Office of
Research and
Development
Energy,
Minerals and
Industry
EPA600-7-77-032
APRIL 1977
Interagency
Energy/Environment
R&D Program-
Status Report III
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THE ENERGY/ENVIRONMENT
R&D DECISION SERIES
This volume is a part of the Energy/Environment R&D Decision Series. The series presents the
key issues and findings of the 17-agency Federal Interagency Energy/Environment Research and
Development Program in a format conducive to efficient information transfer. The volumes are of
three types: summaries—short synopses of larger research reports; issue papers—concise discus-
sions of major energy/environment technical issues; and executive reports—in-depth discussions
of an entire programmatic or technical area.
The Interagency Program was inaugurated in fiscal year 1975. Planned and coordinated by the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), research projects supported by the program range from
the analysis of health and environmental effects of energy systems to the development of environ-
mental control technologies. The works in this series will reflect the full range of program concerns.
The Decision Series is produced for both energy/environment decision-makers and the inter-
ested public. If you have any comments or questions please write to Series Editor Richard Laska,
Office of Energy, Minerals and Industry, RD-681, U.S. EPA, Washington, D.C. 20460 or call
(202) 755-4857. Extra copies are available on request.
CREDITS
Text Steve Stryker, Bruce Truett, and Bob Spewak
Graphic Design Jane Andrle
Photography Steve Gage, Photographers from the
EPA Documerica Program
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Federal Interagency
Energy/Environment
R&D Program-
Status Report III
United States Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Research and Development
Office of Energy, Minerals and Industry
April 1977
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
OVERVIEW 1
INTRODUCTION 3
Purpose
Program History
Program Structure and Operation
Program Summary
PROCESSES AND EFFECTS PROGRAM 15
Characterization, Measurement, Monitoring
Environmental Transport Processes
Health Effects
Ecological Effects
Integrated Assessment
ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY PROGRAM 3 5
Energy Resouce Extraction
Physical/Chemical Coal Cleaning
Direct Combustion
Flue Gas Cleaning
Synthetic Fuels
Nuclear Waste Control
Thermal Control
Improved Efficiency
Advanced Energy Systems
GLOSSARY 57
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Overview
In its effort to develop domestic energy resources, the Nation can ill afford a repetition of the
widespread environmental damage which often accompanied energy extraction and utilization oper-
ations in the past. These impacts range from scarred terrain and acidic or saline drainage at the
initial extraction site, to the release of atmospheric pollutants as fuels are burned in power plants
and automobile engines. Even greater environmental damage than in the past could easily occur
under a crash program of energy development unless accompanied by sound environmental protec-
tion measures.
To insure that major environmental problems re-
lated to energy resource development were anticipated
and evaluated, two Federal Interagency Task Forces
representing 23 departments and agencies were con-
vened in 1973-74, during the planning phase of the
Federal energy development programs. These Task
Forces developed a program structure for a Federal
interagency research and development effort that
would assess potential environmental effects of accel-
erated energy development, and would develop pol-
lution control measures to hold those environmental
impacts within acceptable limits. In addition to the
program structure, the Task Forces also defined
specific goals and recommendations for the Inter-
agency Energy/Environmental R&D Program which
were incorporated into the December, 1973, report on
the Ray Committee (The Nation's Energy Future) and
which served as a basis for a special Congressional
appropriation for environmental R&D related to
energy development.
The Interagency Energy/Environment R&D Pro-
gram is administered and coordinated by EPA's Office
of Energy, Minerals, and Industry (OEMI). Research
and development activities under this program are per-
formed by more than a dozen Federal agencies (prin-
cipally ERDA, TVA, and HEW) in addition to EPA.
The overall effort is subdivided into two major parts:
• R&D on effects of pollutants, including health
effects, ecological effects, pollutant transport
(dissemination) and fate, and integrated assess-
ment of all types of effects. This effort is termed
the Processes and Effects Program.
• R&D on technological measures for controlling
the release of pollutants to the environment, in-
cluding changes within an energy extraction, con-
version or utilization process as well as end-of-
system control measures. This effort is called the
Control Technology Program.
This report describes the Interagency Energy/
Environment R&D Program. It does not pretend to
address all Federally sponsored research in energy/
environment matters; only that directly supported by
EPA Interagency Program funding. The report is organ-
ized into three chapters.
• Chapter 1 presents the philosophy of the Inter-
agency Energy/Environment R&D Program, out-
lines its history and discusses EPA/OEMI's role as
program coordinator, outlines the five-step
process for defining specific R&D projects to be
performed by each participating agency, and
summarizes the program budgets for fiscal years
1975, 1976 and 1977.
• Chapter 2 describes the processes and effects pro-
gram in detail, outlines individual research
projects, presents details of FY 76 funding and
compares the FY 75 and FY 76 budgets.
• Chapter 3 provides a similar detailed description
of the control technology program.
Following the three chapters is a glossary of tech-
nical terms, compiled in one location to avoid the
necessity of defining technical terms wherever they
occur in the text.
For more information on any of the specific
projects or program areas cited in this report, the read-
er should obtain a copy of Who's Who in the Inter-
agency Energy/Environment R&D Program. That
booklet is organized in parallel with this report, and
contains the names and telephone numbers of the in-
dividuals who are responsible for each particular
program.
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Introduction
Purpose
As the nation strives to reduce its dependence on foreign sources of energy, increased attention
must be given the environmental problems arising from domestic energy resource development. On
the Federal level, this need has been recognized by the expansion of energy-related environmental
research and development programs and capabilities which are located in a number of departments
and agencies.
Centralized coordination of a number of these ex-
panded efforts is provided via the Federal Interagency
Energy/Environment Research and Development Pro-
gram administered by EPA's Office of Energy, Min-
erals, and Industry (OEMI). The primary purpose of
the Interagency Program is to assure that our national
energy goals are matched with an effective R&D pro-
gram in that critical area where energy needs and
environmental protection goals overlap.
Since its establishment in 1970, the Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) has been involved in energy-
related environmental research efforts, including the
development of pollution control technology, as
necessary to meet its statutory responsibilities. The
Agency has well established programs on flue gas clean-
ing technology, energy recovery from municipal waste,
fluidized bed combustion of oil, physical and chemical
coal cleaning, health and ecological effects of energy-
related pollutants, and pollutant measurement and
monitoring techniques.
The recent national policy emphasis on develop-
ment of domestic energy supplies stimulated the for-
mation, by EPA, in late 1974, of an Office of Energy
Research (OER) within the Office of Research and
Development (ORD). Subsequently, reorganization of
ORD in June of 1975 combined industrial and mineral
extraction pollution control research with energy-
related environmental research in a new Office of
Energy, Minerals, and Industry (OEMI).
Coordination and Clean Energy
OEMI pursues two basic purposes—to provide a focus for EPA's own environment/energy/
industry R&D efforts and to serve as the coordinator of the comprehensive Interagency Energy/
Environment R&D Program. The program's goals include environmental protection during every
phase of accelerated development and use of energy supplies, with particular emphasis on domestic
resources, as well as the development of cost-effective pollution control technologies for energy,
industry, and mineral extraction and processing systems.
The Interagency Program recognizes that continuity
is crucial in a successful R&D effort. Often, the "surge
effect" of accelerated R&D in response to a rapidly
emerging problem can lead to results of diminished
utility. Within the several agencies involved in the pro-
gram there lies a reservoir of expertise and experience
which could not be mobilized by any one agency. This
resource can, through the Interagency Program, be
used to conduct that portion of the program wherein
lies each organization's unique expertise.
OEMI's role as coordinator of the Interagency Pro-
gram reflects the fact that a sound environmental R&D
program must be conducted in parallel with the evolv-
ing energy development programs of the Energy
Research and Development Administration (ERDA).
ERDA's mission is to aggressively pursue new energy
sources and to expand existing sources using the best
technological, economic, and environmental means
available. Because of the pressure to develop new
energy sources and technologies, ERDA cannot be ex-
pected to focus as intensely on the environmental
aspects as it does on its primary energy development
responsibilities. EPA's primary mission is environ-
mental protection, and its objective in the energy area
is to enable ERDA's efforts to progress as rapidly as
possible while assuring that national environmental
goals are maintained.
Congress was cognizant of these two comple-
mentary roles when it enacted the Energy Reorgan-
ization Act of 1974, under which ERDA was estab-
lished. This Act calls on the directors of EPA and
ERDA to formulate interagency agreements to pro-
mote cooperative Federal Energy/Environment R&D
efforts. This diversity established by Congress helps to
ensure balanced, objective, and carefully weighed judg-
ments. Greater protection of the public interest result-
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4
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ing from such a balancing process should foster public
trust and increase confidence in national energy and
environmental policy decisions.
The philosophy of our program asserts that timing is
crucial in the overall relationship between energy and
environmental R&D. Through the 1970's and 1980's
use of domestic coal resources is expected to increase
dramatically. This will occur chiefly through direct
combustion of coal in power plant and industrial boil-
ers, but only if technologies to control emissions of
sulfur oxides and other pollutants are successfully
applied.
Anticipatory R&D
Thus, environmental R&D on near-term coal use is
focussed on EPA's continuing program to advance
environmentally acceptable ways to extract and utilize
coal. To the degree that these control technologies can
be implemented rapidly, there will be early environ-
mental, economic, and social benefits from such R&D
efforts. For this reason, funds are weighted heavily in
the FY 1975 and FY 1976 budgets towards facilitating
near-term coal use- development of flue gas desulfur-
ization systems (stack gas scrubbers) and coal-cleaning
techniques, analysis of environmental effects of coal
extraction, characterization and monitoring of result-
ant pollutants, determination of health effects of coal
conversion, and other related programs.
Another feature of the Interagency Program is anticipatory R&D. Many of the new energy
technologies will require attendant pollution control measures. Sufficient lead time is essential to
ensure that appropriate controls are available in advance—preferably when a new energy technology
is ready for initial demonstration.
In addition, basic information on pollutant char-
acterization, measurement, and effects on human
health and the environment should be established at an
early date to ensure full consideration of all relevant
factors in development decisions. Under the auspices of
the Interagency Program, EPA and ERDA are co-
operating in the environmental testing of several new
energy technologies.
Thus, the mid-term and long-term emphasis of the
program shifts toward anticipatory R&D. Overall en-
vironmental considerations have to be integrated into
the planning of energy technology development. A
scientifically valid knowledge of the health, ecological,
and welfare implications of an energy technology
ought to play a key role in the decision-making process
whereby that technology is implemented. Otherwise
we risk either unacceptable environmental damage or
costly retrofit of controls. At present a major part of
EPA's research is in support of its regulatory role
(scrubber development, for example). The anticipatory
research, emphasizing the prevention of environ-
mentally adverse effects, is in its early stages. It will
expand as the need for R&D to answer regulatory
needs diminishes. In this effort, EPA/OEMI will work
closely with ERDA and with the other participating
agencies as new energy sources are developed. The
rationale behind such a cooperative approach is clear-
it is far more cost-effective to provide adequate
environmental protection as a part of new technologies
than to retrofit controls in operational systems or to
clean up wastes once they have been discharged. The
nation will be best served if, through cooperative plan-
ning and programming, new environmentally com-
patible energy systems are ready when needed.
Program History
The Office of Energy, Minerals, and Industry has developed a program based upon the goals
stated in the report on The Nation's Energy Future (often referred to as the Ray Report), and upon
two interagency task force reports commissioned by the Office of Management and Budget and the
Council on Environmental Quality to recommend how Federal R&D funds in energy and environ-
ment could be allocated most effectively. The specific recommendations of the task forces form the
foundation for OEM's role and for the entire R&D program.
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The Ray Report
In the summer of 1973, the President directed the Chairperson of the Atomic Energy Commis-
sion to prepare a comprehensive and integrated national energy research and development plan. The
result, entitled The Nation's Energy Future, was completed in December 1973. Drawing upon the
efforts of 37 Federal departments and agencies as well as the private sector, it recommended a
five-year, $10 billion energy research and development program. Proposed funding for, and brief
descriptions of, the environmental control technology R&D required to exploit these resources were
incorporated into the report, which also recommended a supporting environmental effects research
program.
Fiscal Year 1975 Program Budget
The Ray Report helped shape the Federal budget requests for FY 1975. These requests contained
a substantial increase in R&D in the environmental aspects of this major national energy research
and development program. The Administration, through EPA's budget, requested $191 million in
FY 1975 for the Energy/Environment R&D Program. Congress authorized $134 million. The non-
EPA portion of the interagency program was approximately $53 million, or nearly 40 percent.
Fiscal Year 1976 Program Budget
For FY 1976, the Administration, again through EPA's budget, requested $112 million for the
Energy/Environmental R&D Program. Congress appropriated $100 million. The interagency portion
of the program is about $32 million. Part of the reduction was associated with direct appropriation
to ERDA of approximately $6 million of their Interagency Program allocation. Another part is
associated with the full funding, in FY 1975, by EPA of two large flue gas desulfurization
demonstrations.
Following the release of the Ray Report and initial
formulation of the FY 1975 budget, two interagency
task forces were established under the auspices of the
Council on Environmental Quality by the Office of
Management and Budget to examine ongoing Federal
research programs and to recommend allocations of
funds which would provide the most effective inte-
grated environment/energy R&D program. Their
reports covered two areas:
(1) Health and Environmental Effects of Energy
Use, and
(2) Environmental Control Technology for Energy
Systems
Issued in November 1974, the task force reports
were developed by representatives of more than a
dozen Federal agencies, departments, and laboratories,
all involved in energy-related environmental research.
One of the major purposes of the reports was to deter-
mine whether serious gaps existed in the overall Fed-
eral Energy/Environment R&D Program. By perform-
ing a cross-cut review of the entire program, it was
possible to identify such gaps, to determine areas
where adequate support was available for national
energy goals, and to locate target areas for funding via
the special energy appropriation to EPA. OEMI, in
implementing the Interagency Program based upon the
two task force reports, is in an advantageous position
to maintain a balanced and coordinated Federal
Environment/Energy R&D Program.
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Energy Resource Extraction (5.5%)
Physical/Chemical
Coal Cleaning (3.4%)
Flue Gas Cleaning (27.6%)
Control Technology
Program ($81 Million)
Direct Combustion (6.2%)
Synthetic Fuels (5.6%)
Characterization, Measurement
and Monitoring (8.7%)
1 Environmental Transport
/ Processes (3.5%)
. Health Effects (12.5%)
Processes and Effects
Program ($53 Million)
Ecological Effects (11.1%)
Integrated Assessment (3.5%)
\- Advanced Systems (1.7%)
Improved Efficiency (4.1%)
Nuclear Waste (3.9%)
Thermal Control (2.7%)
FY 1975 FUNDING
Energy Resource Extraction (6.1%)
Physical/Chemical
Coal Cleaning (4.3%)
Flue Gas
Cleaning (26.9%)-
Control Technology
Program ($55.8 Million)
Integrated Assessment (3.2%)
Ecological Effects (11.9%)
* Processes and Effects
Program ($44.2 Million)
Health Effects (13.6%)
Direct Combustion (7.1%)
Synthetic Fuels (5.4%)
Nuclear Waste (0.6%)
5.4%) /
Environmental Transport
Processes (5.0%)
Characterization, Measurement
and Monitoring (8.6%)
Advanced Systems (0.4%)
_ — jt
"T ' Improved Efficiency (5.1%)
Thermal Control (1.8%)
FY 1976 FUNDING
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Energy Resource Extraction (7.4%) Integrated Assessment (3.1%)
\i
Physical/Chemical
Coal Cleaning (4.7%)
Flue Gas
Cleaning (22.8%).
Control Technology
Program ($56 Million)
Nuclear Waste (0.0%)
Direct Combustion (8.3%)
Synthetic Fuels (7.2%)
Thermal Control (1.3%)
FY 1977 FUNDING
Ecological Effects (12.5%)
Health Effects (13.1%)
Processes and Effects
Program ($40 Million)
Environmental Transport
Processes (4.2%)
Characterization, Measurement
and Monitoring (8.6%)
Advanced Systems (1.0%)
Improved Efficiency (5.8%)
60
50
40
o 30
20
10
O U-
Fuel Type
FY 1975 FUNDING BY FUEL TYPE
($134 MILLION)
FY 1976 FUNDING BY FUEL TYPE
($100 MILLION)
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Task Force on Environmental Effects
This group reviewed current work and future research needs for health and environmental effects
which result from the following energy technologies: coal and synthetic fuels, natural gas and oil,
energy efficiency, oil shale, nuclear, solar, geothermal, and hydroelectric.
Ecological effects—the environmental effects of in-
creased energy development on fresh surface and
ground water, marine and estuarine, and atmospheric/
terrestrial ecosystems.
Integrated Assessment—The entire range of conse-
quences of alternative energy/environment policies,
including health, ecological, socio-economic, and wel-
fare impacts. Attention is directed toward identifying
environmentally and economically acceptable alter-
natives ... to assist in selection of 'optimum' policies
for attainment of environmental quality goals. The
report called for the initiation of assessments integrat-
ing information from the following areas:
environmental research,
social and welfare effects,
total environmental impact,
cosf/risk/benefit, and
implementation alternatives.
For an explanation of how these functional areas fit
into the overall planning structure, see the OEMI pro-
gram description in Chapter 2. The FY 1976 health
and environmental effects program, totalling $40-
million, follows essentially the same distribution pat-
tern as $53-million FY 1976 program. The FY 1977
program is set at $40-million.
Two criteria were required for areas selected for
study: (1) the research areas had to be energy-related
and (2) they had to take into account existing research
bases in the various agencies. In further identifying its
task, the group identified the research required at each
of the major stages of any energy cycle—extraction,
processing or conversion, and utilization. The following
areas were used to assess health and environmental in-
formation needs for each stage of each energy cycle.
Pollutant characterization, measurement and monitor-
ing—identification, measurement, and monitoring
instrumentation and methods.
Environmental transport processes—the transmission in
air, water, and soil of pollutants and heat emitted from
energy operations. The review traced these pollutants
from their source to their ultimate destination (fate) in
man and the environment, including any physical and
chemical transformations occurring during transport.
Health effects—the quantitative and qualitative effects
of energy-related agents in terms of the risks they pose
to human health, and health cost information to aid in
occupational and general standard setting for energy-
related hazardous substances.
Task Force on Control Technology
The task force report on Federal R&D Programs for environmental control technology recom-
mends where programs should be expanded, maintained, or revised. Because of the goal of increas-
ing the use of domestic energy resources, this task force's report concentrates on the following nine
programs.
Energy Resource Extraction—Measures to reduce the
environmental impacts of extracting coal, oil and gas,
and oil shale with special emphasis on Western surface
mining of coal and oil shale.
Coal Cleaning—Processes for chemical and physical
cleaning of coal to remove ash and sulfur prior to com-
bustion.
Flue Gas Cleaning—A major near-term priority item for
the Interagency Program is to complete demonstration
of the current generation of flue gas desulfurization
(FGD) systems and to advance the state of the art of
regenerable (producing a useful byproduct) FGD
systems. The report also recommended that processes
be developed for removal of fine participates, nitrogen
oxides, and hazardous materials. It also directed atten-
tion towards environmentally acceptable disposal tech-
niques for flue gas cleaning wastes.
Direct Combustion—Processes to develop high-effi-
ciency, low-pollutant combustion systems were review-
ed, with particular emphasis on fluidized bed com-
bustors.
