United Stales
environmental Protection
Anency
Office of Research
and Development
Washington, D.C. 20460
ORD Special Report
to Congress
EPA-600/9-77 002
February 1977
aeEPA
Environmental Research
Outlook 1977-1981
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EPA-600/9-77-002
February 1977
ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH OUTLOOK
FY 1977 through FY 1981
REPORT TO CONGRESS
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
UNITED STATES ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
WASHINGTON, D.C. 20460
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This report has been reviewed by the Office of Research and Development,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and approved for publication.
Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute
endorsement or recommendation for use.
COVER PHOTO SOURCE: EPA/DOCUMERICA
ii
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FOREWORD
Prudent environmental management must rest on a sound technical and
scientific basis. The development of such a base depends on a strong,
viable and timely research effort. I strongly believe that the Environ-
mental Protection Agency's research must both anticipate future requirements
as well as be responsive to the present needs of an Agency whose mandate is
to protect and enhance the quality of the environment.
This document is the second in our series of annually-updated summaries
of environmental research activities, priorities, and trends. Comments
received from around the Nation on our first issue were extremely valuable
in restructuring basic material for this version. As before, we have
attempted to raise issues and identify where and when environmental problems
will be occurring and when they might be solved.
The original five-year outlook provided a useful vehicle to establish
a dialogue among concerned parties. Continuing the dialogue will allow
building a meaningful and responsive program based on the outcome of the
resolution of various issues raised. I hope that this dialogue will be
maintained in the future.
As always, I invite your comments and suggestions on both the Research
and Development Program and the "Outlook".
K. Talley
Assistant Administrator'
for Research and Development
111
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CONTENTS
Section Page
FOREWORD iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS iv
THE OUTLOOK 1
INTRODUCTION 1
LEGISLATIVE AUTHORITIES 3
ORGANIZATION 3
LABORATORY FUNCTIONS 10
THE ROLE OF RESEARCH 14
CONSTRAINTS 16
RESEARCH APPROACHES • 19
PRIORITIES 21
TRENDS AND OPTIONS 23
THE PROGRAMS 32
INTRODUCTION 32
HEALTH AND ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS 33
i
Health Effects 35
Ecological Processes and Effects 48
Transport and Fate of Pollutants 57
Criteria Development and Socioeconomic Studies 65
PUBLIC SECTOR ACTIVITIES 68
Waste Management 69
Water Supply 78
Environmental Management 82
INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES 84
Renewable Resources 87
Minerals, Processing and Manufacturing 97
iv
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CONTENTS
Section Page
ENERGY/ENVIRONMENT 105
Energy Health and Ecological Effects 108
Energy Extraction and Processing Technology 116
Energy Conservation, Utilization and Technology
Assessment 123
MONITORING AND TECHNICAL SUPPORT 132
Monitoring, Techniques and Equipment Development .... 132
Quality Assurance 142
Technical Support 146
CURRENT INTEREST MODULES 153
NONPOINT SOURCES OF WATER POLLUTION 154
ENVIRONMENTAL CARCINOGENS 158
SULFATES 165
EFFECTS OF INCREASED ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION 168
CONTROL OF TOXIC SUBSTANCES 174
RESOURCE CONSERVATION AND RECOVERY 180
INTERAGENCY ACTIVITIES 182
BACKGROUND 182
CURRENT STATUS 183
TREND 185
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SECTION I
THE OUTLOOK
INTRODUCTION
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was created by
Presidential order in December of 1970. This order brought together
fifteen programs from several Federal Government agencies to mount a
coordinated attack on environmental problems. These problems include air
and water pollution, solid waste management, pesticides, water supply,
radiation, noise and toxic substances.
The mission assigned to the Agency is to protect and enhance the
quality of the environment. As man's interactions with the environ-
ment become increasingly prevalent, it is sought to reduce the detrimental
impacts of those actions to achieve the national objectives of improved
health and welfare for our citizens.
In pursuit of its mission, EPA must achieve its objectives in a manner
that is consistent with other national goals. Since environmental impacts
are associated with nearly all human activities, EPA must act to assist,
coordinate, and direct the fight against environmental degradation on a
national basis. This requires coordination and cooperation with the
numerous national, state and local institutions (private as well as public)
and their respective environmental program activities and skills.
The Agency approaches this national objective through several
different means:
Informs the public on environmental matters.
Conducts an environmental research program.
Disseminates information on environmental problems,
their sources, impacts and solutions.
Assists state and local governments in a variety of
planning and wastewater treatment construction activities.
Demonstrates how to protect and enhance environmental
quality.
Provides technical assistance in the solution of
environmental problems.
Establishes environmental criteria and standards and
assures the enforcement of environmental regulations.
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The Office of Research and Development (ORD), in support of
the Agency's mission, conducts a comprehensive and integrated research
and development (R&D) program within the Agency to assure the develop-
ment of:
. The scientific basis for environmental criteria.
. The technological basis to develop environmental control standards.
. Measurement methods and quality control for accurate and reliable
quantification of environmental conditions for assessments,
implementation and standards enforcement.
. Cost-effective pollution control technology alternatives and
incentives for implementing environmentally desirable options.
. Scientific, .technical, socioeconomic and institutional method-
ologies for judging and balancing environmental management
options against competing national needs.
The ORD therefore functions to seek, identify, characterize, and
understand environmental interactions, and to develop minimum impact
alternatives to man's demands on the environment. The ORD's research is
complemented and supplemented by general scientific and technical research
of other national institutions (Federal agencies, universities, private
industry and research organizations and elsewhere).
More general functions of ORD include the development and mainten-
ance of government expertise capable of responding to emergencies and
providing expert consultation and testimony when necessary; sharing the
results of environmental R&D with a wide range of individuals, institutions,
and agencies in ways that are meaningful and practical; and providing
expert scientific and technical assistance to other EPA offices to aid in
the formulation of environmental policy and regulations. The ORD also
supports the Agency's activities in many international organizations with
mutual environmental R&D concerns.
What follows is the second annual five-year Research Outlook. It
describes in general ORD's projected research program options within
certain constraints for the FY 1977 - FY 1981 period, including the ration-
ale, resource needs and priorities. The purpose of the report is to
present a flexible research plan to support the Agency's mission. This
plan, as implemented, will result in coordinating the national requirements
to understand the factors affecting the quality of our environment. It
should also result in developing means to protect and enhance the environ-
ment. An updated report will be issued each year, reflecting changes, if
any, in emphasis within programs and the anticipated nature of environmental
research during the five-year period which follows the year of publication.
As a public document, the plan also becomes a vehicle to solicit the
views, opinions, needs and criticisms of all public and private institutions
concerned with the environment.
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The plan is supplemented by a series of more detailed reports which
highlight past year accomplishments; provide a program guide description to
the current budget year, and describe the research focused on current
interest environmental issues (module reports). A list of these to be
issued during FY-1977 is as follows:
. ORD Program Guide - Fiscal Year 1977 (October 1976)
. ORD Environmental Research Outlook FY 1978-1982 (due
February 1977)
. ORD Annual Report-Fiscal Year 1976 (due Spring 1977)
. ORD Current Interest Module Reports (due during FY 1977)
. ORD Subprogram Summaries (due during FY 1977)
LEGISLATIVE AUTHORITIES
The EPA is recognized by Congress as the official implementing Agency
for a broad range of public laws addressing specific environmental problems.
The principlal relevant legislation is listed in Table 1.
Over the past decade, the trend in legislation has been towards
increasing Federal involvement in setting environmental quality regulations
and, where appropriate, assuring that they are enforced. The necessity of
having firm evidence on environmental damages in support of legal defense
of ambient emission and effluent standards has had a noticeable effect on
the internal priorities of EPA's research in recent years, i.e., increasing
emphasis on human health and ecological effects in lieu of technology
development. The latest environmental laws (toxics, solid and hazardous
wastes) indicate a growing sophistication in the type of problems addressed
(specific pollutants as opposed to general pollution indicators) and an
increasing awareness of the interconnection of air, water and land pollution
problems.
Each act of law contains general and specific mandates and authorities
which require the acquisition or development of scientific and technical
information. To meet these many different requirements efficiently, a
research organization has evolved which groups disciplines and problem
areas into manageable program areas.
ORGANIZATION
The organizational structure of the Office of Research and Develop-
ment is based primarily on a time frame for research response to the
various legislative demands, objectives and goals. A secondary considerat-
ion is size and nature of a generic research effort, while another is
problem area. Organization by profession (discipline) or environmental
medium (air, water, land) is not a major determinant in implementing the
research program. This is because comprehensive analyses of problems
utilizing the expertise of many different professions has been shown to be
necessary in environmental research.
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TABLE 1
SUMMARY OF LEGISLATIVE AUTHORITIES
PUBLIC LAW NO. TITLE YEAR PASSED
78-410 Public Health Service Act 1944
89-272 Solid Waste Disposal Act 1965
91-190 National Environmental Policy Act 1969
91-604 Clean Air Act Amendments 1970
92-500 Federal Water Pollution
Control Act Amendments 1972
92-532 Marine Protection, Research and
Sanctuaries Act 1972
92-574 Noise Control Act 1972
92-583 Federal Insecticide, Fungicide
Rodenticide Act Amendments 1972
93-523 Safe Drinking Water Act 1974
(New)
94-469 Toxic Substances Control Act 1976
94-580 Resource Conservation and
Recovery Act 1976
Within ORD, major short-term response activities (primarily quality
assurance, monitoring techniques and equipment development and technical
support) responding to the immediate needs of other Agency programs, are
grouped together under the Office of Monitoring and Technical Supports
(OMTS).
The relatively more stable long-term activities, relating to the
determination of the human health and ecological effects of pollutants are
conducted by the Office of Health and Ecological Effects (OHEE).
The remaining research activities aimed at meeting legislative and
Agency objectives through control or abatement technology—are, because of
their nature and size, organized into two offices: the Office of Air, Land
and Water Use (OALWU); and the Office of Energy, Minerals, and Industry
(OEMI). These offices are primarily responsible for technological research
and development, which includes pollutant source characterization, assess-
ments of impacts (for example, of sources on ambient pollutant levels), and
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and the development of abatement methods and technology. The OALWU addresses
environmental problems primarily arising from public and agricultural
sector activities while OEMI addresses those from activities normally
associated with the private sector (i.e., industry). Where practical and
justified, these offices administer and structure programs which are
integrated with all other ORD programs, such as effects, transport,
monitoring, etc.
These four offices plan and implement the research program which is
divided into fourteen subprograms as shown in Table 2, and as described
below.
TABLE 2
PROGRAM STRUCTURE VERSUS ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE
Program Structure
Health and Ecological Effects Program
Health Effects
Ecological Processes and Effects
Transport and Fate of Pollutants
Public Sector Activities Program
Waste Management
Water Supply
Environmental Management
Industrial Processes Program
Renewable Resources
Minerals, Processing, and Mfg.
Energy/Environment Program
Health and Ecological Effects
Extraction and Processing Technology
Consv., Utilization, Tech. Assessments
Monitoring and Technical Support Program
Monitoring Techn. and Equip. Dev.
Quality Assurance
Technical Support
Organizational Structure*
OHEE OALWU OEMI OMTS
P
P
I
I
I
I
P I
P I
P I
P I
P I
I
I
I
P I
*Legend
OHEE: Office of Health and Ecological Effects
OALWU: Office of Air, Land, and Water Use
OEMI: Office of Energy, Minerals and Industry
OMTS: Office of Monitoring and Technical Support
P: Office has program planning responsibility.
I: Office has program implementation responsibility.
P I
P
P I
P I
I
I
P I
P I
P I
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Health Effects is a research program where scientists evaluate human
health hazards associated with pollution in a number of media and categor-
ies, including air, water, pesticides, non-ionizing radiation and toxic
chemicals, in order to provide a scientific basis for setting ambient
environmental standards to protect human health.
Ecological Process and Effects research determines the effects of
pollutants on the structure and function of ecosystems and on components
of such systems.
Transport and Fate of Pollutants research produces empirical and
analytical methods to allow relating air, water and land pollution
emissions to ambient exposures.
Waste Management research focuses on the prevention, control, treat-
ment, and management of pollution resulting from community, residential or
other non-industrial activities. This area includes collection, transport
and treatment of municipal wastewater, control of land surface runoff
and management of solid and hazardous wastes.
Water Supply activities include research necessary to provide a depend-
able and safe supply of drinking water, and to prevent health damage
resulting from contaminants in drinking water.
Environmental Management research analyzes the institutional, economic,
and decision-making problems faced by governmental multimedia environ-
mental programs at the state, regional and local level, and evaluates new
management methods for implementation of integrated environmental protect-
ion plans based on regional objectives.
Renewable Resources research activities encompass the development
of total management and technological systems to control air, water,
and land pollution resulting from the production and harvesting of food and
fiber. This area includes the assessment of probable trends in the product-
ion of renewable resources and their resulting environmental impact.
Mineral Processing and Manufacturing research is concerned with point
sources of all pollutants from the industrial sector of the economy. It is
focused on those mining, manufacturing, service, and trade industries which
are involved in the extraction, processing and production of non-energy
materials into consumer products.
Energy Health and Ecological Effects research includes those efforts
necessary to determine the environmental effects associated directly with
energy extraction, transmission, conversion and use.
Energy Extraction and Processing Technology covers the characteriza-
tion of pollutants sources, assessment of environmental problems and
development of control methods to mitigate the environmental impact of
the mining and processing of coal and other energy resources. Solid,
liquid, and gaseous fuels, as well as such non-fossil energy sources
as uranium and geothermal sites are considered.
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Energy Conservation, Utilization and Technology Assessment research
is aimed at assuring adequate energy production from fossil fuels with
minimum damage to environmental quality. It includes integrated technology
assessment, which identifies environmentally, economically, and socially
acceptable alternatives for meeting national energy demands.
Monitoring Techniques and Equipment Development research develops
methods, procedures and instruments to identify and measure pollutants
based on physical chemical, radiological and biological principles.
Quality Assurance serves all environmental monitoring activities of
the Agency- Its purpose is to standardize methods of measurement and to
assure that monitoring data used to support regulatory programs are
scientifically valid.
Technical Support is provided by the research program to other
elements of the Agency. This is not research, but rather the applica-
tion of recent findings in all fields, and the lending of research personnel
and facilities to other parts of the Agency for immediate or unusual
needs. This subprogram also includes ORD's research information dissemina-
tion activity, which serves the scientific information and data requirements
of the Agency and state and local organizations by providing them with the
latest information resulting from ORD programs.
Figure 1 presents the official structure of the Office of Research
and Development, including the various laboratories. Table 2 shows how
the fourteen subprograms are assigned among the five major program areas
and four offices. Research planning activities are centered in a single
office for all subprograms except monitoring and equipment techniques
development (which is jointly conducted by OMTS and OALWU). This allows
efficient utilization of personnel and program area skills. The imple-
mentation of the subprograms may occur in one or more ORD offices depending
on the capabilities of the organizations and laboratories.
In addition to the program and subprogram activities described above,
other activities are conducted by the ORD offices. Direct technical
assistance to EPA operating programs is a continuous task of each ORD
program. In to support of their assigned programs, activities such as
socioeconomics and pollutant source characterization research are conducted
as needed to directly support the objectives of each of the five major
programs. All the major activities and their relationships with the four
offices is shown in Figure 2. Here it should be noted that there are
integrated activities among the four offices, with scientific research
flowing into technology research to assist in formulating technological
objectives. The final products delivered to the operational programs are
shown as the "base" and outer envelope of Figure 2, since Technical Support/
Assistance and Quality Assurance subprograms are designed to be responsive
to the near-term needs of the Agency.
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ASSISTANT ADMINISTRATOR
WILSON K. TALLEY
ASSOCIATE ASST. ADM.
CARL R. GERBER
TECHNICAL
INFORMATIOr
DIVISION
ECOLOGICAL
EFFECTS
DIVISION
CRITERIA
DEVELOPMENT AND
SPECIAL STUDIES
DIVISION
ENVIRONMENTAL
MONITORING & SUPP
LABORATORY -
RESEARCH TRIANGLI
S. DAVID SHEARER
ENVIRONMENTAL
MONITORING & SUPPORT
LABORATORY-
CINCINNATI
DWIGHTG. BALLINGER
ENVIRONMENTAL'
MONITORING 4 SUPPORT
LABORATORY -
LAS VEGAS
VACANT.
RIVESVILLE, W.VA.
ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES
RESEARCH LABORATORY -
RESEARCH TRIANGLE PARK
A. PAUL ALTSHULLER
MUNICIPAL
ENVIRONMENTAL
RESEARCH
LABORATORY -
CINCINNATI
FRANCIS T. MAYO
tf C. GALEGAR
ENVIRONMENTAL
RESEARCH
LABORATORY -
EDISON. N.J.
HEALTH EFFECTS R
LABORATORY -
RESARCH THIANGL
JOHN H. KNELSON
LABORATORY -
CINCINNATI
R. JOHN QARNER
ESEARCH
E PARK
"WENATCHEE, WASH.
FIGURE 1 - OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE
ENVIRONMENTAL RESARCH
LABORATORY -
CORVALLIS
A.F, BARTSCH
i/IRONI
JTAL RESEARCH
LABORATORY -
DULUTH
DONALD I. MOUNT
tOSSE ILE, MICH.
MONTECELLO, MINN.
LWTOWN. OH.
ERIC 5. SCHNEIDER
I
RONMENTAL RESEARCH
LABORATORY -
GULF BREEZE
THOMAS W. DUKE
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MONITORING
EQUIPMENT
FIGURE 2 - INTERRELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN ORD ACTIVITIES AND OFFICES
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LABORATORY FUNCTIONS
The principal functions of the headquarters ORD staff are planning,
coordination and review of the Agency research program. Functionally,
this is accomplished through continuous comparison of research needs with
program outputs, leading to preparation of annual "Objective Statements,"
which are transmitted to one or more of the fifteen laboratories for
implementation. The Objective Statements address final research product
specifications only. The laboratory to which a specific objective is
assigned prepares an official "Accomplishment Plan" which outlines the
specific methods for implementation of the research. Periodic headquarters/
laboratory program review meetings keep EPA headquarters staff informed on
the status of accomplishment of the stated objectives.
Each laboratory is' headed by a Director who reports directly to one of
the four Deputy Assistant Administrators in charge of the four principal
headquarters offices. The fifteen-laboratories all have distinct funct-
ions, and are accountable to their Deputy Assistant Administrator as
described in Table 3.
TABLE 3
EPA RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT LABORATORIES
LABORATORY
OMTS Laboratories
Environmental
Monitoring and
Support Laboratory-
Research Triangle
Park, NC
FUNCTIONS
Air pollution quality assurance
Development .of air
monitoring' methods and equipment
Fuels and additives registration
Technical support
Environmental
Monitoring and
Support Laboratory-
Cincinnati, OH
Water quality assurance
Development of drinking and waste
water monitoring methods and
equipment
Technical support
(Continued)
10
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TABLE 3 (Continued)
EPA RESEABCH AND DEVELOPMENT LABORATORIES
LABORATORY
FUNCTIONS
Environmental
Monitoring and
Support Laboratory-
Las Vegas, NV
Development of remote
sensing techniques for all media
Multimedia quality assurance
EPA coordinator for nuclear tests
Technical support
Operating of Agency airborne
monitoring fleet
Biological monitoring
Environmental Research
Information Center-
Cincinnati, OH
Technology transfer
Research Information
dissemination
OEMI Laboratories
Industrial Environmental
Research Laboratory -
Cincinnati, OH
Technology development and environment
assessments of food, fiber, non-
ferrous metal, inorganic chemical,
and miscellaneous industries, and
energy conservation technologies
Industrial Environmental
Research Laboratory-
Research Triangle
Park, NC
Technology development and environment
assessment for power utility
ferrous metals, petroleum refining
petrochemical, agricultural chemical,
emerging energy industries and
textile industries
(Continued)
11
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TABLE 3 (Continued)
EPA RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT LABORATORIES
LABORATORY
OALWU Laboratories
Environmental Sciences
Laboratory - Research
Triangle Park, NC
FUNCTIONS
Characterization of air pollution
emissions and their relationship to
ambient air quality
Development of methods and instruments
for indentification and measurement
of air pollutants
Evaluation of air pollution effects
on climate and atmosphere.
Municipal Environmental
Research Laboratory -
Cincinnati, OH
Technology development and
assessments for public sector
wastes (municipal wastewater, urban
runoff and hazardous and solid wastes)
Technology development to maintain and
improve the quality of public drinking
water supplies
Development of comprehensive environ-
mental management methods
Robert S. Kerr
Environmental Research
Laboratory - Ada, OK
Research on transport and fate
of pollutants in ground water
Technology development and assessment
of municipal waste waters by soil
treatment systems
Research on control of pollution
from irrigated agriculuture
Research on control of pollution
from animal production
Environmental Research
Laboratory - Athens, GA
Research on fate and
transport of pollutants
in fresh water and soils
(Continued)
12
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TABLE 3 (Continued)
EPA RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT LABORATORIES
LABORATORY
FUNCTIONS
Research on control of
pollutants from nonirrigated
agriculture and forestry
Develop methods for identifying
and measuring pollutants in
water, soil and sediment
OHEE Laboratories
Health Effects
Research Laboratory-
Research Triangle Park, NC
Impacts of air pollutants
on human populations
Non-ionizing radiation effects
Clinical studies on impact
of air pollutants on humans
Animal toxicological research
to assess human hazards from
multiroute exposure
Health Effects Research
Laboratory - Cincinnati, OH
Scientific health bases for
setting ambient water
quality standards
Scientific bases for setting
drinking water standards
Animal toxicological studies of air
pollutants from mobile sources
Water toxicological analyses
Environmental Research
Laboratory - Corvallis, OR
Effects of pollutants on
terrestrial, fresh water
and marine ecosystems
Biospherical modeling of pollutant
impacts on ecological systems
13
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TABLE 3 (Continued)
EPA RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT LABORATORIES
LABORATORY
FUNCTIONS
Environmental Research
Laboratory - Duluth, MN
Development of ecological effects
criteria for pollutants in fresh
water
Development of models of
pollution in the Great Lakes
Environmental Research
Laboratory - Narragansett, RI
Development of ecological
effects criteria for
pollutants in marine waters
Environmental Research
Laboratory - Gulf Breeze, FL
- Analysis of impacts of pesticides
on marine ecosystems
THE ROLE OF RESEARCH
With the thrust of recent legislation, the process of environmental
protection has become principally regulatory in nature. The role of
research in this process is to improve the effectiveness of protecting and
enhancing the environment. This requires providing new information and
developments which allow early detection and resolution of new environ-
mental problems and continued improvement in the resolution of recognized
problems. This role of research is shown in Figure 3, where research in
monitoring, transport and fate, health and ecological effects and impacts,
technology development and environmental management are shown as interdepen-
dent functions providing new and improved inputs to the program offices
which will increase the capability for applying the most appropriate
restrictions on environmental pollutants through regulations.
The regulatory process can, in theory, be conducted in the absence
of new research findings, using as a basis for the regulations current
"state-of-art" information. This approach is not amenable to control
pollution from new problem areas, nor may it be adequate to effectively
resolve currently known problems. In recognition of this, Congress in the
passage of environmental legislation, has specifically required and
authorized that R&D be conducted in the majority of cases.
14
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With no research, a stagnant regulatory condition could prevail,
one where existing problems may only be partially corrected, and where the
capability to deal with new problems would be very limited. This is
because the private sector has few incentives to develop new environmental
information and control technology. Therefore, if the mission of EPA is
to protect and enhance the environment from current impacts and from
growing pollution potentials, research is not a separable function of the
Agency, but an integral one.
The ORD outputs, as a part of the regulatory process, provide a
measure of objectivity to the Agency's regulatory decisions. This results
because ORD, as an independent entity within the Agency, is responsible
directly to the Administrator for the information it develops and not
for the development of regulations. The amenability of scientific research
findings to analysis also adds an element of objectivity to program reported
research. The practice of promoting a program's perception of research
information is thus limited. To assure improved objectivity, ORD programs
are becoming increasingly structured to involve the participation of
multi-interest groups to evaluate ORD sponsored research information.
CONSTRAINTS
Legislative
In developing the research program, certain authorizations and con-
straints must be recognized. Key among these are the legislated authoriza-
tions and mandates. The major pieces of legislation under which EPA
operates contain broad, essentially all-encompassing authorizations for
research and development on the "effects, prevention, abatement, control"
of pollution as shown in Table 4. Overlapping these broad authorizations
are many specific authorizations or even mandates that relate to work on
specific problems (e.g., acid mine drainage, lake restoration, automotive
emission controls, etc.), or that authorize certain special types of
funding mechanisms for eligible grantee or contractor organizations. In
addition there are other implied mandates for R&D that derive from im-
plementation dates for major environmental protection regulations and
legislative objectives and goals.
In addition to the direction of authorizing Acts, other Congressional
mandates are often found in Appropriations Reports. In FY 1976, for
example, the Congressional Appropriations and Conference Reports contained
specific guidance for R&D on assessment of the potential environmental,
social, and economic impacts of the proposed concentration of power plants
in the lower Ohio River Basin and an assessment of environmental factors
having an adverse impact on the Chesapeake Bay, including establishment of
data collection and monitoring systems, determination of governmental units
that have management responsibility and how such responsibility can be
structured so that communication and coordination can be improved among all
concerned parties.
16
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Legislative Base
TABLE 4. LEGISLATIVE BASE FOR ORD RESEARCH
Research Programs and Subprograms
Health and Ecological Effects
Health Effects
Ecological Processes and Effects
Transport and Fate
Public Sector Activities
Waste Management
Water Supply
Environmental Management
Industrial Processes
Renewable Resources
Minerals, Processing and Manufacturing
Energy
Extraction and Processing Technology
Conservation, Utilization and Technology Assessment
Health and Ecological Effects
Monitoring and Technical Support
Monitoring, Techniques & Equipment Development
Quality Assurance
Technical Support
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17
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Commitments
In formulating its research program, ORD must also remain aware of
special commitments made for interagency cooperation and intra-agency
support. For example, EPA currently provides ERDA an off-site nuclear
test monitoring service. These commitments and how ORD interfaces with
other Federal agencies are summarized and discussed in Section IV.
Resources
The economic climate in recent years has necessitated restrained
governmental spending. It is presumed that this need for fiscal restraint
may continue throughout the period covered by this program plan. According-
ly, this plan provides .alternative implementation schedules to show how the
plan would be executed under different resource constraints. The level
option provides for the highest priority research and development required
to meet the Nation's current environmental research and development needs.
The second option provides an example of tradeoffs which could be made
under a similar budget constraint, but with changing priorities.
The third, or growth option, will permit responding to new legislative
demands and current high priorities, as well as intiation and maintenance
of an adequate level of long-term anticipatory research. This is an
optimum option formulated not to meet all identified R&D needs but rather
to meet only those which may be absorbed effectively by existing EPA
programs at a manageable growth rate. This option is highly sensitive to
personnel ceiling authorizations within EPA and ORD throughout the five-
year period.
The program will continue to draw to the maximum extent possible
on research being funded and conducted by other government agencies,
industry and foreign countries.
In support of the policy to reduce Federal personnel levels wherever
possible, EPA has been steadily increasing the ratio of extramural research
(contract and grant) to intramural research (performed by EPA employees)
over the past several years. This has been accomplished by gradually
reducing the total number of research personnel from over 2000 in 1973
to less than 1800 in 1978, in the face of level or increasing responsibility
and fundinq.
18
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Through careful management, the proposed level budget program can
be sustained over the five-year period within the FY 78 personnel ceiling.
However, if program expansion as described in the growth budget and the
subprogram growth areas described in Section II is desired, it must be
accompanied by a significant relaxation of the personnel ceiling as shown
in Table 5.
ORD conducts a continuing re-examination of the mode of conducting
its operations. While this analysis has resulted in a shift of personnel
from administrative duties to research management functions, there still
remains skill shortages in selected areas. It is therefore planned to
alter the technical skill mix over a period of years with a small influx of
new positions targeted to fill specific skill shortages where present
personnel skills cannot be redirected. In addition, adjustments will
be accomplished by filling vacancies as they occur with the specific skills
that are needed.
TABLE 5
ORD GROWTH BUDGET POSITION REQUIREMENTS FY-1977 - 81
FY 1977 FY 1978 FY 1979 FY 1980 FY 1981
Base Positions 1709 1575 1763 1803 1843
Reimbursable & Others* 177 177 177 177 177
TOTAL 1886 1752 1940 1980 2020
*Consists of 40 Regional Representative, 88 ERDA, 14 Scientific Advisory
Board, and 35 Substitute Chemical Program positions which are not under
direct ORD control.
RESEARCH APPROACHES
The EPA's overall research program supports the mission of a regulatory
agency. Specific research objectives and priorities primarily derive from
needs established by the Agency in fulfilling its legislative mandate.
Accordingly, the research program is highly "mission oriented" with emphasis
on production of timely and quality outputs, i.e., research results that
are directly useful to the Agency, the Congress, environmental decision-
makers, regulatory officials, the public and private sectors.
19
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While EPA is responsible for developing and coordinating a compre-
hensive Federal research program for environmental protection, actual
research is carried out by many others. These include, but are not limited
to, EPA laboratories, other government agencies (either through funded
interagency agreements or through coordination with individual programs),
and the user community,including state and local governments, industry, and
universities.
In some specific areas of research, ORD does not play a lead role
in the planning or implementation of research within the Agency. Rather
the function is assigned to another office within EPA. In the case of
noise pollution R&D, this activity is administered by the Office of Noise
Abatement and Control, which, through contracts and interagency agreements,
fulfills the research requirements of the Noise Control Act of 1972.
An example of its coordination role is ORD's energy-related environ-
mental program. The EPA was directed by the Congress to coordinate an
energy and environmental research, development, and demonstration program
to ensure that environmental factors were considered along with the nation's
activities to increase the production of energy. To meet this goal, ORD
accepted the responsibility for integrating the efforts of sixteen Federal
agencies in a coordinated Federal energy-environment program. The ORD's
Office of Energy, Minerals, and Industry administers "pass-through" monies
to other Federal programs to minimize duplication of effort and ensure
efficient use of resources.
In view of the role of ORD, the R&D programs are largely applied
research as opposed to basic research. To meet increased demands on the
Agency within recent years, ORD has relied heavily on extramural grantees
and contractors to conduct research. Except for those special problems
where intramural capabilities are unique or necessary for immediate support
of the regulatory function of the Agency, the internal EPA research effort
will be maintained at a modest level.
The comprehensive nature and interrelationship of environmental
pollution necessitates an intermedia (air, water, and land) approach
to research. Since ORD attempts to develop solutions to total environ-
mental problems, ORD programs must also be interdisciplinary (interac-
tion among professional disciplines). As a result, the anticipatory
research direction emphasized in this five-year plan is viewed through
separate and new environmental interest modules. The relationship of
these current interest modules to program areas is shown in Table 6.
Here the interrelationship and interdependence of; the ORD programs with one
another become evident. These modules are discussed in detail in Section
III. Their use and emphasis represents an additional program planning
perspective based on current public interest in specific environmental
20
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perspective based on current public interest in specific environmental
topics and concerns. The purpose of this alternative mode in highlighting
portions of the R&D program across the organizational structure of programs
is to provide for increased understanding by members of the public who may
have a specific interest in these selected areas of ORD activities, and for
highlighting areas desirable for future emphasis.
PRIORITIES
The setting of research priorities for a large and diverse subject
such as the environment does not at this time lend itself to quantifica-
tion using currently available analytical methods. Rather, it is a
judgmental process which aggregates the judgments and opinions of various
institutions with those of ORD and the Agency. Major considerations in
establishing priority are as follows:
. Nation-wide applicability of research.
. Current state-of-the-art.
Impact on environmental pollution control, or protection.
. Legislative mandates.
. Regional needs.
Regulation setting needs.
. Public awareness and concern of problem area.
Toxicity aspects, both short and long-term implications, on
human health, on human welfare, and on ecological systems.
. R&D costs to arrive at meaningful conclusions.
. Beneficial economic impacts or implications.
. Amenability of problem to solution.
. Global effects and international aspects.
. Nature of work (operational vs research).
. Qualification of investigators (intra or extramurally).
. Availability of resources (budget constraints).
21
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Current Interest
TABLE 6. ORD PROGRAMS AND CURRENT INTEREST MODULES
Research Programs and Subprograms
Health and Ecological Effects
Health Effects
Ecological Processes and Effects
Transport and Fate
Public Sector Activities
Waste Management
Water Supply
Environmental Management
Industrial Processes
Renewable Resources
Minerals, Processing and Manufacturing
Energy
Extraction and Processing Technology
! Conservation, Utilization and Technology Assessments
Health and Ecological Effects
Monitoring and Technical Support
Monitoring, Techniques & Equipment Development
Quality Assurance
Technical Support
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Notes;
A - designates immediately planned action.
(A) - designates immediately planned action by other Federal agencies.
F - designates potential future research action.
22
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The following guidelines were used to develop priorities for a
balanced, comprehensive five-year research program to support EPA's mission:
. Major Emphasis for research designed to protect human health
and welfare, including the integrity of natural ecosystems.
A continuing effort must be maintained in being responsive to the
immediate technical needs of EPA.
. An adquate program of quality assurance for EPA's pollution
monitoring and measurement activities must be assured in order
for the Agency to standardize its pollution assessment activities
and to verify compliance to regulations.
Comprehensive environmental/socioeconomic assessments should be
integrated directly into base research programs where possible.
. Capability to address unforeseen problems must be increased so
as to avert environmental degradation surprise.
Technology development, assessment and demonstration efforts must
continue to address selected high priority problem areas of the
Agency.
. Solutions to environmental problems that minimize costs, energy
usage and undesirable transfer of pollutants to other media should
be emphasized.
. The ability to detect, identify and quantify pollutants must
be maintained by a continuous analytical measurement methods
effort.
TRENDS AND OPTIONS
Current trends in environmental activities have been toward greater
quantification of the nature and effects of pollutants and the costs and
benefits of control. Such gross conventional pollution parameters as
suspended solids or biochemical oxygen demand are significant indicators of
pollution. However, specific toxic or hazardous substances in emissions
and effluents are now emerging as equally important. This trend requires
greater research sophistication and effort to quantify effects, transport
and fate mechanisms, and ultimate impacts.
23
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Another trend is the realization of the need to address environ-
mental problems and issues in a more comprehensive manner which more
closely resembles actual conditions and reflects the tendencies of pollu-
tants to migrate or impact large geographical areas. Advanced monitoring
methods are becoming more important in providing broader surveillance
of impacts. Environmental problems are rarely bound by jurisdictional
boundaries, but rather, have regional, national, or even international
implications. The regional approach to environmental remedies provides
that dimension of comprehensiveness which appears necessary for meeting
future environmental needs. This thrust has been recognized in all environ-
mental legislation since 1970, including the toxic materials and resource
recovery acts of 1976.
New problems arising must also be faced and incorporated into the
research effort. For example, the concern of stratospheric modification by
fluorocarbons catalyzing the depletion of the ozone layer has recently
emerged. At the urging of the Federal Council on Science and Technology,
EPA has assumed the role of lead Agency in funding and managing an inter-
agency effort on the biological and climatic effects of stratospheric ozone
reduction. This two-year research effort has been accommodated within the
current program.
Current allocations of resources among ORD programs may be presented
in various ways. To help in further understanding ORD research, resource
allocations are presented by discipline (nature of work) and by category of
emphasis. These are presented in Figures 4a and 4b, and are respectively
based on FY-1978 and 1977 information. Figure 4a illustrates that 44% of
the ORD budget is allocated to wholly scientific research functions as
compared to 41% for technology research functions. When viewed by category
of emphasis, Figure 4b illustrates that 40% of the ORD budget is allocated
to energy environmental research, 12.1% allocated to interdisciplinary
(in the sense of multi-category) research, 17.0% and 18.0% respectively
for air and water quality, 6.0% for water supply, and 6.9% for the sum
of solid waste, pesticides, toxics, and radiation.
24
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Future Trends
In addition to the changing emphasis, direction, and interest of
the environmental movement, the size and emphasis of EPA s research
and development program in the future will be determined by many
different factors. Some of these factors are cited below:
. Economic health of the nation.
. Need for environmental research relative to other
social needs as perceived by the Congress and the
Executive, Branch.
. Administration policy relative to nature of research, i.e.,
basic, applied, technology, science, etc.
. Relative priority of environmental R&D needs as perceived
by the Agency and by the Office of Research and Development.
. The amount of specific-problem environmental research
conducted elsewhere in the Federal government, e.g., NSF,
NASA, HEW, DOT, ERDA, HUD, USDA, etc.
. The rate of discovery of new problems versus the rate of
solution of defined problems.
Since these and other relevant factors cannot be reliably predicted
over the next five years, various level of effort options have been con-
sidered for environmental research programs under different funding sche-
dules.
Assuming an optimum resource base it is possible to project to
FY-1981 the relative resource allocations within ORD. These are shown
in Figures 4c and 4d by disciplines and category of emphasis, respectively.
The most significant change anticipated would be a relative increase
in the control technology discipline.
By categories, the anticipated changes would be a relative decrease
in energy-environment and an increase for both the solid waste and toxic
categories. The latter reflects proposed responses to the Resource
Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) and the Toxic Substances Control
Act (TSCA) of 1976.
Level Budget
The Level Budget Option, Table 7a, shows how resources would be alloc-
ated if total resources and relative priorities remain at their current
level. The new Resources Conservation and Recovery Act will be addressed.
Toxic substances research could not be expanded beyond that level initiated
prior to the passage of the Toxic Substances Control Act of 1976 (TSCA).
-------
QUALITY ASSURANCE
& TECHNICAL SUPPORT
6.3%
TECHNOLOGY
ASSESSMENTS
20%
FIGURE 4a. RELATIVE ORD RESOURCE ALLOCATION
BY DISCIPLINES
SOLID WASTE
1.6%
RADIATION
0.3%
FIGURE 4b. RELATIVE R&D RESOURCE ALLOCATIONS
BY CATEGORY OF EMPHASIS
26
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QUALITY ASSURANCE
& TECHNICAL SUPPORT
7%
FIGURE 4c. PROJECTED 198,1»RELATIVE ORD RESOURCE ALLOCATIONS
BY DISCIPLINES.
FIGURE 4d. PROJECTED 1981 RELATIVE R&D RESOURCE ALLOCATIONS
BY CATEGORY OF EMPHASIS
27
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Many low priority activities which address long-term needs and
legislative goals would be phased out. In this option, most subprograms
retain their FY 1978 share of the total ORD budget, and some, particularly
ecological effects, energy, technology, and technical support are reduced
to absorb the new demands. This budget would necessitate greater participa-
tion by other Federal agencies in environmental research related to the EPA
programs objectives. To what extent this can be done under current EPA
authorization is still uncertain (see discussions in Section IV).
Under these constraints, the careful setting of research priorities
would be extremely critical, because lower priority projects might be
delayed.
Modified Level Budget
This option, Table 7b, represents the same overall constraints on
research and development funding, but shows how allocations would be
adjusted in FY 1979-81 if it were determined that toxic substances research
should be expanded irrespective of overall environmental research budget
limittations. Response to TSCA would be increased by 7 million dollars
in FY 1979, and maintained at that level through FY 1981. This increase
would come at the expense of proposed new efforts in the energy, industrial,
ecological, transport, water supply and pesticides areas. This budget
option would allow toxics work to progress at about one-third the level
described in Section III of this report, while the reduced areas could
proceed only at the base level described in Section II, or, in some cases
at a lower rate.
Growth Budget
The Growth Budget (Table 7c) provides for the maintenance of current
activities, with provisions for additional budget increments to address the
critical specific needs of new legislative mandates. It recognizes and
provides for monetary inflation and general increases in depth of research
required for solving new environmental problems. This option would allow
increases in nonpoint-source, carcinogens, and sulfates module work as
described in Section III, and quality assurance assistance to the Agency as
described in Section II. Finally, most of the growth areas suggested in
the subprogram descriptions in Section II could be accommodated.
28
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TABLE 7a
LEVEL BUDGET OPTION
(by Fiscal Years in Millions of Dollars)
Subprogram
Health Effects3
Ecolo. Proc. & Effects
Transp. & Fate of Poll.
Waste Management
Water Supply
Environmental Mgmt.
Renewable Resources Ind.
Minerals, Proc. & Mfg. Ind.
Energy Ext. & Proc. Tech.
Energy Cons., Util.,
Tech. Assess.
Energy Health & Eco. Eff.
Monitoring Tech. & Eq. Dev.
Quality Assurance
Tech. Support
Toxic Substances Research0
Totald
1977
31.3
19.0
12.7
14.5
13.2
1.6
6.1
12.4
25.4
32.7
35.2
10.8
5.4
12.7
1.4
234.4
1978
30.7
16.8
12.7
18.5
15.2
1.6
5.6
12.4
24.4
30.6
39.2
10.5
. 5.4
11.5
1.4
236.5
1979
30.7
16.8
12.7
18.5
15.2
1.6
5.6
12.4
24.4
30.6
39
10.5
5.4
11.5
1.4
236.5
1980
30
17
13
19
15
2
6
12
24
31
39
11
5
11
2
237
1981
30
17
13
19
15
2
6
12
24
31
39
11
5
11
2
237
a Excluding toxic substances research, which is highlighted separately
for this presentation.
b Includes Energy Technical Support.
c Toxic substances research in progress prior to P.L. 94-469.
d Does not include program management, miscellaneous overhead, and
special transfers which totaled $24.9 million in FY'78.
