United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Research and Development EPA
Washington, D. C. 600/9 78-001
20460 June 1978
Research
Outlook
1978
«EPA
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Foreword
We have no magical ability to predict
what changes the future will bring or
what responses will be required of our
research program. In projecting our
program into the future, we relv on three
major sources of guidance. The first is
the legislation passed bv the Congress
and signed into law bv the President. The
second is the model-based projections of
major economic and industrial trends.
The third is our experience and best in-
sight. The former two sources are dis-
cussed in some detail in this volume. The
third source was derived from the more
than 300 Agency scientists and engineers
involved in preparing this report.
In contrast with the two previous ver-
sions of EPA's Research Outlook, this
1978 edition does not begin with our
program a.s it is. Instead, we seek to iden-
tify developing environmental issues
over the next 10 to 20 years in order to
structure our research for the next 5
years. Our approach should give the
reader some insight into the perceptions
and motivations that shape our program
and actions.
It is t h rough this t vpe of insight that we
hope to achieve two basic goals: the first
is communication; the second is trust.
Bv setting out our priorities for open
debate, we are beginning a process of
communication and interaction which
will help to shape EPA's research
strategies in the years to come. The ef-
forts and initiatives discussed in this vol-
ume must be conducted somewhere
within the Federal environmental re-
search and development community.
Not all of the efforts outlined here are
expected to be conducted bv EPA. Some
efforts may be more appropriate to other
agencies. (EPA. after all. conducts onlv
about one-fifth of the total Federal en-
vironmental research effort.) Regardless
of where the efforts are conducted, how-
ever, a structure is necessary to assure ef-
fective communication of research
priorities, from the management level.
and of research results from the labora-
tory level. It is one of our most important
tasks to see that this communication/
coordination is effective within our mul-
The second goal of this report is to
begin to develop an increased trust in
our judgment as researchers and re-
search managers. We hope that, by spell-
ing out our most important priorities
and philosophical approaches in those
areas which can be discussed in non-
technological terms, we will improve
your trust in our decision-making pro-
cesses. Like any other form of human
endeavor, science is as much intuition
and instinct as it is precision and cer-
tainty. To protect us from potential
crises five years hence, we must begin
our research into these areas today.
Often we must begin with little more
than a well-educated guess—a feeling
about where the key answers mav lie. It is
just such a process on which some of the
finest scientific achievements are built.
We hope that, with the background
provided by this report, we will help to
gain the trust we need to invest all of our
resources—money, expertise, creativity
and dedication—to best resolve the en-
vironmental problems of today and
avoid those of tomorrow.
With the issuance of this year's Re-
search Outlook, we are already well on
our wav to preparing for next year's ver-
sion. That edition, it is expected, will
provide additional detail on the projects
and programs necessary to meet our
priority requirements. Your review and
comments on this year's Research Out-
look are welcomed. Such comments
serve to improve these documents and
the detailed program which develops
from them.
Stephen J. Gaa;e
Assistant Admin
Research and Dt
.•lopment
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Office of Research and Development
United States Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D.C. 20460
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Contents
Summary 5
Toxic substances 11
Air pollution 17
Energy and the environment 23
Solid waste 29
Global pollution 33
Nonionizing radiation 37
Nonpoint sources and watersheds 41
Measurement and monitoring 47
Environmental futures 53
Research options 59
Appendices
Interagency coordination 65
International coordination 71
The community health and
environmental surveillance system 79
Office of research and development 89
References 95
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Summary
The Research Outlook provides a glimpse,
however murky, at those environmental is-
sues that we expect to become problems over
the next two decades. Where these problems
can be clearly seen, or where Presidential or
Congressional guidance is explicit, our dis-
cussions are more detailed and precise.
Where the future vision is less clear, we rely
on our experience and expertise to give shape
and substance to potential problem areas. In
either case, this Outlook represents an impor-
tant first step in translating what our knowl-
edge and instincts tell us into a framework for
defining future research to strengthen the
nation's capacity for dealing effectively with
tomorrow's environmental problems.
The topics covered in this report were
selected to represent problem areas of major
concern. By no means exhaustive, these top-
ics reflect our best estimate of the trends and
factors which should drive future environ-
mental research. Each of these eight topics—
toxic substances, air pollution, energy and the
environment, solid waste, global pollution,
nonionizing radiation, nonpoint sources and
watersheds, and measurement and mon-
itoring—were selected because of their rela-
tionship to severe threats to human health
and the natural environment. The following
chapters present a sense of relative priority
for dealing with each of the problem areas, a
set of health and environmental protection
goals to guide our research efforts on these
potential problems, and a brief description of
the relative level of resource commitments
required to ensure significant progress to-
ward meeting the goals.
Toxic substances—
prediction and control
Our advanced industrial economy relies on
thousands of substances which did not exist
on this planet until the last few decades.
These substances were developed because of
their extraordinary properties of strength,
durability, reactivity, conductivity, or toxicity.
Americans—as well as the citizens of all in-
dustrialized nations—are exposed to these
substances with every breath of air, drink of
water, and swallow of food.
Presidential and Congressional recogni-
tion of the pervasive threat of environmental
toxicants to human health has now taken
form in the Toxic Substances Control and
Resource Conservation and Recovery Acts
and the amendments to the Clean Air and
Clean Water Acts. This re-chartering of
EPA's mandate to protect public health de-
mands that the highest priority research area
be the prediction and control of toxic sub-
stances.
To control toxic substances, we must first
predict their environmental behavior and ef-
fects. Every research tool at our disposal—
epidemiology, toxicology, and chemical
analysis—must be used to accurately predict
the harmful biological effects of any chemical
through any exposure route. The early de-
velopment of rapid testing procedures—our
highest priority in the short term—is neces-
sary to provide this capability to predict. In
the process, we must develop a fuller under-
standing of the biochemical mechanisms in-
volved. Such mechanisms are complex; it will
be necessary to explore many different test-
ing procedures to assure a greater likelihood
of success.
To test such a large number of chemicals,
they must first be grouped, if possible, ac-
cording to their potential effects. These
groups should then be ranked according to
their potential hazard. Then we need to re-
late these groupings of chemicals to genetic
and reproductive effects in order to protect
future generations. Next, we need to avoid
the risk of damaging human development,
aging, and behavior; and, finally, we need to
eliminate risk of disease or early death.
One approach to determining the toxicity
of chemicals is to test each chemical through a
screening system. Chemicals can be screened
by chemical and biological methods. Multiple
tests can be used to sequentially screen chem-
icals as safe, unsafe, or possibly unsafe. Each
test in the sequence is more expensive than
the previous test, and the successive steps
would be required when a chemical has been
determined to be potentially unsafe. The cost
-------
of further testing in the sequence could re-
duce the potential commercial benefit of the
chemical, hence bringing economics to work
in protecting public health.
Such screening efforts must not only test
the chemical itself, but must also consider the
physical, chemical, and biological processes
which may change the chemical once it
reaches the environment. Such natural pro-
cesses as exposure to sunlight, to water and
dissolved substances, or to the metabolisms of
living creatures could transform an initially
harmless chemical into a toxic one. If we do
err in our screening efforts, we must err on
the side of falsely indicating that a harmless
substance is possibly unsafe, thus requiring
further testing, rather than falsely indicating
that a toxic substance is safe.
Air pollution—
the ubiquitous aerosol
During the past two decades, we have de-
veloped some understanding of the effects of
gaseous air pollutants such as carbon
monoxide, ozone, and sulfur oxides. Our at-
tention is now shifting to the complex of
aerosols* which pollute the air over large
areas of the country.
Aerosols come from many sources. The in-
creased combustion of coal, for example, is
expected to contribute greatly to sulfur and
nitrogen oxide emissions during the next 15
years. These pollutants are precursors—
chemical forebears—of secondary pollutants
of higher toxicity (e.g., sulfates and nitrates).
In the process of this transformation, these
gaseous pollutants may go through a forma-
tive aerosol phase during which they combine
with water in the atmosphere to form acids.
These acids, it is now thought, then react with
metallic air pollutants to create the sulfates
and nitrates which may be among the toxic
pollutants from which we suffer. Adding to
these aerosol problems are the complex sec-
ondary pollutants generated in the urban at-
mosphere by reactions of hydrocarbons and
nitrogen oxides, largely produced by auto-
mobiles and trucks.
In addition to its chemical properties, the
biological hazard of an air pollutant also de-
pends upon its size. Larger aerosols may be
captured by the body's defense mech-
*Aeroso!s are fine bits of matter suspended in air.
Often in a state of transition, they can contain sol-
ids, liquids, and gases at the same time and can
undergo chemical reactions which gradually
change their properties. Aerosols are formed out
of the "chemical soup" of pollutants in our atmo-
sphere, and, when inhaled, may be extremely
harmful.
anisms—the mucous linings of the sinuses
and throat—and then swallowed. This can
cause harmful effects via the digestive tract.
The smaller and more typical aerosols may be
carried deep into the lungs, where they may
be capable of creating severe effects, such as
exacerbating emphysema or causing lung
cancer.
Because of the likely growth of atmospher-
ic aerosols and their pervasive threat to
human health, understanding and control-
ling such aerosols must be the second highest
priority research area. We must improve our
knowledge of how aerosols are formed in the
atmosphere and how they react and move
long distances. We must improve our under-
standing of the relationship among the expo-
sure, type, and size of aerosols; the ability of
the human body to counteract the effects;
and the ultimate damage to the body. Al-
though the experiments required to under-
stand such subtle effects are more sophisti-
cated than traditional inhalation experiments
with gaseous pollutants, it is important that
we accelerate our health effects studies on
atmospheric aerosols.
In addition to their impacts on human
health, aerosols combined with other air pol-
lutants can lead to poor visibility and acidic
precipitation. With an improved understand-
ing of aerosol formation in the environment,
we can then use maps of pollutant sources
and environmental conditions to better pre-
dict exposure routes and patterns. These
predictions can then be used to support more
precisely targeted efforts to control pollutant
emissions.
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Energy and the environment—
assuring compatibility
The National Energy Plan requires that we
conserve our oil and natural gas by shifting to
greater reliance on coal and conservation
and, to a lesser extent, on nuclear power and
oil shale. Determining the possible conse-
quences of these alternatives provides the
rare opportunity of using foresight rather
than hindsight to control our national de-
velopment. Our main priority is to predict
and control any health and environmental
risks from toxic substances and atmospheric
aerosols resulting from coal combustion and
conversion processes. Because of the close in-
terrelationship between this area and the two
higher priority areas and the potential im-
pacts of massive shifts to coal, this area is the
third highest priority research area.
Solid waste—
turning wastes into assets
The growth in tonnage of solid wastes over
the next 15 years is expected to be much
greater than that of airborne or waterborne
pollutants. This increase is attributable to
economic growth and to the improved con-
trol of pollutants which would otherwise have
been released into the air and water, but are
now being removed in solid or semisolid
forms. A significant fraction of this waste,
especially industrial sludges, contains toxic
substances.
Because of the rapid growth in quantity
and the growing awareness of the toxic na-
ture of some of the wastes, this area is the
fourth highest priority research area.
Methods must be developed which will pre-
vent toxic solid waste from being released at
handling and disposal facilities in the form of
dust or leachates. Our main priorities are to
prevent such release by developing detoxifi-
cation techniques, recovering waste as a re-
source, substituting products that result in
less waste, and informing consumers of lfss
wasteful alternatives.
Global pollution—
earth's survival
The ability of the earth's biosphere to con-
tinue to absorb the brunt of human activities
has recently been hotly debated on at least
three issues—the threatof depletingour pro-
tective ozone layer, the increased release of
carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, and the
increased exploitation and pollution of the
oceans.
Because of potential long-term importance
of such subtle effects to all people, under-
standing and predicting the effects of human
activity on the biosphere is the fifth highest
priority research area. We should study the
combined effects of human activities in the
oceans, the troposhere, and the stratosphere.
A better understanding of natural global cy-
cles may be necessary if we are to determine
how these cycles are affected by human ac-
tivities. For example, since the nitrogen cycle
is emerging as a possible prototype for
understanding the limits to the buffering
capability of nature, we could focus in-
creasingly on improving our understanding
of the global nitrogen cycle.
Many nitrogen compounds are toxic. Nitric
oxides are precursors to airborne nitrates and
airborne nitrates may be an important ele-
ment of increased acidic precipitation. Nitric
oxide emitted by high altitude aircraft may
also deplete the stratospheric ozone layer. Ni-
trites and nitrates can pose health hazards
when leached into sources of drinking water.
Nitrogenous compounds in coal and oil shale
may also require strict controls to protect
human health. Research into these areas
should provide important pieces to the puzzle
that is our global environment.
Nonionizing radiation—
effects of the unseen
Our exposure to nonionizing radiation
from radio, television, electrical transmission,
and microwave sources is growing rapidly.
Growth in such exposure and some disquiet-
ing research results strongly support the ex-
pansion of research in this area to determine
if more stringent control of electromagnetic
radiation sources is necessary.
This—the sixth highest priority research
area—is aimed at understanding the more
subtle, nonthermal effects of nonionizing
radiation and its possible impacts both alone
and in combination with other stresses. Prime
candidates for expanded research are the ef-
fects of radiation in the communications (mi-
crowave) and commercial (UHF-TV) radio
frequency bands.
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Nonpoint sources of pollution—
limits to assimilation
Within a decade, the major point sources of
pollution (industries and municipalities) are
expected to be well on their way to controlling
the most significant water pollutants. A larger
(in terms of sheer volume of pollution) and
perhaps a more intractable problem is the
control of water pollutants from farming and
forestry, poorly planned land uses, atmo-
spheric pollution fallout, and other such
nonpoint sources. Such influences can have
severe immediate and long-term impacts on
watersheds and, eventually, upon groundwa-
ter.
Because nonpoint sources will remain the
major sources of water pollution over the
next two decades, understanding these
sources and being able to predict their im-
pacts on watersheds is the seventh highest
priority research area. Land use fundamen-
tally modifies a watershed and its ability
to store water. This factor can alter the
productivity of the land, the quality of
downstream water, and the purity of
groundwater. Once contaminated, our
groundwater resources—a major source of
drinking water—may require generations for
reclamation, and such contaminants can
travel in unexpected directions. We cannot
afford to lose groundwater resources as a re-
sult of unguided decisions. We must provide
adequate predictive information to local or
regional decision-makers regarding the en-
vironmental implications of their actions. Fi-
nally, rain containing air pollutants imports
acids and other substances into the water ba-
sin. This rainfall can then leach nutrients
from acidic soils, thus requiring greater use
of fertilizers if land is to retain its original
productivity. We must, therefore, determine
if regionally based air quality control
strategies are required to protect the pro-
ductivity of the land and water.
The watershed integrates the impacts of
many pollution sources—both point and
nonpoint. It thus emerges as the key hy-
drological unit upon which to base our
studies of water pollution.
Measurement, monitoring—
telling what's where
The detection of the multitude of different
pollutants at various locations throughout the
country is, at present, prohibitively expen-
sive. More precise and cost-effective methods
and equipment will be required before a
comprehensive monitoring system can be
provided. At the same time, a firm commit-
ment should be made to a disciplined, long-
term monitoring effort to accurately describe
our physical, chemical, and biological envi-
ronment and to improve our understanding
of the dynamics of that environment.
In this eighth highest priority research
area, we should not only emphasize the accu-
rate gathering of data during the next few
years, but also the linking of the many data
bases now or soon to be available. Through
such linkages, we may expect to discover
causal relationships between the various
components of the complex system we call the
environment. The discovery of such relation-
ships, especially concerning toxic substances,
can vastly improve our ability to anticipate
pollution problems, which may threaten
human health, and to focus our resources
where they will be most effective in prevent-
ing those problems.
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Toxic substances
Goals
The goals of the toxic substances research
effort are to reduce the threat of toxic sub-
stances to human health and the environ-
ment by improving screening tests for the
toxicity of substances, to detect the presence
of potential toxic substances through
studies of historical health and disease pat-
terns (epidemiology), to determine how
each major toxic pollutant travels through
the environment, how it changes, and how it
affects humans at various dose levels, and,
finally, to develop improved means of con-
trolling these pollutants.
Since 1945, there has been a rapid increase
in industrial development, particularly in the
production of chemicals. More than four mil-
lion distinct entries are now contained in the
Chemical Abstracts Service of the American
Chemical Society, and the Service's chemical
registry is growing at the rate of about 6,000
new chemicals per week. (Ref. 1). There may
be 50,000 chemicals in common use exclud-
ing pesticides, pharmaceuticals, and food ad-
ditives (Ref. 1).
Toxic substances cause adverse environ-
mental effects ranging from mild temporary
dysfunction of organisms and ecosystems to
acute symptoms, disorders or death. Some
toxic substances cause cancer. Some estimates
are that up to 90 percent of all malignancies
may be induced by, or related to, environ-
mental factors (Ref. 2) such as smoking, diet,
stress, and air and water quality.
In this context, environmental factors in-
clude all stresses within the human environ-
ment, with the exception of an inherited sus-
ceptibility to cancer. Environmental factors
include both voluntary and involuntary ex-
posure to carcinogenic substances, smoke,
X-rays, occupational and household toxi-
cants, water pollutants, naturally occurring
toxins, and "life-style" traits such as delayed
childbirth.
Statistics on cancer mortality collected since
1900 indicate increased cancer death "rates.
From 1933 to 1975, there was an annual in-
crease of about 1 percent. After 1975, that
rate grew to 2.3 percent per year (Ref. 2).
Part of this increase is attributable to an
overall aging of the population. Cancer is
primarily a disease of middle and old age, and
our current living conditions allow more
people to live to an age when cancer is likely.
Better diagnostic techniques and improved
reporting procedures in cases of death may
also account for some of this increase.
Most observers believe, however, that there
has been a true increase in the total cancer
death rate* in the United States, especially for
men. Although attributable in part to a
greater susceptibility to lung cancer related to
smoking, increases in mortality for both white
and nomvhite males (20 and 60 percent, re-
spectively) indicate a need for an expanded
research effort on factors related to occupa-
tional and environmental exposures (Ref. 3).
Many potentially toxic chemicals are com-
ponents of consumer products. These in-
clude tars from cigarettes, chloroform in
cough medicines, benzene in paint remover,
and "Tris" in children's pajamas. Substances
such as asbestos and vinyl chloride have been
linked to incidences of cancer among ex-
posed workers. Recently, potentially toxic
substances have been identified in several
drinking water supplies.
The toxic substances problem is so great
that resources available throughout the Fed-
eral government must be mobilized and
coordinated to meet the challenge. An excel-
lent start is the recent formation of the
four-member Interagency Regulatory
Liaison Group. The members are EPA, the
Food and Drug Administration, the Occupa-
tional Safety and Health Administration, and
the Consumer Product Safety Commission.
EPA also maintains strong ties with the Food
and Drug Administration's National Center
for Toxicological Research. EPA has partici-
pated with the National Institute of En-
vironmental Health Sciences in identifying
research needs in, and developing implemen-
tation plans for, human health and the envi-
ronment.
Research can improve our ability to iden-
tify mechanisms which lead to biological
end-points—effects produced by the same or
different chemicals acting through one or
more mechanisms. Such effects are ex-
pressed in terms of an alteration of some
known physiologic or biochemical process.
When complex processes are involved, the
tasks of identifying the ways the chemicals
can interact and defining cause-and-effect re-
lationships are more difficult.
In addition, there is a serious need to de-
fine the behavioral, developmental, and
aging effects from exposure to toxic agents.
Behavioral changes could be studied for pos-
sible use as sensitive indices of acute and
chronic toxicity. Developmental and aging
phe nomena may be of similar utility as indica-
tions of a toxic response. All of these areas
*For more information on the rates and risks of
cancer, refer to "Cancer Rates and Risks" pre-
pared by the National Cancer Institute (Ref. 3).
11
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help to refine our ability to identify for con-
trol those substances which are toxic to hu-
mans.
Controlling the problem
Industry releases waste into the air, water,
municipal sewage treatment systems, and
onto the land. The composition and quantity
of these substances depend on the industrial
process employed. For example, in the pro-
duction of copper, pollutants containing ar-
senic, cadmium, lead, and sulfur oxides pre-
dominate. Conversely, the meat processing
industry waste streams contain organic mate-
rials such as animal fats and organic nitrogen
compounds.
The amounts of toxic pollutants reaching
the environment will be reduced through the
application of "best available" control
technologies to air and water waste streams.
However, stringent control of air and water
pollutants also means that those pollutants
are converted to solid or liquid residuals.
These residuals must either be recycled or
dealt with through some form of land dis-
posal.
Current methods of disposal and recycling
of wastes and byproducts may ultimately
compound the health and ecological effects
of substances introduced into the environ-
ment. For instance, inadequate land disposal
techniques can lead to the assimilation of
toxic substances by plants. Pesticides or in-
dustrial wastes in uncontrolled runoff can
enter streams and be absorbed by aquatic or-
ganisms, shellfish, and finfish. These chemi-
cals can accumulate through the food chain to
affect higher order predators. Part of the rea-
son for banning the pesticide DDT, for
example, stemmed from its apparent role in
reducing the thickness of eggshells and,
hence, the survival rate of fish-eating birds.
The ability of various species, including
humans, to accumulate particular toxic mate-
rials is poorly known and should be carefully
investigated. To support this effort we need
to develop predictive tools to simulate the
dynamic physical, chemical, and biological in-
teractions of toxic substances after their re-
lease into the environment.
We must improve our knowledge of
sources of toxic substances formed by atmo-
spheric chemical reactions. For instance, we
should expand our attempts to determine if
carcinogenic or toxic materials such as ni-
trosamines are formed in the air above urban
industrialized areas. A combination of labo-
ratory and field experiments will probably be
required to connect the secondary atmo-
spheric sources of these materials, if found in
the atmosphere, to the primary emission
sources.
We have made significant progress in con-
trolling such water pollutants as oxygen-
depleting substances and nutrients. On the
other hand, our surveys are identifying hun-
dreds of toxic substances in surface and
groundwaters. Throughout the nation,
heavy metals, organic compounds, radioac-
tive materials, and other hazardous sub-
stances have been measured in both surface
and groundwater. These substances occur in
amounts ranging from trace levels to toxic
concentrations (Ref. 4, 5). This contamina-
tion is especially acute where the receiving
waters are subject to drainage from industrial
wastewater impoundments and solid waste
disposal areas (Ref. 4, 5). For a fuller discus-
sion, see the chapter on Nonpoint Sources and
Watersheds.
Once a body of water, especially ground-
water, is polluted with toxic materials, decon-
tamination using current technology is ex-
tremely expensive if not impossible. Two
prime examples of this are leachates from
coal mine tailings and organics in industrial
effluents—both serious and growing prob-
lems requiring additional development of
control technologies.
To prevent toxic substances from reaching
drinking water supplies, greater emphasis is
being placed on developing control technol-
ogies to remove toxic pollutants before they
Possible Ames Test Results
Positive
Agent appears mutagenic via
Ames test and is also found
to be mutagenic by other
tests.
Negative
Agent appears not to be
mutagenic via Ames tests,
other tests indicate that it is
not mutagenic.
False Positive
Agent appears mutagenic via
Ames tests, other tests (e.g.,
whole animal) indicate that it
is not a mutagen.
False Negative
Agent appears not to be
mutagenic via Ames test,
other tests, however, indicate
that it is, in fact, mutagenic.
False negatives are a problem because those mutagenicaliy active components, when tested by the Ames method
appear ncnmatagenic and, hence, are no longer considered important.
In these boassays, it is imperative to conduct a battery of tests, so that the chance of faise negatives occurring is
reduced, i.e., the Ames test may overlook a mutagen (fa'se negative), while a backup test would might not
12
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are discharged. One technique offering great
potential for reducing the amount and toxic-
ity of industrial effluents at minimum ex-
pense is process or feedstock modification.
Many existing industrial plants and processes
were developed with little or no concern for
the toxicity of their waste products. Some-
times relatively minor modifications to the
processes or the chemical feedstocks can re-
duce or eliminate a potentially severe effluent
problem. Additional research in this area
could produce dramatic results by reducing
pollution at a lower cost than for alternative
end-of-the-pipe technologies.
Toxic substances may also be released to
the environment as solid wastes. With recent
enactment of the Resource Conservation and
Recovery Act, research efforts are being initi-
ated to develop improved solid waste man-
agement techniques and to understand the
Predicted Discharge of Toxics to Water31975 to 1990
Toxic
Material
(Dissolved
Solids)
•-!?
W * '
f 3
i :
\ \
* ;
n
f:
1 '
l
Cadmium
Chromium
Lead
Mercury
Zinc
Aluminum
Copper
Cyanide
Ferrous Metals
Fluoride
Selenium
Titanium Oxidec
Titanium Oxided
>
170%
7%
45%
24%
1%
0%
149%
0%
- -
8%
0%
2%
2%
0%
0%
5%
17%
0%
0%b
29%
5%
4%
0%
9%
0%
33%
.».,,™a«3SiS:
0%
0%
0%
0%
«iaii:tst*K*i
47%
18%
•I/
'Data are 1990 va'ues as pe-cent of 1975
values
Dissolved solids
movement of hazardous substances through
the environment. The Solid Waste chapter
discusses this problem in detail.
The research response
Five areas of research emerge as key to
identifying and controlling toxic substances:
—improve screening tests,
—conduct historical health analyses,
—determine how pollutants travel and
where they end up,
—identify human exposure to toxic pollut-
ants, and
—identify improved control methods.
Improve screening tests. We must im-
prove techniques for rapid screening of toxic
substances, especially for mutagenic and car-
cinogenic effects. Substances which cause
these effects are among the most dangerous
to our health and the viability—survival—of
future generations. We must know for cer-
tain what and where these substances are.
The Ames test, a relatively well established
measure of mutagenicity, is expected to be
validated by the \ational Cancer Institute in
1978. However, this is but one of several tests
that can determine the biological hazard of a
substance.
Another method for testing the mutagenic-
ity of substances is to expose living organisms
to these substances and monitor their re-
sponse. Such testing on whole animals and
cellular material should be improved both in
terms of accuracy and costs. To relate these
approaches more directly to human health
concerns, the use of test cultures employing
human cells should be emphasized. In addi-
tion, short-term tests for substances which
cause birth defects and other reproductive
effects should be developed.
Determine historical health effects pat-
terns. Systematic investigation of exposures
and effects based on historical data provides a
way to check the toxicity of a substance based
upon the health records of individuals who
have been exposed to that substance.
