
mentally safe and economical energy pro-
grams .
3. Expand the domestic supply of economically
recoverable energy-producing raw materials.
4. Perform essential basic and supporting
research related to energy extraction.
To meet these goals, major emphasis will be
directed to research aimed at ameliorating effects
of fuel extraction on freshwater resources. This
will require that a better understanding be devel-
oped of the physical and biological process affect-
ed by mining. Assisted by this knowledge, tech-
niques can be devised for accurately predicting
environmental impacts and choosing the most cost-
effective measures for reclamation of land and
protection of water resources.
Near term (1985) objectives of reclamation
research aimed at these problems include determin-
ation of the potential physical, biological, and
socio-economical impacts of mining operations and
resultant airborne pollutants on important agri-
cultural and forest ecosystems, particularly
aquatic systems. Assessments of these impacts are
needed for the timely formulation and implementa-
tion of policies and programs for extracting fuels
in a manner to maintain a quality environment.
Midterm (2000) objectives are to evaluate
existing and emerging technological and reclamation
control methods and to determine the needs and
means for further development and refinement of
technology and methodology for protecting and
improving environmental resources and values.
An example of an immediate problem requiring
intensified research is that of sodic mine spoils
in the Northern Great Plains. The generally high
exchangeable sodium content of the Fort Union Shale
and Coal Formation causes spoil materials from the
deeper shale beds in this region to present serious
revegetation problems. A critical need exists to
preplan mining operations and manage the spoil areas
in such a way as to avoid saline runoff and erosion.
Possible effects of salt pollution on downstream
areas and communities can be very important in de-
termining the feasibility of large scale coal
mining. The problem is compounded by the fact that
this is generally a water-scarce area and diversions
of water to coal processing and transportation uses
will mean higher water prices and lower availability
of water for agriculture and other purposes.
A Federal role is essential in the accomplish-
ment of the objectives that have -been described.
Energy development is a national goal and the im-
pacts caused by energy development are also of
national importance. They cut across many regions
and sectors of the economy, and alternatives and
tradeoffs must be evaluated within a national
context. Without Federal research and development
it will not be possible to structure and implement
laws that are consistent with national goals.
Solutions to energy-related environmental
problems can be found through a comprehensive RSD
program undertaken on a national scale. The re-
search organizations of the USDA, along with
cooperating universities, are seeking these solu-
tions.
LITERATURE CITED
1. Branson, Branley A., and Batch, Donald L.
Additional observations on the effects of
strip mining on small-stream fishes in
east-central Kentucky. Transactions of the
Kentucky Academy of Sciences, Vol. 35, No.
3-4, pp. 81-83, 1974.
2. Collier, C. R., Pickering, R. J. , and
Musser, J. J.
Influences of strip mining on the hydrologic
environment of parts of Beaver Creek Basin,
Kentucky, 1955-56. USGS Professional Paper
427-C, 80 pp., 1970.
3. Curtis, Willie R.
Sediment yield from strip mined watersheds
in eastern Kentucky. Second Research and
Applied Technology Symposium on Mined Land
Reclamation. Coal and-the Environment
Technical Conference, October 22-24, 1974.
National Coal Association, Louisville, Ky.
4. Despard, Thomas L.
Avoid problem spoils through overburden
analyses. USDA Forest Service, General
Technical Report, NE-10, 1974.
5. National Commission on Materials Policy.
Material needs and the environment today
and tomorrow. Final Report of the
-------
130
National Commission on Materials Policy.
June, 1973.
6. Plass, William T.
Changes in water chemistry resulting from
surface mining of coal on four West
Virginia watersheds. West Virginia Surface
Mining and Reclamation Association Green
Lands Quarterly, Winter, 1976.
7. Power, J. P., et al.
Progress Report on Research on Reclamation
Mined Lands in the Northern Great Plains.
Agricultural Research Service (USDA) and
North Dakota Agricultural Experiment
Station, 1975.
8. U. S. Department of Agriculture and the State
Universities and Land Grant Colleges.
A national program of research for water
and watersheds. 99 pp., processed, 1969.
9. U. S. Water Resources Council.
Federal Energy Administration Project
Independence Blueprint, Final Task Force
Report. November, 1974.
10. U. S. Water Resources Council.
Water for Energy Self-Sufficiency, October,
1974.
-------
131
TABLE 1
Inventory of current agency programs related to water required for
energy locations, development, transport, processing, or production
(10) .
AGENCY
Soil
Conservation
Service
Agricultural
Research
Service
Forest
Service
NAME OF
ACTIVITY
1 . Snow survey
and water
supply fore-
casting.
2. Soil and
water conser-
vation.
3 . Resource
conservation
and develop-
ment projects
and small water
shed projects.
1. Watershed
hydrology re-
search.
2 . Strip mine
revegetation
research.
1. Surface en-
vironment and
mining. (SEAM)
2 . Management
of forested
watersheds and
grasslands.
3. Water re-
search.
PURPOSE
Predict river
flows.
Preserve water
quality by control
of erosion and run-
off in disturbed
areas.
Water storage for
multiple uses and
conservation mea-
sures for water
supply and erosion
control.
Predict impact of
land management and
water control pro-
grams on runoff and
improve snowmelt
forecasts.
Reclamation of
spoil material.
Maintain environ-
mental quality in
meeting mineral
requirements by
exploring alter-
natives, analyz-
ing impacts , and
demonstration
areas.
Multiple uses.
Improve water
yield, stabilize
erosion, improve
streamflow timing.
LOCATION
11 Western
States and
Alaska.
Nationwide .
Nationwide.
Nationwide
Md . , Va . , W . Va .
and N.D.
Initially in
western large
scale mining
areas.
Nationwide .
Nationwide .
AMOUNT OF WATER
AND ENERGY
Forecast water supply
for all major streams,
including hydroplant
locations.
Not estimated.
Not estimated.
Not estimated.
Not estimated.
Not determined.
Forested areas pro-
vide over 60 percent
of total water yield
and maintain water
quality. 187 million
acres of National
Forests yield 390
million AF of water
aiding power gener-
ation and transport.
Not determined.
RESULTS EXPECTED
OR ACCOMPLISHED
Optimize reservoir oper-
ations.
4.4 million acres have
been disturbed in the U.S.
by surface mining. Over
1 million acres of mined
land have been reclaimed
in 2,000 soil conservation
districts .
974 RC&D projects are au-
thorized for 615 million
acres, including 430,000
acres in 682 existing pro-
jects. Over 1,000 small
watershed projects have
been approved with 392 which
have structural measures
completed .
Information for planning.
Work in Eastern States
covers acid wastes and
Dakota study involves
alkaline material in
lignite areas.
Reduce delays in leasing,
improve technology of re-
habilitating mined areas,
maintain environmental
stewardship.
Maintain water supply and
quality .
Information for public
use.
-------
132
Freshwater Ecological Effects
H. R. Mickey and P. A. Krenkel
Tennessee Valley Authority
Chattanooga, Tennessee
INTRODUCTION
In the nineteenth century, sanitary engineering,
the techniques of managing water supply and waste
treatment, became the first recognized professional
environmental discipline. By comparison, the investi-
gation of more subtle aquatic ecological impacts of
thermal and chemical effluents is a fairly recent
development in environmental science and engineering.
The relationships between temperature, dissolved
oxygen, natural reaeration, metals concentration, and
aquatic life require more investigation than had been
necessary to design water supply and waste treatment
plants. The "environmental statement" process
revealed the need for a reliable method for predict-
ing and measuring impacts on aquatic ecosystems.
TVA's research efforts in this area include
several tasks related to impacts of energy technolo-
gies on aquatic ecosystems, effects of strip and
surface mining and reclamation on water quality and
ecology, and one minor project to evaluate the role
of strip mine pools in the production of disease-
bearing arthropods.
For possible use in the exchange of information
or coordination, the names of principal investigators,
research investigators, and responsible administra-
tors are included after the title of each task.
DISCUSSION
1. Consolidation of Baseline Information, Develop-
ment of Methodology, and Investigation of Thermal
Impacts on Freshwater Shellfish, Insects, and
Otner Biota--B. G. Isom, R. H. Brooks, W. R.
Nicholas
A. Information Systems Development—John S.
Grossman
The immediate short-term objective of this task
is the development of a data base system in which
biological data can be stored and retrieved for
recurring uses associated with ongoing research and
monitoring programs for a large electrical utility.
With the development and implementation of this sys-
tem, it will be possible to review biological data
that has been collected in the vicinity of eight
coal-fired power generating plants for information on
the basic structure and function of biological com-
munities subjected to thermal discharges in a semi-
riverine environment.
After the review of the previously collected
data, representative benthic populations will be
selected for further study under both field and labo-
ratory conditions. This long-term portion of the
project will utilize bench scale biological models
that can be manipulated to simulate environmental
conditions associated with energy technologies. The
use of laboratory microcosms, supplemented by field
measurements, will provide basic data on the biologi-
cal productivity of freshwater communities, growth
rates of important representative species under
different environmental conditions, relative abun-
dance of important species, and the response of dif-
ferent species to toxic materials. The data
generated by these studies will be utilized to verify
existing ecosystem models or their refinement for use
within the Tennessee Valley. These models will also
be applicable to similar ecosystems throughout Appa-
lachia and the Southeast.
Progress: In October 1975, a meeting was held
in Cincinnati to review the design specifications for
the Environmental Protection Agency's proposed BIO-
STORET data base system. This was followed by a
review of the structure and content of the parameter
list to be included in the data base, along with
proposed recommendations. These recommendations are
now in the process of being incorporated into a final
design package which will be used in the implementa-
tion of the program.
With the development of a data storage and
retrieval system, a data reduction and analyses pack-
age has been obtained. This package is the NTSYS -
Numerical Computer Taxonomy Programs, which contains
the software capabilities to undertake a comprehen-
sive review of the previously collected biological
data using a variety of cluster and factor analyses,
distance and association coefficient matrices, and
correlation analyses. These programs are currently
being adapted and tested for use within the Tennessee
Valley Authority's system.
Progress on the development of laboratory simu-
lations of streams and reservoirs and investigation
of ecosystem modeling are in the literature review
and evaluation phase.
B. Acute Thermal Effects - Aquatic Insects—•
R. D. Urban, K. Tennessen, J. L. Miller
The aquatic insect fauna of any freshwater eco-
system constitutes a vital link in the transfer of
energy via the food web. The maintenance of a
diverse and abundant population of aquatic insects
helps establish a resilient trophic structure.
Increasing demand for electrical energy creates a
corresponding increase in the need for condenser
cooling water. The increased use of freshwater for
cooling purposes in turn necessitates an increase in
the thermal load imposed upon the receiving water
body. At this point questions arise as to the
ability of the aquatic flora and fauna to tolerate
this added perturbation. The goal of this research
task is to determine the threshold of thermal toler-
ance for several aquatic insects found in the
-------
reservoirs of the Tennessee and Cumberland River
Watersheds, typical of Appalachia and the Southeast.
Objectives: In response to Public Law 92-500,
TVA initiated biological studies in June 1973 to
assess the effects of thermal effluents from fossil-
fueled steam-electric stations. In the course of
these evaluations a basic question continued to arise.'
What level of thermal enrichment can a water body be
subjected to before deleterious effects to the
various life cycle stages of the aquatic biota occurs?
While some information is available in the literature,
in general latitudinally comparable data or data con-
cerning the desired species are not available. In
addition, the data seldom address different seasonal
thermal regimes for the various life cycle stages. A
third area of concern for which there is a severe
lack of information concerns plume entrap-
ment of insect fauna in multipurpose reservoirs.
Hence, it is the objective of this task to provide
pertinent thermal tolerance data for a burrowing
mayfly and selected chironomid species found in the
TVA reservoirs.
Specific Goals: The objectives will be achieved
using both field and laboratory studies. Emergence
traps will be utilized to compare emergence success
between areas influenced by thermal plumes versus
control reaches. Gamete development, egg and sperm
viability, egg hatchability, etc., will be compared
between the two naturally emerging groups. In addi-
tion, test individuals in different life cycle stages
will be placed in a flotation device and floated in
the thermal plume until the temperature is degraded
to a AT of 2°C. The survival rate will be determined
and surviving members will be reared to maturity to
assess the impact of the thermal stress upon the
reproductive potential of these organisms.
In the laboratory, organisms in various life
cycle stages will be exposed to a series of AT's in
order to determine the temperature threshold for
each life cycle stage. In addition, growth studies
will be conducted on those individuals that survived
the various thermal shocks. This will allow the
investigators to assess the effects of various levels
of thermal shock upon the growth rate of individual
organisms as well as the effect upon the reproductive
potential and success of the test organisms.
C. Biochemical Methodology, Aquatic Thermal
Impacts—S. A. Murray, C. Burton
New and improved biochemical diagnostic proce-
dures will be utilized for assessing environmental
effects resulting from energy-related thermal stress,
Specific tasks include application or develop-
ment of techniques of extracting body fluids and
plant pigments that can be utilized to monitor
thermal stress in the aquatic environment.
133
Existing data from ongoing monitoring programs
at fossil-fueled and nuclear plants will be used to
select the experimental biota.
Progress: Development of primary facilities
for culture of experimental animals and plants has
been essentially completed. Most facilities were
developed for previous research and monitoring
activities.
A literature review on biochemical methodolo-
gies has been initiated. The review to date includes
information from the National Technical Information
Service, Smithsonian Science Information Exchange,
and our own resources.
Status: Project activity is proceeding as
scheduled. However, delay in the finalization of
the TVA/EPA contract and delays in transfer of funds
from EPA to TVA may require the submission of revised
TVA milestone completion dates. We anticipate that
the final completion report to EPA will be made on
schedule.
D. Biomonitoring; Mollusks; and Others--B. G.
Isom, C. H. Gooch
The objective of this research task is to
quantify the role of bioaccumulation in cycling of
selected trace elements (metals and radionuclides)
released to aquatic ecosystems by the thermal com-
ponent of coal combustion and nuclear steam-electric
stations. A primary result of the research will be
methodologies for implementation and evaluation of
bioaccumulation (biomagnification) studies.
For the past few years, TVA has conducted
studies on the distribution of mollusk species in
those reservoirs near TVA coal-fired steam plants
and at proposed and operational nuclear plant sites.
More information is needed on the use of mussels and
other biota to monitor metals, nuclides, and organic
chemical in the environment.
We have considerable background literature on
toxicity of power plant chemicals to aquatic life
and other miscellaneous bioaccumulation literature.
In addition, an extensive survey has just been con-
cluded of the postimpoundment overbank habitats and
areas immediately below the Tennessee River main-
stream dams. This survey revealed the types and
quanties of mollusks species available for study of
bioaccumulation near power plants. A broad selec-
tion of mussel tissues and extrapallial fluid samp-
les were collected for use in determining background
levels of important trace element and nuclide
species.
Data from preliminary analyses of selected
tissues indicate bioaccumulation of copper, zinc,
cadmium, lead, and bismuth. Initially, this
research will be restricted to evaluating bioaccumu-
lation and analysis of the trace metals copper,
zinc, and chromium and the nuclides strontium90,
-------
134
cesium157, cobalt60, and gross nuclide accumulation.
Trace metals research will be conducted at the
coal-fired Bull Run Steam Plant on the Clinch River
and at the Browns Ferry Nuclear Plant on the Tennes-
see River.
TVA and Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL)
have coordinated studies scheduled for the Bull
Run Steam Plant. ORNL studies will evaluate the
chemical elements from the ash ponds and the biogeo-
chemical cycling of these elements. The TVA studies
on trace metal accumulation will be restricted to the
thermal system. Studies at Browns Ferry will cover
total plant effects since the diffusers there dis-
charge both thermal and chemical effluents.
Status: The literature review for this project
is nearing completion. This review included searches
conducted by the National Technical Information
Service, the Smithsonian Science Information Exchange,
and the TVA library.
The project is proceeding as planned. A TVA
milestone report on literature and methodology will
be completed on schedule. It is anticipated that
other milestones will be achieved within the time
frames outlined in the subagreement.
E. Evaluate Hater Intakes - Zooplankton
Entrainment--R. D. Urban, D. L. Dycus
Zooplankton represents a critical link in the
aquatic food web, for it is this group of microcrust-
aceans and rotifers that convert plant materials
(algae) into animal protein. As such, this group
becomes an indispensible food resource for larval and
some adult fishes as well as many macroinvertebrates.
An activity that utilizes raw water may disrupt the
food web dynamics of the source body of water by
reducing the number of zooplankters available for
energy transformation and consumption. To avoid
unnecessary disruption of the food web, various in-
take structures have been proposed for industries
that use large volumes of raw cooling water.
TVA has for some time utilized several different
intake designs at its twelve fossil-fueled steam-
electric stations to create an effective heat trans-
fer ratio in the condenser cooling systems. A possi-
ble ancillary benefit derived from the various intake
structures at TVA fossil-fueled steam-electric sta-
tions may be a reduction .in adverse biotic effects.
The primary goal of this research task is to evaluate
the effectiveness of these various intake structures
in curtailing the entrainment of the planktonic food
resources within the condenser cooling system. An
additional goal will be to develop criteria that can
be utilized in both siting and designing of new
intake structures.
Objectives: In response to Public Law 92-500,
TVA initiated studies of Zooplankton condenser pass-
age to assess the effects of both intake design and
condenser cooling system entrainment upon the zoo-
plankton assemblage "near TVA fossil-fueled steam-
electric stations. To fully utilize these data
additional information concerning the spatial dis-
tribution of the zooplankton within the area of the
various intake structures as well as some basic
hydrological data (e.g., current direction and
velocity) is needed. The collection of these addi-
tional data will aid in the evaluation of the various
intake designs that limit entrainment of planktom'c
organisms.
Specific Goals: The objectives will be achieved
using both field and laboratory studies. Horizontal
and vertical distribution of the zooplankton will
be investigated as a water mass approaches the intake
zone, within the intake zone, and downstream of the
intake zone. It should be emphasized that when
possible the same water mass will be sampled at each
'of the defined transects. Vertical tows with one-
half meter plankton nets equipped with a digital
flowmeter suspended in the throat of each net will be
used to document horizontal distribution. A plankton
pump will permit the investigators to describe the
vertical distribution of the zooplankton assemblage.
The sample will be preserved and returned to the
laboratory for standing crop and biomass analyses.
Laboratory studies will investigate avoidance
behavior of various zooplankters. Several intake
design alternatives will be utilized to document
changes in zooplankton distribution within the water
column (i.e., bubble screens, pressure differences
that result from different shapes and types of
objects being placed in the water column, and
variable light intensity).
2. Strip Mine Drainage Water Quality with Emphasis
on Toxic Substances—Doye B. Cox, Roger P.
Betson, R. J. Ruane, J. Grossman, W. C. Barr,
W. R. Nicholas
The goal of this project is to demonstrate
methodologies for predicting the impact of surface
mine reclamation strategies on a downstream fish-
eries resource with the strategies based on the
characteristics of the site to be mined. Objectives
necessary to accomplish this goal are: (1) to
identify the occurrence and significance of major
and minor chemical elements and compounds in strip
mined areas; (2) to calibrate existing regionalized
hydrologic models using data from surface mined
watersheds with several types of reclamation; (3) to
develop or extend nonpoint source water quality
models in order to predict the natural-area
environmental loadings of important water quality
constituents (4) to relate the transport of signifi-
cant elements and compounds and water quality con-
stituents to the hydrology of small strip mined
watersheds; (5) to investigate the relationship
between the chemical composition of strip mine over-
burden and the downstream transport of important
constituents that exceed natural-area environmental
levels; (6) to evaluate the effects of "conventional
-------
treatment" (i.e., liming, limestone addition, sludge
application, etc.) on acid production and chemical
mobilization and transport; (7) to investigate the
relationship between transport of important consti-
tuents and the fishery resource. The work will con-
sist of laboratory and field studies conducted by
TVA's Water Quality and Ecology Branch, coordinating
with the Division of Forestry, Fisheries, and Wild-
life Development and the Division of Water Manage-
ment.
Progress: Early activities have concentrated on
coordination of agencies or groups involved in strip
mine research in the Tennessee Valley area. On
August 28, 1975, a meeting in Nashville was chaired
by Stanley Sauer, District Chief, U.S. Geological
Survey (USGS) with representatives of the Soil Con-
servation Service (SCS), Corps of Engineers (CE),
USGS, and TVA staff attending.
A second meeting was held on September 17,
1975, in which these agencies and Tennessee State
Planning Office (TSPO), Department of Conservation--
Office of the Commissioner and the Water Resources
and Surface Mining Divisions, Tennessee Wildlife
Resources Agency (TWRA), University of Tennessee at
Knoxville (UT), and Oak Ridge National Laboratories
(ORNL) participated. The purpose of this meeting
was to exchange information on existing or planned
hydrologic data collection programs in order to
avoid duplication of effort. An interagency commit-
tee will be established to exchange information on
time frames for data collection and to establish
procedures for formulating and sharing information
collected. The USGS will take the initiative in
establishing the committee with the aid of the TSPO.
TVA has agreed to partially fund The University
of Tennessee's watershed strip-mine project in the
New River Basin. The Special Projects Staff will
provide monies to the USGS for data collection and
the installation or upgrading of rainfall and stream-
flow gaging stations on The University of Tennessee's
study areas. In return The University of Tennessee
will provide hydrologic and water quality data that
is being collected in the six basins (3 mines, 3
virgin) under study. These data are collected on a
weekly basis and will be used in model development
and calibration. In addition, data from adjacent
areas in the New River Basin will be made available
from the USGS and Corps of Engineers for model devel-
opment and calibration.
Much of the reconnaissance survey data that had
been planned in the New River Basin is being sup-
plied by the USGS, and the Corps of Engineers. Amax
Coal Company and The University of Tennessee have
supplied water quality and flow data from area mined
sites in the Piney Creek area of Southeastern Ten-
nessee. Further reconnaissance sampling in the New
River Basin will be conducted as needed.
A study site on Crooked Creek near Jamestown,
Tennessee, was selected that will enable characteri-
135
zation of strip mine drainage water quality from an
area-mined site in which the miner has employed
acceptable reclamation procedures. We plan to moni-
tor water quality at two sites in the basin and at
an additional control site. The Special Projects
Staff will provide monies to the USGS for installa-
tion and maintenance of rainfall and streamflow
gaging stations at these three sites.
A comprehensive literature review is of trace
metals mobilization and transport and strip mining
water quality, hydrology, and biological effects is
underway. In addition literature dealing with
kinetics of acid drainage formation has been searched
extensively. Other agencies and individuals involved
in research in these areas have been contacted.
A detailed workplan with task, expenditure, and
man-hour schedules is nearing completion.
Status: Work is progressing at a rate necessary
for the achievement of project goals. Water quality
sampling should be underway on the area-mined site by
January 1976. Biological sampling at a site affected
by mine drainage should begin during the first
quarter of calender year 1976.
3. Production of Arthropod Pests and Vectors in
Strip Mine Pools—Eugene Pickard, Joseph Cooney
The objective of this study is to survey and
determine types of aquatic arthropod pests, mainly
mosquitoes, that breed in strip mine pools, and
the extent to which these breeding sites could
annoy surrounding communities. Physical and chemi-
cal parameters of pools will be correlated with
their age and successional stage.
A preliminary reconnaissance was made of the
strip mine areas near Brilliant and Stevenson,
Alabama, to delineate and rank candidate study sites.
An inspection was made with the Taylor and Son Com-
pany reclamation officer to establish age classifi-
cation of strip mine pools in the Brilliant, Alabama,
area. Test pools have been selected in the vicinity
of Gold Mine, Alabama (Marion County), and marked
in the field for study. Photographs have been made
of several pools for use in establishing vegetation
baselines.
Study pools have been selected on the basis
of age as follows: newly formed pools (less than
1-year-old), 5-year-old pools, and pools 10 years
old or older. Three pools in each age class have
been selected for study.
Physical characteristics that will be recorded
for the pools are water depth, margin abruptness,
soil type and texture, and water source. A refer-
ence point will be established from which sequential
photographs will be made.
Measurements of temperature, dissolved oxygen,
pH, and salinity will be taken from the water at
-------
136
established sampling points in each study pool.
An initial survey will determine the presence of
aquatic plant species and their percentage composi-
tion in the pools. Inventories of vegetation will
be conducted annually to provide quantitative esti-
mates 'of the changes in the woody and herbaceous
vegetation. '
Immature stages of mosquitoes will be sampled
with the standard white enamel dipper. The flood-
water or rainpool group of mosquitoes will be deter-
mined by collecting and processing soil samples from
likely floodwater habitats. Other aquatic insects
will be sampled with seines and botton sampling
devices. Adult insects will be collected by a combi-
nation of methods, including light traps, malaise
traps, sweep nets, and biting collections.
Should significant mosquito populations develop
in coal surface mined pools, various methods of
control will be investigated. Naturalistic, or
biological methods, such as the introduction of
larvivorous fish, mosquito parasites, or certain
species of aquatic plants such as Lemna and Taxodium
that appear to limit mosquito production, will first
be investigated, then chemical methods will be
studied.
The effect of reclamation activities as a means
of creating, destroying or mitigating mosquito
productivity will be evaluated.
4. Ecological Recovery After Reclamation of Toxic
Spoils Left by Coal Surface Mining—W. M. Seawell,
J. B. Maddox, T. G. Zarger
The objective of this study is to determine the
effectiveness of land stabilization treatments toward
restoring a damaged ecosystem. The study involves
a problem watershed in which 400 acres of forested
land were disturbed by coal surface mining in the
early 1970's. Unsuccessful reclamation efforts
resulted in adverse environmental impacts within an
11-square-mile watershed that includes a city water
supply reservoir. .Project objectives will- be accom-
plished by applying intensive remedial land treat-
ments and evaluating their effectiveness by measuring
the degree of recovery of the affected terrestrial
and aquatic ecosystems.
Repeated attempts by the mine operator to revege-
tate the spoils by standard treatments have resulted
in only 25 percent of the mined land surface being
stabilized. Erosion from barren bench and outslope
areas is contributing seriously to offsite damage
that includes deterioration of receiving stream
quality and siltation of the reservoir. The problem
is one of highly toxic spoils—an acid problem of
geochemical origin associated with a specific coal
seam found extensively in east Tennessee.
Previous studies on ecological recovery of
surface mines have not included monitoring of such a
seriously impacted watershed. Results should provide
new and significant information in the evaluation
and correction of problems associated with future
mining of this particular coal seam.
Before underwriting the cost of this intensive
remedial land treatment, TVA considered many possible
remedies, including evaluation of results from a
series of investigations conducted between 1970 and
early 1973. Treatments were sought that would pro-
vide the most effective way to stabilize the area
without accelerating the rate of reservoir siltation.
Funds for monitoring the recovery of the
affected terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems are pro-
vided by EPA pass-through monies. Existing condi-
tions will be measured and evaluated prior to
restorative treatments. Monitoring will continue
through treatment and thereafter on a more limited
basis so long as significant recovery is noted.
Environmental data collected during the period of
mining and reclamation (early 1970's) will serve as
initial baseline study data.
Progress: Following preparation of a summary
workplan in July 1975, collection of data was begun
on both terrestrial and aquatic systems. Individual
workplans covering two major investigative phases
(terrestrial flora and stream fauna) have been pre-
pared. These field investigations record the pre-
sent condition of the mine site and water quality in
receiving streams.
Terrestrial—The vegetation survey was conduc-
ted prior to the scheduled October treatment of the
mined area. This fall one-third of the affected
acreage was treated with agricultural limestone at
the rate of 10 tons per acre, seeded with a winter
annual grass, fertilized, and disked. The survey
records types and amounts of vegetation, both natu-
ral and that resulting from previous revegetation
efforts. Data collected includes: (1) types of
trees and shrubs growing on the site, their size
and abundance, and (2) types of grasses and herbac-
eous species, their height and the percentage of
ground cover for each species. Survey of mine spoil
conditions are also under way. This data will serve
as a basis for measuring the rate of recovery during
the monitoring program, as the same area is subse-
quently surveyed after treatment.
Aquatic—Four sampling stations have been
established on the main stem of Ollis Creek. Addi-
tional stations have been located on Laurel Creek,
Yellow Creek, Thompson Creek, and an unnamed stream,
all of which are tributaries of Ollis Creek. One
sample station has also been located on No Business
Creek, a similar nearby watershed which is virtually
unaffected by surface or deep mines.
All stations (except No Business Creek) have
been sampled monthly for four months for bottom
fauna (four 1-square-foot Surber samples per
station). Identification and tabulation of the
samples is under way.
-------
137
One set of artifical substrate samplers (rubble-
filled wire baskets—four per station) have been
placed and collected. Future plans call for placing
the samplers at each station and removing and replac-
ing the samplers every two months.
At all stations 100-foot lengths of stream have
been sampled for fish populations by electrofishing.
Future plans call for sampling these stations semi-
annually.
Water Quality—Water quality parameters have
been measured four times at each station in Oil is
Creek and its tributaries. Analyses were performed
for dissolved oxygen, turbidity, suspended solids,
conductivity, pH, alkalinity, total acidity, sulfates,
manganese, and iron.
Status: Project activities are proceeding on
schedule. At this time, no milestone dates are
expected to need revision.
-------
138
The EPA Research Program on the Freshwater
Ecological Effects of Energy
Development and Use
J. David Yount, Ph.D.
Office of Health and Ecological Effects, EPA
Washington, D.C.
INTRODUCTION
Although the long term energy needs of the
U.S. depend on the development of energy sources
other than fossil fuels, it is evident that at least
for the remainder of this century we will continue
to be heavily dependent upon fossil fuels. Of these
coal provides the largest and most rapidly utiliz-
able energy source: hence the impacts resulting from
greatly intensified coal mining, transportation,
storage, and conversion to energy will be the most
immediate. Oil use will continue, with environ-
mental impacts resulting from development of new
sources such as those in Alaska.
Of less immediate importance is the potential
large-scale utilization of oil shale formations.
New techniques of coal processing, such as liquifi-
cation and gasification, appear to be an econoirr-
ically feasible method of converting coal to a
relatively clean fuel. What is not yet apparent
however, is the fate of the contaminants removed
from the coal in these processes.' '
TECHNICAL DISCUSSION
Although the Environmental Effects section of
this symposium is broadly subdivided for convenience
into marine, freshwater and terrestrial effects, it
is not possible, at least in this case, to com-
pletely separate the freshwater aspects from the
terrestrial. In fact the conceptual scheme around
which these studies were organized can best be
described as that of a watershed ecosystem, in which
the primary transport mechanism of interest is the
terrestrial hydrologic cycle. Thus, although the
aquatic aspects are emphasized, precipitation (wet
and dry), soil conditions and effects, and ground
water flows are also important aspects.
Because of the regulatory problems implied by
the above energy source development and utilization
EPA recognized the need for information on the
effects of these activities on watershed ecosystems.
Therefore, two areas were chosen for initial pri-
mary emphasis: the effects of oil transport by
pipeline from Arctic oil fields; and the mining,
transportation, storage, and energy conversion of
coal. In anticipation of potential future develop-
ment, smaller programs were initiated on oil shale
and on coal conversion.
EPA's Duluth, Minnesota Environmental Research
Laboratory (ERL) developed research projects with
five universities to explore the freshwater and
watershed environmental degradation which results
from coal and oil shale utilization. The projects
were designed to produce data which could be
modeled in such a manner that predictions could be
made which would aid in site selection for future
energy source and conversion facilities, so as to
result in the least possible environmental degrada-
tion.
One project, conducted jointly by the Colorado
State University Natural Resource Ecology Laboratory
and the Montana State University Fisheries Bioassay
Laboratory, concerns the toxic effects on aquatic
biota and the effects on aquatic ecosystems re-
sulting from coal and oil shale development in
Montana and Colorado.
Another project in the Duluth ERL program in-
volves transportation, off-loading, and subsequent
reloading of coal at a port facility. In March 1975
the Burlington Northern Railroad started construc-
tion of a $50 million dock facility located on
Lake Superior at Superior, Wisconsin. This facility
will be used to load large lake freighters with
Western coal for eventual utilization at electrical
generating plants on the lower Great Lakes. Initial
annual tonnage will be in excess of 5 million tons.
Studies here include bottom fauna and algal stimu-
lation or inhibition in the loading area by the
leachate from coal stored and subjected to atmos-
pheric conditions. Pre- and post-operational
research is being conducted by the University of
Minnesota, Duluth and the University of Wisconsin,
Superior to assist in development and location of
similar future operations so as to produce the
least possible environmental damage.
The final project in the Duluth ERL program
is funded jointly with the Corvallis, Oregon ERL.
This is a complete environmental study, by the
University of Wisconsin (Madison) Institute for
Environmental Studies, of a coal-fired electric
power generating station in a wetland area.
All of these studies involve Western coal.
Thus the combined set of projects provides informa-
tion on the sequence of watershed and freshwater
ecological effects of Western coal use from mine
through transport to power production. In addition,
information is provided on the effects of coal gasi-
fication and of oil shale extraction and processing.
The second area of major emphasis concerns the
effects of oil transport by pipeline through Arctic
and subarctic ecosystems, emphasizing the effects
of potential accidental spills. This program has
been developed and is being implemented by the
Arctic Environmental Research Station of the
Corvallis, Oregon Environmental Research Laboratory.
There are three subprojects, concerned respectively
with the effects of oil spills and pipeline con-
struction activities on arctic lakes, rivers, and
small watersheds.
The small watershed study is being conducted
through an interagency agreement with the U.S. Army
Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory
(CRREL), Ft. Wainwright, Alaska. The purpose of
-------
139
this project is to evaluate the rate and extent of
oil movement in and over the soil active layer and
to determine transport pathways, fate of pollutants,
degradation products, effects on microbial popula-
tions and microbial degradation, and impact on
permafrost following a simulated spill of hot crude
oil on a permafrost underlain slope. The site of
the study is the Caribou-Poker Creeks Research
Watershed, operated by the Interagency Technical
Committee for Alaska, which serves as the locale
for a variety of hydrologic and environmental
studies. The watershed is located in the Yukon-
Tanana Uplands of central Alaska, in the zone of
discontinuous permafrost. ' '
In cooperation with the Energy Research and
Development Administration (ERDA) and the National
Science Foundation (NSF), a study is being made of
the effects of an oil spill on a large arctic lake
(one of the Toolik lakes) with emphasis on the
effects of this perturbation on organisms and on
ecological processes in these lakes.
The third project concerns the effect of a
pipeline crossing a river (the Chatanika River) in
the arctic. This is primarily an in-house project,
with a small grant to the University of Alaska to
study the fisheries aspects. Emphasis will be on
water chemistry, macrobenthos and fisheries effects,
and sediment transport.
PROGRAM DISCUSSION
A. Coal and Oil Shale Mining and On-Site
Conversion
This project has been underway since July
1975. Oil shale development effects are studied
at the Piceance Creek site in Colorado. Strip coal
mining effects are studied at the Front Creek,
Colorado and Rosebud Creek-Tongue River, Montana
sites. Fish and macroinvertebrate distribution
studies have been started on Piceance and Front
Creeks in Colorado, and on the Rosebud Creek,
Tongue River, and Tongue River Reservoir in Montana.
Water chemistry studies have been initiated on
Piceance and Front Creeks. Microorganism studies
have been started on Rosebud Creek and on cores from
the Montana region. Laboratory characterization of
coal, coal overburden, oil shale, and coal gasifica-
tion by-products has also been started. Laboratory
bioassay and bioaccumulation studies on fishes,
macroinvertebrates, and microorganisms have been
initiated in Montana.
B.
Coal Transportation and Storage
This project is concerned with particulate and
leachate transport from fine particulate coal while
in storage at the Duluth-Superior port, and with
the effects of these materials on aquatic biota.
Work to date has been concerned with preliminary
assessments in anticipation of the beginning of
coal movement through the port in July 1976. The
chemistry and biology departments at the University
of Wisconsin, Superior and the University of
Minnesota, Duluth are cooperating to characterize
inorganic and organic leachates from coal and to
characterize the biological condition of the bay.
Some chronic bioassay exposures have begun, and
other local species are being cultured for future
use in bioassays. In addition, a project in the
physics department of the University of Minnesota,
Duluth has completed measurements of currents and
water levels in the harbor. This information is
being used to develop and test mathematical models
of water and particulate transport in the Duluth-
Superior harbor.
C.
Coal-to-Electricity Power Conversion
This project at the University of Wisconsin,
Madison had been ongoing for approximately four
years prior to the EPA-funded expansion, with sup-
port from the Wisconsin Power and Light Company,
the Madison Gas and Electric Company, and the
Wisconsin Public Service Corporation. It is located
at the Columbia Generating Station at Portage,
Wisconsin. The Columbia Site Impact Study has
completed four years of preoperational bench mark
data acquisition. The study includes air, water,
soil and biological parameters. A wide variety of
environmental measuring equipment has been tested
and placed on-line. A series of new, cheaper
environmental impact measuring techniques have been
developed, but not tested.
D.
Oil Transport by Pipeline
Program activity to date has been concerned
with calibration and baseline studies. Problems
with shipment of oil prevented the planned summer
application of oil to the Caribou-Poker Creeks
Watershed, but oil has been received and a midwinter
application is planned for this February. Another
oil application will be made in June of this year.
Baseline studies have been underway for several
years on the Toolic lakes in connection with the
U.S. International Biological Program, and will
continue until July 1976. For the river crossing
study a pristine river north of Fairbanks (the
Chatanika River) is being characterized in anticipa-
tion of the Trans-Alaska Pipeline crossing this
spring.
PROJECTION
A. Coal and Oil Shale Mining and On-Site
Conversion
Research will continue toward satisfying the
major project objectives. These objectives are
(1) To establish data bases of information for
evaluating the potential effects of coal and oil
shale extraction on fresh water resources and eco-
systems, (2) To conduct chemical and biological
field site studies on the effects on aquatic eco-
systems due to coal and oil shale extraction,
including an assessment of spoils weathering, (3)
To determine the acute and chronic toxicity and
bioaccumulation in aquatic ecosystems of chemicals
and contaminants resulting from coal and oil shale
extraction, (4) To determine the potential effects
on aquatic ecosystems of coal gasification products
and by-products, and of oil shale conversion
products and by-products, and (5) To consider the
possible effects on the aquatic biota of coal-fired
power-plant effluents, including rainout.
-------
140
B. Coal Transportation and Storage
Research will continue toward characterizing
the effects on the Duluth-Superior harbor and sur-
rounding ecosystems of leachate from coal stored
and subjected to atmospheric conditions, and to
measure and model particulate dispersion from the
harbor into Lake Superior. Final outputs will con-
sist of reports on the organic and inorganic leach-
ates from coal piles and their bioaccumulation in
and effects on aquatic biota, and a generalized
particulate dispersion model applicable to other
planned and potential coal shipping sites on the
Great Lakes.
C. Coal-to-Electricity Power Conversion
The EPA-funded expansion of this on-going
project will provide support for the post-opera-
tional study in concert with the power companies
and the Wisconsin Public Service Commission, which
will include an increased variety of areas, integra-
tion of subprojects, and studies that will allow
the extension of the findings of this project to
other sites in the form of siting criteria. Sub-
projects include aquatic chemistry, aquatic inver-
tebrates and fish, remote sensing, wetland ecology
(plants and vertebrates), hydrogeology, air pollu-
tion modeling, plant damage, meteorology, land use,
visual changes and aesthetics, stack monitoring,
and project synthesis.
D. Oil Transport by Pipeline
In the Caribou-Poker Creeks Watershed the
effects of winter and summer simulated hot oil
spills will be monitored to determine the effects
of such spills on soil microbial populations and
terrestrial vegetation. In addition, the micro-
bial degradation and photo-oxidation of the oil, its
physical transport and effect on the permafrost will
be monitored. This will provide information on the
effects of oil from potential pipeline ruptures on
undisturbed areas outside of the cleared corridor.
During the second and third years of the project,
an oil spill will be simulated on a disturbed, bare
soil area, stripped of vegetation, resembling con-
ditions within the pipeline corridor.
After the conclusion of the Toolic lakes
baseline study in July 1976, one lake in the series
will be subjected to a simulated oil spill. A
predictive mathematical model will be developed to
describe the effects of possible oil spills on many
similar arctic lakes.
During and following the Chatanika River
pipeline crossing this spring, the effects on water
chemistry, fish, macrobenthos, and sediment trans-
port will be studied intensively for one year, and
less intensively for a second year. These results
will be integrated with the results of a nearly
completed EPA-funded project by Artec., Inc., of
Columbia, Maryland on the physical transport of
oil under an ice cover.
RESOURCE ALLOCATION
The total resource allocation for energy-
related research in the freshwater environment since
1975 and projected through 1979 is as follows (in
thousands of dollars):
FY'75 FY'76 FY'77 FY'78 FY'79
Coal and Oil
Shale 1650 1265 1265 1265 1265
Oil Spills 480 550 480 480
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
U.S. energy needs for the remainder of this
century require greatly increased use of coal, con-
tinued reliance on oil (including that from newly
discovered arctic oil fields), and possible utiliza^
tion of novel sources and processing technology
such as oil shale and coal gasification. In order
for these activities to be conducted with minimum
adverse environmental effect, considerable infor-
mation is required before major development is
allowed. The EPA freshwater ecological effects
program is concentrating on two areas for which the
information needs are most intense: coal mining,
transport, and energy conversion; and oil transport
by pipeline from arctic oil fields.
The coal project follows Western coal from
mining in Montana and Colorado through its transport
and storage in a major port facility to its com-
bustion in a coal-fired power plant. Baseline
studies, chemical characterization and ecological
effects studies have been underway for approximately
six months at coal mining sites in Colorado and
Montana, and at the coal storage and shipping
facilities at the Duluth-Superior Port. EPA funds
are providing for an expansion of the coal-fired
power plant to include support of the postopera-
tional study.
The pipeline oil transport project examines
three major ecosystem types likely to be impacted
by an oil spill or pipeline crossing. These are
(1) an undisturbed research watershed representing
the headwaters of a drainage basin system, (2) a
pristine river soon to be crossed by the Trans-
Alaska Pipeline, and (3) a series of arctic lakes.
All of these projects are designed to provide
the maximum amount of information, in the form of
predictive models or other tools, for use in
optimizing the location and design of future
developments.
REFERENCES
(1) Hammond, A.L., W.D. Metz, and T.H. Maugh, 1973.
Energy and the Future, American Association for
the Advancement of Science, 184pp.
(2) Jinkinson, W.M., F.D. Lotspeich, and E.W.
Mueller, 1973. Water Quality of the Caribou-
Poker Creeks Research Watershed, Alaska.
Working Paper No. 24, U.S. EPA, Arctic
Environmental Research Station.
-------
141
DISCUSSIONS FOR FRESH WATER EFFECTS SESSION
Statement from the Floor: Considerable work has been done on large river and river reservoir sys-
tems developing a tremendous amount of information for useasja common database which can be used for pre-
dictive operations. Up to this time, research had been conducted to respond to immediate problems, after
the fact. An example is made for the TVA mode of operation wherein approximately half of the coal con-
sumed is obtained from strip mining. These strip mine projects will employ a multi-disciplinary team of
hydrologists, engineers, chemists and biologists, all working together to predict the consequences of
mining a particular coal seam and what the necessary remedial actions will be. Predictive models should
be developed and utilized to solve operational types of ecological problems.
Panel Response: The data system which has been described is being developed in coordination with
EPA. This development is aimed at achieving compatability with databases under preparation by other
agencies.
Statements from the Floor: TVA is pursuing two tasks relating to acute thermal effects upon insects.
These tests are outgrowths of the 316A and 316B programs. We are trying to develop utility-wide or
industry-wide solutions to the problems addressed. TVA is also conducting a program to determine the
effects of strip mining on fresh water mollusks.
Question: Comments were made on the impact and need for treatment techniques for mining wastes
which may vary considerably. This variation results from differences in mine geo-chemistry waste water
characteristics, including acidity, trace metal content and suspended sediments. Treatment schemes for
specific conditions are necessary instead of a single scheme for a whole area. Treatment should also
consider the subject or organics in strip mine wastewaters. Is any work going on in this area?
Panel Response: It is generally agreed that organic pollutants have been neglected. The nation
has become oversensitized to the metals problem as a result of our concern about methyl mercury. That is
not a good example to follow in the future. Metals do not pose as much of a problem as do the organics,
and so should not be studied because they are so easy to measure. Ease of measurement should not be the
motivation for an energy research program. Investigation of organics in mining pollution should include
identification of relative toxicity of organics, and on the distribution and fate of the organics re-
leased to the ecosystem.
Additional Comment from the Floor: The Canadian program for strip mining of tar sands is now under
way. One plant will process material equal to all of the coal mined in North America during an entire
year. There is a ten-year program to examine the associated environmental issues which have been out-
lined here. Organics is seen as one of the major problems along with metals. One of the major metals is
vanadium, which it is suspected, will also be found in the U.S. oil shale deposits.
Question: TVA mentioned that some coal seams are so toxic that they probably can't ever be mined.
What is the nature of this toxicity?
Panel Response: The particular coal seam mentioned is one which has an overburden which results in
a highly acidic spoil. A study of 400 acres of disturbed land mined from this seam shows that reclama-
tion efforts have been unsuccessful. TVA is paying the cost of further attempts at reclamation. TVA
will be hesitant in purchasing any coals mined from this seam in the future until better spoil handling
techniques are developed.
Question: Was there a statement made that there are no water-related problems associated with strip
mining in the West?
.Panel Response: No, the Western geographic area was not specified. The intended point was that the
problem associated with coal strip mining has been overemphasized in relation to, say, oil shale and
coal gasification.
Comment: The question on Western strip mining of coal was mentioned in view of the imminent resump-
tion of Federal coal leasing by the Department of the Interior, vis-a-vis the report of the National
Academy of Science on the rehabilitation of strip mine areas in the West.
Panel Response: Strip mining does pose different problems in the East and the West, and for that
matter, in different areas of each region.
Question: Could the panel comment on the aspect of priorities?
-------
142
Panel Response: The subject of priorities is a broad one. Strip mining anywhere poses very real
problems. In the West, the problem differs from that in the East due to the availability of water
necessary in reclamation.
Comment from the Floor: Mention has been made of concern that there may be overemphasis on the
potential problem from trace elements. Our society is very complex. Development of energy is not limited
to matters of technology and environmental reality alone. Today it is necessary to consider real problems
and foreseen problems. Unwelcome changes may be incorrectly blamed on the wrong culprit. Good scienti-
fic facts are going to be necessary or whole sound technologies will be hazardous. On another subject,
there seems to be a race going on today to identify the most carcinogenesis material which will be evol-
ved or emitted to the atmosphere. Caution and responsibility should be urged. There is a tendency to
generate non-existent problems. Mention has been made of the great concern over mercury and metal mer-
cury. It would be counter productive to see the same thing happen with respect to organics.
Comment from the Floor: The exaggerated concern over trace metals is the result of a bandwagon
effect. The whole question of trace metals is a bad subject.
Comment from the Floor: It does seem that some of the interest in trace elements results from ease
of measurement and other considerations not directly related to the hazards involved.
Comment from the Floor: In rebuttal to previous statements, trace metal analysis is not easy to do.
It is not easy to do by time of adsorption or time of emission because neither has much sensitivity
without prior concentration. The methodology for trace metal analysis is not easy nor has the methodo-
logy been adequately established.
Reply: The prior comment on the difficulties in measurement of trace metals was intended to be
compared with the difficulties involved in the measurement of organics. It was not intended to imply
that the metal measurements are easy or that they may be done by other than skilled scientists. In com-
parison, however, measurement of organics has the added problem that some of the compounds have not been
identified as yet.
Comment from the Floor: The legislation which created ERDA is voluminous. It seems that the legis-
lation intends to establish the vehicle where the total energy-related problem may be addressed.
Question: Are current investigations being made of ecological effects on large-scale river systems
such as the upper Missouri and Colorado Basins as opposed to individual streams and rivers?
Panel Response: The Fish and Wildlife Service has initiated studies of the entire Missouri and
Colorado Basins.
-------
CHAPTER 7
TERRESTRIAL ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS
-------
144
INTRODUCTION
Terrestrial ecosystems serve as sinks for
pollutants deposited from the atmosphere. The most
common primary pollutants emitted in the combustion
of fossil fuels are compounds of sulfur, oxides of
nitrogen and particulate matter. Furthermore, some
of the gaseous primary pollutants undergo photo-
chemical reactions producing even more toxic
secondary pollutants. As more large coal-burning
power plants are built and become operational, and
as energy consumption increases in general, we may
anticipate elevated concentrations of some air
pollutants. Increase in the contamination of the
terrestrial ecosystem can be expected to have a
detrimental effect on human health and the ecosystem
itself.
The chronic effects on plants from low level
exposure to atmospheric pollution is not well under-
stood compared to our understanding of acute injury.
The problem of forecasting environmental conse-
quences and of developing the technological methods
to reduce or ameliorate the impact is complicated.
For example, a pollutant may alter the physiology or
behavior of the individuals that comprise a popula-
tion. These alterations are ultimately reflected
in altered survival or emigration rates. However,
such effects may be subtle and difficult to relate
to the specific causitive stressor. In the real
world, numerous stressors are operating in complex
ways. This tends to confound the field results
obtained in an attempt to evaluate a single stressor.
As a consequence, the terrestrial effects to be
expected from various pollutants will be difficult
to predict. Improvements in the predictive tools
and assessment techniques remains a major research
goal.
Other objectives of terrestrial related research
will apply to the reclamation of damaged lands and
the prevention of future damage to terrestrial eco-
systems. Reclamation will be primarily associated
with lands disturbed by strip mining of coal,
although the technology would also probably apply to
all strip mining operations including oil shale
development. Prevention of future damage will result
from elimination or reduction of pollutants and from
reclamation practices. There is also some evidence
of other protective possibility through application
of chemicals which will reduce plant susceptibility.
While not typical of what should be expected
from atmospheric emissions, there are also reports
of beneficial results from substances ordinarily
regarded as pollutants. Both sulfur and nitrogen
compounds are major plant nutrients which may be
supplied to some degree from the atmosphere.
-------
145
Terrestrial Effects
of
Energy Research and Development
by
Norman R. Glass
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this paper is to present a
summary of the research activities which are being
pursued by a number of federal agencies in the
determination of the Terrestrial Effects of Energy
Development. It goes almost without saying that
to summarize such an extensive research program
within the federal government system is a monumen-
tal task. However that may be, my intention is
to summarize the research activities of the U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Environmental Protec-
tion Agency, Department of Interior, Energy Re-
search and Development Administration, and the
Tennessee Valley Authority (1, 2, 3, 4, 5). This
summary is only of the ecological effects portion
of these agencies symposium submissions and, there-
fore, I will have little to say about technology
oriented research programs which are reported else-
where in this symposium.
However, before launching into detailed dis-
cussion of each of these papers, it would be worth-
while to review for you some of the background in-
formation and events which have preceeded the
symposium and the results reported today. In
December, 1973, a report was prepared by the chair-
man of the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission (now
ERDA) entitled "The Nation's Energy Future" (6, 7).
This report had three major recommendations
attached to it:
1. A national energy and research program.
2. A five year, ten billion dollar federal
ER and D program.
3. FY1975 federal budget for ER and D.
Since the exact energy extraction and con-
version process dictates to a large extent the
nature and extent of the ecological effects that
might be expected, a word about that is in order.
It is clear that fossil fuels have been the pri-
mary source of energy supplying the United States
energy production system - accounting for more
than 90% of the total United States energy con-
sumption in 1973. It is also clear that even with
the large increase in nuclear power generating
capacity which is planned, that because of long
lead times associated with getting plants on line
and other factors, fossil fuels will continue to
be the major energy resource at least up to and
probably beyond the year 2000. Further, oil and
gas are the predominating (more than 75%) fossil
fuels which are satisfying U..S. energy demand.
While such sources as natural gas and coal have
various advantages and disadvantages, petroleum
can be seen as the most versatile of our energy
sources. However, both oil and gas fossil fuels
may become very limited within the next decade or
two, giving way to the use of coal as a primary
source.
Because it is estimated that the United States
has several centuries of coal availability, we are
moving toward an energy economy which is based
upon, coal as the primary fossil fuel resource.
Western coal is relatively abundant, low in cost,
clean, and by about 1985 we should have a technology
that is capable of economically converting western
coal to synthetic gas and oil. The principal short-
term constraints to the utilization of western coal
reserves are the amount of environmental degrada-
tion that the American public is willing to sustain
as a price for secure, abundant energy; the ability
of scientists to forecast the amount and kinds of
environmental effects that will result from the
given level of coal use; the availability of capital;
materials availability; problems relating to site
selection and construction; and the availability of
effective resource management systems.
It is within this framework of constraints and
conditions which the Terrestrial Ecology Pass
Through Program has been cast. Obviously, if coal
is to become the more predominant source of fossil
fuel for the United States, then the Terrestrial
Ecosystem is likely to be the most heavily impacted
system. However, I would not wish to understate
the water resource problem particularly the matter
of water availability - water quantity. Since coal
extraction (primarily strip mining in recent years)
has been historically concentrated in the east, in
the Appalachian region, and in the mid-west, the
exploitation of western coal reserves is a rela-
tively recent phenomenon. Because of the recency
of coal development on any scale in the west, pro-
grams designed to evaluate the impact of coal ex-
traction and conversion are fairly new. Because
the clean coal of the western United States is a
most desirable coal to be used given the air quality
constraints under which the industry operates, it
seemed reasonable to devote the preponderance of
research effort using "pass through" money to
western coal development. By implication, because
of the location of the larger reserves, most of the
extraction and exploitation of western coal is in
the Northern Great Plains area and the Rocky Moun-
tain states rather than in the southwestern United
States.
Our present ability to predict the effects of
coal mining and coal burning is extremely limited.
Indeed, we have practically no ability to predict
the long term environmental effects of even the
present level of coal production (see 8, 9, 10).
Consequently, regardless of our intent, exploitation
of this energy source may be accompanied by large-
scale long-term environmental degradation. The
enormity of the issue is apparent when we consider
that these coal reserves might be exploited for
another 400-500 years.
The problems of forecasting environmental con-
sequences and of developing the technological methods
to reduce or ameliorate impact are exceedingly com-
-------
146
plex. Both strip mining and coal combustion pro-
duce effects on living and non-living components of
the environment that are extensive and diverse.
While some effects may be ephemeral, others may
prove to be long lasting or irreversible. Conven-
tionally fired steam plants alone produce environ-
mental impacts via air pollution (largely through
S0?, oxidants, particulates, and adsorbed metals),
water pollution (use of cooling, makeup, and slurry
water), plant construction, operation and the assoc-
iated construction and employment of dams, reser-
voirs, aquaducts, slurry pipelines, and transmission
lines. All of these have impacts both locally and
at distant sites. The total direct impact of
electrical energy production and delivery over a
state or region may thus be very considerable in
both time and space.
The major sources of cooling water, makeup
water and process (slurry makeup) water are rivers
such as the Yellowstone, Missouri, Tongue, and
others. Therefore, vast fertile watersheds beyond
the immediate area developed could be impacted. If
we are to make the proper impact analysis, it is
imperative that research in the Great Plains be de-
signed to assess the long-term effects both locally
and over the entire region of coal mining, conver-
sion, delivery, and utilization.
The major air pollutants emanating from fossil
fuel energy systems are the sulfur oxides, nitrogen
oxides and particulate matter. These energy systems
also contribute, to a lesser degree, to the carbon
monoxide and oxidant burden. Primary ambient air
standards based on human health effects have been
established for S02> particulates, oxidants, hydro-
carbons, and NOp. While these standards (11, 12)
were based on tne best scientific information
available at the time of their promulgation, signi-
ficant gaps in knowledge existed. In addition to
the above gaseous pollutants, many trace metals
such as copper, cadmium, zinc, lead, arsenic, mer-
cury, selenium and others, are emitted from fossil-
fuel power generating plants.
Having made these introductory remarks con-
cerning energy exploitation, I will now turn to a
summary of each Agency's Terrestrial Ecology Pro-
gram as submitted for this symposium by the members
of the panel (1, 2, 3, 4, 5). Every effort has
been made to summarize relevant material which was
sent in by each Agency, any oversights are of
course my responsibility.
AGENCY RESEARCH PROGRAMS
The EPA Program:
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency in
cooperation with other Federal agencies and several
universities is engaged in a one million dollar per
year research program at Colstrip (13, 14) designed
to assess the impact of coal-fired power plants on
a grassland ecosystem. This environmental research
program was designed and fielded 2 years ago in
anticipation of energy development in the Northern
Great Plains. The major air of this four-year in-
vestigation is to develop methodologies for the
prediction of impacts and thus enhance our ability
to make valid siting and regulatory decisions in
the future. The full realization of this objective
within the time frame that has been projected will
require a synthesis of effects research data and
the coordination of these data with the results of
socioeconomic and transport/fate research projects.
The discussion that follows is a synthesis and
summary of the investigation up to the present time;
for a more detailed treatment, see Lewis et al.,
1975b (13, 14). This study is concerned with the
stability of grassland organization in relation to
ambient conditions, and with the predictability and
reproducibility of changes that may occur as a
function of airborne contaminants. Insight into
the mechanisms of dynamic-structural responses of
ecosystem components to air pollution challenge is
also sought. We are also attempting to identify
the subsystem functions that contribute to eco-
system regulation and the mechanisms whereby such
regulation is effected. The latter is essential if
we are to assess the ability of the range resource
to recover or restabilize following environmental
disturbance.
This investigation is a first major attempt to
generate methods to predict bioenvironmental effects
of air pollution before damage is sustained. His-
torically, most terrestrial air pollution field re-
search has dealt almost exclusively with direct,
usually acute, effects on vegetation after exposure
to pollutants. We expect to observe complex changes
in ecosystem dynamics as a function of relatively
long-term chronic pollution challenge. We are
studying a rather broad range of interacting vari-
ables, at least some of which already appear to be
sensitive and reliable measures of air pollution
impact.
The investigation employs 1) the use of reason-
able comprehensive models of component populations
of the ecosystem; 2) the use of appropriately
structured field and laboratory experiments; and 3)
an evaluation of selected physiological and bio-
chemical functions that may serve as specific in-
dicators or predictors of air pollution stress.
In addition to the ''simple" direct effects of
air pollutants that have been reported from experi-
mental studies of natural systems, we know that in-
sults to the environment from rather diverse sources
(toxic substances, pesticides, radiation, disease,
and adverse climate) produce a similar array of
effects at the community level in spite of very
different effects on individual organisms studied
under experimental conditions. The response
mechanisms may vary, but the manifestation is often:
(1) a reversal of succession or simplification of
ecosystem structure (retrogression); (2) a reduc-
tion in the ratio of photosynthesis to respiration;
and (3) a reduction in species diversity at more
than one trophic level, which may include the
elimination of certain species (19-22) (e.g., in
grassland, usually rare, but characteristic species
such as those that typified the original prairie).
-------
147
Effects may be temporary and reversible (i.e., the
system adapts) or chronic and cumulative. In any
case, if a coal-fired power plant has a measurable
impact on the environment, there is every reason to
believe that it will be registered as a diminution
or alteration of community structure and function
(22, 23, 24). Table 4 outlines the existing re-
search plan.
TABLE 4. OUTLINE OF THE RESEARCH PLAN
FOR THE MONTANA COAL-FIRED
POWER PLANT PROJECT
I. Field Investigation
A. Temporal and spatial quantitative inven-
tory of components of the study area, with
particular focus on the annual cycle
phenomena of key species.
B. Meteorological measurements to support the
modeling and experimental air pollution
research efforts.
C. Development of remote sensing as a tool
for detecting effects of air pollutant
challenge on the ecosystem.
D. Measurement of loss of inventory attributed
to strip mining, power lines, human acti-
vity, water use, and other potentially
confounding influences, e.g., pesticides,
disease, population cycling.
II. Air Pollution Experiments
A. Experimentally controlled air pollution
of spatial segments of an ecosystem.
B. Detailed measurement of biological struc-
ture and function, including energy flow,
nutrient cycling and species condition,
composition and diversity during and
following air pollution stress.
III. Laboratory Experiments
A. Measurement and evaluation of physiologic,
biochemical and behavioral mechanisms of
response to air pollution challenge.
B. Precise measurement of parameters that
support dynamic models.
C. Experiments designed to test whether
changes observed in experimental study
plots can be attributed to air pollutant
stress.
D. Secondary stressor experiments (e.g.,
disease, temperature stress, water stress,
non-specific stress).
E. Experiments designed to test field-gener-
ated hypotheses.
IV. Modeling
A. Use of an ecosystem level model to describe
and predict effects of air pollutant
challenge.
B. Use of models to help design experiments.
C. Use of models to help disentangle pollu-
tant effects from natural variation and
system dynamics.
D. Meteorological and dispersion modeling to
describe the mode of entry of pollutant
into the ecosystem and its time and space
distribution and concentrations.
In addition, field experiments are possible
through the application of a zonal air pollution
system designed to meet the needs and constraints
of our program (25). Each grid system delivers a
dilute mixture of air and SOg over a 1-1/4 acre
grassland plot. Four plots are employed in each
experiment in which median S02 concentrations of
zero, 2, 5, and 10 pphm, respectively, are main-
tained throughout the entire growing season. The
systems distribute the gas more or less uniformly
over each plot, and the concentrations are log-
normally distributed with respect to time.
The developments of an environmental assess-
ment methodology over the next two years will re-
quire an intensive effort to integrate the immense
amount of biological, chemical and physical systems
information that is being generated by this program.
Results of complementary investigations at Colstrip
(26) will help to broaden and extend our data base
and aid us in achieving our goal.
We anticipate that the effects assessment
methodology developed will assist managers in sit-
ing future coal-fired power plants as well as
other coal-conversion facilities.
Additional EPA Terrestrial Research
While Colstrip has been and continues to be
the major EPA in-house and extramural effort in the
terrestrial effects area, mention should be made of
two additional points. First as presented in the
freshwater effects paper by Dr. Mount, the EPA is
shown as supporting about 600K in the Northern
Plains region in an extramural program on watershed
impacts. This work is partly terrestrial in nature
in that it deals with entire watersheds. The EPA
is also supporting about 100K in the Arctic for
work on oil spills in the Tundra ecosystem.
The ERDA Program
There are nine tasks for which ERDA has re-
sponsibility as outlined in the interagency report
deal with surface mine reclamation and related
problems. With the exception of one task that is
specially tailored to oil shale extraction, these
tasks relate to coal extraction and utilization at
-------
148
mine-mouth plants. The major research efforts in-
volve a diversified program conducted by the Land
Reclamation Laboratory at Argonne National Labora-
tory (ANL), and the Ames Laboratory. The Ames
study is a cooperative venture with the University
of Montana, Montana State University, and the
Pacific Northwest Laboratory. ERDA study sites are
located in the Southwest, Northern Great Plains,
and Central coal resource regions. The program is
built around a series of mine and mine-related
sites.
1. Northern Great Plains
There are four study areas in the Northern
Great Plains coal region which are related to this
program. They range from the lignite fields in
North Dakota to the Green River Formation in South-
eastern Wyoming.
Colstrip Site
The objective of the Ames project is to evalu-
ate the significance of changes in trace element
concentrations in the grassland system surrounding
Colstrip, Montana, as a result of mining operations
and coal utilization in the area. Initial efforts
have been to determine indigenous levels of trace
metals and other potential contaminants in vegeta-
tion and wildlife of the area. The goal is to pro-
vide biological transfer rates and potential effects
data which can be used in the assessment of the
ecological impact due to development of the region.
Naturally, this study is expected to provide only a
portion of the input for such an assessment.
About two-thirds of the financial support for
this project comes from the trace contaminants pro-
gram. The remainder of the funding is "pass
through."
In addition to Colstrip, ERDA is also involved
in reclamation and revegetation research efforts at
the Jim Bridger Mine site, Indian Head Mine site,
and Bighorn Mine site.
2. Southwestern Region
The ANL program includes three study areas in
the Southwestern Coal Region; one associated with
the Black Mesa mine in Arizona, and the other two
in Northern New Mexico associated with the San Juan
and Navajo Mines. As with other ANL studies these
projects are cooperative ventures with the mine
operators, and in each case regional universities
are major participants in the research. These
studies deal primarily with revegetation problems,
topsoil salinity.in mine spoil areas, alternate
uses of reclaimed land, and plant growth, develop-
ment, reproduction, and successional studies.
3. Central Region
Two study areas related to the interagency
program are located in the Central Region, one near
Morris, Illinois; the other near Staunton, Illinois.
One project will involve a demonstration effort
in cooperation with the State of Illinois, coupled
with an ANL research program to evaluate the
effectiveness of reclamation activities that in-
clude the use of chemical soil stabilizers and soil
amendments such as lime, sewage sludge, fly ash,
and straw. The plan is to revegetate the site with
prairie grasses, as is being done in an adjacent
state park.
The second project will represent another
cooperative effort by ANL to establish better
methods for disposal and utilization of wastes and
restoration of affected lands.
The project will include assessment of infil-
tration, run-off, and quality of water on the site
and on adjacent, impacted areas. Both laboratory
and field experiments will be performed to evaluate
the effects of chemical and physical treatment on
plant growth and establishment, and on microbial
transformations of nitrogen and sulfur compounds.
4. Other Activities
Two other tasks from the interagency program
are included in this area, one relating to oil
shale extraction, the other to data management.
The oil shale study, conducted by the Pacific
Northwest Laboratory, involves development of a
model to predict movement (either solvent or solute)
through spent shale or disturbed strata under areas
where shale has been extracted.
Data storage and management systems being de-
veloped in a joint effort between Oak Ridge National
Laboratory and ANL will ultimately provide two-way
exchange of information between Federal agencies,
other public agencies, the professional community,
and the coal industry. The system is planned to
permit storage and retrieval of bibliographies and
abstracts of reclamation research programs, data,
or reports including evaluations and comments.
TRACE CONTAMINANTS FROM
COAL COMBUSTION AND PROCESSING
The 1976 level of coal use in the United States
was approximately 600 million tons, and forecasts
indicate that this could double by the late 1980's
as the nation turns to coal to alleviate dependence
on foreign oil sources.
The composition of coal varies considerably,
and there is no typical coal composition. Some of
the trace elements of concern are cadmium, mercury,
selenium, arsenic, lead, chromium, copper, and
zinc. The projects included in this program are
designed to determine the characteristics, trans-
port, and fate of these trace elements in coal
following combustion or conversion to synthetic
fuels, and their effects on various compartments of
the environment.
Some of the projects address the determination
of which elements are released from a utility stack
and how they are distributed in the vicinity of the
plant. Another group of projects deals with the
determination of trace elements in the residual fly
-------
ash and furnace ash and their mobilization follow-
ing burial at disposal sites. Closely related
studies address the way in which any mobilized
elements are retained by different type soils.
Another aspect of this program is considera-
tion of the manner in which the trace contaminants
are cycled biogeochemically and the extent to which
they are concentrated by aquatic and terrestrial
organisms. In addition, some of the projects deal
with effects on plant and animal species in several
regions of the country.
Two of the projects will attempt to identify
biological indicators which would serve as early
warning systems for detection of deleterious
effects.
ALASKAN OIL
As a result of the Prudhoe Bay, Alaska oil
strike in 1968, there was thought to be about two
billion barrels of crude oil and some 7.4 trillion
cubic feet of natural gas in that field. By 1973
the proven reserves of crude oil for the U.S. and
Canada, except the Arctic, were estimated to be
1.3 billfon net barrels. Currently, Alaska's
Arctic Slope is estimated to have something under
10 billion barrels of crude oil and about 22.5
trillion cubic feet of natural gas.
The Atomic Energy Commission was involved for
many years in ecological research and studies of
man's impact on the Arctic. This experience and
related projects were inherited by ERDA and form
the core for the future research program related to
development of Alaskan resources.
ERDA has responsibility for three tasks re-
lated to these problems, as follows:
1) Oil persistence in the tundra and its im-
pact on the below-ground ecosystem,
2) Effects of oil on tundra thaw ponds, and
3) Effects of construction on tundra lakes.
These studies were funded June 1. Therefore,
few results are available and those which are
available are only preliminary in scope. Addition-
al program detail is available in ERDA's symposium
submission (4).
The Department of Interior Program
The Fish and Wildlife Service energy effort is
primarily concerned with minimizing the impact of
energy developments on fish, wildlife, and related
environmental values. This paper briefly covers
the terrestrial program objectives and our current
activities.
The Office of Biological Services Program has
five terrestrial objectives as outlined below.
These will be reviewed in detail (3), but in sum-
mary they are aimed at:
149
1) Defining the key terrestrial problems re-
sulting from energy developments.
2) Obtaining the tools to deal effectively
with the problem.
3) Testing and demonstrating the tools and
methods under controlled conditions.
4) Learning how and where to put improved
information to work on environmental
problems.
5) Getting involved in the decision-making
process as an active participant.
An initial program thrust of the Office of
Biological Services was to establish the Western
Energy and Land Use Team in Fort Collins, Colorado.
Western energy reserves include extensive coal,
oil shale, and geothermal reservoirs. Most of
these fuels are on public land and represent na-
tional resources which are under great development
pressure. The Department of the Interior places
an initial priority on understanding and minimizing
the energy related damage to this water poor and
environmentally sensitive region. We are concerned
about the surface disturbance and reclamation
activities, as well as the processing and trans-
mission of the extracted fuel. Secondary effects
are also of concern. These include the protection
of the environment from the development of indus-
trail and related population growth. We will con-
tinue to place emphasis on the impact of these
terrestrial activities on Western water resources
which are now under severe stress.
The principal study areas under consideration
include the Four Corners region, the Piceance
Basin, the Powder River Basin, southeastern Montana,
the Kaparowitz Plateau, and western North Dakota.
They cover two of the Fish and Wildlife Service's
Regions and deal with most Western major energy
land disturbance problems. We will then guide our
experimental studies, demonstration projects, and
research activities into these areas to the degree
possible.
The Fish and Wildlife Service budget provided
approximately $3 million in FY 1975 to initiate the
terrestrial energy projects and approximately $4
million will be available in FY 1976. These funds
are supplemented by "pass through" funds from
other agencies, such as the energy research and
development support from the Environmental Protec-
tion Agency. Other limited support has been made
available by the Bureau of Land Management and the
U.S. Geological Survey. The total resource alloca-
tions since 1976 and projected through 1976 are as
follows:
Upland Ecosystems Project Air/Terrestrial
FY 1975
Base
2.150K
Interagency
700K
Total
2.850K
-------
150
Base
3.200K
FY 1976
Interagency
700K
and increased yields 30 to
Tempo beans (32).
on highly sensitive
Total
3.900K
The major thrust of the Fish and Wildlife
Service energy program is to obtain ecological in-
formation of appropriate form and quality to
effectively influence energy development decisions.
This requires applying currently available tech-
niques for ecological assessments and for signifi-
cantly improving the methodologies available to
measure and predict environmental impact. The
Environmental Protection Agency cooperative program
has allowed the Fish and Wildlife Service to under-
take a serious applied research effort to improve
the rate with which ecological assessments can be
made. The Fish and Wildlife Service approach will
involve the development of several major ecological
test areas which are also of interest for Western
energy development. This effort also includes ex-
tensive commitment of other Fish and Wildlife Ser-
vice resources. Its success is dependent upon a
high level of interagency and State cooperation on
the test sites. It is anticipated that this effort
will speed the decisions concerning energy develop-
ment in non-sensitive areas and protect fish and
wildlife values by avoidance of critical habitat
and more effective reclamation procedures.
The USDA Program
EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTANTS
CROPS
As more large coal-burning power plants are
built and become operational, we may anticipate
elevated concentrations of some air pollutants.
The major primary phytotoxic pollutants from these
power plants are sulfur dioxide (SO?), nitrogen
oxides, acid-aerosols, ethylene, ana heavy metals,
like lead, cadmium, and zinc.
The chronic effects on plants of exposure to
low levels of atmospheric pollutants in the envir-
onment are poorly understood as compared with our
knowledge of the nature and extent of acute injury,
(27, 28, 29). We do know genetic and environmental
factors affect plant response to pollutants.
Therefore, USDA has devoted substantial efforts to
producing pollutant resistant crop varieties.
Presently, the interacting effects of toxic
gas mixtures are poorly understood. A synergistic
response has been demonstrated with mixtures of
ozone and S02 (30); i.e., concentrations too low to
cause visible injury when applied alone caused
severe damage as a mixture. Possible damage to
vegetation and soils from increased acidity of pre-
cipitation is also a problem (31).
In addition, research is being conducted with
chemicals which can be applied to protect plants
from injury due to oxidant -air pollution. A
fungicide, benomyl [methyl-l-(butylcarbamoyl)-2-
benzimidazole carbamate}, suppressed oxidant injury
No research information is available to
accurately assess the overall impact of air pollu-
tants on the agricultural economy. A survey by the
Stanford Research Institute, available in 1971, re-
vealed a $131 million/year loss to vegetation. If
we include losses caused by minor pollutants, de-
creased growth and yield caused by major pollutants,
effects on ornamentals, wildlife, and aesthetic
values, as well as the increased value of agricul-
tural crops since the 1971 Stanford Research Study,
the $500 million/year estimated loss seems reason-
able.
The effects of energy-related, air pollutants
on animal production systems have not been identi-
fied. The primary concern seems to be accumulation
of pollutants, like that of heavy metals in forage,
in localized areas, near an industrial source or
heavily traveled highways (33).
RECLAMATION OF COAL STRIP-MINED AREAS
The Department of Agriculture has been con-
cerned for many years with revegetation of dis-
turbed lands (34, 35). It has been an essential
part of their soil and water conservation techniques.
Recent research by the Agricultural Research
Service, USDA, and cooperators in Appalachia indi-
cate (a) forage yields on reclaimed spoils are high-
est when rock phosphate is applied, (b) Bermuda-
grass has promise for revegetation if phosphorous
and nitrogen deficiencies, as well as acidity, are
corrected, (c) crown vetch can be established, if
weeping 1 overgrass is used first as a covery crop,
and (d) composted sewage sludge is a promising
soil treatment. Currently, in West Virginia and
Maryland, about 3,000 plots are involved in the
revegetation studies. Our scientists are concerned
also with (a) deep placement of fertilizer, (b)
evaluating Rhizobium inoculants, (c) plant survival
on outer slopes, (d) element uptake by various
plant species, and (e) using sewage sludge as a
soil amendment. ARS scientists (18) concluded that
acid mine spoils in Appalachia could be altered in
a relatively short time, to have good production
potential. They believe that physical structure,
involving available soil water and stoniness, is
the most difficult to improve.
In the Northern Great Plains progress has been
made in identifying factors which hinder reclama-
tion and revegetation of strip-mine lands (36).
Phosphorous is always deficient, but readily cor-
rected by fertilization. In North Dakota spoils
originating from deeper than about 15 m are fre-
quently high in adsorbed sodium and clay content.
The highly sodic spoils are impractical to reclaim
because of water shortages. A series of plots were
established recently which will be used to evaluate
the succession of native grass species on spoils
with and without top soil at various depths. Ex-
perimental results indicated considerable benefit
from surface application of as little as 5 cm of
-------
151
natural top soil over the sodic materials. In
Wyoming, new revegetation trials were established
at three mine sites. For these sites a broad
range of woody plant species were obtained for the
revegetation trials from several sources, including
the Soil Conservation Service and Federal and
State Forest Service nurseries.
The Cooperative State Research Service and the
State Experiment Stations of 12 coal-producing
States have developed projects concerning a wide
range of terrestrial environmental problems related
to strip mining of coal. Most of these projects
deal with revegetation of reclaimed lands. One
project will investigate the effects of S0~ pollu-
tion on native plants and crops.
The Forest Service has developed a surface
environment and mining program (SEAM). Besides the
several research projects already identified, they
have projects on utilizing remote sensing tech-
niques, on establishing microbial populations in
sterile soils, on plant resistance to drought
stress, on improved stability of mine spoils, and
on evaluating strip mining effects on wildlife.
Most of the new research and development pro-
jects on revegetation of coal strip-mined lands are
too new to yield results. We may anticipate that
reclamation planning will be an integral part of
surface coal mining operations, like those describ-
ed recently in West Germany (37). A systems
approach is developing which accounts for (a) land
use options, (b) chemical and physical properties
of the overburden, (c) mining methods that opti-
mize separation according to quality, and the sub-
sequent use of the overburden, (d) kinds and
amounts of fertilizer and other soil amendments to
use, (e) best management practices, and (f) best
plant material to achieve intended land use. In
addition to their use in agriculture and forestry,
strip-mined areas can be used at some locations as
parks, airports, sites for building schools or
some types of industries, or even new towns or
lakes.
The TVA Program
The efficient and responsible operation of a
power system requires the development of knowledge
of the ecological effects of electric generation,
not only in order to avoid or lessen such environ-
mental imapcts but also in order to avoid delays
in the planning, design, and construction of power
plants.
The research being conducted by TVA using
pass through funds consists of one principal pro-
ject with several tasks, and one lessen project,
as follows:
1. Develop Baseline Information and Identify,
Characterize, and Quantify the Transfer,
Fate, and Effects of Coal-Fired Power
Plant Emissions in Terrestrial Ecosystems
in the Tennessee Valley.
A. Field and Filtered/Unfiltered Exposure
Chamber Studies of Effects of Coal-
Fired Power Plant Emissions on Crop
and Forest Species of Economic Import-
ance in SE United States.
The studies are being conducted at 12
sites equipped with continuous SOp monitors
within an area near the steam plant that
experiences a relatively high frequency of
ground-level SC>2 exposures and at 7 sites
areas remote to industrial sources of SC^.
During the 1975 growing season, comparisons
of the foliar appearance, growth, and
yield of soybeans, a crop species th'at is
very sensitive to S02. In 1976, the
studies will be expanded to include effects
of S02 exposure on wheat, cotton, and
Virginia pine. Emphasis will be placed on
comparisons of plants grown on field plots
with plants grown on adjacent plots equip-
ped with air-exclusion systems. The com-
parisons will be made at four locations in
the high exposure area and at a remote
location.
B. Determine Dose-Response Kinetics for
Effects of Atmospheric Emissions from
Coal-Fired Power Plants on Soybeans
and Other Crop and Forest Species of
Economic Importance in the SE United
States.
Controlled laboratory exposure studies
have not reflected either the rapid
changes in concentrations of principal
coal-fired power plant pollutants, such as
SOp and NOo, that occur during ground-level
exposures in the field or the environmental
conditions under which such exposures
normally occur; most investigators have
utilized time-average concentration ex-
posure regimes in dose-response studies.
TVA has designed, constructed, and tested
a controlled SOo exposure system that will
be employed in these studies. The system
utilizes programmable fumigation kinetics
to closely simulate the fluctuating S02
concentrations that occur in field expo-
sures. The controlled exposure system is
being modified to permit single or multiple
pollutant exposures with S02» N02, and 03.
Studies in 1975 were directed toward iden-
tifying (1) the phenological state(s) of
growth at which soybean plants are most
sensitive to foliar injury and to reduc-
tions in yield resulting from foliar in-
jury and (2) the relationship between soil
pH, soil fertility, and soil moisture to
the S02 - sensitivity of soybean plants at
various stages of growth. Analyses of the
data are in progress.
Studies in 1976 will be directed toward
(1) establishing the relationship among
-------
152
S0? dose, foliar injury, and yield for the
stage of growth that soybeans are most
sensitive to yield reduction following S02
exposure; and (2) determining the effects
of multiple pollutant exposures (SOo + N02
and S02 + 03) on growth and yield of soy-
beans.
C. Characterize and quantify the Transfer,
Fate, and Effects of SOX, NO , and
Acid Precipitation on Terrestrial Eco-
systems Representative of the Tennessee
Valley Region.
Terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems serve
as sinks for pollutants deposited in them
from the atmosphere, including those emit-
ted in the combustion of fossil fuels.
Sulfur and nitrogen oxides, which are the
principal atmospheric pollutants resulting
from coal combustion, and their products
of oxidation in the atmosphere, $04 and
NOq, can serve as beneficial sources of
essential plant nutrients or can be toxic
to living organisms. However, there is
evidence that exposure to low levels of
502 can benefit the growth and development
of plants grown on sulfur-deficient soils.
The objective of the task therefore is to
characterize and quantify the mechanisms
of transfer of SOX and NOX to terrestrial
ecosystems.
It is anticipated that the results of this
task will be coefficients for the trans-
fer, fate, and effects of SOX and NOX that
can be merged with atmospheric chemistry
and long-range transport studies TVA is
conducting, and with data from TVA's
region-wide air monitoring network, to
predict and evaluate impacts on a regional
basis.
D. Evaluation of the Beneficial Effects
of SOo and Other Pollutants Emitted
from Steam Plants on Crops and Forest
Species, Particularly Soybeans and
Pines
2. Fate and Effects of Atmospheric Emissions
from Cooling Systems on Terrestrial
Habitats.
Unvalidated dispersion models based on
limited field data have been used to pre-
dict and evaluate the impacts of atmo-
spheric releases from heat dissipation in
the terrestrial environment. These re-
leases include heat, moisture, salts, and
potentially toxic heavy metals.
Vegetation study plots are being estab-
lished at eight locations in the vicini-
ties of each of two nuclear plants -- one
equipped with mechanical draft cooling
towers (Browns Ferry) and one equipped
with natural draft cooling towers
(Sequoyah). Growth and yield, incidence
of disease, and frequency of occurrence of
frost and ice injury will be determined for
plantings of selected crop and timber
species of economic importance. Relative
humidity, temperature, precipitation, and
wet and dry depositions of salts and heavy
metals and their accumulation on soils and
vegetation will be monitored at each plot.
Data from these studies will be used (1)
to validate dispersion models for these
systems, (2) to determine the extent to
which moisture and heat released from the
two types of systems modify climate and
impact vegetation, and (3) to determine
whether a potential exists for salt and
heavy metal toxicity to plant and live-
stock.
-------
153
REFERENCES
Terrestrial Effects of Pollutants from Energy
Use and Progress in Reclamation of Coal Strip
Mine Areas. H.E. Heggestad, Agricultural Re-
search Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture.
IN: Health/Environmental Effects and Control
Technology Aspects of_ Energy Research and De-
En vironmentaTl
veTopment. Environmental Protection Agency
Symposium Proceedings, February 9-11, 1976.
Washington, DC.
2. The Ecological Effects of Energy Conversion
Activities on the Terrestrial Environment: The
Environmental Protection Agencv's Program, by
Robert A. Lewis, Allen S. Lefohn, and Norman
R. Glass. IN: Health/Environmental Effects
and Control Technology Aspects erf Energy Re-
search and Development. En vironmental Protec-
tion Agency Symposium Proceedings, February 9-
11, 1976. Washington, DC.
3. Terrestrial Effects of Energy Development on
Fish and Wildlife Resources, by Herbert B.
Quinn, Jr., Program Manager, Upland Ecosystems
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. IN: Health/
Environmental Effects and Control Technology
Aspects erf Energy Research and Development.
Environmental Protection Agency Symposium Pro-
ceedings, February 9-11, 1976. Washington, DC.
4. Participation of ERDA in the Transport and
Ecological Effects Categories of the Pass-
Through Program. R.E. Franklin, D.S. Ballentine,
J.O. Blanton, D.H. Hamilton and C.M. White.
U.S. Energy Research and Development Administra-
tion. IN: Health/Environmental Effects and
Control Technology Aspects of Energy Research
and Development. Environmental Protection
Agency Symposium Proceedings, February 9-11,
1976. Washington, DC.
5. Air/Terrestrial Ecological Effects. H.R.
Hickey and P.A. Krenkel Tennessee Valley
Authority, Chattanooga, Tennessee. IN: Health/
Environmental Effects and Control Technology
Aspects of_ Energy Research and Development.
Environmental Protection Agency Symposium Pro-
ceedings, February 9-11, 1976. Washington, DC.
6. The Nation's Energy Future. A report to
Richard M. Nixon, President of the United
States. Submitted by Dr. Dixy Lee Ray, Chair-
man, United States Atomic Energy Commission.
December 1, 1973.
7. Report of the Interagency Working Group on
Health and Environmental Effects of Energy Use.
Prepared for the Office of Management and
Budget, Executive Office of the President,
Council on Environmental Quality, Executive
Office of the President. November 1974.
8. Lawton, J.H., and S.McNeil. 1973. Primary
production and pollution. Biologist, 20(4):
3-11.
9. Spear, R.C., and E. Wei. 1972. Dynamic aspects
of environmental toxicology. Trans. Am. Soc.
Mech. Engrs.. 94(2):114-118.
10. Congressional Research Service. 1975. Effects
of Chronic Exposure to Low Level Pollutants in
the Environment. Library of Congress, Serial
0, November 1975. 402 pp.
11. Federal Register, 36(84):8186-8201 (April 30,
1971).
12. The Clean Air Act states that"... air quality
criteria for an air pollutant shall accurately
reflect the latest scientific knowledge useful
in indicating the kind and extent of all iden-
tifiable effects on public health or welfare
which may be expected from the presence of
such pollutants in the ambient air, in varying
quantities" [section 108(a)]. The Act further
states that national primary ambient air quality
standards are regulations which "in the judg-
ment of the administrator, based on such cri-
teria, and following for an adequate margin of
safety, are requisite to protect the public
health" [section 109(b)]. Air quality criteria
then reflect scientific knowledge, while pri-
mary air quality standards involve a judgment
as to how this knowledge must be used in a
regulatory action to protect public health, and
the secondary air quality standard determine
the level of air quality required to protect
the public welfare. Public welfare as defined
in the Clean Air Act "includes, but is not
limited to, effects on soils, water, crops,
vegetation, man-made materials, animals, wild-
life, weather, visibility, and climate..."
[section 302(h)], These considerations also
apply and become focal points for energy re-
lated environmental research. It is clear that
the research experience gained in furtherance
of the Clean Air Act is valuable in pursuing
energy related research - in fact, the objec-
tives of research programs are so similar that
clear separation is not straight forward.
13. Lewis, et al. 1975a. An investigation of the
bioenvironmental effects of a coal-fired power
plant. IN, Fort Union Coal Symposium: Vol. 4,
TerrestrTal Ecosystems, pp. 531-536.
14. Lewis, et al. 1975b. Introduction to the
Col strip, Montana Coal-Fired Power Plant Pro-
ject: Section I. IN, the Bioenvironmental
Impact of a Coal-Fired Power Plant: Second
Interim Report, Col strip, Montana, (Eds.)
R.A. Lewis, N.R. Glass, and A.S. Lefohn,
pp. 1-13. In Press.
-------
154
15. Whittaker, R.H., F.H. Bormann, G.E. Likens,
and T.G. Siccama. 1974. The Hubbard Brook
ecosystem study: forest biome assay produc-
tion. Ecol. Monoq. 44:233-252.
16. Whittaker, R.H. 1953. A consideration of
climax theory: the climax is a population
and pattern. Ecol. Monog. 21:41-78.
17. Uhittaker, R.H. 1969. Evolution of diversity
in plant communities. Brookhaven Symp.
Biol. 22:178-196.
18. Whittaker, R.H. 1970a. Communities and Eco-
systems. MacMillan, New York.
19. Woodwell, G.M. 1962. Effects of ionizing
radiation on terrestrial ecosystems. Sci.
138:572-577.
20. Woodwell, G.M. 1967. Radiation and the
patterns of nature. Sci. 156:461-470.
21. Woodwell, G.M., and R.H. Whittaker. 1968a.
Effects of chronic gamma irradiation on plant
communities. Quart. Rev. Biol. 43:42-55.
22. Woodwell.G.M. 1973. Effects of pollution
on the structure and physiology of ecosystems.
IN, Ecological and biological effects of air
pollution, MSS Information Corp., pp. 10-17.
23. Glass, N.R., and D.T. Tingey. 1975. Effects
of air pollution on ecological process. IN,
Radiation Research Biomedical, Chemical, and
Physical Perspectives, (O.F, Nygaard, H.I.
Adler, and W.K. Sinclair, Eds.), pp. 1326-
1333. Academic Press, New York.
24. See, for example, Woodwell, G.M. 1970.
Effects of pollution on the structure and
physiology of ecosystems. Science, 168:429-
433.
25. Lee, J.L., R.A. Lewis, and D.E. Body. 1975.
A field experimental system for the evalua-
tion of the bioenvironmental effects of sulfur
dioxide. IN, Proceedings of the Fort Union
Coal Field Symposium: Vol. 4: Terrestrial
Ecosystems pp. 608-620.
26. Montana Energy Advisory Council (Lt. Gov.
Bill Christiansen, Chm.). 1975. Energy
Research in the Col strip, Montana, Area.
27. Library of Congress, "Effects of Chronic Ex-
posure to Low-Level Pollutants in the Environ-
ment," (Subcommittee on the Environment and
the Atmosphere, Committee on Science and Tech-
nology, U.S. House of Representatives), 1975.
28. Heck, W.W., O.C. Taylor, and H.E. Heggestad.
"Air Pollution Research Needs Herbaceous and
Ornamental Plants and Agriculturally Generated
Pollutants," Jour. Air Pollution Control Assoc.
23:257-266. 1973.
29. Heggestad, H.E., and W.W. Heck. "Nature Ex-
tent and Variation of Plant Response to Air
Pollutants," Adv. in Agron., 23:111-145. 1971.
30. Menser, H.A., and H.E. Heggestad, "Ozone and
Sulfur Dioxide Synergism Injury to Tobacco
Plants," Science, 153:424-425. 1966.
31. Cowling, E.B., A.S. Heagle, and W.W. Heck,
The Changing Acidity of Precipitation,"
Phytopathology News, 9: p. 5. 1975.
32. Manning, W.J,, and W.A. Fader, "Suppression of
Oxidant Injury by Benomyl : Effects on Yields
of Bean Cultivars in the Field," J. Environ.
Quality, 3:1-3. 1974.
33. Aschbacher, P.W., "Air Pollution Research
Needs Livestock Production Systems," J. Air
Pollution Control Assoc., 23:267-272. 1973.
34. Barrows, H.L., "ARS Research on Strip Mine
Reclamation." (Presented, 28th Annual NACD
Meeting, Houston, Texas, February 1974
ARS, USDA, Beltsville, MD.
35. Smith, R.M., W.E. Gube, Jr., and J.R.
Freeman, "Better Minesoils," Green Lands
Quarterly Winter, 16-18. 1975.
36. Power, L.F., R.E. Ries, F.M. Sandoval, and
W.O. Willis, "Factors Restricting Revegetation
of Strip Mine Spoils," Proceedings, Fort
Union Coal Symposium. 1975.
37. Kubic, M.J., "Germany's Prize Coal Stripper,"
Newsweek, 86(22):86, 89. 1975.
-------
155
THE ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ENERGY CONVERSION
ACTIVITIES ON THE TERRESTRIAL ENVIRONMENT
THE ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY'S PROGRAM
Robert A. Lewis
Allen S. Lefohn
Norman R. Glass
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Con/all is Environmental Research Laboratory
Corvallis, Oregon 97330
INTRODUCTION
The United States is moving toward an energy
economy based upon coal as the primary fossil fuel
resource. Western coal is abundant, low in cost,
relatively "clean" and by about 1985, we will have
a technology that is capable of economically con-
verting coal to synthetic forms of gas and oil.
The proximate limitations to coal development are
not primarily economic or technological. Rather,
the principal short-term constraints to the utili-
zation of Western coal reserves are the amount of
environmental degradation that the American people
are willing to sustain as a price for secure, abun-
dant energy; the ability of scientists to forecast
the amount arid kinds of environmental effects that
will result from a given level of coal use; the
availability of capital; materials availability;
problems relating to site selection and construc-
tion; and the availability of effective resource
management systems.
Our present ability to predict the effects of
coal mining and coal burning is extremely limited.
Indeed, we have practically no ability to predict
the long term environmental effects of even the
present level of coal production (see also 1, 2, 3).