29
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TABLE 7b
MODIFIED LEVEL BUDGET OPTION
(by Fiscal Years in Millions of Dollars)
Subprogram8
Health Effects
Ecolo. Proc. & Effects
Transp. & Fate of Poll.
Waste Management
Water Supply
Environmental Mgmt.
Renewable Resources Ind.
Minerals, Proc. & Mfg. Ind.
Energy Ext. & Proc. Tech.
Energy Cons., Util.,
Tech. Assess.
Energy Health & Eco. Eff.
Monitoring Tech. & Eg. Dev.
Quality Assurance
Tech. Support
Toxic Substances Research
Totald
1977
31.3
19.0
12.7
14.5
13.2
1.6
6.1 '
12.4
25.4
32.7
35.2
10.8
5.4
12.7
1.4
234.4
1978
30.7
16.8
12.7
18.5
15.2
1.6
5.6
12.4
24.4
30.6
39.2
10.5
5.4
11.5
1.4
236.5
1979
28.2
16.3
12.2
18.5
14.7
1.6
5.6
11.4
24.4
30.6
35.2
10.5
5.4
11.5
8.4
236.5
1980
28
16
12
19
15
2
6
12
24
31
35
11
5
11
9
237
1981
28
16
12
19
15
2
6
12
24
31
35
11
5
11
9
237
a Subprogram budgets exclude toxic substances research, which is
highlighted separately for this presentation.
b Includes Energy Technical Support.
c This is not a subprogram, but the total for toxic substances research in
all subprograms. The latter three years represent a potential reprogramm-
ing in response to P.L. 94-469, if ORD totals are maintained level.
d Does not include program management, miscellaneous overhead, and
special transfers which totaled $24.9 million in FY'78.
30
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TABLE 7c
GROWTH BUDGET OPTION
(by Fiscal Years in Millions of Dollars)
Subprogram
Health Effects
Ecolo. Proc. & Effects
Transp. & Fate of Poll.
Waste Management
Water Supply
Environmental Mgmt.
Renewable Resources Ind.
Minerals, Proc. & Mfg. Ind.
Energy Ext. & Proc. Tech.
Energy Cons. , Util.,
Tech. Assess.
Energy Health & Eco. Eff.
Monitoring Tech. & Eq. Dev.
Quality Assurance
Tech. Support
Toxic Substances Research
Totald
1977
31.3
19.0
12.7
14.5
13.2
1.6
6.1
12. 4(
25.4
32.7
35.2
10.8
5.4
12.7
1.4
234.4
1978
30.7
16.8
12.7
18.5
15.2
1.6
5.6
12.4
24.4
30.6
39.2
10.5
5.4
11.5
1.4
236.5
1979
41.1
19.7
15.6
23.1
17.4
2.2
6.8
13.1
25.8
32.1
41.1
12.4
6.6
12.0
8.4
260.3
1980
46
21
18
27
18
3
8
14
28
34
43
14
9
13
23
319
1981
50
22
19
30
20
3
9
14
29
35
45
15
11
13
23
346
a Subprogram budgets exclude toxic substances research, which is
highlighted separately for this presentation.
b Includes Energy Technical Support.
c This is not a subprogram, but the total for toxic substances
research in all subprograms. It is reported separately this year in
response to P.L. 94-469.
d Does not include program management, miscellaneous overhead, and
special transfers which totaled $24.9 million in FY 78.
31
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Section II
THE PROGRAMS
Section II of this report addresses itself to the description,
direction, objectives, and outputs of the ORD Research Programs for the
period of FY'77 through FY'81. For detailed information on the FY'77
programs, readers should refer to the "ORD Program Guide Fiscal Year 1977"
(EPA 600/9-76-029) which complements this report.
The meaning of criteria as used herein refers in general to those ORD
judgemental values, limits, etc., arrived at through scientific studies,
experiments and or information gathered through the auspices of the ORD
organization. In general the term criteria is not used to infer that ORD
criteria are necessarily those which the Agency will formally issue as its
basis to support its regulatory responsibility, as the Agency may often
include additional information and considerations other than the view of
the research scientist.
The term technology, and more specifically control technology is also
broadly used and should not be considered to solely signify engineering
"hardware" research, as some interpretations tend to do. Wherever possible,
and where justified, there has been a specific attempt to separate the
general technology effort into various components i.e., control technology
("hard") versus technology assessment ("soft") to allow the reader insight
on the emphasis of effort.
Criteria outputs from ORD scientific research efforts are generally
applicable to the establishment of EPA ambient quality regulations, and in
a few cases to effluent or other regulations. In some cases ORD criteria
may also establish desirable targets for the technological research
programs which develop control equipment, methods or systems to achieve the
criteria values for specific and general cases. Technology research,
however, is primarily directed toward the development and demonstration
of technology to support the Agency in setting control regulations based on
technological capability.
The subprograms discussed in Section II are discussed in terms of the
low level budget option of resource funding (Level Budget Option - Section
I). Additionally, the major subprograms also include a discussion of
potential subprogram growth areas where additional research for the five
year period is described. This represents the additional research which
would be desirable to undertake to effectively meet current EPA legislative
mandates, to adequately address recently passed legislation, and to provide
32
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at least a meaningful start on research to develop anticipatory capability.
These potential activities would be undertaken in the event the Growth
Budget Option resources summarized in Section I are appropriated in FY'78.
While science and technology programs are oriented to impact Agency
regulatory decisions related to the formulation of numerical values of
ambient quality and effluent/emission limitations, environmental management
research develops action alternatives for the implementation of regulations
to meet ambient quality goals. In this sense environmental management
research impacts the formulation of regulatory strategies for environmental
protection. In the broad sense "environmental management" covers socio-
economic, integrated assessments, and environmental management activities,
respectively, within the OHEE, OEMI, and OALWU programs. Each Office
tailors these forms of management research to suit the needs of the Offices
to produce comprehensive and coherent interpretations of their research
outputs as they apply to formulating an implementation strategy.
HEALTH AND ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS PROGRAM
The Health and Ecological Effects Program is fundamental to EPA's
responsibility to set criteria. Scientific information on the effects and
iirpacts of pollutants on human health and ecosystems and their behavior
in the biosphere is essential in development of environmental regulations.
The relationships between pollution source discharges and desirable
ambient quality must be determined. To develop the necessary information,
the program is divided into four major subprograms, three of which (Health
Effects, Ecological Effects and Processes, and Transport and Fate of
Pollutants) provide inputs to the fourth (Criteria Development and Socio-
economic Studies).
The goal of the "Effects" Program is to develop information for esta-
blishment and reevaluation of water and air quality criteria, ocean
disposal criteria, pesticide registration guidelines, effluent standards
for toxic and hazardous materials and radiation standards.
Research must continue in the Health Effects Subprogram on criteria
pollutants with set ambient air quality standards to enable a continuing
reevaluation of such standards. Such research will, however gradually be
reduced over the next five years while research (i.e., developing dose-
response information) on noncriteria pollutants, especially sulfates,
nitrates, and respirable suspended particulates will be acclerated. A
comprehensive inhalation toxicology and biomedical data base will also be
developed to ascertain health risks of emission products from catalytic
converter-treated auto exhaust and potential catalyst attrition products
such as sulfuric acid, sulfates, carbon disulfide, hydrogen sulfide,
palladium, platinum and aluminum oxide. Research on environmentally-induced
carcinogenesis has recently begun and will focus on quantitative assessment
of environmental levels of carcinogens and associated risk factors.
Efforts to identify chronic effects of exposure to specific environmental
chemical agents (multiroute pollutants) will be expanded.
33
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Research on health implications of land disposal of wastewaters
and sludges and the effects of aerosols containing bacteria or viruses
emitted from treatment plants will continue to receive high priority.
A related subprogram, Water Supply, supplements research in the Health
Effects Subprogram with additional funds. This research focuses on health
effects of contaminants found in drinking water. Details of this research
are discussed in the Water Supply Subprogram.
Health effects research on pesticides will increasingly receive emphasis
and will provide necessary support to regulatory and control functions of
EPA in regard to risks of pesticides to population groups in general.
Toxic substances research in health and ecological effects initiated
in prior years will continue and will be directed specifically to support
the implementation of the Toxic Substances Control Act of 1976 (TSCA).
The research effort to identify biological effects of electromagnetic
radiation will continue at a constant level of effort.
The Ecological Processes and Effects Subprogram will continue its
current effort to evaluate criteria air pollutants effects on agricultural
and forest plants, and to develop water quality requirements for represen-
tative organisms. It will include a greater empahsis on evaluation of
whole ecosystems and on developing ecological models with minimal infor-
mation requirements. However, the need to determine criteria for specific
pollutants will continue.
The Ecological Processes and Effects Subprogram researches not only
effects of pollutants on ecosystems and their components, but also re-
searches effects of ecosystems on pollutants. Such considerations are
important determinants of how quickly pollutants will be transformed into
harmless materials, persist and accumulate to dangerous levels or be
changed into more harmful materials than the parent substance. This
research information on the fate, transport, and ecosystem impact of
specific pollutants is necessary to support environmental quality criteria
development and pesticide registration.
Information on the fate and transport of pollutants in the biosphere
is needed by EPA's regional offices and states to implement standards,
basin planning, and wasteload allocations. Specific emphasis will be on
transport and fate of metals in soils and plants; coupling nonpoint source
loading models to basin water quality models for use in assessing water
quality impacts of both nonpoint and point sources; development of pollu-
tion loading functions by source with appropriate user manuals; assessment
of the air transport and alteration of sulfates on a regional and sub-conti-
nental scale; research on the formation and transport of non-regulated
pollutants; and on analysis of data accumulated from long-term surveillance
projects.
Emerging problems, such as those of fluorocarbons and other potentially
hazardous substances, will receive increased attention. Research will
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focus on the long-term pollutant loading capacity of the environment
globally, regionally, and locally; the likely effects of different pollutant
load levels; and on predictive capability for forecasting loca, regional,
and sub-continental environmental quality under varying pollutant loadings
and environmental conditions.
Funds from ORD's Energy/Environment Program supplement much of the
research in the Health and Ecological Effects Program. In some cases
such funding allows for more intensive research in activities already
planned by other programs. In other cases, research activities with a much
broader scope are made possible. The comprehensive EPA-coordinated Energy/
Environment Program is discussed later.
Another emphasis in Health and Ecological Effects Program will be
on socioeconomic assessments. This work will focus on assessment of health
and welfare benefits of pollution abatement; development of methods for
predicting and evaluating pollution problems related to exposure; and
economic impact assessment. Emphasis in benefit studies is expected to be
on pesticides, toxic substances, and drinking water. Ad Hoc studies will
also be conducted on specific EPA issues as they arise.
Health Effects Subprogram
The Health Effects Subprogram is divided into five categories as
follows:
. Air Quality
. Water Quality
Pesticides
Toxic Substances
. Radiation
Research efforts in all categories seek to identify and quantify the human
health risk from exposure to pollutants relevant to the categories. This
assessment is generally made by systematic research which includes animal
exposure experiments (toxicology), clinical (controlled human exposure) and
epidemiological ( population) studies. The net outputs from the research
are dose-response relationships which are used to estimate risk factors and
which aid in the establishment of ambient environmental criteria. The
latter results in Agency ambient regulations. Such regulations are then
considered in conjunction with emission and effluent regulations and applied
for pollution control. Where such control may not afford the attainment of
ambient standards, other factors are considered to achieve desired regional
quality goals.
Over the past several years, many significant accomplishments have been
made in the health effects area. Some of the major ones are summarized below:
The air health program has been instrumental in identifying pollutants
of potential concern to human health. Research emanating from the air
epidemiology program, for example, gave early clues that "sulfates" might be
a pollutant of health effects concern and to the potential need for a short
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term standard for nitrogen dioxide. A series of studies also was completed
which indicated an association between exposure to nitrogen oxides and
ozone and lowered resistance to infection.
A program on pollutants associated with catalytic converters was
initiated to collect baseline data for trend investigations of roadside
levels of sulfates, catalytic attrition products, and other mobile source
air pollutants. Compilations of results obtained from catalyst-related work
in OED and in the Office of Air and Waste Management are expected to
contribute to EPA's assessment of the health and environmental implications
of mobile emissions and measures to control them.
The health effects program has contributed significantly in other
aspects of mobile and stationary source pollution, including contributions
to EPA's position on airborne lead and preliminary assessments of potential
effects of fuel additives which may be used as substitutes for lead. The
design and development of hardware for a system for intensive environmental
and human health characterization was completed. This system includes
mobile units equipped to measure air quality and characterize exposure and
units equipped for clinical evaluations of human health to provide EPA with
a unique field capability for assessing exposure-effects relationships
between environmental pollutants and human health.
Air Quality—
The objective of the air exposure health effects research program
is to provide the Agency with assessments of the health effects that
result from public exposure to various air pollutants as stipulated in
the Clean Air Act.
The air health program is divided into five major research areas
which will be discussed separately: criteria pollutants, non-criteria
pollutants, automotive emissions, multi-route (non-pesticides), and envi-
ronmental carcinogens. The automotive emissions area is unique. This
research is carried out by several laboratories under different Laboratory
and Office Directors, the various aspects of this research are consolidated
under a single management to establish a single point of control. The
automotive emissions narrative thus includes the research on emissions
characterization, atmospheric monitoring and modeling, as well as health
effects.
Criteria Pollutants—Research is undertaken to evaluate the adequacy of
existing Ambient Air Quality Standards (AAQB) for the protection of human
health as well as to provide new information for refining the existing AAQS
criteria. This objective is directed toward building on information
which has become available since the original criteria for sulfur dioxide,
total suspended particulates, carbon monoxide, photochemical oxidants,
hydrocarbons, and oxides of nitrogen were complied. Priorites for the
pollutants to be studied in descending order are: nitrogen dioxide, oxidants,
particulates, sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide. Emphasis is being placed
on those studies relating to short-term intermittant exposures to oxidants
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and nitrogen dioxide, low level exposures to oxidants, and the use of
behavioral and neurobehavioral responses as indicators of adverse effects
from exposures to these air pollutants.
Efforts will continue toward identification of populations most at risk
to AAQS pollutants and determination of appropriate health effects end
points. Primary effort will involve the application of sophisticated physi-
ological response methodologies for determining cardiopulmonary, atherogenic
and behavior effects resulting from experimental human exposures to oxidants.
Another important segment of this effort is the assessment of the effects of
exposures to ambient air pollution on pulmonary development and lung function
in children. Since exposure assessment is another means of identifying
populations at risk, a minimal effort will continue to iinprove methodology
for characterizing human exposure to air pollutants in health study areas.
Research is also being conducted to determ ne the effects from exposure
to combinations of AAQS pollutants. Previously developed j.n vitro animal
model systems are being applied to ascertain and quantify the effects of
pollutant exposures on pulmonary defense mechanisms as they relate to
bacterial infections, viral infections, and chronic pulmonary disease.
Clinical human exposures are also required to evaluate the effects of acute
and subacute exposures to multiple pollutants on the cardiopulmonary and
neurobehavioral systems. Population studies are being conducted to assess
the exposure of adults or adolescents to photochemical oxidant pollution.
Effects of concern include chronic, as well as short-term intermittent
exposures. A capability has also been developed for determining excess
mortality in the event of the occurrence of air pollution episodes. Interim
reports will be produced in FY 78 and 81, and a final report on metabolic
and immune responses to ozone and nitrogen dioxide will be produced in FY 81.
A final report on effects of photochemical oxidants on persons with and
without chronic respiratory disease is scheduled for FY 79. A final report
on chronic bronchitis in smokers in high and low oxidant exposure areas will
be published in FY 80.
As a result of the above activities, the accumulated health data
from the population, clinical and toxicological studies are analyzed
in association with the pollutant exposure data with due regard to other
independent environmental variables, and presented as reports indicating
"worst case," "best judgement" estimates for pollutant exposure levels
associated with each observed health effect. These reports, along with
other pertinent scientific literature, are incorporated into revised air
quality criteria documents.
Non-Criteria Pollutants— The health effects research in the air
non-criteria pollutants area has been focusing on sulfates, since some
epidemiologic studies indicate that a statistical correlation exists
between sulfates and adverse health effects. A health effects research
program is underway to develop and obtain data from biological screening
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systems, determine the metabolic pathways and target organs, understand
response mechanisms, and establish dose-response data. Within each area,
consideration is given to the various sulfate compounds and their relative
toxicities, cation-anion relationships, compound physical characteristics
such as size and bioavailability, concentration and time duration of
exposure, and combined or synergistic effects with other pollutants. From
experimental results obtained to date, the sulfate research program has
recently focused its effort on determining whether ambient levels of sulfuric
acid, ammonium bisulfate, ammonium sulfate, and sulfites will show adverse
health effects in humans. Toxicology studies are directed toward evaluating
the comparative toxicity of the above strong acid, weak acid, and neutral
sulfate aerosols using jji vitro testing models and whole animal studies.
The results of these tests will provide a data base for developing a dose-
response curve from animal exposures to sulfates. Other toxicologic
experiments will be addressing the development of better health indicators
for epidemiologic studies. The exposure regimen for the toxicologic research
will include both short-term and long-term exposures in order to assess both
acute and chronic effects in a variety of animal species.
The clinical studies research program on sulfates will be focused on
short-term exposure to concentrations approximating ambient or occupational
exosure conditions. The objective of these studies will be to determine
the level of short-term exposure at which biochemical, physiological, and
behavioral responses are observed in human subjects. The principal aspects
of the epidemiologic studies will be the characterization of human exposure
patterns and the use of appropriate health indicators to determine whether
there are relationships between ambient levels of the various sulfate
compounds and adverse health effects.
Automotive Emissions—Automotive Emissions Research begun in FY 1974,
was an outgrowth of concern over sulfuric acid emissions from automobiles
equipped with oxidation catalysts. In addressing this issue, the Agency
decided that the program should take on the broader objective of assessing
the effects on the public health of the various unregulated pollutants that
might be emitted from mobile sources equipped with emission control devices
and not limit the program to studying effects from sulfuric acid emissions
alone. In FY 1975, sufficient resuources became available to begin the
research effort. The two areas that received immediate attention where
sulfuric acid and platinum. The sulfuric acid research focused on character-
izing the tailpipe emission products, monitoring and modeling in the vicinity
of roadways, and establishing a health effects data base. Because the
oxidation catalysts that were being used employ platinum, similar studies
were begun on platinum.
The major efforts to date on sulfuric acid include the development
of analytical methods for measuring sulfuric acid in the exhaust and ambient
air, the determination that sulfuric acid is emitted as an ultrafine aerosol,
and the prediction of in-roadway and roadway worst-case ambient concentration
of sulfuric acid. Much effort continues to be focused on characterizing
the sulfuric acid emissions profile over the life of the catalyst to help in
developing emission factors. A pilot study is now underway to assess the
commuter exposure to sulfuric acid.
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In the health area, three sets of experiments have begun. The first set
is evaluating the effects of aged sulfuric acid on animals and man. The
second set is focusing on the effects of ultrafine sulfuric acid on animals
and man. The third set is directed at exposing animals to the entire
exhaust of catalyst equipped automobiles.
The experimental work on platinum is in its final phases. Data that has
been collected for establishing baseline environmental platinum indicate
that it is emitted in the large particulate fraction only and in negligible
quantities. The only significant additonal work to be performed on platinum
will be a battery of mutagenic and carcinogenic tests. Based on the data
now available, platinum emissions are not believed to be a pollutant of
concern.
The catalyst research effort has prepared a large number of scientific
assessments on various potential emissions products from catalyst equipped
automobiles. Some of the important ones include asbestos, carbon disul-
fide/carbonyl sulfide, manganese, molybdenum, nitrosamines, halogens,
lead, ethylene dibromide, hydrogen cyanide and bromide, methyl mercury,
ruthenium, and nickel. This type of effort is an ongoing requirement since
manufacturers are continuing to develop different catalyst mixes which
produce different emissions and which, therefore, require a public health
evaluation.
In the monitoring area, work is continuing on collecting and analyzing
data on in-use catalyst vehicles, especially the performance of the catalyst
over time and whether the catalyst is emitting significant quantities of
other pollutants, the unregulated pollutants. Another effort is directed
to validating and improving the carbon monoxide dispersion model necessary
in developing state implementation plans and transportation control strate-
gies in urban areas.
Considerable work is being performed on manganese, a possible fuel
additive. Research is now being conducted to determine the effect of
manganese on the operation of the catalyst and the changes in emissions
that might result. A set of health effects studies will soon begin to
study the acute and chronic effects from manganese emissions.
Since the three-way catalyst system is gaining interest among manufac-
turers, additonal work is being conducted on estimating hydrogen cyanide
(HCN) levels produced when the emission control system malfunctions.
These experiments will provide the data for use by the health researchers
in determining if the HCN poses a potential health hazard to the public.
In the near future, research in this automotive emissions area will
continue to concentrate on sulfuric acid, manganese, and HCN associated
problems from catalyst systems. But as manufacturers request certification
on new control devices, new research efforts will have to begin to charac-
terize, monitor, and model the health effects issues that will arise from
these new systems.
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Multiroute Pollutants—Many environmental pollutants are differentially
distributed throughout the various environmental media and are, therefore,
capable of reaching man via multiple routes of exposure, primarily air,
water and food. Relevant health effects research must be aimed at defining
populations at risk, health effects end-points, and exposure-effect relation-
ships.
A major emphasis in this program is the identification of high exposure
populations and the determination of the relationship of established human
body burdens to the multiple route environmental exposure and observed
health effects. Human tissue burdens will be determined and related to
environmental exposures for pollutants representing a number of metallic
elements as well as non-halogenated organics considered to be of potential
health concern. Analytic methodologies will be standardized and, where
appropriate, applied to autopsy tissue samples as well as blood, hair, and
urine samples obtained from live subjects non-occupationally exposed to the
subject polluant(s). Environmental media samples will also be collected
and compared to tissue burdens. To assess the contribution of the various
exposure routes to the total body burden.
Health effect end-points and dose-effect relationships will be studied
covering both inorganic and organic pollutants. Initial emphasis on
inorganic pollutants is directed toward lead, cadmium, selenium, arsenic,
and manganese. Relevant studies include the neurophysiologic evaluation
of children with asymptomatic lead burdens; effects of chronic, low-level
cadmium exposures on hypertension; influence of age on whole body retention
of ingested manganese, selenium, and arsenic; and teratologic, reproductive,
neurophysiologic, and behavioral effects of chronic, multi-generation
exposure to manganese.
Initial emphasis on organic pollutants will be determined by priorities
established via implementation of the Toxic Substances Control Act of 1976.
Health end-point and dose-effect information could be obtained via studies
for assessing immunologic, behavioral, teratogenic/genetic, mutagentic, and
cytotoxic effects. In vitro screening methods would also be applied to
identify suspect carcinogens.
The more general approach would be to consider kinetic, distribu-
tion and biochemical studies; neurophysiologic and behavioral studies;
teratologic, reporductive, genetic and pathologic studies; and screen-
ing for suspect carcinogens.
Recently, a growing interest has been developing, on a national
and international basis, concerning biologic monitoring and environ-
mental specimen repositories. In support of this potentially useful
tool for environmental assessment, current efforts have been directed
toward the development of protocols for accurate and reproducible pro-
cedures concerning tissue sampling, transport, storage, and analysis.
Future activities would extend the above program, develop guidelines for
the operation and maintenance of a National Environmental Specimen Bank,
and initiate a "pilot" bank effort for determining the feasibility and
usefulness of such a system.
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Environmental Carcinogens—Research on cancer and carcinogenic agents
has long been underway in many agencies and research organizations. There
is a growing awareness that environmental agents may play an important role
in the incidence of human cancer. However, information on the distribu-
tion and levels of potential environmental carcinogens and on the extent to
which the public health may be at risk from such agents is still rather
limited. In FY 1976, EPA initiated an effort to develop a systematic
approach for assessing the impact of environmental carcinogens on the
incidence of cancer in the general population.
With the overall objective of developing an effective system for the
study of environmental carcinogens, this effort would enable ORD to provide
the Agency with information on exposure/effect relationships for several
different cancer types and geographic areas, on estimates of risk for
several cancer types, on the importance of cofactors, and procedures for
more accurate estimation of individual exposure to environmental agents.
This research will necessitate phases of intense data collection which, in
turn, will enable us to generate a consolidated data repository for the
United States on a country and/or Standard Metropolitan Statistical Area
(SMSA) basis. This would allow easy data accession to develop correlations
and to evaluate interactions between demographic, monitoring, emission
source and human disease factors. In addition, effort will be devoted to
minimizing the uncertainty involved in extrapolating from animal studies to
man.
Because of this Agency's special abilities and expertise in characte-
rizing and monitoring environmental exposures, this program is unique from
other cancer research in that if focuses on the quantitative assessment of
environmental levels of carcinogens and estimations of risks to human
populations. An important feature of this program will be the consolidation
and coordination of the many data bases currently existing in other agencies
to assure optimal utilization of resources and expertise.
The program will consist of a series of interrelated environmental
monitoring, exposure assessment, and retrospective epidemiology studies
designed to determine the reasons for high and low cancer mortality rates
in select geographic areas. The principal thrust of this program will be
ultimately to identify the significance of environmental carcinogens to
human cancer incidence via an intensive monitoring program to assess media
transport, inter-and intra-media transformation, current exposure levels
and population dose, and past exposures for man made and natural carcinogens
which may affect the general population. The coordinated data base obtained
and correlations developed, including information on critical pathways of
exposure to humans, will be applied to develop a model that will have
general applicability for carcinogen exposure-xiose assessment and to
institute a pollutant-oriented monitoring system. These will be applied
and validated in another set of areas with low and high mortality rates
for a specific cancer type and possibly in an area with different exposure
levels. It is also planned in the outyears to evaluate in vitro screening
methods and determine their applicability for agency identification for new
potential carcinogens, to define what type of animal testing will be
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required to supplement in vitro screening techniques, and to conduct a
feasibility study on possible acceleration of cancer latency periods in
test systems.
Water Quality—
The objective of the Water Quality Health Effects program is to deter-
mine the health implications of existing municipal control technology for
treatment and disposal of wastewater and sludge as well as forseeing any
health risks that might be associated with new technology. The research
currently focuses on health implications of land application of wastewater
and sludge. Other areas of study include health effects associated with
wastewater treatment plants and development of criteria for fresh and
marine recreational waters.
The water quality health effects research program will focus on deter-
mining the direct and indirect health effects resulting from the treatment
and disposal of wastewater and sludge. This effort includes, in order of
priority, the following described studies.
First is the determination of health effects associated with the land
treatment and disposal of wastewater and sludge, and the development of
necessary criteria for the safe implementation of those practices. Current
practices result in approximately 60 percent of the municipal wastewater
sludges produced being placed on or in the land. PL 92-500 and Agency
policy require that land application of wastewater be considered as a
viable alternative to conventional wastewater treatment plants. This
emphasis on the use of land places a responsibility on the Office of Health
and Ecological Effects to ensure that the methods used do not result in the
creation of health hazards. Pathogens, toxic organics and trace metals
present in wastewater and sludge could reach man via the air, water and/or
food route, when wastewater or sludges are applied to the land. Information
derived from health effects data on exposures to these substances will
determine the degree of treatment needed before application to the land,
the type of crops or forage allowable without endangering the public health
and the extent of a buffer zone around application sites, if such is
necessary.
Necessary health effects information is being developed to assure that
the public is protected from hazardous pollutants emitted during the opera-
tion of conventional wastewater treatment plants. Aerosol emissions from
secondary treatment facilities could present a health hazard to neighboring
populations. Studies are designed to determine whether pathogens and toxic
substances are transported via the aerosol route. Corroborative epidemiolo-
gical studies will determine whether corrective measures need to be taken.
Quantification of health effects associated with the disposal of waste-
water into the aquatic environment is projected. Discharge of effluents in-
to receiving waters affect human health through primary contact recreation,
aquatic food and drinking water. The quality of water needed for these uses
will, in turn, determine the degree of treatment required before the safe
discharge of such effluents.
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The drinking water human exposure route is discussed in the Water
Supply Subprogram under Public Sector Activities Program. Microgiological
criteria are being developed for fresh and marine recreational water as well
as shellfish growing waters. Such criteria will, in turn, be translated
into disinfection requirements necessary for the protection of public
health.
Pesticides Health Effects—
The pesticides health effects research program supports the Agency's
activities with respect to meeting legally mandated responsibilities for
pesticides, which include registration, label reviews, hazard classification,
and tolerance setting. During this five-year period, particular emphasis
will be placed on studies needed for the Reregistration Process and the
Rebuttable Presumption Against Registration Program (RPAR). The proposed
research program will provide supplementary data and missing information
as well as checks on the validity of available information. However,
research will continue on important pesticides now in use and on "new
generation" pesticides and substitute chemicals. A major effort during this
five-year period will be directed toward providing technical support to the
Office of Pesticide Programs (OPP), Enforcement and Regional Offices.
Expertise in pesticide research is required as input to administrative
decisions pertinent to the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide
Act (FIFRA), also known as the Federal Environmental Pesticides Control Act
(PL 92-583).
Pesticide research supported under FIFRA will also be available for use
by other segments of the Agency interested in regulating pesticides under
different legislative authorities. For example, results from the program
can be used to support toxic effluent standards, issuance of permits, and
water quality criteria for fresh, estuarine and coastal waters under the
Federal Water Pollution Control Act (PL 92-500). The information will
also be used in support of regulations under the Safe Drinking Water Act
(PL 92-523).
In the five year health effects pesticide research program, toxicological
studies will be conducted to determine the acute, subacute and chronic
effects of pesticides on mammals, the potential effects of "new generation"
pest control agents, such as biological agents like viruses, bacteria, and
sex attractants, the identification of pesticide metabolites, and the
distribution and effects of pesticides and metabolites in animal tissues.
Studies will also address biochemical effects on metabolic activity,
reproductive function and central nervous system function, and the potential
for causing gene mutations and cancer.
Inhalation toxicology studies will continue to assess the importance
of inhalation exposures to pesticides as compared with ingestion and
skin contact. These studies will yield determination of the acute effects
of pesticide aerosols of controlled particle sizes, and measurement of the
distribution of the parent compound and its metabolites in body tissues,
urine and feces. Along with these animal studies will be the evaluation
of acute and chronic human exposure to pesticides, their residues and their
metabolites. Indices of effects to be examined indued mortality, clinical
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signs of poisoning, hemologic factors, reproduction and cancer incidence.
The pesticides which will be evaluated are those identified by the Agency
to be of greatest concern. The emphasis will be on those compounds
identified as "problem compounds"; those in the "restricted use" category,
and for new products or for new use registered compounds. These studies are
done in conjunction with OPP. In addition, the human safety of "new
generation" pest control agents such as insect viruses, pathogenic bacteria,
chemosterilants, attractants and hormones will be evaluated.
The development and validation of new toxicological methods and test
protocols, and the development and application of analytical methods to
detect these agents in environmental samples and human tissue will continue
to be a major part of pesticides health effects research. In the area of
analytic techniques, attention will be given to developing a sensitive,
specific detector for pesticides containing chloride, sulfur and/or nitrogen;
an efficient system for collecting and determining pesticides in air; and
analytical methods for determining dioxins in tissues, environmental media,
and pesticide formulations. Other objectives include completion of a
laboratory manual which includes methods for analysis of pesticides in
wastewater, the use of multiresidue analytical procedures for carbamate and
organophosphate pesticides, and establishment of standardized procedures for
identification of insect viruses in tissues.
Recently developed ir\ vitro systems for mutagenicity, teratogenicity
and carcinogenicity will be refined and utilized. This test system
constitutes an integrated battery of methods which are applicable in the
screening of pure chemicals as well as complex environmental effluents.
These systems are of value both in detecting potentially hazardous materials
and in establishing priorities for testing suspected substances by conven-
tional (whole animal) toxicological methods.
The compounds and formulations which will be evaluated are those
identified by OPP to be of greatest concern. Tentatively, within this
framework, the priorities will be on those compounds identified as problem
compounds, those in the restricted use category, and for new products or
for new use registered compounds. This may entail a shift in the pesti-
cide toxicology research from the persistent chlorinated hydrocarbon
compounds to the biodegradable materials, such as the organic phosphorus
and carbamate compounds, and the "new generation" biological pesticides.
The top priorities in pesticide research are also dictated by the data
deficiencies observed during the literature review and in those candidates
for which RPAP has been cited.
Work by the National Center for Toxicological Research (NCTR) will
continue the development and validation of new toxicological methods to
evaluate exposure-effects relationships of potential new pesticides.
These studies are long-term, low-dose in design and cover specific compounds
of interest to EPA, especially as it relates to carcinogenicity, mutagenicity
and teratogenicity.
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Toxic Substances—
The toxic substances research discussed in this section is part
of a program initiated in prior years. It has not yet been made a specific
part of the overall implementation of the Toxic Substances Control Act of
1976 (TSCA), but it is relevant to it. As EPA moves to implement TSCA in
the current and ensuing years, this program will be directed specifically
to supporting the needs in that area.
Most toxic substances reach man through several media rather than
through a single main source, such as water or air. In Fiscal Year 1977-
1981 research on these non-pesticide environmental pollutants from multiple
exposure routes is to be directed toward four objectives. First, it will
be directed toward determining potential hazards to human health. Second,
research methods will be developed for rapidly screening large numbers of
potentially toxic substances to determine their relative toxicity. Third,
rapid methods will be developed with'sufficient sensitivity to measure
clear quantitative biochemical effects resulting from low-level concentra-
tions to which the human population is exposed. Fourth, by using basic
physical constants and seeking similarity in molecular structures of
compounds, research is aimed toward development of methods which will
predict persistence and disposition of the substances in the environment.
Research studies are being carried out in animal model systems to
evaluate the toxic hazard to humans of selected high priority toxic
materials. These studies emphasize acute toxicity through studies of oral,
dermal, and respiratory exposure routes, and possible long-term effects
through evaluations of teratogenic and mutagenic potential. A priority
need is the development of improved in vitro pre-screening methods and the
operation of a screening program for determining by short-term tests the
potential for chronic effects. Such work will enable development of
research priorities for substances having suspected high toxicity and
requiring longer term research. Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB's) are
among the priority compounds now under test for the EPA Office of Toxic
Substances (OTS). Additional compounds will be selected from OTS Pollutant
Priorities list and, when available, from the TSCA-required initial priority
list of fifty compounds, as resources permit.
Human exposure studies are essential in the correlation and extrapo-
lation of animal experimental data to man. Research work will continue
throughout the five-year planning period with clinical and epidemiological
studies to measure human exposure levels in environmental and occupational
situations. Results will be utilized to develop a predictive model for
human risk assessment. Other objectives continuing throughout the planning
period include determining health effects of asbestos-like amphibole
fibers; improving the reliability and sensitivity of bacterial mutagenesis
as a screening test for carcinogenesis; and evaluation of saliva as a
indicator of exposure to toxicants.
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Research work to be completed during the Fiscal Year 1977-1981 period
includes the study of interaction of chemical carcinogens with pesticides
and the development of an ^n vitro test system for evaluation of teratogens.
These efforts will be followed, when appropriate by the development of tests
validating the in vitro rapid screening method results and correlating
tests in lower life forms with those to be expected in man. Validations
are to be sought through study of biochemical, metabolic, and immunologic
systems. In the area of chronic effects of low-level chemical toxicant
methods and testing, EPA jointly supports with the Food and Drug Administra-
tion the long-term work of the National Center for Toxicological Research
(NCTR).
Radiation—
The establishment of guidelines for environmental levels of non-ionizing
radiation to which the public is exposed is an EPA responsibility. Because
of concern about potential biological hazards of electromagnetic radiation
(EMR) , the Office of Telecommunications Policy (OTP), Executive Office of
the President, initiated and is coordinating a multi-agency program to
assess the hazards of non-ionizing radiation. EPA has been assigned the
conduct of health effects research on EMR frequencies of potential environ-
mental consequence. This accounts for about fifteen per cent of all
Federal efforts in non-ionizing radiation research.
Data emerging from EPA's on-going research program is beginning to
confirm existing international findings of harmful effects at chronic,
low-level exposures. These findings, if substantiated, would suggest that
the current U.S. occupational guide may be too high for the use as a
departure point for providing environmental guidance that is adequately
protective of public health.
Potential Subprogram Growth Areas—
The previous Health Effects Subprogram descriptions have identified
five-year efforts based on the level budget option summarized in
Section I. Moderate program growth as indicated in Section I would
permit more timely achievement of health effects research objectives.
Specific output delays would be reduced, some new efforts could be started,
and better use would be made of facilities, such as the new Chapel
Hill Health Effects Clinical Experimental Facility which will become
operational in FY'78.
Accordingly, a supplemental growth budget option is considered desirable
and would prevent incompleted work terminations and allow the other current
areas of research to grow to a meaningful conclusive point and the initiation
of new research relevant to new legislation and Agency priorities.
Air Quality research could accomplish the following tasks:
. Conclude lead effects determinations in children.
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. Increase scope of oxides of sulfur and non-criteria pollutants
at the clinical level and restore the epidemiological
scope to the five cities necessary to assure statistical
validation.
. Reinstatement of toxicological support of above work.
. Conduct sulfate chemical exposure research on
susceptable subjects.
. Prevent the curtailment of automobile emissions
assessments required for OMSAPC certification review,
and permit clinical exposure to surfuric and aerosols
to conclude.
. Prevent slippage on current target dates for research
on metals and toxic chemicals reaching man by multiple
routes.
. Validation of the experimental model to predict toxic
effects to man from animal exposures.
. Prevent the elimination of prospective epidemiology and
other monitoring support efforts in the carcinogen
research area.
. Reinitiation of neurobehavioral, cardiovascular, metabolic,
and immune response from experimental human exposure to
ozone and other oxidants.
. Initiate diesel engine emission effects research to accommo-
date OMSAPC's information needs.
. Development of the integated system approach to address
and link all pertinent major research planned in the
carcinogen module (See Section III).
In the Water Quality category, the shellfish-growing program would
be restored to result in FDA participation. A combined health-ecological
study on the fate of microbial indicators and pathogens in the marine
environment would be initiated. Determination on the adverse effects
from pathogens, toxic metals and organics of land treatment and disposal of
wastewater sludges would be made. The impacts on neighboring populations
from secondary treatment plants and wastewater irrigation could also be
determined, as well as the uptake of refractory organics and metals into
food chain crops.
In the pesticides category the number of pesticides originally identi-
fied for study could be expanded. Work in animal modeling and pesticide
reference repository would be reinstated, and the farm workers exposure
investigation underway would be maintained. An additional number of widely
used and some "new generation" pesticides would be tested for acute and
chronic toxicity and carcinogenisis resulting from long-term expsoure.
This effort would develop animal models to assess the actions of the
compounds and would allow for the subsequent development of Human Dose/
Response Models.
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With respect to toxic substances, work in areas relating toxicants to
immulogic response and validation of methods and data correlation in
animals and man would be reinstated. In direct support of the new TSCA
legislation, one or more of the following work areas could be initiated:
expansion of analytical capability to support the Office of Toxic Sub-
stances, Regions, and Office of Environment; research on principles
to improve toxicity test methods; expanded development of short-term
methods to assess chronic toxicity; development of chemical effects screen-
ing methods; and other TSCA relevant research as described under the toxics
module in Section III.
In the radiation category reinstatement of cytogenetic and immunologic
effects research and continuation of low-level electromagnetic radiation
(EMR) exposure effects would be done. The continual upgrading and refinement
of microwave dosimetry techniques and exposure systems could be maintained.
A continually increasing emphasis on the neurophysiologic and behavioral
effects (considered the most sensitive indicators) from chronic exposure
will develop in addition to a more comprehensive program on the study of
teratogenic, cytogenetic and immunologic effects. As the most sensitive
biological indicators become better defined, studies would be extended and
expanded which utilize EMR as a co-factor in multiple stress investigations,
and in FY'82 epidemiologic investigations on selected populations will
be initiated.
Ecological Processes and Effects Subprogram
Ecological processes and effects'research provides EPA with a base upon
which environmental criteria, standards and regulations may be set. Ecology
is a scientific discipline that determines the pattern of relationships
between organisms and their environment. Ecological research provides a
base essential to developing water and air quality criteria, pesticide
registration, ocean discharge criteria, and effluent standards for toxic
and hazardous materials.
Several fundamental features of ecological research should be emphasized
in connection with EPA's regulatory responsibilities. Problem identifica-
tion, such as the disclosure that a pollutant causes human cancer, implies
regulatory consideration and also generates a plethora of environmental
questions concerning the pollutant. Consequently, human health effects are
related to the ecological framework, as the following questions suggest:
. How does the pollutant behave in the environment and particularly
how does it gets to the human subject?
. Is the pollutant accumulated or concentrated by
human food organisms? What is the effect of the
pollutant on these and other nontarget organisms?
. Does the pollutant have significant effects on ecological
systems that support human uses and what is a significant
effect?
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. What features of the fate, effects or transport of the
pollutant allow for its control or may be useful for
regulatory deliberations?
. What are secondary effects of abatement or regulatory
strategies?
. How available is the pollutant in the natural environment?
The above questions illustrate the scope and purpose of ecological
research: that of assessing and predicting the extent of environmental
pollution damages, limitations of the ecosystems to absorb pollutants,
and their indirect effects on human health and welfare.
Ecological research activities respond to EPA's administration of
environmental law and to changes in these laws. For example, P.L. 92-500
represents a major new direction in water quality regulation—a switch in
emphasis from receiving^water standards to effluent standards. This change
requires the consideration of the ecological effects in receiving water of
effluent discharges from implemented control technologies and management
methods.