Epidemiological data—from hospital admit-
tance, diagnosis, and post-mortem
examination—may be used to identify exist-
ing dangers from exposure to different toxic
substances. Correlations of such data—
confirmed by surveys of occupational or en-
vironmental exposures, studies of tissue bur-
dens, and disease analysis—will help not only
to identify sensitive populations but also to as-
sure an adequate margin of safety to protect
the general population. Development of ex-
posure effects correlations based on historical
13
-------
data may be facilitated using the UPGRADE sys-
tem described in the chapter on Measurement
and Monitoring.
Investigate how pollutants travel. In most
cases, accurate knowledge about what hap-
pens to a toxic substance after it enters an
ecosystem—how it travels through and is
changed in the environment—is not now
available. The problem is extremely complex.
The routes and transformations of toxic sub-
stances, especially in the aquatic environ-
ment, and the resulting exposure of humans
and other living creatures require further
understanding.
Toxic wastes can be concentrated in the
food chain. For example, mercury and cad-
mium levels in fish, shellfish, and their preda-
tors are far higher than the levels in their
food or surroundings. To better understand
this process of bioaccumulation, indicator
species—species whose response to specific
toxic substances is well known—should be
identified and monitored. Profiles of how-
selected "benchmark" chemicals behave in
the environment should be developed to
predict how related chemicals act under simi-
lar conditions.
Identify human exposure. To protect hu-
mans from toxic substances we should iden-
tify the type of substances in the environment
and quantify the level of exposure currently
encountered. To do this, we will have to con-
duct many tests to identify toxic substance
residues and metabolites in human and ani-
mal tissues. Since people are exposed to toxic
substances via many routes, we must obtain
chemical analyses of samples from all of those
environments—indoor, outdoor, automo-
bile, etc.—which people frequent.
The effects of exposure to environmental
chemicals on human development, aging,
and behavior should also be better under-
stood. Damage during the stages of human
development from prenatal to old age may
result in irreversible effects. Short-term tests
are needed to determine the influence of
toxic chemicals in developmental and de-
generative diseases.
Identify improved control methods.
Given the ability to identify toxic levels of pol-
lutants and to trace them back through the
ecosystem—the air, water and food we
use—to their sources, we can then begin to
control the sources. Where current
technologies either fail to control certain sub-
stances or create secondary pollutants of their
own, we will have to go further. For example,
many wastewater treatment technologies now
in use fail to remove toxic metals to an ade-
quate degree. Improved control technologies
such as sulfide precipitation should be de-
veloped to reduce the discharge of such met-
als. Other alternatives, such as changing the
processes which produce the pollutant,
should also be developed. For example, elec-
troplating processes which do not require
cyanide or hexavalent chromium (two highly
toxic substances) should be investigated.
Once a toxic substance has been released
and has contaminated the environment,
other approaches must be used to limit
human exposure. For example, some toxic
metals and organic chemicals may settle and
concentrate in river bottoms, in soils adjacent
to manufacturing facilities, and in poorly de-
signed or managed landfills. Further re-
search is necessary into methods to contain,
detoxify, or recover for recycling such mate-
rials from their current hazardous state in the
environment.
14
-------
Potential Chemical Carcinogens
15
-------
William Shakespeare
1564-1616
Hamlet
-------
Air pollution
Goals
The goals of the national air pollution re-
search efforts are to improve our under-
standing of the formation and transport of
atmospheric aerosol pollutants, the poten-
tially serious risks that these aerosols pre-
sent to the public health and the environ-
ment, and the possible alternatives for re-
ducing human exposures to these pervasive
pollutants.
Atmospheric aerosols will likely preoccupy
much of the attention of the nation's scientists
who conduct research on air pollution. We
have, during the past two decades, developed
reasonable confidence in our understanding
of how the major gaseous pollutants such as
carbon monoxide, sulfur oxides, nitrogen
oxides, and ozone are formed and how they
affect human health. We also know that these
gases react chemically in the "chemical soup"
of the atmosphere, often to form aerosols.
We are now focusing increased effort on the
complex of the secondary (formed in the at-
mosphere) aerosols which are found in the air
throughout the country.
Because of the apparent complexity of the
atmospheric chemistry involved, we cannot
fully characterize these aerosols. We do know
that they are fine bits of matter, often contain-
ing solids, liquids, and gases at the same time.
We also know that the gaseous pollutants,
especially sulfur and nitrogen oxides, are im-
portant chemical precursors to these
aerosols. A simplified view of one set of reac-
tions which occur is that the sulfur and nitro-
gen oxides are oxidized in air and react with
water to form acids which, in turn, react with
metallic particulate pollutants to form com-
plex sulfates and nitrates. If the polluted air
mass is involved in precipitation, the water-
soluble acids may appear in the rain or snow.
Of course, few things in nature are that sim-
ple, especially when reactive hydrocarbons
and the photochemical oxidants which they
produce are added to the mixture.
The result of our improved understanding
of the complex interactions in the atmo-
sphere is that we must continue to focus on
providing adequate control of the sources of
the gaseous pollutants—power plants, indus-
trial plants, automobiles, and trucks. At the
same time, we must sharpen our understand-
ing of what the reaction products are, where
they go, and how they affect people, agricul-
tural crops, forests, and the natural environ-
ment.
Sources and trends
The major sources of sulfur oxides are
power plants burning coal with high sulfur
content. Industrial boilers and nonferrous
smelters are other important contributors.
Nationwide emissions of sulfur dioxide have
been dropping due primarily to the shift to-
ward oil, natural gas and coals with lower sul-
fur content. However, even with sulfur
dioxide scrubbers on new power plants,
nationwide sulfur dioxide emissions are pro-
jected to rise during the next 12 years. As dis-
cussed in the Environmental Futures chapter,
this increase is due to the massive shift to coal
in the utility and industrial sectors.
Power plants and industrial boilers are also
responsible for a major share of the particu-
late emissions and about half of the nitrogen
oxide emissions. Particulate emissions have
been dropping and should continue to drop,
with the installation of improved electrostatic
precipitators, wet scrubbers, and baghouses.
at least through 1985. Because coal is a much
dirtier fuel than oil or gas, however, particu-
late emissions may turn up again beyond
1985, meaning that we will have to continue
to investigate the role of particles in air pollu-
tion chemistry and health effects. As far as air
pollution chemistry is concerned, it appears
that the fine particles (those smaller than
three microns) are more likely to be involved
in chemical reactions. These small particles
are also more likely to be direct causes of re-
spiratory problems because they can be in-
haled deeply into the lungs. Further, recent
work has indicated that some of this fly ash
gives positive results in the Ames screening
tests for mutagenicity. Unfortunately, cur-
rently used precipitators and scrubbers allow
many of the fine particles to escape.
Nitrogen oxide emissions, which come
from the combustion of fossil fuels and are
split evenly between transportation and
boiler sources, have leveled off in recent vears
due to the economic slowdown and automo-
tive control measures. Unfortunately, pro-
jections indicate that nitrogen oxide emis-
sions are beginning to grow again and may be
up 25 percent by 1985. Although some of the
immediate increase is due to delays in apply-
ing more stringent controls on automobiles,
the overriding factor in the increase is the
growth in the utility sector and the shift in
that sector toward coal. Coal-fired boilers re-
lease three to six times as much nitrogen
oxides as do oil and gas-fired boilers. Unfor-
tunately, there are not nou at hand control
techniques to reduce markedly the nitrogen
oxides from coal-fired boilers, although cer-
tain combustion modification techniques are
17
-------
Urban Sulfate Concentrations
Legend:
Q] < 7Mg/m3
Q 7.0-13.0 /ig''m3
I > 13.0/ug/m3
Nonurban Sulfate Concentrations
Source U S Environmental Proleciion Agency. 1975
IS
-------
showing great promise in early laboratory
tests.
Carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons,
which come primarily from incomplete com-
bustion in car and truck engines, have been
decreasing and will continue to do so with the
application of the catalytic converters. Hy-
drocarbon emissions from fugitive industrial
sources (such as evaporation, leaks, and spills)
may turn out to be a problem in some areas.
The potentially rapid penetration of
diesel-powered cars and light trucks into the
United States market—up to 25 percent by
1990—raises another problem which must be
considered in this context (Ref. 1). Relative to
automobiles equipped with catalysts, light-
duty diesel engines would emit much more
Air Pollutant Emission Trends
Legend ^Stationary source E.:J Mobile source
Source US Environmental Protection Agency, 1976
fine paniculate matter (diesel soot) which
consists of unburned hydrocarbons and the
products of partial combustion attached to
micron-scale particles of carbon. EPA re-
search has indicated that some of the prod-
ucts give positive results in the Ames tests for
mutagenicity.
Taken altogether, these developments in-
dicate that, while progress is being made in
controlling some air pollutants, projected
growth in other air pollutants coupled with
our expanded knowledge of atmospheric
transformation and transport raises serious
concerns about regional air quality degrada-
tion and the associated health effects. These
trends help to focus our attention on the
problems of widespread secondarv. espe-
cially aerosol, air pollution.
We are already concentrating on the com-
plex relationship between sulfur dioxide
emissions and atmospheric sulfates. Recent
field studies by EPA indicate that sulfur
dioxide in power plant plumes is convened to
sulfates over long distances (100 to 500
kilometers). Thus, the effect of sulfur dioxide
pollution may be felt over a broad area.
Recent measurements of sulfate concen-
trations give general support to this observa-
tion. Sulfate concentrations in cities east of
the Mississippi tend to be high, with the high-
est readings recorded in cities lying in a band
from New York to Chicago. While sulfate
concentrations in rural areas are typically
somewhat lower, they are considerably ele-
vated across the eastern half of the countrv,
with the Mid-Atlantic and industrial Midwest
most affected. In fact, when weather patterns
are taken into account, the areas with the
highest rural sulfate concentrations appear to
be 'downwind' from the most intense urban
and industrial sources of sulfur dioxide.
Although sulfate concentrations west of
the Mississippi River are relatively low, the ef-
fect of the sulfate aerosol on visibility in that
region has become a major issue. One of our
most important recent discoveries is that the
atmospheric particles in the size range of 0.1
to 1.0 micron are largely responsible for light
scattering and, thus, for visibility deg-
radation. With the rapid growth of coal-fired
power plants which is projected for the West,
there is a real potential for decreased visibil-
ity, in the vicinity of national parks and other
scenic vistas, due to sulfates and fine particles
coming from coal combustion.
One recent graphic example of the effect
of sulfates on visibility involves another im-
portant source of sulfur oxides in the South-
west. During a strike at copper smelters in the
Southwest, the smelters were shut down for
19
-------
nine months. As a result, sulfate levels were
38 to 75 percent below seasonal averages. Vis-
ibility measurements at airports in the region
improved by 5 to 25 percent.
There is also growing evidence that nitro-
gen oxides and photochemical oxidanis may
be following the same general trend—
conversion and transport over considerable
distance. Recent studies have indicated that
nitrogen oxides may be emerging as an im-
portant precursor to nitric acid which is in-
creasingly showing up in precipitation in New-
England, far from the dominant combustion
sources in the industrial Midwest.
\Ve must improve our understanding of
the dynamics of transport and transforma-
tion of the atmospheric aerosol and fine par-
ticulate complex. Field studies should be ex-
panded to improve our knowledge of how
sulfur and nitrogen oxides are oxidized to
acidic chemicals and how other atmospheric
pollutants interact with them in the aerosols.
Effects on health
The aerosol complex may have more seri-
ous effects on human health than the sulfur
and nitrogen oxides in gaseous form. Nitro-
gen dioxide has been associated with acute ef-
fects in sufferers of respirator) disease, even
for short exposures, while sulfur dioxide has
been associated with asthma attacks. More
serious problems may result from exposure
to the fine aerosols and particles since they
penetrate deeply into the air sacs (alveoli) of
the lungs.
\Ve must expand our lexicological, clinical,
and epidemiological studies to better under-
stand the effects of the aerosols. Continued
attention must be focused on the acute effects
of the aerosols in the respiratory system. In
addition, it is essential to rapidly expand in-
vestigations on other potential effects—both
chronic and acute—which may result from
aerosols. If the aerosols carry harmful, in-
cluding carcinogenic, materials into the lungs
the long-term consequences could be much
more serious.
Carcinogenicity has been associated with
some organic compounds, especially some
polycyclic and heterocyclic hydrocarbons,
which have been found in the atmosphere. As
mentioned before, organic compounds ad-
sorbed on the carbon particles in diesel
exhaust have exhibited positive mutagenic
effects in the Ames screening test. These sub-
stances may prove to cause cancers in animals
which are now being subjected to inhalation
tests. If so, a careful assessment of the risks
which may be associated with human expo-
sure to diesel soot will have to be made. In
parallel, systematic studies of other potential
atmospheric carcinogens must be expanded
to determine if there are long-term effects
which do not show up for years after expo-
sure. These investigations should include not
only lexicological studies of suspected chemi-
cals using cellular and whole animal tests but
also retrospeclive epidemiological sludies of
populalions such as industrial workers who
may have been exposed lo the chemicals 20 to
30 years before.
Examples of Carcinogenic Air Pollutant Structures
Compound
Structure
Carcinogenic Activity
Benzo (a) pyrene
Chrysene
Benzo (b) fluoranthene
(Benz (e) acephenanthrylene)
Indeno (1,2,3-cd) pyrene
Dibenz (a, h) acridine
Dibenz (a, i) acridine
ofio
Highly carcinogenic in animals (9 species)
(oral, skin, intratracheal)
Weakly carcinogenic in mice (skin, subcutaneous)
Carcinogenic in mice (skin, subcutaneous)
Highly carcinogenic to mice (skin)
(Carcinogen in mice (skin, subcutaneous)
Very weakly carcinogenic in mice (skin.
subcutaneous)
Source: Kornreich, M. R.. 19?5.
20
-------
Controlling aerosol sources
Because they are formed largely in the at-
mosphere, aerosols are going to present a
more complex control problem. The ap-
proach taken to date has been simply to con-
trol, as well as possible, the major precursors
to the aerosols—sulfur and nitrogen oxides,
hydrocarbons, and particulates. While this
may be adequate in most cases, serious health
threats from certain aerosols may require
more restrictive control measures.
Diesel soot may represent one of these
cases. Changes in the engine design or
operating conditions may give adequate re-
ductions; control devices may also be re-
quired. But this represents a more classical
case—potential for enhanced control at the
source.
Two other situations may also arise to chal-
lenge our ingenuity and engineering skills. If
industrial hydrocarbons are found to interact
in the atmosphere to produce carcinogens,
then it may be necessary to tighten up con-
trols on fugitive emissions of the more
dangerous precursors. If the long-term ef-
fects of metallic sulfates and nitrates turn out
to be serious, then control measures for sul-
fur and nitrogen oxides may be required. Al-
ternative control strategies will have to be
carefully considered because of the serious
economic implications of such steps.
Sizes of Typical Airborne Particles
Fine I Coarse
0.01 0,1
Micrometers
10 100
1000
Source: U. S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1977.
Airborne Particles: Distribution and Inhalation
c b
:
Fine
Particles
Lung Deposition
(Efficiency)
Coarse
Particles
Ambient Mass
(Probability Density)
(Mass of various sized
particles in ambient
air
I Degree ol particle
entrapment
Conceptualized plot
based on limited data.
01 0.5
Particle Diameter (Micrometers)
10
21
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Ralph Waldo Emerson
Conduct of Life (1860)
-------
Energy and the environment
Goals
The goals of the national energy-related en-
vironmental research and development ef-
forts are to understand the health and en-
vironmental impacts which could result
from increased domestic energy production
and use and to take the steps required to pro-
tect public health and the natural environ-
ment. These goals encompass our domestic
energy resources (coal, oil, gas, nuclear,
solar, geothermal, etc.) and both existing
and new methods for energy processing and
conversion.
Availability of affordable energy became a
serious national concern in the wake of the
energy crisis of 1973. Uncertainties in reli-
ability of energy supply, growth rates, fuel
prices, and pollution control requirements
created a climate of conflict among many
interest groups, especially between those fa-
voring either energy development or en-
vironmental protection. The development of
the National Energy Plan and strong Presi-
dential and Congressional commitment to
environmental protection now offer a
framework for reconciling the differences
between development and protection inter-
ests.
Although the National Energy Plan seeks
to reduce the rate of energy consumption
through energy conservation, energy use in
the United States is still expected to increase
by two-thirds between now and the year 2000
(Ref. 1, 2). Dominating this trend would be
electric power generation using coal and nu-
clear energy. Other energy sources, such as
oil shale and geothermal energy, would come
into play with associated potential for en-
vironmental degradation. Gaseous and liquid
fuels derived from coal would pick up part of
the supply shortfall for transportation and
residential uses. Finally, use of renewable re-
sources such as solar and wind energy could
offer some dramatic environmental benefits.
EPA plays a major role in Federal energy-
related environmental research and de-
velopment, both as coordinator of the
SlOO-million-per-year Interagency Energy/
Environment R&D Program and through its
own resarch into health effects, environmen-
tal impacts, and control techniques of energy
systems. Since this research program was ini-
tiated in 1975, our major focus has been on
assessing—and mitigating—the effects of in-
creased coal use.
Energy extraction
Coal mined in the United States may nearly
double by 1985 and triple by the year 2000
(Ref. 3). Clearly, if major environmental
damage is to be avoided, environmental prob-
lems created by such mining must be iden-
tified and suitable control techniques re-
quired.
For coal mining in Appalachia, many en-
vironmentally protective measures have been
developed. The new Surface Mining Control
and Reclamation Act will accelerate use of
these techniques. Assessments of the degree
of the environmental protection afforded by
these approaches must be carried out. One
remaining problem is the characterization
and control of toxic materials in mine drain-
age and runoff. Another major, and possibly
intractable, problem is the control of acid
mine drainage from closed underground
mines.
Western coal mining, on the other hand,
represents a more difficult situation because
of the low rainfall, high winds, erosion poten-
tial, and the delicate balance of the surface
and groundwater regimes in western mining
locations. Rapid growth of mining in the
West, without adequate protection, could
threaten the integrity of fragile ecosystems,
groundwater aquifers, and air and water
quality. It is important that research efforts
continue to keep pace with coal development
in that region and that new information and
techniques be quickly applied to enhance en-
vironmental protection.
Other energy resources produced by sur-
face mining activities in the West include oil
shale and uranium. Both mining—and the
associated processing steps—can lead to con-
tamination of surface and groundwater. Spe-
cial problems include runoff from spent shale
landfills and solvents used in leaching
uranium. Both of these problems require
special research attention.
Conventional combustion
The National Energy Plan calls for the ex-
pansion of annual coal use from the current
635 million metric tons to more than 900 mil-
lion metric tons by 1985, with the massive in-
creases coming primarily in the utility and in-
dustrial sectors. The strong emphasis on con-
servation in the Plan and the application of
stringent environmental controls will tend to
minimize environmental degradation, but
with such large increases in coal uses emis-
sions of nitrogen and sulfur oxides from coal
combustion are projected to rise above cur-
rent levels by 1985. With increased fossil fuel
combustion, COs emissions will increase ac-
cordingly. The chapter on Global Pollution
addresses the CO2 buildup problem.
As a result of the Clean Air Act amend-
ments of 1977, EPA is currently revising
23
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Electrical Generation Capacity: Year 1970
• 0.5 To 1 Gigawatt (GW)
• 1 To 3 GW
• 3To9GW
• 9To20GW
Year 2000
0.5 To 1 Gigawatt (GW)
1 To 3 GW
3To9GW
9To20GW
Source Council an Environmental Quality. 1976.
24
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Energy Supply Projections
Energy Source
Coal
Domestic Oil
Oil Shale
Oil Imports
Domestic Gas
Gas Imports
Nuclear
Solar
(except Biomass)
Geothermal
Hydropower
Biomass
Total
1975
15.3*
20.7
12.8
18.6
1.0
1.8
3.0
73.2
1985
Plan**
28.2
21.8
.3
13.3
17.6
1.8
7.6
.2
.3
3.1
94.2
Pre-Plan
23.9
18.7
1.1
24.3
17.8
3.0
7.4
.1
.2
3.1
99.6
2000
Plan
44.9
17.9
2.9
13.0
15.4
1.1
18.7
1.8
2.7
3.6
1.5
123.5
Pre-Plan
38.0
18.0
3.0
28.2
14.2
3.4
25.0
1.4
2.5
3.6
1.5
138.8
Notes:
* Data expressed in Quads
"The National Energy Plan
Plan Source: U.S. Energy Research
and Development Administration,
1977.
Utility and Industrial Combustion Problems
Pollutant
Sulfur
Dioxide
Nitrogen
Oxides
Participates
Hazardous
Materials
Present
Standard
New Source
Performance
Standards and
Ambient Air
Quality
Standard
(health-related)
New Source
Performance
Standards and
Ambient Air
Quality
Standard
(health-related)
New Source
Performance
Standards and
Ambient Air
Quality
Standard
(health-related)
Control
Technology
Coal cleaning
Rue gas
desulfurization
Combustion
modification
Flue gas
treatment
Electrostatic
precipitators
Baghouses
Wet scrubbers
Novel devices
Undefined
Status
First generation
demonstration
First generation in full
scale demonstration
Second generation in
bench and/or pilot
scale
Commercial for some
new units
Pilot scale and
demonstration in
Japan
Commercial
First generation
demonstration
First generation
commercial, second
generation full scale
demonstration
Bench or pilot scale
Undefined
Secondary
Residuals
High-sulfur
refuse
Sludge, purge
streams
Possibly more
particufates
and carbon
monoxide
Varies with
process
Fly ash
Undefined
Needed Research
Eliminate secondary pollution
Demonstrate practicability
Broaden applicability
Eliminate secondary pollution
Improve reliability
Broaden applicability
Improve energy efficiency
Broaden source applicability
Improve energy efficiency
Improve nitrogen oxides control
efficiency (only 30% for combustion
modification)
Minimize impact of residual pollution
Improve cost-effective fine paniculate
matter control
Broaden applicability
Develop novel devices with improved
capability
Problem requires definition
Source: Princiotta, F T., 1977.
25
-------
Energy Technologies
Technology
Gasification
Liquefaction
Fluidized-Bed
Combustion
Oil Shale
Nuclear
Fission
Fusion
Geothermal
Solar
Status
Low-energy process in use in
Europe. High-energy process to
be available in the 1990s.
Solvent refined coal process near
commercialization. Availability of
other processes expected about
1990.
Pilot plants being tested.
Availability expected in the
1990s.
Pilot plant in operation.
Availability of surface and in situ
processes expected in 1985.
In use. Plutonium reprocessing,
waste solidification, and
potentials for armament
proliferation under study.
In early testing stage. A 21st
century technology.
In use. Increased application
expected in the 1990s.
Heating of buildings
commercialized. Cooling of
buildings and biomass fuels
expected in the 1980s. Availability
of thermal electric technology
project for the 21st century.
Demonstration of Ocean Thermal
Energy Conversion expected by
1985. Production of clean fuels
from biomass, post-1 990.
Environmental Concerns
On-site subsidence.
Air and water contamination.
Air and water contamination.
Thermal pollution. Disposal of
spent sorbent. Air and water
contamination.
Disposal of overburden and
spent shale. Air and water
contamination.
Radioactive waste disposal.
Water contamination. Thermal
pollution.
Decommissioned reactors.
Radioactive wastes.
Subsidence. Noise. Air and water
contamination. Thermal pollution.
Toxicity of working fluids.
Land and water use. Climatic
change. Marine pollution.
26
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emission standards for coal-fired power
plants. These standards are likely to require
improved control of sulfur dioxide, nitrogen
oxides, and particulates. Also, EPA antici-
pates establishing standards for industrial
boilers. However, higher efficiency, lower-
cost control technologies may be required for
utility and industrial combustion facilities.
This is especially true for nitrogen oxides.
Fortunately, EPA research has recently
shown that nitrogen oxides from combustion
can be reduced by as much as 80 percent by
"combustion modifications" (lowering the
combustion temperature, limiting the
amount of oxygen available, and regulating
the way the fuel and air mix) in the boiler.
Fundamental research on the chemical and
aerodynamic mechanisms involved in com-
bustion can help us understand how nitrogen
oxides are formed and how they may be con-
trolled without increasing emissions of other
pollutants. Research into new low nitrogen
oxide designs for combustion equipment, al-
ternative fuels, and advanced combustion
concepts may make it possible to burn coal
cleanly and more efficiently during the next
decade. EPA must work closely with the De-
partment of Energy and the private sector to
advance such approaches and to assure that
other less understood problems (e.g., emis-
sions of trace elements and polycyclic organic
materials) are not overlooked.
Emerging energy technologies
To lessen the nation's dependence oti pe-
troleum and natural gas, the Department of
Energy has launched a multibillion dollar
technology research, development, and
demonstration program. Substantial funds
are also being expended in this effort by the
private sector. Receiving major emphasis are
technologies which will facilitate the use of
abundant fossil fuels such as fluidized bed
combustion of coal, the conversion of coal
into synthetic liquid and gaseous fuels, and in
situ retorting of oil shale. Without proper
controls, such emerging energy technologies
could threaten public health and the envi-
ronment. In many cases these technologies
produce pollutants quite different and po-
tentially more harmful than those generated
by current generation coal-fired boilers. The
development efforts must be accompanied by
careful monitoring of available pilot and
demonstration facilities by EPA researchers.
Concurrently, we need to evaluate the
adequacy of available control technology.
Assessments of the environmental impacts
of geothermal and renewable resource
technologies are also required to avoid future
problems.
Finally, determination of exposures to, and
effects of, energy-related pollutants on
human health is necessary to establish am-
bient and emission control standards to pro-
tect public health. Knowledge of aquatic and
terrestrial impacts of energy use is also neces-
sary to set criteria which will protect the natu-
ral environment.
-------
Theodore Roosevelt
1858-1919
Message to Congress, 1907
-------
Solid waste
Goals
The goals of the solid waste research effort
are to determine the risks associated with
the handling and disposal of toxic solid
waste and to develop means of adequately
protecting public health by isolating the
toxic materials from the environment,
detoxifying the wastes before disposal, or
recovering the energy and mineral content
of the waste for recycling.
In the United States, we are now producing
over five billion metric tons of solid waste*
each year. This waste is expected to increase
substantially over the next two decades, as
pointed out in the Environmental Futures chap-
ter. Further, as the projections indicate, all
types of solid waste will increase. This can be
easily understood when we consider that a
rapidly increasing proportion of the waste
materials which once were dumped into the
air and water are now being controlled and
converted to solid or semisolid forms such as
sludges.