Consequently, regardless of our intent, exploitation
of this energy source may be accompanied by large-
scale long-term environmental degradation. The
enormity of the issue is apparent when we consider
that these coal reserves might be exploited for
another 400-500 years.
The problems of forecasting environmental con-
sequences and of developing the technological methods
to reduce or ameliorate impact are exceedingly com-
plex. Both strip mining and coal combustion produce
effects on living and non-living components of the
environment that are extensive and diverse. While
some effects may be ephemeral, others may prove to be
long lasting or irreversible. Conventionally fired
steam plants alone produce environmental impacts via
air pollution (largely through S02, oxidants, parti-
cipates, and adsorbed metals), water pollution (use
of cooling, makeup, and slurry water), plant con-
struction, operation and the associated construction
and employment of dams, reservoirs, aquaducts, slurry
pipelines, and transmission lines. All of these have
impacts both locally and at distant sites. The total
direct impact of electrical energy production and
delivery over a state or region may thus be very
considerable in both time and space.
Strippable coal reserves lie under some of the
most economically rich ranchlands and productive
agricultural lands in the world. The capacity of
these rangelands and grasslands to absorb or recover
from strip mining, power plant siting, construction,
and resultant air and water pollution is probably
very limited. Yet these lands constitute a major
renewable resource of the central, northcentral and
midwestern United States. Considerable rangeland
will be -taken out of grain and livestock production;
natural plant and animal populations, including
species that are economically, aesthetically and
recreationally valuable in the local biome will be
altered or destroyed. The major sources of cooling
water, makeup water and process (slurry makeup) water
are rivers such as the Yellowstone, Missouri, Tongue,
and others. Therefore, vast fertile watersheds be-
yond the immediate area developed could be impacted.
If we are to make the proper socioeconomic analysis,
it is imperative that research in the Great Plains
be designed to assess the long term effects both
locally and over the entire region of coal mining,
conversion, delivery, and utilization.
The major air pollutants emanating from fossil
fuel energy systems are the sulfur oxides, nitrogen
oxides and particulate matter. These energy systems
also contribute, to a lesser degree, to the carbon
monoxide and oxidant burden. Primary ambient air
standards based on human health effects have been
established for S02, particulates, oxidants, hydro-
carbons, and N0~. While these standards (4, 5) were
based on the best scientific information available
at the time of their promulgation, significant gaps
in knowledge existed. In addition to the above
pollutants, many trace metals such as copper, cad-
mium, zinc, lead, arsenic, mercury, selenium and
others, are emitted from fossil-fuel power generating
plants. Numerous other trace contaminants in the
form of hydrocarbons and various aerosols are also
emitted. In general, trace metals are emitted as
particles adsorbed to fly ash or other particulate
matter coming from the power plant stack.
THE COLSTRIP. MONTANA PROGRAM
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency in
cooperation with other Federal agencies and several
universities (Table 1) is engaged in a one million
dollar per year research program (6) designed to
assess the impact of coal-fired power plants on a
grassland ecosystem. This environmental research
program was designed and fielded in anticipation of
energy development in the Northern Great Plains. The
major aim of this four-year investigation is to
develop methodologies for the prediction of impacts
and thus enhance our ability to make valid siting
and regulatory decisions. The full realization of
this objective within the time frame that has been
projected will require a synthesis of effects
research data and the coordination of these with the
results of socioeconomic and transport/fate research
projects.
-------
156
TABLE 1
PARTICIPANTS IN COLSTRIP PROGRAM
Federal Government Universities
EPA
USFS
ERDA
NOAA
Montana State, Bozeman
University of Montana,
Missoula
Colorado State University,
Fort Collins
Oregon State University,
Corvallis
The discussion that follows is a synthesis
and summary of the investigation up to the present
time; for a more detailed treatment, see Lewis et_
al., 1975b (6). This study is concerned with the
stability of grassland organization in relation to
ambient conditions, and with the predictability
and reprooucibility of changes that may occur as a
function of airborne contaminants. Insight into
the mechanisms of dynamic-structural responses of
ecosystem components to air pollution challenge is
also sought. We are also attempting to identify
the subsystem functions that contribute to ecosys-
tem regulation and the mechanisms whereby such
regulation is effected. The latter is essential if
we are to assess the ability of the range resources
to recover or restabilize following environmental
disturbance.
This investigation is the first major attempt
to generate methods to predict bioenvironmental
effects of air pollution before damage is sus-
tained. Historically, most terrestrial air pollu-
tion field research has dealt almost exclusively
with direct, usually acute, effects on vegetation
after exposure to pollutants. We expect to observe
complex changes in ecosystem dynamics as a function
of relatively long-term, chronic pollution chal-
lenge. We are studying a rather broad range of
interacting variables, at least some of which
already appear to be sensitive and reliable mea-
sures of air pollution impact.
The investigation employs 1) the use of rea-
sonably comprehensive models of component popu-
lations of the ecosystem; 2) the use of appropri-
ately structured field and laboratory experiments;
and 3) an evaluation of selected physiological and
biochemical functions that may serve as specific
indicators or predictors of air pollution stress.
Even in a comprehensive investigation, exten-
sive studies of a large array of species or pro-
cesses is not possible. Considerable research is
required to identify the particular parameters that
will give an adequate, sensitive measure of air
pollution to a grassland ecosystem or components
thereof. Broad categories of important functions
under investigation include 1) changes in produc-
tivity or biomass of ecosystem compartments; 2)
changes in life-cycle and population dynamic func-
tions of "key" taxa; 3) changes in community struc-
ture or diversity; 4) changes in nutrient cycling;
and 5) sublethal biochemical or physiological
changes in individuals or compartments including
behavioral changes.
RATIONALE
In addition to the "simple" direct effects of
air pollutants that have been reported from experi-
mental studies of natural systems, we expect to
observe complex changes in ecosystem dynamics as a
function of pollution challenge. We know that in-
sults to the environment from rather diverse sources
(toxic substances, pesticides, radiation, disease,
and adverse climate) produce a similar array of
effects at the community level in spite of very dif-
ferent effects on individual organisms studied under
experimental conditions. The response mechanisms
may vary, but results are often similar: (1) a re-
versal of succession or simplification of ecosystem
structure (retogression)(17-14); (2) a reduction in
the ratio of photosynthesis to respiration; and (3)
a reduction in species diversity at more than one
trophic level, which may include the elimination of
certain species (ll-14)(e.g., in grassland, usually
rare, but characteristic species such as those that
typified the original prairie). Effects may be tem-
porary and reversible (i.e., the system adapts) or
chronic and cumulative. In any case, if a coal-fired
power plant has a measurable impact on the environ-
ment, there is every reason to believe that it will
be registered as a diminution or alteration of com-
munity structure and function (14,15).
Both plant and animal diversity and energy
transfer between and within trophic levels are mea-
sures of community structure. Furthermore, these
functions may be regarded as important ecosystem
resources. We hypothesize that the immediate popula-
tion-level effects from environmental stress may
result from differential impairment of competitive
ability. At the relatively low pollution levels
anticipated in the investigation, we may expect to
find predisposing and subclinical effects that would
be impossible to detect in the absence of appropriate
population dynamic, biochemical, and physiologic
information (15).
Effects need not be caused by alterations in
food chains or energy flow. Certainly food chains
and mass and energy flow patterns will be affected
(although possibly secondarily) whenever population
adjustments occur. For example, a pollutant may
alter the physiology or behavior of the individuals
that comprise a population. These alterations are
ultimately reflected in altered survival, reproduc-
tion and/or emigration rates. Such effects may be
subtle and difficult to relate to the specific
stressor. In the real world, numerous stressors
are operating in complex ways with various lag times;
these tend to confound the results of any field eval-
uation of a single stressor. The end result of the
response of the community to a continued environ-
mental stress is a readjustment of the component
populations (plant and animal) at a new state of
dynamic equilibrium. It is not possible to predict
with any confidence, either the adjustments and
mechanisms most importantly involved or the final
population levels that will be reached. By studying
a rather broad range of interacting variables and, in
particular, by an intensive study of certain popula-
tions, some may be isolated as sensitive and reliable
-------
157
measures of air pollution.
existing research plan.
Table 2 outlines the
Figure 1 is a summary of the operational plan
of the project from design to application. The four
major components (field and laboratory experiments,
field validation, and modeling) form an integrated
approach; information generated by each component is
used to guide the course of the other components.
The goal is to generate information on both short-
term and longer-term responses and, with appropriate
models, to integrate and relate these data to gener-
ate procedures for impact assessment that' are truly
predictive.
The field experiments referred to in Figure 1
and Table 2 are possible through the application of
a zonal air pollution system designed to meet the
needs and constraints of our program (17). Each
grid system delivers a dilute mixture of air and
S02 over a 1 1/4 acre grassland plot. Four plots
are employed in each experiment in which median S0?
concentrations of zero, 2, 5, and 10 pphm, respect-
ively, are maintained throughout the entire growing
season. The systems distribute the gas more or less
uniformly over each plot, and the concentrations are
log-normally distributed with respect to time.
\ short-term1.
\ Meets
r-
\.
\
\
'
II
wow'
expi
physical processes
tnd ,_
transport
prediction
|
field lab fiek
xper xper vali
|ff
resource
level effects
II
concretion J-
viments \"
i
-! int»araHnn nnri cwi
_i _L_
-»4«d»i7/7i-« — i
TT '
retrospective*
sMy j
1 L^l^uk//^ L
i
j.
,
'"«y i
*•••*
prediction,
simulation
and
gaming
'\\
1
/.Vf/C !>•
I application \
Figure 1. Generalized Operational Plan and Flow
Diagram. See accompanying text.
TABLE 2. OUTLINE OF THE RESEARCH PLAN FOR THE
MONTANA COAL-FIREO POWER PLANT PROJECT
I. Field Investigation
A. Temporal and spatial quantitative inventory of components of
the study area, with particular focus on the annual cycle
phenomena of key species.
B. Meteorological measurements to support the modeling and experi-
mental air pollution research efforts.
C. Development of remote sensing as a tool for detecting effects
of air pollutant challenge on the ecosystem.
D. Measurement of loss of inventory attributed to strip mining,
power lines, human activity, wate^ use, and other potentially
confunding influences, e.g., pesticides, disease, population
cycl ing.
II. Air Pollution Experiments
A. Experimentally controlled air pollution of spatial segments of
an ecosystem.
B. Detailed measurement of biological structure and function,
including energy flow, nutrient cycling and species condition,
composition and diversity during and following air pollution
stress.
III. Laboratory Experiments
A. Measurement and evaluation of physiologic, biochemical and
behavioral mechanisms of response to air pollution challenge.
B. Precise measurement of parameters that support dynamic models.
C. Experiments designed to test whei-ner changes observed in
experimental study plots can be attributed to air pollutant
stress.
D.
Secondary stressor experiments (e.g., disease, temperature
stress, water stress, non-specific stress).
E. Experiments designed to test field-generated hypotheses.
(V. Modeli ng
A. Use of an ecoiysten levc'l r"0dc:l to ilcsoriut1 and predict
effects of air poll'itant challenge.
B. Use of models to help design experiments.
C. Use of models to help diseiicamjle pollutant effects from
natural variation and system dynamics.
D. Meteorological ami dispersion modeling to describe the mode of
entry of pollutant into the ecosystem and its time anJ space
distribution and concentration.
Chronic urban (or large area source) S0? concentra-
tion patterns are thus simulated. Diurnal varia-
tions are similar to those seen both from stationary
point sources and in urban environments (17). The
planned recruitment of a new field experimental
system each year for three years will allow us to
evaluate both within-year and between-year sources of
variance. This temporal structure of the field
experimental system will further allow us to conduct
new experiments during the third year to test hypo-
theses generated by our field experience and model-
ing efforts during the first two years.
BASIS FOR SITING THE INVESTIGATION IN SOUTHEASTERN
MONTANA
The selection of an appropriate study area was
deemed to be essential to structuring the entire in-
vestigation. Colstrip was selected on the basis of
the initial literature review and several field trips
to Montana and Wyoming. Several considerations con-
tributed to the selection of study sites in south-
eastern Montana.
This region constitutes a rich rangeland re-
source and is climatically and ecologically repre-
-------
158
sentative of a relatively large portion of the North
central Great Plains. Furthermore, the Colstrip
area of the Fort Union Basin is a relatively pris-
tine pine savanna area which has never been influ-
enced by a stationary source of [toxic] gaseous or
particulate emissions. Thus the vegetation and non-
migratory animals in the area, while being stressed
by various environmental factors such as drought,
adverse temperatures, nutrient deficiencies, etc.,
have never been subjected to the stress of air pol-
lution. Existing data indicate that air quality in
eastern Montana is well above the national average.
Local-regional emission sources (see Regional
Profile Report on Atmospheric Aspects, Northern
Great Plains Resource Program, April 1974 [draft
copy]) other than the coal-fired power plant at
Colstrip are unlikely to contribute importantly to
the air pollution burden of the Rosebud Creek Water-
shed during the period of investigation.
Montana laws favor rational development of re-
sources. Consequently, the projected sites of
strip-mining and power plant development are known.
According to current assessments, Montana contains
nearly a third of the strippable coal reserves in
the northern central Great Plains and it is possible
that some 120,000 acres will be stripped during the
next two decades. Apart from activities associated
with coal development, we expect human disturbance
to be relatively low throughout the period of inves-
tigation. We feel reasonably assured that our
sample sites, including buffer zones and reference
sites, will remain substantially free of confounding
disturbance.
Additional EPA Terrestrial Research
While Colstrip has been and continues to be the
major EPA in-house and extramural effort in the ter-
restrial effects area, mention should be made of
three additional points. First, as presented in the
freshwater effects paper, the EPA is shown as sup-
porting about 600K in the Northern Plains region in
an extramural program on watershed impacts. This
work is partly terrestrial in nature in that it
deals with entire watersheds. The EPA is also sup-
porting about TOOK in the Arctic for work on oil
spills in the Tundra ecosystem. These two projects
are covered by Dr. Mount in his presentation of the
EPA freshwater program. Third, the EPA is respon-
sible for "pass through" funds provided to othet
federal agencies. These "pass through" program
funds in the terrestrial area are shown, along with
the recipient agency, in Table 3. Discussion of
programs being funded with "pass through" resources
is given in detail in each major agency paper.
rec lama in on
'i?nts -frum coal coribust^'on
.'"y^tt^ br",3el me
j .i-T plants
Recipient
Agency
ERDA
ERDA
TVA
Funding
level
670 K
1,500 K
190 K
TABLE i (conc'cl)
Project Title
Terrestrial rate and effects of atmospheric
emissions from ccoling systems
Appraisal of research needs relative to
water and ecosystem effects associated
with energy development in upper Missouri
river basin
Energy associated human population impacts
on wildlife in Southwestern United States
Pevegetaticn and reclamation of land areas
disturbed by mining
Effects of pollutants and spoil composition
on biota in semi-arid regions
Recipient
_Agency
TVA
DO I
001
USDA
USDA
Hydrologic effects of surface mining USDA
Total "pass through"
Funding
_Leve]_
75 K
100 K
200 K
377 K
270 K
302 K
1,684 <
CONCLUSIONS
The developments of an environmental assessment
methodology over the next two years will require an
intensive effort to integrate the immense amount of
biological, chemical and physical systems informa-
tion that is being generated by this program.
Results of complementary investigations at Colstrip
(18) will help to broaden and extend our data base
and aid us in achieving our goal.
We anticipate that the effects assessment meth-
odology developed will assist managers in siting
future coal-fired power plants as well as other
coal-conversion facilities.
REFERENCES
1. Lawton, J. H. and S. McNeil. 1973. Primary
production and pollution. Biologist, 20(4):
3-11.
2. Spear, R. C., and E. Wei. 1972. Dynamic
aspects of environmental toxicology. Trans.
.Am. Soc. Mech. Engrs., 94(2):114-118.
3. Congressional Research Service. 1975. Effects
of Chronic Exposure to Low Level Pollutants in
the Environment. Library of Congress, Serial
0, November, 1975. 402 pp.
4. Federal Register. 36(84):8186-8201 (April 30,
1971).
5. The Clean Air Act states that ".... air quality
criteria for an air pollutant shall accurately
reflect the latest scientific knowledge useful
in indicating the kind and extent of all iden-
tifiable effects on public health or welfare
which may be expected from the presence of such
pollutants in the ambient air, in varying quan-
tities" [section 108(a)]. The Act further
states that national primary ambient air qual-
ity standards are regulations which "in the
judgment of the administrator, based on such^
criteria, and following for an adequate margin
of safety, are requisite to protect the public
health" [section 109(b)]. Air quality criteria
then reflect scientific knowledge, while primary
-------
159
air quality standards involve a judgment as to
how this knowledge must be used in a regulatory
action to protect public health, and the sec-
ondary air quality standards determine the level
of air quality required to protect the public
welfare. Public welfare as defined in the
Clean Air Act "includes, but is not limited to,
effects on soils, water, crops, vegetation, man-
made materials, animals, wildlife, weather,
visibility, and climate ..." [section 302(h)].
These considerations also apply and become focal
points for energy related environmental re-
search. It is clear that the research exper-
ience gained in furtherance of the Clean Air Act
is valuable in pursuing energy related research
- in fact, the objectives of research programs
are so similar that clear separation is not
straight forward.
6. See, for example, Lewis, et^ al_. 1975a. An in-
vestigation of the bioenvironmental effects of
a coal-fired power plant. In, Fort Union Coal
Symposium: Vol 4, Terrestrial Ecosystems, pp.
531-536. Also see Lewis, et al_. 1975b. Intro-
duction to the Col strip, Montana Coal-Fired
Power Plant Project: Section I. In, the Bio-
environmental Impact of a Coal-Fired Power
Plant: Second Interim Report, Colstrip, Mon-
tana, (Eds.) R. A. Lewis, N. R. Glass, and A. S.
Lefohn, pp. 1-13. In Press.
7. Whittaker, R. H., F. H. Bormann, 6. E. Likens,
and T. G. Siccama. 1974. The Hubbard Brook
ecosystem study: forest biome assay production.
Ecol. Monog. 44:233-252.
8. Whittaker, R. H. 1953. A consideration of
climax theory: the climax is a population and
pattern. Ecol. Monog. 21:41-78.
9. Whittaker, R. H. 1969. Evolution of diversity
in plant communities. Brookhaven Symp. Biol.
22:178-196.
10. Whittaker, R. H. 1970a. Communities and Eco-
systems. MacMillan, New York.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Woodwell, G. M. 1962. Effects of ionizing
radiation on terrestrial ecosystems. Sci. 138:
572-577.
Woodwell, G. M.
terns of nature.
1967. Radiation and the pat-
Sci. 156:461-470.
Woodwell, G. M. and R. H. Whittaker. 1968a.
Effects of chronic gamma irradiation on plant
communities. Quart. Rev. Biol. 43;42-55.
Woodwell, G. M. 1973. Effects of pollution on
the structure and physiology of ecosystems. In,
Ecological and biological effects of air pollu-
tion, MSS Information Corp., pp. 10-17.
15. Glass, N. R. and D. T. Tingey. 1975. Effects
of air pollution on ecological process. In,
Radiation Research Biomedical, Chemical, and
Physical Perspectives, (O.F. Nygaard, H. I.
Adler, and W. K. Sinclair, Eds.), pp. 1326-1333.
Academic Press, New York.
16. See, for example, Woodwell, G. M. 1970.
Effects of pollution on the structure and phys-
iology of ecosystems. Science, 168:429-433.
17. Lee, J. L., R. A. Lewis, and D. E. Body. 1975.
A field experimental system for the evaluation
of the bioenvironmental effects of sulfur diox-
ide. In. Proceedings of the Fort Union Coal
Field Symposium: Vol 4: Terrestrial Eco-
systems pp. 608-620.
18. Montana Energy Advisory Council (Lt. Gov. Bill
Christiansen, Chm.). 1975. Energy Research in
the Colstrip, Montana, Area.
-------
160
TERRESTRIAL EFFECTS OF ENERGY DEVELOPMENT
ON FISH AND WILDLIFE RESOURCES
Herbert B. Quinn, Jr.
Program Manager
Upland Ecosystems
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
INTRODUCTION
The national drive for energy self-sufficiency--
if not properly managed—will have an adverse impact
upon fish and wildlife habitat. With good design,
site selection, and land use planning, however, many
of these impacts will be short-term. Many of the
impacts can be effectively offset or mitigated
through use of technology, good reclamation prac-
tices, and the selective avoidance of critical
habitat. The secondary effects of development
includes the construction of transportation corri-
dors, increased population growth.in regions with
limited carrying capacity, and introduction of
environmental contaminants. Both the primary and
secondary effects are of major concern to the Fish
and Wildlife Service.
The Fish and Wildlife Service energy effort is
primarily concerned with minimizing the impact of
energy developments on fish, wildlife, and related
environmental values. This paper briefly covers
the terrestrial program objectives and our current
activities.
The Biological Services Program has five
terrestrial objectives as outlined below. These
will be reviewed in detail, but in summary tney are
aimed at:
(1) Defining the key terrestrial problems
resulting from energy developments.
(2) Obtaining the tools to deal effectively
with the problem.
(3) Testing and demonstrating the tools and
methods under controlled conditions.
(4) Learning how and where to put improved
information to work on environmental
problems.
(5) Getting involved in the decisionmaking
process as an active participant.
1. Program Discussion
The Biological Services Program, initiated by
the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service as a major new
effort in the fall of 1974, is now well under way.
The Program was started in recognition of the need
to mount a more concerted effort to provide ecolog-
ical information in relation to many resource devel-
opment decisions.
Although the Fish and Wildlife Service has had
long standing environmental programs both in research
and operations, Biological Services represents a
major new thrust. Its goals are to strengthen the
capability of the Fish and Wildlife Service in its
role as primary source of information on fish and
wildlife resources and their habitats, particularly
in relation to environmental impact assessment; to
provide an improved analytical capability and infor-
mation base that will contribute to more effective
recognition and protection of fish and wildlife
values in land and water development decisions; and
to provide better ecological input to Department of
the Interior resource development programs and deci-
sions, such as those relating to energy development.
An initial program thrust of the Office of
Biological Services was to establish the Western
Energy and Land Use Team in Fort Collins, Colorado.
Western energy reserves include extensive coal, oil
shale, and geothermal reservoirs. Most of these
fuels are on public land and represent national
resources which are under great development pres-
sure. The Department of the Interior places an
initial priority on understanding and minimizing the
energy related damage to this water poor and environ-
mentally sensitive region. We are concerned about
the surface disturbance and reclamation activities,
as well as the processing and transmission of the
extracted fuel. Secondary effects are also of
concern. These include the protection of the envi-
ronment from the development of industrial and
related population growth. We will continue to
place emphasis on the impact of these terrestrial
activities on Western water resources which are now
under severe stress.
Although energy is clearly our first priority,
we expect to expand our terrestrial ecosystems work
to include other land disturbances such as non-fuels
mining, agricultural practices, and the implications
of urban sprawl and development on fish and wildlife
habitat. Our concerns include both public and pri-
vate lands.
Our second major goal is to improve approaches,
tools, and methodologies for assessment of environ-
mental impact. Concern about the problems of
terrestrial development is not enough. We must
provide critical information and get involved in
the decisionmaking process. We find that many of
the conventional approaches to terrestrial assess-
ment do not give information soon enough or in the
right form to allow it to be appropriately integrated
into decisions. It is, therefore, essential that we
improve the tools available to the operational
manager, to get information fast and in a reliable
form that can have an impact during the planning
process. We will develop quantitative approaches,
-------
remote sensing, and other advanced analytical tools
to demonstrate the impacts of land and related stream
changes. Unless we can present hard quantitative
data on an impact, we will probably not get the
chance to present our case. If we present good data
and provide alternative solutions which are less
damaging to natural environmental values, we will
have a far better chance of making a creative and
constructive impact.
The principal study areas under consideration
include the Four Corners region, the Piceance Basin,
the Powder River Basin, southeastern Montana, the
Kaparowitz Plateau, and western North Dakota. They
cover two of the Fish and Wildlife Service's Regions
and deal with most Western major energy land dis-
turbance problems. We will then guide our experi-
mental studies, demonstration projects, and research
activities into these areas to the degree possible.
In a sense, we are focusing our programs on where
the action is.
Our fourth objective is to develop information
systems and management strategies aimed at minimiz-
ing environmental damage. We anticipate a strong
working relationship with States and many parts of
the Department of the Interior, and close coordina-
tion of our activities with other Federal agencies.
To achieve this objective we need to make our con-
cerns known to the energy planners and resource
managers early in the game. We must therefore
radically improve the flow of information to them,
its timeliness, and its useability. We will
strengthen our working relationships with a number
of Federal and State agencies whose goals are just
beginning to reflect the long standing environ-
mental concerns of the Fish and Wildlife Service.
The Service's principal energy operating
elements are the Western'Energy and Land Use Team
in Fort Collins, Colorado, and Energy Activity
staffs in the Regions. These interdisciplinary
groups will initially focus on the energy develop-
ments. They will also contain disciplinary depth in
a number of the required scientific areas. For
example, in addition to the traditional fish and
wildlife biologist, the Western Energy Team will
contain capabilities in mining engineering, hydrol-
ogy, economics, quantitative analysis, operations
research, and remote sensing. We hope to create
small centers of excellence, both within the Team
and within the other parts of the Fish and Wildlife
Service to improve these tools and apply them to
the solution of environmental and terrestrial
disturbance problems. We have to close the gap
between research results and their application. It
will take new research approaches and a hard-hitting
operational program to make this a reality.
2. Technical Discussion
The Fish and Wildlife Service has identified
a priority need for better information concerning
the ecological impacts of energy developments.
Unfortunately, the traditional approaches to
161
obtaining biological baseline data are expensive,
time demanding, and do not provide predictive
capability.
The availability of biological information must
be in phase with resource development decisions to
assure its consideration. The FWS energy related
program is supporting activities which provide
improved methodologies for obtaining and applying
baseline and impact data to energy decisions.
The timely collection, effective synthesis,
and application of ecological data to areas under
stress from energy development will allow better
trade-offs among alternative sites. It will improve
our assessment and reclamation capability and expand
the base of useful ecological data—especially for
sensitive and/or impacted areas.
The consideration of impacts among alternative
development decisions is a complex process. The
Fish and Wildlife Service is committed to improving
ecological assessment procedures and entering this
process. In many instances, the expensive collec-
tion of wildlife data, development of species lists
and support of life histories research has not been
effective in predicting ecological change or
protecting critical habitat. In almost all cases,
decisions for development could not wait for this
research and data collection. The lack of informa-
tion is especially true in the sparsely populated
Western United States where wildlife values are high.
This Office of Biological Services is develop-
ing a program to obtain, analyze, and make available
ecological information on terrestrial areas under
stress from energy extraction and processing. The
technical program will include:
(1) Improvement of ecological surveys and
inventories, and monitoring procedures.
(2) Improvement of ecosystems classification
techniques.
(3) Assessment of various developments on
ecosystems.
(4) Improvement of predictive capability.
(5) Improvement of means of mitigating
adverse impacts.
The development of improved methodologies must
be in phase with active energy development decisions
and on-going baseline studies. The use of ecolog-
ical test areas provides a means of focusing these
activities in priority energy areas. The test
areas also allow the Fish and Wildlife Service to
effectively utilize the research and data available
from other agencies working in these energy areas.
An important requirement of all research and
survey activity is to assure compatibility of the
information to concepts of ecosystems mapping
-------
162
techniques and automatic data processing. The
studies on test areas will contribute to the ecolog-
ical data base which will be used to characterize
the region's ecosystems and functional components.
These selected test areas will be an initial part of
a comprehensive program to characterize major eco-
systems in the United States.
The Upland Ecosystems Project will immediately
characterize selected areas under stress from energy
development using existing information from Federal
and State files and results from on-going research.
In addition, a major effort will be made—in cooper-
ation with the Environmental Protection Agency—to
develop rapid assessment techniques for habitat
characterization. This effort will use improved
statistical and data acquisition procedures to
characterize habitat within acceptable confidence
limits.
3. Projection
In FY 1976, we will initiate studies and
surveys on up to six major Western energy sites to
serve as ecological test areas. Detailed research
plans that address operational and methodological
needs will be designed for each site by the Western
Energy and Land Use Team. The following map shows
these test areas. A great deal of the Team's effort,
including the efforts of contractors, will be spent
on these sites to provide baseline information and
develop methods to assess the impacts of energy
developments. Application of remote sensing
techniques and development of related interpretive
methods for habitat characterization will be a major
purpose for these test sites. Other Fish and
Wildlife Service energy related activities will
involve analysis of Eastern and mid-continental
wildlife problems. The Service anticipates projects
in regional analysis of extraction related wildlife
problems, development of species, bibliographic and
geographic wildlife information systems geared x.o
address energy problems and further development of
biotelemetry as a tool for habitat assessment.
INTERAGENCY PARTICIPATION
A substantial portion of the terrestrial eco-
systems activity is being funded by Interagency
Supplemental Energy Funds. The Fish and Wildlife
Service is also working cooperatively with the
Department of Agriculture and other Bureaus of the
Department of the Interior in this effort. The
ecological test area concept discussed in this paper
represents an outstanding opportunity for interagency
cooperation. Many of these test sites involve
research conducted by other agencies and provide a
need for effective coordination of work as well as
pooling of resources and data. To the degree
possible, the Fish and Wildlife Service will
consider serving as a coordination point for ecolog-
ical baseline data for other interested agencies and
industrial participants. The extensive Federal/State/
private industry activities on the Western energy
areas makes a high degree of coordination desirable
if not essential. In addition, many State and
Federal agencies have unique capabilities and infor-
mation for research or methodological development
which are needed by the Fish and Wildlife Service
in characterizing these sites.
The Fish and Wildlife Service resources are
not sufficient to conduct the full range of studies
and assessments needed for ecological characteriza-
tion and prediction on all test areas. Therefore,
the Service expects to actively work with other
agencies to assure that limited resources are best
applied and unnecessary overlap is avoided.
RESOURCE ALLOCATION
The Fish and Wildlife Service budget provides
approximately $3 million in FY 1975 to initiate the
terrestrial projects and approximately $4 million
will be available in FY 1976. These funds are
supplemented by transfer funds from other agencies,
such as the energy research and development support
from the Environmental Protection Agency. Other
limited support has been made available by the
Bureau of Land Management and the U.S. Geological
Survey. The total resource allocations since 1975
and projected through 1976 are as follows:
Upland Ecosystems Project
Air/Terrestrial
($ x 106)
FY 1975
FY 1976
Base Interagency Total Base Interagency Total
2,150 700 2,850 3,200 700 3,900
CONCLUSIONS
The major thrust of the Fish and Wildlife Service
energy program is to obtain ecological information of
appropriate form and quality to effectively influ-
ence energy development decisions. This requires
applying currently available techniques for ecolog-
ical assessments and for significantly improving the
methodologies available to measure and predict
environmental impact. The Environmental Protection
Agency cooperative program has allowed the Fish and
Wildlife Service to undertake a serious applied
research effort to improve the rate with which eco-
logical assessments can be made. The Fish and
Wildlife Service approach will involve the develop-
ment of several major ecological test areas which are
also of high interest for Western energy development.
This effort also includes extensive commitment of
Fish and Wildlife Service resources. Its success is
dependent upon a high level of interagency and State
cooperation on the test sites. It is anticipated
that this effort will speed the 'decisions concerning
energy development in non-sensitive areas and protect
fish and wildlife values by avoidance of critical
habitat and more effective reclamation procedures.
-------
163
CF0217
U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service Ecological
Test Areas
-------
164
Air/Terrestrial Ecological Effects
H. R. Mickey and P. A. Krenkel
Tennessee Valley Authority
Chattanooga, Tennessee
INTRODUCTION
The efficient and responsible operation of a
power system requires the development of knowledge
of the ecological effects of electric generation,
not only in order to avoid or lessen such environ-
mental impacts but also in order to avoid delays in
the planning, design, and construction of power
plants.
From its very beginning, TVA has engaged in
large-scale resource development programs and has
developed an internal capability for evaluating and
managing the effect of those programs on the environ-
ment. The applied research described here consists
of one principal project with several tasks, and
one lesser project, as follows:
1.
Develop Baseline Information and Identify,
Characterize, and Quantify the Transfer,
Fate, and Effects of Coal-Fired Power Plant
Emissions in Terrestrial Ecosystems
A. Field and Filtered/Unfiltered Exposure
Chamber Studies of Effects of Coal-Fired
Power Plant Emissions on Crop and Forest
Species of Economic Importance in SE
United States
B. Determine Dose-Response Kinetics for
Effects of Atmospheric Emissions from
Coal-Fired Power Plants on Soybeans and
Other Crop and Forest Species of Econo-
mic Importance in the SE United States
C. Characterize and Quantify the Transfer,
Fate, and Effects of SOX
and Acid
D.
Precipitation on Terrestrial Ecosystems
Representative of the Tennessee Valley
Region
Evaluation of the Beneficial Effects of
S02 and Other Pollutants Emitted from
Steam Plants on Crops and Forest Species,
Particularly Soybeans and Pines
2.
Fate and Effects of Atmospheric Emissions
from Cooling Systems on Terrestrial Habitats
These projects and tasks are described below.
For possible use in the exchange of information
or coordination, the names of principal investigators,
research investigators, and responsible administra-
tors are included after the title of each task.
DISCUSSION
1. Develop Baseline Information and Identify,
Characterize, and Quantify the Transfer, Fate.
and Effects of Coal-Fired Power Plant Emissions
in Terrestrial Ecosystems
A. Field and Fil tered/Unfil tered Exposure Cham-
ber Studies of Effects of Coal-Fired Power
Plant Emissions on Crop and Forest Species
of Economic Importance in SE United States--
H. C. Jones, N. T. Lee, J. C. Noggle,
N. L. Lacasse, W. R. Nicholas
There is insufficient information for predicting
and evaluating the impact of atmospheric pollutants
emitted from coal-fired power plants on the appear-
ance, growth, and yield of crop and timber species
grown under field conditions. For example, it can
be concluded from EPA's revised air quality criteria
for S0'2 effects on vegetation that S02 dosages (time-
concentrations) greater than 005 ppm for 1 hour can
cause visible injury to the foliage of sensitive
species. However, the relationships between visible
foliar injury and permanent economic, ecologic, or
esthetic damage are less clearly understood, particu-
larly under conditions that normally occur in the
field. Similarly, there is considerable concern
over the effects of long-term exposure of plants to
low levels of S02, alone or in combination with low
levels of other pollutants, but little hard evidence
exists to confirm that such effects occur in the
ambient environment. The objective of this task is
to identify and quantify these impacts for selected
sensitive plant species of economic importance in
terms that can be used in evaluating the impacts of
emissions from existing or proposed power plants.
This task is an expansion and refinement of research
TVA has been conducting in the vicinity of its 1900-
MW Widows Creek Steam Plant for the last four years.
The studies are being conducted at 12 sites
equipped with continuous S02 monitors within an area
near the steam plant that experiences a relatively
high frequency of ground-level S02 exposures and at
7 sites areas remote to industrial sources of S02.
During the 1975 growing season, comparisons of the
foliar appearance, growth, and yield of soybeans, a
crop species that is very sensitive to S02, were made
for the following sets of conditions:
1. Plants grown in containers at field plots
in the exposed area with those grown in the
remote (control) locations.
2. Plants grown in ambient/charcoal-cleaned
air in partitioned greenhouse-exposure cham-
bers at a single location in the exposed
area.
-------
3. Plants grown in a plot equipped with a proto-
type air-exclusion system, which utilizes
"purified" air to exclude or partially
exclude air containing S02 when ambient
S02 concentrations equal or exceed 0.1 ppm,
with plants grown on an adjacent plot from
which S02 was not excluded or limited.
Data from the 1975 studies are being analyzed.
Studies conducted by TVA over the past five
years have shown that soybeans grown in ambient air
in field exposure chambers consistently produced
lower yields than those grown in charcoal-cleaned
air. However, similar effects on yield have not been
detected in field plots. These results, which are
similar to those reported by other researchers using
open-top field exposure chambers, indicate that com-
parisons of effects of pollutants on plants grown
in field exposure chambers might not be valid because
environmental conditions within the chambers could
make the plants more sensitive to ambient levels of
pollutants than they would be in the natural environ-
ment. The prototype ambient air-exclusion system
places an air barrier between the plant study plot
and the polluted air only during periods of ground-
level exposures thereby eliminating the unnatural
environmental conditions associated with chambers.
The system permits comparisons between plants exposed
to S02 with those from which damaging S02 concentra-
tions have been excluded at the same sites under
essentially identical edaphic, climatic, and cultural
conditions.
In 1976, the studies will be expanded to include
effects of S02 exposure on wheat, cotton, and Vir-
ginia pine. Emphasis will be placed on comparisons
of plants grown on field plots with plants grown on
adjacent plots equipped with air-exclusion systems.
The comparisons will be made at four locations in
the high exposure area and at a remote location.
B. Determine Dose-Response Kinetics for Effects
of Atmospheric Emissions from Coal-Fired
Power Plants on Soybeans and Other Crop and
Forest Species of Economic Importance in the
SE United States—N. T. Lee, H. C. Jones,
N. L. Lacasse, W. R. Nicholas
Controlled laboratory exposure studies have not
reflected either the rapid changes in concentrations
of principal coal-fired power plant pollutants, such
as S02 and N02, that occur during ground-level expo-
sures in the field or the environmental conditions
under which such exposures normally occur; most inves-
tigators have utilized time-average concentration
exposure regimes in dose-response studies. Further-
more, dose-response data are meager for species of
economic or ecologic importance to the Southeast.
The objectives of these studies are to determine the
individual and combined effects on vegetation of
S02, N02, and 03 exposures at concentrations, dosage
rates, and environmental conditions typically occur-
ring during surface exposures in the vicinities of
165
large coal-fired power plants and to determine appro-
priate time-concentration relationships for evaluat-
ing exposure hazards from S02 and N02.
TVA has designed, constructed, and tested a con-
trolled S02 exposure system that will be employed in
these studies. The system utilizes programmable
fumigation kinetics to closely simulate the fluctuat-
ing S02 concentrations that occur in field exposures.
The controlled exposure system is being modified to
permit single or multiple pollutant exposures with
S02, N02, and 03.
Studies in 1975 were directed toward identify-
ing (1) the phenological stage(s) of growth at which
soybean plants are most sensitive to foliar injury
and to reductions in yield resulting from foliar
injury and (2) the relationship between soil pH,
soil fertility, and soil moisture to the S02-
sensitivity of soybean plants at various stages of
growth. Analyses of the data are in progress.
Studies in 1976 will be directed toward (1)
establishing the relationship among S02 dose, foliar
injury, and yield for the stage of growth that soy-
beans are most sensitive to yield reduction follow-
ing S02 exposure; and (2) determining the effects
of multiple pollutant exposures (S02 + N02 and
S02 + 63) on growth and yield of soybeans.
C. Characterize and Quantify the Transfer,
Fate, and Effects of SOX. NOX, and Acid
Precipitation on Terrestrial Ecosystems
Representative of the Tennessee Valley
Region—H. C. Jones, J. C. Moggie, J. M.
Kelly, W. R. Nicholas
Terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems serve as
sinks for pollutants deposited in them from the
atmosphere, including those emitted in the combustion
of fossil fuels. Sulfur and nitrogen oxides, which
are the principal atmospheric pollutants resulting
from coal combusion, and their products of oxidation
in the atmosphere, S0i+ and NOs , can serve as benefi-
cial sources of essential plant nutrients or can be
toxic to living organisms. S02, when it exceeds an
average concentration of 0.5 ppm for 1 hour with an
associated peak concentration higher concentrations
may cause permanent economic, esthetic, or ecologic
damage. However, there is evidence that exposure to
low levels of S02 can benefit the growth and develop-
ment of plants grown on sulfur-deficient soils. Sul-
fates and nitrates are important plant nutrients.
There are indications that modern fertilizer prac-
tices are causing sulfur deficiencies over sizable
areas of the United States because the newer, high-
analysis fertilizers contain little or no sulfur.
However, unneutralized sulfates or nitrates in
sufficient quantities may react with moisture in the
atmosphere to form acidic rain that might adversely
affect vegetation and soil microbes by direct contact
or might indirectly result in conditions that are
unfavorable for plant growth and survival by increas-
ing the acidity of soils. The objective of the task,
-------
166
therefore, is to characterize and quantify the mech-
anisms Of transfer of SOX and NOx to terrestrial eco-
systems and the extent to which these pollutants
cause adverse or beneficial impacts.
Three essentially undisturbed oak-hickory water-
sheds at three distances from a large 1900-MW, coal-
fired steam plant have been selected for study. The
sandy loam soils of the watersheds are derived from
sandstone. They are naturally acidic and possess low
buffering capacity and should exhibit maximum sensi-
tivity to acidic precipitation. The streams draining
the watersheds, while barely neutral, also have a low
buffering capacity. One of the watersheds is located
within 10 miles of the S02 source, is frequently
exposed to S02, and will be used primarily to charac-
terize the transfer of gaseous S02 and N02 to the
oak-hickory ecosystem. The second watershed, which is
exposed to low levels of S02, is located about 25
miles from the source at a distance where oxidation
products—SO^ and N03--should begin to occur in sig-
nificant amounts. The third watershed is located in
an area that is remote (50 miles) from industrial
sources of S02, is comparatively S02-free, and would
be expected to reflect only the impacts of sulfate
and nitrate depositions, if they exist.
At each location, wet and dry deposition of
gaseous and particulate SOX and NOX and other airborne
pollutants are being characterized and quantified in
open areas and above, within, and below the forest
canopy. Absorption and adsorption of SOX and NOX by
vegetation and soils on the plots will be character-
ized, as well as impacts on vegetation and soils.
The studies are being designed so that impacts on
water quality can also be ascertained if funds are
available. Because the watersheds have been subjec-
ted to SOX and NOX pollution for some time, and to
enhance the probability of detecting impacts on soils
if they are occurring, portions of the watersheds
will be limed and fertilized. Necessary supportive
meteorological and climatological data will also be
col 1 ected.
Controlled laboratory studies using simulated
acidic precipitation of varying ionic composition and
acidity are also planned to obtain supporting data
on the impacts of SOX and NOx. These studies will
use acidic precipitation with ionic compositions and
acidities simulating that actually measured in TVA's
region-wide precipitation monitoring network.
It is anticipated that the results of this task
will be coefficients for the transfer, fate, and
effects of S0x and NOX that can be merged with atmos-
pheric chemistry and long-range transport studies TVA
is conducting, and with data from TVA's region-wide
air monitoring network, to predict and evaluate
impacts on a regional basis.
D. Evaluation of the Beneficial Effects of SO,
and Other Pollutants Emitted from Steam
Plants on Crops and Forest Species, Particu-
larly Soybeans and Pines—J. C. Nogg1e~"~
H. C. Jones, W. R. Nicholas
Sulfur is one of the major nutrients essential
for plant growth. The amounts of sulfur absorbed
by medium to high yields of crops range from 8 to 35
pounds per acre. The amounts of sulfur and phospho-
rus needed by crops are similar but higher amounts
of nitrogen and potassium are needed. In humid
regions most of the sulfur in soils is present as
proteinaceous compounds in soil organic matter or
is held as sulfate (SOiJ by the clay fraction. The
sulfur in organic matter is gradually released as
SOif-S as a result of decomposition by microorgan-
isms. In general, retention of soluble SO^-S by
sand or silt-textured soil is one year or less,
especially in areas of high winter rainfall. Sulfur
is lost from the soil by crop removal and leaching.
For many years, fertilizers have been added to
supplement the primary nutrients—nitrogen, phospho-
rus, and potassium—in soil. Prior to about 1950,
the relatively low-analysis commercial fertilizers
were based primarily on ordinary superphosphate (18
to 20% P205 and 14% S) and ammonium sulfate (21% N
and 24% S) was a leading source of nitrogen. As a
result of using these fertilizers, adequate sulfur
was usually present in the fertilizers for crops,
and sulfur-deficiencies were not detected in many
crop areas. The recent trend has been to high-
analysis fertilizers that contain little or no sul-
fur, and higher crop yields have increased sulfur
demand. During this latter period numerous crop-
ping areas, remote from industrial sites, have been
identified as having soils that are sulfur-deficient.
As a result, some states require that sulfur be
added to fertilizers. The lack of sulfur-deficient
soils in industrial areas indicates'that atmos-
pheric sulfur is, in effect, replacing commercial
fertilizers as a source of this essential plant
nutrient.
The quantity of sulfur contributed by the
atmosphere to meet the S requirements of crops and
forests has not been adequately evaluated. Although
measurements have been made of the amount of sulfur
in rainfall and dry particulate deposition, field
observations of S02 sorption by soil and plant foli-
age are limited. Laboratory experiments have shown
that significant amounts of S02 were sorbed by soil
and other investigators have reported direct absorp-
tion of S02 by plant foliage. To determine the
total sulfur contribution by the atmosphere, the
amount of sulfur in each method of entry into the
terrestrial ecosystem will be measured in the field.
About 1.1 million tons of sulfur are applied
in fertilizer annually in the United States. At
the 1975 cost of $55 per ton, the annual cost is
about $60 million. The potential annual consumption
-------
of fertilizer sulfur in the United States is esti-
mated at 2.5 million tons, which represents a value
of $137 million. After the amount and distribution
of sulfur deposition from the atmosphere are deter-
mined, the impact on plant needs and fertilizer
requirements can be evaluated.
Nitrogen entering the terrestrial ecosystem
from steam plant emissions will be beneficial as an
essential plant nutrient. Measurements of nitrogen
entry will be made with sulfur determinations.
The possible beneficial effect of S02 on vege-
tation by increasing the density of wood in S02-
resistant pines will also be studied.
2. Fate and Effects of Atmospheric Emissions from
Cooling Systems on Terrestrial Habitats—H. C7
Jones, J. M. Kelly, W. R. Nicholas
[Invalidated dispersion models based on limited
field data have been used to predict and evaluate
the impacts of atmospheric releases from heat dis-
sipation in the terrestrial environment. These
releases include heat, mositure, salts, and poten-
tially toxic heavy metals. The dispersion models
indicate insignificant environmental impacts of
emissions from either mechanical draft or natural
draft cooling tower systems using freshwater, but
there are few hard field data confirming the pre-
dictive capabilities of these models. The objective
of this project, therefore, is to identify and char-
acterize the effects of atmospheric releases from
power plant cooling systems on terrestrial habitats.
Vegetation study plots are being established at
eight locations in the vicinities of each of two
nuclear plants—one equipped with mechanical draft
cooling towers (Browns Ferry) and one equipped with
natural draft cooling towers (Sequoyah). Growth and
yield, incidence of disease, and frequency of occur-
rence of frost and ice injury will be determined for
plantings of selected crop and timber species of
economic importance. Relative humidity, temperature,
precipitation, and wet and dry depositions of salts
and heavy metals and their accumulation on soils and
vegetation will be monitored at each plot. Data
from these studies will be used (1) to validate
dispersion models for these systems, (2) to deter-
mine the extent to which mositure and heat released
from the two types of systems modify climate and
impact vegetation, and (3) to determine whether a
potential exists for salt and heavy metal toxicity
to plant and livestock.
-------
168
TERRESTRIAL EFFECTS OF POLLUTANTS FROM ENERGY USE
AND PROGRESS IN
RECLAMATION OF COAL STRIP MINE AREAS
H. E. Heggestad
Agricultural Research Service
U.S. Department of Agriculture
TERRESTRIAL EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTANTS
The combustion of fossil fuels to release use-
ful energy produces gaseous and particulate pollut-
ants. Furthermore, some of the gaseous primary
pollutants undergo photochemical reactions, produc-
ing even more toxic secondary pollutants, like
ozone. Air pollutants related to energy use can
have subtle and widespread environmental impacts.
As more large coal-burning power plants are
built and become operational, we may anticipate
elevated concentrations of some air pollutants.
The major primary phytotoxic pollutants from these
power plants are sulfur dioxide (SO,), nitrogen
oxides, acid-aerosols, ethylene, ana heavy metals,
like lead, cadmium, and zinc.
Some adverse consequences from developing our
energy-producing resources, like failing to restore
land after strip mining coal, also give cause for
concern. These are usually gross, localized
effects.
The chronic effects on plants of exposure to
low levels of atmospheric pollutants in the envi-
ronment are poorly understood as compared with our
knowledge of the nature and extent of acute injury,
(1, 2, 3). We do know genetic and environmental
factors affect plant response to pollutants.
Cultivars have been identified with a range of
tolerances to air pollutants. Some are promising
to maintain high productivity in polluted areas
where less resistant cultivars yield poorly. With
change to resistant cultivars in annual crops pro-
duction losses may be reduced in a single year,
but with perrenial crops it may require many years
to get a resistant cultivar into production. Using
pollution-resistant cultivars may be a suitable
alternative in some agricultural areas to very
restrictive air-quality standards. Complex natural
ecosystems may be protected most effectively by
maintaining suitable air quality.
Presently, the interacting effects of toxic
gas mixtures are poorly understood. A synergistic
response has been demonstrated with mixtures of
ozone and S02 (4); i.e., concentrations too low
to cause visible injury when applied alone caused
severe damage as a mixture. Other studies (5)
have shown that lower concentrations of S0? and
NO,,, as a mixture, were needed to depress the
photosynthesis rate of alfalfa. A 2-hr exposure
to 0.25 ppm S02 inhibited photosynthesis 2 to 3%
while a similar NO- exposure caused no measurable
depressions. However, exposure to 0.25 ppm mix-
ture of both gases simultaneously produced 9 to
15% inhibition. Within 30 minutes to 2 hours after
the toxicants were removed, the photosynthetic rates
usually recovered to control levels. A few hours
of reduced photosynthetic rate, however, may not
alter productivity. Reduced growth and chronic
injury are expected only after long-term or repeat-
ed exposures to phytotoxic air pollutants and their
mixtures at subacute concentrations. Recent stud-
ies in Germany identified a potential new air pollu-
tion problem. In the presence of increased cadmium
concentrations, S02 was more damaging to plants
than at low cadmium concentrations (6).
Ethylene, a hydrocarbon resulting from fuel
combustion, is an unusual air pollutant since it
is also a plant hormone. Vegetation is also a
source of low concentrations of ethylene. Ethylene
concentrations are mugh higher in urban centers
with a high density of motor vehicles than in
suburban or rural areas, ranging from 0.7 ppm in
the inner city of Washington, D.C., to 0.039 ppm
at nearby Beltsville, Maryland (7). In rural areas
they are usually lower than 0.005 ppm. Several
plant species continuously exposed to air con-
taining 0.025 ppm ethylene showed poor growth,
premature senescence, and decreased flowering and
fruiting. Thus, ethylene may be a significant pol-
lutant in cities, reducing the growth and value of
some tree and ornamental species. Its chronic
effects are not easy to distinguish from those of
other gas pollutants and environmental stresses.
Possible damage to vegetation and soils from
increased acidity of precipitation is also a prob-
lem. In May, 1975, the First International
Symposium on Acidic Precipitation and the Forest
Ecosystem reported that it caused direct injury to
foliage; decreased spruce-seed germination; in-
creased leaching of nutrients from foliage and
humus; increased erosion of waxes on oak and bean
leaves; decreased nitrogen uptake by endomycor-
rhizae of sweet gum seedlings; and inhibited the
nodulation and nitrogen fixation by Rhizobium in
bean and soybean seedlings (8). On the other
hand, it inhibited the reproduction of root knot
nematodes and the development of bean rust. Like
other pollutants, the possible economic conse-
quences of such biotic effects of acidic precipi-
tation are not known.
Assessing Air Pollution Effects
Air pollution effects on agricultural pro-
ductivity under field conditions have been assessed
by several investigators. Only limited progress
has been made by using chambers in the field,
since they alter plant response to the pollutants.
Chamber effects were minimized by the development
of "open" top chambers, first described in 1973
(9, 10). Their designs vary, but most chambers
are 3 m in diameter and 2.4 m high, with blowers
supplying either carbon-filtered or unfiltered
air near the chamber bottom. Except in stagnated
air at low wind speeds, varying amounts of ambient
air enter the chamber top. Consequently, their
efficiency in removing pollutants may average only^
70%. However, their efficiency is highest when oxi-
-------
dants are highest since pollutants accumulate
during periods with low wind speeds.
Since 1972, open-top chambers have been stud-
ied at Beltsville, Maryland, using snap beans (11).
After 3 years with two snap bean crops each year,
one of three cultivars averaged a 14% decrease in
bean yield in unfiltered air chambers. For the
two, more resistant cultivars, yield differences
were not significant. Except for one of six crops
production in plots without chambers equalled that
in chamber plots with unfiltered air.
Other approaches have been used to assess the
impact of air pollutants on field-grown plants.
Chemicals have been applied to protect plants from
injury due to oxidant air pollution. A fungicide,
benomyl [ methyl-1-(butylcarbamoyl)-2-benzimidazole
carbamate], suppressed oxidant injury and increased
yields 30 to 44% on highly sensitive Tempo beans
(12). Oxidant leaf injury and yield of Pinto bean
were decreased. However, Tenderwhite, the most
tolerant cultivar, showed no difference in oxidant
leaf injury or yield for sprayed and unsprayed
plots, suggesting adequate resistance at least for
the test conditions at Waltham, Massachusetts.
Unless the chemical protectant has systemic
action, it must be applied frequently to maintain
leaf surface coverage. Chemical protectants have
one advantage over chambers in assessing air pollu-
tion impact, since they do not alter the plant
environment. Possibly, chamber design can be
improved to minimize chamber effects and to
increase filtration efficiency. There is a need
to reduce entrance of unfiltered air through the
chamber top.
Assessing the impact of S02 on vegetation
under field conditions is more difficult, since
convenient, long-term filters are not available to
effectively remove S0? nor are there chemicals to
protect from S02 injury. Also, different ap-
proaches are needed to assess pollutants from
single sources than from multiple or diffuse
sources. However, field studies have been conducted
to assess the impact of SCL pollution.
In one study (13), many acres of soybeans
near a large, coal-fired, electric-generating
station were exposed to SO, levels which caused
severe leaf injury at a relatively early stage in
plant development; i.e., before blooming, when
plants were about 0.5 m tall. Eighteen variables,
including S0? leaf injury, were examined to assess
possible yietd losses attributable to SO-. The
StL-induced leaf injury was not a significant
factor in accounting for yield variation from the
110 fields studied. Poor yields were associated
with factors like low soil fertility, soybean
cyst nematode infestation, continuously soybean
cropping, and late planting, rather than to S02
injury. Apparently, the affected plants attained
normal or near normal growth after S02 injury.
No research information is available to
accurately assess the overall impact of air pol-
lutants on the agricultural economy. A survey by
the Stanford Research Institute, available in 1971,
169
revealed a $131 million/year loss to vegetation.
Of this amount, $121 million (more than 90%) was
attributed to oxidants, $6 million to S02, and
$4 million to fluorides. In the past, gross
estimates by others have exceeded $500 million/year.
If we include losses caused by minor pollutants,
decreased growth and yield caused by major pollu-
tants, effects on ornamentals, wildlife, and
esthetic values, as well as the increased value of
agricultural crops since the 1971 Stanford Research
Study, the $500 million/year estimated loss seems
reasonable.
Recently, an assessment of the impact of
gaseous air pollution on the quantity and quality
of crops was recommended as a high-priority
research item (14). Approaches include using cham-
bers and/or chemicals to exclude or inactivate a
pollutant, differentially tolerant cultivars, and
various pollutant doses in field chambers. In stud-
ies involving pollutants from point sources, the in-
vestigator may utilize natural pollutant gradients.
The effects of energy-related, air pollutants
on animal production systems have not been identi-
fied. The primary concern seems to be accumulation
of pollutants, like that of heavy metals in forage,
in localized areas, like near an industrial source
or heavily traveled highways (15).
RECLAMATION OF COAL STRIP-MINED AREAS
The total U.S. land area disturbed by surface
mining currently exceeds 1,600,000 ha, about half of
which has resulted from coal mining operations (16).
The Geological Survey estimates that about 4,287
mi (1,100,000 ha) will have been stripped by 1980.
If the remainder of the coal now believed recover-
able by strip mining is removed, this will involve
71,000 mi , or an area about the size of
Pennsylvania and West Virginia.
Particularly in Appalachia, the coal strip-
mining problem involves large acreages of land
which were mined many years ago. Some are now
severely eroded and barren of vegetation. In
other areas, reclamation has resulted in land-
scapes which detract from esthetic value because
of the poor quality vegetation. The more recently
mined areas are somewhat easier to revegetate,
since State regulations usually require that the
more toxic overburden be buried and at least
some natural top soil be spread over the surface.
The Department of Agriculture has been con-
cerned for many years with revegetation of dis-
turbed lands (16). It has been an essential part
of their soil and water conservation techniques.
Research on coal strip-mined lands began in 1966
with greenhouse studies and in 1970 with field
studies in West Virginia and North Dakota. Highest
priorities were placed on plant species needed to
establish and maintain a desirable vegetative
cover and to developing the best suited cultural
and management practices. Presently, there is
emphasis on characterization of the chemical and
physical properties of the overburden before
-------
170
mining so it can be effectively segregated and^uti-
lized in the reclamation process. In Appalachia
neutralizing material are sufficient in some loca-
tions so blending seems to be a better means of pre-
venting acidity problems than the more common prac-
tice of deep burial of the most acid spoil portion
(17).
Another aspect of the strip mining problem is
its alteration of the area's hydrology and of sedi-
ment yield. Very often, strip mining can unfavor-
ably change the hydrologic characteristics which
results in greatly increased runoff, erosion, and
sediment production. Aside from revegetation
aspects of reclamation, possible topographic modifi-
cations to provide more desirable hydrologic charac-
teristics of the spoil area must be considered. In
the past little attention has been given to this
phase of the problem, but currently some projects
are being initiated.
Recent research by the Agricultural Research
Service, USDA, and cooperators in Appalachia indi-
cate (a) forage yields on reclaimed spoils are high-
est when rock phosphate is applied, (b) Bermuda-
grass has promise for revegetation if phosphorous
and nitrogen deficiencies, as well as acidity, are
corrected, (c) crown vetch can be established, if
weeping lovegrass is used first as a cover crop, and
(d) composted sewage sludge is a promising soil
treatment. Currently, in West Virginia and Maryland,
about 3,000 plots are involved in the revegetation
studies. Our scientists are concerned also with
(a) deep placement of fertilizer, (b) evaluating
Rhizobium inoculants, (c) plant survival on outer
slopes, (d) element uptake by various plant species,
and (e) using sewage sludge as a soil amendment.
ARS scientists (18) concluded that acid mine spoils
in Appalachia could be altered in a relatively short
time, to have good production potential. They
believe that physical structure, involving available
soil water and stoniness, is the most difficult to
improve.
In the northern Great Plains progress has been
made in identifying factors which hinder reclamation
and revegetation of strip-mine lands (19). Phos-
phorous is always deficient, but readily corrected
by fertilization. In North Dakota spoils origina-
ting from deeper than about 15 m are frequently
high in absorbed sodium and clay content. The
highly sodic spoils are impractical to reclaim be-
cause of water shortages. A series of plots were
established recently which will be used to evaluate
the succession of native grass species on spoils
with and without top soil at various depths. Ex-
perimental results indicated considerable benefit
from surface application of as little as 5 cm of
natural top soil over the sodic materials. In
Wyoming, new revegetation trials were established
at three mine sites. For these sites a broad
range of woody plant species were obtained for the
revegetation trials from several sources, includ-
ing the Soil Conservation Service and Federal and
State Forest Service nurseries. Because the north-
ern Great Plains is semi-arid, the management of
all aspects of water availability to plants is very
important.
The Cooperative State Research Service and the
State Experiment Stations of 12 coal-producing
States have developed projects concerning a wide
range of terrestrial environmental problems related
to strip mining of coal. Most of these projects
deal with revegetation of reclaimed lands. One
project will investigate the effects of S02 pollu-
tion on native plants and crops.
The Forest Service has developed a surface en-
vironment and mining program (SEAM). Besides the
several research projects already identified, they
have projects on utilizing remote sensing tech-
niques, on establishing microbial populations in
sterile soils, on plant resistance to drought
stress, on improved stability of mine spoils, and
on evaluating strip mining effects on wildlife.
The Soil Conservation Service has maintained a
National Plant Materials Center at Beltsville,
Maryland, since 1938 (20), which has focused on
determining plants most useful in conservation. In
the past decade, more effort has been devoted to
finding plant materials useful for stabilizing sur-
face-mined coal fields, especially in Kentucky and
Wyoming. Work currently is in progress on a report
of plant materials as related to reclamation of
surface-mined lands. Also, it will be working
jointly with four other USDA agencies in preparing
a USDA technical handbook. Other projects being
initiated or accelerated are (a) selecting quality
plants, (b) plant propagation techniques, (c) cul-
tural and management techniques to maintain vegeta-
tive cover, and (d) encouraging commercial produc-
tion of seeds and plants for mine land reclamation.
Future Projection
Future research will try to define the chemi-
cal and physical properties of the overburden for
several coal-producing areas, determine the depth
of top soil material which should be replaced to
achieve satisfactory production levels for various
plant species, and develop suitable techniques to
reclaim lands so that these areas are at least as
productive as they were originally.
Because research on reclamation also may indi-
cate a need of changing some mining methods, re-
search information must be available as soon as
possible. By 1985, massive expenditures in equip-
ment and mine development are anticipated that will
make increasingly expensive further alterations of
mining operations only to facilitate land
reclamation.
SUMMARY
The major primary pollutants from coal-burning
power plants are SO,,, NO, N02, acid aerosols,
ethylene, and heavy metals, Tike lead, cadmium, and
zinc. The NOp and certain reactive hydrocarbons
also may participate in photochemical reactions
which generate toxic secondary pollutants, espe-
cially ozone. Mixtures of 0- and S0?, NOp and SO,,,
and S02 and cadmium have shown synergistic effects
under laboratory conditions. Open-top chambers can
be used to assess the effects on crop productivity
-------
of low levels of pollutants. Protective chemicals,
like benomyl , also may be valuable in studying the
effects of oxidants. One field study of SCL injury
showed that soybean plants, visibly injured before
blooming, apparently recovered sufficiently so that
their yield was not affected. Concern is widespread
over effects of acidic precipitation on agriculture
and forestry.
Most of the new research and development proj-
ects on revegetation of coal strip-mined lands are
too new to yield results. We may anticipate that
reclamation planning will be an integral part of
surface coal mining operations, like those de-
scribed recently in West Germany (21). A systems
approach is developing which accounts for (a) land
use options, (b) chemical and physical properties of
the overburden, (c) mining methods that optimize
separation according to quality, and the subsequent
use of the overburden, (d) kinds and amounts of
fertilizer and other soil amendments to use, (e)
best management practices, and (f) best plant mate-
rial to achieve intended land use. In addition to
their use in agriculture and forestry, strip-mined
areas can be used at some locations as parks, air-
ports, sites for building schools or some types of
industries, or even new towns or lakes (21).
REFERENCES
1. Library of Congress, "Effects of Chronic Expos-
sure to Low-level Pollutants in the Environ-
ment," (Subcommittee on the Environment and the
Atmosphere, Committee on Science and Technology,
U.S. House of Representatives), 1975.
2. Heck, W. W., Taylor, 0. C. and Heggestad, H. E.,
"Air Pollution Research Needs Herbaceous and
Ornamental Plants and Agriculturally Generated
Pollutants," Jour. Air Pollution Control Assoc.
23:257-266, 197.3.
3. Heggestad, H. E. and Heck, W. W., "Nature,
Extent and Variation of Plant Response to Air
Pollutants," Adv. in Agron., 23:111-145, 1971.
4. Menser, H. A. and Heggestad, H. E., "Ozone and
Sulfur Dioxide Synergism Injury to Tobacco
Plants," Science, 153:424-425, 1966.
5. White, K. L, Hill, A. C., Bennett, J. H.,
"Synergistic Inhibition of Apparent Photosyn-
thesis Rate of Alfalfa by Combinations of
Sulfur Dioxide and Nitrogen Dioxide," Environ.
Science and Tech., 8:574-576, 1974.
6. Krause, G. H. M., "Phytotoxische Wechselwirkun-
gen zwischen Schwefeldioxed und den Schwer-
metallen Zink und Cadmium," Schriftenreihe der.
Landesanstalt fur Immissions - und Bodennut-
zungsschultz des Landes 'Nordrhein - West-
falen in Essen. 34:86-91, 1975.
7. Abeles, F. B. and Heggestad, H. E., "Ethylene:
An Urban Air Pollutant," Jour. Air Pollution
Control Assoc., 23:517-521, 1973.
171
8. Cowling, E. B., Heagle, A. S. and Heck W. W.,
The C-hangirKj Acidity of Preci-pitati-on," Phyto-
pathology News, 9: p. 5, 1975.
9. Heagle, A. S., Body, D. E. and Heck, W. W.,
"An Open-top Field C-hamber to Assess the Impact
of Air Pollution on Plants," J. Environ.
Quality, 2:365-368, 1973.
10. Mandl, R. H., Weinst-ein, L. H. MeCune, D. C. and
Keveny, M., "A Cylindrical, Open-top Chamber
for the Exposure of Plants to Air Pollutants ir,
the Field," J. Environ. Quality, 2:371-376,
1973.
11. Heggestad, H. E., "Plant Protection from Oxi-
dant Air Pollutants. JJ^ Plant Protection in
Relation to Human Health and Environmental
Pollution," VIII International Plant Protection
Congress, Moscow, Aug. 1975.
12. Manning, W. J. and Feder, W. A., "Suppression
of Oxidant Injury by Benomyl: Effects on
Yields of Bean Cultivars in the Field," J.
Environ. Quality, 3:1-3, 1974.
13. Jones, H. E., Cunningham, L. R., McLaughlin,
S. B., Lee, N. T., and Ray, S., "A Large-scale
Field Investigation of the Effect of SO, Expo-
sure on Yield of Soybeans," (Preprint 73-110,
66th Annual Meeting Air Pollution Control Asso-
ciation, Chicago, June, 1973.
14. Michigan State University and Kettering Founda-
tion, "Crop Productivity - Research Impera-
tives," (Proceedings, International Conference,
Harbor Springs, Mich. Oct. 1975).
15. Aschbacher, P. W., "Air Pollution Research Needs
Livestock Production Systems," J. Air Pollution
Control Assoc., 23:267-272, 1973.
16. Barrows, H. L., "ARS Research on Strip Mine
Reclamation." (Presented, 28th Annual NACD
Meeting, Houston, Tex. Feb. 1974 - ARS, USDA,
Beltsville, Md.
17. Smith, R. M., Gube Jr., W. E., and Freeman,
J. R., "Better Minesoils," Green Lands Quarter-
ly Winter, 16-18, 1975.
18. Jones, J. N. Jr., Armiger, W. H. and Bennett,
0. L., "Forage Grasses Aid the Transition from
Spoil to Soil" (Presented, Research and Applied
Technology Symposium on Mined Land. National
Coal Association, Louisville, Ky. Oct. 1975).
19. Power, L. F., Ries, R. E., Sandoval, F. M. and
Willis, W. 0., "Factors Restricting Revegeta-
tion of Strip Mine Spoils," Proceedings, Fort
Union Coal Symposium, 1975.
20. Soil Conservation Service, "New Plants for Con-
servation," Soil Conservation Magazine, Sept. 19
1974.
21. Kubic, M. J., "Germany's Prize Coal Stripper,"
Newsweek, 86(22):86, 89, 1975.
-------
72
DISCUSSION ON TERRESTRIAL EFFECTS SESSION
Comment from the Floor: At the present time, there are 30 identified investigations in the coal
strip area, sponsored by EPA and ERDA, which will employ cooperative field techniques. These coopera-
tive field techniques are intended to reduce the capacity for redundancy of effort. This coordination
is of considerable interest to the State of Montana's Lieutenant Governor's Office.
Panel Response: The size of the scientific effort in the coal strip area requires careful coordina-
tion to avoid both redundancy and to prevent interference between various field study plots.
Question: There has been some reference to Western coals as clean. Does this reference refer to
the ash content or trace element content, or is it made on a comparative basis with Eastern coals on a
BTU basis?
Panel Response: No, the reference to "clean" was intended to mean relatively clean. Western coal
has very high ash, low BTU and in several cases less than 6 to 1% sulfur. There are also some constit-
uents such as fluoride. These coals are relatively clean as compared to some mid-Western coals and
possibly some Eastern coals as well.
Question: Some of the proceeding program descriptions have an element of optimism as opposed to
pessimism. Some beneficial results have been described from SOX, and there has been reference to the
possibility of spraying to reduce the damaging effects of some pollutants on plant life. Would the
panel comment on this.
Panel Response: Sulfur and other matter is essential to plant growth. Plants require as much sul-
fur as phosphorus which is regarded as a primary nutrient. In the past, it has been the practice to
fertilize both materials containing considerable amounts of sulfur. Today's fertilizers generally do not
include sulfur, particularly in the Southeast because of the amounts deposited to the ground from atmo-
spheric contributions. The amount of sulfur being added to soils with rainfall can be measured, but the
amount of sulfur added in gaseous form is unknown. A total amount of sulfur added to the soils should
be accurately established.
Question: Does the sulfur and sulfur compounds additions result in a progressively increasing
acidity of the soils?
Panel Response: This question of increased acidity of the soils has not been determined. This is
another area that requires investigation.
Question: Current studies seem restricted to short-range studies on the effects of pollutants on
plants. Are there any strategies to develop programs and support studies on the effects of long-range
repeated exposure?
Panel Response: Both EPA and the U.S. Department of Agriculture have five-year programs funded
which would permit long-range low-level, chronic exposure studies.
Comment from the Floor: In the West particularly, transport of sulfate from power plants will take
place over distances as great as 100 miles. Resultant deposition will fall on plants, not only the soil.
In the semi-arid plains, some species such as the Ponderosa Pine are very sensitive to sulfur, especially
when exposure has not occurred previously. Sulfur landing on grazing lands is ingested by wildlife and
livestock. In addit.inn, nthov Cnnc°rns ar° n* fluoride as a synergistic impact.
Question: Is it basically true that an increase in soil acidity will also increase the availability
of other nutrients such as phosphorus?
Panel Response: No, increase in soil acidity generally has the opposite effect. Lime will counter-
act this soil acidity on the surface. However, surface liming does not solve the problem of acid sub-
soils.
Question: Please comment on the use of protective chemicals on plants.
Panel Response: Some fungicides will, as an example, protect tobacco from oxidents. The effects of
protective chemicals on yields of various cultivars differs as does the degree of injury protection
attorded._ There is work in this field being pursued now. This includes addition of protective chemicals
to the soil that will be taken up by the plants. Work in this field would benefit from better measure-
ment tools and techniques. Consequently, the potential threat of sulfur on the ecosystem should not be
discounted.
-------
173
Comment from the Floor: There is a need to make the results of research available to the people
who can use the information. One recent development is the Interview Research Information System which
is a part of the SEAS Program. Another, the Old West Regional Commission operates a computer system
listing ongoing research studies. A system called SEAS Info provides description of EPA reports. It is
expected that these information systems may be of interest to the group.
-------
CHAPTER 8
ENERGY RESOURCE EXTRACTION
-------
176
INTRODUCTION ual damage. The burden of developing the necessary
technologies is shared by federal, state and local
The Nation's demand for energy self-sufficiency agencies as well as the private sector.
will result in an increasing amount of land disturbed
by the extractive process.
With oil and gas no longer plentiful, coal has
become the mainstay of Project Independence to make
the United States energy self-sufficient. To achieve
this goal, the low sulfur coal lying close to the
ground surface in the West must be developed. In
addition, continued exploitation of eastern coal
regions will be necessary with surface and under-
ground mining.
For the foreseeable future, coal can be expected
to provide the bulk of domestic augmentation replac-
ing foreign energy sources. However, until gasifica-
tion and liquefaction techniques are perfected and
implemented, there will be a continued dependence on
fuels derived from natural hydrocarbons. The re-
quirements for these fuels is likely to persist,
especially in transportation. Consequently, there
will be added impetus for gas and oil exploration.
This exploration will extend to remote and relatively
inhospitable regions. Even with increased domestic
production and moderating increases in demand, some
shortfall will exist. The large reserves represented
by the oil shale deposits in the Upper Colorado River
Basin make this source a likely candidate, if the
necessary technology is available.
Each of these extractive processes has its
unique environmental price.
Underground mines present one of the most diffi-
cult environmental problems. Damage may result from
acid mine drainage, subsidence or sedimentation.
Environmental implications of the methane emissions
accompanying underground mining are not well under-
stood. Successful closure techniques are yet to be
perfected.
Surface mining disturbs large areas, frequently
in rural, range, forest or farm areas. During the
next decade, disruption will approach one quarter of
a million acres annually. Without reclamation,
there is both loss of land use and ecological damage.
Great strides have been made in the development of
reclamation techniques. These techniques have been
developed mainly as a result of experience with sur-
face mining in the East. Reclamation of disturbed
Western areas will pose severe new problems because
of the arid character of the region. Reclamation of
land disturbed in mining of oil shale will present
additional problems associated with disposition of
very large volumes of spent shale.
The environmental price of oil and gas extrac-
tion is largely associated with spillage and the
consequential contribution of human activity at the
drilling sites and along the routes of transport.
Environmental consequences may be aggravated by the
ecological fragility of the areas developed, such as
the Alaskan tundra.
Energy resource extraction is inherently a dis-
ruptive process. Protective emphasis is being
placed on minimizing the initial extractive damage
followed by restoration aimed at reducing the resid-
-------
177
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT OF WESTERN
COAL SURFACE MINING
Elmore C. Grim
Surface Mining Specialist
Extraction Technology Branch
Resource Extraction and Handling Division
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
Cincinnati, Ohio
Recent oil and gas
States have focused the
supply and demand probl
is popularly called an
is increasing interest
degree of independence
supplies, primarily oil
shortages in the United
Nation's attention on
ems associated with what
energy "crisis". There
in developing a higher
from foreign energy
and oil by-products.
The President's 1973 energy message encouraged
the use of domestic coal to meet the needs for
energy. Since low sulfur coal lying in close
proximity to the ground surface is economically
attractive to energy producers, much of the
near-surface coal resources in the West are
important. This emphasis on use of western
coals has been reiterated by private and Federal
sectors with increasing frequency.
According to U.S. Bureau of Mines estimates,
the western coal fields contain more than 60% of
the strippable coal reserves in America. It
has been estimated by the Federal Government
that in 1985, 1.2 billion tons of coal must be
mined to meet the demand in the industrial,
power generation, synthetic gas, and export
sectors of the market. This amount will double
the coal production of 600 million tons for last
year. To achieve a total production of 1.2
billion tons, at least 350 million tons will
have to come from western coal fields to supplement
the 850 million tons derived from the traditional
coal-producing region's of the East and Midwest.
Comparing that figure with last year's production
from western states of approximately 60 million
tons, one begins to grasp the scope of potential
coal development in thi's area of the nation.
Although characterized by low BTU and high ash
content, western coal contains very little
sulfur, and the large size of the coal fields
make them attractive to the huge industrial
plants that result from future growth i.e.,
gasification and liquefaction processes.
The adverse impacts of coal mining in the
eastern United States have been well documented
and intensively researched. Relatively little
is known concerning the potential degradation
that may result from large scale mining in the
arid West. A better definition of the type and
magnitude of potential environmental problems is
required.
Suspected water pollution problems are: (1)
salinity, (2) sediment, and (3) ground water
disturbance. Preliminary results indicate that
salinity discharges as high as 23kg per cubic
meter of spoils can be produced. The salinity
potential for western coal mines needs to be well
defined and a method developed to predict the
magnitude of the problem before mining.
Coal seams are generally aquifers, and are a
principle source of fresh water. Mining may
result in alteration of ground water distribution
by aquifer disruption. It will be necessary to
verify the magnitude of the aquifer disruption
problem and quantify its effects on groundwater
quality and quanity. In addition, if solid wastes
from power plants, gasification plants, etc., are
to be returned to surface mines where aquifers
were present, a potential groundwater pollution
problem may exist.
Western overburden material is of young
geologic age and subject to excessive erosion.
Stabilization of the spoil, as quickly as possible
after grading, is required to minimize sediment
discharges. Flash flooding and wind erosion
constitute major hazards in damaging soil loss.
Possible air pollution problems involve fugitive
dust from extraction, loading, hauling, and support
facilities. In addition, emissions from spontaneous
combustion of coal seams and waste materials
causes considerable air quality degradation. Work
is planned to assess the magnitude and significance
of these air pollutants.
One of the major drawbacks to western reclam-
ation is revegetation. Climatic conditions are
extreme. Seventy-five percent of the western coal
fields receive less than twenty inches of annual
precipitation available for plant growth. In
addition to limited precipitation, seasonal tempera-
tures vary from -60° to 120° F, only short frost-
free periods are available, wide variations are
present in overburden material, and adequate
topsoil is lacking.
Water is the key to any successful reclamation
program in the West. Ample moisture at planting
'and during establishment is critical. Techniques
for acquiring additional moisture need to be
developed. This should include studies on surface
manipulation, irrigation, mulching, etc., and the
impact of these practices on surface and groundwater
quanity and quality.
Only by pre-mining planning is it possible to
eliminate irreversible mistakes. Planning investi-
gations include range inventories, soil surveys,
grazing pattern definition, watershed surface and
groundwater studies, archeological review and
overburden analyses. These studies serve as a
base for planning spoil segregation, rehabilitation
design, erosion control, surface manipulation,
topsoiling and range management. These accomplish-
ments directly affect the mining techniques and
equipment used. They also allow most problems of
extraction and rehabilitation to be predictable.
The people of the West generally express
concern over expanded extraction in terms of their
own occupational interests. Many ranchers and
farmers are worried about competition for land and
water, and about the conversion of present and
-------
178
potential agricultural water supplies to industrial
usage. Some believe that mined land cannot be
reclaimed nor shallow aquifers rebuilt. A general
concern shared by most people is the impact of air
pollution on range vegetation, crops, and abundant
wildlife resources. The several Indian tribes in
the region are concerned over the impact of coal
development on or near their reservations in terms
of water rights, resources and cultural values.
Not everyone is fearful about the effects of
developing the coal. There are people who view
the development as something good. They see
increasing coal development in terms of an expand-
ing economic base, new jobs, better services and
a chance to broaden cultural horizons.
Offsetting this rather gloomy picture,
however, is a general (although cautious) optimism
that the environmental impacts of western strip
mining, both during and after mining, can be
reduced to "acceptable" levels if suitable planning
and operating technologies are brought to bear.
In short, mined lands can be reclaimed. Reclama-
tion as an add-on technology will no longer suffice.
Rather, as has been noted by EPA researchers,
environmental factors must be considered from the
word "go" (during pre-mining planning); reclamation
must be an integral part of the mining process.
This fact manifests the realization that the
environment is best protected by designing (and
using) new mining technologies (methods and equip-
ment) which consider reclamation objectives as
well as production goals. Of course, such tech-
nologies cannot be developed solely by mining
engineers nor solely by geologists, hydrologists
and agricultural scientists. Instead, an inter-
disciplinary approach is necessary. EPA recognizes
this need and has initiated a Federal interagency
energy/environment R&D program. Regularly scheduled
meetings are held with EPA's research personnel,
other EPA officials and representatives of other
agencies involved in related research to ensure
that the research needs in each problem area are
adequately covered. Contract, grants and inter-
agency agreements have been negotiated for most
of the projects in EPA's current RljD program.
Interagency agreements, formulated for
implementing research projects, are being funded
by "pass-through" of $1.44 million for FY75 and
$1.7 million for FY76 from the energy R§D budget.
Interagency agreement projects are as follows:
1. Western Coal and Oil Shale Mining:
Vegetative Methods and Materials
USDA.
Objective Summary: Technical
handbooks for vegetating western
coal and oil shale mines in arid
and semi-arid areas are being
prepared. These handbooks will be
directly used by mine operators
and regulatory agencies and also by
planning and impact analysis agencies.
The books will include recommendations
of plant species, methods of planting,
soil amendments, seed sources, seed
bed preparation, etc.
2. Surface Manipulations for Enhanced
Coal and Oil Shale Mine Vegetation
USDA. A. Wastes for Soil Amendments,
B. Growth Supporting Media.
Objective Summary
A. Evaluation is being made of
non-mine waste materials (such
as sewage sludge, woodchips,
straw, solid waste, food
processing wastes) as soil
amendments in reclaiming
surface mines.
B. Scientific criteria are being
developed to recommend guidelines
for determing quantity and
quality of growth supporting
media (topsoil) for coal
and oil shale reclamation.
Contracts and grants have been developed for
implementing research projects. These are being
funded from the energy R§D budget in the amounts
of $1.751 million for FY75 and $1.080 million for
FY76.
Contract work is as follows:
1. Environmental Impact of Western Coal
Mines Contractor; Mathematica,
Inc.
Objective Summary: This project is
specifically designed to evaluate
the surface mining methods presently
employed in the mining of the western
coals in arid and semi-arid regions,
and to evaluate the effects these
methods have on the environment.
Grant work is as follows:
1. Effects of Surface Configuration in
Water Pollution Control Grantee;
Montana State University.
Objective Summary: Objectives of
this study are to demonstrate the
effectiveness of several surface
configurations in controlling
erosion, runoff, sedimentation and
pollution of adjacent drainages,
quickly producing a desirable stabi-
lizing vegetative cover, creating an
equilibrium between precipitation
absorbed and soil moisture evaporated
and transpired so that ground water
pollution will remain minimal, and
producing an overall desirable
reclamation design providing effect-
ive drainage, esthetics, productiveness
and use. Surface water and groundwater
is being monitored extensively at
the five test sites in Montana,
Wyoming, and North Dakota.
2. Surface and Subsurface Water Quality
Hydrology Grantee; Colorado State
University.
Objective Summary; This project is
to develop a mathematical model
capable of predicting the quantity
of surface and subsurface flow on
surface mine spoils in the Rocky
-------
179
Mountain Region. This objective
will be accomplished by modifying
and interfacing existing models of
subsurface chemical transport,
certain geochemical reactions,
overland flow on infiltrating surfaces,
and sediment transport. A current
study has identified the important
physical and chemical characteristics
of the spoils which must be
included in the model. The adequacy
of the model will be thoroughly
tested on field plots located on
coal mine spoils in Colorado.
Northern Cheyenne Tribal Council
project, Montana Grantee;
Northern Cheyenne Tribal Council.
Objective Summary: The Northern
Cheyenne Tribe, via the Northern
Cheyenne Research Project, desires
to develop an in-depth knowledge of
the chemical character of reservation
water resources, and the interrelation
of water to other resources, so
that the Tribe can make informed
choices in planning coal development.
Environmental base line data is
being collected for future reference
when mining begins. This project
will provide an additional data source
for the following project.
Evaluation of Surface and Groundwater
at Potential Strip Mines Grantee;
Montana State University.
Objective Summary: The major
objective of this project is to
identify possible impacts of coal
mining and development in the
Northern Great Plains on the surface
and groundwater systems of the
surrounding area. Specific object-
ives are: 1. Obtain an equation of
balance for all water inflow and
outflow in each of three study
sites, one each in Montana, North
Dakota, and Wyoming; 2. Characterize
the overburden from a physical and
chemical point of view as well as
determine its relationship to the
water coming to the surface; 3.
Characterize the chemical features
of the mined sites; and 4. Determine
hydrologic character of spoils at
active mine sites in Montana.
In Table I below, the resources being expended
on western coal projects are summarized.
TABLE I
RESOURCES EXPENDED ON WESTERN COAL
SURFACE MINING
Expendature
EPA
Contract
Grant
US DA
FY75
Projects
1
4
IAG*
TOTAL
8
$K
173
1,578
1,440
3,191
FY76
Projects $K
1 0
4 1,080
8
1,700
2,780
*Funding is for combination of Coal and Oil Shale
projects.
EPA's role is not to develop new surface
mining technology. However, in cooperation with
the U. S. Bureau of Mines and others, we are
planning to contribute to the development of these
new methods from the standpoint of environmental
impact.
As trends develop in more sophisticated
underground mining methods, we will initiate
environmental control projects to keep abreast of
the effects of these technological developments.
Most R§D efforts at this time are aimed at
pinpointing problem areas. This assessment phase
will be followed by comprehensive R&D efforts to
demonstrate techniques which minimize adverse
environmental effects. The ultimate goal is to
publish Manuals of Practice to outline the most
current and acceptable technology for all phases
of mining that have a detrimental impact on the
environment. Training programs for mining personnel
and state and federal control agencies are also
planned as goals.
-------
180
ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY
OF EASTERN COAL DEVELOPMENT
Ronald D. Hill
Director
Resource Extraction and Handling Division
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
Cincinnati, Ohio
INTRODUCTION
For discussion purposes during this symposium,
the coal fields of the United States have been divid-
ed into the eastern and western. A better definition
of these fields would be humid vs arid/semi-arid
regions. The production and number of mines for each
region is shown in Table 1.
Table 1
NUMBER AND COAL MINE PRODUCTION - 1973
Eastern Western
U.S. U.S.*
Total Production, Million
Tons/Percent 523 / 91 51/9
Surface Mine Production,
Million Tons/Percent 212/82 46/18
Total Mines, Number/Percent 1,726 / 97 52/3
Surface Mines, Number/
Percent 873 / 96 34/4
Underground Mine, Number/
Percent 853/98 18 / 2
*Arizona, Colorado, Montana, North Dakota, New Mexico,
and Wyoming.
As demonstrated in this table the eastern fields
dominate the coal industry both in production from
surface and underground mines and number of mines.
As the United States strives toward its coal produc-
tion goal of 1.2 billion tons per year, the western
fields will assume a larger share. However, signif-
icant increases in eastern production and number of
mines will also occur.
The environmental damages from past and present
eastern surface mining has been documented. Over
10,000 miles of streams have been degraded by acid
mine drainage. Sediment clogged streams are common.
Fugitive dust is emitted from mines and haul roads.
Mining has a unique feature in that environmental
damages continue even after mining ceases because
acid production and erosion are natural phenomena
which are accelerated by man's activities. Thus,
the environmental damages from past mining activities
exceed that from current ones. Mines must be closed
properly to prevent pollution in the future.
Great strides have been made in the past ten
years to reduce the environmental damages from sur-
face mines. All of the major eastern coal producing
states now have laws controlling surface mines. The
effectiveness of these laws depends upon the provi-
sions of the law, the regulations and the capabilities
of the state enforcement agency. In general, the
laws require a permit to mine, performance bonds,
backfilling of pit, grading of spoil and revegetation
of the disturbed area. Strong environmental concern
by the public has led to the development of new min-
ing methods and reclamation techniques by the
industry. These new methods and techniques have
significantly reduced acid mine drainage and improved
the sediment problem. However, erosion, by both air
and water, is still a cause of environmental damage,
Environmental damages resulting from underground
mines include: acid mine drainage, subsidence, and
sediment from surface facilities. During active
operation the water discharged from an underground
mine can be treated to meet the effluent guidelines
proposed by EPA. The major environmental damage
occurs when the mine becomes inactive and a responsi-
ble party to treat the water is unavailable. The
environmental implication of the over 227 million
cubic feet per day of methane emitted is unknown.
Control of the dust and silt from surface facilities
is 1 i mi ted .
SURFACE MINING PROGRAM
has recently completed a comprehensive
review of the surface mine industry. It can be con-
cluded from this report that a large store house of
knowledge has been developed by federal, state, and
industrial groups on the reclamation of surface mines.
It was felt that the time had come to prepare a set
of comprehensive "how to" manuals for use by industry,
and state and federal control agencies. Contracts,
grants and interagency agreements were developed to
prepare the following manuals: (1) Paleoenvironment
analysis as a predictor of acid mine drainage,
(2) Field and laboratory methods applicable to over-
burdens and minesoils, (3) Manual to control sediment
and erosion during mining, (4) Revegetation manual,
and (5) Predictive and pollution abatement model for
mine drainage. Although each of these manuals will
be prepared to stand alone, they will become an
integral part of a comprehensive manual on premining
planning for environmental control of surface mines
to be prepared by Pennsylvania State University. The
original five manuals will be completed during 1976
and the premining planning manual by July 1977. It
is proposed to use these manuals to prepare training
courses to transfer the information to the working
level, e.g., mine superintendents and surface mine
inspectors. This effort is planned to start in FY 77.
Several new mining and reclamation methods have
been developed in the past few years with picturesque
names such as head-of-hollow fill, mountain-top
removal and haul back. These second generation
methods have been proclaimed as techniques that will
minimize the environmental problems in surface mining.
EPA has initiated a program to assess the environ-
mental consequences of these mining methods. Mining
operations of several companies will be extensively
evaluated' and monitored for air and water emissions.
Close coordination with the U. S. Bureau of Mines,
-------
T.V.A., and the U. S. Forest Service, who are working
on the development of new mining methods, will be
maintained. Future research and development by EPA
will depend on the outcome of these assessments.
One of the major unresolved environmental prob-
lems associated with surface mining is sediment. The
primary sediment control method in many states is the
sediment pond. A study has been completed for EPA
which reported that there are shortcomings in the
present design, operation, maintenance and closure of
sediment pond. EPA is initiating an inhouse research
program at its West Virginia research station and a
demonstration project in cooperation with the Common-
wealth of Kentucky to develop better design criteria
for sediment ponds.
Haul roads are often a significant source of
dust and sediment. EPA in cooperation with the
Commonwealth of Kentucky has begun a project to
demonstrate improved haul road construction methods.
Discussions have been held with the U. S. Bureau of
Mines to also take part in the project.
EPA through interagency agreements with USDA,
T.V.A., and ERDA supports work on developing revege-
tation methods for surface mines, evaluating damages
from surface mines and utilization of waste products
to reclaim mines.
UNDERGROUND MIMING PROGRAM
The control of water pollution from underground
mines is one of our most difficult problems. Although
the discharge can be treated while the mine is active,
upon mine closure treatment became uneconomical. We
feel the answer to this problem is the development of
new mining methods that will minimize the discharge
upon mine closure. A recent study for EPA showed
that mining to the down-dip had definite environmental
advantages. The University of Alabama is currently
evaluating mining methods that might prevent water
pollution. We plan to pursue an aggressive program
in this area.
EPA has an active program in developing technol-
ogy for dewatering (prevention of water from entering
the mine) underground mines. Current projects include
evaluating methods of locating sources of water that
enter a mine and pilot studies on dewatering both an
active and inactive mine. If found feasible we hope
to proceed to a full scale demonstration in coopera-
tion with the Bureau of Mines and industry. This
work might fit closely with the Bureau's methane
drainage program.
Stowing in underground mines for subsidence con-
trol and waste disposal has been evaluated by National
Academy of Science and although found technically
feasible was economically questionable. EPA in a
joint venture with the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania
and in cooperation with the Bureau of Mines is evalu-
ating the concept of stowing waste (fly ash, and SOX
sludge) in underground mines to prevent acid mine
drainage. If found feasible we would hope to proceed
to a full scale demonstration.
181
EPA has been active for a number of years in
the development of mine seals. We have a continuing
effort in evaluating seal performance. Because of
the importance of closure methods an intensive
assessment of closure methods is currently being
conducted for EPA. The results of this study will
be used to develop our Research and Development
program in this area.
Two additional assessment studies are planned.
The first will assess the consequence of groundwater
as a result of underground mining. The second will
assess air emissions from underground mines and their
support facilities. Future research efforts will
depend on the results of these studies.
TREATMENT OF MINE DRAINAGE PROGRAM
Since 1967 EPA has been evaluating numerous
schemes for treating acid mine drainage (AMD). At
this time neutralization is the accepted method.
EPA's recent efforts have been to improve the
efficiency, reduce the cost and develop sludge
disposal methods. These are inhouse efforts conduct-
ed at our West Virginia field site. This work should
be concluded in the near future.
