II II II
annual
report
u./.environmental protection agency
national environmental re/earcfi center
Cincinnati, ohio
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20 YEARS LATER
1954-1974
r
As early as 1913, Cincinnati was a nationally known center in the
areas of public water supply and water pollution control. Over the years,
radiation, air pollution, solid waste research, training and other technical
services became equally important in the environmental work in the govern-
ment laboratories here. In 1954, the Robert A. Tajt Sanitary Engineering
Center was dedicated and research into many of these areas was expanded.
Over the years, the Center became one of the world's leading research
facilities in the anti-pollution field.
1974 marks the 20th anniversary of the building, now designated as
the Robert A. Tajt Laboratory. Research programs in advanced waste
treatment and water supply are conducted at this facility and the adminis-
trative offices of the National Environmental Research Center in Cincin-
nati are presently located here.
In 1975, the National Environmental Research Center's new environ-
mental science complex is scheduled for completion on land adjacent to
the University of Cincinnati campus.
We salute the scientists and researchers who have dedicated their
efforts in Cincinnati from its beginning as the Stream Pollution Investiga-
tion Center to its present status as a major research center of the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency.
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EPA-670/9-75-002
MARCH 1975
II II
onnuol
report
u./. environmental protection agency
national environmental re/earch center
office of re/earcfi and development
Cincinnati. Ohio 45268
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This report has been reviewed by the National Environmental Research
Center — Cincinnati and approved for publication. Mention of trade
names or commercial products does not constitute endorsement or recom-
mendation for use.
The success of this 1974 Annual Report was made possible through
the efforts and the assistance of many people. The Technical Information
Staff was fortunate in obtaining the fine cooperation of the laboratory
directors and their liaison staff members, and wishes to recognize the
anonymous contributors who wrote the feature articles.
Without the special assistance of people such as Mrs. M. Curry, Mrs.
E. Cole, Mrs. T. Bayless, Mr. G. M. Gigliotti, Mr. D. W. Dietrich, and
Mr. M. E. Folkers, it would have been impossible to undertake this publication.
The full cooperation of the Technical Information Staff in undertaking
the editing and publication of this report is gratefully acknowledged.
11
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page
office of the director o o
advanced wa/te treatment
re/earch laboratory Oooooooool5
environmental toxicology
re/earcn laboratory oooooooooo27
indu/trial uja/te treatment
re/earcn laboratory Ooooooooo39
method/ development &
quality a//urance
re/earch laboratory oooooooooooSI
/olid & hazardou/ uua/te
re/earch laboratory Ooooooooooo67
uuater /upply re/earch
laboratory 00000000000008!
throughout the world
-international
cooperation ooooooooooooo 93
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This 1974 Annual Report demonstrates the dynamic nature of en-
vironmental research and the strong influence and impact of both national
and worldwide economic and political events upon our National Environ-
mental Research Center — Cincinnati research programs.
The energy crisis and economic inflation were forces that motivated new
and redoubled efforts to protect and improve our environment at the lowest
possible cost in energy resources and dollars. We initiated programs to
ensure that inevitable and required energy resource expansion would not be
accompanied by environmental deterioration. At the same time, we con-
tinued our work to improve and develop existing and emerging municipal
and industrial waste treatment pollution control technology, protect and
enhance our Nation's municipal water supplies and systems, develop and
refine solid and hazardous waste disposal methods, and promote the recovery
of valuable discarded resources. We also expanded our efforts in the devel-
opment of pollution identification methodology and monitoring and the
improved generation of toxicological health-effects information.
NERC-Cincinnati enters 1975 anticipating its move into the new facility
near the University of Cincinnati. We expect the relocation to be an
important milestone in the Center's history. All Cincinnati laboratories
will be consolidated in the new research center, and we expect the result
to be an increased productivity and complemental spirit among the labora-
tories and the staff.
It is gratifying to realize that the Center's scientific and supporting
staff members are dedicated people respected among their peers. As we
continue to strive for excellence, we will uncover those areas where our
knowledge can best serve the technical and public communities.
Andrew W. Breidenbach, Ph.D., Director
National Environmental Research Center
Cincinnati, Ohio
o
3.
v
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office of the d/
IMMEDIATE OFFICE OF THE DIRECTOR
For the greatest part of the past year, the Immediate Office of the
Director was involved in administering the widespread activities of the
National Environmental Research Center (NERC) in Cincinnati. In
addition to these necessary day-to-day functions, certain specific accom-
plishments are worthy of note.
Employee Development Plan
In February 1974, the Center implemented a comprehensive em-
ployee development plan — the product of a task force appointed in
1973 to evaluate existing employee development and training proce-
dures and to develop a new comprehensive plan. The plan had been
reviewed and approved by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) and is now fully implemented. It has won praise from the
U.S. Civil Service Commission, and parts of it have been adapted for
use on an Agency- wide basis.
NERC/Battelle-Columbus Conference
On May 1, 2, and 3, 1974, NERC-Cincinnati and the Columbus
Laboratories of Battelle Memorial Institute sponsored a conference on
Pollution Control Technology Assessment. The conference, divided into
five sessions, focused on the impacts, direct and indirect, on water
quality that have resulted from various actions taken by government
and industry in response to environmental control regulations.
Task Force to Define an Office of Research and
Development Planning Process
In July 1974, the EPA Deputy Administrator appointed the NERC-
Cincinnati Director to chair a task force to define an Office of Research
and Development Planning Process. The charge to the task force was
divided into two phases: Phase I was to develop a streamlined program
planning process for the Energy- Add-On Program by August 15, 1974;
Phase II was to develop a simple, effective program planning process
for the Agency's overall research and development program by Septem-
ber 30, 1974, for use in the Fiscal Year 1976 planning cycle. This
group has completed its work and Phase I has been implemented by
the Agency. Phase II is presently being evaluated by the major parties
concerned.
Achievement of Operational Status of Electron Microscope Facility
The Director of NERC authorized the establishment of an analytical
electron microscope facility in April 1973, and in September 1974, the
facility was completed and fully operational. Major features of the system
are a JEOL Model JEM 100B transmission electron microscope in com-
bination with a high-resolution scanning device, which gives Center re-
searchers the capability of specimen examination by scanning, scanning
-------
transmission, and conventional transmission modes
with attainable resolution of 70, 30, and 4.5 ang-
stroms, respectively. With the ORTEC energy dis-
persive X-ray spectrometer, the system has the
capability for performing chemical identifications.
The overall system is important because it allows
both morphological observation and direct deter-
mination of the elemental composition of a specimen.
The operation of the electron microscope facility
is unique in that each laboratory using the facility
provides its own electron microscope expertise, and
the facility is administered under the Director's
office, with technical supervision by a committee
of principal scientists representing major program
users.
Current and programmed research applications
include:
• evaluation of distribution, size, kind, and min-
eral composition of asbestos fibers found in
drinking water; this is important because as-
bestos fibers escaping various treatment proc-
esses may present a potential health hazard to
particular populations,
• determination of the degree of viral particle
aggregation in suspensions; this is important
because aggregation can markedly affect inter-
pretation of disinfection kinetics and virus-cell
interaction,
• ultrastructural evaluation of tissue morphology
after animal exposure to smoke and dust par-
ticulates; this is important because it is essential
to determine the effects of emissions from
mobile and stationary sources on the health of
a population,
• evaluation of size and kind of particulates
(waterborne sediments, silts, sludges) involved
in viral binding and the effect of environmental
factors on this binding; this is important because
often more viruses adsorb to solids in the
sampled water than are found in the waters
themselves, and
• delineation of ultrastructural changes in animal
tissues resulting from the toxic effect of organic
agents and trace metals in water supplies; this
is important because very little is known of the
possible effects on human health of largely
unidentified chemicals entering water supplies.
UC/EPA Linking Pin Committee
Since the formation of the University of Cin-
cinnati — NERC-Cincinnati Linking Pin Committee
in 1971, ties between the two institutions have
broadened to include joint sponsorship of sympo-
siums, seminars, and publications, and use of Uni-
versity faculty and students by EPA as staff. EPA
has found a wide range of experts and consultants
at the University to provide needed assistance in
computer systems, management studies, and engi-
neering and scientific research. The Linking Pin
Committee is now involved in planning three new
joint efforts:
• sharing of library holdings and specialization
of specific area holdings with joint access,
• collaborating on television services and a phys-
ical TV cable link between the new EPA facility
and the University, and
• holding a workshop to induce greater activity
between EPA employees and University staff in
the area of biological research.
PROGRAM COORDINATION STAFF
The Program Coordination Staff (PCS) has pri-
mary responsibility for integrating the NERC's
diverse research programs into a unified effort that
will produce maximum benefits for the resources
expended (Figures 1-4). In 1974, PCS made several
major new efforts designed to develop personal
contacts among individual researchers in the various
NERC laboratories and among the same individuals
and groups outside the Center with an interest in
the NERC-Cincinnati work.
104
25 50 75 100
Key • Professional Staff
D Technicians and Aids
H Adm., Clerical, & All Other
Figure 1. Size and composition of NERC-Cincinnati
workforce by laboratory.
Planning and Coordination Meetings
The personal interaction of research scientists
and engineers before and during the program plan-
ning exercise was recognized as a key factor in
properly coordinated research programs. In 1974,
such contacts were actively promoted through a
series of planning and coordination meetings. Each
meeting covered a topic chosen to represent some
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CHEMICAL
§ANITARY_ ENGINEERS MECHANICAL
ENGINEERS 3.C
10.3%
SECRETARIES AND
CLERKS
14.8%
ADMINISTRATIVE
SUPPORT
4.9%
RESEARCH
DIRECTORS
2.9%
TECHNICAL
AIDES
ENGINEERS
1.7%
OTHER
ENGINEERS
2.7%
CHEMISTS
20.2 %
20.2%
OTHER
SCIENTISTS
3.2%
Figure 2. Composition of NERC—Cincinnati workforce
by discipline.
PERSONNEL SALARIES
AND BENEFITS
30.1%
TRAVEL
1.5%
^EXTRAMURAL CONTRACTS,
ioGRANTS, AND
£1 INTERAGENCY AGREEMENTS
2%
ALL OTHERS
2.2%
*AII other expenses include
Transporation of things. Equipment
Maintenance & Rental Other Contractual
Services Etc.
Figure 3. Where the NERC—Cincinnati dollar goes.
Figure 4. IMERC—Cincinnati FY-74 expenditures by pro-
gram element number.
I I I I
1BB043 TREATMENT PROCESS DEVELOPMENT 4764K
1BB041 OIL & HAZARDOUS SPILLS 2773K
1BB040 MINING SOURCES 1963K
1CA046 W.S. HEALTH EFFECTS 1911K
1BB034SroRM& COMBINED SEWERS 181 OK
RECOVERY 1662K
DEVELOPMENT 1535K
RESEARCH 1347K
TECHNOLOGY 1322K
TI ON ARY SOURCES-ENERGY 1300K
QUALITY ASSURANCE 1068K
PROGRAM MANAGEMENT 767K
W.S. CONTROL TECHNOLOGY 715K
1BB033 MUNICIPAL SEWERED DISCHARGES 686K
1BB036 HEAVY INDUSTRIAL SOURCES 682K
1DB064 COLLECTION/PROCESSING TECHNOLOGY 494K
TBB035 NON-SEWERED DOMESTIC WASTES 394K
2C5227 OWP TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE 377K
TrJB311 HAZARDOUS SOLID WASTES 375K
1DA312 BEHAVIORAL RESEARCH 56K
•
1BB038 TRANSPORATION SOURCES 34K
•
1BA928 WATER QUALITY-GREAT LAKES 25K
I _ I _ I _ I
1234
MILLIONS OF DOLLARS
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TABLE 1. NERC-CINCINNATI BUDGET FOR FISCAL YEAR 1974 (IN $1,000)
Laboratory /Office
Office of the Director, NERC
Advanced Waste Treatment Research Laboratory
Treatment Process Development
Storm and Combined Sewers
Municipal Sewered Discharges
Nonsewered Domestic Wastes
Total AWTRL
Environmental Toxicology Research Laboratory
Biomedical Research
Industrial Waste Treatment Research Laboratory
Oil and Hazardous Material Spills
Mining Sources
Heavy Industrial Sources
Transportation Sources
Total IWTRL
Intramural
$ 767
2,210
166
292
94
$ 2,762
$ 1,200
512
436
187
22
$ 1,157
Extramural
$ —
2,554
1,644
394
300
$ 4,892
$ 145
2,261
1,527
475
12
$ 4,275
Total
$ 767
4,764
1,810
686
394
$ 7,654
$ 1,345
2,773
1,963
662
34
$ 5,432
Methods Development and Quality Assurance Research Laboratory
Methods Development
Monitoring Quality Assurance
Water Quality — Great Lakes
Total MDQARL
Solid and Hazardous Waste Research Laboratory
Resource Recovery
Disposal Technology
Air Stationary Sources — Energy
Collection/Processing Technology
Hazardous Solid Wastes
Behavioral Research
Total SHWRL
Water Supply Research Laboratory
Water Supply Health Effects
Water Supply Control Technology
Technical Assistance
Total WSRL
Total NERC-CINCINNATI
1,170
571
—
$ 1,741
—
307
—
87
85
56
$ 535
1,525
564
377
$ 2,466
$10,628
365
497
25
$ 887
1,662
1,015
1,300
407
290
—
$ 4,674
386
151
—
$ 537
$15,410
1,535
1,068
25
$ 2,628
1,662
1,322
1,300
494
375
56
$ 5,209
1,911
715
377
$ 3,003
$26,038
4
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TABLE 2. NERC-CINCINNATI BUDGET FOR FISCAL YEAR 1975 (IN $1,000) (AS OF 8-31-74)
Laboratory /Office Intramural
Office of the Director, NERC
Advanced Waste Treatment Research Laboratory
Treatment Process Development
Storm and Combined Sewers
Municipal Sewered Discharges
Nonsewered Domestic Wastes
Total AWTRL
Environmental Toxicology Research Laboratory
Fuel and Fuel Additives Registration
Biomedical Research
Total ETRL
Industrial Waste Treatment Research Laboratory
Oil and Hazardous Material Spills
Mining Sources
Heavy Industrial Sources
Total IWTRL
Methods Development and Quality Assurance Research
Methods Development
Monitoring Quality Assurance
Total MDQARL
Solid and Hazardous Waste Research Laboratory
Disposal Technology
Hazardous Solid Wastes
Resource Recovery
Particulate Control
SOX Control
Behavioral Research
Collection/Processing Technology
Total SHWRL
Water Supply Research Laboratory
Water Supply Health Effects
Water Supply Control Technology
Technical Assistance
Water Quality Health Effects
Total WSRL
Total NERC-CINCINNATI
$ 839
2,380
180
337
34
$ 2,931
200
1,615
$ 1,815
496
465
228
$ 1,189
Laboratory
1,369
735
$ 2,104
366
150
55
15
30
75
10
$ 701
1,639
718
403
85
$ 2,845
$12,424
Extramural
$ —
2,628
957
463
255
$ 4,303
—
397
$ 397
1,024
638
588
$ 2,250
377
307
$ 684
1,083
1,097
824
657
499
—
—
$ 4,160
1,805
598
—
52
$ 2,455
$14,249
Total
$ 839
5,008
1,137
800
289
$ 7,234
200
2,012
$ 2,212
1,520
1,103
816
$ 3,439
1,746
1,042
$ 2,788
1,449
1,247
879
672
529
75
10
$ 4,861
3,444
1,316
403
137
$ 5,300
$26,673
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relatively self-contained portion of the NERC pro-
gram that also facilitated interlaboratory contacts.
To provide appropriate background material for
the meeting participants, existing programs were
analyzed and their component tasks were grouped
into topical areas that defined the scope of each
meeting. PCS with laboratory cooperation prepared
these background analyses, which were collectively
termed the Operational Plan. The Operational Plan
was thus a listing of all NERC—Cincinnati tasks that
would be active any time during Fiscal Years
1974-1976. The tasks contained in each topical
area were further analyzed and arranged in work-
able subgroups by PCS to facilitate discussion.
In all, 17 such meetings were held over a 2-week
period in January and February. After an initial
sketch by cognizant laboratory personnel, each task
was discussed. Where a program overlap or a gap
was discerned, the issue was assigned to one or
more individuals for explanation or resolution. Both
the discussion and the issue resolution phases pro-
duced better understanding between the individuals
who actually implemented the various programs.
ROAP Network Diagrams
PCS produced and published a book of Research
Objective Achievement Plan (ROAP) Network Dia-
grams using draft diagrams supplied by laboratory
personnel. The diagrams graphically displayed the
logic by which the tasks and milestones making up
the ROAP's were linked together in chronological
sequence. Although the diagram was conceived
independently of the planning and coordination
meetings described, it was used in support of the
meetings.
Over 350 copies of the book were distributed
within the NERC-Cincinnati Laboratory and to
regional offices, other NERC's, Program Area Man-
agers, Office of Research and Development Deputy
Assistant Administrators, and all Assistant Ad-
ministrators in EPA. This effort should increase
the understanding of NERC-Cincinnati's programs
throughout EPA, and it will be continued with
revisions next year.
Regional Visitation Program
A system of visitations to each EPA regional
office by the NERC Director and Laboratory Direc-
tors was initiated and carried out during the year.
The purpose of the program was to familiarize the
regional personnel with NERC-Cincinnati programs
and to elicit their response on future NERC pro-
gram planning goals.
PCS prepared briefing documents for each meet-
ing in the form of lists of NERC—Cincinnati's tasks
that addressed the research needs submitted by a
given regional office. Initially, only selected Labora-
tory Directors having programs of interest to a
particular region attended the sessions at that re-
gional office and discussed programs with various
regional personnel. Before long, however, all Labo-
ratory Directors were included in these visits, since
unforeseen questions and interests always developed.
This program of regional — NERC-Cincinnati liai-
son strengthens an important but underdeveloped
link between one of the producers of EPA research
and some of its most important users.
In addition to the these regular visitation pro-
grams, PCS coordinated the visits of several regional
research representatives to the NERC in Cincin-
nati to receive briefings by individual laboratory
personnel on programs of interest.
Noise
PCS assisted in the development of a ROAP
for the Office of Research and Development in the
area of noise control technology development. The
small effort planned for Fiscal Year 1975 is intended
to support EPA's Federal noise control coordination
responsibilities.
Energy
PCS was one of several NERC representatives
on a task force concerned with preliminary planning
of the embryonic energy research program. In co-
operation with representatives of other agencies, ap-
propriate research objectives were formulated for
interagency research; the Office of Research and
Development drew up tentative plans for their own
efforts.
CIVIL RIGHTS AND URBAN
AFFAIRS STAFF
The Federal Women's Program sponsored two
training courses, "Breaking Barriers Thru Speech,"
specifically designed to meet the needs of women
at EPA in Cincinnati. The training was highly
successful for the more than 60 attendees, and a
similar course will be presented again. In coopera-
tion with the Federal Executive Board, the Federal
Women's Program also assisted in presenting an
executive seminar on the "Federal Women's Pro-
gram." The seminar provided guidance for Agency
executives in fulfilling their role in the Federal
Women's Program.
An Equal Employment Opportunity Seminar for
Managers was conducted by EPA-Cincinnati's Civil
Rights and Personnel Management Staffs in Fiscal
Year 1974. The seminar series, which was con-
ducted at the Columbia Parkway and the Ridge
Avenue Buildings, attracted 127 managers and
supervisors from EPA in Cincinnati and also some
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from other agencies, i.e., National Institute for
Occupational Safety and Health, U.S. Postal Serv-
ice, and the U.S. Air Force.
The highlight of the seminar series was a video
tape production called "The Situation," which de-
picted an Equal Employment Opportunity (EEO)
complaint situation. The video tape was written,
produced, and enacted by members of the EEO
Counselor's Committee with the assistance of the
Technical Information Staff. The Civil Rights Staff
has received numerous requests for use of this video
tape from regional offices and NERC's within EPA
as well as several offices of the Internal Revenue
Service. EPA Headquarters has requested a dupli-
cate tape for their permanent use.
The Civil Rights Staff, in its effort to promulgate
the concept of Upward Mobility, compiled a com-
pendium entitled "Upward Mobility is a Step in the
Right Direction . . or . . Everything You Wanted
to Know About Upward Mobility but were Afraid
to Ask." The compendium has been distributed
to each NERC and regional office, with EPA
Headquarters printing additional copies for their
retention; copies have been distributed to the Inter-
national Personnel Management Association and
to the U.S. Civil Service Commission, Washington,
D.C., for use in their Upward Mobility Workshop
Courses.
PUBLIC AFFAIRS STAFF
The Public Affairs Staff issued news releases on
subjects ranging from energy policy to environmental
plans in research; approximately 5,000 pieces of
literature were mailed out, and a large number of
telephone and written inquiries were handled.
In May, our second annual Open House attracted
over 700 high school and elementary students and
teachers.
A number of questions on the new unleaded gaso-
line regulations were referred to Region V head-
quarters, especially those seeking an extension on
the deadline for reasons of material shortages in
nozzles and other necessary hardware.
The meeting of top EPA management personnel
at NERC-Cincinnati resulted in a press conference
and local print and TV coverage, with a feature
story on NERC appearing in the Louisville Courier
Journal.
TV appearances for other visiting officials was a
continuing activity of the Public Affairs Staff. The
EPA Administrator appeared on a TV show cover-
ing three midwest cities and was interviewed by
the press during his visit in September. The NERC
Director appeared on WCPO TV's Noon Report
twice and also was interviewed on WWEZ Radio
in relation to an energy paper prepared by the
Director and his staff.
Film crews from CBS and NBC visited NERC-
Cincinnati for special reports on drinking water
research. Programs were taped and shown on
national television and on a continuing basis in
the lobby of the Taft Laboratory.
The Public Affairs Staff also coordinated publicity
for the dedication of the OHMSETT site at Edison,
New Jersey, in early October and the design and
construction of an exhibit for the Louisville, Ken-
tucky, "Coal and the Environment" conference in
October.
The Public Affairs Staff continued to report on
the progress of the new facility near the University
of Cincinnati through EPA Progress Reports.
TECHNICAL INFORMATION STAFF
During 1974, the Technical Information Staff
(TIS) contributed to the third year of NERC-Cin-
cinnati growth by informing the national and inter-
national communities in government, education, and
industry of the research programs performed or
underway at the various laboratories of our environ-
mental research complex.
Editorial and Publications
Researchers and administrators of NERC—Cin-
cinnati submit all manuscripts intended as technical
reports, symposia or journal articles, and confer-
ence speeches to the editorial staff for editorial
review and clearance (Figure 5). During 1974, the
TIS processed and cleared for publication 119
NERC "in-house," contract, and grant reports;
edited and cleared 14 newsletters and 150 journal
and symposia articles and conference speeches. The
TIS continued to encourage and publish brief, in-
formative explanations of key research in progress
at NERC-Cincinnati in the "News of Environmental
Research in Cincinnati" newsletter sent to a large
technical and nontechnical audience. Topics covered
by these newsletters included the timely "Impact of
Environmental Control Technologies on the Energy
Crisis," "Sludge Incineration and Fuel Conserva-
tion," "Catalytic Converters Used in Health Studies,"
and many others.
In 1974, the TIS began reviewing NERC-Cin-
cinnati contract and grant reports before prepara-
tion of the final camera copy that TIS submits to
the EPA printer and/or to the National Technical
Information Service (U.S. Department of Com-
merce) for publication. During this review, the
report is examined for completeness and adherence
to the standard format specified for all research
and development studies supported by the Office of
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TECHNICAL INFORMATION STAFF
Advanced Waste
Treatment
Research Lab
Industrial Waste
Treatment
Research Lab
Solid & Hazardous
Waste Research
Laboratory
Water Supply
Research Lab
Methods Development
& Quality Assurance
Research Lab
Environmental
Toxicology
Research Lab
Office of Director,
Office of
Administration
Graphic Arts Services*
Photography
Slides
Illustrations
Layout and Design
T.V. Visuals, Charts,
Forms and Signs
Authors submit all
manuscripts for review
TIS returns all
manuscripts to
authors for final
changes and typing
Editorial and
Publication Services
Preliminary reviewing
Editing
Proofing
Arranging for printing
Disseminating published
material
Answering requests for
past publications
Authors return NERC reports
and newsletters to TIS for
final review and submission
to U.S. Government Printing
Office
Television Services*
Script writing
Producing color and
black-and-white
programs
Taping technical
and non-technical
programs for
distribution
TIS issues and
distributes
NERC-Cincinnati
research
Authors submit
journal and symposia
articles, speeches,
etc., directly to
external organization
Book publishers, journal
editors, symposia
directors, and other
organizations outside
the U.S. Gov't.
* Also provides service for National Training Center, National
Field Investigations Center, and Fish Toxicology Laboratory
Figure 5. The role of the Technical Information Staff (TIS) in communicating NERC-
Cincinnati research.
EPA Headquarters,
other NERC's, and
EPA Regional offices
U.S. Gov't Printing
Office, National
Technical Info.
Service, & other
Federal agencies
State & Municipal
Agencies &
Libraries
Academic Institutions
& Libraries
Business
Community
National &
International
Scientific
Community
The Concerned
Public
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Research and Development of the EPA. The quality
of final reports being submitted has significantly im-
proved and has, in many instances, decreased publi-
cation costs.
In addition to these activities, TIS distributes
NERC—Cincinnati research reports, published pro-
ceedings of NERC-sponsored symposia, reprints
of journal articles, and "News of Environmental
Research in Cincinnati," to over 5,000 individuals
and organizations who comprise our updated mail-
ing list and to the thousands of parties who re-
quested NERC-Cincinnati publications in 1974.
These requests and mailing lists for mass mailing
are handled from the Publications Distribution Unit
of the TIS, which sent publications throughout the
United States and to foreign countries from Mada-
gascar to Malaya. TIS has also been given the
responsibility for the publication and distribution
of NERC-Cincinnati's Quarterly Report.
Graphic Arts Unit
The Graphic Arts Unit has become an integral
part of NERC-Cincinnati research efforts, assisting
all programs with technical, scientific, and specialized
visual information material.
By working with program personnel, writer-
editors, and printers, the Graphic Arts Unit per-
sonnel has been able to ensure good service and
quality work, with an overall 1974 workload in-
crease of 21% from that of 1973. Most of the
increase has been in requests for photography and
for slide presentations.
Major in-house graphic services include:
• photography (black and white and color taken
at our shop or at location),
• slides (color and black and white, which are
developed in-house for better quality control),
• illustrations (technical, nontechnical—in all
media),
• layout and design (promotional material, tech-
nical reports, brochures, pamphlets, cover de-
signs, and certificates), and
• TV visuals, charts, forms, and signs.
Television Production Unit
Television productions are a valuable means to
introduce new employees and trainees to NERC-
Cincinnati, to acquaint foreign and domestic visitors
with some of the research programs underway here,
and to educate outside scientists, businessmen, and
educators on the importance and application of the
knowledge and technology developed at NERC-
Cincinnati to their particular research needs.
To produce a stimulating and informative tech-
nical program calls for:
• script writing, with the close cooperation of
writer and scientist to effectively and concisely
convey often complex laboratory techniques, in-
struments, and results,
• program production and film editing, with
technical expertise in recording the visual and
audio dimensions of the film and, with imagina-
tion, in creating interesting ways to present the
scientific material,
• program taping, with care in exact production
of the program for later distribution and use.
Highlight productions of 1974 include:
• an orientation program in which the NERC—
Cincinnati Director and the various Laboratory
Directors explain (in English, Spanish, Polish,
and Japanese) the Center's environmental
mission, the NERC-Cincinnati Research Lab-
oratories, and some of the ongoing research
programs,
• a video-taped explanation of CAM-1, an instru-
ment developed under EPA contract to auto-
matically monitor water supplies for toxic levels
of pesticides; the tape was sent to Dr. D. H.
Newsome of England's Water Resources Board
to aid a special symposium there on the
monitoring and maintaining of water quality
standards,
• a program describing the NERC-Cincinnati
library facilities, particularly the new computer
information retrieval system,
• a role-playing skit ("The Situation," described
by the Office of Civil Rights and Urban Affairs)
to dramatize for EPA managers the process of
handling employee grievances, and
• a number of training films for NERC labora-
tories and the National Training Center to illus-
trate laboratory techniques and equipment
operation.
OFFICE OF ADMINISTRATION
The Office of Administration (OA) provides day-
to-day support services to EPA organizations in
Cincinnati and also to various agency installations
not located in Cincinnati. These services include
contracting, facilities management, library, financial
management, personnel management, and computer
services and systems.
In May 1974, the NERC-Cincinnati OA hosted
the Second National Planning and Management
Conference attended by approximately 240 em-
ployees representing the 10 regional offices, 4
NERC's, other field installations, and Headquarters.
In addition to the general session, specialty meet-
ings were held by audit, contracts management,
financial management, personnel management, and
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planning and evaluation groups. The general session
provided an opportunity for senior management
officials to discuss planning and management activ-
ities and problems. The specialty meetings were
attended by working-level staff to deal with specific
subject area problems. A large number of action
items were developed at these meetings.
Contracts Management
The Contracts Management Division provides
procurement and contracting support to EPA lab-
oratories in Las Vegas, Nevada; Corvallis, Oregon;
and Ann Arbor, Michigan, in addition to EPA
Cincinnati. Workload statistics increased substan-
tially from 262 contract actions for $10,000,000
in Fiscal Year 1973 to 473 contract actions for
$25,000,000 in Fiscal Year 1974. Approximately
half of these contract actions were executed in
support of Cincinnati EPA activities.
Small purchases (under $2500) increased from
6,500 to 7,000 transactions; 3,000 of these were
placed utilizing the new and simplified oral order
technique. The 3,000 figure is significant in that
it surpassed projected usage by 1,000 and reduced
both processing and leadtime for selected trans-
actions by as much as 7 to 10 days. Approximately
90% of small purchase transactions were executed
in support of Cincinnati EPA activities.
In July 1974, a change to the Federal Procure-
ment Regulations increased the authority to negoti-
ate small purchases from $2500 to $10,000. This
increase in authority will make it possible to
achieve future significant economies; however,
because additional changes must yet be made to
other statutes and regulations that impose thresholds
less than $10,000, the potential for savings will not
be determined for several months.
Facilities Management and Services
The progress on the new facility in the past
year has been outstanding. The building seemed
to virtually "leap out of the ground" (Figures 6-10).
The building was topped out in July; therefore, the
weather will no longer be a prominent factor in
the scheduled completion date — summer of 1975.
Two major design changes have been incorporated
to comply with the requirements of the new Occu-
pational Safety and Health Act (OSHA); all labora-
tory doors now swing outward and all laboratory
electrical circuits are provided with ground fault
interrupters to minimize the chance of electrical
shock. This facility, when completed, will meet
all OSHA requirements and will have one of the
safest working environments of any laboratory of
comparable size.
The occupants of the building will include the
Office of the Director, the Water Supply Research
Laboratory, the Methods Development and Quality
Assurance Research Laboratory, the Environmental
Toxicology Research Laboratory, the Solid and
Hazardous Waste Research Laboratory, the Na^
tional Field Investigations Center, the National
Training Center, the Office of Administration, and
the Radiochemistry and Nuclear Engineering Facil-
ity. The space assignments have been made, and
the construction drawings have been revised to
show the room layouts and the laboratory furniture;
Detail planning has started on the actual move to
the new facility.
The cumulative effect of the completion of many
repair and improvement projects at the Robert A.
Taft Laboratory was to advance the operation of
building equipment to new levels of capability and
provide heretofore unavailable levels of safety, im-
proved building functions, and enhanced building
appearance; specifically, increased air conditioning
capacity; pure water supply; heating, ventilating, and
air conditioning controls; site improvements for con-
trol of water damage; lighting; acoustical work;
room finishes for offices and training rooms; park-
ing improvements and landscaping. This year the
Robert A. Taft Laboratory received the Cincinnati
Chamber of Commerce award for outstanding landL
scaping.
In concert with program personnel, especially
those scheduled to move to the new facility, the
Personal Property and Supply Management Office
conducted a drive to reduce inventories of materials
and equipment. A total dollar value of $1,456,000
of excess/surplus material was transferred to other
Federal agencies and donated to State activities.
This had a beneficial effect on the EPA programs
by decreasing the cost of the physical move, reduc-
ing requirements for warehouse space, and reducing
inventory controls. It also saved the receiving or-
ganizations' equipment expenditures. Additionally,,
equipment valued at $400,000 was reassigned within
EPA-Cincinnati to further reduce their purchasing
expenditures.
In the printing management area, approximately
$20,000 (10% of the annual amount expended for
printing) was saved through cost analysis of eacti
printing job and closer coordination between the
office of origin, the NERC-Cincinnati printing office,
U.S. Government Printing Office, and printing con-
tractors.
The Insurance Company of North America Sur-
vey Team conducted a safety survey of the NERC'
during September 1973. The report was received1
in the late spring of 1974. Correction of deficiencies
is progressing.
10
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1974 Progress in construction of the new Cin-
cinnati facility can be seen in Figures 6—10.
Top left, March.
Center left, June.
Center right, September.
Bottom left, November.
Bottom right, January 1975.
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Library
This year, as a result of automated library opera-
tions, the NERC-Cincinnati Library has provided
increased and more efficient service to a greater
number of clients than in any previous year. A
record number of searches, over 5,000, have been
made for EPA researchers nationwide. The online
literature search system has access to more than
25 computerized data bases, containing over 10
million document citations.
Awareness of broader coverage of world literature
on various subjects has brought an increased demand
for inter-library loans and document delivery.
Through inter-library loans, networks, and con-
tracts with several large university libraries, thou-
sands of documents requested by library users have
been obtained.
During 1974, 37 foreign articles have been trans-
lated through use of the EPA contract.
Considerable time and effort have been devoted
to planning the space layout and equipment needed
for the library in the new EPA facility, as well as
plans for providing a branch library to accom-
modate the staff remaining at Taft Laboratory.
Financial Management
Upgrading equipment for recording input of
accounting transactions and receipt of financial re-
ports in the accounting operations office has resulted
in an annual rental savings of $5,700. In addition,
data processing records the input faster and allows
direct input to the Headquarters computer. Reports
previously mailed from Washington are now trans-
mitted to our local finance office via computer
terminals, which saves 7 to 10 days in distributing
the various accounting reports to management. The
addition of a Data Set device approximately
doubled the speed of printing the reports.
Additional responsibilities resulted from Agency
integration of record keeping and fund-control proc-
esses. This system has been successfully put into
operation and has made mechanized records acces-
sible to the research programs and, thereby, made
possible more accuracy as well as savings in man-
hours spent on record keeping.
Changes in the procedure on paper flow for air-
line tickets has enabled the office to audit invoices
more efficiently and reduce the time lag for proces-
sing payments to vendors.
Computer Services and Systems
During 1974, the Computer Services and Systems
Division has significantly expanded its services
through the use of a Systems Design and Program-
ming Support Services Contract with the University
of Cincinnati and an Interagency Agreement with
the Atomic Energy Commission's Lawrence Liver-
more Laboratory.
The support services contract with the University
of Cincinnati has provided a quick and easy
mechanism to assess a wide range of technical'
experts from the University's faculty and data;
processing staff who have assisted EPA scientific
personnel in a variety of computer-related activities,
Approximately 20 tasks that provided support to
each of the EPA Cincinnati laboratories were
initiated and completed during 1974.