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Synthetic Fuel—Coal gasification and liquefaction
technoligies appear to be promising, but little is now
known about emissions and residuals released to the
environment from such conversion process. The report
concluded that appropriate control technology will
have to be developed before commercial-scale oper-
ations can begin.
Nuclear Fuel Cycle—Work is needed on nuclear waste
control. The report focused on reduction of the envi-
ronmental impacts from processing and disposal of
waste at critical points in the nuclear fuel chain-
particularly mining and milling wastes.
Thermal Control—Disposal of waste heat from electric
power plants. Emphasis must be placed on improved
cooling devices, reduced use of rivers and lakes as heat
sinks for discarding thermal effluents, and utilization
of waste heat.
Improved Efficiency—Assessment of potential environ-
mental effects of the industrial process changes to
apply energy conservation, waste-as-fuel, and advanced
power systems.
Advanced Systems—Environmental studies on geo-
thermal and solar energy were reviewed, and future
research areas were discussed.
The task force recommended that highest priority
be given to R&D on flue gas cleaning and energy re-
source extraction since both processes can facilitate
increased near-term use of coal. Looking further into
the future, it stressed that high priority should also be
assigned to R&D on ways of using more coal and such
physical/chemical cleaning and fluidized bed com-
bustion. Because of the likelihood that successful com-
mercial development of synthetic fuels would guaran-
tee that most domestic coals could be used, the report
urged that attention be focused on environmental
problems in that area. Finally, research on potential
environmental problems arising from increased energy
conservation measures was identified as a priority area.
For the near term, however, more than 60 percent of
the control technology program funds are allocated for
coal-related studies.
Since the publication of the two task force reports
in November of 1974, the R&D program categories
used in those reports have become common nomen-
clature for the Interagency Program's research com-
munications. Not only are these terms of reference
used between agencies, but they have also been adopt-
ed for portions of internal planning and/or communica-
tions by several agencies. Details of EPA's program,
including accomplishments for FY 1976 and beyond,
both within EPA and in other Federal agencies receiv-
ing Interagency Program funds, are contained in
Chapter 3.
Program Structure and Operation
The Ray Report and the two interagency task force reports form the basis of the Interagency
Program. To implement the report's recommendations, OEMI has established a straightforward,
comprehensive plan to ensure that the entire range of energy/environment R&D is woven together
into a manageable framework.
A multidimensional matrix concept is employed to
classify program content and resources. This format,
depicted in Figure 1, provides both a means for clas-
sifying ongoing activities and a practical structure for
program planning. The structure allows easy identifica-
tion of the various elements of the program.
An example of how this planning process works is
shown in Figure 2 which illustrates typical environ-
mental research areas for each stage of the fuel cycle
for coal. Each component of the energy cycle—extrac-
tion of the resource, physical processing or chemical
conversion to get the resource into a more usable form,
and utilization or the actual controlled release of
energy as power for transmission and consumer end
use—calls for specific areas of environmental research.
Some of these typical areas are listed.
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MULTIFUEL AND/OR NON-FUEL SPECI F 1C
CONSERVATION
NUCLEAR
FUNCTIONAL
AREAS:
POLLUTANT
IDENTIFICATION
TRANSPORT
AND FATE
HEALTH
EFFECTS
ECOLOGICAL
EFFECTS
CONTROL
TECHNOLOGY
OIL SHALE
OIL AND GAS
COAL
ENERGY CYCLE STAGE:
EXTRACTION
PROCESSING
CONVERSION
UTILIZATION
INTEGRATED
TECHNOLOGY
ASSESSMENT
INTERAGENCY PROGRAM PLANNING STRUCTURE
OEMI'S Role
This planning approach is being used by OEMI in its role as coordinator of the Jnteragency
Energy/Environment R&D Program for EPA's laboratories and for other participating Federal
agencies and departments. OEMI, with input from the other participants, concentrates on strategic
planning, information assessment and transfer, and overall program balancing. Detailed program
execution and management is delegated to the field laboratories of EPA and to the other Federal
agencies.
When the strategic planning phase is completed,
OEMI's role becomes one of implementing and moni-
toring the program. The implementation phase is car-
ried out in the following manner:
Step 1: The first step is the identification of necessary
tasks. Prior to this, OEMI has reviewed existing, related
programs. This process requires extensive consultation
with field laboratories, Federal and private research
organizations, and other EPA offices.
Step 2: After a necessary task is identified, a short
description (an Objective Statement) is transmitted to
the appropriate EPA laboratory or other agency for
review in terms of that organizations current programs,
experience, and potential for contribution.
Step 3: The participating laboratory responds with a
concise description (Accomplishment Plan) of a plan
for accomplishing the task outlined in the Objective
Statement.
Step 4: Final review is conducted by OEMI head-
quarters staff, and the OEMI director authorizes ex-
penditure of funds.
Step 5: Upon receiving OEMI approval, the participat-
ing laboratory or agency then carries out the plan,
including the development of any extramural contracts
or grants. OEMI monitors the progress of the task via
semi-annual progress reports and periodic interagency
program reviews.
In its coordination role, OEMI has three objectives:
(1) to establish clear communication between OEMI
and the field research laboratories and/or implementing
agencies, (2) to provide a high degree of interaction
among all participants in a research program, and (3) to
eliminate unnecessary paperwork.
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Coal Fuel Cycle-
Typical Environmental Research Areas
EXTRACTION
PROCESSING OR
CONVERSION
UTILIZATION
END USE
UNDERGROUND
• Acid mine drainage
• Coal mining waste
treatment/disposal
SURFACE MINING
• Revegetation of
arid lands
• Disruption of aquifers
and natural drainage
contours
• Pollutant discharges
and effects
• Site selection
• Surface & ground
water monitoring
COAL CLEANING
COAL LIQUEFACTION
• Identification & treat-
ment of hazardous
pollutants
• Health effects of hazard-
ous pollutants
• Waste disposal and
reclamation
• Resource recovery
POWER PLANT
FLUIDIZED BED COMBUSTION
FLUE GAS CLEANING
Sludge disposal or use
Advanced processes (re-
generable systems)
Fly ash disposal
Health and ecological
effects of acid aerosols
& fine particulates
Measurement & monitor-
ing of sulfates
Control of fine particuta=
lates and hazardous
materials
Atmospheric chemistry &
transport (acid sulphate
aerosol formation)
Identify environ-
mental effects of
industrial energy
conservation
processes
HIGH-BTU GASIFICATION
• Identification & measurement
of hazardous discharges
• Waste treatment/disposal
• Resource recovery (char)
POWER PLANT
LOW-BTU GASIFICATION
• High temperature gas
clean up
• Identification & measurement
of hazardous discharges
• Waste treatment/disposal
• Resource recovery (char)
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Interagency Communication
To identify new priority research needs and provide a major forum for information exchange,
OEMI has established "sector groups" for broad program areas. Led by a member of OEMI's
technical staff, each group is comprised of EPA's research personnel, other EPA officials, and
representatives of other agencies involved in related research areas.
The groups meet periodically to ensure that the both the fine tuning of ongoing research and the con-
research needs in each problem area are adequately ceptualization and planning of new R&D efforts.
covered. To date, sector groups have been established Clearly, it is too early to assess the success of the
for three major categories—electric utilities, advanced planning structure. It was applied initially to the
fossil fuels, and Western energy resource development. $134-million FY 1975 Interagency Program, the
At the sector group meetings, participants present $100-million FY 1976 program and the $96-million
information on topical areas from their own unique FY 1977 program. Such a structure alone, of course,
perspectives. Sector group discussions highlight areas of cannot achieve the coordination necessary for effective
major concern, explore solutions to current and poten- implementation of the R&D program. The structure
tial problems, and identify gaps in ongoing research, may expedite a successful program, but continuing co-
potential areas of unnecessary duplication, and emerg- operation and communication between the participat-
ing areas of R&D opportunity. Information exchanged ing agencies and their laboratories is required to ensure
during these meetings is documented and is used in its success.
Program Summary
By using the same program planning process in FY 1975 and succeeding fiscal years, review is
simplified, and possible deficiencies in the program are more easily identified and resolved.
To date, OEMI has approved more than 300 accomplishment plans using the fundamental plan-
ning concepts discussed earlier in this report. To summarize, OEMI is:
• Working toward the major national goal of expanded use of domestic energy resources at
minimal dollar, social, and environmental costs.
- Adhering to the policy recommendations of the two Interagency Task Force reports on the
Federal Interagency Energy/Environment R&D Program.
• Testing and refining the planning structure to assure that it meets the objectives of continuity,
simplicity, logic, and effectiveness.
• Using a five-step implementation process designed to facilitate communication and co-
ordination.
• Emphasizing that energy/environment R&D required to enable use of domestic coal as quickly
and as cleanly as possible.
• Implementing a processes and effects program which also aims at facilitating the use of coal as
well as at energy conservation.
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Processes and Effects Program
The processes and effects program within the Federal Interagency Energy/Environment Research
and Development Program is designed to identify the mechanisms of movement within the environ-
ment and the effects on human, animal, and plant populations which are associated with energy
related activities. The goal of the program is to compile and evaluate information to support
decisions relative to the protection of natural biota, human health, welfare, and social goals.
The Office of Energy, Minerals, and Industry has
established a comprehensive processes and effects
research program. The FY 1976 research program is
funded by a $40.3 million budget (excluding monies
for program management) which represents more than
40 percent of the Interagency Energy/Environment
Program. For a breakdown of the funding distribution,
the program is divided into the functional areas of
health effects (32.1 percent), ecological effects (28.2
percent), characterization, measurement, and monitor-
ing (20.3 percent), environmental transport processes
(11.8 percent), and integrated assessment (7.6 per-
cent). Figure 5 shows the distribution of the actual
1975 and 1976 budgets and the planned 1977 budget.
Approximately 45 percent of the processes and effects
research activity occurs within EPA laboratories and
facilities. Most of the research projects relate to the
development of domestic coal resources. The research
program assesses the environmental effects of each
stage of an energy source's fuel cycle (extraction;
processing; transportation and conversion; and util-
ization).
The criteria for determining research priorities were
the:
• Potential magnitude and importance of human
health and environmental effects;
• Nature and potential significance of the develop-
ing technology;
• Expected rate of development of the technology.
The salient aspects of the processes and effects pro-
gram are described in the following sections.
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Process and Effects Funding by Interagency Category
Characterization, Measurement
and Monitoring (22.2%)
Environmental Transport
Processes (8.9%)
Health Effects (31.1
Integrated Assessment (8.9%)
Ecological Effects (28.1%)
Processes and Effects
Program ($53 Million)
FY 1975 FUNDING
Characterization, Measurement
and Monitoring (20.3%)
Environmental Transpor
Processes (11.8%)
Health Effects (32.1%)
Integrated Assessment (7.6%l
-Ecological Effects (28.2%)
Processes and Effects
Program ($44.2 Million)
FY 1976 FUNDING
Characterization, Measurement
and Monitoring (20.7%)
Integrated Assessment (7.5%)
Environmental Transpon
Processes (10.1%)
Health Effects (31.5%)
Ecological Effects (30.2%)
Processes and Effects
Program ($40 Million)
FY 1977 FUNDING
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Characterization, Measurement, Monitoring
One essential activity in the processes and effects program is the detection and measurement of
pollutants. Included in this activity is quality assurance to ensure accumulation of valid information
to provide a basis for energy/environment decision-making. The objectives of this research area are
to accelerate the development of new and improved sampling and analysis methods for energy-
related pollutants and to identify, measure, and monitor energy-related materials hazardous to the
environment and to humans.
Industrial processes and energy development tech-
nologies often involve the discharge of liquid, gaseous,
particulate, and solid wastes which are released to the
air, land, and water. An understanding of the magni-
tude and diversity of pollutants emanating from sites
of energy development requires an integrated, multi-
media, and multi-disciplinary monitoring approach. An
important example of such an integrative approach is
the multi-year air, land, and water quality monitoring
to establish baseline data in Western regions to support
EPA standards. EPA, in coordination with other Fed-
eral agencies has established monitoring/programs with-
in the Four Corners area of New Mexico, the Northern
Great Plains, and oil shale areas in Colorado, Wyoming,
and Utah.
Remote monitoring projects are designed to prove
the effectiveness of high altitude remote sensing and
photographic techniques for monitoring energy-related
activities and impacts. Information related to land-use
surface disruption, surface water, vegetation, and visi-
bility is obtained for areas undergoing coal mining and
oil shale development.
Groundwater monitoring projects determine the
presence and extent of groundwater contamination as a
result of coal strip-mining and oil shale extraction and
processing. Emphasis is on the accumulation of geo-
chemical and physical data to identify factors which
contribute to contamination, and to demonstrate the
effectiveness of groundwater monitoring.
The monitoring of solid wastes involves the analysis
of fly ash, sludge, and slag materials from energy-
related activities such as oil and oil shale processing,
coal mining and conversion. Toxic trace compounds
such as phenols, cyanides, nitrates and phosphates are
characterized, and monitoring procedures and instru-
ments are tested.
The characterization, measurement, and monitoring
program comprises 8.2 percent of the total funding for
the Interagency Energy/Environment R & D Program
for FY 1976 and 20.3 percent for the Processes and
Effects research program. Approximately 38 percent of
the research within this area occurs within EPA labora-
tories. The rest is planned and coordinated by EPA as
part of the Interagency Program, but is carried out by
the Energy Research and Development Administration
(ERDA), National Oceanic and Atmospheric Admin-
istration (NOAA), National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health (NIOSH), National Aeronautics and
Space Administration (NASA), U.S. Geological Survey
(USGS), and the National Bureau of Standards (NBS).
Most of the research activities within this program
relate to coal technology. Secondary emphasis is on the
development of oil and gas and oil shale" resources.
Several studies relate to nuclear, geothermal, and fuel
conservation technologies. Almost all studies relate to
either the acquisition of raw fuel materials or to the
actual release of energy from fuels for use as power.
The characterization, measurement, and monitoring
projects can be better described in more detail in terms
of four principal subcategories: multi-media, air, water,
and quality assurance.
Multi-media Monitoring
The extraction, processing, conversion, and use of fuels to produce energy also produces pollut-
ants which affect air, land and water quality. While in some cases pollutants are limited to a single
medium, there are many situations where pollution is multi-media and must be viewed in that light.
For example, in coal cleaning processes toxic substances may be blown into the air, discharged to
water, or accumulated as solid waste. To understand the full environmental impact, all three media
need to be monitored. Projects within this area involve identification, measurement and longterm
continuous sensing for background parameters for energy related pollutants. This category also
includes research studies designed to accelerate the development of new or improved methods of
sampling and analysis. The following are representative examples of projects in this area.
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Validate EPA's standards by establishing baseline air quality data
in the Western region encompassing the coal mining and power
plant regions of the Northern Great Plains, Black Mesa and Four
Corners, Oil shale regions of Colorado, Wyoming and Utah,
uranium mines in western states and geothermal energy regions
including the Imperial Valley of California. The study will focus
on reactive hydrocarbons, SOX, NOX, other toxic substances,
and visibility.
Develop mechanisms for coordination of water monitoring
activities associated with energy technologies. Coordination on
an annual basis will be made for the water monitoring activities
of EPA and other Federal Agencies.
Study requirements for groundwater monitoring for oil shale
and coal strip mining for at least two water basins in the western
United States. This study will provide information for the imple-
mentation of valid groundwater monitoring at future sites of
energy development.
For coal-fired power plants, oil shale extraction and waste dis-
position, establish baselines for land use. The work includes
studies on the usefulness of photographic and overhead remote
sensing monitoring techniques performed in cooperation with
NASA.
Develop techniques to monitor nuclear pollutants. Plutonium
monitoring is stressed. In addition, assays will be made on other
radionuclides such as uranium, thorium, and americium.
Identify low-level trace contaminants from energy technologies
in solid waste and effluent water. Stress is placed upon hydro-
carbons, carcinogenic organics and toxic inorganic elements and
compounds. A primary goal is the monitoring of pathways of
entry into drinking water.
A five year energy-impacted land use baseline will be established
in eight energy regions in the Western United States which the
EPA considers to be of high potential as pollution sources. The
effort includes aircraft monitoring with techniques such as
infrared photography and multi-spectral scanning. Data will be
collected fora variety of energy sources such as strip and oil shale
mining and power plant sites. (NASA)
Establish and appraise surface-water monitoring systems in coal
mining regions of southeastern Ohio, southeastern Illinois, and
Tennessee. (USGS)
Improve analytical procedures to isolate and identify certain
power-industry-generated water pollutants. Reports have been
prepared on arsenic and asbestos, and will address cadmium and
zinc. (TVA)
Apply similar techniques to coal impacted regions of Arizona,
Washington, and Alaska. (USGS)
Study air quality in the Western United States via meteorological
analyses. Ambient air monitoring is included. This study will aid
in characterizing the pollutants which are carried by various wind
patterns. (NOAA)
Light detection and ranging (LIDAR) measurement techniques
to trace and analyze power plant pollutants will be improved.
This includes work on an FM/CW dopplar LIDAR sensor to
quantify studies on atmospheric pollutant transformation
processes. (NOAA)
Develop techniques to measure concentrations of oil spills and to
forecast ultimate spill trajectories. The studies will include work
on effects of water current (three dimensional), direct wind drag,
wave transport, sea-air pollutant transfer and horizontal dif-
fusion. (NOAA)
Develop SEASCAN to be used underway as an interactive meas-
urement system, and a towed surface sampler for hydrocarbons.
The project will follow accepted techniques for instrumentation
development. One goal is an evaluation of the system for use with
trace metals. (NOAA)
Implement baseline surface water monitoring networks in energy
impacted areas of Colorado, Utah, Montana, Wyoming and
North Dakota. Energy technoligies covered include coal, oil
shale, uranium, oil, gas, and the general power development.
Emphasis is on basins and waters downstream from energy sites.
This project is complementary to the EPA projects in Western
U.S. (USGS)
In conjunction with the above effort, other western regions will
be studied in an effort to establish a groundwater quality baseline
in severely energy-impacted aquifers. The work will include such
activities as geochemical investigations of principal shallowaqui-
fers and physical measurements for changes in the groundwater
from oil shale extraction, and the correlation of various geo-
logical and hydrological parameters to various coal exploitation
technologies. (USGS)
Air Instrumentation
While many activities associated with energy development and use result in multi-media pollut-
ants which must be studied as such, there are also certain medium-specific problems. In the air
medium, for example, coal combustion results in emission of SOX, NOX and fine particulates into
the atmosphere. To be thoroughly understood and controlled, these pollutants must first be meas-
ured. Air instrumentation activities provide for the development of instruments for the sampling,
measurement, and monitoring of air pollutants related to energy development. These include on-site
continuous monitoring devices as well as portable samplers such as personal dosimeters for use in
measuring health effects in humans.
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Measurement and monitoring techniques are being developed for
pollutant assay, stationary source emissions and ambient air.
Studies will concentrate on particulate sulfate, size fractionated
particulate matter, organic particulates, high molecular weight
organics, sulOte, nitrate, carbonaceous aerosols, and sulf uric and
hydrochloric acids. Compact portable air samplers are being
developed. This project will provide tools which can be used in
the detection and characterization of unexpected pollutant air
masses brought about by unforeseen meteorological effects.
Develop airborne Raman LIDAR and other remote sensing laser
techniques for the monitoring of fine particulates, SOX and NOX,
particularly as these pollutants affect vegetation.
