ICAL FIELD
INVESTIGATIVE DATA
FOR
SURVEYS
UNITED STATES
DEPARTMENT
OF THE INTERIOR
FEDERAL WATER POLLUTION
CONTROL, ADMJMISTRAT10M
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BIOLOGICAL FIELD
INVESTIGATIVE DATA
FOR
WATER POLLUTION
SURVEYS
by WILLIAM MARCUS INGRAM
KENNETH M.. MACKENTHUN
Technical Advisory and Investigations Activities
Technical Services Program
Federal Water Pollution Control Administration
Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center
Cincinnati, Ohio
and
ALFRED F. BARTSCH
Pacific 'Northwest Water Laboratory
Federal Water Pollution Control Administration
Corvallis, Oregon
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
FEDERAL WATER POLLUTION CONTROL ADMINISTRATION
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office
Washington. D.C. 20402 Price 70 cents (paper cover)
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge the permission granted
by Dr. Ralph E. Fuhrman, Executive Secretary of the Water
Pollution Control Federation, and Mr. William A. Hardenburg,
Editor of Public Works, to reprint from their respective Journals
the materials which appear herein as Chapters III and IV.
Further acknowledgment is accorded Mr. R. Keith Stewart
and Mrs. Martha Jean Wilkey whose diligent and consistent con-
tributions to the organization of text and illustrative material, the
several bibliographies, and styling of the typewritten draft effec-
tively shortened the time between initiation and completion of this
project.
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
FEDERAL WATER POLLUTION CONTROL ADMINISTRATION
WP 13
JULY 1966
II
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CONTENTS
Page
Acknowledgments II
Preface . _____ IV
CHAPTER I
History _ I
CHAPTER II
Terminology _ 17
CHAPTER 111
Graphic Expression of Biological Data
in Water Pollution Reports 47
CHAPTER IV
Empirical Expression of Organisms
and Their Response to Organic Pollxi-
tion in a Flowing Stream 65
CHAPTER r
Selected Biological References on Re-
sponses of Organisms to Gross Pollu-
tion 81
CHAPTER VI
Data Analyses and Interpretation _ 107
" '.hy _ ISO
111
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PREFACE
A compilation such as this was first envisioned by the
senior author in 1950 during the early years of the national water
pollution control program, when he served as the first full-time
biologist assigned to training activities of the U.S. Public Health
Service at the Environmental Health Center, Cincinnati, Ohio.
Over the past 15 years there has been great demand for
biological information as related to water pollution prevention
and abatement programs, indicating a need to publish under one
cover the natural history aspects of water pollution investigations.
The authors have responded to numerous invitations to present
lectures covering this type of information in departments of engi-
neering and conservation; and all the while there have been con-
tinuous requests for prints of the articles here collected—further
pointing up the need to develop a volume of this kind.
Today there are many professions working in water pollu-
tion control. All of them can well utilize some basic knowledge
of the ecological environment. This book will serve to introduce
the non-biologist to the life sciences as they relate to water pollu-
tion and its control. The professional biologist, inexperienced in
water pollution investigations, will find the book a quick intro-
duction to field studies of polluted streams, lakes and artificial
impoundments. For the professional investigator, sources of fur-
ther information, both general and detailed, are set forth in the
selected references and bibliography to help in his field studies—
an underlying feature of the national effort to conserve and protect
our water resources.
IV
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Chapter I*
HISTORY
CHRONICLE
Since the turn of the century, and even before, biologists
have struggled to determine the impact of civilization's rejecta-
menta on aquatic biota and to explain these phenomena to their
associated disciplines and to the public. The chronicle of pub-
lished effort began with Hassall in 1850 (1850, 1856) who noted
the value of microscopic examination of water for the understand-
ing of water problems. Sedgwick (1888) led in application of
biological methods to water supply problems. The Massachusetts
State Board of Health was the first agency in the United States to
establish a systematic biological examination of water supplies.
In 1889 Sedgwick collaborated with George W. Rafter to develop
the Sedgwick-Rafter method of counting plankton. Whipple
(1899) produced a treatise that, in 1948, was in its fourth edition
and fifth printing; it has served through the years as an often-
used reference in the water supply and water pollution field.
One of the first practical applications of biological data to
the biological definition of water pollution was contained in the
"saprobien system" of Kolkwitz and Marsson (1908, 1909). This
system, based on a check list detailing the responses of many plants
and animals to organic wastes, has been extensively used to indi-
cate the degree of pollution at a given site. That the sound basic
judgment of these early investigators has withstood the passage
of time is shown by the frequent references currently made to
their A\rorks.
"Taken From: "Pollution and The Life in Water," by Kenneth M. Macken-
thun and William Marcus Ingram, Public Health Service Publication No. 999-
WP-20. pp. i-16, May 1965.
1
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The survey of the Illinois River by the Illinois Natural
History Survey was one of the first that clearly demonstrated the
biological effects of organic pollution; a series of papers represents
studies that provided much impetus and professional status to bio-
logical stream investigations in the United States (i.e., Forbes and
Richardson, 1913, 1919; Forbes, 1928). Richardson (1921) showed
that changes had occurred in the bottom fauna of the Illinois
River since 1913 as a result of the increased movement of sewage
pollution southward. Later, Richardsoir (1928) noted that ". . .
the number of small bottom-dwelling species of the fresh waters
of our distribution area that can be safely regarded as having even
a fairly dependable individual index value in the present connec-
tion is surprisingly small; and even those few have been found in
Illinois to be reliable as index species only when used with the
greatest caution and when checking with other indicators."
Purdy (1916) demonstrated the value of certain organisms
for indicating areas of the Potomac River receiving sewage dis-
charges. The shallow flats of the Potomac River were found to be
of great importance in the natural purification of organic wastes;
sunlight and turbidity were observed to be prominent factors in
the determination of oxygen levels and in waste purification
processes. Weston and Turner (1917), Butterfield (1929), and
Butterfield and Purdy (1931) reported other studies that demon-
strated the effects of organic enrichment on a stream, the sudden
change in the biota after the introduction of the waste, and the
progressive recovery of the biota downstream as the wastes were
utilized.
Butcher (1932, 1940) studied the algae of rivers in England
and noted that attached algal forms gave the most reliable indica-
tion of the suitability of the environment of an area for the sup-
port of aquatic life. In the United States, Lackey (1939, 1941a,
1942) worked with planktonic algae and noted their response to
various pollutants. The work of Ellis (1937) on the detection and
measurement of stream pollution, the effects of various wastes on
stream environments, and the toxicity of various materials to fishes
has served as a reference handbook and toxicity guide through
many years.
Cognizance has been taken of the biotic community and
the effect of pollution on the ecological relationships of aquatic
organisms (Brinley, 1942; Bartsch, 1948). Bartsch and Churchill
(1949) graphically depicted (Figure 1) the biotic response to stream
pollution and related stream biota to zones of degradation, active
decomposition, recovery, and clean water. Patrick (1949) described
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ORGANIC
POU.UTIQN
TOXIC
VWSTtS
INORGANIC
SILTS
PWH.A1ION
Wt GRADATION
JONS
ACTIVE 06COMOOSITION
RECOVER*
JON£
Figure 1. Response of benthos to pollution.
a healthy*stream reach as one in which ", . . the biodynamic cycle
is such that conditions are maintained which are capable of sup-
porting a great variety of organisms," a seraihealthy reach as one in
which the ecology is somewhat disrupted but not destroyed, a
polluted reach as one in which the balance of life is upset, and
a very polluted reach as one that is definitely toxic to plant and
animal life, Patrick separated the biota into seven groups and
demonstrated specific group response to stream conditions by bar
graphs. The number of species was used rather than the number
of individuals. Fjerdinptand (1950) published an extensive list
placing various algae and diatoms in tones or in ranges of stream
zones similar to those of Kolkwitt and Marsson.
ORGANISM RESPONSES
The "classical" benthic organism responses to organic wastes
have been detailed frequently in the literature (Hynes, I960; Big-
lane and Lafleur, 19S4; Hirseh, 1958; Dymond and Delaporte,
1952; Pentelow* 1949; Van Horn, 1949, 1952; Bartseh and Ingram,
1959: and Gawin, 1958). Benthic organisms are directly subjected
to adverse conditions of existence as a result of their preferred
habitat and their general inability to move great distances by self
motion. Different types of organisms respond in a variety of ways
to changes that may occur in their environments. Some species
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cannot tolerate any appreciable water quality changes, whereas
others can tolerate a wide range of water quality, and some veiy
tolerant ones are able to live and multiply under extremely adverse
environmental conditions. Generally, a natural, unpolluted stream
reach will support many different kinds of organisms but relatively
few individuals of a given species because of predation and com-
petition for food and living space. The converse most often exists
in a stream reach polluted with organic wastes. In such a reach,
most predators are eliminated by water quality or substrate
changes, living space presents no problem because remaining
organisms must be well adapted to live in organic sludge, and food
is seemingly inexhaustible. Sludgeworm populations have, on
occasion, been calculated to exceed 50,000 pounds per acre of
stream bottom.
Patrick (1953) listed five conditions caused by wastes that
may be harmful to aquatic life: dissolved oxygen deficiency, toxic-
ity, extreme temperature changes, harmful physical abrasion, and
deposits that render the bottom substratum untenable for habita-
tion.
Gaufin and Tarzwell (1952, 1956) described extensive
studies of Lytle Creek, which received organic pollution. In the
septic zone it was found that 40 percent of the benthic population
was Diptera, 20 percent Coleoptera, 20 percent segmented worms,
10 percent Hemiptera, and 10 percent Mollusca. All insects were
characterized by having some means of using atmospheric oxygen.
Hawkes (1963) observed that the riffle community is remarkably
sensitive to changes in the organic loading of the water, and since
organic and mineral matter and organisms are constantly being-
lost by the streambed community, most stream communities rely
on sources outside the stream itself for their basic materials.
Butcher (1959) stated that with gross organic pollution the flora
of a river consists of "sewage fungus," and the fauna, of tubificid
worms and Chironomus larvae. As the organic matter decomposes
(with increasing distance from the source of pollution), Asellus
replaces Chironomus, then mollusks appear, and finally caddisfly
larvae and fresh-water shrimp.