Of concern are the hazardous materials in
industrial solid wastes. This now amounts to
10 to 30 million metric tons (dry weight) an-
nually (Ref. 1), an amount that will increase
by 30 percent within the next 15 years (Ref.
2>-
Public health is directly affected by the dis-
posal of solid waste (Ref. 3). The traditional
dumps and open landfills—to be prohibited
under the Resource Conservation and Re-
covery Act—have served as breeding
grounds for rats, files, and other disease car-
riers. Leachate from landfills often contains
high concentrations of organic and inorganic
materials that can seriously pollute surface
and groundwater. The use of landfills for
disposal of industrial wastes containing haz-
ardous materials heightens immensely the
concern for adequate environmental protec-
tion measures. Recent studies have revealed
that some of these hazardous wastes have
been inadequately disposed of and are leak-
ing, in high concentrations, into areas where
people may be exposed.
The current Agency strategy places the
highest priority on development of disposal
technology and management criteria for haz-
ardous and industrial wastes, followed in turn
by wastewater treatment sludges, municipal
solid waste, and mining and agricultural
wastes.
* Solid waste results from consumer activities, in-
dustrial processes, the harvesting of crops and
forests, and the development of mineral and
energy resources. It also results from efforts to
abate air and water pollution.
Resource conservation and recovery
through in-plant process changes, recycling,
and waste exchange offer important alterna-
tives to our traditional patterns of waste man-
agement. Since the potential energy and re-
source savings from recovering wastes may be
significant, such efforts now have high na-
tional priority. Exchange of wastes between
two or more waste generating plants may, in
some cases, offer an innovative solution such
as waste neutralization or production of ben-
eficial byproducts.
Mining waste causes environmental dam-
age, although such waste is often generated in
remote areas and does not generally cause
health problems. Notable exceptions include
severe localized problems created by poor
disposal practices for radioactive materials
and coal washing waste.
Waste from agricultural and forestry ac-
tivities, especially when concentrated and
improperly managed, can result in runoff of
large quantities of dissolved and solid mate-
rials into surface waters, thereby seriously
degrading water quality. In some watersheds,
nutrients in such runoff can be the major
cause of eutrophication. Runoff of pesticide
contaminants can also pose hazards to ani-
mals and humans. Thus, disposal practices
for agricultural and forestry wastes are
closely linked to the broader problem of con-
trolling water pollution from nonpoint
sources.
The variety of problems confronted in
dealing with solid waste makes it difficult to
generalize. One source may require recycling
and reuse. Another may require treatment
technology, while still others may have to fol-
low Best Management Practices.
Industrial solid wastes
Of the five to ten percent of industrial
wastes which are potentially hazardous, over
90 percent are inadequately managed at
present (Ref. 2). Growth trends indicate that
the amounts of potentially hazardous wastes
will increase by over 30 percent in the next
decade, due largely to the wider use of air and
water pollution control equipment (Ref. 2).
At present, only two percent of potentially
hazardous waste is recovered (Ref. 1), but
there appears to be a potential for recovery of
several scarce metals. As the quantity of haz-
ardous waste increases, the need for recycling
and other advanced waste management
technologies will become increasingly impor-
tant. Careful attention will have to be given to
the more than 90 percent of waste now inad-
equately managed.
29
-------
Municipal wastewater sludge
Sludges from municipal wastewater treat-
ment plants will double over the next 15
years. The composition of municipal sludges
now varies widely from city to city, depending
on the local mix of commercial and industrial
activities. How the composition will change in
the future depends on a number of local con-
trol decisions, which will affect the contami-
nation of sludge with metals, organic wastes,
pesticides, etc. One contaminant of current
concern is cadmium, especially if the sludge is
to be applied to land. If cadmium enters the
human food chain, it may be accumulated in
the liver and kidneys. Other metals of con-
cern in sludge include copper, molybdenum,
mercury, lead, and selenium, although these
metals are usually found in much lower con-
centrations.
In addition to metals, some pathogenic
bacteria and viruses show up in the sludge.
Although some bacteria do not appear to
present a health risk because they die when
exposed to the environment, some viruses
persist for long periods in some soils and may
move into surface or groundwater. The ex-
tent, if any, of this threat must be determined.
In addition to disposal by land application,
sewage sludge may be combusted to reduce
significantly the solids while producing heat.
Since some sludge has high levels of toxic sub-
stances, it is necessary to know the concentra-
tion of these substances in both the air and
residual discharge streams. Techniques, such
as pretreatment of industrial wastes before
mixing with the municipal wastewater
streams, may be required to reduce toxic sub-
stances in the sludge to lower the possibility of
secondary pollution.
Residential, commercial, and
institutional waste
Municipal solid waste contains the discards
of both the residential and commercial sec-
tors, including such potentially hazardous
materials as pesticide containers, solvents,
and paints. Discards from hospitals may add
pathogens and viruses to municipal refuse.
Some industrial waste containing such pol-
lutants as mercury, lead, polychlorinated
biphenyls and asbestos also find their way
into municipal waste.
As municipal waste increases and land use
becomes more important, new techniques
will be needed to contain hazardous wastes.
Further, it will become increasingly impor-
tant to reclaim metals and the heat value in
the waste which, in turn, will reduce contami-
nation at land disposal sites.
Mining and metallurgical
solid wastes
To%late, more than 1.6 million hectares (4
million acres) of land have been disturbed by
mining. Only 40 percent of this land has been
reclaimed (Ref. 4). In addition to destruction
of land forms, farm and range land, and
wildlife habitats, mining activities can also
lead to the degradation of stream and
groundwater quality. Thousands of kilome-
ters of streams, especially in Appalachia, are
already polluted by acids and heavy metals
discharged from waste piles and tailings. In
many cases, runoff and leachates from mine
waste contain dissolved solids that degrade
water used for irrigation, especially in the
West. Groundwater has also been polluted by
leachates from mining wastes. Phosphate and
other mining and processing plants some-
times discharge nutrients resulting in disrup-
tive "blooms" of aquatic vegetation. Finally,
some reagents such as cyanide, mercury, and
arsenic used in the beneficiation of ores have
both ecological and health impacts.
Increased extraction of uranium to meet
energy needs will expand the number and
size of tailings areas. Radioactive pollutants
from uranium mining and milling, and to a
lesser extent from phosphate and lignite
mines, pose definite health hazards (Ref. 5, 6)
unless carefully managed. Energy-related
solid waste research requirements are dis-
cussed in the Energy and the Environment
chapter.
Solid Waste (1976)
Metric
Tons/Year
(dry)
Sewage
treatment
sludge
Residential,
commercial and
industrial
Industrial
Agricultural
Mining
Source
Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1977.
30
-------
Many of the research efforts required to
identify and solve the problems of nonfuel
mineral extraction are similar to those as-
sociated with energy resource extraction.
However, the presence of much larger quan-
tities of toxic materials in nonfuel mineral
mining can lead to severe local problems
which require special attention. These are
now being addressed in a preliminary way by
the efforts led by the Department of Interior
to develop a Federal nonfuel minerals policy.
Increased research will likely by required to
answer the questions raised by the ongoing
studies.
Agricultural and silvicultural
wastes
Although agricultural and silvicultural re-
O o
siduals are widely dispersed throughout the
nation, they can have serious local environ-
mental implications. Unless farming and for-
estry practices markedly change, these re-
siduals will increase significantly following
growth in the agricultural and silvicultural
sectors. For example, agricultural outputs
above the current levels are projected to grow
15 percent by 1985 and 50 percent by 2010.
Local impacts may, in fact, be exacerbated
by certain shifts which are now taking place,
e.g., shifts to larger animal feedlots and off-
site disposal of manure and other wastes.
Currently, 200 million hectares (494 mil-
lion acres) in the United States are in forests
managed primarily for the production of
timber. About 23 million metric tons of debris
from timber harvesting are left each year. Al-
though some of the debris should be re-
turned to the soil, much of the remainder
must be disposed of or utilized. With an in-
crease in demand for roundwood and saw-
timber products, there will be a measurable
decrease in forest land by 1990. The shortfall
will likely be offset through intensive forest
management of available land. Increased
production from this land will generate more
residues with the attendant problems of dis-
posal or utilization.
Conversion of residues from agriculture
and silviculture to animal feed or to products
for uses such as composting for soil enrich-
ment have been partially successful but need
further study. Other resource recovery ap-
proaches include production of oil and gas
from such residues.
Even though techniques are often available
for solving many of the problems involving
farming and forestry wastes, the real chal-
lenge is to link the technological solution with
the problem. Dispersed pollution sources re-
quire innovative combinations of engineer-
ing, economics, and institutional factors.
Projected U.S. Discharge of Solid Waste (Percentagesof 1975levels)
/
.
'
Source
Iron and Steel
Nonferrous Metals
Pulp and Paper
Chemicals
Electric Utilities
Petroleum and Natural
Gas
Food Processing
Coal Mining
All Other Sources
(including Oil Shale)
Total Output
Noncombustible
Wastes
1985 1990
180%
220%
150%
130%
160%
140%
200%
170%
190%
270%
150%
1 50%
140%
140%
260%
180%
Mining
Wastes
1985 1990
190%
660%
310%
210%
1490%
550%
Industrial
Sludges
1985 1990
150%
160%
1 50%
390%
1 70%
1 50%
500%
250%
160%
170%
160%
440%
180%
160%
820%
300%
Municipal
Sludges
1985 1990
180%
200%
jffnVPHHHUHWWVM* . -*•**.*- -~ ; ^,^.~^,^w,-^ . ~™-—
- ' , , ,- •-,-».» , , ..Jr
Blank space indicates data not available. Values relative to 1975 levels.
Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1978.
31
-------
Ernest Hemingway
1899-1961
foe Mjom fhe Bell Tolls. 1940
-------
Global pollution
Goals
The goals of the global pollution research
efforts are to understand the dynamic global
processes within the biosphere and to de-
velop the capability to predict the movement
and changes of pollutants in the biosphere
and the impacts of these pollutants on
human health, ecosystems, and the climate.
With adequate predictive capability, control
of pollutants which pose threats to a health-
ful earth can be undertaken.
Until recently, pollution control has fo-
cused on urban and regional problems. How-
ever, concern is now being expressed about
the global environment. The importance of
protecting global resources is evident—we
can neither easily repair, nor move away
from, an unhealthful earth.
The most widely recognized worldwide en-
vironmental problems are marine pollution,
carbon dioxide increases and ozone deple-
tion. Our research role is to work closely with
the relevant Federal agencies to provide an
understanding of these global environmental
problems in the oceans, the troposphere, and
the stratosphere.
Marine pollution
Oceans cover more than 70 percent of the
earth's surface. About one-third of the earth's
atmospheric oxygen is produced by marine
phytoplankton. Catches of ocean fish provide
at least 10 percent of the world's supply of
animal protein. Most marine fish depend
upon coastal waters for food and spawning
grounds.
However, the oceans of the world have be-
come the depository for wastes carried by our
rivers or dumped from barges, ships, and
pipelines. Unlike rivers and lakes, the oceans
have no outlet for this refuse. Oceans cannot
be "flushed" clean.
At present, the oceans' ability to absorb
these wastes is unknown. What is known,
however, is that human wastes are present
even on the high seas as evidenced by oil slicks
and floating debris. Further, where marine
areas have long been used as dumping
grounds for wastes, such areas no longer
support higher life forms.
Another problem to be addressed is
whether chemicals used to disinfect effluents
bioaccumulate through food chains. We must
understand and predict the effect of waste
discharges on the plants and animals of es-
tuarine and coastal waters. Contaminants
may enter the marine food chain by being
metabolized, then transferred to higher life
forms, and may accumulate to high concen-
trations. Thus, we need to understand the
transport and fate of these contaminants and
to model marine processes.
Accelerated energy and mineral resources
development threatens the marine environ-
ment. Offshore oil operations, offshore nu-
clear power and industrial parks, liquefied
natural gas terminals, ocean thermal energy-
conversion, and dredged material disposal all
impact the marine environment.
With production of domestic oil and gas at
full capacity in 1985, about 20 percent of our
oil and 30 percent of our gas is expected to
come from offshore supplies located near
high-demand areas, particularly the East
Coast and California. At present, only two
percent of the oil spilled in the ocean is from
offshore production. Increased exploitation
of offshore deposits and the exploitation of
deeper waters may increase that portion. In
addition, there are more than 100 subsea
mines which extend from land to recover
coal, iron, nickel and copper ores, and lime-
stone from beneath the ocean. (Undersea
coal deposits account for about 30 percent of
Japan's total production and more than ten
percent of Great Britain's.) By 1980, subsea
mining might be conducted economically as
far as 50 kilometers offshore (Ref. 1). The
dredging of the sea floor for minerals, sand
and oyster shells is another area of great po-
tential impact on the ocean environment. All
of this exploitation of undersea reserves will
disrupt ocean and estuarine ecosystems in as
yet undetermined ways.
Direct marine experimentation, such as
studying the movement of toxic substances in
the ocean, is impossible due to both high costs
and ethical considerations. Thus, other ap-
proaches such as microcosm studies are
necessary. However, most of these studies
have failed to adequately simulate ecosys-
tems. For example, in the open ocean many
large-scale elemental exchanges and reac-
Sources of Oil in the Oceans
Source
Marine transportation
River runoff
Atmospheric rainout
Natural seeps
Municipalities
Industrial wastes
Offshore production
Percent of
Total Volume
34
26
10
10
10
Source Ha'ra'a. J R.. et a! . 1977.
33
-------
tions occur at the air-water interface—pro-
cesses not simulated in current microcosms.
Laboratory simulation should be confirmed.
where possible, through comparison with ac-
tual ens-iron mental situations.
Research to determine the fate and effects
of waste materials dumped into the oceans
must include tracking the movement of the
waste from the dumpsite and studying the
types of biological communities in the areas
traversed by the wastes. An understanding
of how those wastes are assimilated will allow
us to predict the levels to which various
marine communities will be exposed. We can
then determine which marine pollutants are
most harmful under different situations. Fi-
nally, effective management and control can
be developed.
Special attention should be given to the po-
tential hazards to humans through transport
of pollutants in ocean waters. We need to
quantity the effect of perturbations to marine
ecosystems to help avoid contamination of
human food supplies. One way to do this is to
use specific marine organisms as indicators of
harmful levels of marine pollution.
Further research is necessary into recea-
tional water quality, shellfish contamination
and measurement techniques for disease-
causing microorganisms. State and local au-
thorities can use this information to minimize
health risks in recreational and food-
producing waters. Research should be under-
taken to understand the "carrying capacity"
of marine ecosystems.
Contaminated sediment waste outfalls.
waste dump sites, ship accidents, and indus-
trial operations can seriously pollute marine
waters. On the other hand, the ocean can be
an excellent site for residue disposal since it
constantly recycles carbon, nutrients, and
other chemicals. Special attention should be
directed toward determining the prod-
uctivity of estuarine systems as a function of
contamination. A model estuarine svstcni
could be used to simulate the dvnamics of
productivity, with an emphasis on interaction
of growth stimulators (light, nutrients) and
inhibitors (toxicants).
Tropospheric pollution
Like the oceans, the Earth's atmosphere is
being altered by human activities. One of the
most significant of these alterations is the ad-
dition of enormous volumes of carbon
dioxide from the burning of fossil fuels in in-
dustrial, electrical, and automotive power
plants.
Along with the Department of Energy and
the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Ad-
ministration. EPA participates in a major re-
search program to determine the potential
hazards of the large-scale release of carbon
dioxide.
Additional information on carbon dioxide
in the atmosphere is required in three areas—
the carbon cycle, climatic effects, and socio-
economic and ecological effects. We cannot
yet accurately predict the rate of carbon
dioxide exchange among the air. the oceans.
and the land. Thus, we must improve the
monitoring and modeling of the processes
that control these exchange rates.
The ocean is also a key part of the carbon
cycle. In the ocean, the most important pro-
cess is the circulation and mixing of surface
water with deep water. Once dissolved.
carbon dioxide is mixed into deep water.
Carbonates in the ocean floor dissolve and
combine with carbon dioxide to create
bicarbonate buffers. On land, the processes
that most strongly influence the net flux of
carbon dioxide to or from the atmosphere are
photosynthesis, respiration, and combustion
and decay of biomass. including coal.
A first step in climatic effects research is
improvement of our global air circulation
models in order to understand and predict
Atmospheric Heat Exchanges
Source Technology Review '977
-------
climatic fluctuations and trends. Extensive
monitoring of carbon dioxide concen-
trations, temperature, precipitation, winds
and clouds, is being conducted.
These efforts should enable us to predict
the consequences of a changing climate in
terms of possible crop and ecosystem shifts
and their impact on human welfare. In-
creases in carbon dioxide concentrations may
lead to global temperature rises, longer grow-
ing seasons, and increased yields—the
"greenhouse effect" (Ref, 2). Precipitation
changes could have an even greater impact
than temperature changes, turning crop-
lands into deserts and vice versa.
Greater fossil fuel combustion, including
expanded coal use, will lead to further in-
creases of atmospheric carton dioxide. Be-
tween 1958 and 1976, carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere increased by about five percent.
If atmospheric carbon dioxide were to dou-
ble, the global temperature could increase by
as much as 2°C. At the anticipated growth in
fossil fuel combustion, this increase could
occur by the year 2025 (Ref. 2). Bv way of con-
trast, the maximum normal shifts in global
temperature over the past centuries have
been less than 1°C. The ensuing environmen-
tal problems associated with a carbon dioxide
increase could include the melting of the
polar ice caps. This could lead to significant
changes in ocean levels and circulation pat-
terns. Dramatic changes could occur in cloud
cover and rainfall patterns.
We should expand our studies on atmo-
spheric turbidity, solar radiation changes,
urban climate, acid rain, and visibility. In ad-
dition, we should initiate research to include
global cycles for such substances as nitrogen,
phosphorus, and sulfur (see the \nnpoinl
Sources and Watersheds chapter).
Stratospheric pollution
Another phenomenon of global im-
portance is the potential depletion of the
ozone layer due to the spread of human-
produced ozone-destroying substances into
the stratosphere. The ozone layer shields the
earth's surface from exposure to high con-
centrations of ultraviolet radiation. Any de-
pletion of this shield would result in serious
harmful effects to people and other living
things. The major ozone-depleting sub-
stances identified so far are halocarbons (no-
tably freon), nitric oxide froin the exhausts of
high altitude aircraft, and nitrous oxide from
chemical fertilizers and other forms of nitro-
gen in soils.
In research efforts on ozone depletion, we
should monitor methylchloroform, Freon-
22, chloroform, and other compounds to es-
tablish trends in their stratospheric concen-
trations and to enhance our understanding of
their removal processes. We should measure
methane and nonmethane hydrocarbons to
establish their role in stratospheric chlorine
removal. We should also measure concen-
trations of hydroxyl radicals as well as phos-
gene, acid chlorides, and other intermediate
substances formed during degradation of
halocarbons in the atmosphere. Finally, we
need to develop instrumentation to study the
biological effects of increased ultraviolet-B
radiation and to estimate the "greenhouse ef-
fect" on climate due to ozone depletion.
Climatic Trends
Not*:
This is one of several protections
Of future trends m global
concentrations $ carbon dioxide
r s and related climatic changes
For further information
,. see Set 3. 4. s, ana 6
7.6
Source Chemical & Engmeenng
News 1977
1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050 2060 2070 2080 2090 3000
-------
Lao Tzu
550 B.C. (?)
f/?e Way o/ iao Tzu
-------
Nonionizing radiation
Goals
The goals of the nonionizing radiation re-
search effort are to understand the nature
and severity of the health effects caused by
the pervasive sources of nonionizing radia-
tion and to help to determine what exposure
standard would protect public health.
We are exposed to nonionizing radiation*
from many sources—electric power lines,
radio and television transmissions, diathermy
equipment, and radar and microwave trans-
mission facilities. Over one million workers in
medical, telecommunication, and construc-
tion occupations are regularly exposed to
nonionizing radiation.
The number of consumer products that
emit low-level, nonionizing radiation is grow-
ing rapidly. Some 100 million television sets
are used in the United States with 13 million
manufactured annually. Over 1.5 million mi-
crowave ovens are now used as compared
with only 40,000 ovens ten years ago. As
many as 11 million are expected to be pro-
duced by the end of 1980. The number of
mobile radios doubled last year and is ex-
pected to continue to increase (Ref. 1).
Exposure to nonionizing radiation from
FM radio and UHFtelevisionisnowofspecial
concern because of the large number of
people exposed, the length of the exposure,
and, in some instances, the intensity of the
exposure. Potential future applications of
nonionizing radiation in the radio frequency
and microwave bands may create even
greater problems. For example, the Federal
Communications Commission reserved an
increased portion of the radio frequency
spectrum for use in personal, portable com-
munication systems (Ref. 3). One futuristic
proposal—a Solar Power Satellite System—
would collect solar energy in outer space and
transmit it to earth in the form of microwaves
(Ref. 4).
Despite the rapid growth of nonionizing
radiation sources, there is little agreement on
the nature and extent of the health hazards
resulting from exposure to such radiation.
For example, the Soviet Union and the East-
ern European countries have taken a much
more conservative approach in controlling
* Nonionizing radiation includes radio waves, mi-
crowaves, infrared radiation, visible light, and
part of the ultraviolet band. Such radiation is
physically incapable of ionizing molecules (ioni-
zation results in an electrically charged
molecule). This is in contrast to higher frequency
radiation, such as X-rays or gamma rays, which
are sufficiently energetic (102 to 10" electron
volts) to produce ionization (Ref. 2).
such radiation than has the United States.
This has resulted in a marked difference in
maximum occupational exposure standards
used in various nations (Ref. 3).
Exposure standards in the United States
are based only on consideration of the effects
due to heating within body tissue (thermal ef-
fects) (Ref. 5). Other nations consider other
(nonthermal) effects in setting their exposure
standards. However, such effects have not yet
been sufficiently demonstrated within the
United States to cause us to change our stan-
dards.
Nonthermal effects of nonionizing radia-
tion are much less well understood than
thermal effects. For example, the FM radio
spectrum includes a resonant frequency at
which the radiant energy is preferentially ab-
sorbed in the human body (Ref. 6). Recent
EPA research indicates that chronic, low level
exposures of animals can produce observed
biological effects (for example, impaired
function of immune defense mechanisms
and abnormal behavior responses) (Ref. 7, 8,
9) in the absence of detectable heat genera-
tion. Such data and the conservative ap-
proach employed in Eastern Europe demand
that we rapidly improve our understanding
of the subtle effects of nonionizing radiation.
Improved health effects data could then
serve as a basis for tightening the nonionizing
radiation exposure standard.
Currently EPA is conducting one of the
largest research programs on the health ef-
fects of nonionizing radiation in the nation.
This integrated effort accounts for 15 per-
cent of the total Federal effort (Ref. 10).
The research response
A critical element in the nation's research
program is determining the biological effects
of specific frequencies of nonionizing radia-
tion. Since the principal radio frequency
sources of population exposure have been
identified as the FM radio and UHF televi-
sion frequencies (Ref. 3), biological experi-
ments should concentrate on those sources.
Animal exposure experiments should be
conducted using frequencies of 100 mega-
hem (FM), 425 megahertz (UHF-TV), and
2,450 megahertz (microwaves). Teratologic,
immunologic, behavioral, reproductive, and
cytogenetic effects of prolonged low-power
densities below 1,000 microwatts per square
centimeter (1/10 the current exposure stan-
dard) should be examined in these experi-
ments. A microwave spectrometer capable of
sweeping a broad frequency range should be
developed to define limited frequency ranges
of particularly high absorbance in biological
37
-------
Sources of Nonionizing Radiation
Sources Past Status
v Trends
Stations
1961
3600
AM
1976
960
TV
3665
FM
Microwave
ovens
1968
1976
1990
1975
^s "~~7
^^ /
Air traffic
control
navigation
radar
1650
\
2100
1980
11,000,000
Land
mobile
radios
1976
1977
1972
4.000.000
8,000,000
Source Electronic Industries Assentation. 1
-------
Nonionizing Electromagnetic Radiation
A
i
\ '
: -
'
-
v E
Frequency Energy
(Hertz) (Electron volts)
10°
102
101
106
108
10'°
10'2
1014
10'6
1018
1020
1 Hz
60 Hz
1 KHz
1 MHz
1 GHz
1 THz
4.135x10-'5
Power (60 Hz)
10-12 Telephone P^n'npnru
PlcLjUcllL-y
A
10-io
AM
Diathermy
10~8 FM Micro-
Television Waves
\ Radar
io~6 A
W Masers
10-" V
> Infrared
10"2 Y Lasers
V Visible light
10° \
1 Ultraviolet
102 /
104 '
..^Mi^^^^^
samples. Epidemiologic studies in urban
areas exposed to these radio frequencies
should be conducted to support the labora-
tory work.
The United States standard for occupa-
tional exposure for nonionizing radiation is
based upon theoretical calculations of the
heating effects that humans can tolerate
without adverse effects. A systematic, ex-
perimental evaluation of this approach is re-
quired in the nation's research efforts to de-
termine whether a standard based solely on
thermal effects provides adequate protection
of public health. As part of this evaluation, we
must improve our knowledge of the mech-
anisms involved in the nonthermal effects of
such radiation. We must determine if certain
human systems (such as reproductive, im-
munologic, neurologic, hematologic, and
cytogenetic) are more sensitive to radiation
levels below the occupational standard of
10,000 microwatts per square centimeter. We
must also determine if there are effects from
long-term, low-level exposure to nonionizing
radiation. Latent effects such as cancer or
early mortality are of prime interest. Espe-
cially in these efforts, we will have to rely ex-
tensively on epidemiologic studies with popu-
lations exposed to nonionizing radiation
within their workplace.
Source Michaelson, S M , 1974
39
-------
Willa Gather
1876-1947
-------
Nonpoint sources and watersheds
Goals
The goals of the research efforts on non-
point sources and watersheds are to under-
stand how all nonpoint sources of pollution
contribute to environmental degradation,
especially in watersheds, and to determine
how effective various monitoring and con-
trol techniques are in identifying and abat-
ing, respectively, the deleterious effects of
nonpoint source pollution.
Half or more of all water quality problems
are caused by nonpoint source pollution.*
Urban stormwater runoff; agricultural, for-
estry, mining, and construction activities;
waste disposal; watershed disruptions; and
acid precipitation are the major nonpoint
sources of water pollution.