Develop instruments for the characterization, measurement, and
monitoring of hazardous pollutants associated with the occupa-
tional environment of various energy technologies. The work
includes development of a portable microwave spectrometer for
trace metal analysis, personal gas and vapor monitors, personal
samplers for cold environments, and a fibrous aerosol monitor.
This project will provide equipment required for health effects
studies relevant to industrial hygiene. (NIOSH)
Improve infrared and infrared laser instrumentation techniques
for usage in remote sensing of energy related pollutants. The
work will include both development and testing. (NASA)
Develop economical instruments for qualitativeand quantitative
studies of energy related air pollutants with particular regard to
atmospheric aerosols. The work will include infrared studies of
sulfuric acid and ammonium sulfate, sulfate and sulfur trioxide
determinations, and completion of ammonia trap developments.
(ERDA)
Develop instruments for use in the health effects program with
particular emphasison energy related aerosols. Measurement will
be made of differences in fine particulates from sources of east-
ern and western coal and of organic carcinogens and trace metals.
(ERDA)
Develop standard reference materials (SRM) for energy related
air pollutants. Develop ambient air SRM's for such pollutants as
SOX, NOX, and particulates. Workshops on SRM development
will be conducted.
Characterize power plant pollutants to determine physical and
chemical properties expecially with regard to pollutant impact
on various meteorological phenomena. This study includes the
dispersion of air pollutants. (NOAA)
Develop and evaluate an integrated approach to optimization of
radiological surveillance programs for nuclear power plants.
Guidelines and protocols for radiation monitoring are being
formulated.
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Water Instrumentation
While water quality measurement for power plant and industrial discharges has been under
development forty years, new energy technologies and processes have created the need for better
methods of monitoring an increasing number of potential water pollutants. Coal conversion plants,
for example, may discharge hazardous amounts of phenols, cyanides, and other toxic substances
into waterways. These must be monitored accurately so that effective controls can be developed.
These studies focus on organics, particularly carcinogens, in water.
Develop water pollutant sampling, measuring and monitoring
methods and instruments for use in assessing the hazards of vari-
ous energy technologies. Instrumentation for continuous moni-
toring of toxic elements, phenols, cyanides, nitrates, phosphates,
and total organic carbon will be developed and tested.
Develop instrumentation and techniques for analyzing materials
in aqueous effluents. Concentration techniques to increase mini-
mum assay sensitivity of pollutants are being developed by use of
chelation resins. Other systems under consideration include
inductively coupled plasma, analytic systems, neutron activation
techniques and isotope spark source mass spectrometry. These
techniques will allow for the detection of pollutants before they
reach hazardous levels. (ERDA)
Develop instrumentation for the characterization, measurement,
and monitoring of water pollutants and sediments. Emphasis will
be on coal, oil shale, and related petrochemicals. The work will
include instruments for high volume analysis, development of
flumes and weirs for measurement of sediment laden stream
flows, and investigation of techniques for the detection of
chronic toxicity levels of various compounds. (USGS)
Quality Assurance
The foundation for developing methods for multi-media, air, and water monitoring is an effective
quality assurance program. The data that is collected on environmental pollutants must be valid and
reliable or no amount of money spent on monitoring efforts will be effective. Recognizing the
importance of generating quality data, the Interagency Program includes a separate subcategory of
projects designed to guarantee quality assurance in all monitoring efforts. These research activities
center on the development of standard reference materials to be used in the calibration of instru-
ments and methods for measuring or monitoring pollutants. Included are studies to develop quality
control procedures for the avoidance of contamination during sample collection, transportation,
and analysis; inter-laboratory calibration; and training of technical personnel. The "quality" data
from the application of these techniques can be utilized with confidence in the decision making
process relating to the effects of energy development.
Assure quality control in the field monitoring analytical func-
tions as part of activities in select western regions. These efforts
will lead to standard techniques which yield comparable results
with a h igh level of accuracy.
Monitor visible effects on vegetation of sulfur dioxide emissions
from fossil fuel electric generating stations. This study includes
low and high altitude color, infrared, and multi-spectral scan-
ning. Areas will cover the Ohio River (Cincinnati, Ohio to
Paducah, Kentucky), Tennessee, Kentucky, West Virginia, and
Alabama. Vegetation will include soybeans and mixed southern
pine-decidous hardwood timber stands. This project will comple-
ment other studies within the Interagency Program which relate
to the effects of air emissions on terrestial vegetation. (TVA)
Standardize and calibrate techniques for marine monitoring.
This work includes a dissolved oxygen laboratory standard and
standards capable of transportation for interlaboratory calibra-
tion. (NOAA)
Study aquatic biota and develop standard reference materials
(SRWI). Work will concentrate on heavy metals, petroleum drill-
ing and refining, and oil shale products. Workshops are con-
ducted and SRM's are referenced and delivered. (NBS)
Develop an inter-laboratory quality assurance program for radi-
ation monitoring laboratories. Interim and final radiological
guidelines will be developed.
Develop standard reference materials (SRM) for radiological pol-
lutants. These standards will include mixed gamma ray emitters,
2IOPo, 23*Pu, 23yPu and two heavy metal radio-nuclidestand-
ards. (NBS)
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Environmental Transport Processes
This research area is closely integrated with the research areas of characterization, measurement,
and monitoring, and ecological effects. Within the former research area, methods and tools are
developed, tested, and applied to provide data useful in the understanding of transport and fate
processes. Ecological effects studies relate to the effects of pollutants on natural organisms and their
habitats. Environmental transport processes research addresses energy-related pollutants in terms of
mechanisms of dispersion from sites of production, transformations which occur subsequent to
release, and ultimate accumulation in man, domesticated and wild animals and plants, and in
non-living material such as soil and sediments.
The environmental transport processes program
receives 4.7 percent of the total funding for the Inter-
agency Energy/Environment Program for FY 1976,
and 11.8 percent of the funding for the Processes and
effects research program. About 65 percent of the
environmental transport processes research takes place
within EPA laboratories. The research conducted out-
side of EPA, but coordinated by EPA as part of the
Interagency Program, is carried out by the Energy,
Research, and Development Administration (ERDA),
the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
(NOAA), and the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA).
Most of the transport processes projects relate to
coal technology. Other studies consider the develop-
ment of oil and gas, oil shale, or nuclear resources.
Several projects relate to mechanisms of transport
which are applicable to several fuel technologies. En-
vironmental transport processes research requires the
use of different physical, chemical, and biological dis-
ciplines in the study of atmospheric, terrestrial, fresh-
water, marine, and estuarine ecosystems. The objec-
tives of research studies within each of these systems
will be described separately and will include examples
of projects underway in each area.
Atmospheric Processes
When pollutants are released to the atmosphere in energy development and use, they rarely
follow straight or simple pathways in their dispersion and reaction with other elements. Before
atmospheric pollutants reach the point where they are harmful to human health and the environ-
ment, they often undergo radical chemical transformations through association with other pollut-
ants, catalysts, moisture, and sunlight. Understanding these processes is essential to the eventual
control of air pollution. For atmospheric transport processes, major emphasis is on the understand-
ing of: (1) the conversion of the oxides of sulfur and nitrogen to sulfate and nitrate compounds, (2)
formation, composition, and transportation of photochemical oxidants, and (3) the mechanisms of
visibility reduction, haze formation, and of the reflectivity balance of airborne aerosols produced by
energy-related activities.
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Develop techniques for predicting the chemical and physical
processes involved in the generation, transformation, transport,
and removal of sulfates, nitrates, photochemical oxidants and
their precursors in plumes from coal and oil shale utilization in
areas of both simple and complex terrain. Report on atmospheric
effects including visibility reduction, haze, and radiation balance
due to airborne aerosols generated by such activities. Determine
the mass balance of pollutants contained within the air envelope
encompassing energy-related sources, and develop predictive
models describing atmospheric behavior of pollutants from emis-
sion to removal.
Evaluate and improve models for predicting radiological impact
of gaseous releases from nuclear power plants (TVA).
Determine atmospheric transport and transformation of emis-
sions from coal-fired power plants (TVA).
Determine the rates and mechanisms by which primary pollut-
ants associated with coal, oil, and oil shale utilization are con-
verted in the atmosphere to secondary pollutants such as sulfates
and nitrates. Investigate the influence of light, temperature,
water vapor concentration, ammonia concentration, catalytic
elements, and aerosols on the atmospheric conversion process.
Study mechanisms controlling aerosol functions and aerosol
properties which influence visibility, radiation balance, weather
and climate. Identify oxidation state and molecular composition
of sulfur-containing compounds in the atmosphere.
Evaluate weather modification effects of cooling towers
(ERDA).
(These last three examples relate to specific facilities or tech-
nologies and are complementary to the more generally applicable
research efforts by EPA.)
Freshwater Processes
Pollutants discharged into waterways may follow widely different pathways and be involved in
many chemical transformations depending on density of discharge, chemistry of the receiving water,
temperature, aquatic life, and other factors. Since the nature of the transformations determines the
ultimate impact of the pollutants on health and ecosystems, it is important that these freshwater
processes be understood.
Freshwater investigations characterize the pathways and fate of energy-related pollutants released
into surface water and groundwater. These pollutants include organic compounds, metals, and other
dissolved or suspended substances, as well as thermal discharges from coal and oil shale extraction,
and coal gasification and liquefaction.
Determine, in fresh surface waters, the origin, load, transport
pathways, transfer rates, and fates of organic and inorganic pol-
lutants, particulates, and complex effluents resulting from coal
and oil shale extraction and oil refining operations. The study
will include analyses of leachates and runoff from surface-
deposited wastes. This research will characterize in detail the
nature of aqueous effluents, their pathways of movements, and
their interaction with surface and subsurface bodies of water.
Characterize the groundwater ecosystems into which organic and
inorganic pollutants will be discharged from coal and oil shale
extraction and conversion sites. Identify the organic and in-
organic pollutants being discharged and determine their physical,
chemical and biological transport kinetics. Determine the influ-
ence of ground disturbance and the exposure of minerals on their
susceptibility to transport through the soil and groundwater
systems. This study complements the above research effort and
expands the characterization of the movement and interaction of
leachates within aquifers including the subsurface unsaturated
zone of soil.
Determine transformation pathways, physical and chemical per-
mutations, and the toxicity of crude oil to freshwater organisms
in arctic lakes.
Determine, in Lake Michigan, the organic pollutant load and
dynamics resulting from oil refinery wastes (ERDA).
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Investigate formation rates of inorganics with acid formed from
strip mines, the mechanisms by which these contaminants enter
and are transported in waterways, and develop mathematical
models to predict water quality in streams in acid mine areas
(TVA).
Determine presence and abundance of arthropod pests and deter-
mine their quantitative and qualitative significance in selected
coal strip-mine pools in Kentucky and Tennessee as related to
ecological conditions and seasonal changes (TVA).
Determine mechanisms of transformation, degradation, and
effect of crude oil in stream ecosystems. This study and the
aforementioned study are major efforts to accumulate needed
information concerning the effects of spilled oil and freshwater
systems. Most similar studies have been oriented toward spills of
crude oil within the marine environment.
Develop simulation models of thermal dispersion and fluid mech-
anics at critical locations instreamsand reservoirs (TVA).
Marine and Estuarine Processes
Much of the new exploration to make the U.S. less dependent on foreign oil involves offshore
development, and consideration for new power plants is increasingly given to coastal and offshore
sites. Since our coastal areas contain highly productive wetlands and fish spawning grounds, the
chemical processes of oil spills and heat and biocide discharges need to be thoroughly understood in
order to protect these areas. The projects in this subcategory investigate the interactions of pollut-
ants with the marine environment and biosystems so that effective controls can be developed.
Determine the dynamics of dispersion and dissipation in marine
and estuarine waters and the long-term effects on marine and
estuarine organisms of waste heat and biocides from coastal and
offshore power plants. Develop ecosystem models of the fate and
effects of thermal and biocide discharges ranging from simple
planktonic assemblages to controlled field studies.
Extend a multi-layer, or two dimensional (horizontal) model of
circulation to accept a heated discharge as a pollutant.
Determine persistence and dispersion of chlorine from onshore
cooling discharges.
Determine organic pollutant load and dynamics resulting from
refinery waste discharge into marine waters adjacent to Puerto
Rico (ERDA).
Determine transport, transformations, fate, and effects of toxic
metals and petroleum hydrocarbons on selected marine eco-
systems. Determine ecological responses and recovery rates of a
small coastal ecosystem subjected to intentional and controlled
perturbations by petroleum-associated contaminants, and estab-
lish capability for routine analysis of petroleum hydrocarbons in
the marine environment (NOAA). (These site specific studies
should contribute details to the general understanding, obtained
by previous studies, of the transport and fate of petroleum con-
taminants in the marine environment.)
(The above studies provide useful information concerning the
movement and the ultimate fate of various pesticides such as
bacteriocides, fungicides, and molluscacides used in the cooling
water systems of power plants. Little is known regarding the
long-term fate and effects of these substances within the marine
environment.)
Terrestrial Processes
Not only air and water, but also the land itself varies in its ability to absorb pollution and in the
transformations which the pollutants undergo once deposited on land. Different moisture, temper-
ature, and soil characteristics will result in different chemical reactions and absorption rates. These
factors are especially important in areas of extreme cold such as Alaska and in the arid western
lands where accelerated coal and oil shale extraction is anticipated.
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Terrestrial research projects involve the characterization of pollutants and their mechanisms of
transport through various kinds of soils and subsurface formations. These studies include the identi-
fication and dispersion of materials in leachates from residuals such as slag, mine spoils, and sludges
produced from energy operations.
Determine transport pathways, transfer rates and fate of pollut-
ants and degradation products of crude oil in soil and in the
active layer of permafrost terrain.
Evaluate oil spill persistence in tundra and its impact on the
below-ground Arctic ecosystem (ERDA). This study extends
work of a related EPA study of the subsurface tundra ecosystem.
Determine fate and effect of pollutants in terrestrial ecosystems
in the Four Corners area and Mojave Desert. Coordinate this
effort with ongoing EPA/Las Vegas and NOAA air pollutant
measurement, plume, and transformation studies in the Four
Corners area (ERDA).
Determine the transport and fate of fuel wastes through soil at
solid waste disposal sites (ERDA).
Health Effects
The health effects program seeks to determine the hazards to humans from pollutants released by
various energy technologies. The program includes the development of bioassay and other tech-
niques to measure hazards, and the application of these techniques to the characterization of
hazards to human health. In relation to human health, the emphasis of the program is on the effects
of agents which give rise to carcinogenesis, mutagenesis, teratogeny, toxicity, and disorders of the
cardio-pulmonary system.
The funding for health effects interagency program
is 12.9 percent of the total Interagency Energy/
Environment Program for FY 1976 and is 32.1 percent
of the total interagency funding for the Processes and
Effects Research Program. Approximately 42 percent
of the health effects research activity occurs within
EPA laboratories. Health effects research within other
agencies is coordinated by EPA and is carried out by
the Energy, Research and Development Administration
(ERDA), the National Institute of Environmental
Health Sciences (NIEHS), and the National Institute
for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH).
Most of the health effects research activities relate
to coal technology. Several projects involve studies
applicable to a variety of energy sources. A smaller
amount of health effects research is associated with the
oil shale, nuclear, and energy conservation tech-
nologies.
The health effects area is organized into five cate-
gories. These are identification of hazardous agents,
dose and damage indicators, metabolism of hazardous
agents, evaluation of hazards to humans, and damage,
repair, and recovery processes. Examples of projects by
EPA and other agencies are grouped below according
to these categories.
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Identification of Hazardous Agents
One of the first steps in documenting environmental health effects is to identify the specific
pollutant agents responsible. While many of the agents are relatively well established from earlier
research, many of the energy technologies under development are expected to involve the release of
new hazardous materials which will require controls. Such materials may be carcinogens, mutagens,
or teratogens, and their timely identification is essential to the future protection of human health.
The projects within this category relate to the identification of these pollutants and to the
characterization of biological damage. Also within this category are projects related to the develop-
ment of tests and procedures to identify hazardous agents.
Identify by means of cytological, biochemical and physiological
indicators, the biological damage resulting from exposure to pol-
lutants associated with energy development. These studies in-
clude the collection and characterization of refined particles and
the establishment of a chemical repository for samples of emis-
sions associated with various energy technologies. These studies
are primarily directed toward coal technologies. With respect to
oil and oil shale technologies, carcinogenesis assays will be
developed for suspected pollutants.
Develop various procedures and tests to identify hazardous
agents in coal and multi-fuel technologies. Mouse germ cells are
used as an in vivo screen for gene mutations and to study chem-
ical induction of chromosome aberrations. In addition, various
other procedures, such as mouse-specific locus methods, are used
to study the potential for mutation. Modern separation tech-
niques are employed to fractionate coal conversion products for
mutagenic studies. Modern tissue culture techniques (with cell
line development when necessary) are in operation to study
mutagenic and carcinogenic effects. (ERDA)
Evaluate various cytochemical and morphological identification
procedures. Develop cytochemical markers and quantify by
microfluorometry in order to examine cell transformation and
carcinogenesis. In addition, a procedure utilizing sperm from
mice will be developed to study mutagenicity, carcinogenicity
and teratogeny. (ERDA)
Determine the teratogenic and genetic effects of pollutants
emanating from energy related technologies. Studies are con-
ducted to identify the factors that affect the transfer of metallic
pollutants from fuels across the placenta and how these processes
relate to teratogeny caused by such pollutants. In addition,
Drosophilia (fruit fly) populations are used to study possible
chromosome aberrations induced by electric fields. (ERDA)
Develop a pulmonary carcinogenesis test system to examine coal
technology pollutants. (ERDA)
Determine, by various cytological studies, the direct effects of
pollutants from multi-fuels. These studies relate to the effects of
toxic agents on chromosomal structure and cell cycle kinetics as
well as to the early detection of deleterious changes in pul-
monary cytology. (ERDA)
Use mammalian tissue culture techniques to examine the affects
of trace metals and hydrocarbons on teratogenesis, mutagenesis,
and carcinogenesis. In addition, studies are carried out on co-
carcinogenesis of hydrocarbons and hormones. Cell systems cap-
able of measuring these parameters are being developed. (ER DA)
Develop bacteriophage systems to screen for carcinogenicity of
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, (ERDA)
Determine the effects on lung cells of exposure to flyash,chem-
ical mutagens, and effluents. (ERDA)
Dose and Damage Indicators
Once hazardous pollutant agents have been identified, a next step in health effects research
involves measurement and quantification of the dosage of the agent that actually damages health.
Such information is clearly essential in setting standards which will be adequate to protect human
health. Projects in this area involve exposure of known hazardous pollutants to chemical reactions
in the laboratory and to live cells under controlled conditions.
These projects develop chemical or biological systems which can be used to quantify the degree
of biological damage associated with exposure to known amounts of various hazardous materials.
These studies also include research related to the combined action of different pollutants.
25
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Examine the potential hazards of exposure to water contamin-
ated with heavy metals and toxic organic compounds, partic-
ularly as applied to coal technology. Develop and apply in vitro
neoplastic, mutagenic, cytogenetic, and translocation carcino-
genesis bioassay systems. Study the effects of the contaminants
on teratogeny and reproduction. Analyze the toxicological prop-
erties of methylbenzimidazole, dibenzofuran, methylbenzo-
furan, 1,2,4 trimethyIbenzene, and thallium from various routes
of exposure. In particular, these studies will provide further
information on the chronic effects of these products of coal
technologies.