Ingram (1957) discussed the pollutional index value of
mollusks and stated that "Apart from systematic morphological
studies, it is not realistic to isolate a single group of organisms
such as mollusks from other animals and plants that are associ-
ated under similar ecological conditions in clean or polluted water.
It is the study of the total biota which tells one most about water
conditions."
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Groups of related organisms have, however, been used to
indicate water quality. Palmer (1957) stated that ". . . it appears
evident to many workers that particular genera or even species
of algae, when considered separately, are not reliable indicators of
the presence or absence of organic wastes in water. However,
when a number of kinds of algae are considered as a community,
that group may be reliable as such an indicator." Lackey (1941b)
listed a number of algae that thrive best in polluted water. Patrick
(1957) stated that diatoms ai'e a desirable group for use to indicate
stream conditions because they need no special treatment for pres-
ervation. The diatom flora of a normal stream is made up of a
great many species and a great many individuals, and diatoms as
a group vary greatly in their sensitivity to chemical and physical
conditions of water. She also concluded (Patrick, 1948) that the
attached forms give the most reliable indication of the suitability
of the environment for the support of aquatic life.
Figure 2. Benthic zones of pollution (organic wastes).
Czensny (1949) observed the effects of different types of
pollution on fish, on fish food, and on the. over-all fisheries re-
source. Doudoroff and Warren (1957) stated that ". . . only fish
themselves can be said to indicate reliable environmental con-
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ditions genei-ally suitable for their own existence." Katz and
Gaufin ("1953) studied the effects of sewage pollution, on the fish
population of a midwestern stream and concluded that the pres-
ence of black bass and darters is good evidence that organic pollu-
tion is not a major limiting factor in an area. Mills (1952) stated
that the fish population itself is the index or pointer to the other
small forms that need to be considered. Katz and Howard (1954)
found a significant difference in the length of fish of the same year-
class in the various pollutional zones, with the greatest length
attained in the enriched lower portion of the recovery zone. In
this study, no relation between growth of fishes and volume of
bottom organisms was apparent.
Toxic wastes have a severe impact on aquatic biota. Not-
withstanding the variation in response to a specific concentration
of a toxicant among aquatic animals and plants, a toxic substance
eliminates aquatic biota until dilution, dissipation, volatilization,
etc., reduce the concentration below the toxic threshold (see
Figure 2). There is no sharp increase in certain forms as there
is with organic wastes; rather there is an abrupt decline in both
species and population followed by a gradual return to normal
stream inhabitants at some point downstream. The bioassay is,
therefore, an important tool in the investigation of toxic effluents.
The effects ol: inert silts on the benthos is similar to those
o(: toxic wastes, but usually not so severe. Generally, both the num-
ber of species and the total population following silt pollution
(Cordone and Kelley, 1961) are depressed. The algal population
is also often much reduced from the population occurring in areas
not laden with silt.
Lakes and other standing waters do not usually support the
variety of benthos found in streams. As with streams, however,
organic pollution eliminates many benthic forms and results in
population increases among the more tolerant varieties (Surber,
195.S). Surber (1957) stated that "A survey of the lake reports
showed that an abundance of tubificids in excess of 100 per square
loot apparently truly represented polluted habitats." Changes in
the benthir population structure arc especially evident in the
alluvia] fans produced in lakes by polluted influent streams (see
Figure 2). Along with changes in the benthos, the nutrients con-
tributed by organic pollution may stimulate aquatic growths that
will have a severe impact on the recreational use of the water.
Resultant algal blooms concomitant with recycling and reuse of
nutrients within the lake basin contribute to and hasten inevitable
eutrophication.
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The estuarine and marine environments have not been
studied as extensively as the fresh-water habitats. Reish (1960)
cited Wilhelm (19 L6) to the effect that the polychaete Capitella
capitata (Fabricius) plays a role in marine waters similar to that the
oligochaete Tubifex plays in fresh water. Filice (1954) and Reish
(1960) found three benthic zones surrounding a major pollutional
discharge: one essentially lacking in animals, an intermediate zone
having a diminished fauna, and an outer zone unaffected by the
discharge. Filice (1959) found the crab Rhithropanopeus harrisii
(Gould) present more abundantly than expected near industrial
outfalls; this crab and Capitella capitata (Fabricius) were present
in large numbers near domestic outfalls. Hedgpeth (1957) reviewed
the biological aspects of the estuarine and marine environments.
REALITY AND FIELD OPERATIONS
Biological surveys may be tedious, time consuming, spe-
cialized, demanding, and sometimes expensive, but they are never
monotonous and are seldom routine. Surveys can involve many
facets of \l\e aquatic biota or they may concentrate on one group
of organisms (see Figure 3) . Something that may be termed
"reality," equated with the magnitude of the problem, most often
dictates the type of study and the kinds and numbers of samples
to be collected. To those laced, lor example, with an adminis-
trative request for a report in ,'5 weeks on 100 miles of stream
with 30 outfall sewers clustered within a metropolitan area, reality
dictates the extent and scope of field studies. Biological sampling
downstream fro7n each outfall would not be feasible and indeed it
would not be biologically possible to distinguish among many of
those outfalls in close proximity to each other.
Excluding routine plankton collections, a biologist should
always collect his own samples. Nowhere in the sanitary sciences
is more sound field judgment required than that required of the
biologist in taking his samples and in observing the environment
from which the sample came. Much of his field value lies in his
astute observation of change within the growth patterns of those
biota subject to any adversities within the environment.
Many streams, because of their physical makeup, do not
lend themselves to benthic sampling witli routine tools such as the
Ekman dredge, Petersen dredge, and Surber square-foot sampler.
Cooke (1956) reviewed the literature on colonization of artificial
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"9/9
Figure 3. Pollution evaluation requires a solid foundation supplied
only by interrelating many disciplines.
bare areas; Scott (1058) described sampling with brush boxes in
nonproductive stream areas; and Hester and Dendy (1962) de-
scribed the use of a multiple-plate sampler made from .'i-inch
masonite squares separated on a rod by 1-inch masonite squares.
The multiple-plate sampler has been [omul to be an effective tool
in several streams throughout the United States. Lund and Tailing
(1057) and Sladeckova (19(>2) described sampling methods lor the
algal and periphyton communities. Many sampling procedures and
techniques were detailed by Welch (1948). The biologist should
relate all routine sampling procedures to Standard Methods lor the
Examination of Water and Waste-water (APHA, I960), or his
report should contain a description of those techniques that differ.
8
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SELLING THE PRODUCT
Too often the vital massage that biology can bring to the
definition of the pollution problem has been lost because of the
obscurity of presentations sprinkled liberally with vague generali-
ties and because of lack of understanding and appreciation of the
language used to couch the message. Often basic facts become
mired in technical explanation. The biologist presently must
travel more than halfway if he is to sell the products of his science
to the reader. Good, concise, assertive reporting supported by
uncluttered, pertinent graphical material does much to please and
stimulate die reader to greater comprehension of the findings of
fact. One of the biologist's challenges is to present information
that is understandable, meaningful, and helpful to associated dis-
ciplines, to administrators, and to the general public who are the
financial supporters as well as die benefactors of a pollution abate-
ment program.
Recently several methods have been proposed for the pres-
entation of biological data. Beck (1954, 1955) grouped bentiiic
organisms into five classes based on their sensitivity to environ-
mental change and proposed a numerical biotic index diat repre-
sented a summation of diose species that tolerate no appreciable
pollution and those that tolerate only a moderate amount. Beak
(1963) modified Beck's reporting mediod to include drree groups in
which all occurring species are placed: those very tolerant of pollu-
tion, diose occurring in both polluted and unpolluted situations,
and those intolerant of pollution. Points are arbitrarily assigned
to each group, and a biological score results from adding the points
at a given station.
Wurtz (1955) developed for each station a four-column
histogram in which the columns represent basic life forms: bur-
rowing organisms, sessile organisms, foraging organisms, and pelagic
organisms. Columns are plotted as a frequency index in which die
total number of species found at any station represents a fre-
quency of 100 percent for that station.
Beak et al. (1959) used bivariate control charts to describe
changes in benthos adjacent to die site of a largi chemical plant.
Burlington (1962) statistically calculated a "coefficient of similar-
ity" among stations; for each specific group of organisms, he used
"prominence values" diat take into account both density and fre-
quency of observation. Patrick and Strawbridge (1963) stated diat
it is relatively easy to determine the presence of large amounts of
pollution, but that the determination of definite but borderline
9
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deterioration of water quality is in some cases difficult. They pre-
sented a mathematical method whereby the limits in variation of
natural populations, especially diatoms, can be defined.
Ingram and Bartsch (1960) pleaded for the use of common,
understandable terms in presentations on biology. They pointed
out the value of photographs to depict unusual environmental
conditions and showed a number of different graphical presenta-
tions used in investigational reports.
Serious thought should be given the methods and tech-
niques of reporting data to ensure that the final report meets the
needs of the study and provides answers to questions originally
responsible for the initiation of the study. Often less thought and
consideration are given to reporting data than to collection and
analyses of data, even though each is equally important to a success-
ful contribution.
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1960. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and
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BARTSCH, A. F.
1948. Biological aspects of stream pollution. Sewage Works
Journal, 20(2); 292-302.
BARTSCH, A. F., and W. S. CHURCHILL
1949. Biotic responses to stream pollution during artificial
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1959. Stream Life and the pollution environment. Public
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1963. Refinements in biological measurement of water pollu-
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1383-1394. ' V
10
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BECK, W. M., Jr.
1954. Studies in stream pollution biology. I. A simplified eco-
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BECK, W. M., Jr.
1955. Suggested method for reporting biotic data. Sewage and
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1954. Biological indices of pollution observed in Louisiana
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1942. Biological studies, Ohio River pollution, I. Biological
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1962. Quantitative biological assessment of pollution. Journal
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BUTCHER, R. W.