To set an effluent standard to offer reasonable protection to aquatic
environments but no stricter than necessary, requires prediction with
reasonable accuracy of dispersion, transformation, accumulation and effects
and economic damages of pollutants from the time they enter the environment
to the time they are diluted to harmless levels (if that happens).
Over the past few years, many accomplishments have been achieved in the
ecological effects program. Some of the most noteworthy are summarized
below.
Significant contributions were made to the establishment of EPA's
Water Quality Criteria and to the Effluent Guidelines Program. Bioassay
procedures were developed which have been useful in a variety of ways,
particularly in the Ocean Disposal Permit Program.
The development and application of eutrophic and phytoplankton produc-
tion models of Lakes Ontario, Erie, and Huron have been completed, as has
the evaluation of accumulation of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and
other organic contaminants in Great Lakes fish. The National Eutrophication
Survey has terminated and a large portion of the results have ben analyzed
and published. This extensive data base on the state of health of the
nation's freshwater lakes will assist states and municipalities in their
water quality management activities.
A lake polluted by nutrients from municipal wastewater has been restored
to near-pristine quality following years and research and testing by EPA
scientists. Although it is extremely difficult to determine the dollar
value of the achievement of Shagawa Lake, Minnesota, it is certain that the
economic benefits have been enormous in terms of rapid recovery time and
the improvement of an important recreation area by removal of phosphrous.
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Research on gas-bubble disease, or supersaturation of water resulting
in a condition similar to the "bends" in humans, has resulted in a large
saving to the taxpayer and the protection of the commercially important
Salmon resource in the Pacific Northwest. Effects research established a
criterion of maximum permissable supersaturation of 105% in the Snake and
Columbia Rivers. Had this research not been conducted, the Corps of
Engineers likely would have made exorbitant expenditures to redesign and
restructure dams in an attempt to solve the problem without adequate
scientific data.
Effects research has been essential to EPA's pesticide registration
program and basic to several Agency actions concerning the banning of
pesticides such as DDT, aldrin, and dieldrin. A program was initiated to
investigate the health and ecological implications of the use of substitute
pesticide chemicals. Also initiated was a program to develop alternate
(non-chemical) methods of pest control.
The Ecological Processes and Effects Subprogram is structured into
four categories. They are Air and Water Quality, Pesticides and Toxic
Substances. In each category, criteria is developed based on ecological
effects to living organisms and ecosystems. The criteria is set so as
to mitigate any noticable detrimental effect on desirable ecosystems.
Ecological criteria development includes laboratory studies, such
as bioassays, to establish tolerable pollutant levels. It also includes
determination of single species effects or higher level effects such as
those obtained from well-defined microcosm simulation. General work performed
under criteria development is in direct response to legislative mandates to
define numerical standards to ambient level of pollutants. Since establish-
ment of a pollutant ambient level implies control practices, this activity
has economic implications.
Systems characterization and impact assessment include field studies;
theoretical or mathematical simulations; development of methodologies
to assess socioeconomic impacts of pollutants, including assessment of
resource utilization; and characterization of laboratory model ecosystems
or microcosms for potential use in criteria development. As such, the
ecological criteria portion of the program provides a response to requests
for numerical criteria on the effects of specific pollutants on sensitive
living components in air, water and terrestrial systems. Systems character-
ization and impact assessment require longer range research effort to
make numerical criteria more meaningful for whole systems.
In the future, effort will be placed on systems studies designed
to yield information on pollutant effects on entire systems. In the
past, ORD criteria for effects were based on studies of selected species.
Current scientific opinion and recent judicial proceedings indicate a need
to evaluate the impact of pollutants on entire systems as well as on
individual species. Unfortunately, satisfactory methods for such systems
evaluation are still inadequate.
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The following sections describe major aspects of the five-year plan
describing anticipated major outputs and research approaches.
Air Quality—
Air pollutant effects research on the structure and functions of
ecosystems and especially on their economically useful components, has as
major goals the protection of terrestrial ecosystems and thus human welfare.
Projects utilizing laboratory, microcosm, greenhouse and field studies
provide data which is interpreted using mathematical and/or theoretical
simulations to support establishment and continued evaluation of air
pollutant criteria. The information obtained is also relevant to developing
guidelines to assess the. environmental impact of municipal, industrial,
agricultural, and energy resource development.
The scientific basis for developing and strengthening air quality
control strategies and for evaluating air quality standards for major
criteria air pollutants will be continued on agricultural and forest
plants. Both acute and chronic effects on all stages of plant growth and
reproduction will be studied, with emphasis on ozone, nitrogen dioxide and
sulfur trioxide.
The present program to establish the scientific basis for air quality
criteria for non-criteria pollutants (e.g., heavy metals, halogen compounds
etc.) will continue on agronomic, horticultural and forest ecosystems. Acute
crises pollution problems frequently involve the non-criteria pollutants,
but chronic effects may present the worst hazard. Both aspects are being
investigated.
Measurement of acute and chronic effects of airborne photochemical
oxidants upon selected forest and agricultural ecosystems will be continued.
In this work, for example, questions will be addressed such as whether
conifer forests may exhibit widespread damage from these pollutants.
Research results will be incorporated into descriptive and predictive
models.
Determination of acute and chronic ecological effects of major air
pollutants, singly and in combination, upon agricultural ecosystems will
permit an assessment of the economic and social costs which may be deter-
mined in conjunction with the field and laboratory program. Human food and
animal forage crop ecosystems damaged by air pollutants constitute direct
threats to human welfare.
Establishment of coal-fired power plants in remote parts of the West
emphasize the need for ecological effects research, especially on livestock
rangeland. Thus, determination of acute and chronic ecological effects of
major air pollutants singly and in combination upon forest and grassland
ecosystems remains an important effort.
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For future food production it is imperative to determine ecological
effects of air pollutants within soil systems as a result of their trans-
port, transformation, accumulation and dispersal through biological,
physical and chemical means. Soils represent the nutrient bank for all
terrestrial ecosystems. As damage to soils may be irreversible, this
research seeks to quantify and assess the potential harm from such sources
as airborne acid aerosols and metals.
Water Quality—
The goal of the ecological effects program in aquatic ecosystems
is to provide the Agency the basis for the development of water quality
criteria, for fresh and marine waters.
The ecological effects research program conducts research on the
effects of specific pollutants and pollutant combinations on representative
or key sensitive organisms in aquatic ecosystems and on critical ecosystem
parameters and processes. Also under investigation are the physical,
chemical, and biochemical transformations of pollutants which result from
their introduction into, or passage through, aquatic ecosystems. Additional
research includes the characterization of natural and stressed aquatic
ecosystems; environmental requirements and limits for aquatic organisms;
development of mathematical ecosystem simulations and laboratory models
which aid in the prediction of pollutant stress effects on aquatic biota
and ecosystems; and methods to measure the relative health of aquatic
ecosystems. Inherent in the above is the consideration of intermedia
transport and effects, wherever applicable.
A major research objective in this program is to determine the fate and
ecological effects of oil and derived hydrocarbons in marine and freshwater
ecosystems. The laboratories are conducting research on the nature, loading
and long-term effects of oil in arctic and subarctic ecosystems. Studies
are being conducted on the toxicity of petrochemicals and energy related
organic solvents derived from off-shore petroleum extraction and transpor-
tation; and on the distribution and degradation rates of carcinogenic
compounds derived from oil.
Studies are underway to determine the fate, transport, and effects of
non-pesticide organic and inorganic pollutants, singly and in combination,
on aquatic species, ecosystems, and on community structures and populations:
Research to meet this objective includes studies on the influence of organic
solvents on the toxicity of selected organophosphates and chlorinated hydro-
carbons to fish; the effects of pollution stress on the susceptibility of
certain fish species to diseases; the toxic effects of inorganic pollutants
originating from non-point sources; and toxic effects of asbestiform fibers
and inorganic pollutants.
The objective of several studies ranging from the organism to the eco-
system level is the determination of the ecological effects of disinfected
wastes disposed in aquatic environments. Studies are designed to determine
the toxicity of industrial and municipal waste treated with disinfectants
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and the dynamics-of-dispersion and bioaccumulation of chlorine and halo-
genated compounds formed when chlorine is introduced into the marine
environment. Because of its potential as an alternative to chlorine for
disinfection, the effects of ozone upon selected marine and estuarine
species are being studied under varying environmental conditions such as
temperature and salinity.
A major thrust of the program involves studies of the Great Lakes.
Objectives include the characterization of pollution problems of the Great
Lakes, determination of the dynamic processes affecting large lakes, and
development of management-oriented models for describing the fate and
effects of pollutants in the Great Lakes. Research to meet these objectives
includes studies on oxygen consumption; relationships between nutrient
control and eutrophication, plankton, benthos and fish populations; fates
of hazardous substances, and atmospheric input of pollutants.
EPA scientists are working to determine the estimated "safe concentra-
tions" for freshwater aquatic life of complex industrial effluents receiving
best practicable treatment. Procedures are being developed for sampling
and conducting bioassays of complex wastes in marine and freshwater.
Research is being conducted on the integration of the exposure history of
aquatic organisms to complex wastes which vary with time in concentration
and components. Refinement of the use of the cough response of fishes as a
"toxic unit" of chronic exposure, is being accomplished. This information
can be used in setting and adjusting ambient water quality standards.
Determinations are being made of the effects of freshwater ecosystems
on the transformation of pollutants to other toxic or non-toxic forms and
bioaccumulation of waterborne materials, including rates of accumulation,
ultimate organism or tissue sites, and persistence of the compounds pro-
duced. This research involves studies of bioaccumulation of pollutants by
plankton, benthos and fish. The formation of associations between organic
pollutants and suspended and dissolved organic materials; the toxicity of
persistence pollutants as related to sorption-desorption phenomena.
An objective of the water program is to determine the fate, transport,
and effects of municipal and industrial wastes, disposed of in the ocean
and of dredged materials in marine and estuarine ecosystems. This research
involves the study of the mobilization of pollutants in dredging and
discharging modes; the prediction of physical, chemical and biological
influences on pollutant fates; the accumulation of viruses in sediments and
in organisms resulting from the ocean disposal of treated muncipal wastes
and the physicochemical factors affecting algal assay procedure results in
estuaries. The research will be used in the development of receiving water
criteria for ocean outfalls and ocean disposal and the development of an
environmental evaluation decision scheme for evaluating ocean disposal
permit applications.
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Simulated ecosystems are being developed to assess or estimate ecologi-
cal alterations, assess the dynamics of physical, chemical and biological
processes, and to test biostatistical methods to quantitatively sample
ecosystem components. Predictive models which describe pollutant distri-
bution and interactions are being developed and validated. Transport models
are being developed which will predict the magnitude and distribution of
settled and suspended materials resulting from dredge material disposal.
Single and multispecies static and flow-thru bioassays are being developed
and applied to problems such as ocean disposal, thermal discharges and the
discharge or disposal of metals, oil, mixed wastes and dredge materials.
Another objective of the program is the development and evaluation
of the ecological significance of measures of aquatic community structure
as indicators of the "health" of marine and freshwater ecosystems. The
research involves the comparative study of the effects on community struc-
ture of stresses applied to different assemblages in different biogeographi-
cal provinces. This work will help to identify those indices which are
useful for quantitative impact assessment or measures of possible effect.
An objective of the water program is to determine the ecological
impacts of variations in environmental parameters and the responses of
aquatic organisms to stress. This research involves studies of thermal
shock on fish and invertebrate larvae; the dynamics of fouling communities
under low-level, long-term thermal stress and simultaneous or intermittent
stresses resulting from other sources; and effects of oxygen concentration
on the growth and survival of embryos and larvae.
Nutrient loading, nutrient sources, rate-limiting nutrients and trophic
conditions are being assessed for selected lakes. Assessment is being made
of the contribution of nutrients and other pollutants from nonpoint sources
and their impact on surface water ecology. Determinations are underway of
nutrient recycling from sediments and the relative importance of nutrient
cycling by freshwater biological communities compared to physical-chemical
cycling from sediments. This research involves the use of laboratory
microcosms as well as field techniques in lakes other than the Great Lakes.
Included in the analyses are data from 800 U.S. lakes collected for the
National Eutrophication Survey and data on the long-term responses of a
lake to phosphorus reduction.
Studies are being conducted to describe and evaluate the dynamics
of aquatic ecosystems under pollution stress. A variety of lake restoration
techniques are being evaluated to provide a better understanding of the
overall environmental, social and economic costs and benefits associated
with the restoration of water quality in eutrophic lakes.
Pesticides—
A major objective of the ecological effects research program is to
provide information to assist the Agency in the registration/reregistration
of pest control agents and in the formulation of policies involving the
registration process. The efforts that support this objective are research
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on ecological effects of pesticides and substitute pesticide chemicals.
Another significant objective is to develop pest control strategies that
utilize all available methods in a way that is least destructive to the
environment. This part of the research program is known as integrated pest
management.
The ecological effects portion of the research program is oriented
toward determining the effects of pesticides in aquatic ecosystems.
That part of the research program designated the Substitute Chemical
Program develops, validates, and utilizes suitable methods and techniques
to assess the ecological effects of candidate substitute pesticide chemicals
on terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Pesticide transport, fate and other
pertinent ecological properties are also investigated in the Substitute
Chemical Program. The Integrated Pest Management Program provides the
necessary basis for development of strategies and tactics of insect pest
control in major crop ecosystems which will possibly permit marked reduction
of dependence on pesticide chemicals as a regular pest management practice.
A similar but smaller effort is devoted to the development of a scientific
basis for control strategies for urban pests. A discussion of the inte-
grated pest management program can be found in the section on Renewable
Resources Industries.
A major thrust of the ecological pesticide research program is to deter-
mine the effects of selected pesticides on marine, estuarine and freshwater
organisms and ecosystems. The acute and chronic effects of varying concen-
trations of pesticides on aquatic organisms are studied for representative
species exposed during various life stages. The effects of varying concen-
trations of pesticides on the development of ecosystems or communities are
studied to determine relationships between pesticide concentration and
species composition, species diversity, and community interactions.
One segment of this ecological part of the program is oriented toward
determining the effects of anti-fouling biocides on estuarine organisms and
ecosystems. The effects of varying concentrations of anti-fouling biocides
upon selected estuarine organisms are being studied to determine acute
toxicity relationships between the biocides and individuals life stages and
to determine chronic effects of sublethal concentrations on sensitive life
stages. The effects of these biocides on ecosystems are being studied to
determine community composition, rate of development, population dynamics,
and species diversity.
Another part of the program examines pesticide-microbial interactions
in estuarine environments. The effects of selected pesticides on commonly
occuring microorganisms are being studied to determine microbial degradation
of pesticides, including rates and products produced and to determine
toxicity of pesticides to pure cultures.
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Research efforts are being turned toward the interactions of biological
control agents with chemicals introduced to the environment in various
ways. Further, with regard to chemicals, the occurrence and ecological
significance of carcinogens, teratogens and mutagens in the marine and
estuarine environments is being investigated. An example of this type of
work is that on the effects of infectious pathogen agents upon estuarine
organisms in the presence of environmentally occur ing chemicals like
PCB's. The relationship between suspected carcinogens, teratogens, mutagens
and chemical combinations is being studied for selected species; results
will be compared with those obtained for mammals.
Among the important investigations of substitute chemicals are those on
the routes, degradation rates and effects in terrestrial and aquatic eco-
systems. Suitable methods and techniques for assessing deleterious and
beneficial ecological effects of substitute pesticide chemicals when they
may be used or transported in the terrestrial, estuarine, marine, and
freshwater ecosystems will be developed validated and utilized. Transport
of pesticides and their degradation products within the environment,
pesticides bio-accumulation, and other ecological properties will be
evaluated according to designated use or environmental mobility.
Toxic Substances—
As in the health program, toxic substances research discussed in this
section is part of a program initiated in prior years. It has not yet been
made a specific part of the overall implementation of the Toxic Substances
Control Act of 1976 (TSCA), but is relevant to it. As EPA moves to imple-
ment TSCA in the current and ensuing years, this program will be directed
specifically to supporting needs in that area. The objectives of the re-
search are to determine the ecological effects of toxic substances and to
provide a scientific basis for criteria development where possible and
necessary. Multimedia microcosm techniques, as tools to predict pollution
transport and distribution, are being tested and evaluated to determine the
impact of size, ecological structure, and abiotic components on the microcosm
responses. The stability and reproducibility of microcosms are being
determined in relation to the above factors. The degree of reliability of
various types of microcosms (both aquatic and terrestrial) to predict
pollutant transport and distribution are being attained from these studies
and improved microcosm utilization techniques are being developed.
In order to establish the suitability of the microcosms and model
ecosystems for criteria development and as screening tools for toxic
contaminants, existing units are being characterized as to replicability
and effects of size and structure. Work is being done to identify the
applicability of these model systems to real-world ecosystems.
EPA scientists are developing and characterizating new model ecosystems
and microcosms capable of simulating a range of key ecosystem-level pro-
cesses and parameters, and suitable for evaluating major categories of
ecological stressing factors. Characterized model ecosystems and microcosms
will be used to screen toxic contaminants to provide estimates of probable
ecosystem-level effects on specific environmental-stressing factors.
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Potential Subprogram Growth Areas—
In the majority of activities described under the Ecological Processes
and Effects Subprogram, a resource allocation as summarized in Section I as
the growth budget option, would permit more timely achievement of the
ecological research objectives. Specific output delays which could be
averted, new initiatives in research and reinstated research activities
are discussed below.
In the air ecology category, work dealing with development of popula-
tion-dynamics models for air pollutant effects on terrestrial plant and
animal communities would be restored. Research on development of pollutant
transport mathematical.models describing transport pathways of airborne
hazardous substances (e.g. particulates, heavy metals, etc.) to selected
terrestrial plants and animals would be restored. The very modest effort
on ecological effects of acid precipitation upon agricultural and non-
agricultural ecosystems and their components; and upon soils, soil biota,
and soil fertility would be reestablished. Long-term effects on soils and
short-term effects on plant growth, yield and reproduction would be empha-
sized. An additional effort could be undertaken to determine the near and
long-term ecological effects of acid precipitation. The long-term effects
of acid rain on soil litter decomposition will determine the extent of
damage to this key step in plant nutrient recycling. Short-term effects
will deal with direct damage of acid precipitation to agronomic and/or
horticultural crops. A portion of the resources would also be used to
support the USDA acid rain monitoring network now being proposed.
In the water ecology category, extramural projects on the atmospheric
input of heavy metals into the Great Lakes; thermal pollution; and effects
of nutrient loading on algae growth would initiated. No delay of scheduled
research would occur involving the dispersion and fate of hazardous materials
in the Great Lakes; bioassays designed to determine permissable levels of
petroleum hydrocarbons in the marine environment; completion of bioassays
on permissable levels of heavy metals in marine ecosystems; bioassays on
the ecological impacts of disinfectants; studies on the characterization of
freshwater ecological processes; and the development of bioassays to study
the effects of complex wastes on estuarine and marine organisms and
ecosystems.
In the pesticide category, continued support of all active extramural
projects not scheduled for completion in FY'77 would be possible. This is
significant since it would allow timely output of information on the
effects of specified pesticides. Those areas of research most affected
would be toxicity testing, evaluation of substitute chemicals in terrestrial
model ecosystems and determination of the effects of selected pesticides
on the marine environment.
In the toxic substances category it will be possible to achieve
earlier completion of an evaluation of terrestrial and aquatic microcosms.
This evaluation will examine the ability of the microcosm to assess potential
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environmental transport and distribution of toxic pollutants. With the com-
pletion of this developmental phase, screening of selected substances in
model ecosystems or microcosms for fate and effects can begin.
Transport and Fate of Pollutants Subprogram
Development of effective pollution control strategies requires linking
pollutant impacts to sources. The Transport and Fate Subprogram is primarily
responsible for development of empirical and analytical techniques that
relate air and water pollution source emissions and discharges to ambient
exposures. To achieve this objective requires research and model develop-
ment in atmospheric, soil and aquatic ecosystem processes and effects for
determination of pollutant sources, interactions, transport, transformation
and sinks; effects of air pollutants on visibility, rainfall, and climate;
and impacts of water pollutants on water quality.
Following is a description of transport and fate research and an
identification of major outputs over the next five years.
Air Quality—
The Clean Air Act of 1970 introduced an era of stringent standards
and deadlines for achieving air quality goals. However, some ramifications
of achieving clean air have only recently come sharply into focus. The
direct costs of achieving clean air by control of stationary and mobile
sources are better known than the indirect impacts on land use and energy
supplies. Additionally, the goal of clean air must compete with other
national needs. Application of "hardware" controls alone may not be
sufficient nor the optimum solution to air quality improvement. Rather,
the optimum control choice may depend upon an understanding of the processes
of pollutant formation, transport and fate, the interactions of pollutants
and their subsequent impact on ambient air quality.
Knowledge of many atmospheric processes governing transport and
transformation of pollutants in the atmosphere has progressed. However,
new information has revealed significant information gaps that may hinder
progress in effectively managing atmospheric quality. The gaps most likely
to receive attention in the near-term include the transport and alteration
of sulfates under both regional and subcontinental conditions, and analysis
of oxidants in local and regional areas. Emerging problems, such as carcino-
gens and other hazardous substances, are also likely to receive more
attention.
A major objective in the air research category is to achieve a better
understanding of transport and fate processes through the design and
testing of air quality simulation models. Simulation models are developed,
evaluated and validated to provide qualitative and quantitative methods for
predicting and describing air quality from a variety of emissions sources.
Included in these activities are model development for important pollutant
categories and configurations (e.g., highway, point sources, area sources,
etc,), model evaluation, model testing protocols and guidelines for physical
model use.
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In addition, the following specific catgories of research are addressed
within the Air Quality research area: determine and characterize the
sources and sinks, mechanisms and kinetics of formation and removal, and
chemical/physical interactions of airborne gaseous and particulate matter;
qualitatively and quantitatively estimate or describe air quality associated
with a variety of anticipated air pollution control abatement strategies
and develop the necessary analytical techniques to characterize and measure
air pollutants from stationary and mobile sources and in the ambient air.
The major air pollutants under study are the criteria pollutants and
important non-criteria pollutants including sulfates and other sulfur-
containing compounds, nitrates, halocarbons, polynuclear aromatics and
other carcinogens, and fine particulates. Research results are needed by
the Agency to establish effective control measures to meet ambient air
quality standards and to justify and defend the establishment of emission
limitations on selected stationary and mobile sources. The measurement and
evaluation of the atmospheric effects of pollutants, in support of secondary
air quality standards, include determinations on the effects of pollutants
on visibility reduction.
Using chemical and physical concepts, analytical tools and measurement
methods developed over preceding years, air quality research will continue
to investigate ambient air pollutant transformation, movement and removal,
but with increasing emphasis in the following areas.
. On particulate pollutants as contrasted with gaseous pollutants.
. Analysis of data, accumulated from long-term surveillance projects,
as opposed to data gathering.
. Study of regional air pollution problems rather than solely on
urban-scale problems is anticipated to continue over the next
five years.
. On non-regulated pollutants such as vinyl chloride, specific
organics, carcinogens, nitrates and sulfates and other sulfur-
bearing compounds, and less on the conventional criteria
pollutants.
Key outputs over the next five years are presented below.
Sulfate Transport and Transformations in the Environment (STATE)—The
STATE is designed to acquire the data base necessary for the development of
control strategies for the reduction of sulfur and nitrogen transformation
products in the atmosphere. To obtain such information will require aero-
metric and meteorological measurements on an areawide scale of 100 - 100 km
combined with vertical characterization (within the troposphere) to describe
and predict pollutant concentrations at ground level. Specific milestones
will include:
. Conduct winter field studies (include snow cover; steady
precipitation).
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Conduct summer field studies (include stagnation; shower
precipitation).
Preliminary report on 1978 Winter Field Studies.
completion of STATE, outputs will be provided that describe:
. Extent to which oxides of sulfur and nitrogen rates of
conversion and deposition are influenced by sunlight,
ammonia, catalysts, humidity, terrain and vegetation, and
meteorology.
. Influence of air mass on sulfate and nitrate composition.
. Contribution of natural sources of hydrogen sulfide to
ambient air concentrations of sulfates.
. Behavior of sufur dioxide, sulfates, nitrogen oxides, and
nitrates coming from large point sources, as opposed to
area sources.
. Final report on the STATE program.
Air Pollutant Characterization—
. Final report on the distribution of halogenated compounds in
the troposphere.
. Report on natural sources of oxidant precursors.
. Report on non-regulated pollutants in the New York-New Jersey
area.
Air Quality Models—
. Application of three-dimensional finite difference
line-source model for assessing concentrations on and near
highways.
. Development of a regional scale air quality simulation
model for ozone.
. Complete evaluation of urban scale models for oxidants
and sulfates from RAPS data.
. Development of a nitrogen dioxide precursor relation from
chamber simulations.
Physics and Chemistry of Gaseous and Particulate Pollutants—
. Develop a lumped parameter kinetic model for aromatic
hydrocarbons to fill out oxidant photochemical lumped
parameter kinetic systems.
Atmospheric Effects and Meteorology—
. Report on the determination of the anthropogenic and non-
anthropogenic pollution emissions to visibility deductions
in the U.S.
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Water Quality—
The establishment of meaningful surface and ground water quality goals
and standards, and the implementation of a cost-effective program for their
achievement and maintenance, require a capability to relate pollution
discharges to ambient water quality conditions and vice versa. Specifically,
this capability is essential in order to establish ambient water quality
standards and effluent limitation for compounds that are toxic or that are
transformed into toxic substances after release to the environment; predict
the hazard (and its duration) that would result from the release to surface
or ground waters of substances that are toxic or are capable of transfor-
mation into toxic substances; translate water quality standards and goals
into point (and nonpoint) source control requirements, as necessary for the
issuance of permits along water quality limited stream segments; and
optimize point and nonpoint pollution control/management requirements
within a basin with respect to dollar and energy expenditures.
The current state of the art in this area is sufficient to permit
prediction of water quality impacts resulting from point source discharges
of the more common pollutants (e.g., BOD, coliform, excess heat). The
accuracy, precision, and limitations of these existing predictive models
have not been fully verified and documented, however, and it is not gene-
rally obvious which of the existing techniques is most applicable in a
given situation or what the degree of error might be in any given applica-
tion. The capability to predict water quality impacts from point-source
discharges of nonconventional toxic pollutants is essentially nonexistent.
There is also essentially no capability to relate nonpoint discharges of
pollution to resultant water quality or to predict water quality improvement
that would result from any given level of nonpoint-source control. Also
lacking is essential information on four of the key environmental processes
(microbial degradation, oxidation, volatilization, and sorption) that
dictate the movement, primary pathways, transformations, persistence, and
ultimate fate of trace organic and inorganic substances in surface and
ground water systems. This information is necessary in order to develop
screening techniques for rapidly assessing the nature, extent, and duration
of the hazard that would result from the deposition of a given potentially
toxic substance into an aquatic system or upon the land. This information
is also required to expand existing predictive models to address the
impacts of point and nonpoint discharges of pesticides and other toxic
materials on surface and ground water quality.
The major objectives of current research on the transport and
fate of water pollutants are to provide the methodologies and
associated data bases required to: 1) predict the transport,
transformation, persistence, and fate of trace organic and inorganic
pollutants upon entering a fresh surface or ground water system;
2) predict water quality impacts resulting from the discharge of point
and nonpoint source pollution into fresh surface waters; and 3) evaluate
the relative cost-effectiveness of alternative basinwide point and non-
point source pollution control strategies.
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In view of the above objectives, the following outputs are planned
for the five year period FY 77 - FY 81.
. Reports characterizing sensitized photolysis, chemical oxidation,
volatilization, and sorption processes with respect to their
roles in the transport, transformations, and fate of trace organic
pollutants (supports Toxics and NFS Modules).
. Report on impact of multi-pollutant interaction of fate processes
(supports Toxics and NFS Modules)
. Report on impact of environmental factors on release and
degradation of pesticides from sediments in sediment-water systems
(supports NFS and Toxics Modules).
. Report on evaluation of expanded and refined pesticide evaluative
model (for predicting the transport and fate of pesticides in
fresh water systems) (supports Toxics and NFS Modules).
. Report on expanded inorganics (mercury) evaluation model, calibrated
for cadmium (supports Toxics and NFS Modules).
. Report and users manual on evaluative model for major nutrients
(P,N, & C) (supports NFS Module).
. Report and users manual on expanded nutrient evaluation model (to
include impact on metals and other toxic substances on nutrient
cycling) (supports NFS Module).
. Couple inorganic and organic evaluative models with those for other
media so pollutants can be evaluated for multimedia behavior
(supports Toxic Module).
. Report on "natural" loading rates for sediments and nutrients in
natural streams (supports NFS Module).
. User manual for a user-interactive computer program (Executive
Routine) for conducting basinwide assesments of point and
nonpoint pollution problems and the effectiveness of proposed
management alternatives in the alleviation of these problems
(supports NFS Module).
. Report documenting selected methodology for quick analysis of
specific pesticide and other toxic pollutant problems on an
areawide or basinwide scale (supports NFS Module).
. Report on Areawide (sub-basin or watershed scale) point and non-
point source loading and water quality impact analysis model
(support NFS Module).
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. User manual for a.hydrologic unit, (sub-watershed scale) point and
nonpoint source loading and water quality impact analysis model
(supports NFS Module).
Potential Subprogram Growth Areas—
Transport and Fate of Pollutants Subprogram activities can productively
result in research outputs with the increased support afforded by the
proposed growth budget option summarized in Section I.
Specific project outputs in the Air Quality category that would be
additional to the plarihed efforts are listed and grouped into the five
major research areas of the Air Quality category as follows:
STATE—
. Impact of photochemical processes as they affect the sulfur
dioxide and nitrogen oxides from different sources.
. Mechanism and rate of formation of sulfate and nitrate
aerosols and characteristics in different regimes.
. Decay rate of sufur dioxide from area sources as opposed to
point sources, and in the combined urban plume.
. Behavior of sulfur and nitrogen oxides from a power plant when
emitted above the inversion layer, as opposed to being
emitted below the layer.
. Importance of the nitrogen oxides from power plants, if any,
to the formation of ozone downwind of cities.
. Effectiveness of natural precipitation processes to remove
nitrogen and sulfur oxides from the atmosphere.
. Pole of sulfates and nitrates in contributing to acid
rain problems.
. Development of regional/sub-continental models that relate
emission sources to ambient air concentrations for nitrates
and sulfates.
Air Pollutant Characterization—
. Chemical characterization of acid sulfates at selected U.S.
sites.
Reports on non-regulated pollutants in Birmingham.
Report on air pollutant characterization in an agricultural
area in Region VII.
. Reports on ambient air concentration levels of carcinogenic
substances at selected urban and non-urban sites in the U.S.
. Reports on ambient air concentrations of toxic substances.
Air Quality Models—
. Evaluate the validated models for sulfur oxide emissions from
power plants in complex terrain.
. Report on the use of advanced statistical concepts in the
development of Air Quality Simulation Models.
. Development of oxidant-precursor models for multiple-day
irradiation from chamber simulations incorporating
hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides as simultaneous precursor
variables.
. Report on recommendations for control of fine particulates.
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Physics and Chemistry of Gaseous and Particulate Pollutants—
Smog chamber study of sulfate formation under high
relative humidity.
Report on potentially toxic intermediate oxygenates in
photochemical smog formation.
. Report on aerosol analysis for organics, nitrogen and sufur
oxides, amonia, and hydrochloric and nitric acids.
. Determine composition of toxic secondary products (chemical
reaction) compared to primary organic vapors and particles
in several urban and non-urban atmospheres.
. Determine formation and destruction mechanisms for toxic
organic vapors and organic particles in urban and
industrial plumes.
. Study natural atmospheric removal processes for sulfur
oxides from plumes.
Atmospheric Effects and Meteorology—
. Report on the effects of air pollutants in the urban-rural
radiation balance.
. Report on plume rise climatology for the U. S.
Progress report on the role of percipitation washout and
rainout on sulfates and nitrates.
Assessment of air pollution modification of regional
weather and climate.
In the water quality category, many scheduled outputs, within the
time frame needed to implement TSCA and to complete the first phase of
areawide planning by 208 agencies, could be obtained under the growth
budget option. Specifically the accelerated amounts and specific projects
are as follows:
. Report and users manual on expanded nutrient evaluative
model (to include impact of metals and other toxic substances
on nutrient cycling) - by one year.
. Couple media-specific evaluative models to produce multi-
media evaluative models for assessing transport and fate of
trace organic and inorganic pollutants — by three years.
. User manual for Executive Routine for conducting basinwide
assessments of point and nonpoint pollution problems
and the effectiveness of proposed management alternatives —
by one year.
. Report on areawide (sub-basin scale) water quality analysis
model — by three years.
. Expanded basin-scale analysis models for assessing pesticide
and other toxic pollutant problems on a basinwide basis —
by two years.
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. Initiation in FY 1978 (& Completion in FY 1985) of the
verification and documentation of the validity and accuracy
of the linked NFS loading and water quality impact analysis
models identified above and up to three other models that
would be considered desirable for use in making point
source load allocations.
. Initiation in FY 1981 (& Completion in FY 1987) of the develop-
ment of methodologies for optimizing alternative combinations
of point and nonpoint source pollution control strategies
within a watershed or basin.
. Support of implementation of TSCA by the development of proto-
cols for rapidly assessing the transport and exposure pathways
and fate of toxic substances. The very rudimentary first
generation protocols would be developed by 7/1/77, utilizing
existing state of the art techniques. Subsequent efforts
would be devoted to reducing by several fold the cost and
time requirements for employing the protocols and increasing
their reliability.
Criteria Development and Socioeconomic Studies
The health and ecological effects research program has the responsi-
bility for preparing criteria-type documents which assess the available
scientific and technical information applicable to possible regulatory
actions on specific pollutants and for socioeconomic research related to
health and ecological effects. The criteria development program has the
responsibility for preparing the Criteria Documents required under Section
108 of the Clean Air Act as well as Scientific and Technical Assess-
ment Reports (STARs) on other pollutants. The socioeconomic research
area seeks primarily to develop methodology for better estimating the
economic benefits of pollution control. It draws on the health and eco-
logical effects data generated by the other parts of the program as well as
by EPA sponsored research.
Those criteria-type documents now under preparation or scheduled are
shown in the timeline projections. Particular pollutants for which cri-
teria-type documents will be prepared in the latter part of the five-year
period will depend on future EPA intentions as to which pollutants to
regulate. In general, the documents will be prepared in most cases in a
three-stage development process in which a contractor will carry out the
basic literature search, a group of experts on the particular pollutant
will use this to prepare an overview assessment of the pollutant, and
then ORD scientists will summarize and define the impact of the documents
on EPA. Except in the case of Section 108 Criteria Documents, each STAR
will be as multimedia and multidisciplinary as is reasonable considering
expected users. There is expected to be a continuing and growing need for
such documents over the next five years, particularly for the increasing
numbers and kinds of toxic pollutants with which EPA is concerned.
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The socioeconomic research area emphasizes research on the benefits
of health and welfare protection and pollution abatement. Where possible,
reports of suitable quality and length for publication as books are sought
as outputs. Several major reports are expected through FY 78. The topics
proposed for later years will be selected mainly from other areas of
benefit research and a limited selection of topics from the following
areas: economic epidemiology, future pollutant problems, conservation
issues, waste reduction, and methods and model development.
The economic epidemiology area considers socioeconomic and demographic
factors associated with environmental health. These data will serve to
implement the medical epidemiology and provide data for benefits studies.
The future pollutant problem area is an interdisciplinary one that attempts
to "get ahead of the problem" and identify future pollution problems early
enough to devise control strategies that protect at much lower cost than
required when the problem becomes serious. The conservation issues area
will define the problem of evaluating natural environments and outline
various approaches for coping with conflicts of interest between conser-
vation of nature's unique natural features and economic development. The
waste reduction area will explore resource depletion problems and environ-
mental and economic benefits of reducing the amount of wastes; methods of
encouraging materials conservation and consequences of alternative management
methods. In the methods and model development area, tools appropriate for
use in environmental analysis will be developed, verified and prepared
for socioeconomic assessments.
The major objectives of the benefit research program are to develop
the methodology necessary to allow credible assessment of pollution control
benefits for each media as well as for selected individual pollutant
control actions. It is anticipated that there will be a continuing and
growing need for socioeconomic research over the next five years as the
number of pollutants of concern increases. As this happens, EPA will find
it necessary to exercise ever-increasing selectivity as to the level and
extent of control exercised so as to avoid unnecessarily excessive regulation
of consumers and industry. Improved benefit data can contribute greatly to
this goal.
Varying resource levels will have approximately proportional
impact on the output of the criteria and socioeconomic programs, by
varying the number of assessments under each program.
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TIMELINES FOR CRITERIA-TYPE DOCUMENTS
Pollutant FY-77 FY-78 FY-79 FY-80
Snmonia - -,--____ _ _ _ _ __ i/\i
"cy
Arsenic - -- -- - ____ -- —^^ ^
Asbestos ----- _ _ ____ _ _ ^^
Benzidine - - - _ _ __ _ _ ^J
Beryllium - — (fy
Cadmium - -- - - ---- - - _ _ f^\
Carbon Monoxide - - ---- - _ _ (ft)
Chlorine & Hydrochloric Acid - - ^
Chromium - - •— A,
Copper - - - - - - (^Q ^
Cyanides - - - - - -- r~j A
Endrin -------- __ A
Fluorides - - -- - - {~J A
Halomethanes (non-fluorinated) - (Q
Hexachlorocyclopentadiene, _^
Kepone, Mirex - ____ _ fj A
Hydrogen Sulfide -- - - --
Iron --- -- ___
Lead (airborne) ---- - - -
Lead (multi-media) -- - - -
Mercury - - - - -
Methylparathion ------
Nickel - -- - - - ----
Nitrogen oxides (air) - - ----
Nitrates - - - - - ----
Nitrosamines -------
Noble metals --- -- __
Particulates --- __-
Phenols - - --- -- - ---- -- Q - A
Photochemical oxidants S
hydrocarbons ------ -- ^
Selenium ____-- ___
Sulfur oxides, including
sulfates - - •- -
Toxaphene (_/
Vanadium - - - - - - - - - - V
Vapor-phase organic matter - - - - ^^—^~
Zinc ____------- (A)_
= Literature review completed.
= Assessment completed.
= In-house review or report completed.
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PUBLIC SECTOR ACTIVITIES PROGRAM
The major goals of the Public Sector Research Program are:
. To develop waste water management technology to meet the objective
of P.L. 92-500 as it pertains to public sector activities.
. To develop solid waste and resource recovery technology in
support of the objectives of P.L. 94-580.
. To provide the R&D support to implement the the safe drinking
water provisions of P.L. 92-523.
. To develop alternative technologies for ocean disposal in
support of P.L. 92-532.
. To develop improved methods for planning and implementing
regional environmental protection programs.
Of the environmental problem areas of concern to EPA programs, several
can be grouped because of their significance in community environmental
management. Three major research subprograms are so identified and are:
. Waste Management
. Water Supply
Environmental Management
The Waste Management Subprogram focuses on prevention, treatment
control, and management of pollution produced by community, residential or
other nonindustrial activities. This research covers municipal and domestic
wastewater collection/transport and treatment systems, urban surface
runoff, and municipal solid wastes systems.
The solid waste systems research effort includes documentation of
effects to justify regulatory efforts for hazardous wastes disposal,
control technology development for their treatment and disposal, deter-
minations of their migration through soils, evaluations of environmental
effects of sanitary landfills used for their disposal and development of
resource recovery systems for wastes for energy and material conservation
and recovery.
A major effort is underway to assure the Nation a dependable and safe
supply of drinking water. This includes work on health effects that result
directly or indirectly from contaminants in drinking water. Additionally,
the Water Supply Subprogram provides for development of analytical methods
to assess drinking water quality and to develop processes to control
undesirable contaminants in water supplies that currently .applied technology
does not remove. Water supply research includes four major efforts:
identification and measurements, health effects, treatment technology
and systems management, and groundwater management. The major objective of
water supply health effects research is to develop scientific criteria for
setting drinking water quality standards. Specifically, this research will
provide the scientific information to establish standards for organic,
inorganic and microbiological contaminants in drinking water. The primary
objective of water supply control technology R&D is to develop cost-effec-
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tive control technology to achieve standards. This involves both the
adaptation of large-scale technology to small water supply streams and
development of new or special technologies.
The objective of the Environmental Management Subprogram is to provide
regional, state and areawide environmental planners and managers with
methods to determine feasible alternative solutions to comprehensive
environmental problems and to provide techniques for selecting least-cost
solutions. The research focuses on development of improved multimedia
planning techniques, improved methods for collection, analysis and applica-
tion of environmental quality and economic information,methods for the
evaluation of alternative institutional arrangements, and the development
of comprehensive systems evaluations and decision methodologies.
Description of the three subprograms and their major planned five year
outputs follows.
Waste Management Subprogram
The domestic, commercial, recreational and other nonindustrial
activities of the Nation's communities are major sources of pollution and
degradation of environmental quality. These many and diverse communities
vary from isolated rural settlements and recreational areas to sprawling
suburban developments and large, concentrated urban areas. Community
activities, normally under management of state and local governments
produce pollutants that are discharged into the Nation's surface and
groundwater from sewered wastewaters, runoff from rain and melted snow from
the land's surface, percolation of pollutants from home septic systems and
public or private landfills. Also, there are emissions of pollutants to air
from public sector activities sources, and other impacts resulting from
solid and hazardous wastes.