Utilize mammalian cellular systems to quantify mutagenesis
testing. (ERDA)
Develop methods for utilizing various systems as indicators for
dosage effects. Teeth are studied as an indicator for tissue dosage
of trace and heavy metals. In addition, fish model will be pre-
pared to study carcinogenicity of coal conversion products.
(ERDA)
Utilize various bioassay indicators to determine biological dam-
age resulting from exposure to various pollutants. These studies
include synergism which may exist between pulmonary car-
cinogens, airborne particles, and sulfuric acid mists. In addition,
cytotoxicity is being evaluated for samples of ambient and
source concentrations of sulfates. With regard to coal tech-
nologies, the effects of source materials on carcinogenesis are
being studied. With respect to oil and oil shale, EPA will develop
models of cellular systems to determine cytotoxicity from pol-
lutants produced by the energy sources. EPA is also studying the
influence of environmental materials which act as co-factors to
stimulate carcinogenic activity.
Determine dose-effect relationship for mutagenic agents. Pre-
dictive toxicity utilizing organ test systems will be employed.
(NIEHS)
Develop physiological indicators to estimate damage to humans
arising from toxic agents in various energy technologies. Rigid
quantitative analyses of various agents will be performed.
(NIEHS)
Metabolism of Hazardous Agents
Hazardous pollutants, many of which result from energy development and use, initially cause
metabolic responses in living things at exposures below that at which serious damage would occur.
An understanding of these pre-clinical metabolic changes can aid in early diagnosis of exposure, and
the way living hosts metabolize pollutants can suggest preventative measures and treatment.
Studies within this category characterize the metabolic changes that accompany exposure to
hazardous agents. In addition, these projects include an assessment of the incorporation, degra-
dation, and deposition of hazardous compounds by organisms.
Characterize the metabolic fate of air, water, and multi-route
exposure to various pollutants associated with energy develop-
ment, particularly Western coal development. This effort in-
cludes studies on extended inhalation of various pollutants and
the biochemical changes that accompany such exposure.
Assess the mechanisms of incorporation, metabolism, deposi-
tion, and turnover of energy-related hazardous agents. Compar-
isons of species differences will be made. Studies involving
organic compounds will be emphasized, (NIEHS)
Evaluation of Hazards to Humans
The preceding categories of health effects research follow a logical sequence of laboratory study
of agents, damage levels and metabolism. The next step is to demonstrate conclusively that the
laboratory results can be extrapolated to effects on humans. For example, if pollutants from coal
conversion processes are carcinogenic to mice in laboratories, the probable danger to humans must
be next shown.
These research activities are designed to quantify the extent of damages to human health which is
associated with particular hazardous materials. The studies primarily relate to the observation of
patients affected by pollutants or to the extrapolation of animal data to humans.
26
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Evaluate the human hazards of air, water and multi-route
exposure to pollutants associated with energy development,
particularly in relation to coal technology. Studies characterize
human exposure to pollutants in the ambient air as a result of
coal conversion and utilization. These studies involve an investi-
gation of a) hazards of human exposure to aerosol pollutants, b)
the effects of the pollutants on asthmatics, c) levels of airborne
trace substances in populations living near coal plants and the
health of such populations, and d) the causes of morbidity and
mortality in populations with long term exposure to coal com-
bustion emissions. These projects include an evaluation of the
influence of sulfuric acid mist on the cardio-pulmonary system,
with particular emphasis on the effects of inhalation of acid
aerosols, sulfuric acid, sulfur trioxide, nitric acid, and various
particulates. General and chronic effects of respirable particles,
gases, and mists are investigated with particular attention given
to the in vitro carcinogenicity screening of air particles.
Determine the hazards of chronic, low level exposure to poten-
tial pollutants associated with nuclear energy production. In
particular, investigations are carried out on the effects of
krypton83 on skin carcinogenesis and on the induction of
chronic and acute pathological manifestations of the lung.
Behavioral and neurophysical effects of chronic lead and tritium
exposure also are studied.
Evaluate the reaction products which result from the inhalation
of particulates and sulfur dioxide. (ERDA)
Develop test models and concepts for the extrapolation of ani-
mal data to humans for various energy technologies. In addition,
these models will be applied to the identification of damage to
cells and cellular components caused by pollutants associated
with energy production. (NIEHS)
Damage, Repair, and Recovery Processes
The final category in health effects research deals with damage to humans from exposure to
hazardous pollutants, and investigations into how the damage can be repaired and the body recover.
Of special interest are brain damage and cancer from toxic trace metals from energy development
and from combustion gases.
Identify the trace metal toxicities associated with various routes
of exposure to pollutants from coal technologies. Possible brain
damage from rats exposed to sulfur dioxide is evaluated by the
use of electro-encephalography. These studies are designed to
assess the potential for critical damage by coal pollutants.
Assess the effects on metabolism of inhaled trace metal emissions
from combustion processes. (ERDA)
EPA is studying the damage to the respiratory tract which is
attributable to pollutants associated with various energy tech-
nologies, with particular emphasis to products from coal gasifica-
tion. Modern analytical and separation techniques are used to
ascertain the agents which are potentially most dangerous.
Ecological Effects
Ecological effects research is based on, and complementary to, the results of research conducted
in other areas of the Interagency Program. For example, various methods and instruments devel-
oped and refined within the characterization, measurement, and monitoring area, and the results of
environmental transport processes studies are used to characterize the ecosystem effects associated
with energy development. The various research efforts determine the effects of organic and in-
organic pollutants, thermal discharges and complex effluents on water and land ecosystems.
The ecological effects program comprises 11.4 per-
cent of the total funding for the Interagency Energy/
Environment Program for FY 1976 and 28.2 percent
of the processes and effects research program. Approxi-
mately 36 percent of the research related to ecological
effects is coordinated by EPA as part of the Inter-
agency Program but conducted outside of EPA. Such
research is carried out by the Energy, Research, and
Development Administration (ERDA), National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA),
National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences
(NIEHS), Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), U.S.
Department of Agriculture (USDA), and the U.S. Fish
and Wildlife Service (F&WS).
Most of the ecological effects research activities
relate to coal technology. Secondary emphasis is on the
development of oil resources. Several studies relate to
oil shale and nuclear energy development or to effects
27
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which may be associated with a number of fuel tech-
nologies. Most research activities focus on the effects
of the extraction of raw fuels or on the accumulation
of baseline information useful in forecasting environ-
mental impacts related to the processing, trans-
portation, and conversion of fuels.
Ecological effects efforts are divided into three
separate categories. These are terrestrial ecosystem
effects, freshwater ecosystem effects, and marine/
estuarine ecosystem effects. The project examples
described below are grouped into these three cate-
gories.
Terrestrial Ecosystem Effects
Large scale energy development and use will obviously have major impacts on lands where surface
mining is required and where large processing, conversion, and power plant complexes are con-
structed. Additionally, pollutants emitted to the air and discharged to the water from these
activities will have effects on crops, grassland and forests.
A major objective of terrestrial research within the effects program is to measure and predict
changes in grassland ecosystems as a function of air pollution associated with energy development,
to determine the effects of metals and other pollutants on crops and forest ecosystems, and to
develop an information retrieval system for data relevant to the reclamation of strip mines.
Determine the immediate and long-term ecosystem dose-
response relationships for single pollutants such as the oxides of
sulfur and nitrogen, particulate materials, and trace metals, and
combinations of pollutants released by western coal and oil shale
extraction, conversion and utilization. In addition, determine
metabolic and biochemical mechanisms and lethal and chronic
toxicity levels. Develop biological indices using microcosm,
greenhouse, and field studies. Evaluate existing ecosystem
models and identify requirements for further development. This
project is complementary to studies relating to the character-
ization, monitoring, and transport and fate of pollutants asso-
ciated with the extraction of coal and oil shale fuel resources. It
will contribute to an understanding of the nature and extent of
environmental impacts attributed to such pollutants.
Develop a comprehensive information profile for major aquatic
environments which could be seriously affected by energy devel-
opment through a number of resource-specific biological studies.
Studies will improve predictive capabilities, identffy current
stress components, evaluate energy facility location alternatives,
assess interrelationships between biological, chemical and phys-
ical components in aquatic environments, and identify programs
to mitigate impacts on the biological resource.
Determine the effects of heat and vapor discharge from large
scale cooling systems on local weather such as near-field fogging
and icing. Determine long-term regional effects which might be
associated with source intensification such as power parks. This
project should provide meaningful information concerning the
ecological effects related to concentrated development of energy
generating facilities within a limited geographical area.
Assess effects of mining-related transportation systems on water,
air, soil, plant, animal, and aesthetic resources. This project will
provide useful information concerning the environmental im-
pacts related to the distribution of raw fuel resources to facil ities
for processing, conversion, or utilization, (USDA)
Evaluate the effects of oil spills on tundra and thaw ponds. This
project will provide meaningful information regarding the effects
of the development of oil resources in the Arctic zone. This study
will complement various research activities by EPA relevant to
the determination of the transport pathways, transfer rates, and
fate of pollutants and the products of their degradation which
are associated with the development of crude oil resources on
permafrost terrain. (ERDA)
Determine the effects of trace metal contaminants on crops and
forest ecosystems in the southeastern U.S. (ERDA)
Evaluate existing data, baseline needs, and dose-response rela-
tionships of atmospheric pollutants (primarily SOX and NOX)
emitted from coal-fired power plants on terrestrial ecosystems in
the southeastern U.S. (TVA)
Determine effects of moisture, heat, and chemical releases from
mechanical cool ing towers on vegetation and soil. (TVA)
Develop laboratory procedures to characterize the chemical
properties of mine spoil and overburden materials in the western
U.S. (USDA)
Design, establish, operate and refine a data management system
for interagency energy-related marine and meteorological pro-
grams. (NOAA)
Identify and demonstrate a rapid, cost-effective and reliable
method of inventorying and characterizing wildlife habitats.
Determine how and to what extent various coal-related activities
will impact wildlife. (F&WS)
Develop mechanisms to identify, locate, and to monitor the
activities of endangered species in regions under stress from
energy development. The habitat requirements and mitigation
alternatives for these species will be assessed. (F&WS)
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Freshwater Ecosystem Effects
Many of the energy processing and conversion technologies require large amounts of freshwater.
They also are potential dischargers of pollutants into freshwater systems. Additionally, production
and transportation of petroleum and discharge of cooling water by power plants can also impact
freshwater ecosystems. Since physical, chemical, and biological changes can effect fish, insects,
aquatic plants and human water supply, these changes must be well understood so that their effects
can be controlled. Projects in this subcategory concentrate on aquatic effects of energy develop-
ment in the arid west, oil transportation in Alaska, and thermal discharges in the Great Lakes area.
Determine the acute and chronic toxicologies! effects of organic
and inorganic pollutants and complex effluents from coal and oil
shale processes on freshwater ecosystems. Identify data required
to complete baseline information for evaluating ecological im-
pacts. Evaluate existing ecosystem models.
Determine the immediate and long-term effects of total waste
heat loading in surface waters of the Great Lakes Basin on aqua-
tic species and community populations. Waste heat sources
include power plants (fossil and nuclear), refineries, and any
other technology releasing waste heat into the aquatic environ-
ment.
Assess the effects of construction and operation of the Alaska
pipeline on aquatic habitats. (ERDA)
Determine long-term effects of hydrocarbons on selected eco-
systems and associated organisms. (ERDA)
Determine methodology and investigate thermal impacts on
freshwater shellfish, insects and other biota. (TVA)
Compare the pharmacokinetics and toxicity in mammals of
metals consumed in diet through contaminated shellfish vs.
drinking water. (NIEHS)
Assess technologies for redepositing and stabilizing mine spoils
including technologies that will keep water quality within
acceptable limits for aquatic organisms and associated wildlife
species. (USDA)
Determine effect of strip mining and reclamation processes on
the quality and quantity of water leaving the area. Develop pre-
dictive tools and management practices for restoring the hydrol-
ogy of ttje mined areas. (USDA)
Determine water quantity needs of fish and wildlife in the Upper
Colorado and Upper Missouri River Basins. Establish flow
requirements necessary to maintain the fish and wildlife present.
Develop in-stream flow methodologies to determine the main-
tenance flows required for biological/fisheries stability in other
areas of the U.S. affected by increased energy development east
and west. (F&WS)
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Marine/Estuarine Ecosystem Effects
Coastal and offshore power plants and offshore oil production and transportation can have
serious impacts on fragile but important marine and estuarine ecosystems. Power plant discharges
and oil spills have the potential for severe disruption of wetlands, food chains, and fish and wildlife.
Coastal wetlands are essential to the survival of most of our commercial fishing. If energy develop-
ment and use is to proceed in coastal and offshore areas, it is essential that the full effects on marine
and estuarine ecosystems are understood so that action can be taken to minimize adverse impacts.
Marine research will focus on a coastal area of eastern United States where power plants, deep-
water ports, and oil rigs may be erected. This effort will develop baseline data, including back-
ground data on marine biota and their habitats, for the purpose of determining the effects on
marine organisms of pollutants from energy development activities.
Conduct surveys to augment existing data on the Santa Barbara
oil lease area relative to oil extraction and transport and related
effects on coastal ecosystems. (ERDA)
Determine the various mechanisms by which cells of marine
organisms take up metals from the environment. (NIEHS)
Determine the relationship between toxic fractions of crude oil
and petroleum products and tumor formation in commercial
vertebrate and invertebrate marine species susceptible to car-
cinoma. (NIEHS)
Conduct environmental assessment and develop predictive cap-
ability for impacts of petroleum-related activities on Northern
Puget Sound and Strait of Juan de Fuca. Puget Sound is relatively
unpolluted. However, tanker transport and refining activity is
expected to increase rapidly within the next decade. The infor-
mation collected will be useful in decisions regarding the devel-
opment of petroleum facilities and in the regulation of tanker
traffic within the region. (NOAA)
Perform a comparison of an existing marine ecosystem under
stress of an active oil field with a similar ecosystem in an un-
disturbed area. Identify and document the extent of biological,
physical, and chemical alterations in a marine ecosystem asso-
ciated with development of an oil field and develop capability to
predict the impact of oil field exploration and development on
specific marine ecosystems. (NOAA)
Determine acute and chronic toxicological effects of organic,
inorganic, and other pollutants, including metals, on marine and
estuarine ecosystems. The sources include petroleum extraction,
coastal oil refineries, and fossil-fueled power plants.
Determine thermal effects on marine organisms of energy utili-
zation in synergy with metals.
Determine the nature, loading, distribution, and long-term
effects of crude oil in the Gulf of Alaska marine and estuarine
ecosystems.
Determine toxicity to marine organisms of petrochemicals and
energy-related organic solvents derived from offshore activities
and ocean dumping.
Prepare reports on three selected coastal regions subject to
energy development. Emphasis is on the value of resources,
especially fish and wildlife, and ecological processes subject to
impact resulting from human-induced environmental alterations.
(F&WS)
Determine the nature, loading, distribution and effects of hydro-
carbons, organic and inorganic pollutants, and metals in marine
and estuarine ecosystems. Develop ecosystem models of pollut-
ant discharges to marine and estuarine waters on scales ranging
from simple planktonic assemblages to control field systems.
Determine correlations among the results of laboratory bioassays
of system components and field studies of bio-accumulation,
system dynamics and routes to humans of pollutants released
from off-shore drilling, refinery processing, and oil/water separa-
tor effluents entering marine and estuarine waters.
Summarize results of laboratory experiments and field observa-
tions to evaluate the physiological, toxicological, and ecological
effects of oil primarily on ducks. Develop a chemical method-
ology for analyzing duck tissues for oil, assess the kinetics of oil
in duck tissues, and assess the ecological occurrence and effects
of oil in wild ducks. (F&WS)
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Integrated Assessment
The objective of the integrated assessment program is to incorporate the results of the other
research areas into a comprehensive whole. In addition, projects may include research data resulting
from social, economic, cultural, and environmental analyses in identifying acceptable alternatives in
the development of energy technologies.
This approach seeks to ensure that resultant stresses
accompanying The adoption of particular energy tech-
nologies be analyzed fully, and mitigating measures be
planned and implemented. The parameters of such
analyses include population, migration, natural re-
source utilization, and pollution control as well as the
cost/risks/benefits of developments with respect to
controls. These assessments include studies from tech-
nological, regional and economic sector perspectives.
Integrated technology assessments will provide an
information base for broad policy decisions which
must be addressed on an interagency basis. A tool that
will be used in integrated assessment is the technology
assessment, which is defined as the systematic study
of indirect or unintentional impacts on society which
might result from a technology implementation. Other
types of programs include supplementary studies to
support on-going technology assessments and the devel-
opment of new assessment methodologies.
The integrated assessment program comprises 3.1
percent of the total funding for the Interagency
Energy/Environment Program for FY 1976 and 7.6
percent of the processes and effects research program.
About 66 percent of the integrated assessment research
occurs within EPA facilities. The research is co-
ordinated by EPA but conducted by other agencies is
carried out by the Energy Research and Development
Administration (ERDA), U. S. Department of Agri-
culture (USDA), Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA),
and the Department of Housing and Urban Develop-
ment (HUD).
Most of the activities within this program relate to
the development of coal resources. Many studies
related to this fuel have been completed or are in
progress. Several research projects relate to oil shale
and energy conservation technologies. More studies are
expected to be included within the integrated assess-
ment area in the next few years as research projects in
other categories are completed.
The integrated assessment research is separated into
three categories: methodology development, integrated
analysis, and supportive research. The project examples
are organized by these three catetories.
Methodology Development
These efforts develop the tools with which to analyze the implications of various energy-related
technology developments. These tools include the building of models, updating existing computer
models, and the generating of data bases for future use. The data used in these models includes
socio-economics, migration, residual wastes, etc. Output presentation via computer graphics is being
tested by TVA.
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Develop economic projection modeling capability necessary to
drive modular energy and environmental system planning models
at a multi-county (economic area) level. This project involves the
expansion of existing regional economic simulation model for
use in assessing an area's sensitivity to various national param-
eters, evaluating the impacts on population, labor force, employ-
ment, etc. of an incremental expansion to the energy generating
system and, providing the macroeconomic data base at a multi-
county level that is necessary for vigorous site specific analyses.
(TVA)
Develop a model that can be used in conjunction with the TVA's
Power System Integrated Planning Model to predict the residual
output of a power system on a plant-by-plant basis. The model
will provide inputs for detailed dispersion models for evaluating
expansion policies of a power system. (TVA)
Develop and demonstrate applications of computer graphics to
site-specific and regional integrated environment assessment of
mixed-nuclear, coal-based and hydroelectric energy systems.
(TVA)
Support selected large-scale modeling efforts by updating data
files and revising and updating system components to increase
energy assessment capabilities.
Develop a methodology for cost/risk/benefit analysis of nuclear,
oil, oil shale, geothermal, and coal use for power production in
the Western states. The objective is to develop and test a first
generation method for balancing benefits to the Western states
and to the Nation with the estimated costs of fuel throughout the
energy cycle. The method will provide for inputs of primary,
secondary, and derivative impacts as well as flexibility of input-
ing social perceptions and value scales for weighing these im-
pacts. (ERDA)
Develop methods for integrating the results of environmental
and energy research with relevant socio-economic factors for the
purpose of formulating environmental policies. Adopt the results
of research, including cost/risk/benefit analysis, being conducted
by ERDA, other Federal agencies, and the private sector into a
framework which is suitable for agency decision making
processes.