1932. Studies in the ecology of rivers. II. The microflora of
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1949. Fish as indicators of stream pollution. Vom Wasser, 17:
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1960. Graphic expression of biological data in water pollution
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KATZ, M., and A. R. GAUFIN
1953. The effects of sewage pollution on the fish population
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KATZ, M., and W. C. HOWARD
1954. The length and growth of zero-year class of creek chubs
in relation to domestic pollution. Transactions Ameri-
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1908. Oekologie der pflanzlichen Saprobien. Berichte
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1909. Oekologie der tierischen Saprobien. Internationale
Revue gesamten Hydrobiologie Hydrographie, 2: 126-
152.
LACKEY, J. B.
1939. Aquatic life in waters polluted by acid mine wastes.
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194la. Two groups of flagellated algae serving as indicators of
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LACKEY, J. B.
1941b. The significance of plankton in relation to sanitary con-
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LACKEY, J. B.
1942. The effects of distillery wastes and waters on the micro-
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LUND, L .W. G., and J. F. TALLING
1957. Botanical limnological methods with special reference to
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1952. Some aspects of pollution control in tidal waters. Sew-
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1957. Algae as biological indicators of pollution. Biological
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14
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PATRICK, R.
1948. Factors affecting the distribution of diatoms. The Bo-
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1949. A proposed biological measure of stream conditions,
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1953. Aquatic organisms as an aid in solving waste disposal
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1963. Methods of studying diatom populations. Journal Water
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15
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16
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Chapter II*
TERMINOLOGY
ACCLIMATION—The organism's adjustment to a change in an
environment,
ACT-IN OMYCETES—Unicellular, filamentous microorganisms
frecYuently grouped separately to occupy a position between the
fungi and the bacteria, although more closely associated with the
bacteria. They are -widely distributed in nature and account for
a large part of the normal population of soils and lake and river
muds. Their ahility to produce earthy odors has long been recog-
nized,
ACTIVE DECOMPOSITION ZONE—In streams polluted with
organic wastes, a zone of active decomposition often follows a zone
of degradation. In the zone of active decomposition, the biological
oxygen demand (BOD) tmdergoes partial satisfaction, the D.O,
reaches its low point of the curve and may go completely to zero
in the upper end of the zone. Sludge deposits attain their maxi-
irmm depth at the upper limit of the zone, and turbidity gradually
diminishes throughout the zone. Molds, fungi, and filamentous
bacteria reach peaks in the upper limits of the z.one and gradually
diminish, Ciliates, flagellates, and bacteria-eating protozoa reach
a peak of abundance. Various forms of algae may attain a prolific
growth near the Tower limits of the zone, Sludgcworms, very toler-
ant midge larvae, and occasionally leeches reach their peak of
production. The population abundance is very high in this zone,
and sludgeworm populations have been estimated in excess of
50,000 pounds per acre of stream bottom.
*Many of the ICTWIS appearing here -wtsne taten from "Glossary of Coiwnwnly
V'sed Biological and Related Terms in Water and Waste "Water Control,"1 Iv, Jack
R, Gecklci, -Kenneth M, MaeVcmhnn, and William Marcus Ingrani, Pnblk .Health
.Service Pwbli'catvon Xo, ftVV-WP-S, pp. i-22, 1963, (Xote: Many terras have been
added these which appeared in this 'di-cd puliKcation,)
17
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ANNELIDS—Segmented worms, as distinguished from the non-
segmented roundworms and flatworms. Most are marine; however,
many live in soil or fresh water. Aquatic forms may establish dense
populations in the presence of rich organic deposits. Common ex-
amples of segmented worms are earthworms, sludgeworms, sand-
worms, and leeches.
AQUATIC SOW BUGS (Isopoda)—Macroscopic aquatic crus-
taceans that are flat from top to bottom. Most are marine and
estuarine. They are scavengers that live secretively under rocks
and among vegetation and debris.
Figure 1. Aquatic Sow Bug.
Figure 5.
Caddisfly Larva.
Figure 3
Black Fly Larva.
ARMORED FLAGELLATES—Flagellates having a cell wall com-
posed of distinct, tightly arranged plates. The wall is usually thick
and rough.
ARTIFICIAL SUBSTRATE—A device placed in the water for a
period extending to a few weeks that provides living spaces for a
multiplicity of drifting and natural-born organisms that would not
otherwise be at the particular spot because of limiting physical
habitat. Examples of artificial substrates include glass slides, tiles,
bricks, wooden shingles, concrete blocks, multiplate-plate samplers,
and brush boxes.
18
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ACUTE TOXICITY—Toxicity that is fast-acting in its ability to
produce death.
ADAPTATION—A change in the structure, form, or habit of an
organism resulting from a change in its environment.
AEROBIC ORGANISM—An organism that thrives in the pres-
ence of oxygen.
ALGAE (Alga)—Simple plants, many microscopic, containing chlo-
rophyll. Most algae are aquatic and may produce a nuisance when
environmental conditions are suitable for prolific growth.
ALGICIDE—A specific chemical highly toxic to algae. Algicides
are often applied to water to control nuisance algal blooms.
ALGOLOGY—The study of algae.
ALKYL BENZENE SULFONATE (ABS)—Most household deter-
gents and commercial and industrial cleansers contain the anionic
surface-active agent, ABS. As ABS is not found in natural sub-
stances, its presence in water is evidence of contamination by
sewage or other man-made wastes.
ALLUVIAL FANS—A fan-shaped deposit of silt, sand, gravel or
other fine materials from a stream where its gradient lessens
abruptly as in the discharge of a stream into a lake or a river into
an ocean.
AMPHIBIOUS ORGANISM—An organism adapted for life on
land or in water.
AMPHIPODS (See Scuds)
ANADROMOUS FISHES—Fishes that spend a part of their life
in the sea or lakes, but ascend rivers at more or less regular inter-
vals to spawn. Examples are sturgeon, shad, salmon, trout, and
striped bass.
ANAEROBIC ORGANISM—A microorganism that thrives best,
or only, when deprived of oxygen.
ANEMOMETER—An instrument for measuring the force or ve-
locity of the wind.
ASSIMILATION—The transformation of absorbed nutrients into
body substances.
19
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ASSOCIATION—An association in biology includes the entire
organism population of a given habitat with two or more organism
species dominating the group.
AUFWUCHS—Those organisms that attach firmly to a substrate
but do not penetrate it (in contrast to plants rooted in the bottom
or certain parasites). Aufwuchs comprise all attached organisms
except the macrophytes in contrast to the more restricted English
equivalent "periphyton" which includes the plants and animals
adhering to parts of rooted aquatic plants.
AUTOTROPHIC—Self-nourishing; denoting the green plants
and those forms of bacteria that do not require organic carbon or
nitrogen, but can form their own food out of inorganic salts and
carbon dioxide.
AUTOTROPHIC ORGANISM—An organism capable of con-
structing organic matter from inorganic substances.
BATHYTHERMOGRAPH—A device for recording the tempera-
ture at various depths in the oceans. As the instrument is lowered
into the water the instrument plots the temperature and the pres-
sure at various depths.
EENTHTC REGION—Ib£ bottom of all wate
that supports the benthos.
substratum
UCHI
SOURCE
Figure 2. Lake Zones and Regions.
20
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BENTHOS—Aquatic bottom-dwelling organisms. These include:
(1) sessile animals, such as the sponges, barnacles, mussels, oysters,
some of the worms, and many attached algae; (2) creeping forms,
such as snails and flatworms; and (3) burrowing forms, which in-
clude most clams and worms.
BIO-ASSAY—A determination of the concentration of a given
material by comparison with a standard preparation; or the deter-
mination of the quantity necessary to affect a test animal under
stated laboratory conditions.
BIOMASS—The weight of all life in a specified unit of environ-
ment, for example, a square foot of stream bottom. An expression
dealing with the total mass or weight of a given population, both
plant and animal.
BIOTA—All living organisms of a region.
BIVALVE—An animal with a hinged two-valve shell; examples
are the clam and oyster.
BLACK FLY LARVAE (Simuliidae)—Aquatic larvae that produce
a silk-like? thread with which they anchor themselves to objects in
swift waters. With a pair of fan-shaped structures, a larva of this
type produces a current of water toward its mouth and from this
water ingests smaller organisms. The adults are terrestrial; females
feed on the blood of higher animals.
BLOOD GILLS—Delicate blood-filled sacs that are found in cer-
tain insects. They are a taxonomic characteristic and are found
near the posterior on the ventral surface of midge larvae. Most
midge larvae with ventral blood gills are associated with or-
ganically enriched stream beds.
BLOODWORMS (Tendipedidae = Chironomidae)—Cylindrical
elongated midge larvae with pairs of prolegs on both the first
thoracic and last abdominal segments. Although many species are
blood-red in color, some are pale yellowish, yellowish red, brown-
ish, pale greenish yellow, and green. Most feed on diatoms, algae,
tissues of aquatic plants, decaying organic matter, and plankton.
Some are associated with rich organic deposits. Midge larvae are
important as food for fishes.
BLOOM—A readily visible concentrated growth or aggregation of
plankton (plant and animal).
BLUE-GREEN ALGAE—A group of algae with a blue pigment,
in addition to the green chlorophyll. A stench is often associated
21
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with the decomposition of dense blooms of blue-green algae in
fertile lakes.
BOTULISM—Poisoning by the toxin of a bacillus. It may be
found in imperfectly canned foods.
BRUSH BOX (See Artificial Substrate)
CADDISFLY LARVAE (Trichoptera)—Aquatic larvae found in
a variety of habitats. Many build cases of small rocks, shells, wood,
and plants and feed upon plant tissue and small animals captured
in nets they place near the case entrance. Adults have well-
developed wings but no functional mouth parts. Eggs are deposited
on sticks or stones in water.
CATADROMOUS FISHES—Fishes that feed and grow in fresh
water, but return to the sea to spawn. The best-known example is
the American eel.
CENTRARCHIDAE (See Sunfish)
CERCARIAE—The tailed, immature stage of a parasitic flatworm.
CHARA—A family of algae possessing cylindrical whorled branches.
The plants grow only in highly alkaline water, from the bottom,
and usually have a coating of lime that can be felt between the
fingers. Chara should not be confused with submerged higher
aquatic plants.
CHIRONOMIDAE (See Bloodworms)
CHLOROPHYLL—The green coloring matter in plants, partly
responsible for photosynthesis.