The purpose of the Interagency Agreement with
Lawrence Livermore Laboratory is to develop a
total computerized laboratory automation system
for EPA in Cincinnati and assist other EPA labora-
tories in automation through the transfer of tech-
nology developed in Cincinnati; the result will be
a significant cost and time savings.
Working closely with the Office of Research and
Development's Office of Monitoring Systems, the
Office of Planning and Management's Management
Information and Data Systems Division, and regional
laboratories, we are promoting the development of
standard hardware/software configurations, mini-
computer laboratory instrument interfaces, data
analysis and sample logging routines, and intercon-
nection with larger general purpose computers.
During 1974, orders were placed for computer
related equipment for automation at the NERC-
Cincinnati's Methods Development and Quality As-
surance Research Laboratory (MDQARL) and Ad-
vanced Waste Treatment Research Laboratory
(AWTRL). In addition, the Office of Enforcement
and General Counsel's National Field Investigations
Center (NFIC) in Cincinnati and the EPA Region
V Surveillance and Analysis Laboratory also
ordered equipment. Additionally, assistance has
been provided to Regions I, II, and III.
Personnel Management
In concert with the Civil Rights and Urban Affairs
Staff, the Personnel Management Office launched
a full-scale campaign to sensitize managers and
supervisors to the problems of underutilized minority
and female employees. A number of personnel pro-
cedures and mechanisms were established within
the Affirmative Action Plan to provide manage-
ment with a powerful tool for effecting change in
the EEO area.
Training and Employee Development Programs
have been established to ensure maximum utiliza-
tion of manpower. During this past year, efforts
included issuance of policy and procedures for an
Employee Development Short-term Training Pro-
gram. In addition, training courses were conducted
on performance appraisals, employee conduct, merit
12
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promotion, and grievance procedures. Orientation
sessions for new employees were also held at the
various facilities.
This year a bargaining agreement was negotiated
with the National Federation of Federal Employees,
exclusive agent for all nonprofessional General
Schedules nonsupervisory employees. This will pro-
vide improved labor management relations at the
Center.
A number of steps were taken toward effectively
utilizing human resources in accomplishing mission
objectives. An example is the implementation of
a classification and position management committee
to ensure that organizational and position structures
are designed and reviewed to produce maximum
effectiveness within the resources available. Indi-
vidual positions are classified in a more systematic
manner, and the classification impact of relation-
ships among positions is considered.
Numerous awards have been conferred upon out-
standing employees during the present year. For
the period January 1 through' September 30, 47
quality increases were awarded for continued high
quality performance above that ordinarily found in
the type of position concerned. In addition, 36 spe-
cial achievement awards were awarded for special
acts or services.
A Bronze Unit citation was granted to the 30-
member Contracts Management Staff for meritorious
service to the mission of environmental protection
by providing procurement service and support
necessary for the timely and efficient accomplish-
ment of program objectives. At our January Award
Day, length of service awards were given to 108
employees for having obtained a significant milestone
in government service during calendar year 1973.
A 1-year mobility assignment under Title IV of
the Intergovernmental Personnel Act was effectuated
on September 15 when Dr. Carl Charles, Georgia
Institute of Technology, was detailed to the Ad-
vanced Waste Treatment Research Laboratory.
This mobility assignment allows the sharing of
scarce expertise in the field of urban storm pollu-
tion control.
NERC RELATIONSHIPS
Nonresearch components of the Environmental
Protection Agency also have activities in Cincinnati,
Ohio: The National Field Investigations Center, a
division of the Office of Enforcement and General
Counsel; and the National Training Center under
the Water Programs Operations Office. The Office
of the Director of NERC—Cincinnati furnishes
these organizations with administrative and other
support services through the Office of Administra-
tion. Program direction is provided from the
cognizant Assistant Administrators' offices in Head-
quarters.
NERC-Cincinnati staff maintains a continuous
communication and information exchange with these
EPA activities as well as with the other three Na-
tional Environmental Research Centers in Corvallis,
Oregon; Las Vegas, Nevada; and Research Triangle
Park, North Carolina.
o.d.
13
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•-
Q.w.t.r.1,
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advanced waste
The advanced waste treatment program was initiated in Cincinnati in
1960 in response to the Federal Water Pollution Control Act. Until
EPA was established in December 1970, research had been conducted
under the auspices of the U.S. Public Health Service and, later, the
U.S. Department of the Interior.
The Advanced Waste Treatment Research Laboratory (AWTRL)
currently develops new methods and improves existing methods for
wastewater treatment and reuse to achieve the goals of Public Law
92-500. Most of the studies are centered on municipal wastewater
treatment; however, much of the methodology is also adaptable to
treatment systems for industrial and agricultural wastewaters. For most
of 1974, the Storm and Combined Sewer activities have been included
under AWTRL.
INTRODUCTION
Advanced wastewater treatment, once thought of as being concerned
only with purifying water for reuse, actually means any process, tech-
nique, or system that will improve wastewater pollution control tech-
nology. In the broad sense, any modification that will reduce the cost
of treatment to meet water quality objectives or effluent standards is an
improvement. Through AWTRL research in the past year, three
different improvements have been developed that have in common the
fact that they offer the potential of reducing treatment costs while
meeting appropriate standards. It is significant that two of these
processes also substantially reduce the energy requirements for treat-
ment. In the third case, savings in land area required for treatment
is the most significant factor.
The three processes referred to are illustrated in Figures 11-15, 17.
The first is lagoon upgrading to make the quality of the effluent from
this low cost treatment method equivalent to that of secondary treatment.
The second is simultaneous nitrification and denitrification, which has
potential for plants that should reduce nitrogen compounds in the
Figure 11 (top left). Slow sand filters to treat lagoon effluents at Logan. Utah.
Figure 12 (top right). The District of Columbia Blue Plains Water Pollution
Control Plant, site of the EPA—DC pilot plant for advanced waste treatment
studies.
Figure 13 (center left). Carbon columns and filters for physical-chemical treat-
ment at Rosemount. Minnesota.
Figure 14 (center right). Pipe corridor between multi-media filters at Rosemount.
Minnesota.
Figure 15 (bottom left). Carbon columns for the Rocky River, Ohio, physical-
Chemical treatment plant.
Figure 16 (bottom right). Technology Transfer: Chief of Biological Treatment
Section lecturing on nitrogen removal at Atlanta, Georgia.
15
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effluent to protect receiving waters. The third proc-
ess involves substituting chemical treatment followed
by carbon adsorption in place of conventional bio-
logical treatment to achieve comparable effluent
quality. Pilot studies at Pomona, California, have
produced design data for a plant to serve nearly
100,000 inhabitants at Rocky River, near Cleve-
land, Ohio.
The completion of research and the successful
development at a pilot plant or demonstration at a
full-scale plant solves few problems if the new tech-
nology does not reach the engineers and city officials
who can put the results to work. To implement its
R&D effort, the AWTRL cooperates closely with
the Office of Technology Transfer in their design
seminar program (Figure 16). Key scientists and
engineers present lectures covering research and
case histories of successful applications of new tech-
nology to audiences composed of civil engineers
and others responsible for the design and implemen-
tation of waste treatment plants.
SPECIAL TOPICS
Lagoon Upgrading
Approximately 90% of the wastewater lagoons
in the United States are located in small com-
munities with fewer than 10,000 people. For
these small communities, lagoon treatment has
proved to be a relatively stable system able to
handle fairly wide diurnal or daily fluctuations in
wastewater flow and organic loading. The fluctua-
tions have little effect on effluent quality because
the long detention times provide great equaliza-
tion of flow and load. Lagoons generally cost less
than other biological processes to install, and they do
not require around-the-clock surveillance.
Although well-designed and operated lagoons
meet the Secondary Treatment Standards most of
the time, a survey showed that excessive suspended
solids (primarily algae) seriously affect perform-
ance. Lagoon capabilities and deficiencies needed
reappraisal to determine the advisability of new
lagoon construction and to decide whether econom-
ical methods could be found for successfully up-
grading the more than 4,000 existing lagoons or
whether they should be replaced with other means
of secondary treatment.
Finding a simple, low-cost method for removing
algae and suspended solids from lagoons effluents —
one that could be used by small communities where
round-the-clock maintenance was not provided —
was deemed the most important task. Projects were
funded involving filtration through soil by spray
irrigation with or without crops growing on the
land (Utah State University) and through an inter-
mittent slow-sand filter at Logan (Utah State Uni-
versity). These methods take advantage of the im-
proved filterability of algae when liquid passes slowly
through the filter medium and also the improved
biological activity within the pore spaces of the
soil and upper surface of the slow-sand filter to aid-
in destroying algal material and preventing rapid
filter clogging. When the upper few inches of the
slow-sand filter do become clogged, they are physi-
cally removed and another filtration cycle is started.
For the intermittent slow-sand filter and soil irri-
gation methods, the effluent is generally added once
a day; this is followed by a period of drying. At
least a pair of intermittent slow-sand filters would
be needed at any lagoon site to allow one to be
used while the surface of the other filter was being
scraped.
In the foreground of Figure 11 is the set of six
experimental slow-sand filters at Logan, Utah, where
the effects of various hydraulic loadings are being
studied. The treatment lagoons for the city occupy
the middle of the picture. Preliminary results indi-
cate good removal with the intermittent slow-sand
filter. The rates ranged from 0.2 to 0.8 m/day
(0.2 to 0.8 million gal/acre), and the average
effluent suspended solids ranged from 4 to 8 mg/1
when the average influent suspended solids was 26
mg/1. Preliminary results of the soil percolation
studies were not yet available at the time of this
writing; however, application rates of 5 to 35 cm/wk
(2 to 14 in./wk) appear to be feasible.
When all data are in, it should be possible to
show that the total costs for upgrading and main-
taining upgraded lagoon systems are still consider-
ably lower than the cost of replacing the lagoons,
and maintaining secondary treatment plants. The
preliminary results of these first-generation lagoon1'
upgrading projects indicate that lagoon wastewater
treatment systems with modifications will continue
to be a cost-effective option for wastewater treat-
ment in small rural communities.
Single-Tank Nitrogen Removal
When municipal waste treatment plants must
remove nitrogenous wastes, the expense, can be con-
siderable. Work at the EPA-DC pilot plant in
Washington, D.C., has shown that greater than 80%
nitrogen removal can be obtained in a single-tank
biological system. This system is in contrast to the
multi-tank nitrogen control process, which utilizes
several tanks in series and requires the addition of
methanol to reduce nitrates to nitrogen gas. Although
the multi-tank approach has proven effective where
high efficiencies are needed, the single-tank system
could apply where effluent requirements are less
stringent.
16
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Biological removal of fixed nitrogen requires
conversion of ammonia to nitrate by slow-growing
nitrifying bacteria. In a multi-tank system, nitrifica-
tion takes place after excess sludge-forming organic
matter is removed. The second stage involves re-
duction of nitrate to nitrogen gas by heterotrophic
bacteria, which use the oxygen in the nitrate ion to
oxidize organic matter. The denitrification stage has
conventionally been fed with methanol, a pure,
easily handled organic chemical that has alternative
uses as a fuel.
A partially baffled, single-tank system was op-
erated at the EPA-DC pilot plant at a very low
food-to-microorganisms ratio. A 30-min cycle of
air to furnish 2 to 3 mg of dissolved oxygen/1 was
alternately directed to each side of the baffle. When
the air was off, the dissolved oxygen on that side
of the tank dropped to near zero. This procedure
leads to development of a culture containing organic
carbon oxidizers, ammonia oxidizers, and nitrate
reducing bacteria. During the air-on cycle, organic
carbon and ammonia are oxidized; during the air-off
cycle, nitrate oxygen serves to furnish the oxygen
for organic carbon oxidation, with the coincident
reduction of the nitrate to harmless nitrogen gas.
In the two-pass reactor in warm weather, the re-
quired detention time was 9 hr for a residual total
nitrogen content of 4 mg/1 in the effluent. In
wintertime, the required tank detention time was
12 hr for a residual of 6 mg/1.
A single-stage system offers several potential
advantages over a multi-tank system in temperate
climates. It requires no external source of organic
carbon, such as methyl alcohol, and therefore,
chemical costs will be reduced by as much as
$250/day in a plant serving a population of one
million people. Total air requirements will be re-
duced since the oxygen in the nitrate radical is used
to oxidize part of the influent organic carbon.
Separate tanks and extra clarifiers are not required
so the single-tank system should require less capital
expense.
Granular Activated Carbon for
Wastewater Treatment
Physical-chemical treatment produces a high
quality effluent and offers advantages when com-
pared with conventional biological treatment meth-
ods, i.e., smaller land area, lower initial capital
costs, insensitivity to toxic materials such as metals,
and the capability of removing nondegradable toxic
organic compounds.
At one time, use of chemical clarification and
adsorption on activated carbon was considered only
for a "polishing" application to biologically treated
effluents. It is now clear that the application of
carbon to raw wastewater after chemical clarification
is both technically and economically sound. At a
pilot plant in Pomona, California, substantial ad-
vances have been made in the use of activated car-
bon for treating chemically clarified raw wastewater
to produce "secondary" or better effluent quality.
Raw wastewater is chemically clarified with alum and
polymer followed by granular activated carbon in
a pressurized column (Figure 17).
Figure 17. Carbon columns and carbon regeneration
furnace at Pomona. California.
Experience to date indicates that the clarification
process alone will remove 90% to 95% of the
suspended solids. 60% to 80% of the total COD,
and more than 90% of the total phosphate. The
clarification process will also remove 90% to 95%
of most metals. The process is highly reliable and
is subject to few known interferences.
Dissolved organic material remaining in the
chemically clarified raw wastewater is removed by
granular activated carbon. As originally conceived,
the role of activated carbon was simply to remove
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organics by adsorption. It is now clear that the
process is far more complex than envisioned and
that carbon contactors are supports for biological
growth. Carbon can remove metals, perhaps as
organic complexes, and a wide array of potentially
hazardous organic compounds can also be removed,
including pesticides, carcinogens, taste and odor
producing substances, and nondegradable synthetic
organics in general. Certain soluble, low-molecular-
weight organic compounds, however, are not ad-
sorbed by activated carbon. Typical results at
Pomona are compared with biological treatment:
Activated
Parameters Physical-Chemical sludge
Suspended solids, mg/1 4.2 20.3
Turbidity, JTU 4.3 15.7
Total COD, mg/1 11.2 41.6
BOD5, mg/1 5.5 7.9
Total phosphate-P, mg/1 0.6 —
Color, units 7 39
Thirty full-scale physical-chemical treatment plants
are in various stages of planning, design, and con-
struction. During the past year, some notable ad-
vances have been made, particularly in the carbon
process. A major problem with carbon contactors
has been the production of sulfides that resulted
from anaerobic conditions produced by biological
action in the column. At Pomona, additions of
sodium nitrate completely suppressed sulfide forma-
tion. Adding 5.5 mg nitrate-nitrogen/I not only pre-
vented the formation of sulfide but also permitted
a very high organic "loading" on the carbon. Instead
of the more typical loading of about 0.5 Ib of COD
per Ib of carbon, the organic loading at Pomona
was 3.54 Ib. Furthermore, at the end of 15 mo of
continuous operation the carbon was still removing
75% of the applied COD. Obviously biological
action on the column was destroying organic matter
utilizing oxygen from the nitrate ion in the process.
Even though effluent quality never deteriorated to
an unacceptable level at Pomona, the decision was
made to regenerate the carbon since, up to that
time, regeneration of carbon used to treat chemically
clarified raw wastewater had not been demonstrated.
Subsequently, three adsorption-regeneration cycles
were conducted. In all respects, the regenerations
were as successful as the previous experience at
Pomona where some 30 regeneration cycles had
been conducted on tertiary mode carbon. The three
carbon regenerations also provided the opportunity
to observe the effectiveness of the air pollution
controls.
TREATMENT PROCESS
DEVELOPMENT BRANCH
Biological Treatment Section
Biological Treatment Process Improvements
Federal Secondary Treatment Standards promul-
gated in August 1973 define secondary treatment as
85% removal of BOD and suspended solids or as
having an effluent with no more than 30 mg of
BOD and suspended solids per liter on a monthly
average basis, whichever is less. There are over
16,000 municipal secondary treatment facilities in
the country, many of which have either become
overloaded during their lifetime or were initially
designed as high-rate systems and are now incapable
of meeting the Standards. These facilities along with
the approximately 2,500 existing primary treatment
plants offer an excellent opportunity to utilize tech-
nological innovations and process modifications as
upgrading tools. The paramount objective of bio-
logical treatment process improvements is to develop
and demonstrate a reservoir of cost-effective upgrad-
ing alternatives that will provide the required im-
provements in plant performance while maximizing
use of existing structures and equipment in the
upgrade schemes.
The single most significant occurrence in acti-
vated sludge technology in the past half decade
is the development of cost-effective systems for
substituting oxygen gas for atmospheric air to sup-
ply dissolved oxygen. Early work in this area was
supported by the Biological Treatment Section and
several versions of the oxygen-activated sludge
process are now being marketed. Presently, oxygen
systems are being used primarily for expansion from
primary treatment to secondary treatment. Utiliza-
tion of the process to convert existing overloaded
activated sludge plants to oxygen aeration is seen
as an important future upgrading technique. Over
50 oxygen-activated sludge plants with a combined
daily capacity in excess of 4 million m3 (2 billion
gal) are either in operation or are in design and
construction stages.
Options available for upgrading trickling filters
include substituting one of several synthetic-media
types for the conventionally used rock-media to
provide greater surface area for biological growth
and improved oxygen transfer, adding metallic salts
and polyelectrolytes to either primary or secondary
clarifiers to improve solids capture and precipitate
phosphorus, and employing a second stage of bio-
logical treatment downstream of the existing rock-
media filter. The latter technique allows the existing
trickling filter installation to act as a roughing unit
and often lowers the organic loading on the second
stage to a level permitting nitrification to take
18
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place. Several reports are already available on the
use of chemical additives to upgrade trickling niters
at EPA supported demonstrations.
The rotating biological contactor (RBC) has
been accepted in Europe, but only recently has
significant interest been noted in this country. EPA
projects have been initiated to evaluate this process
on the weaker wastewaters of the United States.
The RBC appears to offer an alternative to the more
conventional secondary treatment processes, par-
ticularly for smaller plants.
Nutrients in Wastewater
During the current year, all demonstration projects
on phosphorus removal technology were completed.
All relevant chemical and engineering parameters
are now documented to the extent that chemical
control of phosphorus can be instituted at any
treatment facility operating at design loadings.
This demonstration program has clearly shown
that there are three levels of residual effluent phos-
phorus that should be considered in regard to cost.
At the 40,000 m3/day (10 mgd) size, the following
generalization can be made in relation to the capital
cost of conventional activated sludge treatment. A
phosphorus residual of 1 mg/1 would increase capital
cost 5% to 10% to provide chemical storage tanks
and dosing systems. A requirement of 0.5 mg phos-
phorus/1 would increase capital cost 15% to 20%
because provision for media filtration of the effluent
would be necessary. If very low phosphorus residuals
are required, such as the less than 0.005 mg phos-
phorus/1 at Ely, Minnesota, tertiary lime treatment
would be required and the increase in capital cost
would exceed 100%.
Studies of the effect of disinfection of secondary
activated sludge effluent (under a grant with the
City of Wyoming, Michigan) indicate that several
alternative chemical disinfectants can be used on
municipal wastewater effluents to achieve the second-
ary effluent standard of 200 fecal coliforms per
100 ml. Companion fish toxicity studies on chlo-
rinated and dechlorinated effluents indicate that
residual fish toxicity of chlorinated effluents can be
eliminated by sulfur dioxide dechlorination.
Physical-Chemical Treatment Section
Because of its unique properties and capabilities
in treating wastewater, activated carbon has merited
the major share of research efforts this past year.
Research on carbon has revealed additional proper-
ties and improved methods for employing carbon
that further extend its usefulness for treating waste-
waters.
Previous work conducted by the Eimco Corpora-
tion at Salt Lake City demonstrated that powdered
carbon used in a two-stage counter-current contact-
ing system was capable of producing excellent
quality effluent from chemically clarified raw waste-
water.
Performance of granular activated carbon con-
tactors in terms of organic loading and effluent
quality is related to the effectiveness of the chemical
clarification, which usually precedes carbon treat-
ment. Thus, when choosing the chemical, one
should consider the degree of organics removal in
addition to other factors. A study of three clarifica-
tion processes (iron, lime at low pH with iron and
lime at high pH), showed that iron as ferric sulfate
achieved a superior removal of organics; this in
turn, reduced the cost of subsequent carbon treat-
ment.
Although activated carbon can adsorb a wide
variety of organics, it is generally recognized that
adsorption capacity varies with the structure of
the organic compound. To assess this variability,
the Physical-Chemical Treatment Section has been
studying the treatability of toxic organic compounds
by a system of coagulation-carbon adsorption. Selec-
tion of compounds was based on (a) annual quan-
tity produced, (b) toxicity to humans or fish, or
concentration producing other adverse effects in
water, (c) probability of occurrence in wastewater,
and (d) persistence in water. Bench-scale data have
been obtained on some 40 synthetic organic com-
pounds. As anticipated, adsorption capacity has
ranged from as much as 2,200 mg/g for nonyl
phenol to no detectable adsorption for cyclohexanone
or diethylene glycol. The study has been extended
to include assessment of treatability by a continuous-
flow system treating raw wastewater spiked with
the organic compound. Preliminary data for
dimethyl phthalate indicate that the chemical clarifi-
cation system is removing 60% to 70% and that
very low residuals, on the order of 1 to 20 p.g/1, are
being obtained in the carbon effluents. Samples are
analyzed by gas chromatography, which provides the
required sensitivity and specificity and also enables
a judgment on any changes that might occur in
the organic molecule during treatment.
Chemical clarification can obtain high removals
of most metals by precipitation, adsorption, and
filtration, but residual concentration can be in excess
of the stringent requirements for reuse. Carbon
adsorption can provide the additional metal removal
needed to meet standards. Some 12 metals were
evaluated in a pilot-scale treatment system con-
sisting of ferric chloride coagulation, filtration, and
granular carbon adsorption. Greater than 99%
removals were observed for mercury, beryllium,
tin, vanadium, and silver; greater than 90% re-
movals were observed for titanium, bismuth, and
19
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molybdenum; greater than 85% for selenium and
antimony; and greater than 50% for thallium and
cobalt. Preliminary results with high pH lime show
removals greater than 98% for titanium and bis-
muth, 75% for selenium, and 60% for antimony.
Removal of ammonia by either biological or by
physical-chemical methods is a complex and costly
process. The technical feasibility of a new selective
adsorbant for ammonia was investigated. Zirconium
hydrous oxide, an inorganic ion exchanger, is used
as the base material for copper ion, which is
attached as the counter ion. Contact with waste-
water results in removing ammonia by forming the
copper-ammonium ligand. When exhausted, the
exchanger is regenerated by low-pressure steam.
Further development of the process is being done
under contract.
Ultimate Disposal Section
The Ultimate Disposal Research Section is con-
cerned primarily with the sludges produced when
treating municipal wastewater. Because of the con-
cern for the accumulation of trace elements and
other potentially toxic materials in the environment
and a desire to quantify the environmental impact
caused by sludge disposal, a program was carried
out in which composition of sludge from various
parts of the United States was determined. Sludges
from 33 municipal wastewater treatment plants
were analyzed for 20 metals, nitrogen, phosphorus,
and sulfur. In some cases, content of trace metals
was high enough to preclude certain disposal op-
tions. Proper planning and implementation of sludge
disposal operations depend on knowing the composi-
tion of sludge.
Aerobic stabilization was studied on a plant scale
at Denver. The study showed that aerobic stabiliza-
tion is a feasible alternative to anaerobic digestion
for reducing the volatile solids content of sludge.
Pilot plant studies show that with a specially de-
signed aerator and the use of pure oxygen as the
oxygen source, aerobic stabilization could be carried
out in open tanks. An optimum system for the lime
stabilization of municipal sewage sludge has been
developed and evaluated. Lime doses and contact
times required to eliminate the pathogenic bacteria
and odors from a raw sludge were determined by
laboratory studies, and translated into design and
operational parameters for a pilot-scale plant. Soil
and crop studies performed in greenhouses and on
controlled outdoor plots indicated that chemicals
added for phosphorus removal did not diminish the
fertilizer value of the sludge. Sludge was effectively
stabilized by adding lime to raise the pH above 12.0
and maintaining this pH for at least 30 min. Air
sparging the lime sludge system provided better
20
mixing than mechanical methods and resulted in an
approximate 50% reduction in sludge ammonia con-
centration. An average of 150 g of slaked lime was
needed to stabilize 1.0 kg of sludge solids. Total
cost for lime stabilization was estimated to be
approximately $10/metric ton. Improved sludge
thickening rates were an additional benefit of the
lime addition.
Anaerobic digestion of sludge kills most but not
all of the pathogens and parasites that can be harm-
ful to man and animals. Recent laboratory and
pilot-scale research demonstrated that pasteuriza-
tion of digested sludge at 70°C for 30 to 60 min
reduces remaining pathogenic organisms to non-
detectable levels. Methane is normally available
from anaerobic digestion to meet fuel needs of the
pasteurization process. Direct steam injection and
efficient mixing of the steam and liquid sludge are
recommended for effective pasteurization. If gas
from anaerobic digestion is not available, fuel will .
cost about $10/ton of sludge solids for small plants.
Cooling the pasteurized sludge to 60°C is sufficient
to permit its use on grasses.
Removal of phosphates from wastewater results
in more sludge with dewatering characteristics dif-
ferent from those of conventional digested sludge.
A "Task Force Report on Phosphate Removal
Sludges" (being prepared) summarizes information
on the dewatering properties of sludges produced
when aluminum, or iron salts, or lime is added to
wastewater to remove phosphate. Information is
adequate for lime sludges but is scant for sludge
produced by aluminum or iron salt addition. Because
these latter sludges present serious dewatering prob-
lems, our research has concentrated on characteriz-
ing these sludges and improving ways to dewater
them.
AWTRL personnel have worked closely with
Technology Transfer personnel in preparing a design
manual that presents a contemporary review of
sludge processing technology and the specific pro-
cedures to be considered, modified, and applied to
meet unique conditions. The manual—distributed
at the Water Pollution Control Federation's 47th
Annual Conference—emphasizes the operational
considerations and interrelationships of the various
sludge treatment processes to be considered before
selecting the optimum design.
Sludge Disposal
Although the amount of sludge produced in
publicly owned sewage treatment works is increas-
ing, the options for disposing of sludges are not
increasing. Each of the commonly used disposal
methods—land spreading, landfilling, and incin-
eration and landfilling of the ash—is being re-
-------
amined to improve the technology and ensure
ainst risks to the environment or the public
alth. Reduced energy consumption and increased
st effectiveness are also desired.
A review of liquid sludge spreading practices in
e United States, conducted by Battelle Memorial
stitute (Columbus, Ohio) shows that sludge had
«n used as a fertilizer and soil conditioner for
any years with apparent success. In the last 10
, the use of sludge spreading as a disposal prac-
:e rapidly increased because of its simplicity and
w cost for many municipalities. Farmers generally
cept the sludge because of its effectiveness in
creasing crop yields. The survey also indicated
at the effects of sludge addition on soils, crop
imposition, and water and air quality had not been
lequately monitored.
Chicago is conducting a large research and
raonstration project to develop and evaluate
ethods for applying sludge to cropland in central
inois and for reclaiming strip mine spoils. Almost
)0 tons of Chicago sludge solids per acre have been
>plied without causing trace element toxicity to
neral farm crops. Tissues and organs of pheasants
d with corn grown on sludge-amended soil showed
) evidence of adverse changes.
Some form of landfilling is the most frequently
ied wastewater sludge disposal method. Many
ndfills, however, do not meet the standards of a
nitary landfill. A study of landfilling with sludge
' a trenching method is being developed and
raluated under an interagency agreement with the
SDA Agricultural Research Service at Beltsville,
Maryland. Previous experiments with placing up
500 tons of sludge solids per acre in shallow
enches showed that soil could be improved without
)lluting the environment with excessive nutrients,
ice elements, or pathogens. Conventional farm
[uipment is now being used to entrench sludge
id to demonstrate a feasible disposal method for
lall communities.
Many officials, lacking adequate information on
jtdge disposal methods, are unable to choose the
ost cost-effective one for a particular set of cir-
imstances. Several conferences and workshops
;re supported by AWTRL to supply as much of
e information as is available. The EPA cooperated
th the USDA and land grant universities in con-
icting a workshop to identify the state-of-the-art
landspreading municipal sludges and effluents and
iscribe research needed to improve the technology.
ther symposia on sludge disposal were held at
atgers University and in Pittsburgh; proceedings
all conferences have been published. These pub-
ations represent an effective way of quickly pro-
viding the wastewater treatment field with the latest
research results.
SYSTEMS & ENGINEERING
EVALUATION BRANCH
Storm & Combined Sewer Section
Assessment
Over the past decade much research effort has
been expended and a large amount of data has been
generated in the area of control, or treatment, or
both of storm sewer discharges and combined sewer
overflows. Much of this work has been accom-
plished through the actions and support of the Storm
& Combined Sewer Section. A comprehensive in-
vestigation and assessment of projects representative
of abatement theory and technology was published.
This publication is a compendium of project infor-
mation on management and technology alternatives
useful for decision-makers, whether they be engi-
neers, administrators, or members of the concerned
public.
To enhance professional and public awareness of
the storm-water problem and the abatement tech-
niques available and presently being investigated,
a 30-min narrated documentary color film, "Storm-
water Pollution Control: A New Technology," has
been produced. This film portrays a complete over-
view of the EPA's involvements in developing
countermeasures for pollution from combined sewer
overflow and stormwater discharges.
Simulation Models
System control aims to optimize the containment
and treatment of stormwater runoff with actions
dependent upon the storm pattern, treatment and
storage availability, and projected system behavior.
When overflows to receiving waters prove necessary,
quality monitoring, coupled with system controls,
permits the releases to occur in the least damaging
manner. The smaller the storage volume and the
more variable the rainfall pattern, the more critical
the monitoring and control system become. Math-
ematical models can play an important part in
developing and fine-tuning these systems. In Seattle,
advanced computer control techniques have been
successfully applied to reduce combined sewer over-
flows. Fifteen regulator stations and one major
pumping station were controlled to reduce overflow
volumes by 50% to 60% under supervisory con-
trol and by more than 90% under automatic pro-
gram control during unusually dry weather. All
stations are monitored and capable of remote super-
visory operation from a central control console
(Figure 18).
Battelle Northwest evaluated 18 mathematical
models simulating dynamic wastewater flow and
21
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Figure 18. Central control console for combined sewer
flows in Seattle, Washington.
quality conditions. Their survey will provide engi-
neers and planners with a single reference, con-
taining brief but precise descriptions and evaluations
of all the models studied. Modification and improve-
ment of the EPA Storm Water Management Model
(SWMM) is continuing. The University of Florida
has completed their work on "Release 2" of the
SWMM, which includes additional program com-
ponents. The SWMM has been made available to
communities lacking modeling capabilities. Such
a service provides for the availability of the com-
puter program itself in several easy-to-use modes
and technical assistance in problem delineation, data
reduction, debugging, and output interpretation. A
mathematical modeling seminar was conducted at
the University of Massachusetts to familiarize Fed-
eral. State, local, and consulting engineers with the
overall concept and availability of stormwater
models.
Treatment and Control
At the Borough of New Providence, New Jersey,
the treatment plant designed to handle wastewater
from a sanitary sewer system subjected to exces-
sive infiltration uses two high-rate filters—one
with rock media, the other with plastic media. Dur-
ing dry weather, the two units are operated in
series with the plastic media acting as a roughing
filter ahead of the rock. This provides an active
biological slime on both filters. When excess infiltra-
tion flows hit the plant, the mode of operation is
switched automatically from series to parallel,
roughly doubling the effective treatment capacity.
Removal efficiency is 85 % to 95% for both BOD
and suspended solids during dry-weather flow and
65% to 90% durinc wet-weather flow.
The Philadelphia Water Department completed
the third phase of work conducted to confirm the
performance of a microstraining unit (Figure 19)
and the effectiveness of disinfection at high rate
with chlorine. The microstrainer, stainless steel
screen with 23-//, openings, reduced the suspended
solids of the combined sewer overflow to 40 to 60
mg/1 from initial values up to 300 mg/1. The addi-
tion of polyelectrolyte improved the overall per-
formance of the microstrainer—reducing the efflu-
ent suspended solids to an average of 23 mg/1,
while more than doubling the influx rates. They
also found that microstrained effluent could be more
easily disinfected than the raw combined sewer
overflow.
DRIVE
VARIABLE p|N|N
WATER-LEVEL
IN TANK
PERIPHERAL SRSOVER
PERIPHERAL RACK ON SEEL.
DRUM SURGED
MICROFABRIC
Municipal Treatment and Reuse Section
Systems Demonstration
The first physical-chemical treatment plant began
operation at Rosemount, Minnesota, in January.
The treatment train consists of screening, single-
stage chemical clarification, dual-media filtration,
carbon adsorption either downflow or expanded-
bed upflow, filtration, and specific ion-exchange for
ammonia removal. Preliminary data obtained during
plant start-up and shakedown have demonstrated
that the effluent quality meets the standards of
10 mg/1 BOD, 10 mg/1 suspended solids, 1.0 mg/1
22
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tal phosphorus, and 1.0 mg/1 ammonia nitrogen
figures 13-14).
At Ely, Minnesota, the half-way point in the
•yr study of lake restoration by phosphorus control
is been passed. Total effluent phosphorus in the
rtiary plant effluent has averaged 0.043 mg/1 for
e first 18 mo of the study. Plant reliability has
sen excellent, and the total phosphorus entering
e lake has been reduced by 70%. Both the
mcentrations of phosphorus and chlorophyll a in
e lake are significantly less than in recent years
id qualitative observations of the lake in the fall
' 1974 indicated a much reduced algal bloom over
•evious years.
Methods and Processes to Improve
Operation and Maintenance
Research into methods and processes to control
ilfide generation in wastewater collection systems
is culminated in the publication of a sulfide control
anual describing both design methods to prevent
ilfide occurrences and control technology to elimi-
ite problems in existing systems. A full-scale flow
malization project at Ypsilanti Township (Michi-
m) utilizing two parallel 18,000 nr/day (4.5 mgd)
:tivated sludge plants indicates a significant reduc-
3n of concentration fluctuations is occurring in the
)w equalization basin. Comparison of equalized
srformance of one plant with background (un-
jualized) data collected during the construction
lase of the project indicates significant improve-
ent in removal efficiency and reliability.
nail Flows
On-Site Wastewater Management. The charac-
rization portion of a comprehensive research grant
Jniversity of Wisconsin) to study individual home
astewaters indicates that water usage is less than
>0 1 (50 gal)/person per day. Because of waste-
ater flow variations and high pollutant concentra-
)ns, treatment methods provide generally poor
movals. Under this grant, soil disposal system
ssigns will be developed and methods of regulatory
mtrol to optimize these systems will be formulated.