The EPA has a number of ways to approach public sector problems.
The most conspicuous and direct is the Federal Construction Grants Program
with its National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System authorized by
P.L. 92-500. Another is through more comprehensive approaches, exemplified
by Section 208 of P.L. 92-500, that give responsibility for planning and
implementing environmental controls and management systems to state and
local authorities with EPA providing guidelines and assistance.
The Waste Management Subprogram is designed to support efforts by
EPA and state and local governments to develop and demonstrate specific
pollution control technologies and management systems. It provides methods
to assess local problems and to select appropriate management options for
control. This subprogram is organized as follows:
. Wastewater Management
- Wastewater Treatment Technology
- Soil Treatment Systems
- Urban Runoff Pollution Control
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. Solid and Hazardous Waste Management
Wastewater Management—
The objectives of the Wastewater Management activities are to develop
the technology to support the Agency in meeting the goals of P.L. 92-500,
which are to meet secondary treatment requirements by 1977, to achieve
fishable-swimmable water quality by 1983 and to eliminate the discharge
of pollutants by 1985. The major implementation actions to achieve the
goals are directed in the Agency water strategy plan as follows:
Municipal Construction Grants Program — Provide financial assistance
for the construction of publicly owned treatment works (POTW) in a cost-
effective manner and with priority for implementation in water quality
limited areas.
Water Quality Management Planning — States and areawide 208 planning
authorities will update existing plans, provide coordinated management
decisions, and strengthen the institutional basis for water quality manage-
ment. Plans should be completed by November 1978. They will coordinate
permit requirements, construction grant needs, nonpoint-source programs and
identify technical, institutional and funding problems and solutions. They
will consider the social, economic, and environmental consequences of
alternative proposals.
Toxic Pollutants — To meet the 1983 goal major attention will be paid
to toxic pollutants such as refractory organics and heavy metals. There is
a need to establish required limitations on discharges of identified toxi-
cants. A coordinated effort of research into toxic pollutant treatment
technologies and management systems, health and ecosystem effects and their
fate in the environment, will be used with the Act's various regulatory
provisions to produce an integrated Federal water-borne toxicants policy.
Permits, Compliance Monitoring and Enforcement — Permits have been
issued to meet the 1977 requirements. By law no permit term exceeds five
years. Permit renewal is likely to include storm sewer discharges.
Nonpoint Sources (NPS) — The NPS control will become a major program
emphasis, to be implemented through the water quality management system.
It is recognized that many types of nonpoint sources are not amenable to
an effluent limitations approach. In developing individual solutions,
designated agencies will identify best management practices for these
sources.
To support the strategy, ORD's Wastewater Management research is
subdivided as follows:
. Sludge processing, disposal and utilization;
Improved performance, and economics of treatment;
Soil treatment systems;
. Management of small wastewater flows;
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. Urban combined sewer and stormwater control;
. Toxics control;
. Advanced treatment for higher water quality;
. Wastewater reuse and pollutant discharge elimination.
The following discussion presents a research plan to assist the Agency
strategy for attaining the national water quality goals.
During the FY 1977 - FY 1981 period this group of activities will
emphasize bench and pilot-scale development and evaluation and assessment of
existing full-scale systems. It will not include a demonstration program.
To the extent possible, research and development will be coordinated with
construction grants projects which include pilot-scale technology evalua-
tions. Much of this research will require the coupling of health and
ecological effects studies with alternative control technology evaluation
and assessments.
Wastewater Treatment Technology—Basic knowledge of sludges and their
behavior environmentally limits the effective application of existing sludge
processing and disposal technology as well as encourages the implementation
of expensive current technology. Continuing work to provide improved
understanding includes the following categories:
. Characterizing the changes in form and the fate of contaminants,
such as heavy metals or specific organics or the survivability
of pathogenic organisms and the transformation and transport
mechanism of these specific contaminants and pathogens within
the disposal technology, especially as related to land disposal.
. Developing quantitative understanding of mechanisms controlling
conditioning of solids (chemicals, heat, etc.) for reliable and
efficient solids-liquid separation.
. Investigating the mechanisms controlling useful product formation
(methane gas, fuel gases, chars, etc.) in order to maximize
formation of product and minimize energy consumption.
Other work also will include continued research of improved approaches
for new dewatering equipment capable of producing an auto-thermal cake,
incineration and pyrolysis equipment, and for stabilization of sludges
during processing and disposal. Finally, the overall methodology for
cost-effective managing of sludge processing and disposal will be developed
and distributed to the users. Work on sludge management has received
major support for several years and is expected to continue with emphasis
on approaches which reduce energy consumption.
The relationships between operation and maintenance (O&M) practices
and performance in terms of secondary effluent and other effluent standards
will be developed. This effort will continue for several years. It
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is necessary to determine which factors in O&M have potential for the
greatest cost reduction and improve performance. Emphasis in this area
will be on small plants where O&M costs are high per unit of production.
Research on the relationship between plant reliability and O&M is just
beginning and is expected to continue throughout the five year interval.
The instrumentation and process control long-range work features the
completion of the development and evaluation of methods for process control
of conventional plants. The work includes assessments of instrumentation
capabilities and limitations, development of selected sensors to measure
constituents such as ozone in water and on-line toxic analyzers together
with the corresponding controls employing the sensors for improved plant
operation. At current resource levels the work will extend beyond five
years.
The research at current resource levels in improved engineering design
and construction practice will feature continued assessment and development
of new methods and materials for use in construction. The work on assessing
design, cost and energy requirements for alternative control technology will
also continue and provide inputs to planners and engineers in selecting
most effective technology. The work will continue through the five year
interval.
Research will be carried out to assess the magnitude of the problem
of toxics control prior to developing specific technological solutions.
A data base must be developed to evaluate the relative effectiveness of
pretreatment versus in-plant control technology strategies. Research will
focus on characterizing the interacting physical and chemical mechanisms
contributing and controlling the removal of toxicant during the normal
process of treating wastewater. Development of control technologies
will proceed along with methods for assessing pretreatment versus in-plant
removal versus extraction from sludge versus controlled disposal practices.
The ongoing work on upgrading methods and nutrient removal processes
will be finished and phased out. Work on disinfection alternatives will
continue through the period with evaluation of appropriate alternatives.
Work on new cost-effective technology will continue with development and
evaluation of potentially cost-effective techniques, such as deep shaft
aeration, oxidation ditch process and fluidized bed oxygen processes.
Research in wastewater reuse will not include technology development
or demonstrations. The only activity would be completion of a study to
assess the extent to which the U.S. population is now drawing water for
domestic purposes from sources receiving upstream wastewater discharges and
characterization of organics in wastewater effluents.
In the small wastewater flows activity it is expected that improved
methods for operating soils systems will be completed within five years and
work on this topic will be discontinued. Similarly, it is expected that
the effectiveness and costs of pressure and vacuum collection systems will
be completed and no further studies will be required. Development of new
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systems such as the novel evapotranspiration system will be continued.
Studies of methods for handling septage will be continued for several
years. Study of water-saving devices will also continue. Emphasis will
be shifted from the single-home waste to recreational wastes and non-
sewered commercial wastes.
Soil Treatment Systems—In the Soil Treatment Systems Plan presently
being implemented, priority is given to completion of the required data
for development of the irrigation mode. Equal importance is given to
research in those areas relating to mechanisms and effects which are common
to all types of soil treatment systems. As resources permit, development
and evaluation of infiltration-percolation and overland-flow systems will
be continued. It is expected that this plan will provide acceptable
planning and design criteria for irrigation systems; information for design
and operation of infiltration-percolation systems with limitations due to
climate, soil, and other variables; and reasonably reliable design
data for overland-flow systems for the southern half of the United States
by 1893.
Urban Runoff Pollution Control—The program objective of obtaining wet
weather pollution abatement decision-making information will receive
primarly emphasis. A quantitative problem assessment and receiving water
impact ranking along with identification of key pollutants as a function
of source and receiving water type will be developed. This will be used to
determine the degree of control required and determining wet weather water
quality standards. The other elements of decision-making information
needed are cost and performance. A long-term effort in developing and
evaluating best management practices will be initiated for sewered and
unsewered runoff, while a moderate effort will be continued to develop less
costly structural or treatment methods for both combined and storm sewers.
The ultimate objective is to produce a manageability index which will
incorporate integrated approaches and give cost and performance of combina-
tions of non-structural and structural methods; land management; minor
urban flood control; multi use systems; and best management practices.
Solid and Hazardous Waste Management—
Municipal officials rank solid waste management as their most pressing
problem. Approximately $5 billion is spent annually on collection and
disposal of solid wastes, and yet less than half of the generated waste is
collected. Most of that which is collected is disposed of in open dumps.
The Agency estimates that only 5% of all disposal sites meet acceptable
environmental standards.
Much is not known concerning proper disposal of wastes in land. Even
the current best practice "sanitary landfilling" technique may not be the
best technique for land disposal. Current "sanitary landfill" practice
restricts the flow of water into the landfill to minimize the amount of
leachate produced; however, this also retards the decomposition and stabili-
zation of the landfill and may result in moral and financial responsibility
for maintenance of the landfill for generations. With knowledge of decompo-
sition under differing moisture regimes and the development of techniques
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for collecting and treating leachates, rapid stabilization could likely
be effected in a relatively short time and the land can be put to use
for other constructive purposes. Major deficiencies in knowledge pertinent
to landfilling include rates of decomposition, leachate and gas production
under different moisture regimes; migration and attenuation of the products
of decomposition and of the soluble organics and inorganics through various
soils; the use of natural soils, additives and synthetic barriers for
preventing leachate movement; cost-effective methods for treating leachates;
the pollution potential of hazardous materials (including wastewater
treatment and air scrubber sludges) disposed of in landfills; the patterns
of gas migration and methods to control this migration; and practical
methods for preventing environmentally unacceptable land disposal sites and
taking remedial action.
Current estimates indicate that 30-35 million tons of hazardous wastes
are disposed of to the ground with no controls, no records as to location
quantity and composition. At the present time, proven techniques for large
scale disposal of most, if not all, hazardous wastes are not available and
generators of these wastes have little incentive to expend resources for
adequate management. Major deficiencies exist in such areas as thermal
decomposition, treatment, chemical stabilization, encapsulation, concen-
tration and fixation.
The Nation's nonrenewable resources are being depleted. Waste manage-
ment practices account for the disposing of some of them in landfills.
Common sense would indicate that resources should be recovered and put back
into use, but current resource recovery technology is not always economical.
A resource recovery system that recovers papers, metals, and glass cannot
at the present time be supported economically without first developing
useful marketable and valuable products from the organic material in the
municipal solid waste (MSW) which is left after the papers, metals and
glass have been separated. Present thinking is to convert this organic
material to fuel or energy.
Approximately 75% of the costs to municipalities for solid waste
management is associated with waste storage, collection and transportation.
This area of effort often receives priority over disposal because of the
magnitude of the costs involved. Development of approaches will be of
great benefit to municipalities.
Municipalities and other governmental agencies need criteria for
site selection, bases for design and operation of landfills; guidance on
the efficiency of hazardous waste processing; new and improved systems for
storage, collection and transportation of solid waste; and, improved
technology or methodology for waste reduction and the recovery and reuse of
waste materials.
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Accordingly, ORD research objectives for this problem area are as
follows:
. Development of methodology and/or equipment to eliminate
effects due to the release into the environment of materials
present in solid and hazardous waste which would be adverse
to public health and welfare.
. Evaluation, development, and demonstration of new or
improved management techniques, new or improved methods of
collection, storage, transportation, and disposal.
. Evaluation, development and demonstration of new or
improved methods for the reduction separation, processing
and recovery of resources, including energy.
. Establishment of a technical base to support the Agency's
efforts in developing guidelines for solid and hazardous
waste management.
During the FY 1977 -1981 period, comprehensive data on landfilling
will be obtained on the characteristics of municipal and hazardous wastes,
leachates from these wastes, decomposition rates under varying moisture
regimes, the attenuation of pollutants, and the migration of gas in soils.
In addition, liner materials, natural and synthetic, for controlling
leachate movement will be evaluated and methodology will be developed to
control gas movement. Research effort will be conducted primarily through
laboratory and pilot studies with some field testing or verification of
laboratory based results. In culmination of this research, guidance
documents will be published for site selection, design, maintenance and
operation and site closing.
Alternative methods of disposal of solid and hazardous wastes will be
evaluated. Technical and enviromental data will be developed and guidance
documents produced to provide a basis for logical engineering decisions on
the most viable alternative methods to landfilling for environmentally
sound disposal of wastes to land.
In the treatment of hazardous wastes, research is to provide technical,
environmental, and economical assessment of biological, chemical and
physical treatment processes that appear applicable for homogeneous and
heterogeneous hazardous waste streams. New methodology will also be
developed. Processess evaluated or developed will include techniques for
detoxification, encapsulation, concentration and fixation.
Efforts in resource recovery research will endeavor to reduce techni-
cal and economic risks associated with resource recovery implementation.
Specific areas of research will include the upgrading of pyrolysis products,
evaluation of preprocessing equipment and systems, and the development of
specifications for recovered products.
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Potential Subprogram Growth Areas—
Additional research is desirable to adequately address mid-term
Agency needs and to initiate work on longer range issues addressed in
existing legislation.
Mid-term emphasis for growth would be dedicated towards the follows
tasks:
. Resumption of alternative treatment processes for ocean outfalls.
. Timely completion of an in-house pilot test and evaluation facility
capable to:
-provide independent and quick evaluations of treatment
concepts for municipal -wastewaters and sludges;
-determine scale-up factors prior to field demonstrations;
-determine limits of process capability through failure
mode analysis;
-determine specific pollutant removal capabilities;
-make cost-effective comparative evaluations;
-develop and test automated process control systems;
-respond to Regional Construction Grants Program needs.
. Participation with initial Construction Grants projects to provide
quick, complete and direct technical assistance capability.
. Expand and accelerate land application alternatives and means
of upgrading of existing facilities.
Expand to a meaningfull level of effort research in joint
industrial-municipal treatment limitations to define pretreatment
requirement.
Research which can also be expanded or initiated in the five year
period FY 1977 - FY 1981, having mid- to long-term impact on the Agency
municipal wastewater strategy would be in the following areas: comprehen-
sive planning, sludge management with emphasis on accelerating the solutions
to conversion technology, disenfection and land disposal site management
and problems including support of health and ecological effects where
necessary; new upgrading technologies such as addition of powered carbon to
aeration basins and digestion processes; land application technology in a
more complete assessment of systems in the northern climates; pretreatment
programs and toxics strategy development and assessment capabilities; the
assessment of selected processes for ocean discharges; and a small effort
to initiate an integrated community services and environmental control
program that would provide communities with technological solutions for
on-site integrated utility and environmental control systems. During the
latter part of this five-year program funding would be concentrated in
demonstrating cost-effective solutions for novel sewering and treating
waste from small groups of homes and expand technical assistance and
assessment activities; and urban runoff control with emphasis on developing
design criteria for best management practices.
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Virtually no projects have been funded for basic laboratory research
in support of municipal wastewater technology laboratory in the past five to
seven years. In order to improve the base of science and technology for
solving future problems basic research studies would be restored to about
ten to fifteen percent effort of the total program.
The efforts in resource recovery from solid and hazardous wastes would
be expanded to include new product development and to allow the evaluation
of selected resource recovery projects or systems.
Water Supply Subprogram
Only in the last few years have instrumentation and analytical tech-
niques been able to detect and measure very small quantities of contaminants
in drinking water. With this equipment, the discovery of organic materials
in much of the Nation's drinking water contributed to the enactment of P.L.
92-523, the Safe Drinking Water Act. The Water Supply Subprogram supports
implementation of this Act by EPA and the states.
The objective of this subprogram is to develop the scientific criteria
and treatment technology for assuring safe drinking water and protecting the
Nation's water supplies. The following questions must be answered in order
to attain that objective:
. What substances occur in a widespread number of drinking
water supplies and are potentially harmful to human health?
. What are the effects of these substances on human health?
. What analytical procedures should be used to monitor water
to assure that drinking water standards are met?
. Because some potentially harmful substances may be formed
during transport, storage, treatment and distribution, what
changes in these practices are required to minimize their
formation and effects?
. What treatment technology must be applied to reduce contaminant
levels?
. What are the by-products (and their effects) of that treatment
technology?
. How can underground sources of drinking water be protected from
contamination?
The research addressing these questions can be grouped into four
areas: health effects, treatment technology and systems management,
identification and measurement, and groundwater management.
Contaminants being addressed include organics, inorganics (including
asbestos), and microbiological contaminants. The largest area of ignorance
is with the long-range potential harmful effects from trace organics, so
approximately 45 percent of the total funds will be directed toward deter-
mining and controlling that problem. The second highest priority is the
relationship of inorganic contaminants to health, so a large effort (about
20 percent) will be made in this area. This is especially true regarding
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the difference in the incidence of cardiovascular disease for those con-
sumers that drink hard versus soft water. Microbiologic contaminant
occurrence, monitoring, effects and control remain relatively high priority
relative to public health, because outbreaks of waterborne disease still
occur in the United States, especially in areas served by poorly operated
distribution systems.
Water Supply Health Effects—
The largest emphasis will be on determining the health effects of
organics identified as prevalent in the National Organic Monitoring Study,
which will be completed in September 1977. That Survey concentrated on
analyzing for 20 specific organic compounds, selected because they have
been reported in some source or treated waters, have a known or suspected
toxicological effect and can be analytically quantified. As the results
from the Survey show which contaminants are prevalent in finished drinking
water, the literature on the toxicity of these materials will be re-examined.
Efforts up through FY 1977 include preliminary data on the mutagenic and
carcinogenic activity of organic mixtures from tap water, comparative
metabolism data on the halo-ethers to determine the most appropriate model
for extrapolating health effects data from animal to man, data on whether
chlorobenzenes and bromobenzenes can influence the toxicity of other
foreign organic compounds, and data on the influence of sex difference and
strain on the toxicity of chloroform.
Current and continuing studies are being conducted, in collaboration
with other Federal agencies, to determine any relationship between cardio-
vascular disease and hypertension, and various inorganics in drinking
water, including sodium, barium, cadmium, calcium, magnesium, lithium,
iron, lead, zinc, copper, arsenic, selenium, and some corrosion products.
Preliminary reports on sodium, barium, arsenic, and selenium are expected
in FY 1977. Efforts to determine the carcinogenicity and cocarcinogenicity
of asbestos when ingested will also continue. Outbreaks of waterborne
disease will be investigated to identify preventive measures, and an
attempt to determine infective dose levels of viruses for humans will be
continued.
Treatment Technology and Systems Management—
The lack of firm health effects data for organics does not relieve the
Agency's responsibility to prescribe treatment when a reasonable doubt
exists and monitoring is not practical. Pilot plant and larger scale
studies thus are continuing on the formation and removal of the four
trihalomethanes that have been shown to occur widely where chlorination is
practiced and that are potentially toxic. Unit processes such as granular
activated carbon beds, powered activated carbon, macroreticular resins,
ozonation, and chlorine dioxide will also be studied to determine their
capabilities to remove specific organic contaminants within reasonable
economic limits. The contaminants have already been selected for study
based on the existing data collected in the ten-city National Organics
Reconnaissance Survey. This list will be expanded to include additional
compounds which may be discovered in the current Survey as candidates for
future control.
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Work on inorganics will focus on treatment technology that small water
utilities can use, especially to reduce fluoride, arsenic, nitrates, and
selenium. Research on cost of treatment, including that of sludge disposal,
for removal of radionuclides will be completed.
Several efforts on raicrobial contaminants will be completed in FY
1977. This includes investigations of the effects of various parameters on
disinfection efficiency, with emphasis on inactivation of viruses. Alterna-
tive, faster indicators of disinfection efficiency are also being sought.
An evaluation of ultraviolet, ozone, chlorine dioxide, and chlorine
as disinfectants for small systems will be completed.
Identification and Measurement—
Research will proceed along three lines to develop techniques for
monitoring general organic parameters (groups of compounds), specific
organics which are widely distributed and may have health significance, and
unit processes for organics removal effectiveness. Both short-term evaluat-
ions of current techniques and long-term improvements will be pursued.
For inorganics monitoring, multi-element analysis techniques (both
field and laboratory) will be emphasized, as well as continuing efforts to
improve sample collection, shipping, storage, and preparation for asbestos
fiber counting. Work will also continue to improve and standardize asbestos
fiber counting methods.
Methods for identifying and measuring microbial contaminants in water
supplies are also being evaluated and improved. A search for organisms
which will provide better indices of drinking water quality will continue.
A tentative standard method for detection of enteroviruses will be evaluated
and an interim report prepared. Efforts will continue to develop a method
for isolation of the "hepatitis A virus".
Groundwater Management—
The overall objective of this area is to determine ways of protecting
underground water supplies from contamination. Work will continue in three
general areas. The major thrust will begin to develop control criteria for
some 26 general avenues which have been identified for the introduction of
pollutants to underground waters. Efforts will continue in describing the
subsurface environment as a receptor of pollutants by developing new drill-
ing, sampling, and analytical technology directed primarily at organic and
microbiological parameters. In order to address more immediate problems,
work will be directed toward the consequences of recharging groundwater
with treated municipal wastes.
Present plans for FY 1977 - 1981 are that efforts in measurement and
identification programs will focus on development of practical techniques
to identify, measure, and determine sources of contaminants (particularly
organic substances and microbial agents) in drinking water. Techniques
will be designed for use by state and local officials responsible for
safeguarding public drinking water supplies.
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Defensible health effects data for organic, inorganic and microbiologi-
cal contaminants of drinking water will be developed through short and long-
term toxicological studies and comparative epidemiological studies. Current
plans will be evaluated and redirected as necessary when the evaluation by
the National Academy of Sciences of health effects of contaminated drinking
water, as required by P.L. 93-523, is completed.
Studies will be continued or initiated on removal and inactivation of
cadmium, lead asbestos, nitrate, fluoride, organic compounds, bacteria and
viruses. The EPA intends to continue development of techniques for prevent-
ing water quality deterioration while distributing drinking water. Tech-
nology applicable to small water supply systems will be emphasized. There
will be a substantial R&D effort on controlling organic contaminants in
drinking water. Halogenated organics formation mechanisms in normal
disinfection practices will be determined and control methods developed.
Chlorine disinfection alternatives will be thoroughly studied in the near-
term. Candidate alternative disinfectants are chlorine dioxide, ozone, and
ultraviolet light.
Increased efforts are planned on removal and disposal of organics. Also
in FY 1977 - FY 1981, studies will continue to provide waste disposal site-
selection criteria and information on control of groundwater pollution.
The National Academy of Sciences report, due March 1977, may identify
additional future research needs in the area of health effects of drinking
water contaminants. The report will also require consideration by EPA
of the economic and technological feasibility of implementing the recommenda-
tions. The report, however, is not available now and the impact of the
report on research requirements cannot be evaluated accurately at this
time.
Potential Subprogram Growth Areas—
Increased efforts for FY 1978 and beyond could be directed toward
accelerated determination of the occurrence and carcinogenic potential of
organic and inorganic concentrates from tap water through in vivo and
epidemiological studies; determining the relationship of cardiovascular
disease (particularly hypertension) and drinking water quality; providing
full-scale evaluation of treatment processes to avoid formation of or remove
contaminants and scale up carcinogen removal techniques from bench to full-
scale; describing costs of control methods and investigate new technology
for and reduction of costs to small systems; and expanded extramural efforts
to evaluate, improve, and develop both field and laboratory identification
and measurement techniques.
The increased efforts would allow epidemiologic studies of greater
scope; field evaluations of control and treatment technology at a level to
produce definitive cost data; and a major cost reduction effort addressed
to small systems.
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Environmental Management Subprogram
EPA's legislative mandates generally delegate authority to state or
designated regional and local agencies to implement requirements of Federal
environmental quality programs. Included in these requirements are develop-
ment of areawide and continuous planning processes (P.L. 92-500 (FWPCA)
Section 208), water quality facilities plans (FWPCA, Section 201), solid
waste disposal plans (Solid Waste Disposal Act (SWDA), Section 207), state
air quality implementation plans (Clean Air Act (CAA), Section 110) and plans
for air quality maintenance. To implement these programs, environmental
agencies at state, regional and local levels are required to analyze regional
development objectives, population, and economic growth projections, land
use and transportation patterns for direct and indirect effects on environ-
mental quality.
Selection of environmental protection strategies having broad public
acceptability is becoming an increasingly difficult task. State, local and
regional institutions often lack adequate methods to analyze and evaluate
alternative strategies and to develop coordinated procedures based upon
a chosen strategy. Such agencies may also lack the resources necessary to
formulate feasible solutions to their environmental problems as such large
undertakings have not been common in our history. In addition, appropriate
methods are often not available to analyze the scope of problems faced on a
regional basis.
The objective of the Environmental Management Subprogram is to provide
regional environmental planners and managers new and improved methods to
determine feasible alternative solutions to comprehensive environmental
problems and to develop techniques to select least-cost solutions. The
research focuses on development of improved multimedia planning methods;
improved methods for collection and analysis of environmental quality and
economic information, and for the evaluation of alternative institutional'
arrangements; and the development of comprehensive systems analysis and
evaluation methods for particular engineering-management systems. Specific
efforts include:
The design of integrated multi-media environmental management
systems, including analytical planning and alternative
implementation techniques. In addition to direct application
of control technology changes in administrative and
institutional factors such as organizational and indirect
controls will be examined.
. Development of technical guidance for applying available state
of the art methods in assessing problems and selecting available
management options, to aid local planners and policy-makers in
their decision-making.
. Evaluate alternative methods of portraying environmental options
and costs to the public to assist them in making enlightened
judgments to the planning and implementation process.
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Development improved socioeconomic impact measurement methodology
to permit objective assessment of multimedia problems and
evaluation of remedial measures.
. Evaluate alternative methods of assessing and enforcing environ-
mental quality programs. Greater emphasis would be placed on
the assessment of human health and other "welfare" effects as
well as distributional impacts.
The outputs will be user-oriented and will include information needed
and decision methodology required to select and implement effective envir-
onmental quality control programs on a community and regional level.
The five year objectives of the Environmental Management Subprogram
are divided among six definite areas of concern: 1) Integrated Assess-
ment, 2) Socioeconomic Research, 3) Planning Assistance, 4) Institutional
Analysis and Policy Research, 5) Evaluation Research, and 6) Anticipatory
Research. The guiding principle in all research investigations will be the
definition and quantification of interrelationships in environmental quality
situations. User-oriented information and methodologies will be stressed
with particular concern for approaches which can be applied at the imple-
mentation level as well as in the context of an overall analysis.
Integrated Assessment—
Integrated assessment involves comprehensive analysis of the trade-
offs between direct technological and indirect or nontechnological options,
and among economic, social, and environmental impacts in a regional context.
The methodology commonly applied to such analyses has been the large-scale,
input-output type modeling approach. While many of these comprehensive
methods have been developed, their utility in planning/implementation level
decision-making is questionable. The primary objective under integrated
assessment research will be the continued development, application, and
vertification of the Environmental Systems Analysis Program (ESAP). This
major research effort will be aimed at providing design level methodo-
logies for formulation of management and design alternatives for the treat-
ment, air quality control, residuals management, and stormwater management.
The ESAP will take the form of a series of detailed procedures, methodo-
logies, and models which are linked in an analytic framework which optimizes
intermedia and socioeconomic impacts of design-level decisions.
Socioeconomic Research—
The socioeconomic research element will be aimed at quantifying the
socioeconomic impact of environmental quality control decisions. Particular
emphasis will be placed initially upon the development of a baseline
approach for socioeconomic analysis. This approach will serve as a
"standard method" upon which to base subsequent detailed socioeconomic
research studies, and to guide community and regional planners, and other
researchers in the conduct of coherent and mutually comparable socioeconomic
analysis. Sepcific socioeconomic studies will be aimed at quantiying
social and economic benefits as well as costs of pollution control decisions
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on a scope and level of detail commensurate with that of the Environmental
Systems Analyses Program
Planning Assistance—
The objectives of this research element are to combine all elements
of the Environmental Management Subprogram into useable packages of infor-
mation. The element will involve a continuing effort to establish and
maintain close contact and working relationships with in-the-field
engineers, planners, and municipal officials responsible for the evaluation
and implementation of environmental management programs. The research
output will be designed to fulfill an information transfer function aimed
at placing the output of the program in the hands of users through the use
of manuals of practice, seminars, and hands-on demonstration and evaluation
of methodologies in the field. Included in this area are revisions of
the Areawide Assessment Procedures Manual and the Regional Environmental
Management Handbook, the development of an ESP Users Manual, and the
sponsorship of a series of continuing Environmental Management Seminar/
Workshops.
Institutional Analysis—
This element is designed to analyze existing and necessary instituional
arrangements for implementing environmental management programs. Overall
improvement in environmental quality will oejur only to the extent the
alternatives which are analyzed and determi.ied cost-effective can be
effectively implemented. This element will develop methods for classifying
and analyzing the capacity of existing institutional arrangements for
implementing environmental management programs. Approaches for modifying
inadequate framework and for developing new institutional mechanisms
will be studied.
Specific research studies will be conducted in the area of environmental
quality and public involvement to determine and quantify the factors which
govern the nature and magnitude of public involvement in environmental
management decisions in various geographical and institutional contexts.
Research is particularly needed in the area of increasing public involvement
in stimulating constructive changes in existing institutions and implementing
environmental ethics of communities.
Evaluation Research—
Evaluation research will concentrate on applying the output of environ-
mental management studies to real world situations, to test the effectiveness
of socioeconomic analysis, modeling approaches, institutional frameworks,
and environmental management control systems in meeting their intended
objectives and satisfying the needs of users. Much of this work will be
conducted in the Environmental Management demonstration program which will
be initiated in late FY 77. Evaluation research will serve the function of
a "quality control" measure of Environmental Management research and will
quantify the accuracy, sensitivity, and potential impacts of its use.
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Potential Subprogram Growth Areas—
Continuing budget constraints have precluded any long-term, anticipa-
tory, or exploratory research in this program. If a modest annual increase
were authorized over the next five years, the aforementioned areas would be
generally extended in scope, but a bonafide program of anticipatory research
could be developed.
This effort would seek to identify key environmental policy issues
which will arise in the future as a consequence of anticipated changes in
such things as life style, energy supply and demand, climate and non-renew-
able resource activities, and social reform. It will seek to forcast the
nature and magnitude of future environmental problems based on trends in
industrial and agricultural technology, population dynamics, and secondary
impacts of current environmental policy. The program will also engage in
research into new concepts in urban design and management to optimize
environmental quality, including integrated utility systems, the melding of
environmental quality considerations into urban planning concepts; and the
integration of environmental management into the total institutional
framework of community management.
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INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES PROGRAM
The Industrial Processes Program is responsible for developing improved
methods for reducing or eliminating environmental quality problems associated
with all types of industries (except energy industries discussed subsequently
in the Energy/Environment Program). Research covers both point-source
pollution; e.g., metal production and processing, pulp and paper production,
food processing, chemical manufacturing, and metal finishing; and nonpoint-
source pollution, such as that from agricultural and timber harvesting
operations.
The program is multimedia in that it considers all pollutants, airborne,
waterborne, or in solid form. For example, in the food processing industry,
process ammonia waste may be discharged into the air, or it may be "scrubbed"
from the air and discharged in wastewater. In either form, the pollutant
must be controlled. Another example is arsenic waste from non-ferrous metal
smelting, which may appear as an air pollutant, a water pollutant, or a
solid residue. Research objectives seek a total solution to the arsenic
pollution problem, which protects all environmental media.
For a given problem, the program proceeds from assessment to inventory-
ing, and then to development of control strategies. For example, electro-
plating of metal results in toxic wastes such as chromium, cadmium, and
other heavy metals, and there are over 20,000 electroplating establishments
in the U.S. Solution of this environmental problem requires research on the
nature of the waste, information on the geographical distribution of the
facilities, and, finally, development of cost-effective control technology
and strategies.
Another example of assessing, inventorying and controlling pollution is
in the drycleaning industry. A variety of solvents (including halogenated
hydrocarbons) are used for cleaning fabrics. There are approximately as
many drycleaning establishments in the U.S. as gasoline stations, and they
are almost as widely dispersed. Residual solvents from fabrics are released
to the air, and spent solvents are frequently dumped on the ground to
evaporate. For this problem, the range of different solvent types is
determined, the geographical distribution of facilities by type of solvent
use is assessed, and then cost-effective control strategies are developed.
For larger facilities, onsite solvent recycling is being explored, while for
small plants, cooperative solvent collection and recailming services serving
many plants appear to be a cost-effective strategy.
The program is divided into two subprograms: Renewable Resources Indus-
tries and Minerals, Processing, and Manufacturing Industries. Ihe Renewable
Resources Industries Subprogram includes all food and fiber production
activities. The Minerals, Processing, and Manufacturing Industries Sub-
program includes mineral extraction and all other manufacturing activities
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except energy-related mineral extraction, processing and utilization
activies discussed later in section II. Pollutants emanating from renew-
able resources industries tend to be dispersed in nature, being caused
primarily by wind and rain erosion of materials such as sediment, fertilizer,
pesticides and manure from the land surface. Pollutants from other private
sector activities, however, are normally discharged from point sources, such
as stacks and outfall pipes. Because of these fundamental differences,
there is little comparability between environmental protection concepts of
the two subprograms, the renewable resource research area requiring the
skills of agronomists, agricultural engineers, hydrologists, soil scientists
and civil engineers, while the manufacturing research area relies principally
on chemical, sanitary, and mechanical engineers and chemists.
The Minerals, Processing, and Manufacturing Subprogram provides
principal scientific and technical support for the control technology
requirements implemented through the various Federal environmental laws,
especially air (P.L. 91-604), water (P.L. 92-500) and toxic materials (P.L.
94-469). This support is manifested in problem assessments, research,
development and demonstration of more efficient and effective pollution
control alternatives, including final effluent treatment, manufacturing
process changes, or production materials changes. In addition to routine
environmental controls, this subprogram also includes research on methods
for preventing and controlling accidental spills of hazardous materials and
methods for safe, effective recovery and removal of the spilled substances.
Research, development and demonstration activities over the past decade
have resulted in dependable technology for removing the majority of common
pollutants from effluents and emissions from minerals, processing, and
manufacturing industries on a weight basis. In the next five years, the
program will be directed to eliminating the remaining environmental emissions
which, although insignificant on a weight basis, may be environmentally
significant due to their toxic or hazardous characteristics.
The Renewable Resources Industries Subprogram develops information on
the activities and natural processes involved in environmental degradation
caused by the food and fiber producing sectors of private industry, and
develops effective and efficient control technologies and management practices
to minimize pollution from these dispersed or nonpoint sources. Whereas
controls on the minerals, processing, and manufacturing industries are
enforced primarily through effluent and emission permits for point sources,
enforcement of nonpoint-source limitations rests primarily on regionally
specific management practices which are designed to meet ambient air and
water quality standards. These recommended management practices are derived
from comprehensive regional planning analyses, such as those authorized by
Section 208 of P.L. 92-500 (Federal Water Pollution Control Act).
The level of knowledge of pollution processes and control methods in
the renewable resources category is much less sophisticated than in point-
source categories. Procedures for estimating water pollution impacts
from various standard agricultural and forest management practices have been
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developed, but in many cases have not been adequately field tested. Further,
although several new control methods have been developed, the functional
relationships between various levels of control and resulting water quality
improvement in streams are still very imprecise. Because many control
procedures require changes in traditional practices, and fully coordinated
regional approaches, the socioeconomic and institutional problems of
implementation are more difficult in this area of environmental protection
research.
Renewable Resources Industries Subprogram
It is now well established that in many parts of the Nation, even with
the application of best available treatment technology to all point sources
of pollution, anticipated water quality goals cannot be attained because of
the contribution of pollutants from nonpoint sources (NFS) such as renewable
resources production activities. The major activities comprising renewable
resources include crop production on both irrigated and nonirrigated lands,
forest management, animal production and integrated pest management.
Further, the expectation is that pressure will mount for the U.S. to
significantly increase agricultural and forest production in the last quarter
of this century, as demands of highly populated, underdeveloped countries
increase, developed countries attain increased affluence and world population
increases. Environmental problems of a broad scope are likely to accompany
any drastic efforts to increase agricultural production in the U.S. More-
over, significant conflicts may arise between energy development, production
and uses, community development and renewable resources activities. Conse-
quently, the long-term problem for the U.S. will be to increase agricultural
and forest production with minimal environmental degradation and minimal
conflict with other national goals.
In order to develop a basis for selecting and justifying local manage-
ment techniques for controlling nonpoint source pollutants related to
agricultural and forest production, it will be necessary to accomplish the
following tasks:
. Provide tools for the State and local planner/decision maker to
determine the probable environmental consequences of the major
agricultural and forestry pollutants, including appropriate
predictive methods.
. Provide tools to evaluate the cost-effectiveness of individual
and combined pollution control management systems.
. Identify cost-effective best management practices (BMP's) that
minimize agricultural and forestry pollution by evaluating
and testing different BMP systems at different locations.
. Develop, evaluate and demonstrate implementation strategies
(including their socioeconomic and institutional aspects)
for candidate BMP's.
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Methods to control or manage wastes and runoff from specific agricul-
tural and forest sources for limited areas of the Nation have been
developed. However, in most cases, best management practices have not been
identified and evaluated for the local levels. Guidelines and manuals that
identify alternative methods for controlling specific pollutant problems
have been developed and published in some cases. Handbooks and planning
tools that can be used by the regional planner are also just beginning to
emerge from the R&D program. These, however, are initial thrusts at the
solution of the problem and will necessitate refinement.
The linkage between best management practices and resultant water
quality in the stream -is still largely unknown. The socioeconomic and
institutional aspects of implementing BMP's is another critical area where
research is needed. State-of-the-art information on loading functions for
different kinds of agricultural and'forestry practices is available, but
many have not been verified and field tested. Because of this lack of
complete information, it is difficult to quantify cost-effectiveness of
alternative practices and identify optimal watershed management strategies.
The renewable resources research program is structured to enhance
understanding of problems and to develop the kinds of tools needed to
control environmental pollution associated with agricultural and forestry
production. This research program is closely coordinated with the U.S.
Department of Agriculture, U.S. Department of Interior, and Universities
and private industry. The program encompasses the following aspects:
Assessment and development of total management systems,
including best management practices and pollution
control predictive methodologies to control water, land,
and air pollution from the production and harvesting
of food and fiber and their related residual wastes.
Assessment of probable trends in the production of
renewable resources and their resulting environmental
and socioeconomic impacts.
Development and testing of integrated pest manage-
ment systems to reduce the use of chemical pesticides
and thereby minimize potential environmental degradation
and hazards.
Research conducted on a near-term basis is essential to support
development of guidelines for identifying and evaluating the nature
and extent of agricultural and forestry nonpoint sources of pollution,
along with the necessary processes, procedures, and methods to control
pollution from these sources, as required under Section 304 (e) of
P.L. 92-500, the Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972.
The tools are needed to support State and local agencies in the execution
of their areawide waste management responsibilities under Section 208 of
the FWPCA.
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The Agency also has responsibilities under the Federal Insecticide,
Fungicide and Rodenticide Act to regulate the use of pesticides that may
enter aquatic ecosystems through NFS discharges. Research is therefore
being conducted on pesticide modeling and crop management practices, and
on integrated pest management strategies to optimize the use of chemical
and non-chemical means for controlling pests with the goal of minimizing
dependence on chemical pesticides.
The purpose of long-term research in the renewable resource area is to
develop the capability to assess and predict environmental effects of
existing and advanced approaches to increased production; to assess the
resulting resource levels, socioeconomic trade offs and interactions at
local, regional, and national levels; and to develop new and improved
cost-effective technological, management and institutional approaches to
assure the implementability of control options while considering the demand
for increased production at minimum environmental impact.
The Renewable Resources Industry Subprogram concentrates on five
activities: nonirrigated crop production, irrigated crop production,
animal production, forest management and integrated pest management.
Nonirrigated Crop Production —
Fjnphasis in this area is concentrated on tools to assess and evaluate
pollution resulting from existing agricultural practices and methods to
determine the cost-effectiveness and socioeconomic aspects of alternative
management systems to minimize pollution from nonirrigated crop production
activities. Pesticide and plant nutrients runoff control is of prime
concern. Special consideration will be given to development and assessment
of socioeconomic and institutional aspects of BMP implementation strategies.
Efforts will be increased on the assessment of environmental impacts
resulting from new trends in food production and on the development of
methods to evaluate trade-offs which can conserve critical resources,
including energy.
Irrigated Crop Production —
Research on the management of pollutants resulting from irrigated crop
production is focused on the topics of evaluating the benefits to crop
production and to water quality improvement by decreased water usage,
improved timing of application, and by structural means such as drainage
and channel lining. Additional work is being done on methods to reduce
sediment, nutrient, and pesticide losses during irrigation and on identify-
ing the constraints to adoption of improved irrigation practices such as
legal, institutional, and economic factors. Since adoption of these newer
management practices is highly dependent upon convincing irrigated crop
producers of their workability, field evaluation in various geographical
regions will continue to be important.
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Animal Production —
Research on managing wastes from animal production will emphasize the
development of waste handling techniques and methods for the smaller farmer
as well as for the larger concentrated feeding operator, with application
of the manure to cropland as the primary goal. Projections of increasing
scarcity and higher prices of natural gas, and the synthetic fertilizers
manufactured from them, dictate that the nutrients in animal wastes will
assume increasing importance. Studies will be directed toward minimizing
potential environmental effects from this and other reuse schemes.