CLADOCERA—A group of small, chiefly fresh-water, crustaceans,
often known as water fleas.
CLEAN WATER ASSOCIATION—An association of organisms,
usually characterized by many different kinds (species). These
associations occur in natural unpolluted environments. Because of
competition, predation, etc., however, relatively few individuals
represent any particular species.
COARSE OR ROUGH FISH—Those species of fish considered to
be of poor fighting quality when taken on tackle, and of poor food
quality. These fish may be undesirable in a given situation, but
99
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Figure 7.
Damselfly Nymph
Figure 8.
Dragonfly Nymph.
Figure 9. Duckweed;
at times may be classified differently, depending upon their use-
fulness. Examples include carp, goldfish, gar, suckers, bowfin, giz-
zard shad, goldeneye, mooneye, and certain kinds of catfish.
COELENTERATE—A group of aquatic animals that have gelat-
inous bodies, tentacles, and stinging cells. These animals occur
in great variety and abundance in the sea and are represented in
fresh water by a few types. Examples are hydra, corals, sea-
anemones, and jellyfish.
COLD-BLOODED ANIMALS—Animals that lack a temperature-
regulating mechanism that offsets external temperature changes.
Their temperature fluctuates to a large degree with that of their
environment. Examples are fish, shellfish, and aquatic insects.
CONSUMERS—Organisms that consume solid particles of organic
food material. Protozoa are examples of consumer organisms.
CORYDALIDAE (See Hellgrammites)
CRUSTACEA—Mostly aquatic animals with rigid outer coverings,
jointed appendages, and gills. Examples are crayfish, crabs, bar-
nacles, water fleas, and sow bugs.
CURRENT, EBB—(See Ebb Current)
23
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CUTICULAR PLATE—A hard chitinous or calcareous plate on
the skin.
DAMSELFLY NYMPH (Odonata)—The immature damselfly.
This aquatic insect nymph has an enormous grasping lower jaw
and three flat leaf-like gill plates that project from the posterior
of the abdomen. Nymphs live most of their lives searching for
food among submerged plants in still water; a few cling to plants
near the current's edge; and a very few cling to rocks in flowing-
water. The carnivorous adults capture lesser insects on the wing.
DAPHNIA—(See Water Fleas)
DEGRADATION ZONE—As organic pollution enters a stream, a
zone of degradation is established. The BOD is increased and the
dissolved oxygen is decreased. Sludge begins to accumulate, tur-
bidity increases. Sewage molds, fungi, and filamentous bacteria
may occur in abundance. The general bacterial population is in-
creased and the intolerant or sensitive bottom-dwelling organisms
are eliminated. Sludgeworms, rat-tailed maggots, some very toler-
ant midge larvae (usually equipped with ventral blood gills), and
occasionally one or two species of leeches are found in small
numbers.
DELTA—An alluvial deposit at the mouth of a river.
DERMATITIS—Any inflammation of the skin. One type may
be caused by the penetration beneath the skin of a cercaria found
in water; this form of dermatitis is commonly called "swimmer's
itch."
DIATOMETER—An apparatus that holds microscopic slides in
the water. It is held in place by means of floats and an anchor.
Living diatoms, by means of their thin gelatinous coating, become
attached to the glass slides. The slides are removed from the
diatometer, at intervals generally of 14 days, dried, and shipped
to the laboratory for study, identification, and enumeration.
DIATOMS—Organisms closely associated with algae that are
characterized by the presence of silica in the cell walls which are
sculptured with striae and other markings, and by the presence of
a brown pigment associated with the chlorophyll.
DRAGONFLY NYMPH (Odonata)—The immature dragonfly.
This aquatic insect nymph has gills on the inner walls of its rectal
respiratory chamber. It has an enormous grasping lower jaw that
it can extend forward to a distance several times the length of its
head. Although many of these nymphs climb among aquatic
24
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plants, most sprawl in the mud where they lie in ambush to await
their pi^ey. The carnivorous adults capture lesser insects on the
wing,
DUCKWEED—A free-floating aquatic flowering plant possessing
fronds resembling tiny green leaves. Small roots beneath the leaves
easily distinguish this plant from algae.
DYSTROPHIC LAKES—Brown-crater lakes with a very low lime
content and a very high humus content. These lakes often lack
nutrients.
EBB CURRENT—The movement of the tidal current away from
shore or down a tidal stream.
EBB TIDE—A nontechnical term referring to that period of tide
between a high water and the succeeding low water; falling tide.
EBULLITION—The state of boiling or bubbling up, as in the
emission of gas from an actively decomposing sludge deposit.
ECOLOGY—-The branch of biology that deals with the inter-
relationships of living organisms and their environments, and to
each other,
ECOSYSTEM—An ecological system; the interaction of living or-
ganisms and the nonliving environment producing an exchange of
materials between the living and the nonliving.
EDDY CURRENT—A circular movement of crater of compara-
tively limited area formed on the side of a main current. Eddies
may be created at points where the main stream passes projecting
obstructions.
EKMAN DREDGE—The standard spring-loaded device used for
sampling soft bottoms. The body of the dredge consists of a square
box of sheet brass (6 by 6, 9 by 9, or 12 by 12 inches). The lower
opening of this box is closed by a pair of strong brass jaws that
snap shut when the springs are released. When the jaws are fully
pulled apart, the bottom of the dredge is open.
EMERGENT AQUATIC PLANTS—Plants that are rooted at the
bottom but project above the water surface. Examples are cattails
and bulrushes.
ENTOMOLOGIST—A specialist in the study of insects.
25
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Figure 10. N Ekman Dredge.
Figure 11.
Fingernail Clam.
Figure 1 3.
Glochidium.
ENVIRONMENT—The sum of all external influences and condi-
tions affecting the life and the development of an organism.
EPHEMERIDAE—(See Mayfly Naiads)
EPILIMNION—That region of a body of water that extends from
the surface to the thermocline and does not have a permanent
temperature stratification. (See Figure 2)
EPITHELIAL .LAYER—A cellular tissue covering all free body
surfaces.
ERISTALIS—(See Rat-Tailed Maggot)
ESTUARY—That portion of a stream influenced by the tide of
the body of water into which it flows or a bay, at the mouth of a
river, where the tide meets the river current.
EULITTORAL ZONE—The shore zone of a body of water be-
tween the limits of water-level fluctuation. (See Figure 2)
EUPHOTIC ZONE—The lighted region that extends vertically
from the water surface to the level at which photosynthesis fails
to occur because of ineffective light penetration.
26
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EURYHALENIE—Organisms that are able to lire in waters of a
wide range of salinity.
EURYTOPIC ORGANISMS—Organisms with a wide range of
tolerance to a particular environmental factor. Examples are
EU "1 K.OPHICATION—The intentional or inuntentional enrich-
ment of water.
FACULTATIVE AEROBE—An organism that although funda-
mentally an anaerobe can grow in the presence of free oxygen.
FACULTATIVE ANAEROBE—An organism that although fun-
damentally an aerobe can grow in the absence of free oxygen.
FALL OVERTURN—A physical phenomenon that may take
place in a body of water during the early autumn. The sequence
of events leading to fall overturn include: (1) cooling of surface
waters, (2)' density change in surface waters producing convection
currents from top to bottom, (3) circulation of the total water
volume by wind action, and (4) vertical temperature equality,
4°C. The overturn results in a uniformity of the physical and
chemical properties of the water.
FATHOM—A unit of measurement equal to 6 feet (1.83 meters).
FAUNA—The entire animal life of a region.
FINGERNAIL CLAMS (Sphaeriidae)—Small clams, usually less
than one-half inch in diameter, that give live birth to shelled
young.
FLATWORMS (Flatyfaelrninthes)—Nonsegmented worms, flat-
tened from top to bottom. In all but a few of the fiatworms com-
plete male and female reproductive systems are present in each
individual. Most fiatworms are found in water, moist earth, or as
FLOATING AQUATIC PLANTS—Plants that wholly or in part
float on the surface of the water. Examples are water lilies, water
shields, and duckweeds.
FLOC—A small, light, loose mass, as of a fine precipitate.
FLOCCULENT—Reassembling- twits of cotton or wool; denoting
27
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a fluid containing numerous shreds of fluffy, gray-white particles;
containing or consisting of floes.
FLOOD CURRENT—The movement of the tidal current toward
the shore or up a tidal stream.
FLOOD TIDE—A nontechnical term referring to that period of
tide between low water and the succeeding high water; a rising
tide.
FLORA—The entire plant life of a region.
FOOD-CHAIN—The dependence of organisms upon others in a
series for food. The chain begins with plants or scavenging or-
ganisms and ends with the largest carnivores.
FOOD-CYCLE—All the interconnecting food-chains in a com-
munity.
FRY (Sac Fry)—The stage in the life of a fish between the hatching
of the egg and the absorption of the yolk sac. From this stage until
they attain a length of 1 inch the young fish are considered ad-
vanced fry.
FUNGI (Fungus)—Simple or complex organisms without chloro-
phyll. The simpler forms are one-celled; the higher forms have
branched filaments and complicated life cycles. Examples of fungi
are molds, yeasts, and mushrooms.
FUNGICIDE—Substances or a mixture of substances intended to
prevent, destroy, or mitigate any fungi.
GAME FISH—Those species of fish considered to possess sporting
qualities on fishing tackle. These fish may be classified as unde-
sirable, depending upon their usefulness. Examples of fresh-water
game fish are salmon, trout, grayling, black bass, muskellunge,
walleye, northern pike, and lake trout.
GELATINOUS MATRIX—Jelly-like intercellular substance of a
tissue; a semisolid material surrounding the cell wall of some algae.
GLOBULAR—Having a spherical shape; globe-shaped.
GLOCHIDIUM—The larvae of fresh-water mussels. These larvae
are temporary parasites that live on the gills, fins, and general body
surface of many fish.
28
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GREEN ALGAE—-Algae that have pigments similar in color to
those of higher green plants. Common forms produce algal mats
or floating "moss" in lakes,
HALOPHYTE—Plants capable of thriving on salt-impregnated
soils.