Since neutralization does not usually decrease
the total dissolved solids (TDS) content and often
a water is produced that is unsuitable for many uses,
we have been evaluating two methods that remove TDS,
i.e., reverse osmosis and ion exchange. During 1976
a manual of practice for utilizing reverse osmosis
for testing AMD will be produced. We are in the
pilot plant stage in our ion exchange studies.
SUMMARY
In Table 2, the resources being expended on
eastern coal mining are summarized.
Table 2
RESOURCES EXPENDED ON EASTERN COAL MINING
FY 75 FY 76
No. No.
Projects _$!< Projects _$!<
Surface Mines
EPA 21 1500 25 800
IAG 170 - 175
Underground Mines 16 1300 18 280
Treatment 8 300 7 276
REFERENCE
Grim, E. C., and Hill, R. D. , "Environmental
Protection in Surface Mining of Coal," EPA
Publication 670/2-74-093, Cincinnati, Ohio,
October 1974.
-------
182
USDA RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
FOR RECLAMATION OF LANDS AFFECTED
BY MINING I/ U
David J. Ward
Research Planning and Coordination
USDA, Office of the Secretary
Washington, D.C.
BACKGROUND
The Nation's demand for mineral resources and
energy self-sufficiency will result in an increasing
amount of land disturbed by mining and mineral pro-
cessing. An estimated 4.4 million acres of land
have already been disturbed by mining. About 1.9
million acres (including 100,000 acres of National
Forest System lands) remain to be reclaimed. Added
to this, nearly 200,000'acres may be disturbed annu-
ally during the next decade. By 1990 the rate of
disturbance may reach 250,000 acres per year. Some
projections indicate that as much as 12-13 million
acres may eventually be disturbed.
Surface and subsurface mining of fossil fuels
and minerals, and related activities such as coal
gasification, oil shale processing, ore reduction
and transport of mined commodities create strains
on the Nation's food and fiber production base, the
environment, and rural communities. Forest lands of
the east, grasslands and croplands of the midwest,
and rangelands of the Northern Great Plains and
elsewhere in the West are underlain by vast coal
resources and other minerals that can be surface
mined. The potential for destruction of surface
values on these and other rural lands is great.
Without proper planning and reclamation, seri-
ous impacts can be expected on agricultural produc-
tion, environmental quality and rural communities.
These impacts will affect not only mined areas, but
will have deleterious effects on surrounding areas
and non-mining sectors of the economy.
Since most mineral development takes place in
rural America on range, forest, and farm lands it is
the responsibility of the Department of Agriculture
to see that the technology and technical assistance
is adequate and effective for reclamation of mined
lands and that social, environmental, and economic
impacts of mining are ameliorated. In recognition
of this there has been established a USDA Program
for Reclamation of Lands Affected by Mining. The
Program is concerned with anticipating and amelio-
rating the effects of fossil fuel and mineral de-
velopment on the environment, surface resources,
people and agricultural production. It coordinates
and maximizes the impact of USDA agency activities,
thus enabling the Department to exercise federal
leadership in reclaiming private and public lands.
It also fosters coordination and seeks to avoid dup-
lication with related work of non-USDA agencies.
The Program coordinates and accelerates the
individual efforts of several USDA agencies. These
agencies are: the Agricultural Stabilization and
Conservation Service(ASCS), Agricultural Research
Service (ARS), Cooperative State Research Service
(CSRS), Economic Research Service (ERS), Extension
Service (ES), Forest Service (FS) and the Soil
Conservation Service (SCS). They are the ones in
USDA that conduct programs directly concerned with
the management of soil, water, plants and animals
on rural private and public lands affected by
mining.
This paper addresses itself principally to a
brief description of the research and development
aspects of the Program.
PROGRAM GOAL, OBJECTIVES AND BENEFITS
The ultimate goal of the R&D aspects of the
USDA Program for Reclamation of Lands Affected by
Mining is to provide new knowledge and technology
to assure that the Nation's energy and mineral needs
are met in a reasoned, selective and orderly way,
without sacrificing food and fiber, quality of liv-
ing in rural areas, or quality of the environment.
Overall Program objectives will be accomplished
by assessing potential impacts of mineral develop-
ment and by developing planning and reclamation
technologies and passing them on to users. The
technologies derived will apply to private lands
under individual or corporate ownership and to pub-
lic lands, including Federal lands administered by
USDA and other Departments. They will also assist
local communities, families, and firms affected by
industrialization.
Included among the objectives are:
Land - As many as 12 or 13 million acres of land may
be disturbed by 1990. Disturbance patterns and rec-
lamation potentials will be identified in advance of
mining. This will make it possible to plan develop-
ment activities so that land critically needed for
producing food and fiber is not taken out of produc-
tion. Land that cannot be reclaimed for present use
or returned to more productive uses will be identi-
fied so that appropriate public action can be con-
sidered. Technology will be developed and dissemi-
nated and technical assistance will be provided so
that the private sector can effectively reclaim
mined lands.
]_/ This paper is largely based on materials pre-
pared by a USDA interagency work group.
2/ USDA has a long history of cooperative activi-
ties with research arms of Land Grant Colleges
and Universities. In addition to research and
development conducted by USDA, the R&D described
in this paper includes research conducted by the
State Experiment Station System with funds (1)
initially appropriated to USDA or (2) "passed
through" to USDA from EPA.
-------
se. - M,a,ny mining, transportation, and conver-
sion technologies require large quantities of water.
It is expected that a significant portion of the
mineral development activities will occur in water-
scarce areas. Thus water could be diverted from
agricultural and other uses to mineral development
uses. Through the Program, water demands will be
identified and adverse impacts assessed. To the
extent possible, mineral development activities can
then be planned, phased, and located so that agri-
cultural productivity will not be seriously affected.
Hater Quality Some mineral development activities
can result in degraded water quality both through
consumption and the discharge of pollutants into
water supplies. For example, disturbance of the
soil profile by surface mining can increase the
movement of soluble salts and acid-forming materials
into the surface and groundwaters. Technologies
developed through the Program will often prevent
degradation of water quality. Situations where con-
trol technologies are not feasible will be identi-
fied so that mineral development may be avoided.
Air Quality The discharge of toxic gases and par-
ticulate materials from mineral processing activi-
ties may affect growth of vegetation and productive
capacity of surrounding areas. This adverse impact
will be reduced through the development of toxic
resistant plant varieties or the identification of
situations where compensating actions are needed.
Maintaining and Promoting Viable Rural Communities
and Areas - Rural communities and areas will be pro-
vided with information and alternatives to adjust
governmental organizations, educational systems,
permanent resources, and public and private services
needed to accommodate increasing populations. With-
out prior knowledge of expected impacts and mecha-
nisms to deal with these impacts, overcrowded
schools, shortages of capital and consumer goods,
inadequate public and private services including
sewage, roads, medical, etc., and localized infla-
tion will result. The Program will provide means to
promote orderly economic growth in rural areas in
order to capture the benefit both of rural living
and strong economic growth.
Agricultural and Forest Productivity - The Program
will diminish the possibilities for long-run losses
of productive capacity of U.S. agriculture as a
result of mineral development and associated trans-
portation and processing. For example, in the
States of Montana, Wyoming, and North Dakota alone
the annual value of production of wheat, barley, and
oats potentially displaced annually by mining has
been estimated to be as much as $2 million at cur-
rent prices. Without reclamation these losses would
continue over time. Losses can be avoided by ident-
ifying and taking measures to prevent critically
needed land areas from being taken or removed from
production, by ensuring that adequate quality water
supplies are retained, and by taking action to com-
pensate for the release of toxic matter into the
air.
Environmental Amenities Land reclaimed in accor-
dance with plans made prior to mining can provide
multiple use benefits. Planning can lead to
183
development of improved wildlife habitat, of new
water based recreation opportunities such as swim-
ming and fishing, and provide for other recreation
activities.
FIELD UNITS IMPLEMENTING THE PROGRAM
The overall Program is implemented by several
organizations working at many locations. General
information about these arrangements, including in-
formation about how survey, education, technical
assistance and reclamation activities interrelate
with the research and development program are given
below.
Activity, Scope and Extent
R&D 20 USDA field research centers in 16
States. Research agreements with 11 Universities.
Research projects at 18 State Agricultural Experi-
ment Stations. Plant Materials development at 14
Plant Materials Centers and 2 Forest Nurseries.
Mining and reclamation demonstrations in 4 States.
Surveys Soil survey teams active in 652
counties where major mining impacts are anticipated.
Education Extension specialists active in 28
states disseminating reclamation information.
(There are over 3,000 Extension offices nationwide.)
Technical Assistance Technical assistance
provided to more than 22,500 landowners and mining
companies in approximately 2,000 counties, through
Conservation Districts and State and Private
Forestry Programs.
Reclamation Reclamation projects on orphaned
or abandoned mined lands on National Forests and
Grasslands in 5 states.
R&D COMPONENTS OF THE PROGRAM
The general nature of the R&D Aspects of the
Program is outlined below. These activities are
carried out with (1) funds appropriated to USDA,
(2) energy R&D funds "passed through" to USDA from
EPA and (3) funds transferred to USDA by the Bureau
of Mines, USDI.
R&D Aspects of the USDA
Program for Reclamation of
Lands Affected by Mining
1. Impacts of alternative mineral extraction
methods, related transportation systems, and in-
dustrial plants processing mined material.
a. Production of food and fiber and on surface
resources
b. Groundwater
c. Wildlife and fish habitat
d. Aesthetics
e. Employment, living standards, and structure
of local rural areas and communities
f. Interregional shifts in economic activity and
local employment
g. Availability and quality of water for agri-
cultural production
-------
184
h. State and local governments
2. Reclamation technology
a. Overburden Analysis
1) Core sampling and laboratory procedures
2) Prediction of spoil stability, potential
for plant growth, and water quality
3) Methods of overburden handling to prevent
interruption of groundwater flow
b. Redeposition
1) Methods of stockpiling and replacing soil
2) Methods of overburden redeposition based
on core analysis
3) Methods of redeposition to achieve better
spoil stability
c. Hydrology
1) Methods of handling water to prevent ero-
sion and flood damage
2) Methods to improve quality of water flow-
ing from mined lands
d. Amendments
1) Spoil amendments on high alkali and high
acid conditions
2) Irrigation as a spoil leaching technique
3) Mulches and fertilizers to aid plant
establishment
e. Plant Materials
1} Plant species adaptable to acid spoils and
high altitude sites
2) Use of microbiological techniques to
assist plant establishment
3) Expansion of plant materials production
4) Vegetation cover for special uses such as
wildlife, recreation
f. Cost Effectiveness
Least-cost reclamation technologies that will
meet environmental and productivity standards
g. Pilot Testing
1) Field testing on small plots of nursery-
grown planting stock
2) Field evaluation of nursery stock on mine
sites
3) Field demonstration of the total reclama-
tion process including planning, extrac-
tion, and reclamation
h. Systems
1) Storage and retrieval systems for infor-
mation required in mineral planning and
decisionmaking. The system will con-
tain geographically oriented informa-
tion as well as technological informa-
tion. The system will provide users
with immediate services for long-range
or project-specific planning.
2. Analytical procedures for predicting im-
pacts of mining and reclamation under
a wide variety of conditions.
As shown below, R&D aspects of the Program are
carried out at many places in several physiographic
regions of the country.
Location
Alabama, Auburn
Arizona, Tucson
California, Berkeley
Colorado, Ft. Collins
Meeker
D.C. , Washington
Idaho, Aberdeen
Cour de' Alene
Lucky Peak
Moscow
Illinois, Peoria
Urbana
Kansas, Manhattan
Kentucky, Berea
Lexington
Quicksand
Maryland, Beltsville
Michigan, East Lansing
Missouri, Elsberry
Montana, Billings
Bozeman
Bridger
Missouta
New Mexico, Albuquerque
Las Cruces
Los Lunas
New York, Big Flats
Ithaca
North Carolina, Raleigh
North Dakota, Bismarck
Fargo
Mandan
Ohio, Columbus
Oregon, Corvallis
Pennsylvania, Univ. Park
South Dakota, Rapid City
Texas, Knox City
Utah, Logan
Ogden
Virginia, Blacksburg
Washington, Pullman
West Virginia, Morgantown
Wyoming, Laramie
USDA Agency
ARS
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
CSRS
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
ERS
X
X
X
X
FS
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
scs
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
The Northern Great Plains, the Four Corners
Area and other parts of the Intermountain Region,
the Appalachian Coal Area and the Midwestern Coal
Fields are receiving emphasis in the Program. The
longest history of R&D activities is in Appalachia.
Certain findings from this research are useful in
the other geographic areas, but differences in
climate, topography', vegetation and a host of other
factors require the development of new knowledge
and techniques for local conditions.
-------
Roles of USDA agencies in the Program are tabu-
lated below in ge.ne.ral terms.
Broad Subject Areas Covered by
Activities of R&D Agencies in the
USDA Program for Reclamation of
Lands Affected by Mining
185
Subject Area
Ecological effects
(fresh water)
Ecological effects
(air/terrestrtal )
Overburden analysis
Redeposition
Hydrology
Amendments
Plant materials
Pilot testing
Modelling and infor-
mation systems
Integrated assessment
ARS
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
USDA Agency
CSRSl/
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
ERS
X
FSfLA
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
scs
X
]_/ CSRS supports research and development at State
agricultural experiment stations and schools of
forestry with (1) funds appropriated to USDA
under the terms of the Hatch and Mclntire-Stennis
Acts and (2) energy funds "passed through" from
EPA. The agency does not conduct research.
2_/ FS activities are coordinated from Washington,
D.C. A significant part of the western R&D is
conducted through the SEAM Program headquartered
at Billings, Montana. Eastern R&D is largely
centered at Berea, Kentucky.
The principal USDA contacts for R&D aspects of
the Program are:
Agricultural Research Service
Dr. Harold Barrows
Office of the Administrator
Agricultural Research Service
Room 330A
U. S. Department of Agriculture
Washington, D.C. 20250
202-447-5211
Cooperative State Research Service
Dr. Eilif Miller
Cooperative State Research Service
Room 444W
U. S. Department of Agriculture
Washington, D.C. 20250
202-447-4348
Economic Research Service
Dr. John Schaub
Economic Research Service
U. S. Department of Agriculture
Room 420B
500 12th Street, S.W.
Washington, D.C.
202-447-8735
Forest Service
Dr. Robert Callaham
Forest Service
Room 808 RP-E
U. S. Department of Agriculture
Washington, D.C. 20250
703-235-1071
Soil Conservation Service
Mr. Robert MacLauchlan
Soil Conservation Service
Room 1405P, Auditors Bldg.
U. S. Department of Agriculture
Washington, D.C. 20250
202-447-5667
Office of the Secretary
Dr. David J. Ward
Office of the Secretary
Room 359A
U.S. Department of Agriculture
Washington, D.C. 20250
202-447-3854
These persons comprise a USDA work group to
provide broad leadership for R&D aspects of the
USDA Program for Reclamation of Lands Affected by
Mining.
-------
186
ENERGY RESOURCE EXTRACTION;
OIL AND GAS PRODUCTION
J. Stephen Dorrler
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Edison, New Jersey
INTRODUCTION
The extraction, conversion and utilization of
oil and gas have played, and will continue to play,
a major role in the national energy balance. Re-
cent political and economic developments are ex-
pected to spur substantial increases in developing
domestic oil and gas resources with the co-commit-
ent potential for adverse impacts on the environ-
ment. These developments include:
1. the impetus to markedly increase explora-
tion for, and development of domestic reserves
under Project Independence,
2. the expectation that future reserves of oil
and gas will be located principally in the outer
continental shelf (OSC) regions,
3. frontier areas such as Alaska, heretofore
relatively untouched, will experience a major frac-
tion of the new developments,
4. increased market values of oil will result
in marked increase in the use of recovery enhance-
ment techniques with, as yet, incompletely under-
stood environmental consequences.
Approximately half a million producing oil
wells onshore generate produced water in excess of
10,000,000 barrels per day. Approximately 17,000
wells have been drilled offshore in U.S. waters,
and approximately 11,000 are producing oil or gas.
Offshore Louisiana, the OCS alone produces approxi-
mately 410,000 barrels of water per day;(2) by
1983, coastal Louisiana production will generate an
estimated 1.54 million barrels of water per day.(3)
Other than oils, the primary waste constitu-
ents from these facilities include oxygen demanding
pollutants, heavy metals, toxicants, and dissolved
solids contained in drilling muds or produced water.
Production wastes include produced waters associat-
ed with extracted oil, sand and other solids re-
moved from the produced waters, drainage from the
platform or site facilities, sanitary wastes, and
domestic wastes. Produced waters generate the
greatest concern and can contain oils, toxic metals,
and a variety of salts, solids and organic chemi-
cals. The concentration of constituents vary some-
what from one geographical area to another, with
the most pronounced variance in chloride levels.
Table I shows the waste consituents in offshore
Louisiana production facilities in the Gulf of
Mexico. Industry data for offshore California de-
scribes a broader range of parameters as shown in
Table II. Sand and other solids are produced along
with the produced water. Although amounts vary,
sand has been reported to be produced at approxi-
mately one barrel of sand for 2,000 barrels of
oil.(2)
Drilling wastes are generally in the form of
drill cuttings and mud and are composed of the
rock, fines, and liquids contained in the geologic
formations that have been drilled through. The two
basic classes of drilling muds used today are water
based muds and oil muds. In general, much of the
mud introduced into the well hole is eventually
displaced out of the hole and requires disposal or
recovery. Table III provides an estimate of the
volume of cuttings and muds in a typical 10,000 ft.
drilling operation.
In addition to these chronic type discharges,
oil producing and associated facilities also experi-
ence oil spill incidents. The U.S. Coast Guard
reported 3,644 spills in 1974 from producing fa-
cilities. This is approximately 26 percent of the
total number of incidents and contributed
3,468,106 gallons of oil to the environment. (4)
EPA's overall program for controlling emis-
sions from oil and gas producing facilities in-
cludes work in the following areas:
1. developing technology to prevent environ-
mental damage during the installation and operation
of wells, platforms, and transfer facilities,
2. developing criteria to be used in evaluating
sites for onshore pipelines and onshore facilities
to support offshore oil and gas production opera-
tions,
3. developing technology to prevent, control,
and cleanup oil spills.
TECHNICAL DISCUSSION
End of pipe treatment technology for produced
water from offshore facilities consists primarily of
physical chemical methods. Onshore facilities gen-
erally practice some form of no discharge treatment
such as evaporation or injection into formations.
The type of treatment system selected for the par-
ticular offshore facility is dependent upon avail-
ability of space, waste characteristics, volumes of
waste produced, existing discharge limitations, and
other local factors. Simple treatment systems may
consist of only gravity separation pits without the
addition of chemicals, while more complex systems
may include surge tanks, clarifiers, coalescers,
flotation units, chemical treatment and/or rein-
jeetion.
Table IV gives the relative long term perfor-
mance of existing waste water treatment systems in
the Louisiana coastal area. The general superior-
ity of gas flotation units and loose media filters
over the other systems is readily apparent. How-
ever, individual units of other types of treatment
systems have produced comparable effluents.(2)
About 75 percent of the systems in the Gulf of
Mexico coastal area are gravity separation systems.
-------
The majority are located onshore and have limited
application on offshore platforms because of space
limitations.
Despite the fact that the offshore industry
has been operating in the Gulf of Mexico since 1954
the waste produced from these facilities has never
been adequately characterized.. Additionally,
treatment technology development has been limited
to trial and error using off the shelf oil/water
separation equipment. This end - of - pipe treat-
ment approach has never properly addressed upstream
control of waste sources. Therefore, EPA is cur-
rently sponsoring studies which will define design
features of unit processes, equipment and hardware,
including pertinent aspects of human factors engi-
neering, and operation and maintenance procedures
which should be practiced or avoided in order to
minimize discharge of pollutants from offshore fa-
cilities.
Produced water is receiving major emphasis in
this study as it constitutes the largest single
source of waste discharged from offshore facilities.
A characterization scheme, which will define the
principal constituents of produced water, is being
developed in terms of the treatment technology for
oil contaminated water. For example, the char-
acterization scheme will define oil particle size
distribution and stability for the following oil
conditions:
free oil
emulsified oil
dissolved oil
oil wet solids
A pollution control rational for produced water
will be used to evaluate equipment designs, opera-
tion and maintenance procedures and human engineer-
ing factors from the viewpoint of pollutant minimi-
zation. The rationale will be confirmed by field
and laboratory analysis of samples. For example,
the rationale could state that a well head choke
contributes significantly to the oil in water emul-
sion problem and that the substitution of a down
hole choke will reduce this problem. The proof of
this rationale would then be the sampling and oil
particle size analysis performed on platforms using
these two control systems.
Another study, being conducted with the U.S.
Geological Survey, is developing criteria for use
in determining shoreside impact of offshore develop-
ment. It is well understood that offshore facil-
ities cannot exist without support from onshore
bases. What is not well understood is the social,
economic, and environmental effects of this onshore
expansion. For example, in a recent study sponsored
by the American Petroleum Institute,(5) it was esti-
mated that an additional 60,000 people will be re-
quired to support the offshore industry in the Mid-
Atlantic area only. Additional shoreside facilities
occupying 3 to 4 square miles of coastal area will
be required as well. In the Gulf of Mexico and
Southern California DCS areas the product is
brought to shore by pipelines. 'However in the
Atlantic and Gulf of Alaska it is anticipated that
development will take place far offshore (beyond
187
30 miles). Therefore, a question that must be
answered is "how will the products from these two
frontier areas be brought to shore?" If by tanker,
than where should the port facilities be built?
If by pipeline, where should the pipeline corridors
be located? Under the EPA-USGS study, planning
criteria will be developed and then discussed with
officials from coastal communities. Through iter-
ant analysis, the criteria will be refined several
times prior to final publication. It is felt that
this approach will produce a document with wide
acceptance throughout the planning community.
According to the Oil Spill Prevention, Control
and Countermeasures Plan Review Manual, which was
prepared by Rice University and the University of
Texas for the Environmental Protection Agency, the
most probable source of leaks and spills from oil
producing facilities is from pipes, valves and fit-
tings. Regardless of the type of equipment used to
store or process oil, the oily, material must be
moved by pumping it though pipes, valves and fit-
tings. In assessing the oil spill potential in
piping systems, the most important factors to be
considered are the compatibility of the pipe with
the other material being handled, the range of tem-
peratures and pressures involved, and the overall
construction integrity of the pipe material. Leak
detection and pipeline systems installed above
ground or above water consists primarily of onsite
inspection. Despite sophisticated electronic flow-
monitoring electronic equipment, the most reliable
underwater and underground leak detection method is
again visual inspection. This inspection is most
commonly performed by aircraft. Currently available
flow monitoring equipment can detect pipeline leaks
in the neighborhood of 0.1 to 1.0 percent of the
total throughput.(6) Thus, pipelines can leak a
substantial quantity of oil undetected. For ex-
ample, a 50,000 barrel per day pipeline could lose
from 50-500 barrels, or 2,100 to 21,000 gallons of
oil a day undetected.' This would be classified as
a significant pollution incident. A study is cur-
rently being prepared that will assess the state-of-
the-art for pipeline leak detection and make recom-
mendations for advancing the technology in areas
which look promising.
Because of the increased market values of oil,
enhanced oil recovery techniques are becoming prof-
itable for onshore production facilities. However,
as yet, the environmental consequences of these
techniques are not completely understood. Second-
ary recovery, of which water flooding is the most
common, reached a peak abo.ut 1965 and has been de-
clining since.(7) This decline is based primarily
on economics. However, at present values, tertiary
recovery is now being considered. Tertiary re-
covery generally is considered among the more
exotic oil recovery processes and includes miscible
displacement, thermal recovery and chemical flood-
ing. These types of enhanced recovery techniques
will be applicable to many of the existing onshore
oiT fields. In order for the U.S. to maintain its
oil producing rates, recovery of a "third crop" of
oil from those fields which have already undergone
secondary recovery is a logical choice. However,
there is a sense of urgency in developing new ter-
tiary recovery methods due to the fact that many
-------
188
of those fields in which water floods were initi-
ated in the 1950's have reached the advanced^stages
of depletion. Some are nearing their economic
limit and wells are being plugged and abandoned.
Very few prospects are expected to be so profitable
that the economics will permit redrilling of wells
and replacement of surface equipment. Most ter-
tiary methods are heavy front-end loaded with chem-
ical and/or equipment costs. Anticipating increas-
ed development in this area EPA is preparing a
study which will assess the environmental impact of
enhanced recovery practices. Future work in the
area of control technology development for enhanced
recovery will depend upon the results of this study.
Oil producing facilities, both onshore and off-
shore, contribute approximately 26 percent of the
spill incidents that occur annually. Most mechani-
cal and sorbent cleanup and control systems have
failed when used at sea. Mechanical cleanup de-
vices are limited for the same reasons that contain-
ment booms are limited rough sea state conditions.
Generally speaking, booms and skimmers are suitable
only for calm water with well defined oil slicks.
Although proponents of particular systems have
claimed rough water capabilities, none has proved
effective so far and prospects are not promising.
Based on studies at EPA's Oil and Hazardous
Materials Simulated Environmental Test Tank
(OHMSETT), oil spill recovery operations are limit-
ed to currents of less then 0.7 knots with wave
conditions in the range 2 ft. in height with a 3
second period.
Sorbents, which have proved more effective
than mechanical devices under severe sea state con-
ditions, also are faced with difficulties. For ex-
ample, recovery efficiencies of a sorbent vary
widely for different types of oil. Although straw
is cheap and easily obtainable, it becomes water-
logged and does not have high oil retention ability.
Further, cleanup efforts with straw have had to rely
on hand labor which increases both the cost and the
time that the oil soaked straw remains in the water.
Several new sorbent cleanup methods offer some
promise of improvement. One system being developed
by EPA, broadcasts polyurathane foam over the oil
slick and recovers, cleans and reuses it in a to-
tally mechanized process. Other methods use belts
or ropes of sorbent material which are drawn
through the slick, cleaned on shipboard and returned
to the slick in a continuous operation.
The use of dispersants in the U.S. coastal
waters is sharply restricted by the National Oil
and Hazardous Materials Contingency Plan and state
regulations. Primary oil spill response of the
United Kingdom and industry operating in the U.K.
sector of the North Sea, however, is based on chem-
ical dispersants. Dispersants with toxicity several
orders of magnitude less than those used on the
Torrey Canyon have been developed by U.K. industries
since 1967. The equipment in the North Sea is
limited to fire spray units which are capable of
spraying dispersants for six hours. The limita-
tions inherent in mechanical containment and clean-
up emphasize the need to explore other alterna-
tives, including dispersants.
Oil spills are an eventuality in almost all
waterway areas. At the present time oceanfront
protection is nonexistent. The current method of
operation is to allow the oil to come ashore and
then remove it from the sandy or rocky beach using
rakes, shovels, and manpower. If the penetration
of the oil into the sand is less than two inches
and the oil is not fluid, the oil can be raked in-
to windrows of approximately one ft., picked up
with shovels and placed into a front end loader
or dump truck. If the damage to the beach is more
extensive, than mechanical equipment must be used.
Through a research project sponsored by EPA, it was
determined that a motorized elevating scraper used
in tandem with a motorized grader, are the best
mechanical equipment to use for beach restoration.
Rock shore face cleaning has been limited to high
pressure, high temperature, water hosing. This is
a very difficult and time consuming operation and
its effectiveness leaves much to be desired.
PROGRAM DISCUSSION
Investigations in the field of oil pollution
control have been carried out by EPA and its prede-
cessors since 1968. From that year through 1972 the
research was concerned exclusively with oil spill
cleanup and control. Beginning in 1973 the emphasis
began to turn to control technology for oil and gas
extraction and handling with primary concern in the
offshore area. The current program projection de-
fines some 65 tasks in seven major fuctional areas.
Many of these tasks represent continuing efforts
in particular areas being funded on an incremental
basis. Each of the tasks defined has an established
target date. In addition, task milestones have
been defined and program interdependents identified.
The formulation of future milestones is based on
previous accomplishments and preceeds in a well de-
fined fashion. Prior to FY-74 the work on oil pol-
lution control was funded entirely from EPA's base
budget. Beginning in FY-75 a switch to energy
funds was begun and it is intended that in FY-77
this program will be supported entirely with energy
funds. The spills research program receives inter-
agency agreements from the U.S. Coast Guard and U.S.
Navy primarily for equipment testing at OHMSETT.
Only one interagency agreement exists at the pres-
ent time in the oil and gas control technology area
and that is with the U.S. Geological Survey as
metnioned previously.
Task priorities for this program are develop-
ed to meet the requirements of the Office of
Research and Development. However, because of its
"response type" nature this1 is one of the few re-
search programs able to identify real customers in
the operational area. This is particularly true
for the spills research program. As a result the
needs of these "customers" are continually addressed
in developing task priorities.
-------
189
Approximately 90 percent of the work in oil
pollution control technology development is being
performed under contract or grant agreements. A
small inhouse effort in the area of oil spill
source identification forms an intragal part of the
overall program. Additionally, work at OHMSETT
constitutes the only "real world" testing of oil
spill cleanup equipment that is conducted in the
U.S.
PROJECTION
It is anticipated that over the next four
years work in oil spill control technology will
diminish as oil and gas production control tech-
nology is increased. It is expected that enhanced
recovery techniques for onshore facilities will
greatly expand in the very near future. Concur-
rently, control technology for the exotic chemical
systems used in tertiary recovery will also be de-
veloped. Waste management practices for use on-
board offshore facilities will be developed as the
field studies varify our pollution control ratio-
nale.
It is felt that by providing the oil and gas
extraction and handling industry with the basic
technology for effluent limitation and discharge
control, BATEA and New Source standards for the
near offshore and far offshore subcategories can
be met.
CONCLUSIONS
The environmental control technology used in
the past by the oil and gas extraction and handling
industry is inadequate to handle the problems asso-
ciated with new sophisticated enhanced recovery
practices, operational characteristics of frontier
OCS development, and increased impact on the public
at large. EPA's research program, as outlined, is
designed to assess current operational and treat-
ment technology, apply existing state-of-the-art
solutions where possible, and advance the state-of-
the-art in treatment control technology where re-
quired. In the near future the program will place
emphasis on developing new oil/water separation
technology, waste minimization and management tech-
niques for offshore facilities, and oil spill pre-
vention methodology. More sophisticated monitoring,
alarm, and shutdown systems will be developed to
minimize the possibility of undetected pipeline
leaks or catostrophic breaks. Systems will be de-
veloped to detect pin hole leaks. Acoustical or
electronic tracing of the lines will be studyed as
possible solutions to this problem. The onshore
facility citing criteria will contribute more to
rational decisions concerning OCS and coastal uses
by improving interaction between state and Federal
decision makers prior to commiting OCS and onshore
resources to development.
REFERENCES
"Research Strategy for Studies Pertaining to
Control Technology for Oil & Gas Extraction
Activities", by Battelle Memorial Institute,
Richland, Washington. U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Washington, D.C., December
1974.
"Development Document for Interim Final Ef-
fluent Limitations Guidelines and New Source
Performance Standards for the Offshore Seg-
ment of the Oil and Gas Extraction Point
Source Category", U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Washington, D.C., EPA 440/1-75/055,
Group II, September 1975.
"Determination of Best Practical Control Tech-
nology Currently Available to Remove Oil from
Water Produced with Oil and Gas", prepared by
Brown & Root, Inc., Houston, Texas. Offshore
Operators Committee, Sheen Technical Subcom-
mittee 1974.
"Polluting Incidents In and Around U.S. Waters
Calendar Year 1974", Commandant (G-WEP) U.S.
Coast Guard, Washington, D.C. 20590.
"Mid-Atlantic Regional Study An Assessment of
Onshore Effects of Offshore Oil and Gas De-
velopment", American Petroleum Institute,
Washington, D.C., October 1975.
Lederman, P. B. and Dorrler, J. S., "Develop-
ment of Offshore Oil & Gas in New England En-
vironmental Problems & Solutions", 8th National
Meeting, AIChE, Boston, Massachusetts,
September 9-11, 1975.
Herbeck, E. F., Hetntz, R. C. and
Hastings, J. R., "Fundamentals of Tertiary
Recovery", Petroleum Engineer, No. 1, Vol. 48,
January 1976.
-------
190
Pollutant Parameter
TABLE I
Pollutants in Produced Water
Louisiana Coastal (a) (2)
Range mg/1 Average mg/1
Oil and Grease 7-1300 202
Cadmium 0.005 - .675 0.068
Cyanide 0.01 - 0.01 0.01
Mercury — 0.0005
Total Organic Carbon 30 1580 413
Total suspended solids 22 390 73
Total dissolved solids 32,000 202,000 110,000
Chlorides 10,000-115,000 61,000
Flow
250 200,000 bbls/day 15,000 bbls/day
(a) results of 1974 EPA survey of 25 discharges
Pollutant
Parameter
Arsenic
Cadmium
Total Chromium
Copper
Lead
Mercury
Nickel
Silver
Zinc
Cyanide
less than
Pol
Range, mg/1
0.001 - 0.08
0.02 0.18
0.02 - 0.04
0.05 - 0.116
0.0 - 0.28
0.0005 O.OQ2
0.100 0.29
0.03
0.05 - 3.2
0.0 0.004
TABLE II
lutants Contained in Produced Water
Coastal California (a) (2)
pf^etfr RSnge' ^
Phenolic Compounds 0.35 2.10
BOD 370 - 1,920
COD 400 - 3,000
Chlorides 17,230 - 21
TDS 21 ,700 - 40
Suspended Sol ids
Effluent 1 - 60
Influent 30 75
Oil and Grease 56 359
,000
,000
(a) Some data reflect treated waters for reinjection,
-------
191
Interval
Feet
0-1,000
1,000-3500
2,500,10,000
TABLE III
Volume of Cuttinas and Muds in Typical
10,000-Foot Drill ina Operation (2)
Hole Vol . of Wt. of
Size, Cuttinas, Cuttings, Prilling
inches hbl . pounds mud
24
16
12
Type of
562 505,000 sea water
& natural
mud
623 545,000 Gelled sea
water
915 790,000 Lime base
TABLE IV
Performance of Various Treatment Systems
Louisiana Coastal (2)
Mean Effluent
Oil and Grease
Treatment System mg/1
Gas Flotation 27
Parallel Plate Coalescers 48
Filters
Loose Media 21
Fibrous Media 38
Gravity Separation
Pits 35
Tanks 42
Vol of
Mud com-
ponents,
bbl
variable
700
950
No. of I 'nits
in Data
Base
27
31
15
7
31
48
Wt. of
Mud com-
ponents
pounds
81,500
424,000
-------
192
MINING OF OIL SHALE
Eugene F. Harris
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
Cincinnati, Ohio
INTRODUCTION
Oil shale is not, geologically speaking, a shale
and it contains virtually no oil. It is a sedimen-
tary rock containing organic matter called kerogen
which yields synthetic crude and hydrocarbon gas
when heated. The oil shale deposits of Colorado,
Utah, and Wyoming lie beneath 25,000 square miles
(65,104 square kilometers) of land. About 17,000
square miles (44,271 square kilometers) contain oil
shale of potential value for commercial development
in the foreseeable future. Roughly 80% of the known
higher grade oil shale reserves are located in
Colorado, 15% in Utah, and 5% in Wyoming. Public
lands, administered by the Department of the Inter-
ior, contain 80% of the high-grade oil shale. The
U.S. Geological Survey has estimated that the total
oil shale reserve of the Green River Formation is
more than 600 billion barrels of oil and that 80
billion barrels of this reserve are recoverable by
modern mining methods. Extensive deposits of
sodium minerals such as dawsonite (a carbonate of
sodium and aluminum) and nahcolite (sodium
bicarbonate) are associated with the oil shale
deposits.
The environmental impacts associated with oil
shale development are potentially severe. A large
part of the western United States, an area noted for
its high quality environment, will be subjected to
stresses and changes that must be determined and
controlled.
The following is a partial list of potential
environmental impacts from oil shale mining of
concern to EPA:
(1) Disposal of "spent shale" or the rock once
the kerogen has been removed—saline material,
possibly high sediment yield, establishment
and viability of vegetative cover, problems
of underground disposal.
(2) Water pollution from disposal of saline
ground water, pollution from sedimentation
caused by land disturbances and leaching of
spent shale.
(3) Possible water and air quality problems from
heavy metals and carcinogenic materials.
(4) Land use changes due to mining, wildlife
disturbances, and loss of agricultural land.
(5) Air quality degradation from fugitive dust,
especially particulates from mining, solid
materials handling and hauling, and
emissions from underground mines.
(6) Solid waste disposal of residue and spoils.
(7) Increase in erosion from mining, haul roads
etc. '
(8) Changes in subsurface flow patterns and
water quality.
TECHNICAL DISCUSSION
The evaluation of the environmental problems and
the development of control technology to deal with
the problems is severely handicapped by the fact
that the oil shale industry in the United States
is a potential industry with no mines currently in
operation. Data are available from previous mining
operations to some extent and "spent oil shales" are
available from several types of processing, i.e.,
TOSCO, BOM, and Paraho. It is expected that conven-
tional mining methods, area surface and room and
pillar underground, will be employed in oil shale
operations. In addition to conventional methods,
in-situ techniques are being tested to retort the
oil shale underground. In-situ techniques have a
potential for reducing the surface problems of spoil
disposal, surface water pollution, and erosion
associated with conventional mining methods. However,
some in-situ techniques involve substantial under-
ground mining and could pose a much greater threat
to the degradation of subsurface water and air
quality.
The lack of current activity has the advantage of
allowing time for the collection of a substantial
amount of pre-mining or base line data. The
collection of these data is enhanced by the Prototype
Oil Shale Leasing Program of the Department of the
Interior. This program has been formulated to make
a limited number of leases of public oil shale lands
available for private development under controlled
conditions. One of the primary purposes of the
prototype program is to gain an understanding of the
environmental impacts of oil shale development. The
program is responsible for the generation of trem-
endous volumes of data. EPA's role, as regards to
the prototype program, is to make certain that all
needed data are obtained to properly evaluate the
environmental impacts and ascertain the control
technology developments needed. Additionally,
sufficient data must be acquired to anticipate the
environmental problems due to oil shale mining and
to formulate plans to control the anticipated
problems.
Surface mining of shale will be similar to the_
large open pit mines involved in the mining of thick
coal seams or as in copper mining depending upon the
depth of overburden and thickness of oil shale
economically recoverable. Activities will include:
surface preparation, blasting, overburden removal,
loading, and hauling. Underground mining will
involve the use of large loading and hauling
equipment. Trucks and front end loaders will be able
to operate underground because of the large rooms.
The rooms may have a width of 60 feet (18 meters) and
a height of from 60 to 80 feet (18 to 24 meters).
This will require special ventilation and could
require the development of control technology to
protect air quality.
-------
193
PROGRAM DISCUSSION
Investigations of the potential environmental
impact of a developing oil shale industry have been
carried out by EPA and its predecessors for a number
of years. The current program includes three active
studies. As indicated above, the studies are
intended to establish probable environmental areas
of concern and to develop approaches and control
technology to minimize adverse environmental impacts.
The studies are being conducted by Colorado State
University. Two studies involve vegetation of "spent
oil shale". Studies have shown that spent shales
from certain processes can be used as a medium for
plant growth. A question remains as to whether
adequate plant and litter cover to control erosion
and minimize percolation can be maintained on spent
shales under natural precipitation conditions. The
cover will depend, among other factors, on aspect,
elevation, slope, and on the chemical characteristics
of the spent shale. Physical considerations include
particle size and color. Spent shales contain too
high a concentration of salt for plant and are
deficient in nitrogen and phosphorus. The primary
objective of the first study is to investigate
surface stability and salt movement in spent shales
as compared to these factors in spent shales covered
with soil and with established vegetation left under
natural precipitation conditions. A secondary
objective is to evaluate establishment and growth of
a limited number of native plant species on the spent
shales. The spent shales included in the study are
from processes of the U.S. Bureau of Mines and The
Oil Shale Corporation. There are two study sites,
one at an altitude of 5,700 feet, the other at 7,200
feet. The former site is on federal land on the U.S.
Bureau of Mines, Anvil Points Oil Shale Research
Facility, near Rifle, Colorado. The Tatter site is
located on a mesa in the Piceance Basin, near Rio
Blanco, Colorado.
Runoff and sediment yields will be measured.
Ground cover by live plants and litter will be
measured bimonthly during the growing season. Soil
moisture, salinity, and temperature will also be
recorded.
The second study will be an attempt to duplicate
on a very small scale possible disposal schemes for
the spent shale from the Paraho retorting process.
It is assumed that the spent shale will be compacted
to an optimum density for pile stability and to
minimize percolation through the pile. Then a skin
of soil or uncompacted spent shale covered with soil
will be placed over the compacted spent shale. This
study will be located on the USBM Anvil Points
Facility where the elevation is 5,700 feet and the
average annual precipitation is about 12 inches.
The plots will be placed over a concrete pad so the
quantity and quality of percolating water can be
measured. Data collected will be as in the first
study. In addition, the percolation samples will be
analyzed for Ca, Mg, Na, K, sulfates, Cl, nitrates,
hydrocarbons, pH, and EC
The third project will utilize the data obtained
1n the above studies in addituon to collecting data
on a specific study. Because various state and
federal institutions and agencies as well as private
companies are engaged in the collection of water
quality and hydrologic date on oil shale locations
there is a need for EPA to identify and obtained
current data where available. Literature searches
and personal contacts will be used to obtain copies
of pertinent published data. A major source of
information will be from the Prototype Oil Shale
Program. From these documents; data, analyses, and
conclusions pertinent to the water quality hydrology
will be extracted and reported.
It has been found that a most significant aspect
of water quality degradation associated with coal
strip-mine spoils composed of Late Cretaceous shales,
siltstones and sandstones in the Rocky Mountain
region is the dissolution of soluble salts. Koffin,
et al. report water quality data that indicates the
dissolution of salts from the Green River formation
is a most significant source of water contamination
in the Piceance Basin as well. Further, work by
others indicates that processed shale residues have
a very high soluble salt content. Thus, the model
being developed for coal mine spoils should be
directly applicable to oil shale residues and mine
spoils should be applicable to oil shale residues
and spoils.
The model will have the ability to predict the
quantity and quality of surface and subsurface run-
off from the oil shale spoils and residues. The
major chemical constituents that will be considered
are Ca, Mg, Ma, carbonates, Cl, and sulfates. The
model will also provide sufficient information about
the chemical and moisture conditions in the spoil
or residue to be of help in spoil management for
effective revegetation.
Verification of the model will be based upon data
collected on field sites. Originally, the sites
were to be located on the Colony Mine property on
Parachute Creek and the study was to utilize TOSCO
spent shale. The sites may no longer be available
due to the withdrawal of Atlantic Richfield from
the project. An alternative may be to use the sites
established in the first two studies to verify the
model. This is yet to be decided.
INTERAGENCY PARTICIPATION
A number of environmental studies are being
conducted by government agencies. The Energy Research
and Development Administration is conducting projects
focused upon in-situ recovery of oil from oil shale.
The states of Colorado and Utah and the U.S.
Geological Survey are monitoring air and water
quality, especially in areas that may be affected
by the mining of oil shale. The U.S. Bureau of
Mines is conducting a surface and underground mining
analysis. EPA maintains contact with these groups
through personal visits and formal meetings in order
to minimize duplication and to assist in environ-
eental evaluations.
-------
194
RESOURCES
Table 1
Resources Expended on Oil Shale Mining
$ FY 75
No. Projects $K
3 208
SUMMARY
FY 76
No. Projects $K
3 162
Oil shale deposits in the Upper Colorado River
Basin are located in the states of Colorado, Wyoming,
and Utah. The large percentage of potential
commercial deposits are contained in the Green River
formation in the Piceance Basin of Colorado. The
Green River formation is an Early Tertiary geologic
unit, formed in a depositional basin during Eocene
time. Both surface and subsurface flow is to the
White River. The White River is a tributary of the
Colorado.
The natural quality of both surface and subsurface
waters is marginal in much of the area. The principal
chemical constituents in the water are calcium,
magnesium, sodium, bicarbonate, chloride, and sulfate.
The source of these contaminants is the soluble salts
contained in the geologic material.
Several processing technologies have been proposed
and researched. These include in-situ retorting,
The Oil Shale Company (TOSCO) process, the Union Oil
Company process, the USBM process, and the Paraho
process. They all require mining of the raw shale
and disposal of a processed shale residue. Both
surface and subsurface mining techniques are under
consideration. Extensive underground mining and
in-situ retorting will modify the quality and
patterns of movement of underground water. This
will, in turn, influence the quantity and quality of
stream flow in surface streams. The disruption of
huge quantities of geologic material will expose
fresh surfaces to weathering and contact by surface
and subsurface waters. This will increase the
salinity of these waters and the exposed surfaces
and mining activities are potential sources of
fugitive dust. Mine dewatering will also influence
the water quality and hydrology of the area.
The Environmental Protection Agency must keep
abreast of all available and significant data in
order to assure development of needed environmental
protection technologies and to be in a position to
recommend procedures to minimize the environment
impact of the oil shale industry upon a fragile
western environment. The activities presented in
this report describe the means by which the EPA is
meeting this need in regard to the mining of oil
shale.
REFERENCES
(1) U.S. Department of the Interior, "Final
Environment Statement for the Prototype
Oil-Shale Leasing Program", U.S.G.P.O.,
Number 2400-00785, August, 1973.
(2) Region VIII, U.S.E.P.A., "Oil Shale
Accomplishment Plan", September, 1974.
(3) Bureau of Land Management, U.S.D.I.,
"Proposed Development of Oil Shale Resources
by the Colony Development Operation in
Colorado", Draft Environmental Impact
Statement, November, 1975.
(4) McWhorter, D. B., "Water Pollution Potential
of Mine Spoils in the Rocky Mountain Region",
Proceedings-Fifth Symposium on Coal Mine
Drainage Research, October, 1974, Louisville
Ky.
(5) Harbert, H. P. and Berg, W. A., "Vegetative
Stabilization of Spent Oil Shales",
Technical Report Number 4, Environmental
Resources Center, Colorado State University,
December, 1974.
-------
195
DISCUSSION FOR ENERGY RESOURCE EXTRACTION
Question: One panel member saw the situation as one where surface mining resulted in environmental
damage while underground mining resulted in problems of occupational health. Dr. Liverman in his talk
noted that many major problems remain unsolved with underground mining, while many surface mining problems
have been solved, especially in the East. Is there really a trade-off between the two types of mining,
environmental problems versus occupational health, or are there really more environmental problems with
underground mining?
Panel Response: The great developments in surface mining reclamation have occurred because of
threats to ban it. The industry turned over backwards to develop remedial technology. Pennsylvania
provides a good example of the environmental insult. Whole regions of that State had been destroyed be-
cause of underground mining. The total damage to society from underground mining has not really been
assessed; it must be done.
There are very few situations in the East where surface mining cannot be conducted with proper re-
clamation. While it has a cost, it can be done. A satisfactory reclamation techology has not been
developed for underground mining. It's a long-range problem that yet may be solvable, but it is going
to be very difficult.
Question: Have any studies been made regarding the beneficial use of coal mine waste, and secondly
have there been studies regarding how the hydrological function could be maintained in the alluvial
valley floors where much of the Western agriculture is concentrated?
Panel Response: The biggest problem associated with the beneficial use of coal mine waste is the
control of leachates. The British are using their refuse piles very effectively. This includes use as
primary fill where about six feet of other material is placed on top of the coal mine waste. Coal mine
waste is also used as fill in West Virginia. There have also been investigations of using waste materials
for such things as bricks and fill material. Disposal is also possible by returning the waste to under-
ground locations although this is expensive.
In response to the question on aquifers, a number of problems should be mentioned. These problems
are not currently serious in the West because of the small size of present mines. However, if land is
disturbed over distances of 10-70 miles in the future, then there could be substantial disruption of
aquifers. Drainage can be restored. However, natural aquifers consist of a great many small branches.
This probably cannot be restored exactly as it was before mining. That would be a physical impossibility.
In these large disruptions, there is insufficient data to respond to the question of restoring the
aquifers.
-------
CHAPTER 9
FUEL PROCESSING
-------
198
INTRODUCTION
Conversion of fuels to usable forms of energy
is accomplished with accompanying production of pro-
ducts having detrimental environmental effects.
Processing of fuels prior to conversion is accom-
plished to render the fuels suitable for the conver-
sion process anticipated and to reduce the resulting
detrimental environmental effects.
This chapter is concerned with four fuel pro-
cesses. The first 'of these processes, Fluidized-
Bed Combustion and Coal Cleaning have primary
purposes relating to minimizing environmental damage
resulting from conversion. The second two processes,
production of synthetic fuels and the processing of
oil shale, have both environmental importance and
are necessary to modify the form of the fuels at the
time of extraction to a form suitable to the conver-
sion means in which the fuel will be consumed.
The Fluidized-Bed coal combustion process in-
volves the combustion of coal within a bed of granu-
lar non-combustible material such as limestone or
dolomite. The technology offers the potential for
energy production with low emissions of environ-
mentally harmful pollutants. It simultaneously
offers reduced capital and operating costs with
thermal efficiencies equal to or greater than effi-
ciencies achieved with conventional combustion
equipment. Alternate processes considered include
operation at atmospheric pressure and operation at
elevated pressures. Data obtained to date suggests
that fluidized-bed combustion may be expected to
effectively control emissions of S02 and NOX. While
data regarding other emissions is less complete,
reduction of other pollutants.is also likely. Com-
mercial application is expected to be available in
the 1980's.
and assessment of the environmental effects of the
technologies.
A related fuel process is concerned with the
vast reserves of oil shale. These deposits in the
western United States are estimated to contain over
two thousand billion barrels of oil. While closely
associated with extraction, processing of the shale
is required to produce a useful fuel. This pro-
cessing will proceed in one of two directions. The
shale can be mined and processed by retorting on the
.surface, or it may be processed underground, in situ,
with the resulting liquids withdrawn by wells. Be-
cause of the magnitude of the required processing
and the potential for environmental damage, a corre-
sponding program to develop the associated pollution
control technology is requisite. The urgency of the
development of this energy source necessitates a
rapid response in environmental protection methodol-
ogy.
Coal is primarily organic matter containing a
number of elementary constituents including sulfur.
In American coals, sulfur content may vary from less
than 1% to more than 6% in both organic and inorganic
forms. Cleaning can be used to reduce the amount of
this and other pollutants prior to combustion.1'
Cleaning may be accomplished with either physical
or chemical means. Physical cleaning employs
various techniques which often depend on differences
in specific gravity or surface properties to effect
separation of the coal and impurities. Chemical
cleaning relies on treatment of the coal with a
reagent. Success of various cleaning processes will
vary with the constituents of the coal from region
to region and even within a mine. Chemical means,
however, are expected to produce the highest rates
of impurity removal.
Physical and chemical coal cleaning reduces the
emission of pollutants on combustion, but produce
coal cleaning wastes which are themselves an environ-
mental problem of considerable magnitude.
As an alternative to the direct combustion of
coal, it may first be converted to a synthetic fuel.
These fuels include liquefaction and low and high
BTU gasification produced in a number of processes
either existing or under development. Work in prog-
ress covers both the development of the processes
-------
199
Fuel Processing
John K. Burchard
Environmental Protection Agency
Industrial Environmental Researcn Laboratory
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
Good afternoon.
Although we are well into the second day of
this meeting, I feel that this session—on Fuel
Processing—represents the start of a somewhat new
subject, because this session and tomorrow morn-
ing's--on Flue Gas Cleaning—both concern an area
not previously addressed at this meeting—Control
Technology.
Both sessions relate to a significant problem
facing this Nation of energy users. Since this is
the first of the two related sessions, I feel it
appropriate to present this problem in as simple
terms as possible: We clearly have a sufficient
supply of domestic fuel; however, the type of fuel
we have in greatest abundance (namely, coal) is
simply not clean enough to meet our environmental
standards. Simplicity ends as we switch from the
problem to the solutions.
Essentially, there are five basic solutions
to the problem of air pollution caused by burning
fossil fuels:
1. Stop burning fuel altogether. (The
consequences of this solution boggle the
mind.)
2. Burn only essentially clean fuel. (But
we all know that the supply cannot keep
up with the demand.)
3. Treat our fuel, making it cleaner, before
burning it.
4. Change the way our fuel is burned,
minimizing the pollutants emitted.
5. Or clean up the emissions following
combustion.
The eight papers of this session deal with
the third and fourth of the five solutions I just
mentioned: cleaning up our fuel before burning it,
and modifying the combustion process itself.
THE AUTHORS
Before examining the papers, I would like to
say just a word about their authors, all of whom
were selected for their familiarity with the
different approaches being taken by Government
research and development toward the goal of a
viable answer to this Nation's energy needs and
environmental concerns.
Three of the authors discuss fluid-bed combus-
tion: Bruce Henschel, of EPA's Industrial Environ-
mental Research Laboratory in North Carolina,
discusses EPA's fluid-bed combustion program from
the standpoint of environmental characterization.
Al Jonke, from the Argonne National Laboratory,
discusses the same subject, but aims his remarks
at ERDA's program on process development (This
paper is co-authored by Vogel and Swift.)
In the third paper on this subject, TVA's John
Reese outlines a comparison study of the cost of
two fluid-bed combustion processes (atmospheric
and pressurized) with that of flue gas desulfuriza-
tion.
Three other authors discuss coal cleaning.
Jim Kilgroe, again of EPA's Industrial Lab in
North Carolina, discusses EPA's interest in physical
and chemical coal cleaning, a considerable portion
of which has to do with environmental assessment.
Al Deurbrouck, of the Department of Interior,
presents a parallel discussion of coal cleaning,
outlining, among other aspects, the Bureau of
Mines' efforts in control technology development.
The third paper in this area presents another side
of coal processing. Eugene Wewerka, of the Los
Alamos Scientific Laboratory, discusses work being
done for ERDA on discarded refuse from coal
cleaning processes. (The co-authors are J. M.
Williams and P. L. Wanek.)
EPA's synthetic fuels program is discussed by Bill
Rhodes of the Industrial Environmental Research
Laboratory in North Carolina, and covers both
environmental assessment and control technology
development.
The final paper, by Tom Powers of EPA's Industrial
Environmental Research Laboratory in Cincinnati,
discusses EPA's interest in the relatively little
known area of oil shale development.
I will now attempt to briefly summarize the
individual papers.
Fluid-Bed Combustion
Three of this session's eight papers relate
to research and development in the area of fluid-
bed combustion (or FBC): one concentrates on
environmental assessment; the second discusses FBC
technology development; and the third compares its
cost with that of flue gas desulfurization.
FBC Environmental Assessment
Bruce Henschel's paper discusses EPA's
program, aimed at the complete environmental
characterization of the fluid-bed combustion
-------
200
process. Funded at approximately S
per year, the program is being coordinated
with ERDA's process development work.
As many of you know, the fluid-bed _ ._
process involves the combustion of coal within
a bed of granular non-combustible material,
such as limestone or dolomite. Air is passed
up through the distributor plate that supports
the bed, causing the granular bed particles to
become suspended, or fluidized. This same air
also serves in the combustion of the coal; heat
generated in the bed can be removed by heat
transfer surfaces placed within it. Sulfur
removal efficiencies of over 98% have been observed,
along with NO -emissions less than 25% of New
Source Performance Standards, in tests on the
EPA/Exxon miniplant.
EPA's approach to this program, as it is to
the environmental assessment of any energy process,
consists of several components. The first step
involves identification of the current process and
environmental background. This is followed by a
comprehensive analysis of pollutant emissions from
selected operating units. Next is the development
of environmental objectives for the process,
considering the emission levels identified in
the previous step and their health and welfare
effects. Following an assessment of control
technology, is an evaluation of the total impact
of the process on air, water, and land quality,
considering various degrees and costs of control.
In addition, the EPA strategy regarding
fluid-bed combustion includes engineering analyses,
basic and applied research and development, and
specific control technology development. Techni-
ques for lowering the emission of pollutants
include: pretreatment of input streams; modifica-
tion of process design parameters aimed at environ-
mental control; modification of operating condi-
tions; and the possible application of add-on
control devices.
Several other Federal agencies are partici-
pating in the EPA program. Pass-through funds
continue to go to ERDA for EPA's portion of the
work being conducted by Argonne National Laboratory.
A comprehensive analysis of emissions from the
BCURA fluid-bed combustor in England is partially
funded by EPA funds to ERDA: ERDA, in turn, is
supplementing these funds in a contracted effort
with Combustion Systems Ltd.
EPA funds have also been transferred to TVA
to support program work relating to solid waste
disposal, as well as the cost comparison project
to be discussed later. (This cost project, inci-
dentally, is receiving inputs from the Energy
Conversion Alternatives Study (ECAS) being carried
out by NASA, NSF, and ERDA.) The Federal Energy
Administration is also contributing to the effort;
its pass-through funds from EPA are supporting
work by Exxon on the application of FBC to indus-
trial boilers.
It is inevitable that the complete environ-
mental characterization of fluid-bed combustion
(and of other developing energy technologies) will
involve a significant effort, considering many
potential pollutants that have not received any
emphasis in past experimental studies.
FBC Technology Development
Albert Jonke's paper describes Argonne National
Laboratory's program, involving investigations of
both atmospheric and pressurized fluid-bed combus-
tion concepts. Current-stage of the program,
underway since 1968, is basic R and D to evaluate
fluid-bed combustion at pressures up to 10 atmos-
pheres.
Describing Argonne as "one of several organ-
izations participating in a research and develop-
ment program designed to develop the concept and
to eventually demonstrate at full scale that the
FBC process is economical, and meets pollution
standards for stationary sources," Jonke describes
ERDA's overall program and cites work in this area
being sponsored by EPRI and EPA.
An "atmospheric" pilot plant is being built
in West Virginia, at Monongahela Power Company's
Rivesville Station. With a boiler designed to
burn over 10 tons of coal per hour, the project is
expected to become operational by mid-1976.
Preliminary design is expected to start soon on
the next phase: a demonstration plant of at least
200 MW capacity.
ERDA recently accepted a proposal for the
construction of a pilot "pressurized" plant. The
combustor would be located at Woodridge, NJ and
would operate at 7 atm pressure with a 14 MW
output. This pilot would lead to conceptual
design of a 500 MW commercial plant with a calcu-
lated overall thermal efficiency of 41%.
ERDA is also interested in the application
of fluid-bed combustion to other than utility
power generation, such as coal-burning industrial
and commercial boilers and heaters. Several pro-
posals in this area are currently being evaluated.
Reflecting the national fluid-bed combustion
program requirements for several 1-5 MWe capacity
sub-pilot plant facilities in supporting roles
(including the development of unique or advanced
concepts), several activities are underway:
1. A pressurized Component Test and
Integration Facility (CTIF) has been
proposed for construction at Argonne.
2. An atmospheric CTIF is under design at
the Morgantown Energy Research Center.
-------
3. An experimental unit is under construction
at Oak Ri.dge National Laboratory to study
application of the FBC process to provide
total energy requirements (heat and
electricity) for small communities.
4. ERDA is partially funding the construction
of a pressurized process development unit
in England, with sponsorship by the
International Energy Agency.
ERDA, along with many utilities, feels that
fluid-bed combustion offers cost, efficiency, and
reliability advantages over conventional boilers
with stack gas scrubbers, by avoiding energy
losses required for scrubber operation, the cost
of scrubbers, and forced plant outages resulting
from scrubber malfunction. However, this issue is
still open to question; hence the need for the
study described in the following paper.
FBC/FGD Cost Comparison
John Reese's paper compares the cost of
fluid-bed combustion with that of flue gas desulfur-
ization.
The aim of the study is the development of
conceptual designs, and comparative capital and
operating costs, for three systems for reducing
pollution:
1. An atmospheric FBC steam power plant.
2. A pressurized FBC combined-cycle power
plant.
3. A conventional coal-fired power plant
equipped with flue gas desulfurization
equipment.
The project is a complex one, indicating the
depth in which the study is being conducted and,
hopefully, ensuring the validity of the results.
This complexity is indicated by the following
points:
1. TVA is the performing agency.
2. TVA is utilizing inputs (in the form of
fluid-bed combustor designs and capital
and operating cost estimates) from the
previously mentioned ECAS study.
3. General Electric Company is contractor-
in-charge of energy conversion systems
and overall plant design for the ECAS
inputs to the program.
4. Foster Wheeler Energy Corporation is
responsible for furnace designs for the
ECAS inputs.
5. Bechtel Corporation is designing the
flue gas desulfurization system and the
201
balance of the plant systems.
The conceptual designs are nearing completion,
and most major design specifications have been
selected for the three cases to be studied. The
three will be as nearly equal in characteristics
as possible, to ensure that comparisons are valid.
Nominal ratings for all cases are about 900 MW, and
steam conditions are identical: 3500 psi and 1000°F.
Coal is the common fuel: 70%<200 mesh pulverized
coal for the conventional unit; and 1/2 inch or
less crushed coal for the FBC units.
When completed, the study will be a useful
guide for assessing the advantages of fluid-bed
combustion, as compared with flue gas desulfuriza-
tion. Because it will identify major design features
that require further development for improved
process economics, the study will also help provide
a better definition of R and D priorities.
Coal Cleaning
Three other papers in this session relate to
coal cleaning. Two of them deal with physical and
chemical coal cleaning, but again differ in ap-
proach: one concentrates on environmental assess-
ment and pollution control activities; the other
stresses process technology development. The third
treats an interesting aspect of the same subject:
trace pollutants from process refuse.
Physical and Chemical Coal Cleaning (Assess-
Jim Kilgroe's paper, indicating the need for
cleaner burning coal, states that in 1974, nearly 31
million tons of air pollutants—mainly SO , NO ,
and particulates--were emitted as the result of coal
combustion.
EPA-supported programs have established the
technical feasibility of both physical and chemical
coal cleaning. These same programs have also identi-
fied the degree to which the two forms of cleaning
can be used for desulfurization. They indicate that,
although these types of cleaning are, in some cases,
less costly than other SO, emission control strate-
gies, their range of application is not as broad,
due to the inherent properties of some coals.
The cleanability of coal, particularly for
sulfur, is dependent upon the form of contaminant.
Sulfur in coal exists in two forms: organic sulfur,
bonded to the coal structure; and inorganic (or
pyritic) sulfur, generally in the form of iron
pyrite. U. S. coals vary widely in the relative
amounts of each type. Physical coal cleaning, with
equipment normally used for the removal of ash and
mining residues, is capable of separating coal and
pyritic sulfur; some types of chemical cleaning are
capable of removing both pyritic and organic sulfur.
Physical coal cleaning involves the use of many
physical separation techniques, singly or in
-------
202
combination. They depend on the differences between
the physical properties of the coal and the im-
purities, to achieve separation. Techniques now
widely used on a commercial basis include: jigging,
heavy media separation, tabling, and flotation.
Among other techniques evaluated by EPA, the Bureau
of Mines, and Bituminous Coal Research, Inc. since
1965 are: thermal-magnetic separation, immiscible
liquid separation, selective flocculation, electro-
kinetic separation, and froth flotation. Techniques
that rely upon specific gravity differences between
the coal and pyritic particles, have been found to
be the most commercially viable for desulfurization.
Chemical cleaning of coal, to selectively
remove undesirable constituents while maintaining
the structural integrity of the coal matrix, is an
approach to pollution control that is currently
receiving increased emphasis. Unlike physical coal
cleaning, chemical coal cleaning is not now used
commercially in coal preparation processes; how-
ever, if successfully developed, it possesses the
potential for removing both organic and pyritic
sulfur from coal.
In chemical coal desulfurization, finely ground
coal is treated with a reagent under specified
pressure and temperature conditions. The amount of
pyritic and organic sulfur removed from the coal
structure depends on the coal particle size, the
coal physical and chemical properties, the reagent,
the pressure and temperature, and the duration of
the reaction.
Additional bench and pilot scale work is re-
quired to define the appropriate combinations of
parameters for optimum chemical removal of sulfur.
Once these variables are established for each
process, the next step would be continuous pilot and
demonstration scale process studies.
The relatively low costs of physical and chemi-
cal coal cleaning processes should make these
pollution abatement techniques increasingly attrac-
tive in future years. Coals which are amenable to
physical cleaning for pyritic sulfur removal will be
identified and used in preference to other coal
sources. In some instances, a combination of physi-
cal coal cleaning and flue gas desulfurization will
be used as the most economical method of sulfur
emission control. Although physical coal preparation
is now widely used for ash and mining waste removal,
the use of this technology for substantial sulfur
removal will probably not occur until after 1985.
The major development focus for physical coal
cleaning will be in:
1. Improved techniques for separating fine
coal and pyrite.
2. Improved process control to ensure that
the product meets sulfur, ash, and Btu
specifications.
3. Improved techniques for dewatering and
handling coal fines.
4. Improved pollution control in waste dis-
posal methods.
Chemical coal cleaning has a wider area of
application than its physical counterpart, since a
greater fraction of the total sulfur can be removed.
Cost estimates indicate that chemical cleaning
should be competitive with flue gas desulfurization
and synthetic fuel from conversion processes.
However, additional development is needed before
this method of sulfur emission control is used
widely.
Physical and Chemical Coal Cleaning (Process
Development)
Al Deurbrouck's paper, describing the Bureau of
Mines' interest in physical and chemical coal
cleaning, regards coal preparation as a proven
technology for upgrading raw coal by physical re-
moval of associated impurities.
Indicating that the impurity of principal
concern is sulfur, in both pyritic and organic form,
Deurbrouck says that, generally speaking, organic
sulfur cannot be removed by physical means. How-
ever, researchers have made some progress in re-
moving organic sulfur without changing the physical
characteristics of the coal. Commercially, physical
desulfurization of coal is limited exclusively to
pyritic sulfur.
Washability examinations of more than 400 U. S.
coals show significant pyritic sulfur reduction
potential when coals are crushed to liberate im-
purities, and then subjected to specific gravity
separations. A pyrite flotation process is dis-
cussed, showing potential for maximizing the removal
of pyritic sulfur.
The Bureau of Mines also has some interesting
studies underway aimed at the removal of impurity
water from coal; of particular interest is its
application to the upgrading of lignite.
Lignite coal deposits in Montana and North
Dakota represent one of the largest relatively
untapped fossil fuel reserves in the U. S., total-
ling more than 220 billion tons of recoverable low-
sulfur-content fuel. However, lignite utilization
has been limited because of the material's high
moisture content (approximately 40%), as well as its
tendency to combust spontaneously and its often high
sodium content. The Bureau of Mines is now working
to produce a lignite pellet containing less than
10% moisture at a low sodium content.
For coal preparation to be a totally viable
process (i.e., for it to be applicable to the re-
moval of both organic and pyritic sulfur from coal),
chemical desulfurization must be developed further.
-------
Several such methods have been investigated at the
Pittsburgh Energy Research Center.
The one showing the most promise at this time
requires only the simplest of reagents, air, and
water. Tests have shown that heating coal with
compressed air (400-1,000 psi) and water to 150-
200°C, at residence times up to 1 hour, converts
all the pyritic sulfur (as well as up to 45% of
the organic sulfur) to aqueous sulfate (most of it
appearing as sulfuric acid). Use of such a process
would help make a large portion of Eastern and
Midwestern coal environmentally acceptable as
boiler fuel.
Deurbrouck's paper concludes on a heartening
note. He states, "Coal preparation, an old
friend, could well become one of the glamorous new
technologies to emerge as a result of the energy
crisis."
Process Refuse Pollutants
Eugene Wewerka's paper goes a step beyond the
work described by the first two papers on coal
processing. The work he describes relates to the
environmental problems generated by the refuse
that is discarded from coal cleaning operations.
At the root of the problem is the fact that
as-mined coal contains a great deal of extraneous
rock and mineral matter'(the inorganic consti-
tuents often represent as much as 30-40% of run-
of-the-m'ine products). Because these impurities
not only produce pollutants but also are expensive
to ship and dilute the heating value of the coal,
nearly half of all .the coal mined in the U. S. is
processed to remove the unwanted material.
This unwanted material from coal preparation
facilities, and other coal mine refuse—comprises
the gob piles or culm banks that are scattered
over thousands of acres in the coal-producing
areas of the U. S. An estimated 2 billion tons of
carbonaceous mineral wastes have been accumulated
in the U. S. from coal preparation^and mine develop-
ment, Another 100 millions tons are added each
year.
In addition to all the known problems caused
by the accumulation of this waste material, our •
attention has turned recently to the environmental
hazards posed by the vast array of potentially
harmful trace elements in coal refuse materials.
Many of the mineral components of coal wastes are
released into the environment by oxidation and
aqueous leaching during natural weathering; it is
likely that additional mineral matter is volati-
lized by burning wastes. Compounding this particu-
lar problem is our ignorance concerning the fate
of trace elements during weathering and waste
burning.
So little is known in this area, in fact,
that the EPA/ERDA program at Los Alamos Scientific
203
Laboratory has had to start with fundamentals.
The program involves the assessment and defini-
tion of the magnitude of environmental problems
resulting from trace elements in coal processing
wastes, and the development of appropriate pollution
control measures. The focus of the program's
initial stages is on obtaining basic information
about the structure and behavior of these materials.
Once this fundamental information is acquired,
the program will progress as follows:
1. Laboratory and field investigations to
determine the fate of trace elements during
weathering and burning of coal wastes, and
to identify those of possible environ-
mental concern.
2. Development of chemical or physical methods
for controlling environmental contamina-
tion from these waste materials.
3. Investigation of methods for economically
removing useful trace constituents from
coal refuse.
Synthetic Fuels
Bill Rhodes' paper sees EPA's synthetic fuels
program as part of a 2-year-old commitment--docu-
mented in the Dixie Lee Ray energy report—to
utilize more fully the natural resources of the U.
S., and to become less dependent on foreign sources
of energy. He points out that, along with our
energy commitment, we have an equally significant
commitment to adequately protect our environment.
Actually, EPA's interest in this work area
predates the Ray energy report. This interest is
reflected in the progress of various programs
already underway to determine the environmental
factors in the production and utilization of syn-
thetic fuels from coal. The program is divided into
two basic parts: environmental assessment and
control technology development.
The overall objective of the assessment portion
of the program is to ensure an environmentally sound
synthetic fuels industry. To that end, past and
current efforts utilize existing information to
perform multimedia environmental source assessments.
Actual and proposed Federal, State, and local
standards and guidelines are reviewed to establish
baselines for the assessments. As information gaps
and needs are identified, projects are initiated to
acquire the data needed. Data acquisition is all-
important. This requires knowledge of existing
data, cooperation of plant operators, identification
of sampling and analytical techniques, test program
development, and an overall data analysis scheme.
The basic objective of the control technology
portion of the program is to ensure that the re-
quired environmental controls are available in a
-------
204
timely and cost-effective manner for the synthetic
fuels area. This work includes: identification of
environmental control technology alternatives,
evaluation of the applicability of existing control
methods to known and potential problems, design and
cost studies, field tests to determine the accept-
ability of existing control methods, and the eval-
uation, development, and demonstration of new or
novel methods.
EPA's synthetic fuels program includes environ-
mental assessment of low- and high-Btu gasification
and coal liquefaction, improved control methods for
fuel converter streams, products and by-products,
fuel storage, preparation, and feeding and system
wastes. Specific control activity areas include
hydrodesulfurization, hydrodenitrification, dolomite
cleanup, acid gas cleanup, gas, liquid, and solid
waste treatment, disposal techniques, and fugitive
emissions.
The synthetic fuels paper cautions that it is
imperative that the environmental detriments of our
coal-to-synthetic-fuels program be thoroughly and
carefully analyzed, and the alternatives weighed.
Inadequate and piecemeal environmental data was used
as the basis for initial work, because there was no
alternative. With the cooperation of industry,
universities, and government agencies, better data
will be produced which will result in an important,
credible contribution to bettering the quality of
1 i f e.
Oil Shale Processing
Tom Powers' paper on oil shale processing is
significant in that it relates to a truly vast
source of potentially available energy in the U. S.
This significance is borne out by the following
statistics:
1. High quality shale (>25 gallons of oil/ton
of shale), mostly in Colorado, Utah, and
Wyoming, contains an estimated 2.2 trillion
barrels of oil.
2.
Lower quality shale (10-25 gallons/ton),
located throughout the U. S., could pro-
duce an additional 40 trillion barrels
of oil.
However, getting the oil out of the shale is
not simple. As this resource is developed* it will
be necessary to protect the environment by applying
adequate control strategies for the mining and
processing of the shale. Because of the magnitude
of these processing activities and their potential
for environmental damage, EPA has undertaken a
program that will lead to the identification,
development, and demonstration of cost-effective
pollution control technology.
EPA's overall strategy relates to six major
activities: exploration, mining, shale preparation,
processing, land reclamation, and product trans-
portation. Efforts for controlling emissions,
effluents, and solid waste residues include environ-
mental impact analyses, pollutant characterization,
evaluation of available control technology, and
development of new control techniques.
Although pollution abatement programs for coal
mining have existed for many years, oil shale mining
will require different environmental controls.
Petroleum refinery controls have also existed for
many years; however, the needs for oil shale re-
fineries are unknown at present. Oil shale re-
torting is a relatively new process; it may involve
by-product recoveries of metals as well as of
hydrocarbons.
In comparison to the closing of an earlier
paper, Powers' closing is a bit more conservative.
He first says, "The potential for oil shale develop-
ment in the United States appears great." But then,
adds realistically: "The potential for environ-
mental impact from oil shale development is also
great."
I would like to be able to conclude my
summary of these papers by giving you a clear
picture of the total monetary efforts being
expended in the areas under discussion. Unfortu-
nately, I can't quite manage this because of budget
complexities, and the unavailability of estimates
of resource allocation by private industry.
However, I can outline what is being spent by
EPA, and by other Government Agencies utilizing
our "pass-through" funds.
I am speaking of a program that represents
about $13.5 million in FY 76. (Of this amount,
about 18% is in the form of pass-through funds.)
About one-third of the program is for environmental
assessment, and about two-thirds for pollution
control technology development. Our current annual
funding is running about:
$4.4 million for fluid-bed combustion;
$3.8 million for physical and chemical coal
cleaning;
$2.8 million for synthetic fuels; and
$2.3 million for advanced oil processing.
I am confident, that with the on-going effort
in these and other programs, we will attain both
the energy and environmental goals of our Nation.
-------
205
THE U. S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
PROGRAM FOR ENVIRONMENTAL CHARACTERIZATION
OF FLUIDIZED-BED COMBUSTION SYSTEMS
D. B. Henschel
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
Office of Energy, Minerals and Industry
Office of Research and Development
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711
Awareness of environmental considerations is
increasing, including attention to an expanded
number of potential pollutants of possible concern
from energy generation processes. Thus the need is
intensified for comprehensive environmental charac-
terization of existing and developing energy
technologies.
One promising new energy technology that is
being developed is fluidized-bed combustion of coal
for heat, steam and power generation. This tech-
nology offers the potential for energy production
with low emissions of environmentally harmful
pollutants, and simultaneously with reduced capital
and operating costs and with thermal efficiencies
equal to, or greater than, the efficiencies achiev-
able with conventional combustion equipment. The
U. S. Energy Research and Development Administration
(ERDA) is conducting a substantial program to de-
velop fluidized-bed coal combustion technology.
The ERDA program currently includes: a number of
support projects; a 30 MW coal-fired fluidized-bed
boiler under construction at Rivesville, West Vir-
ginia, to be operated with the bed at essentially
atmospheric pressure; a 13 MW elevated pressure
fluidized-bed combustion combined cycle system to
be built in Wood Ridge, New Jersey; and a variety
of other facilities which are envisioned to demon-
strate coal-burning fluidized-bed combustion tech-
nology in alternative applications and at alter-
native scales of operation.
In coordination with the ERDA development pro-
gram, the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) is conducting a contract research and develop-
ment program, valued at about $4 million in fiscal
year 1976, aimed at complete environmental charac-
terization of the fluidized-bed coal combustion
process. As part of the EPA program, interagency
transfers of funds have been effected to obtain the
assistance of ERDA, of the Tennessee Valley Author-
ity and of the Federal Energy Administration in
carrying out the environmental characterization.
Since the combustion technology development
activities and the environmental characterization
effort are being conducted in parallel, there is
increased potential for improved environmental con-
trol and reduced control costs for fluidized-bed
combustion systems resulting from effective consid-
eration of environmental aspects during the tech-
nology development.
BACKGROUND
The fluidized-bed coal combustion process
involves the combustion of coal within a bed of
granular, non-combustible material, such as lime-
stone or dolomite. The bed is supported by a dis-
tributor plate. Air is passed up through the dis-
tributor plate, causing the granular bed particles
to become suspended, or fluidized. This air also
serves as the combustion air for the coal. Heat
generated in the bed can be removed by heat trans-
fer surface placed in the bed.
A number of variations of the process are being
considered, differentiated according to process
variables such as operating pressure in the bed and
the presence or absence of heat transfer surface in
the bed. The alternative variations of the flui-
dized bed coal combustion process may find appli-
cation in electric utility power generation, in
industrial steam and power production, and perhaps
in residential/commercial heating. The fluidized
bed coal combustion process is expected to achieve
commercial application in the 1980's.
Utilization of a sulfur dioxide (S07) sorbent
such as limestone or dolomite as the bed material
has been found to be effective for control of SO^
emissions from coal-fired fluidized bed combustors.
Sulfur removal efficiencies of 90 to 95 percent,
or even higher, have been characteristically ob-
served on experimental units employing limestone
or dolomite sorbent on a once-through basis. In
atmospheric-pressure systems, removals of 90 per-
cent and above are typically achieved with once-
through addition of fresh limestone or dolomite at
sorbent feed rates such that the moles of calcium
in the sorbent feed are 2 to 4 times the moles of
sulfur in the coal feed. Some data have indicated
that high removals might be obtainable with even
lower calcium-to-sulfur mole ratios if small quan-
tities of sodium chloride are also fed to the sys-
tem. In elevated-pressure systems, SO- removals of
90 percent and above are typically obtained with
once-through addition of dolomite at calcium-to-
sulfur mole ratios of 1.5 to 2; with limestone as
the sorbent, calcium-to-sulfur mole ratios of 1.5
to 2 generally provide SO,, removals of about 70
percent. Limited laboratory-scale data indicate
that suitable pretreatment of dolomite prior to
utilization, such as precalcination, may enable
even lower calcium-to-sulfur mole ratios.
-------
206
Testing for nitrogen oxides (NO ) on a variety
of experimental equipment has indicated that atmos-
pheric pressure fluidized-bed combustors, operat-
ing at about 20 percent excess air, generally con-
tain around 250 to 450 ppm NO {about 0.3 0.6
lb/10 Btu, or 0.13 0.26 g/TO J, expressed as
NO ) in the flue gas, compared to the EPA New
Source Performance Standard of 0.7 lb/10 Btu
(0.30 g/10 J) for coal-fired boilers. Some data
indicate that emissions of only 200 ppm (0.25 lb/
10 Btu, or 0.11 g/10 J) or below may be achieva-
ble on atmospheric-pressure systems. Elevated-
pressure experimental systems with heat transfer
surface in the bed, operating at about 20 percent
excess air, typically,emit between 100 and 250 ppm
NO (0.12 0.3 lb/10 Btu, or 0.05 0.13 g/10 J,
expressed as N02). Limited data on elevated-
pressure systems without heat transfer surface in
the bed, operating at high excess air,levels, indi-
cate NO emissions (in terms of lb/10 Btu or g/
10 J) higher than those given above for pressur-
ized systems with heat transfer surface in the bed;
NO data from systems without transfer are cur-
rently limited, so that a widely-applicable range
of emission levels cannot be stated at the present
time for these systems.
Thus the significant quantity of data which
have been developed to date regarding SO- and NO
emissions suggest that fluidized-bed coal combus-
tion may be expected to effectively control emis-
sions of these pollutants. Data on emissions of
many other pollutants from fluidized-bed combustors
are less complete. The EPA fluidized-bed combus-
tion program is intended to develop an improved
understanding regarding the emissions and control
both of those pollutants which have received em-
phasis in past fluidized-bed combustion studies,
and of those for which little data are currently
available.
GOAL OF THE EPA PROGRAM
The goal of the EPA fluidized-bed combustion
program is to obtain all necessary environmental
data over the full range of variables for all var-
iations of the fluidized-bed combustion process.
It is desired to obtain these data on a suitable
experimental scale, and on a time schedule compati-
ble with the development schedule envisioned in the
national fluidized-bed combustion development
effort.
The necessary environmental data include ade-
quate data regarding all media (air, water, land)
to enable determination of the total environmental
impact of the process. It must be assured that the
process will meet current and anticipated future
environmental standards. Furthermore, if future
health effects studies or related work identify the
need for additional standards not formally antici-
pated at this time, sufficient data regarding the
fluidized-bed combustion process must be available
to allow recommendations to be made regarding such
standards proposed in the future. Also, it is
desired to develop adequate data to enable determin-
ation of means to minimize the process environmental
impact by means of suitable control technology.
The full range of operating and design varia-
bles is being considered to identify whether there
are any ranges of particular variables which are
especially favorable or unfavorable from the envi-
ronmental standpoint.
The variations of the fluidized-bed combustion
process that are being considered include, for
example: combustor operation at elevated pressure
versus operation at essentially atmospheric pres-
sure; operation of the combustor with steam or air-
cooled tubes immersed in the bed versus "adiabatic"
operation with no immersed cooling surface; and
regeneration of the sorbent for sulfur oxides con-
trol versus non-regeneration.
It is necessary to obtain the environmental
data on an experimental scale such that the data
can reliably be scaled up to commercial-scale sys-
tems, and such that the environmental impact of the
process can be identified for full-scale units.
The environmental data must be generated on a
time schedule compatible with the national program
to develop fluidized-bed combustion, so that any
potential environmental problems can be identified
and addressed, and so that any necessary control
technology can be developed, by the time that the
process is ready for commercial application.
STRATEGY OF THE EPA PROGRAM
In order to achieve the goal indicated above,
the EPA fluidized-bed combustion program is divided
into two major sub-objectives: environmental assess-
ment and control technology development. See Table
1.
Environmental Assessment
In general, environmental assessment of an
energy process is sub-divided into a number of com-
ponents (Reference 1), as indicated in Table 1.
The first step in environmental assessment
involves identification of the current process and
environmental background. This effort would include,
for example: study of process flowsheets; identi-
fication based on flowsheets of locations within the
-------
207
process where emissions may occur; application of
theoretical calculations and engineering considera-
tions to project, prior to actual emission measure-
ments, what the emissions may be of all potential
pollutants, including those for which data may not
be available; and collection of health and property
effects data for potential pollutants.
The next step in environmental assessment is
comprehensive analysis of emissions from selected
operating units. Comprehensive analysis would in-
volve measurements for all pollutants in all media,
to identify what pollutants are actually being
emitted from what locations within the process.
Ambient monitoring around the process site might
also be included. A key point to be made regarding
comprehensive analysis is that it would include not
just the pollutants that have been emphasized in the
past (such as SO- and NO), but would address all
possible pollutants. For example, comprehensive
analysis would address: SO.; SO_; sulfides, sul-
fites and sulfates; reduced sulfur species in the
flue gas, such as H S, COS and CS2; NO; N02; nitrites
and nitrates; reduced nitrogen compounds in the flue
gas, such as NHL and cyanides; individual organic
compounds, including, for example, specific poly-
cyclic organic compounds; halogens; all trace ele-
ments and trace element compounds that might be
expected based upon the composition of the coal ash
and the sorbent; particulates, including total mass,
size distribution and morphology; and biological
testing of selected samples, including cytotoxicity,
mutagenicity, and, if necessary, carcinogenicity.
A complete comprehensive analysis would probably be
conducted on any one operating fluidized-bed com-
bustor at a relatively small number of sets of oper-
ating conditions.
A third step in environmental assessment is
development of environmental objectives for the
process, considering the pollutant emission levels
identified in the comprehensive analyses, and consid-
ering the health and property effects of the pollu-
tants. Pollutants would be prioritized, and emis-
sion goals set. Four levels of control that might
be considered are: [1) control based upon existing
technology; (2) control based upon existing Federal
and state standards; (3) control based upon pro-
jected health and property effects; and C4) "zero
discharge."
Environmental assessment also includes assess-
ment of control technology. This effort would
include, for example: identification of possible
control technology for achieving the emission goals
set in the preceding step; evaluation of the cost
of alternative degrees of control; and assessment
of the environmental impact of the control process
itself.
Based upon the information obtained during the
previous steps of the environmental assessment, an
evaluation would be made of the total impact of
the process on air, water and land quality, and on
human health and on property, considering various
degrees (and hence costs) of control.
The final step of environmental assessment,
indicated in Table 1, is the development of a pro-
gram for obtaining the additional environmental
information that is found to be necessary during
the other steps. Such additional information might
include, for example: further comprehensive analy-
ses on different units or at different sets of con-
ditions; development or improvement of sampling and
analytical techniques for use in comprehensive
analysis; additional control device studies; and
further basic studies regarding pollutant formation
in a fluidized-bed combustor.
Thus environmental assessment can be an itera-
tive process, in which the results of the various
steps are updated as additional information regard-
ing the process becomes available.
Control Technology Development
The second major sub-objective in the EPA
strategy is control technology development. This
activity includes engineering analysis, basic and
applied research and development, and specific con-
trol process development as required. Environmen-
tal control techniques that are being considered
for fluidized-bed combustion applications include:
(1) pretreatment of the input streams, such as pre-
calcination of the sorbent; (2) modification of
process design conditions for the purpose of envi-
ronmental control; (3) modification of operating
conditions; and (4) application of add-on control
devices.
THE EPA PROGRAM
The EPA fluidized-bed combustion program to
carry out the above strategy is, as indicated pre-
viously, predominantly a contract and interagency
agreement program which is funded in fiscal year
1976 at a level of about $4 million. The program
currently consists of fifteen projects with a
variety of contractors.
For the purposes of this discussion, the fif-
teen projects have been arranged into five cate-
gories, and are listed in Table 2. A simplified
milestone chart is shown in Figure 1.
These projects are briefly described below.
-------
208
Broad Environmental Assessment
The primary environmental assessment contrac-
tor—the first contractor listed under "Broad Envi-
ronmental Assessment" in Table 2--will have primary
responsibility for carrying out all of the environ-
mental assessment tasks indicated in Table 1. This
effort will involve a three-year, 60,000 man-hour
contract.
Prior to the award of the main environmental
assesssment contract, GCA/Technology Division is
conducting a preliminary environmental assessment
effort. A key task in the GCA study is the utiliza-
tion of theoretical calculations and of engineering
evaluation to project a priori what the emissions
may be from fluidized-bed combustors of potential
pollutants which have received little, if any,
attention in past experimental studies. This task
is thus a part of the first environmental assessment
step indicated in Table 1; i.e., identification of
current background. As part of this effort, GCA is
also briefly assessing possible control technology
for use on pollutants projected to be emitted in
significant quantities. The GCA effort was com-
pleted in January 1976, and the final report is in
preparation.
Comprehensive Analysis of Emissions
Four comprehensive analysis projects are in
advanced stages of planning or preparation. Battelle
Columbus Laboratories is developing an approach for
comprehensive analysis on fluidized-bed combustion
units, and is to test the approach by conducting an
analysis using a 6-inch (15 cm) i.d. atmospheric-
pressure fluidized-bed coal combustor. A comprehen-
sive analysis is also planned on the 2-foot by
3-foot, or 61 cm by 91 cm (cross-section) pressur-
ized combustor at the British Coal Utilization
Research Association, while this unit is being
operated under ERDA sponsorship. Also a comprehen-
sive analysis is scheduled on EPA's 7-foot (210 cm)
i.d. pressurized adiabatic CPU-400 pilot plant at
Combustion Power Company, while the plant is burning
coal under ERDA sponsorship. Aerotherm/Acurex Cor-
poration and TRW, Inc., are participating in the
sampling and analytical activities, respectively,
on this effort. Finally, comprehensive analyses
are to be conducted on the pressurized bench-scale
fluidized-bed combustion equipment and the pressur-
ized Miniplant system at Exxon Research and Engi-
neering Company while these facilities are being
operated under EPA sponsorship. The units at
Battelle, BCURA, Combustion Power and Exxon repre-
sent the spectrum of variations of the fluidized-
bed combustion process.
It is anticipated that comprehensive analyses
will also be conducted on a variety of other flui-
dized bed combustion units as plans develop and as
these other units become available.
As part of the comprehensive analysis effort,
The Mitre Corporation is preparing manuals for each
of the fluidized-bed combustion process variations,
indicating alternative sampling and analytical
procedures that can be employed for the various
potential pollutants for each variation, tentatively
recommending preferred procedures and identifying
sampling/analytical technique research and develop-
ment requirements. The Mitre study should be com-
pleted in April 1976.
As indicated by the last entry under "Com-
prehensive Analysis of Emissions" in Table 2, an
extensive continuing effort is underway by EPA with
a variety of contractors to develop new and improved
sampling and analytical techniques. This effort is
not part of the fluidized-bed combustion program
per se, but is in support of all of EPA's activities.
Solid and Liquid Waste Disposal
Two projects are planned which will address
specifically the question of solid and liquid waste
disposal from fluidized-bed combustion systems. The
primary contract for assessment of solid and liquid
waste disposal and utilization (the first contract
listed under "Solid and Liquid Waste Disposal" in
Table 2) has recently been awarded to Ralph Stone
and Co. In addition, the Tennessee Valley Authority
(TVA), under an interagency agreement with EPA, is
studying solid waste processing.
In general, these studies involve: (1) char-
acterization of solid and liquid waste materials
from variations of the fluidized-bed combustion
process; (2) laboratory and field studies to iden-
tify, e.g., solid leaching properties and the effect
of long-term exposure of solid by-products to the
environment; (3) laboratory studies of physical/
chemical treatment of solid wastes to reduce the
environmental impact upon disposal; and (4) labora-
tory and marketing studies of the potential for
manufacturing marketable products from solid wastes.
Other contractors may become involved in solid
waste disposal/utilization studies to the extent
warranted.
Experimental and Engineering Studies
A number of experimental and engineering
studies are underway which involve tasks in both
the environmental assessment and the control tech-
nology development sub-objective areas.
-------
Westinghouse Research Laboratories is conduct-
ing engineering and primarily laboratory-scale
experimental studies. Argonne National Laboratory,
in a project co-funded with ERDA, is carrying out
laboratory and bench-scale work, including testing
on their 6-inch (15 cm) i.d. pressurized fluidized-
bed combustor and the 4-inch (10 cm) i.d. pressur-
ized sorbent regenerator. Exxon Research and Engi-
neering Company is conducting a program on their
bench-scale fluidized-bed combustion/sorbent regen-
eration equipment, and on the Miniplant system,
which includes a 12.5-inch (32 cm) pressurized
fluidized-bed combustor capable of burning up to
480 pounds (218 kg) of coal per hour, and an 8-inch
(22 cm) pressurized sorbent regeneration vessel.
The Westinghouse, Argonne and Exxon projects vary
according to their experimental scales and to the
details of their individual work plans, but there
are several general objectives which are, for the
most part, common to each. These general objectives
are: (1) investigation of SO control from flui-
dized-bed units using limestone/dolomite sorbents,
including regeneration of the sorbents; (2) inves-
tigation of SO control using alternative sorbents,
including sorbent regeneration; (3) study of NO
formation and control; (4) characterization of par-
ticulates emissions, and testing of particulates
control devices; (5) investigation of the emissions
and control of other specific pollutants, such as
trace materials and hydrocarbons; and (6) minimiza-
tion of other environmental impacts.