Forest Management —
The focus in this area is on the assessment, development, demonstration
and evaluation of management methods and planning tools that can be used to
mitigate adverse environmental impacts of forest management activities.
Assessment methodologies include predictive modeling and decision protocols
that relate forest management practices to environmental quality and
nonpoint source control strategies to total forest and watershed resource
management including the socioeconomic aspects and assessment of trends.
Pollution control or forest management methods include cost-effective
structural (i.e., engineering technologies) and nonstructural (e.g., land
use constraints) forest management practices designed to reduce pollutants
generated primarily via runoff.
Integrated Pest Management —
The objective of the Integrated Pest Management area is to develop and
demonstrate optimized pest control strategies based upon detailed biological
knowledge of the interactions between combinations of non-chemical and
chemical pest controls to reduce the pests and crops. This information is
used to identify optimal environmental loading of undesirable chemicals.
The program provides for the development and application of strategies and
tactics of pest control for major pesticides-using crop ecosystems which
will permit marked reduction in dependence on pesticide chemicals as a
regular agricultural pest management practice. Major agronomic, fruit, and
vegetable ecosystems are studied either simultaneously as interacting
groups or individually where insect control is feasible using a variety of
nonpesticide means. Such means may include insect and plant pathogens,
e.g., viruses, bacteria and insect growth regulators (IGR) such as juvenile
hormones and sex attractants. This work is a coordinated interagency
program with the National Science Foundation, U.S. Department of Agriculture,
and university community.
Examples of major near-term outputs of the Renewable Resources
Industries Subprogram are listed below:
. Validate Agricultural Runoff Model for the Great
Lakes and Piedmont Regions for both pesticides and
nutrients, including improvement of transformation
sub-models.
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Validate the Nonpoint Source Runoff Model under
rural conditions of runoff, including improvement of
the nutrient submodels.
Completion of Vol. II of the manual, "Control of
Water Pollution from Cropland" in cooperation
with USDA for use by the local agricultural community
in development of water pollution management guidelines.
Completion of an interim economic evaluation of alternate
implementation strategies for control of agricultural non-
point sources of sediment and nutrients in the Corn Belt.
Assess the cost-effectiveness of existing soil and water
conservation practices designed to prevent and control
environmental pollution from nonirrigated crop production.
Completion of the first annual assessment of the
environmental impact of trends in agriculture and
forestry production.
Demonstration of total salinity control program in
Upper Colorado River Basin.
Evaluation and demonstration of tailwater management
systems for salinity and sediment control in Pacific
Northwest and West.
Conference on implementation of improved management
methods for irrigation return flows.
Study on achieving irrigation return flow quality
control through improved legal systems.
Evaluation of runoff potential from animal manure
applied to cropland at both optimum production
levels and disposal rates.
Comparison of animal waste application methodology
and runoff control measures to enable the develop-
ment of cost-effective management practices.
Summary of management systems to control pollution
from small farms, barnyards, and pastures.
Development of a methodology for evaluating the
cost-effectiveness of alternative forestry practices
for controlling erosion.
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. Development of models for design and operation of
animal waste storage/retention structures and
land application systems.
. Completion of comprehensive statement on research
needs and alternate implementation plans for future
R&D efforts in controlling environmental pollution
from forestry activities.
. Development of a methodology for evaluating the cost-
effectiveness of alternative forestry practices
for controlling erosion.
. Development of pest management strategies and
tactics for major crop ecosystems and demonstration
of strategies on two major crops (annual report).
Current budget levels will permit research in the nonirrigated crop
production category to produce assessment tools limited to the major crop
production areas of the Nation. Emphasis will be directed toward develop-
ment of pesticide and plant nutrient mathematical models with watershed
and gross basin-wide assessment and prediction capability for the major
crop production regions (i.e., Piedmont, Great Lakes, Corn Belt and
Coastal Plain). In addition, cost-effective evaluation methods, based
on the models, will be developed to select alternate implementation
strategies for control of agricultural nonpoint sources of sediment and
agricultural chemicals in the major crop production regions. Implementa-
tion strategies that incorporate individual and watershed management
systems and assess both pollution potential and cost-effectiveness and
economic aspects will be evaluated. Also, short and long-term trends in
agricultural production which may adversely impact environmental quality
will be assessed. Efforts will focus on systems of highest priority, such
as conversion of marginal lands to cropland (limited to several states),
chemical/energy intensive production practices, minimum tillage operations,
and mega-farm concepts. The studies will include the socioeconomic aspects
of the trends on a nationwide basis.
In the category of irrigated crop production, a large part of
the effort will be devoted to the development of irrigation system
management methods to reduce the level of pollutants in irrigation
return flows (IRF). A prototype evaluation of the effects of irri-
gation management practices on IRF quality should lead to more reliable
comparisons of irrigation practices in the field. Ongoing demon-
strations of a total salinity control program in the Upper Rio Grande
River Basin will add information to similar studies completed earlier,
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enabling development of salinity management manuals of recommended methods
and practices. Additional manuals will be developed for total system
management of salinity, sediment, nutrients and biocides control in IRF.
Implementation of developed methods will be addressed through analysis of
economic, legal and institutional constraints to adoption of technically
feasible IRF control packages, by holding a conference on BMP methods for
IRF pollution control, and by definition of BMP criteria by crops, soils,
and climate.
Another aspect of the IRF program concerns the development and
application of predictive methods for management of pollutants. In
conjunction with the demonstration of the total salinity control program
in the Upper Rio Grande River Basin mentioned above will be a demonstra-
tion of the field applicability of an IRF water quality model. Inte-
grated total management models and appropriate manuals will be devel-
oped for control of salinity, nutrients, sediments, and biocides in IRF.
Regional watershed management models will be completed with incorporate
structural and non-structural management approaches for irrigated
agriculture.
In the animal production area, land application of wastes from
confined animal production will continue to be emphasized. Criteria
for land applications, manure storage, and runoff control from appli-
cation sites in northeastern U.S. will be developed and demonstrated.
Grass filters will be evaluated for retention of animal waste runoff.
Nitrogen and heavy metal movement into the soil and from land appli-
cation sites will be studied. Manuals will be written on cost-effective
waste application techniques and runoff control measures and on a model
developed, evaluated, and verified for land application practices and
scheduling.
The problem cause by the smaller feeding operations that do not
come under the jurisdiction of the NPDES permit program will be eval-
uated. Characterization studies will be conducted on animal wastes
throughout major feeding areas of the U.S. and on runoff from range
and pasture operations in southeastern, eastern, and western U.S., for
species including dairy, beef, swine, sheep, and turkey. Measures to
control runoff of manure from pastures in humid and subhumid regions
will be demonstrated. A series of manuals will be prepared for use
by producers on management systems for unconfined animal production
waste disposal in major problem areas.
To aid those concerned with the problem of manure and runoff disposal
in areas where land application is not feasible or practical, a system
using aquatic vegetation for renovation of animal waste lagoon water will
be demonstrated. State laws, regulations, and other codes impacting the
management of animal wastes e.g., land application restriction will be
analyzed, as will alternate institutional arrangements. Increased
attention will be given to the socioeconomic aspects of improved BMP's.
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Research in forest management will continue development of guidelines
and assessment tools and evaluating candidate forestry BMP's in cooperation
with the U.S. Forest Service and timber industry to the fullest extent
possible. An interagency agreement with the USFS will result in the develop-
ment of a handbook for selection of non1point-source controls for forestry
activities. A general resource planning model integrating pollutant
loading models with forest management models will be developed. Software
for a watershed-scale model to predict loading rates for specific pollutants
for specific forest practices will also be developed.
Because of their dual role as user and producer of research, the U.S.
Forest Service will continue to be encouraged and assisted with supple-
mental funding to conduct relevant research. ORD's program will be
primarily extramural with implementation via interagency agreements as well
as coordinated grants and contracts with State forestry colleges and
universities.
The major effort in the integrated pest management area will continue
under the aegis of an interagency research agreement with the National
Science Foundation. Control strategies will be developed and then where
appropriate, demonstrated. Projects will be initiated to disseminate
technical pest control information and to implement crop ecosystem control
strategies. As the main effort of this program declines, more responsi-
bility for demonstration and implementation will be assumed by other
Federal and state agencies.
While present emphasis is on insect pest control, a gradual shift of
effort will be toward pest-plant control during the years FY 79-80. A
lessor effort will be devoted to development of a scientific basis for
nonchemical control strategies for urban pests, such as cockroaches, ants
and shade tree pests. Strategies and tactics for major crop ecosystems
(e.g., soybean and citrus) will continue to be developed and demonstrated.
A vector ecological study will be demonstrated and a pest ecosystem model
will be implemented as a control system.
Potential Subprogram Growth Areas —
Because of fiscal constraints, the program is not operating at an
optimal level. If a modest growth of the program were authorized, several
priority areas could be expanded and accelerated. The animal production
area would involve development of a manual for utilization of wastes from
various land-premium areas of the U.S., studies of disposal of manure from
animals fed agricultural wastes and, determination of effects of housing
and on characteristics of manure for reuse/recycle/by-product recovery
processes.
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In the forest management area this would allow completion
of the following: development of a data base in several geographic
regions to calibrate and test watershed models for selected pollu-
tants and preparation of user manuals displaying models and loading
functions for classes for forest practices under different forest
types and other critical variables.
In the integrated pest management category, funds would be used
to accelerate demonstration/implementation of a pest ecosystem model
into pest control system for a particular crop; insect pheromone and
juvenile hormone control systems will be developed and demonstrated;
and pathogenic controls for pest will be investigated and developed.
Increased emphasis in the nonirrigated crop production area
would be directed to several areas. First, the predictive and assess-
ment pesticide and nutrient models would be expanded to include
major pollutants such as biodegradable organics, metals and coliforms;
improvement of accuracy by refinement of transformation submodels;
and, verification in high priority crop production regions not listed
in the base program. It would also be possible to demonstrate and
evaluate best management practices in major crop production regions
on a watershed scale. An important area would be the provision
of "hands-on" real-time tools for the individual farmer/producer
to select appropriate management systems to minimize environmental
pollution impact. Long-term trend assessments would be extended
to areas such as sub-marginal and steep slope land in all significant
production areas in the Nation; and the use of remote sensing to
predict/reveal trends and to evaluate pollution potential; the poten-
tial environmental impact of use of non-food crop production for
energy bio-conversion; the evaluation of tradeoff of pollution
reduction controls versus change in other crops; and the environmental
and economic impact of growth of corporate farms. Ihese long-term
trend studies would require close coordination with the USD&, including
EPA assistance in supplemental funding for conducting relevant research.
In the irrigated crop production area efforts would be expended
to initiate development of total system management manuals for pollu-
tants in IRF at an earlier date; initiate development of regional
strategy models to impact planning for irrigated agriculture at
an earlier date; evaluate pollution potential of supplemental irri-
gation in semihumid agricultural regions; and evaluate total management
system concepts for control of salinity, nutrients, sediments, and
biocides in arid and semiarid regions.
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Additional resources in the animal production area will result
in the following: study of pathogen transmission from animal wastes
by land application or runoff pathways; evaluation of winter manure
storage and subsequent land application techniques in cold northern
states; initiation of study of housing and feeding effects on manure
characteristics at an earlier date; production of species manuals for use
by producers at an earlier date; and, unconfined range and pasture studies.
In the forest management category modest program growth would allow
for increased participation by EPA in developing and testing planning tools
and assessing the implementability of new and improved forestry best
management practices. Sufficient data would be generated to test planning
tools and alternative management practices under different situations.
Completion dates of outputs under the level budget would be accelerated
generally by one year. A sufficient cost and effectiveness data base would
be developed to allow quantitative analysis of alternative forest management
practices and testing of methodologies. New and improved forestry BMP's
and assessment tools that allow for evaluation of economic and social
impacts of implementation could be tested.
The institutional aspects and/or constraints of implementing forestry
BMP's for land under both public and private ownership would be investigated.
The applicability of economic incentives and other methods for implementing
forest management pollution control would be evaluated. A methodology and
user manual for estimating the economic and social costs and impacts of
implementing forest nonpoint source pollution controls at the firm, regional
and national levels would be developed. Pollutant transport, water quality
and economic models would be integrated and a watershed management model
accounting for agricultural and forest sources would be developed and tested.
User manuals for design, implementation and evaluation of cost-effective
areawide agricultural and forest pollution management systems would be
developed and tested. A multimedia (air and water) pollution control model
for forest resource management could be developed and verified.
In the integrated pest management program, demonstrations of crop
ecosystems pest control and implementation of additional pest ecosystem
models into viable control systems could be accelerated.
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Minerals, Processing, and Manufacturing Industries Subprogram
Industrial pollution is the source of half of the biochemical
oxygen demand (BOD) of the Nation's lakes, rivers and streams. Industry
also produces most of the water pollution load of refractory, hazardous
and toxic materials, including heavy metals, organics and dissolved
solids. Similarly, even with control levels required under New Source
Performance Standards (NSPS), half the emissions or particulates and a
significant fraction of the emissions of sulfur oxides and most hazardous
pollutants into the atmosphere come from industrial sources. Residues
from industrial processes have a significant impact due to their volume
(approximately three times municipal) and nature consisting primarily of
sludges laden with toxic metals and halogenated organic waste materials.
To address these industrial environmental pollution problems, a
research, development and demonstration (RD&D) program to identify,
prevent, control and manage pollution from industrial activities has been
established. The Minerals, Processing, and Manufacturing Industries
Subprogram includes sources of water, air and residue pollution from
industrial activities—mining, manufacturing, processing, service and trade
industries. The activities involved range from extraction to production of
raw materials and processing of materials into intermediate and consumer
products. This research covers all or part of thirty major groupings
identified in the Standard Industrial Classification Manual (SIC).
Industrial pollution problems cannot be effectively controlled
by addressing only a single medium (i.e., air, water or land). A more
effective approach is to deal with pollution as problems whose solutions
may impact all media. A systems approach that takes air, water and land
into account to treat pollution problems avoids transferring pollutional
impacts from one medium to another, e.g., treatment of liquid effluents in
a way that produces no secondary air pollution or land disposal problems.
To emphasize a coordinated, multimedia approach to industrial pollution
problems, research activities are organized along industrial lines.
Responsibility for total environmental protection is assigned to each
industrial component. Four research categories — Material Production,
Materials Processing, Combined Sources, and Hazardous Materials Incidents—
comprise the Minerals, Processing, and Manufacturing Subprogram.
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Materials Production —
Materials Production includes problems of industries concerned with
exploration for and exploitation and production of raw materials. This
category specifically is comprised of the following areas: iron and steel;
non-ferrous metals; petroleum refining; and general mining. Not included in
this category is extraction of nonrenewable resources used primarily as a
source of energy, such as coal, or renewable resources, such as agricultural
products.
Material Processing —
Material Processing covers many industrial activities that mechanically
or chemically change a material from one form to another. This category
encompasses nine areas: Metal finishing (including electroplating,
machinery and fabricated metal products, and transportation equipment);
petrochemicals; inorganic chemicals; agricultural chemicals, to (including
fertilizers and pesticides); textiles; miscellaneous industries, such as
printing and photographic, stone, glass, clay, laundries, etc.; pulp,
paper, and wood; food products; and organic and specialty chemicals.
Combined Sources —
Combined Sources covers the development of technology to treat industrial
wastes from several plants within a region with a single facility or in
combination with municipal waste management.
Hazardous Materials Incidents —
Hazardous Materials Incidents involves development of methods to treat
accidental spills of hazardous materials as required in the Federal Water
Pollution Control Act.
A goal of the Minerals Processing, and Manufacturing Industries research
subprogram is to serve as a catalyst to promote cooperation and coordination
between Federal agencies, States and technology users to achieve levels of
pollutant control mandated by EPA's legislative authorities. Research
objectives are planned to meet the timing for reduction or elimination of
pollutant discharge required by Agency regulations. Pollution abatement
goals will be helped by this program through RD&D on a wide spectrum of
industrial activities, culminating in the reduction to practice of cost-
effective pollution control technologies.
Industrial organizations will continue to be responsible for most deve-
lopment and demonstration efforts required to meet pollution abatement
goals. Solutions to industrial pollution problems may include commercially-
available treatment technology or adaptions of control technology in use on
other processes. Pollution problems may also be prevented or controlled by
modifications in process design or operation—solutions that may be specific
to a single plant and wholly under purview of the plant operator. In
certain cases, however, federally financed, independent RD&D must be
conducted to ensure that national pollution abatement goals will be met.
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The promulgation of new standards and regulations to control or
prevent discharge of toxic and hazardous pollutants from industrial
sources will produce new research requirements. Protection measures
required under such standards may be significantly different from those
commonly used in industrial pollution abatement, and may require intensive
cooperative efforts to demonstrate and evaluate new as well as currently
available technology.
There are 600 industrial categories as defined by EPA regulations, each
with four levels of control to be achieved within a lO^year span. Effluent
guidelines have been established by EPA for a large number of these categor-
ies, and more guidelines will be promulgated in the future.
Several regulatory paths are available for devising strategies to
ensure that mandates of the Clean Air Act are met. Industrial technology
research supports each of these regulatory approaches. Ambient air quality
standards (AAQS) have been established for six pollutants, known as criteria
pollutants. The States have submitted implementation plans that provide
for attainment of the AAQS. Many areas will not attain the AAQS because
they lack available control technology, control is too costly, or fuel
supplies are limited. The likelihood is that existing technology will not
permit the standards to be maintained in the future because of anticipated
growth of industrial capacity and consequently, of emissions. The goal of
the Minerals, Processing, and Manufacturing Subprogram is to provide
technically and economically feasible processes that allow attainment and
maintenance of AAQS.
New Source Performance Standards (NSPS) for the six criteria pollutants
have been established for 12 industries and proposed for eight others. The
expectation is that another 25 criteria pollutants will be promulgated
between 1976 and 1978 for other industrial categories. The need for an
expanded technology RD&D program to support these and future standards is
critical.
EPA has already established or is in the process of setting emission
standards for certain other hazardous (noncriteria) pollutants such as
mercury, fluorides, asbestos, vinyl chloride, chloromethyl ether and
hexachlorobenzene. Because of inadequate understanding of effects of
industrial chemicals and materials in the environment, it is likely that
industrial chemicals and materials in the environment, it is likely that
more new environmental pollutants will be discovered in the future.
Experience in dealing with hazardous materials (e.g., asbestos and
vinyl chloride) indicates that there are usually insufficient health
effects data to establish a "safe" exposure level. EPA must therefore rely
on a technology-based standard to ensure that exposures do not present
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substantial risks to people. Anticipatory RD&D on control of emissions of
potentially hazardous materials can serve the Nation well by providing
assessments for the feasibility of control of such materials.
Finally, the Agency has recently promulgated a list of hazardous
materials which will serve as a basis for recovery for damages resulting
from spill of such materials. The capability to contain and clean up
spills of so many materials is just beginning to emerge from the hazardous
spills RD&D activity.
To date, this technology RD&D program has provided the technical basis
for an estimated 100 industrial categories at the Best Pratical Technology
(1977) and Best Available Treatment (1983) levels of control. Additional
technology gaps and associated RD&D needs, if any, for specified Best
Practical Technology levels may be identified as a result of adjudicatory
hearings. There are, however, RD&D requirements for Best Available
Technology, New Source Performance Standards, Pretreatment Standards, and
Toxic Standards as defined in the 1972 Federal Water Pollution Control Act
Amendments. With the passage of the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
of 1976, a further increase in supportive activities will occur.
The data base from which decisions can be made for industrial air
pollution control is generally weak.. Consequently, a sizeable assessment
program has been initiated to determine what sources may require control
technology RD&D in the future. A complicating factor is the large number
of industrial sources that can be addressed. To provide priorities for air
pollution control efforts, available emissions data (calculated, measured,
or otherwise estimated) were used to calculate a relative ranking of 600
industries. The ranking took into account the specific pollutants emitted,
the relative toxicity of the pollutant, the physical configuration of the
emitting source and the population in close proximity to the source. As a
result, more detailed assessments have been started for the 40 highest
priority industries. New industries will be added to the study list
as ongoing assessments are completed—subject to availability of funds.
In FY 1978, activities will continue to be focused on the problem
of toxic and hazardous emissions and discharges. As source assessment
are completed, available control technology, together with economic
implications will be identified. This information will continue to serve
as a basis for updating effluent guidelines and for regulating the use and
disposal of toxic chemicals.
Complete source assessments will establish detailed chemical character-
izations of industrial waste streams. These assessments will relate effluent
composition to production variables including alternative processes, types
of raw materials, operating conditons and waste streams, but also will
provide data on the costs of alternatives for reducing adverse environmental
impacts.
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Major near-term outputs to be achieved include:
. Complete assessment of the occurrence of the 65
pollutants in the 21 industries specified in the
court decree (NRDC vs. Train, 8 ERG 2120)
. Complete assessment of the applicability of cur-
rently available control technology in being able to
remove toxic and hazardous pollutants
Complete assessment of state-of-the-art of control
procedures for non-energy mining activities
. Demonstration of field detection and identification
kit for spilled hazardous materials
. Complete source assessments for toxic and hazardous
air emissions from selected critical industries
. Preliminary assessment of applicability of known
control technology to remove these pollutants
. Development of rapid screening tests to determine
toxicity of airborne emissions.
To significantly enhance protection of the environment from industrial
pollution sources by the mid 1980's, the Minerals, Processing, and Manufac-
tring Subprogram is recognized as a high priority RD&D area. Because of
the time restraints in the legislation and anticipated timing of additional
New Source Performance and Hazardous Materials Standards and new Toxic
Substances Standards, a major effort in R&D is necessary if industry is to
meet these regulations and standards in a timely fashion. Resource require-
ments beyond FY 1981 can be substantially reduced as efforts change from a
developmental to a technology application mode.
Since the recent passage of the Toxic Substances Control Act and the
amendments to the Solid Waste Disposal Act, together with the settlement
agreement (NRDC et al vs Train, 8 ERC 2120), the latter of which requires
EPA to develop and promulgate regulations for 65 classes of pollutant
chemicals in 21 industrial categories which will require application of
BATEA, the planned R&D effort has been modified significantly to speci-
fically address suspected hazardous chemicals. Control technology options
are required as a parallel effort to the health and ecological efforts R&D
program. In some cases, technology for the control of hazardous materials
may already exist. In many cases, however, the technology may be inadequate.
Generally, 4the capabilities of advanced treatment options are unproven for
specific industrial waste streams. Hence, there exists a need for
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categorization of hazardous substances in industrial effluents by source/
and development of control technology that can control broad categories of
effluents to air, water and land. This development phase of the hazardous
substances program involves four steps:
. Effluent characterization and control option evaluation
. Laboratory scale studies of specific control options
. Pilot scale follow-on studies
. Demonstration scale activities
The control technology options to be considered should fall into
one of three classes:
Effluent Control Technology —
This class includes all forms of add-on, collection, and/or conversion
processes and devices to prevent pollutant release to the environment.
Process Modification —
Such modifications include all changes to manufacturing operations
(including feedstock changes) and producer use to obviate the release of
hazardous substances.
Substitution —
This approach includes the use of alternative products as substitutes
for more environmentally objectionable products of polluting processes.
For each hazardous substance or class thereof, information will be
gathered from source characterization and other pertinent studies. This
data will facilitate preliminary parameteric analysis of control technology
options taking into account the following factors:
. Efficiency
Power consumption
. Space requirements
. Siting
. Resource requirements (capital and
operating)
. Retofit capability
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Materials of construction
Failure analysis
Secondary environmental impacts
Timing for implementation
Inasmuch as substitution of feed materials, processes,
or products will be considered a control option, technical
data will be gathered or generated to characterize substitute
processes or products and to assess their feasibility. The
analysis will include modifications in process hardware
necessary to produce the substitute product. The outputs will
be technical evaluations, cost data, and preliminary assessments
of the substitute control alternatives.
Economic parametric analysis options for controlling hazardous
substances may include the following factors:
For various control processes, develop effective-
ness versus cost curves to encompass the range of
treatment alternatives.
Determine the cost of alternative process modifications.
In certain industrial plants, the most economical
solution may be waste stream elimination or reduction by
process modification.
Determine the energy requirements for each control
option.
Determine the availability of other resources required
for treatment systems. If a process requires a non-
renewable product of limited supply, this consideration
could seriously limit its utility.
. Assess the overall economic feasibility of the option.
It is anticipated that the parameteric analysis of three overall
control options (effluent control technology, process modification,
and substitution) will lead to identification of generic control
approaches applicable to classes of hazardous substance pollutants.
The following examples illustrate potential options that may arise
through the control-option parameteric analysis.
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The reductive degradation process developed by EPA-ORD for
chlorocarbon pesticide cleanup may have generic applicability for cleanup
of industrial process wastewaters containing chlorinated hydrocarbon
pollutants. These pollutants may occur in effluents from pulp bleaching,
pesticides, plastics, textiles, organic chemicals, and other industrial
operations. Results to date have shown the process to have potential
for application to treatment of wastewaters from the production of the
cyclodiene pesticides, aldrin/dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor, and chlordane;
DDT and related metabolites; the chlorinated camphene, toxaphene; the
chlorinated cyclohexane, lindane; the chlorinated phenoxyalkanoic acid
herbicides, 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T; the cyclodecanoe, kepone; and the industrial
heat transfer medium in transformers and capacitors, PCBs. Further, and
quite possibly the most important application, would be in the water
supply treatment area.
Closed cycle processing as a technique to eliminate effluents from
pulp and paper, textile fiber, and petrochemical operations will be analyzed
for generic applicability potential. EPA demonstration projects in primary
fiber mills and petrochemical manufacturing facilities have proven feasible
and effective.
Ozone substitution for chlorine as a treatment agent in municipal
waste operations shows genuine promise. Generic applicability of alternate
oxidizing agents in place of chlorine to industrial and other waste stream
treatment operations may lead to technology changes affecting reduced
hazardous substance effluents.
It has become apparent that research must be shifted from the
traditional end-of-pipe treatment for parameters such as BOD arid suspended
solids to the control of hazardous substances contained in the effluents.
To accomplish this change, a major assessment program has been initiated to
determine the nature and quantities of these pollutants. Emphasis initially
is being placed on certain of the 21 industries and 65 pollutants identified
in the toxic effluents consent decree. In addition, work on ongoing
projects in all industrial areas has been modified to provide the maximum
attainable data on the discharge and treatability of hazardous pollutants
from the industrial facility involved.
Resource allocations have been shifted away from those industrial
categories where there is little probability of hazardous pollutant
discharge toward those areas where there is obvious higher probability
of sizable discharges. For example, the R&D program in the food industry,
where BOD and suspended solids are dominant concerns, has been significantly
reduced and the resources shifted into such industries as organic chemicals
manufacture where there are known hazardous materials.
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Potential Subprogram Growth Areas —
The Minerals, Processing and Manufacturing Subprogram is currently
funded below the optimal level due to general Federal fiscal constraints.
If this funding level continues, the program emphasis will remain unchanged,
but the outputs required to allow the Agency to meet its mandates will be
delayed—in some instances beyond the point where the promulgation of
regulations is required. For example, it will not be possible to complete
the assessment of the occurrence of hazardous pollutants from all 21
industries required in a timely fashion. In addition, the development of
equipment and techniques required to allow response to spills of hazardous
materials will be delayed for several years.
If modest growth were to be authorized, the above delays would be
alleviated, and projects allowing for a larger number of alternatives in
hazardous discharge control could be conducted. For example, the program
could focus on changes in manufacturing processes to eliminate hazardous
discharges, including production process change and feedstock substitutions.
Selection of industrial areas to be included in this program will be based
on the environmental assessments currently underway. The following specific
products would be possible under modest growth through the five-year period:
. Assessment of industrial categories to determine those
areas where process modifications and/or raw material
substitutions are feasible
. Assessment of economic impact of these changes in
relation to possible utilization of end-of-pipe
control technology to reduce or eliminate discharge
of hazardous materials
Initiation of programs in selected areas to prove
economic feasibility of process modification and/or
materials substitutions as an adequate pollution
control technique
ENERGY/ENVIRONMENT PROGRAM
As the Nation strives to reduce its foreign energy dependence, energy-
related environmental problems arising from domestic energy development
become increasingly important. A major mission for the Agency is the
protection of public health and welfare from the adverse effects of energy
systems. Research and development efforts toward this end are mandated by
the Clean Air Act, the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, and the Resources
Recovery Act. Such protection must be accomplished through a multimedia
approach so that the control of one form of pollution does not result in
other unacceptable impacts. Environmental protection must be accomplished
in a reasonable manner and at acceptable cost compatible with other national
interests.
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As the Nation attempts to solve its serious energy needs and
problems, several approaches have been proposed:
. Increased use of coal through direct burning
. Replacement of dwindling oil and gas supplies
with synthetic gas and liquid fuels derived
from coal
. Use of alternate sources of energy such
as solid waste, solar energy, geothermal steam
and brine, and nuclear fission, and
. More efficient energy extraction (mining,
secondary recovery) and utilization
(combustion) processes.
Because of the potentially acute health and ecological effects
associated with these energy initiatives and with both existing
and new technologies for fuel processing, and utilization, the EPA
has made a major commitment to ensuring that the environment and human
health are protected. Further, since many of the problems are long-term
(e.g., many technologies will not be available and in commercial use
before early 1985), EPA must have programs underway now to develop the
health and technical data base necessary to support environmental
quality standards and source discharge or emission regulations for
energy pollutants. The lead times for health assessment and control
technology development are such that research programs must be imple-
mented now if energy development is to be compatible with environmental
protection.
Several long-term problem areas are anticipated for the regulatory
and enforcement components of the Agency. The increased reliance on
substitute fuels from coal and oil shale, requiring cleaning, gasification,
liquefaction, and other processing techniques can generate new pollutants
whose effects are not known and must be defined. For example, coal
gasification processes may emit unacceptable quantities of carcinogenic
materials. Another problem area concerns the potentially cumulative
chronic health and ecological effects of new and emerging energy
sources, such as advanced combustion systems and geothermal facilities.
The Agency must also address many energy/environment related
problems in the near-term. The unavailability of domestic oil and
increased dependence upon foreign oil supply may result in converting
a number of oil-fired boilers to coal. Significant conversion from
oil to coal will result in the additional emission of particulates,
nitrogen oxides, sulfur compounds, and other combustion pollutants.
The increased use of coal and oil shale will accelerate mining,
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in semi-arid western areas, raising serious questions about restoration
of mined lands and degradation of the quality of available ground and
surface water resources, the expanded interests in offshore oil may lead
to increasing the severity of the environmental problems associated with
petroleum extraction, transportation and coastal refining facilities.
The primary goals of the Energy Research and Development (R&D) program
are to provide a sound data base necessary for the Agency to establish
regulations and incentives to encourage the use of environmentally acceptable
practices in extraction, processing, and utilization of energy resources,
and to provide environmental control options, as soon as practicable, for
those extraction, processing and utilization practices which cause significant
health and ecological damage.
The approach for addressing the near-term pollution problems involves
reducing the air, water and other pollution associated with expanded coal
use. Principally, this will entail completing reliability testing and
sludge disposal research and development on current generation stack gas
scrubbers and demonstrating improved, less expensive scrubbers which produce
more easily disposable by-products. In addition, assessment activities will
determine the potential environmental problems associated with presently
unregulated coal combustion pollutants, e.g. trace elements, organics,
sulfates, etc. Also, the scientific data base on health and ecological
effects of coal and oil-shale extraction, and on environmentally acceptable
mining and reclamation techniques will be developed.
The definition of the environmental problems and requirements for control
of the longer-term energy problems is of particular importance. EPA does
not have the responsibility for the energy technology development, but must
work in concert with the Energy Research and Development Administration
(ERDA) and other agencies. The approach utilized has the following elements:
conduct environmental assessments of emerging energy extraction, processing
and utilization techniques to identify new pollutants and determine their
potential health and ecological effects; develop adequate scientific basis
for development of new environmental regulations; provide guidance on
control technology requirements to Federal and industry groups developing
new technologies; assist in the development (ORD) has special expertise;
and assess the adequacy of control technologies.
The overall Interagency Energy/Environment Program is structured
to implement the 1974 recommendations of the two Council on Environmental
Quality (CEQ)/Office of Management and Budget (OMB) energy task force
reports.
The implementation approach used to maximize the useful output of
the program involves an extramural approach, with EPA relying heavily
on expertise available within both the Federal and industrial sectors.
In fact, EPA manages, coordinates and integrates the efforts of 16 Federal
agencies under the auspices of the Interagency Energy/Environment Program.
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In addition to the major interagency components of the program, much
of the Research, Development and Demonstration (R,D&D) Program is performed
by industrial concerns and universities via contracts and grants. Each of
the participating agencies or departments has its own charges, e.g.,
management of the Federally owned energy resources, management of Federal
lands, the development of new fuel sources or cycles, etc. In pursuing its
own programs and responsibilities, each agency must have access to the
available information on the enviromental effects of energy development and
must also perform the research necessary to provide additional needed data.
The EPA management of an interagency program attempts to minimize the
overlap of the separate research programs and to assure a comprehensive
coverage of all energy environment questions. In addition, the results of
the multi-agency research program are disseminated and reviewed through a
system of publications and joint conferences and symposia supported by the
Office of Energy, Minerals and Industry (OEMI-EPA) management function.
Energy Health and Ecological Effects Subprogram
The energy-related interagency environmental processes and effects
program is designed to determine the environmental effects of each energy
source's fuel cycle (extraction, processing, conversion, utilization,and
multi-component). The program has the overall objective of presenting the
clearest possible statement of the nature and extent of actual and potential
changes in the human environment associated with ongoing and proposed energy
development. To do this successfully, the program includes laboratory
characterization of the nature and effects of energy-related pollutants and
field studies to record the baseline and ecosystem responses to actual
energy projects. The ultimate goal'of the program is to compile and assess
fundamental data so that, as energy production increases, measures can be
taken early enough to protect both the ecosystem and human health, welfare,
and social goals.
The criteria for determining research priorities are as follows:
. Potential magnitude and importance of human health
and environmental effects;
. Nature and potential magnitude of the developing technology;
. Expected rate of development of the technology.
For the short term, primary efforts reflect EPA regulatory requirements:
A sound technical base must be provided to support the establishment of
standards and regulations and to assure a strong Agency defense in event of
litigation.
In the intermediate term, research is directed to problem identication
and assessment. Early knowledge of adverse energy system health and
ecological effects are required prior to system implementation to avoid the
need for costly retrofit controls. This work leads to setting priorities
for later work and where possible, to avoidance of environmental insults.
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The long-term research is largely based on a strategy to prevent
environmental damage rather than to only regulate it. For that reason,
research is undertaken to better understand environmental processes and
effects. Avoidance of all yet unrecognized hazards is the major ultimate
objective.
The energy-related processes and effects research is divided into four
closely related functional areas: pollutant characterization, measurement
and monitoring; environmental transport processes; health effects and
ecological effects.
Pollutant Characterization, Measurment and Monitoring —
The measurement and monitoring functional area is directed toward
identifying and quantifying pollutants related to energy production or use,
as well as improvement of pollutant measurement capabilities. The two main
objectives in this area are to accelerate development of new and improved
sampling and analysis methods for energy-related pollutants and to identify,
measure and monitor pollutants associated with rapid implementation of
emerging energy technologies.
The objective of the current monitoring studies is to establish a
valid ambient environmental baseline in the most environmentally vulnerable
areas projected for major energy development over the next decade. The
Western Energy/Environment Monitoring Study has been initiated to provide a
multi-media baseline in those areas of the Northern Great Plains and Central
and Southern Rocky Mountain States where accelerated land leasing for strip
mining of coal and construction of large coal-fired power plants is planned.
Also, potential oil shale and geothermal development areas are receiving
attention as national plans for their development evolve. Emphasis has been
placed on the quality of the data and reference to measurement standards.
Additional smaller studies related to coal mining pollution are underway in
the Midwestern Interior and Pacific Northwest Coastal Province.
Monitoring techniques development includes projects aimed at producing
automated systems for interpreting synoptic land use information; at ground-
water monitoring methodology for specific energy resource types; and at a
system for quantifying visibility measurements.
An additional major effort within the measurement and monitoring
functional area is the development of analytical measurement methods and
instrumentation for air and water pollutants associated with energy extraction
and conversion. Present efforts are focused on inorganic compounds from
conventional operations, such as sulfate aerosol measurement and specific
trace element analysis. Current efforts also include the problem of measuring
low level trace inorganics and compounds in water associated with second
generation energy technologies.
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Environmental Transport Processes —
This functional area refers to the transmission of energy-related
pollutants by air, water and soil systems from their sources to their
destination (fate) in man and the environment. Additionally, it covers any
physical and chemical changes in the pollutants occurring during transport.
The atmospheric portion is designed to determine transport and fate of
airborne pollutants generated from various energy activities. Technologies
to be considered include oil shale, coal combustion, coal extraction and is
coal gasification and liquefaction. The major emphasis is on determination
of chemical and physical processes associated with conversion of sulfur and
nitrogen oxides to sulfates and nitrates, photochemical oxidant transport
and, effects on visibility reduction, haze and radiation balance of airborne
aerosols generated by energy-related activities.
The freshwater portion focuses on surface and groundwaters. It is
designed to trace the environmental pathways and ultimate fate of organic
and inorganic pollutants, complex effluents, dissolved and suspended solids
and thermal discharges generated by coal and oil shale development and coal
gasification and liquefaction. The marine portion is similarly structured,
but concentrates on pollutants from such technologies as offshore power
generation, petroleum exploration and extraction and construction of deep-
water ports.
Health Effects —
The energy related health effects functional area is designed to
provide the health data base necessary to assess the impact of enhanced
energy production and utilization on a schedule consistent with energy
technology development and commercialization.
The objectives of the program are to determine the qualitative and
quantitative effects of energy related agents upon human health, to ascertain
the risks to individuals in various population groups arising from all
aspects of energy production for each of the diverse energy cycles and to
provide information on health costs and protective measures which can be
used for the establishment of guidance and regulatory actions.
The components of the program include identification of hazardous
agents associated with energy technologies, development of more sensitive
and rapid methods to evaluate the dose and damage to man, determination
of the metabolism and fate of hazardous agents associated with energy
technologies, determination of the damage, repair, recovery, protection,
and amelioration for biological systems exposed to hazardous agents, and
evaluation of short-term and long-term hazards of exposure of normal,
susceptible and stressed population groups to differing levels and combi-
nations of pollutants through clinical epidemiological and toxicological
studies.
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Ecological Effects —
Ecological effects research studies are oriented to both specific
pollutants and broader energy technologies. These studies are designed
to determine not only organism impacts but also the total ecosystem
effects of energy development activities. The research objectives are
designed to determine'effects of organic pollutants, inorganic pollutants,
thermal discharges, complex effluents, dissolved solids and suspended solids
on freshwater, marine and terrestrial ecosystems. Near-term energy techno-
logies related to oil shale production, coal extraction, gasification and
liquefaction will receive initial emphasis.
Acute and chronic toxicological effects on freshwater organisms
will be determined. The marine ecosystem studies will seek to establish
background levels of relevant contaminants in marine organisms and habitats.
Further marine studies will include the effects of petroleum extraction
and conversion operations, construction of deep-water ports and effluents
from offshore nuclear facilities on marine and estuarine organisms and
ecosystems.
The terrestrial effects studies will determine the acute and chronic
dose-response relationships from stress*of air pollutants from coal and
oil shale extraction, conversion and utilization processes. Additional
terrestrial effects projects will focus on revegetation and reclamation of
surface-mined areas in the arid West.
Assuming continued program funding at the current level, the
following products would be available in the near term:
. Continue Western air, water and land use baseline
monitoring studies and evaluate the need to intensify
fine particulate and sulfate measurements, specific
waterborne toxic measurements, and full scale automated
multi-spectral analysis surveys.
. Preliminary report evaluating groundwater monitoring
methodology requirements for Western strip mines,
oil shale and geothermal developments.
. Evaluate air and water pollutant measurement and
instrumentation development to determine if and when
emphasis should be shifted from toxic elements and
compounds to hazardous organics.
. Development of energy-related standard reference
materials for calibration of ambient air and water
measurement.
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Comprehensive initial estimate of low level trace
contaminants in water from second generation fossil
fuel technologies and identfication of gaps in
measurement and monitoring methodology.
Evaluation of existing groundwater models needed
to predict changes in water flow and quality caused
by mining operations.
Determine transport and fate (a limited set) of
energy-related pollutants in fresh surface water.
Determine transport and fate of pollutants released
by pipeline spills in the Arctic environment.
Determine atmospheric transport and dilution of
pollutants, chiefly sulfur dioxide from large
single sources in the 100 km range.
Determine transformation during transport of
sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides coal-fired
power plants in the 1000 km range.
Develop and utilize measurement techniques for
indicating sublethal repairable damage which can
be used in conjunction with human studies
(clinical-epidemiologically).
Develop procedures and tools to determine environ-
mental pollutant burdens in biological tissues
(human and non-human).
Develop procedures and techniques to reduce uncertain-
ties in estimates of health impact which are dependent
upon extrapolation of data obtained through animal
experimentation.
Chemical and biological field site studies of
effects on aquatic ecosystems from coal extraction
at a Colorado site.
Establish necessary data base of information for
use in evaluating the potential effects of coal-fired
power plants on freshwater resources and ecosystems.
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Evaluate effects of crude oil on freshwater organisms
in Arctic Lakes.
Establish water quality limits and gudelines for water
bodies in strip mined areas in Northern Great Plains,
based on existing information only.