Nonpoint sources of pollution result from
the complex interactions of our use of the
land with natural processes such as rainfall or
snowmelt runoff. The nature of the pollution
varies widely with human activities, natural
weather phenomena, and local soil and top-
ological conditions. Within a given year, for
example, the major portion of nonpoint
source pollution may occur during a brief
rainstorm or series of storms.
Nonpoint source runoff
Water pollution abatement in the United
States has been more successful in dealing
with point sources than with nonpoint
sources. Thus, as greater control is applied to
point sources, nonpoint sources of water
pollution will predominate. Because of its
dispersed and often random nature, how-
ever, nonpoint water pollution will not be
easy to control even with much greater ef-
forts.
In addition to the quantity of pollutants
produced by the different sources, of major
importance is a pollutant's relative impact on
water quality and uses. Water quality is also
affected by the timing and distribution of the
discharge as well as the dilution and assimila-
tion capacity of the receiving water. Because
of the interlinking of these factors, nonpoint
sources are responsible for the major water
quality problems in many areas of the coun-
try. For example, results of EPA's National
Eutrophication Survey, as well as other Fed-
eral and state monitoring activities, indicate
nutrient concentrations to be highest in
streams which drain farmland (Ref. 1). With-
out control of such pollutants, adequate
abatement of eutrophication in surface wa-
ters is unlikely to occur. It is well to remember
that many of these pollutants—especially sed-
iments and nutrients—are, in fact, valuable
resources which become pollutants only be-
cause the land was used unwisely.
Runoff from agricultural and forestry ac-
tivities may become an even greater problem
if, as expected, production of agricultural
and forestry products increases during the
next two decades. In this context, EPA must
work closely with the Soil Conservation Ser-
vice to develop and disseminate the informa-
tion necessary to correct this problem. In ad-
dition, runoff from coal mining also contrib-
utes significant loads of pollutants, a problem
which is addressed in the Energy and the Envi-
ronment and Solid \\'aste chapters of this re-
port.
Although we have made some important
progress in understanding and controlling
nonpoint water pollution in the last seven
years, there remains considerable uncer-
tainty about the effectiveness of current and
proposed methods of nonpoint pollution
control. Thus, regulatory efforts and re-
search must go hand-in-hand to address the
variety of complicated problems listed below:
Land Use. Urbanization takes thousands of
hectares of farmland out of production each
year. To compensate, marginal lands are
farmed, requiring greater application of fer-
tilizer and pesticides which, in turn, may lead
to increased runoff of nutrientsand toxic ma-
terials, as well as increased erosion.
Crop Production and Pollution Control.
If farmers had methods to determine op-
timum rates and timing for applying nutri-
ents and pesticides, they could conserve
energy and minimize pollution. These
methods could encompass such schemes as
soil testing or information services to inform
farmers of variables such as rain probability,
wind conditions, and pest infestation levels.
Recycling. With increasing costs, espe-
cially for energy, more efficient farming
methods could involve recovering and recy-
cling resources which are currently lost in the
form of water pollution. For example, nutri-
ent runoff could be captured and used to
produce vegetation to be converted (by on-
farin methods) to energy. The conversion
Nonpoint sources are those whose water
effluents are not narrowly channelled or con-
tained by pipes or holding ponds. In this chap-
ter, nonpoint sources also include acid precipita-
tion and other pollution transported through
the atmosphere. The pollutants of greatest con-
cern from these sources are sediment, dissolved
inorganic compounds such as strong acids, nu-
trients, pesticides, toxic metals, organic com-
pounds, and pathogens.
41
-------
methods used may also handle animal wastes
and crop residues. (See the Solid Waste chap-
ter.)
Pest Management. Pesticides are among
the most pervasive and difficult to control of
the nonpoint source pollutants. Research can
help to reduce the use of pesticides through
two major efforts. As mentioned above,
farmers could be provided with localized ad-
vice on precisely when to apply pesticides for
maximum effect. An even better approach
may be the use of alternatives to pesticides,
such as biological agents and predatory
species. In this latter area, both EPA and the
Department of Agriculture are conducting
research.
In order to advance the state of knowledge
of nonpoint source control in these four
areas, it will be necessary to move the research
beyond the current laboratory and small-
scale projects to major hydrological areas
such as watersheds. Although obviously more
difficult, watershed studies will be required to
understand the interactions of many pollu-
tants from many sources, and the effective-
ness of various controls now being used to re-
duce the pollutant loadings in the streams.
These studies should concentrate on major
nonirrigated crop production regions. They
should be aimed at giving us, at the watershed
level, improved predictive models for the ef-
fects of nonpoint source perturbations and
improved best management practices for ag-
ricultural and forestry activities.
The capabilities of other Federal and state
agencies in dealing with nonpoint source
pollution will be a key factor in the successful
application of the research results in the field.
Urban stormwater
In urban areas, the principal nonpoint
source concern is stormwater management.
A nationwide survey of public works officials
conducted in 1976 identified urban flooding
and its associated pollution caused by inade-
quate storm sewers as the number one urban
problem. As suburban land continues to be
developed, the problem will increase. In re-
sponse, a few urban areas have initiated pro-
grams to improve stormwater management.
Nonpoint Sources Of Water Pollution3 (Millions of tons per year)
Nonpoint source
category
Cropland
Pasture & range
Forest
Construction
Mining
Urban runoff
Rural roadways'1
Small feedlots
Land fills
Subtotal
Natural background
Total
Municipal point sources
after treatment, 1975
Industrial point sources
after treatment. 1975
^ferikaM^aaMA^
Sediment
1870
1220
256
197
59
20
2
2
3626
1260
4886
2.1e
7.9"
BOD
9
5
.8
.5
.004
.05
.3
15.8
5.0
20.8
1.9
2.2
Nitrogen
4.3
2.5
.39
.15
.0005
.17
.026
7.4
2.5
10.0
1.5f
.11'
tt^MttfiUitt*^
Phosphorus
1.56
1.08
.089
.019
.001
.032
2.8
1.1
3.8
_
Acids"
3.1
3.1
3.1
.26
Salinity'
57.3
58.1
58.1
12.5
\
, f
1
'S3 8 million hectares (207 m^i-on acres) in pub!:C lands
(14% of cort-guous U.S.). mostly in Rocky Mounta'n
reg~on. were excluded due to ^adequacy of information.
"As CaCoa.
cFrorn irrigation return flow
Sources: M.dwest Research Inst.tute, 1975.
^Deposition frorn tra" c related sources.
"Suspended soi'ds.
'N;trogen plus phosphorus
42
-------
Although stormu'ater runoff typically oc-
curs only during brief periods, the quantities
of sediment, nutrients, chemicals, and toxic
materials dumped into streams during the
storm periods dwarf the quantities of such
materials released by the municipal treat-
ment plants throughout the entire year. This
problem has serious implications for mu-
nicipalities using the streams for water supply
as well as for other downstream users.
To understand more fully the significance
of such pollution, we should conduct studies
to determine both the immediate and long-
term effects of storrmvater discharges in
streams and lakes used for drinking water.
We should evaluate which runoff control
techniques are most protective of the public
health with emphasis on improved practices
for urban land use and runoff attenuation,
drainage design criteria, and upstream stor-
age leading to controlled release. We should
also encourage more cities to adopt stormwa-
ter management systems by determining eq-
uitable means of apportioning the costs of
urban runoff control.
Groundwater contamination
Groundwater quality may also be
threatened by nonpoint source pollution. It is
conceivable that most of the aquifers in the
United States mav be contaminated by the
year 2000 unless currently uncontaminated
waters are protected. Without such protec-
tion, the United States soon may not be able to
use much of its groundwater due to nonpoint
source pollution. It takes decades or centuries
for the geochemical processes to reclaim the
groundwater once contaminated. The only
viable approach is to prevent the contamina-
tion in the first place.
Urban Stormwater
Residuals
Suspended solids
Ultimate biochemical
oxygen demand
Chemical oxygen
demand
Urban runoff
and treated
municipal
wastewater
(kg/ha/yr)
7,426
514
1,023
Percent
attributed
to urban"
runoff
99
80
84
In addition to the contamination of some
groundwater sources, others are lost through
climatic fluctuations. Many regions depend-
ent on groundwater have suffered recent
droughts. Due to our rate of use of ground-
water supplies, it may be worthwhile to con-
sider new techniques to recharge depleted
aquifers, including the use of municipal and
industrial wastewater, and to reclaim
polluted aquifers.
In past years, several projects using
technology developed for desalination have
been conducted to recharge and reclaim
groundwaters. For example, reverse osmosis
has been used to treat acid mine drainage and
chemical and saline wastes prior to their re-
lease into groundwater recharge areas. Ear-
lier studies projected costs of 26 to 31 cents
per thousand liters of water, a cost that was
not competitive with local water rates of 16 to
20 cents per thousand liters (Ref. 2). Since
that time, however, conditions have dramat-
ically changed in many areas, and the costs of
treating groundwater may have become
more competitive. Some of the shelved
technologies should, therefore, be reexam-
ined to determine their current cost-
effectiveness.
Besides providing improved techniques
for safe recharge, we should launch a nation-
wide effort to determine the extent of con-
tamination of groundwater supplies by toxic
chemical and biological substances. This
monitoring effort must be supported by im-
proved methods for sampling subsurface wa-
ters and for modeling the transport of sub-
stances in those waters.
Because so many people in the United
States depend on groundwater as their only
supply of drinking water, it is essential for
maintenance of public health and environ-
mental productivity that we direct increasing
attention to the preservation of clean
groundwater supplies.
Air pollution impacts
Another major, if somewhat unexpected,
nonpoint source of water pollution is
polluted air. Substances enter the air from
many sources, mix with other pollutants and
change character, are transported up to hun-
dreds of kilometers and return to the earth
either as dry particles or in precipitation.
Thus, sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, heavy
metals, and other pollutants from power
plants, industry, and automobiles affect the
quality of the land and water at great dis-
tances from the sources.
Airborne nutrients, when deposited in wa-
ter, can aggravate eutrophication, e.g..
43
-------
growth of unwanted algae. Dust contributes
to waterborne sediment in streams and lakes.
Vegetation may be directly harmed by both
gaseous and paniculate air pollutants. Acid-
causing pollutants (primarily from fossil fuel
combustion) have increased the acidity of
precipitation. The formation of acid rain is
discussed further in the.4nPollution chapter.
Nonpoint runoff from acid rain has been
increasing significantly for a number of
years. The problem was first widely recog-
nized in Scandinavia where scientists at the
1970 Stockholm Conference on the Envi-
ronment reported steady increases of sulfur
and nitrogen compounds and acidity in rain-
fall and snowfall in Sweden (Ref. 3). Acid
precipitation poses a special threat to such
cash crops as forests and fish. At the Interna-
tional Conference on the Effects of Acid Pre-
cipitation, held in Norway in 1976. damages
to forest, crops, fish, and materials such as
steel and paint were documented. Also of
particular concern is the potential long term
damage to soil fertility. Once leached of their
vital nutrients and minerals, such soils may
require several centuries to be restored.
In the United States, recognition of the
damages of acid precipitation has been slower
than in Europe. Even in the northeastern
United States where acid precipitation is
known to be present, data are scanty and have
been gathered only within the last two de-
cades. Although rates of forest growth have
declined in the Northeast, this decline cannot
as yet be definitively related to acid precipita-
tion. It is known, however, that acid precipita-
tion damages foliage, affects germination of
conifer seeds and the growth of seedlings,
reduces the availability of soil nitrogen,
decreases soil respiration, and increases
leaching of nutrients. Although subtle, these
effects will likely become more significant with
time and may cause irreversible changes in
important ecosystems.
Research indicates that strong acids, such
assulfuricand nitric acids, are responsible for
Water Cycle Contamination
Evaporation from
transportation,
soil, rivers, swamps
vegetation
Runoff to
streams,
rivers,
ocean
-------
most of the acidity in the precipitation. The
normal pH value, a measure of acidity, for
rain is about 5.7, indicating slight acidity. A
pH of 7.0 is considered neutral, with pH
values lower than that considered acidic.
Very acidic rainfalls having a pH of 4 or lower
have been repeatedly observed in the north-
eastern United States. The resulting acidifi-
cation of lakes, particularly that occurring in
areas of naturally acidic soils such as those de-
rived from the carbonate-poor granite rocks
of the Northeast, appears to be having major
detrimental effects on the fish populations.
Of major significance for future regulatory
efforts is the fact that the largest fraction of
the pollution causing the acidity appears to be
transported from sources as far away as the
industrial Midwest and southeastern Canada.
We need to know much more about the
atmospheric chemical transformations as well
as the meteorological factors involved in acid
precipitation.
Estimates of the long-term threat of acid
rain damage to soil fertility in terms of food
and forest production and diversity are
needed. With massive shifts to coal combus-
tion likely, the need for these estimates is cru-
cial. Nutrients may become unavailable to
vegetation or may appear in toxic concen-
trations in the soil.
Surface water impoundments in the
Northeast may become more acidic, leading
to increased leaching of toxic metals such as
lead and copper from municipal water supply-
pipes. Since it is evident that air pollution, in
addition to being a direct human health
threat in itself, contributes to the degradation
of water, soil, and vegetation, it is essential to
expand research on this largely neglected
nonpoint source of pollution in watersheds.
Integrated watershed
management
A unified approach to manage an entire
watershed ecosystem requires a fundamental
understanding of the dynamics of the physi-
cal, chemical, and biological interactions that
occur within its boundary. With such an
understanding, it will be possible to proceed
toward development of a predictive capacity
that will allow us to anticipate the extent of
ecosystem modification resulting from a par-
ticular perturbation, be it from a point or
nonpoint pollutant source.
Several Federal programs address en-
vironmental perturbations in watersheds, but
a coordinated Federal approach to watershed
management is needed. The lack of an ade-
quate in-depth research base has resulted in a
lack of understanding of watershed response
to human-induced environmental impacts.
Research on watershed ecosystems must be
expanded in order to develop an improved
capability to predict the consequences of en-
vironmental perturbation. As our knowledge
of environmental problems has grown, we
have come to realize that we need to know-
how impacts of such stresses as nutrient and
pesticide loadings, oil and toxic material dis-
charges and spills, and complex industrial
waste discharges affect the populations of liv-
ing organisms as well as the physical and
chemical factors within the ecosystem. If we
can relate such material and energy inputs
through the ecological processes to the qual-
ity of the water and other materials leaving
the ecosystem, we will have a stronger basis
for enlightened regulator)' actions.
45
-------
Joseph Priestly
1733-1804
Experiments and Observations on
Different Kinds of Air. 1786
-------
Measurement and monitoring
Goals
The goals of the measurement and monitor-
ing research effort are to anticipate potential
environmental problems, to support regu-
latory actions by developing an in-depth
understanding of the nature and processes
that impact health and the ecology, to
provide innovative means of monitoring
compliance with regulations and to evaluate
the effectiveness of health and environmen-
tal protection efforts through the monitor-
ing of long-term trends.
Environmental monitoring is the system-
atic measurement of the physical, chemical,
and biological properties of the environment.
It is, essentially, a two phase effort of data col-
lection and data analysis. The data collection
effort involves the monitoring of exposures
of living organisms, the effects of these expo-
sures (Ref. 1-4), pollutant sources, and the
ambient environment. Data analysis must
then be performed to allow policy-makers to
identify environmental problems, develop
effective regulatory solutions, and assure that
environmental improvement and health pro-
tection is accomplished. Thus, the collection
of data—on source emissions, ambient con-
centrations, exposures, and effects—is ac-
companied by analyses of the relationships
among these factors. By linking these data in
compatible (often computerized) form, geo-
graphical variations in emissions, concen-
trations, and mortality/morbidity rates can be
determined.
Data collection and analysis efforts must be
supported by continued research on en-
vironmental measurement methods. En-
vironmental measurement research includes
not only developing instruments and
methods for physical and chemical mea-
surement, but also establishing concepts for
determining biological and ecological im-
pacts.
Data collection
Exposure monitoring measures the total
exposure of biological organisms to pollut-
ants via all important routes. Exposure
monitoring identifies pathways by which in-
dividuals are exposed to pollutants, and mea-
sures the exposure. These measurements are
then summed across all pathways to estimate
the total dose. For some pollutants, the mea-
surement of total body burden (e.g., lead in
the blood) may be more cost-effective than
monitoring all pathways since lead enters the
body via many different routes including air,
water, paint chips, road dust, and food. This
approach is particularly valuable in determin-
ing the cumulative health risk of chronic ex-
posure to low-level toxic substances in the en-
vironment and, subsequently, in identifying
the most effective means of protecting public
health.
\Ve can estimate exposures by a combina-
tion of measurements at stations, studies of
transport processes, indoor measurements,
models of personal activity patterns, and
"contour" maps of pollutant concentrations.
How ever, estimates should be validated by di-
rect measurements of exposure using appro-
priate instrumentation such as personal air
quality monitors.
Long-term monitoring of biological
trends establishes baseline and trend data for
assessing ecological effects of chronic, low-
level pollution. These effects are often subtle
and difficult to quantify. This is due to a poor
understanding of the long-term, chronic ef-
fects of pollution, lack of dose-response in-
formation (particularly at the community and
ecosystem levels), inadequate ambient
monitoring data, and, most importantly, a
lack of baseline information against which to
measure effects. This type of monitoring is,
however, essential to anticipate potential
health risks from chronic low-level pollution
from toxic substances, and to develop more
effective regulatory approaches.
By collecting and storing environmental
specimens such as tissues, in a National En-
vironmental Specimen Bank, it may be possi-
ble to identify geographic and historical vari-
ations in pollutant burdens. It may also be
possible to determine background levels of
pollutants and distinguish them from human
contributions. This would allow retrospective
analyses as more sensitive techniques are de-
veloped or new pollutants are identified.
Specimen banks have been criticized because
of lack of standardization of methods for col-
lecting and preserving specimens, but they
have been highly useful for establishing tissue
burdens in evaluating DDT, mercury, and
lead. Research into the standardization of col-
lection, preservation, and analysis is under-
way but no coordinated Federal effort exists.
EPA regulates many environmental con-
taminants either at the source or in the am-
bient environment. Regulation of sources
may entail the registration of a product or the
limitation of effluents released into the envi-
ronment. Monitoring in support of such reg-
ulations often involves verification of both
the data submitted in support of registration
and data reported by self-audits at the
sources (Ref. 5). The source monitoring pro-
gram aims at characterizing more adequately
the chemical composition of industrial wastes
-------
Cardiovascular Diseases, Age-Adjusted Mortality
Annual death rate per million population, biacks and whites combined (1968-72).
Source Council on Environmental Quality, 1977. UPGRADE, Graphics and Analysis System (Unpublished).
Total Hardness of Surface Water
Over 245
Milligrams per liter as CaCOs, annual mean values— 1976 water year
Source Council on Environmental Quality. 1977, UPGRADE. Graphics and Analysis System (Unpublished)
4S
-------
by improving emissions estimates, verifying
industry self-monitoring reports, or creating
monitoring networks. This information is
important in assuring that regulatory
strategies are being complied with.
The ambient monitoring program seeks to
develop new networks to understand such
problems as acid rain, visibility degradation
in western states, fine particles in the atmo-
sphere, and significant deterioration of air
quality in pristine areas. Regulation to clean
up the ambient environment and protect
public health involves setting standards for
safe levels of contaminants such as sulfur
dioxide in the air, cadmium in sludge, or
Kepone residue in fish. Regulatory devices
such as state implementation plans for air
pollution or area wide plans for water pollu-
tion control are used. Ambient monitoring of
trends can provide a useful way to determine
the effectiveness of environmental cleanup.
This includes investigating trends on a re-
gional or local basis as well as monitoring na-
tional trends.
Data analysis and display
With the increased incidence of chronic
diseases, especially those diseases with long
latency periods, determining the correlation
between environmental and health data has
become correspondingly more important.
Such data correlations may be used to iden-
tify relationships among source emissions,
ambient concentrations, exposures, and
biological effects.
Several Federal agencies collect related
data for different purposes. Hence, the data
are often incomplete, incompatible, or of lit-
tle use to decision-makers in other agencies.
A serious attempt must be made to stan-
dardize the data collection, analysis, storage,
and retrieval methods of agencies that collect
environmental and health effects data.
The consolidation of high quality en-
vironmental and health data from different
agencies into compatible automated systems
for rapid retrieval and analysis should be one
of our primary goals. For exam pie, a graphics
and analysis system called UPGRADE is now
being evaluated by EPA. Developed under
the auspices of the Council on Environmental
Quality, this system allows comparison of en-
vironmental monitoring data collected by
EPA and the U.S. Geological Survey with
health and demographic data collected by the
National Center for Health Statistics and the
Bureau of the Census.
Using UPGRADE maps one can visually com-
pare the relationship between deaths from
cardiovascular disease and the hardness of
water supplies, or the relationship between
respiratory disease mortality and high con-
centrations of particulate matter. Such
analyses will become increasingly useful for
policy-makers as the data base upon which we
can draw grows in scope, quality, and stan-
dardization.
Measurement methods and
quality assurance
Appropriate measurement methods and
quality assurance techniques must be de-
veloped to support the establishment of ef-
fective monitoring systems. In the future,
physical, chemical, biological, and statistical
methods to measure thousands of pollutants
and effects in the air, water, biological tissues,
and wastes will be needed. These methods
must work under varying extreme measure-
ment conditions such as hot turoulent gases
in factory stacks, organics at the parts per tril-
lion level in drinking water, and viruses in
sewage sludge. Recent research has ex-
panded our capability to measure traces of
toxic substances in air and water and to
analyze single samples for multiple contami-
nants. In addition, continuous on-site analyz-
ers are being developed to measure pollut-
ants too unstable to survive transport from
the field to the laboratory, and techniques are
being developed for sampling and preserving
heterogeneous substances such as sediments,
soil, airborne particles, and solid waste. A
stringent program for quality assurance must
be operational to assure that these measure-
ments will be consistent and useful.
The research response
Our exposure monitoring program
should emphasize three major study areas.
First, we should develop and improve
equipment that can be carried by individuals
to directly monitor their exposure to air pol-
lutants. The data from such monitors can
then be used to determine the frequency dis-
tribution of exposure for entire community
populations. Second, we should expand our
ability to use microorganisms for rapid
screening of compounds to determine expo-
sure/response relationships for critical recep-
tors. Third, we must improve our ability to
estimate the total exposure of populations at
risk from all routes of exposure to ubiquitous
pollutants such as toxic substances. This can
be accomplished by using body burden mea-
surements augmented by ambient measure-
ments and models.
Our biological monitoring program
should emphasize improving the direct
49
-------
monitoring of pollutant effects by employing
biological and biochemical indicators as mea-
sures of the integrated effects of pollutants
on complex ecosystems. In addition, to im-
prove knowledge of the trends in pro-
ductivity of major crops and forage species,
we should carry out long-term (5 to 15 years)
baseline monitoring of natural, managed,
and damaged ecosystems. Such an effort
could include the establishment of perma-
nent monitoring stations to monitor pollutant
transport and biogeochemical cycling
through biosphere sectors such as biosphere
reserve sites, airsheds, river basins, and wa-
tersheds. Associated with this effort, we
should monitor gross trends of environmen-
tal effects by periodically surveying indicator
species.
Finally, the needs for a National Environ-
mental Specimen Bank should be investi-
gated. Such a data bank would allow retro-
spective analyses as new techniques are de-
veloped or new pollutants are identified.
With regard to source monitoring, we
should improve our support of the regu-
latory efforts in several ways. First, we should
expand the ability for intensive monitoring of
sources to improve emission estimates and to
audit self-monitoring reports. The develop-
ment of rapid screening methods is essential
here to discover violations. Second, to assure
the quality and utility of source monitoring
data, we must improve our program of cer-
tifying the laboratories that are analyzing en-
vironmental samples. Third, we must im-
prove the monitoring of trace elements leach-
ing into surface and groundwater supplies
from industrial wastes, and of toxic sub-
stances and suspected carcinogens in air, wa-
ter, and soils near major production sites.
Fourth, we should conduct intensive surveys
to identify all major point sources in regions
having severe water quality limitations and
aid in the establishment of permanent
monitoring sites as necessary.
Our ambient monitoring program should
emphasize the design and implementation of
an air quality monitoring network for all
criteria pollutants. Such a network should be
capable of measuring fine particles. This may
include measurements of size and chemical
composition for sulfates, nitrates, polycyclic
organics, and trace metals.
We also need to emphasize the monitoring
of pollutants that are of special importance in
certain areas of the country. For example, we
should select effective instruments and
methods to monitor visibility in western
areas, especially those that may be impacted
by increased exploitation of energy re-
sources. For the northeast, north, and central
portions of the United States and southeast-
ern and south-central Canada, we should
emphasize the long-term monitoring of the
wet and dry deposition of pollutants. An
especially important factor here is the mea-
surement of acid precipitation. Additionally,
we need to understand the role of long-range
transport of hydrocarbons in ozone forma-
tion in these areas. Finally, for those regions
which can be classified "pristine," we should
support the design and implementation of a
monitoring network to help identify any sig-
nificant deterioration in the quality of the air.
Our data analysis and linkage programs
must emphasize the standardized connection
of existing data bases and the improvement
of information display capabilities. Databases
containing health and employment data from
the various organizations within the Depart-
ment of Health, Education and Welfare
should be linked, wherever cost-effective,
with data bases containing environmental
quality data. The latter are maintained by
many agencies including the EPA, the Na-
tional Oceanic and Atmospheric Administra-
tion, the U.S. Geological Survey, the Depart-
ment of Agriculture, and the Department of
Energy. Linking these systems in a stan-
dardized way will allow improved capability
for determining cause-and-effect relation-
ships between environmental conditions and
health effects.
To improve our ability to display and
analyze this data, we should extend the capa-
bilities to the UPGRADE system to include
emissions and effluent monitoring data and
morbidity data. Correlations may then be de-
veloped between pollutant emissions/concen-
trations and morbidity/mortality data to iden-
tify geographic areas of concern.
Our measurement methods program
should focus on four major areas. First, we
need to improve our ability to determine the
detailed composition and emission rates of air
pollutants from stationary and mobile
sources. Particular emphasis should be
placed on asbestos, carbon-containing vapors
and particulates, sulfates, nitrates, and sus-
pected mutagens and carcinogens emitted by
stationary and mobile combustion sources.