A small, flexible, atmospheric-pressure
fluidized-bed combustor, referred to as a sampling
and analytical test rig, is planned for in-house
studies at the EPA site in the Research Triangle
Park. This unit would be utilized to address
specific environmental concerns without disrupting
the on-going test programs on the other more sophis-
ticated units being operated by the various con-
tractors. Subjects to be studied on the rig include:
(1) comprehensive analysis of emissions; (2) test-
ing of alternative sampling and analytical tech-
niques; and (3) investigation of alternative add-on
control devices.
Paper Studies
Several specific paper studies are underway
which, like the experimental projects discussed
above, involve effort toward both the environmental
assessment and the control technology development
sub-objectives.
Dow Chemical is conducting a study to project
the effect of experimental scale on emissions from
fluidized-bed combustion systems. Fundamental and
applied knowledge in the areas of combustion,
209
fluidization and chemical kinetics and thermody-
namics is to be employed to estimate the effect of
scale on emissions of all potential pollutants,
including those for which experimental data may not
be available. The results of this project would be
used as an indication of the scale on which envi-
ronmental data may have to be obtained in order to
enable reliable scale-up to commercial-scale systems.
The Dow study is expected to be completed in March
1976.
Exxon Research and Engineering Company is
carrying out an energy, economic and environmental
assessment regarding application of coal-fired
fluidized-bed boilers in the industrial sector.
This study will result in projections of: the appli-
cability of coal-fired fluidized-bed combustion to
industrial boilers; the technical requirements of
envisioned industrial fluidized-bed coal boilers;
the industrial demand for such boilers; the impact
on the national energy situation of application of
these boilers; the economic impact of the boilers
on the industries employing them and on associated
industries supplying the user industries; and the
environmental impact of industrial coal-fired
fluidized-bed boiler application. This project,
which is scheduled for completion in March 1976, is
co-funded with the Federal Energy Administration
and with ERDA.
The Tennessee Valley Authority is conducting a
project to develop conceptual designs and compara-
tive capital and operating costs for an atmospheric-
pressure fluidized-bed steam power plant, a pressur-
ized fluidized-bed combined cycle power plant, and
a conventional coal-fired steam power plant with
flue gas desulfurization. This effort is being
carried out in coordination with the Energy Conver-
sion Alternatives Study (EGAS) that is underway by
the National Aeronautics and Space Administration,
the National Science Foundation and ERDA. The TVA
project is scheduled to be completed in October 1976.
INTERAGENCY PARTICIPATION
As.indicated in the preceding discussion,
several other Federal agencies are participating in
the EPA fluidized-bed combustion program. Funds are
continuing to be transferred to ERDA for the EPA-
sponsored portion of the on-going .work being con-
ducted by Argonne National Laboratory. The compre-
hensive analysis of emissions from the BCURA
fluidized-bed combustion unit is being partially
funded by means of an interagency transfer of funds
to ERDA, for inclusion in ERDA's contract with Com-
bustion Systems, Ltd., covering the ERDA-sponsored
testing on the BCURA unit. It is anticipated
that further funds may be transferred to ERDA for
-------
210
future environmental testing on other fluidized-
bed units being operated by ERDA. Funds have been
transferred to the Tennessee Valley Authority to
support the fluidized-bed combustion solid waste
investigation and the fluidized-bed combustion/
flue gas desulfurization cost comparison being con-
ducted by TVA. As indicated previously, the TVA
fluidized-bed combustion/flue gas desulfurization
cost comparison is receiving input from the Energy
Conversion Alternatives Study that is being carried
out by the National Aeronautics and Space Admini-
stration, the National Science Foundation and ERDA.
The EPA contribution to the joint FEA/ERDA/EPA
study at Exxon Research and Engineering Company,
regarding the application of fluidized-bed tech-
nology to industrial boilers, is being funded by
means of an interagency transfer to the Federal
Energy Administration.
CONCLUSIONS
Complete environmental characterization of the
fluidized-bed coal combustion process (and of other
developing energy technologies) will involve a
significant environmental assessment and control
technology development effort. This effort will
include consideration of many potential pollutants
that have not received emphasis in past experimental
studies. In coordination with the effort being con-
ducted by ERDA to develop fluidized-bed coal combus-
tion technology, EPA is carrying out a program to
provide a complete environmental characterization of
the process. As part of the EPA program, funds
have been transferred to other Federal agencies in
order to obtain their assistance in carrying out
this environmental characterization.
REFERENCES
Hangebrauck, R. P., "Energy Environmental
Assessment and Control Technology Programs
for Stationary Sources," presented at the
National Governors' Conference Hearings on
Coal Utilization, Annapolis, Maryland
(November 17, 1975).
-------
211
Figure 1. - The EPA Fluidized-Bed
Combustion Program
Table 2. The EPA Fluidized-Bed Combustion
Program
I fliliilii
I BCUHA
Co
a EXXON
2 IndixiritlFBC
tpplic (EXXON!
SEE TASK D 3 BELOW
Broad Environmental Assessment
1. Environmental Assessment/Systems Analysis and Program
Support for Fluidized-Bed Combustion (Contractor to
be selected)
2. Preliminary Environmental Assessment of the Fluidized-
Bed Combustion Process (GCA Corporation)
B. Comprehensive Analysis of Emissions
1. Comprehensive Analysis of Emissions from an Atmospheric-
Pressure Fluidized-Bed Combustion Unit (Battelle Columbus
Laboratories)
2. Comprehensive Analysis of Emissions from the BCURA Pressurized
Fluidized-Bed Combustion Unit (Combustion Systems, Ltd./BCURA)
3. Comprehensive Analysis from the CPU-400 Pressurized FBC Process
Development Unit Burning Coal (Combustion Power Co./Aerotherm-
Acurex Corp./TRW, Inc.)
4. Comprehensive Analysis of Emissions from the Fluidized-Bed
Combustion Miniplant and Bench-Scale Equipment (Exxon Research
and Engineering Co.)
5. Comprehensive analysis on other units
6. Preparation of a Sampling and Analytical Manual for Fluidized-
Bed Combustion Applications (The Mitre Corporation)
7. Development of improved sampling and analytical techniques
(various contractors)
C. Solid and Liquid Waste Disposal
1. Environmental Assessment of Disposal of Solid and Liquid Wastes
from Fluidized-Bed Combustion Units (Ralph Stone and Co.)
2. Study of Disposal of Fluidized-Bed Combustion Waste Products
(Tennessee Valley Authority)
Table 1. Strategy of the EPA Fluidized-Bed
Combustion Program
A. Environmental Assessment (EA)
1. Current process/environmental background
2. Comprehensive analysis of emissions
3. Development of environmental objectives
4. Control technology assessment
5. Environmental impact analysis
6. Development of environmental program
B. Control Technology Development (CTD)
1. Engineering analysis, basic and applied R&D, and control
process development for:
input stream pretreatment
design condition modification
operating condition modification
add-on devices
Experimental and Engineering Studies EA and CTD
1. Experimental and Engineering Support of the Fluidized-Bed
Combustion Program (Westinghouse Research Laboratories)
2. Support Studies of Pollutant and Waste Control in Fluidized-
Bed Combustion/Regeneration Systems (Argonne National
Laboratory) co-funded with ERDA
3. Miniplant and Bench-Scale Studies in Support of the Fluidized-
Bed Combustion Program (Exxon Research and Engineering Co.)
4. Design, Construction and Operation of a Fluidized-Bcd Coal
Combustion Sampling and Analytical Test Rig (Contractor to be
selected/EPA)
E. Paper Studies EA and CTD
1. The Effect of Experimental Scale on Emissions from Fluidized-
Bed Combustion Units (Dow Chemical)
2. Application of Fluidized-Bed Technology to Industrial Boilers:
An Economic, Environmental and Energy Analysis (Exxon Research
and Engineering Co.) co-funded with FEA and ERDA
3. Cost Comparison of Commercial Atmospheric and Pressurized
Fluidized-Bed Power Plants to Conventional Coal-Fired Power
Plant with Flue Gas Desulfurization (Tennessee Valley
Authority)
-------
212
CONTROL OF ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION BY
FLUIDIZED-BED COMBUSTION
G. Vogel, W. Swift, and A. Jonke
Argonne National Laboratory
Argonne, Illinois
The United States Government, in the Clean Air
Act, requires that air pollution be kept within
acceptable limits. As an example, in the Environ-
mental Protection Agency (EPA) Standards of Perform-
ance for New Stationary Sources (1), the maximum
allowable emissions from a new coal-burning power
plant for S02, N02, and particulate solids are re-
spectively, 1.2, 0.7, and 0.1 pounds per million
British Thermal Units (Btu) of heat, based on a two-
hour average. These emission standards are lower in
many cases than actual emissions from power plants
in pre-Act days according to Cuffe and Gerstle (2),
who provided a comprehensive summary of emissions
from six types of coal-fired power plants. Since
the passage of the Act, companies with existing
plants must resort to one of the following to meet
local or state regulations for S02 emission: use of
low-sulfur fuel, use of high-sulfur fuel from which
sulfur is removed before combustion, or the use of a
scrubber to remove S02 from flue gas. The emission
of N02 can generally be controlled by modification
of the combustion process in existing power plants,
according to Hall and Bartok (3). Particulate solids
control in existing plants is a function of the type
of solids-removal equipment selected.
Among new techniques for attacking the pollution
problem, a concept that is rapidly gaining favor
because it appears to be economically attractive is
the combustion of fossil fuel in a fluidized bed of
sulfur-retaining additive. The national Fluidized-
Bed Combustion Program Plan specifies that prototype
boilers and heaters shall be ready for industrial
and commerical applications within a few years, fol-
lowed soon by a prototype utility-boiler module. Such
equipment is urgently needed as natural gas curtail-
ments continue and affordable oil supplies remain
uncertain. The system under development presently
appears to ERDA (Energy Research and Development
Agency), utilities, arid industry to offer cost,
efficiency, and reliability advantages over stack-gas
scrubbers by avoiding the four to six percent energy
loss required for scrubber operation with high-sulfur
coal, the cost of scrubbers, and the forced plant
outages resulting from scrubber malfunction.
The overall ERDA program in this field involves
research, development, and demonstration of both
atmospheric-pressure and elevated-pressure concepts.
A pilot plant employing the atmospheric-pressure
concept is under construction at the Rivesville
station of the Monongahela Power Company in West
Virginia. The boiler for this pilot plant with a
capacity for burning over 10 tons/hr of coal, was
designed and constructed by Foster Wheeler Corp.
The overall project, being carried out by Pope,
Evans and Robbins, Inc., is expected to reach the
operating stage around mid-1976. The succeeding
stage of development will be a demonstration plant of
at least 200 MWe capacity. Preliminary design of
such a plant is anticipated to begin in the near
future under ERDA or EPRI sponsorship.
The pressurized combustion concept has reached a
stage of development such that a proposal for pilot
plant construction has recently been accepted by
ERDA. The proposal by Curtiss-Wright calls for con-
struction at Woodridge, N.J., of a combustor
operating at seven atmospheres pressure with an out-
put of 14 MWe. The pilot plant would provide data
for the conceptual design of a 500 MW commercial
plant with a calculated efficiency of 40.8%. The
project, including operation of the plant, is to
extend for a period of 5 1/2 years.
Besides the application to electric power
generation, fluidized-bed combustors also have
excellent potential for coal-burning industrial and
commercial boilers and heaters. ERDA has recently
solicited proposals from industry for development and
demonstration of various industrial applications,
including steam generators and industrial process
heaters in full commercial sizes. Proposals are
currently being evaluated.
The national development program also calls for
construction of several sub-pilot plant facilities
for the purpose of providing support to the pilot
plants and for developing unique or advanced concepts.
Such units will have capacities in the range of 1 to
5 MWe. One such unit, a pressurized Component Test
and Integration Facility (CTIF) has been proposed for
construction at Argonne National Laboratory (ANL).
Another CTIF, for operation' at atmospheric pressure,
is under design at the Morgantown Energy Research
Center. At the Oak Ridge National Laboratory, an
experimental unit is under construction to study the
application of fluidized-bed combustion to the
provision of total energy requirements (heat and
electricity) for small communities. In addition to
these national facilities, a pressurized process
development unit has been authorized for construction
in England under sponsorship of the International
Energy Agency. Part of the funding for this facility
will be provided by ERDA,
Besides the ERDA projects, research and develop-
ment on fluidized-bed combustion is also being
sponsored by the Electric Power Research Institute
(EPRI) and by EPA. The EPA program is aimed chiefly
at investigation of the environmental control aspects
of fluidized-bed combustion.
Argonne National Laboratory (ANL) is one of
several organizations participating in a research and
development program designed to develop the concept
and to eventually demonstrate on a plant scale that
the process is economical and meets pollution stand-
ards for stationary power sources. The ANL program,
which has been under way since 1968, has involved
investigations of both atmospheric pressure and
elevated pressure concepts. Currently, ANL is
conducting a basic research and development program
to evaluate the feasibility and potential of fluid-
ized-bed combustion at pressures up to 10 atm
Jonke et al. (4), Vogel et al. (5, 6, 7)). Specific
objectives include: (1) optimizing the combustion
process with respect to sulfur dioxide retention in
the fluidized bed of additive and nitrogen oxide
-------
suppression in the flue gas; (2) determining the
behavior of the system with a variety of coals
including lignite and subbituminous coals; and (3)
determining trace-element pollutant levels in the
flue gas. In this paper, levels of S02, NO, and
participate solids in the flue gas obtained in exper-
iments are compared with mandated standards for new
power plants. Since no emission standards have been
set for trace elements, the distribution of these
elements is compared with their distribution in
existing power plants.
EQUIPMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION
The experimental equipment and instrumentation
consists of a 6-in.-dia fluidized-bed combustor which
was operated at a pressure of 8 atm absolute, coal and
additive feeders, and flue-gas particulate cleanup
equipment. A simplified schematic flowsheet of the
equipment is presented in Fig. 1. The flue gas
leaving the combustor is sampled and analyzed contin-
uously for NO, S02, CH^, and CO, using infrared
analyzers, and for 02, using a paramagnetic analyzer.
Intermittent C02 analyses are made by gas chromato-
graphy.
MATERIALS TESTED
Combustion experiments have been performed using
three different coals (-14 mesh size) and two
additives (-14 +100 mesh). The coals tested include
a highly caking, bituminous Pittsburgh seam coal
(2.82% sulfur) from the Arkwright mine, a subbitumi-
nous coal (0.78% sulfur) from the San Juan mine in
New Mexico, and lignite (0.53% sulfur) from the
Glenharold mine in North Dakota.
Tymochtee dolomite was obtained from C. E. Duff
and Sons, Huntsville, Ohio, and contained ^50% CaC03
and 40% MgC03. The limestone, obtained from M. J.
Grove Lime Company, Stephen City, Virginia, contained
•v-95% CaC03 and 1% MgC03.
COMBUSTION STUDIES USING BITUMINOUS COAL
Statistical Study of the Effects of Bed Temperature,
Fluidizing-Gas Velocity, and Ca/S Mole Ratio on
Dependent Variables
A series of nine experiments in a 3 x 3 Latin
square experimental design (1/3 replicate of 33
factorial design) plus two replicate experiments were
made. The three levels of the independent variables
tested were (1) temperature at 1450, 1550, and
1650°F; (2) Ca/S mole ratio at 1, 2, and 3; and (3)
fluidizing-gas velocity at 2.0, 3.5 and 5.0 ft/sec.
All experiments were made at a pressure of 8 atm
absolute, a 3-ft fluidized-bed height, and 3% oxygen
in the dry flue gas, using Arkwright coal and
Tymochtee dolomite.
Sulfur Dioxide Emission. Figure 2 illustrates
the effects of Ca/S mole ratio, superficial fluid-
izing-gas velocity, and bed temperature on S02
retention. For Ca/S ratios above 2.0, the S02
retention is generally greater than 90%. The level
°f S02 in the flue gas increases rapidly, however,
with decreasing Ca/S ratio and with increasing gas
velocity at low Ca/S ratios. The bed temperature
appears to have very little effect. The results
213
indicate that for this coal and additive, it should
be possible to operate close to a Ca/S mole ratio
of 1.0 and still meet the EPA emission limitation of
1.2 Ib of sulfur dioxide per 106 Btu (a sulfur
retention of ^70%).
Nitrogen Oxide Emission. Nitrogen oxide levels
in the flue gas, 270-120 ppm, correspond, respective-
ly, to emissions of 0.40 and 0.15 Ib NO/106 Btu, which
are below EPA standards. In Fig. 3, the experimental
values of the nitrogen oxide levels in the flue gas
are plotted as a function of the Ca/S mole ratio,
the only independent variable that appeared to hava a
significant effect (on the basis of analysis of
variance and regression analysis evaluations). The
broken lines, connecting data from experiments per-
formed under nominally similar combustion
temperatures, suggest a possible temperature
dependence, but the results are inconclusive.
The nitrogen oxide levels reported here for
combustion at 8 atm are considerably below the 300
to 550 ppm values previously obtained in atmospheric
combustion studies (4). This pressure effect on
nitrogen oxide emissions has been observed by
Wright (8).
Solids Loading in the Flue Gas. Solids loading
in the flue gas leaving the combustor (before any
particulate removal) varied directly with both the
fluidizing-gas velocity and the Ca/S mole ratio, as
shown in Fig. 4. At gas velocities of 2, 3.5, and
5 ft/sec, increasing the Ca/S mole ratio from 1 to 3
increased the solids loading by 60, 80, and 125%,
respectively. Although these results suggest the
desirability of maintaining low Ca/S ratios to
minimize solids loading from the additive, high Ca/S
ratios could be used at suitably selected gas
velocities and sorbent particle sizes. Thus, the
loadings quoted here are not representative of what
could be achieved. After the flue gas passed through
the second cyclone and the final filter, its loading
was less than the mandated standard of 0.1 lb/106 Btu.
Comparison of Dolomite with Limestone with Respect to
Sulfur Retention Capability and NO Level in the Flue
Gas at Combustion Temperatures of 1650 and 1750°F
The sulfur retention capabilities of Tymochtee
dolomite and Grove limestone were compared at
different Ca/S ratios and at fluidized-bed temper-
atures of 1650 and 1750°F. At these temperatures and
a combustor operating pressure of 8 atm, the MgC03
in the dolomite is calcined to MgO. The CaC03 does
not calcine at 1650°F but does at 1750°F, proba'bly
producing a more porous structure. The sulfur
retention was better at 1750°F than at 1650°F in
experiments with Tymochtee dolomite at different Ca/S
ratios (Fig. 5). In single experiments with lime-
stone at a Ca/S ratio of ^1.5, sulfur retention was
the same at 1650°F as at 1750°F. Precalcining the
limestone before feeding it into the combustor did
not improve the sulfur retention capability in a
single experiment made at a combustion temperature
of 1650°F and a Ca/S mole ratio of ^1.4. The sulfur-
retention capability of Tymochtee dolomite at 1750°C
was superior to that of Grove limestone, both on a
molar basis (Fig. 5) and on a mass basis.
The NO concentrations in the dry flue gas ranged
-------
from 130 to 135 ppm (using dolomite) and from 84 to
150 ppm (using limestone). The additive type did not
seem to affect NO emission level.
Effect of Percent Combustion Air on Sulfur Retention
and on NO Level in the Flue Gas
The effect of the amount of excess combustion
air on the sulfur retention capability of Tymochtee
dolomite at different Ca/S mole feed ratios was
evaluated using a bed temperature of 1650°F and a
fluidizing-gas velocity of 4.5 ft/sec. Excess air
levels were 17, 44, and 75%. At these levels no
meaningful and consistent effect on the sulfur-
retention capability of dolomite was found, as shown
in Fig. 6.
The NO concentration in dry flue gas was found
to increase with oxygen concentration, as expected.
At ^3, 6, and 9% oxygen in the dry flue gas, the NO
concentrations were 160, 200, and 220 ppm,
respectively.
COMBUSTION STUDIES USING LOW-SULFUR
SUBBITUMINOUS AND LIGNITE COALS
Experiments were made to determine whether any
difficulties would be encountered in processing a
San Juan subbituminous coal with a high ash content
of 17% and a Glenharold mine lignite with a low
heating value of 7,625 Btu/lb. The nominal operating
conditions for the two experiments were a bed
temperature of 1550°F, a fluidizing-gas velocity of
3.5 ft/sec, an 02 concentration of 3% in the dry
flue gas (-^15% excess air) and a Ca/S mole ratio of
1.
Sulfur Dioxide Retention
The S02 levels of 250 and 120 ppm observed for •
the combustion of the subbituminous and lignite
coals, respectively, correspond to emissions of 0.45
and 0.21 Ib S02/10^ Btu. The combustion of Arkwright
bituminous coal under similar operating conditions
would have a projected S02 emission of 610 ppm or
1.2 Ib S02/106 Btu. The above emissions represent
S02 retentions of approximately 72, 72, and 85% for
the bituminous, subbituminous, and lignite coals,
respectively. The somewhat higher retention reported
for the lignite experiment suggests that calcium in
that coal may be an active agent in helping to retain
S02 during combustion.
Nitrogen Oxide Emissions
The NO levels of 150 ppm and 130 ppm, respec-
tively, for the combustion experiments with the
subbituminous and lignite coals correspond to
emissions of 0.19 and 0.18 Ib N02/106 Btu. The
projected emission for the bituminous coal (140 ppm)
under similar conditions is also 0.19 Ib N02/106 Btu.
TRACE ELEMENT DISTRIBUTIONS
Environmentalists and researchers are becoming
increasingly concerned that trace elements emitted
from fossil-fueled power plants, incinerators, and
industrial processes may have significant adverse
environmental and health impacts. Although a sub-
stantial fraction of the trace elements present in
coal during combustion is retained with the fly ash
removed by emission control devices, significant
quantities of trace elements (such as mercury) may
still be emitted as vapors or in association with
submicron size particles that are not efficiently
removed by present-day devices. Recent investi-
gations have also demonstrated that several trace
elements (such as lead, cadmium, arsenic, and nickel)
preferentially concentrate in the smallest particles
emitted from conventional coal-fired power
plants. (9-H)
Since fluidized-bed combustion is carried out at
temperatures (1550-1750°F) well below those of
conventional power plants and in the presence of
adsorbent for sulfur dioxide removal, an investi-
gation was made to evaluate the potential of
fluidized-bed combustion for reducing trace-element
emissions as compared with conventional combustors.
A convenient basis for evaluation was to make mass
balances around the ANL 6-in.-dia fluidized-bed
combustor for comparison with similar data reported
for large, conventional coal-fired power plants.
Mass balances were made for the following trace
and minor elements: Hg, F, Be, Pb, As, Br, Co, Or,
Fe, K, La, Mn, Na, and Sc. Wet chemical techniques
were employed to measure the concentrations of the
four trace elements of primary interest in the
investigation: mercury, lead, beryllium, and
fluorine. Mercury and lead were analyzed by atomic
adsorption, beryllium by fluorimetry, and fluorine
by specific ion electrode. The concentrations of
the remaining trace elements measured were obtained
by neutron activation analysis.
Nominal conditions for two experiments were a
bed temperature of 1550°F, 10-atm pressure, and 4%
02 in the off-gas, as compared with values of 1650°F,
8 atm, and 3% 02 for two other experiments. To
assess the effects of additive, in one experiment
at each set of conditions coal was combusted in a
fluidized bed of -alumina; in the other experiment,
coal was combusted in a fluidized bed of dolomite.
Results of .the mass balance calculations are
presented.in Table 1. The first two lines in
Table 1 list mass balances for mercury and fluorine
based on both solids and flue gas analyses. The
mercury balances, which exhibited an average re-
covery of only 38%, are particularly disappointing.
The fluorine balances of 120 and 110% recovery for
the experiments at 1550°F are reasonably acceptable
values; the recoveries of 180 and 240% for the
experiments at 1650°F are unaccountably high.
The remainder of Table 1 lists the material
balances, based on solid samples only, for those
elements ^including mercury and fluorine) for which
sufficient analytical data were available. Reten-
tion of the relatively volatile elements, mercury,
arsenic, fluorine, and bromine, in the solids
indicates that fluidized-bed combustion may reduce
the emissions of these elements.
The average retention of 23% for mercury in the
solid effluents from the combustor (Table 1)
compares favorably with the 10% retention reported
-------
by Billings et al. (12) for a large conventional
coal-fired power plant. Klein et al. (11) reported
that mercury remains almost completely in the gas
phase. The measured retention of 85% for arsenic
compares favorably with the arsenic recovery,
reported by Klein et al. (11), of only 40 to over
100% for a mass balance around a conventional
290-MWe, cyclone-fed boiler. Similarly, Attari (13)
estimated only 35% retention of arsenic in the solid
effluents from the Illinois Institute of Gas Tech-
nology's HyGas (high-Btu coal gasification) pilot
plant.
The average retentions of fluorine and bromine
in the combustion experiments with dolomite (59 and
3655, respectively) were compared with those in the
combustion experiments in an alumina bed (14 and 0%,
respectively). This indicates that the additive
used for sulfur dioxide removal is also effective in
reducing the emissions of these two elements. In
comparison, Klein et al. (11) reported that only 10%
of the bromine was recovered in the ash from a con-
ventional boiler.
Seven of the remaining ten elements reported on
(Mn, Co, Fe, K, La,Na, and Sc) had material balances
of 100 +_ 10%, indicating (within analytical accu-
racies) essentially no losses by volatilization. The
relatively low recoveries of beryllium and chromium
are suspect since (1) complete recoveries of chromium
have been reported for coal-processing units operated
at much higher temperatures and (2) beryllium is
reportedly less volatile than chromium (14). Except
that there was one unaccountably high recovery for
manganese, this element also exhibited a recovery of
100 + 10%.
The significance of these results is emphasized
in Table 2, which compares the project trace element
emissions from conventional and fluidized-bed com-
bustion systems, based on currently available mass
balance data. With the exception of the projected
emissions for chromium, the emissions from fluidized-
bed combustion are consistently as low as or lower
than those projected for conventional combustors.
The trace-element data were further analyzed
to qualitatively assess the relation of concentration
to particle size in the fly ash. For the two
combustion experiments carried out in a fluidized bed
of alumina, the concentrations of the trace elements
in the coal and fly ash samples from successive
stages of gas-particle separators (primary cyclone,
secondary cyclone, and filter) were adjusted to a
combustible matter-free basis and then normalized
against an arbitrary reference concentration (con-
centration of the element in the coal or primary
ash). The results of this analysis for seventeen
trace and minor elements are shown in Fig. 7.
For several elements (such as Ba, Co, La, Sb,
Sc, and Ta), there were marginal (possibly insigni-
ficant) tendencies of concentration to increase with
decreasing particle size. Of these elemetlti, only
antimony is acknowledged to concentrate strongly in
the finer fly ash from conventional plants (8-11);
barium, cobalt, lanthanum, scandium, and tantalum
nave exhibited marginal preferential partitioning by
Particle size in fly ash (11). Lead and chromium,
215
which show no tendencies to increase with decreasing
Particle size in this study, have exhibited strong
and moderate (8-11) enrichment, respectively, in the
fly ash from conventional boilers. The lower com-
bustion temperatures of fluidized-bed combustion may
be effective, therefore, in reducing the enrichment
of trace elements in the finer ash particles.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We gratefully acknowledge support of this
program by the Energy Research and Development
Administration and by the Environmental Protection
Agency.
REFE'TNCES
1. Environmental Protection Agency, "Standards of
Performance", Federal Register, 36, No. 247
(1971).
2. Cuffe, S. T. and Gerstle, R. W., "Emissions
from Coal-Fired Power Plants: A Comprehensive
Summary", U.S. Department of Health, Education
and Welfare (1967).
3. Hall, H. J. and Bartok, W., "NOX Control from
Stationary Sources", Environmental Science and
Technology, 5, 320 (1971).
4. Jonke, A. A. et al., "Reduction of Atmospheric
Pollution by the Application of Fluidized-Bed
Combustion", Annual Report, ANL/ES-CEN-1004
(1972).
5. Vogel , G. J. et al. , "Reduction of Atmospheric
Pollution by the Application of Fluidized-Bed
Combustion and Regeneration of Sulfur-Contain-
ing Additives", Annual Report, EPA-R2-73-253
(1973).
6. Vogel, G. J. et al., "Reduction of Atmospheric
Pollution by the Application of Fluidized-Bed
Combustion", Annual Report EPA-650/2-74-057
(1974).
7. Vogel, G. J. et al., "Reduction of Atmospheric
Pollution by the Application of Fluidized-Bed
Combustion and Regeneration of Sulfur-Contain-
ing Additives", EPA-650-2-74-104 (1974).
8. Wright, S. J., "The Reduction of Emissions of
Sulfur Oxides and Nitrogen Oxidfes by Additions
of Limestone or Dolomite during the Combustion
of Coal in Fluidized Beds", Proceedings of the
Third International Conference on Fluidized-
Bed Combustion, EPA Report EPA-650/2-73-053
(1973).
9. Natusch, D. F. S., Wallace, J. R., and Evans,
C. A., Jr., "Toxic Trace Elements: Preferen-
tial Concentration in Respirable Particles",
Science 183 (4121), 202 (1974).
10. Kaakinen, J. W., Jordan, R..W., Lawasani , M. H..,
and West, R. E., "Trace Element Behavior in
Coal-Fired Power Plant", Environ. Sci. Techno!.
9_(9), 362 (1975).
-------
216
11. Klein, D. H., Andren, A. W., Carter, J. A.,
Emergy, J. F., Feldman, C., Fulkerson, W., Lyon,
W. S., Ogle, J. C., Talmi, Y., Van Hook, R. I.,
and Bolton, N., "Pathways of Thirty-Seven Trace
Elements Through Coal-Fired Power Plants",
Environ. Sci. Techno!., 9(10), 973 (1975).
12. Billings, C. E., Sacco, A. M., Matson, W. R.,
Griffin, R. M., Coniglio, W. R., and Handley,
R. A., "Mercury Balance on a Large Pulverized
Coal-Fired Furnace", J. Air. Poll. Control
Assoc., 23 (9), 773 (1973).
13. Attari, A., "Fate of Trace Constituents of Coal
During Gasification", Environmental Protection
Agency Report No. EPA-650/2-73-004 (1973).
14. Ruch, R. R., Gluskoter, H. J. and Shimp, N. F.,
"Occurrence and Distribution of Potentially
Volatile Trace Elements in Coal: An Interim
Report", Environmental Geology Note No. 61,
Illinois State Geological Survey (1973).
-------
217
Figure 1. Simplified equipment flowsheet of
ANL fluidized-bed combustor system.
Figure 2. - Effect of bed temperature, fluidizing
gas velocity, and Ca/S mole ratio on
sulfur retention in the bed during
combustion. Arkwright coal and
Tymochtee dolomite.
Figure 3- - NO concentration in flue gas as a
function of Ca/S mole ratio
300
250
200
150
bJ
O
z
o
o
100
50
i r~
COMBUSTION TEMPERATURE:
O I450°F
D 1550-F
A I650°F
T
REGRESSION
CURVE
FLUIDIZING GAS VELOCITY: 2-5ft/sec
EXCESS AIR :~I5%(3%02 IN FLUE GAS)
FLUIDIZED-BED HEIGHT: 3ft
MOLE RATIO, Ca/S
'H
°>
3 ^
c s
Q/s
\X X «o CsP
^v^ "' <^>
3-°.^
<>°
-------
218
Figure 5. Sulfur-retention capabilities of
additives compared, molar basis
Figure 6. Effect of excess combustion air on
sulfur retention, Tymochtee dolomite.
100
90
80
70
60
50-
EXCESS AIR, %:
A 17
O 44
• 75
1.0 2.0 3.0
Ca/S MOLE RATIO
4.0
J
5.0
100
90
80
8*
z"
70
60
50
.-^-DOLOMITE, I750°F
BED TEMPERATURE
DOLOMITE, I650°F
(LINE DRAWN FROM
VAR-SERIES DATA)
LIMESTONE, I750°F
LIMESTONE, I650°F
LIMESTONE, PRECALCINED, I650°F
1.0
2.0 3.0
Ca/S MOLE RATIO
4.0
5.0
Figure 7- - (a), (b), and (c) Normalized
concentrations of trace elements as
a function of sample indicating the
relative enrichment of trace elements
between coal and ash samples and
among samples of ash of successively
finer particle size. Data pertains
to combustion in a fluidized bed of
alumina at 1550°F (indicated by
asterisk) or l650°F.
2.5
COAL
PRIMARY SECONDARY FILTER
CYCLONE CYCLONE
(a)
3.0
2.5
1.5
COAL
Dy
Co
PRIMARY
CYCLONE
SECONDARY
CYCLONE
FILTER
(b)
o
COAL
PRIMARY SECONDARY FILTER
CYCLONE CYCLONE
(c)
-------
219
Table 1.
- Mass Balances for Trace and Minor
Elements Around ANL's 6-ln.-dia,
Pressurized, Fluidized-Bed Combustor.
Recovery** , %
Combustion
Element
Hui Balances
Bg
F
Mm Balances
H8
F
Pb
Be
As
Br
Co
Cr
Fe
K
La
Ha
Ha
, Sc
1550'F
Based on
56
120
Based on
37
5
110
63
85
0
79
27
92
120
120
110
79
110
in Alumina Bed Combustion in
1650°F
I550°F
Dolomite Bed
1650f
Average"
Solids and Flue-Gas Analysis
29
180
Solids AnalyE
26
23
120
56
IC
I
100
64
120
1
>74
170
120
110
43
110
lis Only
9
62
78
71
85
36
88
83
95
77
89
110
85
83
25
240
20
56
95
87
>83
I
96
120
92
74
I
I
100
88
38
160
23
36
100
69
85
18
91
74
100
90
104
130
96
98
Table 2.-
Projected Emissions of Trace Elements
from Conventional and Fluidized-Bed
Combustors Expressed as a Percentage
of the Element Entering the System.
Element
Hg
F
Br
As
Pb
Be
Sc
Cr
Co
Na
K
Fe, La,
Projected
from convi
Conventional
Combustiona
90-100
90-100 (estimated)
90-100
0-60
10
Not Available
10
0
10-20
0-10
0-10
Mn 0
from data in the literature (10-12) on trace-el
sntional power plants.
Fluidized-Bed
Combust ion
80
40
65
15
0-20
20-40
0
25'
0-20
5
10
0
em*nt emissions
Percent of element entering combustor accounted for In product steams.
Average recovery for experiments in which a balance was determined.
* I means indeterminate due to incomplete concentration data for some
samples.
-------
220
COST COMPARISON OF COMMERCIAL ATMOSPHERIC
AND PRESSURIZED FLUIDIZED-BED POWER PLANTS TO A
CONVENTIONAL COAL-FIRED POWER PLANT
WITH FLUE GAS DESULFURIZATION
John T. Reese
Tennessee Valley Authority
Chattanooga, Tennessee
INTRODUCTION
Fluidized-bed combustion (FBC) is one of the
most promising advanced combustion processes to be
studied since development of pulverized coal
combustion in the 1920's. Not only does the
process offer the potential for reducing capital
cost of equipment and for improved thermal effi-
ciencies, but it can also provide a more environ-
mentally acceptable method for burning coal.
Because of the promise which FBC holds,
extensive research and development efforts are
under way to bring the concept to commercial
reality. Among those active in the field are the
Energy Research and Development Administration
(ERDA) which has lead responsibility for Government-
sponsored efforts in FBC and the Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) which is evaluating and
attempting to minimize the environmental impact of
FBC systems. Major R&D programs are under way at
Argonne National Laboratory; Babcock and Wilcox
Company; Combustion Power Corporation; Combustion
Systems, Ltd.; Curtiss Wright Corporation; Electric
Power Research Institute; Exxon Research and
Engineering Company; Foster Wheeler Corporation,
General Electric Company; Pope, Evans and Robbins,
Inc.; Westinghouse Electric Corporation; and a
number of other organizations.
At the present time, a variety of flue gas
desulfurization (FGD) processes are the only
technology being applied to new fossil-fired power
plants for meeting EPA New Source Performance
Standards (NSPS). The lime/limestone system is
probably the best developed and most widely applied
of all the FGD processes.
EPA is sponsoring a project to compare the
cost of commercial atmospheric (AFB) and pressu-
rized (PFB) power plants to a conventional coal-
fired (CCF) power plant with FGD. It is envisioned
that the project will provide an assessment of the
economic potential of FBC over a conventional power
plant with FGD for meeting environmental standards
and to identify the areas where significant
economic gains can be made by concentrated R&D.
The objectives of the project are to develop
conceptual design and comparative capital and
operating costs for each of the following new power
plants:
1. A CCF steam power plant with flue gas
desulfurization
2. An AFB steam power plant
3. A PFB combined cycle power plant
The project draws on a variety of organizations.
The performing agency is the Tennessee Valley
Authority. Fluidized-bed combustor designs, along
with capital and operating cost estimates, are
being utilized from ongoing work under the direction
of the National Space and Aeronautics Administration
(NASA). This effort is called the Energy Conversion
Alternative Systems (EGAS) study and is sponsored
by ERDA and the National Science Foundation. For
ECAS work being incorporated in this program,
General Electric Company is contractor in charge of
energy conversion system and overall plant design,
Foster Wheeler Energy Corporation has responsibility
for furnace designs, and Bechtel Corporation will
provide design of the FGD system and balance of
plant systems. Upon completion of design and cost
estimates, TVA will integrate the information
developed into a single report which compares on a
common basis using standard utility practice the
cost of the three plants.
POWER PLANT CONCEPTUAL DESIGNS
1. Technical Discussion
The accuracy of cost estimates for a particular
system is in direct proportion to degree of maturity
of the technology. An illustration of this fact is
evident in estimates made for FGD systems. In 1969
the projected capital cost of a limestone wet
scrubbing system was $7-75/kW.-'- As development
progressed and real plants were engineered and
constructed, 1972 capital costs for the same process
system were estimated to be $U0.75/kW2—greater than
a fivefold increase over the earlier value.
Similarly low capital and operating cost
estimates could occur in this program unless
allowance is made for those areas where technical
uncertainties exist. Several major design issues
are not fully resolved in each of the three power
plant concepts.
Some of the features in FBC which require
further definition are:
Solids handling and injection systems
Arrangement of heat transfer surface in fluid
beds
Fluid-bed startup systems
Control and load1 following capability
Mechanical design of dampers for combustion air
control, heat transfer surface supports, and
-------
other hardware subjected to large temperature
gradients
Optimum bed temperature for S0_ removal
Optimum stoichiometry
Regeneration of spent absorbent
Hot particulate cleanup for PFB effluent
Corrosion-erosion of gas turbine parts
Hot bed material handling and cooling system
Optimum exit gas temperature
Of particular concern is hot particulate
cleanup for PFB power plants. The efficiency of
mechanical dust collectors drops off rapidly below
five microns. In order to provide corrosion-erosion
protection for the gas turbine, it is necessary that
particulates in the 1-5 micron range be removed.
High temperature filters may provide the required
degree of particulate removal; however, the attendant
material and structural specifications may present a
problem. Also, at combustion temperatures, alkali
metal compounds have appreciable vapor pressure.
Filter devices may not provide adequate protection.
If this occurs, resistance to alkali metal compounds
will have to be designed into the gas turbine
materials.
Longstanding commercial application of CCF
plants reduces uncertainties for this case to a
minimum; however, some degree of uncertainty remains
in the area of NO control and some aspects of the
FGD system. Staged combustion experiments have
demonstrated the capability of such operation to
reduce NO emissions below NSPS.3 However,
carefully monitored corrosion tests indicate staged
combustion with many current boiler designs may
cause serious furnace tube wall corrosion.^ It is
likely that attainment of NO emission standards will
have to be achieved through a burner or furnace
design which circumvents the corrosion problem posed
by staged combustion operation.
As with FBC plants, disposal of S0_ absorbent/
ash wastes from conventional plants witn FGD poses
an environmental problem and adds an economic
penalty to the plant. Development of a suitable
regeneration scheme which produces a salable
byproduct and returns sorbent to the system would
provide for an improvement in economics. Improved
mist elimination techniques, reduction of scaling in
scrubbers, and improved design of flue gas reheat
systems have been accomplished; however, commercial
experience will undoubtedly identify areas which
require further effort.
2. Program Discussion
Conceptual designs are nearing completion and
221
most major design specifications have been selected
for each of the cases being studied.
Conceptual design of the CCF plant is shown
schematically in figure 1. The plant has a nominal
rating of 870 MW electrical. The steam generator
is a single furnace unit 7^-. 5 feet wide by k6 feet
deep by 185 feet high. It is designed to produce
7115 x 10° Ib/h supercritical steam at 3500 psi and
1000°F with reheat to 1000°F. Pulverized coal,
sized 70 percent •* 200 mesh, is fired through two
sets each of 16 horizontally opposed burners.
Burners and furnace are designed to limit NO
emissions to meet EPA NSPS.
The furnace heat input rate is 8128 x 10 Btu/h
at full load. Design heat transfer coefficients are
20 Btu/h-ft -°F in the radiant section of the boiler
and 13 Btu/h-ft2-°F for convection surfaces. Peak
furnace gas temperature is approximately 3500°F.
Flue gas leaving the boiler air heater enters
a 99 percent efficient electrostatic precipitator.
It is then pumped by the induced draft fan through
four parallel trains, each containing a single-
stage, packed tower scrubber. Scrubbing medium for
the flue gas is a slurry of calcium hydroxide
(lime). Sulfur dioxide is scrubbed out to a level
conforming to the EPA NSPS of 1.2 Ib SOp per million
Btu heat input. Flue gas leaves the scrubber at
125°F and is reheated to 250°F by blending with hot
air. Hot air is supplied by passing over steam
coils. An alternate exit gas reheat temperature of
175°F will be considered to reflect the gain in
efficiency to be expected in the event acid dewpoint
of the flue gas will permit reduction to this lower
temperature.
Coal is delivered, handled, and prepared in
the conventional manner. Limestone is delivered to
the plant and calcined in a rotary kiln to supply
lime for flue gas scrubbing.
The AFB power plant schematic is shown in
figure 2. Steam conditions are 3500 psi, 1000°F/
1000°F. The plant consists of four AFB steam
generator modules with a nominal capability of
230 MW electrical each. The four modules supply
steam to a single turbogenerator with a rating of
920 MW electrical.
Arrangement and distribution of steam
generating surface between beds are not yet clearly
defined and need further study. Each steam
generator module consists of six conventional
fluidized beds operating at 1550°F and one carbon
burnup cell operating at 2000°F. Heat released in
each conventional fluid-bed module is approximately
2012 x 10° Btu/h. Ninety percent of the heat is
released in main combustion cells with an additional
10 percent being released in the carbon burnup cell.
Of the heat released in the main beds, 90 percent
release is allowed for in the bed and 10 percent
^5 percent in the freeboard above the bed. Overall
-------
222
heat transfer coefficient for the beds is kO Btu/h-
ft2-°F. Expanded "bed depth during operation is
four feet.
Coal is delivered to the plant "by rail, stored
in a pile, and reclaimed as required. From reclaim,
coal is transported "by "belt conveyor to a coal
storage silo. Coal is withdrawn on a continuous
basis from the silo and dried to provide proper
screening and transport properties. The dried coal
is crushed to =r inch x 0 inch.
Limestone is delivered to the plant by rail,
stored in a pile, and reclaimed as required.
Preparation for injection is similar to coal,
except limestone is crushed to 1/8 inch x 0 inch.
After being crushed to size, the coal and limestone
streams are transported in separate belt conveyors
and bucket elevators to two-hour holding hoppers
positioned above each steam generator module.
Coal and limestone are withdrawn from these hoppers
at metered rates and blended together to provide a
2:1 calcium/sulfur ratio. Rotary air lock valves
are used to subdivide the blended mixture into
seven separately controllable streams which cascade
from virbrating tables possessing four downcomer
pipes to vibrating tables which feed 12 injector
pipes. This arrangement allows each blended stream
to be subdivided into k& separate streams for
injection into the bed. A bypass stream ahead of
the coal-limestone blender feeds limestone directly
to the carbon burnup cell feed tables.
After combustion and sulfur sorption, coal ash
and spent sorbent are withdrawn from the fluid bed
through a high-temperature air lock valve and
transported to a spent solids cooler. Solid
material elutraited from the AFB beds is removed
from the gas stream in two stages. The first stage
of cleanup consists of multitube cyclones with
electrostatic precipitators providing the final
stage of cleanup. Solid material captured in the
cyclones is returned to the process by injection
into the 2000°F carbon burnup cell. Ultimate
solids disposal is in a lined storage pond.
High-temperature tubular air preheaters are
provided to limit the cyclone/precipitator gas inlet
temperatures to a 730-850°F range. Low-temperature
regenerative air preheaters follow and reduce the
gas to an exit temperature of 250°F.
The PFB combined cycle power plant schematic is
shown in figure 3. As with the CCF and AFB plants,
steam conditions are 3500 psi,' 1000°F/1000°F. The
plant has a nominal rating of 920 MW electrical.
The boiler consists of four PFB steam generating
modules operating at a gas side pressure of 10
atmospheres. Each of the modules supplies l650°F
gas to a gas turbine 'which produces U6 MW electrical
of power. The four modules supply steam to a single
turbogenerator with a nominal rating of 736 MW
electrical.
Each steam generator module consists of six
conventional fluidized beds operating at l650°F and
one carbon burnup cell operating at 2000°F. Like
the AFB plant, arrangement and distribution of
steam generating surface between beds is not yet
clearly defined and needs further study. Heat
released in each conventional fluid bed module is
approximately 1968 x 10 Btu/h. Ninety-five
percent of the heat released occurs in the main
beds with an additional five percent in the carbon
burnup cell. Overall heat transfer coefficient for
the beds is 50 Btu/h-ft2-°F. Expanded bed depth
during operation is 8 feet.
Coal is delivered to the plant by rail, stored
in a pile, and reclaimed as.required. From
reclaim, coal is transported by belt conveyor to a
coal storage silo. Coal is withdrawn on a
continuous basis from the silo and dried to a
surface moisture of less than 1 percent as required
by the fuel injection system. The dried coal is
crushed to J- inch x 0 inch and transported to a
surge hopper supplying the fuel injection system.
Limestone is delivered to the plant by rail,
stored, reclaimed, and prepared for injection in a
manner similar to coal preparation. Coal and
limestone are fed separately to the boilers by a
pressurized, pneumatic injection system. The
limestone feed rate 'is set to provide a 2:1
calcium/sulfur ratio.
After combustion and sulfur sorption, coal ash,
and spent sorbent are withdrawn from the process
and transported to a spent solids cooler. Solids
disposal is in a lined storage pond.
Flue gas and elutriated solids from' the fluid
beds pass through two-stage cyclone collectors
followed by granular bed filters. Solid material
captured by the cyclones is transported to the
carbon burnup cell.
Flue gas leaving granular bed filters enters
the gas turbine at 138 psia and l600°F. Gas leaves
the gas turbine at 15. ^-2 psia and 865°F and passes
over a low level economizer before leaving the
stack at a temperature of 250°F.
RESOURCE ALLOCATION
Funds for this project are supplied through
interagency energy supplement funds. Project
funding is $150,000 with essentially the total
amount committed to FY 1976 and transition quarter
1976.
INTERAGENCY PARTICIPATION
EPA is conducting a contract.research and
development program valued at about $k million in
fiscal year 1976 aimed at complete environmental
characterization of the fluidized-bed coal
combustion process.^ This program is being
-------
323
conducted in coordination with the effort being
directed by EKDA to develop fluidized-bed coal
combustion technology. The project to compare costs
of commercial AFB and PFB power plants to a
conventional plant with FGD being carried out by
TVA is designed to provide an assessment of the
economic potential of these alternative methods for
utilizing coal in an environmentally acceptable
manner.
CONCLUSIONS
Upon completion, this study will provide a
useful guide for assessing the advantages of FBC
as compared with flue gas desulfurization. It will
identify major design features in which further
development could improve economics of the process.
This, in turn, will help provide a better definition
of R&D priorities.
REFERENCES
1. Dennis, Carl, "How Much Will Pollution Control
Cost You?," Electric Light and Power, June
1969.
2. Tennessee Valley Authority, "Detailed Cost
Estimates for Advanced Effluent Desulfurization
Processes," EPA report number EPA 600/2-75-006,
page 99.
3. Crawford, A. R., et al, "The Effect of
Combustion Modification on Pollutants and
Equipment Performance of Power Generation
Equipment," paper presented at the EPA
Symposium on Stationary Source Combustion,
Atlanta, Georgia, September 2^-26, 1975.
k. Hollinden, G. A., et al, "Control of N0x
Formation in Wall Coal-Fired Boilers," paper
presented at the EPA Symposium on Stationary
Source Combustion, Atlanta, Georgia,
September 2^-26, 1975-
5. Henschel, D. B., "The U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency Program for Environmental
Characterization of Fluidized-Bed Combustion
Systems," paper presented at the Fourth
International Conference on Fluidized-Bed
Combustion, McLean, Virginia, December 9-11,
1975.
-------
224
Figure 1
CONVENTIONAL POWER PLANT
WITH FLUE GAS DESULFURIZATION F.D. FAN
STEAM
FROM
BOILER
f~) COKOEkSlTE
^^ PUMP
-,j| IOILER FEEI PUMP „.,. HATERS
L.P. HEATERS
Figure 2
ATMOSPHERIC FLUIDZED BED POWER PLANT
AKHUT
US
STEAll I
FOSTER HEELER EDEICT CORP.
-------
225
Figure 3
PRESSURIZED FLUIDIZED BED POWER PLANT
DISCHARGE STACK
STEAM TURBINE
CONDENSER U COOLING
WATER
FOSTER WHEELER ENERGT CORP.
-------
226
ASSESSMENT AND CONTROL OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION
FROM TRACE ELEMENTS IN COAL PROCESSING WASTES
E. M. Wewerka, J. M. Williams, and P. L. Wanek
University of California
Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory
Los Alamos, New Mexico
INTRODUCTION
Coal, as mined, contains a great deal of extra-
neous rock and mineral matter. The inorganic con-
stituents often represent as much as 30 to 40% of
run-of-the-mine products. These rock and mineral im-
purities are expensive to ship, dilute the caloric
content of the coal, and produce undesirable gaseous
and particulate pollutants when the coal is burned or
utilized. Consequently, much of the more highly min-
eralized coals-about one-half of the total mined in
the U.S.-is processed to remove some of the unwanted
mineral and rock materials. This is done by various
preparation methods, which utilize, for the most part,
density or flotation techniques to separate the
heavier mineral components from the lighter coal.
The discarded rock, mineral and coaly matter from
coal preparation facilities, together with other coal-
mine refuse, comprise the gob piles or culm banks
which are scattered over thousands of surface acres
in coal-producing regions.
Recent estimates are that nearly two billion
tons of carbonaceous mineral wastes have been accum-
ulated in the U.S. as a result of coal preparation
and mine development.(^) In addition, another 100
million tons or so is being added each year, and an-
nual production of waste is certain to increase as
the consumption of coal increases.!') This huge
mass of material has always been considered a nuisance
tied to the production of cleaner coal, and more
often than not, coal preparation wastes have simply
been discarded at a convenient place in the country-
side to be left to the processes of nature.
Coal waste is not only a problem for the coal
producer, who must dispose of it, often at consider-
able expense, but frequently these discarded wastes
represent a formidable hazard to the environment or
to public health or safety.0»2) There have been
many cases where dams or gob piles constructed of
coal wastes have collapsed with tragic consequences
for the people living nearby. The 1972 disaster at
Buffalo Creek, WV, and the tragedy at Aberfan, Wales,
a few years ago are vivid examples. Also, weathering
and leaching of coal waste dumps produce highly min-
eralized and often acidic solutions which drain into
surrounding areas.(2) These places suffer from severe
losses of soil fertility and a badly degraded aquatic
environment. Chemical degradation and oxidation of
coal wastes can also produce sufficient heat to ig-
nite the waste dump.(2) Presently, several hundred
gob piles are burning, and these are an appreciable
source of atmospheric pollution.(2)
In recent years, attempts have been made to cir-
cumvent some of the major environmental problems as-
sociated with coal refuse disposal.(3) To prevent
exposure to water and air, waste materials have been
crushed, carefully compacted, and then covered with
top soil or sealed with sludge, clay or other mater-
ials. Often coal debris is sealed into abandoned
mines or placed in stripped out areas. Substantial
effort to stabilize waste piles and banks by revege-
tation has been undertaken, and much work has gone
into methods of neutralizing acidic effluents. Al-
though these measures appear to solve the immediate
problem of stabilizing the structures of gob piles
and they seem to slow geological processes somewhat,
it is not clear how effective they will prove to be
in the long run.
In addition to these well recognized problems,
another potential environmental hazard is beginning
to gain attention. Coals, and undoubtedly coal
wastes, contain a broad array of trace or minor
elements.(4) Many of these trace elements, such as
lead, cadmium, arsenic, selenium, mercury, etc. are
of considerable concern because of the low tolerances
of plants and animals for them.(5) Undoubtedly many
of these trace elements are carried into the environ-
ment by aqueous transport and vaporization. Although
the relative amounts of these components per unit of
waste is usually small, the total absolute amount of
each available in a large waste bank could cause
grave consequences in water, soil or air if they were
concentrated by natural processes. (Alternatively,
of course, this suggests that it may be possible to
recover useful quantities of minor materials from
existing waste dumps.)
Several notable investigations of the composi-
tion of coal cleaning wastes, and the nature of the
drainage from waste disposal areas have been repor-
ted.(2,6,7) These have been concerned mainly with
the major mineral components and dissolved materials
from them. No comprehensive assessment of the chem-
istry and mineralogy of trace elements in coal refuse
materials has been done. Therefore, little is known
about the behavior of the various trace elements in
coal wastes under conditions of weathering, burning
and leaching. It is the objective of the EPA-
supported research program now underway at Los Alamos
Scientific Laboratory (LASL), and described herein,
to define potential environmental problems from trace
elements in coal processing wastes and develop suit-
able pollution-control measures should they be needed.
TECHNICAL DISCUSSION
Although little work has been done on the chem-
istry and mineralogy of trace elements in coal refuse
materials, enough information is available on minerals
and trace elements in coals to appreciate the pos-
sibilities for environmental degradation from this
source. The character of the major minerals and rock
types found in coals, coal-bearing strata and coal
refuse materials is fairly well established.!4) In
spite of some variation from locality to locality,
-------
and even within individual coal seams, certain classes
of minerals are almost always present in coals. These
minerals, listed in Table I, are the basic components
of sedimentary and secondary rocks, and other inor-
ganic matter, deposited adjacent to and within the
coal beds.
The clay minerals are present in coals and coal
refuse in greatest abundance. It is not unusual for
70% or more of the coal-associated inorganic matter
to be of this type. An average of 52% clay in the
mineral matter of 65 Illinois-Basin coals has been
reported.(4) Quartz was found to represent about 15%
and carbonates about 10%, while pyrites comprised
about 25% of the total mineral content in these coals.
Many trace elements or minor minerals are pre-
sent in coals and most should appear in the coal
waste materials. In all, about 40 trace or minor
elements have been identified in coals, and, undoubt-
edly others are present.(8) Except for a few elements,
which are thought to be almost exclusively associated
with the organic coal components, most of the trace
elements in coals are distributed among the major
mineral constituents.(4,9)
The relationships among selected trace elements
and major minerals have been studied in over one-
hundred Illinois coals.(10) This work suggests that
most trace elements in coals reside within the struc-
tures of the major minerals as impurities or minor
phases. As illustrated in Table II, a correlation was
found between certain trace elements and specific
mineral types. A consideration of this relationship
between trace elements and minerals in coals, leads
to the conclusion that trace elements in coal refuse
materials are not likely to respond independently to
weathering, leaching, burning or other chemical or
physical processes, but more likely will be tied
directly to the behavior of the major mineral com-
ponents.
The important steps in the weathering and
leaching of refuse banks or gob piles are relatively
well understood.(2,3,11] in the presence of water
and air, the pyrites present oxidize to produce sol-
uble salts and sulfuric acid solutions.* This pro-
cess requires both oxygen and water and is thought to
be aided by certain bacteria. Oxidation occurs most
rapidly at the exposed surfaces, and proceeds inward
at a rate which depends on the permeability of the
waste material to water and air. Overall, the pyrite
oxidation process is exothermic, so reaction heat may
become sufficiently high in the interior of the gob
The acid leaching of refuse materials is being des-
cribed here, because it is a highly visible, worse-
case example of the natural processes that can oc-
cur in these materials. Pyrites are present in most
coal wastes, so the potential for acid build-up
exists in most instances. The absence of pyritic
material, insufficient moisture, low permeability,
burning, high carbonate content, or other conditions
can prevent the formation or spread of acids in gob
dumps. It should not be concluded, however, that
all is well if the water moving through the wastes
is non-acidic. Available evidence shows that con-
siderable dissolution and transport of mineral matter
can also occur in these circumstances.U U
227
pile to ignite the waste materials. As the acidic
solutions formed by pyrite oxidation drain through
the wastes, .they can dissolve or alter other min-
eral types, such as the carbonates and some of the
clays.(i2) A series of complex chemical equilibria
eventually produces the highly mineralized, acidic
waste waters characteristic of the runoff from coal
mines and refuse dumps.
The fate of the trace elements in wastes sub-
jected to weathering or burning is for the most part
unknown. This gap in our understanding poses a num-
ber of questions regarding the behavior of trace
elements in coal waste materials. What happens to
the trace elements associated with the labile or
soluble minerals during waste-dump weathering and
burning? Do they distribute in solution in concen-
trations comparable to those in the solid phase, or
do ion exchange or partitioning effects with other
minerals or surrounding soils concentrate certain
trace elements? What is the effect of pH and re-
lative ionic strength on trace element behavior?
And finally, what effects do the various processes
used to control or treat drainage from waste dispos-
al areas have on the trace-elements content of these
solutions? These are important questions to be an-
swered before the possible environmental effects of
trace elements in coal refuse materials can be fully
assessed or understood, and appropriate control
measures can be developed.
PROGRAM OBJECTIVES
Recognizing the lack of information on which to
properly assess potential environmental problems from
trace elements in the vast quantities of coal
cleaning wastes, EPA has begun to support research
in this area. An EPA-funded program is now underway
at ERDA's Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, which is
being conducted under an Interagency Agreement be-
tween EPA and ERDA. Funding for this program was
begun in mid-1975. Current plans call for a 3-year
project designed to accomplish the following primary
objectives.
1. Identify the chemical forms, mineralogy and
associations of trace elements in coal refuse mat-
erials and establish an understanding of the chemi-
cal properties and behavior of these materials.
2. Determine the fate of trace elements during
the weathering and burning of coal wastes, and iden-
tify those elements or processes of possible environ-
mental concern.
3. Establish chemical or physical methods for
preventing or controlling environmental contamination
from trace elements in coal refuse.
4. Investigate methods for economically re-
moving or recovering useful trace minerals or metals
from coal refuse materials.
PROGRAM DISCUSSION
To accomplish the proposed objectives, the pro-
ject has been divided into three main tasks with 15
currently defined subtasks. Major milestones for
the program have been established; these will be re-
viewed and revised as necessary.
-------
228
Task I involves the planning and establishment
of the directions that the technical investigations
will take. This task covers the first 6 months of
the program and is nearly completed. During this
time, an extensive literature search on the chemistry
and environmental behavior of trace elements in coal
cleaning wastes was completed and a report and com-
mentary on the literature, as it pertains to the pre-
sent program, is being written. Methods and tech-
niques for analyzing trace elements and minerals in
coals and coal wastes were surveyed and those most
applicable were chosen. Also, decisions were made
concerning the coal waste materials with which to be-
gin the laboratory studies.
Task II encompasses the laboratory activities to
accomplish the first two program objectives. This
task began concurrently with Task I, and will contin-
ue for at least the first 2 years of the program.
The early parts of this task, devoted to develo-
ping and standardizing methods for analyzing trace
elements and minerals in coals and coal refuse, have
been completed. Also, representative samples of both
fresh and weathered coal cleaning refuse have been
collected.
The intermediate stages involve the characteri-
zation of the trace elements and minerals of both
fresh and weathered coal-waste samples, and prelimi-
nary identification of the trace elements of interest.
Also, a trace elements balance on a "typical" commer-
cial coal cleaning facility will be done to provide
information about the distribution of these elements
among the various products and waste streams.
The latter stages of task II involve studies of
the chemical behavior of trace elements in coal wastes.
The effects of weathering, leaching, oxidation and
combustion on the trace elements in refuse materials
will be investigated in the field and under simulated
environmental conditions in the laboratory. Various
computer-based models, designed to describe the be-
havior of minerals in aqueous solutions, will be used
to help direct the laboratory studies. Other studies
will include chemical agents or conditions not nor-
mally encountered in the environment. This work will
lead to the development of new or modified methods
for separating trace elements of interest from coal
wastes.
In Task III, the information and technology gen-
erated in the earlier tasks will be used to develop
means of removing or recovering trace elements of en-
vironmental or economic importance from coal cleaning
wastes. Although the overall success of the program
depends heavily on the success of this task, the
specific programmatic steps that will be taken are
difficult to define at this time. The removal or
recovery schemes will, however, involve chemical or
physical methods, or a combination of both, and are
to be considered as new, modified or add-on steps to
existing cleaning operations. Preliminary work in
Task III is scheduled to begin in the latter half of
the current fiscal year.
PROJECTION
This research program recognizes the greatly in-
creased role that cleaned or processed coal will
assume in the nation's energy picture, and reflects
a growing public concern with trace element releases
from fuel sources. The program is designed to pro-
vide a scientific assessment of potential environmen-
tal problems from trace elements in discarded coal
processing wastes, and to lay the technological
groundwork for assisting the coal industry in re-
moving, recovering or preventing releases of environ-
mentally harmful trace elements from coal refuse
materials.
Initial research will provide necessary data
and information about the character and behavior of
refuse-borne trace elements under waste-pile condi-
tions. Beyond this, it is difficult to comment on
the course of the investigation. However, the lat-
ter parts of the program, involving the development
of environmental control technology, are flexibly
designed so emphasis can be rapidly concentrated in
areas of need.
INTERAGENCY AGREEMENT AND RESOURCE ALLOCATION
This program is supported by pass-through funds
from EPA to ERDA under Interagency Agreement No.
IAG-D5-E681. The funding agency is the Industrial
• Environmental Research Laboratory of EPA at Research
Triangle Park, North Carolina, and the performing
agency is the ERDA Division of Environmental Control
Technology, Washington, D.C. Technical work for the
program is being conducted by ERDA's Los Alamos
Scientific Laboratory at Los Alamos, New Mexico.
Technical direction is provided jointly by EPA and
ERDA.
This is one of two such programs provided initial
funding in FY 76 by EPA. The other, a companion pro-
gram on the environmental aspects of sulfur in coal
processing wastes, is underway at Battelle, Columbus.
Funding allocated to LASL by EPA for FY 76 and
projected through FY 77 is as follows ($ X 103):
FY 76
300
FY 76A
FY 77
FY 78
Funding comparable to FY 76 anticipated
per EPA guide!ines.
Not yet budgeted.
CONCLUSIONS
Concern about environmental contamination from
trace elements in coal processing wastes Is well jus-
tified. However, so little is known about the nature
of these minor waste components, that it is difficult
to adequately assess the magnitude or extent of trace
element release from coal wastes. Nor is there
a sufficient understanding of the chemistry or be-
havior of trace elements in coal refuse materials on
which to base environmental control technology. The
EPA/ERDA interagency research program at LASL is de-
signed to address these problems from a fundamental
basis and provide rapid and practical solutions.
-------
REFERENCES
229
1. Moulten, L. K., Anderson, D. A. Hussain, S. M.,
and Seals, R. K., "Coal Mine Refuse: An Engi-
neering Material," paper presented at First Sym-
posium on Mine and Preparation Plant Disposal,
Louisville, Ky., October, 1974.
2. Coal gate, J. L., Akers, D. J., and Frum, R. W.,
"Gob Pile Stabilization, Reclamation, and Utili-
zation," OCR R and D Report No. 75, Interim Re-
port No. 1, 1973.
3. Boyer, J. F. and Gleason, V. E., J. Water Poll.
Contr. Fed., 44, 1088 (1972).
4. Gluskoter, H. J., "Mineral Matter and Trace
Elements in Coal," Chapter 1 in Trace Elements
in Fuel, S. P. Babu, Ed., Advances in Chemistry
Series, No. 141, ACS, Wash, D.C., 1975.
5. Piperno, E., "Trace Element Emmissions: Aspects
of Environmental Toxicology," Chapter 15 in Trace
Elements in Fuel, S. P. Babu, Ed., Advances in
Chemistry Series, No. 141, ACS, Wash., D.C., 1975.
6. Barnhisel, R. I. and Massey, H. F., Soil Science,
108, 367 (1969).
7. Augenstein, D. A. and Sun, S. C., Trans. AIME,
256, 161 (1974).
8. Magee, E. M., Hall, H. J. and Varga, G. M.,
Jr., "Potential Pollutants in Fossil Fuels,"
NTIS Report EPA-R2-73-249.
9. Zubovic, P., Adv. Chem. Series, 55_, 221 (1966).
10. Miller, W. G., "Relationships Between Minerals
and Selected Trace Elements in Some Pennsylvanian
Age Coals of Northwestern Illinois," MS Thesis,
Univeristy of Illinois, Urbana, 1974.
11. Martin, J. F., "Quality of Effluents from Coal
Refuse Piles," paper presented at First Symposium
on Mine and Preparation Plant Refuse Disposal,"
Louisville, Ky., October, 1974.
12. Barnhisel, R. I. and Rotromel, A. L., Soil
Science, 118. 22 (1974).
Table 1. Major Minerals in Coals
Aluminosilicates
Silica
Carbonates
Sul fides
(Clay minerals)
(Quartz)
(Limestone, dolomite, siderite)
(Pyrite)
Table 2. - Trace Elements - Minerals Correlations
: Pyrite
: Sphalerite
: Calcite
: Quartz
As, Be, Cu, Sb
B, Cd, Zn, Hg
B, Cd, Mn, Se, Mo, V
B, Cr, Mn, Cd, Mo, Se, V, Zn
B, Cu, F, Hg, Sn, V
Clays
-------
230
PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL COAL CLEANING FOR
POLLUTION CONTROL
James D. Kilgroe
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
Environmental Protection Agency
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
INTRODUCTION
Coal constitutes the greatest energy resource
now available to the U. S. It is .estimated that
coal reserves contain some 67 x. 10 BTU's* enough
to last 300 to 400 years under projected usage
rates. However, all coals contain minor and trace
elements which form pollutants during processing or
combustion. Coal may be used as an environmentally
acceptable energy source if suitable pollution con-
trol measures are taken.
Coal is primarily organic matter consisting of
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sulfur.
There are also trace amounts of other elements dis-
persed throughout the organic coal structure.
Various amounts of mineral matter are also present,
depending upon the characteristics of the individ-
ual coal and the method by which it was mined. The
residual ash formed by the combustion of commer-
cially used U. S. coals ranges between 3% and 20%,
the average being about 14% by weight. Combustion
of coal results in the fprmation of pollutants
which include oxides of sulfur and nitrogen plus
the elemental forms or compounds of beryllium,
chlorine, fluorine, arsenic, selenium, cadmium,
mercury, lead and other potential pollutants.
is the pollutant of prin-
emissions from coal com-
Sulfur dioxide (S
cipal concern. Annual SO,
bustion in 1974 were estimated to be 20.5 million
tons. This represents 65% ef the .total S02 emis-
sions for that year. On a national basis the 5.3
million tons, of NO emissions from coal combustion
represented 24% of the total 1974 NO emissions.
Emissions of other potentially hazardous elements or
compounds while not as large may present environ-
mental or health problems because of their concen-
tration in process waste streams, concentration in
the environment or effects produced by prolonged
exposure at low concentrations.
The applicability of coal desulfurization to
sulfur dioxide emission control is dependent upon
emission regulations which must be met. .Only 14%
of the 455 U. S. coals tested for physical cleana-
bility by the Bureau of Mines are capable of meet-
ing federal new source performance standards (NSPS)
for steam generators (1.2 Ib S0210 BTU).It
has been estimated that if physically cleaned to a
90% BTU recovery and a 1-1/2 in. top size 24% could
meet NSPS. Physically cleaned to the same BTU
recovery and top size, 35%.are capable of meeting
standards of 2.0 Ib S02/10 BTU while over 60% are
capable of meeting a standard of 4.0 Ib S02/10 BTU
[see figure 1). Many states have emission standards
as high as 4.0 Ib S02/10 BTU. Thus there may be a
significant application of physical coal cleaning to
meeting state emission regulations.
Chemical coal cleaning is capable of higher
levels of desulfurization. Thus it potentially has
a wider range of applicability. In some instances,
depending upon the coal, the emission regulation and
site specific considerations, it may be the most
cost effective method for S0_ emission control.
However, for other cases chemical coal cleaning may
not be competitive with either physical cleaning or
flue gas desulfurization. Figure 2 presents the
ranges of estimated costs and the degree of appli-
cability for different sulfur emission control
strategies.
TECHNICAL DISCUSSION
Although nitrogen and other elements are of
concern as pollutants, the primary emphasis in EPA's
programs has been the development of technology to
remove sulfur. The total sulfur content of American
coals varies from less than 1% to more than 6%. It
is present in coal in several forms. In the organic
form it is chemically bonded to the carbon atoms
and cannot be removed by physical methods. In Amer-
ican coals it generally represents from 20 to 85% of
the total sulfur present. The inorganic form is
present mainly as the chemical species ferrous
disulfide (FeS_), either in the form of pyrite or
its polymorph marcasite. In coals from different
coal regions of the U. S. there is a large varia-
bility in total sulfur content and in the ratio of
organic to inorganic sulfur. To a lesser extent
this rule of variability holds for coals from the
same region and even for coal from the same mine.
The specific properties of each coal will determine
its amenability to sulfur removal by physical or
chemical methods.. Thus processes for sulfur removal
must be based upon the chemical and physical prop-
erties of the coal to be used in the process. No
process is universally applicable to all coals.
*It is EPA policy to report measurements in the in-
ternational system of metric units. For clarity of
presentation, units used in this paper will be those
commonly used for engineering activities in the U.S.
Conversion factors are presented at the end of the
paper.
-------
231
Figure 3 presents estimates of the sulfur
levels which can be attained by various levels of
physical and chemical coal cleaning. A principal
objective of EPA's coal cleaning program is to iden-
tify and support development of various processes
capable of being used to meet SO- emission standards
in a commercially competitive manner. Corollary
objectives are the characterization of all pollu-
tants from these processes and the development of
appropriate pollution control technologies.
Physical Coal Cleaning
Physical coal cleaning to remove mineral matter
and mining residue has been carried out for the past
several decades using many physical separation tech-
niques singly or in combination. Techniques now
widely used on a commercial basis for the removal of
these impurities include jigging, heavy media sepa-
ration, tabling, and flotation. These methods
depend upon differences in physical properties of
the coal and impurities to achieve separation.
Since 1965 EPA, the Bureau of Mines, the Bituminous
Coal Research, Inc., and others have cooperatively
evaluated these and other techniques for the selec-
tive removal of pyrite from coal . Some of the
"other" techniques evaluated have included thermal-
magnetic separation, immiscible liquid separation,
selective flocculation, electrokinetic separation
and two-stage froth flotation. Techniques which
rely upon differences in specific gravities of the
coal and pyrite particles have been found to be the
most commercially viable for desulfurization. Froth
flotation which depends upon the surface properties
of the particles has also been found to be a useful
commercial technique.
Since some coals are more amenable than others
to sulfur removal by physical methods, studies have
been performed on over 455 U. S. coals to determine
pyrite liberation by size reduction and separation
by specific gravity differentials. The 455 samples
tested are from mines which provide more than 70%
of the'coal used in U. S. utility boilers. The
laboratory float-sink tests performed in media of
specific gravities ranging from 1.3 to 1.9 and size
fractions from a minus 1-1/2 inches to a minus 14
mesh, provide information on the pyritic sulfur which
can be removed from these coals. '
The results of these float-sink or cleanability
studies indicate that the pyritic sulfur removal
increases with reduced coal particle sizes and
specific gravities. Crushing to finer sizes liber-
ates more of the dense mineral matter from the coal
matrix and low media specific gravities allow more
of this dense material to sink. At low specific
gravities a cleaner product is obtained; i.e.,
ash and pyritic sulfur are decreased. However,
this clean product is obtained at the expense of
increased BTU losses. Theoretically at very fine
sizes a large percentage of the pyritic sulfur
could be released from the coal matrix and sepa-
rated without excessive BTU losses. This fact is
extremely important. It implies that to enhance
sulfur removal more of the coal must be crushed
and processed at finer sizes than historically
practiced in coal preparation. This will require
modifications to current processing plant design
practices. These design changes will necessarily
incorporate techniques for improved fine coal sepa-
ration, dewatering and drying. Modified pollution
control and waste dispos.al techniques will also be
required.
Table 1 presents data on the amounts of
pyritic sulfur which can be removed from coal sam-
ples from six regions by crushing to a top size of
3/8 in. and by separation at a specific gravity of
1.6. It is important to note that the pollutant
potentials of the cleaned coals represented by the
data in column 5 are significantly different. (The
term "pollutant potential" is used since it is
assumed that all the sulfur contained in the cleaned
coal is converted and emitted as SO..) For example
the average S0_ pollutant potential for the Northern
Appalachian, the Southern Appalachian and the
Eastern Midwest coal region samples are 2.7, 1.3,
and 4.2 Ib S02/10 BTU, respectively.
In addition to the large regional variability
in the amount of pyritic sulfur which can be removed,
there is also a variation in the coal cleanability
within a given region and even within a specific
mine. This variability in coal cleanability in a
given mine is graphically illustrated by the data
presented in figure 4.
Other studies supported by EPA have evaluated
the effectiveness of commercial equipment for the
removal of pyrltic sulfur. Physical coal clean-
ing development needs identified from these studies
include:
1. The continued evaluation of the sulfur
reduction potential of U.S. coals by
gravimetric separation.
2. The evaluation and characterization of
commercial coal preparation equipment in
separating pyritic sulfur from fine coal.
3. The development of equipment to monitor
and control the performance (sulfur
removal and BTU recovery) of coal prepara-
tion processes.
-------
232
4. The evaluation and development of improved
fine coal recovery and dewatering tech-
niques .
5. The characterization of air pollution emis-
sions and waste water effluents and the
development of improved pollution control
methods.
6. The evaluation and development of improved
fine coal residue disposal techniques.
7. An evaluation of the effects of physically
cleaned coal on boiler performance (pri-
marily with respect to tube fouling) and
stack particulate control device perform-
ance.
8. The demonstration of the above in commer-
cially operating coal preparation plants
and coal firing boilers.
Chemical Coal Cleaning
Chemical cleaning of coal, to selectively
remove pollutant-forming constituents while main-
taining the structural integrity of the coal matrix,
is a technological approach to pollution control
which is receiving increasing emphasis for research
and development. Unlike physical coal cleaning,
chemical cleaning is not now used in coal prepara-
tion processes. However, chemical coal cleaning, if
successfully developed, possesses the potential for
removing both organic and inorganic sulfur from
coal.
In chemical desulfurization processes, finely
ground coal is treated with a reagent under speci-
fic pressure and temperature conditions. The amount
of pyritic and organic sulfur removed from the coal
structure is dependent upon the coal particle size,
the coal physical and chemical properties, the
reagent, the pressure, the temperature and time of
reaction.
Early work supported by EPA demonstrated the
effectiveness of leaching for removing pyritic
sulfur from a variety of coals, including those not
amenable to physical desulfurization. Other studies
identified specific U. S. coals amenable to desul-
furization by pyrite leaching and evaluated proc-
esses capable of leaching organic sulfur.
Development work needed in the chemical desul-
furization of coal includes the performance of
additional bench and pilot scale work to define the
appropriate combinations of reactants, pressure,
and temperature for optimum sulfur removal. Once
these variables have been established for each of
the candidate processes then continuous pilot and
demonstration scale process studies must be per-
formed. Pollutant emission characteristics and the
pollution control methods needed for each of these
processes must also be evaluated.
PROGRAM DISCUSSION
EPA's coal cleaning program activities are con-
centrated in six major areas as shown in Table 2
and discussed below.
General Support
Work under this area may encompass a wide
range of activities from aid in arranging symposiums
to the performance of test and evaluation work
needed in support of other programs being conducted
for EPA. Most generally this work is provided under
service contracts, basic ordering agreements or
major level of effort contracts.
Input Material Characterization
A major activity has been the identification
of pollution forming elements in U. S. coals. Pre-
vious work in this area has been supported by EPA
and the U. S: Bureau of Mines. The U. S. Geological
Survey and ERDA are now actively engaged in setting
up a comprehensive computerized inventory listing
of the elemental compositions of U. S. coals. The
Bureau of Mines, supported in part by EPA funds, is
continuing to characterize the sulfur and ash
release potentials of U. S. coals under gravimetric
separation conditions (float-sink tests).
Environmental Source Assessment
A single 3-year, 60,000 man-hour level of
effort contract will be used to assess the environ-
mental impact of coal handling, coal transportation,
physical coal cleaning processes and chemical coal
cleaning processes. Under this contract, tests will
be performed to characterize the multi-media pollu-
tant emissions from those various unit operations
associated with the production of a cleaned coal.
The best current pollution control technology will
be identified, as will the need for the development
of improved control technologies. Trade-off studies
will be performed to determine the most cost effec-
tive and least environmentally damaging mixes of
pollution control techniques. These trade-off
studies will necessarily encompass a comparison of
various clean fuel strategies; i.e., a comparison
of physical coal cleaning, chemical coal cleaning,
flue gas desulfurization, or combinations thereof.
Proposals for performance of this contract have
been received and are under evaluation.
Control Technology Development
Development of technology for pollution abate-
ment and control will be performed under EPA con-
tracts and under an interagency agreement with the
Bureau of Mines. Work directed by the Bureau of
Mines will include research on: surfactants to
improve the performance of vacuum filters, the con-
trol of processing plant black water, surface
-------
233
phenomena in coal dewatering and adsorption/
desorption reactions in coal pyrite flotation.
Work to be performed under EPA contract will ini-
tially be limited to an assessment of control tech-
nology development needs. Technology development
activities will be initiated as development needs
are identified.
Physical Coal Cleaning Development
Physical coal cleaning technology for sulfur
removal is also being developed jointly by EPA and
the Bureau of Mines. The Bureau's work is supported
both by funds from EPA and the Department of the
Interior. Work planned or in progress at the
Bureau of Mines or contracted by the Bureau of
Mines with EPA funds includes:
1. Design, construction and operation of a
coal cleaning test facility.
2. Demonstration of two-stage froth-flotation
circuitry in a commercially operating
plant.
3. Development of a coal cleaning plant com-
puter simulator model.
4. Research on improved magnetite recovery
from fine coal.
5. An evaluation of instrumentation needed
for monitoring and precise control of
preparation plant clean coal products.
6. Development of equipment for the magnetic
separation of pyrite from coal.
7. Development of an improved circuit for
media density control.
8. Evaluation of a coal waste stabilization
agent.
9. Commercial evaluation of a technique for
agglomeration and dewatering of coal
preparation wastes.
Work supported by EPA will be primarily con-
ducted under a large 3-year contract to assess
and develop coal cleaning technology. Major work
tasks under this contract (proposals are now being
evaluated) will also include activities in support
of chemical coal cleaning development. Activities
under this contract will include:
1. Experimental work to assess the degree to
which pyritic sulfur is separated from
coal in commercial coal cleaning plants.
2. An evaluation of fine coal dewatering and
handling techniques.
3. An evaluation of coal preparation require-
ments for synthetic fuel conversion
processes.
4. Economic and bench-scale evaluations of
selected chemical coal cleaning processes.
5. The evaluation and development of pollution
control techniques for coal preparation
processes.
6. An evaluation of the effects of coal clean-
ing on the performance of user system
(boilers, electrostatic precipitators,
etc.).
7. The performance of cost and pollution
trade-off studies on coal preparation
equipment and processes.
In addition to the above activities, EPA and
the Bureau of Mines are considering support of a
demonstration of physical coal cleaning in meeting
federal and state emission standards. The General
Public Utilities Corp. (GPU) is planning to use
physical coal cleaning for this purpose at the
Pennsylvania Electric Company (PENELEC) Homer City
Plant. Their emission control strategy, called the
multi-stream coal cleaning strategy (MCCS), will
use two streams of physically cleaned coal from a
single processing plant. One cleaned coal stream
will be used to meet Pennsylvania emission standards
of 4.0 Ib S02/10 BTU in two existing boilers. The
other coal stream will be used to meet federal New
Source Performance Standards (1.2 Ib S02/10 BTU) in
a boiler now under construction. Bureau of Mines
support for this program will probably include
development work on portions of the fine coal clean-
ing circuit and technical consultation on the
design, operation and testing of the demonstration
plant. EPA will probably support the test and
evaluation activities at the demonstration plant.
Chemical Coal Cleaning Development
Chemical coal cleaning development activities
currently supported by EPA include: the design,
construction and operation of a pilot plant test
facility to evaluate the chemical leaching of
pyrite from coal; and bench scale work to evaluate
other chemical desulfurization processes.
The IERL-RTP program in chemical coal cleaning
was initiated early in 1970 with a screening study
at TRW of chemicals for sulfur and nitrogen removal
from coal. This initial study led to the identifi-
cation of a process possessing considerable merit
for the near-total removal of inorganic sulfur from
coal. A consistently high level of inorganic sulfur
removal was achieved regardless of the variations in
the coal being evaluated. This process has con-
tinued to evolve under EPA support until, at the
present time, work is underway at TRW on the con-
struction of a 250 pound per hour experimental test
facility. Termed the Meyers Process, initial shake-
down and operation of this facility
-------
234
should be realized early in 1977. In support of
test unit program a broad program of basic experi-
mentation will be conducted to evaluate the commer-
cial applicability of the process.
During the early (1972-73) period of work on
the Meyers Process consideration was given to other
chemical coal cleaning projects which were underway.
The U. S. Bureau of Mines was studying the cleana-
bility of coal using aqueous caustic solutions, but
the early results showed no greater potential for
sulfur removal than that achievable by the Meyers
Process. The Institute of Gas Technology (IGT) was
examining the potential for coal hydrotreatment at
low pressures in the presence of an acceptor mate-
rial for the selective removal of organic and inor-
ganic sulfur from coal. As a result of the IGT work,
a program was initiated by EPA to study the poten-
tial of this process in the removal of organic
sulfur from coal. The viability of the reaction
system was confirmed and a modified experimental
program has been initiated to establish overall
process requirements.
Within the past two years a number of other
concepts for chemical cleaning of coal have been
reported. Discussions have been held with a number
of organizations who are experimentally evaluating
chemical coal cleaning. As a result of discussions
with Battelle, an EPA program has been initiated to
study the Battelle Hydrothermal Process for the
removal of organic and inorganic pollutants from
coal. Under this program experiments are being con-
ducted to define the combustion products from the
feed and cleaned coal. The primary objective of the
study is to determine the operating conditions which
maximize pollutant removal from the product coal.
Additional tests will be performed to characterize
the spent leachant, to define disposal requirements
and to evaluate possible by-product uses for process
residuals.
Programs on two other processes to study both
inorganic and organic constituent removal through
novel concepts for wet and for dry coal cleaning are
also being evaluated. It is expected that comprehen-
sive feasibility test programs will be performed to
establish the overall technical merits of these two
systems.
Several other chemical coal cleaning methods
are being evaluated by EPA for possible support, and
open advertisement for additional chemical coal
cleaning technology development work is being con-
sidered.
Proj ection
The relatively low costs of physical and chemi-
cal coal cleaning processes will make these pollution
abatement techniques increasingly attractive in
future years. Coals which are amenable to physical
cleaning for pyritic sulfur removal will be identi-
fied and used in preference to other coal sources.
In some instances a combination of physical coal
cleaning and flue gas desulfurization will be used
as the most economical method of sulfur emission
control. Although physical coal preparation is now
widely used for ash and mining waste removal, the
use of this technology for sulfur removal will
probably not be widely used until 1985 or 1990. The
major development focus for physical coal cleaning
will be in the areas of:
1. Improved techniques for separation of fine
coal and pyrite.
2. Improved process control to ensure that
the product coal meets sulfur, ash and BTU
specifications.
3. Improved techniques for dewatering and
handling of coal fines.
4. Improved pollution control and waste
disposal methods.
Chemical coal cleaning has a wider area of
application than physical coal cleaning, as a greater
fraction of the total sulfur can be removed. Cost
estimations indicate that chemical cleaning should
be cost competitive with flue gas desulfurization
and the new synthetic fuel conversion processes.
However, additional chemical coal cleaning tech-
nology development is needed before this method of
sulfur emission control is widely used.
RESOURCE ALLOCATION
From FY 65 to FY 73, EPA and its predecessor
organizations allocated over $6 million to research
and development of coal cleaning programs. Since
FY 74 the availability of new resources for energy
related research has enabled EPA and the Bureau of
Mines to support the research, development and
demonstration programs which are needed to acceler-
ate the commercialization of coal cleaning processes
for the control of pollution from coal combustion.
Funds allocated by EPA for coal cleaning since FY 74
are as follows:
EPA Direct
Interagency Agreement
(Bureau of Mines § ERDA)
Total
*Projected Budget
FY74
1076
200
1276
($1,000)
FY75 FY76
3430
900
4330
2470
1080
3550
-------
235
CONCLUSIONS
Previous programs to develop physical and
chemical coal cleaning as techniques for pollution
control have:
0 Provided a preliminary data base on the
physical cleaning potential of U.S. coals.
0 Demonstrated that technology commercially
used for the removal of inert matter from
coal can be used for the removal of pyritic
sulfur.
0 Demonstrated at bench scale the effectiveness
of leaching as a means of removing pyrite
from a variety of coals, including those not
amenable to physical desulfurization.
0 Identified specific coals amenable to desul-
furization by pyrite leaching.
0 Estimated' the costs and environmental bene-
fits of physical and chemical coal cleaning
process for pollution control measures.
Current and future development activities will
focus on:
1. The assessment of environmental impacts of
physical and chemical coal cleaning
processes.
2. Development and demonstration of improved
coal cleaning techniques.
3. Development and demonstration of improved
pollution control techniques.
4. Yeager, K. E., and L. Hoffman, The Physical
Desulfurization of Coal--Major Considerations
for SO Emissions Control, Proceedings of the
American Power Conference, Vol. 33, 1971.
CONVERSION FACTORS
1 Ib = 0.4536 kg
1 ft = 0.3048 m
1 BTU = 1054.88 J
1 ton = 0.9072 metric ton
1 BTU/lb = 2326 J/kg
REFERENCES
Cavallaro, J.. A., M. T. Johnston and A. W.
Deurbrouck, Sulfur Reduction Potential of_ the
Coals of the United States A Revision £f
Report of Investigations 7653, U. S. Depart-
ment of Interior, to be published March 1976.
Hoffman, L., J. B. Truett and S. J. Aresco, An
Interpretative Compilation gf EPA Studies
Related tp_ Coal Quality and Cleanability, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Report EPA-
650/2-74-030 (NTIS No. PB 232-011/AS), Wash-
ington, D. C., May 1974.
Deurbrouck, A. W., Sulfur Reduction Potential
of the Coal of the United States, U. S. Depart-
ment of Interior, Bureau of Mines Report of
Investigation RI 7633 (EPA Report No. APTD
1365), 1972.
-------
236
Figure
1. Percent of U55 United States coal samples
meeting the current EPA new source per-
formance standard for steam generators
(Eef. 1).
2 46 8 10 12 14
COAL POLLUTANT POTENTIAL, Ib SO /1Q6 RTU
Figure 2. Cost of sulfur control.
I
90 100
SULFUR CONTROL, t
Figure 3- Potential levels of desulfurization
for U.S. utility coals.
A
Q
W
W
2
Federal EPA Standard
100 r
80
60
40
20
Note:
^Assuming 12,500 BTU/lb, coal
must be cleaned to 0.75% S to
meet Federal new source
performance standards for
steam boilers
1.0
>-0 3.0
SULFUR CONTENT, %
4.0
5.0
-------
237
figure U. Variations in total sulfur, sulfur forms,
and pyrite removed by physical cleaning
of face samples, Pittsburgh seam coal
from a single mine in Greene County,
Pennsylvania (ref. h].
Table 1. Summary of the Physical Desulfurization
Potential of Coals by Region (l) (a)
Cumulative analyses of float 1.60 product
Calorific efficiency
Pyrttic Total SO /10 BTU per NSPS (d)
Ash sulfur. sulfur BTLUb) pound (c) percent
Northern
Appalachian
Southern
Appalachian
Alabama
Eastern Midwest
Western Midwest
Uesurn
Total U. E.
96. i
U. 19
1.86 2.7 13,766
0.91 i.j 14,197
96.i, S.a 0.41
94.9 /.D L.03
91.7 8.3 1.80
97.6 b.J 0.10
93.0 7.5 0.85
1.16
2.74
3.59
0.56
1.7 14,264
n.i 13,138
5.5 13,209
0.9 12,779
3.0
Table 2. Summary of Physical and Chemical
Coal Cleaning Program
General Support
Dissemination of information manuals and reports
0 Program Support
Input Material Characterization
0 Sulfur and ash release potential (washabilities)
Characterization of coal and residues for trace elements
and mineral matter
Contaminant removal techniques
Environmental Source Assessment
Physical and chemical coal cleaning
Multi-media discharges from existing and new techniques
or methods
Applicability of existing control technology
Identification of needed new or modified controls
Control Technology Development
0 Development/assist in development of control techniques
0 Dewatering of coal and black water control
Coal refuse pond elimination
Physical Coal Cleaning Development
0 Development and demonstration of two-stage froth-flotation techniques
0 Assist in design and construction of a coal cleaning pilot plant
0 Development of a physical coal cleaning computer model
0 Demonstration of the use of physical coal cleaning to meet emission
standards
Chemical Coal Cleaning Development
0 Design, construction and operation of a test reactor for chemical leaching
of pyrite
0 Evaluation of chemical cleaning technology concepts
Summary of the compoait
•it 1.6 specific gravity
Moisture free basis.
elficlencv o
Standards fo
-------
238
COAL PREPARATION
Albert W. Deurbrouck
U.S. Department of the Interior
Bureau of Mines
Coal Preparation and Analysis Group
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
INTRODUCTION
Coal Preparation is a proven technology for
upgrading raw coal by physical removal of associ-
ated impurities. The physical upgrading of metal-
lurgical grade coal has long been considered a
necessity; however, the full potential of coal
preparation as a means to upgrade steam coals has
yet to be realized. Large reserves of low- to
intermediate-sulfur content coals can be upgraded
by physical means to meet the new source S02 emis-
sion standards established by EPA.
Current emphasis in coal preparation research
is principally directed at upgrading fine size coal,
particularly removing pyrite. Continuing coal
washability studies clearly show the significant
sulfur reduction potential of stage-crushing and
specific gravity separations. Much work is underway
to maximize usable coal recovery.
Sulfur in coal occurs in three forms: organic,
sulfate, and pyritic. Organic sulfur is an integral
part of the coal matrix and, generally, cannot be
removed by direct physical separation. It comprises
from 30 to 70 percent of the total sulfur in most
coals. The sulfate-sulfur content is normally an
oxidation product which is water soluble and there-
fore readily removed during coal cleaning. Sulfate-
sulfur contents in coals are generally less than
0.05 percent. Pyritic sulfur occurs in coal as dis-
crete, although sometimes microscopic-sized, parti-
cles. It is a heavy mineral with a specific grav-
ity of about 5.0. In many U.S. coals, the pyritic
sulfur is approximately 60 to 70 percent of the
total sulfur content of the coal. Such coals are
obvious candidates for significant upgrading by
conventional coal beneficiation techniques.