Determine acute and chronic toxicity of petroleum
products and biocides to marine and estuarine
organisms.
Outputs delivered later in the five-year period would include the
following:
. Establishment of a geographically broad multimedia
baseline for regions of the Western U.S. projected
for energy development. This baseline will be a
reference for future trend monitoring and subsequent
energy-related policy decisions on significant
deterioration; on water resources use and water
quality management; and on land use and strip
mine reclamation.
. Development of a groundwater monitoring methodology
for pollutants from coal mining, oil shale and
geothermal development.
. Development of methodology for analysis and real-time
measurement of sulfate aerosol.
. Development of measurement methods for energy-related
trace elements and inorganic compounds (e.g., cyanides,
toxic metals in acid mine drainage).
Development of an automated synoptic monitoring
system for rapid, cost-effective interpretation of
strip mining and other energy-related data.
. Development of long-path, real-time measurement
capability for major energy-related gaseous
pollutants and particulates.
. Determine atmospheric chemistry of emissions from
second generation energy technologies.
. Determine atmospheric transport and transformation of
sulfur and nitrogen oxides to sulfates and nitrates in
plumes from the complete size range of coal-fired
power plants.
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Determine atmospheric effects, including visibility
reduction and haze and radiation balance, caused
by airborne aerosols produced by energy-related
activities and develop methods of relating atmospheric
visibility reduction to chemical and physical properties
of fine particulates.
Determine mass balance of pollutants in the air
envelope of fuel conversion systems such as coal
liquefaction and gasification.
Determine biological, physical and chemical pathways
and transfer mechanisms of energy-derived pollutants
in soils, crops and animals.
Determine in marine and estuarine water the origins,
loads, transport pathways, transfer rates and fates of
pollutants arising from offshore oil production.
Evaluate validity of health data base for energy
related criteria pollutants.
Complete Phase I bioassay screening of available
new energy technology facilties.
Initiate retrospective and prospective epidemio-
logical studies (occupational and general public
population groups) associated with specific types of
energy facilities.
Develop and initiate screening system, dependent
upon behavioral response indices for clinical and
epidemiological studies.
Complete animal carcinogenicity studies for several
selected energy related pollutants.
Complete costressor animal inhalation studies of
polycyclic hydrocarbons at low levels of exposure.
Develop improved techniques for estimating risk
by extrapolation of animal data.
Complete clinical studies on low level exposure
to multiple stresses of energy related criteria
pollutants.
Evaluation of first phase research results on activities
in petroleum hydrocarbon, trace metals, thermal effects
and power plant effluents, with regard to physical,
chemical and biological data for model development.
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. An integrated, total media study of overall environmental
impacts of strip mining and power plant development
in Colstrip, Montana.
Demonstrate reclamation/revegetation techniques for strip
mined areas in the West.
. Determine marine and estuarine ecosystem impacts of
coastal and offshore energy development activities.
Potential Subprogram Growth Areas —
Emphasis in the existing measurement and monitoring program has
been on development of the instrumentation to measure sulfates in the
atmosphere and toxic metals in water. In keeping pace with the emerging
synthetic fuel industry an additional emphasis is required to develop
rapid, accurate field monitoring and laboratory analytical methods for
the measurement of hazardous organic materials in both air and water.
Standardized monitoring equipment must be developed before these
technologies reach commercialization.
In the future, in addition to the Western area studies of projected
coal gasification plants, increments in the monitoring area will focus on
limited regions in the Midwest and East where second generation coal
conversion technologies (coal gasification and liquefaction) and associated
coal mining are projected. Similarly, the devlopment of comprehensive
multimedia monitoring guidelines will be developed to provide a consistent
basis for ambient measurements by Federal, State and private entities.
These new studies will differ significantly from current studies
in that they will be aimed at the measurement of ambient levels of organic
emissions from the second generation technologies, in addition to the
measurement of inorganic emissions such as sulfur oxides, nitric oxides and
various compounds associated with airborne particulate matter. Emphasis
will be placed on those ambient organics which are potentially carcinogenic.
Because the development of measurement instrumentation and methods
leads the capability to establish an ambient monitoring program, outyear
increments of this effort within the measurement and monitoring functional
area will be focused on carcinogens from second generation energy technol-
ogies, such as coal gasification and liquefaction and oil shale development.
The development of new energy technologies, specifically coal gasifica-
tion and liquefaction, will generate pollutants whose effects on both the
occupational community and general population are as yet unknown. To be
able to adequately assess health impacts of these emerging technologies in
a time frame commensurate with anticipated development, emphasis must be
placed on speeding the generation and utilization of diagnostic tools which
can indicate early sublethal changes in behavior. Emphasis in this area
hazardous organics associated with the synthetic fuel industry. Procedures
and techniques would be developed to assess pollutant hazards based on
their concentration and distribution, reaction in experimental organisms
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and the extrapolation of animal test data to man. Finally, an additional
emphasis in clinical, epidemiological and animal toxicology would be
incorporated to determine the effects of multiple pollutant stressors.
Additional efforts would be initiated to identify and quantify
the major organic components of airborne particulate matter. These studies
would be applicable to general urban industrial aerosols and would focus on
particulate emissions from new technologies such as coal gasification and
liquefaction, emphasizing key precursor conditions for transformation of
organic aerosol fractions into potentially carcinogenic compounds, and the
transport and spatial distribution of these compounds. The studies would
also indentify and quantify the major sources of airborne particulate
matter in representative atmospheres and attempt to project the incremental
contribution of the new synthetic fuel technologies.
Energy Extraction and Processing Technology Subprogram
Overall objectives of this subprogram are to permit a rapid increase
in extraction and processing of domestic energy resources and to enable
these energy sources to be used effectively in an environmentally compatible
manner. The research is divided into two areas: energy resource extraction
and fuel processing.
Resource Extraction —
Resource Extraction R&D will assess potential environmental problems
and control methods for underground and surface and coal mining, oil shale
extraction and exploration for and recovery of domestic inland and offshore
oil and gas. All these extraction processes have the potential to severely
damage water and land quality. For that reason, the chief goal of this
research is to provide enough data and analysis to ensure that commercial
extraction operations can be conducted with adequate land reclamation and
minimal damage to water quality and supply.
Offshore oil and gas efforts will focus on projecting pollutant
discharges and assessing control technologies to ensure protection and
restoration of ocean shorelines. Problems of Western surface coal and oil
shale mining will receive particular attention because of their profound
impact on arid lands and the enormous potential of energy reserves in the
West. The research will examine problems of revegetating arid mined land
in the West. It will also examine the impact on groundwater from distruption
of natural drainage contours and aquifers in coal seams. Efforts will also
focus on underground coal mining problems, such as acid mine drainage and
methods to close abandoned mines.
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Fuel Processing—
This research area is best explained by examining four subcategories.
Physical and chemical coal cleaning technology involves methods to physically
or chemically remove sulfur from coal having a moderate sulfur content (1-2
pecent). This facilitates the burning of coal in conformity with clean air
standards. The objectives of this research are to develop commercially
available coal cleaning processes for organic and inorganic sulfur and ash
in medium-sulfur coal and to develop methods for reclaiming or disposing of
coal cleaning wastes in an environmentally acceptable manner.
Coal cleaning research will assess several technologies including
several proprietary chemical coal cleaning pilot plants, a two-state froth-
flotation physical cleaning process and advanced low-polluting, dewatering
and drying technologies. Coal cleaning projects now in progress are designed
to assess the environmental impact of these technologies, and promote the
use of advanced coal cleaning methods for more efficient for pollutant
removal. The Department of the Interior and ERDA are performing related
research in this area.
Optimal fluidized bed combusion (FBC) processes could use coal, coal-
derived products and residual oil more efficiently than other technologies
and with little environmental damage. As part of the National Fluidized
Bed Combusion Program which is coordinated by ERDA, EPA will conduct R&D to
determine potential environmental problems from alternative designs and use
of fluidized bed combustors. EPA's participation in this interagency
program will consist of environmental assessment of future FBC systems by
testing pilot-scale facilities and by continuing research using EPA's
"miniplant" pilot installation.
EPA's research on synthetic fuels (high and low BTU gasified coal and
liquefied coal) has two fundamental aspects:
. To determine the potential environmental impacts
of synthetic fuel processing operations.
. To develop control technology to minimize potential
environmental damage.
Environmental control technology R&D must be conducted concurrently
with environmental assessments because some synthetic fuel processes - low
BTU gasification in particular - are in the early stages of commercial
demonstration. Development of an appropriate control technology must be
accelerated to permit early commercialization and to avoid the diseconomies
of forced retrofitting of pollution controls.
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Consequently, environmental assessments will focus on characterization
of feedstock materials at the same time that studies are conducted on the
impact of shale-oil recovery, coal liquefaction and high and low BTU coal
gasication. Technology to control air, water and solid waste pollution
from conversion processes will proceed currently with fuel processing
technology R&D being conducted by other agencies.
Under a level budget projection for the period, the following
products could be delivered in the near term:
. Complete summary of all available treatment tech-
niques for acid mine drainage from coal production.
This document will provide information on technology
available and costs of treating acid mine drainage.
. Complete an environmental instruction package for
control agencies and operators concerned with surface
mining. This manual will provide basis for State
Regulations as well as training program to allow
implementation of regulations.
. Complete assessments of environmental impacts of
western coal development on areas of the
Northern Great Plains.
. Complete multistream coal-cleaning demonstration
at the Homer City power plant. Publish report
on cleaned coal characteristics, on cleaning
plant costs, energy consumption and environmental
control and/or combustion characteristics of coal
and compliance with standards.
. Publish a standard of practice manual for best
available environmental control technology for
physical coal-cleaning plants and for fluidized bed
combustion facilities.
. Complete first year of Meyers process chemical coal cleaning
operation. Provide cleaned coal to utility and industrial
users for combustion testing. Publish a report on eco-
nomics of Meyers process in comparison with flue gas
leaning and the Homer City physical coal-cleaning
technology.
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. Complete environmental testing of the EREA-sponsored
Rivesville 30MW fludidized bed combustion pilot
plant. This is the largest FBC unit presently
under construction. The data from this testing is
expected to lead to air and water standards for
atmospheric FBC units.
. Complete environmental testing of the combined
combustion, regenerator and granular filter in
the Exxon fluidized bed miniplant. This will
be the first'operation of a completely integrated
pressurized FBC system. It is at the process
development unit scale.
. Complete report on environmental assessment of
advanced oil processing technologies, including
commercial oil gasification processes, oil desulfuri-
zation, demetallization and denitrification processes
and advanced multi-stage and combustion processess.
Complete Phase I environmental testing of the
British Gas slagging Lurgi plant, and the ERDA
Synthane and bigas gasification pilot plants.
. Prepare standard of practice manuals for best
available environmental control technology for
synthetic fuels processes for coal and oil shale.
. Complete construction of the in-house bench-scale
coal-liquefaction environmental test facility and
the wastewater treatment test facility. This will
permit studies of the fate of various major and
trace pollutants through different control technology.
. Continue environmental testing of all emerging
fuel processing technologies and development of a
data base to support NSPS and effluent guidelines.
. Complete assessment of the environmental effects of
coal slurry pipelines.
On a longer range basis, outputs of the extraction R&D will define
environmental problems associated with surface and underground coal mining
in the Eastern and Western United States. Problems associated with active
and abandoned mines such as mine drainage, groundwater pollution and
reclamation will be considered. Also, methods, techniques and processes
for control will be developed. Information similar to that developed for
coal will also be developed for oil shale and tar-sands.
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The prevention and control of oil spills will receive increased
emphasis in later years. So will the determination of environmental
impacts associated with offshore gas and oil exploration and develop-
ment, liquefied natural gas (LNG) and liquid petroleum gas (LPG).
To promote greater use of coal, many processes are under development
to obtain a clean fuel from coal. Anticipating these developments, major
emphases in the early part of the EPA R&D program will be on obtaining
environmental data to define potential problems associated with many
synthetic fuel technologies being considered for development (e.g., high
and low BTU gasification, coal liquefaction). Other technologies that are
being developed and may allow coal and oil to be used with minimum environ-
mental degradation, include fulidized bed combustion (FBC), advanced oil
processing; chemically active fluidized bed combustion (CFB) and physical
and chemical coal cleaning.
Since EPA does not have sole responsibility for developing the technolo-
gies that can allow greater use of coal, the EPA control technology program
will continue to be coordinated with other agencies such as ERD& and DOI
and resources will be set aside for interagency agreements.
Some of the objectives to be achieved later in the five-year
period include:
. Completion of environmental testing of operating
Eastern and Mid Western coal cleaning plants to
support setting of standards for new plants.
. Evaluation (lab scale) of novel technologies to
remove sulfur, nitrogen and hazardous trace materials
from coal and coal cleaning wastes.
. Operation of the joint EPA/U.S. Bureau of Mines
physical coal cleaning test facility to develop
improved control technology.
. Completion of the development of pollutant sorbent
regeneration and alternative sorbents for FBC
systems to avoid a massive solid waste disposal
problem.
. Completion of the development of high temperature
and high pressure granular-bed filter fine particulate
control technology for support of NSPS for pressurized
FBC and gasification processes.
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Demonstration of energy and environmental benefits
of the CAFB process residual oil gadification/
cleanup at a utility boiler.
Completion of bench-scale development of oil desul-
furization, denitrification and demetallization
technologies.
Completion of environmental testing and development
of manuals for control technology practice in support
of standards for coal gasification, coal liquefaction,
residual oil cleanup and oil shale processing.
Completion of assessment of pollution potential of
coal and oil shale mining in the Western U.S.
and coal mining in Alaska.
Completion of a demonstration of technology and
development of manuals for clean-up of oil spills on
land and water.
Preparation of manuals of practice for protection
and restoration of ocean, estuarine river and
cool-climate shorelines because of oil contamination.
Completion of manuals of control technology practice
to support effluent guidelines for offshore oil
and gas production facilities.
Potential Subprogram Growth Areas—
As the Nation moves toward developing alternate sources of energy it
is becoming increasingly apparent that Western and Eastern coal will provide
the bulk of near and mid-term energy resources. Additional funding would
provide for more reliable assessments of the environmental consequences
of surface and deep mining coal in different climatelogical regions.
Additionally, cost-effective methods would be developed to control mine
drainage polution in more widely varied circumstances, especially those
at-source methods that provide reliable sediment and erosion control.
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The increased use of coal will require an accelerated program of
pre-combustion and postcombustion pollution control technology development
testing and evaluation to insure the availability of a broad spectrum of
cost effective control options. As coal is used more frequently to produce
synthetic liquid and gaseous fuels to offset petroleum requirements,
increased attention is needed to insure that these yet-unproven energy
technologies are developed in an environmentally acceptable manner.
Process effluents, as well as solid wastes from fluidized bed combustors
and synthetic fuel processes, must be characterized and assessed to minimize
harmful environmental insults. This activity will be performed in close
conjunction with ERDA, and must be expanded to keep pace with their rapidly
accelerating energy development program.
Additional outputs possible during the next five years if
modest program growth is permitted include the following:
. Constructing and operating a chemical coal cleaning
test facility. This would allow testing of various
processes offering the potential of low-cost cleanup
prior to combustion.
. Emissions testing and comprehensive pollutant analysis
on additional synthetic fuel facilities.
. Initiation of a program for developing control technology
for oil shale processing' operations.
. Acceleration of the program to develop a high temperature/
high pressure technology which will allow fluidized bed
and gasification systems to minimize particulate emissions.
. Initiation of a critical component evaluation program for
the Homer City full scale utility demonstration of physical
coal cleaning to meet NSPS to ensure success of the
demonstration and widen process applicability.
. Acceleration of evaluation and control technology develop-
ment for disposal of FBC solid wastes.
. Preparation of a comprehensive treatment manual covering
chemical and physical methods which is applicable to all
energy mining activities.
Comprehensive assessment of the environmental consequences
of the newly developing mining methods in the various
geographical regions.
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Energy Conservation, Utilization and Technology Assessment Subprogram
Major emphasis in this subprogram is focused on the identification,
characterization, assessment and development of control technology for
pollutants associated with utility and industrial combustion sources.
Attention will be given to developing information to facilitate the estab-
lishment of environmental standards and guidelines, and to the development
of cost-effective control technology to achieve such standards.
The second aspect, energy conservation, calls for an assessment of
potential environmental effects of advanced power systems and industrial
process changes to achieve energy conservation. The third aspect, integrated
assessment, will evaluate comprehensive environmental protection standards
for energy production activities while attempting to balance environmental
and economic costs.
Utility and Industrial Power—
The only way to significantly increase near-term coal use without
severe environmental disruption is to have air pollution control technology
available to meet Clean Air Act sulfur control requirements. Because coal
conversion (gasification and liquefaction) processes seem promising but
will not be ready for commercial application for quite some time, successful
flue gas desulfurization R&D will provide the only viable coal-combustion
control technique available in the 1970's. This will have greatest signif-
icance in regions that now rely less on oil and gas and more on coal,
especially high sulfur coal for generating electrical power. Desulfurization
systems, many in commercial operation or on order, are in final stages of
development. R&D efforts will focus on remaining problems such as upgrading
operating performance and reliability, minimizing costs, waste product
disposal problems and treatment and by-product recovery. This should allow
FGD technology to be more generally used in some regions. Funding for this
work was expanded in FY 1975 to include capital for two advanced stackgas
cleaning demonstrations. Funding levels will decrease in FY 1978 and
subsequent years since no further full-scale utility demonstrations are
scheduled.
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Development of cost-effectve, commercially viable methods for control
of oxides of nitrogen (NOx) from both existing and new stationary combustion
sources is also important, since NOx emissions are extensive and could have
widespread, adverse health and ecological effects. EPA's Maximum Stationary
Source Technology (MSST) strategy places increased emphasis on controlling
emissions from stationary sources. Because of the general lack of such
control technology, this R&D is designed to increase the degree and effec-
tiveness of NOx control from stationary sources.
EPA's overall program for control of stationary source NOx emissions
relies primarily on development and demonstration of Combustion Modifications
(CM) processes for utility, industrial, commercial and residential boilers.
These processes minimize formation of nitrogen in the combustion zone. Such
conrol measures should not reduce efficiency of combustion heat recovery nor
increase emissions of other pollutants. An alternative approach that is
being explored is "flue gas cleaning" involving flue gas treatment. _
Fine-particulate control technology to meet present and future emission
reduction requirements is being developed by EPA. Emphasis is on controlling
emissions from direct combustion of low-sulfur or cleaned coals and to
develop cost-effective control devices for conventional and advanced coal
combustion systems. Although particulate control technology has been used
on combustion gases from high-sulfur content coals, low-sulfur content coal
use presents a more difficult problem. In electrostatic precipitators, the
most common control method used in utility boilers, lower sulfur content
flue gas can degrade electrical of the precipitator and consequently, its
performance. Injection of sulfur trioxide to improve electrical properties
aggravates the secondary sulfate emission problem.
Combustion pollution assessment examines the overall impacts of all
types of emissions. Potential health effects of metallic acid sulfates,
trace materials and other fine particulates, may limit coal use in the
future unless control processes are understood and technology developed to
meet emissions standards. Cooperative efforts with EPA, ERDA and TVA, are
underway to fuly characterize particulate emissions from conventional and
advanced coal combustion systems.
Thermal control research responds to the Federal Water Pollution Act
of 1972, wherein EPA is required to regulate thermal effluents. The research
program responds to statutory requirements which include the following:
. Providing design and performance data for improved
cooling systems.
. Reducing the dependence on use of rivers and lakes
as heat sinks.
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. Assessing the potential for waste heat reuse in
agriculture greenhouses, aquaculture and cyclical
storage.
Current efforts include advanced waste heat control using cooling
towers and evaluation of chemical pollutant discharges from power plant
cooling systems and development of effective controls.
Conservation —
Improved efficiency in fuel use is a potentially attractive
way to help achieve energy self-sufficiency. But work is needed to assess
potential environmental impacts of improved or advanced energy systems.
Research efforts will concentrate in four areas;
Industrial Processes—Industrial process changes resulting from
increased energy costs or governmental policies may produce unanticipated
pollutant emissions or be environmentally superior to existing technologies.
Accompanying environmental assessment and technology development work is
needed in this area. Environmental R&D on energy-saving industrial processes
will expand in the next few years.
Advanced Power Cycles—Work on advanced power cycles such as gas
turbines, magnetohydrodynamics and fuel cells must be accompanied by
identification, measurements and analysis of health and ecological effects
of pollutants emitted.
Energy from Wastes—Several methods of using urban and rural waste
materials as energy sources are being investigated. As a result, it is now
technically and economically feasible to use municipal solid waste (MSW)
as a fuel substitute in certain coal-fired power plants. Continuing inves-
tigations are designed to include co-firing MSW with coal in a smaller
(stoker) boiler, conversion by pyrolysis to synthetic gases, liquids, and
solid fuels, and studies of technical and environmental factors showing the
implementation of wastes as fuel systems. If successful, these projects
will show that energy recovery from MSW is feasible throughout the country
for smaller cities and areas where coal is not used. Pollutant characteriza-
tion studies are also being made to ensure that potential environmental
problems are defined.
Advanced Energy Systems—In keeping with its general philosophy of
anticipatory R&D for energy systems that will be developed over the long-
term, EPA has begun assessment studies to provide baseline information
about potential environmental impacts of geothermal and solar energy
systems.
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Integrated Assessment—
Environmental, economic and social consequences of energy alterna-
tives together must be used as a basis for EPA policies. Projects are
designed across entire technologies and fuel cycles to multifaceted
effects on natural and human-modified environments of energy development
and related activities. The alternatives for controlling environmental
pollution associated with those activities are also examined. Studies will
focus on environmental, economic, social and institutional impacts of
various technologies under alternative environmental management approaches.
Under continuing budget constraints similar to FY 1977, the following
products listed below would be produced in the near-term by the Conservation,
Utilization and Technology Assessment Subprogram:
. Initiate construction of the double alkali (non-regenerable)
and aqueous carbonate (regenerable) full-scale flue gas
desulfurization demonstration facilities. These second genera-
tion systems offer performance, economic and operability
improvements over present systems.
Perform a comprehensive application testing program aimed at
identifying means of controlling NOx via operational modifi-
cations for selected combustion sources. Stationary combustion
sources produce over one-half of man-made nitrogen oxides emissions.
. Develop and apply NOx control technology employing combustion
modifications to utility boilers, commercial/industrial
boilers, residential heating systems, stationary engines, and
advanced combustion processes. These combustion systems represent
the major stationary sources of nitrogen oxides emissions.
. Undertake programs to improve the effectiveness of conventional
electrostatic precipitators, fabric filters, and scrubbers
for fine particulate removal. Fine particulates are potentially
deleterious to human health and are difficult to cost-effectively
control with conventional control technology.
. Complete the Shawnee advanced lime and limestone test study and
publish a final report. This activity is aimed at identifying
improved process capable of increasing sulfur dioxide removal
economics, reliability and sludge characteristics of the most
commercially important FGD process (lime/limestone).
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. Identify and characterize various waste streams, and
perform emissions and residuals studies on pollutants
inherent in wastes or produced in resource recovery
and energy conversion processes. Develop pollution
control techniques for waste reuse processes which
cannot meet environmental standards.
. Develop systems for co-firing wastes with coal in
industrial-sized boilers and for co-firing wastes
with oil in large utility boilers. These systems,
along with the "St. Louis" technology already
developed by EPA, should make possible conversion
of 50 percent of the Nation's municipal solid
wastes to energy.
Develop an inexpensive processing system for
producing fuel from refuse. This system will make
recovery of wastes competitive with disposal
in smaller and middle-sized communities.
. Perform studies to evaluate the cost/risk/benefit
trade-offs of energy production, conservation, and
pollution control alternatives.
. Complete the technology assessments of energy
development in the Western U.S. and the activities
of the electric utility industry. Publish com-
prehensive reports of the results/ and conduct
seminars describing these results.
Emphasis in the early part of the five-year period is on obtaining the
outputs from the flue gas desulfurization (FGD) work. Data from test
programs for nonregenerable FGD systems will provide data for evaluation as
will supporting studies involving by-product marketing and sludge disposal
from FGD systems. All data generated from the FGD R&D is expected to be
given to regulatory groups and user industries through the technology
transfer program.
As the FGD R&D peaks and tails off, emphasis and resources of the
energy program will shift to NOx control, fine particulate control, thermal
control and conventional combustion pollution assessment.
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The NOx control program will include field testing and characterization
studies and development of control technology for gas turbines and utility,
industrial and commercial boilers. NOx control for residential heating
systems will also be considered. Simultaneous removal of SOx/NOx by way of
flue gas cleaning technology will also receive attention.
The fine particulate control program will also accelerate as effort is
made to determine the effectiveness of available control equipment, to
improve existing control equipment capability and to demonstrate the
efficiency of novel devices.
The expectation is that environmental assessment of conventional
combustion systems will allow for an informed, orderly identification
and ranking of pollutants and their potential impact according to pollutant
media (e.g., air, water, solid waste). This approach will guide EPA and
its R&D program in determining adequacy or inadequacy of existing and
planned programs.
Conservation studies should continue at a relatively constant rate.
Analyses of use of wastes as fuel, assessment of advanced cycles, assess-
ment of advanced energy systems and industrial conservation are expected to
provide data on potential environmental impacts of those technologies to
guide R&D program planning.
With no program expansion, outputs in the latter part of the period
would be limited to the following:
. Complete the Shawnee sludge demonstration evaluation program.
This involves a pilot test of three commercially offered
sludge-fixation processes and follow-up environmental
evaluations.
. Complete the Bahco test study for lime scrubbing on a
coal-fired industrial boiler and publish a final report.
This will evaluate a sulfur control option for smaller
combustion sources.
. Complete a final report on the Wellman-Lord FGD demonstra-
tion. This report will summarize operational performance
of the first application of this FGD technology to a coal-
fired power plant. Sulfur will be produced as the end
product.
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Issue a final report on Louisville Gas and Electric lab
and field FGD waste-disposal studies. The objective
here is to understand and apply the unique chemistry
of this successful unit to other applications and improve
sludge-disposal technology.
Prepare annual reports summarizing the EPA-sponsored
FGD sludge effort encompassing evaluation studies
and pilot and prototype-scale testing.
Complete preliminary studies assessing the impact of gas,
water and waste streams from a variety of combustion
sources. Such studies aim at characterizing the problems
associated with presently unregulated pollutants
associated with fossil fuel combustion sources.
Perform a comprehensive application testing activity aimed
at identifying means to control NOx through operational
modifications for a wide variety of combustion sources.
Develop and apply NOx control technology employing modifi-
cations to utility, commercial and industrial boilers,
residential heating systems, stationary engines and
advanced combustion processes.
Develop promising flue gas cleaning methods for NOx
control at the small pilot level. Such systems offer
potential for enhanced NOx emission control from large
combusion sources.
Enhance the effectiveness of conventional particulate
control devices for fine particulate removal including
electrostatic precipitators, bag-houses and scrubbers.
Select, test and evaluate one promising, novel fine
particulate control device at the pilot level.
Analysis of wet-and-dry and dry cooling tower technology
capable of dissipating waste heat from steam-electric plants
at the prototype level while minimizing water pollution
and water supply problems associated with wet cooling
towers.
Perform economic, technical and environmental evaluations
of resource recovery systems and refuse-derived fuel-
processing and energy-recovery equipment and systems.
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. Assess the air qualty inside various types of buildings in
relation to energy conservation approaches and outdoor
air quality.
Evaluate the potential environmental impacts of the following
advanced cycles: high-temperature open and closed-cycle
gas turbines; Magnetohydrodynemics; potassium topping cycles
and thermionics.
. Conduct environmental assessment studies and evaluate
environmental control technology needs for geothermal
and solar energy systems.
Potential Subprogram Growth Areas—
Level funding over a five-year period would constrain efforts in the
areas of NOx, SOx, and fine particulate control technology development. In
light of the increasing emphasis on fossil fuel combustion, it appears
likely that high levels of control of these pollutants will be necessary
from a wide variety of sources to avoid deleterious environmental impacts.
Also, emissions of these pllutants may be important precursors to the
production of potentially deleterious secondary pollutants such as sulfates,
nitrates and nitrosamines. Modest program growth would allow development of
control technology for increasing pollutant removal capability, increasing
the number of sources for which control technology would be available and
improving the economics of first generation control technology.
Level funding also limits efforts in the areas of wastes-as-fuel,
industrial energy conservation, advanced energy cycles, advanced energy
systems, and energy conservation in the built environment. It appears
likely that control of pollutants from these source areas will be necessary
from a wide variety of technologies to avoid deleterious environmental
impacts. It also appears likely that several technologies in wastes as
fuel and the industrial sector can be brought to commercial practice which
mitigate environmental problems associated with conventional practices.
Modest program growth would permit development of these new technologies,
along with more efficient and effective control systems.
The following products could be delivered before 1982 if modest
program expansion were authorized.
. Demonstrate first and second generation nonregenerable and
regenerable flue gas desulfurization technologies capable
of reducing SOx emissions by greater than 95 per cent.
. Accelerate the development and application of low-cost
NOx control methods (employing combustion modification
techniques) for residential and commercial combustion
sources.
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Initiate a demonstration program for flue gas
desulfurization control from one or more
industrial combustion sources.
Co-sponsor with an electric utility an integrated
magnesium oxide flue gas desulfurization system
on a full-scale coal-fired power plant. Magnesium
oxide is a near-term technology offering the
potential for favorable economics and avoidance of
a solid waste disposal problem.
Accelerate development of technologies allowing
control of fine particulate emissions from
combustion of low sulfur fuels.
Demonstrate at a full-scale installation the
fixation and environmentally acceptable disposal
of flue gas desulfurization waste sludge.
Expand present integrated technology assessment
efforts relating to the electric utility industry
to include the smaller combustion sources, e.g.,
residential, commercial and industrial sources.
Accelerate development and demonstration of environ-
mental control technologies for wastes as fuel systems
(e.g., heavy metals removal techniques).
Develop and demonstrate on a joint basis with industry
technologies to improve the energy efficiency of glass-
making and textile dying by 30 percent and simultaneously
reduce uncontrolled emissions.
Complete the development of environmental assesssments
and techniques for assuring the environmental soundness
of geothermal and solar energy development.
Expand environmental assessments of advanced energy cycles
to include the measurement of pilot plant emissions and
to perform related laboratory work on environmental
parameters.
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MONITORING AND TECHNICAL SUPPORT PROGRAM
The Monitoring and Technical Support Program includes measurement
research, development and demonstration activities and direct assistance
and support to all of EPA. Subprograms include Measurement Techniques
and Equipment Development, Quality Assurance, and Technical Support.
Measurement Techniques and Equipment Development involves development,
evaluation, and demonstration of field and laboratory measurement and moni-
toring methods and instrumentation. Efforts are directed toward achieving
capability to identify and measure all pollutants of concern in the most
cost-effective manner. The subprogram is further divided into the elements
of Characterization and Measurement Methods Development, and Measurement
Techniques and Equipment Standardization.
Quality Assurance serves all environmental monitoring activities of
EPA. This activity focuses on standardizing measurement methods, providing
standard reference materials and samples, developing quality control guide-
lines and manuals, conducting onsite evaluation of analytical laboratories,
inter-laboratory performance tests, crosscheck samples studies, methods for
laboratory accreditation, automation of laboratory instruments and data
handling, and participation in regional quality control activities.
Technical Support is the scientific and technical assistance the
research program gives to other components of EPA using the expertise of
ORD personnel and available ORD facilities. This subprogram includes
programs to deliver results of ORD's efforts to its users by technical
information dissemination. This effort assures that R&D programs will be
more responsive to immediate operational needs of other components of EPA.
Technical Support also includes minority institutions research support
(MIRS), an effort to direct research grants to minority institutions.
Minority institutions that have or can develop capability to conduct
effective environmental research are actively sought, and encouraged to
participate in the extramural research program.
Monitoring, Techniques and Equipment Development Subprogram
In administering the Federal environmental protection laws, the Agency
requires reliable, quantitative information on extent, concentration and
trends of environmental pollution. This information, obtained through
environmental monitoring, is necessary for several purposes:
. To assess compliance with ambient environmental
quality standards.
. To assess compliance with effluent and emission
permit requirements.
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. To assess impacts of unregulated pollutants in the
ambient environment.
To quantify risks of pollutant exposure-effect
relationships for important receptors.
. To understand linkages between significant sources
of discharge and ambient levels of pollutants.
The objective of Monitoring, Techniques and Equipment Development
Subprogram is to develop equipment and methods that are accurate, simple,
standardized, cost-effective and responsive to requirements for environ-
mental monitoring by Federal, State, and local governments and by the
private sector.
Monitoring methods for health and ecological effects require high
performance reliability at very low concentration levels necessary to
relate adverse effects with low doses of pollutant in air, water and plant
and animal tissues. Methods to measure impacts of heat, radiation and
noise on important receptors are also required. Highest priorities for
such methods development are given to pollutants that toxic, carcinogenic
or otherwise hazardous.
Characterization and Measurement Methods Development—
This research area is directed toward production of pollutant measure-
ment concepts, methods, and procedures which can be made sufficiently
accurate, reliable and economic to meet the needs of pollutant measurement
and ambient environmental quality characterization. The research covers a
broad range of pollutants and measurement methods, as shown by the following
examples of near-term accomplishments in the air pollution areas:
. Sampling technique for measuring total arsenic and
selenium.
. Sampling and analysis technique for halogenated organic
carcinogens.
. Design for field operation of a multi-wavelength laser
backscatter system for remote monitoring of sulfur
dioxide and other pollutants (possibly nitroten
dioxide and ozone).
. Report on the characterization of toxic trace metals
from stationary sources.
. Characterization of gaseous emissions from gas turbines
burning residual fuel.
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. Report on characterization of organic emissions from
petrochemical sources.
. Development and evaluation of fuel-additive related
control system performance protocol.
. Report on the characterization of gaseous and particulate
emissions from non-catalytic advanced control devices.
. Report on the development of prototype in-situ measure-
ment system for quantifying sulfuric acid emissions from
stationary sources.
. Report on chromotographic analysis technique for nitrosamines
in ambient air.
. Report on the development of a prototype nitire acid analyzer
for ambient air.
. Development of prototype sampler for PCB's.
. Report on the evaluation of solid sorbents for the collection
and analysis of nitrogen and sulfur oxides.
. Report on the development of methods for identification of
selected carcinogens and nitrogens.
. Develop Low Cost Manual Dichatomous Sampler.
. Characterization of amonia, nitrogen dioxide and oxides
on selected major roadways in the northeast and California.
In the water pollution area, measurement methods exist for most
elements, viruses and for volatile organics (about 10% of the total
organic content water). However, all of these methods need significant
improvements if they are to be used extensively. In the case of non-
volatile organics (the other 90% of the organic content of water) analytical
procedures are non-existent and the need for such procedures increases each
day as greater and greater emphasis is placed on toxic substances.
Of immediate concern are the improvements needed in elemental and
volatile organic analytical methods and instrumentation. In both cases
sampling and sample preparation procedures must be developed and optimum
conditions for quantification must be established. Non-volatile organics
present a longer term but equally pressing problem. These substances
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include many known toxic substances such as nitrosamines and natural
and man-made polymers. Because of the varying chemical and physical
properties presented by the non-volatile organics, procedures will have
to be developed for several groups within this class of substances.
While methods for viruses and for identification of elemental species are
not as pressing the need for improved or new methods in the next several
years is well recognized.
Near-term program outputs include the following:
. Automatic sampler for volatile organics in water.
. Improved procedures for more efficient identification of
volatile organics.
. Methods for use of plasma emission spectrometer for
simultaneous multielement analysis.
. Characterization of municipal and organic phosphate manufacturing
waste waters.
. Development of a technique to confirm identity of organic
substances initially identified by mass spectrometry.
. Development of procedure for transport of field-collected
virus samples.
The current air pollution measurement and characterization effort
is expected to continue over the next five years to pursue instrument
development and sampling and analysis techniques to support characterization
programs and standard-setting activities. However, the following shifts in
emphasis will take place:
. There will be an increased emphasis on stationary source
measurements of non-regulated pollutants in support of
the expected acceleration of New Source Performance
Standards (NSPS) that will be set over the next five years.
. Greater emphasis will be given to measuring and characterizing
emissions of non-regulated pollutants from mobile and stationary
sources, such as vinyl chloride, specific organics, sulfates,
halocarbons, trace metals, nitrates, nitrosamines, hydrogen
cyanide and hydrogen sulfide. This, of course, will place a
greater emphasis also on instrument and analytical methods
development for these substances.
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. Greater emphasis will be given to the development of long-path
optical techniques for measurement of air pollutants, and
application of these techniques to specific problems.
Examples of possible outputs are given below:
. Development of an nitrogen oxides specific instrument to
detect low concentration levels in rural atmospheres.
. Development of sampling and analysis techniques for toxic
organics from diesel-powered vehicles.
. Fabrication of automated collectors for studies of natural
emissions sources of sulfur compounds.
. Development of semi-real-time aerosol sulfur monitor.
. Development of automated sulfuric acid analyzer.
. Characterization of gaseous and particulate emissions
from non-catalytic advanced control devices for light-duty
vehicles.
. Characterization of toxic organic aerosols from industrial
sources.
. Characterization of organic emissions from petrochemical
sources.
. Analysis of sulfur oxide emission data for oil-fired power
plants.
In the first few years of the five-year forecast period in water
pollution the major push will be on the needed improvements in elemental
and volatile organic methods. These improvements are critical to agency
activities associated with Effluent Guidelines, NPDES and newly planned
Water Quality Monitoring program. The need for high accuracy over wide
ranges of concentration and for reliability and high throughput are critical
if EPA regional offices and State agencies are to be effective in carrying
out these programs.
Efforts will be shifted to methods for non-volatile organics and
inorganic species of concern, e.g. asbestos, as suitable methods are
established for volatile organics and trace elements. At the present
resource level, the shift of effort will not produce substantial results
within the five-year period.
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For viruses, the emphasis will be on pushing existing techniques to the
limit recognizing that new approaches will have to be sought if they are to
be monitored more widely than at present. Characterization of effluents will
be decreased to a minimal level depending entirely on external sources for
information.
Measurement Techniques and Equipment Standardization—
The objective of this research area is to develop, test, and evaluate
multimedia equipment and methods that are accurate, standardized, cost-
effective and responsive.to requirements for environmental monitoring by
Federal, State, and local governments and by the private sector. These
methods must not only be applicable at lowest environmentally significant
ambient concentrations, but must also be applicable at higher concentrations
that occur at pollutant sources.
Operational monitoring methods development gives highest priority to
regulated pollutants. These methods are being developed for routine use in
ambient environmental monitoring and for self-monitoring by point-source
dischargers and those responsible for compliance monitoring.
Activities in this area include design and optimization of monitoring
systems and networks, development of airborne and remote sensing techniques,
development of automated techniques for field application, data handling
systems, and development of environmental monitoring instrumentation.
In development of multimedia monitoring methods, the usual technique
is to adapt or modify known measurement technology to meet given field
requirements. An interdisciplinary approach is taken to insure adequate
methods are available for biological, chemical, physical and radiological
pollution. Effective liaison is conducted with other Federal Agencies to
assure orderly transfer of appropriate technologies to the Agency's programs.
Included within this program is the registration of fuels and fuel
additives. The information acquired provides a data base which is used to
forecast motor vehicle emissions which have a potential for adverse impacts
on human health and welfare. This information base also provides a basis
for anticipating effects from fuels or fuel additives on emission control
devices.
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In the near term, the subprogram will continue to provide the most
efficient and cost-effective monitoring techniues possible to meet the
needs of the Agency and related State monitoring program:
. Publication of methods for measuring organic pesticides,
PCB's, selenium, oil and grease, chlorinated organics and
kepone in water and solids;
. Correction of deficiencies in existing reference methods
used for monitoring municipal and industrial waters in
the NPDES program, for the enforcement of National
Interim Primary Drinking Water Regulation and for
monitoring ambient fresh and marine water;
. Development of reference methods based upon a computerized
Gas Chromatograph/Mass Spectrograph system with emphasis
on lowering the detection limits for reliable identification
of pollutants to levels consistent with proposed standards
and to extend the technique to include additionally
identified toxic substances;
Development of a more sensitive bioassay technique for the
detection of toxic hazardous substances in waste water;
Development of methods to detect nonpoint source pollutant
discharges, e.g. urban run-off and agricultural sources;
. Demonstration of a prototype sampler for NPDES monitoring
of organic compound at lower costs;
. Extension of test methods to include measurement of
pollutants contained in municipal sludges as well as other
wastes presently discharged into the ocean;
. Development of a remote sensing system for plume identifi-
cation by particle signature and for measurement of plume
mixing patterns;
. Testing of a more rapid automated in-situ sensor for measurement
of colifoon bacteria;
. Testing of an air deployable package for surface temperature
measurement to provide a reference point for data collected
with remote temperature sensors;
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. Continuation of the fuels and fuel additives program including
registering of motor vehicle gasolines and diesel fuels,
engine oils and collection and analysis of samples of registered
products;
. Development and validation of guidlines for an optimized integrated
network for air and water quality monitoring;
. Development and validation of biological response as a measure
of pollutant exposure;
. Development and application of systematic multimedia monitoring
concepts for toxic substances and carcinogens;
Development of a LIDAR method for monitoring ozone to aid in
oxidant transport studies.
Later in the five-year period, the Measurement Equipment and Techniques
Standardization area will develop, update and revise analytical methods
systems and manuals. Correcting deficiencies in present reference methods
and standardizing new reference methods in response to needs to measure
specific high priority pollutants will continue to receive the highest
emphasis in the program.