Advanced Collection Technology. Pressure sewer
monstration projects have documented much of
e necessary design and economic information
cessary to make pressure sewer systems available
r general use as an alternative to conventional
avity sewerage. In most rural areas, construction
sts are only a fraction of those for the conven-
inal systems. In most rural locations the initial
st of pressure sewerage is less than $l,500/home,
icreas, estimates for conventional gravity sewers
ten exceed $10,000/home. Additional benefits
;lude low or no infiltration, which results in
taller treatment facilities.
Municipal Wastewater Reuse
The performance and reliability of advanced
wastewater treatment (AWT) systems to remove
pollutants and the potential health effects associated
with the reuse of municipal wastewater are the
primary concerns of the reuse program. To pro-
vide needed information in these areas, AWTRL
and the Water Supply Research Laboratory initiated
a cooperative project to measure the parameters
of water quality that are related to potability in
effluents from AWT plants. A part of this study
will be to identify key components and evaluate the
toxicity of concentrates from the AWT effluents and
compare them with similar concentrates from ap-
proved potable water supplies. The AWT systems
are located at Lake Tahoe, Orange County, and
Pomona (California); Dallas (Texas); and Wash-
ington, D.C. (EPA-DC Pilot Plant). Effluents
from these systems are being examined for organic
materials, heavy metals, pesticides, viruses, and
radioactivity.
A completed survey of municipal wastewater reuse
in the United States indicated that about 1.6 million
mYday (0.4 bgpd) of effluent is being directly
reused, primarily for agricultural and industrial pur-
poses. This is less than 5% of the water resources
available for reuse via the Nation's municipal efflu-
ents.
The use of renovated wastewater for establishing
aquatic recreational facilities in water-short desert
areas is being demonstrated at Lancaster, California.
A system composed of alum coagulation, sedimenta-
tion, mixed-media filtration, and chlorination treats
the effluent from the wastewater treatment plant's
oxidation pond, which then provides water for the
56-acre Apollo County Park shown in Figure 20.
The three lakes in the park contain 80 million gal
of renovated wastewater and are used for sport fish-
ing and boating by the general public.
TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT
SUPPORT BRANCH
Systems and Economic Analysis Section
The time-dependent behavior of the activated
sludge process has been studied by means of a
digital computer program. Significant savings in
electrical power for supplying air to the process are
possible when the dissolved oxygen concentration
in the aerator is measured continuously and this
measurement is used to modulate the air supply.
The sludge inventory, however, responds so slowly
to changes in the sludge wasting rate that labora-
tory measurements are adequate to control the
sludge inventory. The cost of alternative sludge
handling schemes was studied with the use of an
23
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Figure 20. Recreational lakes in the Mojave Desert filled with renovated water from
Lancaster, California.
executive computer program. The least costly
schemes usually involved anaerobic digestion, fol-
lowed by sludge drying beds, and finally, applica-
tion to farm land.
The total cost of supplying dissolved oxygen to
wastewater was studied, and mechanical aeration
was found to be the least expensive in terms of cents
per pound of pure oxygen dissolved. The cost of
generating and dissolving pure oxygen was similar
to the most costly diffused air system. Other cost
savings arising from the use of pure oxygen, es-
pecially capital savings from an increase in existing
plant capacity, can nevertheless justify the use of
pure oxygen as discussed in the Biological Treatment
Section.
Pilot and Field Evaluation Section
Biological work at the EPA-DC Pilot Plant in-
cluded studies to characterize the performance of
three parallel modes of operation of the activated
sludge process ("plug flow," step, and completely
mixed aeration) over a wide range of operating con-
ditions (sludge retention time, SRT, or food to mass
of sludge ratio, F/M). At low SRT, a bulking fila-
mentous (Sphaerotilus) sludge was produced; at
high SRT, Nocardia bulking predominated.
In pure oxygen systems at the EPA-DC Pilot
Plant satisfactory nitrification was achieved with
and without pH control with typical residual am-
monia concentrations of less than 1 mg/1. Compari-
son of pure oxygen nitrification with air nitrification
on the same wastewater at the same pH did not
reveal any significant differences in the nitrification
kinetic rates.
Physical-chemical treatment of the raw waste-
water at the D.C. pilot plant consisted of low lime
coagulation with iron salts, pH control with carbon
dioxide followed by parallel operation of filtration
ahead of granular carbon adsorption and granular
carbon adsorption ahead of filtration. The two
variations produced similar effluents with typical
residuals of 0.5 mg phosphorus/1, 12 mg BOD,/1,
and 3 to 4 mg suspended solids/1. Breakpoint
chlorination ahead of the carbon columns produced
average total nitrogen residuals of about 2 mg/1.
The low lime — iron salt sludge could be dewatered
by vacuum or pressure filtration or by centrifuga-
tion. Aerobic digestion of this alkaline sludge pro-
24
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:ed 40% to 45% volatile solids reduction without
f pH adjustment of the sludge feed.
At the Pomona Pilot Plant, the use of ozone to
nove coliforms and bacteria from secondary efflu-
t was studied on a small scale. Filtration ahead
the ozonation system was essential. Doses of
sne to reduce color below 10 units were moder-
•—10 to 15 mg/1. Doses to reduce coliforms
IPN) to less than 2.2/100 ml were very high—
to 50 mg/1.
At the Lebanon Pilot Plant tube settler perform-
ce on the 6,000 nf'/day (1.5 mgd) overloaded
tivated sludge plant was evaluated. The tube
settlers produced a 100% improvement in effluent
quality in a direct parallel comparison against a
conventional gravity clarifier. Three methods for
treating septage pumped from septic tanks were
evaluated. Aerobic digestion successfully stabilized
the septage. Lime stabilization using 100 kg (200
Ib) calcium oxide per ton (dry weight) of treated
septage removed essentially all fecal bacteria. Chlo-
rination with chlorine doses of 1,000 to 2,000 mg/1
provided complete stabilization and disinfection.
Sand-bed dewatering of the lime-stabilized septage
needed 14 days to reach 25% solids whereas chlo-
rine-treated solids needed only 2 days to reach more
than 30% solids.
a.uu.t.r.l.
25
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Through an electronically programmed set of urban
driving conditions, the console (Figure 21, top)
"drives". . .
automobile engines (Figure 22, center left]
equipped with catalytic converters in the ex-
haust system. The engine exhausts are then
processed to represent various atmospheric con-
ditions. . .
as, for example, by irradiating (Figure 23, bottom
left) the exhaust with simulated sunlight to
create smog by photochemical reactions. The
resulting atmospheric automobile pollutants are
then transported to sealed chambers, such as in
Figure 24 (center right), where inhalation expo-
sure takes place under carefully controlled con-
ditions. . .
to study toxicologic and behavioral effects; in
Figure 25 (bottom right), blood pressure is being
studied.
e.t.r.l.
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environmental
o
INTRODUCTION
The Environmental Toxicology Research Laboratory (ETRL) is
required to test, evaluate, and define potential harmful effects of
environmental pollutants from mobile and stationary sources. The
objectives of this research are based on the legislative mandates of
the Clean Air Act of 1970, as amended, specifically Sections 103(a) -^
and(f); 104(a); 202(a); 204(a); and 211(b). The data obtained in fj)
experimental biological models, particularly in mammalian species, pro-
vide necessary input for the development of criteria documents; these
in turn, serve to establish realistic environmental standards.
The ETRL program has been organized to emphasize the toxicologic
assessment of automotive emissions originating from oxidation catalysts
and of the catalytic attrition products. The catalysts are designed to
reduce the concentrations of carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons in the
exhaust stream by oxidizing them into carbon dioxide and water. The
control of the concentrations of carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons in
automotive emissions is necessary for light-duty vehicles to comply with
the emission standards set foith in the Clean Air Amendments of 1970.
With the use of palladium and platinum in automotive catalytic
converters, some of the material may possibly be emitted to the atmo-
sphere or enter into other segments of the environment following degra-
dation or disposal of worn-out converters. It can be speculated that
the attrition products from the catalyst could include paniculate com-
posed of the metals combined with substrate material, and different
chemical forms of palladium and platinum.
Little information existed on the toxicology of the chemical forms of
platinum or palladium that might be expected to occur following use
of these metals in the catalyst, and there was no information on the
inhalation exposure of animal systems to exhaust from automobiles con-
taining a catalyst in the exhaust train.
Because ETRL has been studying the biological effects of the noble
metals for only a short time, the data should be considered preliminary
since the total impact of any metal upon a biological system and on the
biosphere is complex. These findings should serve as a basis, however,
for additional research in defining the impact of the use of these metals
on the environment.
The major potential public health problem concerned with the use
of catalysts—the one that appears to have received the greatest amount of
attention in the technical and lay press—is the potential emissions of
sulfuric acid and sulphate particulates, especially an increased level
of these pollutants, in instances when high sulfur gasoline is used.
It is hypothesized that a buildup of sulfates may occur in heavy traffic
areas by catalyst-equipped automobiles, particularly where meteorologic
27
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and topographical conditions do not allow for a
rapid dispersion of the pollutants. The ETRL has
published a summary report on the toxicology of
atmospheric sulfur dioxide decay products and on
catalytic components and exhaust emissions. Several
specific toxicologic investigations on sulfates includ-
ing a chronic study at realistic pollutant levels are
ongoing.
In Fiscal Year 1974, the ETRL effort was divided
into two major segments: (1) assessment of the
biological effects of automotive emissions that have
passed through the oxidative catalytic converter;
(2) toxicological studies on noble metals. In the
current bioeffect studies of noble metals associated
with the oxidation catalyst, the soluble forms of
palladium and platinum were used to ascertain some
of the basic toxicological and metabolic aspects.
In addition, since it must be realized that the avail-
ability and metabolism of other chemical forms or
substrate material containing palladium or platinum
may be different, other such pertinent studies are
in process.
In addition to the investigations of catalyst emis-
sions and their components, during 1974 ETRL
conducted several other in-house projects, e.g., the
assessment of physiological availability of various
chemical compounds of lead, and the acute toxicity
aspects of a potential antiknock rare earth fuel
additive tetrakis (2,2,6,6-tetramethyl 1-3,5-heptandi-
onate) cerium (Ce(the)4).
TOTAL EMISSION STUDIES
Measurements of Exhaust Emissions With and
Without Catalytic Converters
The design for toxicologic studies of emissions with
and without a catalytic converter requires precise
aerometry measurements of the atmospheres to
which experimental animals are exposed. The rea-
son for the use of the catalytic converter in the
automobile exhaust train is to meet emission stand-
ards for carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon as set
forth in the Clean Air Amendments of 1970.
Early studies indicated that oxidation-type cata-
lysts in auto exhaust systems generated significant
levels of sulfuric acid aerosol—up to 0.1 g/vehicle
mile. It was hypothesized that engine combustion
converted the organic sulfur compounds in the gaso-
line into sulfur dioxide, which was further oxidized
by the catalyst to sulfur trioxide, which reacted with
water vapor in the exhaust to produce sulfuric acid
aerosol. The engine used in these studies was a 1973
Chevrolet 350 C.I.D. production model with exhaust
gas recirculation, air pump, and turbo hydromatic
transmission coupled to. an "eddy current" absorp-
tion dynamometer. The pelletized noble metal oxida-
tion catalyst was a product of Engelhard Mineral and
Chemical Company. During the animal exposure
study phase, the engine was cycled continuously
(24 hr/day) for 1 wk on the "California" 7-mode
cycle. The average concentrations of the various
exhaust emission components in the animal exposure
chamber are shown in Table 3.
It was evident that the catalyst successfully re-
moved carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons under
the hot cycling conditions. The percent concentra-
tion reductions of exhaust emissions as a result of
installing the catalytic converter, after normalizing
dilution ratio and averaging exposure chamber data,
are summarized as follows:
CO 93 %
THC 80%
Aldehydes and acetylene 99+%
Olefins 93%
Aliphatics 59%
Acute Biological Effects of Exhaust Emissions With
and Without Catalytic Converter
Adult male outbred albino rats and adult male
golden Syrian hamsters were exposed to the various
treatment atmospheres. Tissues were collected,
processed, and examined microscopically for evi-
dence of morphologic changes attributable to the
exposure.
There were no treatment-related changes in the
studies with a catalyst. Without a catalytic con-
verter, however, there were extensive pulmonary
changes that were more severe in hamsters and most
severe in those animals exposed to irradiated ex-
haust. In the nonirradiated exhaust group, the
pulmonary changes were relatable to the levels of
nitrogen dioxide: initially, an increase in alveolar
macrophages at the level of terminal bronchioles,
followed by a proliferative phase with some apparent
increase in epithelialization of respiratory ductules
and in thickness of alveolar septae. In the hamsters
exposed to irradiated exhaust, there was a very
severe acute purulent bronchitis and bronchiolitis
that progressed to a subacute purulent bronchopneu-
monia by the end of the study. Additionally, there
were some degenerative changes in renal and hepatic
tissue after 5 days of exposure of these animals. The
only lesion that could be solely related to carbon
monoxide levels was extramedullary hematopoiesis
in the liver of the rats after 4 days of exposure.
Lactating female outbred albino rats and their
2-wk-old offspring were exposed to each of the
treatment atmospheres for 7 days. There was prom-
inent infant mortality in those animals exposed to
exhaust without a catalytic converter. This was not
a carbon monoxide effect alone but rather due to
the combination of biologically active pollutants.
28
-------
TABLE 3. CONCENTRATION OF EXHAUST EMISSION COMPONENTS
imission components
haust dilution ratio
D, ppm
€C, ppm
3x, ppm
3, ppm
32, ppm
dehydes, ppm
iphatics, ppm
c4-c.
efins, ppm
C2-C4
;etylene, ppm
zone, ppm
.rticulate, mg/m3
Exhaust
Nit
I*
NI
I
NI
I
NI
I
NI
I
NI
I
NI
I
NI
I
NI
I
NI
I
NI
I
No catalyst
Indolene
only
9.6/1
551
559
110
95
11.9
5.1
6.7
0.5
5.2
4.6
10.20
14.62
1.30
1.32
13.24
9.23
3.28
3.06
0.0
0.4
0.77
3.59
With catalyst
Indolene
only
8.7/1
46
41
22
22
12.9
12.6
11.1
9.6
1.8
3.0
0.08
0.10
0.61
0.58
0.89
0.79
0.03
0.03
_
—
1.08
1.23
Indolene
w/sulfur*
9.5/1
40
38
18
18
12.6
11.2
10.8
9.7
1.8
1.5
0.18
0.11
0.44
0.39
0.91
0.82
0.04
0.04
_
—
9.30
8.75
*Thiophene added to produce 0.10% by weight sulfur.
tNI = nonirradiated exhaust.
tl = irradiated exhaust.
loss in body weight was noted in the adult and
:kling animals. With a catalyst, there were no
anounced treatment effects on either of these
rameters.
Adult male outbred albino rats were exposed to
:h treatment atmosphere. Animals were re-
wed on days 2 through 6 of the study, anes-
rtized, and exsanguinated by abdominal aorta
:heterization. A treatment effect occurred only
the noncatalytic-treated exhaust exposure groups;
: more prominent changes occurred in the animals
posed to irradiated exhaust. The high car-
n monoxide levels had an effect on the hema-
ogic parameters but was not solely responsible.
) treatment effect was noted in studies with a
:alyst. Because of the historical association of
itinum with allergic responses, it was particularly
interesting to note no increased eosinophils in ani-
mals exposed to exhaust from the catalyst.
The oxidation catalyst did have an effect on the
type of particulate with an increase in the sulfuric
acid fraction. There were no demonstrable acute
biological effects in the animals studied that might
be attributable to the altered particulates. The study
did not rule out possible chronic effects due to
long-term exposure either as a result of increased
sulfate emissions or attrition products of the noble
metal oxidation catalyst. It is, therefore, imperative
that long-term studies be initiated to provide this
additional information.
Effect of Catalyst-Treated Exhaust Emissions and
Components on Development and Growth
Pregnant and newborn rats were subacutely ex-
posed to diluted catalyst-modified exhaust in two
29
-------
successive studies. The preliminary results did not
reveal clear-cut significant effects of the catalytic
exhaust on body weight or growth nor were gross
pre- or post-natal developmental defects demon-
strated. Thus far, only suggestive evidence of re-
duced infant survival was obtained in one study.
Additional contract studies to investigate embryo-
toxicology of individual pollutants, such as nickel,
palladium, and platinum sulfates, were initiated.
Effects of Exposure to Catalyst-Treated Exhaust
Emissions on Pulmonary Free Cells
Animals exposed to catalyst-treated automotive
exhaust were used to obtain lavage-recoverable pul-
monary cells, primarily macrophages. They were
examined for effects with respect to numbers, size,
and phagocytic function. In one study, average
values for total free-cell yield and the proportion of
phagocytic cells were comparatively lower in the
irradiated exhaust — exposed group than in con-
trols, whereas average cell size was slightly greater
in the exposed vs. control groups. Preliminary
evaluation of data from another study indicated a
reduction in means of the phagocytotic parameter
(the proportion of phagocytic cells, and quantity
phagocytized) for exposed animals when compared
with control groups, which was in qualitative agree-
ment with previous data; however, the cell popula-
tions, on the average, were somewhat increased and
the cell size was decreased.
Chemical Characterization and Biochemical Toxicity
of Organic and Inorganic Components of
Auto Exhaust
In the chemical characterization phase of this
project, exhaust sample collection methods were
evaluated and metal-binding properties of exhaust
condensate material, collected before and after a
catalytic converter, were studied. Exhaust samples
were found to have significant copper-binding
activity, the significance of which is being explored
in relation to interaction of exhaust components
with metals in biological systems. When the acetone
solvent trapping system was compared with the
cold-dry trapping system on the basis of copper-
binding activity per liter of exhaust sampled, it
appeared to be more efficient. Various approaches
for better assessment of the mass material balance
are being evaluated. An interesting observation was
made, however, using the cold-dry trapping system:
catalyst-treated exhaust material had greater copper-
binding capacity than the pre-catalytic exhaust
material. Collection data suggest the feasibility of
collecting and fractionating exhaust material for
future in vitro and in vivo biological tests to better
define the potential toxic significance of exhaust
pollutants. In in vitro studies of the effect of metal-
lic compounds on red blood cell aminolevulinic acid
dehydratase activity, copper (II) chloride and mer-
cury (II) chloride were 10 to 100 times less inhibi-
tory than bivalent lead ion. Platinum (II) potassium
chloride, platinum (IV) potassium chloride, pal-
ladium (II) chloride, and methyl mercury (II)
chloride were 100 to 1,000 times less active. Zinc
ion has been shown to activate aminolevulinic acid
dehydratase.
Effect of Exposure to Catalyst-Treated Automotive
Exhaust on Lung Microsomal Mixed Function
Oxidase En/yme Function
Because of possible implications with respect to
the ability of the organism to process and remove
complex inhaled organic materials by biodegradation,
or bioexcretion, or both, and their possible relation-
ship to carcinogenic risk, groups of hamsters were
experimentally exposed to irradiated and nonirradi-
ated exhaust modified by catalytic muffler and were
then evaluated for microsomal mixed function oxi-
dase activity. When the irradiated exhaust group
was compared with the controls, enzyme activity was
significantly depressed and lung:body-weight ratio
was increased. These parameters were not affected
in the nonirradiated exhaust group of animals.
Previous studies have shown that enzyme depres-
sion was of greater magnitude in subjects exposed
to exhaust atmospheres not modified by catalytic
emission control devices than in those exposed to
catalyst-treated exhaust. Although this enzyme sys-
tem is clearly altered by exhaust pollutants experi-
mentally, toxicologic interpretation with respect to
potential health hazard (carcinogenic or other) re-
quires further study.
Catalyst-Treated Automotive Exhaust Exposure and
Pulmonary Clearance of Particulate Material
Functional integrity of mechanisms by which in-
haled particulate material is cleared from the lungs
is extremely important to the well being of the
organism. An inert particulate material, titanium
dioxide, was used to evaluate clearance function in
groups of hamsters exposed to irradiated and non-
irradiated catalyst-modified auto exhaust. The test
challenge with the particulate was administered after
exposing the animals to the auto exhaust atmos-
pheres; and it was followed by serial periodic titan-
ium assay. The pattern of clearance of the test
material was altered at day 8: there was increased
clearance in the irradiated exhaust group when
compared with controls, but no increase in the noft-
irradiated group. The direction of effect was in
general agreement with earlier studies. The toxic
significance of this effect, beyond the possible recruit-
30
-------
ent of defensive clearance mechanisms by irritants,
mains to be clarified.
twig-Term Exposure to Automotive Emissions
The long-term auto exhaust and other atmos-
leric pollutants study in eight groups of experi-
ental animals is being concluded. During the past
:ar of the contract with the University of California,
avis, a final set of hematological and physiological
5ts were completed; other terminal studies in-
aded clinical chemistry analysis, pulmonary func-
>n measurements, completion of the cardiovascular
feet studies, and pathological tissue assessment.
le animals have been necropsied, and the gross
ithology and organ weight analysis were completed,
well as total lung collagen measurements. A
rge number of tissue specimens are being proc-
sed by the City of Hope National Medical Center
r lipid profile. Pulmonary tissues from selected
limals were examined by the Stanford Research
stitute by electromicroscopy. The pulmonary
orphometric and electron microscopic studies are
ntinuing at the University of California, Davis.
NGLE POLLUTANT STUDIES
jxicity Studies of Noble Metals
Platinum and palladium were incorporated into
e structure of catalysts used for control of mainly
ganic components of a toxic nature that are
esent in auto exhaust emissions. Consideration of
sse two noble metals for such use stimulated a
lewed interest of chemists in the physical and
emical properties of various compounds of plat-
im and palladium, and of toxicologists in the bio-
peal fate of their compounds. Recent studies in
s laboratory have identified traces of noble metals
the exhaust, although the composition of the
mpounds containing platinum and palladium has
t yet been determined. It became evident that
;re were large gaps in the data on the physical,
smical, and biological characteristics of these two
itals and that more information was needed in
ler to determine what impact these metals would
/e upon the environment.
A number of investigators have described the tox-
:y of the soluble platinum salts following industrial
josure. The term platinosis has been used to
icribe the respiratory and/or cutaneous reactions.
th the emission of platinum and palladium in the
laust, the lungs probably serve as the major portal
jntry for human exposure. Because very little in-
tnation is available concerning the biological fate
platinum and palladium following inhalation,
rent studies were undertaken to provide data on
ir whole body retention, tissue distribution, and
excretion following inhalation of different chemical
forms.
Generating Platinum and Palladium Aerosols and
Determining Them in Tissue Samples
Techniques of thermogravimetric analysis and
pyrolysis in an oxidative atmosphere were used to
generate aerosols of individual platinum and pal-
ladium compounds of controlled composition, con-
centration, and size for animal exposure studies.
Special handling of samples and modification of
standard analytical techniques for atomic absorption
spectrophotometric analysis were used to measure
trace amounts of platinum and palladium. The
atomic absorption method was used for both filter
samples of test atmospheres and for tissue specimens
taken from animals exposed to such atmospheres or
to tracheally instilled or ingested compounds of the
noble metals.
Inhalation studies or aerosol-type pollutants re-
quire particles of a respirable size, which represents
an aerodynamic size of no more than a 5-/x sphere
of unit density with a preferable average of about
!-/.<.. Since the densities of the required compounds
—sulfates, chlorides, and oxides—are relatively
high, the !-/«. aerodynamic size is equivalent to only
one-half or less micron in physical size. For each
aerosol generated, a nebulizer was used to produce
the dispersion of the compound from an aqueous
solution. Platinum sulfate, for example, was aerosol-
ized from a liquid of a specific concentration cal-
culated to yield final solid particles averaging !-/.<.
in diameter (aerodynamic size). The aqueous drop-
lets were passed through a drying tube, and the
dried particles were exposed to a radioactive ionizing
source to "neutralize" the charges on the particles.
By appropriate dilution with clean, dry air, the
aerosol was introduced into the animal exposure
chamber to render a final mass concentration of,
say, 7 mg/m3. Filter samples were taken to check
the mass concentration. Particle size was determined
by previous calibration. When radioactive isotopes
of the metals were used, a scanning count of the
filter provided an additional check on the concen-
tration of compound in the test atmosphere. Plat-
inum oxide aerosol was produced by nebulizing a
solution of platinum sulfate, drying the droplets in
a heating tube, pyrolyzing the solid particles at
600°C to produce the oxide. The oxide was then
directed to the animal exposure chamber through
a carbonate-coated tube that removed the acidic
gaseous components. Platinum metal aerosol was
produced from a starting solution of platinum
chloride that was treated by the same process as
the platinum sulfate mentioned above. An activated
carbon tube was used to remove the active gaseous
-------
components from the aerosol atmosphere entering
the exposure space.
Platinum and palladium in tissue specimens were
measured by atomic absorption spectrophotometry;
application of the nameless technique with the use
of a graphite furnace improved the detection level.
The analytical method involved a wet digestion
procedure that employed nitric acid, aqua regia, and
hydrochloric acid at different intervals during the
digestion procedure. The digested sample was
diluted with water before being introduced into the
graphite furnace. The furnace parameters, along
with the normal standard curves, recovery studies,
and detection limits, were investigated to render
optimum conditions for measurement of trace
amounts of two noble metals. Key points in the
quantitation of the platinum or palladium involved
(1) using aqua regia and sodium chloride to pro-
mote conversion of all the metal to the chloride
form in the wet digestion, (2) not permitting the
samples to go to dryness in the later stages of diges-
tion, and (3) using the graphite furnace to improve
detection by an order or two over the flame tech-
nique (lower limits of detection of total platinum
and total palladium in 1 g of tissue were 0.20 and
0.17 fig, respectively). Thus, a method was de-
veloped for routine analysis of platinum and pal-
ladium in tissue samples in the parts per billion
range.
Whole body retention of 191platinum in rats fol-
lowing a 30-min inhalation exposure to two differ-
ent platinum compounds is shown in Figure 26.
Tissues containing the highest concentrations in-
clude the lungs, kidney, and liver. The noble metals
are excreted in both urine and feces.
Cardiovascular and Pulmonary Studies
The use of the catalytic converter imposed the
need for more precise health effects data concerning
platinum and palladium than currently exists in the
literature. For this reason, we are examining the
acute toxicity of these heavy metals on cardiovas-
cular system in surgically prepared unanesthetized
rodents. Thus far, our findings have shown that
palladium (as PdSO4 solution), when given intra-
venously, routinely produced mild episodes of
cardiac arrhythmias in doses of 0.6 mg/kg body
weight in rats, whereas serious arrhythmias often
culminating in death were seen with a dose of 0.75
mg/kg body weight. Investigations involving lesser
doses as well as additional soluble palladium com-
pounds are underway. In addition, we have found
that pulmonary function of guinea pigs remained
unaltered during and following a 90-min exposure to
an atmosphere containing a platinum chloride aero-
sol of 1.1 mg/m3 with a 1-^ diameter particle size.
601-
S 50
UJ
* 40
Q.
S
< 30
i—
z
u_ ori
O 20
o
oc in
ui I u
Q_
INHALATION
EXPOSURE
8 12 16
DAYS
20
Figure 26. Whole body retention in rats following acute
inhalation exposure.
Neurophysiology and Behavior Studies
Neurophysiological and behavior experiments are
being utilized as a method of determining the poten*
tial toxicological effects of various environmental
pollutants on general and specific central nervous
system function. Studies using the rat visual evoked
potential as a rapid screen to assess the potential
neurotoxic effects of several heavy metals, which
might be released to the environment from mobile
or stationary sources, have been completed. Other
more quantitative techniques have been developed
by using computer averaging and frequency analysis,
which allows the assessment of the effects of environ-
mental pollutants on the spontaneous electroenceph-
alograms. Contracts on the effects of the heavy
metals on spinal cord reflexology have shown that
lead and other metals may lead to decreased trans-
mission between various types of spinal neurons.
In addition, other contractual behavior studies have
shown that lead exposure may result in a decreased
ability to discriminate. Studies such as these indi-
cate that environmental pollutants have long-last-
ing, subtle effects on central nervous system func-
tion. As a result, experimentation on these specific
neurophysiological and behavior effects of the
heavy metals is continuing to ascertain the precise
type of injury responsible for producing these effects.
Both these general and specific methods can be
applied to assess the neurotoxicity of any known or
-------
ipected toxicological agent or environmental
llutant.
:ute Lethal and In Vitro Toxicology of
Metallic Sulfates
An estimate of median lethal doses (LD50) of
•ee metallic sulfates administered intravenously
female rats was determined (as mg element/kg
dy weight, calculated on basis of the chemical
mpounds shown):
Compound
PdSO4
Pt(SO.,)2 . 4H2O
NiSO4 . 6H2O
Estimated LDK
1.1
2.2
2.4
Deaths occurred in most cases immediately upon
ection, and this pattern is consistent with the
ssibility of hemacoagulation phemomena occur-
ig. The latter were shown to occur in in vitro
periments with rat blood at concentrations as low
10 and 12 ,u,g/ml blood for platinum and pal-
lium, respectively.
:ute Lethal Toxicity and Protein Binding
Properties of Palladium and Platinum Compounds
Lethality determinations of palladium and plat-
am chlorides using various routes of administra-
>n in rats and rabbits are presented in Table 4.
otein binding properties of palladium and platinum
;re found to be greater than 99 % at all concentra-
ms tested up to 200 ^.g/ml.
TABLE 4. LETHALITY OF PALLADIUM
CHLORIDE COMPOUND IN RATS
Compound PI
PdCl,
PdCL
PdCl2
PdCI2
PdCl2
PdCl2
•K2PdCl4
(NH4)2PdCl4
Pmg/kgD5°
5
70
200
6
LD6o
mg/kg
3
123
6.4
5.6
Route
IV
IP
PO
IT
IV
IP
IV
IV
Effects of Metal Sulfates on Succinate-Dependent
Respiration In Vitro
The use of catalytic converters to control hydro-
carbons and carbon monoxide in the automobile
exhaust emissions resulted in an increased output of
sulfate(s). This, along with possible emissions of
noble metals (platinum and palladium) from the
converter prompted us to test comparative toxicity of
the various sulfates in an enzyme system. We tested
the effects of various sulfates such as cadmium,
palladium, manganese, magnesium, calcium, sodium,
and ammonium on the system. The results indicate
that the sulfate ion in tissue slices or in homogenate
did not affect the respiratory chain. However, among
the cations, cadmium ion appeared to be the most
potent inhibitor (Figure 27). Cadmium ion, a
known potent inhibitor of the mitochondrial res-
piratory chain was utilized in this experiment as a
reference toxicant. Cadmium sulfate was found to
be at least 5,000 times more toxic to the respiratory
chain than palladium sulfate in this particular sys-
tem. As expected, other cations such as cerium,
manganese, magnesium, calcium, and sodium ions
were not inhibitory at concentrations up to 10~3M,
but appear to have a slight stimulatory effect.
Intragastric administration of a single dose of cad-
mium sulfate, platinum sulfate, and palladium sul-
fate at 0.08 M mole/kg body weight, did not affect
succinate-dependent respiration in any of the organ
tissues tested (kidney, liver, heart, and lung).
80
^ 60
P
< 40
20
0
-oo -8
-1
Iog10 (MeS04)
Figure 27. Effect of cadmium sulfate and palladium sul-
fate on succinate dependent oxygen-uptake
in rat liver homogenate.
33
-------
binding of
heavy metal pollutant/ by
polyuronic acid/
Extracts of brown marine algae and pectates have
been used in the past to prevent intestinal absorption
of radiostrontium. Alginates and pectates are the
only polyuronates known to occur in nature; alginate
is present in brown seaweed and pectate is present
in higher plants (Figure 28). The use of alginates
as heavy metal binders in vivo has been studied by
a number of workers and has been extended to
metals other than radiostrontium, including cadmium
and lead. Similar studies with pectates were initiated
recently under a grant to Drs. S. Skoryna and Y.
Tanaka (McGill University) and supplemented
by in-house studies at ETRL.
Divalent metal ions (except magnesium) form an
insoluble gel in vitro with polyuronates and, in this
way, render the tested metal unabsorbable under
C02Na
•0
C02Na
\N-OH HO,
D-Mannuronate L-Guluronate
' Alginate 1
OH
D-Galacturonate
(Pectate)
Figure 28. Chemical form of alginate and pectate.
34
in vivo conditions. Based on this premise, it appears
that this type of ion-exchange reaction can be
applied to control the excessive intake of trace
elements in at least three situations: (1) at the
source of release of the effluent from an industrial
plant, (2) in cases of inadvertent pollution of water
or food chains, and (3) after inhalation of toxic
levels of metal particulate. The chemical process
describing the in vivo action of polyuronates is
shown in Figure 29, with mannuronate used as the
example.
M*Vair IvT/diet
[via
C02Na
L(
OH HO
M*Vblood Soluble
+2Na+
iWVtissues
Figure 29. In vivo reaction of polyuronates.
IN VIVO AND IN VITRO BINDING
EFFECTS OF POLYURONATES
Polyuronates have a potential use as a therapeutic
agent because of the two-way transport process
across the intestinal membrane. A nomenclature
model for this process was proposed by C. F. Code*
(Figure 30). He termed absorption to be the
situation when the insorption fraction from the gut
exceeds exsorption from the blood. Enterosorption
is described as excess of exsorption over insorption.
*C.F. Code, Persp. Biol. Med., 3:560, I960.
-------
Because of the "exsorption" process, the metals
which enter the body via other routes other than
oral may be partially removed by the binding proc-
ess in the gut. Although the in vitro ion-exchange
reactions of alginate with divalent metals have been
studied in some detail, no comparable studies on
pectates can be found in the literature. As a part
of the ETRL program, both on contract and in-
house, the binding capacity of pectates was investi-
gated to compare their metal-binding properties
with alginates.
INSORPTION
EXSORPTION
ABSORPTION = I NSORPTION> EXSORPTION
ENTEROSORPTION = INSORPTION Sr > Pb > Ni > Co > Zn > Mn > Ca > Cu > Ba
The positions of cadmium, strontium, and lead in
the pectate series showed the most effective bind-
ing rate in comparison to the alginate series, which
was as follows:
Pb > Cu > Cd > Ba > Sr > Ca > Co > Ni > Zn > Mn
Both compounds appeared to be quite effective for
the three metals (Cd, Pb, Sr).
However, in the case of other metals, the dif-
ferences observed between the alginate and pectate
series were somewhat unexpected. For example, the
pectate series showed a low binding capacity for
copper when compared with the high binding capac-
ity in the alginate series. Another significant dif-
ference is the position of calcium and barium.
The in vivo studies demonstrated that pectates
are capable of reducing significantly the intestinal
absorption of lead and cadmium. The results of
modified pectate compounds on stable lead in ligated
intestinal segments in situ are shown in Figure 31.
The data showed that the removal of lead could be
increased by increasing the ratio of sodium pectates
to lead in the diet. If the ratio of sodium pectate
to lead was 1:1, some 10-fold greater amount of
lead was found to be bound in the lumen of intestinal
segments as compared to controls; when the ratio
was 3:1, the difference was almost 20-fold.
0.9
s
cc
LU
0.7
§ 0.6
£
en
e 0.5
§ °'4
t-
? 0.3
Q.
e 0.2
0.1
Figure 31. Effects of pectates on intestinal absorption
of lead.