COAL WASHABILITY
All coal cleaning methods in general use, ex-
cept froth flotation, rely upon specific gravity
separation. Consequently, the specific gravities
of the impurities associated with coal are of pri-
mary importance. Other factors being equal, the
heavier impurities can be removed in the cleaning
operation more easily than can the lighter impuri-
ties, which approach in density the coal from which
they are to be separated. To determine the prepa-
ration methods and the equipment needed to clean
coal, information is needed on size and specific
gravity distribution of the raw coal; moisture, ash,
and sulfur contents; heating values (Btu content);
and ash fusibility. Washability studies are being
conducted to determine the quantity and quality of
coal that can be produced at a given specific grav-
ity of separation.
A washability study of a coal is made by test-
ing the coal sample at preselected, carefully con-
trolled specific gravities. This is commonly
termed "float-sink" analysis and/or specific gravity
fractionation. The specific gravity fractions are
dried, weighed, and analyzed for ash and sulfur
content. These data are mathematically combined on
a weighted basis and used to develop the "washa-
bility curves" that are characteristic of the coal.
A study was initiated in 1965 to determine the
sulfur release potential of coals from principal
utility coal producing coalbeds of the U. S. This
study, initially funded by the National Air Pollu-
tion Control Administration, is currently being
funded by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).
To date, a total of 455 samples have been
evaluated. All of the samples were collected from
working mines producing steam coals; where possible,
the largest mines from a specific bed were sampled.
Washability analyses performed on these samples
show the effect of crushing on the liberation of
pyritic sulfur and other impurities.
The 455 raw coal samples contained an average
of 14.0 percent ash, 1.91 percent pyritic sulfur,
3.02 percent total sulfur, and 12,574 Btu per pound.
This is equivalent to 4.8 pounds S02/M Btu fired at
the powerplant. For a coal to meet the current new
source sulfur emission standard of 1.2 pounds of
SOz/M Btu, a coal of 12,500 Btu per pound having a
sulfur content of 0.75 percent or less would be re-
quired. Clearly, a formidable sulfur problem exists
in U. S. coals. However, 63 percent of the sulfur
in these coals was pyritic, so significant sulfur
reductions by physical coal cleaning is possible.
The ash, pyritic sulfur, total sulfur, and
heating value contents varied considerably as would
be expected when washability data of coals from
various regions of the U. S. are evaluated.
The coals in the eastern U. S. ranged in rank
from low- to high-volatile bituminous.. The low-
volatile coals found in the southern part of this
area contained, on the average, 1.0 percent total
sulfur and 13,314 Btu per pound. Generally, they
could be upgraded after crushing and gravimetric
separation to meet the new source sulfur emission
standard.
The high-volatile coals found in the northern
part of this area contained, on the average, 2.01
percent pyritic sulfur, and 3.01 percent total sul-
fur. Crushing these coals to 14 mesh top size and
removing the sink 1.40 specific gravity material
would provide an average product analyzing 0.43 per-
cent pyritic sulfur and 1.46 percent total sulfur.
Thus, physical coal cleaning could provide reduc-
tions in pyritic sulfur of 76 percent and total
sulfur of 46 percent.
-------
239
The coals of the midwest U.S. were, on the
average, high sulfur content coals analyzing 2.70
percent pyritic sulfur and 4.34 percent total sul-
fur. Because of the high average organic sulfur
content of 1.63 percent, these coals generally could
not be upgraded to meet the new source sulfur emis-
sion standard. However, crushing these coals to
14 mesh top size and removing the sink 1.40 specific
gravity material, reduced average pyritic sulfur by
68 percent and average total sulfur by 37 percent.
The coals of the western U. S. are generally
of low sulfur content as mined, averaging 0.68 per-
cent total sulfur; however, these coals contain up
to 40 percent inherent moisture, and, consequently,
they are low-Btu content coals that barely meet, on
the average, the 1.2 pounds of S02/M Btu new source
emission standard.
FROTH FLOTATION
The program for development of fine coal clean-
ing techniques to remove sulfur has resulted in the
development of a two-stage pyrite flotation process.
Early experimental work showed that the quantity of
pyrite reporting with the clean coal float product
increased with increasing additions of the frothing
agent. In addition, several polyvalent metal salts
such as ferric chloride, aluminum chloride, chromium
chloride, and cupric sulfate were found to be pyrite
depressants. Apparently, these positively charged
ions are adsorbed on the pyrite surface. This hy-
pothesis was supported by zeta potential determina-
tions which showed that suspended coal and pyrite
particles in solutions containing metal salts are
positively charged in the pH range where depression
occurs.
Effective sulfur reductions with high coal re-
covery were also achieved by two-stage rougher-
cleaner flotation in which the clean coal froth
concentrate from the first stage was refloated. In
all of this earlier work, it was recognized that a
portion of the pyrite reported to the clean coal
froth product because it was either too fine a size
and became mechanically entrapped in the froth, or
it was attached to floatable coal. To combat this
problem, a unique froth flotation process was de-
veloped and patented by the Bureau to remove pyritic
sulfur from fine size coal. The process consists of
a first-stage standard coal flotation in which high
ash refuse and the coarse- or shale-associated
pyritic sulfur are removed as tailings. The first
stage coal froth concentrate is then repulped in
fresh water, the pH is maintained below 7, and a
pyrite collector and a frother are added to float
any pyritic material carried over with the first
stage froth. A coal depressant is also added, and
the second stage underflow is collected as the final
clean coal product.
Laboratory and pilot plant flotation tests with
coals from various coalbeds throughout the eastern
U. S. showed that pyritic sulfur reductions of up to
90 percent could be achieved using this technique.
MISCELLANEOUS CLEANING
The commonly used fine coal cleaning devices
such as tables, dense medium cyclones, hydro-
cyclones, and jigs which have application for py-
ritic sulfur reduction have been well developed.
It is quite possible that only small technological
advances can be made in the separating performance
of these units at disproportionately high research
and development cost. There would appear to be
little need for such work at this time. However,
there is no viable technique for dry removal of
pyritic sulfur from coal. This represents an area
of obvious need and much interest today.
A number of wet and dry magnetic separation
techniques have been advanced in the past but to
date have been found lacking. Early work in con-
version of pyrite to a magnetic mineral pyrrhotite
proved to be quite expensive and difficult to im-
plement. Work on high field gradient magnetic
separators is now being undertaken, and a technique
has been developed by which the admixture of a dry
chemical to the coal enhances the magnetic sus-
ceptibility of the pyrite and other coal associated
impurities. These are interesting approaches which
may prove quite fruitful.
CHEMICAL COAL PREPARATION
For coal preparation to be a totally viable
process in the long range picture, however, some re-
moval of organic sulfur must be obtained. To this
end, considerable interest is now being generated
in the development of a chemical process for removal
of organic sulfur from the coal molecule without the
destruction of the physical characteristics of the
coal particle. Organic chemists have shown, on a
laboratory scale, the theoretical possibility of
such a technique.
Several chemical methods for sulfur removal
have been developed and investigated at the Pitts-
burgh Energy Research Center. The one which cur-
rently shows the most practicality requires only the
simplest of reagents, air and water. Heating coal
with compressed air (400 to 1,000 psi) and water to
between 150° C. and 200° C. at residence times from
5 minutes to 1 hour converts all the pyritic sulfur
as well as up to 45 percent of the organic sulfur to
aqueous sulfate (most of it appears as sulfuric
acid). This extensive sulfur removal would make a
large amount of eastern and midwestern coal environ-
mentally acceptable for boiler fuel.
A dozen representative coals, spread geograph-
ically from Pennsylvania to Iowa, have been investi-
gated for ease of sulfur removal using a standard
set of reaction conditions in a stirred batch
autoclave system. Under 800 psi initial pressure of
air, over 90 percent of the pyritic sulfur has been
removed from each of these coals at 150° C. In the
case of coals which are naturally low in organic
sulfur content but high in pyritic sulfur, this sim-
ple treatment is sufficient to make them suitable
-------
240
for use as fuel. At somewhat higher temperatures,
180° C. to 200° C., a portion of the organic sulfur
is also oxidized to water-soluble sulfate. In the
case of an Indiana No. 5 bed coal, 45 percent of
the organic sulfur, as well as practically all of
the pyritic sulfur, was removed as aqueous sulfate
after treatment with compressed air and water at
200° C. An Indiana coal from Spencer County, con-
taining 5.8 percent sulfur, lost 83 percent of its
total sulfur yielding a product with less than
1 percent sulfur.
Total energy efficiency of the process is
high. Only about 3 to 7 percent of the Btu value
of the coal is lost due to addition of oxygen.
Since this oxidation reaction is exothermic, most
of this energy can be recovered as heat used within
the process. Recoverable fuel value for this
process should be near 90 percent. Much lower
values have been reported for alternative methods
of providing low sulfur fuels from coal.
LIGNITE UPGRADING
The lignite coal deposits of Montana and
North Dakota represent one of the largest rela-
tively untapped fossil fuel reserves in the U. S.
totalling more than 220,000 million tons of re-
coverable low sulfur content reserves. Most of
these reserves can be easily and inexpensively
mined as the relatively thick coalbeds lie close
to the surface. However, lignite utilization has
been limited because of the material's high inher-
ent moisture content, tendency to spontaneously
combust, and often high sodium content. The aver-
age Montana-North Dakota lignite contains about
40 percent moisture, 6,700 Btu/lb, and up to 1.2
percent sodium.
A research program is now underway at the
Bureau of Mines to upgrade this coal to a product
containing less than 10 percent moisture, about
10,000 Btu/lb, and 0.3 percent sodium. At this
time, we envision the final product as a pellet of
sufficient mechanical strength to resist breakage
during shipment and storage. Further, a well com-
pacted pellet will be resistant to spontaneous
combustion. This research project is basically a
novel application of known technologies. The raw
lignite, crushed to about 1/8 inch top size, will
go to an ion exchange vessel where its inherent
sodium content will be reduced to acceptable
levels. The material will then be agglomerated
into pellets of about 1/4 inch diameter. The
pellets will be heat-dried to contain 5 to 10 per-
cent total moisture.
FINE COAL DEWATERING
The most persistent and vexing problem asso-
ciated with coal processing is the dewatering and
drying of the clean coal and reject products.
Fine coal handled or cleaned in slurry form in
coal preparation plants is dewatered to render it
suitable for conveying and blending, to decrease
its transportation cost, and increase its effec-
tive calorific value. Fine refuse dewatering is
especially difficult and poses some serious envi-
ronmental problems. Removal of water from coal
represents a significant portion of the overall
cost of coal washing. Research is being carried
out on the dewatering of fine size coal and refuse
with emphasis on improving mechanical dewatering
processes and minimizing the need for thermal dry-
ing. Vacuum filtration research in the laboratory
has shown that fine size coal can be dewatered
effectively by washing the filter cake with hot
water containing hydrocarbon-type surfactants
during the normal air drying cycle. It was found
that the moisture content of filtered coal can be
reduced to about 10 percent. If this technique
can be comrnercially applied, the need for thermal
driers would be greatly reduced.
In the western states where water is often
scarce and the principal coal associated impurity
is high ash rock, pneumatic coal cleaning processes
should have application. At least one new device
is now available, the FMC dry separator. This is
a vibrating inclined table that appears to make an
acceptable separation.
Coal preparation, an old friend, could well
become one of the glamorous new technologies to
emerge as a result of the energy crisis.
-------
241
ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL FOR OIL SHALE PROCESSING
Thomas J. Powers
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
Cincinnati, Ohio
INTRODUCTION
A significant source of potentially available
energy in the United States is oil shale. The vast
oil shale deposits are estimated to contain 2,200
billion barrels of oil, primarily throughout the
Green River Formation in Colorado, Utah, and Wyoming.
It is estimated that one ton of this oil shale can
produce more than 25 gallons of oil. Lower quality
oil shale is located throughout the United States
which could provide over 40,000 billion barrels of
oil if adequate extraction techniques could be de-
veloped. As we develop this resource, it will be
necessary to protect the environment through appli-
cation of adequate control technologies for the min-
ing and processing of oil shale. Because of the
magnitude of these processing' activities and poten-
tial for environmental damage, the EPA has under-
taken programs that will lead to the identification,
development and/or demonstration of cost-effective
pollution control technology. The urgency of oil
shale process development necessitates a rapid
response in environmental protection methodology.
The overall strategy for oil shale environ-
mental R&D by the Environmental Protection Agency
relates to six major activities: exploration, min-
ing, shale preparation, processing, land reclama-
tion, and product transportation. EPA's R&D efforts
for controlling emissions, effluents and solid waste
residues include environmental impact analyses,
pollutant characterization, available control tech-
nology evaluations, and development and demonstra-
tion of new pollution control techniques.
OIL SHALE PROCESSES
1. Technical Discussion
The characteristics of emissions, effluents,
and solid waste residues will be dependent upon the
oil shale processes employed in developing the re-
source. The specific processes selected will depend
on such factors as geology, economics, and
governmental regulations.
Oil shale exploration activities are similar to
those for coal. Development of the regional ap-
praisal is derived from information on exposed rock
formations and extensive drilling and coring evalu-
ations. A large portion of effort centers on evalu-
ation of the Piceance Basin principally by the
United States Geological Survey.
The processing of oil shale proceeds in one of
two directions: (1) shale can be mined and then
processed on the surface; or (2) the rock can be
processed underground (in situ) with the resulting
liquids (oil fractions) withdrawn by wells. The
mining of oil shale can be by surface mining or
underground mining technologies.
Surface mining of shale would involve the same
activities as for surface coal mines: surface pre-
paration, fracturing and excavation. The drilling,
blasting, and excavation technologies for surface
coal apply to oil shale with the exception that oil
shale zones can be over 1,000 feet thick and the re-
sulting shale surface mines are more like limestone
quarries or open-pit copper mines with several
working benches.
Underground mining has been the only process
utilized to date for oil shale mining in the U.S.
and is similar to underground coal mining generally.
The shale underground mining process differs from
that for coal due to the greater thickness and hard-
ness of producing zones. Underground oil shale
mines will probably use the room and pillar approach
(on the order of 60 feet square) as the most effi-
cient method for deep mining hard materials. The
floor to ceiling clearance will probably range from
60 to 80 feet.
Preparation of the oil shale is necessary since
the feedstock for shale processing must be within
certain physical limits. The preparation activity
will be crushing and sizing depending on the needs
of the processing technology to be used. If the
processor cannot accept fine particles, these parti-
cles would be removed, crushed further, mixed with
oil and formed into briquettes large enough to be
used. If the processor can accept fine particles,
the three-inch material coming from the initial
crushing operation is further size-reduced to the
maximum particle size that the process'can accept
but is not screened. After any of the crushing
stages, the oil shale may be stockpiled to assure an
uninterrupted supply.
Processing of oil shale involves retorting and
refining to recover the hydrocarbons present in the
shale. The oil shale retorting stage is the part of
the process where the major technological choices
are being made. Shale oil refining operations will
involve a number of processing and product options
somewhat similar to those in petroleum refining.
Shale oil is formed by the pyrolysis or distil-
lation of organic matter (Kerogen) found in shale-
like rock. The organic material has limited solu-
bility in ordinary solvents and cannot be easily
recovered by extraction. Upon strong heating, the
organic material decomposes into gas, condensible
liquids and residual carbonaceous material remaining
on the spent shale.' The major retorting steps in-
volve the heating of the solid material to the
-------
242
proper temperature and the recovery of the vapor
evolved. However, for a commercially feasible pro-
cess, it is necessary to consider and properly
choose one of the many possible methods of physically
moving the solid material through a vessel in which
the retorting is to be carried out, as well as many
other interrelated variants and operating parameters.
Retorting of oil shale can be classified into
four categories: gas combustion (partial gas com-
bustion to supply the heat for the pyrolysis reac-
tions), solid heat transfer, in-ground processes (in-
situ), and other miscellaneous processes. In an
effort to provide an economically attractive process,
literally hundreds of retorting processes have been
proposed over the years, each of which offers a
somewhat different choice of operating conditions.
Leading retorting operations developers include:
Union "B", Union "SGR", Tosco II, Occidental (JJT_-
situ), Westco (in-situ) and Superior.
2. Program Discussion
A specific R&D program directed toward process
control and treatment technology was initiated in
1974. The current EPA program (see Figure 1) encom-
passes a TRW Study, Colorado State University's
Shale Leaching and Hydrology Modeling Project,
Radian's Air Pollution Emission Estimates, The Uni-
versity of Oklahoma/Radian's Technology Assessment
of Western Energy Resource Development, and coopera-
tive efforts with EPA's Region VIII (Denver).
Region VI'II's overall activities include: (1) base-
line surface water quality data collection; (2)
aquatic-terrestrial-eco-system study; (3) instream
needs model; (4) air quality monitoring; (5) meteor-
ology; (6) groundwater prediction and modeling; (7)
air pollutant emissions from specific oil shale fa-
cilities; (8) noise control programs; (9) air quality
maintenance plan development; (10) drinking water
survey; (11) health impacts of energy related com-
munity; (12) socioeconomic impacts; (13) areawide
waste treatment management plans (208 Grants); and
(14) facilities planning fund's (201 Grants).
A preliminary evaluation of environmental im-
pacts of oil shale processing is currently underway.
The TRW Study will produce an interim report
scheduled for completion in June of 1976. A con-
current effort by TRW is being made to provide an
updated assessment including pollutant characteri-
zation and results of field testing by July of 1977.
The third task will be to provide a manual of prac-
tice on the best available control technologies by
November of 1978. The year-long effort will con-
sider all previous research and applications of
control technology to oil shale development. The
fourth task is a concurrent effort with the third
task to report on pilot-scale testing of possible
control devices and methods by early 1979. The
fifth task will be an updated assessment in which
the contractor reviews new concepts and state-of-
the-art. This effort is to provide the basis for
demonstration of advanced pollution control
techniques which will be required under federal and
state regulations. This assessment is to be com-
pleted in 1980. The sixth and final task is to
demonstrate advanced pollution control techniques
which are adequate for protecting the environment
during the evolution of the shale oil industry in
the U.S.
3. Projection
Although the coal mining pollution abatement
program has existed for many years, the mining for
oil shale will result in different requirements for
environmental controls. Crude petroleum refineries
have also existed for many years and refinery en-
vironmental control technology has been developed
over a period of years. The problems of environ-
mental control for oil shale crude refineries have
not been determined. Retorting of oil shale is a
relatively new process which may involve by-product
recoveries of metals as well as hydrocarbons. En-
vironmental controls for retorting processes include
a full scale demonstration phase which will verify
the best control technology then available.
INTERAGENCY PARTICIPATION
Numerous environmental studies are being con-
ducted by governmental agencies. The major acti-
vity is related to the mining or in-situ retorting
of shale oil crude. The Energy Research and Devel-
opment Administration demonstration programs in-
clude: Rock Springs Oil Production Test, Simulated
Gas Production Test, Demonstration Test of Modified
Horizontal Oil Production, Development of Fractur-
ing Methods and Conversion of Shale Oil to Fuel
Products. The State of Colorado and the State of
Utah have Air Quality Monitoring Programs underway.
The United States Geological Survey is involved in
Air Quality Monitoring and Ground Water Monitoring
programs (as they relate to the Federal Leases),
and geochemical and groundwater modeling efforts in
Colorado and Utah. A Surface and Underground Min-
ing Analysis is being conducted by the Department
of Interior (Bureau of Mines) which includes deep
mining (methodology and costs), open pit (one pass),
and modified in-situ studies.
RESOURCE ALLOCATION
The oil shale industry is a continuing develop-
ment which dates back to the 1850's. The U.S. EPA's
program began in 1969 on environmental aspects of
oil shale development. The resource allocation for
the oil shale environmental assessment project (the
TRW Study) within the EPA-OEMI R&D program is as
follows:
FY74
FY75
$460K
FY76
$192K
-------
243
The allocations shown above exclude EPA re-
sources devoted to oil shale mining/extraction R&D
(these are covered in another Paper) and exclude the
resources expended by EPA's Regional Offices.
CONCLUSIONS
The potential for oil shale development in the
United States appears to be great. The oil shale
deposits are estimated to contain 2,200 billion
barrels of oil in the richer shale (greater than 25
gallons/ton) and over 40,000 billion barrels of oil
in the intermediate shale (10 to 25 gallons/ton).
The richer shale formations are located primarily in
Colorado, Utah and Wyoming. The intermediate shale
can be found throughout the Midwest. The potential
for environmental impact from oil shale development
is also great.
The characteristics of emissions, effluents and
solid waste residues will be dependent upon the oil
shale processes selected by economic, and geologic
considerations. The treatment control technology
will be developed to minimize the environmental
damage by process developments.
The overall strategy for environmental control
R&D by EPA encompasses exploration, mining, prepara-
tion, processing, reclamation and transportation.
The program includes environmental impact analyses
pollutant characterization, available control tech-
nology evaluations, and demonstration of pollution
control techniques.
REFERENCES
Neal, L.G., Cotter, J., Sung, R.D., and Prien,
C., "An Evaluation of the Pollution Abatement
Technologies Available for Treatment of Uaste-
water from Oil Shale Processing," Sixty Eighth
Annual Meeting of American Institute of
Chemical Engineers, Los Angeles, California,
November 19, 1975.
Anonymous. "The Oil Shale Resource System,"
Chapter 2, Energy Alternatives: A Comparative
Analysis, U.S. Government Printing Office,
Catalog Number PREX 14.2:ENZ, May 1975.
Perrini, E.M., Oil From Shale and Tar Sands,
Noyes Data Corporation, Library of Congress
Catalog Card Number:75-10357, 1975.
Anonymous. Synthetic Fuels, Cameron Engineers
Inc. Quarterly Report, Volume 12-Number 3,
September, 1975.
Figure 1. Shale Oil Development Program
INDUSTRIAL
DEVELOPMENTS
EPA FUNDED
PROGRAMS
ERDA
DEMONSTRATION
PROGRAMS
IIN-SITUI
OTHER
AGENCY
PROGRAMS
mi.
1977 | I97B | 1979 j I960 1981
1 PARAHO 800 TFO
PILOT PLANT TO
SAMPLING
OPPORTUNITIES
• OCCIDENTAL, IN-SITUDEMO
• WE5TCO, N-5ITU
1
1
• L-* r*- ANALYSIS
1
• PARAHO 10,000 TPO (Ua/Lb, ANVIL POINTS)
CO II, 10.000 TPD (COLONY) • • TOSCO II, 10,OOOTPD (Co) TOSCO II 10,000 TPD (O>). (COLONY) •
• SUPERIOR. 6000 TPO SUPEJUOR. 30.000 TPD •
IDES.GN DATA a OCCIDENTAL, w.ooo BFO
)EMO
MIME 1
DEVELOPMENT
1
rASS£SS*t£NT * L-* CONTROL • TRW STUDY
» SHALE LEACHING AND HYDROLOGY MODELING • COLO. STATL UNIV
1
• Alft POLLUriON tMllllCJN CSTIMMLS (KAUIAN) ^ RESOUKE^EVELOP^rfUNIv'oKLA^^DIANJ
1 /
» ^ •
IN-SITU TEST DATA
MINE DESIGN INPUTS
TO EMISSION MODELS
BASEL
WATER
ROCK SPRINGS OIL PRODUCTION
TEST (200 FT)
?.s TPO s MULATEO GAS
PRODUCT ON TEST
NE AIR.
DATA
• 50-ACRE DEMONSTRATION TEST ,500 FT)
D DEMONSTRATION TEST OF MODIFIED HORIZONTAL OIL PRODUCTION
• DEMONSTRATION GAS PRODUCTION TEST
• DEVELOP FRACTURING METHODS AT 1000 FT
CONVERSION OF SHALE OIL TO FUEL PRODUCTS
AIR DUALITY MONITORING STATE OF COLO., UTAH
{ 1 1
AIR QUALITY '.-.ONITOPINC GROUNDWATER MONITORING uses (FEDERAL LEASES) m _ ^Turiv
j • - IMPLEMENTATION
GEOCHEMICAL A
NO G*OUNOV.ATER MODELING USGS
1 SLWFACE AND UNDERGROUND MINING ANALYSIS - DOl (flu MINES)
-------
244
Program for Environmental Aspects of
Synthetic Fuels
William J. Rhodes
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory-RTF
Office of Research and Development
Environmental Protection Agency
Research Triangle Park, N. C.
Introduction
Using the Dixie Lee Ray energy report as a
basis, we are, as a Nation, over two years into a
commitment to utilize more fully our own natural
resources and to become less dependent on foreign
sources of energy. These natural resources include
coal, oil, oil shale, solar energy, water (including
tides), wind, geothermal energy and nuclear energy
among others. It is important that these resources
be developed with a proper, but presently unknown,
balance among the various alternatives to satisfy
our real needs. It is no less important to ade-
quately protect our environment while striving to
achieve and achieving our energy goals. Energy for
the sake of energy is not an objective; but rather
energy for maintaining and improving the quality
of life should be an objective. In this regard,
knowledge of environmental consequences of our
Nation's energy development and a free and open eval-
uation of the alternatives are necessary, consistent,
and intertwined ingredients of attaining an accept-
able quality of life.
Within the Federal Government the Environmental
Protection Agency has the primary responsibility
to assess the environmental factors of the energy
technology and to develop and/or aid in the develop-
ment of controls to protect the environment from
adverse effects. To be consistent with the overall
objectives, environmental factors include both
pollutant and nonpollutant effects such as land use
and socio-economic considerations. Likewise,
environmental controls include not only add-on
effluent controls but also such items as different
strategies for handling potential effluents and
technology for increasing thermal efficiency. The
latter 'have many environmental side benefits (e.g.
reduced thermal pollution and reduced quantity of
fuel required for a given output).
It is obvious that development of energy
systems without the consideration of environmental
factors will probably result in unsatisfactory total
systems from an environmental view and will require
last minute, and therefore probably costly and in-
efficient, add-on controls in order that the systems
may be commercialized. A considerably more rational
approach is to start with a low level of environ-
mental concern during initial bench scale process
development and continually increase the environmental
awareness until a comprehensive program is opera-
tional during pilot and larger operations-. As the
environmental evolution proceeds, the development
and improvement of control technologies having
common applicability to many conversion systems will
be advanced early while more process specific
environmental controls await more detailed data.
This will permit sufficient time to allow development
and demonstration of needed efficient controls (add-
on, process modifications, strategies, etc.) in
time for process commercialization.
For various technologies, the environmental
responsibilities are addressed by different groups
within EPA. The environmental factors in the pro-
duction and utilization of synthetic fuels from
coal constitute one element of the responsibilities
of the Fuel Process Branch of EPA's Industrial
Environmental Research Laboratory (IERL-RTP). For
several years prior to our Nation's latest commitment,
this Branch (under its predecessor names) has had
a significant role in evaluating the environmental
aspects of synthetic fuels. This program is briefly
presented in the following paragraphs.
IERL-RTP: Synthetic Fuels Program
The program of environmental aspects of synthe-
tic fuels is divided into the areas of environmental
assessment and control technology development.
The overall objective of the environmental
assessment category is to ensure an environmentally
sound synthetic fuels industry. To accomplish this,
past and future work utilize existing information
to perform multi-media environmental source assess-
ments. Existing and possible future Federal, state
and local standards and guidelines are reviewed to
provide a baseline for the assessments. As informa-
tion gaps and needs are identified, programs are
initiated to acquire the data that are necessary
to fulfill the needs. Acquiring the necessary data
is an all important task. It requires knowledge
of existing data, co-operation of plant operators,
identification of sampling and analytical techniques,
test program development, and an overall data
analysis scheme. These data may be obtained from
in-house studies, process developers, ERDA, plant
operators or other sources depending on the most
appropriate arrangements for the situation. The
environmental assessment program must include
prioritization of potential pollutants and streams
to be analyzed. These evaluations are necessary
for so called steady state conditions, for normal
transient conditions such as startup and shutdown,
for accidental releases, and for malfunction situa-
tions. The data will then provide a basis for
updating the environmental source assessments. This
information will be exchanged with other involved
groups such as those concerned with health effects,
atmospheric effects, ground water effects, etc.
As feedback information is obtained from these areas,
the data will be integrated into a total environmental
assessment.
Table 1 contains an outline of some of the com-
ponents of the environmental assessment area which
have evolved from past and present work. The major
contract areas are divided along technology lines;
i.e. low Btu gasification and its utilization, high
Btu gasification, and liquefaction. The prime
contractor in each area is responsible for conducting
and integrating the required efforts to properly
assess the area. In addition, the contractor will
-------
provide support as necessary to other interested
groups via publishing of manuals, meetings, and
special documentation.
Within the environmental assessment category
are a number of supporting activities whose results
would complement and be used by the major contract
areas. Input material characterization (such as
coal analysis) is the common starting point for
material balances especially as it relates to
potential pollutants or pollutant forming consti-
tuents in the material. Theoretical and practical
evaluations of pollutants' form and fate in multi-
media systems would provide important data acquisi-
tion guidance and assessment information. A major
potential for support exists in the interagency
agreement with ERDA for processes they are supporting.
These support areas could include a review of the
types of environmental data being obtained, analysis
of existing data, identification of streams to be
analyzed, review and development of methods of analy-
sis, conduct of a test program, and analysis and
correlation of results to establish the paths and
quantities of potential pollutants in each synthetic
fuel system. Table 2 summarizes some of these
activities.
The overall objective of the control technology
development category is to ensure that needed environ-
mental controls are available for the synthetic
fuels area. This requires utilization of information
from many sources such as environmental standards,
environmental assessments, control developers and
users, and independent evaluations. This work
includes identification of environmental control
technology alternatives; evaluation of the applica-
bility of existing environmental control methods
to known and potential problems; design and cost
studies; field testing of existing control methods
for acceptability; in-house experimental evaluations;
and evaluation, development, and demonstration of
new/novel control methods.
Table 3 contains an outline of some of the
components of the control technology development
area. The major contract areas are divided so as
to cut across process technology lines. Thus each
prime contractor is responsible for low and high
Btu gasification and liquefaction for his respective
work area. The major work areas divide a given
technology roughly along the following lines:
pretreatment and wastes, converter output streams,
products and byproducts.
As with the environmental assessment category,
there are several supporting tasks. Operation of
flexible in-house facilities will permit independent
and timely evaluations of potential controls for
their effectiveness, energy efficiency, and
effluents. Studies of reaction mechanisms of poten-
tial pollutants in synthetic fuels would aid in
attaining more environmentally sound fuel products.
An interagency agreement with ERDA has the potential
for supplying information on environmental control
systems design characteristics, operational charac-
teristics, stream quantification, material and
energy requirements, and capital and operating
costs. In addition there is the potential for
testing new environmental control systems on ERDA
245
supported synthetic fuel plants. Table 4 lists the
activities in these areas.
Process Items of Preliminary Concern
The IERL-RTP source assessment is not a fixed
set of requirements in its data acquisition phase
but is a plan which will evolve and be modified
for each specific situation. The evolution process
will apply both to techniques in sampling and
analysis and to re-prioritization of constituents/
streams to be investigated. At the time of this
writing, a report which considers inputs from all
sections of IERL-RTP has not yet been prepared
but is under consideration. However, analytical
test plans have been published as preliminary
guidance for use in synthetic fuels applications.
One of these plans was written by Exxon Research
and Engineering Company under contract to EPA (1).
In this plan, five factors were considered: (1) the
potential environmental impact of a pollutant,
(2) available compositional data on commercial coal
conversion streams, (3) coal compositions, (4) pro-
cess considerations, and (5) materials considered
to be environmental hazards. Table 5 is a modified
list of the resulting items for initial analysis.
For the model coal conversion facilities used
in the Exxon study, a minimum of about twenty
streams would have to be analyzed. This minimum
number is an idealized number for a theoretically
near perfect system. In actual practice additional
stream analyses will be required. As a maximum
approximately seventy streams were identified for
analysis to achieve pollutant material balances.
Our Nation has embarked on an energy program
which strongly emphasizes use of our own coal
resources. One use is to convert the coal to
synthetic fuels; however, the environmental detri-
ments of such programs must be thoroughly analyzed
and alternatives weighed. Inadequate piecemeal
environmental data do exist and will be used as
initial guides. IERL-RTP, based on a continuing
program in synthetic fuels, has initiated cohesive
efforts to obtain necessary information and perform
integrated environmental assessments. With coopera-
tion among industry, university, government agencies,
and other interested parties, these efforts will
provide an important, credible contribution to
the quality of life.
References
1. Magee, E. M., et al., "Evaluation of Pollution
Control in Fossil Fuel Conversion Processes
Analytical Test Plan;" October, 1975;
EPA-6SO/2-74-009-1.
-------
246
Table 1. - Environmental Assessment
Major Contracts
Low Btu Gasification and Its Utilization
High Btu Gasification
Coal Liquefaction
Support Areas
Input Material Characterization
Key Multi-Media Pollutant Systems Studies
Environmental Assessment of Specific Control Processes
Special Testing
ERDA Interagency Agreement
Table 2. Environmental Assessment Activities
General Support
Dissemination of information (symposia)
Program support contractor systems analysis, program coordination
Overseas data acquisition program
Multi-media pollutant system studies
Special testing; e.g. biological
Input Material Characterization
Coal analyses for potential pollutants
Synthetic liquid analyses for potential pollutants
Other materials input to process and their potential pollutants
High Btu Gasification
Summary report on technology reviewed to date
I.A. with ERDA interface with their environmental activities
Assess specific control processes for environmental impact
Gas cleaning test rig (in-house)
Low Btu Gasification
Summary report on process technology
Alternative high vs. low temperature cleanup in combined cycles
Report on environmental factors in retrofit of fuel gas
Prime contract for data acquisition and assessment
' Environmental source assessment of overseas commercial
installation (South Africa, Poland, Yugoslavia)
Assess specific control processes for environmental impact
' Gas cleaning test rig (in-house)
Liquefaction
Summary report on process technology
Report from P^M on SRC process
Prime contract for data acquisition and assessment
Assess specific control processes for environmental impact
Coal hydrogenation test rig (in-house)
Table 3. Control Technology Development
Major Contracts
Fuel Converter Output Streams
Products and By-Products
Fuel Storage, Preparation and Feeding and System Wastes
Support Areas
Evaluation Facility, In-House
Pollutant Reactions in Synthetic Fuels
Specific Control Process Development and Evaluation
ERDA Interagency Agreement
Table U. - Control Technology Development
Future Activities
Control Technology Evaluation
'' Simultaneous hydrodesulfurization/hydrodenitrification of
synthetic liquids
Hydrodenitrification of synthetic liquids
'' General program support for systems analyses, reviews, etc.
1' Technical/economic studies of control methods and applications
'' New control process evaluation
'' Test criteria specification for control process examination
New/Novel Control Method Development
'' Pilot plant studies of dolomite cleanup system
'' New gas treatment process development
'' New liquid treatment process development
'' New solid waste treatment process development
'' Final disposal technique development
'' Fugitive emission control technique development
'' Prime contractors' control development areas
Existing Control Method Field Testing
'' Control technology evaluation of foreign conversion facilities
'' Interagency cooperation with ERDA on field testing of
existing control systems
" Prime contractor's field testing for existing control
techniques
Field Demonstration of Control Methods
'' Interagency cooperation with ERDA on field demonstration
of control systems
'' Prime contractors' field demonstration of control techniques
In-House Experimental Studies
Construction/operation of in-house acid gas cleanup facility
Construction/operation of an in-house coal hydrogenation
control unit
Construction/operation of an in-house oil treatment facility
for denitrification
Table 5. Possible Pollutants from
Coal Processing
Metals
As
Ba
Ca
Cd
Cr
Fe
Hg
Li
Mn
Na
Pb
Sb
Sn
V
Gases
AsH
H Se
Fe, CO and
Ni Carbonyls
SO./SO,
NO2 3
cos
SH
HC1
co_
Pol/nuclear Aromatics
Benzo(k)fluoranthene
Benzo(b)fluoranthene
Benzo(a)pyrene
Benzo(e)pyrene
Perylene
Benzo(ghi)perylene
Coronene
Chrysene
Fluoranthene
Pyrene
Benzo(ghi)fluoranthene
Benzo(a)anthracene
Triphenylene
Benzo(j)fluorenthene
Other Organic Materials
thiophene
cs2
phenols
benzene
toluene
xylene
oil
acids
aldehydes
naphthalenes
Inorganic Ions
CN~ Cl'~
SCN"
f P°4=
3=
Particulates
Coal Analysis
Moisture
Ash
Volatile Matter
Fixed C
S
P
C
H
N
Cl
Calorific Value
Other Analyses
Water Quality Indicators Special Testing
Specific Conductance
pH
COD
BOD
TOC
Residue
Dissolved Oxygen
Suspended Solids
Dissolved Solids
Turbidity
Color
Bioassay
Health effects
Material effects
Ecological effects
Fusibility of Ash Oils
-------
247
DISCUSSION FOR FUEL PROCESSING SESSION
Question: This question relates to the project on lignite dehydration and fixing. Does the trans-
port of the high mixture content coals present a volatility problem with a potential for fires? What is
being done in the area of fire prevention?
Panel Response: The process involves pelletizing the lignite and heating to reduce moisture content
from approximately 40 to 10% The BTU content on a weight basis and the transportation costs are improved
accordingly. If these hardened pellets can be stabilized, or something of this nature, the material will
not spontaneously combust as will lignite in the natural state. The cost of this process will be expen-
sive as are the alternatives such as scrubbing. Some such treatment will be necessary to meet new more
rigorous environmental standards. Also to be considered, lignite represents a tremendous reserve, it's
easy to mine and it's right on the rail line.
Question: Are various governmental agencies devoting resources to projects which consume a great
deal of environmental-energy monies when there is also sufficient incentive to industry to do the work?
Panel Responses: At tMs stage, there is a need for governmental support. Especially with the
situation existing with capital, industry can be expected to be reluctant to commit millions of dollars
for a ooal gasification plant that would produce oil at an equivalent basis of about $20 a barrel.
Though the OPEC price has been rising, there is no assurance that it will continue to rise or that it
will not be reduced. With the world situation what it is, the investment would be too risky without
some government support at the marketing end. It is much cheaper for government to invest at the R&D
end at this time.
In some areas, the regulatory incentives do exist for industry development. Parallel efforts are
being pursued in flue gas scrubbing technology by government acid private industry. In some cases tech-
nology is forcing legislation. The Clean Air Act of 1970 falls into that category. According to the
language of the Law, the new source performance standards take cost into account, and it is incumbent
upon the government to prove that such cost-effective controls are actually available for stationary
sources.
EPA and the Bureau of Mines have been jointly promoting physical coal cleaning since 1969. At that
time, industry was unwilling to commit the necessary funds to such a program. Now the public utilities
have announced intentions to demonstrate a full-scale plant for physical coal cleaning. It will probably
be 1980 before the technology is actually demonstrated. In any event, EPA does not have the money to
fund the demonstration on its own, but will probably aid in the effort. It seems that a mix of industry
and government participation in this case will be required for development and demonstration of this and
other technology.
Question: The Energy, Research and Development Administration has a number of programs aimed at
improving the efficiency of various types of heat engines, including several advanced cycles. Possibly
one way of improving efficiency will be through increased temperatures with the combustion process.
Does EPA have a program to control the nitrogen oxide problem that would probably be associated with the
higher combustion temperatures?
Panel Response: EPA has a significant program for the control of nitrogen oxides. Next year expen-
ditures will be about six million dollars. It is true that high combustion temperatures lead toward
higher levels of nitrogen oxides. Another session will address conservation measures which are concerned
with processes other than those employing greater thermal efficiencies.
Fluidized bed combustion of some advanced power cycles does not require higher temperatures and,
therefore, does not result in higher NOX levels. The main problem in these processes is one of too
much corrosion, not NO formation. Long-term testing will be required for these programs, but there is
a good possibility tha£ thermal efficiencies will be improved without increased NOX generation.
Question: It is noted that much coal processing work is devoted to removal of sulfur and sulfur
compounds. Is work also being done to remove other compounds which would reduce ignition and corrosion
problems in the combustion process?
Panel Responses: Much of the fluidized bed combustion work has been addressed to S02- However,
work currently being initiated will include the full range of possible pollutants. In addition to
fluidized bed combustion, this work will include coal gasification and better energy processes.
-------
248
Physical coal cleaning removes more than sulfur compounds. Heavy fractions and trace metals may be
reduced by as much as 50%.
Question: What is the cost per ton of chemically cleaned coal?
Panel Response: There are a number of chemical coal cleaning processes which are currently being
examined. However, the state-of-the-art is such as to leave a tenuous feeling about the cost effective-
ness. Costs range from slightly more than physical coal cleaning to costs in range of synthetic fuels.
We are not really in a position to arrive at good cost figures for chemical coal cleaning at this stage
in process development.
Question: In a previous question, the cost associated with processing lignite was discussed. Has
there been an analysis of what the cost would be to add water to the lignite and pump it in a slurry
rather than to dehydrate it and move it in pelletized form?
Paeel Response: While it may be a possibility, pipeline transmission of lignite has not been
evaluated.
Question: Does the proprietary nature of data on the various synthetic fuel processes limit the
availability of this data and, consequently, the ability to evaluate these processes?
Panel Response: Proprietary data can be a problem. However, data availability can also be a problem
between governmental agencies with no proprietary interests.
Question: Is there a target date for when standards will be set for gasification and liquification?
Panel Response: No.
Question: Mention has been made of an atmospheric fluidized bed combustion plant which will be
constructed shortly. Should standards be set before that demonstration?
Panel Responses: The Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards has been working on coal gasifi-
cation for the last six months. Drafts of proposed standards have been prepared. The timing of such
standards is a matter of some debate. One school of thought suggests that a relatively large plant
should be on-stream first s.o that hard data is available for the preparation of the standards. The
other school of thought is that early standards will provide process developers with a target.
Sufficient data is not available to set good reasonable standards. Some guidelines, however, would
probably be an assistance to the industry before the plant went on-stream.
Question: The control technologies appear to be addressed in a discrete fashion from extraction to
fuel processing and combustion.Are there any attempts being made to compare approaches on a total system
basis rather than comparison of each process independently? Secondly, do the research studies reported
here consider the lead times for commercial availability?
Panel Response: Studies concerned with the total system approach will be covered in the following
sessions on Integrated Assessment.
Question: One of our major energy development scenarios is based upon fluidized bed combustion.
When can a full-scale plant in the thousand megawatt range be feasible? Can such a prediction be made?
Panel Responses: A full-scale plant must be preceeded with a demonstration plant, such a plant
would probably be in the 200 megawatt range. Two studies gave conflicting advice on the desirability of
starting the conceptual design of a demonstration plant now. Even when this conflict is resolved, at
least four years will be required to build the demonstration plant. Anything larger would be started
later, in say five years. Utilities are likely to be conservative in their commitments, and may require
more than one demonstration plant before they consider the technology sufficiently acceptable, to design
and construct such a plant with their own funds.
Fluidized bed combustion systems are envisioned as being commercially available in the early 1980's.
In the case of pressurized fluidized bed combustion systems, in the mid 1980's.
With regard to integrated assessment, it should be noted that many trade-off studies have been
accomplished. These studies indicate that there is a substantial amount of missing information relative
to pollution control cost and the cost of new development technology. Any effective integrated assess-
ment in assigning risks and costs to each of our alternative strategies will not be possible until some
of the current environmental assessment programs are completed. It will probably be two to three years
-------
249
before the information necessary for an integrated assessment is possible.
Question: Has magneto-hydrodynamics been discussed in this symposium?
Panel Response: In some people's opinion, MHD is an idea whose time has come and gone.
-------
CHAPTER 10
FLUE GAS TECHNOLOGY
-------
252
INTRODUCTION
One of the major energy related environmental
problems concerns the need to control the emissions
produced during the combustion of fuels. The major
pollutants emitted in the flue gases of stationary
sources are the oxides of sulfur and nitrogen, and
particulate matter.
The 1970 amendments to the Clean Air Act have
provided the authority and much of the impetus for
development of flue gas technology directed at re-
moval of pollutants. These technological strategies
make a distinction between existing and new sources
with standards established which are intended to
result.in overall improvement to the ambient air
quality.
Reduction of the atmospheric emission of the
oxides of sulfur may be accomplished by removal of
sulfur from the fuel or during combustion in process-
es such as the fluidized-bed. Flue gas desulfuriza-
tion is aimed at removal of sulfur compounds which
are present in the stack gas and would otherwise be
emitted to the atmosphere. While there is probably
some best place, or best combination of places to
remove sulfur, flue gas treatment appears promising.
It also has the advantage of near term availability
and compatibility with other flue gas treatment
which may be necessary.
Flue gas desulfurization processes are commonly
classified as either regenerable or nonregenerable,
depending upon whether the absorbent material may
be recycled after sulfur removal. Regenerable pro-
cesses typically produce a saleable product such as
sulfuric acid or elemental sulfur. Nonregenerable
processes produce a waste product. There are other
differences between the basic processes in terms of
cost, market availability, reliability and other
relative advantages, however, both are effective in
sulfur removal.
depending on particle size or stack gas volume,
pressure or temperature.
All of the flue gas cleaning technologies share
a common problem. The cleaning process produces a
waste material which will require disposal. These
wastes are of large volume and potentially environ-
mentally troublesome. Waste disposal is a major
consideration of the flue gas cleaning technologies.
A related technology is concerned with removing
nitrogen oxides from stack gas emissions. Nitrogen
oxides are also emitted during combustion from
mobile sources such as the automobile. The control
strategy is to attack each source independently,
with most emphasis on stationary sources where the
best results" are expected to be achieved.
As was the case with sulfur pollutants, there
is an alternative to removal of nitrogen oxides from
the stack gases. The formation of these oxides may
be reduced by modification to conventional combustion
processes, generally involving lower combustion tem-
peratures. At present, however, flue gas treatment
for removal of nitucgen oxides may appear to be more
promising because of the higher removal efficiencies
and the more advanced state of the technology.
A third major technology is associated with
the removal of flue gas particulate matter. Fine
particulates, especially, are a health hazard be-
cause of their ability to circumvent the body's
respiratory filters. They tend to remain airborne
for long periods and distances and contribute to a
number of undesirable effects. Removal techniques
include filtering, precipitation and absorption.
Each has various advantages and disadvantages often
-------
FLUE GAS TECHNOLOGY
FRANK T. PRINCIOTTA
Director, Energy Processes Division
Office of Energy, Minerals, and Industry
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Let me begin with EPAs Flue Gas Cleaning Pro-
gram. First of all, the Clean Air Act is the pri-
mary driving force for much of the research and de-
velopment activity in the Flue Gas Cleaning area.
Figure 1 summarizes the impact of the Clean Air Act
on flue gas cleaning technology. As many of you
know, the Act calls for statutory requirements for
environment control of new arrd existing sources.
Criteria pollutants are designated for which ambient
air quality control was to be achieved by mid-1975.
According to the Act, the pollutants that were se-
lected were considered the most troublesome pollu-
tants identified, namely: S02, N02> particulates,
hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide and photochemical oxi-
dants.
As most of you know, stationary combustion
sources are the primary cause of S02 emissions and
total suspended particulate emissions; whereas, NOx
emissions result from both mobile and stationary com'
bustion sources.
The Clean Air Act also called for implemen-
tation plans which basically laid out the control
strategies for existing sources to control each of
these pollutants so that ambient air quality stand-
ards would be met.
In addition, selected industries were designa-
ted for New Source Performance Standards (NSPS): the
emission controls were to be based on the best avail-
able control technology.
Figure 1 includes NSPS for large coal-fired
steam generators for S02 TSP, and N02- To give you
a point of reference, uncontrolled emission factors
associated with a high-sulfur coal fossil fuel plant
are compared with the NSPS values. What this indi-
cates is that a relatively high degree of control is
required for total suspended particulates; 98 plus
percent removal is required. The SOXNSPS calls for
75 or 80 percent removal from a typical high sulfur
coal; whereas, NOX control involves only about 30 or
35 percent control.
Figure 2 lists the primary pollutants for which
flue gas cleaning represents an important control op-
tion. On the left-hand part of the figure, we've
listed the appropriate standard, both NSPS and Ambi-
ent Air Quality Standards (AAQS). Potentially hazar-
dous materials, i.e., pollutants other than the cri-
teria pollutants are also included; basically, the
magnitude of this problem is undefined.
We also list the type of control technology a-
vailable to control the particular pollutant. We em-
Phasize here, the "near term" technology. For the
253
pollutant S02> for example, we include coal cleaning
and flue gas desulfurization. For NOX> we include
combustion modification technology and flue gas
treatment, both of which, we'll discuss a little
later. I should point out that for the purpose of
this session, we're going to assume that combustion
modification for NOx control is a flue gas cleaning
technique.
For particulates, the typical control techno-
logies which are here now are: ESP's,wet scrubbers,
and baghouses.
One of the columns on this particular figure
shows the development status of each control tech-
nology: from pilot scale testing, all the way up
to commercial demonstration.
With most of these flue gas cleaning process-
es, we end up with a secondary residual, which one
has got to be concerned about. For example, in S02
control, a sulfur compound is produced for either
sale or disposal. Generally, this is a throwaway
sludge material, or sulfuric acid or elemental sul-
fur.
As the figure indicates, there are possibili-
ties of additional future standards. For example,
ambient sulfate standards (if promulgated) could
very well effect the kind of control technology need-
ed for SO?, emission control. There may also con-
ceivably be nitrate and fine particulate standards
which could require revision of emission control re-
quirements for N02 and TSP.
Figure 3 shows the rough magnitude of funding
for our program, both in terms of the overall pro-
gram and for individual program areas. You can see
we've shown funding for fiscal years 1975, 1976,
1977, and 1978-1980. I have to caution everyone that
these numbers are estimates and are not firm. The
funding levels for FY 77 and beyond are particularly
rough estimates since detailed planning has not yet
been accomplished.
But, I think that there are some trends here
worth mentioning. First of all, the overall funding
in this area is reasonably high relative to the rest
of the energy/environmental interagency program. And
in fiscal year 1975, the interagency programs expend-
ed about $37 million on flue gas treatment technolo-
gy. As you can see, over half of this was in the
flue gas desulfurization area. The reasons this is
so large is because it included funding for the last
two FGD demonstration programs to be co-funded by
EPA.
You can see from this figure that flue gas de-
sulfurization funding is decreasing sharply with
time, and NOX control is increasing with time. Other
program areas including fine particulate control
technology are remaining roughly constant with time.
Flue Gas Desulfurization
I would like to discuss the flue gas desulfur-
ization R&D program. This is probably the most con-
troversial of the flue gas cleaning technologies,
probably it's the one with the most immediate com-
mercial impact. This technology has received much
publicity and has vocal proponents and opponents.
-------
254
EPA considers several of these processes to be
commercially available and viable. Particularly,
lime, limestone, and Wellman Lord systems are consi-
dered demonstrated technologies. Over the last sev-
eral years, the utility industry has been quite ac-
tive and has installed on the order of 42,000 mega-
watts of flue gas desulfurization capacity. This
compares with a total coal-fire capacity, presently,
of about 150,000 megawatts. Roughly, three-quarters
of these 42,000 megawatts have been lime or limestone
FGD systems. At this time, many utilities are (al-
beit reluctantly) installing FGD systems, particu-
larly on new coal-fired units.
As many of you know, there are significant im-
provements that can be achieved in these processes
and that's what our R&D program hopes to achieve. We
can, for example, decrease the alkali utilization--
the utilization of lime or limestone. Obviously, the
less limestone we use, the less input material is
required and the less throwaway sludge is produced.
Also, present systems.are quite expensive and
there are process improvements which can reduce the
capital and operating costs. We also can improve
the properties of the throwaway product. By improv-
ing the properties of the throwaway product via oxi-
dation or chemical treatment disposal, problems can
be eased and simple landfilling of the materials may
be acceptable.
Also, we can minimize energy usage: FGD systems
use in the order of from three to seven percent of
the power plants electrical capacity just to run the
scrubbers. There are significant improvements that
can be made in this area.
Figure 4 summarizes the EPA flue gas desulfur-
ization demonstration program. The Clean Air Act
calls for EPA to demonstrate promising air pollution
control technologies; this figure lists and describes
the major FGD demonstration programs sponsored in
total or in part by EPA.
Now, I'd like to briefly summarize the non-
regenerable (throwaway product) portion of our flue
gas desulfurization program. Figure 5 summarizes
the major activities in this area which are divided
into three major categories: the lime-limestone
(Shawnee) program, Double Alkali program, and the
Louisville Gas and Electric lime scrubbing program.
The lime, limestone Shawnee program is jointly
run by EPA, TVA, and Bechtel Corporation. Basically
we're operating two 10-megawatt equivalent scrubbers
and two small 0.1-megawatt pilot scrubbers which
support the larger facilities.
Important test results were generated as early
as 1972, and since that time we've learned how to
operate these systems reliably with lime and lime-
stone despite formidable scrubber and mist elimina-
tor scaling tendencies. We've identified these
scaling problems as being probably the most diffi-
cult problems associated with closed loop operation.
I can give a lot of detail on this, but suffice it
to say, we have these problems under control over
the last several months of the program and parame-
ters for reliable operation have been identified.
Also, our small pilot test program has identi-
fied a new mode of operating lime and limestone sys-
tems called unsaturated operation. This basically
means we operate so that the liquor associated with
scrubber slurries is unsaturated with respect to
calcium sulfate. For those of you familiar with the
technology, this means that we can eliminate the
gypsum scale problem that has plagued many of these
systems over the years. We are now attempting to
demonstrate this unsaturated operation at the larger
(10 Mw) pilot scale level.
The Shawnee results have indicated that lime-
stone utilizations of from 85-90% are achievable;
substantially decreasing the quantities of sludge
produced. We have also initiated a program at Shaw-
nee to evaluate the commercially available sludge
fixation processes. As you may know, the promise
offered here is to develop technology that will al-
low us to transform, a difficult to settle, sludge
material into an acceptable landfill material.
Also, there .seems to be evidence that we can
get in excess of 95 percent S02 removal with lime-
limestone systems. This can be important in the
event that S02 emission standards are tightened.
We want to produce gypsum as opposed to sludge.
We want to look at modes of minimizing energy usage.
And TVA has been active in developing a computer
program which would hopefully be able to input data
on process applications and output preliminary design
and relevant cost information.
A program of more recent vintage is the double
alkali portion of the non-regenerable FGD program.
EPA has sponsored bench studies, pilot studies, and
most recently, prototype studies on a 20 megawatt
unit. Based on the success of these studies, the
double alkali process has been identified as having
significant potential advantages over lime and lime-
stone scrubbers. The same materials go in, general-
ly, and the same type of throwaway sludge is produc-
ed. What happens in the middle, i.e., the scrubbing
and regeneration steps are quite different. There
seems to be potential reliability, cost, and sludge
quality advantages over the lime-limestone systems.
As Figure 4 indicated earlier, EPA will co-
sponsor a program with a utility to demonstrate the
selected double alkali process on a greater then 100-
megawatt high-sulfur coal application. We have re-
ceived proposals for evaluation and a decision will
be made on this quite shortly.
Briefly, we have just initiated a program with
Louisville Gas & Electric who has a 70-megawatt lime
scrubbing system. We will be performing reliability
and characterization tests, as well as a sludge dis-
posal study on that full-scale, quite successful line
scrubbing unit.
Figure 6 summarizes our activities in the re-
generable flue gas desulfurization area. This pro-
gram involves developing FGD processes which produce
no waste products, just saleable sulfur products.
Toward that goal, we've demonstrated a magnesium ox-
ide scrubbing unit at the Boston Edison's Mystic Sta-
tion (Figure 4). That system started up in early
-------
1972, and it's a 155-megawatt oil-fired boiler. The
end product is sulfuric acid. To summarize the pro-
grams, many solids handling problems were identified.
However, toward the end of the program in 1974, re-
liability did improve substantially. The process
shows quite a bit of promise. However, additional
full-scale experience will be necessary before this
process can be considered commercially available.
EPA has also participated in Potomac Electric
Company's test program on Mag-ox as a coal-fired unit.
Unfortunately, the results are inconclusive. We may
also participate in the Philadelphia Electric Eddy-
stone Station coal-fired demonstration which repre-
sents the only ongoing magnesium oxide project active
in the U.S.
With regard to the Wellman Lord process, this
is the sodium scrubbing and thermal regeneration pro-
cess that was included in Figure 4. This technology
has been applied quite successfully in Japan, on oil-
fired boilers burning high sulfur oil up to 220 Mw
in size. It remains to be demonstrated on coal-fired
boilers. EPA has co-funded with Northern Indiana
Public Service Co. for a 115-megawatt coal-fired Wel-
lman Lord unit which is almost completed. Start-up
is expected during May of this year.
EPA has gone out on bids, soliciting proposals
from utility/vendor combinations regarding attractive
second generation regenerable systems. The goal here
are systems that have performance, cost, and other
advantages over first generation regenerable systems
such as magnesium oxide and Wellman Lord systems.
Several very promising candidates have been identi-
fied, and a final selection of the utility/process
supplier team for the demonstration program will be
made relatively shortly.
Other programs, I'll just mention briefly, in-
clude the Catalytic Oxidation demonstration program.
We've got serious hardware problems with this project
and there's real question as to whether or not this
program will be brought to a successful conclusion.
Also, we are working with the U.S. Bureau of
Mines on a sodium citrate FGD process. Right now
we're close to what could be another demonstration
for a regenerable process. We are also evaluating
a potentially promising process with TVA: the am-
monium scrubbing bisulfate process.
Waste and Water
Figure 7 summarizes the major elements of the
waste and water program. As I indicated earlier,
inevitable with a flue gas desulfurization system,
you have worry about the sulfur product, it's either
sold or disposed of, and as I indicated earlier, the
primary thrust of the utility today has been toward
the throwaway systems. Therefore, we've got to be
concerned about environmentally acceptable flue gas
desulfurization sludge disposal.
Also, flue gas cleaning includes particulate
control, and obviously, that means collection of ash;
therefore, we're also looking at ash disposal.
Let me just briefly attempt to mention the ma-
255
jor elements of the FGD sludge program. We're look-
ing at improving the properites of FGD sludge by
oxidizing the sludge to produce gypsum yielding a
better settling material. Also, we're going to e-
valuate commercially available fixation processes
which harden these sludges to facilitate disposal.
We're characterizing sludges--what are the
properties of sludge versus operation parameters.
TVA and Aerospace Corp. are gathering data in this
area.
We're looking at the interaction and input of
sludge disposal on the environment. We have a pro-
gram with the Army, and the Shawnee Program is gath-
ering information in this area.
We're also trying to generate a data base for
a sludge disposal standard. Finally, we're looking
at ways of perhaps utilizing sludge by turning it
into a saleable product.
As I indicated, TVA also has an important pro-
gram looking at the environmental impact of ash dis-
posal as well as characterizing ash as a function of
different types of parameters.
Tennessee Valley Authority FGD Program
I should point out that at this juncture that
the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) is a major
participant in the flue gas desulfurization program
with EPA. In fact, TVA has been a major partner with
the Environmental Protection Agency since at least
1967. I've had the opportunity of working with the
TVA over the last several years, in this area. As
far as I'm concerned, the EPA/TVA working relation-
ship should be a guide as to how agencies can work
together effectively.
Figure 8 summarizes some of the major TVA
contributions in the FGD area. TVA has been a major
participant in the Shawee lime and limestone program;
they've constructed the facility, and they presently
operate the facility. They've participated in the
test program formulation. And as I indicated, they
are developing a computer program for the generation
of design and cost information. This program will
put in useful form, all the data we have generated at
Shawnee.
They've also operated a 1-megawatt pilot plant
under the auspices of the base (non-energy) program
at the TVA Colbert power plant facility. The inter-
agency portion of the program started in July of
1975, and it has concentrated on resolving mist
eliminator plugging problems. I indicated earlier
this plugging problem is probably the most signi-
ficant of the remaining viability questions for lime
and limestone scrubbers. Recent runs have indicated
successful mist eliminator performance on both lime
and limestone systems.
They are also conducting a program to develop
the ammonium bisulfate FGD process. They are about
to operate an integrated pilot plant (including the
scrubber and regenerator) with sulfuric acid the end
product. Although the major outstanding problem is
the fume problem--ammoniurn sulfates create an
aesthetic and possibly a health problem which must
-------
256
be solved before this process is considered viable.
TVA efforts also include looking at sulfur
product marketing as well as sludge disposal from
FGD systems.
As far as I am concerned, the most reliable
FGD cost estimates have been generated by TVA.
They're looking at many second generation FGD pro-
cesses this year. I believe that if one is truly
interested in representative FGD costs, TVA reports
should be reviewed.
Fine Particulate Control
Now, moving away from flue gas desulfurization
technology to perhaps a less controversial subject,
but quite an important one, nevertheless: fine
particulate control.
Fine particulates are an important health
hazard (Figure 9) because they are airborne for an
extended period of time. Due to their small size,
they can penetrate deeply in the lung, and they can
act as a transport site for other serious pollutants
which can be adsorbed on the surface. A fine
particle is defined as being less than two microns
in size.
I should point out that there is a direct
relationship between fine particulate control and
total particulate control. Generally, they are
closely related and if one wants to get a reasonable
amount of fine particulate removal, you've got to
have a very good control of total particulates as
well. For example, if one wants 90 percent fine
particulate of particles below about two microns,
one would probably need on the order of 99 plus per-
cent overall particulate removal for power plant
flue gas. So these are not independent parameters;
fine partiuclate and particulate control are closely
related.
I would like to discuss the make up for our fine
particulate program. Figure 10 summarizes the major
elements of the program. Measurement techniques are
a major problem area. A major goal of this portion
of the program is the development of devices capable
of continuously and accurately measuring fractional
particulate efficiency.
The ESP evaluation program is the second major
program element. In this program ESP operation has
been characterized for seven particulate sources.
Also, a math model has been developed which very
accurately describes precipitator operation based
on precipitator and particulate parameters. It has
been found that these devices have high efficiency
for fine particulate control. However, for low
sulfur coal combustion, sulfur trioxide levels are
low in the flue gas which tends to raise the elec-
trical resistivity of flyash. For this reason,
conditioning agents are also being studied in this
program. These would be additives which could be
added to either fuel or flue gas to try to decrease
resistivity; thereby increasing percipitator
performance.
The program is also looking at wet scrubbers.
As you probably know, scrubbers can be operated to
remove either S02, particulates, or both. The pro-
gram has evaluated various devices on a variety of
sources. And what we've found is that you can
remove fine parti cul ates, if you are willing to pay
the penalty of a high pressure drop. You've got to
really expend quite a bit of energy into pushing the
flue gas through these devices to get reasonably
good fine particulate removal.
However, there appears to be an exception to
this rule. The turbulent contact absorber (TCA), is
a mobile bed type scrubber. For each of the mobile
beds, contact is made with scrubbing liquor, with
the flue gas through the movement of thin-shelled
small spheres. Testing has indicated that unchar-
acteristically, efficient operation can be obtained
in the fine particulate regime without excessive
pressure drop. Needless to say, this scrubber type
will be evaluated in more detail.
In addition, the force/condensation scrubber has
been identified as an attractive scrubber, which
could also give reasonably good, fine particulate
control without excessive pressure drop.
Fabric filters are also a major element of the
program. Thus far, fabric filters have been tested
on three different sources and they've been quite
efficient of the conventional particulate removal
devices. However, there are mechanical and reli-
ability problems which are application dependent
and that's where the present R&D program will focus
upon.
In addition, we're looking at new ideas and
novel devices. To date, nine new concepts have been
identified; ten new devices have been tested. We
plan to take the best of these and continue testing.
Fluidized Bed Combustion technology, which
Dr. Burchard described yesterday, requires a high
degree of particulate control for both environmental
turbine protection. We're going to initiate a pro-
gram for developing high temperature and high
control technology.
Nitrogen Oxide Control
Now, turning to our NOX control program. I
think a little background might be in order, so I've
added some background information (Figure 11). I
think there's some history that is relevant. As many
of you know, there was an unreliability problem dis-
covered in the ambient air quality measurement tech-
nique for N02 back in 1972.
Prior to discovery of the problem, it was
believed that 47 Air Quality Control Regions (AQCR)
out of the total of 247 AQCRs for the country had an
N02 ambient air problem. What we've found out is
that due to an inherent measurement error, ambient
levels of NOg were measured too high. Using more
accurate techniques, only four areas (AQCRs) of the
country really seemed to have an N02 problem.
However, since 1972, there hasn't been too
much progress in N02 control from either stationary
or'mobile sources. As a result, they're now
finding new AQCRs exceeding the N02 standard and,
quite frankly, the trend seems to be for further
N02 ambient problems. Therefore, our present
N02 control strategy does not appear very effec-
-------
tive. What we have--tbe present control strategy,
basically, includes control of both (automobile)
mobile sources as well as stationary sources.
I should point out almost one-half of the
enwissions, NOX emmissions, are from mobile sources;
a little more than one-half are associated with
stationary sources. So both are of Interest if we
are to achieve NOX air quality goals.
We basically have set so-called interim
standards for automobiles. This is not a very
stringent standard and it's actually less than called
the Clean Air Act goal. So, basically, due to econ-
omic technology and political considerations, it
looks like in the near future, this interim standard
will probably suffice.
Also, the new source performance standard
(NSPS) philosophy is pased on best available control
technology. And for this reason, the NSPS for
utility boilers is not a very stringent one, and
only requires, as I indicated earlier, on the order
of 30 or 35 percent control. There's also a NSPS
for nitric acid plants which is also a significant
contributor to the N0xproblem.
So, basically, our present strategy doesn't
seem like it's sufficient to get these AQCRs back
into line, and for that matter, to turnaround the
trend toward additional AQCRs getting out of
standard. So, additional control of stationary
sources beyond the present level may be necessary.
There are, basically, three major categories
of control for NOX control of stationary sources.
The only near-term technology is combustion modifi-
cation; the present EPA program is primarily
focusing on this area. This technology is the basis
for the present new source performance standard on
large fossile fuel steam generators.
Flue gas cleaning is the second technology.
It's similar to flue gas desulfurization; it
probably should be called flue gas de-nitrification.
We have several embryonic programs in that area
which I will briefly describe.
And finally, a very promising technology,
fluidized bed combustion, which Dr. Burchard men-
tioned yesterday. Fluidized Bed Combustion tech-
nology will not be discussed here. It is probably
ten years away from making a commercial impact, but
it's a very promising technology, nevertheless.
The NOX program does not have a very large
inter-agency component. It's primarily EPA directed.
Figure 12 summarizes the major elements of this
combustion modification program. This program aims
at developing technology capable of control ing
emissions from the two major sources of NOX from
stationary sources; namely, "thermal" NOX and "fuel"
NOX. One hopes to control "thermal" NOX by lowering
the combustion temperature since the equilibria
relationships are such that lower temperatures
retards NOX formulation, i.e., higher temperatures
favor the oxidation of nitrogen. And one can con-
trol "fuel" NOX problems by lowering oxygen concen-
tration. Figure 12 delineates the various techno-
257
logies under development to meet these goals. One
might note that, really, the control approaches are
generally in common for both thermal and fuel NOX,
with the exception of fluidized bed combustion,
which is really oriented primarily toward minimizing
thermal NOX.
One has got to be careful implementing these
techniques since it is possible to aggrevate other
pollutant emission problems. We could, for example,
increase emissions of carbon monoxide or particulate
matter, if we drastically lower excess air. Ue
could also, lower thermal efficiency with approaches
such as flue gas recirculation. These techniques
can also lead to operating problems since boilers
will not be operated in some cases under the design
conditions that they are designed for.
However, the results of our program today
indicate that each of these potential problems are
controllable, if one is careful about the particular
control technology and the design parameters
utilized.
The EPA program in this area basically includes
five basic elements which are listed on Figure 12.
Let's turn to the status of the combustion
modification program (Figure 13). In terms of the
utility industry, the field testing portion of the
program is designed to establish emission factors for
NOX and other pollutants associated with utility
combustion; this includes oil, gas, and coal-fired
utility boilers. For coal-fired boilers, they have
determined that 30 or 40 percent NOX control is fea-
sible for existing units. This approaches new
source performance standards. However, some pro-
blems have been identified, particularly, boiler tube
corrosion and some efficiency losses. Studies are
being undertaken to try to resolve these problems.
Industrial and commercial boiler field testing
has established reliable emission factors for several
types of boilers, for gas, and residual oil-fired
applications. It appears to be more difficult to
control NOX in small industrial coal-fired boilers,
than the large, more complex utility boilers. How-
ever, package gas-fired boilers which have been
designed, especially for NOX control, can achieve 50
and 60 percent removal as compared to residual oil-
fired boilers, for example.
Now, for residential furnaces, emission factors
have been ascertained and again, it is quite dif-
ficult to do much as far as NOX control is concerned
by changing operating conditions on these quite
simple burner designs. However, oil-burner develop-
ments for residential sources indicate that one can
do quite well if one does change the inherent design
of the burner itself. For example, 50 to 75 percent
NOX control from gas-fired burners appears feasible
by modifying burner types.
In the advanced technology area, fundamental
combustion studies are performed, advanced concepts
are developed, and burner design modifications are
evaluated. One of the results of this program have
been the testing of coal-burners which emit only 150
ppm NOx- One of the advanced concepts that looks
attractive is catalytic combustion which can lower
-------
258
combustion temperature and thereby decrease NOX
emissions.
Let me briefly describe the NOX flue gas treat-
ment R&D program (Figure 14). One might ask in light
of the comprehensive combustion modification program
I have described—why flue gas treatment? What
is the advantage of this technology over combustion
modification?
Well, the only identifiable advantage in my
mind, is that this technology has the potential for
high NOX removal efficiency. Such systems have
demonstrated in excess of 90 percent removal effi-
ciencies in Japan. But, you pay the price for this
increased efficiency over combustion modification
technology. The systems are complex and costs are
quite high. The costs for these systems appear
comparable to FGD systems. There are two basic
classes of NOX flue gas cleaning technology-- dry
and wet processes. The dry processes involve chemi-
cal reduction of NO. A typical reducing agent is
ammonia, which can reduce the NO to elemental nitro-
gen. One has got to select the proper catalysts so
we don't reduce SOX as well, which may be present in
the flue gas.
There are several problems that have been
identified with this technology in trying to apply
this to coal-fired boilers here in the U.S. Pri-
marily, there is uncertainty of the viability of this
concept in coal flue gas, since we've got to be
concerned about hydrogen chloride, particulates, and
other pollutants associated with this gas stream.
Additionally, one has got to be concerned
with secondary emissions. For example, ammonium
sulfate could be a problem in dry reduction processes
when ammonia is used as the chemical reductant.
Also, for the dry systems, you need about 1
mole of ammonia for every mole of NO that's being
reduced. This can lead to high reagent costs for
control of flue gases with high NO content.
The wet processes, basically oxidizes NO.
Typically, they might use ozone as the oxidation
agent, and basically try to oxidize NO to N02,
followed by a scrubbing technique to absorb out the
N02- This, of course, is a scrubbing system—and
does have potential for simultaneous SOX and NOX
removal. However, problems include using large
quantities of ozone as a reagent. As you know, it
takes quite a bit of energy to produce ozone.
Secondary emissions are a problem, and high costs
again, are significant disadvantages.
Our EPA program in this area is really only
nominal right now. It is just getting underway. A
major element of the program is to determine—is
there a need for an FGT program of this type? What
should the magnitude of the program be? What should
the timeframe of such a program be? The present
thrust in this area is related to initiating
activities leaning toward eventaul testing of
attractive processes at the pilot scale, borrowing
very heavily on Japanese technology in this area.
Concluding Paragraph
complex program in the relatively short time period
available to me. I hope I've managed to at least
describet he essence of the program. I believe the
potential impact of our flue gas cleaning program
can be substantial, since, generally, the techno-
logies under development/demonstration are near-
term technologies which can allow the use of plenti-
ful fossil fuels—particularly high-sulfur coal.
In conclusion, I've attempted to describe a
-------
259
Figure 1
CLEAN AIR ACT - DRIVING FORCE FOR FLUE GAS CLEANING
. STATUTORY REQUIREMENT TO ACHIEVE ACCEPTABLE AMBIENT AIR QUALITY BY MID-1975 FOR:
S02
N02
TOTAL SUSPENDED PARTICULATES ITSP)
HYDROCARBONS
CARBON MONOXIDE
PHOTOCHEMICAL OXIDANTS
STATUTORY REQUIREMENT TO INSTALL BACT FOR SELECTED NEW SOURCES (NSPS)
STANDARD UNCONTROLLED
S02 12 lb/10® BTU 5 Ib/1fl6 BTU
TSP 0.1 lb/106 BTU 6-10 lb/1C)6 BTU
N02> 0 7 Ib/I06 BTU 2 lb/106 BTU
Figure 2
SUMMARY OF CRITICAL PROBLEMS - UTILITY AND INDUSTRIAL CONVENTIONAL COMBUSTION
DESCRIPTION OF
PROBLEM
PRIMARY
POLLUTANTS
S02
NO,
PARTICULATES
POTENTIALLY
HAZARDOUS
MATERIALS
STANDARD
PRESENTLY
ESTABLISHED
YES
NSPS AND
AAQS
YES
NSPS AND
AAQS
YES
NSPS AND
AAQS
NO
MAGNITUDE
OF
PROBLEM
MAJOR
MAJOR
MAJOR
UNDEFINED
TYPE OF FGC
CONTROL
TECHNOLOGY
COAL CLEANING
FGD
COMBUSTION
MODIFICATION
FLUE GAS TREATMENT
ELECTROSTATIC
PRECIPITATORS
BAG HOUSES
WET SCRUBBERS
NOVEL DEVICES
UNDEFINED
PRESENT STATUS
1ST GENERATION DEMO
PLANNED
1ST GENERATION IN
FULL SCALE DEMO
2ND GENERATION IN
BENCH AND/OR
PILOT SCALE
COMMERCIAL FOR SOME
NEW UNITS
BENCH AND
PILOTSCALE
COMMERCIAL
PILOTSCALE
1ST GEN. COMMERCIAL
2ND GEN. FULL SCALE
DEMO.
BENCH OR PILOT SCALE
UNDEFINED
SECONDARY
RESIDUALS
HIGH-S REFUSE
SLUDGE
PURGE STREAMS
POSSIBLY INCREASED
PARTIC.ANDCO
VARIES WITH
PROCESS
FLY ASH
UNDEFINED
NEEDED CONTROL
TECHNOLOGY R&D
(INCLUDING ASSESSMENTS)
A) ELIMINATION OF SEC
-POLLUTANTS
B) DEMONSTRATE PRACTICABILITY
Cl BROADEN APPLICABILITY
A) ELIMINATION OF SEC
POLLUTANTS
B) IMPROVE RELIABILITY
C) BROADEN APPLICABILITY
D) IMPROVE ENERGY EFFICIENCY
A) BROADEN SOURCE
APPLICABILITY
B) IMPROVE ENERGY
EFFICIENCY
C) IMPROVE NOX CONTROL
EFFICIENCY
D) MINIMIZE IMPACT OF
RESIDUAL POLLUTION
A) IMPROVE COST
EFFECTIVE FINE
PARTICULATE CONTROL
B) BROADEN APPLICABILITY
C) DEVELOP NOVEL DEVICES
WITH IMPROVED CAPABILITY
PROBLEM REQUIRES
DEFINITION
OUTLOOK
FOR FUTURE
STANDARD
POSSIBLE
S04
STANDARD
POSSIBLE
N03
STANDARD
POSSIBLE
FINE
PARTICULATE
STANDARD
POSSIBLE
Figure 3
Figure 4
f
THERMAL CONTROL
NO. CONTROL
FINE PARTICIPATE
CONTROL
WASTE & WATER
*CPA
FGD
1*75
FUNDING SUMMARY FOR UTILITY
& INDUSTRIAL POWER PROGRAM
NOK CONTROL
FINE PARTICIPATE
CONTROL
«&« * CPA
FGO
trol and Waste an3 WaC
THERMAL
NO* CONTROL
FINE PARTICULATE
W&W + CPA
FGO
er
THERMAL
NO* CONTROL
W&W + CPA
FGO
1976 1977 1978-1980 ANNUAL
AVERAGE OF 3 YEARS
EPA-SPONSORED STACK GAS DESULFURlZATION DEMONSTRATION SYSTEMS
PARTICIPATING PROCESS UNIT SI
HpN- REG ENER ABLE
(SLUDGEI
(SLUDGE!
HEGENERABLE
MAGNESIA SLURRY
SCRUBBING • REGENERATION
198%SULFURIC ACID)
CATALYTIC OXIDATION
(80%SULFURIC ACIDI
SODIUM SCRUBBING -
BECHTEL PAOUCAH. KY, COAL
AND OTHERS
COAL
BOSTON EDISON CHEMlCO-BASIC MYSTIC STATION G ISO MW
BOSTON. MASS OIL
ILLINOIS POWER MONSANTO WOOD RIVER 110 MW
STATION 4 COAL
EAST ALTON. ILL.
NORTHERN INDIANA DAVY POWERGAS D.H.MITCHELL 116 MW
GARY, 1ND.
COMPLETED
MID 1974
LATE - 197B
-------
260
Figure 5
SUMMARY OF MAJOR NON-REGENERABLE FGD R.D & D ACTIVITIES
LIME/LIMESTONE SHAWNEE PROGRAM:
- EPA TVA BECHTEL MAJOR PARTICIPANTS
TWO 10 MWE SCRUBBERS, 0 I MW PILOT SCRUBBER
- OUTPUTS TO DATE
RELIABLE OPERATION OF BOTH LIME AND LIMESTONE SYSTEMS DEMONSTRATED
DISCOVERY OF UNSATURATED OPERATION
ACHIEVED HIGH UTILIZATION
EVALUATION OF SLUDGE FIXATION PROCESSES
- PLANNED PROGRAM
DETERMINE UPPER LIMITS FOR SO2 REMOVAL
FURTHER EVALUATE UNSATURATEO OPERATION
GYPSUM PRODUCTION
MINIMIZE ENERGY USAGE
DEVELOP DESIGN/COST COMPUTER PROGRAM
DOUBLE ALKALI
• EPA BENCH STUDIES
- PILOT STUDIES (ADD
IDENTIFIED RELIABLE, VIABLE OPERATION MODES
MINIMIZED SODIUM LOSSES
- PROTOTYPE STUDIES (20 MW SOUTHERN SERVICES/CEA/AOL)
RELIABLE, VIABLE OPERATION
. DEMONSTRATION PROGRAM
> 100 MWE, HIGH-SULFUR COAL
IN EVALUATION PHASE
LOUISVILLE GAS AND ELECTRIC TEST PROGRAM
RELIABLE. CHARACTERIZATION TESTS ON HIGH-SULFUR 65 MWE UTILITY BOILER
UNSATUflATED OPERATION MODE TO BE EVALUATED
- SLUDGE DISPOSAL STUDIES
Figure 8
Figure 6
SUMMARY OF MAJOR REGENERABLE FGD
R.D& D ACTIVITIES
MAGNESIUMOXIDE SCRUBBING
BOSTON EDISON DEMO
155 MWE OIL-FIRED, PRODUCES HjSOs
TEoT PROGRAM FROM APfllL 1972 TO JUNE 1974
MANY EARLY PROBLEMS; OPERABILITY IMPROVED SUBSTANTIALLY
- POTOMAC ELECTRIC TEST PROGRAM
100 MWE COAL-FIRED. PRODUCES H2SOa
RESULTS INCONCLUSIVE
- PHILADELPHIA ELECTRIC
120 MWE COAL-FIRED
POSSIBLE EPA PARTICIPATION
WELLMAN LORD PROCESS
SUCCESSFUL OPERATION IN JAPAN ON OIL
- EPA DEMO
115 MWE COAL-FIRED, NIPSCO, PRODUCES SULFUR
START-UP APRIL 1976
SECOND GENERATION PROCESS
• EPA DEMO PROGRAM
100 MWE COAL FIRED. PRODUCES SULFLIR
• PRESENTLY IN EVALUATION PHASE
OTHER PROGRAMS
CATALYTIC OXIDATION DEMO
- USBM CITRATE PROCESS DEMO
TVA AMMONIA SCRUBBING PILOT
- BYPRODUCT MARKETABILITY STUDIES
Figure 7
WASTE AND WATER PROGRAM
FGD SLUDGE DISPOSAL
- SLUDGE IMPROVEMENT STUDIES AT SHAWNEE
- SLUDGE FIXATION PROCESS EVALUATION - SHAWNEE.AEROSPACE
- SLUDGE DISPOSAL OPTIONS LG & E. ADL
• SLUDGE CHARACTERIZATION - TVA AND AEROSPACE
• SLUDGE/ENVIRONMENT INTERACTION - ARMY. SHAWNEE
- DATA BASE FOR DISPOSAL STANDARD (SCS ENG)
- SLUDGE UTILIZATION
FERTILIZER PROD- TVA
CaS03 -»CaO * 5 t O2 KELLOG
GYPSUM MARKET STUDIES . TVA
OTHER PROGRAM ELEMENTS
ASH CHARACTERIZATION AND DISPOSAL (TVA)
- POWER PLANT WATER USE
TVA FGD PROGRAM
TVA-A MAJOR PARTNER WITH EPA SINCE 1967
SHAWNEE PROGRAM; LIME/LIMESTONE SCRUBBING
CONSTRUCTED AND OPERATED
MAJOR INPUT INTO TEST PROGRAM AND EVALUATION
DEVELOPING DESIGN/COST COMPUTER PROGRAM
COLBERT LIMESTONE 1 MWE PILOT PLANT
STARTED JULY 1975
EVALUATING MIST ELIMINATORS
- AMMONIA 1 MWE PILOT PLANT
PROMISING PROCESS
INTEGRATED TESTING PLANNED
FUME PROBLEM FORMIDABLE
- SULFUR SLUDGE/BY PRODUCT PROJECTS
FERTILIZER FROM SLUDGE
BYPRODUCT MARKETING
SLUDGE CHARACTERIZATION
FGD ECONOMIC STUDIES
LIME. LIMESTONE, MAG-OX, W-L. CAT OX. D/A, CITRATE,
OTHER REGENERABLE PROCESSES
Figure 9
FINE PARTICULATE CONTROL PROGRAM BACKGROUND
FINE PARTICULATES ARE HEALTH HAZARDS BECAUSE:
AIRBORNE FOR EXTENDED TIME PERIODS
PENETRATE DEEPLY IN LUNG
ACT AS TRANSPORT AGENTS FOR OTHER POLLUTANTS
EPA R.D & D PROGRAM INCLUDES:
MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUE DEVELOPMENT
IMPROVEMENT AND CHARACTERIZATION OF PRESENT TECHNOLOGY
ESPi
SCRUBBERS
FABRIC FILTERS
NEW IDEAS/NOVEL DEVICES
HIGH TEMP./HIGH PRESSURE CT
Figure 10
FINE PARTICULATE PROGRAM
- MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUE DEVELOPMENT
GOAL IS TO PRODUCE DEVICE WHICH IS CONTINUOUS AND ACCURATELY MEASURES
FRACTIONAL EFFICIENCY
ESP PROGRAM
CHARACTERIZATION FOR SEVEN SOURCES
MATH MODEL IS DEVELOPED
CAPABLE OF HIGH EFFICIENCY - IF NO RESISTIVITY PROBLEM
CONDITIONING BEING EVALUATED
SCRUBBERS
EIGHT DEVICES TESTED ON A VARIETY OF SOURCES
PERFORMANCE DEPENDENT ON PRESSURE DROP
TCA SCRUBBER UNCHARACTERISTICALLY EFFICIENT
FORCE/CONDENSATION SCRUBBERS UNDER DEVELOPMENT
FABRIC FILTERS
TESTING FOR THREE SOURCES COMPLETED
EFFICIENT DOWN TO 0.3/j
PROGRAM AIMED AT INCREASING APPLICABILITY AND OPERABILITY
NEW IDEAS/NOVEL DEVICES
40 NEW CONCEPTS EVALUATED; 9 APPEAR PROMISING
30 NEW DEVICES EVALUATED, 10 APPEAR PROMISING
HIGH TEMP./HIGH PRESSURE CT
F8C AND LOW BTU GASIFICATION NEED CT
PROGRAM AIMED AT DEFINING REQUIREMENTS AND EVALUATING CONCEPTS AND DEVICES
-------
261
Figure 11
Figure 13
NOX CONTROL REQUIREMENTS
. UNRELIABILITY OF NO2 MEAS. METHOD DISCOVERED IN 1972, LED TO 43
OF 47 AQCRS RECLASSIFIED FROM HIGH TO LOW POLLUTION; ONLY
FOUR PROBLEM AREAS
. HOWEVER, NO MAJOR PROGRESS MADE IN OBTAINING AAQS FOR NO2;
PRESENTLY 16 AQCRS EXCEED STD
. PRESENT CONTROL STRATEGY: 3.1 9m/MILE AUTOS
NSPS FOR UTILITIES
NSPS FOR NITRIC ACID PLANTS
SEEMS INSUFFICIENT TO MEET AAQS
BY 1980 25.5 MILLION TONS NOX/YR FROM STATIONARY SOURCES; TOTAL
34.1 MILLION TONS/YR
IT APPEARS CONTROL OF STATIONARY SOURCES BEYOND PRESENT
LEVELS WILL BE NECESSARY
MAJOR TECHNIQUES FOR NOX CONTROL
COMBUSTION MODIFICATION
FLUE GAS CLEANING
FLUIDIZED BED COMBUSTION
Figure 12
NOX - COMBUSTION MODIFICATION
INVOLVES CONTROL OF THERMAL NOX BY LOWERING COMBUS-
TION TEMP. BY:
STAGED COMBUSTION
LOW EXCESS AIR
FLUE GAS RECIRCULATION
BURNER DESIGN MODS
INVOLVES CONTROL OF FUEL NOX BY LOWERING OXYGEN CONC.
IN COMBUSTION ZONE BY:
LOW EXCESS AIR
STAGED COMBUSTION
BURNER DESIGN MODS
TECHNIQUES INVOLVE TRADE-OFFS SINCE ADVERSE EFFECTS
INCLUDE:
INCREASES OF OTHER POLLUTANTS
LOWERING THERMAL EFFICIENCY
OPERATING PROBLEMS
PROGRAM INVOLVES FIVE ACTIVITIES
FIELD TESTING • OPERATING CHANGE EVALUATION
PROCESS R&D - HARDWARE CHANGES
FUELS R&D
FUNDAMENTAL STUDIES
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT
NOX COMBUSTION MODIFICATION PROGRAM STATUS
UTILITY BOILER FIELD TESTING
ESTABLISHED RELIABLE EMISSION FACTORS
ESTABLISHED 30-40% NOX CONTROL FEASIBLE FOR FXISTING COAL-FIRED BOILERS -
APPROACHES NSPS
SOME PROBLEMS RE CORROSION AND EFFICIENCY LOSS
INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL BOILER FIELD TESTING
ESTABLISH RELIABLE EMISSION FACTORS
SIMPLER BOILERS MORE DIFFICULT TO CONTROL NOX
SMALL OIL AND GAS PACKAGE BOILERS CAN ACHIEVE 50 AND 60% REMOVALS,
RESPECTIVELY
RESIDENTIAL FURNACES
ESTABLISHED EMISSION FACTORS
NO NOX EMISSION DECREASE BY OPERATING CHANGES
OIL-BURNER HEAD DEVELOPED INDICATES EFFECTIVENESS
POTENTIAL FOR 50-75% REMOVABLE APPEARS FEASIBLE
ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY
BURNER DESIGN MODS - COAL BURNERS TESTED WHICH EMIT ONLY 150 PPM NO2
ADV. CONCEPTS INCLUDE ALTERNATE FUEL AND CATALYTIC COMBUSTION
FUNDAMENTAL STUDIES BASIC DATA GENERATED
Figure 14
CAPABLE OF HIGH NOX REMOVAL AT HIGH COSTS
UNDER ACTIVE DEVELOPMENT IN JAPAN DUE TO STRINGENT STANDARDS
TWO BASIC APPROACHES ARE BEING DEVELOPED: DRY AND WET PROCESSES
DRY PROCESSES (REDUCTIVE)
REACTION- 2NO + 2NH3 * 1/202 —* 2N? * 3H20
SELECTIVE CATALYST NEEDED
PROBLEMS INCLUDE UNCERTAINTY OF VIABILITY WITH COAL-FLUE GAS,
SECONDARY EMISSIONS, COSTS, AMMONIA NEEDS
WET PROCESSES (OXIDATIVE)
INVOLVE OXIDATION TO NO2 FOLLOWED BY SCRUBBING
OZONE TYPICAL OXIDANT
POTENTIAL FOR SOX/NOX REMOVAL
PROBLEMS INCLUDE: LARGE OZONE/ENERGY NEEDS, SECONDARY WASTES. COSTS
EPA PROGRAM
DETERMINE NEED FOR NOX-FGT
INITIATE PILOT SCALE PROJECTS, BORROW FROM JAPANESE TECHNOLOGY
-------
262
FLUE GAS DESULFURIZATION
H. W. Elder
Office of Agricultural and Chemical Development
Tennessee Valley Authority
Muscle Shoals, Alabama
G. A. Hollinden
Office of Power
Tennessee Valley Authority
Chattanooga, Tennessee
INTRODUCTION
A Federal interagency working group was
assembled by OMB in 1974 to develop a research and
development plan for environmental control technology
to meet the needs of a variety of energy systems.
TVA representatives participated intensively in the
planning that led to definition of a program,. This
resulted in identification of specific projects for
performance by TVA in the area of flue gas desulfuri-
zation; most of the projects were ongoing studies
funded through separate interagency agreements be-
tween EPA and TVA. A new agreement was executed to
define the basis for performance of work with funds
provided by EPA on a pass-through basis to TVA. The
objectives, plans, and funding levels for specific
projects are specified in subagreements prepared
jointly by TVA and EPA. The current program related'
to flue gas desulfurization includes pilot-plant and
prototype-scale testing of lime and limestone scrub-
bing, evaluation of sludge disposal, bench- and
pilot-scale studies of recovery of S02 in useful
form, evaluation of market potential for sulfur by-
products, and technical and economic evaluation of
alternative processes.
PROTOTYPE-SCALE EVALUATION OF LIME AND LIMESTONE
SCRUBBING—SHAWNEE TEST FACILITY
Purpose and Scope
The purpose of this program that began as a
cooperative study by EPA, TVA, and Bechtel Corpora-
tion in 1970 is to fully characterize lime and lime-
stone scrubbing processes and to evaluate waste
disposal. TVA has the responsibility for operating
and maintaining the test facility and for providing
quality data for evaluation by Bechtel. Support
activities include design and installation of process
or plant modifications, equipment inspection and
evaluation of materials, sampling and analysis of
leachate and ground water in conjunction with storage
tests of treated and untreated sludge, and economic
evaluations. A complex computer program is being
developed to incorporate process, design, and
operating parameters in a. model to predict economic
trade offs. TVA contributes to planning of the
program and evaluation of results through membership
in a steering committee that directs the program.
Project Status
Three different 10-MW scrubbing systems were
constructed and operation began in early 1972.
Short-term factorial tests were run with limestone
in all three systems to determine the effect of
variables on S02 removal efficiencies. Subsequently,
one system was shut down because of operational prob-
lems and the other two have recently been operated
on longer term, closed-loop tests, one with lime-
stone and one with lime. Much has been learned
about the chemistry and performance of the systems;
reliability has been greatly improved through pro-
cess and mechanical modifications. Fu-ture tests
will focus, on improved limestone utilization, oxida-
tion of sludge, and further evaluation of system
reliability with and without fly ash in the scrubber.
Tests of waste disposal are in progress.
Separate clay-lined ponds have been filled with un-
treated lime and limestone sludge and with sludge
stabilized by three different methods. Core samples
of the solids are collected periodically for
physical and chemical tests and both leachate and
ground water quality are monitored. Additional
storage tests are planned with oxidized sludge; this
material should have improved physical properties
compared to the normal sulfite type.