Integrative Analysis
This category relates to the utilization of the data collected under methodology development. The
analyses integrate social, economic and environmental information into the decision-making processes.
In the process, an evaluation is made of cost/risk/benefit trade-offs of energy production in com-
parison with pollution control alternatives. This would enhance the implementation of new energy
development technologies with minimum environmental damage and maximum related benefits.
Conduct Integrated Technology Assessments (ITA's) which deal
with emerging technologies, economic sectors and/or geographic
regions. The objective of the regional ITA's is to evaluate all
environmental, social, and economic costs and benefits that
result from various levels of development, and associated
environmental controls, on one regional energy resource base.
This assessment is conducted in the context of the totality of
effects which are to be anticipated from alternative energy devel-
opment scenarios. The objective of the technology-related ITA's
is to evaluate the environmental and socio-economic conse-
quences of developing selected emerging energy technologies,
and to determine optimum environmental control levels, as well
as means for implementing those levels. The economic sector
ITA's address the entire constellation of social, economic and
environmental pressures which have, and will continue to, shape
the continued development of a major sector of our economy.
To date, four major and many other lesser ITA's have been
launched. The four major ITA's address western energy resource
development, the electric utilities sector, energy development in
the Ohio River basin, and in the Appalachian region. First-year
reports are available on the first two assessments.
Provide an assessment of existing Federal coal leases and Prefer-
ence Right Lease Applications in terms of the potential and
relative effects of their development on the total environment.
Analysis criteria and assessment of alternatives will be in terms of
geologic, topologic, topographic, chemical, cultural, biological,
climatologic, and socio-economic factors.
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Supportive Research
Supportive research tasks provide supplementary inputs for methodology development and inte-
grative analysis. As such, their output may appear to be of a fragmentary nature until placed into
the context of the overall assessment for which they are intended. The following projects are
representative of the supportive research being carried out.
Provide selective augmentation to the Western energy resource
development ITA. The complex nature of this technology assess-
ment requires selected supplemental studies to feed into the
central core ITA. These studies are programmed to enhance the
value of the ITA for policy analysis and decision-making
purposes.
Provide selective augmentation to the electric utility sector ITA
now underway. Such augmentation may take the form of limited
data gathering regarding certain benchmark inputs to the ITA.
Estimate economic, social, and cultural consequences of coal and
oil shale developments to support integrated assessment studies.
Among the objectives will be to develop regional reports on land
and water use and projections on future resources uses and the
resultant environmental impacts of alternative levels of coal and
oil shale developments. (USDA)
Determine the economic and social impacts of energy conserva-
tion for the residential sector using buildings in 10 geographical
areas. Efforts will be made to quantify the energy consumption,
savings, investments and operational costs associated with a num-
ber of energy conserving modifications to residences in the se-
lected areas. (HUD)
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Environmental Control Technology Program
The Interagency Program included $81-million FY 1975 and $56-million in FY 1976 for the
assessment and development of control technologies for Energy Systems. OEMI is now completing
the implementation of the $56-million FY 1977 budget. As described in Chapter 1, the original
interagency task force identified nine program categories in the control technology area. Figure 6
shows proportional distribution of FY 1975 funding allocations for these nine categories, the
distribution of the $56 million FY 76 budget, and planned FY 77 budget.
The $56 million FY 1976 control technology pro-
gram reflects a considerable shift of emphasis within
major program areas relative to FY 1975. The major
shift is within the fossil fuel combustion area, where
resources are shifted away from flue gas desulfurization
(FGD). This is because the FY 1975 funds fully funded
two major FGD demonstration projects which will, it is
expected, adequately demonstrate proven FGD tech-
nology. These demonstrations are of both the regen-
erable processes (in which process materials are
recovered and reused) and the non-regenerable proc-
esses, (in which waste products or "sludge" are dis-
carded.) Emphasis in FY 1976 shifted toward tech-
nology to control nitrogen oxides (NOX) produced by
combustion processes, and to address the special con-
trol problems encountered in these processes that
produce both the oxides of nitrogen (NOX) and of
sulfur (SOX). Emphasis on NOX control for stationary
sources is increasing in order to adjust for the possible
relaxation of the NOX automotive standards.
Another area of increased emphasis in the 1976 pro-
gram is the control of environmental pollutants from
the production of synthetic fuels from coal. Investiga-
tions have accelerated into promising advanced com-
bustion processes such as fluidized bed combustion, in
which a layer of pulverized coal or petroleum residue
(or other fossil fuel such as coal or lignite) is formed
while suspended in a "bed" of compressed air intro-
duced beneath the fuel. Both fluidized bed combustion
and synthetic fuels environmental research and devel-
opment are being increased because of the likelihood
that these technologies will see widespread use in the
U.S. in the coming decades.
In line with the overall Federal objective of greatly
expanding the environmentally acceptable use of the
nation's coal resources, the largest amount of the FY
76 control technology program is, again, targeted for
coal-related R&D. Nearly 64 percent of the budget is Details of the Interagency Program including major
involved with coal related research. The remaining 36 accomplishments for FY 1976 and beyond, both with-
percent is divided among waste-as-fuel, conservation, in the EPA and in other Federal agencies receiving
nuclear, multi-fuel, oil shale, geothermal, and solar Interagency funds, are presented in the following
sections for each major program category.
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Control Technology Funding by Interagency Category
Energy Resource Extraction (9.0%)
Physical/Chemical
Coal Cleaning (5.6%)
Flue Gas
Cleaning (45.5%) .
Control Technology
Program ($81 Million)
Advanced Systems (2.8%)
Improved Efficiency (6.7%)
Thermal Control (4.4%)
Nuclear Waste (6.4%)
Synthetic Fuels (9.4%)
V
Direct Combustion (10.2%)
FY 1975 FUNDING
Advanced Systems (0.7%)
Energy Resource Extraction (10.6%) Improved Efficiency (8.8%)
\ I I Thermal Control (3.1%)
Physical/Chemical *j •- 11 -^^
Coal Cleaning (7.5%)
>»/
\ II / / / \
- Synthetic Fuels (9.3%)
Flue Gas
Cleaning (46.6%)
Control Technology
Program ($55.8 Million)
/ Nuclear Waste (1.1%)
X
Direct Combustion (12.3%)
FY 1976 FUNDING
Energy Resource Extraction (12.6%) Advanced Systems (1.7%)
Improved Efficiency (9.9%)
Physical/Chemical
Coal Cleaning (8.1%)
Flue Gas
Cleaning (38.9%)
Control Technology
Program ($56 Million)
Thermal Control (2.3%)
. Synthetic Fuels (12.3%)
Nuclear Waste (0.0%)
Direct Combustion (14.2%)
FY 1977 FUNDING
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Energy Resource Extraction
If the nation is going to expand its use of domestic energy resources, it will first have to extract
those resources. Digging and/or drilling for energy sources has, in the past, created massive environ-
mental devastation. For example, in the Appalachian region more than 10,000 miles of streams have
been rendered incapable of supporting life because of acid drainage from abandoned (mostly coal)
mines. Already the nation has strip mined an area nearly equal to the state of Connecticut.
But all this is past. In the future energy supplies will
be extracted from even more inhospitable zones where
the environmental impacts can be far more pervasive.
The semi-arid and arid areas of the west, where most of
our low-sulfur coal and readily available oil shale are
located, will be difficult if not impossible to restore
after they are mined. The permanently frozen Alaskan
oil fields and storm-tossed Atlantic outer continental
shelf areas will provide significant oil and natural gas
supplies. But here, again, controlling environmental im-
pacts will be a serious challenge.
The Interagency Program's energy resource extrac-
tion efforts addresses these and other pressing environ-
mental issues. The program is divided into two major
components: solid fuel extraction, and oil and gas
production. The funding for this program represents
6.8 percent of the total Interagency/Environment
Program budget for FY 1976. The energy .resource
extraction program accounts for 11.7 percent of the
total FY 1976 Interagency budget for control tech-
nology development. Projects corresponding to 71 per-
cent of the FY 1976 budget for the resource extraction
program will be undertaken within the EPA. Activities
accounting for the remaining 29 percent will be per-
formed by the USDA and ERDA.
to?
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Solid fuel Extraction
Projects in solid fuel extraction assess potential environmental problems and develop control
methods for underground and surface coal mining and oil shale and uranium extraction. Specific
projects, examples of which are shown below, deal with environmental assessments in mining areas,
demonstration of environmentally sound mining techniques, and development of ground stabil-
ization and vegetation methods for both eastern and semi-arid western mining environments.
Assess, develop, and demonstrate new surf ace mining technology
for the Eastern U.S. The major output of this effort is a manual
of practice on methods for beneficiation and reduction of en-
vironmental damage from active and abandoned surface mines in
the eastern part of the country. This manual will be available
shortly.
Assess, develop, and demonstrate methods for preventing pol-
lution from active and abandoned Western coal mines, both
surface and underground. The assessment phase includes the
development of multi-media environmental baseline data on pol-
lutants from mine spoils, evaluating impact of coal mining on
Indian lands and the Northern Great Plains, and assessment of
the environmental effectiveness of hydraulic mining. The
demonstration phase includes active mine reclamation through
use of surface manipulation of moisture concentration. An end
result of the assessment of overall pollution will be a manual of
practice on methods to abate and prevent such pollution.
Assess, develop and demonstrate methods to prevent pollution
from oil shale and tar sands extraction. In coordination with
other Federal, state, and local agencies and industry, EPA is
assessing the pollution potential and cost effectiveness of oil
shale and tar sands extraction and waste disposal methods, and
will demonstrate the reclamation of spent shale disposal sites.
Preliminary reports on specific oil shale development sites, data
availability, and monitoring techniques are now available. A final
product will be a manual of practice on pollution prevention and
abatement.
Assess, develop and demonstrate methods to control environ-
mental damage from uranium mining and milling. Assessment is
being made of available control technology for active and aban-
doned mining sites and of the cost effectiveness of extraction and
disposal methods.
Assess, develop, and demonstrate methods to control environ-
mental damages from transportation of solids fuels. The com-
plete assessment of the problem includes storage, handling, and
transport methods. The primary product will be a manual of
practice comparing and evaluating the available control tech-
niques.
Prepare handbooks for revegetating Western coal and oil shale
mines. Using existing data coupled with significant additional
research, technical handbooks are being prepared for revegetat-
ing Western coal and oil shale mines for arid and semi-arid areas
through irrigation practices. Included are recommendations on
plant species, methods of planting, soil amendments, seed
sources, and seed bed preparation. (USDA)
Surface manipulations to enhance coal and oil shale mine re-
vegetation. In support of the two above projects, the Department
of Agriculture is evaluating the use of non-mine waste material
(e.g., sewage sludge, wood chips, straw, solid wastes, food proc-
essing wastes) as soil amendments in reclaiming mines. Addi-
tionally, the scientific criteria and recommended guidelines for
determining quality and quantity of growth-supporting media
will be developed. (USDA)
Reduce adverse effects from uranium mill wastes. Appraisals are
being made of 17 inactive uranium ore milling sites in five West-
ern states. Engineering studies and cost estimates for long term
stabilization of radioactive wastes are being developed. The work
includes a limited R&D effort into ways of minimizing radon
escape to the environment, data for evaluation of site cleanup
criteria, and guidance for stabilization. The project will provide a
sound basis for remedial action to minimize public exposure and,
where possible, restore the land for unrestricted future use.
(ERDA)
Prepare handbook on Eastern surface Coal mining vegetative
methods and materials. Based mainly upon existing data and
requiring a minimum of new research, handbooks are being pre-
pared for revegetating Eastern surface coal mines and waste piles.
These handbooks will be used by mine operators, regulatory
agencies, and planning and impact analysis agencies. (USDA)
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Oil and Gas Production
The other major category under energy resource extraction consists of projects related to the
production of oil and natural gas. Since most new domestic production is expected to occur
offshore and in the Alaskan area, there is a very large potential for environmental damage from
spills and other disruptions. For example, most of our commercial ocean fishing depends upon
shoreline wetlands as fish spawning grounds. Such wetlands are exceedingly vulnerable to long-term
disruption from even small-scale offshore oil spills and discharges. The R&D effort in this area
consequently focuses on developing methods to minimize environmental risk and to protect and
restore ecosystems should spills occur.
Demonstrate oil spill control and cleanup capability. The project
involves use of a spills test tank for development and demonstra-
tion of control equipment and techniques. Specific areas of
effort include effective sorbent systems, booms and skimmers
for inland spills, ocean spill control equipment for offshore plat-
forms and deepwater port facilities, proper disposal of spill-
generated debris and sorbents, and chemical and biological spill
control agents. The end products of the project will be manuals
of practice for evaluating spill control methods and for assessing
the extent of contamination and effectiveness of control
measures.
Assess, develop, and demonstrate techniques for the protection
and restoration of shorelines. Areas to be included are ocean
coastal, estuarine, inland river and lake, and cold climate (pri-
marily Alaska) waterfront areas. The principal end products will
be manuals of practice for the protection and restoration of each
type of shoreline.
Assess, develop, and demonstrate control technology for all
aspects of installation and operation of offshore platforms,
product transportation systems, and shore termination facilities.
The main results will be a manual of practice for platform oper-
ations, environmental protection guidelines for siting onshore
pipelines and supporting facilities, and a report on the best avail-
able technology for environmental control at offshore oil and gas
production facilities.
Additionally, there are four other projects planned for imple-
mentation in the post-1976 period. These are evaluation of the
1973 Spill Prevention Regulations, development of treatment
methods for bilge and ballast water at shore reception facilities
including existing ports and planned deepwater ports, develop-
ment of onshore secondary and tertiary recovery procedures,
and development of spill control methods and equipment for the
onshore storage and transportation of LNGand LPG.
Physical/Chemical Coal Cleaning
There are four points in the process of extracting energy from coal at which the major pollutants
(especially sulfur) can be removed. These are: extraction (dig only low-sulfur coals), preparation
(clean the coal or transform it into a clean fuel), combustion (especially in a pollutant-removing
fluidized bed) and/or flue gas cleaning (electrostatic precipitators and "scrubbers"). Of all these
methods, physical and chemical coal cleaning may well hold the most unrealized short- and mid-
term promise.
The primary objective of the physical and chemical
coal cleaning research, development, and demonstra-
tion program is to develop commercially available
processes to remove the ash, the inorganic sulfur, and
as much of the organic sulfur as possible from coal,
thus making an increased quantity of coal acceptable
for use in areas where air quality regulations allow the
combustion of medium (one or two percent) sulfur
coals. A corollary objective is to ensure that acceptable
control or disposal methods are available for handling
the pollutants and waste products from such processes,
or that these waste products can be beneficially used in
an acceptable manner. The latter objective will provide
guidance to the regulatory offices for setting air emis-
sion and water effluent standards and disposal guide-
lines.
The budget allocation for the physical/chemical coal
cleaning program represents 4.3 percent of the total
FY 1976 budget for the Interagency Energy/Environ-
ment Program. About 7.4 percent of the control tech-
nology development budget for FY 1976 was allocated
to the physical/chemical coal cleaning program.
Projects accounting for 73 percent of the total FY
1976 budget are being undertaken within the EPA.
Approximately 27 percent of the FY 1976 budget was
transferred to ERDA and DOI under interagency agree-
ments.
Coal cleaning efforts are divided into two topical
areas: environmental assessment of coal cleaning
processes, and technology development.
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Environmental Assessment of Coal Cleaning
In conducting projects in this category, agencies collect information, conduct sampling, and
analyze programs to provide the necessary data on coal transportation, storage, and physical/
chemical coal cleaning technology. This provides multi-media data bases for identifying environ-
mental problems, determining applicability and efficiency of existing control techniques, and
developing the overall environmental assessment. Supporting tasks include contract efforts to aid
technology transfer and provide quick and flexible technical and systems support to the program.
The approach to obtaining the required environmental data is to conduct extensive sampling and
analysis at two eastern coal cleaning plants, two midwestern plants, and two western plants, in that
order.
Process and combustion studies of hydrothermally treated coals
are underway. Caustic leaching of coals by the Battelle hydro-
thermal treatment process (BMP) is capable of removing up to 95
percent of the pyritic sulfur and 40 percent of the organic sulfur.
The process is also capable of removing significant amounts of
ash and other pollutant forming constituents from coal. A pre-
vious program evaluated the fuel combustion and emission char-
acteristics of raw and BMP coals in small laboratory combustors.
These studies are to be extended to evaluate combustion of raw
and BHPcoals in largerstoker-firedand multifuel furnaces and to
evaluate and compare the combustion and emission character-
istics of coals treated by other physical and chemical processes.
Experimental work and engineering analyses are also being con-
ducted to evaluate process improvements needed to lower the
costs of caustic leaching.
Conduct a comprehensive assessment of environmental pollution
which results from coal transportation, coal storage, coal clean-
ing and coal waste disposal. This assessment includes those pol-
lutants which are currently regulated and all other pollutants,
whether gaseous, liquid or solid, which pose potentially signif-
icant health and/or ecological hazards.
Analyze coal desulfurization by microwave energy. The objec-
tive of this program is to lead to a cost effective method for
reducing sulfur oxide emissions (during coal combustion) to
environmentally acceptable levels. The approach is based on the
use of microwave energy which can be coupled preferentially
into iron pyrites and leachates. Such an action will induce reac-
tions which produce sulfur compounds which can either be
separated easily from coal, or do not convert into sulfur oxides
during combustion.
Technology Development
Within this category, agencies are investigating specific unit operations and processes for physical
and chemical coal cleaning. Available and on-line pollution control for these processes are being
evaluated, and on-site testing and evaluation of commercially used or developed control technology
is continuing. Recommendations will be made on the development of new equipment or control
technology needed for EPA/DOI/ERDA-funded demonstration projects. Specific control system
and disposal technique evaluation and development is being undertaken on specific technologies
which are shown to have the potential for improved control. The program supports development of
new cleaning techniques. A coal-cleaning plant employing advanced processes is being evaluated: to
identify new chemical approaches for removal of sulfur, nitrogen and other pollutants from coal, to
evaluate existing concepts or technology, and to evaluate operation of benchscale testing programs
at a versatile chemical cleaning technology facility. Supporting technical studies characterize coal
residues, report on contaminants in coal, and provide the necessary program and technical support
required.
Test and assess commercial equipment for removing pyritic sul-
fur from fine-size coal, evaluate new chemical processes for
organic sulfur removal, and provide assistance and laboratory
support for the EPA-Pennsylvania Electric-GPU physical coal
cleaning demonstration. Also included are the following:
develop the capability to predict washability as a function of
equipment and cleaning circuit variables, develop technologies to
eliminate the need for coal refuse black water ponds, and con-
tinue the design and construction of a coal washing test facility at
Pittsburgh. (DOI)
Process different types of raw coal through a bench scale facility
for chemical leaching of pyritic sulfur. The study will examine
the raw coal samples for trace constituents, as well as gather the
following data: sulfur removal by chemical leaching as a function
of time, characterization of the products, and trace element dis-
tribution in the products.