In another experiment, three groups of weanling
rats were placed on a special diet to which 5 mg/kg
of body weight of lead oxide (PbO) was added. One
of the groups also received 10% polyuronate in the
diet, another, similarly, 10% pectate. The result
of analysis of variance of the mean values after
2 wk of feeding showed that the positive control
group of animals had significantly higher mean
blood lead levels than the other two treatments
(p > 0.0001). No significant differences were shown
between the two additives (Figure 32).
Following a lethal dose of cadmium to rats
(80 mg/kg body weight), the mortality rate and
renal cadmium content were altered following oral
administration of alginates and pectates (Table 5).
In both experiments, the mortality rates in animals
fed the binding compounds were negligible when
compared with the controls; the cadmium renal
content was also much lower in the treated animals
than in controls.
-------
901—
80
70
Q
8 60
CO
1 50
o
o
£ 40
30
20
10
0
LU
Q
O
-Q
Q.
O
_Q
Q_
O
CC
O
O
.0
Q_
Figure 32. Effect of polyuronates and pectates on blood
levels of lead in weanling rats.
TABLE 5. EFFECTS OF ALGINATE AND
PECTATE ON MORTALITY RATE AND
RENAL CONTENT OF CADMIUM
Test
compound
Sodium
alginate
Sodium
pectate
Renal
Animal Mortality content of
group rate (%) cadmium (ug/g)
Experimental
Control
Experimental
Control
7
85
4
78
5.8
9.8
2.5
9.7
INDUSTRIAL APPLICATION OF
POLYURONATES
In addition to their in vivo applications as metal
binders in the intestinal tract, alginates and pectates
may be considered for treatment of industrial wastes
and recovery of trace metals, essentially by a simple
ion-exchange process. (In this case natural poly-
uronates would have some advantage over synthetic
resins, because of their specificity in the ion-exchange
reactions.) Alginates and pectates form insoluble
salts when they undergo ion-exchange reactions
with heavy metals (M) (Figure 33). Thus, the
reaction involves a change from homogenous to
heterogenous phase. In this way, the heavy metal
pollutants may be concentrated in the form of sedi-
ments; they, in turn, can be recovered from the
sediments simply by reversing the equilibrium with
alkali. While working on practical applications of
polyuronates, the studies were extended to testing of
polysaccharides containing half sulfate ester groups,
which also have the capability of binding certain
metals. It now appears that synthetic or semisyn-
thetic (modified natural products) metal binders can
be developed with high specificities for either in vivo
or in vitro applications. The synthetic or semisyn-
thetic metal binders may have even greater potential
industrial application than the natural binders.
C02Na
Soluble
Change of Phase
(HOMOGENEOUS-
Insoluble
•HETEROGENEOUS)
Figure 33c Ion exchange reactions of alginate.
ZONING THE BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS
OF METALS
In addition to applying these compounds to in-
dustrial and preventive use, the research effort
should be directed more towards determining how
various levels of ingestion of these metals relate
to their biological effects.
The literature does not have sufficient data on
most metal pollutants to propose definite zoning of
their biological effects with respect to species, age
groups, particular systems or functions, and inter-
actions with other metals at different levels. Figure
34 demonstrates, as an example, the classification of
biological effects of cadmium and zinc in mature
rats (in ppmX10:i). The biological effect zones
include deficiency level, physiological level, pharma-
cological level, toxicity zone, and lethal zone.
FOR THE FUTURE
Potentially this approach to zoning of biological
effects of metal pollutants represents a suitable
reference framework for investigations of health
effects, monitoring, and application of control tech-
36
-------
nology. Although presently such zone limits may
have to be set arbitrarily because of the inadequate
available data, the development for some approach
to standardization of reporting on metal pollution
of the environment and the related health effects is
urgently needed.
Lethal
dosage
rsevere
Toxicity
I—mild
Pharmacol
level
Physiological
level
I mild
Deficiency
L- severe_
.01
With respect to the potential preventive aspects of
the natural and synthetic binders, additional exten-
sive in vivo experiments are needed to determine
which of the polyuronate compounds are most
specific for the binding of particular metals.
.02 .04 .06.08 .1 .2 .4 .6 .8 1.0 2
G. I. Intake, ppm x 1(P (in rats)
Figure 34. Zoning of biological effects of trace elements.
6 8 10
e.t.r.l.
37
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Artl facial SeaUsed
DAILY SJ NEWS
NEW YORK'S PICTURE NEWSPAPER
Shore Record
lon.ght
Chonte of jhow
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Figure
Figure
Figure
Q_
S)
_, n . r
35. (top left) Test underway at OHIWSETT facility.
36. (top right) Foam plug for punctured containers.
37. (bottom left) Spray evaporator pilot plant for sulfuric acid
recovery.
38. (center right) Reclaimed surface mine. Dents Run Watershed,
West Virginia.
39. (entire page) OHMSETT dedication news coverage.
i.w.t.r.l.
-------
indu/triol uuo/te tr
The Industrial Waste Treatment Research Laboratory (IWTRL, with
staff and facilities in Edison and Leonardo, New Jersey; NERC Head-
quarters in Cincinnati; and Crown, West Virginia) is EPA's focal point
for research concerning the identification, characterization, control and
prevention of water pollution arising from the Nation's industrial
operations. The program is devoted to demonstrating useful technology
for the control of waste discharges from mining operations, the man-
agement of oil and hazardous material spills, and the reduction and
treatment of industrial effluents.
INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION CONTROL BRANCH fj)
Industrial pollution control efforts within NERC-Cincinnati are
focused on the development and pilot and full-scale demonstration of
technology for pollution abatement, including, where appropriate, proc-
ess modifications resulting in maximum water reuse and byproduct
recovery. The program includes nonferrous metals and metal finishing,
plastics and rubber, cement, glass, inorganic chemicals, and a diverse
group of chemical and related industries such as paints, drugs, photo-
graphic processing, etc. The expertise within the group continues to
be used extensively for technical advice by other EPA activities such as
Effluent Guidelines Division (Office for Water Planning and Standards)
and Office of Solid Waste Management Programs in developing stringent
but realistic standards. The industrial community benefits from the
group's knowledge through publications and participation in Technology
Transfer and other technical meetings. Several of the more significant proj-
ects directed toward the group's goals during 1974 are described below.
A pilot-plant system for the recovery of phosphoric acid from the
aluminum-contaminated acid generated during bright finishing of
aluminum has been developed and optimized. In the process, called
"acid retardation," phosphoric acid but not aluminum is retained by
strongly basic anion exchange resin. Regeneration of the resin requires
water only, and the sludges inherent in conventional treatment processes
are avoided. Cost, predicted to be significantly less than for alternative,
conventional routes would allow full recovery of investment in IVi yr.
A full-scale demonstration project has now been initiated.
A new electrolytic process suitable for either dilute chromic acid or
cyanide wastes has been evaluated on a full scale in an operating plating
shop. A novel bed of carbon particles between electrodes overcomes
the high power requirements usually required for the hydrolysis of dilute
wastes. Although highly effective in removing hexavalent chromium
(to < 0.05 ppm) from rinsewaters, the process is more sensitive to the
nature of metal complexes present in cyanide wastes and, consequently,
requires more complete evaluation before installation. Treatment chem-
ical needs and sludge generation are drastically reduced compared with
39
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conventional reduction of hexavalent chromium or
oxidation of cyanide and precipitation of metals.
The removal of copper from brass mill waste-
waters by cementation with scrap iron has been
evaluated on a bench scale and found to be very
promising and highly economical. Copper removals
of 99 + % were achievable, and residual hexavalent
chromium from pickling was totally eliminated (as
Cr+3). In addition, the copper is recoverable as a
metallic flake, thereby reducing consumption of
virgin ore and eliminating the need to dispose of
copper sludges. Preliminary cost estimates indi-
cate that the process could save $40,000 annually
for a plant manufacturing 22,000 tons/yr of copper
products. A full demonstration is anticipated in the
near future to confirm the technical feasibility and
economics.
A method has now been demonstrated by which
a substantial increase in throughput or reduction
in energy requirements or equipment size of vertical
tube evaporators (VTE) can be achieved. Tests
with a cooling water blowdown, a boiler blowdown,
and an electroplating rinsewater have shown that
the addition of low concentrations of certain sur-
factants to the wastewater increases VTE overall
heat transfer coefficients approximately 100%, and
causes a desirable reduction in pressure drop and
a retardation of salt nucleation (Figure 40). Broad
interest in the concept has led to a followup grant
by the Utilities Industries Research Branch (NERC-
Corvallis).
A pilot plant system for reclaiming the waste
sulfuric acid generated during the manufacture of
titanium dioxide pigment has been evaluated. Ap-
proximately 87% of the available acid was recover-
able by a spray evaporation technique as 85%
acid suitable for reuse in ore digestion. Extrapola-
tion of the 2 tons/day pilot plant to commercial
size (165 tons/day) gives an anticipated cost of
$48/ton of reclaimed 100% acid, which is com-
parable to the cost of virgin acid PLUS those dis-
posal costs expected in the near future. It should
be noted, however, that the process is highly
energy dependent and that no acceptable disposal
or recovery route has yet been developed for the
recovered metallic salts. (See color plate, Figure 37).
State-of-the-art surveys of the inorganic gases,
commercial and military explosives, and plastics
industries are nearing completion. These reports,
documenting pollution sources and characteristics
Hlk.
Figure 40. Modified foaming vertical tube evaporator.
40
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and describing current water management and waste
treatment processes, will be used in establishing the
objectives of the program for pollution control re-
search and development. In addition, they serve as
valuable "pathfinder" studies for the development
of industrial effluent standards.
HAZARDOUS MATERIALS SPILL RESEARCH
During 1974, the Hazardous Materials Spill
Branch continued its broad-based program to de-
velop equipment, techniques, and total systems
for preventing, detecting and identifying, controlling,
removing, and treating accidental discharges of
diverse hazardous substances into the Nation's
water environment. Such spills may react with
water, float, emulsify, or sink and may be of im-
mediate or long-term danger to man and his environ-
ment.
Typical of the activities of this branch was the
use of the 1.3-1/sec (200-gpm) physical chemical
treatment system developed under contract last year
and used in the cleanup of creosote settled in the
Little Menomonee River (Wisconsin). Subsequently,
the unit was modified somewhat and placed on
standby for use in other actual spill incidents. Within
weeks, it was required for a herbicide (dinitrobutyl-
phenol) spill in Clarksburg, New Jersey. During a
10-day period of continuous operation, the unit
operated outstandingly and treated over 11,400 nr
(3 million gal) of contaminated lake water. The
DNBP concentration was reduced from 0.4 ppm
to < 0.02 ppb, and the total cost of the operation
was approximately $40,000.
The 2nd National Conference on the Control of
Hazardous Material Spills, held in San Francisco,
attracted almost twice as many papers as the 1972
Conference and was attended by over 600 persons
representing the Federal, State, and municipal
governments; industry; academia; and foreign
countries.
Although technology exists for the proper design
of earthen dikes used for storage of industrial
wastes, improperly designed or constructed dikes
fail with alarming frequency and often with dis-
astrous consequences, such as at Buffalo Creek,
West Virginia, in 1972. An acoustic-emission device
has now been developed to assess the stability of
such lagoon embankments (Figure 41). Metal rods
inserted into the earthen dams pick up acoustical
emissions caused by stress releases from inter-
particle (sand) and cohesive bond breaking (clay).
The sounds are converted to a measurable electrical
signal that can be associated with stress release and,
thus, with dike stability during the filling or emptying
of the lagoon. Marginally stable dikes almost con-
Figure 41. Acoustic sensing system for dam stability.
stantly generate characteristic acoustical emissions,
even at constant liquid levels. The system, simple
and rugged in design, can be used to rate the integ-
rity of dams both periodically in a preventive anal-
ysis program and when stress is applied (e.g., heavy
rains). This technique, which has received a wide
press and elicited over 200 inquiries, is being
evaluated by the U.S. Department of Agriculture at
earthen dams in Nebraska and Pennsylvania and by
Bethlehem Steel Company on iron ore storage piles
at Sparrows Point, Maryland.
As part of a model contingency plan, preventive
measures are being assessed in a 115-mVday
(30,000-gpd) pilot plant to prevent spilled haz-
ardous materials and industrial wastes from enter-
ing the interceptor system of a municipal secondary
sewage treatment plant. The pilot plant closely
models the 570,000-m3/day (150-mgd) municipal
plant where the concepts would be applied.
Transfer-line ruptures and tank overfilling have
been identified as major sources of hazardous ma-
terial spills. Contracts are now underway to develop
practical, low-cost systems to automatically shut
down transfer operations in an aniline plant if
ruptures or severe leaks occur and to test improved
fluid-level gauges in various organic chemical facili-
ties.
The quantities of absorbent required and efficiency
of pickup of both freefloating and "tea-bag"-con-
tained mass-transfer media (activated carbon) are
being evaluated in a flowing but captive stream
(Figure 42). The model stream was created by
41
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Figure 42. Captive stream for hazardous spill testing.
modifying an- abandoned mile-long drainage canal
at the AEC's Hanford site. A sluice gate allows
artificially contaminated water stored in the upper
460 m (1,500 ft) of the canal (PVC-lined) to enter
a 760-m (2,500 ft) channel, which serves as the
testing stream. After experimental treatment, the
water is collected in a large PVC-lined sump at the
end of the channel for further treatment, as neces-
sary, before discharge.
The 16-1/sec (250-gpm) trailer-mounted dynamic
reactor (Dynactor)/magnetic separator, complete
with high-rate clarifiers, is approximately 50% com-
plete. In operation, the unit will convert contami-
nated wastewater to a fine mist that rapidly "reacts"
with powdered carbon. The loaded carbon is then
removed and the treated water discharged.
A pallet-mounted, battery-operated pump and a
furled 26.5-m3 (7,000-gal) plastic collection bag
system has been developed and demonstrated for the
collection and temporary storage of spilled hazard-
ous liquids. The complete package, including 30 m
(100 ft) of heavy duty suction hose stands about
0.9 m (3 ft) high on a 1.2-m by 1.2-m base
(3 x 4 x 4 ft), weighs about 450 kg (1,000 Ib)
and is easily transportable in a pickup truck (Figure
43). An improved version, which will include an
explosion-proof diesel generator, a collection bag of
superior chemical resistance, and an improved
method for transferring the fluid from the bag to
another container, is now being fabricated for
42
Figure 43. Portable spill containment system.
evaluation in conjunction with the backpack foam-
generation system developed under an earlier con-
tract for diking spilled hazardous substances.
A contract has been awarded for optimizing the
formulation of a universal gelling agent and for de-
veloping a flexible dispensing system capable of
applying one or more of the five component gelling
agents, depending on the nature of the spill. Thus,
the system will be applicable to situations where the
spilled material is unidentified as well as those where
its nature has been established.
Major improvements have been made in the one-
man-operable, foamed-in-place plastic plug for con-
trolling leaks from punctured containers. In the
modified system the urethane foam is injected into an
open-pore sponge enclosed in a tear-resistant rubber
envelope. The envelope is forced partially through
the rupture into the container to form a seal on
both sides of the rupture and to add structural
rigidity to the plug. (See color plate, Figure 36.)
Through an interagency agreement with Edge-
wood Arsenal, an off-the-shelf, hand-carried kit is
being adapted for locating and tracking spill plumes
in watercourses. A movable, instream spill sensor
and warning system is also being developed under
contract to aid in cleanup operations in the field.
MINING POLLUTION CONTROL
Current energy difficulties are an added impetus
for developing and demonstrating improved tech-
nology to prevent and abate water pollution caused
by increasing mineral extraction and mining (coal)
activities and for assessing environmentally sound
mining methods for new mines. Efforts within this
program are directed toward problems of acid mine
drainage, sediment-bearing runoff, and spoil stabili-
zation from active and abandoned surface and
underground coal mines; unidentified problems of
the oil shale and geothermal energy industries that
may be about to develop; and the water pollution
from uranium mining and processing.
-------
The reclamation of 41 ha (102 acres) of surface
mines in the Dents Run Watershed near Morgan-
town, West Virginia, was completed. (See color
plate, Figure 38.) Before this demonstration project,
these mines were catching runoff water and direct-
ing it into an underground mine where the water
then flushed out acid mine drainage. The post-
demonstration monitoring of the reclamation site,
scheduled to be completed in 1975, is expected to
show the reduction and eventual elimination of the
acid discharges resulting from reduction of the in-
flow. Several other reclamation projects, each with
its own unique problems, are also underway in co-
operation with several different State agencies.
The Crown Field Site pilot plant in West Virginia
is now complete and in operation. Studies are
underway on the treatment of acid mine drainage by
reverse osmosis, ion exchange, and neutralization
with lime and limestone. In addition, a lagoon,
sludge drying beds, and a spray irrigation system are
available and are being used to evaluate methods
for disposing of treatment process wastes.
Laboratory and field studies have been conducted
to determine the technical feasibility and economics
of removing ferrous iron from acid mine drainage
by an electrolytic oxidation process (Figure 44).
A bed of conductive particles is employed between
the cathode and the anode of the cell to increase
electrical conductivity. Although approximately
86% of the iron could be converted to the ferric
state, the process was found to be more costly than
conventional aeration schemes.
Ozone and hypochlorite were evaluated in the
laboratory for the removal of manganese from acid
mine drainage. Although both agents effectively
oxidized manganese to manganese dioxide, which
precipitated, cost analysis indicated that the hypo-
chlorite would probably be more economical for
low manganese concentrations and low flows and
that ozone was more economical at the higher con-
centrations and flows.
Bulkhead seals are considered one of the most
promising methods for controlling acid mine drain-
age discharges from abandoned underground mines.
The seal in the mine opening causes the mine to
flood, thereby excluding air and preventing further
production of acid. The major drawback to date
has been the cost of the seal. In an attempt to
reduce the cost, a self-sealing limestone seal is under
investigation. Fine limestone is placed in the mine
opening; as the acid mine drainage flows through
the limestone, it is neutralized to form calcium sul-
fate and iron hydroxide, which plug the interstitial
gaps. Based on a laboratory study that defined
limestone particle size, type, and density for optimum
Figure 44. Electrochemical treatment of acid mine drainage.
43
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seal strength, three seals are now being constructed
at an abandoned mine for field evaluation.
A comprehensive review of the status of surface
coal mining in both eastern and western United
States, "Surface Mining of Coal," has been pre-
pared. The damage to land and waterways caused
by surface mining and techniques that can help to
minimize these adverse effects, including revegetation
and reclamation, are discussed. Areas requiring fur-
ther research and development are also highlighted.
OIL SPILL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY
Activity in the area of oil spills is directed toward
the detection and identification, containment, and
removal of oil and related petroleum products
accidentally discharged to inland and coastal
waterways. The EPA must play a major role in
developing the technology and hardware to combat
increasingly frequent environmental insults from acci-
dental spills during the production and transporta-
tion of petroleum products as the Nation's energy
needs expand over the coming years.
At Leonardo, New Jersey, the Oil and Hazardous
Materials Simulated Environmental Test Tank
(OHMSETT), a $3 million facility for developing
and modifying, testing, and evaluating spill cleanup
methods and equipment, has now been transferred
from the construction contractor to the IWTRL.
(See color plate, Figure 39.) This tank (200 m
long, 20 m wide, and 3.4 m deep; 670 x 65 x 11 ft)
can simulate various inland and protected fresh or
estuarine water environments such as those in which
a large portion of all spills occur. Waves up to 0.6 m
(2 ft) high and 15m (50 ft) long can be generated,
and full-scale test equipment can be towed at speeds
corresponding to currents up to 6 knots. An adja-
cent quality control laboratory, occupying 93 m-
(1,000 ft-), will furnish all necessary support serv-
ice. (See color plate. Figure 35.)
Careful design has resulted in an environmentally
safe facility incorporating blind sumps for drain-
age, an overflow weir, equalization tanks, a coalescer,
and a diatomaceous earth filter to ensure that the
water discharged will meet all State and Federal
standards.
Although intended primarily for in-house use in
developing technology for oil and hazardous material
spill control, the unparalleled facilities of OHMSETT
will also be used by other agencies such as the U.S.
Coast Guard and the Navy to evaluate commercial
and prototype equipment for their needs. Rental
funds from these and other users will help defray
EPA operating cost.
Development of containment devices capable of
operating in water having velocities greater than
2.5 knots continues to be a high-priority activity.
A streamlined, air-foil-shaped boom capable of
recovering 65% of the oil encountered in a water
body flowing at 3 knots is presently being evaluated.
The contractor is carrying out water channel studies
in order to modify the boom profile so that collec-
tion efficiency at 3 knots can be improved. A full-
scale unit will subsequently be fabricated and tested
at OHMSETT.
The Dynamic Inclined Plane (DIP) skimmer con-
cept developed under contract for the Oil Spill
Branch by JBF Scientific Corporation (JBF 4001)
has now been adapted to and successfully tested in
the open sea under an American Petroleum Institute
contract. Although EPA no longer finances this
work, our interest continues because the skimmer
culminates a successful concept development spon-
sored by this Laboratory.
A perforated, inclined plate boom developed by
the Shell Oil Company is being evaluated at
OHMSETT (Figure 45). The device has demon-
strated a collection efficiency of 85% with a 2-mm
slick of No. 2 fuel oil at a simulated current of 2.9
knots. Conventional booms would be able to con-
tain only approximately 50% of the oil under
comparable conditions and would exhibit severe
deterioration in efficiency as the current increases.
Figure 45. Inclined plate oil spill boom.
The capability for removing isolated oil must keep
pace with containment technology. To date, these
efforts have been restricted to the shoreline and
piers where necessary land-based support was avail-
able. A high-speed skimmer capable of operating
independently in open water is now being developed
under contract. In this unit, a direct air jet separates
and lifts the oil slick from the water as a fine oil/
water mist that impinges on a continuous polyure-
thane foam collection belt where oil is preferentially
44
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absorbed. The foam belt is then squeezed to remove
the entrained oil and residual water. In tests that
employed IWTRL's 30-m-long (100-ft) indoor tank,
a prototype unit exhibited an oil removal efficiency
of 65% on a single pass. Upon completion of the
prototype testing, the unit will be modified as neces-
sary and subjected to more severe and more realistic
testing at the OHMSETT facility.
A high-speed, thin-film recovery device using an
"air sweep" principle is also under evaluation. With
this concept, an air blast is directed at the water
surface to create a surface current in the water
that can be controlled to move oil film into thickened
"ribbons" or windrows. Tests in IWTRL's 30-m
(100-ft) indoor test tank have shown the prototype
unit capable of removing 75% to 80% of the oil
encountered as a 1-mm slick while moving at a
speed of 4 knots. Tests are planned at OHMSETT
to develop and modify the device to its design
potential of 6 knots. The U.S. Coast Guard has
contracted to develop a Seagoing Skimmer using
the same "air sweep" principle.
Part of the problem of preventing and controlling
oil spills lies in detecting and identifying spills so
that sources may be isolated and, where necessary,
appropriate enforcement action initiated. The oil
spill control program has been actively seeking new
methods for characterizing aged oil and quantitat-
ing oil in fresh and saline water. An infrared
spectophotometric method has been developed in-
house for the quantitative determination of low con-
centrations of oil dispersed in water. This method,
which uses a Freon or carbon tetrachloride as the
extractant, is accurate to the 50-ppb range that
might be experienced in brine discharges from an
off-shore oil producing platform. The procedure has
been submitted to the Methods Development and
Quality Assurance Laboratory for inclusion in the
EPA Methods Manual.
Off-shore oil production can be expected to grow
rapidly as the United States strives for energy inde-
pendence. A major technical assistance program
was undertaken by the staff of the Oil Spill Control
Branch for the Division of Oil and Special Materials,
Region VI, and Region X. The group's expert assist-
ance, including field trips to some 30 operating
drilling rigs off the coast of California, Alaska, and
in the Gulf of Mexico, has been invaluable in
assessing the proper design and operation of
exemplary oil/water separation facilities and in
identifying the causes and potential effects of dis-
ruptions in normal operation. Members of the
Branch will continue to advise Regions VI and X
until final permits on such off-shore oil platforms
have been issued.
In a recently completed contract study of waste
oil volumes and sources, recycle methods, and their
environmental impact, it was estimated that 9.5
million m3 (2.6 billion gal) of waste oil are gen-
erated annually in the United States. Only a rela-
tively small quantity is re-refined and reused as
lubricating oil. Most finds its way into the environ-
ment through its use in road oiling, in dust control,
or as a fuel, or it is disposed of to landfills and
dumps. Disposal of oily sludges from wastewater
treatment is, a major industrial problem. These
methods endanger our environment; oil leaches to
surrounding land and waterbodies or contaminates
the air with lead when burned as a fuel. The report
recommends development of a technically and en-
vironmentally acceptable oil recycling industry and
expresses the opinion that the commonly used acid
clay re-refining process cannot meet this need because
of cost and its own unacceptable waste products.
A study for EPA by Maryland's Environmental
Service similarly recommended an expanded waste
oil reclamation program and estimated that costs
would vary from $3 million for plants treating
28,000 mVyr (7.3 million gal/yr) to $7.5 million
for those treating 114,000 m3/yr (30 million
gal/yr).
Personnel in IWTRL's oil spill program con-
tributed major sections on the generation of waste
oil, re-refining technology, collection, disposal, and
reuse as fuel to the report to Congress entitled
"Waste Oil Study," which was required under Sec-
tion 104(m) of the Water Pollution Control Act
of 1972 (PL 92-500).
45
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u/eof
coal mine refu/e and
flya/fia/a
road ba/e material
Two coal-related waste products, fly ash and
coal mine refuse, were tested as road base material
at the Agency's Crown Mine Drainage Control Field
Site near Morgantown, West Virginia.
The emphasis of the study was to determine the
suitability of these two waste products as a useful
road base material in lieu of their being an environ-
mental detriment. In addition, an evaluation was
made to determine if water percolating through the
base material would leach undesirable material and
become a pollution problem. The refuse consists
largely of shale, pyritic material, and some coal,
all of which are removed from the raw coal during
the washing process. The fly ash is the waste prod-
uct from coal-fired power plants.
DESIGN OF TEST
In the road base material, the coal mine refuse
(CMR) served as the load-bearing aggregate. Fly
ash (FA) was used to fill the voids between the
refuse to increase stability and, because of its alka-
line nature, to neutralize any acidity produced from
the pyritic refuse material. Lime was added to
assure alkaline conditions and to reduce porosity.
The construction area (Figure 46) was divided
into three segments to investigate different base-
course mixtures. Area 1, covering 86 m2 (920 yd2),
was the largest of the three and, as the main entrance
and parking area, was subject to the heaviest traffic.
The base course for Area 1 (Figure 47) was com-
posed of a 30.5-cm-deep (12-in) mixture of 75%
CMR and 25% FA. The materials were mixed
with an end-loader before placement and placed
in two 15-cm (6-in) lifts. A three-wheeled steel
roller compacted the mixture.
Area 2, with an area of 21 m2 (220 yd2) was
smaller than Area 1 and subject to less traffic.
The base was placed in two lifts (Figure 48).
The first 15.2-cm (6-in) lift was the same mixture
used in Area 1 (75% CMR and 25% FA). For the
top 15.2-cm (6-in) lift, 5% of lime (by weight)
was mixed with the CMR-FA mixture by repeated
passes with a road grader (Figure 47). The lime
addition was made to offset possible acid production
of the refuse. Weight calculations were based on
CMR-FA density measured during construction.
Typical density values were around 1920 kg/m3
(120 lb/ft3). At 5% by weight, the lime require-
ment for Area 2 was approximately 2720 kg (6000
Ib). Adequate inplace mixing of the lime with the
CMR-FA mixture was difficult because the lime
flowed like water in front of the grader blade.
Mixing the constituents before placement of the
base would avoid the problem.
Area 3 was the same size as Area 2 but was
subject to the least traffic. The base course for
Area 3 consisted solely of 38.1 cm (15 in) of coal
mine refuse placed in two lifts (Figure 47).
All three areas received the same surface treat-
ment based on West Virginia Department of High-
ways (DOH) recommendations. A two-wheeled
steel roller compacted 7.6 cm (3 in) of base course
asphalt with a 2.5-cm (1-in) wearing course of
asphalt (Figures 49 and 50).
COST
The fly ash and refuse were provided to the
contractor at no charge; thus, the only expense
to the contractor was transportation from the source
to the site. The cost of each treated area was not
determined. Average cost of the pavement was
$10.92 m2 ($9.13/yd2).
SAMPLE COLLECTING
A drainage monitoring system was installed
between the base course and the subgrade (Figure
51). The drainage monitors were 6.4-m (21-ft)
joints of 3.8-cm (IVi-in) perforated PVC pipe laid
46
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DRYING
BEDS
AERATION
POOL
AREA1
- CATCH BASIN
Figure 46. Crown Field Site — road base study.
A)
tc,-a'... -jo-
B)
C)
-2.5 cm (1 in.) WVA DOH Wearing II
-7.5 cm (3 in.) WVA DOH Base I
*;. -30 cm (12 in.) FA 4 CMR (25:75)
77 -COMPACTED SUBGRADE
AREA 2
^\\\'\\-. o
.0 ; >...«i-£?«; ?
<=>..& ..oi^'.O'-. •
AREAS
^\\\\^\s\\S^\v\\'^\'
•o ••«»-. 'O.o-: 6'
•••'o°' ° ' :a° a
':.• °'-^:.-j0:?a
-2.5 cm (1 in.) WVA DOH Wearing II
-7.5 cm (3 in.) WVA DOH Base I
-15 cm (6 in.) Lime:FA:CMR(5:25:75)
-15 cm (6 in.) FA:CMR(25:75)
—COMPACTED SUBGRADE
-2.5 cm (1 in.) WVA DOH Wearing II
^-7.5 cm (3 in.) WVA DOH Base I
°-38 cm (15 in.) CMR
-COMPACTED SUBGRADE
Figure 47. Cross sections of experimental road bases.
Figure 48. Placing the CMR-FA material (Area 2).
Figure 49. Blacktopping compacted base
(Area 2).
47
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Figure 50. Finished project area.
on 6-mil polyethlene plastic sheeting. The base
course was carefully placed over the pipes. Dis-
charges from the pipes drained into catch basins and
were collected in plastic containers (Figure 52).
Samples were generally collected on a weekly basis
during the early part of the study. No problems were
encountered with excessive volumes of leachate dur-
ing heavy rains.
RESULTS AFTER 1 YEAR
Field compaction of the base materials was satis-
factory; the density of the inplace materials exceeded
the laboratory design values.
The quality of the effluents from Areas 1 and 2
seems inoffensive at present. The effluents are char-
acteristically neutral or slightly alkaline and have
minimal concentrations of aluminum, boron, iron,
and sulfate.
The quality of the effluents from Area 3, where
the base material is entirely coal mine refuse, has
deteriorated. The pH value of the effluent has
dropped from 7 to near 3, and acidity has increased
to over 3000 mg/1 (Figure 53). The aluminum,
iron, boron, and sulfate concentrations are rapidly
increasing (Figure 54).
CONCLUSIONS
The leachate from the mixtures of refuse and
fly ash and of refuse and fly ash plus lime did not
constitute an environmental problem during the
first 10 mo following construction. Monitoring will
be continued over the next few years to determine
if this trend continues.
The coal refuse material alone produced an unde-
sirable discharge and, based upon this study, would
not be an environmentally acceptable road base.
After 10 mo, the structural characteristics of
the base materials were satisfactory for use in
specific situations where its applicability must be
determined on an individual-case basis (e.g., such
factors as design loading, traffic characteristics,
drainage, frost effects, etc., must be considered).
48
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~ - _
WEAR COURSE
BASE COURSE
1-1/2"
PERFORATED
PLASTIC
PIPE
SUBGRADE
6-mil PLASTIC SHEETING
TO
SAMPLE
COLLECTION
Figure 52. Drainage monitoring system.
Figure 51. Placement of drainage monitoring system.
10*
103
O)
Q
u
10
(3200)
1 23
I73 < I > '
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
1973 •*-!-*• 1974
TIME (months from 10/4/73)
Figure 53. Acidity in Area 3 leachate.
100
10
D3
I
o
§
1.0
0.10
.01
(160) (520)
Aluminum
(400)
01 23456
1973 •*—r-^1974
7 8
TIME, months (start 10/4/73)
Figure 54. Pollutant trends in Area 3 leachate.
f.w.t.r.l.
49
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Figure 55.
(top right) Sampling for salmonella in
the Ohio River.
Figure 56.
(center left) Collection of sediments
to be used for preparing quality con-
trol samples.
Figure 57.
(bottom left) Selective plating media
for salmonella recovery.
Figure 58.
(bottom right) Performing membrane
filter tests on chlorinated effluents.
CROITH COMPARISON Salmonella
ententidis
m.d.q.o.r.l.
-------
method/ develop/7)
The activities of the Methods Development and Quality Assurance
Research Laboratory (MDQARL) are concerned with selecting, de-
veloping, and evaluating methods for the analysis of water and waste-
waters, and with developing quality assurance systems for laboratory
control. The research includes physical, chemical, biological methods
involving viruses, bacteria, algae, and aquatic macroinvertebrates and
radiological and instrumental monitoring. Quality assurance aspects and
the evaluation of laboratory performance are an important part of
the activity.
Methods are published and made available to all EPA laboratories,
States, universities, industries, and private laboratories reporting water
and waste data for the National Pollution Discharge Elimination System
(NPDES). Standard methodology is provided for monitoring systems,
contract and grant projects, and enforcement actions. Coordination and
participation in methods selection in the private sector is practiced
through committee representations with organizations publishing Stand-
ard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewaters (Standard
Methods) and American Society for Testing Materials Methods
(ASTM). As a result, duplication is eliminated and methodology
adopted is more uniform.
Quality assurance begins with the selection of the method. Methods
are validated through interlaboratory studies. The laboratory supplies
reference samples for analyses to test performance and provides quality
control guidelines for laboratory operations. Systems for evaluating
water and waste laboratories are developed through grants and contracts.
PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL METHODS DEVELOPMENT
The physics and chemistry studies of MDQARL are subdivided into
three functional areas, each with specific assignments for analytical
methods development in a particular area of expertise: general inorganic
analyses including trace metals; organic analyses such as pesticides,
oil identification, and other trace organics; and advanced instrumentation.
Inorganic Analyses
Compliance monitoring of point-source discharges, as required by
NPDES, has accelerated the need for simple, reliable pollutant-detec-
tion methods that can be used for all types of water and waste systems
at the part-per-billion level. Studies have been completed on such a
method for nitrates. Essentially, a filtered sample is passed through a
column containing granulated copper-cadmium to reduce nitrate to
nitrite. The nitrite (originally present plus reduced nitrate) is deter-
mined by diazotizing with sulfanilamide and coupling with N-(l-naph-
thyl ) -ethylenediamine dihydrochloride to form a highly colored azo dye,
which is measured spectrophotometrically. Separate, rather than com-
bined, nitrate-nitrite values are readily obtained by carrying out the
51
ft*
*]/
-------
procedure first with, and then without, the initial
copper-cadmium reduction step. Interference from
metals is eliminated with the use of disodium
ethylenediamine tetraacetate; oil and grease are
removed by acid extraction with Freon. The sensi-
tivity of the method is 0.01 mg NO3-N/1 with a
working range of 0.01 to 1.0 mg N/l.