All of the data have been assembled for the
basic computer economic model and the program should
be ready for use by March 1976. Additional work is
planned to incorporate subroutines for particulate
removal, sludge disposal, and other factors that
will make the results more meaningful.
References
1. Bechtel Corporation. "EPA Alkali Scrubbing
Test Facility: Summary of Testing through
October 1974," EPA Report 650/2-75-047,
June 1975.
2. Epstein, Michael. "EPA Alkali Scrubbing
Test Facility: Advanced Program," First
Progress Report, Bechtel Corporation, San
Francisco, California. EPA Report
600/2-75-050, September 1975.
LIME/LIMESTONE 1-MW PILOT PLANT
Purpose and Scope
The objectives of this study are to determine
the effects of gas velocity and solid/liquid loadings
on mist eliminator performance and to determine the
mechanical and chemical methods necessary to maintain
continuous reliable mist eliminator performance for
horizontal and vertical mist eliminators.
Project Status
Operation of the 1-MW pilot plant began in July
-------
1975 using a venturi prewash section followed by a
TCA absorber. The venturi section operated with a
liquid-to-gas ratio (L/G) of 10 and at 9 inches
pressure drop. The TCA was operated at a superficial
gas velocity of 12.6 feet per second, and a L/G of
50 using two stages (each 7 inches deep) of mobile
packing spheres with a pressure drop (total) of 6
inches. The mist eliminator tested was a three-
pass, 90-degree bend chevron located in the horizon-
tal position in the vertical absorber tower.
In the limestone mode, soft mud-like solid
deposits occurred in the first pass of the chevron
while using all the allowable fresh water for wash-
ing. The results of these initial tests emphasized
the need for frequent intermittent front wash. The
back two passes which were also intermittently wash-
ed, but less frequently with fresh water, remained
clean. Modified front face washing using all the
available clarified liquor,immediately followed by
fresh water on an intermittent basis> allowed con-
tinuous operation for 1000 hours.
In the lime mode, continuous operation for 500
hours was possible using the allowable fresh water on
an intermittent basis. No clarified liquor wash was
necessary.
It was quite difficult even in this small pilot
plant to keep the mist eliminators clean while em-
ploying only the available liquor allowed for closed-
loop operation. It is extremely important that
adequate liquor coverage to the mist eliminator be
maintained. Such coverage requires consistent spray
patterns since over coverage is not possible due to
the restrictions in liquor availability. The results
completed to date in this study are encouraging, but
point out the sensitivity in controlling mist elimi-
nator deposits even in small—scale equipment. Future
plans are to operate the chevron—type mist eliminator
in the vertical position in the horizontal duct at
somewhat higher gas velocities (greater than 12.5
ft/s). Both the lime and limestone modes will be
tested. If time permits, the mist eliminator will be
repositioned in the vertical duct and operated at
higher gas velocities (greater than or equal to 16
ft/s).
Reference
1. Schultz, J. J., et al. "Performance of
Entrainment Separators in Slurry Scrubbing
Processes," Bulletin Y-93, Tennessee Valley
Authority, Muscle Shoals, Alabama, June 1975.
WASTE SOLIDS CHARACTERIZATION AND TREATMENT
Purpose and Scope
This research project should provide the follow-
ing studies and evaluations directed toward the dis-
posal or utilization of sludge produced by throwaway
desulfurization processes: (1) a technical, economic,
and environmental impact evaluation for the pro-
duction of granular fertilizer from scrubber product
sludge, (2) a study to determine the range of vari-
ability of the solids produced from the scrubbers
263
operated at the Shawnee test facility and a correla-
tion of this variability with plant and scrubber
operating conditions, and (3) a study to character-
ize fluidized bed combustion waste products and to
evaluate treatment for both disposal and regenera-
tion.
Project Status
A production run was initiated to produce 10 to
15 tons of a 5-20-0 6S fertilizer but was not suc-
cessful. The problem area was with the preneutra-
lizer. Here, severe foaming occurred, S02 was
evolved, and frequent plugging occurred in the slurry
pump and pipe system going from the preneutralizer.
Overwetting in the granulator also created problems
in pilot-plant production. An evaluation of these
problem areas has been made. Characterization of
sludge and dried solids has been under way for 6
months although only recently have samples been re-
ceived on a regular basis. The sparseness of data
collected does not provide a sound enough base to
permit statistical analysis to obtain a correlation.
A current state of the art has been compiled con-
cerning the status of fluidized bed combustion pro-
cesses (FBC) and methods of disposal or regenerating
spent bed sorbent material. Organizations involved
in the development of FBC processes are being con-
tacted so as to obtain waste material for characteri-
zation.
Testing and development of the preneutraliza-
tion step will be carried out independent of the
fertilizer pilot plant. After the feasibility of
this step has been established, more pilot-plant
testing will be made. Characterization of sludges
from the Shawnee plant will continue. Statistical
analysis will be made to determine a correlation
with plant operation. This will be a 2-year program.
Waste products from four or five FBC processes
will be characterized both chemically and physically.
Disposal methods for this waste material will be
studied (2-year program).
ADVANCED CONCEPTS S02 REMOVAL PROCESS IMPROVEMENTS—
BENCH-SCALE STUDIES
Purpose and Scope
The project provides bench-scale laboratory
investigation of promising concepts for improving
S02 removal and recovery processes. Various systems
for removing S02 from stack gas streams will receive
attention with major emphasis on a potassium system
which is not being studied elsewhere. One mode of
operation under development is a highly energy-
efficient potassium system which provides for crys-
tallization of a salt containing recovered S02
during scrubbing, separation from the scrubbing
liquor, and heating the salt to drive off one-third
of the S02, converting the remaining two-thirds to
hydrogen sulfide, and reacting the S02 and hydrogen
sulfide to form elemental sulfur. In some other
scrubbing systems such as ammonia and lime or lime-
stone slurry, oxidation of the S02 to sulfate form
may be desirable; small-scale studies of oxidation
methods and devices will be made.
-------
264
Project Status
Major problems in utilizing potassium scrubbing
to produce elemental sulfur or sulfuric acid are
oxidation during scrubbing and disproportionation of
SC>2 to other forms during heating; these problems
limit the amount of SC>2 per unit of absorbent that
can be driven off. Studies of the scrubbing step
show that the system is highly efficient for re-
moving S02 from stack gas but the effects of vari-
ables on oxidation were not very reproducible; efforts
are being made to develop better techniques for
studying oxidation. Other test results show that
the presence of a small amount of phosphate during
heating will control disproportionation enough to
allow the desired amount of SOo to be driven off;
therefore, further research efforts will be directed
mainly toward other steps of the process. Explora-
tory work on conversion of recovered SO, to hydrogen
sulfide is being initiated. By January 1976, it is
expected that potassium scrubbing techniques will be
developed to the extent that results on oxidation
during scrubbing will be reproducible and studies of
the effects of variables will be in progress.
Initial results on production of hydrogen sulfide
should be available and further work is planned;
reaction of S02 and hydrogen sulfide to form ele-
mental sulfur is commercially proven and will require
no further development. Work will be started on
oxidation of recovered S02 to sulfate form as soon
as the equipment is assembled early next year.
AMMONIA BISULFATE PILOT PLANT
Purpose and Scope
The advanced-concepts (ABS) pilot-plant program
is the evolutionary result of an interagency agree-
ment between TVA and EPA. In 1968, EPA commissioned
TVA to develop an ammonia absorption process to re-
move S02 from coal-fired power plant stack gases.
Ammonia is widely available, relatively low in cost,
easy to handle, and has a high affinity for S02-
Early research and development efforts proved the
effectiveness of ammonia absorption. The reaction
products of ammonia absorption (soluble ammonia
salts) can be regenerated to recover the S02 which
can be further processed to sulfuric acid or ele-
mental sulfur. Secondary byproducts of the re-
generation section are gaseous ammonia and crystalline
ammonium sulfate. The sulfate is thermally de-
composed to the acid ammonium bisulfate which is used
to recover the S02 from the absorber product liquor.
During the decomposition, gaseous ammonia is evolved
and is returned to the absorber loop. To the extent
that oxidation occurs in the system, surplus ammonium
sulfate is produced. The ammonium sulfate can be
used as a fertilizer. The basic purpose of the ad-
vanced-concepts test program is to develop and demon-
strate the technology of this closed-loop regenerable
process.
Project Status
All the equipment needed for the closed-loop
process has been purchased and is onsite except for
the ammonium sulfate decomposer. All parts of the
plant have been tested with reasonable success. The
absorption step has been studied extensively and
good SC>2 and ammonia recovery have been achieved.
Crystal production and separation have been tested.
There are a few remaining problems associated with
the system; the most serious is the formation of a
dense blue-white fume made up largely of ammoniacal
salts. The fume is formed in the absorber, then
passes through the absorber to persist as a plume
from the plant stack. Tests are being run to
determine the operating conditions necessary to pre-
vent the formation of this plume. The contract for
the construction of the ammonium sulfate decomposer
has been awarded and the expected delivery date is
April 1976. Preparations are under way for instal-
lation of the decomposer. Long-term tests have been
deferred until the system can be fully integrated.
Bench-scale thermal decomposition tests are being
run to define operating parameters and to determine
the amount of ammonia cracking that may occur in the
vessel.
Reference
1. Tennessee Valley Authority. "Pilot-Plant
Study of an Ammonia Absorption-Ammonium
Bisulfate Regeneration Process, Topical
Report Phases I and II." Bulletin Y-83
(EPA Report 650/2-74-049-a). NTIS
No. PB 237-171, June 1974.
BYPRODUCT MARKETING
Purpose and Scope
The initial objectives of this program were
directed toward an assessment of the market poten-
tial for byproduct abatement sulfuric acid and ele-
mental sulfur from power plants in the eastern
United States. A system approach using inputs from
several data bases combined in a complex computer
model is being developed. As the data bases from
the various sources were acquired, verified, adapted
and cataloged, it became apparent that sufficient
information was available to assess all power plant
and acid plant candidates in the United States.
Furthermore the influence of smelters and sour gas
sulfur sources became so important that they could
not be realistically ignored. The need for in-
creasing the accuracy of the cost screen for flue
gas desulfurization systems by use of a retrofit
difficulty factor also became apparent. The com-
plexity of the model was such that additional re-
finement to reduce computer cost appeared desirable.
The acid plant production cost inputs and elemental
sulfur transportation rates need to be updated to
provide a common cost base for all inputs in the
model. Because of these factors, it was decided by
TVA and EPA that an interim report describing the
progress to.date, design of the systems analysis
model, and the possible uses would be prepared. A
final report will be prepared covering a complete
market assessment of abatement sulfur and acid from
all major sources for the entire continental United
States upon completion of the expanded phase of the
-------
project. As part of this series, future studies
planned include assessment of potential for other
abatement byproducts such as gypsum for wallboard,
ammonium sulfate, sodium sulfate, and related ferti-
lizer materials. These studies would utilize
the computer model developed.
Project Status
A systems analysis model has been developed and
tested on the eastern U.S. market. A draft interim
report has been prepared and presented to EPA en-
titled "The Potential Abatement Production and
Marketing of Byproduct Elemental Sulfur and Sulfuric
Acid in the United States." In the near-term future,
major emphasis will be placed on refining and veri-
fying the existing data bases which support the sys-
tems analysis approach for evaluating potential
byproduct marketing of abatement sulfur and acid in
the 48 contiguous states of the United States. The
data bases and the model will be available on a
time-sharing network which will allow access to any
private or public agency interested in abatement
byproduct marketing.
References
1. Waitzman, D. A., J. L. Nevins, and G. A.
Slappey. "Marketing I^SO^ from S02 Abate-
ment Sources—The TVA Hypothesis," TVA
Bulletin Y-71 (EPA Report 650/2-73-051),
Tennessee Valley Authority, Muscle Shoals,
Alabama, December 1973.
2. Corrigan, P. A. "Preliminary Feasibility
Study of Calcium-Sulfur Sludge Utilization
in the Wallboard Industry," TVA Special
Report 466 (prepared for EPA), June 21,
1974.
COMPARATIVE ECONOMICS OF MAJOR PROCESSES BEING
DEVELOPED FOR REMOVAL OF S02 FROM POWER PLANT STACK
GASES
Purpose and Scope
For the past several years additional S02 re-
moval processes have progressed through research
and development toward viable alternatives for de-
sulfurization of power plant stack gases. These
processes are in various stages of development in
laboratory-, pilot plant-, and demonstration-scale
installations. The primary purpose of this study
is to review these processes and their development;
then, systematically select and evaluate those
which have the greatest degree of development and
which are potentially attractive both technically
and economically. These evaluations include prepa-
ration of flowsheets, material balance, and commer-
cial layouts; definition of process equipment;
estimation of process equipment costs; preparation
of capital investments and operating costs; and
analysis of design and economic variables for cost
sensitivity. Comparative technology analyses and
preliminary economic estimates will also be pre-
pared, as requested by EPA, for an S0£ removal
process of the regenerable, sulfur-producing type
265
for demonstration-scale testing on a 100-MW electric
power unit and an S02 removal process of the double-
alkali type for a similar demonstration-scale in-
stallation. As part of the overall EPA sludge dis-
posal program, a portion of this project will pro-
vide a design and cost study of the numerous lime-
limestone scrubbing sludge disposal alternatives.
The economic and technical premises for these com-
parisons will be established and surveys of cost
studies and cost data for operating and planned
commercial units will be made.
Project Status
Thus far, the principal activities in the study
include the preparation of technical critiques and
comparative economics on candidate S02 removal pro-
cesses for demonstration-scale testing on a 100-MW
electric power unit, providing related-support
analysis for EPA in their selection of processes,
and gathering data and information toward completion
of the primary purpose of this study. In addition
to extensive literature surveys having been made,
the offices and/or installations of process vendors
for potential processes have been visited to obtain
primary-source information and data. By the end of
January 1976, both a detailed economic study of the
U.S. Bureau of Mines citrate process and the lime-
limestone scrubbing sludge disposal study will have
begun. As soon as the process selections for the
EPA 100-MW demonstration-scale installations are
made, detailed economic studies of two additional
processes, one from the regenerable, sulfur-
producing group and one from the double-alkali group,
will commence.
References
1. Tennessee Valley Authority. "Sulfur Oxide
Removal from Power Plant Stack Gas: Sorp-
tion by Limestone or Lime - Dry Process."
NTIS No. PB 178-972, 1968.
2. Tennessee Valley Authority. "Sulfur Oxide
Removal from Power Plant Stack Gas: Use of
Limestone in Wet-Scrubbing Process." NTIS
No. PB 183-908, 1969.
3. Tennessee Valley Authority. "Sulfur Oxide
Removal from Power Plant Stack Gas -
Ammonia Scrubbing: Production of Ammonium
Sulfate and Use as Intermediate in Phos-
phate Fertilizer Manufacture." NTIS
No. PB 196-804, 1970.
4. McGlamery, G. G., et al. "Sulfur Oxide
Removal from Power Plant Stack Gas—
Magnesia Scrubbing - Regeneration: Produc-
tion of Concentrated Sulfuric Acid." NTIS
No. PB 222-509, May 1973.
5. McGlamery, G. G., et al. "Detailed Cost
Estimates for Advanced Effluent Desulfuri-
zation Processes." NTIS No. PB 242-541,
January 1975.
All the above reports were prepared for EPA.
-------
266
ENERGY REQUIREMENT CONSERVATION—STUDY OF SELECTED
PROCESSES FOR REMOVING S02 FROM POWER PLANT STACK
GASES
Purpose and Scope
One of the objectives of this study project is
to summarize the energy requirements of selected
power plant stack gas S02 removal processes. Con-
ceptual design and cost studies will be surveyed for
energy requirement data. Also a survey will be made
of the energy requirement data for any existing
demonstration and commercial units. The data ob-
tained from these surveys will be summarized and
analyzed to establish a current base energy require-
ment level for each of the processes. Feasibility
and economic evaluations will then be made of pro-
cess modifications and variations for reducing and
optimizing the energy requirements. Process modifi-
cations and variations to be studied will include
such items as scrubber type, reheat level and type,
heat recovery systems, etc.
Project Status
Preliminary discussions have been held between
the TVA project director and the EPA project officer
covering the approach, scope, premises, etc., for
the project. Subsequently, EPA and TVA agreed to
revise the schedule in conjunction with the schedule
for the cost study project on sludge disposal for
lime and limestone S02 removal processes to be done
by TVA under the same TVA-EPA contract. In essence
the two projects will be done sequentially rather
than concurrently as previously planned with the
sludge disposal cost study project being done first.
The advantages for these revisions in the schedules
of the two projects are (1) each project will be
done over a shorter time period resulting in improved
efficiency and simplificationof reporting; (2) this
will permit utilization of the Shawnee economic com-
puter program, currently being developed on a sepa-
rate project for lime and limestone scrubbing pro-
cesses, on the energy optimization study project;
and (3) the sludge disposal cost study will be com-
pleted at a much earlier date. EPA has concurred
with this change in the project schedules. With the
above changes further work on the project will be
delayed until the second quarter of FY 1976.
FUNDING LEVEL ($M)
FY
1975 1976
Prototype 3,069 2,950
Lime/limestone pilot plant 600 0
Waste solids 200 150
Bench scale 281 100
ABS pilot plant 2,000 0
Byproduct marketing 350 300
Comparative economics 300 350
Energy conservation 50 50
-------
267
REGENERABLE FLUE GAS DESULFURIZATION
TECHNOLOGY FOR STATIONARY COMBUSTION
SOURCES
Richard D. Stern
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
INTRODUCTION
In the mid-1960's, EPA instituted a program for
the research, development, and demonstration of
flue gas desulfurization (FGD') technology. An
initial emphasis of the program was the development
of S02 scrubbing systems using lime or limestone
slurries to absorb SC>2 from flue gases forming
calcium sulfite and calcium sulfate solids. Con-
currently, the Agency recognized the advantages of
FGD systems in which the sorbent is regenerated and
reused, and investigative activities were initiated
in this area. In addition to providing significant
S02 control capability, regenerable FGD processes,
which do not generate throwaway sludge, conserve
natural resources of land and sulfur, and produce
a by-product with market and social value. By
July 1973, interest in and commitments to regener-
able FGD process development had grown to the
extent, that the Industrial Environmental Research
Laboratory (IERL) formed a separate Branch with
responsibility for the development of the technol-
ogy. This paper addresses the EPA program for
regenerable FGD and the status of this technology.
TECHNICAL DISCUSSION
Flue gas desulfurization is considered the
major sulfur oxides control technique that will
have widespread application to large coal-fired
combustion sources within the next 10-15 years.
The basis for this is the current and projected
shortage of clean fuels, increasing use of coal
for power production, and the early state of develop-
ment and projected economic/energy penalties associ-
ated with alternate -control approaches such as
coal gasification and li'quef action. The growing
awareness that widespread use of FGD will be neces-
sary to maintain acceptable air quality levels
has resulted in increased interest in and acceptance
of FGD processes in general and regenerable FGD
processes in particular. A carefully planned,
coordinated, and phased developmental program
producing relevant results is being maintained
to assist and support the projected growth of FGD
technology over the next decade. The overall program
comprises laboratory investigations, bench and
pilot scale developmental evaluation, and prototype/
full-scale demonstrations. These efforts are
supported by technical evaluation studies, cost
studies, monitoring and analyses, and other related
work as necessary. Such a program provides the
foundation from which utilities and others can
implement the technology at reasonable costs and
with reasonable assurance of success in meeting
the requirements of the Clean Air Act.
PROGRAM DISCUSSION
EPA has advanced the development of regenerable
FGD technology through a multi-faceted program
coordinated through IERL at RTF. Begun in 1968,
the program consists primarily of EPA/Industry
contract activities, and interagency agreements
with TVA and the USBM. Significant programs/pro-
cesses supported by the EPA research, development,
and demonstration effort are listed below:
1. EPA/Industry Contract Activity
Magnesium Oxide Scrubbing EPA co-funded
the first U.S. demonstration and testing of
the Mag-Ox Process at Boston Edison's 155 Mw
oil-fired Mystic Station. Boston Edison provided
capital for the scrubbing facility, EPA paid
for the regeneration system and acid plant mainte-
nance, and also funded the test program. Although
the system operated intermittently during 1972
and 1973, operation during the last six months
of the test-program showed greatly improved
availability. The facility was shut down as
scheduled at the conclusion of the test program
in'June 1974. Utility representatives stated
that the demonstration at Mystic Station indicated
that a full-station (1050 Mw) Mag-Ox system
could be built and operated with high probability
of success.
Construction of a 100 Mw Mag-Ox system
was completed at Potomac Electric Power Company's
(PEPCo) coal-fired Dickerson Station in August
1973. EPA maintained the regeneration and acid
production facility to support process evaluation
and co-funded the test program. Although the
FGD unit only operated intermittently until
its service as an S02 scrubber was terminated
in September•1975, particulate and 862 removal
efficiency guarantees were corroborated during
operational phases. The utility is evaluating
its compliance options and has indicated that,
based on program results, they would consider
application of this process.
A third full-scale (120 Mw) Mag-Ox facility
was undergoing start-up in late 1975 at Philadelphia
Electric Company's (PE) coal-fired Eddystone
Station. System operation is temporarily suspended
pending arrangements for the regeneration and
acid production facility. EPA and PE are discussing
a joint comprehensive test program. PE has
indicated its willingness to install an additional
728 Mw of Mag-Ox capacity pending results of
this program.
Wellman-Lord Process EPA is co-funding
the first U.S. utility application of this process
on a 115 Mw coal-fired boiler at Northern Indiana
Public Service Company's (NIPSCo) Mitchell Station.
In addition, EPA is funding a comprehensive
test and evaluation program. The installation,
scheduled for start-up in April 1976, is the
first coal-fired application of this technology
in the world. The overall system, which incorpor-
ates the Allied S02 Reduction Process, is also
the first commercial scale FGD system to produce
elemental sulfur.
-------
268
The WeiIman-Lord Process has logged many years
of highly reliable operating experience on various
applications including oil-fired boilers in Japan.
Approximately ten additional Japanese units are
in design or construction phases. The Allied
Process has been demonstrated on a large scale,
treating a 12% S02 gas stream from a nickel ore
roaster in Ontario.
At its coal-fired San Juan Station, Public
Service Company of New Mexico will soon initiate
construction of two Wellman-Lord/Allied FGD instal-
lations totaling 715 Mw and is planning the instal-
lation of the Wellman-Lord technology on two
additional units totaling 1000 Mw.
Catalytic Oxidation Construction of the
EPA/Illinois Power (IP) co-funded 110 Mw Cat-
Ox demonstration facility was completed in 1972
at IP's coal-fired Wood River Station. Under
EPA sponsorship, baseline testing, precipitator
performance, and process acceptance testing were
completed. Long term operation has been precluded
by a lack of natural gas to fire the reheat burners,
the requirement to convert the reheat burners
to oil-firing, and continuing acid leakage problems
in the product acid coolers. System restart
and initiation of the test program await a decision
concerning the cost and schedule impact of necessary
repair and refurbishment, test program costs,
and potential benefits. Although the process
cannot be considered commercially demonstrated
at this time, successful operation of a 15 Mw
prototype from 1967 through 1969 indicates the
basic viability of the process.
Alternate Reductant Gases The shortage
of natural gas makes it imperative to seek other
sources of reductant gases for the production
of elemental sulfur in a number of regenerable
FGD processes. EPA has a program to study and
evaluate processes and equipment for economical
generation of such gases from sources such as
coal, coke, and heavy oil. Pending results of
the study, experimental work will be conducted
on gasification processes for application to
selected FGD systems.
Advanced Regenerable Demonstration EPA is
currently negotiating for the full-scale demon-
stration of an advanced regenerable process which
utilizes an alternate reductant and produces
elemental sulfur as the by-product. Capitalization
would be on a cost-sharing basis with the host
utility and EPA would fund a one-year test program.
2. Interagency Agreement Activity
In addition to the significant EPA/Industry
contract activities cited above, EPA is also
seeking to further the development and demonstration
of regenerable FGD processes through coordinated
interagency agreements with TVA and USBM. Current
interagency agreements contributing to regenerable
FGD process development include the following:
TVA - Ammonia Scrubbing/Ammonium Bisulfate
Regeneration Process EPA/TVA have been working
together since 1972 to develop a cyclic process
that produces a concentrated stream of S02 which
can be converted to sulfuric acid or elemental
sulfur. A 1 Mw pilot facility is operated by
TVA at the Colbert Power Station near Muscle
Shoals, Alabama.
TVA By-Product Marketability EPA/TVA
are continuing studies of the economics of marketing
sulfuric acid and elemental sulfur produced
by regenerable FGD systems at coal-fired power
plants in the U.S. The study considers S02
emissions compliance requirements and will identify
optimum acid and sulfur production and distribution
patterns. A portion of the overall study is
to evaluate the utilization and marketing of
gypsum, a potential by-product of sludge producing
systems.
TVA Economics of Regenerable FGD Processes
EPA/TVA are continuing economic studies and
comparisons of both regenerable and non-regenerable
FGD processes including sludge handling and
disposal. Such studies are essential since the
viability of a given FGD process relates directly
to its capital and operating costs.
TVA - Energy Conservation in FGD Processes
This study is directed toward identifying possible
reductions in electrical and chemical energy
requirements of FGD processes. Methods, techniques,
design changes, operating changes, and other
means of reducing energy usage by FGD processes
are being explored.
USBM Citrate Process EPA and the USBM
have pooled funds and technical talents to demon-
strate the Citrate Process at a full-scale,
coal-fired site. Negotiations are currently
underway with prospective host sites and process
vendors.
As stated earlier, these contract and inter-
agency programs are supplemented by a number
of small study contracts either directly related
to specific projects or of a general nature.
These latter studies may be to extrapolate results
to other utility type applications, for general
strategy/technology assessments related to these
and other applications, or for engineering applica-
tions/information transfer of the technology.
PROJECTION
The regenerable FGD work has focused primarily
on accelerating commercialization of processes
through development and large scale co-funded
demonstration programs. As a result of the
availability of a FGD process "shopping list"
and the growing acceptance and commitment of
FGD for regulatory compliance, this basic approach
is becoming much more selective. Advanced processes
must now compete technically and economically with
current systems. Performance must be more cost-
effective; the process should offer greater
reliability and require less energy. Within
this framework regenerable FGD activities will
focus on: (1) completing on-going and planned demon-
-------
stration programs that have been funded; (2) per-
forming studies and evaluations related to
extending process applicability and improving
process costs, reliability, and performance;
and (3) developing and demonstrating advanced
processes that offer significant advantages
over current systems. These advantages may be in
lower cost, higher performance, improved operability
and reliability, lower energy requirement, and
multi-pollutant control potential such as simulta-
neous SOX/NOX emissions control.
This change in emphasis is accompanied
by generally lower funding levels as discussed
below.
RESOURCE ALLOCATION
Since 1970, regenerable FGD has been a
major component of EPA's program to develop
S02 control technology for stationary combustion
sources. The EPA base program was augmented
by energy supplement funds in FY-74 and subsequent
years. This substantial funding enabled on-
going demonstration programs to be accelerated
and allowed initiation of major new demonstration
programs and important supporting work. Total
resource allocations since FY-74 and projected
through the current year are shown in the following
table. Funds are $ x 10 and include interagency
programs.
FY-74
Base
1.3
Energy
2.9
FY-75
Base Energy
0.4 11.3
FY-76
4.2
In FY-74 and -75, the Magnesium Oxide, Wellman-
Lord, and Catalytic Oxidation programs received
supplemental funding, and an advanced regenerable
process using an alternate reductant to produce
by-product elemental sulfur was funded. In
addition, on-going interagency programs were
broadened and important new programs were initiated.
A summary of interagency program funding ($ x 10 )
for the FY-74 to -76 period is presented below.
USBM
TVA
FY-74
0.9
0.2
TOTAL 1.1 (26)'
FY-75
1.0
2.7
3.7 (32)'
FY-76
0.7
0.7 (17)'
*Percent of total regenerable FGD funding shown in
prior Table.
The significantly lower FY-76 funding level
for regenerable FGD reflects prior funding of
programs which have been completed, are in progress
or are being initiated. Funding in FY-76 and
subsequent years will be primarily to maintain
the overall program discussed in Projection.
Barring changes in regulatory emphasis, funding
is expected to decline as the technology becomes
more established.
CONCLUSIONS
As of November 1975, 115 U.S. flue gas cleaning
systems were operational (28 units equivalent to
269
about 5300 Mw), under construction (18 units
equivalent to about 6200 Mw), or planned
(69 units equivalent to about 33,000 Mw).
While non-regenerable systems currently comprise
the preponderance of these units, regenerable
systems are being installed and planned at
an increasing rate. Over the past two years,
the power plant capacity controlled by current
and projected application of regenerable FGD
processes has increased by a factor of ten.
During the same period, the ratio of capacity
controlled by regenerable processes to capacity
controlled by non-regenerable processes has
increased by a factor of approximately seven.
This rapid growth in the application of regenerable
FGD processes is attributable to a great extent
to EPA's active past and current programs
to support the development of the technology.
The need to maintain an active regenerable
FGD program is indicated by the advantages
of this technology, the fact that regenerable
processes comprise the vast majority of second
generation systems being evaluated in the
U.S. at pilot or larger scale, and by the
fact that no near term alternative is likely
to displace FGD as the prime means of reducing
the environmental impact of using our plentiful
coal resources.
REFERENCES
1. Quigley, C.P. and J.A. Burns. Assessment of
Prototype Operation and Future Expansion Study
Magnesia Scrubbing Mystic'Generating Station.
EPA Flue Gas Desulfurization Symposium, November
1974.*
2. Koehler, G.R. and E.J. Dober. New England S02
Control Project Final Results. EPA Flue Gas
Desulfurization Symposium, November 1974.*
3. Zonis, I.S. et al. The Production and Marketing
of Sulfuric Acid from the Magnesium Oxide Flue
Gas Desulfurization Process. EPA Flue Gas
Desulfurization Symposium, November 1974.*
4. Sulfur Oxide Removal from Power Plant Stack Gas
(Magnesia Scrubbing-Regeneration: Production of
Sulfuric Acid). EPA Report EPA-R2-73-244
(NTIS No. PB 222-509), May 1973.
5. Magnesia Scrubbing Process as Applied to an Oil-
Fired Power Plant. EPA Report EPA-600/2-75-057
(NTIS No. PB 247-201/AS), October 1975.
6. EPA Technology Transfer Capsule Report, Flue Gas
Desulfurization and Sulfuric Acid Production via
Magnesia Scrubbing. EPA Report EPA-625/2-75-007.
7. Erdman, D.A. Mag-Ox Scrubbing Experience at the
Coal-Fired Dickerson Station, Potomac Electric
Power Company. EPA Flue Gas Desulfurization
Symposium, November 1974.*
8. Mann, E.L. and E.E. Bailey. Power Plant Flue Gas
Desulfurization by the Wellman-Lord S02 Process.
EPA Flue Gas Desulfurization Symposium, November
1974.*
-------
270
9. Jamgochian, E.M. and W.E. Miller. The Cat-Ox
Demonstration Program. EPA Flue Gas Desulfur-
ization Symposium, November 1974.*
10. Baseline Measurement Test Results for the Cat-Ox
Demonstration Program. EPA Report EPA-R2-73-189
(NTIS No. PB 220-363), April 1973.
11. Test Evaluation of Cat-Ox High Efficiency
Electrostatic Precipitator. EPA Report EPA-600/2
-75-037 (NTIS No. PB 246-647/AS), August 1975.
12. Stern, Richard D. Flue Gas Desulfurization
Regenerable A Status Report on Full-Scale
Regenerable Processes. Discussion Paper for
United Nations Economic Commission for Europe,
Second Seminar on Desulfurization of Fuels and
Combustion "Gases, November 1975.
13. Christman, Roger C. The Current Status and
Possible Future Impact of Regenerable Flue Gas
Desulfurization Processes, Oklahoma State
University, October 1975.
14. Ponder, Wade H. and R.C. Christman. The Current
Status of Flue Gas Desulfurization Technology,
68th/Annual APCA Meeting, Boston, Massachusetts,
June 1975.
15. PEDCo-Environmental. November 1975 report to
EPA on the Status of Flue Gas Desulfurization
Systems in the U.S.
16. Slack, A.V. Second Generation Processes for Flue
Gas Desulfurization Introduction and Overview.
EPA Flue Gas Desulfurization Symposium,
November 1974.*
17. McGlamery, G.G. and R.L. Torstrick. Cost
Comparisons of Flue Gas Desulfurization Systems.
EPA Flue Gas Desulfurization Symposium,
November 1974.**
18. McGlamery, G.G., R.L. Torstrick, et al.
Detailed Cost Estimates for Advanced Effluent
Desulfurization Processes. EPA Report EPA-600/2-
75-006 (NTIS No. PB 242-541/AS), January 1975.
*EPA Report EPA-650/2-74-126b (NTIS No. PB 242-
573/AS), December 1974.
**EPA Report EPA-650/2-74-126a (NTIS No. PB 242-
572/AS), December 1974.
-------
THE EPA PROGRAM FOR CONTROL OF SOX EMISSIONS
FROM STATIONARY COMBUSTION SOURCES
NONREGENERABLE FLUE GAS DESULFURIZATION
Michael A. Maxwell
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
INTRODUCTION
One of our major energy related environmental
problems concerns the need to control sulfur oxide
(SOX) emissions produced during the combustion of
fuels. During 1972 over 22 million metric tons of
sulfur oxides were emitted from stationary fuel
combustion sources. Approximately 55% of this
total is directly attributable to the combustion
of coal at electric power generating stations.
Given the present state of control technology
development, there appear to be three general
methods available for substantially reducing
stationary source SOX emissions: (1) using
naturally occurring low sulfur coals; (2) desul-
furizing or converting the coal prior to combustion;
and (3) desulfurizing the gases produced by
combustion. Because of the limited availability
of low-sulfur fuels and the present state of
development of fuel desulfurization/conversion
technology, use of flue gas desulfurization (FGD)
processes appears to be the major near-term control
strategy which will permit the environmentally
acceptable use of our vast coal resources.
The 1970 Amendments to the Clean Air Act
provided the authority for EPA's current research,
development and demonstration program in the FGD
area. The primary purpose of this program has
been to improve, develop and demonstrate reliable,
cost-effective and environmentally acceptable FGD
processes for reducing SOX emissions from both
existing and new stationary combustion sources.
FGD processes are commonly classified as either
regenerable or nonregenerable, depending upon the
type of sulfur containing by-product which is
produced. Regenerable processes typically produce
a saleable product such as sulfuric acid or
elemental sulfur while nonregenerable processes
generate a waste product such as calcium sulfite
or gypsum for disposal. In both the United States
and Japan, the majority of full-scale nonregener-
able FGD systems applied to utility boilers
(either operational, under construction or planned)
use lime or limestone as the active alkali.
The more prevalent application of lime/lime-
stone systems (as opposed to regenerable systems)
appears related to (1) the early development of
lime/limestone processes, (2) their relative
simplicity in terms of number of unit operations
or process steps required, (3) the availability
and widespread distribution of both lime and lime-
stone, (4) the avoidance of potential marketing
problems associated with sulfuric acid and sulfur
producing systems and (5) the relative investments
271
presently required to construct, operate and main-
tain these systems. This paper will be limited in
scope to dealing with the EPA program in the non-
regenerable FGD area.
PROGRAM DISCUSSION
For the past seven years, EPA and its pre-
decessor organizations have conducted a comprehensive
research, development and demonstration program in
the nonregenerable FGD area. The present program is
comprised of tasks covering the following three
major technologies: (1) FGD waste disposal/utili-
zation; (2) lime/limestone scrubbing; and (3) double
alkali scrubbing.
1. FGD Waste Disposal/Utilization
Since the EPA program in the FGD waste
disposal/utilization area is the subject of a
separate paper at this symposium, it will therefore
not be discussed in detail here(l). However,
development of cost-effective environmentally
acceptable FGD waste disposal/utilization methods
is of particular importance since the production
of waste is often pointed out as the most signif-
icant disadvantage of lime/limestone FGD systems.
Recognizing that fact, EPA has conducted for the
past several years a comprehensive program to
evaluate, develop, demonstrate and recommend tech-
niques for disposal and utilization of FGD waste.
Tasks within this program may be generally clas-
sified in the following main categories: (1) envi-
ronmental assessment of FGD waste disposal;
(2) disposal economics; (3) alternate disposal
methods; and (4) utilization of wastes.
2. Lime/Limestone Scrubbing
Both in-house and extramural programs directed
toward improving the performance and economics of
lime/limestone scrubbing are currently being con-
ducted under EPA sponsorship. The primary thrust
of this effort involves continuation of the
advanced testing program at EPA's prototype test
facility located at TVA's coal-fired Shawnee Power
Station(2,3) Testing of the 10 MW turbulent
contact absorber and venturi/spray tower systems
began in mid-1972 with the following major goals:
(1) to completely characterize the effect of
process variables on S02 and particulate removal;
(2) to develop mathematical models to permit
economic scale-up of attractive operating config-
urations to full-size scrubber facilities; and
(3) to perform long-term reliability testing.
With the infusion of Interagency energy funding,
the Shawnee test program was expanded in 1974 with
the following objectives in mind: (1) to continue
long-term testing with emphasis on demonstrating
improved reliable operation of mist elimination
systems; (2) to investigate advanced process and
equipment design variations (e.g. operation with
process slurry unsaturated with respect to gypsum)
for improving system reliability and process
economics; (3) to evaluate process variations
showing promise for substantially increasing lime-
stone utilization and reducing sludge production;
(4) to evaluate scrubber operability during
variable load operation; (5) to investigate methods
-------
272
of improving waste solids separation; (6) to
determine the effectiveness of existing technology
for producing an improved throwaway waste product,
i.e., to evaluate FGD waste oxidation schemes to
improve solids settling characteristics and to
reduce the chemical oxygen demand of the sludge;
(7) to evaluate the effectiveness and environmental
acceptability of three commercially offered sludge
fixation processes and of untreated sludge disposal;
(8) to evaluate system performance and reliability
without fly ash in the flue gas; (9) to determine
the practical upper limits of SC>2 removal
efficiency using lime/limestone scrubbing; (10) to
characterize stack gas emissions including outlet
particulate mass loading and size distribution,
slurry entrainment, and total sulfate emissions;
(11) to evaluate the effects of corrosion and wear
of plant equipment components and materials; and
(12) to develop a computer program for the design
and cost comparison of full-scale lime and lime-
stone systems.
Although not yet complete, the advanced test
program at Shawnee has produced several interesting
and important results to date. First, variable
load tests conducted over a period of approximately
two months on the venturi/spray tower system at
extremely severe operating conditions indicated no
problem in either control or reliability of the
system. Secondly, limestone utilization comparable
to typical lime utilization has been obtained using
two different approaches low pH operation, and
by using a three-tanks-in-series reaction tank (to
simulate a plug-flow hold tank). Limestone
stoichiometries (relative to SC>2 removal) of
1.0-1.2, equating to 83-100% utilization has been
obtained. The significance of this observation is
that limestone costs approximately $8.00/metric ton
compared to approximately $28.00/metric ton for
lime; this represents a substantial savings in
operating costs. Furthermore, with higher lime-
stone utilization, less waste product is generated
which must either be disposed of or chemically
treated for disposal. This, in turn, provides
even greater potential savings in operating costs
and capital investment. Thirdly, a correlation
has been observed between alkali utilization and
the formation and accumulation of soft mud-type
solids, especially in the mist eliminator area.
As the utilization is increased, the problem of
-soft mud-type solids accumulation is decreased or
eliminated. When fully confirmed, this could
have an immediate impact on existing installed
full-scale FGD systems where this problem has
persisted.
The EPA in-house FGD pilot plant at RTF has
provided experimental support for the Shawnee
Test Facility since late 1972. The pilot plant,
which includes two scrubbing systems has proven
to be a valuable tool for elucidating the chemistry
of the SC>2 absorption/precipitation reactions as
well as providing flexibility in testing various
scrubber configurations and system modifications
not easily undertaken with the larger Shawnee pro-
totype. During the past year, efforts have been
concentrated at RTF toward (1) improving lime-
stone utilization^4) and (2) oxidizing the calcium
sulfite waste to the more desirable and saleable
end product, gypsum.(5) Recent EPA pilot plant
results have indicated that limestone utilizations
exceeding 95% can be obtained concurrently with
high S02 removal efficiencies by optimizing the
two-stage series scrubber and hold tank. It has
been further demonstrated that automatic pH control
can be successfully applied to systems thus
optimized, an approach not practicable in systems
of current design which operate at lower (^70-75%)
utilization levels. Additionally, it has been
shown that essentially complete oxidation of calcium
sulfite waste to gypsum can be achieved at atmos-
pheric pressure under the conditions anticipated
with high-sulfur Eastern U.S. coals, without
requiring catalysts. In addition to the benefits
derived from increased limestone utilization (less
limestone required and less sludge produced), the
oxidized waste has exhibited improved settling
characteristics which will further reduce the volume
of waste produced. A study is now underway to
determine the modifications necessary to further
test these concepts at Shawnee.
The basic responsibility of Shawnee support by
the pilot plant has been expanded to include
selected short term cooperative efforts with industry.
During the past year, undertakings of this nature
have included an evaluation of lignite fly ash as
an 862 scrubbing medium under conditions repre-
sentative of Western U.S. where lignite deposits
are being developed as an important energy resource.
This study was made in close cooperation with ERDA
and with Sanderson § Porter Engineers, a major
design contractor for the Western Utilities, and
defined the operating conditions required to suc-
cessfully meet local S02 control regulations using
alkaline ash scrubbing. Another such project
involved the testing of a special type of limestone,
Bahamian Aragonite, for possible use in scrubbers
located at East Coast utilities. Demonstration of
the efficacy of this material could make possible
the application of limestone scrubbing to those
seaboard locations where it would otherwise be
precluded by lack of space for waste disposal.
This approach may also enhance the prospects for
conversion of these plants from imported oil to coal.
Other important EPA efforts in the lime/lime-
stone area include the conducting of an intensive
test program at Louisville Gas § Electric's Paddys
Run Station (full-scale lime scrubbing facility) to
fully characterize its performance and reliability
in the unsaturated gypsum mode thus broadening its
applicability to other utilities. This program is
being supported by theoretical/laboratory.studies
of the calcium-sulfite/calcium sulfate "solid
solution" phenomenon in an effort to (1) quanti-
tatively define these variables influencing solid
solution formation and (2) develop the theory by
which these variables can be related to unsaturated
scrubber operations(6). Another program involves
evaluation of the Bahco lime scrubbing process as
a viable control technology for industrial coal-
fired boilers and is currently underway at Rick-
enbacker Air Force Base. Results of this program
could extend the applicability of lime scrubbing
to small/medium size industrial and utility area
sources.
-------
273
3. Double Alkali Scrubbing
In addition to EPA's research efforts designed
to improve lime/limestone scrubbing, extensive
developmental efforts are underway which are
directed toward near-term commercialization of
double alkali processes for coal-fired utility
applications in this coun;ry. These processes
provide a 2nd generation alternative to lime/lime-
stone scrubbing and offer the promise of significant
reliability, performance and cost advantages. (7)
Sodium-based double alkali has received the greatest
attention in this country with pilot/prototype
systems now in successful operation at a number of
industrial boilers and one 20 MW coal-fired utility
boiler. In Japan a number of sodium-based double
alkali systems are presently operating at a com-
mercial scale applied to oil-fired boilers.
The EPA program in the double alkali area
begun in 1972 with in-house laboratory/pilot
studies at RTP. The program was subsequently
expanded in 1973 to include extramural work with
Arthur D. Little/Combustion Equipment Associates,
Gulf Power/Southern Services and General Motors
at the laboratory/pilot/prototype level. (8) The
objectives of the program were to define the most
promising sodium-based double alkali modes of
operation and to characterize these modes with
regard to SC>2 removal, reactant yields, sulfite
oxidation, sulfate regeneration, waste solids
characteristics, soluble solids losses, and overall
process reliability.
The culmination of the EPA program in this
area will involve a contract with a host utility to
demonstrate a sodium-based double alkali process
applied to a 100 MW or larger high sulfur coal-
fired utility boiler. Procurement activities
associated with the project are currently underway.
Acceptable proposals have been received from three
utility/process vendor teams. The final selection
and award of contract should be complete by June
1976. Design and construction of the full-scale
system is expected to be complete by late 1978
followed by a one-year comprehensive test program
(formulated and performed by an independent 3rd
party) to completely characterize the system.
INTERAGENCY PARTICIPATION
Prior to FY 74, EPA efforts in the nonregen-
erable FGD area were funded entirely from EPA's
base budget. When Interagency funds to supple-
ment the Nation's energy program became available
in 1974, a portion of these funds was applied to
the Federal program in the nonregenerable FGD area.
In 1974, Interagency energy funding covered
approximately 25% of the total nonregenerable FGD
program and 100% in FY 75 and 76. All Interagency
energy funded work in this area is being admin-
istered by EPA either in-house or by means of
contracts/grants. Additionally, a significant
part of this work is being performed by other
Federal agencies such as TVA with funds provided
by EPA. The most notable example involves TVA's
important role in operating and maintaining the
EPA Shawnee test facility described earlier. Other
EPA funded FGD work is being performed under
cooperative/cost-shared arrangements with
municipal or industrial organizations.
RESOURCE ALLOCATION
Since the late 1960's, the development of
nonregenerable FGD control technology for SOX
stationary source emissions has been a major
component of EPA's research program. The total
resource allocations since 1974 and projected
through 1976 are summarized as follows ($xlO^).*
FY 74
FY 75
FY 76
Base Interagency Base Interagency Base Interagency
0.58 1.80 0 10.71 0 5.48
CONCLUSIONS
The application of nonregenerable FGD
technology has progressed rapidly over the past
several years. A number of commercial lime/lime-
stone FGD installations applied to coal-fired
utility boilers are currently achieving high SOX
removal efficiency with good reliability. In
addition, over 38,000 MW of FGD capacity is either
under design/construction or in the planning stages.
EPA's research and development program has been
instrumental in accelerating the commercial
viability of this technology. In particular, the
EPA Shawnee lime/limestone test facility and IERL-
RTP's in-house pilot plant have generated valuable
data which have proven useful in improving the
performance and reliability of lime/limestone
systems.
However, additional work remains to be done
in the nonregenerable FGD technology area including
(1) the continued-assessment and development of
cost-effective environmentally acceptable
disposal/utilization technology for the waste
produced from lime and limestone systems; (2) the
development and demonstration of improved lime and
limestone process variations which will minimize
cost and energy usage and further improve scrubber
system reliability and performance; and (3) develop-
ment and demonstration of the double alkali process
as a 2nd generation alternative to lime/limestone
processes.
*Does not include funding in the FGD waste
disposal/utilization area. Does include funds
passed through to other Federal agencies.
-------
274
REFERENCES
1. Jones, J.W., "Control of Waste and Water
Pollution from Flue Gas Cleaning Systems".
Paper to be presented at OEMI National
Conference on Health, Environmental Effects,
and Control Technology of Energy Use,
Washington, D.C., February 9-11, 1976.
2. Epstein, M., et al., "Limestone and Lime
Test Results at the EPA Alkali Scrubbing
Test Facility at the TVA Shawnee Power
Plant". Proceedings: Symposium on Flue
Gas Desulfurization, EPA Report
EPA-650/2-74-126a (NTIS No. PB 242-572/AS),
December 1974.
3. Epstein, M., "EPA Alkali Scrubbing Test
Facility: Advanced Program". First
Progress Report, EPA Report EPA-600/2-75-050,
(NTIS No. PB 245-279/AS), September 1975.
4. Borgwardt, R.H., "Increasing Limestone
Utilization in FGD Scrubbers". Paper
presented at 68th Annual Meeting, AIChE,
November 16-20, 1975.
5. Borgwardt, R.H., "IERL-RTP Scrubber Studies
Related to Forced Oxidation". Paper to be
presented at EPA Flue Gas Desulfurization
Symposium, New Orleans, Louisiana,
March 8-11, 1976.
6. Borgwardt, R.H., "EPA/RTP Pilot Studies
Related to Unsaturated Operation of Lime/
Limestone Scrubbers". Proceedings:
Symposium on Flue Gas Desulfurization,
EPA Report EPA-650/2-74-126-a, December 1974.
7. Kaplan, N., "An Overview of Double Alkali
Processes for Flue Gas Desulfurization".
Proceedings: Symposium on Flue Gas
Desulfurization, EPA Report EPA-650/2-74-126-a:
December 1974.
8. LaMantia, C.R., et al., "EPA-ADL Dual Alkali
Program Interim Results". Proceedings:
Symposium on Flue Gas Desulfurization,
EPA Report EPA-650/2-74-126-a, December 1974.
-------
275
Development of Combustion Modification
Technology for Stationary Source NO Control
x
G. Blair Martin
J. S. Bowen
Combustion Research Branch
Energy Assessment and Control Division
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory-RTF
One of the major classes of pollutants emitted
into the atmosphere from man's activity is identified
by the term nitrogen oxides (NO ). Approximately
99% of the NO is generated from combustion of fuels
in a variety of equipment types. The evidence indi-
cates that for most equipment types 95% of the NO
is emitted from the source as nitric oxide (NO) w?th
the balance being nitrogen dioxide (N0_); however,
recent results indicate that for certain sources
(e.g., gas turbines) the percentage of NO. may be sig-
nificantly higher. In any event, the total NO
emitted undergoes a complex scheme of atmospheric
photochemical reactions with hydrocarbons and sulfur
oxides. These reactions result in the formation of
undesirable secondary species, such as ozone and
nitrates, and in a shift of the residual NO toward
NO.. The recognition of the adverse effects of NO-
and other atmospheric pollutants on human health
and welfare led to passage of the Clean Air Act of
1970. As a result of this act the EPA was empowered:
1) to establish a National Ambient Air Quality Stand-
ard (NAAQS) for N025 2) to require a 90% reduction
of NOX from the automobile; 3) to establish New
Source Performance Standards for stationary equipment;
and 4) to set up mechanisms to insure compliance.
At the time the Clean Air Act was passed, mo-
bile and stationary sources each contributed approx-
imately 50% of the N0x and the major control strat-
egy was reduction of mobile source emissions by 90%
to 0.4 gms of N02 per mile (0.25 mg of N02 per metre).
NSPS were provided to reduce growth of NO emissions
from stationary sources. Since that time a number of
factors have emerged which appear to require some
modification of this approach to NO control. First,
development of economic control technology to meet
the automobile emission goal has proved elusive.
Second, the energy crisis has provided strong pres-
sure for use of coal in utility boilers with an at-
tendant increase in NO emissions. These factors
and others have resulted in a greater emphasis on NO
control for stationary sources and in a recommenda-
tion for a Maximum Stationary Source Technology ,.^
(MSST) program for control technology development.
There are a number of potential approaches to
control of NO from stationary combustion sources
including: x
(1) Combustion modification, which is
based on alteration of combustion conditions to
minimize formation of NO , is potentially
applicable to all types of combustion sources
both new and existing;
(2) Flue gas treatment, which involves an
add-on device to remove the N0x from the flue
gas, is currently envisioned as a method to
supplement combustion modification where a
high degree of control is required;
(3) Advanced alternate fuels and combus-
tion processes may have properties leading to
inherently low levels of NO ;
(4) Fluid bed combustion, which is pre-
dominantly a SO control technique, has
favorable characteristics for NO reduction,
especially with application of combustion modi-
fication principles.
The purpose of this paper is to describe the Combus-
tion Modification program as related to items (1)
and (3) above. Flue gas treatment and fluid bed
combustion programs are described elsewhere in this
symposium.
BACKGROUND
The combustion modification approach is based
on the premise that NO can be reduced substantially
by alteration of the conditions under which the fuel
burns. There are two predominant mechanisms for the
formation of NO during combustion. Thermal NO is
formed by fixation of molecular nitrogen from the
combustion air through a series of reactions which
are exponentially dependent on temperature and
slightly dependent on oxygen availability. Fuel NOX
is formed by oxidation of organic nitrogen compounds
contained in the fuel through a series of reactions
which are relatively independent of temperature
and strongly influenced by oxygen availability. For
any fuel containing bound nitrogen both mechanisms
contribute to the total NO formation.
Working from this knowledge of the NO forma-
tion chemistry, a number of control technology ap-
proaches have been formulated. Techniques for con-
trol of thermal NO are based on reducing the peak
temperatures in the combustion zone, and include
staged combustion, low excess air, flue gas recirc-
ulation and water injection. Techniques for control
of fuel NO are based on reduction of oxygen avail-
ability in the combustion zone, and include low
excess air operation and staged combustion. In
addition, pilot scale combustion studies have shown
that changes in burner design can also significantly
reduce the formation of both thermal and fuel NO
by aerodynamically influencing local recirculation
rates and/or oxygen availability in the flame. The
optimum level of control may require a combination
of these approaches. Although the control techniques
have shown good potential in experimental systems
-------
276
and on some practical equipment, the optimum levels
achievable have yet to be established and are the
subject of this program. In the application of N0x
control technology to practical equipment care must
be taken to minimize potential adverse side effects.
These include: increases of other pollutants, loss
of system efficiency, and system operability problems.
Based on current information, emissions of other
pollutants (e.g., carbon monoxide and other products
of incomplete combustion) can be maintained at low
levels while achieving significant NO reduction by
proper system design. Many of the NO control tech-
niques, such as low excess air operation, even offer
potential for increases of system efficiency. Based
on limited experience with long term service it ap-
pears that operability problems, including fireside
corrosion, can be avoided by proper design.
COMBUSTION MODIFICATION PROGRAM
The NO control technology development program
was initiated in 1969 at the conclusion of a systems
study conducted under contract by Esso Research
and Engineering.
The system study provided an
emission inventory by source category and fuel
usage; in addition, it reviewed the available tech-
nology and development potential of various control
approaches and concluded that the combustion modifi-
cation techniques to reduce NOX formation offered
the most cost effective potential. Based on this
study and the available resources, a Combustion
Modification R&D program was structured to develop
and apply control technology for the equipment type
and fuel combinations which constituted the major
stationary sources of NO . These major sources are
shown in T
inventory.
1 based on a recent updated emission
In addition, the NO control tech-
nology developed was to be capable of minimizing un-
desirable side effects of the technology, and main-
taining or improving process energy efficiency.
Ongoing developments in the private sector (e.g.,
gas and oil fired utility boilers) were considered
to insure complementary activity where appropriate
and to avoid duplication where significant private
effort exists. Details of the program have, been
documented in detail in two recent papers .
This basic philosophy has been followed, al-
though in the intervening years the program emphasis
has been expanded and shifted to account for recent
trends. As an example, in response to the recent
increase in emphasis on stationary source NO con-
trol and the Clean Air Act requirement for demon-
strated technology as the basis for any NSPS, IERL-
RTP has Aerotherm working under contract to estab-
lish the requirements for a Maximum Stationary
Source Technology (MSST) program. The first inven-
tory identified 137 combinations of equipment type
and fuel that account for the stationary source
N0x of which 38 contribute 90%. J While this
appears to be a formidable number of combinations,
there are many common features of the systems
which allow general application of the technology
and, therefore, a manageable development effort.
A report containing the final recommended program
and funding levels is currently in preparation.
The general program approach involves five types
of activities. Field testing provides accurate emis-
sion information on the source class as normally
operated in the field and evaluation of control.
possible through changes in operating conditions
only. Process R&D evaluates the potential for minor
hardware changes for increased level of control by
retrofit and, thereby, provides guidance for appli-
cation of existing technology to new designs.
Fuels R&D provides general development of various
techniques for controlling NO from each fuel type
independent of equipment type, optimization of the
technology for each fuel, and general guidance
for application of the optimum technology to a
variety of practical systems. Fundamental studies
of combustion chemistry and aerodynamics promote
understanding of the combustion phenomena respon-
sible for pollutant formation and, thereby, guide
development and optimization of new technology.
Environmental assessment documents the impact of
the NO control technology on total system perform-
ance and emissions to air, water and land.
PROGRAM STATUS
The results of the program to date fall into
two general areas: 1) Development and application
of control technology to specific source categor-
ies, and 2) Generation of technology approaches of
potential applicability to a wide range of sources.
The development and application of technology
for specific practical equipment has concentrated
on the major heat and steam generating sources of
NO . These are utility, industrial and commercial
boilers, and residential heaters. The significant
results to date can be summarized as follows:
1) Utility boiler field testing has
established reliable emission factors for boil-
ers fired with coal, oil and natural gas and
has indicated that significant levels of con-
trol are achievable through modification of
operating conditions with the specific level
of control dependent on fuel type and boiler
design. In addition, it has been shown
that by minor hardware modifications to apply
staged combustion, NOX levels can be reduced by
30-40% for coal fired boilers already opera-
ting at or slightly above the NSPS for that
type of equipment. Efficiency and fireside cor-
rosion results are encouraging but show that
more attention to these areas is necessary.
2) Industrial and commercial boiler
field testing has also established reliable
emission factors for a variety of fuels; how-
ever, it has indicated that the relatively
simple designs of these boilers make them
-------
277
less amenable to NO control by possible
changes in operating conditions. The develop-
ment and application studies, in which the
emphasis has been on small package type boiler
fired with heavy oil and natural gas, have
shown the potential for NO reductions of up
to 50% for the heavy oil by application of
staged combustion and over 60% for gas with
flue gas recirculatlon.
3) Residential furnace emission factors
have also been established; however, changes in
operating conditions, which consist of tuning,
generally increase NO slightly. The development
effort has produced an oil burner head design
capable of reducing NO relative to conventional
practice. Further development of an integrated
furnace to achieve a 50 to 75% reduction of
NO coupled with an efficiency increase is
nearing completion. Field application has not
yet been attempted.
The development of advanced technology ap-
proaches consists of investigations in three
general areas: optimization of burner design and
other techniques to establish minimum NO emissions
achievable for conventional fuels and system design;
assessment of alternate fuels and equipment design
approaches for ultimate control potential through
system redesign; and fundamental studies to provide
understanding and guidance for the first two areas.
Selected significant results in each area are given
below:
1) Major effort for development of
optimized technology has concentrated in the
area of burner design alteration to give low
NO and efficient combustion conditions. Crit-
ical parameters have been established for
natural gas and pulverized coal and progress
has been made for residual oil. Possibly the
most significant result was establishing condi-
tions capable of reducing NO from a single
pulverized coal burner from approximately 900
ppm to approximately 150 ppm.
2) Advanced concept studies which have
been initiated include alternate fuel combustion
and catalytic combustion. The only alternate
fuel evaluated to date is methanol, which ap-
pears to have favorable combustion and emission
characteristics.
3) The fundamental studies have produced
kinetic rate information for gas phase and fuel
decomposition reactions, as well as basic aero-
dynamic mixing information for turbulent dif-
fusion flames. This information provides input
for development of engineering design models
for application and optimization of the tech-
nology.
PROGRAM DIRECTION AND GOALS
The program direction and goals are strongly
dependent on both the level of funding and the dura-
tion of the program. Table 2 has been prepared to
show approximate current emission levels for uncon-
trolled sources and the estimated level of NO con-
trol achievable in 1980 and 1985 for the 10 year
MSST. The near term goals should be possible with
hardware changes (e.g., burner design) for conven-
tional boiler design, while the long term goals may
depend on significant system redesign and/or appli-
cation of advanced concepts. Although the tech-
nology to achieve these levels can almost certainly
be developed by the year shown, the demonstration in
practical equipment will depend on equipment lead
time and other factors, particularly for the larger
systems (e.g., utility boilers). For less than a
maximum program lower priority sources will be
dropped from consideration. Based on the current
projected funding and a program duration of 5 years,
the probable achievable technology and demonstration
goals are indicated by notation on 1980 goals in
Table 2. The other 1980 goals are achievable, but
are not currently under intensive development. This
technology also has the potential for application to
current equipment with a lower probable degree of
control. The 1985 goals would be outgrowths of the
technology with significant system redesign (i.e.,
combustion and heat exchanger design matching) and/or
utilization of advanced technology under development
currently (e.g., catalytic combustion).
To illustrate the total approach consider the
overall development history for wall fired coal
burning utility boilers shown in Table 3. Given the
significant decrease available by relatively minor
changes in hardware and operating conditions coupled
with the low level achievable on a small coal burner
at the International Flame Research Foundation,
achievement of 200 ppm in a field operating utility
boiler by application of an optimum burner can be
projected with high probability.
A second example can be taken for residential
heating systems to illustrate not only NO control
with no increase of carbonaceous emissions, but
also improved efficiency. This can be represented
by Figure 1. which shows a reduction in NO attri-
butable to an optimized burner and a further reduc-
tion attributable to an integrated burner furnace.
The reduction in NO is accompanied by a reduction
in excess air at the operating condition which
results in an efficiency increase of over 5%.
Emissions of carbonaceous species are essentially
unchanged and remain at typically low levels.
Finally, the exploration of advanced concepts
and utilization of alternate fuels may provide the
basis for longer term (1985) technology to virtually
eliminate NO emissions from some sources. For
bound-nitrogen-free fossil and coal derived fuels,
catalytic combustion concepts may allow NO to be
-------
278
controlled to the level of 10 ppm or less. Control
of NO from nitrogen-containing alternate fuels ap-
pears somewhat more complex; however, it appears
that this combustion technology should also be
applicable.
INTERAGENCY PARTICIPATION
A substantial portion of the NO control
technology .development program is being funded by
Interagency supplemental energy funds (see follow-
ing section on Resource Allocation). The work is
being performed principally by private organizations
under grant or contract to EPA. Some work is being
funded by Interagency Agreements between EPA and
other government agencies who are performing the
work. EPA also maintains an in-house R&D effort
on NO at IERL-RTP.
x
RESOURCE ALLOCATION
Since the early 1970's, the development and
control of NO emissions has been a major component
of EPA's program to develop control technology for
stationary source emissions. EPA's base program was
substantially augmented by Interagency energy supple-
ment funds in 1974 and subsequent years, and cur-
rently the energy funds account for essentially all
program resources. The total resource allocations
since 1974 and grojected through 1976 are as
follows ($ x 10 ):
Division of Process Control Engineering, Nation-
al Air Pollution Control Administration, (EPA No
APTD 1286) NTIS -No. PB 192-789, November 1969.
#
Mason, H. B. and A. B. Shimizu, "Definition of
the Maximum Stationary Source Technology (MSST)
Systems Program for NO ." Preliminary Data from
task in progress.
Martin, G. B., "Overview of U. S. Environmental
Protection Agency's Activities in NO Control for
Stationary Sources." Presented at tfie Joint
U. S.-Japan Symposium on Countermeasures for NO
Tokyo, Japan, June 28-29, 1974. x>
Lachapelle, D. G., J. S. Bowen and R. D. Stern,
"Overview of Environmental Protection Agency's
NO Control Technology for Stationary Combustion
Sources," Presented at the 67th Annual AIChE
Meeting, Washington, D. C., December 1974.
FY 74
Base Interagency
2.64 2.35
FY 75
Base Interagency
1.95 3.8
FY 76
Base Interagency
0 5.9
CONCLUSIONS
The developing combustion modification tech-
nology can form the basis for significant New
Source Performance Standards in the future for
several stationary combustion systems. Implemen-
ation of a 10 year MSST strategy can significantly
broaden the degree of control and demonstrated
source application achievable with the technology.
It also appears that any adverse impacts of NO
control on cost, energy efficiency, and other
emission can be minimized or eliminated by proper
technology application.
REFERENCES
1. Crenshaw, John and Allen Basala, "Analysis of
Control Strategies to Attain the National Am-
bient Air Quality Standard for Nitrogen Dioxide."
Presented at the Washington Operation Research
Council's Third Cost-Effeciveness Seminar,
Gaithersburg, Md., March 18-19, 1974.
2. Bartok, W. et al., "Systems Study of Nitrogen
Oxides Control Methods for Stationary Sources,
Vol. II." Esso Research and Engineering, Linden,.
New Jersey. Report GR-2 - NOS-69, prepared for
-------
279
Table 1.
Summary of Total NOX Emissions from
Fuel User Sources (l9?2)
Figure 1. - Comparison of Typical Furnace with
Performance of Integrated Residential
Furnace (68-02-1819J
Sector
). Utility Boilers
2 K Engine!
Reciprocating
Gas Turbines
3, Industrial Boilers
i. Connerclal /Residential
Heating
5. Process Heating
6. Non-Combustion
7. Incineration
lota Is by Fuel
NO.. Production (oe
^as CoF
-cent of total)
Oil
9.55 32.47 6.58
16.06
1.47
2.71
1.02
4.24 4.41 9.41
2.84 0.25 4.00
1.59 0.47 1.28
-
35.75 37.61 25.01
Totals by Sector
(percent of total )
48.61
18.77
2.49
18.07
7.07
3.35
1.28
0.35
100
Cumulative
Percentage
48.61
67.38
69.87
87.94
95.03
98.38
9g.66
100
Table 2. New System Goals- -Average NOV
(ppm @
jf° o2)
Source Current Technology
Utility
Gas
Oil
Coal
Industrial
Gas
Residual oil
Coal
Commercial
Gas
Distillate oil
Residual oil
Residential
Gas
Distillate oil
Reciprocating Engines
Spark 1gni tion--gas
Compression igni tion--oil
Gas Turbines
Gas
Oil
(a) Current NSPS
(b) Estimated achievable with we
(c) Developed and field applied
(d) Developed technology
150
z" ;
550U>
150
325
150
100
125
300
80
115
3000
2500
4oori5o!b)]
600[225 1
!t control technology
technology
1980 Goal
100
150, .
200|C)
80
125, ,
150(c)
50
70, ,
100(c)
H<°>
izoojjj
1200ld)
7S(d)
125(d)
1985 Goal
50
90
100
50
90
100
30
50
90
10
10
400
800
25
25
Table 3. Example Control Development History-
Wall Fired, Coalburning Utility Boiler
Event
1 Uncontrolled
2 Boiler Operation Change
!. NSPS
*. Edified System
5- Swll Scale Single
Coal Burner-Experimental
k Full Scale Optimum Single
Coal Burner—Experimental
'. Apply Optimum Burner
NO Leve
(ppm 0 3* 02)
900
550
550
400
150
200
200
Year Achieved
Actual Projected
Pre-1975
1973
1976
1975
1972
1977
1980
-------
280
THE EPA DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM FOR NOX FLUE GAS
TREATMENT
Richard D. Stern
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
Stationary combustion sources contribute
about one-half of the man-made nitrogen oxides
(NOX) emitted to the atmosphere in the United
States. Because of the quantity of NOX emissions
and the known adverse health and ecological
effects associated with ambient N0x, EPA has
undertaken a research program under authority
of the 1970 Clean Air Act. The purpose of the
program is to develop and demonstrate cost-effec-
tive, commercially-viable methods for controlling
NO emissions.
EPA's overall strategy for NOX control,
Maximum Stationary Source Technology (MSST),
is designed to increase the degree and effective-
ness of control from existing and new stationary
sources because of difficulties in achieving
desired levels of control from mobile sources.
The MSST strategy is not fully defined but is
currently viewed as a ten-year program. This
strategy has not as yet produced changes in
the emission standards for stationary sources,
but such standards may be made more stringent
as health effects and atmospheric chemistry
studies progress. A short term ambient standard
to supplement the current annual average appears
to be a strong possibility.
EPA's overall program for controlling
NOX emissions from stationary sources includes
two main technologies: (1) Control of combustion
processes (Combustion Modification—CM); and
(2) Control of post combustion products (Flue
Gas Treatment—FGT). CM minimizes the formation
of NOX during combustion, and is discussed in
a separate conference paper. FGT removes nitrogen
oxides from the gaseous products of combustion.
Combustion modification, though inexpensive,
is limited in terms of NOX reduction efficiency,
particularly on coal-fired sources. Additionally,
the practical limitations and secondary effects
of combustion modification have not as yet been
assessed. Due to the efficiency limitation
and possible secondary effects associated with
combustion modification, NOX FGT has, for some
time, been considered to be a possible "add-
on" technology for use when high removal efficiencies
are called for or when the source under consideration
is not amenable to extensive control by combustion
modification. Research effort in the FGT area
has been minimal due to uncertain need and unfavor-
able initial results. However, recent emphasis
of stationary source N0x emission control has
resulted in an expanded program for NO FGT
development by EPA.
TECHNICAL DISCUSSION
NOX in combustion flue gas exists almost
entirely as NO. At normal flue gas exit tempera-
tures, air oxidation of NO proceeds too slowly
to be of use in processes for treatment of
flue gas for NOX removal. Since NO is not
easily absorbed by any readily available scrubber
liquor, the problem of removing NOX from flue
gas becomes one of either reducing NO to elemental
nitrogen or oxidizing NO to the more reactive
NOo or NoOo forms for subsequent absorption
in scrubbing liquor. For convenience of discuss-
ion, these two process routes can be categorized
as dry processes (reduction) and wet processes
(oxidation followed by scrubbing).
1. Dry Processes
Although there are many theoretical dry
process variations (e.g., non-selective reduction,
selective reduction using NHo, CO or Ho, and
molecular sieves), only selective catalytic
reduction using ammonia has achieved notable
success in treating combustion flue gases
for removal 'of NO . The presence of oxygen
in concentrations many times greater than
NOX in combustion flue gas essentially precludes
consideration of non-selective reduction and
the achievement of selective reduction with
a reductant other than ammonia has proven
difficult. Due to preferential sorption of
moisture and resultant loss of active sites,
molecular sieves are not applicable for control
of NOX from combustion flue gas. Selective
reduction of N0x using ammonia is readily
accomplished using any of number of catalysts.
The fundamental reactions for the ammonia
reduction processes are:
6NO + 4NH3 -v 5N2 + 6H20
2NO + 2NH
1/20
3H20
(D
(2)
Data indicate that reaction (2) predominates.
In general, reaction temperatures range between
250°C and 450°C with NH3/NOX mole ratios
of approximately 1.0 to 1.5. Each process
developer utilizes different catalysts, catalyst
supports and bed configurations. Also, differing
applications require substantially different
catalysts and operating conditions depending
upon the S02 content and dust loading of the
specific flue gas. The inlet NO concentrations
being treated in Japan range from 150 ppm
to 250 ppm with NOX exit concentrations of
10 ppm to 50 ppm.
Japanese firms have operated pilot and
prototype selective reduction units for more
than two years. Commercial scale units are
operating on natural gas fired sources and
large commercial-scale units are currently
under construction for a number of oil-fired
sources. To date, there are no known applications
-------
of selective reduction processes to coal-fired
flue gas.
The considerable experience in Japan
no doubt qualifies N0x flue gas treatment
by selective catalytic reduction as commercially
available for application to gas- and oil-
fired sources in the U.S. from a technical
standpoint. There are, however, several
factors and questions which must be considered
in determining the potential for widespread
use of this technology in the U.S. Of particular
importance is the applicability of this technology
to coal-fired sources. The IERL-RTP NOX flue
gas treatment program discussed in PROGRAM
DISCUSSION and PROJECTION is aimed at resolving
these questions.
2. Wet Processes
Although the chemistry and process steps
involved in wet processes are considerably
more varied than in dry processes, nearly
all of those systems which have advanced beyond
bench scale involve the use of a strong oxidant
such as ozone or chlorine dioxide to convert
the relatively inactive NO in the flue gas
to N02 or N20,- for subsequent absorption.
Unfortunately, nearly all wet processes result
in a troublesome by-product which is, in most
cases, of little or no commercial value.
In general, wet processes are less well developed
and show higher projected costs than dry FGT
processes. Considering their cost and complexity,
it is doubtful that wet processes would be
receiving any development attention in Japan
were it not for the potential for simultaneous
SOX and NOX removal.
The required oxidation for wet FGT processes
can take place .either in the liquid or gas
phase. Those processes that utilize liquid
phase oxidation require extensive liquid/gas
contact in order to absorb the inactive NO.
It appears that the size and pressure drop
of the NO absorber may be so great as to preclude
the use of liquid phase oxidation processes
on combustion flue gases where large volumes
of gas and low NOX concentrations are involved.
The use of ozone or chlorine dioxide to oxidize
NO in the gas stream prior to the scrubber
appears to be the more successful approach.
Although the required scrubber is still quite
large, substantial removal of NOX can be obtained
in scrubbers designed for S02 removal. Unfortu-
nately, chlorine dioxide is expensive and
its use introduces the problem of disposing
of chloride-containing liquid discharges,
and the production of ozone requires massive
amounts of electrical energy and expensive
equipment. For coal-fired flue gas with its
higher NOX concentrations, the cost of oxidant
is very likely to be prohibitive. Also, where
ozone is utilized, additional equipment may
be required for removal of ozone from the
exit gas stream.
281
Although wet NOX FGT systems are not likely
to see widespread use in this country, two deserve
additional mention because they are relatively
simple extensions of well established flue
gas desulfurization (FGD) technology. The
Chiyoda 101 FGD process has been modified by
the inclusion of an ozone generator for NO
oxidation. The absorbed NOX is removed from
the system as a dilute calcium nitrate solution
requiring disposal. The process has been designated
Chiyoda Thoroughbred 102. This simultaneous
SOX/NOX process has been piloted in Japan but
has not seen commercial service as yet. Mitsubishi
Heavy Industries (MHI) also is developing a
wet NOX FGT process which is a fairly simple
extension of their limestone FGD process.
In this case, two additional pieces of equipment
are required: one for ozone generation and
injection into the flue gas, and one for treatment
of the tail gas to remove unreacted ozone prior
to release to the atmosphere. The MHI process
differs from most other wet FGT processes in
that the captured nitrogen oxides are reduced
to elemental nitrogen by reaction with calcium
sulfite in the circulating scrubber liquor.
A proprietary catalyst is present in the scrubber
liquor to promote this reaction. This simultaneous
SOX/NOX process is also being piloted in Japan
at this time. Both the Chiyoda and MHI processes
are attractive from the standpoint of. having
simultaneous SOX/NO control capability and
from the developmental standpoint since they
involve already commercial FGD technology;
however, both require the use of ozone. Ozone
production for application to coal-fired flue
gas is expected to require approximately 10
percent of the power plant electrical output.
When added to the power requirement of the
FGD portion of these processes, this energy
consumption is likely to render wet simultaneous
SOX/NOX processes impractical for commercial
use.
There appears to be no question that wet
NOX FGT systems can not compete with dry selective
catalytic reduction where simple NOX control
is involved. For coal-fired applications where
high dust loadings and S02 removal are involved,
it is not as yet clear whether dry FGT combined
with conventional FGD processes will be cheaper
than the wet simultaneous SOX/NO systems such
as Chiyoda 102 or MHI. Dry simultaneous SOX/NO
systems such as the Shell and the Sumitomo
Shipbuilding processes may also prove to be
cheaper than the wet simultaneous processes.
The Shell process is being commercially applied
on a 40 Mw oil-fired boiler in Japan and is
being piloted in the U.S. on a 0.6 Mw equivalent
flue gas stream from a coal-fired boiler.
The Sumitomo Shipbuilding process will be tested
at the prototype level on an oil-fired boiler
in Japan.
The IERL-RTP NOX flue gas treatment develop-
ment program is aimed at resolving these issues
in order that the Agency's NOX strategy can
-------
282
be based on sound technical and economic information
and to ensure that the most promising developmental
routes are followed.
PROGRAM DISCUSSION
Through FY-1973 about $975,000 was allocated
to the EPA NOX flue gas treatment technology.
The activity consisted of system studies, grants,
and in-house work. Results indicated that
sulfuric acid scrubbing and alkaline scrubbing
were not feasible for control of flue gas NOX
(about 95% NO and 5% N02) or even equimolar
mixtures of NO and N02 because of low mass
transfer rates leading to large equipment and
high costs. In most cases, NO went through
the system relatively unaffected. Although
the potential for N0£ removal with alkaline
solutions was indicated, studies on the oxidation
of NO to N02 indicated that this step was very
expensive and required high energy consumption.
Catalytic reduction was identified as a promising
approach and two programs were initiated.
One was a 2 Mw pilot plant evaluation of a
noble metal (Ft) catalyst with NHj reductant
at a gas-fired utility and the other was a
laboratory evaluation of about 45 different
catalyst/reductant systems.
During FY-74 budget planning, emphasis
was put on combustion modification only and
no new funds were allocated to FGT. The on-
going FGT work proceeded, however, and resulted
in demonstrated high NOX removal (85% to 95%)
on the gas-fired pilot plant and identification
of two promising non-noble metal systems with
potential for operating in flue gases containing
SOX. Emphasis was increased in FY-1975, and
$250,000 was allocated for technology development.
The pilot plant work was expanded to evaluate
the catalyst/reduction system on low sulfur
residual oil-fired flue gas and a laboratory
program was initiated to further evaluate the
non-noble metal catalyst systems and develop
data for scale-up to pilot stage. In addition,
environmental assessment activities were initiated
to determine new control requirements and control
strategy technology mixes in a major metropolitan
area, and to estimate ammonia and oxidant supply/
demand, production economics, and energy consumption.
PROJECTION
Current and future plans call for continued
strategy and environmental assessment activities
to determine the need for NOX flue gas treatment
and technology approaches. These efforts are
currently underway. Japanese technology is
expected to play a major role in NOX FGT projects
due to its advanced state.
Efforts are proceeding on this basis and
discussions have been held with U.S. and Japanese
firms. A Commerce Business Daily advertisement
was issued January 9 stating that sources are
sought to participate in several projects leading
to the demonstration of NOX flue gas treatment
technology for possible use on utility and
industrial combustion sources. It is expected
that initial projects will be at the pilot
(0.5 Mw to 5 Mw) scale or possibly prototype
(5 Mw to 20 Mw) scale. Major emphasis will
be placed on treatment of coal-fired flue
g'as. The number and size of projects to be
undertaken will be a determined by budgetary
constraints, availability of cost-sharing
funds from industry, and the state-of-the-
art of available technology. Projects are
envisioned in three possible application categories:
(1) Removal of NOX from coal-fired flue gas
containing low S02 concentrations, such as
flue gas from low sulfur coal-firing which
complies with New Source Performance Standards
for S02. (2) Removal of NOX from coal-fired
flue gas containing high S02 concentrations
(1500 ppm to 3000 ppm). (3) Simultaneous
removal of SOX and NOX from coal-fired flue
gas. The sources sought fall into two categories:
process developers or vendors, and host sites.
This advertisement was distributed extensively
in the U.S. and Japan.
To ensure that the process selections
for these projects are based on the best available
information, a continuing program of technology
assessment will be carried out utilizing consult-
ants, contractors, and actual site visits.
Communication with Japanese firms through
a skilled Japanese consultant will also be
continued. The program is aimed at determining
the following: (1) The impact of the higher
dust loadings, high chloride concentration,
higher oxygen concentration and higher inlet
NOX concentrations associated with coal-fired
flue gas. (2) The potential secondary problems
of emissions such as catalyst particles, ammonia,
ozone or other oxidants, and effluents such
as nitrates, sulfates or nitric acid. (3)
The capital and operating costs of NOX FGT
processes applied to a coal-fired boiler.
(4) The material/energy consumptions associated
with the various NOX FGT processes and impacts
on supply/demand.
INTERAGENCY PARTICIPATION
Thus far the NOX FGT program has not
reached the stage where active interagency
participation has been warranted. However,
as the program advances, interagency participation
in areas such as cost sharing, provision of
a host site, process evaluation, and economics
are clearly indicated. Some preliminary discuss-
ions have been held.
RESOURCE ALLOCATION
Tabulated below is a funding history
(in $1000s) of the NOX FGT program.
FY-69 FY-70 FY-71 FY-72 FY-73 FY-74 FY-75 FY-76
43 16 83 269 567 0 250* 632
^includes $200,000 energy supplemental funding.
-------
283
Although past funding has been minimal, the under-
taking of several parallel "hardware" projects
will require substantial funds in the future.
These funds can also be supplemented by money
in the S02 program that is earmarked for simulta-
neous SOX/NOX removal work. Furthur, the program
Is predicated on substantial cost sharing
by industry on the planned "hardware" projects.
It is anticipated that the program would proceed
with relatively small scale work in parallel
with environmental assessment activities.
Large scale demonstration activities would
be initiated following clarification of control
strategies and technologies. The planned
program is expected to lead to demonstrated
technology available for application to different
types of sources by the early 1980's. It
is also intended that the economics and secondary
effects of these systems be well defined in
order that NOX control strategies can be implement-
ed with the least adverse impact on both the
economy and the environment.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Bartok W., et al. "Systems Study of Nitrogen
Oxides Control Methods for Stationary Sources",
Volume II, EPA No. APTD 1286 (NTIS No. PB 192-
789), November 1969.
2. Lachapelle, D.G.-, Bowen, J.S. and Stern, R.D.
Overview of Environmental Protection Agency's
NOX Control Technology for Stationary
Combustion Sources". Paper presented at 67th
Annual Meeting, AlChE, December 4, 1974.
3. Koutsoukos, E.P., et al. "Assessment of
Catalysts for Control of NOX from Stationary
Power Plants, Volume I-Final Report," EPA-650/2-
75-OOla (NTIS No. PB 239-745/AS);•"Volume II-
Data Bank Citation Indices," EPA-650/2-75-001b
(NTIS No. PB 239-746/AS), January 1975.
CONCLUSIONS
1. Difficulties and high costs associated
with achieving substantial reductions in NOX
produced from mobile sources have resulted
in a renewed emphasis on NOX control of large
stationary sources. In addition, based on
health effects and atmospheric chemistry studies
and proposed amendments to the Clean Air Act,
there exists a real possibility that the future
will see a tightening of NOX standards.
2. Combustion modification is an inexpensive
and effective method for achieving reduction
of NOX from stationary combustion sources.
It is, however, limited both in emission reduction
efficiency and range of applicability, particularly
for coal-fired sources. NOX flue gas treatment
provides an "add-on" technology to be used
in addition to combustion modification when
high removal efficiencies are called for.
3. The Japanese, due to very stringent
NOX regulations, have progressed to the point
of commercial application of NOX flue gas
treatment systems. The work to date has,
unfortunately, been conducted only on gas-
and oil-fired sources. Experimental work
with coal-fired flue gas is needed before
meaningful projections of the usefulness of
NOX FGT for coal-firing can be made.
4. A number of important questions concerning
costs, secondary effects, materials use, relia-
bility, waste disposal, etc., must be answered
through a coordinated program of experimental
work on coal-fired flue gas, technology'assess-
ment, and engineering studies. The EPA research
and development program for NOX FGT has been
formulated to provide continually updated
fistimates and assessments for input into control
strategy/technology development and to provide
demonstrated technology by the early 1980's.
-------
284
CONTROL OF FINE PARTICULATE EMISSIONS
FROM STATIONARY SOURCES
James H. Abbott
Environmental Protection Agency
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
Fine participates are a health hazard because
in contrast to coarse particles they can bypass the
body's respiratory filters and penetrate deeply
into the. lungs. Fine particles released into
the atmosphere remain airborne for extended periods
of time, obstruct light and cause limited visibil-
ity typical of air pollution, haze and smog. They
have been identified as transport vehicles for
gaseous pollutants. The health hazards of fine
particulates are intensified by the tendency of
metallic materials from high-temperature processes,
such as pyrometallurgical and combustion processes,
to condense as chemically and catalytically active
fine particles. Many toxic and potentially hazard-,
ous compounds are also emitted as fine particulate.
Particulate matter formed in the atmosphere from
chemical reaction and condensation is called second-
ary. The phenomena associated with the formation
and transport of secondary particulate make it
difficult to relate atmospheric particulate pollu-
tion levels to specific sources. This problem has
hampered the development of effective, fine partic-
ulate control strategies and the establishment
of meaningful fine particulate emission standards.
The control of these secondary forms of particulate
must be through control of their precursor-s, and
it is generally thought that primary emitted
particulate plays an important role in the formation
cycle.
Many years will be required to develop a sound
data base to quantify the health effects problem of
fine particulates. Sufficient information does
exist, however, to conclude that fine particulates
must be controlled if public health is to be pro-
tected.
EPA and predecessor organizations have been
involved in development of systems for control of
emissions from industrial sources, including those
that are energy-related, for many years. Their
first work on control of particulate emissions dates
back to 1958. Because of the importance of energy
production in the emission of these major pollut-
ants, recent activities have focused on
energy-related processes, particularly the con-
ventional power plant.
In order to pursue the goal of developing
control technology for fine particulate emissions
the current basic EPA fine particulate program has
been divided into six main areas.
1. Measurement.
2. Characterization and Improvement of
Conventional Control Equipment and
Assessment of the Collectability of
Dusts.
3. New Particulate Control Technology
Development.
4. New Idea Identification, Evaluation,
and Technology Transfer.
5. High-Temperature and High-Pressure
Particulate Control.
6. Accelerated Pilot Demonstrations.
Elaboration on each of these program areas will
follow in the succeeding discussion.
TECHNICAL AND PROGRAM DISCUSSION
1. Measurement
Current devices used for measuring particle
size on control equipment include impactors, optical
counters, diffusion batteries, and condensation
nuclei counters. These devices require lengthy
manual techniques for operation and their reliabil-
ity is less than satisfactory. For instance, with
current measurement technology, it is not always
possible to discern the difference between a device
collecting 90% of particles less than 0.5 microns
in size and one collecting 95% or sometimes even
99%. If we are to maintain our momentum in control
technology development, this situation must be
remedied.
It is the objective of the EPA effort in this
area to produce a device which will continuously
measure fractional efficiencies of control devices
in real time with a high degree of precision and
accuracy in a plant environment.
2. Characterization and Improvement of Conventional
Control Equipment and Assessment of the Collect-
ability of Dusts
a. Electrostatic Precipitators (ESPs) - The
EPA has completed the total characterization of
seven ESPs operating on a' number of sources ranging
from power plants to aluminum plants. ' Data
from these tests have clearly shown that ESPs can
collect particles of all sizes with high efficiency
when dust resistivity is not a problem. Data and
theoretical predictions indicate that high dust
resistivity limits ESP performance.
EPA has completed work to determine the elect-
rical conduction mechanisms in fly ash at high
temperatures (730°F). ' Work in this area is being
extended to low temperatures. One outcome of this
work has been the demonstration of sodium as a po-
tential conditioning agent to reduce fly ash
resistivity. EPA has evaluated and published
repogts,,on conditioning agents such as SO., and
NH,. ' Conditioning appears to be a possible
solution to retrofit type problems but not for new
installations. Conditioning will not be a solution
if it causes adverse environmental effects. EPA
will conduct further tests to assess the total
impact of conditioning.
-------
Specially designed charging or precharging
sections are a possible means of improving the
collection of fine high resistivity particles. A
fundamental study and limited pilot plant work on
particle charging was begun in FY-74.
A mathematical mode] for the design of ESPs
was completed in FY-75. This model is in two
forms, a design and selection manual for the plant
engineer and a programmed computer version for the
design engineer. The model predicts well the per-
formance of ESPs down to particle sizes approaching
0.01 microns. Programs currently underway will
improve the model by better defining losses due to
poor gas distribution, rapping, and reentrainment.
These losses are currently handled in the model on
an empirical basis.
Wet ESPs offer a solution to, high, resistivity
and fine particle collection problems from some
sources. EPA is completing a systems study of wet
ESPs which was funded in FY-73. The results of
this study indicate that wet ESPs have performance
characteristics similar to dry ESPs without resist-
ivity problems. However, cost and other factors
limit the application of wet ESPs. Wet ESPs do not
appear to be a solution tt^the problem of collecting
high resistivity fly ash.
The broad objective of the electrostatic pre-
dpitator improvement program is to develop an ESP
of moderate size (SCA < 300 ft /1000 ACFM G> 300°F)
for high efficiency (> 99%) collection of high
resistivity dusts. Such ESPs would have a minimum
particle collection efficiency of 90% at about a
0.5 micron particle diameter. This objective is
shown in Figure 1. High resistivity dusts are
produced from several sources; the largest is
combustion of low S coal.
b. Scrubbers The Environmental Protection
Agency, as a part of this R&D program, has tested
approximately eight scrubbers of conventional
design on a variety of particulate sources. In
general, it can be said that the performance or
efficiency of a scrubber drops off rather rapidly
as the particle size decreases. It can also be
said that the efficiency is directly related to the
energy consumed by the scrubber.
The broad objective of the fine particle
scrubber program is to develop low pressure drop
(30-50 cm water pressure drop) scrubber systems
capable of collecting at least 90% by mass of
particles smaller than 3 microns in diameter. This
objective is shown graphically in Figure 2. With
the exception of two TCA scrubbers, the perform-
ance of all conventional and novel scrubbers tested
by EPA can be represented by points along or above
the lower line in Figure 2. The TCA scrubbers
represented by the circle labelled TCA, appear to
perform better at the same pressure drop than other
scrubbers.
The major thrust of EPA's scrubber program has
been aimed at developing and demonstrating Flux
Force/Condensation (FF/C) scrubbers. In an FF/C
scrubber water vapor is condensed in the scrubber.
When the water vapor condenses, additional forces
285
and particle growth contribute to the particle
collection process. When the water vapor or steam
is "free," FF/C scrubbers are low energy users.
However, when water vapor or steam has to be pur-
chased, FF/C scrubbers require additional energy
inputs for efficient particle collection. A rough
idea of the energy consumption/performance rela-
tionship for FF/C scrubbers is shown in Figure 2.
The right hand region is for purchased steam. Note
that when steam is free FF/C scrubbers approach the
program objective. The questions of how much steam
is needed and how much is free are major unknowns
at present. The answer to both questions is likely
to be source specific. Thus, pilot demonstrations
on a variety of sources are necessary to provide
required data. One pilot demonstration is presently
underway.
The overall efficiency of a scrubber system is
determined by the efficiency of the scrubber and the
efficiency of the entrainment separator. Recent
field data indicate that in some cases inefficient
entrainment separator operation is a major cause of
poor fine particle collection by scrubbers. EPA
has recently completed a systems study of entrain-
ment separators.
c. Fabric Filters The performance of bag-
houses has been completely characterized on three
sources,.-two utility type boilers and one industrial
boiler. ' ' The data obtained from these tests
show that baghouses are relatively good fine
particle collectors and their performance is not
very sensitive to particle sizes down to at least
0.3 microns. A major advantage of fabric filters
is that they will not require increases in size
or energy usage for efficient collection of fine
particles.
The current purpose in maintaining an R&D
program in fabric filtration is to promote increased
capabilities and extend the range of applicability
in their control of fine particulates. Of the three
conventional devices which can collect fine parti-
cles, fabric filters have been in industrial
service for the longest time, but the least informa-
tion is known about their operation from a theor-
etical standpoint. Although the filter is a simple
device in operation, there are complex problems in
describing it mathematically. The types of analyses
used for scrubbers and electrostatic precipitators
have not been effective when applied to filters.
Perhaps because the filter already has a reputation
for efficiency, EPA spending on filtration research
over the last few years has been at a lower level
than for ESPs and scrubbers. However, a major
effort is now underway to produce design equations
and mathematical models for gas filtration process-
es.
Industry can handle most of the filtration
problems for sources which are already controlled
by fabric filters. Help is presently needed for
sources which present new problems and which are
of priority interest to EPA. In order to design
for new sources, a better understanding of the
filtration process must be acquired. The objectives
of immediate work in filtration then become:
-------
286
(1) Understanding of the filtration
process.
(2) Application to priority sources.
(3) Achievement of cost/energy
effectiveness.
(4) Development and testing of new
filter materials which can extend
the applicability of baghouses
to a broad spectrum of sources.
d. Assessment of the Collectability of Dust -
Actual data on fractional efftciency of convention-
al particulate collectors is sparse. Actual
operating data for the optimization of collection
efficiency and cost is not readily available:
Installation of control equipment is presently
based on projections from historical data which has
been developed by manufacturers for their own
devices and is proprietary. This information is
not standardized and cannot be extrapolated to
other devices. On-site testing prior to selection
is seldom attempted and the possibility of alterna-
tive devices is poorly defined.