Continue efforts to characterize trace elements in coal cleaning
wastes and evaluate elements which are potentially detrimental
to the environment and/or have some economic value. (ERDA)
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Analyze the cost-effectiveness of combined physical coal-clean-
ing and flue gas desulfurization (FGD), compared with FGD
alone, for meeting established environmental standards with
specific coals and specific power plant sites. The final report
from this effort is now available and indicates that, in most cases,
a combined coal-cleaning-FGD approach is significantly more
cost-effective than FGD alone for meeting sulfur emissions
standards. (DOI)
Evaluate physical and chemical processes which may be used to
remove sulfur and other pollutants from coal. A combination of
experimental and engineering analysis will evaluate the follow-
ing: physical coal cleaning techniques for pyrite removal from
fine coal, dewatering and handling techniques, coal preparation
requirements for synthetic fuel processes, chemical coal cleaning
processes, pollution control technology for coal preparation
requirements for synthetic fuel processes, chemical coal cleaning
processes, pollution control technology for coal preparation
processes, the effects of cleaned coal on boiler and air pollution
control device performance, and the costs and performance of
competing equipment and processes.
A development program for treatment of coal to produce low
sulfur, solid fossil fuel is being conducted. This program will
determine, on a bench-and pilot-unit scale, the operating param-
eters for the IGT Process to desulfurize coal by thermal and
chemical means. Coal will be treated with a reducing atmosphere
in the presence of a sulfur getter. Sulfur removal will be deter-
mined as a function of temperature, residence time, coal/getter
ratio,coal composition, and particle size.
Construct a reactor test unit for evaluation of the pyrite leaching
from fine coal, leach solution regeneration, and initial filtration
operations of the Meyers Process for chemical coal desulfur-
ization. The reactor test unit will operate at 250-270 pounds of
coal per hour. The input material is properly sized coal, either
cleaned or uncleaned. The output material is the reacted coal
which has been filtered and washed on the filter.
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Direct Combustion
At present coal and residual oil provide most of the fuel used by utility and industrial boilers. It
appears inevitable that direct use of coal in existing and new boilers will expand during the next
decade. Fluidized bed combustors (FBC) are being developed by the Federal government and
private industry to facilitate the environmentally acceptable use of coal, coal-derived products, and
residual oil.
Large expenditures to improve existing coal-fired
power plant technology would result in relatively little
increase in efficiency. On the other hand, fluidized bed
combustion has the potential for more efficient and
reliable boilers with far less air pollution and solid
waste for disposal. The Interagency Program for direct
combustion involves: (1) environmental assessment
of direct combustion technology, (2) development
of environmental control technology for FBC, and
(3) chemically active fluidized bed (CAFB) oil gasi-
fication/clean-up/combustion processes development.
(CAFB is essentially a fluidized-bed oil gasification
process that uses low grade high sulfur oil to produce
low Btu gas effectively and economically.)
The objectives of the environmental assessment pro-
grams are to characterize air, water, solid waste, and
other environmental problems associated with atmo-
spheric and pressurized fluidized bed combustion
processes, assess control technology in relation to
environmental objectives, publish and update best
available technology and best practicable technology
manuals, and provide an overall environmental analysis.
A major objective of control technology develop-
ment program is to support the National Fluidized Bed
Combustion Program which has the goal of developing
atmospheric and pressurized FBC technologies for
commercialization. This support includes the develop-
ment of laboratory and bench-scale add-on control
technology and process modifications for control of
SOX, NOX, total particulates, hydrocarbons, carbon
monoxide, and hazardous and other pollutants from
FBC, as well as treatment and final disposal techniques
for spent sorbent and ash. The CAFB process for con-
verting heavy high-sulfur, high-metals-content residual
oils to clean high-temperature gaseous fuel will be
demonstrated at small to moderate commercial scale.
Under the technology development effort, much of
the laboratory and bench-scale work on conventional
fluidized bed combustion is being conducted at
EXXON's research laboratory in New Jersey and at
ERDA's Argonne Laboratory. Most of the chemically
active fluidized bed (CAFB) development has been per-
formed by ESSO's United Kingdom Laboratories.
Demonstration of the CAFB process in the U.S. is at
the La Palma Station of Central Power and Light
(Texas) and is jointly funded by EPA and the utility
company. Preliminary results to date indicate that
these technologies not only remove a large portion of
the sulfur from the fuels, but also a great deal of the
heavy metals.
The FY 1976 budget allocation for the direct com-
bustion program represents 6.9 percent of the total
Interagency Energy/Environment program budget. The
allocation for this program constitutes 11.9 percent of
the funding for the control technology development
activities in FY 1976. Projects representing 96 percent
of the total funds for this program are being under-
taken within EPA while ERDA is carrying out activities
accounting for the remaining 4 percent of the FY 1976
budget. Like the coal cleaning program, the Fluidized
bed combustion (FBC) program is divided into two
parts: environmental assessment and technology
development.
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FBC - Environmental Assessment
Studies in this area provide for: (1) the characterization of air, water, solid waste, and other
environmental problems associated with atmospheric and pressurized fluidized bed combustion
processes, (2) development of environmental objectives, and assessment of control technology in
relation to these objectives, and (3) publication of a best available technology manual including an
overall preliminary environmental impact analysis. Comprehensive characterization studies are being
done on all available atmospheric and pressurized systems. Supporting technical tasks will provide
near-term preliminary environmental assessment information, identify the effects of scale on emis-
sions from fluidized bed units, provide sampling and analytical manuals, consider the problem of
special liquid and solid wastes, and evaluate the applicability and problems associated with indus-
trial-scale fluidized boilers. During FY 1976, a preliminary environment assessment report on FBC,
and a report on environmental problems identified through tests, comprehensive analysis and bio-
logical screening were issued. The following are examples of major environmental projects.
Provide a total picture of the fluidized bed combustion process,
including the environmental consequences of fluidized bed com-
bustion processes and the identification of important emissions
to any medium and methods for their control, an assessment of
the technical and economic feasibility of fluidized bed com-
bustion process variations and any required emission control
systems, and emission goals for the fluidized bed combustion
process and desirable emission standards for the next 25-30
years.
Provide assessment of the CAFB process as a clean fuels producer
for a wide range of fuels and uses.
Conduct a "devils advocate" preliminary environmental assess-
ment of the CAFB process, determining which tests should be
run on the unit, evaluate the test results, and prepare a final
report with recommendations to EPA for follow up on project
demonstration and environmental assessment.
Develop measurement techniques to generate engineering data
for environmental assessment and control technology develop-
ment projects evaluating high temperature, high pressure proc-
esses. The two processes of initial interest are high pressure
fluidized bed combustion and coal gasification.
Assess the environmental impact of the disposal and/or utili-
zation of residues from fluidized bed coal combustion and high-
sulfur fuel oil gasification. The specific objectives are to: char-
acterize the residues from these processes, identify the leachate
quantities and constituents from land disposal of the residues,
evaluate the potential environmental impact of disposing the
residues into different environments, and investigate the com-
mercial utilization of these residues.
Demonstrate, on a commercial scale (about 20 MW) the CAFB
process, and perform environmental assessment of the process.
FBC - Control Technology Development
This category deals with the development of laboratory and bench-scale multimedia control
technology for SOX, NOX, total participates, hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, and hazardous and
other pollutants from fluidized bed combustion (FBC), as well as techniques for disposal of spent
sorbent and ash. Available pilot facilities are being used for demonstration of these techniques.
Bench and pilot scale fluidized bed studies are characterizing and developing existing and new
control technology associated with FBC applications. Among the factors studied are: modification
of design conditions, modifications of operating conditions, and add-on control devices for gaseous,
liquid, and solid streams. Engineering and small scale experimental support focus on optimization of
SOX control using a calcium-based sorbent, alternate sorbents and means for SOX control, NOX
formation and control, specific particulate control requirements, trace pollutants control, and
means for disposal and utilization of ash and spent sorbent. During FY 1976, a report on the
assessment of high temperature/pressure particulate control methods was issued, and recom-
mendations are being developed for environmental test facility programs.
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Develop environmental controls for fluidlzed bed combustion
processes. The work includes utilizing calcium-based SO2 con-
trol sorbents, utilizing alternative sorbents for SC>2 control, in-
vestigation of NOX emissions, control of paniculate emissions,
control of trace element emissions, and disposition of ash and
spent sorbent. The program extends previous work carried out
by Westinghouse in the areas identified. It will develop design
and operating data on a variety of fluidized bed combustion
concepts, identify test programs and test alternative system com-
ponents, provide technical support for existing and proposed
plants, and provide evaluation of test data.
Tests are being done to evaluate three novel fine paniculate con-
trol devices. A novel fine paniculate control device for the pur-
poses of this program is defined as an existing full-scale or pilot-
scale device or system based on new collection principles or on
radical redesign of conventional collectors. Control of fine
particulates is emphasized.
Investigate the emissions from combustion of liquid and gaseous
fuels in atmospheric and pressurized combustion. Compre-
hensive analyses for pollutants in addition to the criteria pollut-
ants are being carried out over a range of operating conditions.
Evaluate control technology on actual gas turbine and diesel
engines. Water/fuel oil emulsions and catalytic exhaust devices
are also being studied.
Conduct a theoretical and experimental investigation to deter-
mine the effectiveness of high temperature (1100 C) collection
mechanisms, and to identify mechanisms that might be used to
remove particles from high temperature and/or high pressure gas
streams. Existing and proposed energy processes requiring high
temperature and/or high pressure paniculate cleanup are being
studied to determine the important characteristics, cleanup
requirements, and potential problems of each process.
Evaluate a novel concept for fine particle control in high temper-
ature and pressure systems. The apparatus would collect fine
particles by mechanisms such as diffusion, inertial impaction,
interception and electrophoresis. Program includes theoretical
calculations and testing followed by construction and testing of a
model facility with at least a 500 SCFM capacity.
Conduct bench-scale experimental studies at elevated pressures.
Investigate control technology for the fluidized bed coal
combustion and sorbent regeneration process over a wide range
of variables at a scale equivalent to 0.63 MW.
Design, construct, and operate a small prototype unit (20 MW) at
a utility boiler site. Supporting pilot and engineering projects are
being conducted to provide needed background quick-response
problem solving. This activity includes operation of batch and
semi-continuous pilot systems, and engineering work in such
areas as sulfur removal systems, stone disposal and market alter-
natives, advanced concepts such as pressurized CAFB, and other
control technology evaluation and development.
In laboratory-scale studies, several approaches are being investi-
gated to reduce the quantity of sulfated limestone discharged
from the FBC system. Tests are continuing on regeneration
methods other than reductive decomposition for converting sul-
fated limestone to lime for reuse in the combustion process.
Also, scoping studies are being completed on selecting the best
synthetic SC>2 sorbent and the methods of preparing it. A
synthetic sorbent consisting of CaO impregnated on alumina is
being exhaustively tested. Interactions of sorbent with coal ash,
which reduces the reactivity of the sorbent, is being studied. In
other laboratory studies, the mechanism of I\IOX emission prob-
lem has been completed. The fates of trace elements introduced
to the process in the coal and limestone will be determined for
those elements that are biologically hazardous and those that are
corrosive to metal equipment. Methods of minimizing the release
of these elements are being explored. In bench-scale studies, bet-
ter regenerative processes and equipment configurations
developed in laboratory-scale studies are being tested. (ERDA)
Demonstrate the technical and economic viability of fabric filtra-
tion as a means of fine particle control at high temperatures
(1500°F) and pressure (10 ATM).
Advanced oil processing-chemically active fluidized bed residual
oil cleanup. Demonstrate, at small to moderate commercial scale,
the chemically active fluidized bed (CAFB) process for convert-
ing heavy, high-sulfur, high metals content residual oil to clean,
high-temperature gaseous fuel.
Determine the NO formation-destruction processes in con-
tinuously operated fluidized bed combustors. Batch-type kinetic
studies are being carried out with an externally heated fluidized
bed and a pressurized fluidized bed. The objectives of the study
are to develop a mechanistic mathematical model for the predic-
tion of NO emission, to generate information necessary for the
development of new control technology of NOX emissions, and
to test the mathematical models over wide ranges of operating
variables.
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Flue Gas Cleaning
Cleaning of flue gases from coal-fired utility and industrial boilers has been assigned highest
priority, in terms of FY 1975 and 1976 funding, within the EPA-coordinated Federal Interagency
Energy/Environmental Control Technology R&D Program for several reasons. The primary reason is
that flue gas cleaning (FGC) technology in general, and flue gas desulfurization (FGD) processes in
particular, are important in terms of domestic energy development.
The only way to increase significantly near-term
coal use without severe environmental disruption is to
have air pollution control technology available to meet
the Clean Air Act requirements. Coal conversion (gasi-
fication and liquefaction) processes offer promising
alternatives to conventional fuels, but will not be ready
for commercial application for a decade or more, and
existing coal cleaning facilities cannot meet the full
demand for low-sulfur fuel for a similar period. Succes-
sful flue gas desulfurization R&D will provide the most
important coal combustion control technique available
in the 1970's and 1980's.
Secondly, flue gas desulfurization systems, many of
which are now in commercial operation or on order,
are in the final stages of development. R&D efforts will
be directed toward the remaining problems such as up-
grading operation performance and reliability, mini-
mizing costs, waste product disposal or treatment, and
by-product recovery.
Another major, and growing, segment of the Inter-
agency Program in flue gas cleaning addresses the con-
trol of nitrogen oxides (NOX) emissions. The control of
NOX emissions is being approached from two direc-
tions. One involves preventing (or reducing) the for-
mation of NOX by modifications of combustion
processes. The other involves post-combustion treat-
ment of the flue gas to remove NOX in a manner
analogous to desulfurization. Analyses indicate that the
combustion modification approach, if implemented by
utilities and industry could achieve the required degree
of control with less expense than by post-combustion
treatment. However, combustion modification could
not meet significantly more stringent standards than
presently apply. Post-combustion treatment for NOX
control is being pursued by EPA in conjunction with
investigators in Japan (where NOX standards are more
stringent) as a second approach in case combustion
modification cannot meet changing requirements.
Funding for the Flue Gas Cleaning (FGC) program
in FY 1975 provided capital for two advanced FGC
demonstration plants. Funding levels in FY 1976 and
subsequent years are decreasing since no further full-
scale utility demonstrations are anticipated. Use of FY
1976 funds is producing major national benefits as
these systems are improved sufficiently to enable
large-scale commercial application.
The funds allocated to the flue gas cleaning program
for FY 1976 represent 26.9 percent of the total alloca-
tion for the Interagency Energy/Environment Program.
Approximately 46.3 percent of the FY 1976 funding
for the control technology development program has
been allocated to flue gas cleaning. Projects being
undertaken within EPA account for 83 percent of the
total, and TVA is undertaking projects for the remain-
ing 17 percent of the funds.
Flue gas cleaning program plans include continued
work on the two full-scale advanced system demonstra-
tion plants. One of these is an advanced non-regen-
erable system (sludge-producing), and the other will
produce marketable elemental sulfur as a regenerable
byproduct. As part of the Interagency Program, TVA is
providing a commercial-scale facility to serve as host
for a major demonstration.
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In addition to R&D on advanced scrubber systems,
waste disposal techniques, and NOX control systems,
the FGC Program includes the characterization of fine
particulates and other hazardous pollutants such as
trace materials from coal combustion and metallic acid
sulfates. It also includes R&D on possible control tech-
niques for these pollutants.
The role of fine particulates (that is, particles in the
<5 micron range) as biologically active air pollutants is
becoming increasingly apparent. Practicable control
technology will be identified by the FGC program
prior to the setting of future fine particulate standards.
The technical approach is to pursue remedies for the
deficiencies in existing control equipment, to apply
new concepts as discovered, and to demonstrate suc-
cessful advancement in fine particulates removal tech-
nology. High priority is being given to a comprehensive
technology transfer program so that the expertise gen-
erated under the Interagency Program can be applied
commercially.
To facilitate a fuller understanding of the extensive
flue gas cleaning research and development effort (the
largest single study area in the Interagency Program)
the many individual projects have been grouped into
four categories. These are: (1) flue gas desulfurization,
(2) control of nitrogen oxides and other combustion
pollutants, (3) treatment of control process wastes, and
(4) technology transfer supporting research. The prin-
cipal projects are described below according to these
four categories.
Flue Gas Desulfurization
If domestic coal reserves are to be used without unacceptable damage to health and the environ-
ment, a way must be found to remove the sulfur from higher-sulfur coal before or during com-
bustion or from flue gases after the coal is burned. For a number of years, EPA has led efforts to
remove sulfur compounds from flue gases, and flue gas desulfurization is proving to be a major
success of the Interagency Program. Current efforts are concentrating on improving cost efficiencies
and developing and refining regenerable processes where the material which removes the sulfur can
be repeatedly reused within the system. The major project areas of flue gas cleaning are described in
more detail below.
Non-regenerable flue gas desulfurization. This program involves
both in-house and extra-mural development/demonstration
projects directed toward improving the performance and eco-
nomics of lime and limestone flue gas desulfurization (FGD).
The major emphasis is on the continuation of the advanced test-
ing program at the Shawnee prototype facility (TVA).TheTVA
and venturi/spray scrubbers are being tested with the objectives
of improving the reliability of system components such as mist
eliminators, and minimizing sludge production through the
maximization of alkali utilization. A computer program for per-
forming economic trade-off analysis is being developed, and this
program will be used for minimizing capital and operating costs.
Regenerable flue gas desulfurization. The objective here is the
demonstration of FGD processes which regenerate the sorbent
and produce marketable sulfur products. The initiation or con-
tinuation of prototype or full-scale demonstration projects
involving Wellman-Lord/Allied, magnesium oxide, and citrate
processes and the pilot-scale evaluation of the ammonia-ABS
process occurred in FY 1976. Additionally, the final design of a
selected advanced (second generation) regenerable process
demonstration system was completed. The construction and
demonstration of this system is in progress. In coordination with
the NOX flue gas treatment (FGT) program, evaluation of
processes capable of removing both SOX and NOX is being con-
ducted. Activities will be continued in support of expanding the
applicability of magnesia scrubbing FGD and demonstrating the
generation and use of reductant gases for production of ele-
mental sulfur.
Energy conservation study of selected processes for removing
SO2 from power plant stack gases. This activity involves surveys
of (1) published data on energy requirements for selected
processes and (2) energy requirements for operating and planned
demonstration, and commercial units. Summaries of current
energy requirements based on the above surveys of desulfur-
ization processes were prepared during FY 1976. This will be
followed by the preparation of a feasibility study of process
modifications for reducing energy requirements of selected
processes. (TVA)
Advanced concepts SO2 removal process improvements. This
activity involves laboratory and bench-scale studies of absorp-
tion and regeneration in a potassium-based scrubbing system.
Oxidation in solution, and slurry scrubbing systems for SO2
removal are being studied at the laboratory and bench-scale
levels. Laboratory studies of recovery of SO2 as dilute sulfuric
acid and utilization in fertilizer processes is also being conduc-
ted. (TVA)
Development of flue gas desulfurization technology-Shawnee
lime/limestone scrubbing program. The Tennessee Valley
Authority (TVA) has undertaken the development of non-
renewable lime and limestone scrubbing processes for flue gas
desulfurization. The Shawnee lime/limestone scrubbing program
involves short-term and long-term testing of advanced concepts
for improving the reliability and economics of these processes.
The equipment and materials of construction are being evalu-
ated. During FY 1976, the base portion of a lime/limestone
process economic evaluation computer program was completed.