The MTES activity for water methods will, as an overall objective,
continue to develop revised analytical methods and manuals, including
extension of the present test procedures mandated under Section 304 (g),
PL 92-500 to pollutants contained in sludges and ocean disposed wastes.
The program will focus on developing low level, response implant bio-moni-
toring methods, identification and detection of water-borne viruses by
immunoenzymatic methods, development of a portable virus concentrator for
field recovery of viruses, and preparation of a second edition of the
Biological Methods manual.
In the interdisciplinary area, multimedia monitoring methods develop-
ment efforts will result in the design of two-wavelength line LIDAR for
measuring particulates together with the design of a Differential Absorption
Spectrometer system for mapping ozone. The development of a laser fluorosen-
sor for detecting oil and algae is also planned, as well as the test and
optimization of the aerial infrared scanner for thermal pollution discharges
into water. Development of a quantitative multi-spectral scanner system
for measuring water turbidity will also be completed. The work will
include development of automated in-situ waterborne sensors for measuring
turbidity, pH and salinity; and an improved nonpoint-source monitoring
method for the extraction industries. An assessment of a unique visibility
monitoring technology, network optimization for measuring reactive pollutants
and network design procedures for all pollutants will be completed by FY-82.
Integrated monitoring for determining mass balance of selected pollutants
and for determing exposure routes to critical receptors will be completed,
as will testing of a bio-indicator network integration system.
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Potential Subprogram Growth Areas—
Because of the vast number of environmental pollutants for which
standard, reliable measurement methods are not yet available, the backlog
of needs will still be large in 1981 if the subprogram is constrained by a
level budget. If, however, modest growth is authorized, the following
additional products could be delivered by 1981:
. Reliable sampling and analysis procedure for sulfites.
. Remote point source and area monitors for measurement
of mass emission rate of sulfur oxides from industrial
(wide area) sources.
. Semi-specific cartridge for ambient air sampling of toxic,
carcinogenic or reactive organic vapors.
. Determination of emission concentration levels of toxic
organics from light- and heavy-duty diesel vehicles.
. Characterization of nitrosamines in the ambient environ-
ment.
. Determination of emission concentration levels of toxic
organics from losses in production, storage, and use
of petrochemicals.
Proton scattering technique for determining mass
balance in aerosols.
. Flash lamp induced fluorescence for direct measurement
of nitrogen dioxide with negligible interferences.
. Application of long path optical techniques to the
measurement of toxic organic vapor emissions from
petrochemical plants.
. Determination of ambient air concentrations of toxic organics
in industrial and urban areas.
. Preliminary potocols for identification of individual members
of one or two groups (probably acids and bases) of
non-volatile organics will be available.
. Characterization of major industrial effluents at the present
rate of about two per year.
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Perfection of methods for multielement analysis of sediments
sludges and soils.
Significantly improved and standardized procedures for viruses
in water and sludges.
Development and standardization of "second generation" air
monitoring systems.
Accelerated development of standardized methods and screening
procedures for toxic materials.
Screening methods for mutagens and carcinogens.
Improved methods for detecting viruses and other pathogenic
microorganisms.
Scanning capabilities for LIDAR system for synoptic monitoring
of air pollutants.
Expand LIDAR to include sulfur dioxide monitoring from sources and
during transport and transformation.
Laser fluorosensor system for monitoring aromatic hydrocarbons
and dissolved organics.
Automatic in-situ sensor for monitoring oil films in coastal zones.
Automated in-situ sensors for dection of metals and pesticides
in water.
Standard procedures for monitoring nonpoint sources of water
pollution in support of 208 Agencies.
Methods for monitoring diffusion and transport of pollutants over
large areas
Continuation of the fuel and fuel additives programs.
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Quality Assurance Subprogram
Environmental data produced by Federal, State and local monitoring
activities must be accurate, intercomparable, and legally defensible.
The Quality Assurance (QA) subprogram is responsible for developing
and implementing a comprehensive Agency-wide quality assurance program
to achieve these goals.
Major activities include:
. Statistical validation and standardization of total measurement
systems (development of site selection and validation criteria,
flow measurements, sample collection and preservation, analyses,
and data output).
. Development and distribution of standard reference samples and
materials.
. Preparation and distribution of quality control guidelines and
procedures.
. Evaluation of monitoring activities (evaluation of facilities,
equipment, operators, procedures and performance).
. Development of automated laboratory management systems
(application of minicomputers to laboratory instruments,
data screening, computerized statistical quality control).
. Technical assistance (assistance in carrying out calibrations,
split samples, etc.).
. Development and participation in regional quality control
workshops, conferences and seminars.
. Development and implementation of a measurement methods
equivalency program to support the National Pollution
Discharge Elimination System (NPDES)
. Development and implementation of a measurement methods
equivalency program to support the analytial requirements
of the Safe Drinking Water Act.
. Validated procedures for the collection and preservation of
water and wastewater samples.
. Completion and preliminary evaluation of currently available
methodologies which can be used to measure the 65 toxic
pollutants in the "Consent Decree."
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Continuation of a measurement methods equivalency program
for stationary air pollution emission sources.
Standardized and validated measurement systems for air,
water, wastewater, pesticides, and radionuclides as determined
by monitoring program priorities.
Procedures and acceptance criteria for testing and officially
approving methods alternative to reference methods promulgated
by the EPA.
National work plan to coordinate and carry out the functions
of the Pilot Secretariat for pollution measurement under the
authority and auspices of the International Organization for
Legal Metrology.
Manual of measurement methods for ambient air and stationary
emission sources.
Manual of evaluation procedures and acceptance criteria which
can be used to certify capabiliity and performance of
laboratories analyzing public drinking water under the Safe
Drinking Water Act.
Development of repositories of reference and quality control
samples and materials for air, water, pesticides, radionuclides,
and other measurements as needed for calibrations testing and
quality control.
Quality control guidelines for the measurement of nitrogen
dioxide in ambient air, and a technical guidance document
for the use of continuous nitrogen dioxide monitors.
Performance specifications and performance evaluation reports
for continuous water quality monitors and automated samplers.
Interlaboratory performance tests for air and water measurements
and cross-check sample studies for radiochemical measurements
to include support to the Nuclear Regulatory Commission.
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. Technical assistance to the Regions/States to upgrade environ-
mental laboratories relative to performance and quality control:
semiannual meetings of all Regional quality control coordinators;
participation in planning and conducting quality assurance work-
shops and seminars; and direct technical assistance to solve
operational monitoring problems and to provide the on-site
evaluation of laboratories, particularly for laboratories
making radiochemical measurements.
The quality assurance research and development outputs are essential
to the success of the Agency's total monitoring efforts in all media
and special categories. The availability of resources (both positions
and dollars) and the state of measurement methods research determine the
number and types of monitoring programs that can be covered. As monitoring
requirements change/ new measurement systems will be validated and new
quality control practices will be instituted and maintained. Consequently,
the activities of the quality assurance program may look the same from year
to year, while addressing entirely new and different types of monitoring
problems.
In FY 1978 and beyond, the water supply QA activities will continue to
satisfy the minimum mandates of the Safe Drinking Water Act. While the
States will assume primary responsibility for implementing programs to
assure the safety of public drinking water, the EPA must certify the
State's capability to carry out the program and must provide standardized
measurement systems, technical guidance, program overview, and a national
quality assurance support program for the States. Of paramount and immediate
concern is development of standardized measurement systems that can be
used for routine determinations of pesticides, radionuclides, and traces of
toxic organic substances in potable waters. No less important is development
and maintenance of quality control efforts to assure that all data generated
are statistically valid and legally defensible. Quality control outputs
will include development and distribution of reference and quality control
samples; conduct of periodic interlaboratory performance tests; and direct
assistance in the on-site evaluation of laboratories.
The subprogram will continue to support regional office implementa-
tion of the Safe Drinking Water Act by providing a quality assurance
expert in each region for certification of state water supply laboratories,
a manual for laboratory technical evaluation procedures and acceptance
criteria and one national interlaboratory performance test, and a program
to provide technical review and evaluation of proposed alternate procedures
for compliance analysis of controlled drinking water contaminants.
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Quality assurance efforts in the area of wastewater measurements will
result in the validation of test procedures and the establishment of
quality control practices to meet monitoring requirements of PL 92-500. Of
major concern will be performance and data audits for discharge monitoring
reports for the National Pollution Discharge Elimination System (NPDES)
permit program, and a measurement methods equivalency program for waste
water effluents.
In the air measurements area, the on-going efforts are critical to
the implementation of the national ambient air quality and emission
standards for stationary sources. A level budget schedule will allow for
a continuation of current standardization and quality control activities,
including the standardization of atmospheric particulate lead method (s)
and the interlaboratory performance tests for ambient air measurements.
In the radiation measurements area, resources will allow a level of
effort in continuing the cross-check sample studies, some measurement
methods standardization, and minimum assistance to the Regions in the
on-site evaluation of State radiochemical laboratories.
In the pesticides measurement area, other than water and wastewater
the subprogram will continue to provide standard methods, reference
samples, and quality control procedures for analyses of pesticide residues
in tissues, blood, urine, mothers milk, etc.
An important aspect of the program will be the continuous evaluation
of performance of Federal, State, and local monitoring support laboratories.
This activity will also support the Nuclear Regulatory Commission's evaluat-
ion of their licensees' capability to make accurate and precise measurements
of radioactivity in the environment and technical assistance and guidance
to assist those laboratories found deficient.
Potential Subprogram Growth Areas —
Modest growth in this subprogram would support new efforts for
water supply measurement methods standardization, preparation of reference
samples, guidelines, and assistance to Regions in on-site evaluation and
certification of laboratories. Increased resources would also be used to
develop new procedures for radiochemical measurements and a minimal quality
assurance program for wastewater discharge monitoring reports.
In the outyears, additional resources would focus on developing and
implementing a comprehensive quality assurance program for potable water
measurements, including laboratory certification; quality control practices
for wastewater discharge monitoring reports, including on-site inspections;
accelerated standardization of methods for toxic pollutants for both air
and water; performance audits for stationary source measurements; development
of quality control programs for biological and microbiological monitoring
activities and correction of deficiencies in performance of measurement
systems and operators.
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Technical Support Subprogram
The Technical Support program is responsible for assuring that the
expertise of ORD personnel, specialized ORD equipment and the knowlege
gained from research are made available to Agency operating programs in
response to specific requests, dissemination of the latest information
resulting from ORD programs through a technical information process and
enhancing the capabilities of minority institutions to acquire Federal
support.
Technical Services—
ORD assists other parts of the Agency whenever possible by providing
specific or unique scientific expertise and special scientific equipment
and instruments. Resources associated with these efforts are planned for
and provided from the air, water quality and interdisciplinary program
elements associated with the three Environmental Monitoring and Support
Laboratories (EMSL's). A portion of the overall technical support program
as it pertains to all ORD laboratories is provided in the base R&D program
as nondiscrete tasks to provide resources for unforeseen ad hoc activities
as they occur, which are outside the existing capability of the EMSL's.
These activites may include such things as expert testimony in legal
actions (e.g. concerning health effects requiring, an expert from the Health
Effects Research Laboratory) and short-term consultant services.
Of the planned services, many of the efforts required by the program
and regional offices are on a continuing basis and have become routine in
nature, as opposed to emergency or short-term responses. ORD continues to
provide these services even though they are routine either because their
costs and manpower requirements, or their EPA-wide nature would make it
difficult or impossible to duplicate these capabilities in the program and
regional offices. Examples of this include trace element analyses of
National Air Sampling Network samples, analyses of the Fuels Surveillance
Network samples; and maintaining the aircraft capability for aerial surveil-
lance and monitoring, as well as the capability to assess point and nonpoint
sources of pollution from aerial photographs.
The near-term program for air technical services includes comple-
tion of contact sensing and sampling to determine the impact of aircraft
operations on air quality, vegetation and soil at a major municipal airport;
and the continuation of a multi-year oxidant study in the Tampa/St.
Petersburg area in which data is being collected to validate an urban
source grid model for use in developing State Implementation Plans. Other
continuing efforts include international monitoring activities; guidance
and assistance in the design, implementation and operation of field and
laboratory systems to collect and/or measure valid environmental samples;
and evaluation of instruments and methods, assessment and analysis of the
data and issuance of reports. In these efforts emphasis will be given to
pollutants of proven or potential adverse effects to human health and
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welfare including polycyclic organic trace chemicals. New activities
will include initiation of a plume characterization study (using instrumen-
tation aircraft and ground-based monitors) designed to provide data for
State sulfur dioxide regulation hearings; follow-up to the New York urban
plume oxidant, sulfur and aerosol transport study to characterize and
define the transport of the plume under varying meteorological conditions;
a companion study to the Tampa/St. Petersburg oxidant transport study
to define the nature and extent of the urban plume as characterized by
oxidants; and a sulfur dioxide monitoring study in Hawaii.
The water technical services progam will continue monitoring for
viruses in wastewater treatment, sludges, lake, river and ocean samples;
special performance evaluation studies for certification of water supply
laboratories; and the Atchafalaya Basin water quality study which is deve-
loping data for water quality management as part of an Interagency Study
Group program examining the impact of Corps of Engineers water control
activities. Tasks to be completed shortly include the study of Lake
Tahoe and its drainage basin to determine the nutrient budget and lake
productivity; the trophic classification of Illinois lakes using satellite
data; and a special water quality study of Lake Powell and San Juan River
to evaluate energy development and production impact. Other efforts include
the chemical radiological analysis of data acquired from the Lake Eutrophi-
cation Survey; assessment of agriculture and silviculture practices related
to water quality based on aerial photographic surveys; and the determination
of transport and dispersion of effluent plumes from certain power plants.
The interdisciplinary technical service program of airborne monitoring
and surveillance includes studies of sanitary landfills to determine the
movement of leachate; delineation of land-use patterns and pollution sources;
surveys of strip mine areas to determine causes and sources of acid mine
wastes and effects of rehabilitation practices; wetlands inventory of six
coastal states; spill prevention control and counter measures surveys; a
hazardous material disposal site survey; and a 100 site study for noise
regulation model verification support. Provisions are also made under the
interdisciplinary technical services program to provide analytical services
in support of the water supply program.
Over the next five years, the technical support program will continue
to provide assistance to the Agency, but at a reduced level, reflecting
reduced personnel authorizations. Routine services, heretofore provided,
but which are potentially within program office capabilities will be
terminated in FY'78. ORD will continue to provide only those services
beyond the scope of program office capabilities. ORD personnel and equip-
ment will remain available to the Agency for critical needs.
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The air technical services program will continue to apply the latest
improvements of methods, equipment and techniques for the measurement and
quantification of ambient air contaminants. It will concentrate on non-
regulated pollutant characterization, measurement of trace metals and
organic emissions from stationary sources and methods for identification of
carcinogens and mutagens.
The water technical services program will provide technical expertise
and consultation, and laboratory support services for Agency operating
programs on matters related to the analyses of water, wastes and sediments.
The interdisciplinary technical services program will include airborne
monitoring and surveillance and will provide resources for responding to
immediate Agency needs for technical services.
Minority Institutions Research Support (MIRS)—
The MIRS activity awards research grants to minority institutions
to stimulate environmental research consistent with EPA requirements and
to enhance the competence of these institutions. To assure that grants
are based upon actual requirements, they are structured upon a cost-sharing
basis between this activity and the main ORD unit sponsoring the research
requirement. Requirements are made known to minority institutions, and
those possessing expertise in the necessary discipline are encouraged to
develop appropriate research proposals.
It is planned to maintain the MIRS activity at its current level
throughout the five-year period. Subjects addressed by the grants will
reflect priorities in the overall research program.
Technical Information—
This activity is responsible for managing and coordinating the
effective dissemination and transfer of the products of the research
and development program to a variety users both within the Agency and
throughout the public and private sectors. The effort involves the
entire range of general scientific and technical information dissem-
ination activities including such normal activities as the publications
and general distribution of scientific and technical reports and responding
to requests for specific information on publications. A special effort is
made to match available information or technology with the expressed needs
of particular user groups such as local community decision officials who
frequently do not possess technical or scientific backgrounds. Appropriate
information transfer products are then developed in a form designed to be
most useful and readily understandable to the targeted user. Such special-
ized products include engineering design manuals; environmental handbooks
tailored to specific technical or other user audiences; executive briefing
documents for environmental policy and decision-makers; technical capsule
reports on promising scientific and technical developments; environmental
newsletters; national and regional seminars on selected environmental
topics with seminar summary publications to reach an expanded user audience;
and technical exhibits at appropriate national and international conferences
and symposia.
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In the near future, it is planned to amalgamate and streamline
the current operating entities of the program within a single field
component, the Environmental Research Information Center. This Center will
be totally dedicated to the effective transfer of environmental scientific
and technical information and outputs. With the establishment of this
Center during early FY-1977, the historical mission of the effective but
limited EPA Technology Transfer Program will be expanded from dealing
strictly with environmental process control technology to the entire
spectrum of ORD program activities such as environmental health and eco-
logical effects research and environmental management techniques. This
will further result in shifting the emphasis of the overall program from
one of passive information dissemination to active transfer of results
to specifically targeted user audiences.
Examples of specific information products which are planned for
completion during FY-1977 are as follows:
Engineer ing Design Manuals and Handbooks —
. Land Treatment of Municipal Waste Water Treatment Process
Effluents
. Alternatives for Treating Drinking Water
. Pollution Control for the Pulp and Paper Industry
. New Source Performance Standards and Related Air
Pollution Control Technologies
. Control of Water and Solid Waste Effluents from the Power Industry
. Guidelines for Control of Pollutants in the Textile Industry
Executive Briefing Documents —
. Oil Shale Retort Test Results
. Techniques for Energy Conservation in 12 Industries
. Environmental Impact of Solar Heating Systems, Geothermal
Energy Sources and Advanced Energy Systems
Technical Capsule Reports and Brochures —
. Recovery of Methane from Sanitary Landfills
. Control of Coke Processing Emissions
. Air Pollution Control in the Asbestos Industry
. Results of St. Louis Project to Burn Waste with Bituminous Coal
. Disinfection Techniques for Municipal Waste Water
. SWIRL Storm Water Control Project
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. Composting of Sludge
. Land Treatment of Waste Water at Muskegon Coungy, Michigan
. Forest Harvest Residue Treatment, Reforestation and Protection of
Environmental Quality
Technical Seminars —
. Small Waste Water Treatment Systems
. Sludge Treatment and Disposal Using Innovative Techniques
. Processing and Monitoring Technology for the Treatment of
Drinking Water
. Municipal Pretreatment Guidelines for Industrial Effluents
. 208 Area Wide Planning Seminars on Institutional Regulations
and Technical Aspects of point and nonpoint Sources of Pollution
. Combustion Modification Techniques for the Control of NOx
Emissions and Particulates
Technical Seminar Summary Publications —
. Case Histories of Upgrading Municipal Wastewater Treatment
Plants
. Upgrading Lagoons
. Cold Climate Treatment of Municipal Wastes
. Monitoring by Remote Sensing
. Pollution Control in the Fruit and Vegetable Industry
. Dairy Industry Pollution Control
. Pollution Control in the Mining Industry
In addition to the above projects, a pilot program will be initiated to
evaluate the feasibility of utilizing the existing and substantial capabili-
ties capabilities of our land grant university extension programs as an
environmental information dissemination mechanism. If successful, this may
prove to be an effective tool for transferring needed technology and other
iirportant technical information to local decision officials in smaller,
rural communities.
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In discussing the out-year plans for the Technical Information program,
it is necessary to keep in mind that this is a level-o'f-effort program
whose content and specific products are a direct result of three factors:
The products and findings form the entire research and development program
which becomes ready for the transfer of users; the relative priority of
those products and the level of resources available to the program.
Historically, the principle emphasis in the active dissemination
portion of the Technical Information program has been the transfer of
proven water pollution control technology in the municipal and industrial
program areas. Limited resources dictated little emphasis being placed on
other technological areas such as water supply, air pollution control,
nonpoint pollution management and the like. For this same reason, the
thrust of the program had to center on national or, at best, regional
audiences, even though the potential benefit of extending the program to
the State and local level-funding, this situation will continue and it will
be necessary to substantially reduce the current level of effort in the
municipal and industrial water pollution areas in order to make resources
available to get active transfer programs underway for several other
critical areas of the total research and development program.
Over the next five years, the emphasis within the municipal waste
area will shift from primarily transferring wastewater treatment technology
to an increased emphasis on sludge handling, processing and disposal
techniques; wastewater disinfection techniques; small flow treatment
systems to improve pollution control in rural areas; improved energy
conservation as it relates to wastewater treatment; and improved operation
and maintenance methods for existing waste treatment plants. In the
industrial area, emphasis will be given to energy conservation measures;
technology for pretreatment of industrial wastes before discharging into
municipal treatment systems; technological developments involving water
reuse to assist the achievement of the zero discharge goal of the Federal
Water Pollution Control Act; and the transfer of information to industrial
users regarding current air pollution standards and the technology which is
available to assure compliance with these standards. In the water supply
area, emphasis will be given to methods to identify and measure contaminants
in drinking water; to determine the health effect of contaminants; available
and advanced methods of treating raw water; and techniques for protecting
ground water sources of public water supplies from contamination. With
respect to Areawide planning in response to Section 208 of the Federal
Water Pollution Control Act, this program will be actively involved in the
dissemination of improved methods for assessing, managing and controlling
pollution from nonpoint sources; evaluating and planning for the combined
impact of point and nonpoint sources; and advanced methods for land use
planning. In the energy area, emphasis will be given to transfer of
technologies for controlling, managing and monitoring air, water, and
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solid waste pollution associated with coal-fired or coal-derived synthetic
fuel power plants; technological development in alternative sources of
energy such as solid waste fuels, solar, geothermal and nuclear energy;
and more effecient energy extraction and use processes. In the area of
toxic and hazardous substances, this program will transfer a variety of
operational outputs involving control system technology, monitoring and
sampling techniques and methods and health and ecological data in the
toxicity of various substances. Inherent in all the areas identified
above, will be the continuing need to transfer to users, the latest
available data on related health and ecological effects, and related
monitoring sampling techniques, measurement methods, analytical procedures
and quality assurance practices.
Potential Subprogram Growth Areas—
The air, water, and interdisciplinary technical support require-
ments of the Agency have not been fully measured because the program
and regional offices, knowing the OPD resource limitations for technical
support, generally submitted only those requirements which they could
reasonably presume would be funded. Even so, vitally needed projects
have slipped because they could not be funded until the next year.
This has had an impact on the Agency's overall efficiency. By 1981 a
modest growth option would permit support to be doubled. Whether the
additional resources would be used to increase the number of new
activities or to increase the volume of current activities would
depend on program and regional office priorities. In either event, the
growth option will permit the enhancement of the Agency's effectiveness
in performing its mission by providing additional resources for the
types of activities discussed under the base option.
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SECTION III
CURRENT INTEREST MODULES
INTRODUCTION
In Section II, EPA's research program was shown to be composed of
fourteen distinct subprograms, based upon generalized, long-term problem
and functional areas. Real-world problems, however, rarely fit neatly into
concise organizational structures. Normally, a coordinated effort, drawing
upon resources and expertise from several different organizational groups,
is required. This Section shows how such "interdisciplinary" issues are
approached in the research program by citing several examples.
Examples of this concept are the integrated energy research and the
quality asurance programs. Because of their size, level of priority and
anticipated duration, they have been granted official program status. A
similar example is the water supply research subprogram. All of these areas
are discussed in Section II. To provide further examples of comprehensive
approaches, this Section describes six more examples titled "Current
Interest Modules." These modules address areas of current high public
interest, which require resources and professional investigation from
several of the fourteen subprograms. The current six issues are summarized
as follows:
. Provide improved problem definitions and develop a
range of practicable alternative control options for
nonpoint sources of water pollution.
. Determine empirically if there is a relationship
between the incidence of cancer and the concentration
of chemicals in the Nation's drinking water supplies
and ambient air.
. Determine whether special regulatory procedures are
warranted for control of sulfate aerosols.
. Evaluate the potential environmental impacts of
increased solar radiation due to reduction of
stratospheric ozone.
. Provide the Agency with the scientific and technical
basis to implement the Toxic Substances Control Act
of 1976.
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. Provide the Agency with scientific, technical and
comprehensive research information as required by the
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976.
Detailed descriptions of the modules follow.
NONPOINT SOURCES OF WATER POLLUTION
The objectives of this interdisciplinary research module are to
develop methods for defining the contribution of water pollutants from
dispersed sources relative to those discharged from point sources, and to
develop alternative control strategies including cost-effectiveness data to
permit selection of optimal strategies.
Background
It has been estimated by the Agency that possibly 50 percent or more
of the nation's current water quality problems are caused by pollution of
nonpoint-source (NPS) origin. NPS categories contributing substantial
pollution are urban runoff, rural runoff, construction activities, waste
residuals disposal, hydrologic modification, extractive industries, and
forest management. Pollutants of greatest concern are sediment, pesticides,
toxic metals, nutrients, pathogens, BOD, and dissolved solids. Other
pollutants of concern include coarse and floatable solids and toxic organic
compounds other than pesticides.
Until recently, water pollution abatement efforts in the U.S. have
been directed primarily at continuously discharging point sources, with
little attention given to nonpoint sources, which are generally intermittent
and diffuse in nature. As greater levels of control are placed on point
sources, their contribution to overall water quality problems becomes less
significant relative to the contributions by nonpoint sources. Two things
are becoming increasingly apparent. First, in many areas of the Nation,
even with the application of best available treatment to all point sources
of pollution, the PL 92-500 1983 water quality goals (or even lesser goals)
cannot be attained because of pollution from nonpoint sources. Second, the
propriety of continuing to direct pollution abatement efforts toward
attainment of higher levels of point-source control is becoming more
questionable. There are undoubtedly many areas of the country where the
level of resources devoted to pollution abatement would be better utilized
if devoted to nonpoint-source control, because the cost of reducing the
load of a specific pollutant by an additional increment is lower for
nonpoint than point sources.
The nonpoint-source problem is difficult to quantify for several
reasons. One is the extreme diversity of the sources, both in their
basic nature and their variation with location. Since nonpoint sources
generally involve the interaction of man's use of the land with natural
hydrologic processes (rainfall, snowmelt, etc.), the pollution contributions
vary to the degree that man's activities, natural phenomena and the land
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vary. Moreover, nonpoint sources are intermittent and random in nature,
making monitoring and evaluation difficult. A major portion of the pollut-
ant discharge from land runoff may occur during but a few moments of a
rainstorm or during but a few of the storm events occurring over the year.
The magnitude of the pollution may depend on factors such as how long it
has been since the previous storm or what man may have done on the land.
Development of appropriate control strategies requires methods and
information to answer the following questions:
What is the .relative contribution of nonpoint sources to
water quality degradation in a specific drainage area?
Which are the significant"contributing sources and which
of these are due to man-induced rather than "natural"
process?
What is the relationship between effectiveness of controls
and cost of controls?
What is the relationship between effectiveness of control
and anticipated water mality improvement benefits?
How can the control measures be practically implemented
within anticipated social, economic, legal and institutional
constraints?
Interprogram Aspects
In order to develop a total solution to the NPS problem, research
from many different subprograms is required:
Methods and procedures to permit rapid detection of nonpoint
sources and quantification of their pollution contributions
and water quality impacts.
. Predictive techniques for estimating pollution contributions
from the various NFS categories under a variety of climate
and other conditions and their impacts on water quality under
alternative NPS control strategies.
. Quality criteria applicable to the highly variable ambient
water quality conditions produced by NPS discharges.
. Quantitative information on the costs and effectiveness of
control/management practices for reducing NPS contributions.
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Delineation of various strategies for implementing a NFS control
program in a watershed or river basin, with full consideration
given to aspects of social acceptability.
. Methodology for assessing the costs and benefits of alternative
levels of NPS control.
Current research efforts are being devoted primarily to character-
ization of the costs and effectiveness of various control/management
techniques in reducing pollution contributions from nonirrigated and
irrigated crop production, animal production, forest management practices,
energy extraction activities, and urban runoff; and development and linking
of NPS loading models to stream impact models to provide predictive tech-
niques for estimating NPS pollution contributions and their water quality
impacts under a variety of climatic conditions, physiographic features, and
NPS control strategies.
The module also includes research on development of quality criteria
applicable to NPS impacts on aquatic ecosystems; evaluation of the applicat-
ions of remote sensing to the detection of nonpoint sources; and development
of a methodology for evaluating alternative nonpoint pollution management
strategies in urban and residential areas (with consideration of technical,
economic, institutional, and social aspects).
Five-Year Plan
Serious deficiencies exist in all areas of the technical base needed.
The tentative assignment of priorities is as follows:
First Priority—
. Provide an interim technical base for use by state and local
planning agencies and EPA Regions in all areas of the country
based on existing state of the art.
. Provide "wet weather" water quality criteria, i.e., criteria
applicable to the time variable and probabilistic features
of NPS's, with highest priority given to sediments, nutrients,
DO, pathogens, dissolved solids, pesticides (and their toxic
transformation products), and heavy metals prevalent in urban
runoff.
. Provide the predictive and assessment methodologies required
to identify and quantify NPS contributions (including deposi-
tion from the air), their impacts on water quality, and water
quality improvements that would result from various controls.
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. Provide information on the costs, effectiveness, and
implementation feasibility of existing techniques for
controlling urban runoff pollution.
. Provide information on benefits of NPS control.
Second Priority—
. Provide information on the costs, effectiveness, and
implementation feasibility of existing techniques for
controlling NPS pollution from agricultural activities,
mining activities and timber harvesting.
. Provide methodology for evaluating the costs and benefits
of alternative levels of NPS control applicable to
urban runoff and agricultural activities.
. Provide methodologies for selecting the implementation
strategy most appropriate for a given area or situation.
Third Priority—
. Provide information on the costs, effectiveness, and
implementation feasibility of new techniques for controlling
NPS pollution from urban runoff, agricultural practices,
and mining activities.
Fourth Priority—
. Provide information on the costs, effectiveness, and
implementation feasibility of existing techniques for
minimizing surface water quality impacts from instream
hydrologic modification.
Provide more complete information on NPS contributions and
effects of inorganic and organic toxic compounds and
techniques for their control.
More detail on the planned outputs supporting the Nonpoint Source
Research Module can be fpund in sections of the report on Ecological
Processes and Effects, Transport and Fate of Pollutants, Renewable Resources,
Waste Management, Environmental Management, Monitoring Techniques and
Equipment Development, and Extraction and Processing Technology/Energy.
Effects of Resources on Scheduling
If this module suffered as much as a 10% reduction from its FY 1977
level, the first and second priority needs identified previously would not
be met until near 1990. Since no systematic program to bring nonpoint
sources under control throughout the Nation can be undertaken without the
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fulfillment of these needs, this would delay initiation of any serious
effort by EPA to pursue the control of nonpoint source to the extent
necessary to meet the 1983 goals of PL 92-500 until the mid 1980's or
later.
If a level funding schedule were maintained, emphasis would be given
to fulfilling the first priority research needs, although some attention
would still be given to the second priority needs because of the longer
lead time required.
Except for the interim technical base, few of the first priority
needs would be met before 1979. The majority would be achieved by the end
of FY 1985, however. Outputs associated with the second priority needs
would be provided on a continuing basis, but complete characterization of
existing control techniques would not be completed until beyond FY 1985. A
modest effort would be given to the development of "wet weather" water
quality criteria.
The collective impact of modest growth in the subprograms contributing
to the Nonpoint Source Module would be to permit a modest increase in the
level of research on most of the first, second, and third priority items.
Most of the first and second priority needs would be met by the end of FY
1984, about one year earlier than with a level budget.
The recommended growth budget is summarized in Table 8 , and is con-
sidered the minimum program that will provide the essential technical base
needed to implement defensible nationwide NFS program by the end of FY 1981.
Additional resources would be used to meet all first and second priority
needs by the end of FY 1981. Beginning in FY 1982, emphasis would shift to
the third priority needs and still later to fourth priority needs.
ENVIRONMENTAL CARCINOGENS
The principal objectives for the environmental carcinogen program
are to establish a monitoring program to profile and to characterize
carcinogens in the environment; to develop retrospective and prospective
external exposure models suitable for general population studies; and
to assess the impact of exposure to environmental carcinogens upon the
incidence of cancer in the general human population.
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TABLE 8
NONPOINT SOURCE MODULE RECOMMENDED BUDGET
(million of dollars)
Subprogram
Health Effects
Ecological Effects
Transport and Fate
Minerals, Proc. and Mfg. Industries
Waste Management
Renewable Resources
Environmental Management
Measurement, Techniques & Equipment
Development
Energy Extraction Proc.
TOTAL
FY-77
0.0
0.4
1.3
0.0
1.1
6.1
0.3
0.1
5.0
14.3
FY-78
0.0
2.4
2.0
0.1
2.6
6.6
0.8
0.6
5.2
20.3
FY-79
0.1
3.0
3.0
0.2
3.0
7.5
1.4
2.0
5.9
26.2
FY-80
0.1
2.5
3.5
0.2
2.4
7.6
1.4
2.0
6.0
25.7
FY-81
0.0
1.0
3.1
0.0
2.4
6.9
1.2
1.3
5.5
21.4
TABLE 9
CARCINOGEN MODULE RECOMMENDED BUDGET
(million of dollars)
Subprogram
Health Effects
Monitoring Techniques
Equipment Development
Water Supply
TOTAL
FY-77
1.0
0.6
1.6
FY-78
1.6
0.4
1.4
3.4
FY-79
5.0
1.0
2.5
8.5
FY-80
7.5
1.5
2.7
11.7
FY-81
10.1
1.9
2.9
14.9
TABLE 10
SULFATES MODULE RECOMMENDED BUDGET
(million of dollars)
Subprogram
Health Effects
Ecological Effects
Atmospheric Chemistry & Transport
Instrumentation and
Measurement Methodology
TOTAL
FY-77
6.1
0.9
4.5
1.2
12.7
FY-78
7.5
1.4
4.9
1.7
15.5
FY-79
7.5
1.4
5.0
1.6
15.5
FY-80
6.8
1.4
4.8
1.3
14.3
FY-81
6.8
1.4
4.4
1.3
13.9
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Background
There is a growing awareness that environmental chemicals may be
important contributors to the incidence of cancer in humans. This aware-
ness, coupled with EPA's legislative responsibility for protecting public
health from direct exposure to pollutants in the ambient environment and
from pollutants reaching food sources, justifies an expansion of the
Agency's research efforts to identify environmental chemicals which con-
tribute to human carcinogenesis. There is conclusive evidence that exposure
to a variety of chemical compounds in occupational environments has resulted
in cancer of various types in humans. An ever larger number of chemical
compounds known to be present in the environment have been shown to be
carcinogenic in animal experiments. It has been postulated that human
cancer in the general population may result from exposure to chemical
agents in the ambient air, water, and food. If this hypothesis is true,
then the public health benefit of identifying and controlling the respon-
sible environmental agents is obvious.
Only limited information is available both on the distribution
and levels of potential environmental carcinogens and on the extent
to which the public health may be at risk from such agents. In FY 1976,
EPA initiated an effort to develop a systematic research program for
assessing the contribution of environmental carcinogens to the incidence of
cancer in the general population. Through this program, EPA can make
a major contribution to national research efforts on cancer because of
its unique capability to characterize and monitor environmental exposures.
As an integral component, the program will consolidate and coordinate the
many data bases which currently exist in other agencies. A coordinated
effort among pertinent Federal, state and Regional Agencies will be required
in order to avoid duplication and to take full advantage of available
expertise and resources.
Interprogram Aspects
The nature and scope of the environmental carcinogen problem is such
that it spans the missions and responsiblities of a number of governmental
agencies, the private sector, and the environmental research program. An
extensive cancer research effort is currently underway nationally. Much
of this effort falls within the scope of the program approach outlined
below, and hence, will provide essential information. EPA's program is
designed to fill major gaps in our knowledge of environmental carcinogenesis
for the specific purpose of establishing the data base needed for fulfill-
ment of regulatory responsibilities.
Accomplishment of the plan will require a closely integrated long-range
program involving environmental monitoring, epidemiological studies,
biological laboratory experiments, and an extensive vital statistic reposi-
tory. The approach outlined below is described in broad general terms to
provide a framework for a long-term effort. The activities will require
much more detailed planning and coordination prior to implementation.
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Each of the major research areas is progressing concurrently; but they are
clearly interdependent as demonstrated in Figure 5. For example, there
will be a point in time at which the retrospective epidemiological study
cannot proceed without the retrospective exposure model as a basic input.
The retrospective exposure model, in turn, is dependent upon environ-
mental monitoring data, emission and source inventories, climatic data, and
so forth.
Five-Year Plan
Retrospective studies will determine whether increased cancer rates
are causally related to chemical agents in the air and water. Areas will
be identified in which current exposure to known or suspected chemical
carcinogens is high, and the impact of such exposure will be assessed and
compared to areas of low exposure.
Development of Improved Methodology—
An important area of development to be expanded and coordinated
with other agencies involves methodology in monitoring and biological
testing. Areas of need in this category include:
Development of additional monitoring techniques and improve-
ment of current and emerging techniques for application to
an extensive monitoring program for carcinogens. These
techniques should not only be highly sensitive and specific
but also inexpensive, rapid, and easy to use.
. Improved methods to test for carcinogenicity of suspect
agents that reflect internal stress or load as well as
external exposure.
. Development of methods to identify and characterive
population exposure patterns.
Historical Data Assessment Selection of Study Areas—
The primary criteria for the initial selection of study areas will be
high cancer mortality rates (relative to the national average), cancer
types, and high population exposure to known or suspected carcinogens.
Final selection of populations will involve a careful examination of
demographic data. Environmental monitoring sites will include, but not
necessarily be limited to, the population study areas. Additional monitor-
ing may be conducted in potentially high exposure areas. Other potential
study areas might include those in which the environmental pollution can be
attributed to a single major source. Final selection of study areas will
be made only after careful consideration of all significant factors, and in
consultation with the National Cancer Institute and other interested
agencies and advisory groups.
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HISTORICAL DATA
ASSESSMENT SELECTION
OF STUDY AREAS
CTl
no
DEVELOPMENT OF
IMPROVED METHODOLOGY
BIOLOGICAL MONITORING
EPIDEMIOLOGICAL
STUDIES
RETROSPECTIVE
POPULATION STUDIES
(HIGH CANCER CLUSTER)
ENVIRONMENTAL
MONITORING AND
EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT
PROSPECTIVE POPULATION
STUDIES (HIGH EXPOSURE
TO KNOWN OR SUSPECT
CARCINOGENS)
LABORATORY
BIOLOGICAL
STUDIES
PROSPECTIVE AND
RETROSPECTIVE
EXPOSURE MODELS
CARCINOGEN PROFILE
CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL
CHARACTERIZATION
VITAL STATISTIC
ASSESSMENT AND
DATA REPOSITORY
ENVIRONMENTAL
EXPOSURE/CANCER
RELATIONSHIP
Figure 5. Environmental Carcinogen Research Module Plan
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Environmental Monitoring and Exposure Assessment—
The environmental monitoring program will provide a profile of chemical
carcinogens in the atmosphere and different water supplies in selected
areas. This will include the identification of chemical compounds or
complexes, their respective concentrations, and their physical state.
These data will provide the basis for establishing current external exposure
levels, as well as the retrospective and prospective exposure models.
The monitoring program will have six specific objectives: (1) to
identify known or suspect carcinogens (as defined by animal studies in the
atmosphere and drinking water supplies; (2) to measure concentration
gradients in the atmosphere and between different drinking water supplies
(these data will serve as the basis for establishing external exposure
patterns); (3) to conduct specific measurement programs in support of
epidemiological studies; (4) to prepare reliable source and emission
inventories; (5) to develop retrospective and prospective exposure models;
and (6) to collect material samples for biological studies. A rigorous
quality assurance program will be implemented in all phases of monitoring
activities to ensure reliable and comparable results.
Epidemiological Studies—
When carefully planned and properly executed, epidemiology can make a
major contribution to our understanding of the impact of chemical carcino-
gens on human populations. It provides the oppurtunity to look at agent
and host interaction in the real world context. The two classical epidemio-
logical approaches should be employed in this endeavor: retrospective and
prospective.
In the first approach, a cluster of cancer cases of a specific
type would be identified for study to determine factors that may be causing
the cancer. The first phase of such a study is exploratory and retrospec-
tive in nature. It involves studying such characteristics as occupational
history, residence history, familial aggregation and exposure to a broad
spectrum of chemical and biological agents. An important part of this
characterization will be retrospective and prospective exposure to chemical
agents in air and water. Because most cancers have a long latency period,
it is essential that the characterization of chemical and biological agents
historically cover at least a twenty-five year period.
However, it is also important to determine the number of these
agents which are still currently sources of exposure. The differences
in the characteristics of the cancer cases compared to the non-cancer
cases should lead to important clues which will permit the formulation
of a test hypothesis. If the hypothesis involves exposure to a chemical
carcinogen as a factor of causation, then the next phase of study will be
the testing of the hypothesis. The first step in this phase of study will
be to determine the prevalence of cancer in an exposed versus a non-exposed
population whose time of exposure permits the expression of a latency
period. The next step will necessitate the identification of a statistically
determined cohort of individuals presently exposed to the agent or agents,
and an appropriately matched non-exposed control group which will be traced
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through time to determine the incidence of the cancer in the two groups.