Studies to improve the analytical methods for
determining cyanide and compounds of cyanide were
another area of concentration in 1974. An im-
proved method for total cyanide and a new method
for cyanides amenable to chlorination were prepared
for EPA's 1974 edition of Manual of Methods for
Chemical Analysis of Water and Wastes. A third
procedure utilizing a cyanide-selective ion electrode
was prepared for use in a method evaluation study
and for possible approval as an optional method for
determining total cyanide after distillation.
ASTM methods for determining bromide, iodide,
and sulfite have been evaluated using a variety of
waste effluents. Interferences have been identified
and modifications made to improve the procedures.
Single-operator precision and accuracy have been
obtained.
In the area of trace metal analyses, single-operator
precision and accuracy data were obtained for
beryllium, thallium, antimony, nickel, cobalt,
molybdenum, tin, vanadium, titanium, and barium
in a mixed domestic/industrial effluent using con-
ventional atomic absorption (AA) techniques. These
data are included in the Manual of Methods for
Chemical Analysis of Water and Wastes. Investi-
gations on the use of the heated graphite atomizer
(HGA) in conjunction with A A analyses are con-
tinuing. The system is capable of measuring total
concentrations of a variety of metals at extremely
low levels with little or no sample pretreatment.
Using a programmed sequence, a liquid sample is
dried, charred, and subsequently atomized.
Because of the difficulties of measuring selenium
with the use of other analytical techniques, a method
using the HGA has been developed and is currently
being evaluated on a variety of industrial wastes,
domestic/industrial effluents, sludges, sediments, and
surface and well waters. The selenium is solubilized
by a nitric acid — hydrogen peroxide digestion.
Nickel nitrate is added and a representative aliquot
is pipetted into the furnace for complete ashing and
formation of nickel selenide, a stable compound,
which allows the use of a high charring temperature
(1500°C) for the removal of many interferring sub-
stances. Preliminary data using this technique sug-
gest that a detection limit of 1 fig selenium/1 in tap
water is easily achieved. With the use of method
of standard additions, the apparent detection limit
in industrial effluents is 5 /Ag/1. The full applicability
of this method will not be known until the current
evaluation has been completed.
Organic Analyses
To meet the Agency's needs for analytical
methods to detect and quantify toxic and hazardous
organic compounds in industrial effluents, receiv-
ing waters, and the water-related environment, a
continuing program for development and application
of new methods and the updating of existing methods
is maintained by our Organic Analyses Section.
Investigation of methods for quantification of oil
and grease and for characterization of petroleum
oils continued.
Volatile Organic Compounds
Development of a new method for isolation and
determination of volatile organic compounds has
been completed and is the subject of a NERC-
Cincinnati report. Compounds that are relatively
insoluble in water are purged from the sample by an
inert gas. The volatile organics are quantitatively
transferred to the gaseous phase and adsorbed onto
an inert trap. The trap is then inserted into a gas
chromatograph and the adsorbed organics are eluted
and determined by programmed temperature gas
chromatography. The sensitivity of the method
using 5 ml of sample is 0.5 /xg/1 for many com-
pounds. The sensitivity can be improved by scaling
up the sample size and trapping system. The method
is useful over a concentration range of 0.5 to
2500 Mg/l.
Some specific compounds detected in water and
wastewater using this technique are: methylene
chloride, ethyl alcohol, chloroform, bromodi-
chloromethane, dibromochloromethane, carbon disul-
fide, 1,1,1 -trichloroethane, 1,1,2-trichloroethylene,
1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethylene, dichlorobenzene, and
trichlorobenzene. The identity of all these com-
pounds was verified by gas chromatography — mass
spectrometry (GC/MS).
Vinyl Chloride
The purging and trapping technique described
above has been applied to the determination of vinyl
chloride in water. With the use of proper sample
collection and standard preparation techniques,
quantitative determination of vinyl chloride is pos-
sible. The method is being prepared for publica-
tion.
Benzidine
Several methods for the determination of benzidine
and its salts have been evaluated. The chloramine-T
oxidation method, modified to provide improved
selectivity sensitivity, is now recommended for the
determination of benzidine. The detection limit is
52
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0.2 /j.g/1 when analyzing a 1-liter sample. The coeffi-
cient of variation at 1.8 /j.g/1 is 5%.
Oil and Grease
Evaluation, modification, and selection of methods
for quantifying oil and grease in water and industrial
and municipal effluents were completed last year.
During the current year, the methods were written
up and incorporated into the 1974 edition of Manual
of Methods for Chemical Analysis of Water and
Wastes. Interlaboratory studies of the methods are
planned.
Characterization of Oils
The electron capture detector gas chromatographic
(ECGC) method has been used to identify No. 2
fuel oil. Highly specific "fingerprints" obtained by
ECGC when applied to the derivatized organic
minor components (24 peaks) of spilled No. 2 fuel
oil matched those obtained from the No. 2 fuel oil
found at the source. This confirmed the identifica-
tion made by infrared spectrophotometry and flame
ionization gas chromatography.
Direct gas chromatographic analysis of a sample
from a diesel fuel tank confirmed that it has been
contaminated with gasoline. By comparing selected
gas chromatographic peaks of the suspected gaso-
line, the top layer sample from the fuel tank, and
the bottom layer sample from the fuel tank, it was
possible to quantitatively determine the amount of
gasoline in the diesel fuel.
Thiophosphate Pesticides
Recoveries for nine thiophosphate pesticides
ranged from 95% to 103% at the 500 ng/1 level
and 96% to 103% at the 1000 ng/1 level. The
respective standard deviations varied from 12 to 27
and 5 to 46. The current method for recovering
these pesticides was found to be unsuitable for
Naled, TEPP, and Phosphamidon. Methods de-
velopment is continuing for these compounds and
for dichlorvos, dimethoate, and Azodrin.
Toxaphene
Precision data were obtained on environmentally
contaminated industrial effluent samples. The
average recovery was 32.2 ^g/1 with a standard
deviation of 0.7. The percent recovery from the
same samples dosed with an amount equivalent to
the average recovery from the original samples was
82%.
Poly chlorinated Biphenyls
Accuracy and precision data were obtained on
environmentally contaminated industrial effluent and
lake bottom samples. Two industrial effluent samples
gave mean recoveries of 1.93 jug/1 and 63.1 /j.g/1,
with respective standard deviations of 0.21 and 3.1.
When the low-level samples were dosed with 5
lj.g of Aroclor 1242/1, the mean recovery was 90%,
with a standard deviation of 0.58. River waters
dosed with 1 /j.g/1 gave mean recoveries of 105%,
with a standard deviation of 6.4. With the use of
an air-dried — soxhlet extraction method, 96%
of a 240 ,ug/kg dose was recovered from lake bot-
tom samples.
Organic Analytical Manual
Work on compiling analytical methods to deter-
mine specific classes of organic compounds, includ-
ing expansion of the 1971 pesticide analytical man-
ual, was begun. Eight individual methods prepared
last year for the analysis of industrial effluents
are being modified to cover a broad range of sample
types: organochlorine; organophosphorus; organo-
nitrogen (triazines, carbamates, and ureas); phenoxy
acid pesticides and herbicides; and organochlorine
solvents and polychlorinated biphenyls. New meth-
ods for benzidine and its salts and for volatile
organics including vinyl chloride will be included.
Methods for other specific compounds and com-
pound classes will be added as they are developed
and evaluated.
Advanced Instrumentation
Nearly all of the effort of the section was devoted
to analytical methods development with computer-
ized GC/MS and to the pilot laboratory automation
project. The applications of GC/MS are featured
in an article following this laboratory's report.
The application of powerful instrumentation in
any field of endeavor requires the implementation of
quality assurance techniques and GC/MS is no
exception. A quality assurance procedure for
GC/MS was developed previously at MDQARL.
This procedure depends on the use of a standard
reference material, which was also developed at
MDQARL, to make a rapid (about 15 min) check
of the performance of the complete GC/MS oper-
ating system. This year an improved version of
this procedure was developed and a much purer
sample of the reference compound was acquired.
The procedure and reference sample were distributed
to many EPA laboratories across the country and to
a number of other laboratories that requested it.
For many years scientists concerned with water
pollution wished for a method to identify organic
pollutants that employed a simple, inexpensive, and
fast examination of the unaltered water. Although
this ideal method is still a long way off, progress
has been made toward the goal. A study of direct
aqueous injection GC/MS was begun at MDQARL
this year. This very fast method of analysis could
lead to a relatively low unit co'st analysis in spite of
53
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the high cost of equipment. Currently there are at
least three significant limitations to the technique.
The current detection limit is approximately 1 mg/1
and may vary upward to about 50 mg/1 for some
compounds. This limits the current method to
general surveys of waste samples containing rela-
tively high concentrations of organic compounds.
If a sample is being analyzed for a specific com-
pound, special techniques are developed that lower
the detection limit to about 50 ^g/1. Another
limitation is that the organic compounds absolutely
must be sufficiently volatile for gas chromatography.
Finally, a computerized GC/MS system is required.
Although the cost of these systems has decreased
significantly in recent years, they are nevertheless
complicated to use and require a skilled and full
time staff.
Work was begun on a procedural manual designed
for personnel that use the computerized GC/MS
to identify organic environmental pollutants. New
procedures and techniques that have been developed
as well as older information will be incorporated.
Leadership was provided in EPA applications of
GC/MS through an informal mass spectrometer
users group. Two meetings were organized and
several newsletters were compiled and distributed;
the purpose was to encourage the exchange of in-
formation and of new applications of GC/MS.
The development of a laboratory automation sys-
tem was also begun this year. The purpose of this
is to develop and demonstrate a method to provide
many more chemical environmental analyses with
improved accuracy, better precision, higher sensitiv-
ity, more timely results, greater selectivity, and
overall lower unit costs.
QUALITY ASSURANCE AND LABORATORY
EVALUATION
The Quality Assurance and Laboratory Evaluation
(QALE) Branch's quality assurance program for
water and waste analyses is accomplished by (1)
conducting formal method validation studies; (2)
maintaining an ample quality control check sample
program; (3) developing an EPA interlaboratory
performance evaluation program; and (4) develop-
ing the necessary guidelines and manuals for analyt-
ical methods, analytical quality control, sampling/
sample preservation.
Method Validation Studies
In 1974, studies were performed on: the cold
vapor technique for determining mercury in water,
emission spectroscopy for determining trace metals,
chlorophyll measurements by spectrophotometer and
fluorometer, and identification of fresh-water macro-
invertebrates.
Quality Control Check Samples
Quality Control (QC) samples are provided to
water laboratories for use in their within-laboratory
QC programs. In 1974, 13,000 sample concen-
trates were distributed to EPA laboratories and to
Federal, State, and private laboratories (Figures
59-62). New reference sample work began on the
specific pollutants: cyanide, phenols, vinyl chloride.
Expanded environmental monitoring has increased
the demand for more samples and different samples;
this has resulted in contract procurement of petro-
leum hydrocarbon (American Petroleum Institute
selected crude oils and oil fractions), water sedi-
ment and mineral/physical reference samples and
referee laboratory services.
Figure 59. Printout, analytical balance used in sample
preparation.
Guidelines, Manuals, and Interlaboratory
Quality Control
With the beginning of the compliance monitoring
program in 1974 under the NPDES, there was an
increased need for an expanded quality assurance
program to make certain that NPDES monitoring
data are of the highest quality. Toward this end, a
new section in the QALE Branch was established
for development of quality assurance contracts.
These contracts include:
• guidelines of sampling and sample preservatidh
techniques for all water analyses from which
the products will be a state-of-the-art report and
an EPA handbook,
• a study of the feasibility of an EPA certification
program,
• development of a protocol system for on-site
inspection surveys of EPA field and laboratory
functions,
54
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Figure 60. Automated preparation of samples in ampuls.
• contract for a system of performance evaluation
testing of all EPA laboratories,
• contracts for computer services to support an
EPA data handling system project (ALMS)
and for purchase of the computer hardware
needed for the current EPA laboratory auto-
mation project, and
• a contract (completed) for technical editing
and writing of the first EPA Manual of Micro-
biological Methods for Analyses of Water and
Waste. The manual will be reviewed by Agency
microbiologists.
Paper surveys detailing personnel, facilities, pro-
gram and quality control were followed by onsite
laboratory evaluations of 6 of the 10 EPA Regional
Laboratories. The summary reports of these eval-
uations (by the NERC quality assurance team of
specialists in air, water, pesticides, and radiation)
provided an up-to-date measure to the EPA Office
of Research and Development and to the Regions
of the laboratory capabilities and recommendations
for improvement.
BIOLOGICAL METHODS
Virology Section
The Virology Section has as a prime responsibility
the development of a system by which low levels
of human viruses can be detected quantitatively in
waters of varying quality. We have set as our tenta-
tive goal the detection of 1 plaque-forming unit
(PFU) of virus per 100 gal of water. This is based
on our assessment that detecting 1 PFU/100 gal
is an attainable goal, not on the assumption that
water with less than that amount must be safe. As
yet no one system has proven sensitive enough to
efficiently concentrate virus from the wide range of
water qualities to which the method must be applied.
Figure 61. Metals analyses by AA spectrophotometer.
Figure 62. Sample mailing to Federal. State, and other
laboratories.
55
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Of the systems that have been subjected to extensive
evaluation and refinement, the most sensitive to date
has been the membrane filter system shown in
Figure 63.
Viruses associated with feces, sludges, and other
solids in water pose additional problems when
developing reliable detection and monitoring meth-
odology. Monitoring of these solids is important,
for often more viruses adsorb to solids in the
sampled waters than are found in the waters them-
selves. Figure 64 shows solids being removed for
subsequent virus extraction; the techniques were
developed in conjunction with the membrane filter.
Figure 63. Membrane filter system used to concentrate
virus from water.
Because small amounts of viruses ejected into
rivers and streams are potential hazards to down-
stream recreationalists and consumers, it is quite
evident that to provide adequate protection, treat-
ment processes must be efficient in destroying these
agents. Effective results were observed when the
solids contact module at the Dallas, Texas, Water
Reclamation Center was evaluated for virus removal.
The study, carried out by seeding with poliovirus,
demonstrated that high-lime treatment is capable
of achieving a very high degree of viral removal
and is markedly superior to an alternate treatment
with alum. Moreover, no viable poliovirus could
be recovered from lime sludge samples taken at
optimum viral dosage times. Microbiologically, these
results suggest that the high-lime process could be
applied to the renovation of wastewaters.
In a study, prepared for the U.S. Army Natick
Laboratory, on the effects of iodine and chlorine
on coxsackievirus A9 and its infectious nucleic acid
(RNA), both chlorine and iodine gave effective in-
activation rates (halogen concentration vs. 99%
inactivation time) for intact virus. Chlorine was
also a rapid inactivator of coxsackievirus A9 RNA,
Figure 64. Removing solids for later virus extraction.
whereas the iodine rate was too slow to be meas-
ured accurately. In further contrast to iodine dis-
infection, coxsackievirus A9 proved more resistant
to chlorine than did its infectious RNA.
Primary and continuous cells constitute the two
basic types of cell culture systems used in viral
research. Both cell culture systems have advantages
and disadvantages. The one used depends on many
factors, the most important of which is the sus-
ceptibility of the cell system to the viruses studied.
Primary kidney cell cultures from African green
and rhesus monkeys have served as the major
laboratory systems for recovering enteroviruses and
reoviruses. Charged with improving existing virus
methodology, we sought to establish a continuous
cell line that would be at least as sensitive as these
primary cells to enteroviruses and reoviruses. Far
exceeding our expectations was the BGM cell line
established from primary African green monkey
kidney cells by Dr. Almen Barren of the University
of Buffalo. This continuous cell line showed supe-
rior viral sensitivity and was far superior to commonly
used primary monkey kidney cell cultures in secur-
ing effective viral recovery from sewage, sewage
effluents, and natural waters. Discovery of this
practical application of the BGM line exemplifies
the importance of basic research in bringing about
innovations in monitoring environmental conditions.
Aquatic Biology Section
The Aquatic Biology Section is responsible for the
development of biological methodology used in both
marine and fresh waters in routine field and labora-
56
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tory work arising during short-term enforcement
studies, in effluent testing, and in compliance and
long-term water quality monitoring. These methods
deal primarily with the collection, counting, and
identification of aquatic organisms; measurements of
organism biomass and metabolic rates; measure-
ments of the toxicity, bioaccumulation, and bio-
magnification of pollutants; and processing and inter-
preting biological data. Methods development and
evaluation are accomplished through grants, con-
tracts, and in-house research. The aquatic biology
methods research program is assisted by an advisory
committee of senior EPA biologists selected from
the national field investigation centers, and from
national research and regional surveillance and
analysis programs. The committee meets annually
to review the aquatic biology methods research pro-
gram and to select methods to be included in the
EPA biological methods manual.
Biological Methods Manual
Revision of the EPA manual, Biological Field and
Laboratory Methods for Measuring the Quality of
Surface Waters and Effluents, began in January
1974. New material that will be added includes
non-parametric statistical analyses, computer pro-
grams for data handling, techniques to measure
adenosine triphosphate (ATP), static and flow-
through bioassays for effluents, and methods for
tissue analysis. The second edition of the manual
is scheduled for publication in 1975.
Sample Collection And Processing
The collection of periphyton in field studies is
currently hampered by the lack of commercially
available sampling devices. This problem was dis-
cussed with sampling equipment manufacturers, and
several prototype samplers were developed. The
results of field tests of these samplers are encourag-
ing, and several models should be commercially
available for the 1975 sampling season (Figure 65).
Methods Of Organism Identification
A manual containing extensive ecological informa-
tion, pollution tolerance ratings, and keys for the
identification of Stenonema mayflies was completed
in-house and is scheduled for publication in the
EPA Environmental Monitoring Series early in 1975.
This manual will be useful to water pollution biolo-
gists in processing field samples and interpreting
biological data collected in enforcement surveys and
ambient water quality monitoring. Also, the manual,
Keys to the Water Quality Indicative Organisms,
Southeastern United States, originally published in
1968 by the National Training Program, was revised
by our program and will be published early in 1975
because of the continuing high demand.
Figure 65 Commercial prototypes of periphyton samplers.
Measurements Of Biomass A nd Metabolic Rates
Grants were awarded to the University of Cincin-
nati to develop methods of phytoplankton pigment
separation, identification, and quantification to be
employed in determining phytoplankton biomass,
taxonomic composition, and physiological condition.
Work also continued on in-house projects concerned
with the evaluation of ATP and other plankton bio-
mass parameters.
Bioassay, Biomonitoring And Bioaccumulation
The Bioassay Subcommittee of the Biological
Advisory Committee reviewed available bioassay
methodology and prepared recommendations for a
static and flow-through effluent bioassay to be pub-
lished in the Federal Register in conjunction with
the revision of the 304(g) regulations. These bio-
assays will be used for self monitoring by industry,
under Section 308(a) of Public Law No. 92-500,
and for compliance monitoring by the EPA and
State programs.
Data Processing And Evaluation
A contract was awarded for the development of
software for a biological data storage and retrieval
system for the EPA computerized water quality
data handling facility (STORET). This task is the
final phase of a project initiated in 1973, and the
system, called BIO-STORET, is scheduled to be-
come operational in 1975. It will be used by EPA
57
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and other Federal and State agencies to store bio-
logical data collected in enforcement studies, and
in compliance and ambient water quality monitor-
ing.
Microbiology Methods
To carry out its role in the development and
evaluation of improved methods for the identifica-
tion of pathogens and indicator microorganisms, the
Microbiological Methods Section dealt with several
problem areas.
Erratic results have been reported when the
membrane filter (MF) technique is used to deter-
mine the sanitary quality of chlorinated effluents,
a problem of particular concern to the effluent moni-
toring program. An in-depth study on five sewage
treatment plants confirmed that the standard MF
procedures for determining total and fecal coliforms
are not applicable to these wastewaters. The stand-
ard MF test gave results consistently below the
lower 95% confidence limits of simultaneously
determined most probable number (MPN) values.
Analysts are presently restricted to the more cum-
bersome MPN procedure. The continuing investi-
gation shows promise of producing an improved MF
test utilizing optimum temperature acclimation and
media modifications.
Because of the emphasis on more rapid and
simplified methods for detecting and identifying
pathogens, newly available, commercially prepared
multiple-test systems were evaluated for the identifi-
cation of Salmonella from water. The AP Enteric
20, Enterotube, Auxotab, and r/b Diagnostic Sys-
tems identified Salmonella with 100%, 90.0%,
93.8%, and 92.4% accuracy, respectively. Two
other multitest systems are now being incorporated
into the evaluation study.
When the most commonly used enrichment and
selective media for the detection of Salmonella were
compared, the combination of dulcitol selenite en-
richment with brilliant green agar was shown to
yield the most efficient system for recovering Sal-
monella from surface waters. It is still recom-
mended, however, that more than one enrichment
and selective plating medium be used for isolating
enteric pathogens. Pure cultures and natural samples
are being used to determine the sensitivity and
optimum recovery time of the enrichment media
employed.
The laboratory has funded a research grant to
complete the development of a direct-staining fluor-
escent antibody procedure for fecal streptococci
with the use of specific strains and labelled con-
jugates. This procedure will provide a more rapid
and direct test for fecal streptococci that will dis-
tinguish human from animal pollution sources.
A research project has been initiated to develop
a primary plating medium and test procedure that
will enumerate and differentiate Klebsiella from
closely related coliforms and other bacteria in water.
The procedure will enable microbiologists to assess
the true significance of Klebsiella in the environment
and to determine the public health hazard in certain
industrial discharges where Klebsiella proliferate.
To encourage uniform test procedures and en-
sure valid, reliable microbiological data, laboratory
personnel have actively participated in the forma-
tion of methods selection groups among EPA micro-
biologists and in the preparation of an EPA
microbiological manual to be published. Continuing
evaluations are conducted to ensure the quality of
materials and supplies used in commonly applied
microbiological tests. Microbiologists participate in
American Society for Testing and Materials activi-
ties to promote the development of standard test
procedures for MF's and other materials.
RADIOCHEMISTRY AND NUCLEAR
ENGINEERING BRANCH AND FACILITY
The Branch, combined with the Radiochemistry
and Nuclear Engineering Facility of the Office of
Radiation Programs, undertakes field studies to
measure population radiation exposure, obtain in-
formation to provide guidance for achieving lowest
practicable exposures, and develop and test monitor-
ing procedures. The program of activities in 1974
consisted of completing the long-term generic studies
at boiling water reactor (BWR) and pressurized
water reactor (PWR) nuclear power stations;
planning an extension of these studies to a high-
temperature gas-cooled reactor (HTGR) and a
fuel reprocessing plant; continuing a special study
at a BWR station of the pathway of airborne 131I
from stack to cow's milk; beginning activities in
support of the radiological aspects of the proposed
drinking water standards; and supporting studies at
a radioactive waste surface burial facility.
A report was prepared presenting the results
of the radiological surveillance study at Haddam
Neck, a 600 megawatt (electric) PWR nuclear
power station. In-plant, effluent, and environmental
radionuclide measurements were reported, surveil-
lance procedures were described, and population
radiation exposures were estimated on the basis of
pathway models. The critical radionuclides and
pathways for radiation exposure were indicated, and
monitoring activities were recommended. This is
the third of four studies at commercially operated
58
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nuclear power stations in the program. Measure-
ments at the fourth station, a BWR, have been
completed, and the draft of the report is being
prepared.
The generic study at the HTGR nuclear power
station has been postponed until next year because
of delays in the initial full-power operation of the
station. The planned study at the fuel reprocessing
plant has been postponed indefinitely because of the
failure of the Midwest Fuel Recovery Plant to begin
operation. As a result of this, no commercial
reprocessing plant will be operating in the United
States for several years.
The initial study of the 131I air-milk pathway at
the Dresden BWR nuclear power station in the
summer of 1973 (see 1973 Annual Report) indi-
cated several problem areas that were examined
during the summer of 1974. In preparation, meth-
ods were developed for measuring 131I to levels as
low as 0.03 and 0.09 pCi per sample for 1,000-
and 100-min counting periods, respectively. This
was achieved for grass and milk samples by
chemically separating radioiodine with iodine car-
rier, precipitating palladium iodide, and counting
with a beta-gamma coincidence system. The latter
consists of a 5-in-diameter well-type Nal(Tl)
gamma-ray detector with phototube and a plastic
scintillator beta-particle detector with phototube in-
serted into the well. Twenty-liter samples of milk
and grass from 1 to 2 m2 areas weie analyzed.
The continuation of the study was performed in
cooperation with the U.S. Atomic Energy Com-
mission (AEC) and the station operator at the
Quad Cities nuclear power station near Moline, Illi-
nois. Sampling points were located approximately
0.8, 1.6, 3.2, and 8 km distant from the station,
and a "background" point was located 29 km distant.
Grass and rainwater were collected at all four loca-
tions near the station, and milk, at two of them.
The AEC collected and measured airborne radio-
nuclides. The station operator and the AEC meas-
ured 131I releases and distinguished the chemical
forms of the 131I at the two points of discharge, the
stack and the roof vent at the station.
The study provided information on the influence
of the chemical form of the 131I (L vs CH3I), the
point of discharge (stack vs vent), the form of
deposition (dry vs wet), and the amount of 131I in
milk as a function of distance from the station.
Some complications were introduced in the data
analysis by atmospheric nuclear tests by mainland
China and France, which introduced 131I into
ground-level air at the station during the study
period.
Analytical methods for measuring the radionu-
clides °°Sr, 131I, "4Cs, 137Cs, 22"Ra, and 2-RRa at
levels of approximately 0.1 pCi/1 were tested in
preparation for the requirements of proposed EPA
drinking water standards. To provide a relatively
simple method, method development was required
specifically for radium analysis.
A program to study the effectiveness of radium
removal by routinely used processes for treating
public water supplies was begun with contracts to
two State agencies. Water supplies that contain ap-
proximately 10 pCi 22"Ra/l were selected to provide
precise data for radium removal. Other selec-
tion criteria included the availability of various com-
mon treatment processes, the size of treatment plant,
and ability to collect all required samples before,
during, and after the process, and in the wastes.
The Water Supply Research Laboratory, which is
cooperating in this study, provides guidance and
obtains samples for analyzing nonradioactive con-
stituents. Results will be available next year.
The Kentucky Radiological Health Program's
study of the behavior of radionuclides at the Maxey
Flats radioactive waste disposal site was supported
in two aspects. First, assistance was provided in pre-
paring a computer-stored inventory with programs for
data analysis. Because the inventory includes approxi-
mately 200,000 items in various tabulations, even
the accuracy of the initial inventory lists required
a major effort. Secondly, a program of measure-
ments of airborne radionuclides at the site was ini-
tiated to permit distinguishing among three potential
pathways for radionuclides—movement in under-
ground water, surface water, and air. Tritium in
water vapor and radionuclides on airborne particles
are measured at the source and in the environment.
The study is to be completed next year.
INSTRUMENTATION DEVELOPMENT
BRANCH
As one of five branches within MDQARL, Instru-
mentation Development is concerned with develop-
ing and demonstrating new monitoring instruments
for detecting pollutants in environmental media;
developing guidelines and programs for use of such
prototypes and production models of selected meas-
urement instrumentation; and telemetering and data-
handling functions.
An ISCO Model 1391 wastewater sampler and
associated flowmeter (Figure 66) were investigated
for temperature stability under laboratory condi-
tions. Under all conditions, spurious signals traced
to a magnetically operated relay caused erratic
sample acquisitions, high humidities affected sampler
operation, and decreasing flows decreased flow-
meter precision.
A Honeywell dissolved oxygen parametric sys-
tem was investigated in the laboratory and in the
59
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Figure 66. I SCO Model 1391.
activated sludge basin, the chlorinated effluent race-
way (Figure 67), and the secondary settling basin
of the Hamilton, Ohio, Sewage Treatment Plant.
The Honeywell design is unique; signal current from
the passive cell, which produces a temperature-com-
pensated millivolt potential at the source, is filtered
in the analyzer and is converted into alternating
current by synchronized field effect transistors
(FET's). The modulator—demodulator FET's are
driven by a 200 cycles/sec free-running multivibra-
tor. The output integrates to about 5 volts direct
current for full-scale dissolved oxygen of 10 to
20 mg/1.
Performance in the activated sludge basin was
satisfactory but manual sensor maintenance caused
a 2- to 4-hr period of erratic operation as spikes
(rapid changes in recorded signal) 25% of full scale
developed. Spikes did not occur when the sensor
was chemically cleaned in a pH 2.5 solution without
manually wiping the membrane (Figure 68).
An instrumentation system for field measure-
ment of cyanide concentration, developed by Orion
Research, was investigated. The system (Figure 69)
was designed to duplicate laboratory analyses made
with ion-selective electrodes. The sensor, comprised
of a silver/sulfide and sodium reference electrode
set, is employed in the indicator method to detect
cyanide. Although cadmium, copper, nickel, and
zinc metal complexes of cyanide are broken by
adding chemical reagents, tightly bound cyanide
complexes of iron, cobalt, and platinum are not.
Under controlled laboratory conditions, this
cyanide monitor was electronically stable within
Figure 67. Honeywell dissolved oxygen sensor (arrow)
installation at Hamilton. Ohio. Sewage Treat-
ment Plant effluent raceway.
60
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Figure 68. Effect of cleaning on Honeywell sensor.
0.1% over a temperature range of 5°C to 35°C.
The sensor was tested with the use of cyanide stand-
ards over a similar temperature range. Performance
was within Orion's stated tolerance of ±10% of
reading. Dynamic measurements of a metal plating
stream were periodically compared with measure-
ments made by the "total cyanide" chemical pro-
cedure of samples being taken before and after the
filter function of the monitor. Steady state compari-
sons indicated a 15% to 20% loss in cyanide con-
centration across the sample input filter required
by the monitor.
A cooperative effort in field investigation of an
EPA Martek monitor was initiated with the National
Park Service. The system continuously measures
depth, dissolved oxygen, conductivity, pH, and
temperature. The system, to be investigated on the
Potomac River, will be operated from one of several
Park Service ships (Figure 70) and will provide
District of Columbia high school and college stu-
dents an opportunity to work with water quality
instrumentation.
Figure 69. Orion cyanide monitor.
Figure 70. One of the National Park Service river craft being
used to field test the EPA Martek monitor.
61
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identifying
organic pollutant/
with computerized
ga/ cfiromatograpfiy/
ma// /pectrometry
The identification and measurement of the con-
centration of specific organic compounds that
contaminate the environment has concerned environ-
mental research scientists for many years. Gross
measurements of organic pollution such as the
chemical oxygen demand (COD), biochemical oxy-
gen demand (BOD), and total organic carbon
(TOC) tests are of no value in situations where
information is needed about specific pollutants.
Firm identifications are required to determine the
causes of taste or odor in drinking water, to eluci-
date the distribution of toxic compounds in surface
or waste water, to study the accumulation of per-
sistent compounds in wildlife tissue, to discover
the causes of fish kills, to evaluate the effectiveness
of treatment facilities in removing classes or specific
types of compounds, to map the specific sources of
organic pollutants, to determine the degradation
mechanisms of pollutants, and to enforce effluent
standards for toxic organic compounds.
The earliest approaches to specific identifications
and measurements were based on detailed chemical-
instrumental procedures that were designed to sep-
arate the compound of interest from all of the other
compounds present and measure its concentration
with relatively inexpensive instrumentation. The
colorimetric 4-aminoantipyrine derivative procedure
for phenol and the electron capture detector — gas
chromatography procedures for chlorinated hydro-
carbon pesticides are typical examples of this ap-
proach. Although these specialized techniques are
justified for compounds of special significance (e.g.,
pesticide residue analyses in foods), there are sev-
eral inherent limitations to the approach. To in-
clude all environmentally significant compounds,
literally thousands of detailed procedures would
have to be developed, tested, and documented.
The procedural manuals alone might require dozens
of volumes. Implementing these procedures to
analyze for all components of an environmental
sample would be extremely slow and costly. This
approach includes no provision for finding new
environmental contaminants except by pure chance
of an unexpected interference in a particular method.
Invariably interferences do occur, e.g., the poly-
chlorinated biphenyls seriously interfere with chlo-
rinated pesticide methods and many but not all
phenols form 4-aminoantipyrine derivatives.
With the development of the environmental con-
cern of the late 1960's, it was recognized that
general methods of high information content were
required to facilitate the economical analysis of a
wide variety of organic pollutants. The use of the
mass spectrometer as such a detector for the gas
chromatograph (GC/MS) was developed during the
1960's. The mini-computer was invented during
this time and applied to GC/MS to utilize the
enormous wealth of information produced by the
mass spectrometer. Computerized GC/MS quickly
revolutionized the field of trace organic analysis
and made very significant contributions to research
in medicine, biochemistry, flavors, odors, and or-
ganic geochemistry.
Beginning in 1971 the U.S. Environmental Pro-
tection Agency (EPA) made a major commitment
to computerized GC/MS for organic pollutant anal-
ysis. Over 20 systems were installed in laboratories
across the country. The labs included the Regional
Surveillance and Analysis Facilities—which carry
out EPA's monitoring function; several field investi-
gation centers—which are part of the enforcement
arm of EPA; several pesticide laboratories; and a
number of research and development facilities.
63
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Like any automated method, computerized GC/
MS does not reduce the need for skilled manpower.
In the field laboratories, GC/MS equipment is
under the supervision of a chemist with an ad-
vanced degree or equivalent experience. Research
support for field labs is required from multidisciplin-
ary teams of spectroscopists, analytical chemists,
electronics engineers, and laboratory mini-computer
specialists in research and development laboratories.
The major advantage of the technique is that it
substantially increases the capacity of a staff of
fixed or limited size to make increasingly large num-
bers of accurate identifications of specific organic
compounds in environmental samples.
Identifying pollutants at the part-per-billion level
with a high degree of confidence has become almost
routine in more than a few EPA laboratories. What
was once a nearly impossible task for a staff of 100
working for 6 months sometimes can be accom-
plished by a skilled individual in a few hours.
Most of the systems installed in EPA laboratories
use Finnigan Quadrupole Mass Spectrometers con-
trolled by Digital Equipment Corporation PDP-8
mini-computers (Figure 71). However, some Varian
and Hewlett-Packard (H-P) spectrometers are used
with Varian 620 and H-P mini-computers.
The gas chromatograph is very well established
as a powerful tool for separating mixtures of
volatile organic compounds. However, since con-
ventional GC detectors provide no qualitative
information about the sample, they are either re-
moved entirely or used only during solvent venting
or other ancillary functions.
As is true for conventional GC detectors, the
mass spectrometer is very sensitive. In contrast to
the single channel response of most conventional
GC detectors, the mass spectrometer provides a
multichannel response (abundance measurements of
ions of different masses) that carries a great deal
of information about molecular structure and com-
position of organic compounds. This information
may be displayed graphically by a fast cathode
ray tube or a hard copy plotter, printed in digital,
form, or transmitted over concentional voice-grade
telephone circuits to other data handling systems.