Field testing of sludge disposal techniques has been undertaken.
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An intensive test program at the full-scale lime scrubbing facility
at Louisville Gas and Electric's (LG&E) Paddy's Run Station was
initiated during FY 1976. Factors responsible for reliable and
unsaturated operation of this scrubber are being identified. An
evaluation of lime scrubbing (Banco process) as a viable control
technology for industrial coal-fired boilers is currently being per-
formed at the Rickenbacker Air Force Base. Development/
demonstration of double alkali FGD systems, ai reliable second
generation alternatives to lime/limestone scrubbing, will be con-
tinued. Pilot-scale test studies in support of EPA-sponsored test
program at Gulf Power's 20 MW prototype D/A system has been
completed in FY 1976. A full-scale demonstration of a com-
petitively selected double alkali process on a coal-fired utility
boiler will be initiated via an industry/EPA cost-shared contract.
An independent third party will formulate and perform a com-
prehensive test program at this demonstration facility. The
efficiency of using double alkali technology for SOX control of
industry boilers will be evaluated by completing tests now under-
way at a General Motors 32 MW facility.The scrubber evaluation
phase of the LG&E test program has been completed and the
results will soon be published. The pilot/prototype test program
and the design of a full-scale double alkali installation has also
been completed during FY1976.
and Other Pollutants
As energy/environment problems involving the sulfur content of fuels are gradually solved, more
emphasis is being given to other pollutants which may result from the burning of fossil fuels. Chief
among these pollutants are oxides of nitrogen and fine particulates, including many trace metals.
Environmental assessments are currently underway for a number of promising control techniques.
In addition to flue gas cleaning, combustion modification processes are under development which
manipulate fuel burning to produce less pollutants.
NOX control environmental assessment/application testing.
Determine the environmental emissions of NOX and other com-
bustion-related pollutants from stationary combustion sources
and evaluate the environmental effectiveness and impact (as
compared to the uncontrolled state) of combustion control
modifications. Such modifications include alternative operating
conditions, retrofit control, maximum stationary source tech-
nology (MSST) for existing units (extensive retrofit) and MSST
for new units (optimized design or alternate processes). Analyses
will assess the impact of the control technologies, as applied to
various sources, on the environmental quality of various regions
or areas, and will investigate various NOX strategy options.
Combustion pollutant assessment and control technology for
conventional combustion systems. An identity matrix across air,
water, and solid waste pollutants summarizing current and
planned work will be included in a preliminary environmental
assessment document. This matrix will define the major data
base by combustion system type. A total environmental assess-
ment of conventional combustion systems will be conducted to
quantify the potential air, water, and solid waste pollutants
identified in the matrix. The environmental assessment will
quantify all pollutants, rank pollutants according to environ-
mental impacts, delineate the established or potential impact in
the areas of air, water, and solid waste pollution, and define
operating parameters deemed relevant to the composiiton and
quantity of pollution emissions.
Develop and demonstrate practical technology for controlling
NOX and related combustion-generated pollutants. Due to the
nature of the generation of nitrogen oxides, the emphasis is on
the modification of the conditions under which fuel combustion
takes place. The effective techniques for combustion modifica-
tion can be optimized to reduce or eliminate emissions of other
pollutants. This program emphasizes source-specific field
application of control techniques to a variety of stationary
sources, including utility, industrial, and commercial boilers,
residential furnaces, industrial process furnaces, stationary
engines, and advanced processes.
NOX flue gas treatment assessment including an assessment of
the extent to which FGT could be used in an optimized NOX
control strategy for stationary sources. Based on these assess-
ments, the program provides for the development and demon-
stration of NOX FGT technology, and will produce information
concerning the economic, energy and environmental aspects of
commercial application. The four major elements of this pro-
gram are: (1) continuation of ongoing FGT bench and pilot scale
efforts directed toward NOX removal in the presence of low SOX
concentration (in coordination with regenerable FGD projects);
(2) initiation of a project for development of processes which
will remove both SOX and NOX; (3) evaluation of both the U.S.
and the Japanese FGT technologies in order to identify the most
promising processes for U.S. applications, with the objective
reviewing and modifying the total NOX FGT program where
appropriate; and (4) based on the above efforts, undertake
demonstration of larger scale prototypes.
Fine particulate control technologies capable of effectively re-
moving large fractions of ~3 micron particles from waste gases.
The technical approach is to identify capabilities of existing
equipment (electrostatic precipitators, filters, scrubbers and
proprietary devices), determine deficiencies in present design
and operating procedures, and pursue remedies for the defi-
ciencies through research and development. Results will be
applicable to improvements in high temperature, high pressure
particulate removal devices, including entrainment separator
systems, utility boiler and municipal incinerator baghouses,
mobile scrubber test units, foam scrubbing, fine particle charg-
ing, and charged droplet scrubbers.
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Treatment of Control Process Wastes
Most of the flue gas cleaning schemes which remove sulfur and other pollutants from stacks result
in accumulations of waste sludge. So that the solid waste problem does not become as much of an
environmental burden as pollutants emitted from stacks, a substantial category of the flue gas
cleaning program is devoted to finding means to recycle or dispose of the waste sludges from stack
cleaning processes. Besides treatment methods for safe disposal and design of systems to reuse
wastes, other projects seek to develop byproducts from the wastes that can be sold to offset the
costs of controls.
Control of wastes and water pollution. Evaluate, develop, and
demonstrate environmentally acceptable, cost-effective tech-
niques for disposal and utilization of wastes from flue gas clean-
ing, with emphasis on FGD sludge. Demonstrate systems for
maximizing power plant water reuse/recycle. This effort includes
laboratory and pilot field studies of disposal techniques for un-
treated and chemically treated FGD sludges, including lined and
unlined ponding and land-fill, coal mine disposal and ocean dis-
posal. Additional efforts support bench-and pilot-scale testing of
FGD sludge utilization schemes such as the use of FGD gypsum
in Portland cement, sludge conversion to sulfur (with regen-
eration of limestone), and extraction of alumina from fly ash or
clay (with conversion of FGD sludge to dicalcium silicate and
sulfur).
Byproduct marketing. In this project, the potential for market-
ing of byproducts (S, H2SO4, (IMH4)2SC>4, CaSO4) of SOX
abatement processes is subjected to a system analysis of these
processes. The potential uses of abatement sulfur byproducts in
the fertilizer industry are also being studied. A flue gas scrubbing
strategy system will be developed for evaluating alternative
strategies for optimum technology mix considering product
markets (sulfur, sulfuric acid, ammonium sulfate, phosphate
fertilizers, wallboard, etc), process cost differentials, and clean
fuel alternatives. (TVA)
Processing lime/limestone sludges. Fertilizer production from
lime/limestone scrubbing sludges is being studied, and scrubber
operations are being correlated to sludge characteristics. Disposal
methods for waste products from fluidized-bed combustion
processes are also being determined. (TVA)
Fly ash characterization and disposal. The major tasks are: (1)
summarization of data on coal and ash, emphasizing the quan-
tity, physical characteristics and chemical properties; (2) char-
acterization of physical properties and chemical constituents of
coal, ash and ash effluent; (3) identification and summarization
of promising methods of disposal and utilization of fly ash; (4)
summarization of methods of treatment for making power plant
water suitable for reuse; and (5) summarization of methods of
dry and wet fly ash handling, and identification of major con-
siderations in the design of dry and wet fly ash handling systems.
(TVA)
Characterization of effluents from coal fired boilers. Character-
ization and assessment of coal pile drainage, assessment of pH
adjustment on ash pond effluent,characterization of chlorinated
water effluent, analysis of ways to reduce chlorinated effluent,
and assessment of the influence of chemical constituents from
the ash pond on ground water quality. (TVA)
Technology Transfer and Support
Within the flue gas cleaning program, there is a need for integrative studies which tie together the
component parts. A flue gas desulfurization system for a power plant is not the only environmental
requirement. For example, the plant may also emit nitrogen oxides and fine particulates, and may
produce accumulations of control process solid waste. Technology transfer supporting research
looks at all aspects of flue gas problems to develop information on comparative cost and efficiencies
of various control technologies and combinations of technologies.
FGD technology transfer and supporting studies. This program
deals with effective dissemination and application of the findings
of EPA, utility, and industrial FGC development/demonstration
efforts. Major activities include surveys of control technology
application status, the development of a model for site-specific
FGC option determination, the evaluation of relative impacts on
ambient air quality of emissions from various combustion
sources, and the study/development of new innovative sludge
disposal techniques.
Develop comparative economics of control processes. The study
includes economic analysis of one citrate, one sulfur-producing
(regenerable), and one double alkali process, including: base-case
capital investment and operating costs of selected processes, and
capital investments and operating costs of alternative methods of
sludge disposal. (TVA)
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Synthetic Fuels
The Interagency Program for synthetic fuels seeks to assure that large-scale commercial applica-
tion of synthetic fuel production and utilization can be achieved within tolerable environmental
limits. The program's approach involves three principal efforts: assessing environmental effects of
synthetic fuels technology, establishing control objectives through standards-of-practice manuals
and support of standard-setting, and developing control technology as necessary.
The synthetic fuels program itself is mainly con-
cerned with the conversion of coal to clean liquid and
gaseous fuels, the processing of oil shale, and the
recovery and utilization of byproducts. Optimally, this
program would require sequential R&D following the
logical progression from one functional area to the
next (i.e., from pollutant identification, to transport
processes, to health and ecological effects, to control
technology RD&D, to integrated technology assess-
ment). However, environmental control technology
R&D will have to be conducted concurrently with
environmental assessment R&D because some synthetic
fuel processes using currently available technology
(such as Lurgi) may be employed in first generation
commercial plants in the near future. Development
and/or assessment of appropriate control technology is
accelerated to permit early commercialization and to
minimize the diseconomies associated with retrofitting
of pollution controls.
Under EPA's strategy, first-generation synthetic fuel
processes (such as the Lurgi, Koppers-Totzek, Winkler
processes which are currently in commercial use in
foreign countries) will be rapidly assessed from the
available data. Standards of practice manuals will be
issued in the near future to guide pollution control
technology for these first-generation processes. For
second-generation processes (e.g., HYGAS, Synthane,
C02 Acceptor, SRC, etc.) more time will be available
for obtaining more complete assessment data and for
performing additional R&D as required to develop
optimal control processes. These assessments will be
completed and control technology requirements
defined well in advance of commercialization of the
second-generation processes.
The FY 1976 budget allocation for the synthetic
fuels program amounts to 5.4 percent of the FY 1976
funding for the Interagency Energy/Environment Pro-
gram, and 9.4 percent of the budget for control tech-
nology development. The projects being undertaken
within EPA represent 80 percent of the total budget
for the synthetic fuels program. ERDA is undertaking
projects accounting for the remaining 20 percent of the
budget.
Environmental Assessment of Synthetic Fuel Processes
This category involves characterization of fossil fuels to determine potential pollutants that may
be released as a result of their conversion to synthetic fuels. It also includes analysis and field
environmental testing of specific conversion processes to determine pollutant releases. A portion of
the characterization of coal conversion processes will be performed on specific ERDA-sponsored
processes. Testing will also be done at foreign facilities representative of first generation plants. The
overall effort will provide an evaluation of available control technology and manuals of pollution
control practices on a schedule consistent with both EPA's standard-setting schedule and ERDA's
anticipated commercial-scale installations. This activity will also provide directions, data, and
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samples to the environmental effects programs. The following are some of the major projects
currently underway.
Perform an assessment of coal conversion technologies which
produce a low- and/or intermediate-Btu gas. The impacts of
utilizing the product gas for fuel or chemical feedstock purposes
will also be determined. The study will be based primarily on an
engineering analysis of existing data to predict impacts, assess
control technology capabilities, and identify additional data
requirements.
Analyze the factors and conditions which cause the production
of environmental pollutants in synthetic fuels processes. The
approach is to design, fabricate, and operate a laboratory scale
reactor to simulate conditions of synthetic fuel reactors. The
work will include studying the effect on pollutant formation of
different input coals and reactor parameters, and determining
the kinetics of pollutant formation in order to provide data for
environmental assessment and development of control tech-
nology.
Perform an environmental assessment of fuel gas generation/
combined cycle power generation. This will be accomplished via
paper studies which utilize the latest gasifier performance data
and effluent discharges data. Air and oxygen blown gasifiers will
be evaluated as well as fluidized bed and molted salt types. The
program will provide a comparison of these gasifiers on both an
environmental and economic basis when operating in an inte-
grated coal gasification-advanced cycle power generating system.
Develop methods for chemical characterization of aqueous
effluents from the retorting processes being used to develop oil
shale in the Green Riverformation. (ERDA)
Perform a multimedia environmental assessment of the tech-
nologies for converting coal into high Btu products, including
preliminary impact assessment, input material characterization,
process engineering studies and control technology evaluations.
Provide a preliminary evaluation of biomass production and con-
version technologies, and their associated environmental con-
sequences. Five categories of biomass production are considered
in detail: agricultural and forestry wastes, aquaculture (aquatic
plant species which may be cultivated for energy production),
silviculture (intense cultivation of tree species) energy crops
(special crops adaptable to intense cultivation for the production
of energy), and urban and industrial waste.
Evaluate the environmental impact and effect on industrial
processes when a low or intermediate energy gas from coal is used
as an on-site generated industrial fuel.
Assess the environmental impact of oil shale development. The
project includes acquisition of the necessary background data on
the principal industrial shale recovery processes and U.S. shale
resources, a comparative assessment of their environmental
acceptability and an evaluation of technologies available for the
control of air, water, and solid waste emissions. Preliminary
reports on these projects are currently available.
Assess the environmental impact of wastewater contaminants
originating from the production of synthetic fuels from coal, and
to evaluate alternative waste water treatment technologies for
the control of these contaminants.
A compilation of available techniques for treating and controll-
ing emissions from the various processes and operations will be
developed. From these efforts, a comprehensive test program
for ERDA coal conversion facilities will be developed and con-
ducted. The test program will be based on specific processes
being supported by ERDA and identified by mutual agreement
between EPA and ERDA. This test program will identify proc-
esses and effluent streams to be monitored, types of analytical
methods to be used, and operating data to be collected. (ERDA)
Control Technology - Synthetic Fuels
The major effort in control technology development has been evaluating the need for new
technology for the major process streams in first and second generation processes. Ongoing efforts
concentrate on controlling pollution from secondary streams (i.e., waste or byproduct streams).
Technology for high-temperature high-pressure desulfurization and particulate removal from gas
streams, and transfer of control technology from metallurgical and petroleum processing to syn-
thetic fuels processing, will be investigated. The following are some of the major projects underway.
Characterize coal, its products, byproducts, and wastes with
regard to their pollutants and possible mechanisms for control in
synthetic fuel processes. Develop reliable methods for identify-
ing the location, circumstances, and form in which organically-
combined potential pollutants in coal are bound and released.
Evaluate emission performance of alternate fuels and advanced
concept control techniques. The study uses a 300,000 Btu/hr
versatile experimental furnace for comparison of alternate fuel
performance. The basic furnace allows for burner design changes
as well as staged combustion and flue gas recirculation.
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Estimate effectiveness of alternative control technologies for
synthetic fuels systems. Capital and operating costs will be deter-
mined. A description of each control technology including its
costs, effectiveness, limitations, advantages and disadvantages
will be produced. Most of the coal processes under consideration
will produce byproduct streams which may or may not be fuels.
In addition, the control system will itself generate effluents.
These primary and secondary materials will be identified and the
quantities estimated. Methods of disposal (by sale, conversion to
useful materials, or discharge) will be identified to permit oper-
ation in an environmentally acceptable manner. Effluents not
only from the process and control systems, but from ancillary
units such as hydrogen and oxygen production, water treatment,
and other unit processes will be considered. (ERDA)
Analyze use of low Btu gas (LBG) with careful attention to
overall system design. Special emphasis is on use of high temper-
ature. Nitrogen compound containing LBG without production
of high levels of NOX and other pollutants.
Conduct additional experiments to produce optimum low-
emissions burner design criteria for the major burner classes.
Establish the relative controls available through the various burn-
er designs and classical modification techniques as well as estab-
lish what operation parameters will be changed. Results will
provide a basis for low-pollution design criteria with other fossil
fuel systems including low-Btu gases at ambient and elevated
delivery temperatures.
Obtain data on an existing coal gasification complex and to
analyze its significance to the environment. Gather existing data,
much of it unpublished, on the quantities and compositions of
effluent streams. The information will be multimedia and will
include descriptions of the process, flow diagrams, heat balances,
and material balances on important constituents.
Nuclear Waste Control
The objective of the Interagency Program for nuclear technology is to minimize the environ-
mental impacts of the processing of nuclear fuels and the disposal of nuclear wastes at various stages
in the nuclear fuel cycle. Under the Interagency Program, ERDA has the lead role in organizing
systematic efforts to develop methodologies for assessing the environmental impact of high level
and low level radioactive wastes, and to develop techniques for the disposal of these wastes.
The FY 1976 budget allocation for the nuclear waste control program represents approximately
0.5 percent of the total Interagency Energy/Environment Program budget and 1 percent of the
funds for control technology development. The following projects are currently underway.
Evaluation of problems and limitations of the ocean as a radio-
active waste management alternative. The target for this project
is to complete the container evaluation studies and the physical,
chemical, biological and radiological measurements at both the
East and West Coast sites for dumping radioactive wastes.
Improving model for simulating groundwater transport of radio-
active pollutants from buried low-level radioactive wastes.
Definition of the radon-222 source term from uranium mill
wastes. This project involves summarizing the interrelations
among radium content, moisture and radon exhalations from
fill tailings piles in a variety of climatological settings typical of
the pertinent areas of the U.S.
Management and engineering study for commercial low-level
burial sites. A bibliography is being developed of pertinent com-
pleted studies on on-going work in the area of low-level radio-
active burial sites.
Thermal Control
Power plants discharge large amounts of heat into cooling water (ranging from 48 percent of the
total heat input for fossil fuel fired plants to 60 percent for power plants using nuclear fuels). The
construction of new coal fired and nuclear electric power plants to either meet new demand or
replace outdated equipment is expected to magnify the problem of waste heat in plant siting. Under
the Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1972, EPA is required to regulate thermal effluents.
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The FY 1976 budget allocation for the thermal con-
trol program represents 1.8 percent of the total Inter-
agency Energy/Environment Program budget and 3.1
percent of the control technology development alloca-
tion. About 76 percent of the funding for this program
is associated with projects being performed within
EPA.
The major objectives of the thermal control pro-
gram are: (1) provide design and performance data for
improved cooling devices to be used in conjunction
with nuclear and modern fossil fueled power plants; (2)
reduce the dependence upon rivers and lakes as heat
sinks for power plants (and minimize the environ-
mental impact of heat discharged when it is impossible
to avoid using natural water bodies as heat sinks); and
(3) explore the use of waste heat for agricultural, cyclic
storage, and other purposes. Projects in the Interagency
Program for thermal control divide into two major
areas: cooling technology; and waste heat and water
use.
Cooling Technology
Emphasis is on the development of attractive second generation cooling technologies applicable
to a variety of power generation systems. This effort involves TVA support in evaluating the
performance of advance cooling towers (dry and wet/dry cooling towers) and rotary spray coolers,
and in studying means of diverting fish from cooling water intake structures. Where necessary,
control technology development for secondary environmental impacts associated with these innova-
tive techniques will be undertaken. A program for developing control technology for ice fog gen-
erated by boilers and cooling ponds is also underway. The effectiveness of these techniques will be
demonstrated.