Second, we need to develop advanced sys-
tems to measure water quality. We require
sensors that can be automated and installed
on waterborne platforms to monitor pH, dis-
solved oxygen, coliforms, heavy metals, oils,
and grease in marine and fresh water. In ad-
dition, we need to develop remote sensing
techniques (laser fluorosensors, lidar, multi-
spectral analyses) to determine, quickly and
50
-------
inexpensively, such important factors as or-
ganic loadings in streams, ocean circulation
patterns, and turbidity impacts of ocean
dumping.
Third, we need to develop better mea-
surement methods for biological and ecologi-
cal monitoring, including the use of micro-
cosms to study transport and transformation
of pollutants in plants, soil, and microorgan-
isms. We should identify biological and
biochemical responses to specific pollutants
in plants and animals and conduct feasibility
studies of the use of measures such as biomass
and species diversity as ecological early warn-
ing signals.
Fourth, we need to develop and evaluate
techniques for determining contributions of
sources to local, urban, regional, and global
air quality, including instruments sufficiently
sensitive to measure ambient concentrations
in pristine areas and sufficiently miniaturized
to be used as personal monitors to measure
individual human exposure.
Finally, quality assurance must be en-
hanced in all of these areas. Future initiatives
to ensure high-quality environmental
monitoring data for air measurements could
include establishment of a standards labora-
tory to provide interlaboratory calibrations
for air measurements. This laboratory could
assure accurate traceability of reference ma-
terials and samples to the national standard
measurement system at the National Bureau
of Standards. Additional steps would include
the evaluation or certification of laboratories
(including air monitoring stations), external
audits of a variety of important monitoring
programs, provision of reference materials
and quality control samples for all important
pollutant data before submission to national
data banks.
Related initiatives in water measurements
ought to include creation of repositories of
standard reference samples for municipal
and industrial effluents, ocean disposal,
drinking water, hazardous substances, and
ambient water quality uses. We should also
expand interlaboratory comparison studies
for pesticides and the cross-check sample
program for radionuclides and produce
manuals of validated sampling techniques,
sample preservation procedures, and mea-
surement methods for potable water, waste-
water, and sediments.
Finally, we should provide guidelines and
audit procedures for performance, calibra-
tion, and maintenance of continuous moni-
tors and automatic samplers in air and
water quality and other areas. This will be-
come more important as we increasingly rely
upon the private sector to collect compliance
data.
51
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The President's message
to the Congress
May 23, 1977
-------
Environmental futures
In developing the topics discussed in this
edition of the Research Outlook we relied upon
three sources of guidance—recent Federal
environmental legislation, computerized
projections of economic and pollutant
growth rates, and our best insight as scientists
and researchers. Insight is difficult to docu-
ment although it is, we hope, apparent in the
preceding chapters. The other two sources of
guidance, legislation and projected trends,
are discussed in this chapter.
Legislative guidance
The majority of research conducted by
EPA is done in direct support of one or more
of the Agency's statutory regulatory func-
tions (see listing). The emphasis of environ-
mental statutes has shifted gradually over the
past six years—from mobile sources and
gross water pollutants to toxic substances and
longer-term risks. EPA's research efforts
have shifted along with this emphasis.
The major legislative emphasis is now upon
protecting human health by controlling toxic
substances. This, we feel, is an emphasis
which will dominate our environmental re-
search over the next five years. In his 1977
environmental message to the Congress, the
President stated that "the presence of toxic
chemicals in the environment (is) one of the
grimmest discoveries of the industrial era."
Over the last two years, the Congress has
passed major environmental legislation—the
Toxic Substances Control Act and the Re-
source Conservation and Recovery Act—as
well as amendments to the Federal Water
Pollution Control Act, the Safe Drinking
Water Act, and the Clean Air Act.
To implement this legislation, the Presi-
dent has instructed EPA to give its highest
priority to controlling toxic pollutants in
industrial effluents under the Federal Water
Pollution Control Act. The recent amend-
ments to this Act permit EPA to move more
decisively against the discharge of chemicals
potentially injurious to human health. EPA
has also been instructed to set standards
under the Safe Drinking Water Act which will
limit human exposure to toxic substances in
drinking water, beginning with potential car-
cinogens. The recent amendments to the
Clean Air Act also stress limiting human ex-
posure to toxic substances.
The major impetus behind these efforts to
control toxic substances is the need to protect
human health. This theme is woven through-
out EPA's authorizing legislation. Our role is
protective and preventative, not curative.
EPA is not mandated to treat diseases as-
sociated with pollution after they have be-
come obvious, but rather, to prevent such
harmful pollution in the first place.
The Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA)
provided the theme for this Research Outlook.
It states, "if the Administrator (of the EPA)
determines that a risk to health or the envi-
ronment associated with a chemical substance
or mixture could be eliminated or reduced to
a sufficient extent by actions taken under the
authorities contained in such other Federal
laws, the Administrator shall use such au-
thorities to protect against such risk unless
the Administrator determines, at the Admin-
istrator's discretion, that it is in the public
interest to protect against such risk by actions
taken under this Act." With such a funda-
mental and comprehensive mandate, it is es-
sential that the scientific basis for the Agen-
cy's actions to protect public health be both
sound and constantly expanding in response
to emerging problems.
The other recently passed environmental
legislation—the Resource Conservation and
Recovery Act, the Clean Air Act amendments
and the Clean Water Act amendments—give
specific emphasis to different aspects of re-
search and development. On the whole,
TSCA and the other acts are telling us that
the nation's policy makers want us to expand
that research and development which will
provide new and improved scientific infor-
mation about the causative relationship be-
tween pollution exposures and adverse
health and environmental effects, and about
the technological or other means to reduce
the exposures to acceptable levels. Further-
more, the policy makers want us to concen-
trate on:
—toxic and hazardous substances,
—pollutants which expose large popula-
tions,
—pollutants which are pervasive and per-
sist in the environment,
—pollutants which may have long-term
health and ecological effects, and
—pollutants which may affect large-scale,
even global, processes.
Such recognition by the policy makers of
the growing sophistication required to make
further progress in our efforts toward pre-
ventative public health protection must be re-
flected in the priorities for the environmental
research and development program. This/fc-
search Outlook reflects this important guid-
ance.
Projected trends
In addition to legislative guidance (and to
provide us with as quantitative a basis as pos-
sible for our speculations), we looked to pro-
53
-------
Recent Congressional Actions
Year Action
Effect on direction of future research
1972
1972
1972
1972
1974
1976
1976
1977
1977
1977
1977
Federal Water Pollution
Control Act Amendments
Marine Protection, Research,
and Sanctuaries Act
Noise Control Act
Federal Insecticide,
Fungicide, and Rodenticide
Act Amendments
Safe Drinking Water Act
Toxic Substances Control Act
Resource Conservation and
Recovery Act
Clean Air Act Amendments
Clean Water Act
Senate Committee on
Government Operations Study
on Federal Regulation
Environmental Research,
Development, and
Demonstration Authorization
Act of 1978
Research and development effort has led to
the development of technologies to control
pollution from point sources. Attention shifting
to the control of runoff from rural and urban
areas and sludge management practices.
Research and development has contributed to
the abatement of pollution from ocean
dumping and point source discharges.
Attention focusing on significance of dredge
material disposal and energy development in
marine waters.
No substantial noise research planned for FY
1978. Future research may involve a
coordinated interagency effort.
Information needed on best management
practices to control pesticides in water runoff
from agricultural lands.
Scientific information needed upon which
viable standards can be based. Improved
measurement and monitoring methods needed
to determine compliance with regulations.
Mandated broad program of research,
development and monitoring, and
dissemination of technical information.
Research directed toward the development of
improved solid waste management
techniques, disposal technology, resource
recovery technology, and toward information
on the fate and processes of hazardous waste
transport through soil and groundwater
systems.
Mandated program of research to determine
causes and effects of ozone depletion on
public health and welfare.
Return flows from irrigated agriculture
reclassified to a nonpoint discharge. Several
sections relate to marine waters.
Legislation recommended placing EPA in
charge of all radiation safety, thus centralizing
responsibilities now distributed among 15
departments, commissions, or regulatory
agencies.
Mandate of a separate program to conduct
continuing and long-term environmental
research and development.
54
-------
jections from a computerized predictive
model* (Ref. 1). The model is complex. It can
be used to generate projections of environ-
mental pollutant loadings 10 to 20 years
hence.
Its projections, however, anticipate only
those problems which can be defined, quan-
tified, and modeled based upon today's
knowledge. For example, in past years the
toxic substances problem was viewed largely
in terms of pollution by heavy metals. Only on
this subject do we have enough data to create
a realistic projection. Projections for other
topics, such as organic compounds, are gen-
erally unavailable.
The model was used to project levels of
residual substances (wastes) from various in-
dustrial activities between now and 1990.
Based upon an assumed population of 245
million in 1990 and a level of unemployment
of 4.6 percent in the same year, the model al-
lows us to examine the growth of more than
*The model used was the Strategic Environmental
Assessment Svstem developed by EPA and main-
tained by this Agency and the Department of
Energy.
350 economic sectors. For example, even with
the assumed conservation emphasis in the
National Energy Plan, about one and one-
half times as much energy will be required by
1990. The national policy of reliance on
domestic energy sources would, therefore,
require the use of almost two and one-half
times as much coal in 1990 as in 1975.
Many of the toxic substances of greatest
concern are those produced by the nation's
chemical industry. The production of that
industry is expected to grow much faster than
the population, and to almost double by 1990.
Agricultural output, which is related to non-
point sources of water pollution and pesticide
problems, parallels our population growth.
This forecast uses export trends of the early
1970's, but assumes that we will not "feed the
world."
With no catastrophic energv crises, vehi-
cle-miles traveled will grow at the same rate as
the economy and faster than the population.
The automobile will continue to dominate
passenger-miles traveled at 83 percent of the
total in 1990 as compared with 86 percent in
1975. Diesel automobiles will increasingly
dominate the market (Ref. 2. I).
Production of Solid Wastes
2.0
1.0
Noncombustible
solid wastes
Sewage treatment
sludges
Industrial treatment
sludges
Energy mining
wastes
-: U S
err.r -i ;.-
55
-------
As the economy expands, pollution will in-
crease with a growing production capacity. If
best available technology advances toward
zero discharge, a steady decrease in the dis-
charge of all regulated pollutants can be
achieved. However, as pollutants are re-
moved from air or water, the resultant solid
wastes must be either disposed of or used.
These solid residuals can become air and
water pollutants once again if improperly
treated.
Increasing volumes of various solid wastes
represent assets as well as liabilities. Many
wastes contain toxic materials and if improp-
erly disposed of on land, the soil and
groundwater may be contaminated. On the
other hand, some wastes can be an asset such
as for energy and the recovery of nonferrous
metals. In the case of surface mining wastes,
the forecast assumes a steady increase in rec-
lamation with a 100 percent recover) by the
year 2000.
Overall trends of residuals (pollutants) dis-
charged to air, water, and land indicate that,
with existing regulation, pollution will in-
crease by 1990. Water pollution indicators
are below 1975 levels. The air pollution indi-
cators, sulfur and nitrogen oxides, will be
above 1975 levels in both 1985 and 1990 as a
result of increased combustion of fossil fuels.
However, automobile emission controls will
lead to a downward trend in hydrocarbons
and carbon monoxide in 1990.
The chosen topics
Using our three guiding principles—legis-
lation, projected trends, and insight—we
chose eight topics to be discussed in this year's
Research Outlook. We consider these topics to
be our central research concerns during the
next five years and to be central to the health
and welfare of our citizens.
Exposure to toxic substances results from
multiple sources (water, air, food) as they
come in contact with internal tissues by
breathing or eating, or by contact with the
skin or senses (Ref. 3). Air pollution caused
by sulfur and nitrogen oxides, including
Socioeconomic Trends
Factor
Population
Gross national product
National energy demand
Coal mined
Chemical production
Agricultural production
Vehicle miles traveled
1985
1.10
1.55
1.27
1.93
1 63
1.05
1.54
1990
1.15
1.80
1.34
2.41
1 89
1.12
1.77
Source U S Environmental Protection Agency. 1978
National Discharge of Air Pollutants
i 0
Carbon Hydrocarbons
monoxide
Source U S Environmental Protection Agent,, 1978
Particles
Sulfur oxides
Nitrogen
oxides
56
-------
aerosols, can aggravate pulmonary disorders
such as emphysema. Air pollution can also
contribute to the acidity of rain, thus damag-
ing agricultural and forestry productivity.
The compatibility of energy and the envi-
ronment requires research by EPA, especially
associated with the accelerated development
of coal reserves over the next decade. The
control of solid waste by incineration or dis-
posal on land can affect the quality of the air
we breathe or the groundwater we drink. An
Industrial Output
Multiples of
1975 values
Sector
Iron and steel
Nonferrous metals
Pulp and paper
Chemicals
Electric utility
Petroleum and natural gas
Food processing
Fabrication and basic products
Coal mining
All other sources
Total output
1985
1.25
1 67
1.40
1 63
1.86
1.22
1.11
1.76
1.93
1.62
1.58
1990
1 27
1 95
1.57
1 89
220
1.25
1.23
204
241
1.90
1.83
Source' U S. Environmental Protection Agency 1978.
National Discharge of Water Pollutants
increase in the Gross National Product
through 1990 and a concurrent threefold in-
crease in the generation of industrial sludges
from air and water pollution control indicates
a potentially serious solid waste problem.
Global pollution, brought about by emis-
sions of carbon dioxide or by the release of
substances such as fluorocarbons, may indi-
rectly affect crop yields and skin cancer rates.
Marine pollution, a part of global pollution,
affects the productivity of ocean and coastal
areas including the quality of food from the
sea.
The increased use of telecommunication
systems, radio and television transmitters,
and other sources of nonionizing radiation
such as high power radars, microwave ovens,
or high voltage transmission lines poses a
threat to human health. The heaviest pollu-
tion from these sources coincides with human
population centers.
Nonpoint discharges such as runoff from
farms, construction sites, and strip mines, are
major sources of water pollution. Changes in
the methods and extent of farming, increased
forest production, and watershed modifica-
tions can lead to contamination of drinking
and recreational waters.
The assessment of human exposure to
harmful agents is limited by inadequate
monitoring and the unavailability of mea-
surement equipment. Measurement and
monitoring will provide accurate data to
characterize effects and identify pollutant
transport routes.
While these eight priority areas form the
core of the Research Outlook, the list is not in-
tended to be comprehensive. The intent is to
use this report as a starting point in open dis-
cussions with the Congress, the EPA Science
Advisory Board, other agencies, academia,
and industry in order to develop a strong, re-
sponsive environmental research program.
This Outlook is the basis for such a dialogue.
Out of that dialogue will develop our re-
search program. Out of that program will
come the information we all need to help as-
sure that the quality of our air, water, and
food supplies is adequate to protect human
health and the ecological system upon which
our survival depends.
Suspended solids Biochemical oxygen
demand
Dissolved solids
Source US Environment! Protection Agency 19?8
.11
-------
Gabriel Biel
Exposito Canonis Missae
1495
-------
Research options
EPA simply cannot solve all the problems
of the environment. We must establish
priorities, and our first priority is to protect
people. The ranking of the eight topics and
the forging of their respective goals are based
upon this premise.
Unfortunately, even as we address these
few but very important topics, \ve are not ad-
dressing many other substantive problems.
The importance of the other problems, how-
ever, should not be underestimated; we may
very well lack only the relevant information to
foresee them. This is why the Research Outlook
must be viewed as a dynamic process where
priorities and problems change each year as
new perceptions emerge. The foundations
for such a process are our forecasts of en-
vironmental futures and our best scientific
judgment.
The Environmental Research, Develop-
ment, and Demonstration Authorization Act
of 1978 requires that three growth options be
considered in this report. The "no growth"
option assumes that the total Agency research
budget remains at the Fiscal Year 1978 level
through the five-year period to Fiscal 1982.
The "moderate growth" option assumes a
five percent growth in the total budget com-
pounded annually from Fiscal 1979 through
Fiscal 1982. This results in a Fiscal 1982 level
22 percent above the Fiscal 1978 level. The
"high growth" option assumes a ten percent
annual compounded growth resulting in a 46
percent increase in Fiscal 1982 over Fiscal
1978. As a point of reference, EPA's research
budget for Fiscal 1978 was S297 million. For
Fiscal 1979, the Agency has submitted a
budget request of S306 million to Congress.
In the following sections, the implications
of our priority rankings (presented in the
preceding chapters) and the budget growth
options are blended together. In developing
this picture of our research program over the
next five years, we have taken into account
the relative size and maturity of our current
research efforts in the eight areas, as well as_
the new emphases called for in this Research
Outlook. For example, new areas such as toxic
substances and nonionizing radiation now
comprise only minor fractions of our re-
search efforts—one percent or less—but
must grow if we are to meet the challenges
outlined in the preceding chapters. On the
other hand, relatively mature areas such as
energy and the environment and air pollu-
tion now represent major shares of the pro-
gram—44 and 14 percent, respectively—and
offer considerable potential for redirection
of ongoing efforts to higher priority empha-
Toxic substances
Prediction and control of toxic substances
are our highest research priorities. Although
toxic substances research currently repre-
sents only about one percent of EPA's re-
search funding, EPA Fiscal 1979 budget
submission calls for an almost threefold in-
crease in this research. By Fiscal 1982, even
under a no growth option, EPA plans to ex-
pand funding of research on toxic substances
to about 6.8 times its current level or $25 mil-
lion. Under the high growth option, funding
would increase nearly thirteenfold over the
Fiscal 1978 to a level of $48 million.
Air pollution
Air pollution ranks second in priority. The
pervasiveness of aerosols and the likely
growth of these pollutants requires improved
understanding, prediction, and control. A
significant part of EPA's research budget, 14
percent, is directed to problems of air pollu-
tion. Because of the potential for redirecting
ongoing activities, relatively modest growth is
planned under the three options for air
pollution research. Under a high growth op-
tion we project a 50 percent growth in fund-
ing by Fiscal 1982 to a level of $61 million.
However, major shifts from research into the
conventional gaseous pollutants to research
into potentially hazardous aerosols are
planned.
Energy and the environment
Developing energy sources while protect-
ing the environment ranks third in priority,
primarily because of the potential impacts of
increased coal combustion on air quality.
During the next 20 years, preventing en-
vironmental problems through anticipatory
research will be more effective than regulat-
ing energy sources after problems are well
entrenched.
EPA already provides substantial funding
for research to assure an adequate supply of
environmentally "clean" energy. By 1982,
prediction and control of paniculate and sul-
fur oxide pollution should be well defined.
Control of nitrogen oxides from power plants
should also be better understood by that time.
By Fiscal 1982, we anticipate a shift of fund-
ing to otherareas of research, while still main-
taining substantial energy funding. A no
growth budget would result in a 30 percent
decrease by Fiscal 1982 to a level of $ 103 mil-
lion as compared with Fiscal 1978. A high
growth total budget would reflect a ten per-
cent decrease to a level of $117 million for
energy related research.
59
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FY 1978 Budget ($297.47 million)
Office of Research and Development (Millions of dollars)
Energy and the
Environment
$130.59
(44%)
Air
Pollution
$42.38
(14%)
Nonionizing
Radiation
S0.83
Nonpoint
Sources and
Watersheds
$15.00 (5%
Solid Waste
$7.66 (3%)
Global
Pollution
S9.34 (3%)
Toxic
Substances
$3.63(1%)
Notes:
•Includes drinking water, point sources ol water Fiscal year 1978 funding of S37.32 million lor
pollution, pesticides, interdisciplinary Measurement and Monitoring is distributed
research, and program management. among all topics.
60
-------
Proportional Growth Projections (FY 1982, Office of Research and Development)
FY 79 submitted
No growth
Moderate growth
High growth
Toxic Air Pollution Energy Solid Waste
Substances and the
Environment
(Funding for Measurement and Monitoring is distributed among all topics )
Global Nonionizing Nonpoint Measurement Total Budget
Pollution Radiation Sources and and
Watersheds Monitoring
Dollar Growth Projections (FY 1982, Office of Research and Development)
FY78
FY79
No growth
Moderate growth
High growth
Toxic Air Pollution Energy
Substances and the
Environment
(Funding for Measurement and Monitoring is distributed among all topics )
Solid Waste
Global
Pollution
Nonionizing
Radiation
Nonpoint
Sources and
Watersheds
Measurement
and
Monitoring
61
-------
Solid waste
The significant growth in solid waste, espe-
cially hazardous industrial materials, requires v
that we place our fourth highest priority on
solving problems in the disposal and recovery
of such wastes. Less than three percent of
EPA's Fiscal 1978 research budget is spent on
investigating problems with, and ways to con-
trol, solid waste. A 40 percent growth by Fis-
cal 1982 under the no growth option is the
same level of $11 million EPA has requested
of the Congress in Fiscal 1979. In the moder-
ate growth option, an increase by a factor of
2.2 is projected by Fiscal 1982. The high
growth option would call for a threefold in-
crease to a level of $23 million.
Global pollution
Understanding what we must do to assure
the survival of a healthful biosphere ranks
fifth in our priorities. Prediction of the effects
of human activities on the atmosphere and on
ocean resources requires improved knowl-
edge of the biosphere's processes and cycles.
About three percent of EPA's Fiscal 1978
budget for research is dedicated to global
problems. This research addresses primarily
coastal and estuarine problems and, to a
much lesser extent, depletion of the ozone
layer. Small funding increases are projected
under the no growth and moderate growth
options. We will, however, be looking to the
efforts of other Federal agencies such as the
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Adminis-
tration and the Department of Energy to
provide much of the needed information.
Under the high growth option a 50 percent
funding increase is projected to a level of $14
million.
Basis for Growth Options
Millions
of dollars
425
4QO
375
350
325
300
275
250
225
200
175
150
125
100
75
50
25
Fiscal 1978
budget
Fiscal 1979
budget request
Fiscal 1982
no growth
budget
Fiscal 1982
moderate growth
budget
Fiscal 1982
high growth
budget
Note:
The three budget options (no growth, moderate growth,
and high growth) are based on growth from the Office of
Research.and Development FY 79 budget submission
compounded annually (respectively at zero, five and ten
percent).
62
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Nonionizing radiation
The subtle nonthermal effects of nonioniz-
ing radiation and the likely growth in the im-
portance of this potential health hazard re-
quire that we make this area our sixth prior-
ity. EPA's research funding for the effects of
nonionizing radiation amounts to consid-
erably less than one percent of EPA's re-
search budget. Modest budget increases in
this area appear as large percentage increases
relative to the Fiscal 1978 base. The nonioniz-
ing radiation research area would double
under the no growth option to $2 million, in-
crease nearly fivefold under the moderate
growth option to S4 million, and increase
over eightfold under the high growth option
to $7 million.
Nonpoint sources
and watersheds
Research on nonpoint sources and wa-
tersheds ranks seventh in priority. The ability
of watersheds to assimilate pollution is cer-
tainly limited. We must, therefore, learn how
to predict and control the effects of nonpoint
sources on water quality and land pro-
ductivity. Research on nonpoint sources and
watersheds comprises five percent of EPA's
Fiscal 1978 research budget. Funding for this
area declined in EPA's Fiscal 1979 submission
to the Congress. By Fiscal 1982, however, we
project some growth under both the no
growth and moderate growth budget op-
tions, wit ha doubling of the budget underthe
high growth option to a level of S30 million.
Measurement and monitoring
Measurement and monitoring research is
our eighth highest priority in this Research
Outlook. Comprehensive measurement and
monitoring of the multitude of environmen-
tal pollutants will be expensive but we must
continue to steadily expand our activities in
this area in order to support our efforts in the
other seven priority areas. At present the
funding in this area, which cuts across many
of the above topics, accounts for over 12 per-
cent of EPA's research budget. EPA's Fiscal
1979 budget submission provides for a signif-
icant 40 percent increase in measurement
and monitoring to a level of $52 million.
Under the no growth option the Fiscal 1979
level would be maintained through Fiscal
1982. Funding for the area would increase by
60 percent under the moderate growth op-
tion to a level of $59 million, and 70 percent
under the high growth option relative to Fis-
cal 1978 to a level of S63 million.
Other environmental research
Since EPA supports only a fraction of the
Federal environmental research efforts, we
must draw extensively upon related efforts by
otr^er Federal agencies, the private sector,
and other nations. Because EPA's priorities
emphasize protecting public health, we can
develop special relationships with some
agencies through such mechanisms as the In-
teragency Regulatory Liaison Group. But,
because of resource limitations, we cannot
support all types of related research in en-
vironmental science and technology. Other
organizations which focus specifically on the
atmosphere, oceans, and natural resources
support important research related to EPA's
areas of specialization.
We have an excellent foundation on which
to build. As described in the appendices on
interagency and international coordination,
there already exist many mechanisms for
sharing of research information and conduct-
ing cooperative projects, both in the United
States and in foreign countries.
We should expand our efforts to utilize the
scientific information developed by other or-
ganizations. We should support their efforts
to expand research capabilities where the re-
search will complement our activities. We
should share our growth potential with these
organizations and should share in their op-
portunities as well.
63
-------
Appendices
Interagency coordination
Goals
The goals of the interagency coordination
efforts are to improve both the efficiency of
Federally funded environmental research
and its relevance to the protection of human
health and environmental quality.
Approximately three-fourths of the en-
vironmental research funded by the Federal
government is performed by agencies other
than the EPA. The EPA, however, requires
much of the information developed via such
efforts to fulfill its regulatory mission. Access
to this data, and improved programming of
research efforts to avoid duplication of effort
or information gaps, is achieved through a
multitude of formal or ad hoc ties between
EPA and other agencies or interagency com-
missions.
At present, EPA's Office of Research and
Development maintains formal coordinating
linkages with 39 other Federal agencies and
departments and is co-funding more than
200 projects each year with those agencies.
These projects range from health effects
studies and technology development to
monitoring support and data assessment.
They reflect areas of current and future
interest to the agency such as toxic sub-
stances, energy, global pollution, health ef-
fects, nonpoint discharges, nonionizing radi-
ation, and monitoring.
Toxic substances
The Toxic Substances Control Act specifi-
cally requires coordination with other Fed-
eral laws in preventing risk of injury to
human health or the environment from toxic
substances. The Interagency Regulatory
Liaison Group (IRLG) was created by the
agency heads to coordinate research and en-
forcement activities. The IRLG is composed
of EPA, the Food and Drug Administration,
the Occupational Safety and Health Adminis-
tration, and the Consumer Product Safety
Commission.