Although cancer is a major cause of death, its occurrence is statistically
small, therefore, the studies must involve large populations.
In the second epidemiologic approach, a population exposed to known
carcinogens should be studied to determine the effect of such exposure on
that population over time. Characterization of retrospective and prospec-
tive exposure models is also an integral part of this approach.
Laboratory Biological Studies—
Extensive laboratory studies currently are underway in a number
of agencies including EPA which involve biological screening, metabolic
pathways and target organs, response mechanisms, and dose response.
Areas of primary importance to EPA which require further research include
identification of most sensitive biological responses and indicators
suitable for use in general population studies; dose response relationships
for realistic exposure conditions (levels to which the general population
is normally exposed) for single and multiple carcinogens; and improved
methodology for extrapolating from animal experiments to humans. Detailed
programs are to be formulated through interagency groups and stipulated in
Interagency Agreements.
Vital Statistics Assessment and Data Repository—
A well organized program in this area could make a substantial
contribution to the overall cancer assessment program. Long-term records
properly formatted will provide the basis for establishing trends in cancer
statistics, and hence the assessment of implemented control strategies. A
categorical program in this area should be formulated by an interagency
group comprised of representatives fr,om EPA, DHEW, DOC, and other interest-
ed Agencies.
Related Studies—
For the sake of brevity, only those programs intimately involved
with the module have been discussed herein. However, there are many
more related studies which may produce results useful to the environ-
mental carcinogen program. In general, these are pollutant-specific
programs which will supply useful data if those pollutants are also
present in the high cancer areas. Other related studies include develop-
ment of multi-pollutant measurement methods, exposure assessment and
case-control studies near selected industries, and carcinogens assay
systems using microbiological and mammalian cell culture techniques.
These programs and those in other agencies will be thoroughly examined
to locate applicable results and data. Interagency Agreements will be used
to the maximum extent possible to assure a cost-effective program.
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Interprogram Funding
Although for adminstrative purposes, funds are allocated to only the
Health Effects and Water Supply Subprograms, about one eighth of the total
effort is performed by the Monitoring Techniques and Equipment Development
Subprogram, through an interprogram agreement. Budgets for a five-year
modest growth program are presented in Table 9.
SUIFATES
The primary objective of this research plan is to provide the
scientific basis needed to determine whether regulatory action on the
selected sulfates is warranted. If regulatory action should be required,
the research plan must also provide the scientific bases for setting
standards and developing control strategies in the required time frames.
The secondary objective is to identify other sulfate species that are both
biologically significant and commonly found in the atmosphere.
Background
Although atmospheric suspended sulfates have been identified as
a potential environmental problem for many years, an increase in the
use of sulfur-containing fuels has focused added attention on possible
adverse effects of particulate sulfates. Data regarding causal relation-
ships, biological mechanisms, and dose-response relationships are limited,
particularly at concentrations to which the general population is normally
exposed.
Total sulfur in the atmosphere is distributed in a wide variety
of gaseous and particulate, inorganic and organic compounds or complexes.
The traditional definition of sulfates has been an operational one:
material collected on a high-volume sampler filter and analyzed as water
soluble sulfates. This method cannot distinguish between the various
sulfur compounds that may be present, nor can it distinguish between the
particle sizes. Thus, the composition of the sulfate aerosol has not been
characterized. Such characterization is important because chemical struc-
ture, acidity and particle size of sulfates appear to affect the biological
response.
Suspended sulfates are generally submicron secondary aerosols,
principally derived from atmospheric reactions of gaseous precursors.
However, the observed sulfate concentrations are not always highly cor-
related with SC>2 concentrations. This suggests that factors other than
local S02 concentrations, such as long-range transport and transformation
of primary S02 emissions, control the rate of sulfate formation. These
factors are critical relative to developing control strategies and determin-
ing population exposure patterns.
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Interprogram Aspects
Because of the lack of information in the areas discussed above,
research has in the past few years concentrated on identifying through
toxicological studies, which components/compounds and what size particles
are biologically active, developing instrumentation and measurement meth-
odology to specifically identify particulate species, and developing the
scientific data needed to relate emissions to ambient air concentrations of
sulfates.
Currently, four different subprograms are participating in the sulfates
research module: Health Effects, Ecological Effects, Transport and Fate of
Pollutants, and Monitoring Techniques and Equipment Development.
Control technology is commercially available for controlling sulfate
precursors such as SCL and particulates. Many major emission sources have
already been equipped with desulfurization processes. Similarly, particulate
emissions can be controlled with available technology, with removal effici-
encies in excess of 99% often achievable at reasonable cost.
Other technology is under development that will reduce total SC>2
emissions, especially in future years. In addition, technology is being
evaluated for smaller sources including smaller boilers and industrial
processes. The EPA and ERDA are developing techniques for the removal of
sulfur from fuel prior to combustion. Technologies under development
address methods such as physical and chemical coal cleaning, liquified
coal, and clean synthetic fuels. It is not known with certainty if these
demonstrated and potential abilities will effectively control sulfate
precursors. The current technology RD&D program can be extended to achieve
increased SC>2 control, should such a need be identified and mandated.
Therefore, control technology development remains in the base program,
until such time as the regulatory decision is made.
Five-year Plan
The objectives of health effects research in the next few years
are to assess the impact upon public health resulting from exposure
to several specific sulfate compounds in the ambient atmosphere, and to
determine whether sulfate concentration as traditionally expressed is an
adequate parameter. Species chosen for emphasis were based on toxicological
studies and prevalence in the atmosphere. Accomplishment of these objectives
will require a closely integrated approach involving animal toxicology,
controlled human exposure studies, epidemiology, measurement methodology
and instrumentation, and atmospheric chemistry and transport research.
Results of this research will provide the scientific basis for agency
decisions in 1980-81 on whether regulatory action is required.
Toxicological studies in FY 78 - FY 79 will focus on developing
health indicators and dose-response data for the selected species, and
will continue screening other sulfur oxide compounds to determine'their
degree of biological activity. Increased efforts in FY 78 - FY 79 will
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provide for a new epidemiclogical study targeted on specific sulfate
species, and for the expansion of controlled human exposure studies on
various sulfates. Controlled human exposure studies will be initiated,
with normal subjects being exposed to low concentrations.
Ecological effects research will provide the basis for secondary
standards, should such regulatory action be required. The principal
problem areas are plant damage and acid precipitation. Principal products
will be a dose-response relationship for plant damage (acute and chronic)
from sulfate aerosols, and a delineation of the effects of acid precipitation
on soils, crops, and aquatic systems.
The current effort on effects of sulfur oxides on terrestrial eco-
systems will be expanded to initiate a long-term study the extent of damage
to the environment from acid precipitation. Sulfates are suspected to play
a major role in the formation of acid precipitation, and early evidence
indicates that acid rain is a problem potentially affecting large areas of
the Nation.
Transport and Fate Subprogram research will develop experimental
data and empirical models to relate sulfur oxide emissions to ambient
air concentrations of sulfates. Primary factors involved include emissions,
transformation mechanisms and rates, size and chemical composition, and
removal mechanisms.
If a decision is made in 1980-81 that regulatory action is required
for certain sulfates, a scientific basis must be available for relating the
ambient concentrations to emissions of precursors. A modest acceleration of
research on transport and fate is necessary to develop this information in
the desired time frame. This increase will allow for estimation of the
contribution of natural sources to the atmospheric sulfur burden, studies
of the effects of sulfates on visibility reduction, and association of
acid precipitation effects with meteorological parameters. Current
work on regional scale (100 km) transport and transformation will be
redirected into a number of intersive field studies on a larger scale
(100-1000 km).
The Monitoring Techniques and Equipment Development Subprogram will
measure total sulfur, trace elements, sulfuric acid, sulfate ion, ammonium
ion, size distribution, gaseous sulfur, hydrogen sulfide, mercaptans,
and organic sulfides in order to determine the various cations associated
with the sulfate anion. The methodology and instrumentation for these
analyses are now under development. A number of the techniques can now be
used in a laboratory situation with highly qualified personnel; however,
they are not suited for general field use, and have not been thoroughly
evaluated and standardized. A modest expansion of effort is required in FY
1978 - FY 1981 to accelerate availability of research instrumentation for
health and atmospheric field studies, and for standardization of potential
monitoring instruments/methods.
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Interprogram Funding
Resource summaries for each subprogram are given in Table 1 0 .
EFFECTS OF INCREASED ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION
The objective of this research effort is to assess the significance of
the environmental impact of increased ultraviolet radiation resulting from
the discharge of hydrocarbons into the stratosphere. Like the others, this
module is interdisciplinary, but because of existing research and exper-
tise, the research effort is composed of the coordinated contributions of
several Federal agencies as opposed to several subprograms in EPA's re-
search and development program.
Background
In 1972 the Federal government initiated the Climatic Impact Assess-
ment Program (CIAP) in response to questions associated with the use of
supersonic transports (SST). The major concern of CIAP was to project the
impact on stratospheric composition of the injection of SST exhaust.
Emphasis was placed on stratospheric ozone reduction through chemical
reactions. Ozone in the stratosphere aids in the absorption of harmful
ultraviolet solar radiation.
A large portion of the CIAP effort was stratospheric chemistry,
with relatively little effort directed toward the environmental effects.
The possibility of marked environmental impact was indicated, but uncertain-
ties associated with results were large, and the need for more research was
obvious. The CIAP research was terminated in 1974 and results were published
in 1975.
In 1974, independent of CIAP, research was reported indicating the
possibility of significant stratospheric ozone reduction as a result of the
photodissociation of chlorofluoromethanes (CFM). The CFM's are emitted to
the atmosphere on a relatively large scale as a result of their use
as aerosol propellants and refrigerants.
In 1975, the Committee on the Inadvertant Modification of the Strato-
sphere (IMOS) addressed the issue of stratospheric ozone reduction and
subsequent ultraviolet radiation increase resulting from CFM emissions. A
subcommittee report entitled "Biological and Climate Effects Research"
(BACER) recommended an interagency research effort to assess the environ-
mental impact of the continued use of CFM's. This proposed program in-
cluded short-term and long-term elements.
Because EPA has authority to regulate emissions to the environment,
the Agency was selected to manage the short-term BACER program. The Office
of Research and Development accepted this responsibility and subsequently
established interagency technical and policy groups.
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The EAGER technical and policy groups developed a research plan
responding to the short-term BACER program. This program is designed to
support regulatory decisions anticipated for late 1977. Consequently, all
research tasks within the short-term program are designed to provide
research results by December 1977.
Projected effects on the biosphere of enhanced UV radiation include
increased incidence of skin cancer in humans, deleterious effect on food
and fiber crop yield, subsequent impact on animal husbandry, impact on
natural and managed ecosystems, impact on commercial and recreational
fishing, and effects on climate. Preliminary research shows a latitudinal
variation of the incidence of skin cancer in humans, correlatable with the
natural variations of ultraviolet radiation with changes in latitude on the
earth's surface. Additional laboratory studies, field studies and epide-
miological studies are needed in order to understand this relationship
adequately.
With respect to non-human biological effects, experiments have been
performed on biological systems simulating approximately 40% ultraviolet
radiation enhancement. These experiments resulted in serious deleterious
effects. Recent research indicates that continued CFM emissions could
eventually (approximately 50 years) result in a stratospheric ozone reduct-
ion of between 2 and 20%. Present estimates of ultraviolet increases are
within the range of 4 to 40%. Experiments with economically important
agricultural crops and ornamental indicator plants have also shown marked
deleterious effects by elevated exposures. The number of species studied
and the degree of damage is a clear indication of the need for further
research. Research on effects of radiation level increases in the range of
5-40% are needed.
The effects of ultraviolet radiation (UV) on economically important
marine species have not been investigated. At present, the rate of
penetration of UV into water is not known with any degree of certainty.
There are indications that UV radiation may influence eye cancer in
cattle, a major cause of slaughter house condemnation.
Too little is known to predict the effects of UV on natural systems.
However, there is evidence of sensitivity of certain forest species (Engle-
man spruce). The effects on insects and pathogens is unknown. Also, the
effect of increased UV on phytopiankton, a major element in the food web,
is for the most part unknown. Only general information of a qualitative
nature on the effects of climate change on the biosphere is available.
Purturbation of the earth's energy balance resulting from increased UV may
effect climate which will effect crop yields.
Interprogram Aspects
Many different scientific disciplines are necessary to assess the
potential total environmental impact of increased solar ultraviolet
radiation. The list is lead by radiation measurement scientists, followed
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by experts in the many different types of environmental effects, and social
scientists for assessing consequent effects on the Nation's economy.
Because of the highly specialized nature of the problem, little
expertise existed within EPA for conducting the requisite research.
Expertise did exist within the Federal establishment, however, in agencies
having missions of a more basic nature than EPA. Thus, the module is
implemented primarily through interagency agreements with the Departments
of Agriculture, Commerce, and Health, Education, Welfare, as well as the
National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the National Science
Foundation.
Short-Term Plan
In the early part of fiscal year 1978, outputs from the following
previously funded projects are expected:
Instrumentation —
Instrumentation consultation by Task Group
Standards for sources
- Establish the argon mini-arc as standard of spectral
irradiance.
- Modify design of arc to improve its stability and
maximize UV-B output.
- Intercompare the argon arc spectral irradiance
scale with other NBS scales.
Standards for UV-Instruments
Laser characterization of narrow-band radiometers and Si photodiodes:
Extend capability of present cw dye laser to UV-B
spectral region by extra-cavity frequency doubling.
Characterize three narrow-band radiometers (peak
responses at approximately 290, 300 and 310 nm) for
the measurement of UV-B irradiance sources.
Characterize three unfiltered silicon photodiodes
at several wavelengths from 229 nm to 364 nm.
or
Establish a facility for the calibration of UV-B
instrumentation by using the well-characterized
output of the synchrotron radiation from the NBS
storage ring.
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To construct a portable spectroradiometer for UV measure-
ments in the field. To construct lab spectroradiometer
to serve as standard for calibrating detectors and sources.
. To develop UV sources for use in greenhouses and
growth chambers.
Climate and Monitoring—
. Climate modeling of regional differences and correlation
of regional climate statistics and impact.
. Climate workshop summarizing current information and
definition of research needs.
. Data reduction and analysis of satellite observations
(WIMBUS/BOV) (6 years)
. Support of UV-B continuous spectrodiometric data
collection station.
. Support continuation of on-going monitoring at several
field location of R-B meter, Smithsonian filter
wheel radiometer (Tallahassee) and modified Dobson
spectrophotometer (Boulder) (FY-76-15K/FY-77-15K).
. Operation of R-B meter network. Obtaining two or more
calibrating units. Funds needed to operate, repair,
and maintain network and for operation of the computer
capability aspect if installed.
Biological Effects—
. Whole plant response (growth and development)
. Photosynthesis
. Membranes/respiration
. Tillering and seed quality in wheat, fiber quality
in cotton
. Food reserve mobility in seedlings
. Sexual reproduction of plants
. Cellular/structural changes
. Fungus Pathogens/Plant Response
. Core Program Management
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. Broad band UV-B on crop production. (Combine with
project below)
. Impact of Solar UV-B on Crop Canopies
. UV-B Effects on photosynthesis and plant growth
. High altitude studies of natural/supplemental/
deletion of UV-B on vegetables
. Stability of agricultural chemicals under increased
ultraviolet radiation
. Effects of UV-B sensitivity of higher plants (Provides addi-
tional support for ongoing projects already suppored by NASA
and NSF)
. UV-B radiation on growth and development of high
elevation forest tree seedlings
. Effects of UV-B on N-Fixation by blue-green algae
. Effect of UV-B radiation at the agricultural ecosystem
level; skin cancer of livestock
. Effects of UV-B on insect survival, diapause, and interaction
with plants
Extramural program support
Penetration of UV-B natural waters
. Sensitivity of eggs and larvae of commercially important
marine organisms
. The effect of UV-B irradiation on surface-living organisms
and ecosystems of puget sound
UV tolerance of aquatic organisms and ecosystems
Human Health Effects—
. Non-melanoma incidence studies at several SEER sites to
supplement four TNCS site (Objective 1)
. Analysis of HANES data on non-melanoma (Objective 1)
. Analysis of unpublished melanoma incidence data for
baseline trend (Objective 1)
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Follow-up studies on non-melanoma patients in TNCS and
HANES studies to determine exposure habits, skin types,
etc. (Objective 2)
Follow-up studies on melanoma patients for exposure habits,
skin
Economics—
. Economic evaluation of environmental impacts
Long-term Plan
The short-term EAGER program is designed to provide information
which can be generated within a short time for a possible Agency decision
to regulate fluorocarbons.
It is generally recognized in the scientific community that most of
the basic uncertainties on effects of stratospheric ozone reduction cannot
be significantly reduced by a short-term effort. In recognition of this and
the need to consider the effects of all potentially significant modifications
to the stratosphere, IMOS is developing an FY 78 interagency budget for a
long-term BACER program.
Because of the strong basic research thrust of this long-term effort,
and the lack of immediate regulatory application, EPA is not necessarily
the appropriate lead Agency. However, EPA will continue to actively
participate on the IMOS Committee.
CONTROL OF TOXIC SUBSTANCES
The objective of this research module is to provide the Agency with
the scientific and technical information to implement the Toxic Substances
Control Act of 1976. The following material presents coordinated efforts
that could be undertaken by the various research subprograms. As indicated
in Section IV, this effort would be conducted in close coordination with
relevant groups within the Department of Health, Education and Welfare.
Background
The Toxic Substances Control Act requires the Agency to restrict
the use and marketing of particular chemicals and manufactured products
to protect the environment. Specifically, decisions must be made on
restrictions on the marketing or handling procedures of materials to lessen
the risk from their release to the environment. In addition, analytical
methods must be developed and validated to support the regulatory program.
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Industrial firms in the United States produce thousands of chemicals
for domestic, commercial, or industrial consumption almost all of which end
up in the air, water, or land. Thousands of by-products and waste products
are introduced to the environment in wastewater streams, air emissions, or
by land disposal. In addition, each of these chemicals can be biologically
or chemically converted in the environment to other compounds.
Although little is known about most of these compounds, several
have been demonstrated to be toxic to man and his environment. Among
these toxic substances are PCBs, various pesticides, heavy metals, and many
aromatic hydrocarbons. • Based on experience to date, it is probable
that many other toxic substances are continuously being introduced or
formed in the environment.
The most pressing need for research on toxics is to define the magni-
tude of the problem. Information must be developed on which substances are
harmful and in what concentrations. Modes of discharge of harmful sub-
stances to the environment, their transport and fate, and their human
health and ecological effects must be determined. This information forms
the basis for a logical, rational, consistent, and defensible regulatory
policy and meet the requirements of legislative mandates.
Several regulatory approaches can be formulated to control the
problem of toxic substances. The traditional approach is to reduce
or eliminate discharges by requiring use of appropriate effluent treatment
technologies. However, similar results can be achieved in many cases by
production process modifications. Another approach is to restrict the use
of chemicals which may be harmful. Alternatively, regulations can be
formulated to control the formation of toxic substances from other, more
innocuous chemicals. The choice among regulatory approaches should be based
on sound relevant research information.
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Traditionally, research resources have been used to advance the
state-of-the-art and to develop new techniques for detecting pollutants
in general or their biological effects, developing new concepts for
controlling their discharge, and developing techniques for assessing
the environmental reactions of pollutants. These research efforts typically
involve only a single discipline and are essentially directed by the
judgments of an individual researcher or research groups based upon under-
standing of knowledge gaps in the areas of concern.
But the state of art with respect to specific toxic substances detect-
ion, health and ecological effects assessment and control technology has
not reached the stage of maturity where individual researchers or groups
thereof can direct or focus their efforts. In the next few years the major
research thrust must create a knowledge perspective base so that research
communities at large can focus future efforts on the most urgent toxic
substance problems.
The research thrust will entail activities designed to yield prelimin-
ary information on the likelihood of effects of toxic substances on
environmental and human populations. It must examine persistence or
concentration of these substances in the environment, and their suscept-
ibility to control by previously demonstrated technology. These research
activities involve the establishment of a set of screening tests for
probable biological effects and fate in the environment and an evaluation of
the effectiveness of available control technology or production process
modifications in reducing toxic emissions.
Large numbers of toxic substances are found in all environmental
media, and in general transfer from one medium to another as they move
through the environment. For this reason, toxic substances research must
be multi-media in nature. It must also be interdisciplinary with ecologists
and toxicologists needed to understand health and ecological effects;
chemists, biochemists, meteorologists, and hydrologists needed to understand
transport and fate phenomena; and engineers and economists needed to
develop practicable control technologies or strategies. Through implementa-
tion of a synchronized research program, the problems of defining, under-
standing, and controlling toxic substances can be bounded.
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Because of the magnitude of the problem, it would be impractical
to assess and control each toxic substance individually. Rather the first
step of the research program must be to define ways of grouping substances
so that knowledge which is developed and controls which are applied
are relevant to whole classes of compounds. If a series of tests can be
developed such that the problem is logically reduced to smaller and more
manageable size, the critical first step will have been achieved.
The following plan includes the coordinated efforts of five subprograms:
Health Effects, Ecological Effects, Transport and Fate, Monitoring Tech-
niques and Equipment Development, and Minerals, Processing and Manufactur-
ing Industries.
Five-Year Plan
Health Effects-
New and more sensitive bio-effect indicators as well as methodolo-
gies for coherent evaluation of possible multi-level impacts in eco-
systems are needed. The development of screening tests for certain
types of genotoxic activity (e.g., mutagenesis, neoplastic transformation)
has progressed rapidly in recent years. However, this development has been
paced by gaps in fundamental knowledge associated with biological,
chemical, and biochemical mechanisms. Research on generic in-vivo and
in-vitro chemical-tissue interaction and the potential correlation of
biological activity of toxic substances with their chemical structures is
essential to improve the reliability of predictive screening techniques and
to increase our capability to extrapolate from in-vitro test systems.
Program plans involve exploitation of the potential utility of
in-vitro test systems in localizing metabolically active target organs in
animals and in identifying animals and plants capable of metabolic convers-
ion in the ecosystems. Such studies will contribute directly to the
"validation" of system results and ultimate development of both structure
activity and toxic unit techniques. Studies on the sequence of events that
lead to biochemical alterations at the tissue, cellular, and subcellular
levels will provide directly useful data for health and ecological risk
assessment as part of comprehensive environmental analysis. Thus it will
be possible to extrapolate the nature of chronic health effects on the
basis of even subacute tests on a more valid basis.
Clinical studies of human subjects under carefully controlled condi-
tions will be extremely important and will be intended to validate human-
animal correlations. The development of methods for the prediction
of substances' effects on human health will be the ultimate goal of
concentration-response studies performed with selected populations exposed
in the past to substances under investigation. Epidemiologists will use
bio-chemical, immunological, and cytological indicators which are responsive
to the substance in question at ambient concentrations. Much of the data on
human exposure effects will come from occupational situations.
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Ecological Effects —
Evaluation of counterpart ecological tests for chronic effects
prediction will also be developed and validated. The monitoring of
reproductive capacity, effects of diet, organogenesis, growth maturation,
and postnatal development in broad classes of animal species will offer
multiple opportunities to cross-correlate environmental effects of toxic
substances and broad groupings thereof.
Transport and Fate—
Supporting research to document and analyze various fate and transport
processes is underway for a few toxic substances within the base program.
However, the science associated with determining or predicting the trans-
port, distribution, and persistence of the multiplicity of toxic substances
and groups thereof in air, terrestrial, or aquatic environments is new and
complex. Problems evolve from the presence of these substances in the
environment as mixtures or in a variety of forms.
Methods for obtaining and evaluating some of the required data
are inadequate or lacking. Many of the existing methods are costly,
technologically intricate, and involve long time periods for execution.
This program will attempt to evolve and evaluate less complex methods.
These short-term screening methods will be designed to establish the
presumption of environmental persistence for various classes of substances.
Thus, the objectives of the fate and transport research program
will be as follows:
. Provide better scientific understanding of fate
and transport processes and interactions,
Develop improved predictive methods,
. Develop more effective quick, effective, and
inexpensive screening techniques,
. Develop methods to group materials according to their
environmental behavior to allow greater numbers of
materials to be handled efficiently, and
. Develop conceptual procedures or models to relate
various treatment and control strategies to safe or
acceptable environmental concentrations.
Monitoring Techniques and Equipment Development—
The detection and quantitative measurement of toxic substances
in the environment and in effluent streams provides the data for use
in health/ecological and fate/transport studies. However, for many
toxics the analytical methods and instruments do not exist for use in
gathering needed data.
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In the past, it has been necessary to separate organic chemicals
from streams being monitored in order to identify and measure them.
Furthermore, because of limitations of available detection methods,
concentration of streams prior to analysis has been required. Separa-
tion and concentration techniques may be needed for categories of substances.
Currently, the best approach to resolution of this problem appears to be
the use of accumulators through which large volumes of air or water can be
passed, depositing the organic materials. Selective accumulators and
fractionation by selected elutrients offer possibilities for preliminary
compounds which are volatile enough to pass through a gas chromatograph
present relatively few problems of final separation; however, they comprise
only 10-30 percent of the usual mass of organic material in wastewater.
Separation techniques for the non-volatile categories of compounds need
refinement. Separation devices are needed to couple with identifying
detectors so that cost-effective identification and measurement of non-
volatile categories of organic compounds may be analyzed.
Spectra-generating devices, such as mass spectrometers and infrared
spectrometers are adequate for volatile substances, but non-volatiles
cannot be measured using conventional mass spectrometry. Atmospheric
pressure ionization mass spectrometry and Raman spectroscopy should be
developed for application to this problem.
Identification of classes of substances from their mass spectra
has been made relatively inexpensive through development of computerized
spectra matching programs. Refined search programs are needed to make
tentative identifications more reliable, Spectral files need expansion
and validation.
Identification of substances for which spectra do not exist in
computer files involves considerable manual interpretation by analysts.
This tedious and expensive process will be shortened and rendered more
reliable and economical as standard protocols are developed for identifying
them, and computer programs are developed for assisting in data interpreta-
tion.
Attempts have been made to synchronize analysis for substances in
drinking water with studies of their health effects. Most of the epide-
miology studies in the past considered only one substance at a time.
Effects of substances not measured may have clouded the observation of
the more important epidemiological relationships. Therefore, until the
key trace elements are indicated, they must be considered as a broad
class and practical consideration must be given to groups of substances
in health studies. Because of the number of chemical substances of
concern in assessing environmental health effects, it is hot useful to
measure them by single-element methods. Spark source mass spectometry
(SSMS) is the only instrument capable of measuring simultaneously up
to 82 elements at concentrations as low as 1 ug/1. However, it is expensive,
slow, and relatively imprecise.
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Two multi-element techniques, X-ray fluorescence spectrometry and
indictively coupled plasma emission spectrography, now being studied in
this program element, may overcome most shortcomings of SSMS. However,
neither method possesses the uniform detection levels for all elements that
SSMS exhibits, and neither covers as broad a spectrum of elements.
A third technique, argon plasma source mass spectrometry may ultimately
be the best technique currently under development. More research also is
needed to evaluate matrix effects in environmental samples.
Another area of needed measurement development is chemical speciation.
Even after substances are detected in effluents, their chemical form should
be characterized. Past research indicates that health effects depend on
oxidation state, degree of ionization or complexation, and other character-
istics of the substances. In the future there will be a growing interdepen-
dence between the chemical analyst and the health effects researcher in
evaluating chemical species - health effects relationships.
Minerals, Processing and Manufacturing Industries—
There is a need for categorization of toxic substance effluents
by source and development and demonstration of control technologies
that can remove or control broad categories of effluents to air and
water. The economic practicability of technologies such as reverse
osmosis and carbon absorption have not been demonstrated, nor have the
applicability of the technologies for control of specific emissions
or discharges been demonstrated on a plant-wide basis.
Four steps will be involved in this control technology program
element. The first will be determination of theoretical limits for
effectiveness of control technologies. Second, laboratory-scale control
units will be constructed and tested to determine if the expected effective-
ness is achievable and to study the effect of varying operating parameters.
The third step will be to scale-up the units to pilot scale, to conduct
extensive tests to determine problem areas, and to characterize each
process for effluent controllability effectiveness. Engineering equations
will be developed to characterize the operation of the unit and to design
full-scale systems.
Finally, a demonstration unit for the control technology will be
constructed for processes that have been proven viable and an indepth
characterization program will be implemented. Knowledge from this demon-
stration effort will allow commercial equipment manufacturers to design and
construct their own units for use by industry so that the Agency can
implement toxics BATEA enforcement for aqueous effluents and NSPS for air
emissions.
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RESOURCE CONSERVATION AND RECOVERY
The objective of this module is to expand the base research
program in solid and hazardous waste management and resource recovery.
Because of the tight implementation schedule in the new hazardous
waste regulatory program, the plan provides special emphasis in
that area.
Background
The new solid waste disposal legislation provides for new hazardous
waste regulatory authority, and expands EPA responsibilities for
standards setting, guideline issuance and promulgation of regulations.
Additional technological support for the expanded role of the Agency
will be required of the Office of Research and Development. Current
ORD programs are consistent with the legislative mandates of the Act,
but the level of effort should be acclerated to meet the mandated
action deadlines (see Section II).
Interprogram Aspects
An interprogram approach is required for the subject area because
solid and hazardous wastes are produced in all sectors of the economy.
Major efforts will be provided by the Waste Management; Minerals, Process-
ing and Manufacturing; and the three energy subprograms, with support from
several other subprograms.
Five-Year Plan
The primary consideration for program requirements for the near
term is upgrading of existing programs to provide the technical backup
or support for the short lead-time, mandated actions to be carried out
by the Agency. ORD's budget for Resource Conservation and Recovery has
been increased to $7.7 million in FY 78 to intensify efforts in the follow-
ing subprograms.
Waste Management—
Priority research requirements for support of the short lead-time
requirements of the Act include leachate sampling and testing, leachate
attenuation, toxicity studies, remedial actions for past environmentally
unsound practices, evaluation of liners, and hazardous waste treatment
methods.
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Priority efforts for nonhazardous wastes include mathematical modeling
of leachate and gas flow from landfills, within-fill gas control, field
sampling for metals analysis and site selection criteria development.
Later deliveries are scheduled for research on storage, collection
and transfer, techniques for estimating leachate generation, use of
non-soil materials for landfill cover, land disposal techniques, socio-
economic and environmental impacts, pilot scale field evalutions of rapid
decomposition and stabilization of landfill under optimum conditions,
co-disposal of sludge with municipal solid wastes, and testing of several
new technologies for disposal of municipal wastewater treatment sludges,
including thermoradiation treatment and advanced dewatering technology.
Minerals, Processing and Manufacturing Industries—
Priority research areas include arsenic fixation and recovery,
linings for industrial sludge sites, and health and ecological effects
studies related to industrial waste disposal.
Energy Conservation, Utilization and Technology Assessment—
Resources are required to support the development of the full range
of regulations and guidelines required and permit the preparation of
required reports to Congress. Included are such items as pollution measure-
ment, characterization and control, explosion control in shredders, air
classifier comparative testing, storage and handling of prepared fuels,
and wastes-as-fuel.
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SECTION IV
INTERAGENCY ACTIVITIES
BACKGROUND
Prior to the creation of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA),
much, if not all, of the environmental research and development conducted
by the Office of Research and Development (ORD) predecessors was accomplish-
ed in recognition of other Federal research activities relevant to the
environment.
In many cases ORD administrative policy was established internally
to assure that cooperation within the Federal establishment was accomplished.
This was prompted largely by the definite desire to minimize the duplication
of R&D within the Federal government.
Additionally, ORD researchers, as a matter of staying current in
the field of research, maintained an awareness of environmentally relevant
R&D throughout the government.
The predominant interaction between Federal agencies during the
early years was, however, primarily one of consultative exchanges on
environmental matters, although in some areas there were specific coopera-
tive ventures undertaken.
Since a successful research and development program is as dependent
upon effective communications as it is upon scientific breakthroughs, both
EPA and ORD, born of elements of a multitude of other Federal agencies
and departments, have maintained a high level of interagency communication
and cooperation in order to achieve their objectives. Futhermore, Executive
Reorganization Act Number 3 (1970) which created the EPA specifically
requires the Agency and its Administrator to cooperate extensively with
other Federal agencies in pursuing efforts of mutual interest and responsi-
bility. Thus, the spirit of interagency exchange pervades EPA's very
history as an Agency.
There is no clear-cut division of environmental research from other
types of research being conducted by Federal agencies in support of their
respective missions. The latest developments in space technology, occupa-
tional health research, drug analysis, cancer research, or energy process
development, for example, may well be as relevant to environmental research
objectives as to the mission objectives of the sponsoring agencies.
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For this reason ORD has invariably been active in interagency exchanges.
This has been accomplished by formal contacts and participation in task
forces and advisory committees with other agencies. As a result ORD
researchers have maintained a high level of interaction with their technical
peers throughout the Federal establishment,
CURRENT STATUS
The recent energy legislation which has led to an ORD Energy-Environ-
mental Program provides an example of the extent of cooperation and coordina-
tion ORD can undertake on environmental issues. In addition to the energy
effort there is already instituted in the various ORD programs extensive
inter-agency efforts of cooperation. Table 11 is a summary of the nature
and extent of cooperation between ORD and other Federal agency activities
relevant to the environment. It should be noted that ORD is involved with
more than seventeen other Federal departments and independent agencies.
Most extensively involved in these activities is the ORD Office of Energy,
Minerals, and Industry (OEMI). This office coordinates an Interagency
Energy-Environment Research and Development Program and sponsors inter-
agency symposia and issues reports on the "pass-through" research activities.
A large measure of the success of OEMI interagency program stems
from the management approach used since its initiation. Here the need for
substantive information transfer between researchers and research managers
is emphasized while controlling the amount of paperwork necessary. In
short, the management approach is to cut the red tape and get on with
the work. Each major annual task within this program requires only a
single sheet of paper to initiate, and status reports are required on a
semi-annual rather than monthly basis. Overall "umbrella" agreements
negotiated between EPA and each of the participating agencies, at the
inauguration of the program, contain all of the legal considerations and
allow for a highly simplified planning and reporting process. Additionally
interaction between researchers is stimulated via various review mechanisms.
Perhaps the most effective of these are the sector groups—issue-oriented
groups of representatives from relevant agencies which meet periodically
to exchange program status information. The essence of these meetings
is widely distributed to appropriate parties. Such interactions are,
of course, in addition to the traditional information transfer mechanisms
such as seminars, symposia, research and executive reports.
The effectiveness of ORD's interagency involvement is therefore
highlighted by the Interagency Energy-Environment R&D Program. Inaugurated
in Fiscal Year 1975, this program combines the efforts of seventeen Federal
agencies and departments in implementing approximately one hundred million
dollars per year in energy-related environmental research. The entire
program is planned and coordinated by OEMI, which contributes, approximately
one-third of the program's resources to other agencies for the implementa-
tion of mutually agreed upon tasks. The remainder of the tasks are imple-
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TABLE 11 ORD INTERAGENCY PROGRAM
Research Programs and Subprograms
.Federal Agencies and Departments
§
Health Ecological Effects
Health Effects
Ecological Processes and Effects
Transport and Fate
O
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
Public Services Activities
Waste Management
Water Supply
Environmental Management
o
o
o
o
Industrial Processes
Renewable Resources
Minerals, Processing and Manufacturing
o
o
Energy
Extraction and Processing Technology
Conservation Utilization,Technology Assessments
Health and Ecological Effects
o
o
O
o
Monitoring and Technical Support
Monitoring, Techniques & Equipment Development
Quality Assurance
Technical Support
o
o
o
o
8
Fully coordinated.
Coordinated in some areas or specific projects
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mented within ORD laboratories or via contracts and grants. Such tasks
range from small-scale experiments with various remote sensing techniques
(with NASA), to the monitoring of synthetic fuel plants (with ERDA), to the
determination of oil spill impacts on productive marshes (with DOI-FWS), to
major multi-million dollar demonstrations of alternative flue-gas desulfuriza-
tion technologies. Via the OEMI program approach, several advantages are
obtained. First, researchers and research managers who share the common
goal of developing domestic energy resources in an environmentally accept-
able manner also share a common management system and communications
structure. Second, this common structure stimulates direct communications
across agency lines to help assure that environmental concerns guide major
energy development decisions. Third, the involvement of these agencies
resources allows the most effective use of experience and expertise wherever
they exist within the Federal sturcture—those researchers most familiar
with a resarch area are chosen to implement and monitor tasks related to
that research area, regardless of their agency affiliation. This is
accomplished by using OEMI funds to supplement existing research efforts in
these agencies. Four, the higher-than-normal level of interaction between
the agencies helps to avoid duplication of research while, at the same
time, highlighting those areas which need further investigation. Five, the
EPA role as planner and coordinator of this interagency program provides a
central source of responsibility and information for the scientific commun-
ity, Congress and the people.
The OEMI interagency program, and other major energy-related environ-
mental research and development programs within the Federal government,
(e. g., ERDA) and outside of the government (e.g., the Electric Power
Research Institute) approach their energy-related environmental analyses
and technologies from different perspectives. Each of these perspectives
is, perforce, somewhat limited, but essential to achieve a comprehensive,
well-balanced energy development decision-making process.
TREND
Major ORD interagency agreements in FY 76 amounted to over 25 milion
dollars as shown in more detail in Table 12. In the health effects research
area it is anticipated that during the FY 1977 - 1981 period extensive
growth in interaction with other Federal agencies will occur.
Since the passage of NEPA and ensuing environmental legislation
interagency cooperation has become more prevalent as the need became
more apparent, and as specifically requested in new environmental legisla-
tion. This tend toward cooperative exchanges has not as yet resulted in
placing the EPA in the distinctive role of coordinating or in providing
leadership on environmental R&D efforts. This is partly as a result of
constraints, of an institutional nature, of manpower resource limitations,
and of uncertain or unclear-legislative authority with respect to lead-role
relationships, and from the lack of specific working mechanisms to conduct
Federal integrated environmental R&D.
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Most recent legislation reflects a definite intent of the Congress
on the role that EPA should have in coordinating R&D. In view of the
trends and due to the nature of the environmental theme it is an objective
of the ORD to not only engage in cooperative R&D but to substantially
achieve a highly effective coordinating status within the current five
year plan.
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TABLE. 12
MAJOR* ORD INTERAGENCY AGREEMENTS FY 76
Agency
Commerce - NOAA
ERDA - Nevada
OPNS Office
NSF
HEW - FDA
ERDA
ERDA
ERDA
ERDA
Commerce - MBS
Interior - Bureau
of Mines
Interior
IAG Title
Research & Operational
Meteorological Suppt, Service
Offsite Radiation Protection
& Surveillance Program
Pest Management Research and
Development Program
Continued Support of
Toxicological Research
Biological Screening & Testing
Development of Cytological and
Biochemical Indicators
Population Exposure to Hazards
Associated with Non-Nuclear Energy
Production
Trace Contamination From Coal
Combustion
Water Quality Assurance and
Instr umentation
Coal Washing Test Facility
Major Coastal Ecosystem
Characterization and Methodology
Related to Oil and Gas
Funding ($K)
1,960
3,800
820
5,000
663
1,065
556
765
500
550
950
*Greater than $500,000
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Interior
Commerce - NOAA
TVA
USDA - Forest
Service
USDA - Forest
Service
HEW - Nat. Ins.
of Env. Health
Scncs
HEW - Nat. Ins.
of Env. Health
Scncs
Ecological Methods for Assessing
Impacts to Wildlife in Coal Areas
Environmental Assessment of
Northern Puget Sound and Strait
of Juan De Fuca
Development of Flue Gas
Desulfurization Technology—
Shawnee LimeAimestone
Scrubbing Program
Impacts of Mining and Airborne
Pollutants on Forest Ecosystems
Controlling Adverse Effects of
Mining on Forest Ecosystems
Toxic Agents Associated with
Non-Nuclear Energy Technologies
Effect Relationships for
Physiological Effects of Toxic
Agents
700
920
3,250
HEW - Nat. Ins. for Health Hazards in Extraction and
Occ Hlth & Saf. Processing of Energy
583
539
753
525
1,889
Total
25,785
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
1. REPORT NO.
EPA-600/9-77-002
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION NO.
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
Environmental Research Outlook FY 1978-1982
5. REPORT DATE
February 1977
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7. AUTHOR(S)
Anonymous
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
Office of Planning and Review (RD-675)
Office of Research and Development, EPA
401 M Street, S.W.
Washington, D.C. 20460
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
1RW103
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
Intramural Project
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
Same as block 9.
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Special Report to Congress
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
EPA/600/00
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
16. ABSTRACT
This report is the second of a series of annual reports to Congress
presenting a five-year projection of environmental research activities
to be conducted by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. The general
role of environmental research is discussed in the context of the Agency's
regulatory and assistance functions and the National goal of protecting
and enhancing the environment.
Anticipated research over the next five years is discussed for each
of the fourteen subprograms, as well as for six "current interest modules"
which cut across several of the subprograms. The dominant programs in the
forecast period are health effects studies and energy-related comprehensive
environmental research. Impacts of level and increasing budgets on scheduling
of program outputs are discussed.
17.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b.IDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS C. COSATI Field/Group
Research management, research projects,
air pollution, water pollution, water
supply, solid waste, pesticides,
radiation, health effects, ecology,
forecasting.
Environmental research,
research planning, futur
environmental preblems.
13 B
8. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
Unlimited
19. SECURITY CLASS (This Report)'
Unclassified
21. NO. OF PAGES
194
20. SECURITY CLASS (This page)
Unclassified
22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (9-73)
189
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