HELLGRAMMITES (CotydaUdae)—Dobsonfly larvae. Full-grown
larvae are 2 to 3 inches in length: they have a dark-brown rough-
looking skin, large jaws, and posterior hooks. The aquatic larval
stage lasts 2 to 3 years. They are secretive and predaceous. living
under xx>cks and debris in flowing water. These larvae are con-
sidered one of the finest live baits by fishermen. Pupation occurs
on shore, under rocks and debris near the stream edge. The ter-
restrial adults are short lived.
HERBICIDE—Substances or a mixture of substances intended to
control or destroy any vegetation,
HERBIVORE—An organism that Feeds on vegetation.
HETEROCYST—A specialized vegetative cell in certain filamen-
tous blue-green algae: larger, clearer, and thicker-walled than the
regular vegetative cells,
HETEROTROPHIC ORGANISMS— Organisms that are depend-
ent on organic matter for food,
HIGHER AQUATIC PLANTS—Flowering aquatic vascular
plants. (These ax^e separately categorized herein as Emergent.
Floating, and Submerged Aquatic Plants.)
HIGHER HIGH WATER (HHW)—The higher of the two high
waters of any tidal day. The single high water occurring daily
during periods when the tide is diurnal is considered to be a higher
high water.
HIGHER LOW WATER (HLW)—The higher of two low waters
of any tidal day.
HIGH TIDE: HIGH WATER (HW)—The maximum height
reached by each rising tide.
HIRUDIN—A substance extracted from salivary glands of leeches
that prevents coagxilation of the blood,
HIRUDIN EA (See Leeches)
29
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HOLOMICTIC LAKES—Lakes that are completely circulated to
the bottom at time of winter cooling.
HOMOIOTHERMIC ANIMALS (WARM-BLOODED ANI-
MALS)—Animals that possess a temperature-regulating mechanism
to maintain a more or less constant body temperature.
HOMOTHERMOUS—Having the same temperature throughout.
HYDROPHOTOMETER—A submersible device to measure the
intensity of illumination flux beneath the surface in a body of
water.
HYPOLIMNION—The region of a body of water that extends
from the thermocline to the bottom of the lake and is removed
from surface influence. (See Figure 2)
ICTHYOLOGIST—A specialist in the study of fishes.
INDICATOR ORGANISMS—An organism, species, or com-
munity that indicates the presence of a certain environmental con-
dition or conditions; the species composition and relative abund-
ance of individual components of the bottom organism population
are often used to define pollution by organic wastes.
INSECTICIDE—Substances or a mixture of substances intended
to prevent, destroy, or repel insects.
INTOLERANT ORGANISM—Organisms that are sensitive to
pollution, especially organic pollution, and are either killed or
driven out of the area when the environment is fouled.
INVERTEBRATES—Animals without backbones.
ISOPODA—(See Aquatic Sow Bugs)
KEMMERER WATER SAMPLER—An instrument designed to
collect a known volume of water from a predetermined depth.
The sampler construction essentially consists of a brass cylinder
with closable rubber stoppers on each end. It is suspended in the
water with a rope; closure is accomplished when a brass messenger,
which is sent down the rope, strikes a tripping device.
LAKE AND RESERVOIR TURNOVER—In deep lakes, the sea-
sons induce a cycle of physical and chemical changes in the water
that are often conditioned by temperature. For a Jew weeks in the
spring, and again in the autumn, water temperatures may be
30
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homogeneous from the top of a water body to the bottom. Ver-
tical water density is also homogeneous, and it becomes possible for
the wind to mix the water in a lake, distributing nutrients and
flocculent bottom solids from the deeper waters. This is a period
of water turnover.
LARVA—-The wormlike form of an insect on issuing from the egg.
LD50—(See Median Lethal Dose)
LEECHES (Hirudinea)—Segmented worms, flat from top to bot-
tom, with terminal suckers that are used for attachment and loco-
motion. Various species may be parasites, predators, or scavengers;
most are aquatic.
LENITIC OR LENTIC ENVIRONMENT—Standing water and
its various intergrades. Examples of lenitic environments are lakes,
ponds, and swamps.
LIFE CYCLE—The series of stages in the form and mode of life
of an organism, i.e., the stages between successive recurrences of a
certain primary stage such as the spore, fertilized egg, seed, or rest-
ing cell.
LIMNETIC ZONE—The open-water region of a lake. This region
Figure 1 5.
Kemmerer
Water
Sampler.
Figure 16.
Leech.
Figure 17.
Mayfly Naiad.
Figure 14.
Hellgrammite.
31
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supports plankton and fish as the principal plants and animals.
(See Figure 2)
LIMNOLOGY—The study of the physical, chemical, and bio-
logical aspects of inland waters.
LITTORAL ZONE—The shoreward region of a body of water.
(See Figure 2)
LOTIC ENVIRONMENT—Running waters, such as streams or
rivers.
LOWER HIGH WATER (LHW)—The lower of the two high
waters of any tidal day.
LOWER LOW WATER (LLW)-—The lower of the two waters
of any tidal day. The single low water occurring daily during
periods when the tide is diurnal is considered to be a lower low
water.
LOW FLOW AUGMENTATION—Increasing of an existing
flow. The total flow of a stream can seldom be increased but its
ability to assimilate waste can generally be improved by storage of
floodHows and their subsequent release when natural flows are low
and water quality conditions are poor.
LUMEN—The space in the interior of a tubular structure such as
an artery or the intestine.
LYSIMETER—A device for measuring percolation of water
through soils and determining the soluble constituents removed
in drainage.
MACROORGANISMS—Plant, animal, or fungal organisms visi-
ble to the unaided eye.
MAYFLY NAIADS (Ephemeridae)—The immature mayfly. Paired
gills are attached to the upper surface of the outer edge of some or
all of the first seven abdominal segments. The abdomen terminates
in three, rarely two, slender tails. Mouth parts are particularly
suited for raking diatoms and rasping decaying plant stems. The
terrestrial adults lack functional mouth parts and live only a few
hours.
MEAN HIGHER HIGH WATER (MHHW)—The average
height of the higher high waters over a 19-year period. For shorter
periods of observation, corrections are applied to eliminate known
variations and reduce the result to the equivalent of a mean 19-year
value.
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MEAN HIGH WATER (MHW)—The average height of the high
waters over a 19-year period. For shorter periods of observations,
corrections are applied to eliminate known variations and reduce
the result to the equivalent of a mean 19-year value. All high
water heights are included in the average where the type of tide is
either semidiurnal or mixed. Only the higher high water heights
are included in the average where the type of tide is diurnal. So
determined, mean high water in the latter case is the same as mean
higher high water.
MEAN LOWER LOW WATER (MLLW)—Frequently abbrevi-
ated lower low water. The average height of the lower low waters
over a 19-year period. For shorter periods of observations, correc-
tions are applied to eliminate known variations and reduce the
result to the equivalent of a mean 19-year value.
MEAN LOW WATER (MLW)—The average height of the low
waters over a 19-year period. For shorter periods of observations,
corrections are applied to eliminate known variations and reduce
the result to the equivalent of a mean 19-year value. All low water
heights are included in the average where the type of tide is either
semidiurna*! or mixed. Only the lower low water heights are in-
cluded in the average where the type of tide is diurnal. So deter-
mined, mean low water in the latter case is the same as mean
lower low water.
MEDIAN LETHAL DOSE (LD50)—The dose lethal to 50 percent
of a group of test organisms for a specified period. The dose
material may be ingested or injected.
MEDIAN TOLERANCE LIMIT (TLm)—The concentration of
the tested material in a suitable diluent (experimental water) at
which just 50 percent of the test animals are able to survive for a
specified period of exposure.
MEROMICTIC LAKES—Lakes in which dissolved substances
create a gradient of density differences in depth, preventing com-
plete mixing or circulation of the water.
MESENTERIC VEIN—The large vein leading from the intestines
in the abdominal cavity.
MICROORGANISM—Any minute organism invisible or barely
visible to the unaided eye.
MINNOWS (Cyprinidae)—The family of fishes including such
forms as shiners, dace, and carp.
33
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MIRACIDIUM—The ciliated free-swimming larva of a trematode
worm.
MOLLUSCICIDE—Substances or a mixture of substances in-
tended to destroy or control snails. Copper is commonly used.
MOLLUSK (Mollusca)—A large animal group including those
forms popularly called shellfish (but not including crustaceans).
All have a soft unsegmented body protected in most instances by
a calcareous shell. Examples are snails, mussels, clams, and oysters.
MORPHOMETRY—The physical shape and form of a water
body.
MOSS—Any bryophytic plant characterized by small, leafy, often
tufted stems bearing sex organs at the tips.
MOTILE—Exhibiting or capable of spontaneous movement.
MUSSEL POISON—(See Shellfish Poison)
MYCOLOGY—The study of fungi.
NAIAD—The immature instar or developmental form that is
characteristic of the preadult stage in insects with incomplete
metamorphosis. Examples include stoneflies, mayflies, and dragon-
and damselflies.
NANOPLANKTON—Very small plankton not retained by a
plankton net equipped with No. 25 silk bolting cloth.
NEKTON—Swimming organisms able to navigate at will.
NEMATODA—Unsegmented roundworms or threadworms. Some
are free living in soil, fresh water, and salt water; some are found
living in plant tissue; others live in animal tissue as parasites.
NEUSTON—Organisms resting or swimming on the surface film
of the water.
NYMPH—An immature developmental form that is characteristic
of the preadult stage in insects with gradual metamorphosis.
OCEANOGRAPHY—The study of the physical, chemical, geo-
logical, and biological aspects of the sea.
OCULAR MICROMETER—A scaled glass disc that is used in
34
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making microscopic measurements. It is fitted on the diaphragm of
a microscope ocular.
OLIGOTROPHIC WATERS—Waters with a small supply of
nutrients; thus, they support little organic production.
ORANGE PEEL BUCKET—A dredge consisting of four sectors
designed to take a hemispherical bite out of the bottom. The sec-
tors are operated by a large wheel-and sprocket mechanism within
the upper framework. Usually a canvas sleeve is placed over the
upper works to prevent washing out of the contents when the
bucket is being hauled up.