Advanced cooling technology performance and economics.
Studies deal with optimization techniques for dry heat ex-
changers, the application of wet/dry cooling technology to
power plants for water conservation and fog control, and the
development and demonstration of controls for secondary waste
streams from cooling systems. The application of vertical tube
evaporators in blowdown control commenced in FY 1976, as did
a one-year evaluation of alternatives to chlorine for the control
of algae and fungi in condenser cooling systems, and the demon-
stration of a vapor compression brine cycle concentrator for
blowdown treatment. Reports on these activities are, or will soon
be, available.
Develop ice control fog technology for stationary sources (Uni-
versity of Alaska). Initially, ice fog from heat and power plants
and H2O scrubbers for coal fired plants are being evaluated.
Evaporation prevention on closed cycle cooling is viewed as a
technique for controlling ice fog.
Test and evaluate advanced waste heat control technologies.
Studies include the application of membrane technology to
power plant waste waters, the evaluation of fish pumps and other
techniques for directing fish away from intake channels at power
plants, and the assessment of rotor spray cooling devices. In
addition, the performance, economics and water quality of wet
and dry cooling towers are being compared. (TVA)
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Waste Heat and Water Use
The program for waste heat and water use addresses the identification and demonstration of
multiple cascading uses of energy at ever-decreasing temperature levels. Efforts seek to determine
the feasibility of using the energy content of residual heat streams—air and water—from non-power
energy intensive industries and emerging energy conversion technologies. This portion of the Inter-
agency Program has EPA cooperating with the Departments of Interior and Agriculture.
Advanced waste heat and water utilization. This activity involves Identify the technology needed for recovering heat energy from
identification and demonstration of integrated use facilities, power plant condenser discharge waters for use in food and fiber
utilization of residual heat, and assessment of associated environ- production. Tasks include the heating of soil to extend crop
mental benefits and penalties. Cascading energy use application, growing season, optimizing the biological cycling of nutrients in
and the feasibility and economics of utilizing power plant heat livestock waste, and environmental controls for confined live-
for agricultural purposes is under study. stock operations. (TVA)
Determine the feasibility of high density recovery production of
catfish using waste heat discharges from steam electric power
plants. (TVA)
Improved Efficiency
For the foreseeable future, one of the most important sources of an added increment of energy
availability will be the combined efforts to both conserve energy and to use it more efficiently. At
first glance, it would appear as though the conservation of energy were, by definition, of benefit to
the environment. For instance, if the energy is not consumed, then all of the pollution and environ-
mental disruption associated with its extraction, conversion, processing and use is avoided.
On closer scrutiny, however, it becomes apparent opment activities in FY 1976. All the "improved
that some energy-conserving processes are more envi- efficiency" projects with FY 1976 funding are per-
ronmentally beneficial than others, and that a few formed by EPA. About 29 percent of the FY 1976
energy conservation activities could cause severe funds are allocated to the industrial conservation pro-
environmental disruption or threaten human health. gram and the remaining 71 percent will be expended
EPA's projects aimed toward reducing adverse on "wastes as fuel" projects. The waste-as-fuel program
environmental effects from energy conserving indus- is being emphasized because of its potential in helping
trial processes are grouped into two main components: to solve two problems at once. First, combustion or
industrial conservation and wastes as fuel. The FY conversion of wastes may add significantly to our
1976 budget allocation for the improved efficiency energy supply. Second, processing wastes for fuels
program amounts to 5.1 percent of the total outlay of significantly reduces both the volume and environ-
the Interagency Energy/Environment Program. The mental impact of our solid waste disposal burden.
improved efficiency program accounts for 8.8 percent These projects are described below.
of the funds allocated to the control technology devel-
Industrial Conservation
Energy-saving industrial process changes due to increased energy costs and governmental regula-
tions or incentives may cause unanticipated pollutant emissions. It is essential that projects in the
Interagency R&D Program address the potential adverse environmental impacts of any of these
process changes which are designed primarily to conserve energy use. The projects in this sub-
category range from literature surveys to on-site environmental assessments of specific industries.
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In addition to evaluating the environmental impact of new and adapted energy conserving
processes, research is underway to develop systems which will not increase pollution burdens. The
objective of the control technology category is the development of energy-conserving processes
which also result in less pollution or which are amenable to pollution control systems.
Identify expected process and practice changes for major energy
consuming industries, characterize the total environment im-
pact, determine adequacy of available control technology and
identify situations where policy decisions are needed to assure
maximum energy savings with minimal environmental insult.
Research is currently underway to assess the potential environ-
mental impact of advanced fuel cycles such as high temperature,
open and closed cycle gas turbines, potassium topping cycles,
thermionics, thermogalvanics, magnetohydrodynamics (MHD),
and Feher cycle. Systems being developed will be compared for
environmental effects, energy savings, efficiency, economics and
reliability.
Develop, demonstrate and evaluate various industrial process and
pollution control technologies which are environmentally bene-
ficial. Presently planned are assessments of hyperfiltration in the
textile industry and off-gas heat recovery in non-ferrous smelters
and a glass agglomerate/preheat system.
Review available information on indoor air quality measure-
ments and the effects of energy conservation efforts on indoor
air quality. Monitor and model indoor air quality as a function of
energy conservation measures.
Examine and develop systems which simultaneously conserve
energy and reduce pollutants. Test these systems for overall
efficiency and pollutant emissions and determine their economic
feasibility.
Waste-as-fuel Assessment
The principal objective of this research category is to assure the Nation's ability to tap an as-yet
essentially unused energy resource—solid waste—to help meet the energy needs in an environ-
mentally acceptable manner. Major waste-as-fuel technologies and methods will be explored to
determine their environmental impact. These include the use of waste as fuel in large pulverized
coal-fired boilers, other types of coal-fired burners, oil-fired boilers, industrial and smaller institu-
tional boilers and waste pyrolytic (or other thermochemical) conversion to fuels and/or other
materials. The program will produce the technological, economic, and environmental assessments of
major waste-as-fuel processes under development.
Evaluate co-incineration of sewage sludge with waste to address
the technical, economic, and environmental aspects of supplying
the heat required to thermally degrade sewage sludge with
refuse-derived fuel.
Report on air pollution control technology for existing processes
involving particularly the cofiring of wastes with conventional
fossil fuels and involving the thermochemical conversion of
wastes to energy.
Develop environmental assessment criteria, sampling and
analysis techniques, and the acquisition of pollutant emission
data for new and existing processes for resource recovery and
waste byconversion processes.
Identify and characterize industrial and major non-industrial
waste streams and project quantities, distributions, and composi-
tions to 1990. Develop scenarios to account for the effects of
increased conventional energy costs, regulatory actions, market
forces,and institutional relationships.
Produce comparative technical and economic evaluations of
major competing waste-as-fuel processes (supplementary fuel
options vs. direct conversion to electricity vs. pyrolytic conver-
sion vs. bioconversion, etc.). Research and development is being
conducted on a large scale to develop and environmentally assess
different waste-as-supplementary fuel options. Data is being
gathered on the technical and economic feasibility of directly
converting energy from municipal wastes to electricity in a gas
turbine. Technical, economic and environmental assessments of
the concept of co-firing refuse-derived-fuel with oil in large boil-
ers is being performed.
Evaluate and assess existing equipment, techniques, and proc-
esses for preparing refuse-derived fuels and feedstocks for energy
recovery. Develop and evaluate pre-processing equipment and
systems for various energy recovery technologies.
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Waste-as-fuel Development
Besides performing environmental impact assessment for the various waste-as-fuel schemes, the
Interagency Program also has an active role in the development of the most promising waste-as-fuel
technologies. Projects in this area include pre-combustion processing techniques for waste, several
pyrolysis processes, co-firing waste with other fuels, and development of specific waste-as-fuel
pollution control technology. A number of studies are being conducted in cooperation with cities
and utility companies to demonstrate that waste-as-fuel is a viable energy alternative that can also
be environmentally acceptable.
Provide third-party engineering evaluation of emerging waste-to-
energy processes. The evaluation includes cost figures and poten-
tial technical problems for the most prominent of the current
and developing processes.
Develop models relating fraction of fuel products (gas, liquid,
solid) produced in pyrolysis of various types of solid wastes as
function of pyrolyzed conditions. Investigate chemical conver-
sions including steam gasification, partial oxidation, and cat-
alytic effects of bed materials, and characterize pyrolysis
products including char and oil.
Design, fabricate, and test a portable pyrolytic conversion
system capable of converting bulky wet low energy agricultural
wastes into a dense dry high energy fuel.
Evaluate the operational worth and environmental aspects of
adding combustible so'id matter to wastewater plant sludges and
filter cakes to offset part or all of the fuels conventionally used in
sludge incineration. Low-sulfur coal and combustible solid
wastes are being utilized as admix materials in various test
sequences. Wastes to be tried include shredded combustibles
from refuse, in pelletized and loose form, wood chips, and indus-
trial combustible wastes. A full-scale multiple hearth furnace in a
modern wastewater treatment plant is being used. Applicability
to other incinerators of the 200-plus total in United States' com-
munities is being assessed. Assay of stack gases, after scrubbing,
includes relevant chemical properties of public health signifi-
cance. Scrubber drainage and ash are also assayed.
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Assess the effects of using municipal solid waste (MSW) as a
supplementary fuel at the Ames, Iowa plant. Since one of the
Ames boilers is the same as that at St. Louis, studies permit
confirmation and comparison of St. Louis test results.
Study technical and economic aspects of alternative preprocess-
ing equipment and systems for converting municipal solid waste
into a fuel or feedstock for fuel conversion systems. The study is
intended to advance the state-of-the-art of waste-to-energy
systems. Field tests of existing equipment and systems will be
conducted to provide design and operational information.
Complete test and evaluation of the refuse preparation and firing
processes used by the City of St. Louis in its municipal wastes-
to-energy projects.
Analyze the technical and economic aspects of preparing and
using densified forms of municipal solid waste as a supple-
mentary fuel in industrial and institutional stoker coal fired
boilers. Investigations are being conducted to establish method-
ology for preparing densified refuse derived fuel (d-RDF).
Process and product characterizations are being developed to
enable establishment of specifications for d-RDF.
Determine the feasibility, both technical and economic, of pyro-
lyzingthe organic fraction of municipal solid waste to sufficient
quantity of hydrocarbon gases (ethy lene, ethan, etc.) to produce
chemical intermediates. Phase I is directed towards the poly-
merization of hydrocarbon fraction to liquid fuel (polymer gaso-
line) suitable for internal combustion engine operation.
Advanced Energy Systems
Advanced energy systems are now under development and will gradually have an impact on our
energy picture. In this area, the Interagency Program concentrates on anticipatory research and
development for those energy systems which will be developed over the long term. Assessment
studies will provide baseline information about the potential environmental impact of geothermal
and solar energy systems. In the geothermal research program, the emphasis is on prediction and
control of pollutant buildup in ground and surface waters. The solar energy systems research
examines land use and siting difficulties associated with such systems and their resultant social,
economic and institutional implications.
The funding allocation to the interagency program for advanced energy systems represents 0.25
percent of the total Interagency Energy/Environment Program budget for FY 1976, and 0.43
percent of the control technology development program. All the projects in this program are being
undertaken within EPA. The following advanced energy research programs are underway.
Provide a preliminary environmental assessment of the potential
uses of the geopressured geothermal waters of the Gulf Coast
area of the United States. It will be accomplished by a literature
survey and compilation of available data to characterize the
resources, potential and projected uses, potential multimedia
emissions and effects, waste control requirements and control
technology.
Evaluate the effect of geothermal energy pollutants on the local
species. Samples from plants and animals in the vicinity of geo-
thermal development areas are being analyzed. Effect of geo-
thermal pollutants will be noted and included as a part of the
total monitoring strategy.
The environmental impacts of solar energy technology and
systems will be identified and assessed (e.g., construction and
emission including thermal). Based on NSF, NASA and ERDA
projected experimental programs, the pollutant release potential
to air, water, and land will be characterized and assessed. Even-
tually, a model will be used for assessing the hourly, daily, and
seasonal average improvement in air quality as a function of the
fraction of residential and commercial facilities using solar heat-
ing and cooling systems in medium to major urban areas.
A guideline document will be developed for the multimedia mon-
itoring strategy around any geothermal resource development. A
handbook of referenced geothermal sampling techniques and
sample analyses is being developed.
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Glossary
The following terms appear in the text and frequently are used to characterize various aspects of
control technology or processes and effects associated with the development of energy technologies.
These terms are defined and, where appropriate, are related to energy activities.
Aquifer—a subsurface geological formation containing
water.
Some aquifers are situated near the land surface
where their upper limit is defined as the water table.
Deeper aquifers may be utilized as a source of
potable water. Aquifers may become contaminated
by pollutants associated with materials disposed on
land and which migrate through porous soils, gravel,
and fissures, cracks, and caverns in subsurface rock
formations.
Aromatic compound—an organic compound possessing
at least one unsaturated bond in a ring structure.
Many aromatic compounds vaporize easily. Most
compounds identified as carcinogens are aromatic.
Bacteriophage—a virus that is a parasite of bacteria.
Bacteriophages are utilized in studies designed to
determine the effects of pollutants on genetic mech-
anisms.
Benign tumor—a tumor that has no tendency to meta-
stasize, form new foci of disease in a distant part,
and is usually somewhat size restricted.
These tumors are of interest as some are precursors
of malignancies.
Cancer—an abnormal, uncontrolled growth of cells or
cellular tissue that, if untreated, is likely to cause
death.
Cancerous growths usually are distinguished from
other tumors by their ability to metastasize or to
give off cells that spread to other parts of the body
to form new tumors. Certain pollutants associated
with various stages of energy production are sus-
pected to be carcinogens.
Carcinogen—a substance which is responsible for the
production of cancer (carcinogenesis).
EPA has a strong interest in the identification, isola-
tion, and elimination of carcinogenic substances
resulting from energy operations.
Co-carcinogenesis—a process in which a compound
activates a potential carcinogen.
Many pollutants exist in mixtures of waste prod-
ucts. Co-carcinogenic effects are investigated as a
potential cause of cancer in humans.
Cytotoxicity—the state of being poisonous to cells or
cellular tissues.
Various types of cells are used to assess the degree
to which various pollutants are deleterious to
human health. Cytotoxicity usually is expressed as
an estimation of the number of cells killed as a
result of exposure to a particular concentration of a
pollutant over a specified period of time.
Flume—an artificial trough carrying water or a natural
narrow passageway for water, usually in a river.
The amount of water moving past a particular point
is measured in a flume. These measurements are
important in determining the total amount of a pol-
lutant existent in a water body.
Free radical—a compound or element possessing one or
more unpaired electrons.
Free radicals are extremely active and combine read-
ily with certain substances. They are suspected to be
involved in many processes harmful to human
health, including carcinogenesis.
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Furan compounds—derivatives of the ring compound,
furan.
Furans are produced in coal technologies and are
examined for their toxicological properties.
Infrared spectroscopy—a technique in which the
measurement of the amount of absorption of infra-
red light is used to identify organic compounds.
This is a sophisticated technique which can be used
to identify certain types of molecular groups and is
useful in the identification and measurement of
organic pollutants.
In vitro—a latin phrase used to indicate the existence of
an artificial environment which is outside of a living
organism, usually in a test tube.
In vitro tests are adaptable to replication, controlled
experimentation, and unrestricted observation.
These conditions are not easily obtainable in live
animal testing.
In vivo—a latin phrase used to indicate a condition ex-
istent within a living organism.
In vivo studies are essential to ascertain how various
pollutants affect the living organism as a whole.
Malignant tumor—a tumor that usually has the tend-
ence to metastasize and, if untreated, often is fatal
to the host organism.
This type of tumor is commonly referred to as a
cancer.
Metastasis—the process whereby a malignant tumor
releases cells which are carried within the blood or
lymph system to other parts of the body where they
implant and form new malignant tumors.
Microwave spectrography—a technique in which the
measurement of the amount of absorption of micro-
wave radiation is used to identify free radicals or
metals which possess one or more unpaired elec-
trons.
This is a new technique which has a high potential
for use in the detection and measurement of low
concentrations of potential pollutants.
Mutagenicity—the capability of a chemical or physical
agent (mutagen) to induce mutations.
EPA has a strong interest in the identification, isola-
tion, and elimination of mutagenic substances
resulting from energy operations for the protection
of human health.
Mutation—an inheritable change in the genetic code
and thus the characteristics of an offspring as con-
trasted to the parent. This term may be applied to
cells of a given type or to whole organisms.
Neoplasm—a new or abnormal growth.
This term is often, but mistakenly, restricted to
malignant tumors. Neoplasms may originate from
many causes. They may become cancerous as a result
of stress from pollutants which stimulate neoplastic
changes.
Neurophysiology—a science which relates to the func-
tions, vital processes, and parts of the nervous
system.
Many pollutants act in an insidious manner on the
nervous system and their effects may not be observ-
able until the damage is irreversible. A considerable
effort is made to identify and control these pol-
lutants.
NOx—various oxides of nitrogen.
These compounds are released mostly as air emis-
sions by various energy operations. Many are toxic
and are a focus for research with regard to their
environmental transport, fate, and effects, and to
the technologies for their control.
Phenols—aromatic ring compounds which possess one
or more hydroxyl radicals as the primary group.
Various energy technologies produce phenols as
waste by-products, some of which are highly toxic.
Polycyclic aromatic compounds—aromatic compounds
possessing many rings.
These compounds represent the largest and most
potent class of carcinogens and represent a primary
research effort in terms of pollution control.
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Raman spectroscopy—the use of visible mono-
chromatic light, usually laser light, to irradiate a
sample for measurement of the quality of the scat-
tered radiation.
This is a new technique which is advantageous with
respect to infrared spectrography and other
methods utilized for pollutant analysis in that it has
a high sensitivity for the detection and measurement
of inorganic materials dissolved in water.
SOx—various oxides of sulfur.
These compounds are released mostly as air emis-
sions by various energy operations. Many are cor-
rosive and are harmful to human health when
inhaled. The abatement of emissions of these sub-
stances is a main goal of the control technology
research program.
Synergism—the simultaneous action of several com-
pounds or agents so that their combined effect is
greater than the sum of their individual effects.
Since specific pollutants generally are released in
association with other pollutants, the effects of
their combined action is a major area of research.
Teratogen—a substance capable of causing physical
defects in the developing fetus (teratogeny or
teratogenesis).
With an increasing number of women entering the
work force, a problem of the incidence of birth
defects caused by pollutants emanating from energy
facilities is of major importance. Investigations are
being conducted to characterize the nature and
extent of the potential problem.
Toxicity—the state of being poisonous.
Many pollutants cause harmful effects which are
observed within a short period of time. Others ex-
hibit chronic toxicity wherein their effects are not
readily observable. Toxicity usually is measured as
the concentration of a pollutant required to pro-
duce a defined response within a specified period of
time.
Tumor—a mass of tissue distinct from its surroundings
and not found in the normal body. Tumors are gen-
erally classified as malignant or benign.
Tumorigenesis—the production of a benign or malig-
nant tumor.
Weir—a low man-made impoundment usually con-
structed to divert water through an aperture
designed to measure the rate of flow.
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