In noncomputerized GC/MS systems, mass spec-
tra generally are not acquired continuously during
a GC run. Continuous mass spectra acquisition gen-
erates very significant information that cannot, how-
ever, be processed economically or accurately by
hand. This dilemma is solved in a computerized
system. Mass spectra are acquired continuously; the
mini-computer simultaneously handles all informa-
tion and controls the operation of the quadrupole
spectrometer. Data are stored temporarily on a
magnetic disk or a magnetic tape before back-
ground corrections are made and before data are
output by plotting, printing, or transmission. Per-
sonnel who previously devoted long frustrating hours
to manual data processing are freed to do productive
tasks.
With the hardware and computer programs men-
tioned above, it still may not be possible to make
valid identifications of organic pollutants. A basic
assumption of this method is that the organic com-
pounds are sufficiently volatile for gas chromatog-
raphy. This assumption must be met if conventional
GC/MS is to be useful.
Another basic assumption is that the chromato-
graph produces a clean separation of the organic
Figure 71. GC/MS system at NERC-Cincinnati.
64
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components in a mixture. This is, of course, the
classic problem of chromatography, but it is made
somewhat more manageable with a mass spectrom-
eter detector. An experienced user can frequently
ascertain that the separation is clean and free
of overlaps by examining the consistency of the
mass spectra obtained at various points across the
GC peaks. This is not possible with a simpler, con-
ventional GC detector. By suitable background cor-
rections, the GC/MS computer user usually can
isolate both spectra of overlapping peaks.
The Methods Development and Quality Assur-
ance Research Laboratory supports EPA's utiliza-
tion of this equipment with a methods development
program in GC/MS. Detailed methods are needed
to apply this equipment to water and wastewater
analyses. These methods are not and cannot be
provided by the equipment manufacturers who are
primarily builders of hardware that is applied in
many different areas of investigation.
A good example of a new methods development
is the direct aqueous injection analysis of industrial
effluents. Recently, samples were received from a
small lagoon that was being used as an industrial
waste dump site and from leachate flowing into a
stream adjacent to the lagoon. Literally in a matter
of a few hours, eight organic compounds present
in the lagoon were unambiguously identified and
their concentration estimated. More importantly,
one of the compounds, a common industrial solvent,
was clearly identified as a contaminant in the small
stream, which was used as a drinking water supply
by local farmers. The key points in this illustration
are the speed, accuracy, and very low unit cost
that was obtainable in this organics analysis with
computerized GC/MS.
m.d.q.o.r.l.
65
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/.h.uj.r.l.
-------
/olid & ftazcirdou
The Solid and Hazardous Waste Research Laboratory (SHWRL)
is responsible for research into new and improved systems of solid and
hazardous waste management and for the development of technology,
determination of environmental effects, and collection of data necessary
for the establishment of processing and disposal guidelines. In the
past, the laboratory concentrated on problems associated with municipal
solid waste, but recently the emphasis has shifted. With present efforts
directed primarily toward the environmental effects of waste disposed
onto or into the land, SHWRL has undertaken research to develop
disposal or treatment technologies that will minimize or prevent harmful
effects.
The problems of solid waste disposal are interrelated with those of
air and water pollution. Incineration, grinding, the use of water for
either transportation of solids or as a solid waste sink — these impinge
upon the concurrent attempts to purify the air and water environments.
Additionally, the elimination of impurities from air or water effluents
as the sources of pollution results in the generation of solid wastes by
such processes as separation, drying, or compaction — solids that in
turn, require disposal. Measures to reduce pollution or dispose of waste
material must, therefore, be taken with full consideration of the effect on
the overall environment — air, water, and land.
The solid waste problem is concentrated in densely populated urban
areas. Refuse storage, collection, transportation, and processing directly
and intimately affect some 80% of the population. The costs of waste
handling, already severe, are rising. The loss of billions of tons of
material to unreclaimed waste each year indirectly affects each consumer.
Municipal solid waste is delivered to the EPA Center Hill facility (Figure 72,
top left) and characterized for physical (Figure 73, top right) and chemical
composition. Gas and temperature sensors and the solid waste are placed in
1.8-meter-diameter test cells (Figure 74, center left) that simulate a sanitary
landfill cell. Several test cells contain hazardous wastes: virus survival is to
be determined by placing plastic exposure tubes (Figure 75, center right) con-
taining virus-seeded packets of solid waste into the compacted solid waste
(bottom left. Figure76, looking down into test cell). Leachate and gas volumes
and solid waste temperatures are monitored for an extended period of time
(Figure 77, bottom right). Composition of leachate and gas are also monitored
to provide information on the fate and decomposition of solid and hazardous
materials.
67
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LAND DISPOSAL OF MUNICIPAL
SOLID WASTES
The overall objectives of this project are to
assess the potential environmental damage caused
by disposal to the land of municipal solid waste;
identify, develop, and describe appropriate tech-
nology to protect against such damages; and to
assemble information on environmental damages and
control technology. Three research programs were
assembled during 1974 to achieve these objectives:
17BAZ-Environmental Effects of Leachate Gener-
ated by Landfill; 24AAG-Environmental Effects of
Gases Generated in Solid Waste Landfills; and
24ALH-Environmental Effects of Sludge and Haz-
ardous Waste Disposal by Sanitary Landfill. These
programs were designed to provide information on
rates and quality of gas and leachate generated from
municipal solid waste alone and in combination with
selected hazardous wastes, and on methods that can
be used to measure and control these emissions.
Information transfer among the various research-
ers in this field is aided by a review of significant
articles in the field published in the Journal of the
Water Pollution Control Federation. Previous efforts
have resulted in development of bibliographies on
landfill gas and water quality. Compilation of the
various analytical methods used to identify the con-
stituents in leachate was initiated this year.
Specific nonprogrammed activities of the SHWRL
staff in the land disposal projects include preparing
a comprehensive report on gas and leachate produc-
tion from municipal solid waste (available in June
1975); technically assisting Regions I and IV on
enforcement actions; preparing a summary report
on landfill research for Region I staff and State
personnel; participating in University of Cincinnati
Raymond Walters lecture series; participating in a
solid waste training course for Region VII on
leachate treatment design and research; and pro-
viding miscellaneous technical assistance for requests
from citizens, local, State, national, and foreign
governments, design engineers, and operating and
regulatory agencies.
Leachate and Gas Production
Identification of leachate composition and pro-
duction rates are the objectives of several specific
projects. A long-term • study performed at Drexel
University has documented the quality and quantity
of leachate producd from municipal solid waste.
Results reported during the past year verified that
leached material was reduced to the same low level
as was observed the previous year (Table 6). In
light of the low-level discharge characterized by a
lack of biological activity, a program has been
TABLE 6. LEACHATE CHARACTERISTICS
FROM A BATCH SIMULATION
SANITARY LANDFILL*
Characteristict
pH
Fe
Cu
Na
Cl
Chemical oxygen
demand
Residue
Ammonia-nitrogen
Organic-nitrogen
Elapsed time since start of
1
5.4
940
0.08
990
258
20,740
14,200
50.4
102
4
6.3
110
BDLJ
104
65
1,478
1,560
4.7
27.1
study, yr
5
6.5
110
BDLt
57
32
950
780
BDLJ
2.8
"Adapted from Fungaroli, A. A., and R. L. Steiner,
Final Report: Vol. 1. Investigation of Sanitary Landfill
Behavior, draft report submitted in partial fulfillment of
Research Grant R800777, August 1974.
tAll results in mg/1 except pH.
tBDL indicates detected although test was performed.
initiated to study the quality of leachate when the
annual moisture regime (simulated rainfall) is ac-
celerated to simulate 5 and 10 yr of leaching in a
1-yr period.
Leachate composition and production were also
studied at the Boone County Field Site (BCFS)
where large-scale, batch-type landfills cells are used.
Results obtained during this year indicate a con-
tinued discharge of large concentrations of con-
taminants in leachate, although a downward trend
appears to be developing. The results of this large-
scale (Test Series 1) determination of leachate
production compares favorably with the earlier lab-
oratory study at Drexel University (Table 1). A sec-
ond study at the BCFS (Test Series 2) was initiated
to compare the performance of small-scale, simu-
lated, landfills cells (1.8 m in diameter and 3.1 m
deep, containing 3.6 tons of solid waste) with that
of a large-scale landfill cell containing 113 tons.
These facilities, constructed in 1972, were also
monitored during 1974. Results of the 1974 moni-
toring indicate insignificant differences in leachate
composition between the two types of cells, despite
a significant difference in the duration of the elevated
temperatures observed in 1972: These monitoring
efforts will continue until the pollutants carried in
leachate are reduced to low levels.
Additional leachate production studies (Test
Series 3), originally scheduled as an in-house project,
were initiated in 1974 by a contractor; the experi-
mental facilities had been constructed under in-house
68
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supervision. The objectives of these studies are to
evaluate, with the use of small-scale (3.6 ton) test
cells, the influence of different moisture regimes and
waste composition on leachate and gas production.
Waste composition will be varied by introducing
municipal wastewater sludges and hazardous sludges
resulting from industrial processes and pollution
abatement activities. Bacterial and virological studies
will also be performed. It is anticipated that signifi-
cant differences in mass flow rates of carbon dioxide
and methane gases and the organic content in leach-
ate will be observed. Such information is essential
in assessing the environmental impact of sanitary
landfills in a variety of climates and will also pro-
vide data necessary for the design of control systems
when needed. Gas production data will also be use-
ful in assessing the potential for methane recovery
from sanitary landfills.
An additional source for obtaining gas production
data was initiated in 1974, an effort, primarily, to
determine gas production and, secondarily, to deter-
mine leachate production from baled and shredded
solid waste (Figures 78 and 79). Experimental
facilities are currently under construction, and the
project is expected to be completed in 1977. Results
from this project will be used to evaluate the
environmental impact of baled and shredded solid
waste in landfills.
Full assessment of the environmental impact of
landfill gas requires that the extent of subsurface
migration of these gases, particularly methane, be
determined. Two-dimensional analysis of gas flow
Figure 78. Truckloadof baled solid
waste used in landfill simulation
in Franklin, Ohio. Each bale weigh-
ed more than 1.100 kg (2.500 Ib)
and was compacted to a density
greater than 890 kg/m3 (1.500
Ib/yd3).
Figure 79. Test cells constructed
at Franklin. Ohio, for landfill
simulation studies.
69
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through various combinations of soils and geological
settings is being modeled and solved by using finite
element analysis (Figure 80). Use of simulation
techniques will generate graphs, charts, and tables.
The product of this study, due to be completed in
1975, will be a user's manual whereby candidate
landfill sites can be screened and specific sites can
be more carefully evaluated.
Leachate Control
Methods for controlling leachate at landfills have
also been studied during 1974. Two grantees at
the University of Wisconsin are evaluating the use
of traditional wastewater methods to treat leachate.
They have concluded that anaerobic lagooning of
fresh, highly contaminated leachate followed by
aerobic polishing was most suitable for the typical
landfill situation. A pilot plant was constructed to
study the process parameters on a continuous opera-
tion and on a larger scale, and long-term operational
data will be used to assess the feasibility of on-site
leachate treatment.
From additional leachate treatment work in 1974
performed at the University of Illinois, data were
obtained on the performance of anaerobic filters,
aerobic lagoons, cotreatment with domestic waste-
water, and various physical and chemical methods
(Figure 81). Detailed characterization of the or-
ganic content indicated the presence of significant
amounts of organic acids in fresh leachates and
predominantly humic and fulvic acid-like materials
in older, more stabilized leachate. Heavy metals
were found to be associated with the fulvic acids
and humic-like substances. The long-term opera-
tion of the anaerobic filter laboratory unit indicated
J"'' ^xsk* - ~
s>--1?; >'?'>5K "
^ :• •-'•••-•:• '
Figure 81. Leachate being transferred from holding
pond to plant where treatment will consist
of sand and activated carbon filtration, fol-
lowed by spray irrigation.
Figure 80. Experimental facilities
for one-dimensional verification
of landfill gas migration predic-
tion model.
70
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sulfide may be needed as a supplement to leachate
to prevent the accumulation of toxic metals in
the reactor.
Another study, completed in December 1974,
Devaluates the beneficial aspects of returning leach-
ate to the solid waste in a landfill. The overall
effect is that the rate of decomposition of the solid
waste mass and the rate of reduction in the amount
6f organic material carried in leachate is increased.
To satisfactorily increase the decomposition proc-
esses in the landfill, it was found that pH must
be controlled. A pilot plant effort is anticipated dur-
ing 1975. The shortened period of time for solid
waste and leachate stabilization of organic matter is
achieved by managing the landfill operation and
controlling specific inputs (not usually employed in
solid waste disposal) to the system.
Still another leachate control method evaluated
was spray irrigation (Figure 82). This work was
performed by in-house personnel, initially in coop-
eration with the University of Cincinnati. Results
show that the quantity of leachate applied is con-
trolled by the strength of the leachate rather than
by the hydraulic loading. A range of 225 to 450
kg/ha/day produced no phytotoxicity. Percolate
Figure 82. Pilot scale plots to determine the effect of
solid waste leachate and gas on different
types of cover material and vegetation.
composition indicated a problem may be encountered
with the conversion of ammonia and organic nitro-
gen to nitrate because high levels of nitrate are
potentially hazardous. Greater than 90% reduc-
tion of all constituents were achieved with the ex-
ception of nitrate, which increased from 1 mg/1
to 50 mg/1.
Viruses and Bacteria
A study evaluating the presence and survival of
human enteric pathogens (bacteria and viruses) was
performed. The preliminary results indicate fresh
leachate (high in organic acid content and slightly
acidic) severely curtails survival of indicator or-
ganisms, but has a very slow, almost stabilizing,
effect on polioviruses. In addition, the work con-
cludes that EDTA should be used to preserve bio-
logical assay samples.
Compost Studies
Use of compost derived from municipal solid
waste (Johnson City, Tennessee) was evaluated, and
results indicate the possible accumulation of zinc
and cadmium in corn leaf, grain, and cob when
sewage-sludge-enriched compost is applied at 449
tons/ha. Lead, nickel, and chromium did not appear
to have a detrimental effect. Studies, which are
continuing into 1975, were performed in the labora-
tory/greenhouse and in the field. Tentative con-
clusions are that zinc and cadmium accumulations
are not significant enough to hinder the use ot
municipal solid waste compost.
MIGRATION OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
Knowledge of the rates and extent of movement
of hazardous materials in soils is of fundamental im-
portance in formulation of hazardous waste man-
agement regulations and recommendations about
the types of untreated wastes and unimproved sites
suitable for land disposal. SHWRL extramural
grant and contract activities that will supply this
information cover three broad categories: (1) re-
view and synthesis of available information, (2)
studies under controlled conditions using actual
wastes, and (3) field testing of conclusions drawn
from the first two activities.
State-of-the-Art Reviews
The review and synthesis of available information
provides a basis for tentative disposal recommenda-
tions. During the current year, two publications
are being prepared: a partially annotated bibliog-
raphy on migration and transformation in soil of
selected heavy metals and pesticides and a report
71
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on present knowledge of migration of heavy metals
in soil. A review of drafts of these publications
supports the assumption that soil properties such
as pH, texture, and content of oxides of iron and
manganese will be important factors in the move-
ment of heavy metals. Additionally, very little direct
information is available on movement of heavy
metals when accompanied by high concentrations
of other soluble substances or on the movement
of pesticides when applied to soil at rates higher
than is common in agricultural practice. The con-
clusions drawn will be tested, and any needs for
additional information will be satisfied during the
controlled condition laboratory studies and the field
studies currently planned or underway.
Controlled Lab Studies
Solid and semi-solid wastes are complex mixtures,
and the leachates from them commonly contain high
concentrations of hazardous materials along with
high concentrations of other soluble substances that
influence adsorption on soil colloids and other migra-
tion-related processes. The controlled condition
studies, being conducted under interagency agree-
ment at the Dugway Proving Ground, are using
samples of actual industrial wastes to collect infor-
mation that could not be obtained from the literature
or from the laboratory work with single compounds
and simulated wastes. Basically, these studies con-
sist of leaching the wastes to determine the types
and amounts of hazardous materials released (Figure
83). Some of the leachate is then applied to several
different types of soils, and migration rates are
observed so that an "attenuation coefficient" may
be constructed describing the degree of hazard as-
sociated with a particular combination of waste and
soil (Figure 84). Work is underway on wastes from
five industries: mercury-cell chlorine production,
electroplating, nickel-cadmium battery production,
inorganic pigments, and water-based paints. The
project will be expanded to include flue gas desul-
furation sludges and wastes from at least 25 other
industries.
Information from the first phase of the project
indicates that none of the wastes studied to date
should be disposed of under acidic conditions, and
in particular, they should not be placed in municipal
sanitary landfills.
At the University of Arizona and the Illinois
State Geological Survey, the migration of municipal
landfill leachate pollutants in whole soils and in
mixtures of the basic soil clay minerals is being
investigated. Leaching solutions used in these
column-type experiments include natural municipal
landfill leachate, a synthetic inorganic leachate, and
a natural leachate "spiked" with various heavy
Figure 83. Columns used for a laboratory study of haz-
ardous material movement in soils.
metals (Figure 85). Objectives of the project are
to evaluate pollutant attenuation by soils and to
develop simulation models for the prediction of
changes in solute concentration as leachate moves
through soil. The results to date demonstrate that
soil factors such as pH, texture, and content of iron
oxides significantly influence migration of pollutants.
The content of dissolved organic compounds ap-
pears to be the most important leachate factor
affecting the solubility and mobility of heavy metal
pollutants, with a higher content of certain organics
favoring rapid migration. The rate of flow through
soil, controlled primarily by soil texture, is another
important factor in pollutant migration rates. Until
some critical value is approached, decreases in flow
V
•'"$•:•M'*'W!i-'->^: '•,-.''-''^ • "
-. » ' 4,1* • ' > . lYf'1
to*' .^.>i*fc/ . •i&'*'i"tf1"- '• •'''•:•'
Figure 84. Constructing a test plot for field study of
hazardous material movement in soil.
72
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Figure 85. Columns used in a study of hazardous mate-
rial movement through soil.
rate are associated with increases in attentuation,
though in a nonlinear fashion.
Field Studies
Field studies, which are just being initiated, will
run concurrently with the laboratory work and will
examine the rate and extent of hazardous material
migration from industrial disposal sites that are
receiving many of the same wastes being studied in
the laboratory. The objectives of these field studies
are to check preliminary interpretations of the
laboratory work, particularly the indication that dis-
posal sites underlain by fine textured soils are suit-
able for certain types of wastes, and to point out
gaps in knowledge and monitoring techniques that
may require changes in on-going lab studies or
initiation of new studies (Figure 86). The Illinois
State Water Survey is conducting the first of these
field studies. Pollutant migration patterns around
and beneath a zinc smelting plant, an organic chem-
ical plant, and a commercial hazardous waste dis-
posal site are also being studied.
ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF SELECTED
HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
Over the past year, a major emphasis of SHWRL's
program has been directed to assessing the potential
undesirable effects of waste materials intended for
land disposal. A series of multimedia reports on
the environmental effects and aspects of selected
hazardous substances are thus being developed. The
substances of interest are largely heavy metals and
their compounds and pesticides: arsenic, asbestos.
beryllium, cadmium, chromium, copper, cyanides,
lead, mercury, selenium, zinc, aldrin/dieldrin, ben-
zidine, ODD/DDE/DDT, endrin, PCB's, and toxa-
phene. Information on intermedia transport and
Figure 86. Collecting samples at the EPA Boone County
Field Site for use in laboratory studies of
hazardous material movement in soil.
concentration effects (dose responses) of these sub-
stances is needed to establish a scientific basis of
support for regulatory and guideline programs direc-
ted toward their proper management.
With the use of existing criteria documents and
reports. Oak Ridge National Laboratories, under an
interagency agreement, is compiling data on all
environmental aspects of the selected substances into
a single, integrated document, a Tabular Effects
Data Matrix (TED). The purpose of the TED is
to identify information gaps or inadequacies. Writ-
ten reports on mercury and asbestos have been
drafted and are being readied for extensive technical
review; others will be completed in the next 2 years.
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR
HAZARDOUS WASTES
The control technologies program evaluates and
develops technologies to minimize adverse effects
of hazardous materials discharged into the environ-
ment (Figure 87). Program objectives are to:
• report on acceptable disposal technology
• assess the adequacy of present technology
(identify inadequate technology)
• develop new treatment/disposal technologies
where present ones are inadequate
• develop and evaluate prototypes of promising
technologies—those that maximize resource
recovery.
As part of these studies, inadequate treatment/dis-
posal technologies have been identified for toxic
waste streams containing pesticides and for a num-
ber of organic metallic derivatives. Because in many-
instances treatment/disposal technologies are lack-
ing, interim land storage of hazardous and toxic
73
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w
A
S
T
E
S
T
R
E
A
M
1
tration
ess
-
Detoxification
Process
t
Resource
Recovery
i
Product
Assessment
Figure 87. Scheme for processing hazardous waste for recovery, or disposal, or both.
waste is required. Considerations used in selecting
promising techniques for development were inade-
quacy of present treatment, economics, resource
recovery, and volume reduction. An in-house report
on promising technologies for treating hazardous
waste has been published.
Through an interagency agreement with Edge-
wood Arsenal, SHWRL is supporting studies to
determine the effectiveness of new detoxification
processes and the safety of byproducts recovered
from hazardous material.
To fulfill requests for assessments of various tech-
nologies to manage hazardous wastes from an en-
vironmental standpoint, SHWRL has awarded two
contracts. One is to Louis R. Reeder and Associates
to compile available data with which to assess the
technology of deep-well injection of industrial haz-
ardous wastes into subsurface aquifiers. A similar
study to Fenix and Scission involves assessing the
technical feasibility of safely storing nonradioactive
industrial hazardous waste in selected salt deposits
and other rock deposits. A list of hazardous wastes
developed by TRW Systems was used as a starting
point to classify the waste into several categories—
acceptable for underground storage in containers
with or without treatment and unacceptable. The
study results will require refinement; they do, how-
ever, indicate that hazardous, nonradioactive indus-
trial waste can be stored with minimum risk to the
environment.
PESTICIDE INCINERATION
A SHWRL contract awarded to Midwest Research
Institute has produced experimental data relative
to safe disposal of excess pesticides by incinera-
tion methods. Candidate pesticides in liquid and
solid form (such as DDT, aldrin, picloram, zineb,
and others representing 34 types in total) are test-
burned in a special pilot-scale incinerator where
process emissions are carefully monitored and
analyzed. Such parameters as residence time, tem-
perature, and excess air are studied to determine the
conditions most conducive for the complete and safe
detoxification of each formulation. Research thus far
has shown the incinerator has remarkable ability to
effect a 99.9 + % destruction of several pesticides
when operated in the 1,400°F to 1,800°F range with
a J/2- to 3-sec retention time. When completed, this
work will form a major contribution to hazardous
materials disposal technology.
RECYCLING: RESOURCE RECOVERY
Size Reduction
Although the SHWRL's program shifted emphasis
during the year toward research in the management
and control of hazardous waste, many resource re-
covery projects initiated in prior years were con-
tinued. Dr. George Trezek (University of California
at Berkeley) completed sufficient research tests to
enable development of basic theoretical relationships
dealing with the size reduction of municipal solid
wastes. He generated basic analytical data and rela-
tionships with regard to hammer and grate wear,
particle size distribution, hammer speed, refuse feed
rates, power consumption, moisture effects, and
other associated aspects of the size reduction process.
The data and analytical relationships are applicable
to the design and operation of refuse grinders and
facilities. Dr. Trezek is using the equipment and
the facilities to assess the environmental health im-
pact of refuse grinding and associated processes.
74
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Specification
The National Center for Resource Recovery
(NCRR) completed developing initial specification
for materials separated from municipal solid wastes
in resource recovery plants: folded newsprint, fer-
rous metals, aluminum scrap, other nonferrous
metals, glass cullet, inorganic fines, and mixed
organics for fuel. These specifications represent first
efforts to define uniform qualities of the materials
recovered for sale and reuse and should add value
to the outputs from resource recovery plants and
promote user acceptance by providing a basis for
quality assurance. These initial specifications will
be tested and refined by NCRR in actual practice.
CPU-400
A major resource recovery process, developed
under contract by the Combustion Power Company
in Menlo Park, California, is the CPU-400. The
process involves the high-pressure combustion of
municipal solid waste and the direct conversion of
the energy contained in the hot gas effluent to elec-
tricity by use of a gas turbine. Following successful
low-pressure operation of the 100-ton-per-day pilot
plant, the turbine was integrated into the system.
Initial tests on the fully integrated system indicated
its ability to burn solid waste efficiently and to
generate full power output (100 kw) under com-
plete automatic control. Subsequent tests, however,
demonstrated that extensive deposits of alumina and
silica develop on the first stage turbine stator blades
after operating only for a few hours. Since the in-
efficiency of the inertial separators to remove ex-
tremely fine particulate matter from the turbine
inlet gas was found to be the cause of the deposition
problem, a more efficient particulate removal stage
known as a "granular filter" is being developed.
Subpilot research and development show promise
of removing 97% to 98% of the turbine-bound
particulate matter.
The EPA CPU-400 pilot plant was used for
work sponsored by other organizations to test in-
dustrial wood waste and high-sulfur coal as fuel.
The wood waste tests, sponsored by the Weyer-
haeuser Company, featured a 100-hr demonstration
run. In this run, deposits also formed on the tur-
bine; however, this time it was kept in check by
the periodic injection of walnut shells. The shells
served as an effective on-the-run turbine cleaner, but
a post-run inspection revealed some turbine blade
erosion resulted from this cleaning operation. The
experimentation using high-sulfur coal is being
sponsored by the Department of the Interior's Office
of Coal Research. Although some blade erosion
resulted after some 50 hr of run-time on coal, the
early efficiency to remove sulfur dioxide from the
flue gas by using limestone in the fluid bed com-
bustor was encouraging.
Incineration
The possibility of using processed solid waste to
supplement various fossil fuels in industrial boilers
with a capacity of up to 250 million BTU/hr is the
subject of a research contract with the Thermo
Electron Corporation of Waltham, Massachusetts.
This study examines the technical and economic
feasibility of refuse firing to produce steam for
industrial processes or heating. Boilers already
equipped for solid fuels are most readily adapted.
Depending on fuel prices, refuse availability, etc.,
it may also be feasible to add a solids burning device
and residue handling system ahead of existing gas
or oil-fired equipment. The final report will define
which boilers may be economically fired with refuse,
the conversion equipment needed, and identify spe-
cific installations for possible further study.
Determining the overall environmental effects of
various solid waste management practices is the
subject of two SHWRL grants at the Columbus
(Ohio) Research Laboratories of Battelle. The
researchers assembled for these studies have exten-
sive backgrounds in incineration, air and water
pollution, plastics technology, corrosion research,
land disposal, and heat recovery systems. One
project is testing the environmental effect of using
processed solid waste as a fuel supplement to
crushed coal in a steam-electric power plant (Figure
88). The questions addressed here are the hazard-
ous materials and plastics (particularly PVC types)
in the waste, high versus low coal sulfur content,
metal corrosion rates, air and water emissions, and
the resource recovery value of solid waste. The
City of Columbus' new shredding facility and two
online municipal power plant boilers have been
made available to Battelle to accomplish this study.
The second study is an environmental assessment
of the role of all types of plastics in waste manage-
ment practices—incineration, landfill, recycling, stor-
age, collection and transport—and even as litter.
A report covering Phase I of this study presents the
current environmental effects. Phase II of the study
examines the potential effects of future plastics usage
and management practices.
ECONOMIC STUDIES
Economic research focused mainly on the prob-
lems of hazardous wastes and alternative control
techniques. Policy strategies or measures for con-
trol of hazardous wastes involve direct regulation
(e.g., disposal permits, treatment standards, licenses)
or indirect regulation influencing economic decisions
75
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Figure 88. The 8-inch diameter flexible pipe (shown
disconnected) is being used to pneumati-
cally feed processed refuse to the boiler
(replacing 40 to 50 percent of the coal fuel).
(e.g., taxes on emissions, recycling subsidies, dis-
posal charges, and similar incentive devices to
achieve social objectives). The administrative com-
plexity and associated costs of a particular control
program are important considerations of its effi-
ciency and cost-effectiveness.
Controlling discharges of hazardous wastes to
land involves a cost to society. On the basis of
economic principles, the extent of control is sug-
gested by comparisons between incremental reduc-
tions in damage costs and increases in control costs,
with damage costs interpreted as society's "willing-
ness-to-pay" for incremental levels of control of
hazardous wastes.
Economic research continued on evaluating the
efficiency of managing solid wastes. The applica-
bility of materials-balance models was investigated.
An EPA contract with Environmental Dynamics,
Inc., developed taxation models for controlling the
solid waste stream and considered substitution pos-
sibilities in production and consumptive uses.
Economic incentives for encouraging increased sup-
plies of recyclable materials were also examined.
The final report suggested that taxation policies and
subsidizing suppliers of recyclable materials can
provide effective tools for managing solid waste.
The economic implications of various pricing
mechanisms for solid waste management were also
investigated. Traditional theoretical pricing con-
cepts for allocating resources were applied, including
the use of incremental user charges for collection
and disposal of solid wastes. The study suggested
that user charges can reduce household solid waste
generation and reduce total system costs, although
there is a tendency towards more self-disposal as
prices for collection and disposal services are in-
creased.
Research also continued on ways to increase the
productivity of refuse collection crews. An experi-
ment incorporating the use of a time incentive was
implemented by a local municipality. The results
will be monitored by the grantee during this next
year.
A contract study of the effects of air and water
pollution controls on solid waste generation was
completed. Solid waste residuals were forecast to
increase approximately four-fold by 1985 (over
1971 amounts) as a result of pollution controls.
Solid residuals were identified for individual indus-
trial sectors according to their original air and
water pollutant constituents, and the treatment proc-
ess applied. Major industrial sources of air pollu-
tion are power plants, steel production, cement and
clay production, and nonferrous metallurgy. The
largest contributors to water pollution are sewerage
systems, paper products production, steel products
production, and feedlot operations. Mining and
agricultural wastes exceed all other industrial
sources, but they were excluded from the analysis
because these wastes are disposed of in the imme-
diate area of generation and do not present any
significant urban treatment and disposal problem.
Economic research in resource recovery was limited
mainly to a study on the impact of subsidies in the
paper industry. The research investigated the role
of corporate organizational structures in decision-
making processes related to capital investments and
siting factors. It was observed that corporate man-
agement's concern for primary product production
and preference for known quality and prices of
inputs discourage the use of post consumer-type
secondary fiber for paper production.
76
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control of
landfill leacfiate by
biological treatment method/
The disposal of solid waste by sanitary land-
filling and dumping is commonly practiced and oc-
casionally results in the formation of leachate. The
production of leachate (water that contains dis-
solved and suspended matter from solid waste) is
caused by placement of solid waste in direct con-
tact with surface or groundwater, or it occurs in a
climate and soil environment where infiltration ex-
ceeds evapotranspiration losses at least during a
portion of the year. Proper sanitary landfill design
requires that significant quantities of leachate be
controlled to avoid impairing the use of a surface
or groundwater resource. Interception of leachate
migration from a landfill requires treatment and,
ultimately, disposal of this relatively small-vol-
ume (but initially highly contaminated) flow. At
SHWRL, monitoring grants and contracts awarded
to study control of this leachate is an important
activity.
LEACHATE TREATMENT METHODS
Several investigators studied the treatment of
sanitary landfill leachate, and promising results were
obtained with a number of treatment methods. As
will be shown, it was found that biological treatment
methods are effective when treating leachate gen-
erated from a recent fill. Physical-chemical methods
yielded better results than did biological methods
when treating leachate generated from an old fill.
An extensive study at the University of Illinois rela-
ted the performance of each treatment method to
the composition of the organic matter in the leach-
ate.1 In leachate from young landfills, about 70%
to 80% of the organic matter consists of fatty acids.
Because these organics are most easily removed by
biological treatment, the use of extended aeration
units, activated sludge units, and anaerobic filter
units is appropriate in treating young leachate. After
several years, the percentage of the fatty acid frac-
tion decreases and an increase is observed in the
substances with a molecular weight larger than
50,000. Since this fraction is best removed by
physical-chemical methods such as coagulation and
biological methods, a combination of the two will
remove a satisfactory amount of the organic matter.
The leachate from old fills has very stable charac-
teristics and consists mainly of residual refractory
material with a molecular weight predominantly
between 500 and 10,000. Since this fraction shows
good removal with activated carbon and reverse
osmosis, these physical methods are to be employed
when treating leachate from old fills.
AEROBIC TREATMENT OF LEACHATE
In an initial study, Boyle and Ham- showed that
activated sludge is able to reduce the COD of un-
diluted leachate by 80% to 90%. Some foaming
problems were encountered, however. The com-
bined treatment of leachate and municipal sewage
resulted in even higher percentages of reduction.
Only when more than 5% of the influent volume
consisted of leachate with a sludge age of less
than 11 days, did the effluent COD experience a
substantial increase and did the settling efficiency
characteristics of the unit decrease. Lower volume
percentages of leachate and higher sludge ages re-
sulted in an effluent COD of 30 mg/1 and a sludge
volume index of 60.
The studies of Force and Cook,3 Cook and Force,1
Karr,5 and Pohland and Kang" also evaluated the
aerobic activated sludge treatment of leachate. The
results are listed in Table 7. The data indicate a
dependence between the substrate concentrations
and the influent concentration.
High influent concentrations resulted in high efflu-
ent concentrations probably as a result of the higher
concentration of resistant residual organic matter in
the effluent. These high effluent COD values corres-
pond with BOD values of less than 10 and confirm
that most of the organic matter is present as stable
refractory material.
In a German study that employed young leach-
ate with a large amount of readily degradable or-
ganic matter, researchers found that a good effluent
77
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TABLE 7. KINETIC CONSTANTS OBTAINED FROM BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT STUDIES
OF SANITARY LANDFILL LEACHATE
Author
Foree and Reid (1972)7
Karr (1972)5
Pohland and Kang (1974)6f
Foree and Cook (1972)3
Karr (1972)5
Treatment
unit
anaerobic
digester
anaerobic
digester
activated
sludge unit
activated
sludge unit
activated
sludge unit
Influent Growth yieldt
concentration, Y (mg
gm/1 COD VSS*/mg COD)
12,900
6,000
270
17,500
1,550-4,500
0.33
0.143
0.50
0.4
0.29$
Decay rate, Max- 8rowth rfe
0.17
0.127
0.014
0.05
0.10
1.39
0.5
0.66
0.60
1.0
' Substrate cone.,
Ks, mg/1 COD
633
300
41.3
175
1,460
*Volatile suspended solids.
t All values as BOD.
^Determined from dehydrogenase activity.
quality could be realized with a 10-hr hydraulic
detention time in the activated sludge unit. The
effluent started to deteriorate, however, after a 6-hr
detention period. The best removal was observed
in a two-stage system, with hydraulic detention times
of 6 and 16 hr, respectively.8
More heavy metals are generally removed in
aerobic than in anaerobic systems. Although both
anaerobic and aerobic treatment resulted in large
reductions in the iron concentration in a Georgia
Institute of Technology study5 sponsored by NERC-
Cincinnati, the reduction of calcium and magnesium
was much larger in aerobic units. A similar result
was obtained in the University of Illinois study,1
where aerobic treatment was observed to reduce the
iron concentration from 2,200 mg/1 to less than 1
mg/1 and the zinc concentration of 104 mg/1 to less
than 1 mg/1. Lower removal percentages were ob-
served for calcium (99%), magnesium (89%),
sodium (9.8%), and potassium (9%). A Uni-
versity of Kentucky study reported the removal of
heavy metals from leachate obtained at the EPA
Boone County Field Site were comparable (96%
for iron; 97%, calcium; and 23%, magnesium).3
Schoenberger et al.9 studied the need for adjusting
the pH of the leachate to enhance the removal of
the organic matter in activated sludge systems. No
major effect resulting from pH adjustment by lime,
sodium hydroxide, or sodium carbonate was noticed.