ORGANIC DETRITUS—The paniculate remains of disinte-
grated plants and animals.
OSTRACODS—Small (just visible to the unaided eye), active,
mostly fresh water, organisms having the body enclosed in a bivalve
shell composed of right and left valves.
OXYGEN-DEBT—A phenomenon that occurs in an organism
when available oxygen is inadequate to supply the respiratory
demand. During such a period the metabolic processes result in
the accumulation of breakdown products that are not oxidized
until sufficient oxygen becomes available.
PAPILLA—Any small nipplelike process.
PARASITE—An organism that lives on or in a host organism from
which it obtains nourishment at the expense of the latter during
all or part of its existence.
PEAKING—The use of hydropower to meet either maximum or
rapid changes in power demands.
PEARL BUTTON CLAMS (Unionidae)—Large fresh-water clams.
The shell has a thick mother-of-pearl layer. The thick-shelled
members of this family are utilized in the manufacturing of
buttons.
PELAGIC ZONE—The free-water region of a sea. (Pelagic refers
to the sea, limnetic refers to bodies of fresh water.)
PENSTOCK—A sluice for regulating flow of water, a conduit for
conducting water.
PERIPHYTON—The association of aquatic organisms attached
35
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or clinging to stems and leaves of rooted plants or other surfaces
projecting above the bottom.
PESTICIDE—Any substance used to kill pest organisms including
insecticides, herbicides, algicides, fungicides, and bacteriacides.
PETERSEN DREDGE—A sturdy steel or iron clam-type dredge
widely used for taking samples from hard bottoms, such as sand,
gravel, marl, clay, and similar materials. It is so constructed that,
both by its own weight and by the leverage exerted by its closing
mechanism, it bites its way into hard bottoms deep enough to
secure a satisfactory sample. The area sampled varies from 0.6 to
0.9 square foot, depending on individual dredge construction.
PHOTIC ZONE—The surface waters that are penetrated by sun-
light.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS—The process by which simple sugars are
manufactured from carbon dioxide and water by living plant cells
with the aid of chlorophyll in the presence of light.
PHOTOTROPISM—Movement in response to a light gradient;
for example, a movement towards light is positive phototropism.
PHOTOMETER—An instrument used to measure the intensity
of light in water.
PHYTOPLANKTON—Plant microorganisms, such as certain
algae, living unattached in the water.
PISCICIDE—Substances or a mixture of substances intended to
destroy or control fish populations.
PLANKTON—Plant and animal organisms of small size, mostly
microscopic, that either have relatively small powers of locomotion
or drift in the water subject to the action of waves and currents.
PLANKTON NET—A cloth net, usually coneshaped, used to
collect plankton. Plankters separated from water by means of a
net are generally referred to as net plankton and represent only
a fraction of the total population. Silk bolting cloth is regarded as
the best material for plankton nets.
PLASTIDS—A body in a plant cell that contains photosynthetic
pigments.
PLATYHELMENTHES—(See Flatworms)
36
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Dredge.
Figure 18. Pearl Button Clam.
Figure 20. Plankton Net.
Figure 21. Rat-Tailed Maggot.
PLECOPTERA—(See Stonefly Nymphs)
POIKILOTHERMIC ANIMALS (See Cold-Blooded Animals)
POOL ZONE—The deep-water area of a stream, where the veloc-
ity of current is reduced. The reduced velocity provides a favor-
able habitat for plankton. Silts and other loose materials that
settle to the bottom of this zone are favorable for burrowing forms
of benthos.
PORIFERA—(See Sponges)
POTAMOLOGY—The study of the physical, chemical, geological,
and biological aspects of rivers.
PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY—The rate of photosynthetic car-
bon fixation by plants and bacteria forming the base of the food
chain.
PRODUCERS—Organisms that synthesize their own organic sub-
stance from inorganic substances; for example, plants.
PRODUCTION (Productivity)—A time-rate unit of the total
amount of organisms grown.
PROFUNDAL ZONE—The deep- and bottom-water area beyond
37
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the depth of effective light penetration. All of the lake floor be-
neath the hypolimnion. (See Figure 2)
PROTOZOA—Organisms consisting- either of a single cell or of
aggregates of cells, each of which performs all the essential func-
tions in life. They are mostly microscopic in size and largely
aquatic.
PROTOZOOLOGIST—A specialist in the study of protozoa.
PSYCHODA—(See Sewage Fly Larvae.)
PUPA—An intermediate, usually quiescent, form following the
larval stage in insects, and maintained until the beginning of the
adult stage.
PYRHELIOMETER—An instrument for measuring the rate at
which heat energy is received from the sun (usually expressed as
gm Cal./cm2/minute).
RAPIDS ZONE—The shallow-water area of a stream, where veloc-
ity of current is great enough to keep the bottom clear of silt and
other loose materials, thus providing a firm bottom. This zone is
occupied largely by specialized benthic or periphytic organisms
that are firmly attached to or cling to a firm substrate.
RAT-TAILED MAGGOT (Tubifera = Eristalis)—An aquatic
fly maggot usually found in foul, often septic, water. It possesses
a three-segmented, telescopic air tube that extends through the
water surface, enabling the maggot to breathe from the atmos-
phere. The larvae live on decayed organic material.
RECOVERY ZONE—Following the zone of active decomposition,
a zone of stream recovery may extend for miles. In this zone, the
BOD decreases and the dissolved oxygen increases to the unpol-
luted concentration. Molds and fungi have been replaced by a
growth of algae. Rotifers and Crustacea succeed the ciliates. The
population abundance decreases and the number of species repre-
sented within the bottom community increases. Sowbugs and
fingernail clams may be very abundant. Several species of snails,
leeches, midge larvae, and other fly larvae are also numerous. In-
tolerant or sensitive bottom-dwelling forms such as stoneflies, may-
flies, and caddisflies may appear near the end of the zone.
REDD—A type of fish-spawning area associated with running
water and clean gravel. Fish moving upstream sequentially dig a
38
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pocket, deposit and fertilize eggs, and then cover the spawn with
gravel from the next upstream pocket. Fishes that utilize this type
of spawning area include some trouts, salmons, and minnows.
REDIA—A larval stage of certain (flatworm) trematoda.
RED TIDE—A visible red-to-orange coloration of an area of the
sea caused by the presence of a bloom of certain "armored"
flagellates.
REDUCERS—Organisms that digest food outside the cell wall by
means of enzymes secreted for this purpose. Soluble food is then
absorbed into the cell and reduced to a mineral condition. Ex-
amples are fungi, bacteria, protozoa, and nonpigmented algae.
RHEOTROPISM—Movement in -response to the stimulus of a
current gradient in water.
RIFFLE—A section of a stream in which the water is usually
shallower and the current of greater velocity than in the connect-
ing pools; a riffle is smaller than a rapid and shallower than a
chute.
ROTIFERS (Rotatoria)—Microscopic aquatic animals, primarily
free-living fresh-water forms that occur in a variety of habitats.
Approximately 75 percent of the known species occur in the
littoral zone of lakes and ponds. The more dense populations are
associated with a substrate of submerged aquatic vegetation. Most
forms ingest fine organic detritus for food, whereas others are
predaceous.
SAC FRY—(See Fry)
SAPROBIENSYSTEM—A European system of classifying orga-
nisms according to their response to the organic pollution in slow
moving streams.
Alpha-Mesosaprobic Zone—Area of active decomposition, partly
aerobic, partly anaerobic, in a stream heavily polluted with organic
wastes.
Beta-Mesosaprobic Zone—That reach of stream that is moder-
ately polluted with organic wastes.
Oligosaprobic Zone—That reach of a stream that is slightly
polluted with organic wastes and contains the mineralized products
of self-purification from organic pollution, but with none of the
organic pollutants remaining.
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Polysaprobic Zone—That area of a grossly polluted stream which
contains the complex organic wastes that are decomposing pri-
marily by anaerobic processes.
SAPROPHYTE—Any organism living on dead or decaying or-
ganic matter.
SCAVENGER—An organism that feeds upon decomposing or-
ganic matter.
SCUDS (Amphipods)—Macroscopic aquatic crustaceans that are
laterally compressed. Most are marine and estuarine. Dense popula-
tions are associated with aquatic vegetation. Great numbers are
consumed by fish.
Figure 22. Scud.
SECCHI DISK—A circular metal plate, 20 centimeters in diam-
eter, the upper surface of which is divided into 4 equal quadrants
and so painted that 2 quadrants directly opposite each other are
black and the intervening ones white.
SEDGWICK-RAFTER CONCENTRATION METHOD—A pro-
cedure for the quantitative determination of plankton in water by
use of a special funnel, a certain grade of sand, and bolting-cloth
discs.
SEDGWICK-RAFTER COUNTING CELL—A plankton-count-
ing cell consisting of a brass or glass receptacle 50 by 20 by 1
millimeter sealed to a 1- by 3-inch glass microscope slide. A
rectanglular cover glass large enough to cover the whole cell is
required. The cell has a capacity of exactly 1 milliliter.
SEICHE—A periodic oscillation of a body of water whose period is
determined by the resonant characteristics of the containing basin
as controlled by the physical dimensions. These periods generally
range from a few minutes to an hour or more. (Originally the
term was applied only to lakes but now also to harbors, bays,
oceans, etc.)
SESSILE ORGANISMS—Organisms that sit directly on a base
without support, attached or merely resting unattached on a
substrate.
SESTON—The living and nonliving bodies of plants or animals
that float or swim in the water.
40
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Figure 24.
Sewage Fly Pupa.
Figure 23. Secchi Disk..
SEWAGE FLY LARVAE (Psychoda)—A grayish-white, cylindrical
larvae with hardened dorsal plates on the posterior segments.
Larvae and pupae usually occur in filter beds of sewage treatment
plants, in foul water, and in decaying organic matter. The ter-
restrial adults are small, less than 4 millimeters long, and moth-
like, and often are a nuisance in areas near trickling-filter plants.
The sewage fly has a 2-week life cycle.
SHELLFISH POISON (Mussel Poison)—A poison present in shell-
fish that have fed upon certain small marine phytoplankters in
which the toxic principles exist. The shellfish concentrates the
poison without harmful effects to itself, but man is poisoned
through consumption of the toxic flesh.