Under the auspices of the IRLG, signifi-
cant studies are being undertaken to identify
and eliminate any unnecessary duplication of
effort and to identify areas where additional
research is necessary. As part of its role in this
exercise, EPA has initiated specific research
to meet the needs of the other three agencies
as well as its own. Such research includes the
development of short-term in vitro tests and
tissue bioassays, epidemiology of cancer inci-
dence in workers and guidelines for conduct-
ing such studies, and the compilation of data
on body burden of toxic chemicals. In addi-
tion, EPA is supporting development of a
project level information base to meet the
needs of the IRLG.
EPA maintains strong support of other
Federal research agencies such as the Na-
tional Center for Toxicological Research.
More than $4 million of EPA funds is allo-
cated each year to aid research at the facility.
In like manner, $4 million of the 1978 budget
of the National Cancer Institute has been al-
located to joint National Cancer Institute and
EPA research on pollution/cancer relation-
ships.
Much of the research conducted by the Na-
tional Institute of Environmental Health Sci-
ences (NIEHS) is related to effects of toxic
substances. EPA reviews the Institute's re-
search projects and EPA and NIEHS scien-
tists maintain close communication in the Re-
search Triangle Park facility. Finally, EPA is
funding an interagency agreement at the
Center for Disease Control in Atlanta to de-
velop epidemiological data on toxic metals.
Energy
EPA's Interagency Energy/Environment
Research and Development Program is one
of the largest and most successful programs
of its type ever conducted by the Federal gov-
ernment. It relies on the close cooperation
and communication among more than a
dozen Federal agencies and departments.
Approximately $100 million per year in
energy-related environmental research and
development is conducted under this pro-
gram, which funds more than 600 projects.
One-fourth of these projects are im-
plemented by agencies other than the EPA,
and most of the remainder are conducted by
EPA-monitored extramural grants and con-
tracts.
The Interagency Program was initiated in
Fiscal Year 1975. It is based upon reports pre-
sented by two multiagency task forces in
November 1974. These reports, along with
guidance provided by the Office of Manage-
ment and Budget and the Council on En-
vironmental Quality, helped to establish EPA
as central planner and coordinator of the en-
tire Interagency Program.
EPA's role as program coordinator assures
consideration of national environmental
goals and energy development needs. A
prime example of this role is the relationship
that has developed between the Department
of Energy and the EPA with regard to the de-
velopment of synthetic fuels from coal.
Under the auspices of the Interagency Pro-
gram. EPA is cooperating with the Depart-
ment to monitor and assess the pollutants
-------
from prototype and demonstration synthetic
fuel plants being developed in this country.
Working with the Tennessee Valley Au-
thority (TVA), EPA has sponsored several re-
search projects aimed at further improving
the economics and applicability of various
techniques for disposing of flue gas desul-
furization sludges. Additional work funded
at TVA via the Interagency Program in-
volved testing of alternative flue gas desul-
furization systems under different operating
conditions.
For several years, EPA's Interagency Pro-
gram has been a major source of support for
the nation's coal cleaning development pro-
gram within the Bureau of Mines and else-
where. The limits of cleanability of hundreds
of different types of domestic coals have been
tested. Major studies have also analyzed the
potential economic benefits of combining
coal cleaning with partial scrubbing of flue
gas to achieve levels of control comparable to
total scrubbing systems.
To determine what happens to energy-
related pollutants in the atmosphere, the In-
teragency Program has combined the efforts
of EPA, the Department of Energy, the Na-
tional Bureau of Standards, the Tennessee
Valley Authority, and the National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)
on various aspects of the problem. For in-
stance, under the auspices of the Interagency
Program, NOAA maintains a full-time mod-
eling group at EPA's Environmental Sciences
Research Laboratory in North Carolina.
One of the more successful interagency ef-
forts to date has been the development of in-
expensive combustion modification
technologies and techniques which promise
to reduce the amount of nitrogen oxides
emitted by industrial and commercial boilers.
These techniques promise not only to reduce
pollution from a vast array of stationary
pollution sources, but also to improve the
overall energy efficiency of the units in the
process. Closely associated with this work has
been the development of various
mechanisms, including advanced scrubber
systems and baghouses, for removing the
major pollutants from coal combustion such
as sulfur oxides, particles, and nitrogen
oxides.
As the Interagency Program continues to
prove to be a successful means of linking the
efforts of various agencies involved in
energy-related environmental research, it
expands its list of participants. For example, a
formal memorandum of understanding has
been signed with the Electric Power Research
institute, a utility-funded energy research or-
ganization. In addition, both the Nuclear
Regulatory Commission and the U.S. Coast
Guard have indicated an interest in becoming
formal participants.
Research efforts within the program will
continue to focus on resolving the health and
environmental problems associated with near
and mid-term domestic energy resource de-
velopment. The extraction, processing, and
combustion of coal will continue to be a major
concern of the program's efforts. Focus of
this research is gradually shifting toward the
identification of the health and environmen-
tal effects of energy-related pollutants. This
is especially true of cases in which the pollu-
tants may interact with other air or water
pollutants, or may expose populations to
small doses over extended time periods. In-
formation gained from the longer term proj-
ects supported by the Interagency Program
will help to improve the precision of the en-
ergy/environment decision-making process.
The Great Lakes
In addition to our cooperative efforts with
the International Joint Commission on the
Great Lakes, EPA also works closely with the
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Adminis-
tration, the Great Lakes Basin Commission,
and the Great Lakes Fisheries Commission to
share information and coordinate research.
In one effort, EPA and the Great Lakes En-
vironmental Research Laboratory of NOAA
model near-shore processes and hydro-
dynamic transport.
EPA's Large Lakes Research station main-
tains the data base for the Great Lakes re-
search community, including Federal and
state agencies, as well as academic institutions
and Canadian agencies. The Agency, there-
fore, serves as a resource and as a focal point
for interagency data exchange and informa-
tion management.
66
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Appendix 1
Atmospheric and
climatic effects
As requested by the Federal Committee on
Science and Technology, the EPA has taken
the lead in a multiagency program called
Biological and Climatic Effects Research
Program (BACER). This program involves
six other agencies in modeling and measur-
ing stratospheric phenomena and their po-
tential biological effects. For further infor-
mation on this program, see the Global Pollu-
tion chapter.
In addition, EPA through a long standing
interagency agreement with NOAA, receives
meteorology support. EPA accommodates 50
NOAA employees within its organization and
facilities.
Health effects
EPA maintains close contact with the
NIEHS. EPA's Assistant Administrator for
Research and Development is a member of
the National Advisory Environmental Health
Council which advises NIEHS on extramural
research, primarily relating to cancer and
health effects. The Agency also provides the
Institute with descriptions of EPA health-
related research projects.
Likewise, EPA works with an interagency
task force, organized by Congressional re-
quest, to examine the needs, goals, and re-
sources appropriate to the NIEHS research
program for the next five to eight years. EPA
is also participating in various working
groups created to implement recommen-
dations made by the task force.
In response to Section 402 of the Clean Air
Act Amendments, the Administrator of EPA
chairs a task force on environmental cancer
and heart and lung disease. The National
Cancer Institute (NCI); the National Heart,
Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI); the Na-
tional Institute of Occupational Safety and
Health (NIOSH); and NIEHS are members
of the group. The objectives of the task force-
are to recommend and coordinate com-
prehensive research on the relationship be-
tween environmental pollution and human
cancer and heart and lung disease, and to
recommend strategies for eliminating the
risks of cancer and other diseases associated
with environmental pollution.
The Agencv also maintains an interasencv
O O -
agreement with the Center for Disease Con-
trol (CDC). The Center provides EPA with
support on epidemiology studies and
emergency episodes such as the carbon tet-
rachloridc spill on the Ohio River last year.
EPA is working with NIOSH to develop
studies on the effects of diesel exhausts. For
some time now, NIOSH has been studying
miners' exposure to diesel exhaust. Current
efforts will be directed toward other areas
where there is a high level of exposure, such
as in locomotive terminals and bus stations.
EPA is also contributing to epidemiological
studies conducted by the Food and Drug
Administration and the National Cancer In-
stitute. These agencies are studying the inci-
dence of bladder cancer and its relationship
to saccharin intake. Water supply and tap
water samples are also being analyzed to de-
termine whether there may be other carcino-
gens in water contributing to bladder cancer.
Finally, EPA participates in several health-
related task force and advisory panels such as
the Army Science Advisory Panel and Steer-
ing Committee on Primate Use.
Nonpoint sources
and watersheds
To assess tools and management practices
for controlling nonpoint source pollutants
generated by forest management practices,
EPA conducts cooperative research efforts
with the U.S. Forest Service. With the Ag-
ricultural Research Service. EPA works to
evaluate the effectiveness of irrigation sys-
tems. In addition, a university-F.PA-
Department of Agriculture coordinating
committee for environmental quality re-
search and development has worked since
-------
Interagency Research and Development Coordination
Department or Agency
Agriculture
Federal Research Science and Education
Administration
Food Safety Quality Service
Commerce
National Bureau of Standards
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
Defense
Corps of Engineers
Energy
Health, Education, and Welfare
Public Health Service
Food and Drug Administration
Bureau of Radiological Health
National Center for Toxicological Research
National Center for Health Statistics
Disease Control Center
National Institute of Occupational
Safety and Health
National Cancer Institute
National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute
National Instituteof Environmental Health Sciences
Housing and Urban Development
Interior
Fish and Wildlife Service
Bureau of Land Management
National Marine Fisheries Service
United States Geological Survey
Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service
Labor
State
Transportation
Federal Aviation Administration
United States Coast Guard
Other Agencies
Council on Environmental Quality
National Aeronautics and Space
Administration
Consumer Product Safety Commission
Tennessee Valley Authority
National Science Foundation
National Academy of Sciences/National
Academy of Engineering
Nuclear Regulatory Commission
Great Lakes Basin Commission
Air
Pollution
O A
O A
0 A
O A
O A
O
A
O A
O
0 A
O
O
O
O
O A
0 A
O
O
O
O
O
Water
Pollution
O A
O A
0 A
O A
O A
O
O A
O A
A
0
O A
0
O A
O A
O A
O A
O
O
O A
0 A
O A
O A
O
O A
O
Energy
A
A
O A
O A
O A
O A
O A
A
A
A
0 A
A
A
O A
0
Pesticides
& Toxics
O A
0 A
0
O
O A
O A
O A
0 A
0 A
0 A
O
O A
O
0 A
Radiation
O
O A
O
0 A
O
O
O A
O A
0
Health
Effects
O A
0 A
O
O A
O
O A
0 A
0 A
O A
O A
O A
O A
O A
0
O A
0
A
Other3
O A
O A
O
O
O
••Including noise, solid waste, and policy research.
O Coordination through committees.
A Coordination through joint research.
68
-------
Appendix 1
1972 to prevent duplication of research ef-
forts and to assure that major environmental
research needs are satisfied.
EPA's activities include periodic meetings
with counterparts at other agencies including
the Economic Research Service and the
Cooperative State Research Service to assure
that the other Federal agencies consider en-
vironmental protection when planning their
research.
In addition to the Interagency Energy and
Environment Research and Development
Program, EPA conducts joint energy-
related research efforts with the Nuclear
Regulatory Commission to design studies on
licensing procedures; the National Marine
Fisheries Service on the effects of power plant
effluents; and the Department of the Interior
on a siting and operations committee.
Marine pollution
To improve our understanding of the im-
pact of human activities on the ocean, EPA
participates in several interagency coopera-
tive research efforts. For example, EPA con-
ducts research into ocean-borne pesticides
with the Bureau of Sports Fisheries and
Wildlife. The Agency also coordinates with
the Food and Drug Administration in studies
of shellfish pollution, as well as with the In-
terior's Bureau of Outdoor Recreation in the
selection of study sites, the Army Corps of
Engineers for the measurement of water
quality, and the National Science Foundation
for evaluation of water quality indicators. \Ve
are also engaged in modeling the transport
and fate of pollutants in the marine environ-
ment with NOAA, U.S. Geological Survey,
and the Bureau of Land Management.
A joint EPA-Army Corps of Engineers
technical committee coordinates research on
the regulatory aspects of dredging. It rec-
ommends research studies and establishes
joint projects.
\Ve are engaged in interagency research on
the impacts and cleanup of oil spHls. EPA, the
Department of the Interior, NOAA, and the
U.S. Coast Guard are developing an oil spill
damage assessment program. This program
includes preparation of a report with NOAA
on the Argo Merchant Oil spill; cooperation
with the Bureau of Land Management in re-
viewing outer continental shelf documents;
and co-sponsorship of an oil conference with
the U.S. Coast Guard, Bureau of Land Man-
agement, NOAA, Department of Energy,
and Office of Naval Research. EPA also uses
U.S. Navy facilities to do research in the
characteristics and effects of drilling mud.
Nonionizing radiation
Centralized coordination has resulted in
complementary research and information
exchange among the several Federal agencies
addressing nonionizing radiation. Each
agency has specific areas of responsibility in
studying nonionizing radiation. EPA is con-
cerned primarily with the centralized gather-
ing of data for exposure standards. The De-
partment of Commerce's Office of Tele-
communications Policy coordinates Federal
programs on biological effects. Other agen-
cies conducting research are the Department
of Defense and the U.S. Public Health Ser-
vice's Bureau of Radiological Health.
EPA interacts with the other agencies
through program reviews and research dis-
cussions on nonionizing radiation effects, in-
cluding the immune defense system and ge-
netics. In 1977, representatives from the De-
partment of Energy discussed with EPA pos-
sible effects from a proposed Satellite Power
System that would produce power from solar
energy. The EPA also prepared a report sec-
tion on radiation research needs for the Na-
tional Institute for Environmental Health
Science's research program.
Monitoring
A fundamental problem in environmental
management has been the fragmentation of
the nation's environmental monitoring ef-
forts. For example, data collected by the Food
and Drug Administration on pollutant levels
in foods, the U.S. Department of Agriculture
on levels in soil, and the U.S. Geological Sur-
vey on levels in water, cannot be synthesized
due to gaps in collection, incompatibility of
data storage techniques, and differences in
methods of analysis.
Future coordination will be necessary in
three areas of monitoring: linkage of en-
vironmental monitoring data with health ef-
fects data, ecological (or biological) monitor-
ing, and state monitoring programs for air
and water quality.
A major function of coordinated national
environmental monitoring would be the link-
age of environmental data with medical and
socioeconomic data to establish correlations
for further analysis.
EPA has taken some recent steps to pro-
mote greater interagency coordination
among collectors of health and environmen-
tal data. For example, EPA and the National
Center for Health Statistics agreed to work
toward correlating the Center's mortality and
morbidity data with EPA's environmental
data. The recent formation of the Inter-
69
-------
agency Regulatory Liaison Group also shows
promise of improving environmental and
health data collection analysis.
Biological monitoring data presently suffer
from the lack of centralized storage and re-
trieval systems. In response to this problem,
EPA has developed a computerized system
(limited at present to aquatic data) now being
operated on a pilot basis. Cooperation by
other agencies in further development could
assure a valuable interagency resource for
biological monitoring data.
Another problem associated with biological
monitoring is the lack of standardized sample
collection, preservation, and analysis tech-
niques. This lack can, and often does, pre-
clude the comparison of data from different
agencies. EPA is engaged in programs to
produce guidelines for standardized biologi-
cal laboratory procedures. Nationwide im-
plementation of such guidelines should im-
prove the comparability of biological mea-
surement data.
In the near term, a major coordination ef-
fort is needed to provide guidance to the
states in establishing and operating air and
water monitoring systems to meet require-
ments of EPA regulations and standards.
Quality assurance guidance provided to the
states through EPA's ten regional offices cov-
ers the use of approved measurement
methods, quality control techniques and ma-
terials, and audits of data and system per-
formance. Efforts are underway to prevent
duplication of activities and to provide uni-
form guidance to state monitoring programs
for ambient air, stationary sources, and
drinking water analysis.
In addition to these activities, EPA's labora-
tory in Las Vegas, Nevada, is conducting
radiation monitoring for the Department of
Energy. EPA also has agreements with the
National Aeronautics and Space Administra-
tion for aircraft monitoring, monitors the
marine environment with the assistance of
U.S. Coast Guard vessels, and shares sam-
pling stations with the National Marine
Fisheries Service.
Of particular importance this year is the
launching of a new program with the Na-
tional Bureau of Standards to develop cali-
bration materials, measurement methods,
and standards for research monitoring. This
program is similar to the Interagency Energy/
Environment R&D Program mentioned ear-
lier
70
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Appendix 2
International coordination
Goals
The goals of our international activities are
to recognize the worldwide and long-range
character of environmental problems and,
where consistent with the foreign policy of
the United States, lend support to initiatives,
resolutions, and programs designed to im-
prove international cooperation in an-
ticipating and preventing a decline in the
quality of our global environment.*
The Office of Research and Development
currently conducts, and will continue to pur-
sue, a high level of cooperative and coordi-
nated research with other nations and inter-
national organizations. The benefits of these
activities are threefold. First, some of the
problems we face, such as depletion of the
ozone layer or protection of the Great Lakes,
are inherently international, and a unilateral
approach to their solution would be inade-
quate. Second, just as our technology is
superior in some areas, other nations have
areas of experience and expertise which allow
for an efficient, mutually beneficial sharing
of information. Third, the reduction or
elimination of pollution anywhere on the
globe is, in a larger sense, of benefit to all who
live on this planet. As we improve and share
our pollution control technologies, our entire
environment becomes a more healthful place
to live.
EPA specialists participate in joint projects
under bilateral agreements with Canada, the
Federal Republic of Germany, Japan,
Mexico, the USSR, and excess foreign cur-
rency countries (e.g., Egypt, Poland, Yugo-
slavia, Pakistan, and India). EPA also partici-
pates in working groups associated with
multilateral organizations such as the Or-
ganization for Economic Cooperation and
Development, NATO's Committee on the
Challenges of Modern Society, United Na-
tions Environmental Program, \Vorld Health
Organization. Pan American Health Organi-
zation, Commission of European Com-
munities, and the Economic Commission for
Europe.
To gain insight into contemporary do-
mestic issues by learning from another's
experience, EPA researchers participate in
fact-finding missions, attend international
symposia, and provide advice to those coun-
tries requesting assistance in solving their
own environmental problems.
Agencv participation in ongoing inter-
national activities reflects areas of current
United States concern for potential envi-
*\\'ording adapted from Section 102(2) (E) of the
National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA).
ronmental problems and emphasizes toxic
substances, atmospheric pollution, water
pollution, hazardous wastes, energy, and
monitoring.
Toxic substances
Issues relating to toxic substances, includ-
ing multimedia exposure to environmental
chemicals and related health effects, signi-
ficant perturbations to ecosystems, and
disposal of toxic substances, are of primary
concern to environmentalists worldwide.
Therefore the Agency is working on several
international initiatives in this area.
Implementation of the Toxic Substances
Control Act requires cooperation in establish-
ing international agreements on regulatory
procedures (e.g., consistent testing require-
ments, agreed quality control procedures,
standard methods).
The Agency is concentrating its efforts
within major international organizations
such as the Chemicals Group of the Organiza-
tion for Economic Cooperation and De-
velopment (OECD). EPA is participating ac-
tively in the chemical testing program of the
Chemicals Group to harmonize test methods
and systems to predict the effects of sub-
stances on humans and the environment be-
fore substances enter the marketplace. EPA's
focus is on methods for testing the long-term
effects of chemical substances on human
health.
EPA is discussing with the European
Commission the administrative details of
toxic substances control, including the har-
monization of the Toxic Substances Control
Act preinanufacturing procedures and the
examination and evaluation of toxicitv test-
ing. Also in cooperation with the World
Health Organi/ation. EPA will help develop
an international plan of action to improve the
evaluation of health risks from exposure to
chemicals.
Japan has long been concerned with the
issue of toxic substances. Under a United
States-Japan bilateral agreement, EPA has
exchanged information in such areas as mer-
cury removal from contaminated waste-water
and sludges. DDT and PCBs in accumulated
sediments, and the fate and effects of toxic
substances in sediments. Areas for future
cooperation may include studies on chemical
incidents, sharingof test information, risk as-
sessment evaluations, chemical import/ex-
port controls, and the establishment of an in-
ternational convention to control toxic sub-
stances.
The Japanese are also knowledgeable in
the area of removal and disposal of toxic sed-
71
-------
iments. They have initiated full scale reme-
dial programs in several harbors and bays in
Japan. Their dredging technology, which at-
tempts to keep aquatic environmental dam-
age to a minimum, could have direct applica-
bility to the PCB and Kepone situations in the
United States. Recently, an EPA-Corps of
Engineers team coordinated an evaluation of
this dredging technology.
EPA is also cooperating with the Federal
Republic of Germany in a study of methods
for, and the feasibility of, environmental
specimen bank operations. The objective of
such a specimen bank is the long-term storage
of biological specimens and data for future
analysis to determine the historical record of
pollutant burdens.
Atmospheric pollution
Atmospheric pollution is a major area for
international consideration because airborne
pollutants can travel across national bound-
aries, continents, and oceans. Research on
transport and transformation and biological
and health effects of air pollutants is, and will
continue to be, an important aspect of EPA's
international program.
The United States and Canada have an in-
creasing number of cross-boundary air pollu-
tion problems that require analysis and reso-
lution through bilateral contact or reference
to the International Joint Commission. At
present, there are at least eight major
stationary source pollution problems be-
tween the two countries, none of which is
amenable to easy solution. The major need in
each problem area is for better information
on the potential impacts of sources and their
effects on health and welfare in both coun-
tries. EPA has been assisting the Department
of State and the Joint Commission in making
these assessments. In addition, EPA has of-
fered to hold ajoint United States-Canadian
workshop in 1978 to begin a harmonized re-
search effort on long-range pollutant trans-
port. In addition, EPA and Environment
Canada are working closely on problems of
mobile source air pollution, principally to fos-
ter the more than $18 billion annual trade in
our integrated automobile manufacturing
and marketing structure.
EPA also works under a United States-
Mexico Agreement to study the transport
and effects of air pollutants across the border.
EPA and Mexico's Subsecretariat for En-
vironmental Improvement are now formulat-
ing a Memorandum of Understanding to es-
tablish a formal exchange of information.
training, and surveillance. It is expected that
this joint United States-Mexico program will
assist the Mexican government in the design
and implementation of air monitoring net-
work systems, including a quality assurance
program, so that data collected in Mexico are
comparable to United States data. Future ac-
tivities may include joint studies to determine
the transport of air pollutants across the bor-
der in both directions and to work out mutu-
ally agreeable control programs. At present,
two metropolitan border areas, San Diego-Ti-
juana and El Paso-Ciudad Juarez, are receiv-
ing primary attention and joint programs are
being initiated at both the national and local
levels. In addition, EPA may assist the Mexi-
can Secretariat for Human Settlements in de-
veloping a system for evaluating environ-
mental impact using remote sensing as well as
ground level measurement techniques.
EPA currently assists the Economic Com-
mission for Europe's Steering Body on Long
Range Transport of Air Pollutants in the
study of sources, transport, and fate of sulfur
oxides. In the near future, nitrogen oxides
will be included in such studies.
Under the United States-Japan bilateral
agreement, researchers of Japan and EPA
are exchanging information on meteorology,
photochemical air pollution, and in particu-
lar, air pollution conditions that lead to pro-
duction of photochemical oxidants (smog).
The Japanese are shifting their oxidant con-
trol strategy from nitrogen oxide control
alone to nitrogen oxide control combined
with hydrocarbon control. Information from
each country's air pollution studies including
diffusion modeling, analysis, and field mea-
surements should, in the future, improve our
understanding of air pollution movement,
our ability to forecast air pollution concen-
trations, and our stationary source air pollu-
tion control technologies.
Under US-USSR Environmental Agree-
ment, the Agency is concerned with two
major areas: air pollution modeling and mea-
surement, and stationary source air pollution
control technology. Ajoint wind tunnel ex-
periment is planned to simulate the distribu-
tion of air pollutants over a specified complex
terrain, and a joint field experiment in the
USSR to study the formation and transfor-
mation of natural aerosols will be conducted.
These two activities will aid both countries in
understanding basic air pollution processes.
An excellent example of international
cooperation in the area of health effects is the
ongoing Isotopic Lead Experiment spon-
sored by the Common Market, Italian Fed-
eral Hydrocarbon Authority, and Interna-
tional Lead and Zinc Research Organization.
Under this study, gasoline stations in the To-
-------
Appendix 2
Worldwide Environmental Activities
Organization/ Activity
International Organizations
Commission of European Communities (CEC)
Committee on Challenges to Modern Society (CCMS)
International Organization for Legal Metrology (OIML)
International Standards Organization (ISO)
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
(OECD)
United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (ECE)
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
Intergovernmental Maritime Consultative Organization (IMCO)
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)
World Health Organization i(WHO)
World Meteorological Organization (WMO)
United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO)
United Nations Environmental Program (UNEP)
Research, Development, and Demonstration Programs
Air
Pollution3
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Water
Pollution"
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Radiation
•
•
•
•
•
•
Pesticides
•
•
•
•
•
•
Noise
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Waste
Mgmt0
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Toxic
Subst
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Energy
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Bilateral Cooperation
Brazil
Canada
Federal Republic of Germany
France
France and United Kingdom"1
Iran
Israel
Japan
Mexico
Saudi Arabia
Soviet Union
United Kingdom
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Scientific Activities Overseas Program
Egypt
India
Pakistan
Poland
Yugoslavia
•
•
•
•
•
_
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
alncludes troposphere and stratosphere.
"Includes marine, estuarine, and freshwater
environments.
clncludes hazardous, solid, and radioactive
wastes.
"Tripartite agreement.
-------
rino area converted to a different lead isotope
ratio in gasoline. This shift gave the lead a
unique "fingerprint" \vhich will allow accu-
rate tracking through the ecosystem. The
amount of lead in the human blood actually
coming from automotive sources will be de-
termined by measuring blood lead levels dur-
ing the use of this special gasoline and after
the area returns to the original gasoline.
Problems concerning the earth's protective
ozone layer are also current research issues.
Because of this problem's global nature, the
United Nations Coordinating Committee on
the Ozone Layer reviews ongoing research,
identifies research and monitoring needs,
recommends (with priorities) needed re-
search projects, and attempts to influence na-
tions and international scientific organiza-
tions to conduct such studies. EPA has par-
ticipated in these discussions and presented
the United States position on stratospheric
ozone.