Foree and Cook did find that nutrient addition,
particularly phosphorous, and nutrient addition with
pH adjustment improved the treatment performance
slightly. These laboratory studies have not yet led
to a large-scale application of leachate treatment;
however, several recent sanitary landfill designs
include provisions for leachate treatment.
Anaerobic Treatment of Leachate
Anaerobic treatment of leachate was first reported
by Boyle and Ham who showed that with an influent
COD concentration of 2,700 to 10,650 mg/1 and
a loading of 0.96 kg COD/m3/day (0.06 Ib
COD/ft3/day) a COD removal of more than 90%
could be realized by anaerobic digestion. The efflu-
ent COD concentration varied between 225 to
4,125 mg/1. The authors recorded a negligible build-
up of solids in the digester, which indicates a low
yield factor. The study used a young leachate
with large amounts of readily degraded organic
matter. An aerobic polishing unit was able to
reduce the COD of an anaerobic digester effluent
from 740 to 445 mg/1, suggesting that a substantial
portion of the COD was relatively nondegradable.
More detailed anaerobic treatment studies were con-
ducted by Karr, and Foree and Reid. They used
completely mixed digester reactors in which the
hydraulic detention time was identical to the solids
retention time. Both studies also used a relatively
young leachate; the results of these studies are
also summarized in Table 8.
Although the effluent concentration of biological
reactors utilizing simple sugars as substrate should
be independent of the influent concentration, Karr
found some dependence on the influent concentra-
tion, because the COD measures the total organic
matter which includes the nondegradable substances
in the leachate and in the activated sludge effluent.
Such a dependence was not found for the BOD and
78
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total volatile fatty acids parameter, which indicates
that these are better measures for the biodegradable
organic matter. From the Karr, and Force and Reid
studies it can be shown that higher effluent concen-
trations are observed with higher influent COD
concentrations. Similarly, a high influent concen-
tration corresponded with a higher maximum growth
rate and a higher subconcentration. The three re-
ported studies2-"'-7 clearly showed that anaerobic
digestion is an effective way to reduce the influent
organic concentrations when a relatively young
leachate is treated, since a large fraction of young
leachate consists of free volatile fatty acids.
The anaerobic filter is a fixed bed reactor operated
as an upflow clarifier in order to maintain satura-
tion, and hence anaerobic conditions. When Foree
and Reid compared the performance of an anaerobic
filter to an anaerobic digester at identical volumetric
loading, the COD of the unfiltered anaerobic filter
effluent was 22% that of the COD of the digester
effluent. Based on these promising results, a more
detailed study using an anaerobic filter was con-
ducted at the University of Illinois.1 Preliminary
results of this study (97% reduction of 30,000 mg/1
influent COD) are similar to the results reported
by Foree and Reid; no substantial further COD
decrease was realized in both studies1-T using an
aerobic activated sludge unit to polish the anaerobic
effluent.
The anaerobic digestion, as reported by Boyle
and Ham, resulted in the reduction of several cations
and anions, with the largest reductions observed for
manganese (98%), phosphorus (89%), aluminum
(78%), iron (83%), calcium (70%), and zinc
(31%). Karr found smaller metal reductions in
most cases. All metal reductions were smaller than
those observed for the aerobic systems.
REFERENCES
l.Chian, E. S. K., and F. B. DeWalle. Treatment of
Leachate from Landfills. Second Annual Report (draft).
Contract 68-03-0162. Solid and Hazardous Waste Re-
search Laboratory, USEPA, Cincinnati. 1974.
2. Boyle, W. C., and R. K. Ham. Treatability of Leachate
from Sanitary Landfills. Paper presented at 27th Annual
Purdue Industrial Waste Conference, Lafayette. 1972.
(Proceedings to be published).
3. Foree, E. G., and E. M. Cook. Aerobic Biological
Stabilization of Sanitary Landfill Leachate. Technical
Report TR 58-72-CE21. Civil Engineering Department,
University of Kentucky, Lexington. 1972. 43p.
4. Cook, E. M., and E. G. Foree. Aerobic Biostabilization
of Sanitary Landfill Leachate. Journal Water Pollution
Control Federation. 46:380, 1974.
5. Karr, P. R. Treatment of Leachate from Sanitary Land-
fills. Special Research Problem. Department of Civil
Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology. 1972. 73p.
6. Pohland, F. G., and S. J. Kang. Sanitary Landfill Stabi-
lization with Leachate Recycle and Residual Treatment.
Paper presented at the 76th National Meeting of the
American Institute of Chemical Engineers, Tulsa. 1974.
(Proceedings to be published).
7. Foree, E. G., and V. M. Reid. Anaerobic Biological
Stabilization of Sanitary Landfill Leachate. Technical
Report TR 65-73-CE17. Department of Civil Engineering,
University of Kentucky, Lexington. 1973. 43p.
8. Knoch, J., and R. Stegman. Experiments of the Treat-
ment of Landfill Leachate. Refuse and Waste. [German].
6:166, 1971.
9. Schoenberger, R. I., A. A. Fungaroli, R. L. Steiner,
and S. Zison. Treatability of Leachate from Sanitary
Landfills. In: Proceedings 4th Mid-Atlantic Industrial
Waste Conference, University of Delaware, Newark.
1970. 411-421.
/.fi.uu.l.
79
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Figure 89. (top left) Pilot plant filters (sand, dual media, triple media,
activated carbon).
Figure 90. (top right) Animal feeding studies to determine toxicity of
drinking water contaminants.
Figure 91. (bottom left) JOEL 100B electron microscope used for asbes-
tos fiber counting.
Figure 92. (bottom right) Finnegan GC/MS computer system.
uu./.r.l.
-------
water /upply re/©
The Water Supply Research Laboratory (WSRL):
develops the microbiological, chemical, and engineering technology
necessary to ensure the attainment of drinking water standards and
the maintenance of satisfactory drinking water quality throughout
the distribution system; provides analytical and technical service to
EPA regional offices and the Office of Water and Hazardous
Materials; and performs health-effects studies necessary to develop
criteria upon which to develop standards for drinking, recreational,
and' reuse waters.
STANDARDS ATTAINMENT STUDIES
Water Treatment
Inorganic Contaminant Removal
In 1974, laboratory tests for removal of cadmium were conducted.
With contaminant levels in the range of 3 to 10 times the Drinking
Water Standards* limits, jar test results indicated lime softening could
remove more than 95% of the cadmium. Coagulation with ferric sulfate
at pH 8 gave about 80% removal.
Cincinnati tap water was used to operate the WSRL pilot plant at
8 to 10 1/min; sometimes bentonite (up to 13 turbidity units (T.U.))
was added. Bench-scale and pilot-plant coagulation tests, lasting up to
100 hr, confirmed the jar test results for mercuric chloride, selenate,
and arsenate in the instances for which comparable bench-scale and
pilot-plant testing had been done. Ferric sulfate was more effective
than alum for removal of arsenate and mercuric chloride.
Paniculate Removal
Studies on removing asbestos fibers from water were conducted with
the use of a small, direct-filtration test system having a flow of 0.2 1/min
and a filtration rate of 10 m/hr. Tests were made with granular
dual media (coal-sand) and triple media (coal-sand-garnet) and with
two different 19-m3 (5,000 gal) shipments of Lake Superior water
obtained from the Lakewood Pumping Station in Duluth, Minnesota.
Tests were conducted on an around-the-clock basis for the purpose
of giving some guidance to the pilot-plant research being conducted on
contract at Duluth. Important findings included the potential benefit of
longer filter runs when the cold Lake Superior water was given some
flocculation time between coagulation and filtration, as well as possible
improvements in asbestos fiber removal by using a treatment combination
of an anionic polymer, alum, and a cationic polymer. Certain chemical
doses that were found effective in the small Cincinnati apparatus using
in-line mixers generally proved to be too low in the granular media filters
being studied at Duluth.
*\962 U.S. Public Health Service Drinking Water Standards, Public Health
Service Publication No. 956, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
20402, 61 pp.
81
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Organic Contaminant Removal
Capabilities in evaluating processes for the re-
moval of organics from drinking water were
expanded this year with the introduction of fluores-
cence spectroscopy and a rapid, yet sensitive, instru-
ment for determining total organic carbon (TOC).
As no single method measures the presence of all
organics, these additions along with gas chromatog-
raphy and the carbon chloroform extract (CCE)
have been necessary in our adsorption and oxida-
tion studies.
Oxidation. Three odorous compounds, styrene,
1,2-dichloroethane, and ethylbenzene, were tested for
their removability with the use of ozone and potas-
sium permanganate. Of these three, only styrene
was removed well, but during ozonation the TOC
concentration of the styrene test solution did not
change. At very high doses of ozone, however, up
to 75% of the TOC in Cincinnati tap water could
be eliminated. A contract from the National Science
Foundation for the verification testing of the Alron
home ozonator was completed.
Adsorption. Field evaluation of an operating,
granular, activated carbon bed continued at Daven-
port, Iowa, and another was begun at Little Falls,
New Jersey. In the Little Falls test, three manu-
facturers' activated carbon are being tested in
parallel. Effluent carbon chloroform extract by the
miniaturized method (CCE-m), TOC, and fluores-
cence is being used to evaluate the performance of
these beds. Also during the year, in cooperation
with the Criteria Development Branch in WSRL,
an evaluation of the carbon alcohol extract by the
miniaturized method (CAE-m) portion of the or-
ganics-carbon adsorbable (O-CA) test led to the
recommendation that this portion of the test be dis-
continued. Finally, the effectiveness of powdered
activated carbon to remove other organic parameters
such as CCE-m, TOC, and emission fluorescence
scan (EmFS) was investigated. Up to 16 mg/1 of
powdered activated carbon had little effect on these
parameters.
Halogenated Organics. Toward the end of the
year, a major effort began on how to prevent the
formation of halogenated organics during disinfec-
tion. The staff assigned to organic research was
diverted from on-going studies to work on this im-
portant problem.
Microbiological Inactivation
Improved methods for preparing high-titer chlo-
rine-demand-free virus stocks were developed. Stabil-
ity of virus-clay complexes and the recoverability of
these complexes by cell culture assay were investi-
gated. Preliminary chlorine inactivation investiga-
tions of adsorbed virus and virus flocced with alum
indicate that inactivation rates are similar to those
of free virus.
Water Quality in Distribution Systems
Microbiological Quality
Many promising membrane filter (MF) media
for the standard plate count procedure have been
evaluated during the past year; the results from one
are very encouraging. Results from 56 samples
indicate that counts with this MF media are about
40% higher than corresponding counts using the
standard pour plate procedure. The use of dyes in
this medium as a colony counting aid still must be
evaluated; but, the technique should soon be avail-
able for use in compliance with the new Drinking
Water Standards.
Distribution line samples were collected weekly
in cooperation with the Cincinnati Water Works
during their scheduled flushings of dead-end mains.
There were 135 samples collected from 32 different
locations. Standard plate count (pour plate and
MF) and spread plates were performed on all
samples as well as MF tests for total and fecal
coliforms, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and fecal strep-
tococci. The MPN multiple-tube test for coliforms
was also performed. Bacterial densities ranged from
5/ml to 40,000/ml, with 44% of the samples
having counts greater than 500/ml. Although bac-
terial densities were determined by both the stand-
ard pour plate and spread plate methods, the latter
consistently produced higher counts. Coliform deter-
minations using the MPN procedure resulted in
seven positive coliform occurrences, as opposed to
only one positive occurrence using the MF proce-
dure. This variation indicates a possible desensiti-
zation of the MF method due to high bacterial popu-
lations or interference of pipe sediments on typical
colony development.
The acquisition of a new liquid scintillation spec-
trometer for use in the rapid radiometric procedure
permits automatic counting of radioactive samples
and greatly increases experimental versatility. The
problem of high background counts in experimental
controls appears to be related to both the size and
source of the carbon-14-labeled substrate. Promis-
ing results and increased test sensitivity were ob-
tained with the use of selective media, and using
uniform carbon-14-labeled compounds in the pro-
cedure may result in still greater sensitivity and will
be investigated in future experiments.
Chemical Quality
Water Quality in Distribution Systems. The
Mobile Water Quality Monitoring Laboratory built
under contract by The National Sanitation Founda-
82
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tion has undergone a series of testing and evaluation
studies.
A major effort has been directed toward con-
trolling the on-board sensors and acquiring data for
all parameters being monitored by computer. The
on-board computer system punches out results on
paper tape for later computer processing and anal-
yses through time-sharing teletype services. We
anticipate that with the use of the Optimum Systems
Incorporated computer system we will be able to
extend the capabilities for plotting data.
During an evaluation study, the laboratory was
operated 24 hr/day for several successive days.
During one of these studies, data were taken and
analyzed for presentation at the national AWWA
meeting in Boston. Eighteen parameters were
monitored for that study (Table 8).
Efforts are underway to add iron and nitrate to
our present capabilities. After further evaluations,
the mobile laboratory will be used in the field in
other cities to study the effect of water treatment on
distributed water quality.
Asbestos Fibers. To determine if asbestos fibers
are eroding from asbestos-cement (A/C) pipe, a
"pipe-loop" of A/C pipe has been constructed.
Two loops, about 33 m (100 ft) each are used:
one, 10 cm (4 in) in diameter, the other 15 cm
(6 in). Water circulates continuously through these
two systems and is prefiltered before each pass so
that "particle-free" water enters the pipe each time.
Water leaving the pipes will be sampled continuously
for asbestos fibers as determined by electron photo-
micrographs, electron diffraction patterns, and x-ray
fluorescence. In succeeding tests, waters of differ-
ing pH's and hardnesses will be studied.
Quality of Raw Stored Water
Members of the American Water Works Associa-
tion "Quality Control in Reservoirs" Committee have
received their bottom-mud samplers, and are initiat-
ing a study to compile bacteriological data pertaining
to water quality and the impact of stratification on
reservoirs.
Data obtained on the Cruises Creek Reservoir
(Walton, Kentucky) indicate the influence of storm-
water runoff on water quality. The fecal coliform
density appears to increase 10-fold between dry and
wet period. Stratification does occur with fecal
coliform, and streptococcus densities are greater at
mid-depths (4m; 12 ft) and bottom (approximately
7-8 m; 20-25 ft) than at the surface during dry
periods. Pathogenic organisms (Salmonella sp.)
TABLE 8. PARAMETERS MONITORED BY MOBILE WATER QUALITY MONITORING
LABORATORY
Parameter
Nitrate
Chloride
Turbidity
Total fluoride
Cadmium
Lead
Copper
Hardness
PH
Conductivity
Dissolved oxygen
Temperature
Total residual C12
Free residual Cl,
Scaling
Free fluoride
Alkalinity
Corrosion
Measurement
In Drinking Water Standards and Guidelines
Ion selective electrode
Ion selective electrode
Light scatter
Ion selective electrode (decomplexing buffer added)
Anodic stripping voltametry
Anodic stripping voltametry
Anodic stripping voltametry
Not In Drinking Water Standards and Guidelines
Ion selective electrode
Glass electrode
AC cell
Membrane electrode
Thermistor
Galvanic cell
Galvanic cell
O, diff . through CaCO3 film
Ion selective electrode
Potentiometric
3 electrode electrochemical
Detection limit
0.6 mg/1
3mg/l
0.04 FTU
0.1 mg/1
.001-002 mg/1
.001-002 mg/1
.001-002 mg/1
0.1 mg/lasCaCO3
—
—
0.1 mg/1
—
0.1 mg/1
0.1 mg/1
—
0.1 mg/1
10-20 mg/1
?
83
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have been isolated only from feeder streams—not
from bottom sediment of the reservoir proper. Data
are continuing to be compiled to determine the im-
pact of stratification and stormwater runoff on water
quality of the Cruises Creek Reservoir.
Technical Assistance
Thirty-three State bacteriological laboratories and
five water chemistry laboratories were surveyed in
1974.
In the surveillance of Interstate Carrier Water
Supplies (ICWS) the evaluation of State water sup-
plies and Federal water supplies, and in special
studies, the following number of samples were
analyzed for:
ICWS
State
Federal
Special
Trace
metals
107
420
332t
Complete Pesti-
chemistries cides CCE-m Misc.
137 66 67 —
97 — — 68*
163 — — 664f
*Selenium only.
tTotal and fecal coliforms.
JBoston Lead Study.
An additional 25 samples were analy/ed for bis
chloro ethers by gas chromatography, and 20 sam-
ples, for asbestos by electron microscopy.
In the way of general technical assistance (i.e.,
answering letters, telephone calls, preparing reports,
and working on the drinking water standards)
1,911 man-days were spent by 32 staff members.
A graphite furnace attachment for an atomic
absorption spectrophotometer is being evaluated to
determine whether it is a more sensitive procedure
for determining volatile metals, such as lead, cad-
mium, chromium, arsenic, selenium, and mercury.
Gas chromatographic procedures for the deter-
mination of bis chloro ethers and vinyl chloride are
being investigated and being used to analyze for
ethers in natural water and to study the possible
release of vinyl chloride from PVC pipe.
An electron microscopic procedure utilizing elec-
tron diffraction and energy dispersive x-ray fluores-
cence analysis for identification of asbestos is being
investigated and used to determine the ambient level
of asbestos in selected finished waters from around
the United States and to study the possible release
of asbestos from A/C pipe.
CRITERIA DEVELOPMENT STUDIES
Organic Contaminants
Organic compounds in drinking water, by virtue
of their multiplicity, concentration, toxicity, and
interaction, pose a potential threat to the health and
well-being of citizens throughout the United States.
The definition of any and all adverse health effects
that can be expected from exposure to contaminated
tap water is the subject of a viable research program
aimed at establishing criteria for the "safe" ex-
posure to these chemical agents. The integrated
approach consists of chemical, toxicological, and
epidemiological investigations. The rationale re-
quires (1) that the organics be concentrated and
tested in biological systems appropriate for extrapo-
lation to man, (2) that the organics present be
identified, and (3) that toxic responses in experi-
mental animals be investigated in the human popu-
lation to assess risk.
Chemical Concentration
During the past year, several concentration and
extraction media and techniques were investigated,
including reverse osmosis using both cellulose acetate
and aromatic nylon membranes, nonionic polymeric
adsorbents, osmosis, and porous polymer adsorbents.
After extensive experimentation, the operating para-
meters for concentration that employ cellulose ace-
tate and nylon membranes were established and
applied to a monthly sampling program of one water
supply serving as the pilot for a broader sampling
program. Investigations of macroreticular resins as
a concentration tool led to the conclusion that non-
ionic polymeric adsorbents were inefficient for con-
centrating mixtures of compounds. An osmotic
aqueous concentrator (OAC), recently invented
by Gulf-South Research Institute, was obtained to
determine whether the final concentration step, pres-
ently being performed through lyophilization, could
be improved. Preliminary results with the OAC
were encouraging; however, more extensive testing
will be required to establish the increased benefit
of this instrument. Porous polymer adsorbents were
successfully applied to the recovery of volatile or-
ganics from water. The adsorbents were used in an
instrumentation system called a Volatile Organics
Analyzer (VOA) which was developed by the
scientists of the Methods Development and Quality
Assurance Research Laboratory of NERC-Cincin-
nati. This device not only allows the capture of the
more volatile organic components that had previ-
ously escaped concentration and detection, but also
enables the relatively simple introduction of the
sample into analytical equipment such as a gas
chromatograph and a combination gas chromato-
graph — mass spectrometer (GC/MS).
Chemical Identification
The identification of specific organic compounds
requires the use of sophisticated instrumentation.
During 1974, the Finnigan 1015 GC/MS having
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electron impact and chemical ionization modes was
obtained and placed into service at NERC-Cin-
cinnati and has been used by WSRL to identify
these organic compounds. The instrument's data
handling system was coupled to the mass spectral
libraries of The National Institutes of Health and
Battelle-Columbus for complete referencing. Control
studies were conducted to evaluate and optimize
the instrument in order to obtain the best possible
spectra at maximum sensitivity. A reference com-
pound, decafluorotriphenylphosphine, was adopted
for routine efficiency analysis. The quality of the
spectral data was maximized by applying unique
software referred to as "Integration as a function of
signal strength" (IFSS). Analysis of reverse os-
mosis samples and VOA samples of Cincinnati tap
water identified 2-furaldehyde, methylene chloride,
acetone, chloroform, bromodichloromethane, and
chlorodibromomethane. Mass spectral analysis was
employed to qualitatively compare the composition
of various carbon extracts from drinking water.
Analysis of the samples produced 12,000 spectra.
The reconstructed gas chromatograms from the CAE
and MCS-CAE samples were compared in detail;
the evidence is conclusive that the samples were
dissimilar. The comparisons of the CCE with the
MCS-CAE are incomplete.
Analysis of Acrylamide in Coagulant Aids
Studies were conducted to determine the accuracy,
sensitivity, and specificity of the EPA gas chromato-
graphic method for the measurement of acrylamide
monomer in water treatment poly electrolytes. Sam-
ples of commercial polyacrylamide coagulant aids
were analyzed by the EPA gas chromatographic
method and, concomitantly, by mass spectral anal-
ysis. The results indicate conclusively that the gas
chromatographic method is accurate and sensitive
but that some substances may interfere with the
analysis. The impurities that interfere with the
gas chromatographic analysis produce erroneously
high values of the monomer. Several of the prod-
ucts tested exceeded the EPA maximum allowable
concentration of 0.05% for acrylamide.
Toxicity Assays
Organic concentrates generated by reverse os-
mosis or carbon adsorption were subjected to
toxicity tests in mice. The results indicated that the
reverse-osmosis-derived mixtures were moderately
toxic by the intraperitoneal route and were only
slightly toxic by the oral route. Hydrophilic frac-
tion from three concentrates were tested and found
to have potential for cumulative toxicity. The car-
bon-derived concentrates (CCE and MCS-CAE)
were also found to be moderately toxic but did not
display any cumulative toxicity. Animals treated
with either carbon adsorbate demonstrated deep
stupor and slow shallow breathing but no loss of
irritability.
Studies were initiated to elaborate the toxicity of
bis (2-chloroethyl) ether and bis(2-chloroisopropyl)
ether. The first stage of experimentation, acute tox-
icity, indicates that the compounds are very toxic by
the oral route.
Inorganic Contaminants
Toxicological Studies
The central nervous system effects of lead have
been under study for the past year. In vitro, lead
was seen to affect the kinetics of NAD(P)H oxida-
tion and reduction in rat cerebral cortex slices at a
concentration of 67 /j.m. These changes were ac-
companied by changes in the respiration and aerobic
glycolysis of the tissues. Similar alterations have
been observed in vivo with as little as 12 mg lead/kg
of weight administered over a 14-day period (aver-
age of 0.87 mg/kg each day). The ability of orally
administered manganese to produce the Parkinson-
like syndrome shown to result from excessive inhala-
tion of the metal is presently under investigation.
In this study, the desirability of the practice of com-
plexing rather than removing excessive manganese
in drinking water will also be evaluated.
An effort to define the bioavailability of inorganic
compounds in drinking water was begun this year.
A contract has been let to synthesize radioactively
tagged asbestos fibers. Radioactively tagged fibers
will be used for quantifying the gastrointestinal ab-
sorption and the ultimate distribution of fibers in
the bodies of experimental animals. A research
grant has been awarded for the purpose of quanti-
fying the relative absorption of cadmium from
drinking water and comparing that with cadmium
naturally occurring in food or admixed with the diet.
In addition, the effect of certain hard water con-
stituents (suspected factors in preventing cardio-
vascular disease) on the absorption of cadmium
will also be investigated. These two projects will
be the first of a series of similar studies with other
inorganic constituents of water.
Cadmium has been implicated as a positive causal
agent of renal hypertension. Its ability to damage
tissues, most notably the testicles, kidney, and liver,
is well documented. Although tissue damage is gen-
erally believed to result from a compromise of func-
tion at the molecular or biochemical level, the extent
to which this function has to be damaged at this
level, before its effects are noted in a disturbance of
85
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organ function, is essentially unknown. Animal
experiments are being conducted to investigate the
possibility that cadmium may be a contributing fac-
tor in the genesis, if not the maintenance, of human
hypertension. It is postulated that cadmium accumu-
lation in, and subsequent damage to, the kidney
results in an adverse effect on the metabolism,
activity or regulatory mechanisms of the enzymes
and hormones of the Renin-Angiotensin System.
Positive correlations will provide information to
assist in assessing the possible toxic effects of
chronic exposure to low levels of cadmium before
symptoms of clinical hypertension manifest them-
selves.
Epidemiological Studies
A joint effort of the Water Supply Research Lab-
oratory, the National Heart and Lung Institute, the
National Center for Health Statistics, and the Bureau
of Census was initiated to study the relationships
between trace elements in drinking water and cardio-
vascular disease. This study involves the selection
and physical examination of approximately 4,200
persons in 35 geographically distributed areas over a
15-mo time period; the sample areas and sample per-
sons have been selected by the U.S. Census Bureau to
be representative of the U.S. population. Water
samples are collected from the person's home and
water sources in the area and analyzed for those
metals that are potentially related to cardiovascular
disease. The results of the laboratory analysis of
the water and the measurements of cardiovascular
parameters obtained during the physical examination
will be correlated to determine if there are significant
relationships.
The sample person's cardiovascular function and
condition will be determined by measuring blood
pressure (three times), EKG, cholesterol levels; by
securing a completed medical history and a cardio-
vascular questionnaire; and by obtaining other para-
meters determined during the physical examination
such as chest x-ray. Water samples are to be ana-
lyzed for the following at the specified sensitivities:
Na, K, Ca (100 Mg/l); Li, V, Mn, Fe, Cu, Zn,
Mo, Ag, I (1 /ig/1); Cr, Co, Ni, Cd, Pb (0.1
Mg/1); Mg, As, Se (10 ^g/1); and Si, F, NOr, hard-
ness, alkalinity, conductance, pH.
An extensive review of the applicability of ana-
lytical methodology, particularly multielemental tech-
niques, to the determination of trace elements in
drinking water indicated that proton-induced x-ray
fluorescence and spark source mass spectrometry
appear to have broader ranges of applicability and
greater sensitivities at the present time. One or both
of these techniques will be used to determine those
elements requiring a sensitivity in the 1 /xg/1 range
or less.
During the past year an epidemiologic study was
conducted in the Boston area to determine the rela-
tionship between blood lead levels and the lead
concentration in household tap water. Approxi-
mately 300 households in Brighton, Somerville, and
Cambridge (Massachusetts) were sampled accord-
ing to the type of service line used (lead or non-
lead pipe). Blood samples were collected from
approximately 600 individuals in various age groups;
a questionnaire was completed regarding socio-
economic factors and other sources of lead exposure;
and environmental samples were collected (tap
water, household dust, paint). The data are cur-
rently being analyzed.
Screening for Mutagenic/Carcinogenic Effects
Because of the expense and time required for
animal studies in this area, efforts have concentrated
on rapid, sensitive screening techniques, using mam-
malian cells or bacterial indicators, that can be
applied to the assay of various chemicals or water
samples directly. Standardization of the BUdR-
visible light technique for determining mutant mam-
malian cells in the CHO-K1 cell line is essentially
complete. All control experiments were com-
pleted and application of the technique as a bio-
assay system was initiated this year. Inorganics to
be screened for mutagenic activity will include
arsenic, beryllium, cadmium, cobalt, nickel, selenium,
barium, chromium, copper, lead, manganese, mer-
cury, and zinc. All chemicals screened for for-
ward mutation using the BUdR-visible light isola-
tion technique will also be tested for their ability
to induce reverse mutations at the proline marker.
Thus, the assay system is useful for confirming the
mutagenicity of chemicals by two independent meth-
ods. Several experiments were carried out with re-
spect to reverse mutation at the proline marker.
Although all results obtained so far must be con-
sidered strictly preliminary, some very interesting
trends have been noted. Data obtained from experi-
ments on cells not receiving treatment with chemicals
show a low "spontaneous" mutation rate. Ethyl
methanesulfonate (EMS), a mutagen known to be
able to revert the proline lesion, was tested at two
different concentrations and found to produce muta-
tion rates significantly above the spontaneous rate.
Arsenic (As2O.,) has also been tested, and these
data suggest a mutation frequency for arsenic at
least equal to that obtained with EMS, and pos-
sibly higher. On the other hand, all experiments
with selenium (SeO2) have, so far, yielded no
revertants.
86
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The first year of the grant to evaluate bacterial
and/or mammalian cell monitors for use in screening
municipal water supplies and sources for the pres-
ence of carcinogens was spent primarily in defining
the test systems and evaluating the test systems
with known carcinogens. The indicator systems were
also employed on a limited number of finished and
raw water samples from the lower Mississippi River.
Indicator systems under investigation include histi-
dine-dependent strains of Salmonella typhimurium,
mouse embryo cell R616U infected with the AKR
mouse leukemia virus, the rat embryo cell S1193h,
and the human diploid cell WI-38. Significant
reversion rates were obtained from active carcinogens
with histidine-dependent mutants alone but not with
compounds requiring metabolic activation. When
liver homogenates were used to activate such com-
pounds, significant reversion rates were obtained.
A finished water sample and a river water sample
produced significant reversion rates in the absence
of liver homogenates. Infected R616U cells were
transformed by carbon tetrachloride at concentra-
tions as low as 0.1 ^,g/ml. One finished water sample
and two river water samples produced altered pat-
terns of S1193h cell growth. Since a working bac-
terial indicator system was found, the primary goal
in the coming year will be the development of an
efficiently functioning detection system and establish-
ment of a standard technique applicable to all
samples. For the mammalian cell monitors, further
work on refining methodologies and techniques are
required to ensure that a working system of high
sensitivity is utilized. After the appropriate sys-
tems and methodologies are well defined, a number
of raw and finished water samples will be screened
from the lower Mississippi River.
Occurrence
Additional data are required on the occurrence of
inorganics not included in the Drinking Water Stand-
ards, and a survey of community water supply sys-
tems was planned during the past year. The 35
areas currently included in the cardiovascular study
will be sampled since this will provide results based
on a statistical sampling of the U.S. population.
The applicability of multielemental techniques,
such as neutron activation x-ray fluorescence, emis-
sion, and spark source mass spectrometry was
reviewed for the analysis of water samples for inor-
ganic constituents not in the Drinking Water Stand-
ards. Spark source mass spectrometry was selected
since this technique appears to have a broader range
of elemental applicability and greater sensitivity at
the present time; it will be used to determine the
occurrence of the following elements in the jU.g/1
sensitivity range: B, Be, Al, Sc, Ti, Ga, Ge, Br,
Rb, Sr, Y, Pd, In, Sn, Sb, Te, Cs Ba, La, W,
Pt, Tl, and Bi.
Microbiological Contaminants of Water Supplies
Virus Survey of Drinking Water
From six communities in Ohio, Indiana, and
Missouri, 380-1 (100-gal), finished water samples
were collected and examined for viruses. The virus
isolation-concentration method consisted of passing
conditioned water through a stack of three 293-mm
membrane filters of decreasing porosity, i.e., 8, 1.2,
and 0.45 /mi. This combination of filter porosities
prevented the premature plugging of the concentra-
tion unit before the sample volume had been col-
lected. Viruses adsorbed to the filters were eluted
with 1 liter of pH 11.5 glycine buffer. The viruses
were further concentrated by reducing the pH of the
glycine eluate to pH 3.5 and then passing it through
a stack of three 47-mm Cox filters. These smaller
filters were then eluted with 10 ml of glycine elution
media thereby giving a 37,850 concentration factor.
The 10 ml were placed on monolayers of four cell
types, and the cells were observed for morphological
changes indicative of viral replication. This pro-
cedure has been tested in our laboratory and shown
to consistently recover poliovirus 1 seeded at one
virus unit per 380 1 (100 gal) were examined.
A total of 41 samples were collected during the
year. Five of these were samples in which a known
virus was added at random to test the sensitivity of
the method in the field. Each of these "positive con-
trols" was a different virus serotype added at a
concentration of 100 TCD50/380 1 (100 gal). Four
of the five positive controls were recovered. Diffi-
culty was experienced in collecting and eluting the
sample containing the fifth positive control; this
difficulty would explain the failure to recover the
virus. Twenty-five of the thirty-six test samples have
been completely processed thus far through the cell
culture system. To this date, no viruses have been
isolated from these samples.
Calibration of Virus Recovery Techniques
The current research effort is oriented toward
evaluating several virus adsorbent systems for de-
tecting low levels of virus in 380 to 1,900 1 (100
to 500 gal) of water. The long range objective is
to determine the minimum sample size required to
consistently detect one virus in 380 1 (100 gal) of
water. To sample and condition such large quantities
of water for viral adsorption enhancement, an ap-
paratus was developed, constructed, and tested that
effectively conditions unlimited quantities of water
for enteric virus detection. Four candidate virus
adsorbent systems for concentrating and detecting
87
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virus in 380 to 1,900 1 (100 to 500 gal) of finished
drinking water have been evaluated. The virus
adsorbent systems were tested under simultaneous
experimental conditions. The four virus adsorbent
systems consisted of: Millipore membrane filters; A A
Cox M—780 fiber glass microfilters; Balston fiber
glass microfilter; and K-27 fiber glass depth filter
coupled with an AA Cox M-780 fiber glass micro-
filter. A total of one hundred and fifty-six 100-gal
(380 1) sampling runs and fifteen 500-gal (1,900 1)
sampling runs were completed in the first 6 mo of
this year. The model virus used in the evaluation
test runs was poliovirus type 1 (vaccine strain).
Virus inputs ranged from one virus (one infectious
unit)/3.8 1 (1 gal) to one virus/95 1 (25 gal)
in the 380 1 (100 gal) sampling runs and one
virus/ 76 1 (20 gal) to one virus/209 1 (55 gal) in
the 1,900 1 (500 gal) sampling runs. Analytical
examination of the virus recovery data indicated
no statistically significant difference in virus recovery
efficiency among the four virus adsorbents tested.
With few exceptions, virus was detected under all
conditions of experimentation, which indicates that
the method used to isolate virus, regardless of viral
adsorbent selected, is highly sensitive. The success
of the experimentation, coupled with the need for
methods standardization for virus detection in water,
resulted in the preparation and submittal of a tenta-
tive standard method for detecting virus in drinking
water for the 14th edition of Standard Methods for
the Examination of Water and Waste-water. The
concomitant development of an apparatus for condi-
tioning unlimited quantities of water and the demon-
stration of sensitivity of the method for detecting
two to three virus units in 380 1 (100 gal) of
finished drinking water satisfies not only the logis-
tics but also closely approaches the scientific re-
quirements for effectively examining drinking water
for enteric viruses.