SICKLE-SHAPED—Curved or crescent shaped.
SIMULIIDAE—(See Black Fly Larvae)
SLACK TIDE (Slack Water)—The state of a tidal current when its
velocity is near zero, especially the moment when a reversing cur-
rent changes direction and its velocity is zero. Sometimes con-
sidered the intermediate period between ebb and flood currents
during which the velocity of the currents is less than 0.1 knot.
41
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SLUDGEWORMS (Tubificidae)—Tolerant, aquatic, segmented
worms that exhibit marked population increases in streams and
rivers polluted with organic decomposable wastes.
SNAIL—An organism that typically possesses a coiled shell and
crawls on a single muscular foot. Air-breathing snails, Called
pulmonates, do not have gills but obtain oxygen through a "lung"
or pulmonary cavity. At variable intervals most pulmonate snails
come to the surface of the water for a fresh supply of air. Gill-
breathing snails possess an internal gill through which dissolved
ogygen is removed from the surrounding water.
SPECIES (both singular and plural)—An organism or organisms
forming a natural population or group of populations that trans-
mit specific characteristics from parent to off-spring. They are
reproductively isolated from other populations with which they
might breed. Populations usually exhibit a loss of fertility when
hybridizing.
SPHAERIIDAE—(See Fingernail Clams)
SPHAEROTILUS—A slime-producing, nonmotile, sheathed, fila-
mentous, attached bacterium. Great masses are often broken from
their "holdfasts" by currents and are carried floating downstream
in gelatinous flocks.
SPONGES (Porifera)—One of the sessile animals that fasten to
piers, pilings, shells, rocks, etc. Most live in the sea.
SPORE—A reproductive cell of a protozoan, fungus, or alga. In
bacteria, spores are specialized resting cells.
SPRING OVERTURN—A physical phenomenon that may take
place in a body of water during the early spring. The sequence of
events leading to spring overturn include: (1) melting of ice cover,
(2) warming of surface waters, (3) density change in surface waters
producing convection currents from top to bottom, (4) circulation
of the total water volume by wind action, and (5) vertical tempera-
ture equality, 4°C. The overturn results in a uniformity of the
physical and chemical properties of the water.
STAGE MICROMETER—A standardized, accurately ruled scale,
mounted on a glass slide. It is used to calibrate a microscope.
STANDING CROP—The biota present in an environment at a
selected point in time.
42
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Figure 29. Waterflea.
Figure 27.
Stonefly Nymph
Figure 28. Surber Stream Bottom Sampler.
STENOTOPIC ORGANISMS—Organisms with a narrow range ol
tolerance for a particular environmental factor. Examples are trout,
stonefly nymphs, etc.
STONEFLY NYMPHS (Plecoptera)—Immature stoneflies. The
nymphs live approximately 1 year in the unpolluted, rapidly moving
water required for their development. They live under rocks, in
cracks of submerged logs, and in mats of debris. Most stonefly
nypmhs are vegetarians; however, a number are predaceous and
feed upon small insects and other aquatic invertebrates. The adults.
live only a few weeks; they are secretive creatures, resting on stones
and sticks along the banks of streams.
SUBLITTORAL ZONE—The part of the shore from the lowest
water level to the lower boundary of plant growth. (See Figure 2)
SUBMERGED AQUATIC PLANT—A plant that is growing or
adapted to grow beneath the surface of the water. Examples are the
pond weed and coontail.
SUNFISH (Centrarchidae)—Carnivorous fresh-water fish, all of
which are spring spawners. The females utilize shallow depressions
excavated by the males for nests; later the males guard the eggs and
43
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the young. Like other essentially carnivorous fish, the young feed
first on microscopic organisms and later on invertebrates and verte-
brates. Members of this family are generally divided into the follow-
ing groups: (1) largemouth and smallmouth black bass, (2) crappies
and the round sunfish, (3) true sunfish and rock bass, and (4) Sacra-
mento perch of the Pacific Coast.
SURBER STREAM BOTTOM SAMPLER—A compact, light-
weight, portable, quantitative bottom sampler especially suitable
for sampling organisms from the stone or gravel bottoms of shallow
streams possessing a strong current. Construction consists of two
square metal frames of equal size hinged together. One frame
carries a net of extra heavy bolting cloth; the other, when in work-
ing position, encloses the sampling area (1 square foot). Dislodged
organisms are carried into the downstream net.
SURFACE AQUATIC PLANTS—Plants whose leaves float upon
the surface of the water. Larger ones, such as the water lilies are
rooted in the mud of the bottom, and bear great leaves that float
upon the surface. The smaller ones such as duckweeds are free-
floating.
SWIMBLADDER—An internal membranous gas-filled organ of
many fishes. It may function as a hydrostatic or sense organ, or as
part of the respiratory system.
SWIMMER'S ITCH—A rash produced on bathers by a parasitic
flatworm in the cercarial stage of its life cycle. The organism is
killed by the human body as soon as it penetrates the skin; how-
ever, the rash may persist for a period of about 2 weeks.
SYMBIOSIS—Two organisms of different species living together,
one or both of which may benefit and neither is harmed.
SYNONOMY—A list of words of similar meaning; the scientific
names (incorrect and correct), collectively, that have been used in
different publications to designate a species or other group.
SYSTEMATICS—The science of organism classification.
TAILRACE—The channel into which the water from a water
wheel or turbine is discharged.
TENDIPEDIDAE—(See Bloodworms.)
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THERMOCLINE—The layer in a body of water in which the
drop in temperature equals or exceeds 1 degree centigrade for each
meter or approximately 3 feet of water depth.
TIDAL PRISM—The total amount of water that flows into the
harbor or out again with movement of the tide, excluding any
fresh water flow.
TIDE—The periodic rising and falling of the water that results
from gravitational attraction of the moon and sun acting upon
the rotating earth. Although the accompanying horizontal move-
ment of the water resulting from the same cause is also sometimes
called the tide, it is preferable to designate the latter as TIDAL
CURRENT, reserving the name tide for the vertical movement.
TLm (See Median Tolerance Limit)
TOLERANT ASSOCIATION—An association of organisms capa-
ble of withstanding adverse conditions within the habitat. It is
usually characterized by a reduction in species (from a clean water
association), and an increase in individuals representing a particu-
lar species.
TOXICITY—Quality, state, or degree, of being toxic or poisonous.
TRACHEAL GILLS—Outgrowths of the skin, traversed by fine
tracheal airtubes, that are common among insect larvae. The ex-
change of gases is between the water and the air contained within
the tubes.
TRANSPIRATION—The loss of water in vapor form from a
plant, mostly through plant pores.
TREMATODE—The common name for a parasitic worm of the
class Trematoda, a fluke.
TRICHOPTERA—(See Caddisfly Larvae)
TROPHOGENIC REGION—The superficial layer of a lake in
which organic production from mineral substances takes place on
the basis of light energy. (See Figure 2)
TROPHOLYTIC REGION—The deep layer of a lake, where
organic dissimilation predominates because of light deficiency.
(See Figure 2)
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TUBIFERA—(See Rat-Tailed Maggot)
TUBIFICIDAE—(See Sludgeworms)
TUBIFICIDS—(See Sludgeworms)
UN ION ID AE—(See Pearl Button Clams)
VENTRAL—Relating to the belly or the abdomen; opposed to
dorsal.
VERTEBRATE—Animals with backbones.
WARM- AND COLD-WATER FISH—Warm-water fish include
black bass, sunfish, catfish, gar, and others; whereas cold-water fish
include salmon and trout, whitefish, miller's thumb, and blackfish.
The temperature factor determining distribution is set by adapta-
tion of the eggs to warm or cold water.
WATERFLEAS (Daphnia)—Mostly microscopic swimming crus-
taceans, often forming a major portion of the zooplankton popula-
tion. The second antennae are very large and are used for swim-
WHIPPLE OCULAR MICROMETER—A glass disc, marked
with squares, that fits into a microscope ocular and is used to deter-
mine microscopic field areas for counting plankton.
WINTER KILL—The death of fishes resulting from unfavorable
dissolved oxygen conditions under ice.
ZOOGLEA—Bacteria embedded in a jelly-like matrix formed as
the result of metabolic activities.
ZOOPLANKTON—Animal microorganisms living unattached in
water. They include small Crustacea, such as daphnia and cyclops,
and single-celled animals as protozoa, etc.
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Chapter III*
GRAPHIC EXPRESSION OF
BIOLOGICAL DATA IN WATER
POLLUTION REPORTS
Many present day water pollution problems require atten-
tion to the responses of organisms exposed to the changing aquatic
environment and fall within the sphere of interest of biologists.
Frequently, the organisms of concern are desirable ones, such as
fish and shellfish, which often respond to the pollution environ-
ment by becoming less numerous and deteriorating in quality. Of
concern, also, are undesirable organisms, such as bloom-producing
algae and slime growths, which sometimes become so numerous
as to be a nuisance. In either situation, the consequences are
costly—in one case, loss of a valuable resource—in. the other, an
expensive problem of organism control. In spite of these and still
other areas of legitimate interest, the voice of the biologist too
frequently has been feeble and unclear. There no doubt are a
variety of causes to account for this. A vitally important one is the
frequent failure of communications between biologists and others
who share their interest and enthusiasm for water conservation.
That failure of communication and possible remedies for it form
the subject matter of this paper in the hope that the valuable
biological work in this field will yield a more useful product.
Biological information pertinent to water pollution surveys
has little value or utility unless presented in a form that is readily
"Taken From: "Graphic Expression of Biological Data in Water Pollution
Reports," by W. M. Ingram and A. F. Bartsch, reprinted with permission from
JOURNAL WATER POLLUTION CONTROL FEDERATION, VOL. 32, NO. 3,
PP. 297-310 (MARCH 1960), WASHINGTON, D. C. 20016.