EPA also has participated in activities
under the Tripartite (France, United King-
dom, and United States) Agreement on
Stratospheric Monitoring, which provides a
coordinated program of stratospheric
monitoring. In general, the Tripartite
Agreement has accelerated research within
the respective countries, including the appli-
cation of mathematical models for predicting
changes in the stratosphere, research on at-
mospheric chemistry, and improved methods
for measuring stratospheric constituents
using satellites, balloons or aircraft, including
supersonic transports.
Water quality
A landmark in international cooperation
regarding improved water quality is the 1972
United States-Canadian Great Lakes Water
Quality Agreement. Now under joint review
and revision, this agreement is a unique
mechanism for coordinating national efforts
on the cleanup and restoration of the Great
Lakes. These lakes are crucial. They consti-
tute more than 80 percent of the fresh sur-
face water area of the United States and 97
percent of its fresh surface water storage.
The agreement sets joint water quality objec-
tives, formulates remedial programs, and
commits the two governments to provide suf-
ficient funding to achieve the objectives. Both
sides have worked closely through the Inter-
national Joint Commission to support a water
quality monitoring program and to jointly set
forth the research program necessary to
guide and support surveillance activities.
EPA personnel have been active on the Water
Quality Board, the Research Advisory Board,
and committees established to carry out the
agreement. The Research Advisory Board
plays a major role in the development of
water quality objectives. In addition to pro-
ducing the Toxics Inventory, the Board is
also evaluating the health and environmental
significance of replacements for phosphates
in detergents. A pilot study to assess the value
of biological maps and a program to identify
unrecognized toxic pollutants are underway.
A new initiative, beginning in 1978, will iden-
tify those concerns that receive additional
regulatory attention. EPA provides expert
consultation on a variety of issues related to
United States-Canada boundary problems.
EPA's research support of the Great Lakes
program includes such activities as producing
models for management to aid in the control
of phytoplankton, pathway studies for haz-
ardous substances, sediment-water interac-
tion modeling, and studies of the impacts
from nonpoint sources and thermal dis-
charges on the biota of the Lakes. This re-
search program is one of the few ongoing
large scale ecosystem studies of a long-term
nature.
Research activities are instrumental in
identifying problem areas in the Lakes (e.g.,
eutrophication in Lake Erie, PCBs in Lake
Michigan, Mirex, and other contaminants).
These efforts have subsequently led to the
recommendation and, in some cases, adop-
tion of new control programs to help restore
beneficial uses of the Lakes.
Both countries are also exchanging infor-
mation on methods for setting water pollu-
tion standards and comparing information
on toxicology methods including biochemi-
cal, microbial, and analytical chemical
methods. EPA is conductingjoint laboratory
efforts on microbiological degradation of
toxic substances related to water quality
monitoring in water bodies.
74
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Appendix 2
Wastewater treatment
To improve knowledge of wastewater
treatment and disposal methods, EPA is par-
ticipating in international research involving
source characterization of pollution, ad-
vanced wastewater treatment technology,
process modification, and analyses of sludges
and their environmental behavior. One of the
most important of these efforts is the study of
advanced wastewater treatment being con-
ducted under the auspices of NATO's Com-
mittee on the Challenges of Modern Society
(CCMS). The United States, United King-
dom, Canada, Italy. France, and Germany
are studying such topics as the standardiza-
tion of formats for international information
exchange, the use of oxygen-enriched air to
treat contaminated effluent, land spreading
of sludge, nutrient removal, reverse osmosis,
electrodialysis, and ion exchange.
Details on these advanced methods of
wastewater treatment used abroad are help-
ing EPA to determine which treatment
methods may be feasible for use in the United
States. For example, Japan has given
EPA technological information applica-
ble to United States problems, e.g., the
best available technology (BAT)
research on tannery wastes. A large scale pilot
plant operation in Japan is testing four dif-
ferent pure oxygen systems on the same tan-
nery waste under the same conditions but
utilizing different operational techniques.
The efficiency and effectiveness of each will
be evaluated by the Japanese and a full scale
system will be installed. These results will be
of immense value to EPA effluent guideline
and enforcement offices as well as of direct
value to the tanning industry.
In the Soviet Union there is an accelerated
water pollution control effort in both funda-
mental and applied research. The US-USSR
Working Group on Prevention of Water
Pollution from Industrial and Municipal
Sources is discussing various phases of new
Soviet technologies including electrolytic
coagulation, high energy magnetic separa-
tion, freezing, ozonation, dissolved air flota-
tion, and air stripping. Areas of direct
technological benefit can be found in the
treatment of industrial and municipal waste-
waters and process modifications such as dry
formation of paper. Such involvements
should, in the near future, provide additional
benefits to us not only in terms of cleaner
processes and more effective control tech-
nologies, but also in terms of a vastly im-
proved understanding of the systems in-
volved.
Hazardous waste
EPA is also working with various countries
to assess risks and benefits associated with
various methods of hazardous waste disposal.
Of key interest is a NATO Committee on the
Challenges of Modern Society (CCMS) pilot
study on the disposal of hazardous wastes
which is now entering Phase II of its opera-
tion. Phase I of the study provided EPA with
valuable insight into mine and landfill dis-
posal practices and produced recommended
procedures for hazardous waste manage-
ment. Phase II will include analyses of ther-
mal treatment, such as land and sea incinera-
tion systems for hazardous wastes, of landfill
disposal and surface treatment with a focus
on wastes from electroplating and steel har-
dening processes, and of alternatives to land-
fill disposal. Areas of potential future coop-
eration under a United States-Japan bilateral
treaty include pyrolysis of solid waste, en-
vironmental effects of vinyl and polyvinyl
chlorides, improved collection systems man-
agement and technology, hazardous waste
treatment and disposal technology, recovery
of past consumer waste, and management in-
formation systems on industrial wastes.
Finally, as part of the revised United
States-Canada Great Lakes Agreement, an
annex on hazardous substances is being de-
veloped. To this end, EPA is establishing a
scientific data base for categorizing particular
hazardous substances.
-------
Environmental Issues and Projects
Legend-
1. Easiport
2 St Croix River Basin
3. St. John River
4. Dickey-Lincoln Dam
5- Ftenelieu-Champlain
6. Reynolds Metals
7. Prescott-Brockville
8. Darlington
9. Nanticoke
10. Lake Erie
11. Detroit-Windsor
12. Greal Lakes
13. Lake Michigan
14. Atikokan
15. Rainy River
16. Red River
17. Garrison Diversion
18. Boundary Dam
19. Poplar River Plant
20. Rathead River/Cabin Creek Mining
21. Okanogan Rrver
22. Skagrt River
23. Puget Sound
24. Yukon River Basin
25. Beaufort Sea
26. San Diego-Tijuana
27. San Diego-Tijuana
26. Calexico-Mexicali
29. Nogales-Nogales
30. El Paso-Cuidad Juarez
31. Eagle Pass-Piedras Negras
32. Laredo-Nuevo Laredo
33. Brownsville-Matamores
• Water
• Nuclear Power Plants
» Coal-Fired Plants
A Air Pollution
76
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Appendix 2
Energy
\Vith the increasing focus on coal as a fu-
ture energy source, much can be gained from
the experience of other countries in exploit-
ing this fuel. An excellent example of this po-
tential is a study currently underway with
Yugoslavia. The project is providing a full
evaluation of the Kosovo Coal Gasification
Plant, its effluent and process streams, and
pollution control systems. With the current
United States effort to commercialize coal
gasification, it is essential for EPA to assess
the environmental consequences which will
result from coal conversion technology. The
pollutant data and evaluation obtained by the
study in Yugoslavia w ill be used by EPA to de-
termine the potential impact of gasification
plants proposed for the United States and the
criteria required for control technology de-
velopment.
Also related to coal use, in 1977 the United
States and the Federal Republic of Germany
initiated a cooperative program on the con-
trol of emissions from coal-fired facilities.
EPA and the German Ministry of Research
and Technology have agreed to exchange in-
formation and, in certain cases, to work to-
gether to assure efficient development of
technologies capable of allowing coal burning
in an environmentally acceptable manner.
Included in this cooperative effort are the
control technologies of sulfur oxides (includ-
ing utilization of by-products), nitrogen
oxides, and particulates.
The Agency is also working on four proj-
ects under a United States-Soviet Union En-
vironmental Agreement which concern gas-
eous emission, participate abatement
technology, process improvement and mod-
ification, ferrous metallurgy, and a new-
United States initiative—protection of the
environment from coal preparation plant
operations. Both countries are examining
questions related to the abatement of sulfur
dioxide emissions through various control
techniques using lime/limestone, magnesia,
and ammonia scrubbing; dwst collection
technology; characterization of aerosols; de-
metallization pretreatment for the hy-
drodesulfurization of petroleum residuals;
preliminary coal cleaning; and complex
methods for fuel utilization in pow er generat-
ing systems for the elimination of harmful
emissions.
Monitoring
In addition to its activities on the Stratos-
pheric Ozone Monitoring Program, EPA has
the lead responsibility to fulfill the interna-
tional monitoring program on the Great
Lakes, under the 1972 United States-
Canadian Water Quality Agreement. Inter-
national coordination of monitoring activities
is achieved through the surveillance sub-
committee of the Water Quality Board. This
subcommittee assures that appropriate mea-
surements are taken for use in the manage-
ment models for nutrients. The resulting
data are shared by the two countries. Cur-
rently, intensive efforts on each Lake occur
only every five years. The Research Advisory
Board, however, feels that more effort is
needed on biological monitoring to improve
our understanding of trends in the Great
Lakes.
EPA is also active in the United Nations
Environmental Program's Global Environ-
mental Monitoring System. Primarily con-
cerned with air, this system will link existing
national monitoring activities. United States
cooperation in the global water quality
monitoring network is expected to increase as
a result of EPA's role as a World Health Or-
ganization Collaborating Center for En-
vironmental Pollution Control. The data
from joint surveillance and monitoring in the
Great Lakes will be incorporated into the
Global Environmental Monitoring System.
A comprehensive environmental monitor-
ing program is a prerequisite for complete
United States participation in the establish-
ment of a global monitoring system and our
utilization of data from it. This international
coordination, as well as the development of
our own national monitoring capability, will
increase our base of knowledge on pollutant
build-up in the environment before that
build-up reaches crisis proportions.
Conclusion
These are but a few of EPA's research-
related international activities. They reflect
areas of concern, as well as some of
the countries and organizations with which
EPA research works. In the future, the
Agency will continue to identify and initiate
needed international research projects and
will continue its activities of coordination.
There are challenges and opportunities for
positive action on international environmen-
tal problems and EPA will continue to play a
major role.
-------
Appendix 3
Community health and
environmental surveillance system
Introduction
On November 24, 1976, the House Sub-
committee on the Environment and Atmo-
sphere of the Committee on Science and
Technology released a report titled, "The
Environmental Protection Agency's Research
Program with Primary Emphasis on the
Community Health and Environmental Sur-
veillance System (CHESS): An Investigative
Report" (Ref. 1). The Environmental Re-
search, Development, and Demonstration
Authorization Act of 1978 (P.L. 95-155)
specifies that EPA shall report the implemen-
tation status of the Investigative Report's rec-
ommendations in each annual revision of its
five-year plan. This is the first EPA im-
plementation status report.
Background
CHESS emerged as a major program in
1970. A discussion of goals and objectives is in
"Environmental Science and Technology"
(Ref. 2). CHESS was designed, as the name
indicates, to monitor the health status of the
United States population with respect to vary-
ing environmental conditions. For the most
part, the environmental considerations were
limited to meteorologic conditions and pollu-
tion levels. The program included studies of
health groups and potentially susceptible
groups such as asthmatics. CHESS data,
gathered over five years, have been analyzed
for relationships between health effects and
exposure to such pollutants as sulfur oxides,
nitrogen oxides, paniculate matter, and
oxidants.
In May 1974, EPA published the "Health
Consequences of Sulfur Oxides: A Report
from CHESS, 1970-1971" (often referred to
as the CHESS Monograph) that included sev-
eral of the early CHESS aerometric and
health studies (Ref. 3).
On February 29, 1976 the Los Angeles Times
published the first of several articles implying
that studies in the CHESS Monograph on the
health effects of ambient sulfur oxides were
distorted (Ref. 4). Basically, theTiww articles
made three allegations: (1)the analysis of the
CHESS data shows a stronger than actual
correlation of adverse health effects with in-
creased levels of ambient sulfate; (2) Dr. John
F. Finklea was responsible for the distortion,
with the passive assistance of his subordi-
nates; and (3) the EPA regulatory program
for sulfur oxides rests solely on the CHESS
program.
On April 7, 1976, an EPA investigative task
force appointed to review the entire matter
reported its findings (Ref. 5). This group
interviewed most of the EPA employees who
participated in the CHESS data analysis.
From these interviews, it became apparent
that comments of EPA personnel made to the
Times reporter referred to the 1972 draft
version of the report, and not to the final
publication of 1974. The group's unanimous
opinion concerning both the draft and final
versions was "that there is no evidence of dis-
honesty or deliberate distortion of data by Dr.
John F. Finklea or members of his staff who
worked on the Monograph. On the contrary,
there is evidence of an honest and aggressive
effort to publish the sulfur oxide findings
from the CHESS studies so that they would be
available in a timely fashion for use by the
Agency and the public at large."
On April 9, 1976, the allegations concern-
ing the CHESS report and the Times articles
were the subject of a Congressional hearing
convened by two House Committees: Science
and Technology and Interstate and Foreign
Committee (Ref. 6, pp. 23-24). Three of the
Committees' conclusions, which directly re-
late to the Los Angeles Times allegation, are:
—"There was agreement that the CHESS
studies confirm an association between
sulfur oxides emissions and adverse
health effects."
—"There was no evidence that Dr. Finklea
tampered with, distorted, or withheld
data."
—"The National Ambient Air Quality
Standards (XAAQS) for sulfur dioxide
were set before CHESS, and were based
on other data."
An examination of the Times articles and
the Congressional hearing is published inSn-
ence and i\\e Environmental Health Letter (Ref.
7,8).
The House Committee on Science and
Technology started an investigation concern-
ing technical issues relating to CHESS in
April of 1976. The Committee released the
Investigative Report on November 24, 1976
(Ref. 1).
Investigative report
recommendations
The recommendations in the Investigative
Report concern two major topics: the scien-
tific assessment of the CHESS program, and
the present and future management of EPA
research. EPA agrees with many of the Inves-
tigative Report's statements and recommen-
dations regarding the quantitative limitations
of the CHESS results. Also, EPA concurs with
the majority of the recommendations for the
79
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improvement of research. The implementa-
tion status for each recommendation is dis-
cussed in the Following paragraphs.
Recommendation 3
CHESS Monograph
Recommendations ;t(a), (h). and (c) in the
Investigative Report concern the C.HKSS
Monograph. Recommendation ;<(!>) directs
that the Monograph should not he used with-
oiit explicit (|iiali('ic.itions. Recommendations
S(a) .ind :<(c) state that KPA should publish an
announcement regarding the limitations ol
the Monograph and publish .in addendum to
the Monograph (including .n least Chapters
IV. V. VI, and Appendix A ol the Investiga-
tive Report). Prior to presenting our response
to these recommendations, the KPA aii
health effects resean h program, the C'.HKSS
Monograph, and KPA's regulatory respon-
sibilities will be placed in perspee live.
I he ,iii health effects research program
uses ,i combination of research approaches:
human cpidemiologu al studies, human clini-
c,il studies, and toxic ologieal studies on ani-
mal models (Ret. 9). I ntcgi ating the capahili-
lies and advantages of these approaches
provides the best overall scientific strategy
lor inhumed regulatory decisions. C.oncern-
ing tin- C.1IKSS program, epidemiologic in-
vestigations of fer the advantages of studying
the biological responses of people, including
vulnerable groups, nuclei ambient condi-
tions.
The major problems are related to quan-
tifying the exposure, dealing with many typi-
cally unknown covariatcs, and interpreting
association vs. causation. Several publica-
tions, including the Investigative Report.
contain detailed explanations of the strengths
and weaknesses of epidemiology (Ref. 1. pp.
57-58: Ref. 10. pp. Hi-17; Ref. 1 i.pp. 10-17).
KPA acknowledges the limitations of in-
dividual epidemiologir studies. For example.
the Summary and Conclusionsof the CHESS
Monograph states:
"The findings summarized in this paper
must IK' substantiated b\ replicated obset-
vations in different \ears and under dif-
ferent circumstances. Well controlled
human and animal studies are required to
isolate several of the important intervening
variables that are in he* rent to studies of free
living populations, and to elucidate tile-
precise naluieol the pollutant-disease1 rela-
tionship. Hence, the conclusions put forth
at this time cannot be definitive, but are ot-
tered in the sense of developing mote re-
fined quantitative and scientific hvpotheses
concerning pollutant-health effect associa-
CHESS Study Areas
Rocky Mountain Cities — 5
(Sulfur oxides
Salt Lake Basin — 4
(Sullur oxides)
New York City Metropolitan Area • 8
(Sulfur oxides and paniculate matter)
Los Angeles Basin 7
(Photochemical oxidants)
and nitrogen oxides)
Chattanooga —3
(Nitrogen oxides)
Southeastern Cities - 9
(Paniculate matter)
80
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Appendix 3
dons in a real life environment." (Ref. 3, p.
7-4).
Most epidemiologic studies are open to crit-
icism and this was the reason spatial and tem-
poral replication was fundamental to the
CHESS designs. Further, in practically all
areas of epidemiology, conclusions rest on
the weight of evidence from many studies,
not on individual studies. Thus, there is
ample justification to cite CHESS studies as
they bear on existing EPA standards. An im-
portant feature of several of the CHESS
studies reported in the Monograph is their
general consistency with the majority of
epidemiologic, clinical, and toxicologic
studies previously published in the sulfur
oxides and paniculate matter literature. The
CHESS studies tend to support the rea-
sonableness of existing ambient air quality
standards for sulfur oxides and paniculate
matter. However, EPA agrees that there is far
too much uncertainty and lack of qualifica-
tion in findings contained in the Monograph
to support any new or modified air quality
standards.
Finally, the Monograph assessments of cur-
rent pollution exposure were among the most
complete that had ever been performed
within the then existing state-of-the-art.
These epidemiologic findings, although hav-
ing a limited ability to affect EPA regulatory
policy, have materially advanced our knowl-
edge concerning the general distribution and
behavior of the exposure-response variables
employed.
Misunderstandings still exist, however,
over the CHESS Monograph and EPA's regu-
latory posture on sulfur oxides. Therefore,
this report to the Congress shall be widely cir-
culated and sent to all holders of the CHESS
Monograph with an appropriate cover letter.
With this action, EPA believes that the intent
of Recommendation 3 will be adequately im-
plemented.
Recommendation 4
research responsibilities
Recommendation 4 addresses research re-
sponsibilities and resources. Recommenda-
tion 4(a) directs that legislation should be re-
examined regarding unrealistic procedures
and schedules. Legislative mandates are the
most important considerations in the annual
program planning process. EPA maintains an
in-house research capability and expertise to
respond to short deadlines. However, when
procedures or schedules are unrealistic, the
Congress and the Office of Management and
Budget (OMB) are informed by either the
normal budget submission process, during
oversight hearings, or by other appropriate
mechanisms. Recommendation 4(b) specifies
that research be designed to gain information
and not support positions. The Office of Re-
search and Development is organizationally
separated from offices having regulatory re-
sponsibilities. Therefore, scientists conduct
research to gain accurate information and are
not under pressure to support existing or
preconceived positions held by the regulatory
offices. The Science Advisory Board, an in-
dependent advisory body, has established a
Subcommittee on Epidemiological Studies to
independently review EPA's epidemiology
(Ref. 12). Recommendations 4(c) and (d) con-
cern the Office of Management and Budget
allowing all necessary funding for expedi-
tious research and advising the Congress of
budgetary restrictions affecting completion
of major projects. Through the normal
budgetary process, the Office and the Con-
gress are advised for EPA resource require-
ments and which programs are affected by
budgetary restrictions.
Recommendation 5
questionnaires
Recommendation 5 advises that the OMB
should be asked to develop procedures for
prompt review of questionnaires. OMB and
EPA's research managers and scientists have
discussed this matter. These discussions have
expedited questionnaire clearances. How-
ever, the total number of questionnaires allo-
cated to EPA is small and therefore limits the
number of epidemiologic studies that can be
performed (Ref. 13). The control of ques-
tionnaires by the Federal Government was in-
tended to reduce involuntary solicitations
from the private sector. Only selected volun-
teers participate in EPA's epidemiologic
studies. Therefore, we believe that EPA's
voluntary questionnaires should be free of al-
location limitations.
Recommendation 6
CHESS data
Recommendation 6 concerns the process-
ing and publication of the remaining CHESS
data. Recommendation 6(a) directs that un-
analyzed data be examined and that analyses
be carried out on those data that appear to
have a higher degree of validity than the
CHESS Monograph data base. In general,
the quality of the CHESS data improved as
experience was gained. Therefore, a plan has
been developed for validation of 61 of the 65
data sets for which reports have not yet been
published (Ref. 14). Four episode studies will
not be validated because their usefulness is
81
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questionable. Recommendations 6(b) and (c)
concern publishing research in traditional,
refereed, archival, journals and not publish-
ing solely in monograph form. EPA endorses
this policy. Independent university scientists
are being used to analyze, interpret, and re-
port on appropriate CHESS data. Manu-
scripts of research investigations are being
submitted for publication in the scientific lit-
erature as relevant studies are completed. As
of December 1, 1977, there have been 28
CHESS publications in scientific journals
(Ref. 15). Monographs are, and have mainly
been, used as a vehicle to present all pertinent
data that would be inappropriate for publica-
tion in scientific journals. Recommendation
6(d) states that projects for policy consid-
erations should not be initiated unless they
can be completed in a realistic time frame and
unless the research staff can be involved in
the process. Several mechanisms have been
incorporated to develop achievable program
plans. These include a joint program plan-
ning process where the staffs of the research
laboratories and headquarters, and the pro-
gram offices participate. In addition, labora-
tory program reviews are conducted and
problems associated with the implementation
of investigations are discussed and resolved.
Recommendations 7, 8,
and 10(b)—CHAMP
Recommendations 7, 8, and 10(b) are di-
rected toward CHAMP, EPA's Community
Health Air Monitoring Program. Recom-
mendation 7(a) states that the aerometric and
quality control programs should be further
strengthened and improved. An expanded
quality control program is being im-
plemented in EPA (Ref. 16). Specifically for
CHAMP, comparisons for instruments,
techniques, and standards are being con-
ducted among the EPA laboratories measur-
ing air quality. In addition, a contractor is
providing additional quality control audits of
the CHAMP field and laboratory systems
(Ref. 17). This includes the use of National
Bureau of Standards flow and measurement
standards as well as gas mixture standards.
Recommendation 7(b) directs a shortening of
time between data acquisition and quality as-
surance analysis of data. The new CHAMP
contractor has been given technical direction
to minimize the time between data collection
and validation (Ref. 18). To accomplish this,
software is being developed and maintenance
practices have been revised.
Recommendations 7(c) and (d) specify that
development stage instruments should not be
employed before qualification testing has
been done and that laboratory models of in-
struments should not be used in the field until
they have been field checked and operating
personnel have been trained. The present
CHAMP policy calls for complete checkout,
acceptance testing, and personnel training
before field placement of any developmental
stage instruments. Recommendation 7(e) di-
rects that the opening of the CHAMP opera-
tions contract to competition should be reex-
amined to see whether the merits of open
bidding outweigh the problems of instability.
This reevaluation took place and it was de-
termined that the merits of open bidding with
the possibility of improved performance
outweighed any problems of instability. In
due course, the contract was awarded to a
new contractor after competitive bidding.
The transition period between the old and
new contractors disclosed several major defi-
cient areas. This finding confirmed the wis-
dom of the decision to reopen the CHAMP
operations contract. Recommendation 7(f)
concerns health effects personnel closely
coordinating with air quality and monitoring
personnel to understand chemical species to
be monitored. The CHAMP staff is cooperat-
ing closely with the epidemiologists and other
health scientists in the design and protocol
development for epidemiologic studies. This
cooperation includes reaching mutual
agreement on chemical species to be moni-
tored.
Recommendation 8 concerns additional
meteorological support for health research-
air pollution effects studies. This recommen-
dation also directs that meteorological in-
strumentation be uniform and complete for
all stations. There is one full-time
meteorologist assigned to the epidemiologic
program. He works with both the
epidemiologists and CHAMP personnel to
assure that the appropriate and uniform
meteorological measurements are made. Be-
cause of the reduction in the number of
epidemiologic studies since the termination
of CHESS field studies, the meteorological
support to this activity is now at the proper
level. Additional meteorological support will
be seriously considered if the number of
epidemiologic studies is significantly in-
creased.
82
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Appendix 3
Recommendation 10(b) directs that in-
struments and protocols used in CHAMP be
verified to ensure reliable data. EPA is
• testing all instruments in present use for
precision and accuracy. The present system
of continuous air monitors appears to have a
precision and accuracy such that errors are
less than plus or minus 15 percent. Third
generation instruments are being evaluated
when obtained to improve the present sys-
tem.
Recommendation 9
pollutant characterization
Recommendation 9 directs that the EPA
Health Effects program as well as interagency
utilization of all available Federal and ex-
tramural resources in the health effects area
should be examined with the objective of sig-
nificantly accelerating research in pollutant
characterization. Liaison is maintained with
other Federal agencies and the non-Federal
sector regarding air pollution characteriza-
tion. In accord with the 1977 Clean Air Act
Amendments, EPA has organized an intera-
gency task force to determine the effects of
environmental pollutants on cancer, heart,
lung, and other chronic diseases (Ref. 19). In
addition, on a case by case basis we are exam-
ining the proper balance between pollutant
characterization and health effects research.
Adjustments are being made as deemed ap-
propriate. We fully appreciate, for example,
the necessity of having adequate pollutant
characterization data prior to the beginning
of laboratory toxicologic experiments. The
same principle clearly applies to
epidemiologic research.