Several mobile collectors which can be easily
transported from source to source and tested are
being constructed. A mobile fabric filter and a
mobile scrubber unit have been completed and a
mobile ESP unit is scheduled to be completed by
early 1976. These mobile units are highly versatile
and will be used to investigate the applicability
of these control methods to the control of fine
particulate emitted from a wide range of sources.
The relative capabilities and limitations of these
control devices will be evaluated and documented.
This information, supplemented by data from other
EPA particulate programs, will permit selection
by equipment users of collection systems that are
technically and economically optimum for specific
applications.
3. New Particulate Control Technology Development
This is the program area which has become known
as New Concepts. As the requirement to collect
finer and finer particulate has developed, the cost
of conventional control (ESPs, fabric filters,
scrubbers) has risen. Since many important
collection mechanisms become far less effective on
particles less than 1 micron in diameter, con-
ventional devices (except for fabric filters) have
become larger or require more energy and thus are
more expensive. The objective of new concepts R&D
is to develop new mechanisms or new combinations
of well studied mechanisms in order to achieve
cost effective control of fine particulate. New
concepts include any new technology which has not
been reduced to practice and may or may not have
been previously studied.
Mechanisms utilized by scrubbers and fabric
filters are impaction, interception, and diffusion
and by ESPs are field and diffusion charging. This
corrtn'nation of mechanisms gives rise to a minimum
in efficiency at the 0.2 to 0.5 micron range for
conventional devices. Under optimum conditions,
this minimum may be greater than 90% for scrubbers
and ESPs and greater than 99% for fabric filters.
However, under other conditions such as high temp-
erature, high ash resistivity, sticky particulate,
and corrosive or explosive flue gases, new concepts
specific to a problem will have an advantage.
Most work to date has been directed toward
combining electrostatic removal mechanisms with
scrubbing or filtration mechanisms. The first area
to be developed was charged droplet scrubbing, with
a feasibility study at M.I.T. and aqpilot demonstra-
tion 'at TRW on a Kaiser coke oven. Electrostatics
and filtration are being studied at both Battelle
Northwest and Carnegie-Mellon; the former with bed
filters, the latter with baghouses. At least two
new concepts, a ceramic membrane filter and a
magnetic fiber bed, are oriented toward cleanup of
high temperature gases (1000-2000°F). Other new
concepts being studied are foam scrubbing and
pleated cartridge filters of a novel material.. Most
new concept work is in the early stages of develop-
ment so that no demonstration data is available.
The TRW charged droplet scrubber is currently being
demonstrated and will provide an indication of
possible technology advances. EPA has thus far
evaluated about 40 new concepts: of these 9 have
been selected for funding.
4. New Idea Identification. Evaluation, and Tech-
nology Transfer
This area is called for convenience the Novel
Devices Area. It includes in addition to Novel
Device evaluation and testing, a program aimed at
soliciting, stimulating, and identifying new ideas
for fine particulate control.
As a part of this latter objective EPA has
planned and sponsored four symposiums and two
seminars aimed at fine particle control. EPA also
has funded a literature search aimed at identifying
new technology in foreign countries (Japan, Canada,
Russia, and Australia).
Devices or systems based on new collection
principles or on radical redesign of conventional
collectors are sometimes offered by private develop-
ers. Under this program area all such novel
devices will be reviewed and if promising will be
evaluated for performance and related cost. It is
intended that those showing promise of high effic-
iency fine particle collection at reasonable cost,
if necessary, be further developed or demonstrated.
More than 30 novel particulate devices have
been identified. About half of these have been of
sufficient interest to justify a technical evalua-
tion. To date 10 devices have been either field or
laboratory tested:
Braxton-Sonic Agglomerator
Lone Star Steel - Steam Hydro Scrubber
R. P. Industries - Dynactor Scrubber
Aronetics - Two-Phase Wet Scrubber
Purity Corporation - Pentapure Impinger
Entoleter - Centrifield Scrubber
Johns-Manville - CHEAP
Rexnord Granular Bed Filter
-------
Air Pollution Systems - Electrostatic
Scrubber
Air Pollution Systems - Electrotube Scrubber
Of the devices tested, the Lone Star Steel Scrubber
gave the highest efficiency on?fine particulate, but
it is also a high energy user. It can use waste
energy, when available. The Aronetics Scrubber is
similar to the Lone Star, but was not as efficient.
In a field test the CHEAP had an overall mass
efficiency of 95% but maintained the efficiency
down to about 0.3 microns. The APS electrostatic
scrubber was equal in fractional collection effic-
iency to a venturi scrubber using 2-1/2 times as
much power. Results of the APS electrotube have
not been received. None of the other devices
tested had acceptable fine particulate collection
efficiencies.
5. Hiqh-Temperature/High-Pressure Particulate
Control
This program area was added in FY-75 as a result
of the critical particulate and fine particulate
collection problems associated with the advanced
energy processes. The broad objective of the
high-temperature, high-pressure program is to
develop the particulate collection devices which
are needed to ensure the environmental acceptability
of advanced energy processes. However, because the
requirements of such energy processes are as yet
unknown, EPA has established a near term (18-24
months) objective of developing the fundamental
information on the mechanics of aerosols at high
temperatures and pressures necessary to determine
the most logical path for high-temperature,
high-pressure particulate collection research and
development.
The state-of-the-art of high-temperature,
high-pressure particulate collection is very
unclear. There is no clear specification of the
degree of particulate collection needed by
advanced energy processes. Also, there are no
reliable data for the performance of the particu-
late collection devices proposed by various
companies; e.g., granular bed filters and high
pressure drop cyclones. There are few data,
correlations, or verified theories that can be
used to predict the performance of particulate
collection?devices at elevated temperatures and
pressures.
EPA, through FY-75 funded contracts, is con-
ducting research to: determine the feasibility of
high-temperature, high-pressure ESPs; determine
the effects of high-temperature, high-pressure on
basic particle collection mechanisms (literature
search funded in FY-75, experimental study funded
in FY-76); and determine the estimated particulate
cleanup requirements of the proposed new energy
processes. EPA, as part of the advanced energy
processes program, is looking at granular bed
filters (EXXON miniplant) and high pressure drop
cyclones (Consolidated Coal). As part of the novel
device program previously mentioned, EPA is attempt-
ing to evaluate either or both the REXNORD or CPC
granular bed filters.
6. Accelerated Pilot Demonstrations
287
Little attention will be given to this program
area since it was covered in each of the preceding
sections. Suffice it to say that EPA has currently
funded three pilot scale demonstrations and should
fund at least two additional ones in FY-76. Al-
though these demonstrations are demonstrations of
technology only and are "pilot scale," it has been
customary, where possible, to put them on a small
source at full scale and thus accomplish a complete
process control demonstration.
PROJECTION
Program priorities reflect the increasing
importance of coal as a utility fuel in the sense
that it will continue over the near term to be the
major energy source for the production of electr-
ical power. Research currently underway will
determine the effects on particulate control re-
quirements of such new processes as fluid-bed
combustors and coal gasification combined cycle
plants. In addition, this research effort will
attempt to define the applicability and environ-
mental acceptability of agents used for chemically
conditioning fly ash for resistivity modification.
As cited above, the present program is aimed
at demonstrating fine particulate control techn-
ology which will be generally applicable to a
broad spectrum of stationary sources both industrial
and utility related. To this end the capabilities
of conventional equipment have been defined and
design and performance models are being developed
and perfected.
New concepts and novel device evaluations must
continue and order-of-magnitude improvements in
conventional equipment must be sought so that
environmental quality will not be sacrificed under
the guise of economic salvation.
INTERAGENCY PARTICIPATION AND RESOURCE ALLOCATION
A major portion of current EPA efforts to
develop fine particulate control technology is being
supported by interagency supplemental energy funds.
Prior to FY-74, however, this effort was entirely
supported by EPA program funds. All current inter-
agency funded work in this area is being conducted
in-house and under contracts administered by EPA.
As previously mentioned, EPA and its prede-
cessor organizations have been involved in the
development of particulate control techniques since
1958. Since its formation EPA has sponsored a major
R&D effort in this control area. EPA's base
program was augmented by interagency energy supple-
mental funds in FY-74, and currently these funds
account for about 90 percent of the resource allo-
cations. The total resource allocations for FY-74
through FY-76 are as follows ($ x 10 ):
FY-74
FY-75
FY-76
Base
2.14
3.91
0.50
Interagency
1.25
1.50
4.16
-------
288
CONCLUSIONS
It can be concluded that adequate control of
emitted submicron particulate matter is presently
possible but not broadly applicable to a wide
variety of sources including utility sources.
Highly efficient electrostatic precipitators
installed on sources whose dust properties are
such that they lend themselves to electrostatic
collection can currently be effective in controlling
fine particles. Additional R&D is needed, however,
to improve the performance of precipitators on
particulate whose electrical resistivity is too
high and on particulate in the size range of 0.1
to 1.0 microns. This size range is quite important
since it is the most optically active and causes
atmospheric haze and thus visibility problems.
Techniques which either enhance charging or
selectively charge fine particles are currently
being sought by R&D programs of EPA's Industrial
Environmental Research Laboratory in North Carolina
(IERL-RTP).
Conventional scrubbers are not very efficient
collectors of fine particles. Current R&D efforts
to improve scrubbers are directed toward more
efficient utilization of the energy applied to a
scrubber system, and toward taking increased
advantage of condensation and other physical phen-
omena which affect to some degree the performance
of all scrubbers.
The state-of-the-art and the requirements of
high temperature and pressure particulate collection
associated with the advanced energy processes are
very unclear. Also, there are no reliable data
for the performance of the particulate collection
devices proposed for the various advanced processes,
and there are few correlations or verified theories
which can be used to predict performance at
elevated temperatures and pressures. Much research
and development remains to be done to insure the
environmental acceptability of these new processes.
So far only fournovel devices have been tested
and found to be good collectors of fine particulate.
Many more device tests are planned, and a number
of new and different concepts, such as ceramic
membrane filters, electrostatic fabric filters,
and foam scrubbers, are being investigated on a
laboratory scale. One new concept, the charged
droplet has been preliminarily demonstrated to be
a good collector of fine particles. It is hoped
that several of the devices and concepts currently
under consideration by EPA's IERL-RTP will ulti-
mately result in the demonstration of new and
economically attractive processes for the control
of all emitted particulate matter.
REFERENCES
1. Mahar, H. and Zimmerman, N., "Evaluation of
Selected Methods to Assess the Potential
Hazards Associated with Particulate Emissions,"
Mitre Corporation, Interim Report, EPA
Contract 68-02-1859, September 1975.
13.
14.
15.
Amdur, M. 0. and Corn, M., "The Irritant Pot-
ency of Zinc Ammonium Sulfate of Different
Particle Sizes," Amer. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J. 24
326-333, July-August 1963. ~
Smith, W. B., Gushing, K. M., and McCain, J.D.,
"Particulate Sizing Techniques for Control
Device Evaluation," EPA-650/2-74-102-a,,(NTIS
No. PB 245-184/AS), August 1975.
Nichols, G. B. and McCain, J. D., "Particulate
Collection Efficiency Measurements on Three
Electrostatic Precipitators," EPA-600/2-75-056
October 1975.
Nichols, G. B. and Gooch, J.P., Electrostatic
Precipitator Performance Model, Fifth Quarterly
Progress Narrative, Southern Research Institute,
EPA Contract No. 68-02-0265, Report No. 15,
October 2, 1973.
Nichols, G. B. and Gooch, J.P., Electrostatic
Precipitator Performance Model, Sixth Quarterly
Progress Narrative, Southern Research Institute,
EPA Contract No. 68-02-0265, Report No. 18,
January 14, 1974.
Bickelhaupt, R. E., "Influence of Fly Ash Com-
positional Factors on Electrical Volume Resist-
ivity," EPA-650/2-74-074, (NTIS No. PB 237-698/AS),
July 1974.
Bickelhaupt, R.E., "Effect of Chemical Composi-
tion on Surface Resistivity of Fly Ash," EPA-
600/2-75-017,(NTIS No. PB 244-885/AS), August
1975.
Dismukes, E. B., "Conditioning of Fly Ash with
Sulfamic Acid, Ammonium Sulfate and Ammonium
Bisulfate," EPA-650/2-74-114,(NTIS No. PB 238-
922/AS), October 1974.
Dismukes, E. B., "Conditioning of Fly Ash with
Sulfur Trioxide and Ammonia," EPA-600/2-75-015,
(NTIS No. PB 247-231/AS), August 1975.
Gooch, J. P., McDonald, J. R. and Oglesby, S.,
"A Mathematical Model of Electrostatic Precipi-
tation," EPA-650/2-75-037,(NTIS No. PB 246-188/A
S), April 1975.
Gooch, J.P. and McCain, J. D., "Particulate
Collection Efficiency Measurements on a Wet
Electrostatic Precipitator," EPA-650/2-75-033,
(NTIS No. PB 244-173/AS), March 1975.
Calvert, S., Jhaveri, N. C., and Yung, S., "Fine
Particle Scrubber Performance Tests," EPA-650/2-
74-093,(NTIS No. PB 240-325/AS), October 1974.
Calvert, S., Jhaveri, N. C., and Huisking, T.,
"Study of Flux/Force Condensation Scrubbing of
Fine Particles", EPA-600/2-75-018, August 1975.
Calvert, S., Jashnani, I. L., Yung, S., and
Stalberg, S., "Entrainment Separators for
Scrubbers Final Report," EPA-650/2-74-119b,
August 1975.
-------
16. McKenna, J. D., "Applying Fabric Filtration 20.
to Coal-Fired Industrial Boilers," EPA-650/2-74
-058a,(NTIS No. PB 245-186/AS), August 1975.
17. Bradway, R. M. and Cass, R. W., "Fractional
Efficiency of a Utility Boiler Baghouse,"
EPA-600/2-75-013a,(NTIS No. PB 246-641/AS),
August 1975.
18. Bradway, R. M. and Cass, R. W., "Fractional
Efficiency of a Utility Boiler Baghouse -
Sunbury Steam Electric Station," (To be issued)
19. Melcher, J. R. and Sachar, K. S., "Charged
Droplet Scrubbing of Submicron Particulate,"
EPA-650/2-74-075,(NTIS No. PB 241-262/AS),
August 1974.
21,
289
McCain, J. D. and Smith, W. B., "Lone Star
Steel Steam-Hydro Air Cleaning System Evalua-
tion," EPA-650/2-74-028,(NTIS No. PB 232-436/AS) ,
April 1974.
Rao, A. K., Schrag, M.P., and Shannon, L. J.,
"Particulate Removal from Gas Streams at High
Temperature/High Pressure," EPA-600/2-75-020,
(NTIS No. PB 245-858/AS), August 1975.
Igure 1. - ESP Capital Cost vs. Computed
Performance «urves at Uo NA/CM2
Temperature - 300°F
CAPITAL COST - SIO^/IDOO ACFM
5.2 7.8 10.4 13
Figure 2.
90
15.6
T r
100 200 300 400 500 600
FT2/(1000 ACTUAL FT3/MIN) SPECIFIC COLLECTING AREA
4.0
30
20-
1.0-
8
6
.5-
.4-
3-
2-
Scrubber Operating Cost vs. Aerodynamic
Cut Diameter
Assume Power Cost 2.5U/KWHR
8000 hrs. Operation per year
OPERATING COST $lCr/YR/1000 ACFM
0.12
0.24
048
i i
1.44
TCAO
FREE '///,
iSTEAMF
y/PURCHASEDTW
///, STEAM 4
3456789 20 30 50 70 90
PRESSURE DROP, CMHoO
200 300
-------
290
CONTROL OF WASTE AND WATER POLLUTION
FROM FLUE GAS CLEANING SYSTEMS
Julian W. Jones
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
A major consideration inherent in plans for
installing a flue gas cleaning (FGC) system is the
necessity for disposing of or utilizing the by-
products. This is true for all coal-fired boilers,
especially those with flue gas desulfurization (FGD)
systems. Application of FGD systems in the United
States is accelerating; the majority of these are
lime/limestone wet scrubbing systems which produce
a calcium/sulfur by-product. Because of environ-
mental and economic concerns related to the dispo-
sition of this FGD waste, there have been consider-
able governmental and industrial research, develop-
ment, and demonstration activities. Modest EPA
efforts in this area were begun in the late 1960's
in support of the limestone scrubbing program. In
late 1972, major research and development (Rf,D)
efforts were initiated; these efforts were described
by the author in a previous paperU). In late 1974,
plans were formulated to greatly expand these R§D
efforts as part of EPA's Energy Research Program.
These efforts were aimed at determining pertinent
environmental parameters, reducing costs, investi-
gating alternative strategies, and encouraging by-
product usage. Although the major emphasis in these
new efforts was on FGD wastes, they involved consid-
eration of overall power plant waste and water prob-
lems, including the disposal and utilization of coal
ash. For this reason, the new program was entitled
"Control of Waste and Water Pollution from Flue Gas
Cleaning (FGC) Systems." In this paper, the program
will be referred to as the FGC Waste and Water
Program.
The FGC Waste and Water Program, developed in
Fiscal Year 1975, consists of the expansion and/or
extension of four existing projects and the addition
of twelve new projects. Each of the projects is
listed in Table 1; the contractor or agency per-
forming the project is listed, along with funding
by Fiscal Year.
It is important to note that ten of the sixteen
projects in the FGC Waste and Water Program, are
being conducted under Interagency Agreements; seven
of the ten are with the Tennessee Valley Authority.
Approximately half of the funding in Fiscal Year
1975 was used for these Interagency Agreements,
which cover a broad spectrum of project types and
make up an indispensable part of the program. These
are described below along with the other projects
in the FGC Waste and Water Program.
PROGRAM DESCRIPTION
The objectives of the FGC waste and water pro-
gram are to evaluate, develop, demonstrate and recom-
mend environmentally acceptable, cost-effective
techniques for disposal and utilization of FGC
wastes, with emphasis on FGD wastes, and to evaluate
and demonstrate systems for maximizing power plant
water reuse/recycle. The projects, all of which
are briefly described below, in general, fall in one
of five main categories--(1) environmental assess-
ment of FGC waste disposal, (2) disposal economics,
(3) alternate disposal methods, (4) utilization of
wastes, and (5) overall power plant water use.
1. Environmental Assessment of FGC Waste Disposal
FGC Waste Chara ,erization, Disposal Evaluation,
and Transfer of FGC Waste Disposal Technology (The
Aerospace Corporation] This is a broad-based study
to (1) identify environmental problems associated
with FGC waste disposal by comparing FGC waste
chemical/physical characteristics with current, pro-
posed, or potentially applicable environmental
standards; (2) assess current FGC waste disposal
methods, including feasibility, performance, and
costs--by conducting laboratory studies of wastes,
providing engineering support and conducting chem-
ical/physical analyses for the Shawnee field eval-
uation (see below), evaluating other available data,
and conducting engineering cost studies of disposal
methods; (3) make recommendations regarding alter-
nate disposal approaches based on (1) and (2); and
(4) assemble, assess, and report all FGC waste-
related R§D activities in EPA, TVA, and private
industry
Formal reports on the Shawnee field evaluation
are planned annually; integrated R&D reports of
government and industry activities are planned
annually; technical papers will be presented approx-
imately every 18 months at EPA FGD symposia. Earlier
results from this study have been reported.(1.2,3)
The first annual integrated R§D report, to be
released in early 1976, will summarize the results
from all the projects described below.
Shawnee FGD Waste Disposal Field Evaluation
(TVA/Aerospace) Under this program, the Chemfix,
Dravo, and IU Conversion Systems (IUCS) processes
for chemical fixation of scrubber wastes are being
evaluated in three separate disposal ponds. Untreated
lime and limestone wastes are placed in two addi-
tional ponds. Leachate, run-off and ground water
samples as well as core samples of the wastes and
soil are being collected and analyzed to evaluate
environmental effects. Both Aerospace and TVA are
performing selected analyses; Aerospace is responsi-
ble for data evaluation and reporting. Future plans
call for evaluation of other disposal approaches,
including gypsum disposal. The first formal report
on this project will be released in early 1976.
Louisville Gas and Electric Evaluation of FGD
Waste Disposal OptionsThis project includes lab-
oratory studies of non-chemical and chemical (fixa-
tion) processes for stabilization of scrubber sludge
using carbide lime and commercial lime scrubbing
wastes; samples will be mixed with fly ash alone or
fly ash and one of several additives (e.g., Port-
land cement). Results of testing of the stabilized
samples will be used to determine those mixtures to
be field tested. The field studies include (1) small-
-------
scale (about 19 cubic meter) above-ground impound-
ment tests in which leachate, run-off and physical
stability tests of unstabilized and stabilized waste
material will be conducted and (2) larger scale
(about 76 cubic meter) landfill tests in which
leachate migration, run-off, and physical stability
tests of unstabilized and stabilized waste material
will be conducted.
An interim report will be issued after comple-
tion of the laboratory (and part of the field)
studies, sometime in the fall of 1976. The final
report is expected to provide significant informa-
tion on the environmental acceptability of several
scrubber waste disposal methods. The project is
expected to be completed by the summer of 1977.
Lime/Limestone Wet Scrubbing Waste Character-
nation (TVA) This project consists of efforts to
(1) characterize waste materials from the Shawnee
facility and correlate the physical/chemical proper-
ties of the materials with the scrubber operating
conditions; (2) characterize waste materials from
other (full-scale) facilities and correlate proper-
ties with scrubber operating conditions; and (3) sug-
gest, if feasible, a means of controlling waste
characteristics to improve disposal/utilization
economics. The Shawnee studies are expected to be
completed in the spring of 1976.
Lab and Field Evaluation of 1st and 2nd Genera-
tion FGC Waste Treatment Processes (Corps of Engi-
neers) This project involves laboratory and field
studies to evaluate current commercial (1st genera-
tion) and new, not yet commercial (2nd generation)
processes for treatment of several industrial wastes,
including FGC wastes. The 1st generation processes
will be evaluated through laboratory leaching column
studies, physical testing of samples of several
chemically treated FGC wastes, and small field stud-
ies of selected treatment processes. (Initial ef-
forts in this project are similar to the Aerospace
studies of treatment processes, except that addition-
al commercial processes are being evaluated.) In
addition, visits will be made to existing full-scale
disposal sites for complete evaluation (including
soil coring) of current disposal. The 2nd generation
processes will be restricted to those which are chem-
ically and operationally defined. Candidate proces-
ses will be screened via economic analysis, physical
testing, and resistance to pollutant leaching. Up
to five processes will be selected for comprehensive
evaluation similar to that conducted for the 1st
generation processes.
An interim report on physical testing and
leaching tests of the 1st generation processes will
be released in early 1976; an update of this infor-
mation will be presented at the EPA FGD symposium in
March 1976. Final reports on the 1st and 2nd gener-
ation studies are expected in mid-1977 and mid-1978,
respectively.
Characterization of Effluents from Coal-Fired
Power Plants (TVA) This project involves efforts
to (1) characterize and quantify the chemical param-
eters of coal pile drainage; (2) assess the physical/
291
chemical composition of ash pond effluent after
adjustment of pH to meet effluent standards;
(3) determine the sampling and analyses necessary
for an adequate ash pond monitoring program;
(4) assess the effects of coal ash leachate on
ground water quality; and (5) evaluate effects of
chlorinated effluent in the discharge canal from
once-through cooling systems. The final report is
planned to be released in late 1978.
Ash Characterization and Disposal (TVA) This
project involves efforts to (1) summarize and eval-
uate existing data on the characteristics of coal
ash and ash effluents from studies made by TVA and
others; (2) perform chemical and physical analyses
on coal, coal ashes, and ash effluents to charac-
terize these materials as a function of variation
in boiler design/operation, and coal type; (3) eval-
uate various methods for disposal/utilization of
fly ash; (4) summarize information on methods of
ash sluice water treatment for reuse; (5) conduct
conceptual design studies of dry and wet ash
handling systems; and (6) recommend the most prom-
ising systems for ash handling and disposal/utili-
zation. The final report on the project is planned
for January 1979.
Studies of Attenuation of FGC Waste Leachate
by Soils (U.S. Army Materiel Command - Dugway
Proving Ground) This study is being conducted to
determine the extent to which heavy metals and other
chemicals in FGC wastes can migrate through the soil
in land disposal sites. At least six scrubber
wastes and three coal fly ashes will be tested under
this project, which includes the following efforts:
(1) physical and chemical characterization of the
wastes; (2) leachate studies in columns with the
wastes applied to several soil types; (3) long term
permeability tests with selected clays; and (4) us-
ing data from (1) and (2), identify soil attenuation
mechanisms and develop empirical "attenuation coef-
ficients" for specific chemicals. The character-
ization tests have recently been completed; perme-
ability tests are currently underway. The final
report for the project is expected to be issued in
mid-1977.
FGD Waste Leachate-Liner Compatibility Studies
(Corps of Engineers) This program is being con-
ducted to (1) determine the compatibility of 18
liner materials with FGD wastes; (2) estimate the
service life of the liners, and (3) assess the
economics involved with purchase of various liner
materials. At least 18 materials have been selected
for tests in exposure cells designed to simulate a
depth of sludge/liquor of at least 6 meters. These
include admixed materials (e.g., soil cements)„
flexible materials (e.g., polyvinyl chloride), and
sprayed-on materials (e.g., asphalts). The materials
will be subjected to physical tests to determine
whether exposure (for up to 24 months) to FGD wastes
causes liner material deterioration. The final
report for this project is expected to be issued in
the fall of 1977.
Establishment of Data Base for FGC Waste
Disposal Standards Development (SCS Engineers)
This project includes efforts to: (1) establish
-------
292
criteria necessary to evaluate FGC waste disposal
options; (2) compile any proposed or existing
standards/regulations potentially applicable to
land disposal of FGC wastes; (3) evaluate the impact
of applying these standards/regulations; (4) identify
one or more protot)-pe standards for standards/regu-
lations. This effort is expected to be completed by
late 1976; however, these initial results are expec-
ted to require subsequent updating.
2. FGC Waste Disposal Economics
Conceptual Design/Cost Study of Alternative
Methods for Lime/Limestone Scrubbing Waste Disposal
(TVA) In this study several FGD waste disposal
methods and FGD system design/operation premises
will be selected for detailed economic evaluation.
Alternatives will very likely include variations in
mechanical dewatering equipment, treatment (e.g.,
oxidation to gypsum, chemical fixation), and ultimate
disposal (e.g., ponding, landfill). The final report
on this effort is expected in mid-1977.
3. Alternate Disposal Methods
Evaluation of Alternative FGD Waste Disposal
Sites (A.D. Little) This program is being con-
ducted to identify, assess, and demonstrate, on a
pilot scale, alternate FGD waste disposal methods
(other than local ponding and landfilling). The
initial effort, currently near completion, consists
of an evaluation and assessment of the compatibility,
capability, and adequacy of deep and surface coal
mines, oceans and other potential disposal sites for
handling and disposal of untreated and/or chemically
treated FGD wastes. Although environmental effects
and operational safety are major initial consider-
ations, the assessment also includes an economic
study of the alternate methods and a study of appli-
cable Federal and state regulations. Based on the
initial efforts, recommendations and conceptual
designs for the pilot demonstrations will be made.
The pilot demonstrations, expected to get under-
way later in 1976, will be conducted at a scale such
that design data for full-scale operations can be
obtained. The mine study, consisting of tests on
small plots at an existing coal mine, will include
monitoring for pollutants, characterizing pollutants,
identifying limits of physical/chemical character-
istics of the wastes, and waste/mine interactions.
The ocean study, consisting of tests in a tank which
can simulate the ocean environment, will include
settling and dissolution characteristics and, in
general, any parameters which would stress the eco-
system.
4. FGC Waste Utilization
Gypsum By-Product Marketing Studies (TVA) A
preliminary study conducted by TVA during early 1974
indicated the possibility that production and sale
of abatement gypsum might offer a substantial eco-
nomic advantage over FGD waste disposal. These
new studies include a thorough economic evaluation
of gypsum producing processes (e.g., Chiyoda, carbon
absorption, CaS03 oxidation) and a detailed U.S.
marketing study of abatement gypsum for wallboard.
A report on this study is expected in mid-1976.
Future plans include studies of abatement gypsum
for use in Portland cement manufacture.
Lime/Limestone Scrubbing Waste Conversion
Pilot Studies (M.W. Kellogg)This project involve
a cost-shared contract (under negotiation) to con-
duct pilot studies of two key process steps in the
"Kel-S" process for conversion of lime/limestone
scrubbing waste to elemental S with recovery of the
Ca in the waste as CaCO?. The effort includes
(1) reduction of lime/limestone waste to CaS in a
continuously rotating kiln, (2) dissolution of the
kiln-produced CaS to Ca(HS)2 using H2S from the Ca
recovery unit, and (3) recovery (precipitation) of
the Ca as CaCOj, using C02- rich gas (available fro
the drying kiln), with simultaneous release of H2S,
which can be converted to elemental S in a Claus
plant. Design data will be generated to allow
scale-up to a large (prototype) test unit. Assumin
successful pilot testing and reasonable economics,
this process would present a viable alternative to
lime/limestone scrubbing waste disposal. The pro-
ject, expected to get underway soon, will last
approximately eleven months.
Fertilizer Production Using Lime/Limestone
Scrubbing Wastes (TVA) This project involves the
use of lime/limestone scrubbing wastes as a filler
material and source of sulfur for fertilizer. This
study is a continuation/expansion of previous bench
scale laboratory production tests and small field
plot application tests with rye grass. TVA will
(1) conduct pilot plant fertilizer production tests
using lime/limestone scrubbing wastes, (2) conduct
tests of compatibility factors involved in storage
and mixing of this fertilizer material with con-
ventional fertilizer, (3) conduct field plot tests
using fertilizer from the pilot plant, (4) conduct
economic/marketing studies, and (5) determine the
amounts of trace and/or toxic elements in this
fertilizer and compare them with those in conven-
tional fertilizer. The pilot plant production
and storage/compatibility tests are expected to be
completed by the spring of 1976.
S. Power Plant Water Use
Assess/Demonstrate Power Plant Water Reuse/Re-
cycle (Radian) This is a study to minimize water
use and wastewater discharges from coal-fired power
plants. The study consists of six tasks:
(1) Plant selection and characterization—selection
of three or four plants for detailed analysis;
collection of data on make-up, process, and effluen
waters, plant design, operating modes, coal com-
position and climate for each plant. (2) Process
model preparation--preparation of computer models
to simulate make-up, process, and effluent water
streams, and chemical equilibria of the processes
for each plant selected for study. (3) Simulation
of existing plant operation--verification of com-
puter models by comparing existing plant chemical
and operating data with model-predicted data.
(4) Assessment of recycle/reuse options — formu-
lation of several options to minimize water require
ments and discharges for the plants selected for
study; evaluation of at least one option (via
-------
process simulation) for each plant. (5) Cost CONCLUSIONS
estimates—preparation of capital and operating
cost estimates for each viable water recycle/reuse
option. (6) Recycle/reuse assessment report—pre-
sentation of program results, including recommended
recycle/reuse options for each of the plants studied
Current plans call for completion of this effort by
July 1976, followed by pilot plant testing of one
or more recycle/reuse options.
FUTURE PLANS
The main thrust of future activities under the
FGC Waste and Water Program is continuation of the
efforts described above. In summary, this means
that the environmental assessment and economic
efforts will be pursued to logical conclusions, and
that development of promising FGC waste disposal/
utilization alternatives and power plant water use
technologies will also be pursued. However, three
new projects, which are described below, have been
included in the Fiscal Year 1976 program plan. The
projects generally fall in the category of FGC waste
disposal/utilization alternatives.
Dewatering Principles and Equipment Design
Studies This project will consist of (1) an
examination of current dewatering equipment design
principles to determine their applicability to FGC
wastes; (2) laboratory settling and other tests to 1.
determine the behavior of FGC wastes as a basis for
dewatering equipment design studies; (3) analytical
dewatering equipment design studies based on FGC
waste behavior; and (4) laboratory bench tests of
dewatering equipment design concepts. Further
testing of the concepts developed may be conducted
if there is sufficient interest expressed by private 2,
industry.
Use of FGC Gypsum in Portland Cement Manu-
facture This project will consist of the following
efforts: (1) laboratory and operational equipment
tests at a Portland cement manufacturing plant to 3.
determine the acceptable range of variability in the
FGD gypsum quality, as well as other potential
operational problems; (2) laboratory and operational
tests of other uses of FGD gypsum (e.g., road base
material) in the Portland cement industry; and (3) a
test program involving full-scale FGD equipment at a
coal-fired utility power plant and a full-scale
Portland cement manufacturing facility.
FGD Waste/Fly Ash Beneficiation Studies This
project will consist of the following efforts:
(1) a conceptual design/cost study of a proprietary
process for producing sulfur, alumina (for aluminum
production), and dicalcium silicate (for cement
production) from FGD waste and fly ash (and/or clay),
including the development of a preliminary process
design and an estimate of capital and operating
costs to determine the economic viability of the
process; (2) assuming favorable economics, a bench-
scale laboratory investigation to determine probable
ranges of operating conditions for each of the major
processing steps and to determine probable yields
and purity of products; (3) assuming a viable proc-
ess, possible pilot scale testing to obtain design
data for large-scale equipment.
293
The FGC Waste and Water Program described here-
in is a comprehensive program designed to reduce the
environmental and economic impact of power plant
waste and water pollution controls. Results from
efforts under this program will provide alternative
strategies which can be applied to a fairly broad
range of power plant situations. However, appli-
cation of the results could be strengthened and
broadened if additional funding were applied to the
pilot/demonstration phases of several projects.
Suggested sources of these funds include private
industry, the Electric Power Research Institute,
other government agencies, and EPA itself.
I feel that it is desirable that this program
continue with substantial funding over the next
several years because this program, like others in
the environmental area, sponsors research and
development for which there is, at least initially,
little or no financial incentive to private industry
More importantly, results from this program can
accelerate the increasing use of domestic coal
supplies in fossil fuel-fired power plants; this is
an important part of the nation's energy objectives.
REFERENCES
Jones, J.W., "Environmentally Acceptable
Disposal of Flue Gas Desulfurization Sludges:
The EPA Research and Development Program", In
Proceedings: Symposium on Flue Gas Desulfur-
ization--Atlanta, 11/74, Volume II, EPA-650/2-
74-126-b (NTIS No. PB 242-S73/AS), 12/74.
Rossoff, J. and R.C. Rossi, Aerospace
Corporation, "Disposal of By-Products from
Non-Regenerable Flue Gas Desulfurization
Systems: Initial Report", EPA-650/2-74-037-a,
(NTIS No. PB 237-114/AS), 5/74.
Rossoff, J., et al., "Disposal of By-Products
from Non-Regenerable Flue Gas Desulfurization
Systems: A Status Report." In Proceedings:
Symposium on Flue Gas Desulfurization, Atlanta,
11/74, Volume I, EPA-650/2-74-126-a, (NTIS No.
PB 242-572/AS), 12/74.
-------
294
Table 1. Projects in FGC Waste and Water Program
Project Title
FGC Waste Characterization,
Disposal Evaluation, and
Transfer of FGC Waste Disposal
Technology
Shawnee FGD Waste Disposal
Field Evaluation
Louisville Gas and Electric
Evaluation of FGD Waste
Disposal Options
Lime/Limestone Wet Scrubbing
Waste Characterization
Lab and Field Evaluation of
1st and 2nd Generation FGC
Waste Treatment Processes
•Characterization of Effluents
from Coal-Fired Power Plants
(Waste and Water only)2
Ash Characterization and
Disposal
Studies of Attenuation of
FGC Waste Leachate by Soils
FGD Waste Leachate-Liner.
Compatibility Studies
Establishment of Data Base.
for FGC Waste Disposal
Standards Development
Conceptual Design/Cost
Study of Alternative Methods
for Lime/Limestone Scrubbing
Waste Disposal
Evaluation of Alternative
FGD Waste Disposal Sites
Gypsum By-Product Marketing
Studies
Lime/Limestone Scrubbing
Waste Conversion Pilot
Studies
Fertilizer Production Using
Lime/Limestone Scrubbing
Wastes
Assess/Demonstrate Power
Plant Water Reuse/Recycle
Dewatering Principles and
Equipment Design Studies
Use of FGD Gypsum in Portland
Cement Manufacture
FGD Waste/Fly Ash Beneficiation)
Studies
Contractor/Agency
The Aerospace Corporation
Tennessee Valley Authority
Louisville Gas and Electric Company
(Subcontractor: Combustion Engineering)
Tennessee Valley Authority
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
Waterways Experiment Station
Tennessee Valley Authority
Tennessee Valley Authority
U.S. Army Materiel Command
Dugway Proving Ground
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
Waterways Experiment Station
SCS Engineers, Inc.
Tennessee Valley Authority
Arthur D. Little, Inc.
Tennessee Valley Authority
M. W. Kellogg Company
Tennessee Valley Authority
Radian Corporation
• Contractor Selection Pending
Totals
Prior to
FY 75
596
(203) l
0
0
110
0
0
75
0
Funding, $1000
FY 77-80
FY 75 FY 76 (est.) Totals
500
(250)1
750
40
325
300
300
\ '
c
0
300 £
TO
\
\
<-• 3 3 3
100 oe° ^ °
-------
295
DISCUSSION FOR FLUE GAS TECHNOLOGY SESSION
Question: In regard to the sulfur removal in flue gas and desulfurization processes, is there any
information and comparison between sulfate ambient air levels, estimated in the vicinity where the plume
hits the ground, between a flue gas desulfurization plant, and say, one that just has good particulate
clean up? Are there any ballpark estimates, ranges of economics that are involved in flue gas desulfuri-
zation, NO controls, and fine particulate control, all put together, say, for a thousand megawatt plant?
A
Panel Response: All the data on the subject is not in yet, but one has to remember that the pre-
sent theory regarding the high levels of sulfates in the Northeast portion of the country is based on
long-term transport and transformation of S02. In other words, S02 is the major precursor to sulfates,
at least insofar as present theory is concerned.
Obviously, a flue gas desulfurization system that would control 80 or 90% of S02 emissions would
have a significant effort, ff the theory is correct, on sulfate emissions. Emissions also include small
releases of calcium sulfite, calcium sulfate, and lead sulfate. The people at the Halifax Plant indicate
that the sulfates there were really acid sulfates, uric acid, ammonium sulfate, others that are quite
acidic; whereas calcium sulfite and calcium sulfate, relatively neutral salts, are probably not even
sulfates of concern. These comments were further reinforced by other panel members.
Our studies do indicate that when one considers the total potential sulfate problem, that the
amounts of primary sulfate, which may be generated by FGD systems is very small compared to the amount of
sulfate one would get, both primary and secondary, from an uncontrolled unit. In summary, FGD plays a
vital part in not only reducing S02 but potential sulfate as well.
In regard to the economics, all the currently available FGD systems fall into a capital cost range
of $60 to $100 per kilowatt, or approximately 3 to 6 mills per kilowatt hour. As far as spending costs
are concerned, lime, limestone, magnesium oxide would fall on the lowest side of that range. Catalysts
and Wpllman double alkali would also fall between low to middle. Some of the more advanced processes
would move on out toward the upper range. So, it is difficult to really separate how much the FGD is
specifically costing in relation to the other systems which also may remove sulfur. I guess that's about
all I can say on it, as far as regenerable FGD.
EPA indicated that in proposals they received for double alkali systems the costs ranged anywhere
from $50 to $75 per kilowatt in solid capital costs. TVA developed costs in a conceptual design study
for a wide-range of plant sizes and operating conditions. However, the total cost for SOX, NO combined
has not been addressed, only SOX has been studied. The range discussed for an SOX facility isxreasonab!e
based on some of the numbers TVA collected.
The numbers for NOX and fine particulates are just not available yet. These are in a very sketchy
stage of development. The industry does not even know what fine particulate is, much less what it's
going to cost to control it.
Perhaps one way around the SOX problem is to go to a low sulfur or a clean fuel where the sulfur is
removed before it's combusted. In this case, if you look at the conventional technologies for removing
particulates at this time, those that are applicable, and would be considered state-of-the-art, perhaps,
the electrostatic precipitator is the one most commonly considered.
When one goes to low sulfur fuels, the electrical resistivity of the fly ash is increased to a point,
where it's made very difficult to collect. There are several ways to remedy this. One is to increase
the precipitator's size, i.e., the collector area for 1000 CFM gas free. Where a high sulfur coal might
take an SCA or precipitator in the neighborhood of, say, 200, for 99 and a half percent efficiency, to
meet the new source performance standard, which is a tenth of a pound per million BTU used.
A low sulfur coal, one say at .5 or .75 percent sulfur, with a high resistivity, would take a pre-
cipitator considerably larger. It could be as large as 600 to 1000 SCA. In this case, the cost of that
precipitator is going to approach, very closely, the cost of the flue gas desulfurization system. It's
going to be somewhere between $50 to $75 per kilowatt.
In summary, there is no definitive answer. The cost of fine particulate control alone can be high,
depending on what standards are to be met. For example, at this point in time, a tenth of a pound per
million BTU is the emission standard for nuclear plants.
-------
296
As far as the combustion area, it appears to be fairly economical, relative to some of the other
aspects discussed. We had some Economic studies conducted by boiler manufacturers indicating that with
using existing coal fired technology for retrofitting, a coal-fired boiler, the costs would be of the
order of $1 $2 per kilowatt. For gas-fired boilers, if there are any of those in the future, the costs
would be of the order to $7.50 per kilowatt. These costs could even be lower if these characteristics
of the unit were included at the time the unit was first bid for construction. The upper range costs
are somewhat more difficult to determine. They depend on the assumption as to the effect the technology
has on the efficiency of the unit.
Question: The Japanese have some 12 Chiota process units working in Japan, and Gulf Power has a
unit that uses dilute sulfuric acids. Could anybody comment on the Chiota Plants? I notice that it's
been omitted in the discussion so far.
Panel Response: There is much interest in the Chiota system in Japan, and one reason for that in-
terest is the good reputation Chiota has in Japan. When Chiota says they're going to do something, they
do it, and they do it well.
However, there are some problems with costs on the Chiota system. It uses 2 percent sulfuric acid
recirculation to adsorb SOo which does not have a high affinity for SC^ adsorption. Because of that, the
liquid recirculation rates are, generally, 10 times higher than from a conventional scrubber system using
black limestone or another adsorbent.
One other potential problem with Chiota is chlorides. At the Schultz Plant, they have a high blow-
down rate to keep the chloride level down, and they also have chloride stress problems.
Question: Would the panel pursue the differences in the flue gas chemistry between a coal-fired
furnace with a very efficient electrostatic precipitator and an oil-fired furnace. Include NOX control
also. Is there that much difference in the technology and could this be applied?
Panel Response: Using a very high efficiency ESP, the particulates are taken care of. One of the
other major differences is the hydrochloride content of coal as compared to oil and gas. Coal-fi.red flue
gas would probably, therefore, have some different constituents, trace elements and so on, as compared to
an oil-fired flue gas. Data in this area is sparse, so until more data is available, conclusions cannot
be reached. However, to sum it up, it's particulate removal and chloride problems.
One other one is sulfur content. Generally the oil used there is low in sulfur, usually less than
2 percent; so, that's a level where others try to end up. It makes sulfur scrubbing much simpler and
cheaper.
Question: A statement was made that theWellman-Lord system is commercially available, possibly only
in Japan and that it has been applied to oil-fired units. However, the Northern Indiana Public Service
Plant seems to be continually pushing back the operation of this system. So, I wonder how the statement
that it is commercially available at the present time can be justifiably made?
Panel Responses: That is a conclusion reached following all sorts of testimony heard by EPA with
regard to the status of flue gas desulfurization technology, at that time heard from Dayton Power and
Gas and .others who presented information on technology. On the basis of that testimony, the hearing
panel indicated that the one Lord system seemed to be commercially available.
There is an abundance of positive operating data on the Wellman-Lord and the Allied add-on to the
Wellman-Lord.that there is a great deal of confidence in that technology. The fact is, the NIPSCO
(phonetic) Program will be the first coal-fired application of that technology, anywhere in the world.
As far as the slippages go in plant start-up are concerned, these are not slippages resulting from
problems in set-up and debugging. These are slippages in a typical plant construction phase; strikes,
late delivery of items, fabrication problems with the delivered items, and so on. The anticipated start
of that unit is this spring. It's going to be within two months.
-------
CHAPTER 11
ENERGY CONSERVATION
-------
298
INTRODUCTION
Energy conservation provides what is, perhaps,
the most direct and certain contribution to environ-
mental improvement. Energy which is not consumed,
need not be produced, and cannot pollute. Thus,
measures which reduce energy consumption through
more efficient processes, or by abstention, produce
the same advantageous results. In a broader sense,
measures which result in more efficient energy pro-
cesses act in much the same way, that is, reduce
energy use with its attendant capacity to pollute.
In perhaps a somewhat broader sense, substituting
what otherwise would be waste material, for a fuel,
also conserves the energy represented by the fuel.
The potential savings of energy use is substan-
tial. The industrial sector consumes approximately
40 percent of the nation's annual energy supply.
Approximately half of this, or one fifth of the
national total, is devoted to production of process
steam. This industrial sector is well suited for
application of advanced, more efficient, energy
cycles, and the conversion of waste materials.
Advanced energy conversion cycles either in-
crease the efficiency of fuel conversion or use
energy sources not requiring the combustion of fuels.
Potentially high efficiency processes include: mag-
netohydrodynamics, high and low temperature gas
turbines, thermoionics, and fuel cells. Energy not
related to fossil fuels may be derived from solar,
wind, geothermal, or thermal ocean gradient sources.
The fuel value associated with a year's genera-
tion of waste represents about 12 percent of annual
energy consumption. While all waste probably cannot
be converted to energy, conversion would serve a
second purpose of assisting in the waste disposal.
With whatever fuel is fired, conventional energy
cycles produce a substantial amount of waste heat.
As an example, electrical power generation cycles
operate at thermal efficiencies of 40 percent and
less. The heat rejected, known as by-product heat,
probably has the greatest near-term potential for
energy savings. Longer term options could affect
savings by generating electricity as a first step
to producing process steam, or by integrating indus-
trial activity at a single location so that various
energy levels of working fluid could be used most
effectively.
-------
EPA RESEARCH IN EMERGING POWER TECHNOLOGY
Robert P. Hartley
Harry E. Bostian
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
Cincinnati, Ohio
INTRODUCTION
Several systems are being developed to increase
fuel conversion efficiency in electric power gener-
ation. Technologies are also being developed for
using solar and geothermal energy for power genera-
tion and direct heating. In this paper, we will
first review the principal new concepts and their
potential environmental problems, and then discuss
the EPA research program now being initiated.
The research strategy of the Environmental
Protection Agency is to assure that environmental
protection measures are developed concurrently, and
thus not delay commercialization.
Systems for increasing the efficiency of fuel
conversion, commonly referred to as "advanced energy
conversion cycles," include magnetohydrodynamics
(MHD), high and low temperature gas turbines, therm-
ionics, thermogalvanics, and fuel cells. These
cycles may be combined with each other and/or with
conventional steam turbine generation to further in-
crease conversion efficiency.
Solar energy conversion presents the possibil-
ities of economical and clean conversion from an
essentially unlimited source. Concepts and tech-
nologies are rapidly evolving. Included in solar
energy sources are direct radiation, winds, and
ocean thermal gradients.
Geothermal energy conversion to electricity is
already commercialized at one site, operating on dry
steam. Most of the potentially exploitable geother-
mal energy reserves are in hot waters and geopres-
sured brines in the west and southwest.
ADVANCED ENERGY CONVERSION CYCLES
Magnetohydrodynamics (MHD)^1^2^3^ - Electric-
ity is generated by passing very hot conducting gas
(plasma) at very high velocity (near the speed of
sound) through an electrode-lined channel between
the poles of a superconducting magnet. In an open-
cycle system, the gas is that of combustion of coal,
oil, or gas. To be most effective, the gas is
"seeded" with a metal, such as potassium or cesium,
to increase the gas' conductivity. During seed re-
covery, other combustion-derived air pollutants will
probably be removed. Closed-cycle MHD, using a re-
cycled working gas, appears less promising because
of heat transfer, corrosion, and abrasion problems
with fossil fuels most likely to be used. It may be
feasible, however, with nuclear fuels.
299
Both open and closed-cycle MHD, using fossil
fuels, may cause air and water pollution problems
similar to conventional power plants, such as par-
ticulates, sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, and
waste heat.
High-Temperature Gas Turbines^4^5^6' - Both
open and closed-cycle, high-temperature gas turbine
generators are under development. In an open-cycle
system, the combustion gases are the working fluid,
while in a closed cycle, the working fluid is a
separate recirculated gas. The technology is di-
rected to increasing efficiencies by developing
very high temperatures and materials to withstand
them.
The most significant open-cycle exhaust pollu-
tants are nitrogen oxides. Others have been in-
significant because very clean, ash-free fuels
(gas or oil) must be used to avoid damage to the
turbine. The closed system allows a choice of
clean working fluids which may have more favorable
thermodynamic properties and cause less internal
deterioration. However, dirtier fuels may be used,
such as coal, with the attendant combustion con-
taminants. Pollutant emissions would include
particulates, sulfur oxides, and nitrogen oxides.
Low-Temperature Gas (Vapor) Turbines
Low- temperature vapor turbines operate as closed
systems with low boiling working fluids, such as
ammonia, propane, and other organic gases. These
cycles are inherently inefficient and must rely
upon high efficiency heat exchangers and a large,
low-cost, high flow heat source. Low-temperature
vapor turbines may be used as "bottoming" cycles,
utilizing the residual heat from other higher tem-
perature conversion cycles. Low-temperature cycles
may be used in proposed ocean thermal gradient
power generation systems, utilizing the temperature
difference between the upper warm ocean water and
the bottom cold water. They also may be used in
low- temperature geothermal systems.
Except in ocean systems, the heat source may
cause pollution, such as from geothermal brines or
combustion products from the primary system.
Spills of working fluid also pose a potential
problem particularly in ocean systems.
Thermiom'csv A ' - Thermionic cycles convert
heat directly into electricity. Electrons es-
caping from a heated substance (the cathode) col-
lect on a nearby cooler substance (the anode). The
electrons are then transmitted through a load back
to the cathode. Thermionic converters can be used
as "topping" units for conventional steam-electric
systems, operating on the initial heat before it is
used for steam production.
Pollution from thermionic generation will de-
rive from fuel combustion with its attendant air
emissions, types and concentrations dependent upon
the fuel and combustion process. Waste heat may
also be significant.
Thermogalvanics
°i
Two dissimilar metals,
joined and heated at their junction, cause electrons
-------
300
to flow from one to the other. If a load is placed
between them, a net current around the circuit re-
sults. Conversion efficiencies for thermogalvanic
systems are low, requiring a low-cost heat source.
The efficiencies are limited principally by the
metals combination. Pollution from thermogalvam'c
generation, like most other generation methods,
would depend on the fuels used for heating.
Fuel Cells^2^7^ - The fuel cell is a highly
efficient system for the conversion of fuel directly
to electricity. Most systems are based upon the
chemical reaction between hydrogen and oxygen, al-
though fuels other than hydrogen have been used.
Widespread commercialization is dependent upon
large-scale, low-cost production of hydrogen for
that purpose. The hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell oper-
ates at low temperature. Its only significant waste
product is water; thus, it is one of the cleanest
energy conversion methods. The production of the
necessary hydrogen may result in significant waste
products, however, depending upon the methods used.
GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
Geothermal energy may be available as a heat
source where the temperature is high enough at suf-
ficiently shallow depths. Currently, the most
promising areas are in the western states and in
Texas, Alaska, and Hawaii. All areas except Texas
are in, or near, seismically active areas where
molten rock is near the surface. Five types of
geothermal energy reservoirs are under investigation
as useful heat sources: (1) vapor-dominated,
(2) liquid^dominated, (3) geopressured, (4) hot dry
rock, and (5) magma (molten rock).
The steam from the relatively rare vapor-
dominated (dry steam) sources can be passed directly
through steam turbine generators, such as at the
Geysers, California. Vapor-dominated systems have
gas contaminants, the principal one being hydrogen
sulfide, the control of which in air emissions is
now being researched. Radioactive gases may be a
problem. Gases dissolved in the condensed steam
and cooling water are also significant. At the
Geysers, this water is reinjected. Vapor-dominated
systems are characteristically low in dissolved
solids. Wells are vented to the atmosphere when
they are brought in and when generators are shut
down. In addition to entrained contaminants, the
accompanying noise can be severe. Mufflers are
employed, but apparently have not been entirely
adequate.
Although there are no commercially operating,
liquid-dominated geothermal systems in the United
States, the resource is widespread. Development is
progressing rapidly in exploration, and in pilot and
demonstration plant design, particularly in the
Imperial Valley of California, looking toward power
generation, desalination and fresh water supply,
and mineral extraction. Lower-temperature liquid-
dominated systems can be used more practicably in
applications such as space heating and desalting.
Liquid-dominated systems are characteristically
very high in dissolved solids content and mav be
very high in dissolved gases. In power production,
flashing to produce steam leaves behind water with
even higher concentrations. Desalination results in
noxious bitterns. Cooling tower blowdown results in
similar wastes. None of these can be discharged to
surface waters, so that re.injection appears to be
the best alternative at the moment. While reinjec-
tion may provide needed recharge to the system and
help prevent land subsidence, it may also cause
ground-water contamination and solids precipitation
and plugging in the reinjection routes. Pretreat-
ment would produce solid wastes from which valuable
metals and minerals might be reclaimed. Closed
power generation cycles appear feasible for liquid-
dominated systems.(6) Such cycles would withdraw
the geothermal water, transfer the heat to another
closed-cycle working fluid, and reinject the geo-
thermal water to the original formation. Such a
system may solve most, if not all, of the waste
problems.
Geopressured systems along the Gulf Coast lie
at depths up to 10,000 feet. Temperatures are gen-
erally well above 150°C and pressures are above
3000 psig. They apparently contain large quanti-
ties of methane, a valuable by-product. The rela-
tively great drilling depths required may delay
development. Geopressured systems development will
encounter much of the same environmental problems as
liquid-dominated systems described above. Cycle
technology may differ to take advantage of the high
liquid pressures in addition to the heat. Gas
separation is likely to be an important and profit-
able adjunct. Whether reinjection will be feasible
is not yet known.
Hot dry rock systems will require injection of
water to an artificially fractured formation where
it will take up heat and be withdrawn for use. The
withdrawn water may be relatively clean compared to
the above described systems, but this is by no
means certain.
Magma systems would utilize the heat of molten
rock in volcanic zones where it is relatively near
the surface. This may require subsurface heat ex-
changers. Investigations of these systems are still
in the formative stages so that it is conjectural to
discuss the resulting environmental problems.
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION
Solar energy conversion technology is advancing
rapidly, particularly in the area of heating and
cooling of buildings. Commonly a "flat-plate col-
lector" is used for absorption of the sun's radiant
energy. Water in contact with the flat plate is
warmed and recirculated to an insulated storage
tank. Similar systems have been designed using air
instead of water with storage in a granular solid
material such as rocks. Solar energy has been used
for a long time for water distillation in water-
short areas. Water covers a dark flat surface, is
heated and evaporated, condensing on an overlying,
sloping, transparent surface, and is collected
therefrom for use. The above systems are of little
concern as environmental hazards. In solar stills,
however, a residual brine may require disposal.
-------
Large direct solar systems for power generation
are in conceptual and design stages. Very large
collector surfaces may be used to focus the heat at
a central boiler station operating a turbine gener-
ator. Another possible system is a large array of
solar (photovoltaic) cells, converting the radiant
energy directly to electricity.
Wind energy, derived from the sun, is also un-
dergoing renewed and fairly rapid development. De-
velopment is taking the direction of power genera-
tion by windmills, which may have the advantages of
low cost and adaptability to small individual appli-
cations, but may be unsightly.
Ocean thermal gradients, again derived from the
sun's direct energy, are being considered for power
production. The upper warm waters would heat and
expand a low-boiling point recirculating working
fluid, such as ammonia, which would in turn drive a
turbine and be condensed using colder bottom waters.
A critical factor is the development of a large
floating system capable of withstanding the rigors
of the open ocean environment. Added to this is the
problem of transferring the energy to the point of
ultimate use. One concept is to build a hydrogen-
producing plant and transport the hydrogen to the
point of use as a fuel. As mentioned before, the
major environmental concern with ocean thermal
gradient utilization is for the possibility for
spills of the working fluid.
In comparison to the other systems we have dis-
cussed, solar energy conversion is relatively pollu-
tion free in concept. Some environmental concerns
may be significant, however, such as aesthetics,
shading, and land use priorities.
EPA RESEARCH APPROACH AND PROGRAM
The objectives of the EPA research program, now
being initiated, will be to (1) monitor on-going
developments in each of the technologies, (2) evalu-
ate various alternatives within a technology and
identify those which are more environmentally ac-
ceptable, and (3) identify and/or develop needed
environmental control approaches.
A major contract on advanced cycles is now
being negotiated. The overall approach will be as
follows. Initially, cycles will be described in
detail, environmental impacts evaluated, and the
cycles ranked as to priority for further assessment.
Appropriate cycle simulation models will then be de-
veloped, characterizing various design variations as
to process streams and environmental emissions. The
models will be used to assess the potential need for
and cost/effectiveness of pollution control alterna-
tives. Next, a series of field tests on bench and
pilot-scale installations will be used to validate
the cycle models. Existing control techniques which
can be incorporated into the cycles prior to commer-
cialization will be defined, along with additional
work required. A short-term independent assessment
of advanced power cycles is already underway by con-
tract with lockheed-Huntsville. The purpose of this
Project is to obtain immediate input for planning
purposes.
301
A research contract was awarded in December,
1975, to Wapora, Inc., for an assessment of geo-
thermal energy technology and regulatory con-
straints. The first phase of the study is to de-
tail regulatory and institutional limitations
(including environmental) with respect to develop-
ment and system operation. The second phase will
describe the known geothermal reservoirs, their
physical-chemical characteristics, exploitation
potential, exploration and development processes,
pollutional implications and available control
options. Non-pollutional environmental effects
will also be described. Future research and devel-
opment needs will then be enumerated.
The first solar energy project with Lockheed-
Huntsville, just underway, is a preliminary de-
scription of the various solar energy technologies
and environmental impacts to be expected from each.
It will identify areas of insufficient information
for planning a program and will identify personnel
in other organizations who are working on environ-
mental aspects. A second solar energy project will
follow which will describe in detail the various
technologies, define the anticipated environmental
impacts, and identify gaps in the environmental
baseline data. On-going research will be de-
scribed, and areas needing emphasis will be defined.
INTERAGENCY PARTICIPATION
The major development work on new power tech-
nology is being supported by other federal agen-
cies, principally the Energy Research and Develop-
ment Administration (ERDA). In order to be effec-
tive, EPA will have to maintain a close relationship
with ERDA. Initial contacts have already been made
and we expect to develop close cooperation with
ERDA.
RESOURCE ALLOCATION
The EPA program in new power technology is a
relatively modest one. EPA funding began in FY75,
and the total resource allocations projected
through FY76 are as follows:
FY75
FY76
Advanced Cycles
Geothermal Systems
Solar Energy Systems
$250,000 $250,000
123,000 99,000
— 60,000
$373,000 $409,000
CONCLUSIONS
Development of advanced power generation
cycles is in the relatively early stages with
magnetohydrodynamics and high temperature gas
turbines receiving the most attention. These and
other cycles which use fuels are likely to produce
wastes similar to those of conventional power
generation. However, waste generation of
-------
302
"conventional" pollutants (SOX, NOX, particulates,
etc.) per unit of production will likely be less be-
cause of increased conversion efficiency and im-
proved combustion and waste treatment technology.
Geothermal energy development will result in
wastes with high dissolved solids and dissolved gas
content. The problems may be so severe that rein-
jection of geothermal fluids will be the only rea-
sonable method of waste control, even though it too
may cause problems. Solar energy conversion is not
expected to cause direct waste control problems of
great significance, but may have other adverse en-
vironmental impacts.
The EPA research program will help to identify
and develop technologies and treatment methods that
minimize the environmental impacts in the above
areas. The direction the program eventually takes
will depend upon the particular conversion technol-
ogies to be commercialized.
11. Patton, A. R., "Solar Energy for Heating and
Cooling of Buildings," Noyes Data Corporation,
London, England, 1975.
REFERENCES
1. Edelson, E., "MHD Generators: Super Blow-
torches Deliver More Power With Less Fuel,"
Popular Science, March 1974.
2. Wilson, R. and W. J. Jones, "Energy, Ecology
and the Environment," Academic Press, London,
England, 1974.
3. Sutton, G. W. and P. Gloerson, "Magnetohydro-
dynamic Power and Propulsion," in Hydro-
dynamics, Chapter 16, 1967.
4. Hammond, A. L., W. D. Metz, and T. H. Maugh II,
"Energy and the Future," American Association
for the Advancement of Science, Washington,
D. C., 1973.
5. Robson, F. L., et al., "Technological and
Economic Feasibility of Advanced Power Cycles
and Methods of Producing Non-Polluting Fuels
for Utility Power Stations," Report
J-970855-13, United Aircraft Research
Laboratories, E. Hartford, Conn., 1970.
6. Anderson, J. H., "Vapor-Turbine Cycle for
Geothermal Power Generation," in Geothermal
Energy, Stanford University Press, Stanford,
California, 1973.
7. Crawley, G., "Energy," Macmillian Publishing
Company, New York, New York, 1975.
8. Brinkworth, B. J., "Solar Energy for Man,"
John Wiley & Sons, New York, New York, 1972.
9. Kruger, P. and C. Otte, Editors, "Geothermal
Energy," Stanford University Press, Stanford,
California, 1973.
10. Berman, E. R., "Geothermal Energy," Noyes Data
Corporation, London, England, 1975.
-------
THE WASTES-AS-FUEL R&D PROGRAM
OF THE
EPA OFFICE OF ENERGY, MINERALS AND INDUSTRY
George L. Huffman
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
Cincinnati, Ohio
INTRODUCTION
Solid waste is generated from most all activi-
ties: from the farm to the feedlot; from the home
to businesses; from mineral extraction operations to
all types of industrial manufacturing operations.
The use of solid waste as a fuel for energy genera-
tion has been practiced for some time in Europe--
however, its practice in this country is essentially
just beginning. In the U. S., numerous processes
are under development which convert the energy con-
tained in solid waste into steam, oil, gas, and
electricity. In conjunction with the development of
these processes, the USEPA is conducting a broad-
based research program to define the environmental
problems associated with such development and to
develop control technology for the pollution prob-
lems thus defined.
The Administrator of EPA is mandated under the
1965 Solid Waste Disposal Act, as amended by the
1970 Resource Recovery Act (PL 91-512), to perform
research and demonstrations to develop and to apply
new and improved methods for processing and recov-
ering both materials and energy from solid wastes.
The Act also requires the study of adverse health
and welfare effects of the release into the environ-
ment of materials present in solid wastes, as well
as methods of eliminating such effects. The Act
authorizes EPA to issue contracts and grants for re-
search and/or demonstrations of technologies in the
waste-as-fuel area to enable appropriate response to
these mandates. EPA is also directed, under the
Clean Air Act and the Federal Water Pollution Control
Act, to establish performance standards for existing
and new sources of pollution based on available
technology.
It has been estimated that about 4.5 billion
tons (4.1 trillion kilograms) of municipal, indus-
trial, mineral and agricultural solid wastes were
produced in this country in 1970 (Ref. 1). Of this
amount, about 13 percent has been estimated to rep-
resent the dry, combustible fraction, according to
one study. Therefore, about 570 million tons (517
billion kilograms) of dry combustible solid waste
were discarded in 1970 (Refs. 2 and 3). By way of
comparison, a Bureau of Mines estimate arrived at a
figure of 880 million tons (800 billion kilograms)
as the dry, organic waste generation rate for 1971
303
(Ref. 4). This latter figure represents an energy
equivalent of about 1.1 billion barrels (175 million
cubic meters) of oil per year, or about 70 percent
of the oil imported that year (Refs. 4 and 5).
The fuel value associated with the 1970 waste
stream estimate mentioned above represents a yearly
waste of 8.5 quadrillion Btu's (Refs. 2 and 3).
This is about 12 percent of the total energy re-
quirement of the United States, which approximates
some 70 quadrillion Btu's/year (Refs. 5 and 6).
Not all of this combustible solid waste is readily
available for use as a fuel, however. Although
urban-generated waste may qualify as a fuel because
it is available in rather concentrated form at
appropriate locations, other kinds of wastes from
processing, manufacturing, or agricultural opera-
tions are often generated in widely dispersed areas.
One study (Ref. 3) found that only about 1.5 to 3.0
percent of the Nation's total energy requirement
could be supplied by our solid waste due to its ge-
ographical dispersion, assuming plants no smaller
than 100 ton-per-day (90,000 kilogram-per-day)
capacity could be economically justified. This
assumption, given current prices for conventional
fuels, may not be valid.
EPA has been involved in furthering the devel-
opment of major waste-as-fuel technologies in re-
sponse to its legislative mandate to do R&D on
methods which dispose of waste materials in an en-
vironmentally acceptable manner. Certainly, one of
the best "disposal" options available (potentially
best economically and environmentally) is to treat
the waste in such a fashion that its energy and
material resource values are recovered. That is,
why necessarily should we face the difficult envir-
onmental control problems associated with the
"throw-away" options of improper land disposal or
air-polluting incineration of high-Btu wastes?
As early as 1967, EPA began development of
several waste-as-fuel processes. Two of the major
process options that began to be researched at that
time were the CPU-400 System and the Horner and
Shifrin Fuel Recovery Process (St. Louis). The
tabulation below illustrates some of the salient
features of these two processes, along with similar
data for two other more-recently-initiated EPA
developmental efforts (the Garrett and Monsanto
Pyrolysis Processes):
EPA's Grantee (Contractor)
• Baltimore, Maryland
(Monsanto Enviro-Chem)
• San Diego County, Calif.
(Garrett Research)
St. Louis, Missouri
(Horner and Shifrin
Union Electric)
and
• (Combustion Power Company,
Menlo Park, California)
Process Concept
Pyrolyze Solid Waste
to Generate Steam
and Char (LANDGARD)
Pyrolyze Solid Waste
to Fuel Oil and Char
Burn Solid Waste
with Coal at a
Steam Power Plant
Burn Solid Waste for
Direct Generation of
Electricity
(CPU-400)
-------
304
In addition to these four major developmental
efforts, EPA is actively engaged in furthering the
development of, and in environmentally assessing,
several other wastes-as-fuel process options. A new
thrust in this area has recently been initiated
within EPA's Office of Research and Development
(Ref. 7). This recently-initiated research program
will be summarized with the aim of providing some
insight into program rationale.
WASTE-AS-FUEL PROCESSES
1. Program Objectives and Technical Approach
The principal objectives of the EPA Waste-As-
Fuel research program are:
• To allow the tapping of a potential energy
resource, as yet essentially unused in the
U. S., to help meet our energy needs in an
environmentally acceptable fashion;
• To allow the attainment of a more cost-
effective system of solid waste management
through resource recovery;
• To reduce and control undesirable environ-
mental impacts resulting from waste utiliza-
tion in various fuel technology operations;
and
• To achieve an incremental reduction of pol-
lutant generation and energy consumption
from the traditional practices of using
virgin resources for fuels and materials
production through the substitution of waste-
derived fuels and the recycling of resources
recovered from waste streams.
If these objectives could be achieved, sufficiently
well to spur widespread implementation of the tech-
nologies involved, not only would the mounting solid
waste disposal problem be alleviated but also part
of the Nation's energy conservation goal (of saving
prime conventional fuels) would be met.
The technical approach being utilized in the
EPA research and development program in waste-as-
fuel is aimed at determining how to effect, in an
environmentally acceptable fashion, the disposal of
industrial, municipal, and agricultural wastes via
conversion of their stored energy into useful energy
forms (e.g., electricity, fuel gas, fuel oil, char,
etc.). The program will produce the technological,
economic and environmental assessments of major
waste-as-fuel processes under development.
2. Program Discussion
The current EPA program can be subdivided into
four major areas of emphasis. These areas are:
(1) Assessment R&D (environmental, technical, eco-
nomic); (2) Waste Co-firing with Coal, Oil, or
Industrial Waste; (3) Waste Co-combustion with
Sewage Sludge; and (4) Pyrolysis and Bio-conversion
Processes.
Work in the first area, in Assessment R&D,
features environmental, technological, or economic
assessments of waste-as-fuel options. Research in
"Assessments" includes a study to acquire pollutant
characterization data for the competing waste-as-
fuel processes, as well as to develop environmental
assessment criteria and proper sampling/analytical
techniques.. With this data, R&D will begin on
assessing the technology available to control air
pollution from these processes and on developing
needed control technology. Work is also underway,
by the Ralph M. Parsons Company of Los Angeles, on
performing a comparative technical and economic
evaluation of the developing waste-as-fuel proc-
esses. Several waste surveys will be conducted by
other organizations in an attempt to better define
the energy values of selected waste streams, such
as those from industry and from demolition opera-
tions. To spur the coming together of waste pro-
ducers (e.g., the cities) and waste users (the
power industry for example), EPA has awarded
approximately 10 grants to selected municipalities
to allow for appropriate planning of waste-as-fuel
utilization or conversion facilities. Work will
also be done in- waste pre-processing. An EPA grant
has been awarded to the National Center for Resource
Recovery to enable a side-by-side evaluation of
existing shredders, air classifiers, etc., to de-
fine operating characteristics and efficiency. A
state-of-the-art evaluation of other pre-processing
techniques for grinding and separating the inorganic
and combustible waste fractions will also be per-
formed.
The work in the Waste Co-firing with Coal, Oil,
or Industrial Waste area includes finalization of
research at the St. Louis Union Electric project.
This will center on the identification of poten-
tially hazardous emissions associated with waste
co-firing with coal. R&D will continue by Battelle
at a small Columbus, Ohio, boiler in which varying
ratios of coal-to-refuse will be run—particular
emphasis here will be on defining the corrosion
rates associated with co-firing. At another site,
a comparative evaluation will be made of co-firing
waste with coal in tangentially-fired boilers
versus stoker-fired boilers; the evaluation will
compare process and environmental characteristics
of each option. Yet another coal/waste co-firing
option will be tested: that of densifying (e.g.,
pelletizing) the waste and injecting along with
lump coal into an industrial-sized stoker-fired
boiler.
Two other co-firing options will be investi-
gated: (1) the combustible fraction of municipal
solid waste will be double-ground and co-fired
along with fuel oil in existing oil-fired boilers
(technical and environmental feasibility will thus
be determined); and (2) a feasibility study is
underway in Hawaii to determine the worthwhileness
of co-firing solid waste along with bagasse in
industrial bagasse boilers.
Two projects have been initiated in the waste-
as-fuel area known as Waste Co-combustion with
Sewage Sludge. The first of these projects centers
on the utilization of various municipal and indus-
trial wastes (e.g., refuse, tires, wood chips),
-------
305
and/or low-sulfur coal, to combust or incinerate
sewage sludge in an existing, full-scale multiple
hearth sludge incinerator in St. Paul, Minnesota.
The second project involves using the CPU-400 pilot
plant to test the process and environmental charac-
teristics associated with co-combusting solid waste
and sewage sludge in a high-pressure fluidized bed,
the off-gases from which are cleaned upstream of
their expansion through a gas turbine for power
recovery.
Several projects are underway in the EPA waste-
as-fuel area of Pyrolysis and Bio-conversion. The
most comprehensive of these is the recently-begun
research at the Energy Resources Company (ERCO) in
Cambridge, Massachusetts. ERCO, with assistance
from MIT, will conduct bench and pilot-scale (500
pounds per hour or 230 kilograms per hour) tests on
the pyrolytic conversion of mixed waste to fuel.
Work at this environmental test facility will fea-
ture the pyrolysis of various mixtures of waste
(e.g., refuse, industrial wastes, agricultural
wastes) at varying residence times (space velocities)
and operating temperatures to define what product
ratios (of fuel gas to fuel oil to char) are pos-
sible and what environmental consequences may result.
The China Lake Naval Weapons Center is conducting
bench-scale research for EPA on upgrading (via
polymerization reactions) pyrolytic fuel oil/gas to
gasoline. Another R&D effort underway in the waste
pyrolysis area is that which is being done at the
Georgia-Institute of Technology: It centers on the
concept of disposing of agricultural wastes by
having them processed in a portable van containing
a pyrolysis reactor which converts the otherwise-
wasted material to transportable fuels, such as fuel
oil or char. In the biological conversion area, the
Army's Natick Laboratories are carrying our bench-
scale research for EPA on converting waste cellulose
to an ethyl alcohol fuel. The process features the
enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulose to ethyl alcohol
using glucose as the intermediate step.
3. Program Projection
From the above Program Discussion, it can be.
discerned that the primary emphasis to date in the
EPA Wastes-As-Fuel R&D program has been directed
toward the municipal solid waste disposal problem.
Municipal waste disposal is one of the more signif-
icant waste disposal problems from an environmental
standpoint. Consequently, there will be continuing
research addressing this problem. Concurrently,
however, there will be an increase in EPA research
emphasis on other waste streams whose disposal rep-
resents a significant environmental problem and
whose heat and energy content is worth recovering.
It is projected, therefore, that there will be
increasing emphasis in the environmental research
areas of heat-recovering industrial and agricultural
waste co-combustion with conventional fuels and in
the area of industrial/agricultural waste pyrolysis.
Multiple-waste co-firing and co-pyrolysis, and mixed
waste thermal processing along with fossil fuels,
should also receive some emphasis.
In terms of which thermal processing techniques
will receive emphasis in the future, the projection
is that the use of waste as a supplementary fuel
will continue to be researched, as will the waste
pyrolysis to clean fuels technique.
INTERAGENCY PARTICIPATION
Through Interagency Agreements, EPA has funded
two projects in wastes-as-fuel research. As cited
above, these projects involve bench-scale efforts--
one by the Navy in the waste pyrolysis area, and the
other by the Army addressing the bio-conversion of
waste to alcohol concept.
RESOURCE ALLOCATION
Since 1967, a portion of EPA's research budget
has been directed toward the waste-as-fuel area.
Through FY74, the resource allocation came exclu-
sively through EPA's base program for solid waste
research. However, starting in FY75, resources for
wastes-as-fuel R&D came primarily from the ORD
Office of Energy, Minerals and Industry (OEMI)
program—though a portion of the total continued to
come from ORD base program. This split is depicted
in the following tabulation, a tabulation which
shows the total estimated resource allocation in
wastes-as-fuel research over the last three fiscal
years ($ x 106):
FY74
ORD Base Program 1.0 1.5
ORD/OEMI Program --
TOTAL 1.0-1.5
FY75 FY76
(Rif-7)
0.87
3.44
6.45
4.31
CONCLUSIONS
One estimate shows that as much as 12 percent
of the Nation's total energy requirement could come
from-converting industrial, municipal, and agricul-
tural wastes to usable energy forms such as steam,
fuel oil, fuel gas, and electricity. Due to the
geographical dispersion of much of this waste, how-
ever, perhaps "only" 1.5 to 3.0 percent of our total
energy requirement (1 to 2 quads, i.e., 1-2 quad-
rillion Btu/year) is potentially recoverable from
waste. This percentage could well be increased if
prices for conventional fuels continue to escalate.
EPA has had a significant R&D program in
•Wastes-As-Fuel since 1967 under authorities of the
1965 Solid Waste Disposal Act and the Resource Re-
covery Act of 1970. Over $20 million has been allo-
cated by EPA for research and development in this
area from this early beginning through FY76.
The current EPA research program in Wastes-As-
Fuel has four major areas of emphasis: (1) Assess-
ment R&D (environmental, technical, economic);
(2) Municipal Waste Co-firing with Coal, Oil, or
Industrial Waste; (3) Municipal Waste Co-combustion
with Sewage Sludge; and (4) Pyrolysis and
-------
306
Bio-conversion Processes. Current emphasis is on
the municipal solid waste stream since it represents
a significant environmental control problem.
The future R&D program within EPA in the Waste-
As-Fuel area will emphasize otherwise-polluting in-
dustrial and agricultural waste streams and will
center on the environmental control aspects associ-
ated with co-firing various wastes as supplementary
fuels and with pyrolyzing wastes to clean fuels.
REFERENCES
1. U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office
of Solid Waste Management Programs, "First
Report to Congress: Resource Recovery and
Source Reduction," February 22, 1973, Page 2.
2. International Research and Technology Corpora-
tion, "Problems and Opportunities in the Man-
agement of Combustible Solid Waste," Final
Report on Contract No. 68-03-0060 to the U. S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Solid and
Hazardous Waste Research Laboratory, NERC-
Cincinnati, 1972, 509 p.
3. Chapman, R. A., "Solid Waste as a Fuel for
Power Generation," In: Proceedings of the
1973 Washington State University Thermal Power
Conference, October 3-5, 1973.
4. Anderson, L. L., "Energy Potential from Organic
Wastes: A Review of Quantities and Sources,"
U. S. Bureau of Mines Information Circular
8549, 1972.
5. National Commission on Materials Policy,
"Material Needs and the Environment Today and
Tomorrow," Final Report, June 1973.
6. Bendixen, T. W., and Huffman, G. L., "Impact
of Environmental Control Technologies on the
Energy Crisis," Newsletter by the U. S. Envir-
onmental Protection Agency's Cincinnati
National Environmental Research Center,
January 11, 1974.
7. USEPA's Office of Energy Research, "EPA Wastes-
As-Fuel Research, Development, and Demonstra-
tion Program Plan," April 1975.
-------
WASTE HEAT UTILIZATION/REDUCTION
Alden G. Christiansen
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
Cincinnati, Ohio
INTRODUCTION
Our Nation's environmental, energy, and econom-
ic considerations are increasingly interdependent.
A prime example is the impact that the trends in
electrical generation have on the production and
management of waste heat.
Electrical energy requirements are projected to
be the predominant energy growth factor over the
next 30 years. Whereas total energy demand doubled
between 1950 and 1972 (Ref. 1), electrical produc-
tion has doubled every 10 years (about a 7 percent
annual increase) over the past 50 years. These
trends, which are predicted to continue at nearly
the same rate, indicate the increasing role of
electricity relative to other forms in meeting our
energy demands. In fact, it is estimated that by
the year 2000, 41 percent of our energy needs will
be supplied by electricity (Ref. 5), compared to
26 percent in 1973 (Ref. 4).
In terms of national energy conversion effi-
ciency, growing demand for electricity plus antici-
pated continuing increases in transportation uses
(as much as 3.5 percent per year) will raise overall
conversion losses from about 50 percent in 1970 to
almost 55 percent in 1990 (Ref. 2). If such pro-
jections hold true, the impact on resource require-
ments and waste generation will be rather startling.
A national decrease in energy conversion efficiency
from 50 percent to 45 percent will result in an
11 percent increase in input fuel requirement on a
unit Btu basis, i.e., not considering the growth in
energy demand. The same efficiency decrease results
in a 22 percent increase in waste heat production,
again on a unit Btu basis.
For a final comparison, it is interesting to
consider both growth rate and magnitude of waste
heat production. With electrical demand doubling
every 10 years, the predicted heat dissipation from
central power sources in the year 2000 is about
72 quads (Ref. 3)—an amount equal to total energy
demand in 1970.
In the past, low fuel prices, plentiful sup-
plies of natural gas and oil, and the absence of
pollution control regulations limited incentives to
use waste heat or pursue more efficient integrated
energy systems. The situation has, however, changed
drastically in the past 3 years. The costs of
307
natural gas, oil and coal have risen significantly
Natural gas is in short supply, and many large util-
ities and industrial users are being forced to con-
vert to oil or coal. The availability of oil is
uncertain because of reduced production in the
United States and the political situation in the
Middle East. Environmental limitations on SOX
emission have necessitated the installation of
scrubbers or the burning of low-sulfur coal. Limits
on thermal discharges required that closed-cycle
cooling systems or other control measures be built.
Finally, the costs of new construction, as well as
the cost of capital, have risen considerably. It
is estimated that these trends will continue and
that the cost of energy will be forced still
higher (Ref. 5).
Under current energy costs and availability,
waste heat use has a greater potential for economic
viability and, therefore, has enhanced potential for
producing environmental and energy-related benefits.
In terms of energy impact, ERDA (Ref. 3) estimates
that almost 13 quads can be saved in the year 2000
if industrial energy efficiency is improved and
waste heat is utilized.
PROGRAM DISCUSSION
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has
been involved in waste heat reduction and control
activities primarily because of its overall mandate
to mitigate environmental impact. From an environ-
mental viewpoint, waste heat reduction/utilization
offers numerous benefits: (1) reduces quantity of
pollutant generation and release, (2) reduces cost
of pollution control equipment, (3) offers potential
profit which could help offset cost of pollution
control, (4) conserves energy resources, and
(5) eliminates the overall impact of obtaining,
processing and supplying the energy which Has been
replaced by the "reclaimed" heat.
There are numerous options available for waste
heat utilization/reduction, many of which have re-
ceived attention in EPA's RD&D program. We have
focused on 3 options which we feel have good
potential for application: (1) utilization of
by-product waste heat discharged from conventional
industrial and utility plants, (2) generation of
by-product electricity in industrial plants; and
(3) development of integrated energy production/use
complexes which utilize energy more efficiently.
The first option uses heat after it has been dis-
charged from a process or facility, while the others
involve optimizing the design and management of the
process itself to reduce the amount of heat wasted.
1. By-Product Waste Heat Utilization
This option has the greatest potential for
near-term (now through 1985) energy savings, and
most waste heat applications are based on this
approach. The waste heat involved is the conven-
tional, by-product heat rejected to air or water
from an industrial process. Typically, it is low-
quality heat, such as that available in power plant
condenser cooling water which is usually between
10°F and 40°F above incoming water temperature.
-------
308
A number of direct-use waste heat applications
have been investigated to varying degrees—the more
promising methods receiving effort toward demonstra-
ting their full-scale feasibility. At pre-energy-
crisis fuel prices, the most economically attractive
waste heat applications were in agricultural and
aquacultural endeavors.
Agricultural demonstrations have shown promise
in areas of irrigation, frost protection, undersoil
heating, and greenhouse heating and climate control.
Greenhouse applications appear most economical, be-
cause high-cash-value crops, such as flowers and
vegetables, are involved. Refined systems are cur-
rently being demonstrated which should result in
commercial involvement in 3 to 4 years.
EPA helped support an agricultural project
near Eugene, Oregon, from 1968 to 1973. Cooling
water from a pulp and paper mill was used to provide
spring frost protection, irrigation, crop cooling in
the summer, and soil heating. The project was most
successful in providing spring frost protection and
in increasing crop yields in a greenhouse heated by
underground pipes.
A second demonstration project partially funded
by EPA is now underway at the Sherburne County power
plant in Becker, Minnesota. Heated water from the
condenser cooling loop of the 2-unit, 1400 MWE plant
will provide soil and air heating for a one-half
acre greenhouse, an operation that normally con-
sumes 25,000 gallons of oil or 3.5 million cubic
feet of natural gas a year. If the experiment is
an economic success, a commercially developed 100-
acre greenhouse complex could be in operation by
1985, at a savings of 5 million gallons of oil or
700 million cubic feet of gas.
The Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) recently
received funds from EPA to use waste heat to stimu-
late the growth of algae and amur fish in a project
designed to recycle nutrients from livestock opera-
tions. The project will use livestock wastes to
grow algae which will subsequently be fed to amur
fish. The amur will then be harvested for livestock
food. TVA is also conducting demonstration tests of
open-field soil heating, greenhouse heating, and
catfish production using waste heat in condenser
cooling water.
Numerous other systems have been proposed or
are under development for utilizing low-level waste
heat in water. Projects that involve stimulation
of biological growth have shown the most promise
for development. These include aquaculture, mari-
culture, algae production for animal food, and
biological waste-treatment processes. Additional
work, however, is needed to identify species of
plants and animals which respond most favorably to
waste heat stimulation and to adequately control
the chemical and biological wastes from these
activities. Since they have potential for highly
efficient protein production, these processes can
also be expected to supplement conventional but
energy-intensive agricultural practices.
Efforts are also underway to identify, develop
and demonstrate by-product heat recovery situations
within industries which discharge the waste in
either water or air streams. Some process-specific
applications have already been identified and are
nearing demonstration through support of EPA's
Industrial Energy Conservation Program (discussed
elsewhere in this Symposium). For the most part,
however, data is still needed on the quantity,
quality, and location of waste heat streams so
that recovery systems can be evaluated and pursued
(when justified).
2. By-Product Electrical Generation by Industry
This option has a good potential for the mid-
term (1985 through 2000) reduction of waste heat.
A recent study (Ref. 6) implied that an operation
of this type could yield a 50 percent savings in
fuel, a 50 percent reduction in air emissions, and
an 80 percent reduction in waste heat generated
(compared to electrical generation in a conven-
tional power plant). Nearly 20 percent of the
Nation's primary fuel is used to produce industrial
steam, only 30 percent of which is used to generate
electrical power before being used for process
heating. Most industrial facilities generate
their own process steam in a natural gas or oil-
fired package boiler and purchase electricity from
utilities. Package boilers have been employed
rather than field-erected boilers because of their
low capital cost, relative simplicity of operation,
and the availability of low-cost natural gas and
oil. Package boilers usually operate at low steam
pressure (below 400 psia) at an operating effi-
ciency of about 75 percent. Field-erected boilers,
on the other hand, are more expensive to buy and
more complex to operate, but have the capability of
operating at higher pressures (with efficiencies
up to 88 percent) and last twice as long.
Approximately 43 percent of the industrial
steam load is produced in amounts of 400,000 Ib/hr
or more at single locations. At facilities having
this or a larger capability, it would be advanta-
geous to install field-erected boilers and produce
by-product electricity in-plant. For example, a
coal-fired, field-erected boiler producing steam at
900 psia and 825°F and having a turbine back pres-
sure of 150 psia would have an effective conversion
efficiency of 4500 to 5000 Btu/kwh as compared with
a heat rate of 9000 to 10,000 Btu/kwh for an effi-
cient central power station (Ref. 6). The elec-
trical power could, therefore, be generated with
half the fuel required by a utility plant and
electrical transmission losses would be consider-
ably smaller with on-site use of electricity.
Potentially, more than 33,000 MW(e) of addi-
tional power could be generated by industrial by-
product power units by 1985, resulting in an
equivalent savings of 680,000 barrels per day of
oil. It is estimated that this could be achieved
with a return on investment of 20 percent or more
per year before taxes (Ref. 6).
This application has the potential to reduce
the environmental impact of thermal and air pollu-
tants, conserve fuel, lower the overall capital
needed for electrical generation, and reduce the
cost of producing power and process steam. On the
-------
debit side, non-utility industries will be required
to generate capital for new facilities and will need
to upgrade the skills of the boiler plant personnel.
However, as the cost of energy continues to rise, it
is likely that industries will find that the incen-
tives outweigh the disadvantages. EPA is assessing
the technical and economic feasibility of this con-
cept as well as the environmental benefits to be
derived from its adoption.
3. Integrated Energy Production/Use Complexes
This option has the potential for waste heat
utilization/reduction over the long-term (post-2000).
In this application, production and use facilities
are designed for operational compatability in terms
of energy form, load characteristics, and equipment
lifetime. They provide opportunities for increasing
the efficiency of energy utilization by 10 or 15 per-
cent. These facilities, however, must be large to
interest utilities in a joint venture.
Few integrated energy facilities have been
built in the U. S. because of incompatibility of
production and user systems, financial risk, lack
of necessary capital, and inappropriate long-term
planning. Hopefully, the potential economic incen-
tives induced by rising fuel costs will encourage
industry, utilities, and government to solve some
of the problems which now limit development. The
following illustrates what might be achieved.
An integrated coal-fired central station de-
signed to supply 660 MW(e) and 2,000,000 Ib/hr of
steam at 150 psia (with a 35 percent load factor)
could yield an equivalent savings in fuel of 2000
barrels of oil per day (Ref. 6). Air emissions
would be reduced proportionally, and considerably
less heat would be wasted. EPA is initiating a
study to: (1) estimate projected costs of fuel,
materials, labor, etc.; (2) formulate 4 promising
integrated energy complexes; and (3) assess the
economic, environmental, and energy conservation
aspects of such facilities at the projected cost
levels. '
PROGRAM PROJECTION
EPA has been most active in the area of power
plant waste heat utilization, having participated
(since 1968) in demonstrations of agricultural
applications of such technology. Although these
efforts will be supported through completion, current
and future emphasis is placed more on non-power,
energy-intensive industries where waste heat use
or more efficient conversion technologies offer
significant environmental benefits. Because of the
relatively recent attention given to this area and
the diverse situations presented across a broad
spectrum of industries, assessments will have to be
conducted, in many cases, before priority research
projects can be identified. In this regard, valu-
able inputs are expected from an on-going EPA proj-
ect to evaluate the environmental implications of
industrial energy conservation efforts. In addi-
tion, a strong interface will be maintained with
research efforts conducted by other agencies.
EPA resources will be used to support or
supplement research aimed at demonstrating tech-
nology which will best accomplish EPA's environ-
mental objectives.
RESOURCE ALLOCATION
Funding for identifiable waste heat projects
began in 1968 and has continued on a limited basis.
The resources cited below do not include expendi-
tures for in-house personnel to assess potential
waste heat applications, nor do they include heat
reuse projects funded by EPA's Industrial Energy
Conservation Program. Resource allocations since
1968 and projected through FY76 are as follows
($ x 103):
309
Pre-FY76
Base Interagency*
680 300
FY76
Base Interagency*
400 110
*Pass-through funds to TVA for projects identi-
fied earlier. FY76 amount is tentative.
CONCLUSION
EPA is involved in assessment, development and
demonstration of waste heat utilization/reduction
applications which will reduce pollutant discharges
and provide other environmental benefits. Some
approaches are well developed and near commercial
application; others are in the infancy stage and
need rigorous efforts to realize their ultimate
potential. The impact of waste heat use and re-
duction on pollutant generation and energy supply
is difficult to quantify based on current method-
ology—as with many projects, the ultimate impact
depends on the degree of successful technology
development. However, the potential for signifi-
cant waste heat utilization cannot be denied be-
cause the waste heat already is available in
tremendous quantities. As noted previously,
unless we take the initiative to (1) better
utilize waste heat and (2) improve the efficiency
of energy production and utilization, the amount
of waste heat discharged to the environment by the
year 2000 will equal the total U. S. energy demand
in 1970. Waste heat utilization, by-product
electrical generation, and integrated energy
production/use complexes will help to reduce the
near-term, mid-term, and long-term discharge of
waste heat, respectively. However, because of the
state of development, the complexity of the appli-
cations, and the long lead times required, it is
necessary for industry, utilities, and government
to take action on all 3 options at this time. The
results should yield significant environmental,
economic, and fuel conservation benefits.
-------
310
REFERENCES
1. Bendixen, T. W., and Huffman, G. L., "Impact of
Environmental Control Technologies on the
Energy Crisis," U. S. EPA-NERC-Cincinnati,
January 1974.
2. U. S. Congress, Joint Committee on Atomic
Energy, "Understanding the National Energy
Dilemma," Published by the Center for Strategic
and International Studies, Georgetown Univer-
sity, Washington, D. C., September 1975.
3. U. S. Energy Research and Development Adminis-
tration, "A National Plan for Energy Research,
Development, and Demonstration," ERDA-48,
Volume 1 of 2, June 1975, U. S. GPO.
4. Radian Corporation, "A Western Regional Energy
Development Study," for CEQ and FEA, RC#100-64,
August 1975.
5. Council on Environmental Quality, "Energy and
the Environment—Electric Power," August 1973,
U. S. GPO.
6. Dow Chemical Company, "Energy Industrial
Center Study," prepared for the National
Science Foundation, draft copy, April 1975.