Waterborne Disease Outbreaks
The outbreaks reported in 1973 were reviewed in
1974 and by polling the states, eight additional out-
breaks were uncovered. Information, thus far, re-
garding waterborne outbreaks in the United States
during 1973 shows:
• 24 outbreaks in 12 states, with a total of 1,720
cases,
• 16 of these outbreaks occurred in semipublic
systems, 5 in municipal systems, and 3 in indi-
vidual systems, and
• also, 690 cases of illness in outbreaks from
water aboard cruise ships in the Caribbean.
Safe Recreational Water Quality Criteria
After finding the epidemiological and microbio-
logical methodology pretested at the New York City
beaches during the summer of 1973 to be not only
satisfactory but also significant in understanding the
difference in the illness rates of test and control
beaches, the first year's study was conducted in the
summer of 1974. In total, data were obtained on
14,000 persons at the beaches. For the persons who
could provide a phone number so they could be
contacted during the following week, a satisfactory
set of illness data was obtained, and the data are
being analyzed. The mail contact for persons with-
out phones was not fruitful. The study will be
repeated next summer to cover a range of beach
conditions, and the interim criteria will be produced,
as scheduled, in 1976.
Field Evaluation of Fecal Streptococcus Methods
Because available methods recommended to us
for enumeration by membrane filter procedures of
fecal streptococci were unsuitable when evaluated
with samples collected locally and at the New York
City beaches, we developed and satisfactorily eval-
uated a method for enumerating Group D strepto-
cocci (mSD).
Methodology for the Enumeration of Salmonella
A spin-off from the high-volume sampling
procedure developed for enumerating Salmonella
(HVS-S) in marine water was its successful appli-
cation to potable water. The HVS-S, used in con-
junction with the most probable number technique,
allows enumerating salmonellae in up to 55.5 1 of
marine waters. The basic procedure (HVS) is now
being used to enumerate total and fecal coliforms,
in up to 380 1 (100 gal) of potable water, in the
study of the microbiological contaminants of drink-
ing water.
Development of Methods for the Enumeration
of Coliform Biotypes
An enumerative, membrane filter method for total
coliforms and component genera, Escherichia, Kleb-
siella, and Enterobacter-Citrobacter, was developed
and evaluated with samples collected from the New
York City beaches during the summer of 1973 and
1974. By using a series of in situ tests superimposed
on an initial selective differential membrane filter
medium, we are able to recover data without re-
course to picking colonies for identification.
Adapting Staphylococcus aureus Techniques for
Use in Marine Waters
Existing membrane procedures for enumerating
Staphylococcus aureus were found to be unsatisfac-
tory for use in polluted marine waters. After an
unanticipated delay, excellent progress is now being
made on the development of the method, and an
early completion date (January 1975) is anticipated.
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Enumerative Method for Vibrio parahemolyticus it has been found satisfactory for the examination
The method developed (mPA) involves a selec- of water samples from the New York City beaches.
tive-differential primary membrane filter medium, This procedure should also prove of value as a
an in situ test that screens out most organisms other means of detecting this organism and, with some
than Vibrio parahemolyticus, and a single tube con- modifications, other members of the genus Vibrio
firmation procedure. In a preliminary evaluation, responsible for fish kills.
89
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a/be/to/ in
drinking water
current /tudie/
Asbestos fibers are known to be a respiratory
carcinogenic hazard. The question of whether in-
gested asbestos fibers are also a hazard has been
raised and NERC-Cincinnati has been involved with
studies directed at providing some short term
answers. During the past year the Water Supply
Research Laboratory conducted further activities
designed to resolve questions related to analyzing
and treating asbestos fibers in drinking water. A
study was also initiated to determine if release of
asbestos fibers from asbestos-cement pipe is a prob-
lem. An Environmental Protection Agency — Food
and Drug Administration interagency chronic inges-
tion study of the carcinogenicity of ingested asbestos
has been designed and will be implemented to answer
some of the health effects questions that now exist.
Our analytical activities were a follow-up of prob-
lems experienced previously. As reported last year,
initially over 50 Duluth area samples and over 200
treatment samples were analyzed by an optical
microscopy procedure similar to that used by Na-
tional Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
for determination of airborne asbestos in a factory
environment. Unfortunately, as subsequently estab-
lished, optical microscopy is useless for detecting
asbestos in most water supplies because the size
of the fibers (less than 0.1 //.m in diameter) usually
found are too small to be visible. In January 1974,
the Center's electron microscope became operational
and an effort was made to develop a technique for
using it to analyze for asbestos in water. It has been
found that the instrument can be used for counting
and sizing the fibers, provided electron diffraction
and/or energy dispersive x-ray fluorescence is used
to identify the fibers. Electron diffraction will
classify the fibers as being either chrysotile, amphi-
bole, or non-asbestos and if an energy dispersive
x-ray fluorescence attachment is also available it
may be possible to determine the kind of amphibole
present. Because some waters contain a significant
amount of other debris it may be necessary to first
ash the filtered sample in a low-temperature oven to
destroy the organic matter before undertaking anal-
ysis. Sampling also may be a problem since the
asbestos particles appear to become attached to
the other debris in the sample and to the container
walls if stored for long periods before analysis. Care
must also be exercised to be sure that samples are
not contaminated in preparation for analysis as
asbestos seems to be ubiquitous.
Although the method of analysis is still under
development and perfection, about 20 treatment
samples and 25 interstate carrier samples have been
analyzed. Only about four of the interstate carrier
samples were found to contain significant numbers
of fibers.
After asbestos fibers were discovered in the drink-
ing water of Duluth, Minnesota, and other nearby
Lake Superior communities, a program of pilot
plant research and water resources investigations
was undertaken by EPA Region V and the St. Paul
District of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.
Technical assistance for the pilot plant research
was provided by the Water Supply Research Lab-
oratory in Cincinnati. The goal of the research was
to evaluate diatomaceous earth filtration and granu-
lar media filtration for efficacy of fiber removal and
clarification.
The pilot plant operation carried out by the con-
tractor, Black and Veatch at Duluth's Lakewood
Pumping Station, covered a time span from April
through September. In 22 weeks of filtration studies,
over 400 separate filtration tests were performed.
The kinds of filters tested were: dual media, mixed
media, pressure diatomite, and vacuum diatomite.
For the granular (dual or mixed) media filters,
chemical combinations of inorganic salts (alum or
ferric chloride) and polymers (nonionic, anionic, or
cationic) were tested. Flash mixing with propeller
mixers and in-line mixers was investigated. Filtra-
tion was tested with and without tube settlers in
place.
Diatomaceous earth (DE) filtration investigations
involved variations of DE size and treatment of DE.
90
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Figure 93. Pilot plant being used to evaluate filtration
media for fiber removal (Duluth, Minnesota).
Diatomite for precoat and body feed was used with-
out treatment as well as with alum coating or
anionic or cationic polymer coating.
Analysis of the experimental data reveals that
the most effective granular filtration method, as
measured by effluent turbidity, involved use of alum
and a nonionic polymer. At 4 gpm/sf with dual
media, effluent turbidities averaged 0.20 T.U. vs.
0.10 to 0.15 T.U. for mixed media. Turbidities were
lower (0.10 vs. 0.15) for mixed media with polymer
addition in the flocculation chamber; and the use
of two separate, sequential flash mixers for addition
of alum and nonionic polymer lowered estimated
chemical costs by about 10% as compared to less
efficient mixing.
The Erdlator, a pressure diatomite filter, generally
produced lowest effluent turbidities (0.12 or lower)
when precoated first with a larger size of DE and
then with a finer DE. The lowest chemical costs
and lowest turbidities (0.06 T.U.) were achieved
with a two-step precoat with alum coated diatomite
in the fine precoat and alum coated body feed.
Analysis of EM data reveals that amphibole fibers
were more easily removed than chrysotile. The use
of alum and a nonionic polymer in a dual media
filter operated at 4 gpm/sf resulted in removal of
amphibole fibers to below detectable limits (BDL)
in 9 of 10 direct filtration runs and 8 of 9 runs with
tube settlers in place. In the mixed media filtration
experiments, amphibole fiber removal to BDL oc-
curred in three of four tests with alum and nonionic
polymer added in two-stage flash mixing, and in
two of two tests involving in-line mixers and sequen-
tial addition of alum and nonionic polymer as well
as two of two tests with in-line mixers and sequential
addition of anionic polymer, alum, and cationic
polymer.
Amphibole removal by pressure diatomite filtra-
tion was most effective with a two-step precoat
technique. Conditioning of both precoat and body
feed diatomite with alum and soda ash gave amphi-
bole removals to BDL in three of three runs.
Chrysotile removal proved to be more difficult. Re-
moval to BDL occurred in one of four mixed media
runs with two-stage flash mix for sequential addition
of alum and nonionic polymer. With in-line mixers.
one of two mixed media runs involving sequential
addition of anionic polymer, alum, and cationic
polymer gave removal of chrysotile to BDL. In the
pressure diatomite filter, two-stage precoat and
cationic polymer conditioning of the body feed gave
a BDL chrysotile value on one of three runs.
The pilot plant research at Duluth demonstrated
that asbestiform fibers could be removed by water
filtration. However, proper chemical conditioning of
the particulate matter in the water and/or the filter
media is essential if fiber removal is to be achieved.
Careful, diligent operation of the filter systems is
also necessary. Under these conditions, filtration of
public water supplies for asbestiform fiber removal
ought to be successful.
The objectives of the study by WSRL with asbes-
tos-cement pipe are to determine the influence of
water velocity, aggressiveness of water, and elapsed
times on the release of fibers from asbestos-cement
pipe. To resolve these objectives a controlled pipe
loop test of approximately 90 ft of each 4-in and
6-in asbestos-cement pipe will be subjected to con-
tinuous recirculation and sampling of water. Prior
to entering the pipe systems the water will be filtered
through 1.0 ii.m and 0.45 //m filters. The sample
filters will be 0.45 /tm so any fibers collected on
them would be expected to come from the pipe.
The flow rate through each pipe loop will be about
150 gpm. The principal water quality parameters
will range from pH 5.5 to pH 9.5 and hardness of
20 to 400 mg/1.
91
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Most of the equipment for the study has been
obtained as of October 9, 1974, and will be in opera-
tion during the latter part of calendar year 1974.
The design of a study to elucidate the carcino-
genicity of ingested asbestos was the central ques-
tion of a committee composed of biological scientists
from the Environmental Protection Agency, the Food
and Drug Administration's Bureau of Foods and
Bureau of Drugs, the National Cancer Institute, the
National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health,
and the National Institute of Environmental Health
Sciences. The committee developed a chronic in-
gestion study using an experimental animal model
used successfully in such types of previous investi-
gations. According to the protocol, groups of ani-
mals will be exposed to graded doses (added to
either food or water) of one of four types of as-
bestos: chrysotile, crocidolite, tremolite, or amosite.
Utilizing the serial sacrifice approach, the study is
expected to yield not only information on tumor inci-
dence but also semi-quantitative data on the time of
tumor appearance. This proposed study, which is
scheduled for joint funding by EPA and FDA,
has been recommended to the Director of NIEHS
for final approval and is now awaiting funding.
During the past year, a research grant at the Uni-
versity of Rhode Island showed asbestos to be
readily taken up by cultured mammalian cells. A
study of the effects of asbestos in various types of
mammalian cells, particularly ultrastructural changes,
is in progress.
A contract has also been let to synthesize radio-
actively-tagged asbestos fibers which will be suitable
for quantifying the gastrointestinal absorption and
the ultimate distribution of fibers in the bodies of
experimental animals.
92
uj./.r.l.
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throughout the u/o
AT HOME
Foreign Visitors
During 1974, NERC-Cincinnati received 213 foreign visitors repre-
senting national and local governments, industry, and academic or
other institutions from 28 countries. Foreign visitors are very interested
in our major water programs, the Advanced Waste Treatment Research
Laboratory and the Water Supply Research Laboratory, and in our
solid waste activities. The Environmental Toxicology Research Labora-
tory and the Industrial Waste Treatment Research Laboratory at Edison,
New Jersey, also received a goodly share of visitors. The countries
represented by these visitors (and their numbers) in 1974 were: Japan,
82; USSR, 27; Poland, 19; Germany, 14; Brazil, 10; Australia, 7;
Denmark, 5; South Africa, Romania, the Netherlands, Italy, and Israel,
4 each; Dominican Republic, England, India, Sweden, and Switzerland,
3 each; Canada, Hungary, and Norway, 2 each; and Belgium, Czechoslo-
vakia, China, France, Greece, Iran, Lebanon, and Thailand, 1 each.
Typical visits made to NERC-Cincinnati installations can be illustrated
by those to the unique facility at Leonardo, New Jersey — the Oil and
Hazardous Materials Simulated Environmental Test Tank (OHMSETT).
A delegation of six Soviet maritime scientists visited the OHMSETT
facility and Industrial Waste Treatment Research Laboratory (IWTRL)
under the auspices of the U.S. /USSR Agreement on Cooperation in
the Field of Environmental Protection (working group on marine pollu-
tion from shipping) to follow through with technical discussions devel-
oped by the group during a meeting held earlier in the year in the
Soviet Union. J. Stephen Dorrler of IWTRL and Alexander Seminov
of the USSR were named co-project leaders on a proposed joint project
to develop standard test procedures to evaluate the effectiveness of oil
dispersing and surface collecting agents. Later, a French scientist, Mr.
Mourlon, and a Canadian scientist, Mr. Ross, visited IWTRL to dis-
cuss oil-spill control technology and to explore future use of the
OHMSETT facility in the Canadian oil spill program. As the result
of a visit of delegates from the Bridgestone Tire Co., Ltd. of Tokyo,
Japan, to the IWTRL and its OHMSETT facility to discuss the testing
of an oil spill containment device manufactured by the company, a
tentative testing schedule for Spring 1975 has been set.
Foreign Scientists Conducting Research and Receiving Training
Although NERC-Cincinnati has no formal research training program
for visiting scientists, several requests are made each year by foreign
governments and scientists to come here for work experience in special
fields. During 1974, the following scientists, supported by the World
Health Organization, conducted research and obtained training at the
Water Supply Research Laboratory (WSRL), the Methods Develop-
93
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ment and Quality Assurance Research Laboratory
(MDQARL), and the Advanced Waste Treatment
Research Laboratory (AWTRL):
Name
Dr. Maria
T. Martins
Dr. Mihaly
Csanady
Luis A.
Batiston
Dr. Vladimir
Zahradka
Position
Chief Biologist, Pub-
lic Works, Technical
Center for Basic
Sanitation, Sao
Paulo, Brazil
Head, Water, Chem-
istry Laboratory,
State Institute of
Public Health,
Budapest, Hungary
Supervisor, Virology
Group, National
Sanitation Works,
Buenos Aires,
Argentina
Senior Scientist,
Water Research Insti-
tute, Prague,
Czechoslovakia
Laboratory Date
WSRL 1/7/74
and to
MDQARL 4/5/74
MDQARL 6/19/74
and to
WSRL 11/19/74
MDQARL 6/3/74
and to
WSRL 7/19/74
AWTRL
10/16/74
to
2/75
While at NERC-Cincinnati, Dr. Martins worked
with NERC research groups to learn about the
techniques for detection and measurement of viruses
in water. Dr. Martins will set up a laboratory for
virus research in Brazil. In a previous year, NERC
personnel visited Brazil to assist with this project.
Dr. Csanady received information and training in
a variety of chemical analytical methods related to
water. While working with the WSRL, he conducted
useful research on the effects of water treatment
processes on removal of cadmium.
Mr. Batiston worked with NERC personnel to
learn the techniques for identification and recovery
of viruses. This information will be put to use in
his laboratory operations in Argentina.
Dr. Vladimir Zahradka is a visiting guest engineer
with the Biological Treatment Section. Dr. Zahradka
is investigating a unique process that combines the
principles of chemical-physical and biological waste-
water treatment. His work concerns the use of air
stripping ammonia nitrogen from the main flow
stream and coincident trapping of the existing air on
a nitrification column. Dr. Zahradka's enthusiasm
and engineering ability have contributed to rapid
progress on the project.
ABROAD
Public Law 480 Projects
Under P. L. 480, United States counterpart funds
in foreign countries are being used to finance proj-
ects designed to advance scientific and technical
research in the particular country as well as in the
United States. From NERC-Cincinnati, project
officers supervise investigations relating to the
identification and solution of environmental prob-
lems.
• Physico-Chemical Treatment of Combined In-
dustrial/Municipal Wastewater and Sludge
Utilization, Environmental Pollution Abatement
Center, Katowice, Poland (Principal Investiga-
tor: Dr. Jan Suschka; EPA Project Officer: Dr.
Herbert Skovroneck)
Initial attempts to optimize pollutant removal by
coagulation of mixed wastewater high in dissolved
and suspended iron have indicated that only partial
treatment can be achieved, even with commercial
coagulants. In June, the Project Officer and Dr.
David Jenkins (University of California) visited
Poland to obtain an update on the project and to
make necessary changes to redirect the current, cam-
paign toward the development of a combined bio-
logical and physico-chemical treatment system ac-
ceptable for such a heavily loaded wastewater. The
primary sludge, which is very high in iron salts, is
being considered as a possible substitute for com-
mercial coagulants. In October, Mrs. Kosarewicz
and Mrs. Wysokinska, two of the principal scientists
on the project, visited the United States to discuss
the project and to tour various industrial facilities
and waste treatment plants.
• Solid Wastes in India, National Environmental
Engineering Research Institute, Nagpur, India
(Principal Investigator: Mr. A. D. Bhide,
Head, Solid Waste Division; EPA Project
Officer: Mr. Louis W. Lefke)
The purpose of this study, started in 1971, was
to examine current solid waste management practices
in India and to determine the characteristics of
municipal refuse. Such information will be valuable
in future planning and in making immediate recom-
mendations as to the methods of collection, trans-
fer, and disposal that are best suited to conditions
in India. This will also help identify areas where
research and development efforts need to be con-
centrated.
A final report has been received and this study
has resulted in several important conclusions. First,
processing and disposal techniques commonly used
in western countries are not directly applicable in
India since Indian solid waste contains much higher
percentage of earth and compostable fraction with
much lower percentage of paper, plastics, and glass
than normally found in the West. Second, efficient
operation of any solid waste system requires proper
delegation of responsibility to highly competent em-
ployees at all levels. Since many solid waste man-
agement functions are engineering oriented, suitably
trained public health engineers should be entrusted
94
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with the job. Such a practice could substantially im-
prove conditions in India. Third, the total cost of
solid waste management could be reduced by using
vehicles specially designed for the purpose, instead
of the currently employed vehicles originally used
for other activities. Money saved by cutting the
cost of solid waste transport (the most costly part
of solid waste management in India) could be in-
vested in upgrading disposal practices. Fourth,
Indian solid wastes are found to contain intestinal
parasites Ascaris lumbricoid.es and Trichuris trich-
iura.
This survey has yielded much useful information
on solid waste practices and on the composition of
solid waste in India. It has also provided the basic
information of vital importance in planning future
research effort.
• Neutralization and Utilization of Post-Coagu-
lation Sludges, Research Institute on Environ-
mental Development, Warsaw, Poland (Prin-
cipal Investigator: Dr. Pawel Blaszczyk; EPA
Project Officer: Dr. Robert B. Dean)
This project deals with sludges produced by water
purification with alum. The sludges produced when
dirty river waters are coagulated resemble sludges
produced by similar coagulation of wastewaters.
Two major objectives being studied are reduction of
volume of the aluminum hydroxide sludges and
recovery of alum. A third objective is to evaluate
the impact of alum sludges on wastewater treatment
plants.
• Utilization of Sewage Sludge from Combined
Treatment Plant, Institute of Meteorology and
Water Economy, Wroclaw, Poland (Principal
Investigator: Dr. Josef Cebula; EPA Project
Officer: Dr. Robert B. Dean)
This project deals with the sludges from moun-
tainous areas where there are industries based on
natural fibers and leather. All drainage to a water
supply reservoir is to be collected, and the sludges
will be combined for utilization in agriculture. In
addition to evaluation of potential contaminating
elements in the area sludges, a study will be made of
the effects of metals in the Wroclaw sewage farm
that has received urban waste waters and sludges
for 90 years without adverse effects on the farm
produce.
The principal investigator visited the United
States twice in the current year, and the project
officer, Dr. R. B. Dean, has visited Poland two
times in the previous years to coordinate both Polish
projects.
• Development of Methods and Techniques for
Final Treatment of Combined Municipal and
Textile Wastewaters Including Sludge, Water
Economy Research Institute, Katowice, Poland
(Principal Investigator: Dr. Jan Suschka; EPA
Project Officer: Dr. Robert L. Bunch)
Various wastewater treatment processes are being
evaluated as to their efficacy in treating a combina-
tion of domestic and textile wastewater. A list of
typical dyes used in dyeing both natural and man-
made fibers has been compiled. From this inventory
of dyes, the most popular dye used from each class
of dyes was chosen for determining adsorption iso-
therms with the use of activated carbon. There was
a wide range in the adsorptive capacity of the car-
bon for the seven dyes tested: from 5,630 mg/g
of carbon for the sulfur dyes to 20 mg/g for a dye
in the reactive dye class.
Because the primary sludge tends to adsorb the
dyes, the concentration of the dye in the sludge can
be more than six times that of the raw sewage. Some
of the dyes are toxic to digester operations. Many
of the metal complex dyes prevent methane pro-
duction when added at 1% of the sludge.
• Factors Influencing Lead Absorption from the
Intestine, Institute for Medical Research and
Occupational Health, Zagreb, Yugoslavia (Prin-
cipal Investigator: Dr. K. Kostial; EPA Project
Officer: Dr. Jerry F. Stara)
This project includes studies concerned with: the
influence of lead on calcium and strontium transfer
through the duodenal wall in rats; comparative trans-
port of lead-203 and calcium-47 from mother to
offspring during pregnancy and lactation; and lead
acetate toxicity in rats in relation to age and sex.
• Epidemiological Study of Methemoglobinemia
in Croatia, Institute of Public Health in Croatia,
Zagreb, Yugoslavia (Principal Investigator: B.
Plese; EPA Project Officer: Mr. Leland J. Mc-
Cabe)
The project is an attempt to correlate the methe-
moglobin levels in infants with the nitrate ingested
with drinking water. To date, the research team
has examined several hundred children and found
methemoglobin levels as high as 20% with 20
clinical cases of methemoglobinemia. The clinical
cases provide an opportunity to study factors that
allow some children to develop the disease and not
others. Methemoglobin reductase activity in the
study population does not seem to be a factor.
• The Role of Silicates in the Etiopathogenesis of
Endemic Nephropathy, Belgrade University
Medical School, Belgrade, Yugoslavia (Princi-
pal Investigator: A. Bata; EPA Project Officer:
Mr. Leland J. McCabe)
Dr. Robert Tardiff of Water Supply Research
Laboratory made a 3-day site visit to the project and
95
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developed plans for the next year's research. The
project is an attempt to determine if endemic
nephropathy (Balkan nephritis) is caused by silicates
in the drinking water; the project will also provide
some basic data on the health effects of silicates.
To date, experimentation has consisted of two
studies. In the first, groups of rats were given graded
doses of ground quartz in their drinking water for
1 year. In the second, animals were maintained on
water (taken from a well from the endemic area)
containing a high concentration of silicate. The
results of the first experiment indicated that some
mild histopathological changes were observed in the
kidneys of animals treated with quartz. All other
results were negative.
NERC Visits Abroad
Dr. Peter B. Lederman, Director of the Industrial
Waste Treatment Research Laboratory, visited river
basin authorities in Germany, France, and the
Netherlands to discuss various industrial waste
problems, particularly industrial/municipal treat-
ment.
Dr. Robert G. Tardiff visited Yugoslavia, Den-
mark, the Netherlands, and England to monitor a
P.L. 480 Grant and to exchange information on the
toxicity of environmental chemicals.
Mr. Edwin E. Geldreich participated in a Geneva
Conference with a Group of Experts on Scientific
Aspects of Marine Pollution to complete work on
biological parameters in a marine pollution monitor-
ing system.
Dr. James M. Symons visited France, the Nether-
lands, Switzerland, Germany, and the United King-
dom. He presented a paper at the 10th International
Water Supply Congress in the United Kingdom and
held extensive talks with water authorities in the
other countries on mutual water treatment and
analytical problems.
Dr. Shih L. Chang traveled to Belgium, Germany,
Austria, and Switzerland. He presented a paper in
Munich at the 3rd International Congress on Para-
sitology and visited institutions in the field of
parasitology in the other countries.
Dr. Gerald Berg was chairman of the session on
"Indicators of Sewage Pollution" at the International
Symposium on Discharge of Sewage from Sea Out-
falls held in London, England. Dr. Elmer W. Akin
attended this meeting and presented a paper. With
Mr. Francis Middleton, both Dr. Berg and Dr.
Akin also attended the International Association
on Water Pollution Research in Paris, France,
where Dr. Berg presented a paper and Mr.
Middleton chaired a session. Dr. Berg further at-
tended the Conference on Viruses in Water in
Mexico City and chaired the panel on Reclamation
and Disposal.
Dr. Norman A. Clarke attended an invitational
Conference on Viruses in Water in Mexico City
where United States practices and EPA programs
were discussed.
After a delegation of three Polish engineers visited
the Mining Pollution Control Branch laboratory to
discuss the effect of acid mine drainage on industrial
wastewaters and treatment alternatives, Mr. Ronald
D. Hill then visited Poland, where several projects
concerning treatment methods for water pollution
problems from coal mining were discussed.
At the request of the Bahamian Government,
Mr. John S. Farlow visited this Caribbean country
to obtain background information for a technical
report recommending the establishment of an oil
pollution management system. The recommendation
includes a suggested legal structure for prevention
and control of oil spills, identification of sources of
potential spills, establishment of an inventory of
cleanup and control equipment, and training in re-
sponse to a request originating from the Pan Ameri-
can Union.
In the summer of 1974, Dr. Jerry F. Stara's
travels in Europe included: a review visit on a Pub-
lic Law 480 project to Zagreb, Yugoslavia; attend-
ance and presentation of a paper at the International
Symposium on Recent Advances in the Assessment
of Health Effects of Environmental Pollution in
Paris, France; a visit to the National Institute for
Oncology (Professor Maltoni) in Bologna, Italy,
to review the vinyl chloride carcinogenesis data; and
attendance and presentation of two papers at the
World Congress for Environmental Biology and
Medicine, in Paris, France. In addition, the Environ-
mental Toxicology Research Laboratory staff had
a number of contacts concerning either review of
documents or proposals for research projects with
the following countries: Poland, Belgium, India,
and Israel.
A number of internationally significant events
took place that did not require foreign travel by
NERC-Cincinnati personnel. Some of these events
included: Solid and Hazardous Waste Research
Laboratory (SHWRL) participation in the "Sym-
posium on Control of Fine Particulate Emissions
from Industrial Sources" (January 14-18, 1974,
San Francisco), sponsored by the U.S.-USSR Work-
ing Group on Stationary Source Air Pollution Con-
trol Technology, after which SHWRL served as one
of several hosts to the Soviet delegates on subse-
quent visits to inspect the CPU-400 project and a
fabric filter installation on an oil-fired power plant.
In April 1974, SHWRL also participated on the
Particulate Committee of the Working Group that
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met in Washington to develop a detailed protocol
for an information exchange and a joint research
program to be carried out under the terms of a
1972 treaty for cooperative activities in environ-
mental affairs. As a result of visits from solid waste
experts from foreign countries, considerable rap-
port has developed between scientists in SHWRL
and such countries as Israel, Japan, and Germany.
A considerable technical exchange of information
on current studies, available reports, and solutions
to problems beneficial to both countries has de-
veloped.
The 10-min color videotape on "CAM-1" (see
TV Production Unit section), prepared at the re-
quest of Mr. Fitzhugh Green, EPA Office of Inter-
national Activities, was featured at the September
1974 meeting of the Society for Water Treatment
and Examination at Reading, England.
INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS,
WORKING AGREEMENTS, AND
CONFERENCES
International Joint Commission — United States/
Canada
Mr. Dwight G. Ballinger, Director of the Methods
Development and Quality Assurance Research Lab-
oratory, served as Chairman of the Standing Com-
mittee on Analytical Sampling and Measurement
Methods, Research Advisory Board, International
Joint Commission. At regular meetings of the Com-
mittee held in Canada and the United States, re-
ports are made of research needs and on-going
research in both countries.
Mr. Leland J. McCabe of the Water Supply
Research Laboratory is a member of the Medical
Committee of the Great Lakes Research Advisory
Board whose function is to identify immediately and
anticipate future health problems in the Great Lakes
and to assess research needs.
Throughout the year, Mr. John J. Con very,
Director of the Advanced Waste Treatment Research
Laboratory, served as a member of the Standing
Committee on Water and Wastewater Treatment,
Research Advisory Board, International Joint Com-
mission. At regular meetings of the Committee held
in Canada and the United States, reports and recom-
mendations on research needs and on-going research
in both countries were discussed and recommenda-
tions forwarded to the Research Advisory Board.
Reports relating to PCB's have been reviewed. The
Committee is working on guidelines to good prac-
tice in the wastewater treatment field.
United States — German Cooperative Program in
Water Pollution Abatement
This program was established in 1966 and has
proceeded informally. Dr. Robert B. Dean, the
designated representative for sludge, met with the
German designate, Dr. Professor W. Niemitz, Insti-
tute for Water, Soil, and Air Hygiene of the Federal
Health Office, during a visit to Berlin in May. He
also visited the new Berlin sludge treatment plant
that incorporates heat treatment of sludges.
United States — Japan Conference on Sewage
Treatment Technology
One of the results of the United States/Japan
Ministerial Conference on Environmental Pollution
held in Washington, D.C., in June 1971 was the
establishment of a Joint Sewage Treatment Tech-
nology Conference. Both the United States and
Japan are engaged in a very large construction pro-
gram of wastewater treatment plants. New water-
quality demands require extensive research for
bettering treatment technology. Three Joint Confer-
ences, two in Japan, have been held between expert
teams on both sides to exchange knowledge in the
treatment area.
In February 1974, Mr. Francis M. Middleton,
Deputy Director of NERC-Cincinnati headed a
team (composed of Mr. Jesse M. Cohen, Mr. Edwin
F. Earth, Dr. Joseph B. Farrell from NERC-Cin-
cinnati and four others) that visited Japan to hold
the Third Conference. As part of the agreement,
Japanese engineers have come to Cincinnati for
training and joint exchanges of information have
been set up between the United States and Japan.
International Standards Organization (ISO)
Mr. Dwight G. Ballinger is the EPA representa-
tive to Technical Committee 147 of the ISO. As
a member of the U.S. delegation, he is responsible
for preparing analytical methods for possible
adoption as international standards. While in
Europe, Mr. Ballinger also established liaison with
the International Organization for Legal Metrology,
a group of government representatives responsible
for international cooperation in establishing legal
standards of measurement.
World Health Organization
In August 1973, the World Health Organization
(WHO) requested Dr. Andrew W. Breidenbach, the
NERC-Cincinnati Director, to serve as the leading
consultant for a group of experts on a project aimed
at abating and controlling environmental pollution
in the Upper Silesia Region. For this project
(designated UNDP/WHO Project Poland 3102),
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the World Health Organization is collaborating with
the Government of Poland concerning the establish-
ment of an environmental pollution abatement cen-
ter in Katowice, Poland. Dr. Breidenbach, chosen
because of his experience in planning and admin-
istering regional environmental protection programs,
worked with a panel that included a specialist in air
pollution control planning, water policy planning,
and solid waste management. All worked closely
with counterpart Polish scientists, and the consult-
ant's reports were made final at an April 1974
meeting.
As a consultant to the European WHO, Mr.
Dwight G. Ballinger served on the Working Group
on Physical and Chemical Examination of Water at
a meeting held in Prague, Czechoslovakia. The
working group is responsible for the preparation
of a manual of test procedures for use by the Euro-
pean community. Mr. Ballinger's participation helps
to ensure consistency with American practice and
EPA interests.
Committee on Challenges to Modern Society
This is a NATO-sponsored committee; the United
Kingdom is the lead country on a project in ad-
vanced waste treatment.
Dr. Robert L. Bunch participated in the Work-
shop on Advanced Wastewater Treatment held in
Canada, hosted by the Canadian Environmental Pro-
tection Service of the Environment. Participating
countries at the meeting were Canada, Norway,
Germany, Italy, England, and the United States.
Scientists from the member countries discussed
activities in their countries relating to nutrient re-
moval, sludge handling and disposal, and physical-
chemical wastewater treatment.
Organization for Economic Cooperation and
Development (DECD)
Dr. Robert L. Bunch served as a member of the
Expert Group on the Biodegradability of Nonionic
Synthetic Detergents. The Expert Group expressed
the opinion that the "screening test" described in the
DECD publication on anionic surfactants may be
used to give an indication of the biodegradability of
nonionics. The Wickbold analytical procedure for
the determination of the nonionic concentration is
to be used in place of the methylene blue method
for anionic surfactants. The "confirmatory test"
described in the same DECD publication can be
used but presents a number of deficiencies—in par-
ticular, the variabilities between results obtained in
different laboratories and the effect of low tempera-
ture on the rate of biodegradation of nonionic sur-
factants.
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ADVANCED
WASTE
TREATMENT
RESEARCH LAB.
J.J. CONVERY.
Director
TREATMENT PROCESS
DEVELOPMENT BRANCH
SYSTEMS i, ENGINEERING
EVALUATION BRANCH
TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT
SUPPORT BRANCH
DIRECTOR
A.W. BREIDENBACH
DEPUTY DIRECTOR
P.M. MIDDLE TON
PROGRAM COORDINATION STAFF
L.W. LEFKE
TECHNICAL INFORMATION STAFF
G.M. GIGLIOTTI
PUBLIC AFFAIRS STAFF
W.E. MINOR
OFFICE OF ADMINISTRATION
IV. J. BEHOIT
CIVIL RIGHTS AND URBAN AFFAIRS STAFF
W.E. TOLL/VEK
INDUSTRIAL
WASTE
TREATMENT
RESEARCH LAB.
P.B, LEDERMAN,
Director
OIL SPILL
TECHNOLOGY BRANCH
HAZARDOUS SPILL
TECHNOLOGY BRANCH
INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION
CONTROL BRANCH
MINING POLLUTION
CONTROL BRANCH
SOLID &
HAZARDOUS
WASTE
RESEARCH LAB.
/?,£. STE/VBURG.
Director
DISPOSAL BRANCH
PROCESSING BRANCH
WATER SUPPLY
RESEARCH LAB.
G-G. ROBECK.
Director
CRITERIA DEVELOPMENT
BRANCH
STANDARDS ATTAINMENT
BRANCH
METHODS
DEVELOPMENT &
QUALITY
ASSURANCE
RESEARCH LAB.
D.G. BALLINGER,
Director
PHYSICAL CHEMICAL
METHODS BRANCH
BIOLOGICAL METHODS
BRANCH
QUALITY ASSURANCE &
LAB EVALUATION BRANCH
ENVIRONMENTAL
TOXICOLOGY
RESEARCH LAB.
J.F. STAR A.
Director
EXPERIMENTAL
TOXICOLOGY BRANCH
BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS
BRANCH
EXPOSURE SYSTEMS H
ASSESSMENT BRANCH
INSTRUME NT ATION
DEVELOPMENT BRANCH
RADIOCHEMISTRY &
NUCLEAR ENGINEERING
BRANCH
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