Recommendations 10(a), 10(c),
12(a) and 12(d)—peer review
Recommendations 10(a), 10(c), 12(a) and
12(d) concern peer review. Recommendation
12(d) concerns expanding the Science Advi-
sor) Board charter. The charter has been
modified in accord with the Environmental
Research, Development, and Demonstration
Act of 1978 (Ref. 20). Under the previous
and new charter, the Board is authorized to
conduct peer reviews. The Board, an inde-
pendent advisory body, decides how it will re-
spond to requests for assistance. The Office
of Research and Development encourages
the Board to conduct such reviews. However,
it is impossible for the Board to review all re-
search programs because of the limited time
Board members can devote to EPA activities.
The Office of Research and Development has
started discussions with the Board to establish
a more effective internal peer review process.
Recommendation 10(a) states that a truly
interdisciplinary task force led by an eminent
scientist should draw up a program plan for
EPA to develop a solid base for knowledge
and procedures in aerometric instrumenta-
tion and measurements, meteorology, field
data gathering, quality control, epidemiology
project design and testing, and panel plan-
ning. This recommendation will be discussed
with the Board. The activities of several
groups are pertinent to the recommendation.
The Board's Subcommittee on Epidemiolog-
ical Studies provides advice and assistance in
the review and evaluation of proposed or
existing programs of epidemiologic studies
relating to the health effects of environmen-
tal pollutants (Ref. 13). Interactions between
our scientists and this subcommittee are con-
tinuing. The Environmental Measurements
Advisory Committee has visited several EPA
laboratories and evaluated current analytical
methods and instrumentation research (Ref.
21).
Recommendation 10(c) directs that EPA
should have epideniiological questionnaires
and panel selection criteria approved by peer
groups before the next round of investiga-
tions. Specific questions that must be resolved
are identified. Regarding the latter, all ques-
tions are presently being addressed either by
the in-house staff or through contracts. As
mentioned previously, the matter of peer re-
views is being discussed with the Board.
Recommendation 12(a) directs EPA to es-
tablish authoritative peer review panels to as-
sist in improving research coordination. This
is being discussed with the Board.
Recommendation 10(d)—ideas
Recommendation 10(d) instructs that EPA
should review several ideas raised in the in-
vestigation team interviews. These have been
reviewed and some have been incorporated
into the epidemiology program.
83
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Recommendation 11
reorganizations
Recommendation I 1 stales thai no signifi-
i .1111 reorganization should occur .11 Research
Iii.mgle Park's Environmental Rescatcli
(icntci until ihe end of Fiscal Year 1977. No
significant reorganizations have occurred
dining ill.it specified lime period.
Recommendation 12(b)
management
Recommendation I2(b) instructs that EPA
should have a stronger focus on management
at the (Environmental Research ('.enter. Re-
search I liangle Park. North Carolina. In its
lalnuaiorv reot gani/atioti. the- Office of Re-
search and Development established a line
structure with accountable managers direct-
ing the research programs at each laboratory.
In turn, each laboratory has programs as-
signed <>n the basis of scientific areas that are
carried out h\ its complement of scientists
and engineers. In addition to the line man-
agement of each laboratory, the Research
Triangle Park includes an office of the senior
research and development official. Essen-
tially, this official (who is also a Laboratory
director) is responsible to the Assistant Ad-
ministrator for Research and Development to
assure effective operation and administration
in the laboratories.
Recommendation 12(c)
systems analysis
Recommendation 12(c) instructs (hat EPA
should create a systems analysis-operations
research program review group. L sing svs-
Federal Health Facilities in
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
Durham
Duke University
10 Kilometers
EPA Interim
~ Facilities
Chapel H
University of
North Carolina
16 Kilometers
National
Center for
Health
Statistics
National Institute
for Environmental
Health Sciences
EPA Interim
Facility
National
Environmental
Health Sciences
Center
Permanent
Federal Site
SI
-------
Appendix 3
terns analysis and operations research as
tools, significant program reviews are carried
out by the Office of Planning and Manage-
ment in its Program Evaluation Division. As
needed, the Division:
—Assembles and evaluates scientific,
technological, cost, benefits, and institu-
tional data to critique existing program
activities, and recommends alternatives.
—Develops a long-range policy framework
for EPA goals and objectives in consulta-
tion with other Agency offices; identifies
strategies for accomplishing these goals;
and assures that program activities are
evaluated in relation to such strategies.
—Conducts and coordinates analyses and
evaluations of Agency-wide programs,
including those crossing EPA organiza-
tional lines.
Recommendation 13
technical exchange
Recommendation 13 relates to the EPA re-
search program and maximal technical ex-
change. Recommendation 13(a) directs that
EPA should seek cooperative research pro-
grams with universities and other laborato-
ries and agencies. The research program in
EPA has a large extramural component in-
volving research grants with universities and
interagency agreements with other Federal
organizations. For example, the overall coor-
dination and detailed planning of the Inter-
agency Energy/Environment Program is the
responsibility of the EPA (Ref. 22). Research
and development activities under this pro-
gram are performed by several agencies in
addition to EPA. Also, most of the EPA re-
search laboratories are located on university
campuses, or in research parks developed by
universities, and have close working relation-
ships with nearby institutions. Recommenda-
tion 13(b) directs that EPA should promote
the exchange of scientists both within and
outside the Agency. Over the last few years,
the Office of Research and Development has
used the Intergovernmental Personnel Act
mobility program. This program authorizes
the temporary exchange of career employees
between the Federal Government and state
and local governments, institutions of higher
education, and Indian tribal governments.
Currently, 66 individuals are participating in
the Office's mobility program.
Recommendations 13(c) and (d) concern
EPA of funding individual Ph.D. thesis re-
search and the Science Advisory Board de-
velopment of outreach programs. The Office
of Research and Development will discuss
these recommendations with the Science Ad-
visory Board and specifically seek their assis-
tance in developing effective outreach pro-
grams. Board members have provided gen-
eral comments but have not yet undertaken
any formal actions related to outreach pro-
grams.
Recommendations 14 and 17
research role
Recommendations 14 and 17 state that the
EPA Administrator should clarify the role of
the Office of Research and Development and
determine if research should be conducted in
its present organizational configuration. EPA
is preparing a report to the Congress on
planning and management of the Agency's
research and development activities. This re-
port will address the most appropriate means
of assuring, on a continuing basis, that re-
search in the Agency reflects the needs and
priorities of the regulatory program.
Recommendation 15—facilities
Recommendation 15 directs EPA to resolve
the separation of facilities at Research Trian-
gle Park. This is the largest EPA field facility
and is located in North Carolina within the
geographical triangle bounded by the North
Carolina cities of Raleigh, Durham, and
Chapel Hill. In this area, three major EPA
components with a total of 1,857 employees
and contractors occupy leased space in nine
buildings. In 1967, a 509-acre tract at the
Park was donated to the Federal Government
for the construction of the National En-
vironmental Health Science Center. An over-
all master site plan was completed in 1971
and EPA was assigned a 44-acre site for con-
struction of a permanent facility (Ref. 23).
Recently EPA developed a long-range space
plan for its activities in the area (Ref. 24). This
plan is presently under consideration.
Recommendation 16
career development
Recommendation 16 states that EPA man-
agement should develop, implement, and de-
fend a professional career development pro-
gram for each professional. It is the policy of
EPA to plan and provide for the training, de-
velopment, and necessary career planning
for employees (Ref. 25). In July 1977, the
Agency strengthened existing mechanisms to
insure adequate career development (Ref.
26). As part of their annual performance
evaluation, supervisors are required to de-
velop a yearly training plan for each
employee.
85
-------
Resolution of Investigative Report Recommendations
Number
3(a)
3(b)
3(c)
4(a)
4(b)
4(c)
4(d)
5
6(a)
6(b)
6(c)
6(d)
7(a)
7(b)
7(c)
7(d)
7(e)
7(0
8
Summary of Recommendations
EPA should publish an announcement regarding the
limitations of the CHESS Monograph.
EPA should not use the CHESS Monograph without
explicit qualification.
EPA should publish an addendum to the CHESS
Monograph including most of the Investigative Report.
Legislation should be reexamined regarding unrealistic
procedures and schedules.
EPA should design research to gain information and not
support positions.
OMB should allow all necessary resources if public
policy requires expeditious research.
EPA should advise Congress if budgetary restrictions will
impact completion of major projects.
OMB should be asked to develop procedures for prompt
review of questionnaire.
CHESS date analyses should be carried out only on data
with high validity potential.
EPA should publish research in refereed journals in a
timely fashion.
EPA should not publish large projects solely in
monograph form.
EPA should not initiate projects for policy consideration
unless they can be completed in a realistic time frame.
EPA should strengthen the CHAMP aerometric and
quality control programs.
EPA should shorten the time between data acquisition
and quality assurance analysis of data.
EPA should stop employing development stage
instruments before qualification testing.
EPA should not use laboratory models of instruments in
the field until they have been field checked and
operating personnel trained.
EPA should reevaluate the opening of the CHAMP
operations contract to competition.
EPA research and monitoring personnel should closely
coordinate regarding chemical species.
EPA should have additional meteorological support for
air pollution health effects research studies
Action
Shall be
implemented
Shall be
implemented
Shall be
implemented
Implemented
Implemented
Implemented
Implemented
Implemented
Implemented
Implemented
Implemented
Implemented
Implemented
Implemented
Implemented
Implemented
Implemented
Implemented
Implemented
86
-------
Appendix 3
Number
9
10(a)
10(b)
10(c)
10(d)
11
12(a)
12(b)
12(c)
12(d)
13(a)
13(b)
13(c)
13(d)
14
15
16
17
Summary of Recommendations
EPA should examine accelerating research in pollutant
characterization.
An interdisciplinary task force should draw up an
integrated air epidemiology-exposure assessment
program plan for EPA.
CHAMP should verify instruments and protocols so that
reliable data can be achieved.
EPA should have epidemiological questionnaires and
panel selection criteria approved by peer groups.
EPA should review research concepts obtained from
team interviews.
The Environmental Research Center at Research Triangle
Park (RTP) should not be reorganized until the end of
FY77.
EPA should establish authoritative peer review panels to
assist in improving research coordination.
EPA should have a stronger focus on management at the
Environmental Research Center, RTP.
EPA should create a systems analysis-operations
research program review group.
The Science Advisory Board's charter should be
expanded.
EPA should seek cooperative research programs with
universities and other laboratories and agencies.
EPA should promote the exchange of scientists within
and outside the Agency.
EPA should fund individual Ph.D. thesis research.
The Science Advisory Board should develop outreach
programs.
The Administrator should clarify the role of the Office of
Research and Development and its laboratories.
EPA should resolve the separation of facilities at RTP.
EPA should develop a professional career development
program for each professional employee.
The Administration should determine if EPA should
conduct research under its present organizational
configuration.
Action
Implemented
Under
consideration
Implemented
Under
consideration
Implemented
Implemented
Under
consideration
Implemented
Implemented
Implemented
Implemented
Implemented
Under
consideration
Under
consideration
Shall be
implemented
Under
consideration
Implemented
Shall be
implemented
87
-------
Appendix 4
Office of
research and development
The Office of Research and Development
functions as the principal scientific compo-
nent of EPA under the direction of one of the
six assistant administrators of the Agency. Its
fundamental role is to assess and produce sci-
entific information and technical tools as a
basis for sound national policy in the de-
velopment of effective pollution control
strategies and reasonable environmental
standards. The Office of Research and De-
velopment addresses the following questions:
—How can pollution be identified, mea-
sured, and monitored?
—What are the relationships between pol-
lutant discharges and environmental
degradation?
—What levels of pollutant discharge from
specific sources can be permitted while
still attaining defined environmental
standards?
—What are the effects of pollutants on
people, other life forms, and the inani-
mate environment?
—What techniques are available for con-
trolling pollution?
—How can environmental quality best be
maintained and improved?
More than 1,700 employees of the Office of
Research and Development carry out this
program with a budget of about $300 million
per year. The staff is composed of profes-
sionals in 60 disciplines located nationwide in
15 major laboratories and one headquarters
office. All personnel, scientists, and en-
gineers contribute to a research program that
consists of in-house activities as well as pro-
grams shared with the academic community,
the private sector, and numerous Federal,
State, and local agencies.
The budget of the Office of Research and
Development increased from about Si02 to
S144 million over the Fiscal 1971 through
1974 period. In 1975, the Interagency Ener-
gy/Environment R&D Program resulted in a
substantial increase in the Office's activities
and budget.
The number of permanent personnel in
the Office of Research and Development
reached a peak of 1,914 in Fiscal 1973. The
total number of authorized personnel for Fis-
cal 1978 is 1,729.
EPA's research program is multidisciplin-
ary, covering several legislative authori-
zations. For purposes of budgetary authori-
zation and appropriation, programs are
classified as follows:
—Air
—Water Quality
—Solid Waste
—Pesticides
—Radiation
—Water Supply
—Toxic Substances
—Energy Research
Health effects research assesses health
hazards resulting from environmental pollu-
tion covering several categories including air,
water, pesticides, radiation, water supply,
and toxics. Research problems are classified
according to exposure levels, perceived ef-
fects, and the need to take regulatory actions
to protect people.
Ecological processes and effects research
focuses on the effects of atmospheric, aqua-
tic, and terrestrial pollutants on the structure
and function of ecosystems and their biotic
and abiotic subcomponents.
Transport and fate of pollutants research
examines the biological, chemical, and physi-
cal phenomena affecting pollutants as they
migrate from sources to receptor and other-
wise transform and persist in the ambient en-
vironment. Empirical and analytical tech-
niques are developed that relate atmospheric,
aquatic, and terrestrial pollution to sources
and receptors.
Minerals processing and manufacturing
research addresses point sources of pollution
from industrial sectors, especially those from
mining, manufacturing, services, and trade
industries that extract, produce, and process
nonenergy materials into consumer prod-
ucts. Methods to control and prevent en-
vironmental degradation resulting from ac-
cidental spills of selected materials are also re-
searched.
Renewable resources research encom-
passes development of total management sys-
tems to control air, water, and land pollution
resulting from the production and harvesting
of food and fiber and their related residual
wastes. Predictive methods are developed
and probable trends in production of renew-
able resources and resulting environmental
impacts are assessed. An example is the dem-
89
-------
Historical Trend of ORD's Permanent Positions
Permanent 1900
positions
1800
1700
1600
1500
1400
1300
1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979"
Fiscal Year
•As submitted to ihe Congress
Trend of ORD Budget
Millions of
Dollars
300
250
1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979'
I Energy/environment program
I Non-energy/environment budget
[Inflationary effect on cost of 1971 R&D program -AS submitted\ame congress
-------
Appendix 4
ORD Portion of Federal Research and Development
Billions 27
of dollars
Billions 0.3
of dollars
Percent
Total Federal
Research and Development
EPAs Office ol
Research and
Development
EPA's portion of Federal
Research and Development
1971 1972
Fiscal Year
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
91
-------
ORD Laboratories
Cincinnati, OHO
Washington, DC
Office of Research and Development
Office of Research Program Management
Environmental Research Information Center,
Cincinnati, Ohio
Environmental Criteria
Assessment Office
(RTR North Carolina)
*
Assistant Administrator
for
Research and Development
Office of the
Principal Science Advisor
Carcinogen Assessment
Group
^fejifr-g-f
Office of Monitoring and
Technical Support
Office of Energy, Minerals
and Industry
Office of Air, Land
and Water Use
Office of Health
and Ecological Effects
Headquarters Technical Divisions:
Monitoring Technology
Technical Support
Laboratories:
1 Environmental Monitoring and
Support, RTP
2 Environmental Monitoring and
Support, Cincinnati
3 Environmental Monitoring and
Support, Las Vegas
Headquarters Technical Divisions
Energy Processes
Industrial and Extractive
Processes
Laboratories:
1 Industrial Environmental
Research, RTP
2 Industrial Environmental
Research, Cincinnati
Headquarters Technical Divisions:
Media Quality Management
Waste Management
Agriculture and Non-Point
Sources Management
Laboratories:
1 Environmental Sciences
Research, RTP
2 Municipal Environmental
Research. Cincinnati
4 Environmental Research,
Athens
5 Robert S. Kerr Environmental
Research, Ada
Headquarters Technical Divisions:
Health Effects
Ecological Effects
Criteria Development and
Special Studies
Laboratories:
1 Health Effects Research, RTP
2 Health Effects Research,
Cincinnati
6 Environmental Research,
Corvallis
7 Environmental Research,
Duluth
8 Environmental Research,
Narragansett
9 Environmental Research, Gulf
Breeze
92
-------
Appendix 4
onstration of pest management strategies to
minimize the usage and runoff of agricul-
tural pesticides.
Waste management research focuses on
the prevention, control, treatment, and man-
agement of pollution resulting from wastewa-
ter discharges from community, residential,
or other nonindustrial activities, including
urban runoff. Problems associated with the
collection, transport, and management of
solid wastes are also researched. This sub-
program provides technical information to
support the Agency's operating program in
construction grants, comprehensive water
quality planning, and solid and hazardous
waste management.
Waste supply research, development, and
demonstration activities provide the technol-
ogy and management criteria necessary to
maintain dependably safe surface and
groundwater supplies of drinking water.
Health effects resulting from contaminants
in drinking water are also studied.
Environmental management research de-
velops improved procedures for planning,
implementing, enforcing, and assessing
cost-effective environmental protection
strategies for particular problem areas such
as air and water. Institutional, economic, and
decision-making problems faced by gov-
ernmental multimedia environmental pro-
grams at local, State, and regional levels are
analyzed. New management methods for im-
plementing environmental protection plans
are evaluated.
Characterization and measurement
methods development provides methods and
instrumentation for all pollutants (pesticides,
toxic substances, industrial chemicals, petro-
chemicals, combustion products, etc.) in air,
land, and water (surface and groundwaters).
Research deals with the basic physical and
chemical parameters of pollutants and the
development of instruments to detect and
quantify pollutants.
Measurement techniques and equipment
standardization research .provides reference
methods, sampling procedures, and monitor-
ing systems so that standardized techniques
are available for monitoring the environ-
ment.
Quality assurance provides methods and
criteria for establishing validated measure-
ment systems and conducts quality control ac-
tivities to assure the intercomparability of all
monitoring data. This program provides
standard reference materials and samples,
develops quality control guidelines and man-
uals, conducts on-site evaluations of analyti-
cal laboratories, and makes interlaboratory
performance checks to assure that legally de-
fensible data are produced by EPA laborato-
ries.
Technical support is a scientific and tech-
nical consultative service provided to other
organizations within EPA to solve immediate
problems through the use of specialized ex-
pertise and facilities. The activities typically
require analytical measurement or monitor-
ing.
Technical information efforts manage
and coordinate the effective dissemination of
the findings and products of the research
program to users within EPA and throughout
the public and private sectors.
Energy extraction and processing
technology covers the characterization of
pollutant sources, assessment of environmen-
tal problems, and development of control
techniques to mitigate the environmental im-
pact of the extraction and processing of solid,
liquid, and gaseous fuels, as well as advanced
energy sources such as uranium and geo-
thermal.
Energy conservation, utilization, and
technology assessment aim to ensure ade-
quate energy production from fossil fuels
with minimum damage to environmental
quality. Integrated technology assessments
identify environmentally, economically, and
socially acceptable alternatives for meeting
national energy demands.
Energy health and ecological effects re-
search determines the environmental effects
of energy extraction, transmission, conver-
sion and use so that criteria can be developed
in a timely manner to protect human health
and ecosystems. Identification of pollutants
released by energy related industrial opera-
tions, and determination of their impact on
the environment, aid in defining the pollu-
tion control requirements for energy produc-
ing operations.
93
-------
10. Office of Telecommunications Policy, Execu-
tive Office of the President, 1976. Fourth re-
port on Program for Control of Electromagne-
tic Pollution of the Environment: The Assess-
ment of Biological Hazards of Nonionizing
Electromagnetic Radiation. Washington, D.C.
Nonpoint sources and watersheds
1. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1976.
The Influence of Land Use on Stream Nutri-
ent Levels. Ecological Research Series, EPA-
600/3-76-014. Washington, D.C.
2. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1978.
Advisor)' Papers on Groundvvater Research,
Number 3. Report of the Groundwater En-
vironmental Pollutant and Transformation
Committee of the Science Advisory Board,
Washington, D.C.
3. Linkens, G. E., 1976. Acid Precipitation.
Chemical and Engineering News 54(48):
29-44.
Measurement and monitoring
1. National Academy of Sciences, 1977. En-
vironmental Monitoring. Vol. IV of Analytical
Studies for the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency. Washingon, D.C.
2. Science Advisor)' Board, 1977. Report on the
Research, Development, Monitoring, and
Technical Support System of the U.S. En-
vironmental Protection Agency.
3. Standing Air Monitoring Work Group, 1977.
Air Monitoring Strategy for State Implemen-
tation Plans. EPA-450/2-77-010. Washington,
D.C.
4. Standing Work Group on Water Monitoring,
1977. Basic Water Monitoring Program.
EPA-440/9-76-029. Washington, D.C.
5. Quality Assurance Work Group, 1977. Quality-
Assurance Research Plan, FY 1978-82. EPA-
800/8-77-008. Washington D.C.
Environmental futures
1. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1978.
Environmental Outlook, 1977. National, Re-
gional, and Sectoral Trends and Forecasts
1975, 1985, 1990. EPA-600/9-78-011. Wash-
ington, D.C.
2. PEDCo Environmental, Inc., 1977. AirQuality
Assessment of Particulate Emissions from
Diesel-Powered Vehicles. Draft submitted to
the Strategies and Air Standard Division, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Research
Triangle Park, N.C.
3. U.S. Department of Health, Education, and
Welfare, 1977. Human Health and the Envi-
ronment—Some Research Needs. Report of
the Second Task Force for Research Planning
in Environmental Health Science. Washing-
ton, D.C.
CHESS
1. U.S. House of Representatives, 1976. The En-
vironmental Protection Agency's Research
Program with Primary Emphasis on the Com-
munity Health and Environmental Surveil-
lance System (CHESS): An Investigative Re-
port. Committee on Science and Technology.
Publication No. 77-590.
2. Shy, C. M. and John F. Finklea, 1973. Air
Pollution Affects Community Health. En-
vironmental Science and Technology 7(3):
204-208.
3. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1974.
Health Consequences of Sulfur Oxides: A Re-
port from CHESS, 1970-1971. EPA-650/1-
74-004. Research Triangle Park, N.C.
4. Rood, W. B., 1976. EPA Study-The Findings
Got Distorted. Los Angeles Times, Vol. XCV.
February 29.
5. Talley, W. K., 1976. Personal Communication.
Assistant Administrator for Research and De-
velopment, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, from J. L. Buckley et al.
6. U.S. House of Representatives, 1976. Report
on Joint Hearings on the Conduct of the En-
vironmental Protection Agency's "Community
Health and Environmental Surveillance Sys-
tem (CHESS) Studies." Publication No. 74-
552.
7. Boffey, P. M., 1976. Sulfur Pollution: Charges
that EPA Distorted the Data Are Examined.
Science 192: 352-354.
8. Environmental Health Letter, 1976. Dr. Fink-
lea's Critics Fail to Prove Distortions, But
CHESS Questions Remain. 15(8): 1-2.
9. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1977.
Activities and Accomplishments of the Office
of Health and Ecological Effects During Fiscal
Year 1976. Office of Research and Develop-
ment. Washington, D.C.
10. National Academy of Sciences, 1975. AirQual-
ity and Stationary Sources Emission Control,
Commission on National Resources, Prepared
for Committee on Public Works, United States
Senate. Washington, D.C.
11. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1975.
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12. Bath, T. D., 1976. Memorandum to the Ad-
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13. Lance, B., 1977. Memorandum to the Heads
of Executive Departments and Establishments
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96
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Appendix 5
16. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1977.
Quality Assurance Research Plan FY 1978-82.
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17. Xonics, Inc., 1977. Operation and Mainte-
nance of the CHAMP Air Monitoring Pro-
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18. Research Triangle Institute, 1977. Audit of
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19. The Clean Air Act. Section 402, as amended
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20. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Advi-
sory Committee Charter, approved January 6,
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21. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1977.
Report on the Research Development,
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the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Science Advisory Board. Washington, D.C.
22. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1977.
Interagency Energy/Environmental R&D Pro-
gram. EPA-600/7-77-007. Office of Research
and Development. Washington, D.C.
23. Odell, A. G. Jr. and Associates, et al., 1971.
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lotte, N.C.
24. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1977.
Long-Range Space Plan for EPA Activities at
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina: Re-
port and Recommendations. Office of Plan-
ning and Management. Washington, D.C.
25. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1975.
Training and Development Manual. Office of
Planning and Management. Washington, D.C.
26. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1977.
Order Number 3110.11A, June 22. Per-
formance Evaluation and Rating Plan. Office
of Planning and Management. Washington,
D.C.
Graphics
Page
13,31, 55, 56,57
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1978.
Environmental Outlook, 1977. National, Re-
gional, and Sectoral Trends and Forecasts
1975, 1985, 1990. EPA-600/9-78-011. Wash-
ington, D.C.
18 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1975.
Position Paper on Regulation of Atmospheric
Sulfates. EPA-450/2-75-007. Research Trian-
gle Park, N.C.
19 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1976.
National Air Quality and Emissions Trends
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Park, N.C.
20 Kornreich, M.R., 1975. A Preliminary Assess-
ment of the Problem of Carcinogens in the
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ration, McLean, Va.
21 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1977.
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600/8-77-016. Industrial Environmental Re-
search Laboratory, Research Triangle Park,
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24 Council on Environmental Quality, 1976. En-
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nual Report of the Council on Environmental
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25 U.S. Energy Research and Development Ad-
ministration, 1977. Annual Environmental
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sentatives by the Congressional Research Ser-
vice, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.
25 Princiotta, F.T., 1977. Utility and Industrial
Power. In: Energy/Environment II. EPA-
600/9-77-012. U.S. Environmental Protection
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30 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1977.
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source Conservation and Recovery Act of
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33 Harrald, J.R., et al., 1977. Oil Spills in the
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gamon Press, N.Y.
34 Technology Review, 1977. New Heat in Cli-
mate Prediction. Vol. 80, No. 1, October/
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35 Chemical and Engineering News, 1977. Car-
bon Dioxide: A Problem of Producing Usable
Data. October 17, 1977.
38 Electronic Industries Association, 1977. Elec-
tronic Market Data Book. Washington, D.C.
39 Michaelson, S.M., 1974. Effectsof Exposure to
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42 Midwest Research Institute, 1975. National
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43 Colston, N.V., 1974. Characteristics and
Treatment of Urban Land Runoff. EPA-
670/2-74-096. U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Washington, D.C.
97
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