-------
ENERGY CONSERVATION
J. Bond, H. B. Flora, B. G. McKinney
Tennessee Valley Authority
Characterization of effluent discharges from power
plants is essential for an understanding of the
overall impact of a steam-electric power plant on
the environment. Further, this characterization is
needed in order to more adequately define methods
to reduce power plant discharges, thus minimizing
the potential environmental impact on the air and
water environment and reducing excessively expen-
sive modifications.
The combustion process produces a wide variety of
emissions and effluents ranging from various gases
and particulates in the flue gas to solid and
liquid wastes. Since coal contains inorganic
matter in the form of mineral inclusions in the
coal and this matter becomes part of the emissions
and effluents from a power generating station, the
distribution of this matter among the effluent
streams of a power generating station is needed.
The distribution of some minor and major trace
elements is of special interest since some of these
elements may be hazardous. These elements are
distributed among the ash and gas streams as a
function of coal chemical composition, boiler
configuration, and the flue gas particulate control
device.
i
As an integral part of the characterization of
effluents, existing data from outside and within
TVA on the chemical and physical properties of
coal, ash, and ash effluents will be summarized
and evaluated. Since there will probably be a
lack of complete data, one task will be to perform
chemical and physical analyses on coal, coal ashes,
and ash effluents from TVA plants having relatively
different coal sources and different boiler con-
figurations. Also, a literature survey will be
conducted to collect and assess the elemental mass
balances that have been conducted at steam-electric
power plants. This assessment will include an
examination of the distribution of elements in the
system as a function of boiler design and operatior
coal type, and geographical location. Deficiencies
and problems, if any, will be identified and taken
into account in the planning of the overall
experimental program; the development of an
elemental balance around several different boilers,
e.g., wall-fired and tangential; and using coals
from different geographical locations. This will
allow determination of the differences in ash and
effluent characteristics as a function of one
boiler design, operating conditions, and coal from
a specific geographical location.
The scope of the program will include (1) charac-
terization and quantification of chemical species
in coal pile drainage, (2) assessment and quantifi-
cation of the chemical and physical composition of
ash pond effluent after adjustment of pH to meet
311
effluent standards, (3) evaluation of an ash pond
monitoring program to determine the sampling pro-
gram necessary to obtain representative information,
(4) evaluation and quantification of chlorinated
effluent from a once-through cooling system, (5)
assessment, characterization, and quantification of
coal ash leachate on groundwater quality, and (6)
characterization and quantification of gaseous,
vaporous, and particulate emissions from different
types of boilers.
All steam-electric power plants that use coal as a
fuel source maintain an outdoor coal reserve to
ensure uninterrupted electrical generation.
Factors which preclude a larger coal stockpile
include the cost of land required for storage,
workmen, and equipment needed to maintain the coal
storage area; the cost of the larger inventoryiand
environmental effects of coal in storage subjected
to precipitation. While the physical volume of
coal storage required varies with the plant con-
sumption rate, coal piles are typically 25 to 40
feet high and spread over an area 25 to 100 acres.
Numerous chemical reactions occur within the coal
pile. Thus, as precipitation occurs, water seeps
through the coal pile, picks up oxidation products,
and carries them from the coal pile to a discharge
area. Coal pile runoff is commonly acidic and
contains high concentrations of dissolved solids.
The degree of solids dissolution is attributed to
low pH conditions which favor solution of a number
of compounds and trace metals. This project will
quantify and characterize this runoff as a
function of rainfall and flow from the coal pile.
Special interest will be devoted to trace elements
(approximately 20). Data obtained from laboratory
elution testing will be correlated with that
collected from the characterization of coal pile
drainage field samples.
The steam-electric power industry has effluent
guidelines for pH and suspended solids on bottom
ash and fly ash transport water. In order to
meet the 1983 effluent guidelines, existing power
plants will have to either (1) separate the waste-
water treatment systems for bottom ash and fly
ash transport water and recycle or provide a
higher degree of treatment for removal of suspended
solids from bottom ash transport, or (2) achieve
increased removal of suspended solids from the
combined ash transport water. Since it is known
that these effluent streams contain dissolved trace
elements, it is important to determine how adjust-
ment in pH and suspended solids concentration affect
trace metal concentrations in ash pond discharges.
It is also important to determine how the chemical
characteristics of suspended solids are changed
during the process of ash sluicing and ponding.
The question as to whether effluents from ash ponds
should be limited to "net" or "gross" suspended
solids concentrations has not yet been answered.
Many of the colloidal clay and other particles
which are in the raw water will not settle in coal
ponds; and it is possible that trace metals will
adsorb on these particles and, therefore, result
in higher concentrations of trace metals in the
pond effluent. The same number of trace elements
as discussed earlier will be examined in this pro-
ject.
-------
312
In connection with the effluent guidelines, draft
NPDES permits would require TVA to monitor the
following parameters in ash and effluent with the
corresponding frequency: flow (I/day), oil and
grease (I/month), total suspended solids (I/month),
heavy metals (I/quarter), and pH (I/week). The
above ash pond monitoring frequencies have developed
without the benefit of formal study to establish
adequate, statistically-sound monitoring frequen-
cies. The proposed frequencies could result in
either unobserved, excessively variant parameter
levels or too frequent, costly, unnecessary
sampling and laboratory analyses. This investiga-
tion will involve analysis of available TVA
effluent data with the plotting of weekly data on
a time basis to display cyclical variations. The
degree of correlation between weekly variables
will be obtained and studied to determine chemical
parameter cross-correlation. In addition to
analyzing available data, water sampling programs
will be performed on two ash pond discharges to
determine sampling frequencies necessary to yield
an adequate degree of confidence in representing
discharge characteristics.
Since fly ash and bottom ash are normally sluiced
to a settling pond for permanent disposal, there
havebeen some questions regarding the movement of
leachate out of the disposal site into the
surrounding soil and groundwater. This leachate
may contain trace quantities of potentially
undesirable inorganic constituents; therefore,
field studies will be conducted at two plants to
determine if the migration of leachates through a
particular subsoil at these locations is a problem.
Also, anion and cation exchange properties of these
soild types will be studied to determine their
effect on leachate movement. A correlation of the
data from the field studies and the laboratory work
should elucidate the soils affect on leachate
quality.
Another primary effluent stream is the gaseous
emission. Studies have succeeded in demonstrating
some aspects of the flow of trace elements in the
flue gas and the distribution of these elements in
various ash fractions. However, studies of the
vapor phase trace elements are seldom found and
little is known about the trace inorganic com-
position of fine particulates as a function of
particle size. Thus, in view of the potential
hazards of toxic elements that may be released
from fossil fuel combustion and the need to improve
vapor and fine particulate control technology, TVA
will quantify and chemically characterize the gas,
vapor phase, and fine particulate emissions from
two plants with different boiler configurations.
Information obtained from this project will enable
us to gain a better understanding of gaseous,
vaporous, and fine particulate emissions from a
power plant and provide a basis for the improvement
of control technology for fine particulates and
vaporous trace elements. The data gathered will
be utilized to evaluate the fractional collection
efficiency of the control device, the relative
distribution of trace elements in various size
fractions of fly ash, and the chemica] states in
which trace elements exist in these particles and
to relate the fly ash characteristics to the type
of boiler, boiler operation, coal chemical content,
and pulverizer coal size.
The largest effluent stream from most fossil fired
power plants is the once-through cooling water.
This effluent in most cases is treated with
chlorine to reduce slime growth on the condensers.
Final guidelines for the discharge of chlorine
have been promulgated: free chlorine residua)
shall not exceed an average 2-hour concentration of
0.2 mg of Clj per liter and a maximum 2-hour
concentration of 0.5 mg of Cl2 per liter. Draft
NPDES permits relate this standard to an individual
unit's discharge and also state that a study shall
be instituted to evaluate all practical methods to
reduce total chlorine (free and combined) levels.
Before appropriate mechanisms can be proposed to
reduce or eliminate the discharge of total chlorine
residuals, a comprehensive assessment program will
be instigated to determine the quantities of total
chlorine residual discharged, its components (free
and combined chlorine residual), and chlorinated
organics. A characterization of chlorine dis-
charges from a once-through condenser cooling
system will be made. Also, an evaluation of the
unit efficiency as a function of chlorine usage
will be made in order to elucidate the efficacy of
different chlorination practices. Recent publi-
cations relating levels of chlorine residuals and
their toxicity to aquatic life indicate that even
lower levels of chlorine discharge is needed. It
may not be possible to meet promulgated standards
and maintain the current level of electrical
generation. Even lower levels could hinder the
production of electrical power, thus mechanisms to
reduce chlorine residual need to be established.
Even though the zero pollutant discharge concept
is now conceived as a goal. Future problems, such
as shortages of water and water usage charges, e.g.,
the western U.S. utilities already face this, will
encourage the electric utility industry to investi-
gate alternative mechanisms to reduce environmental
impact and conserve our natural resources. As a
part of this effort, TVA will investigate the use
of membrane processes to render water effluent
discharges from electric power plants suitable for
reuse in the plant. The basic advantage of the
membrane process is that it allows the separation
of a dissolved species from a solvent without a
phase change and with, only a moderate energy input
as compared to other processes that produce a
similar quality product. This effort is designed to
test both commercial and development stage reverse
osmosis (RO) and ultrafiltration (UF) membranes for
their ability to render power plant waste streams
suitable for recycle within the power plant
facilities.
A specially designed test unit has been fabricated
and delivered to TVA. This test unit incorporates
as much flexibility as possible to allow evaluation
of all reverse osmosis membranes currently
commercially available to industry. Also, some
commercial ultrafiltration modules will be tested on
the test unit; however, two ultrafiltration con-
figurations—Dual 3-inch UcarSep Ultrafiltration
Unit and HFXS Ultrafiltration System—warranted
separate test units because of size and flow
limitations.
-------
These two units have been purchased and delivered
to TVA. Equipment checkout is continuing and
experiments will begin in late February on actual
field samples from waste streams. This research
effort may help define the role that membrane
technology will have in the electric utility
industry in the future conservation of our natural
resources and the development of a balanced
environment.
Another part of the effort to reduce the environ-
mental impact of power plants is to investigate
one or more mechanisms to reduce entrapment. This
effort will consist of continuing the TVA demonstra-
tion study to evaluate the efficacy of a fish pump.
Also, a review and update of the current published
research literature and unpublished literature will
be completed and will aid in the development of a
document consolidating most of the significant
literature on intake structures. Another phase of
the study will be field studies to more acutely
define the impingement problems associated with
intake structures. This will consist of determining
the precise nature of factors that contribute to
fish impingement at several TVA power plants and
then evaluate various mechanisms to reduce impinge-
ment and then implement a program to test a
mechanism to reduce impingement.
Since the large quantities of water drawn for
cooling by steam-electric plants (fossil and nuclear)
can cause a potential adverse environmental impact,
more efficient methods for the dissipation of heat
from power plant discharge waters need to be
studied, thus leading to closed cycle cooling and
a reduction in water consumption. One possible
solution is the wet/dry cooling tower. The wet/dry
tower may be operated for water conservation, plume
abatement, or outlet water temperature regulation;
thus, as a cooling system, it offers a reasonable
compromise between the wet and dry cooling systems.
TVA plans to purchase a wet/dry cooling tower
facility and test it in order to provide the
necessary base for evaluating the cooling tower
characteristics including wet/dry heat transfer
mechanisms, plume abatement, water conservation, and
associated energy requirements. TVA is presently
negotiating for the purchase of such a facility
already constructed and operable. Since' the
facility does not operate in a closed cycle water
mode, a feasibility study is currently being com-
pleted to determine if the cost and schedule for
closing the water loop is within the budget and
schedule of the project. The closed water loop
would allow better control of the system, the water
chemistry in the system, and its associated impact
on performance. Other alternative methods of heat
dissipation need refinements and testing. Toward
313
this purpose, TVA wi11 participate in the Cherne
rotor spray system full-scale test program since the
long-term reliability of a large spray cooling
system needs to be fully assessed.
In an area related to heat dissipation, investiga-
tions by TVA, directly and/or jointly with other
agencies, have been directed to the development of
technologies for using low-grade energy contained
in power plant discharge water for agriculture or
aquaculture production. Development of this energy
source will provide the opportunity for fostering
economic development and reducing environmental
control costs, not only in the Tennessee Valley
region, but also throughout the Nation and world.
Modern power plants now dissipate from 1.5 to 2.0
units of energy for every unit of useable electrical
output produced, or an amount of energy slightly
less than 20 percent of all the energy used in the
Nation annually. Research and development activi-
ties being conducted by TVA are emphasizing food
and fiber production. These include: (1) fish
farming, (2) environmental control for greenhouses,
(3) soil warming to extend crop growing seasons,
(4) biologically recycling nutrients from livestock
wastes, and (5) environmental control for livestock
housing. The need for and relative importance of
these efforts have increased recently with the
increase in cost of energy for food production and
the international recognition of the importance of
stability of world food supplies. ERDA through Oak
Ridge National Laboratory is cooperating in the
development of the greenhouse technology. More
recently, EPA has joined with TVA in providing
resources to speed up the development of the soil
warming and biological recycling activities. Results
of this work have been very encouraging. In the soil
warming experiments, sweet corn yields were about
50 percent higher on heated plots than on unheated
plots. For winter operation, a plastic covered
greenhouse (6.7 x 30 meters in size) has been con-
structed over the warm soil which is heated with
buried pipes carrying water from residential water
heaters. Future experiments will test yield re-
sponses in the greenhouse with tomatoes, sweet
peppers, and cucumbers. No heat except from the soil
will be supplied to the greenhouse air. Cool-season
crops, including cabbage, broccoli, cauliflower, and
collards, will be tested on heated soil outside the
greenhouse. Small lagoons have been constructed to
test a biological recycling system to utilize waste
heat and the nutrients in livestock (swine) waste in
producing and biologically harvesting (with fish,
for example) microbial organisms and/or aquatic
plants. A major problem to be studied in future
development of the system is maintenance of nutrient
quality control of the primary livestock waste.
-------
314
INDUSTRIAL ENERGY CONSERVATION
AND ITS POTENTIAL ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
Herbert S. Skovronek
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory-Cin
Edison, New Jersey
Various studies have all agreed that industry
consumes approximately 40% of the Nation's energy
supplies annually, equivalent to some 23 Quads
(10 BTU), for comfort control, process heating
and cooling, electrical needs, other miscellaneous
internal uses and as feedstocks.
TABLE 1. INDUSTRIAL ENERGY USE PATTERNS
(1968)
Direct Combustion
Process Steam
Direct Electric Heating
Motors, Lights, Electrolysis
(1)
29.0%
44.7%
1.3%
25.9%
The fraction used for each purpose varies greatly
from industry to industry and, undoubtedly, from
plant to plant within any one industry. Similarly,
the efficiency of use within industries also varies
drastically, suggesting that significant oppor-
tunity for conservation exists -- on several dif-
ferent levels of sophistication. Based on a
variety of predictions that have been made over the
past year or two, approximately a 5 - 10% reduction
probably could be achieved in the immediate future
by such relatively mundane means as improved house-
keeping (thermostat control, elimination of heat
losses, repair of steam leaks, etc.), improved in-
sulation and improved heat transfer for process
equipment. And, in general, more careful con-
trol of energy needs in all areas, ranging from
boiler through process equipment, could avoid
wasteful spikes and valleys in energy use.
Further improvements beyond that stage will
require a more thorough examination and reevalua-
tion by each industry of its practices and pro-
cesses. Such subsequent changes will occur more
slowly and, it can be expected, will be more capi-
tal intensive and more dependent on evolving tech-
nology. Nevertheless, considering the range of
efficiencies in energy utilization, it is not hard
to conceive of a further 10 20% reduction over
the next 5 10 years. The precise level achieved
by each industry will be determined by the avail-
ability of different fuel forms, their relative
and real cost, the ability to trade-off increased
cost for continued productivity, and the price
elasticity of the particular industry. In this
phase more sophisticated changes such as the re-
covery of heat in the form of off-gases, hot water,
or steam now wasted can be expected to occur
through the use of heat exchangers, recuperators,
and the recycle or "cascade" use of heat within a
plant. In other cases, energy value now being
lost through inefficient use of raw materials, in-
complete recovery or unnecessary disposal of by-
products and unreacted starting materials will be
identified and recovered. As usual, cost effec-
tiveness and rapid payback will play a telling
role in the rapidity with which such approaches
are implemented — even with existing hardware.
A final alternative exists for cutting energy
use even further. Here we must consider rela-
tively complete changes from current manufacturing
practices or processes which will come about be-
cause of drastic shortages or feared shortages of
a specific fuel form, severely increased prices of
petroleum products needed for energy generation or
as feedstock, or, simply by the introduction of
new, more energy efficient technology as our in-
dustries apply their technical skills to existing
in a competitive, profit-oriented society. Because
of the major changes and concomitant risks inherent
in such an approach, the frequency may be less but
success will often be more productive in terms of
the percent of energy or economic saving achieved.
Although the latter two classes of innovation,
waste heat reuse and new practices and processes,
offer significant potential for industrial energy
conservation, they introduce another question re-
quiring simultaneous attention: that of pollution.
Drastic changes in industrial manufacturing prac-
tices to conserve energy can be expected -- at
least in some cases -- to bring about changes in
air, water, or solid waste discharges. For ex-
ample, if an industry or a single plant changes
from natural gas to coal, the pollution generated
will be much greater and much more harmful, both
at the plant site and, incrementally, at the source
of the fuel form - the mine (Table 2). Many
similar situations can be expected as side-effects
of industrial efforts to maintain productivity.
Although the nature of the pollution which will re-
sult from such changes can, in some cases, be es-
timated at this time, the environmental impacts of
all new, energy conserving approaches should be
given special consideration early in their devel-
opment. Those changes in technology where energy
conservation schemes may benefit the environment
(waste heat reuse schemes reduce thermal dis-
charges; steam generation from solid waste reduces
waste volume; control systems on fuel-firing sys-
tems can minimize NO generation) should be sup-
ported and accelerated, if necessary through
Federal assistance programs and regulations.
Those energy conserving changes in industrial
practices and manufacturing processes where the
uniqueness of the pollution or the degree of dif-
ficulty of achieving practical, economical control
presents major roadblocks to implementation should
-------
require parallel development of adequate control
technology at acceptable cost before implementa-
tion^ Similarly, those developing processes where
the discharges or emissions are detrimental or are
not sufficiently well identified or characterized
to allow sound decisions to be made should be sub-
ject to additional research so that acceptable and
safe pollutant discharge levels and appropriate
control technology are available when and if the
process technology reaches commercial application.
Only in this manner can the economic impact of ac-
ceptable environmental control be factored in to
give a true evaluation of a new technology. Nat-
urally, in certain other cases, even where com-
pletely new processes replace current schemes,
there may be little impact on the nature or quan-
tity of pollutants generated or the treatment
needed. These processes will succeed or fail on
purely economic reasons.
In any case, the environmental impact or the
environmental consequences of any altered technol-
ogy should play an important role, both for the
government and for industry, in assessing the de-
sirability and acceptability of new energy conserv-
ing technology. It would be both socially and
economically unwise for energy conserving technol-
ogy to be developed and implemented only to face
severe and/or costly environmental restrictions or
to consume the very energy saved by the process
change in add-on pollution control.
When evaluating the subject at the time of
the Arab embargo (1973), while awareness of the
impending energy shortages was at its highest,
EPA decided that a companion environmental program
was necessary for the energy conservation programs
of industry and our sister agencies, similar to
those being undertaken in other energy related
areas (power plants, new energy sources, coal con-
servation, etc.). The environmental program, as
it relates to industrial energy conservation, has
several facets, consisting of initial definition
and assessment of the magnitude of the problems,
evaluation of the level of available technology
and, if necessary, development of new or improved
methods and technology to satisfy specific needs.
Responsibilities for identifying and meeting the
various objectives of the program were distributed
as appropriate to the various EPA research labora-
tories to assure that both health effects and
technology would be adequately addressed.
Of necessity, the program is quite broad, in-
cluding such aspects as (1) the effect on ambient
air quality of improving the insulation and/or
sealing of industrial buildings and the effect of
increased air recirculation within such a plant;
(2) the effect on air, water, and solid waste dis-
charges from plants where increased waste heat
utilization might be practiced; (3) the environ-
mental and socioeconomic effects of increased
scrap utilization in such industries as steel,
315
aluminum, paper, glass, etc.; and (4) the effect of
totally new, energy conserving manufacturing pro-
cesses in ANY industry, including answering the
question of whether adequate and economical pollu-
tion control technology currently exists. To as-
sure maximum output with our very limited funds,
close liaison has been maintained with other in-
terested and active Federal agencies such as the
FEA, ERDA, Department of Commerce and Department of
the Interior to assure the maximum possible consis-
tency of programs and minimum duplication. In ad-
dition, it was recognized that areas might surface
where trade-offs in productivity, energy conserva-
tion, and environmental impact might have to be
made through regulation for the maximum national
benefit. It is the responsibility of those work-
ing within this program to identify areas where
such policy decisions might be necessary.
As part of EPA's industrial energy conserva-
tion program, three primary thrusts have.been in-
itiated. The program funding for these areas is
shown below:
TABLE 3. INDUSTRIAL CONSERVATION PROGRAM
FUNDING ($K)
1975 1976
Assessment
Development
Waste Heat
850
435
50
400
600
400
1977
160*
1440*
1000*
*1975 Estimates
These are supplemented by other EPA efforts in
waste utilization, utility and industrial power
plant optimization, coal conversion technology, and
advanced energy systems as well as the entire in-
dustrial pollution control program. Recognizing
that industry will, over the coming years, put into
use new process technology which will be less en-
ergy intensive, EPA is attempting to assess the en-
vironmental impact of such major changes early in
their development in order to establish whether the
changes offer environmental benefits, present no
new problems or create new pollution problems which
should and must be considered parallel with the de-
velopment of the new technologies. In this manner
it is anticipated that in-process pollution control
can be incorporated in the development sequence
and, particularly, in the assessment of the true
economic and energy cost of each new process.
At this time, EPA's entire assessment of such
new processes is incorporated in,one contract being
carried out by Arthur D. Little.* ' Based on input
from other agencies and industry as well as EPA,
ADL has selected thirteen energy-intensive industry
-------
316
segments (Table 4) where new process technology is
expected to play a significant role in energy con-
servation over the next 15 years. Within each in-
dustry segment the contractor has selected several
changes having high probability of being implemen-
ted and has carried out as complete an environmen-
tal assessment as possible based on available or
obtainable information. The intent of this study
is to compare the major environmental impacts of
new processes relative to current technology in
terms of pollutant types, loads, and amenability
to known, economically achievable treatment tech-
nology. Where technology (process or pollution'
control) does not appear capable of satisfying ex-
isting or anticipated environmental control re-
quirements, ADL will try to establish what control
measures might be appropriate and what their eco-
nomic and energy impact would be. In some cases,
it also may be necessary for the contractor to
point out that existing or expected environmental
regulations could (or should) inhibit the commer-
cialization of particular manufacturing processes.
Where new processes could yield new pollutants,
particularly if known or suspected toxicity or
health hazard problems exist, the contractor will
attempt to identify and flag such problems so that
EPA, working together with other Federal agencies,
can at least evaluate the risks versus the benefits
to be gained.
Table 5 shows some of the processes which have
been identified by ADL as likely to be considered
by industry for development, or already far enough
along in their development that implementation by
a significant segment of an industry during the
next 15 years is highly likely. It is processes
such as these to which ADL will devote its atten-
tions in assessing the environmental impacts and
judging whether suitable control technology is, or
will be, available as the processes achieve com-
mercialization. Processes now in the laboratory
will not be given as much attention since it is un-
likely that these will achieve widespread commer-
cialization within the next 15 years.
In addition to the complete studies of the
most promising changes, ADL will also present, in
more general terms, scenarios for other aspects of
the program, such as the potential impact of scrap
and the commercial and socioeconomic impact of
peripheral areas resulting from process changes
such as by-products generated, utility versus on-
site power generation, industry siting changes and
the effect of transportation.
Beyond the scope of the ADL study, EPA recog-
nizes that a wide range of technology is currently
in advanced stages of development. In some cases,
these energy conserving technologies also offer
environmental benefits; others present real or
suspected environmental problems or, at least,
major environmental questions. Of course, certain
other energy conserving technologies present no
significantly different environmental problems;
these will not be included in EPA's program but
will be developed by EPA for their energy benefits.
EPA has initiated a development and demonstration
program, albeit a small one, to examine in-process
and add-on process and pollution control technology
in order to answer environmental questions such as
technical feasibility, appropriateness, effective-
ness and cost of pollution control. Since various
approaches to waste heat utilization offer some of
the most promising approaches to energy conserva-
tion in the immediate future, this subject will be
given particular attention in order to document
information that can be broadly implemented in
various industrial areas. The current development
and demonstration program consists of the follow-
ing projects:
1. Purification and reuse of heated process
wastewater and chemicals in the textile indus-
try. (*>
2. Combined preheating of feed materials and
"in process" stack gas pollution control in the
glass container industry. '
3. Identification and evaluation of poten-
tial heat recovery systems in the non-ferrous smel-
ting industry. '
Some examples of other approaches to energy
conservation coupled with simplified, reduced or
eliminated pollution control which could be con-
sidered for study if funds became available in-
clude:
a. Secondary applications from waste heat
streams (on-site power plant, process air streams,
etc.).
b. Resale of process wastes and by-products
as feedstocks to other industries -- on a national
or regional basis.
c. Use of the heat pump to "upgrade" low
level waste heat — such as that generated widely
in the food industry. Reuse of that heat, for ex-
ample, for grain drying.
d. Solventless coating/painting of fabricated
metal; solventless printing.
e. Metal recovery from treatment sludges;
treatment processes that by-pass sludge generation,
entirely.
These examples are presented only to indicate
the scope of the program, which must, in the long
run, provide industry with information to evaluate
and select those energy conserving approaches which
cause the minimum environmental insult and permit
rapid and cost-effective implementation. In addi-
tion, it is hoped that careful and sound selection
of projects will develop basic concepts and methods
which will lead to the invention and application of
-------
317
environmentally acceptable, energy conserving
technology over the coming years.
REFERENCES
1. Gyftopoulos, E. P., et al, "Potential Fuel
Effectiveness in Industry." A Report to the
Energy Policy Project of the Ford Foundation,
Ballinger Pub!. Co., Cambridge, Mass., 1974.
2. EPA Contract 68-03-2198 in progress; ADL
draft report "Industry Priority Report" July,
1975.
3. Maclean, R. D., "Energy Use and Conservation
in the U. S. Portland Cement Industry." Tes-
timony at U. S. Senate Comm. on Commerce, Pub-
lic Hearings on Energy Waste in Industrial
and Commercial Activities.
4. EPA Grant No. R-803875, Clemson University,
in progress.
5. EPA RFP No. DU-75-A291, to be funded and in-
itiated shortly.
6. EPA Contract 68-02-1319, Radian Corp., in
progress.
-------
318
Table 2. Selected Industrial Energy Sources
(1971)
Steel Paper Cement* ' Glass
Coal
Fuel Oils
Natural Gas
Purchased Electricity
Other
64.5-',
8.4
20.6
4.2
2.6
13.1
30.4
23.8
11.6
33.ld
32.0 0.0
12.0 5.6
37.0 77.2
17.1
19.0 0.0
a. Residues used as in-plant energy sources
Table k. Industrial Energy Use Bankings 197l(2)
ENERGY USE
Industry (SIC)
", of Tota1a
Industrial
YEAR
TON
S VALUE ADDED
*Blast Furnaces & Steel Mills
(3312) 7.3 1.68
^Petroleum Refining
(2911) 7.3 1.68
*Paper & Allied Products
(26) •;• 8 1 .59
Food S Kindred Products
(20) 5.5 1.27
*01efins .
(2369) 4.2 0.98
*Ammonia h
(237) 2.7 0.63
*Aluminum, Primary
(3334) 2.6 0.59
^Textile Mill Products
(22) 2.3 0.54
*Cement, Hydraulic
(324) 2.2 0.52
*Glass r
( ) 1.3 0.31
*Alkali & Chlorine
(1812) 1.0 0.24
Motor Vehicle Parts
(3714) 0.8 0.19
Electro metallurgical Processes
(3313) 0.6 0.14
Gray Iron Foundries
(3321) 0.6 0.13
*Phosphorus & Phosphoric Acid .
(2819) 0.4 0.10
Lime
(3274) 0.4 0.10
*Primary Copper
(3331) 0.3 0.08'
*Fertilizers
(2871) 0.3 0.08
0.16
0.36
6-8
d
18.2
0.72
0.45
0.12d
0.52
a. Based on a 23.1 QUAD industrial usage; includes losses in conversion of fossil
fuel to electric power.
b. ADL estimates.
c. 3211 , 3221 , 3229, 3296.
d. Glass Container Segment, SIC 3221 only.
* Included in ADL study.
Table 5. Some Anticipated Process Changes
Industry
Potential Impact
Process
Energy
Environment
Steel Coke dry quench
BOF off-gas collection
Glass Container Coal direct fired
Batch oreheat
Te.xtile Solvent dyeing
Alcoa Process
14-
*-~10 recoverable as
hi-pressure steam; re-
duced coke use (2-3%)
~^1013 BTU recoverable
Conserve natural gas
20-35ci energy saving
Up to 50'J reduction in
steam needs; reduced
natural gas for drying
•~-« 30'- reduction in
electrical energy
Reduced quench water
discharge; reduced
coke dust
Reduced thermal, partic-
ulate discharges; reduced
fossil fuel use
Increased SO,, NO , par-
ticulates
Reduced NO , SO,, partic-
ulates '
Reduced wastewater; in-
creased solvent emis-
sions
Undefined, closed system
possible
-------
319
DISCUSSION FOR ENERGY CONSERVATION SESSION
Question^ This question is quite premature. Are there any regulatory or standard setting activities
anticipated in the waste-heat recovery and utilization areas?
Panel Response: No activities are perceived along this line at all. Thermal effluents are the
target of regulation and guidelines.
However, there are ways to back into waste heat recovery and utilization. For example, when EPA puts
regionally stringent air emissions or thermal regulations on a manufacturing plant, they do, in effect,
put double prices on that plant or industry. The result is that other technologies become more competi-
tive, such as recycling some of that hot air and, perhaps, cutting down the volume of the waste dis-
charged.
Question; With reference to the thermal gradients used, are there any studies of potential climatic
changes and changes in motion, temperature and light, that arise on a large scale in utilization of this
sort?
Panel Response: It's talked about, but there are no actual studies on the subject.
Question: Is the A.D. Little study evaluating, also, the possible alternate sources of mineral raw
materials that may be utilized in future industries. The implication of changing raw material sources,
for future technologies, seems to be critical.
Panel Response: Yes! Changes in feed stocks are being look at. For example, in the manufacturing
industry, the ethane or the gas as a feed stock, with naptha add oil-gas, are being looked at as an
option. In the ammonia industry, coal is being looked at as a basic raw material.
Question: This question concerns itself with the feasibility of implementing waste-heat utilization,
through such a device as a hot water utility, for domestic home heating. Certainly, there are hot water
utilities in various locations throughout the nation, and there are power plants with hot water to get
rid of. Auburn University and Alabama Power Company have begun a plan for the storage of waste-heat
from a utility and are actually looking for some distribution. Could someone comment on this possibility?
Panel Response: The TVA is primarily in the rural region. The problems that TVA encounter involves
economics associated with heating homes. In considering this aspect, there is a tremendous cost for
transport of this low-grade heat to the point that it is used. Transport would be of the range of 20-40
miles.to get it to any city of any size, and the cities are generally small, 40 to 50,000 population.
It looks uneconomical to do that, but TVA has not studied it.
In a study termed Municipal Industrial Utility System, heat is taken away from a utility, using it
in conjunction with a waste treatment plant, trying to get an entire closed cycle of waste treatment,
energy generation and energy reuse. Planning projects are also underway involving industry-utility com-
plex integration. Industries could be relocated to power plant complexes where the power plant would
not only supply electricity but would also supply heated water for industrial processes.
There have also been small-scale and desk-top studies on dual water supply system, which relate, of
course, to the requirements in some areas for water reuse and the potential for a dual quality supply
system; one for drinking water and one for other household and, again, saall heated water systems for
industrial purposes.
Question;. There appears to be a considerable amount of disagreement, or lack of agreement, about
the energy costs associated with developing the solar cells, in relation to the energy that's delivered
from it, over the effective life of the cells. Could the panel respond to the efficiency of solar cells
in terms of the energy budget, and also, what type of projections might be made for energy from solar
cells, in terms of the total national energy demands?
Panel Reponse: It's a little premature to be able to answer. Programs have only just begun to get
data on the solar systems being developed, and the environmenta1 implications of them. This effort in
our laboratory is about five or six months old.
Question: In the studies of waste-heat utilization, is anyone looking at the effects of siting of
either the agriculture or the agricultural plot plants, near the power plant site, as it may effect
plant growth, or uptake in plants or animals of potentially hazardous materials? Has there been consid-
eration of this in the TVA study?
-------
320
Panel Response: This aspect is not a specific task, although the plant people are assessing the
impact or the'liabilities, the productivity and so forth, and detrimental effects of warm water utiliza-
tion at those sites, and that's probably a difficult item to home in on.
With regard to the TVA Greenhouse Project, TVA will be constructing a half acre greenhouse at the
Brownsbury nuclear plant. The heating system is an open path or entry-type system. Water is taken from
the power plant condensers which will not contain radioactivity in the discharge. There will be a
monitoring program on the greenhouse to determine what are the effects of the hot water on productivity.
Projections indicate that plant uptake of contaminants will not be a problem, but there will neverthe-
less be an intensive monitoring program at the greenhouse.
Question: There are many in the audience here who, over a period of perhaps the last 8 to 10 years,
have attended many waste-heat utilization conferences and meetings. Many papers have been heard on the
feasibility of the greenhouse (type) projects, catfish farming, shrimp farming, lobster farming, etc.
These meetings also included institutional problems. The results of these meetings indicated that the
institutional problems associated with trying to get industry to use these systems or projects as a part
of their programs is the greatest problem concerniqg utilization. Is any research going on now, either
in Alden's program or the TVA people, to attempt to remove or eliminate some of these constraints that
are involved to provide some kind of stimulus for industry to do more in waste-heat utilization? Other-
wise it would appear that the program is not really much more than a public relations type of program,
because of the small amount of reuse that would be made of the excess heat for any kind of a large
station.
Panel Response: The over-riding impetus really is and will be the economics of waste-heat utiliza-
tion and the energy situation. The current energy crisis, and future energy projections, really makes
waste-heat utilization more appealing from an economic viewpoint. Three different types of waste-heat
utilization or waste-heat reduction approaches are being looked at. One is basic by-product waste-heat
use; that is, waste heat is available something should be done with it, if possible; secondly, to re-
duce waste-heat. Here is where the institutional problems become more involved. To reduce its produc-
tion by making power generation more efficient. Included in that concept is generating power at indus-
trial sites and by-product power generation for steam for process purposes or local power needs.
Thirdly, is the integrated supply-use complex which is very futuristic. This concept will probably make
more institutional problems. All three are possibilities that we should be considering for increasing
efficiency on waste-heat utilization.
With respect to the near-term use of by-product waste-heat utilization, most of the efforts are
oriented to the economic aspects. To amplify that point, an EPA-Northern State Power Company jointly
supported project was described using power plant hot water for agriculture on a 100 acre site. Three
hundred additional acres are available adjacent to the test awaiting the outcome of the demonstration.
If the demonstration is successful, there are flower growers knocking on the door waiting in line to
lease the 300 acres and expand the installation and operation. Possibly some of the institutional problems
are dissolving or are being reconsidered as the interest and the economic feasibility rises.
As stated by other panel members, the economics of waste-heat projects are improved tremendously
when, at the time the power plant is designed, waste-heat utilization capabilities and projects are de-
signed into it. If these are added to the plant after construction is completed, the cost of adding
them on is prohibitive. So as far as TVA is concerned, they are adding some design characteristics for
consideration of waste-heat projects at the time the power plants are being designed.
Question: A number of state public utility commissions are considering the adoption of novel elec-
tricity rate structures, such as time-of-day pricing. Is any consideration being given to the effect
that these rate structures might have on energy consumption to the utility industry?
Panel Response: None.
Question: Could the panel respond to the effect of putting large amounts of heat and water into the
air, as you would get them from wet cooling towers, with the possible exception of the one TVA project.
Panel Response: The one TVA project is the only one with the wet-dry concept that is being evaluated.
Thai: is, more from a water conservation standpoint than it is from the matter of heat. However, both are
being evaluated at the same time.
The environmental effects of, say, cooling towers and so forth is really not being addressed by this
panel. It's more properly the health, ecological effects area. As far as heat rejection from cooling
towers is concerned, it has problems in being addressed and evaluated. One of the considerations that
must be made is to determine the size a power plant could be without reaching some of these environmental
problems.
-------
321
J^ILLLCpmment: Requested -an update of the Lanbar Project in Baltimore which was started up last May.
The Landbar Project is, unfortunately, plagued with difficulties, as many start-up
situations are. There have been numerous problems. In fact, one kiln has shown up with hot and cold
spots causing problems there. The air pollution control device that was installed is not working properly.
Those are the two major problems with which the speaker was familiar with.
Comment from the Floor: An energy consultant wished to emphasize that all the work done in energy
conservation is not being done by government agencies. The fact of high energy costs of the last few
years has stirred an enormous amount of activity in industry to design new plants for heat recovery and
in regard to energy crunches. Also, changes are being made to the existing plants themselves to facili-
tate greater economy of operation.
Panel Response: Government should only serve as a catalyst to the whole program, but industrial
response is where the action's at. Industry must do it to stay alive. That is the name of this game,
in the United States. Industry will do their job. The government would like to see them do it in the
most environmentally sound manner, if possible. There will undoubtedly be occasional disagreement on what
is the most environmentally acceptable manner.
Dow Chemical Company has, for the last several years, expanded their energy conservation efforts.
In many cases, they are used as a shining example of what can be done by industry in energy conservation
by true housekeeping, as well as by process changes and rather innovative plan changes, such as where
they end up feeding energy into a municipal system.
Comment from the Floor: Indicated that an analysis is being made for Ontario Fiber Corporation to
address the impact to the company associated with changes in utility rate structures. EPRI is also in-
volved in such analyses.
-------
CHAPTER 12
INTEGRATED ASSESSMENT
-------
324
INTRODUCTION
Following release of the Ray Report, the Office
of Management and Budget established an interagency
task force on Health and Environmental Effects of
Energy Use. An important conclusion of the task
force was that the social and economic consequences
of alternative energy and environmental policies
needed to be considered. The task force report
recommended formation of a research program which
would integrate the alternatives from two research
areas: socio-economic and health-ecological. The
integrated assessment program responds to this
recommendation.
The problem addressed has become more apparent
in recent decades. The development of new techno-
logies and the extension of technologies to new
geographic areas has been accompanied by a series
of impacts on the economic and social system. Many
of these impacts were unforeseen initially, yet
they have had far reaching consequences.
Traditional environmental research programs
have extended analysis of technologies to examina-
tion of first order environmental effects. Such
analysis might involve the identification and
measurement of pollutant emission from an energy
process with the objective of determining the effect
on health and environment so that remedial techno-
logies could be devised. The Integrated Assessment
Program will carry the analysis one step further by
focusing on the secondary and higher order social
and economic effects on the community. For instance,
the assessment will guage such secondary results as
migration of workers, changes from rural to urban
societies or other factors modifying the social
values of communities, destruction of habitat and
changes in land use.
The primary Integrated Assessment research tool
is the Technology Assessment. This is defined as
the systematic study of the effects on society that
may occur when a technology is introduced, extended,
or modified with special emphasis on the impacts
which are unintended, indirect, and delayed. In
addition, the program will employ some supplemental
studies and investigations aimed at development of
methodologies for conducting the assessments.
Modeling will be used extensively with plans to con-
centrate on the use of existing data and parameters
whenever possible.
Four Technology Assessments are either under
way or in advanced stages of planning. The four
are concerned with: Western Energy Resources,
Electric Utility Energy Systems, Development of
Large Scale Energy Facilities in the Ohio River
Basin, and SEAS, a system of interdependent models
of the United States economy. In addition, eight
pass-through studies are presently being conducted
by USDA, TVA, ERDA, and HUD.
-------
325
Integrated Assessment of Energy Systems
Edwin B. Royce
Office of Energy, Minerals, and Industry
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D.C. 20460
INTRODUCTION
Several studies are grouped under the heading
of integrated assessment, studies having both
parallel and unique elements. Individual details
will be described in the papers that follow. This
paper is devoted to the common basis for and
interrelationships between the efforts.
The origin of the integrated assessment pro-
gram on energy and the environment is found in the
Dixie Lee Ray report, The Nation's Energy Future.
The program was developed in more detail by the
two interagency panels that met roughly a year
and a half ago. These panels, dealing with
control technology development and environmental
effects research, were chaired by Stephen Gage,
on the one hand, and Donald King and Warren Muir,
on the other.
The report of the Gage panel called for a
series of environmental assessments. These were
to be studies which would examine various advanced
energy technologies, in order to characterize the
emissions, effluents, and solid wastes they would
produce and to analyze the environmental conse-
quences that might result from their use. The
emphasis was to be on translating measurements
of emissions and effluents into projections of
environmental effects, through the use of existing
pollutant transport models and existing data on
the health and ecological effects of pollutants.
At the same time, the report of the King-Muir
panel called for a program of integrated assess-
ment. Stated simply, the integrated assessments
were to translate the results of the environmental
assessment activities into forms useful for policy
formulation, primarily but not exclusively at the
Federal level. The purpose of the integrated
assessments was to identify environmentally,
socially and economically acceptable energy
development alternatives, by the integration of
environmental, social and economic research
results.The use of the term acceptable rather
than optimum energy alternatives was deliberate.
In discussing integrated assessment, the
King-Muir panel stressed the importance of
carrying out socio-economic studies and analyses
paralleling the environmental analysis. There
are severa'l reasons for this. First, the costs
of pollution control technology must be an
integral part of any policy-oriented study. To
provide balance, analysis of the benefits of
cleaning up the environment should be presented as
well. Second, there was broad recognition of the
importance of understanding the secondary economic
effects of energy technology development and of
energy resource development, since such economic
development accompanying energy development may
itself have major environmental implications. As
an example, the development of Western energy
resources will result in boom towns and the rapid
influx of population. This will cause environ-
mental problems, ranging from rapid increases in
municipal wastes, on the one hand, to increased
impact on wildlife habitat associated with
increases in the number of hunters, on the other.
The program as laid out is intended to include
specific treatment of questions of implementation
and institutional problems. This is particularly
true with regard to energy conservation, and
reflects a feeling with regard to energy conserva-
tion, that the problems needing research are in
the institutional rather than technical areas.
There are two important elements that distin-
guish the integrated assessment program from the
environmental assessment program. First, there is
the integrated approach, examining a very broad set
of alternatives and consequences that might be
associated with technical policy decisions.
Second, there is the incorporation of socio-
economic effects in the analysis.
METHODOLOGY DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITIES
The integrated assessment program can be
divided into two general areas, activities that
can be best described as methodology development,
and specific assessment studies.
In the methodology area, one of the approaches
that can be taken is cost/risk/benefit analysis.
The Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory is developing
a cost/risk/benefit methodology for doing trade-off
analysis between nuclear systems, oil shale, geo-
thermal, and coal use, with specific reference to
energy development in the West. This effort is
closely related to the regional studies program of
the Energy Research and Development Administration
(ERDA), particularly the ERDA regional studies
program.
The Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) is
developing a variety of methodologies to carry out
somewhat different analyses. The ERDA work and
much of the EPA work is focused primarily on
Federal decision making. The TVA work, by contrast,
is focused on regional and local decision making
and on decision making within the electric utility
industry. What is being developed is a series of
tools to expedite environmental analysis, so that
adequate electric power can be made available in a
cost-effective and timely manner, with minimal
impact on the environment. These specific projects
are more fully described in the paper by Mickey and
Krenkel.
-------
326
The first TVA project is aimed at improvement
in the capability to do the economic projections
necessary to drive various models of energy systems
and various models for environmental impact ana-
lysis. This work is drawing heavily on existing
TVA regional economic modeling, modeling which
allows-the development of long-term projections
and deals with such factors as population, employ-
ment, labor force, migration, and of course energy.
One particular activity under way in this effort
is an analysis of the sensitivity of the regional
models to National economic parameters. Another
is aimed at improvement of impact analysis at the
multi-county level, and the development of economic
base data for site specific analyses. The studies
are specific to the TVA service area. However, an
attempt is being made to develop analytical tools
in such a fashion that they will be transferable
to other areas.
A second TVA project under way is expanding
current TVA models to include environmental
residuals more specifically. Residuals will include
not only wastes in the air and water and solid
wastes, but also occupational health problems.
The third project at TVA involves the develop-
ment and demonstration of computer graphic
techniques for both site specific and regional
assessments dealing with a mixed system of nuclear,
coal, and hydro-electric energy facilities. This
work on computer graphics includes the computer
display of non-geographical data, as well as the
display of geographical data. The intent is to
couple to the models an interactive computer
graphics capability, such that the combination can
be used in system design analyses and decision
formulation regarding siting.
The major methodological effort under way in
EPA is the continued development of SEAS, the
Strategic Environmental Assessment System. This
is a model that produces both National and regional
forecasts of economic, environmental and energy
effects of environmental policies. Part of SEAS
is an input-output model of-the United States
economy, with the capability of disaggregating
that economy regionally. The outputs are economic
projections in 350 industries, environmental
residuals, energy use, and pollution control costs
in the 350 industries. The work under way at the
present time includes updating the energy demand
sectors of the model, and on the supply side,
incorporating the Brookhaven ESNS model.
SPECIFIC ASSESSMENT STUDIES
The Department of Housing and Urban Develop-
ment (HUD) is carrying out a project dealing with
the energy, economic, and social impact of energy
conservation programs in the residential sector.
For characteristic buildings in ten geographical
areas of the United States, the economic and the
energy savings that would result from various
conservation measures are being evaluated. This
effort is part of an on-going HUD program in the
area of energy conservation in residences.
A major part of the EPA program is an assess-
ment of the consequences of the development of
Western energy resources. The approach of this
study is the approach of technology assessment,
an approach that is also taken in the other major
EPA effort under way, an assessment on the electric
utilities sector. Technology assessment is
essentially a very generalized methodology for
systematically studying the effects on society of
introducing, extending, or otherwise modifying
technology. The paper by Mr. Plotkin has a very
good discussion of the application that is being
made of this methodology.
The objective of the Western energy resource
study is essentially the development of a balanced
assessment of the costs and benefits of alternate
energy resource development, with the objective of
assisting Federal, state, and local decision making
in the area. A second objective is to meet EPA's
needs with regard to environmental controls and
regulation. The study was funded at over a
million dollars for three years and is being
conducted by the Science and Public Policy Program
of the University of Oklahoma, in cooperation with
the Radian Corporation. The energy resources
being studied in 13 western states are coal, oil
shale, oil, gas, geothermal and uranium.
A parallel effort, which is again part of the
integrated assessment program, is being carried
out by the Economic Research Service (ERS) of the
Department of Agriculture (USDA). This effort,
described in the paper by Schaub, Barse, and
Bender, deals specifically with the economic,
social and cultural consequences of coal and oil
shale development. Initially the studies are of
Western development, but they will be broadened
to cover the entire United States. Specific
studies that are being carried out include water
use and availability, particularly some of the
problems of competition for water between energy
development and agriculture in the region. These
efforts treat not only surface waters, but also
groundwater. The ERS is also studying surface
mine reclamation, mine reclamation alternatives,
and the costs of mine reclamation.
As part of the ERS effort there are a number
of studies specific to the Northern Great Plains
region dealing with employment, income, population,
and financing of government services, all very
important impacts of major energy resource
development. The effort also includes more
general studies of regional economic effects,
institutional effects, potential barriers to
development, and some questions of perceptions of
environmental quality as seen by the residents of
energy resource development regions and other
parts of the country. The methods that are being
developed as part of this study include both local
analysis and the development of models to aggregate
these local analyses.
-------
327
The second major integrated assessment under
way at EPA deals with the electric utility sector.
Again this is a study funded at over a million
dollars over three years. The work is being done
by Teknekron, Incorporated, of Berkeley, California.
The effort will focus particularly on current
pollution control policies and strategies. Some
of the studies that are included involve energy
conversion and pollution control alternatives, and
health and ecological effects data and the accuracy
of that information. During the first year there
will be a focus on coal fired power plants, air
pollution associated with them, some of the problems
of modeling the transport of that air pollution, and
problems of understanding the environmental impact
of such facilities.
-------
328
EPA's Integrated Assessment Program
Steve E. Plotkin
Office of Energy, Minerals and Industry
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D.C. 2046.0
INTRODUCTION
Following release of the Ray report (reference
1), the Office of Management and Budget established
an interagency task force on "Health and Environ-
mental Effects of Energy Use" whose purpose was to:
. examine the ongoing Federal research
program in this field;
. recommend an allocation of research
funds that would provide an effective
research program.
An important conclusion of the task force was that
the social and economic consequences of alternative
energy and environmental policies needed to be con-
sidered along with-and in coordination with-the
health and environmental impacts of such policies.
The authors of the task force report (reference 2)
recommended the formation of a research program to
identify "environmentally, socially, and economically
acceptable (energy development) alternatives" by
integrating results from the two research areas-
socio-economic and health/ecological-as well as
from research on cost/benefit/risk evaluation and
policy implementation alternatives. In response
to these recommendations, the Office of Energy,
Minerals and Industry (OEMI) established its
Integrated Assessment program, which is briefly
described in this paper.
PROBLEM STATEMENT
The problem recognized by the Integrated
Assessment program is one that has become pain-
fully apparent to society in the past few decades.
The development of new technologies-or the
extension of technologies to new geographical
areas-carries with it a chain of impacts extending
throughout the physical, economic, and social
systems. Many of these impacts are unforeseen,
yet they may have far-reaching consequences that
overshadow the direct effects-e.g., the production
of energy-that the technologies are designed to
create. The traditional research programs of the
Environmental Protection Agency have extended
analysis of technologies to examination of first
order environmental effects. Such analysis
includes measuring pollutants discharged from
stacks, outflows, etc., computing their eco-
system and health impacts, devising ways of
mitigating these impacts, and computing the
associated control costs.
The Integrated Assessment Program will carry
the analyses farther, by focusing on the second-
ary and higher order imoacts of the technologies
themselves and of the environmental controls
aoolied to them. For instance, Assessment
research projects will trace the impacts of
technologies on land use and migration and
measure the associated impacts on: the
social structure (e.g., changes from rural
to urban society, influx of workers with
different social values leading to conflict,
etc.); the environment (e.q., influx of
population creating sewage problems,
destruction of habitats); and on the
economy (e.g., labor shortages created
by demand for construction and operation,
workers creating difficulties for prior-
established industry and agriculture).
The assessments will also trace the effects
of environmental controls on the environment,
society, and economy.
An obvious corollary to the problem of
incoroorating social and economic analysis
into the health and environmental effects
research program is that of insuring that
the more focused portions of the Federal
energy research program are complete with
regard to investigating in detail all of
the impact areas of concern. The Integrated
Assessment program will be responsible for
identifying gaos in the overall research
effort that prevent a comolete assessment
of optimal develooment and environmental
control alternatives. The intended •
implication here is that work conducted
under the program will consist mainly of
integrative analysis rather than original
research or data collection. When the
latter efforts are identified as being
necessary to allow a comolete analysis,
the program will turn to the research
programs of EPA and the other Federal
agencies for assistance.
APPROACH
The primary tool used by the Integrated
Assessment program is the Technology Assess-
ment (TA). Coates (reference 3) defines TA
as "the systematic study of the effects on
society that may occur when a technology is
introduced, extended, or modified, with a
soecial emphasis on the impacts that are
unintended, indirect, and delayed." By this
definition, the TA precisely fits the analysis
retirements defined above. The TA's incorpo-
rated in the Assessment program will focus on
regional energy development problems and emerging
energy technologies.
-------
329
The appropriate wav to conduct a TA remains
a matter for argument. TA methodologies ranqe
from highly formal structures stressing decision
analysis technioues, event trees, and quantita-
tive cost/risk/benefit analyses all the way to
relatively unstructured analyses that stress
analysis team interaction. In anv case, the
various techniaues for conducting Technology
Assessments are described at length in the
literature (see references 4 through 7). The
Integrated Assessment program is being delib-
erately neutral with resnect to appropriate
TA methodologies, at least at this early stage
of the program. This attitude mav of course
change drastically after completion of one or
more TA's.
Although selection of an apnrooriate
methodology is obviously critical, successful
conclusion of a Technology Assessment may be
even more closely linked to the appropriate
definition of the scope or boundaries of the
Assessment. This definition is linked to:
. identification of the decision-maker(s);
..resources available to the Assessment
team; and
. nature of the Assessment subject.
For instance, local decision-makers will usually
make decisions based on the impacts on their
jurisdictions alone. However, a Technology
Assessment addressed to this type of decision-
maker must consider what actions outside
jurisdictions might take if the client chooses
a course of action which is antithetical to
their interests. Would a state cut off
financial assistance if a locality insisted
on pursuing a course of action which hurt its
neighbors? A TA that did not consider these
aspects would be a failure.
When the decision-maker to be addressed is
the Federal government-which is more or less the
case here-the definition of project scope becomes
quite different. The Federal decision-maker is
normally placed in the rather ambiguous position
of having to incorporate simultaneously the
viewpoints and interests of the Nation as a
whole as well as the States and other interest
groups. This type of "global" perspective can
rarely be fully accommodated in a Technology
Assessment, and thus each Assessment will be
often reluctantly forced to make critical
choices as to the geographical boundaries of
impact assessment, the time frames to be
examined, the types of impacts to be focused on,
parts of fuel cycles to be stressed, etc. In
multi-year Assessments, such choices are
particularly critical to the success of the
first year efforts.
Althouah the Technology Assessments are the
heart of the Intenrated Assessment program, a
number of other tvpes of oroiect will be under-
taken in sunnort of the proaram objective:
. Supplementary Studies - research
proiects that will sunnlement the Technology
Assessments, either bv providing results that
will fill research gaos identified bv the
Assessments, or bv providing increased coverage
of issues associated with the Assessments that
become identified as crucial to Agency respon-
sibilities. This category will also include
integrative studies that fall short of full
TA's on tonics of concern to the Agency.
. Integrated Assessment Methodology -
proiects that will develop new methods of con-
ducting Technolonv Assessments and other
intearative analyses. These projects will
integrate and adapt the results of research on
technoloav assessment methodology-including
cost/benefit/risk analysis, multi-variate
decision analvsis, etc. - being conducted by
the Office of Technolonv Assessment, the
National Science Foundation and other Federal
aaencies, as well as bv the private sector,
into a framework which is suitable for Agency
decision-making processes. Case studies
conducted for these projects will be chosen
so as to be sunportive of on-going Technology
Assessments. This portion of the program will
include maintenance and further development of
the Strateaic Environmental Assessment System
(SEAS) model .
. "Dass-Through" Programs - projects
supporting the Integrated Assessment program
that are conducted bv other Federal agencies
under EDA fundina. Agencies participating in
this portion of the program are USDA, TVA, ERDA
and HUD.
DISCUSSION
The Integrated Assessment program currently
has two TA's fullv underway and a third in the
active planning phase. These will be described
below. Current plans call for the addition of
TA's to the program at the rate of about one a
year, depending upon the resources available to
the nronram, the scone of the assessment subjects
chosen, and the anpearance of critical new issues
or chances in the urgencv of known issues.
In addition to the two on-going TA's the IA
program has eight pass-through studies presently
being conducted bv four Federal agencies. Also,
work on the Strateaic Environmental Assessment
System is presently under contract and in full
gear. Other elements of the program - "supple-
mental studies," and "integrated assessment
-------
330
methodology11 (aside from SEAS)- are still in the
formulative stage, although a substantial plan-
ning effort should have commenced by the time
this paoer is available.
Those components of the IA orogram that
are either underway or in advanced planning
are described below:
1. A Technology Assessment of Western
Energy Resource Development
The objectives of the Western Energy TA are:
a. To assist the Environmental Protection
Agency in developing environmental control
policies and implementation strategies for
mitigating the adverse impacts of Western
energy resource development.
b. To assist EPA's Office of Research
and Development in evaluating that portion of
its environmental research program dealing with
the problems of Western energy development.
c. To provide a balanced assessment of
the full range of costs and benefits stemming
from alternative energy resource developments in
the Western United States in order to assist
Federal and State planning for such development.
The TA is being conducted jointly by the
University of Oklahoma Science and Public Policy
(S&PP) Program (publications: "Energy Under the
Oceans","North Sea Oil and Gas", "Energy Alter-
natives; A Comparative Analysis") and the Radian
Corporation ("A Western Regional Energy Develop-
ment Study"). The Project Director is Dr. Irvin
(Jack) White, professor of political science at
Oklahoma University and assistant director of the
S&PP Program.
The Assessment will focus on the impacts of
developing coal, oil shale, oil, natural gas,
geothermal and uranium resources in 13 western
states. Development of these resources, and
especially of coal and oil shale, has become
a source of extreme contention among interest
groups both within and outside of the region,
largely because the impacts, positive and
negative, are separated spatially and temporally.
For example, the development will satisfy demand
for energy largely outside of the region, in the
Midwest and Pacific Northwest, while environ-
mental damages will largely accrue inside the
region. Although in the long term the overall
financial position of the resource states may
improve from the expanded tax base created by
development, short term demands for services
such as education, housing, and other services
associated with a rapidly expanding population
will create a severe strain on regional finances.
The Assessment team does not favor a highly
structured approach to Technology Assessment, and
thus there is a deemnhasis of formal decision
analysis and cost/risk/benefit tools and model
building. Impact analysis will focus on a series
of site-specific and regional scenarios. Energy
development levels are set by assuming levels of
national energy demand based on previous forecasts,
and allocating portions of the supply response to
the reaion (possibly bv utilizing the Rulf-SRI
model). Durina the first year of the study, the
"boundaries" can be specified as follows:
. All portions of the fuel cvcle (except end
use) are considered except that the uranium fuel
cvcle is examined onlv to the milling stage;
. The focus of attention in impact analysis
will be the eight maior resource states. Impacts
outside the region are not considered in depth,
with the possible exception being at electricity
demand centers in the Midwest: and
. Exoaeneous variables affecting development
rates are not examined in depth.
The imnlication of these boundaries is that
the Assessment is focusing, in the first year, on
the Question of how to cope with development if it
occurs. The parallel Questions that a "complete"
Technology Assessment would attempt to answer
whether or not development should occur, and how
to promote the level of development desired (or,
at least, how to predict the level likely to
occur) reouire analyses considerably beyond the
first-year studv boundaries.
The Western Enerav TA is supported at a level
of $1.3 million over three years, with the poten-
tial for additional supnort from the Supplementary
Studies portion of the Integrated Assessment
program.
2. A Technology Assessment of Electric
UtilTtv Energy Systems"
The Electrical Utility TA. has the following
objectives:
a. To provide a means of testing pollution
control policies and strategies with respect to
the utility industry which must be formulated in
response to current and near term issues.
b. To identify those issues, especially
environmental issues, which are likely to require
policy decisions in the future and identify the
research programs which should be initiated to
provide a sound basis for future decisions
reaardina these issues.
-------
331
The TA is being conducted by the Energy and
Environmental Engineering Division of Teknekron,
Inc., Berkeley, California ("Comprehensive
Standards: The Power Generation Case", "Economic
Impact of Water Pollution Control on the Steam
Electric Industry"). The Principal Investigator
is Dr. Peter M. Cukor; the Project Director is
Mr. Glen R. Kendall.
The Assessment will focus on the energy
conversion and pollution control technology
alternatives, health and ecological effects,
and resultant national economic impacts
associated with activities of the electrical
utility industry. Rapid depletion of the
readily accessible alternative domestic energy
resources for electrical power generation,
coupled with international concerns about the
quantity and security of imported oil and gas,
has produced a major tilt in the industry in
favor of nuclear fission and coal combustion
as the electricity-producing technologies of
choice over the next decade. The future develop-
ment implied by these forces-involving
development of new mining areas and increased
production in established areas, development of
vast new transmission facilities, construction
of extremely large fossil and nuclear generating
facilities, and a vast quantity of supporting
development-may result in the creation of new
(and the exacerbation of existing) environmental,
social and economic problems that demand the
close attention of the Federal government.
In contrast to the Western Energy TA, which
is considerably broader in terms of the "actors"
who play significant roles in affecting the
course of development, the Electric Utility TA
is viewed by Teknekron as linked very closely to
the actions of one industry as it is affected by
external forces. Thus, Teknekron's approach to
conducting this TA relies heavily on expanding
and improving a model of the behavior of the
electric utility industry. A parallel effort
will be conducted to critically review and
analyze the'data and models available to measure
the impacts of alternative development, and to
analyze the sensitivity of current assumptions
and practices of emerging political and social
changes. For instance, a particularly important
part of Teknekron's work will involve a thorough
review of the mechanisms of atmospheric trans-
port and transformation of sulfur oxides and
their associated health impacts.
During the first year the TA will be
sharply restricted in scope to:
Focus primarily on existing coal
technologies and secondarily on other fossil
fuel technologies;
Focus on the power plant portion of the
fuel cycle;
. In terms of environmental impacts, focus
on air pollutants and, more specifically, on long
distance transport and atmospheric chemistry of
fine particul ates ;
. Generally confine air impact analysis to
defining exposure of populations to pollutants
without defining health effects or aesthetic or
economi c damages.
The Electric Utility TA is supported at a
level of $1 million over three years, with
additional support possible from the Supplementary
Studies program.
3. A Technology Assessment of the Develop-
ment of Large Scale Energy Facilities
in the Ohio River Basin
The FY 76 appropriation bill contained a
rider requiring the Office of Research and
Development to conduct a study of the Lower
Ohio River Basin, to "be comprehensive in scope,
investigating the impacts from air, water and
solid residues on the natural environment and
residents on the region" which might result from
an increasing concentration of power plants in the
Ohio River Basin. The Integrated Assessment
program plans to conduct this study as a Technology
Assessment. The scope will be broadened to include
development of botlv power plant and coal-based
synthetic fuel plants in the Basin in Indiana,
Illinois, Kentucky and Ohio. Major focus will be
on an in-depth examination of the impacts of
energy development on the region, along with
analysis of mechanisms to mitigate the adverse
impacts and shape development along desirable
lines. Additional attention will be paid to
extra-regional concerns-for instance, to the role
of Basin development in meeting national energy
requirements, and to the question of long distance
transport of sulfates.
The study is currently in the planning stage.
The IA program has engaged the Program of Policy
Studies in Science and Technology at George
Washington University to aid in the planning
necessary to initiate the study; this work is
being carried out by Drs. Jerry Delli Priscoli
and Vary T. Coates of the PSS&T Program in
cooperation with the OEMI staff.
4. Strategic Environmental Assessment System
(SEAS)
SEAS is a system of interdependent models
designed to forecast the economic, environmental
and energy consequences of alternative Federal
environmental policies under varying assumptions
about the future. The core of SEAS is an input/
-------
332
output model of the United States economy
(INFORUM) which models the interactions between
different economic sectors.
SEAS is capable of developing estimates to
1985 of:
a. economic projections in terms of
physical output for 350 industries and processes;
b. pollution control costs for 500 control
technologies;
c. projections of environmental residuals
and energy use for each of 350 industries.
Past SEAS applications include:
a. generation of Cost of Clean Environment
reports by EPA;
b. analysis of Effluent Guidelines by
National Council on Water Quality;
OTA.
c. other applications by EPA, BLM, NIH,
A detailed description of SEAS is available in
reference 8.
SEAS represents a potentially important tool
for integrated assessment and is thus being
maintained and developed further under the
Integrated Assessment program. For instance,
SEAS offers the potential to measure the
national impacts of new energy development to
complement the focus on in-region impact of the
regional TA's (such as the Western Energy TA).
This type of measurement is crucial if Federal
decision-makers are to take into account all of
the potential impacts of development alternatives.
The present SEAS program includes the
followi ng:
a. Data Maintenance continuously updating
SEAS.data bases using the results of new studies,
surveys and analysis.
b. Applications using SEAS in support of
the Technology Assessments or other Agency
requirements.
c. Model Additions and Improvements
improving the capabilities of SEAS to deal more
effectively with energy-related issues.
Work currently in progress to improve SEAS
includes the development of additional capability
to predict energy demand in the transportation,
residential and commercial, and industrial _sectors.
For instance, a new transportation model will
forecast activity (VMT, or vehicle miles traveled),
emissions and energy demand, with feedbacks to the
input/output model to account for changes in
automobile mix and transportation efficiency.
Another important part of current work is the
integration into SEAS of the Brookhaven National
Laboratory's ESNS energy supply model. Addition
of ESNS will allow the study of new energy
sources including coal gasification and
liquefaction, oil shale, off-shore oil drilling,
and geothermal and solar energy.
SEAS work for the IA program is currently
supported at a level of $150,000 per year, with
additional funds potentially available for
applications.
5. Pass-Through Program
The IA program has cooperative agreements
with four Federal agencies to have them conduct
studies designed to meet program objectives.
Since these studies are described in detail in
the complementary papers of this session, they
will merely be listed here and their FY 76 (EPA)
funding levels specified.
a. Economic Research Service, U.S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture - "Estimation of Economic,
Social and Cultural Consequences of Coal and Oil
Shale Development" $396,000.
b. Tennessee Valley Authority -
(1) "Develop Economic Projection Modeling
Capability Necessary to Drive Modular Energy and
Environmental System Planning Models at a Multi-
county (Economic Area) Level" $54,000.
(2) "Electric Power System Residual
Output Model" $53,000.
(3) "Develop and Demonstrate Applications
of Computer Graphics to Site-Specific and Regional
Integrated Environmental Assessment of Mixed
Nuclear, Coal-based, and Hydroelectric Energy
Systems" $131,000.
c. Energy Research and Development
Administration -
(1) "Develop a Methodology for Cost/Risk/
Benefit Tradeoff Analysis of Nuclear, Oil Shale,
Geothermal, and Coal Use for Power Production in
the Western States" $115,000.
(2) "Coordinate National Design for
Environmental R&D Information System" $35,000.
-------
333
d. Housing and Urban Development -
"Determine the Energy, Economic and Social
Impacts of Energy Conservation for the
Residential Sector: For Characteristic
Buildings in 10 Geographical Areas"
$92,000.
INTERAGENCY PARTICIPATION
As noted above, a portion of the Integrated
Assessment program is being performed by other
Federal agencies with funds provided by EPA. In
addition, interested agencies of both Federal
and State governments, as well as business and
environmental groups and other organizations,
have been asked to participate in the Technology
Assessment activities through the mechanism of
Sector Groups (established by OEMI to coordinate,
evaluate, and prioritize research in well-defined
areas of energy activity). Members of the Sector
Group are briefed on TA activities and are asked
to evaluate Work Plans and other project outputs.
Finally, cooperative arrangements are being
worked out, on an ad-hoc basis, for coordination
between IA projects and relevant projects being
conducted by other Federal agencies. For example,
arrangements are being formulated with the
Council on Environmental Quality to have a data
exchange and analysis of equivalent scenarios
between the Western Energy TA and the Council's
Phase III Western Regional Energy Development
Study.
CONCLUSIONS
Although the Integrated Assessment program
is in its infancy, the two Technology Assessments
are well enough along to have surfaced several
important issues for the program. First of all,
the TA's tend to deal with issues that go well
beyond the traditional interests of the
Environmental Protection Agency. Thus,
coordination with interested Federal agencies
and other entities is vital not only for
information exchange purposes but also to
prevent questions of the "propriety" of the
research from hindering its progress. It has
also become clear that the objective of
incorporating social and economic concerns
into the decision-making process is extremely
ambitious. Defining useful but realistic
analytical boundaries is clearly one of the
most crucial - if not the_ most crucial -
problems facing the program. The danger here
is that these boundaries may be set so wide that
the level of analysis will become too shallow to
be credible.
REFERENCES
1. The Nation's Energy Future, A Report to the
President of the United States, 1 December
1973, submitted by Dr. Dixy Lee Ray,
Chairman, U.S. Atomic Energy Commission.
2. Report to the Interaqency Work Group on
Health and Environmental Effects of Energy
Use, November, 1974, Preoared for the Office
of Management and Budget; Council on Environ-
mental Quality, Executive Office of the
President.
3. Coates, Joseph F. , "Technology Assessments:
The Benefits...the Costs...the Consequences",
The Futurist; December, 1971.
4. Arnstein, Sherry R., and Alexander N.
Christakis (1975) Perspectives on Technology
Assessment, based on a workshop sponsored by
the Academy for Contemporary Problems and the
National Science Foundation. Columbus, Ohio:
Academy for Contemporary Problems.
5. Coates, Joseoh F. (1974) "Technology Assess-
ment", in McGraw-Hill Yearbook Science and
Technology.
6. Coates, Vary T. (1972) Technology and Public
Policy: The Process of Technology Assessment
in the Federal Government?Washington:
George Washington University, Program of
Policy Studies in Science and Technology,
2 vols.
7. Jones, Martin V. (1973) A Comparative State-
of-the-Art Review of Selected U.S. Technology
Assessment Studies , The Mitre Corporation,
M73-62.
8. Strategic Environmental Assessment System
(Draft), U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, December 16, 1975. Can be obtained
from Technical Information Division, Office
of Research and Develooment, EPA, Washington,
D.C. 20460.
-------
334
RESEARCH PROGRAM ON THE ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL
CONSEQUENCES
OF COAL AND OIL SHALE DEVELOPMENT
John R. Schaub
Joseph R. Barse
Lloyd D. Bender
Economic Research Service, USDA
Washington, D.C.
INTRODUCTION
The U.S. Department of Agriculture is conduct-
ing research and informational programs which
address many issues concerning expanded coal and
oil shale development. These programs are the re-
sponsibility of several departmental agencies and
concern the reclaiming of mined and orphaned lands,
developing and propagating plant species for these
lands, conducting soil surveys, and assessing
social and economic consequences of coal and oil
shale development. To a significant extent, these
programs, which are being coordinated within the
Department, are made possible by transfer funds
from EPA. The Economic Research Service is respon-
sible for dealing with the socio-economic implica-
tions of coal and oil shale development. This
research contributes to the EPA Integrated Assess-
ment Program.
When EPA was planning its energy research pro-
gram in 1974, interdepartmental task forces were
organized to determine critical informational and
analytical needs and to identify expertise that
could effectively meet these needs. We are pleased
the task force recognized the need for an integra-
ted assessment of various energy development activ-
ities. These assessments are critical to individ-
uals and policy makers at all levels of government
--local, state, and federal.
The Economic Research Service has a responsi-
bility for developing information on problems and
issues affecting supplies of food and fiber and for
evaluating the effect of various agricultural and
rural policies and programs as they relate to the
use of natural resources, agricultural production
and productivity, and the social and economic vi-
tality of rural communities. The expertise requir-
ed to assess the socio-economic impacts of coal and
oil shale development closely parallels the exper-
tise developed in the ERS ongoing program. EPA
recognized this capability and provided funds for
ERS.
SCOPE OF PROJECT
ERS planned and initiated a research program
that takes into account many of the socio-economic
impacts and implications of coal and oil shale
development.
The research proceeds toward 12 objectives.
Completion dates for portions of the work range
from 1976 to 1981. Initially, work focuses on the
impact of coal and oil shale development in the
Western States. Later in the project, Interior and
Eastern States will be brought into the analysis.
The 12 objectives follow:
1. Develop regional reports on current land and
water use and the agricultural economic implications
for future resource use, resource competition and
environmental quality'resulting from alternative
levels of coal and oil shale development and related
activities. These reports will draw primarily upon
existing information for major coal and oil shale
areas.
2. Estimate the impact of energy development in
the Northern Great Plains on employment, income and
population of rural communities. Methods will be
developed and tested to estimate and analyze changes
in population, income, direct and secondary employ-
ment which result from additional mining and relat-
ed activities. These methods are to be applicable
to the assessment of impacts on communities in other
regions.
3. Assess the impact of energy development in the
Northern Great Plains on local government finances
and services, including state severance taxes and
other financial, instruments, in terms of revenue
potential. Analyze the interrelationships of local
government expenditures to employment, population,
income, age structure and other socio-economic
variables.
4. For selected sites, evaluate reclamation costs
for alternative technologies and uses of reclaimed
land.
5. Develop an analytical system to evaluate
interregional economic implications and trade-offs
for agricultural and rural areas resulting from
coal development.
6. Evaluate the economic effects of various
levels and types of energy development, processing,
and transportation on the demand for water and the
economic life of aquifers. Develop implications
for interregional transfers of water, and evaluate
site and off-site effects of increased water demand
on agricultural industries, environmental quality,
and rural resource use.
7. Determine the effect of institutions, includ-
ing water, mining and reclamation laws, on mining
potential, incidence of cost and equity.
8. Develop methodology to integrate secondary
economic impacts of energy development on employ-
ment, population growth and income (item 2) with
governmental finance and services (item 3)
-------
resulting from energy development in the Northern
Great Plains and obtain analytical results.
9- Revise and update regional reports using data,
information and research results not available at
initiation of the project. Included would be
recently completed work on reclamation, land clas-
sification, soil mapping, and pollution discharges
of various activities. Also, to the extent devel-
opment has taken place, the socio-economic and
environmental impacts associated with the develop-
ment would be taken into account.
10. Restructure the interregional analytical system
and revise estimates of regional and interregional
economic impacts on resource competition, resource
use and environmental quality using output from
item 9.
11. Develop information on and construct measures
of levels and perceptions of environmental quality,
including aesthetic, recreational, visual and other
desires related to socio-economic benefits and costs
associated with mining, transportation, and process-
ing.
12. Interrelate, the interregional analytical system
(item 10) with secondary socio-economic and govern-
mental impacts (item 8). The most recent technical
information on reclamation and revegetation as well
as measures of environmental perception and environ-
mental quality (item 11) will be incorporated.
METHODOLOGY
Much has already been done to assess certain
impacts of intensified energy development in the
U.S. Some of this assessment is based on alterna-
tive scenarios of energy resource development over
periods of time ranging to 2000 and beyond.
However, existing assessments or models tend
to be either highly aggregative or limited to one
or several specific sites. By contrast, our efforts
will combine local and aggregative approaches, mov-
ing back and forth from assessing local to regional
impacts to interregional trade-offs in the analysis.
Many different kinds of local and aggregate impacts
on land, water, agriculture, employment, incomes,
public budget and government services will be join-
ed into one integrated assessment of the effects of
energy extraction, transportation and processing. A
central concept is that of homogeneous (or approxi-
mately homogeneous) producing areas (HPA's) as the
smallest geographical units in the analysis. These
will be the units for local analysis. These areas
are used for organizing, presenting, and working
with the body of data through which energy develop-
ment impacts are to be expressed. Data for these
HPA's will be the building blocks for the assess-
ment.
Analytical systems will employ linear, or if
335
appropriate, nonlinear programming to rationalize
future or alternative allocation of extractive,
reclamation, transportation and energy processing
activities among HPA's and regions in accord with
appropriate constraints and objective functions. In
the future, input-output analysis may be warranted.
Impact assessments will be made on only a piecemeal
or regional basis during the model building phases
of work, but as the model building progresses, both
intra and interregional trade-offs will be evaluated.
As now planned the interregional analytical
system will evaluate the cost of meeting alternative
coal demands (without reallocating present output)
subject to several constraints. About 20 demand
points will be isolated in the United States for
purposes of specifying transportation costs and es-
timating changes in quantity demanded. Each of the
homogeneous coal production areas will contain
specified quantities of each coal quality. Qualities
are based upon BTU and sulfur content. Constraints
on output are (a) capacity, (b) revenues, and (c)
water. Capacities limit the rate of exploitation,
while revenues and water are constraints on resource
availability. The exact form of the capacity con-
straint is not now defined. Probably the most bind-
ing of several possible constraints (such as machin-
ery availability, leasing, timing, or rail capacity)
will be imposed.
The model will account for land and labor use,
reduction of reserves, and environmental costs. At
a later time the cost of externalities could be in-
corporated explicitly but no plans have been made.
Present plans are to incorporate known and antici-
pated on-site facilities, then allow the model to
endogenously site new facilities. In either case,
this feature is 3-4 years away.
The basic philosophy of the modeling work is to
get a basic model operational, and then incorporate
additional features. Along the way, reports are
anticipated for each of the 12 objectives.
ORGANIZATION OF PROJECT
Two divisions within the Economic Research
Service are involved in the study of the impacts of
energy development. While research responsibility
is divided between these divisions, there are also
common research objectives which require collabora-
tion between divisions. Work of the two divisions
on this project matches their on-going research pro-
grams. The Economic Development Division is con-
cerned with population, employment, migration, in-
comes, and the provision of governmental services.
The Natural Resource Economics Division emphasizes
natural resource use and environmental considera-
tions. Administratively, the overall research
management is the responsibility of the Deputy
Administrator for Resource and Development Econom-
ics. A project manager has been assigned to facil-
itate research coordination and liaison requirements.
-------
336
Each division, in turn, has identified a research
leader to supervise the work within his division.
The research underway in ERS is being carried
out by our staff located in Colorado, Minnesota,
Montana, North Dakota and Washington, D.C. In the
future, we anticipate the location of research will
change to some extent when the eastern and interior
regions are brought into the analysis. We expect
that our major effort will be in-house, although we
have entered into some contracts or cooperative
agreements for various portions of the research and
expect to enter additional agreements at a later
date.
NEED FOR COORDINATION
In developing this project it is necessary for
ERS to cooperate and coordinate with others doing
related research. The research task is so broad and
complex that with the limited funds available dupli-
cation of efforts must be avoided. This is espe-
cially important with respect to developing the
basic data needed for analyses. Additionally, it is
important to assure, to the extent possible, that
the research is additive and complementary.
Our staff has established contact with various
individuals and institutions working on energy-
environmental research. EPA has a primary responsi-
bility for coordination and has worked with us on
this important activity. However, we realize our
efforts can be further coordinated and intensified.
This symposium offers an ideal opportunity to move
towards better coordination and cooperation. We
welcome our involvement in this symposium.
-------
337
Integrated Assessment
H. R. Mickey and M.'C. Babb
Tennessee Valley Authority
Chattanooga, Tennessee
INTRODUCTION
The energy crisis has reemphasized the impor-
tance of electric power in maintaining a vigorous
economy. But the quality of the environment must
be protected, and extensive planning and assessment
is necessary before power generating capabilities
can be expanded in a responsible manner. To meet
these objectives, planning and impact assessment
activities have intensified to the point that there
is significant, costly delay between the time that
need is first identified for a power generating
facility and the time the facility actually becomes
operational. For the typical nuclear plant this
period is about ten years. Much of this time is
required for iterative planning and environmental
impact analysis. Procedures for expediting these
activities and for improving their reliability are
essential in assuring adequate electrical power in a
cost effective, timely manner with minimal adverse
environmental effects.
When new generating capacity is delayed, the
only alternative rapidly available is the use
of combustion turbines. The cost per delivered kilo-
watthour for these oil-fired turbines is more than
thirty times that of hydroelectric power and seven
times the current cost for nuclear power, at current
fuel and operating costs.
The Tennessee Valley Authority's EPA-funded
Integrated Assessment program shows promise of evolv-
ing into a system which will speed the planning and
impact assessment of existing and proposed power
generating facilities. Integration of these activ-
ities consists of (1) improving lines of communica-
tions between planning, engineering design, and
impact assessment workers; (2) developing a unified
data base containing information for use by a variety
of planning and impact assessment activities; and (3)
using more efficient techniques for data display,
analysis, and management decision making.
For possible use in the exchange of information
or coordination, the names of principal investigators,
research investigators, and responsible administra-
tors are included after the title of each task.
DISCUSSION
TVA's Integrated Assessment research is divided
into three specific tasks, which will improve the
methodology for projecting energy demand, provide a
residuals model to improve total power system plan-
ning, and develop computer graphics applications to
speed and improve the quality of environmental impact
analysis of alternatives.
1. Develop an Economic Projection Modeling Capa-
bility Necessary to Drive Energy System Planning
and Environmental Impact Assessment Models--
H. Hinote
For several years, TVA has been developing an
economic model for the TVA region. Systems simula-
tion (based essentially upon the techniques of Jay
Forrester in Urban Dynamics and H. R. Hamilton, et
al, in Systems Simulation for Regional Analysis) was
selected as having the most potential for fulfilling
TVA's need for a tool to support the planning of
additions to the power generating and distribution
system, development of an improved water resources
program, and the evaluation of socioeconomic impacts
of such activities. The model was designed to pro-
vide: (1) long-term projections of such factors as
population, employment, labor force, and migration
utilizing alternative assumptions about components
of the demographic and economic sectors, and (2)
impact and sensitivity analysis to give additional
information about the questions of "what can be
expected if" certain basic assumptions change (e.g.,
birth rates, growth rate of certain industries,
accessibility to markets, etc.). The basic model
consists of a demographic sector, divided into 14
racial and age groups, and an employment sector,
divided into 6 manufacturing and 5 nonmanufacturing
categories with interactions and feedback loops
between them. Projections using this model apply to
the 80,000-square-mile TVA power service area, but
the model is being designed to be used for any
homogeneous economic area for which sufficient data
can be accumulated. By early 1975, TVA had
this model installed on its computer system; however,
to make the model an operational tool for use in
driving modular energy and environmental models,
additional work was required.
The objective of the current work is to expand
TVA's existing Regional Economic Simulation Model
for use in (1) assessing an area's sensitivity to
various national parameters—e.g., national employ-
ment growth rates, zero population birth rates, (2)
evaluating the impacts on the population, labor
force, employment, etc. at a multicounty level of an
incremental expansion to the energy generating sys-
tem, and (3) providing the macroeconomic data base
required for site specific analyses. The expanded
model would, therefore, provide (1) the basic demo-
graphic and economic projections necessary, at both
a regional and subregional level, to derive projected
energy load forecasts and socioeconomic impacts on
the socioeconomic sector; (2) alternative projections,
in relatively short periods and low costs, necessary
to better evaluate alternative energy sources and
expansion strategies; and (3) the framework for
improved socioeconomic analysis of specific sites.
During the past six months the following prog-
ress has been made:
1. A reexamination of the migration function
in the current model was completed by a
-------
338
consultant from Northern Illinois Univer-
sity. The conclusions were: (1) the equa-
tions to estimate the gross flows disaggre-
gated by age, sex, and race are to be
preferred for modeling use; (2) however,
incorporating these equations in the program
would require major restructuring of the
model; and (3) at the present time not
enough is known about gross migration flows
and their determining factors to adequately
restructure the model. Based on these con-
clusions, the current method for projecting
net migration is being reexamined to evalu-
ate the feasibility of incorporating addi-
tional social and economic parameters
affecting that component of the model. Cur-
rently, we are investigating ways for
improving the net migration estimating
equations.
2. The labor force participation function was
reestimated based on data for southeastern
labor markets and incorporating 1970 census
data. The reestimated function has been
incorporated into the model.
3. A household estimating routine was incor-
porated in the model. However, additional
research has been found necessary to pro-
ject the number of persons per household
after 1980.
4. A detailed examination of the existing manu-
facturing employment projection algorithm
was initiated. An alternative was formu-
lated and some of the necessary data have
been gathered for testing the design concept.
5. Input data for the model were assembled and
the computer program was run with the
improvements mentioned above for the 170-
county TVA power service area. The model
was verified for the period 1960-1974 and
the output is currently being used by the
Office of Power in developing its load
forecast for next year.
Research yet to be completed includes expanding
the existing model to provide projections of manu-
facturing employment at the 2-digit Standard Indus-
trial Classification (SIC) level. In addition,
extensive testing and verification must be accomp-
lished before the model will become operational,
2. Expansion of the Power_System Simulation Model
to Include the Prediction of Environmental
Residuals--Floyd E. Davis. Ray E. Hoskins'
The objective of this research is to develop the
methodology for predicting environmental residuals at
each power generating facility of TVA's system using
the output of TVA's power system simulation model.
This model is a part of the overall Power Program
Integrated Planning Model which is being developed by
TVA's Office of Power in an on-going effort to
complement and expedite current planning methods.
The power system simulation model predicts
future operational states of the power system over
a selected time span. Power system states are
characterized by plant capacity factors, mainten-
ance and refueling schedules, reliability indices
and pollution abatement techniques. Various types
of transformation equations that relate the opera-
tional state characteristics to environmental
residual generation are being investigated.
Residuals include air and water pollutants, solid
wastes, occupational health events, and impact-
producing inputs (e.g., the materials requirements
for a particular type of power generating unit).
Residuals prediction will serve as input into impact
assessment models and for evaluating operation and
expansion policies of the power system. Although
this model is rather complex, recent programming
modifications have greatly reduced its run time.
This development now makes long-range simulations
(10 years) practical.
Current research includes compiling a list of
residuals together with the units and time scales
which are required as input into impact analysis
schemes. Data requirements for various transforms
are being assembled. Nonlinear residual generation
is being quantified for several processes. Develop-
ment of transforms will be coupled with evaluation
of available data.
3. Develop and Demonstrate Applications of
Computer Graphics to Site Specific and
Regional Integrated Environmental Assessment
of Mixed Niiiclear, Coal-Based and Hydroelectric
Energy Systems—Malcolm C. Babb, H. R. Mickey
The objective of this research is to demon-
strate the use of interactive computer graphics as a
means of expediting and improving the environmental
impact and related cost analysis of existing and
proposed power generating facilities. It is impor-
tant to note that the emphasis will not be restric-
ted to the spatial display of environmental data,
that is, the mapping of distributions of environ-
mental variables, while this capability will be a
part of the project, we see the greatest benefit in
development of.interactive analysis capability to
relate impacts to control technology alternatives
more rapidly and exhaustively, especially for cases
where differences of tens of millions of dollars are
at stake at a given power plant site. Current
research efforts are directed toward three general
areas.
First, many mathematical models used for environ-
mental impact assessment produce complex and volumin-
ous output which is analyzed currently by cumbersome
and time consuming techniques. Interactive computer
graphics methods are being developed to expedite
analysis by computer simulation using mathematical
models, and to improve the management, display,
-------
339
synthesis and reporting data. Specific applications
planned include the development of analysis schemes
for managing the output of air and water quality
models as well as radiological dose calculations.
In these applications the numerical output of these
models is temporarily stored in a computer file.
Depending upon the'wishes of the investigator, por-
tions of this information can be selectively dis-
played on a cathode ray tube (CRT) in a variety of
scales and formats, or in conjunction with other
information that may be useful in the analysis. For
example, the data may be listed in tabular form
together with a graph of the data. A parameter may
be changed, and a new graph produced as report-ready
hard copy in a matter of minutes. A more complex
display related to air pollution analysis might be a
plot of concentration isopleths for a selected pol-
lutant overlayed on a map of topography and popula-
tion distribution. The investigator can also select
from a variety of analysis routines such as statis-
tical programs which compare model-predicted results
with actual field data, or display the results of
statistical tests. Where possible the predictions
made by these models will be related to costs of
control technology. For example, these control
alternatives may hinge on environmental impact and
can involve differences of $30 million for cooling
systems alone at a single plant.
This research has already revealed the need to
develop analysis schemes which can be carried out by
a person with only a limited knowledge of computer
programming. Interactive programs are designed to
free the investigator from data handling, processing
and display technicalities and enable him to concen-
trate upon information synthesis. This is exactly
the same approach already well established in engi-
neering design and architecture called "CAD," or
computer-assisted design.
A second area of research concerns the develop-
ment of a computer-oriented geographical information
system. Much of the data used for power plant siting
and impact assessment can be referenced to geographi-
cal location. Currently there is no unified system
for efficiently managing this information so as to
make it readily available to all users. The state-
of-the-art is under review, with recommendations to
be made for an approach TVA should adopt which will
be most sensible, in light of other developing sys-
tems and TVA needs. The geographical information
system will provide a uniform basis for storing and
manipulating a variety of engineering, socioeconomic,
land-use, demographic, and environmental data that
are used for power plant siting and design studies
and impact assessment. In fact, this may make possi-
ble improved iteration between these planning
elements—a laudable goal.
The user of this system will be able to display
geographically referenced information at a variety
of scales and in formats which are either directly
compatible for analysis (maps, overlays, etc.) or
which can be transformed to the required format with
minimal effort. Included in these data manipula-
tions are a variety of programs which can expedite
either horizontal or vertical spatial analysis of
the data. The results of a vertical spatial
analysis typically are maps displaying multiple
variables in a given area. Horizontal spatial
analysis routines generate maps showing, for
selected variables, relationships between adjacent
geographical locations.
The geographical information system will also
allow the reduction of data with a variety of
formats and from many sources to a common basis
compatible for entry into storage files. Computer
graphic techniques will expedite data entry, cor-
rection, display, and analysis.
Another area being explored for possible
application of computer graphics is socioeconomic
impact analysis. A state-of-the-art review will
survey current techniques for socioeconomic impact
assessment of proposed power generating facilities,
including TVA's. Data requirements are being
identified with a view to merging with a geographi-
cal information system. Socioeconomic data display
and analysis schemes that will be accelerated by
use of computer graphics have been identified.
SUMMARY
Integrated assessment research is planned for
five years. The first year's efforts have been
concerned with program integration and detailed
planning of identified tasks. During the second
year, implementation of the geographical informa-
tion system will begin. Regional siting methods
are planned for demonstration, and a multicounty
region surrounding a potential power plant site
will probably be selected for demonstration pur-
poses. The techniques developed will then be used
to demonstrate the value of integrated environ-
mental assessment in power system planning, environ-
mental impact and cost analysis, and management
decision-making.
-------
340
DISCUSSIONS TO INTEGRATED ASSESSMENT
Comment from the Floor: Indicated that a book by Wilson Clark, "Energy for Survival - An Alternative
to Extinction," is a book mentioned in the February issue of the Energy Reporter. Senator Michael Bell
Iso puts out an excellent energy newsletter. Speaker also emphasized the need to do more.
Comment from the Floor by EPA: As mentioned before, this program is in its infancy so there is not
a complete program at this time that spans all energy systems in all geographic regions. Solar energy
will certainly be one of the energy systems addressed.
Question: Several studies are being done in terms of the impacts on communities. Will any of these
studies include land use controls to make sure there aren't additional energy impacts because of bad land
use and does it also include the development of new institutional structures to try to eliminate energy
uses for bad institutional structures?
Panel Response: That is a difficult question to respond to. Certainly land use control could be
one of the alternatives to be looked at. In the planned progress, the agency is planning to look at
institutions which can use land use laws, water laws, mining laws, reclamation laws, as they might per-
tain in terms of either promoting development or preventing development from taking place. As far as
this phase of the program is concerned, EPA does have some research going on and is attempting to develop
tools for doing the type of mining that was mentioned in association with some of the environmental
planning which Congress mandates our agency and on the states.
The technology assessment, focusing on the West, will certainly look at that kind of thing. The
project manager for that project is a political scientist. He certainly will focus on land use and
institutional problems.
Question: It was noticed that in the current development of the SEAS system, one of the things that
is to be obtained from the SEAS system is this optimum ability that would influence acceptability. To
that point, are ERDA and EPA talking of developing or using the SEAS system for decision making, or is it
envisioned to be used for decision making jointly?
Panel Response: Yes, with regard to the development systems, there is a shared data base between
the SEAS system on the one hand and the work at Brookhaven National Laboratory. These projects are
being brought closer together. However, these models are only in the development stage, and it's prob-
ably some time before they can be used extensively in decision making.
4U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1976 6Z6-989/951 1-3
------- |