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visualized and understood. Except for the median tolerance
limit (TLm), generally expressing satisfactorily the result of toxicity
tests typically using fish, biological data pertinent in some way or
other to stream conditions are often poorly presented for appraisal
by the public and by persons not specifically trained in biological
sciences. Once the funds have been expended to gather biological
data, it is only reasonable in the interest of assuring maximum use-
fulness that they be presented in some clearcut form and described
as succinctly as possible. It would be beneficial if biotic reflec-
tions of water quality could be expressed in meaningful numbers
susceptible to mathematical manipulation as are BOD and some
other data, but limited efforts in this direction have not yet been
wholly successful. Accordingly, while it is possible for biotic data
to show seriousness of pollution and need for remedial measures,
such data do not indicate appropriate capacity or design of
remedial works, and are not intended to do so.
In the past, and unfortunately at present also, it is not
uncommon to find the biologist's report held aloof from that of
his colleagues who addressed themselves concurrently to chemical,
bacteriological, and engineering aspects of the same problem. Tra-
ditionally it appeared as an appendix, gave long lists of technical
names of organisms found, and described the complexities of
stream biology, but failed to relate biology clearly to the other
data or to the essence of the problem. No thinking person will
deny the importance of recording the names of organisms that
make up the spectrum of life in various environments affected by
pollution. Such information adds to the general store of ecological
knowledge and has interest from a number of points of view. But
too often such lists appear as an end in themselves rather than a
data-assembling step preliminary to problem analysis.
Whether or not justified, it undoubtedly was the apparent
sanctity of this type of thing that caused Wylie (1) to write: "Sci-
entists—and especially biologists, whose disciplines have benefited
less often than some others from an extreme need to communicate
with congressmen and even the electorate—have for generations
been free to immolate themselves in proud palaces of nomencla-
ture. Today, a herpetologist can converse with an entomologist
about science only up to the level of pregraduate study. Beyond
that, interpreters are as indispensable as uncommon. Yet, instead of
being embrarrassed [sic: embarrassed] by their terminological
entombment they take pride in the matter. For many, indeed,
facility in the local language represents their only palpable achieve-
ment after decades of learning and labor." The admonition im-
48
-------
Figure 1. Pictorial diagram showing water quality effects on aquatic
* life [after Ingram, Bartsch, and Jex (10)].
ZONES OF POLLUTION
Clean woter Degradation decomposition Recovery
DISSOLVED
OXYGEN
SAG
CURVE
ORIGIN OF I—-j.
POLLUTION |—V
PHYSICAL
Clear, no bottom
sludge
Floating solids,
bottom sludge
Turbid, foul gas,
bottom sludge
Turbid,
bottom sludge
Clear, no bottom
sludge
FISH
PRESENT
Game, pan, food
and forage fish
Tolerant fishes-
carp, buffalo, gars
Tolerant fishes-
carp, buffalo, gars
Game, pan, food
and forage fish
BOTTOM
ANIMALS
ALGAE
AND
PROTOZOA
Figure 2. Pictorial diagram showing some examples of life associated
with clean water and water polluted by organic wastes.
49
-------
plied is simply this—in the interest of clarity and usefulness, please
do not say "Monolassiocoliminophylocumhypophylum carpoden-
drum [sic: Monolassiocaliminophylorumhypophylum carpoden-
clrum]" when well-known "Joe" or "Bill" will do just as well.
Described in the following paragraphs are methods that
have been used effectively to present biological data in water pollu-
tion survey reports. One or more of the following graphical
expressions, together with pertinent interpretive schemes, make
it possible to say "Joe" and "Bill" in a useful way to show im-
portant biological relationships. Graphical presentations that can
be used effectively to summarize the impact of pollution on stream
life include bar graphs, sector diagrams, simple line graphs, photo-
graphs, and pictorial diagrams. Some examples of publications
especially pertinent to this discussion because they used graphics
for effective expression of biological data and are readily available
are those by Bartsch (2), Patrick (3), Henderson (4), Surber (5),
Ingram (6), Beck (7), Wurtz (8), and Bartsch and Ingram (9).
PICTORIAL DIAGRAMS
Pictorial diagrams such as Figures 1 and 2* have a dual
function in communicating biological knowledge effectively. In
the clean-up campaign type of water pollution control leaflet or
brochure intended for wide distribution to the public, they can
be used to show the very general as well as some of the more
specific impacts of pollution on living aquatic resources. They
also function, and perhaps best, as expressive educational tools
for public hearings and meetings, at civic club addresses, and in
conservation and nature study courses in the colleges and other
levels of education. Figure 1 was developed as a display poster to
show, in dramatic fashion, the gross impact of pollution on aquatic
life (10). Physical and chemical conditions are shown together with
existing aquatic life influenced by them so that interrelations be-
tween living conditions and existing life are clearly evident. The
poster suggests the kinds of contribution to be made by various
sciences when they unite in a joint attack on the problem. This
figure has been republished in a number of industrial and con-
servation journals to emphasize the potential effects of pollution
*Figure 2 was modified from a figure in "Environment and Health.'' PHS
Publication No. 84, Federal Security Agency, Public Health Service Washington,
D. C. (1951).
50
-------
on aquatic life. It was used by Hiram Walker and Sons, Inc. (11)
to illustrate pollutional effects in the Illinois River, by conserva-
tion agencies oE West Virginia -(12), Wisconsin (13), and Ten-
nessee (14), and by the Tennessee Department of Public Health
(15).
Other pictorial diagrams have been used to illustrate biotic
changes resulting from pollution which occur in linear fashion
along a stream. In Figure 2, examples of specific characteristic
aquatic organisms are shown in relation to stream condition ex-
pressed as familiar physical and chemical parameters indicative of
heavy pollution by raw sewage. Notable are the dissolved oxygen
sag curve and linear distribution of sewage sludge and solids
_. 3D 40 50 60
IRK
RESPONSES OF BOTTOM OR8ANISKS TO ENTRY OF RAW
SEWAGE AT ZERO HI LEASE LEVEL. (A) VARIETY
DISTRIBUTION: (B) POPULATION ALTERATIONS OF
•CLEAN MATER* AND "POUimONH" BOTTOM FORKS
It 0 10 21 30 48 50
IILES
G. LliEAR ALTERATIONS 1* W>U)LATll»tS OF SL1KBE-
WRMS (A) BLOODWORMS (B) AW SOWMSS ft)
II 1 11 SO 30 41 5« Cl
HIES
6. LINEAR ALTERATIONS III POPULATIONS OF BACTERIA,
EILIATE PROTOZOANS, AMD CRUSTACEANS
Figure 3. Pictorial graphs demonstrating effects of raw sewage on
population and kinds of selected organisms tafter Bartsch (2)].
51
-------
which help to delineate the stream zones shown. This figure is
essentially a qualitative one, showing for the fish a shift from
desirable kinds to less desirable ones or none. For the bottom
animals it shows a replacement of high oxygen demanding insect
larvae, incapable of inhabiting sludge, by much less sensitive or-
ganisms, such as red "blood worms," sludge worms, rat-tail mag-
gots, and sewage mosquito wrigglers. The algae and protozoa
shown are the kinds that one would expect to find dominant in
company with the indicated fish and invertebrates.
A quantitative dimension is added to the qualitative dis-
tribution of selected organisms in Figure 3. The point of entry
of the pollution, which is raw domestic sewage, is designated as
zero mile. Figure 3A shows clearly that the entry of pollution
causes the variety of bottom organisms to diminish. At some reach
downstream (between miles 40 and 50) there is a stimulation of
tremendous numbers of one or two species. Figures 3B and 3C
show the linear order of dominance of selected organisms.
PHOTOGRAPHS OF
ORGANISM SAMPLES
Where one is interested in the influence of wastes on the
bottom productivity of fish-food organisms, photographs of the
collected samples are a simple but highly effective mode of data
expression. Without verbal embellishment the essentials of the
situation in the stream are evident at a glance. This method was
used to advantage by Henderson (4) to show conditions in the
South Fork of the Shenandoah River, Virginia, downstream from
industries discharging chemical wastes. Results of a later clean-up
campaign on the same river can be well shown in this way, also
(Figure 4).
BAR GRAPHS
Simple bar graphs can be used advantageously in summariz-
ing biotic data to accompany graphic expressions of chemical and
physical data. Unlike line graphs, they do not tend to create a
false impression that biotic abundance follows a smooth ascending
or descending pattern between stations simply because the points
are connected by straight lines. Spacing of bars can be so arranged
that pertinent watercourse data, such as location of pollution
sources or tributaries, can be clearly shown (Figure 5). This figure
52
-------
summarizes simply and concisely seven pages of tabular data deal-
ing with generic names of the organisms found at each of nine
stations along 61.9 miles of stream. Station 9 is a control station
in a river reach above major sources of municipal and industrial
pollution. Station 7*. another control reach is on an unpolluted
tributary that joins the Pigeon River between sampling points
where maximal depressing effects of pollution on the variety of
aquatic life are evident.
Horizontal bar graphs have been used less commonly than
the vertical type in stream pollution work. In Figure 6 data,
which otherwise would form a series of lengthy tables of the type
often hidden in a report appendix, are presented in an interpre-
tive and revealing way. Actually, this chart demonstrates how
three parts of a biotic picture can be presented together in a
I FIRST SOURCE
OF POLLUTION
1
'SECOND SOURCE
OF POLLUTION
1947
1950
i
J. i
I i . 1
3 20 5O 85 88 119
MILES DOWNSTREAM FROM FIRST SOURCE OF POLLUTION
137
QUANTITIES OF FISH FOOD ORGANISMS PER UNIT AREA, IN SOUTH FORK
OFSHENANDOAH RIVER, VIRGINIA. NOTE IMPROVEMENT IN 1950
FOLLOWING ABATEMENT EFFORTS-
Figure 4. Photographs of collected samples, showing quantities of fish
food organisms per unit area, in South Fork of Shenandoah River,
Va. Comparison of two years shows improvements following abate-
ment efforts [after Henderson (4)].
-------
CONTROL
STATION
ENTRY OF ~
KRAFT-MILL
POLLUTION
STA. 9
MIL. 64.0
BIG CREEK
CONTROL
STATION
ENTRY OF
TANNERY
POLLUTION
i
ENTRY OF
" CANNERY
AND
MUNICIPAL
- POLLUTION '
I
7"
25.9
4
8.1
3
6.7
2
4.4
6 5
22.0 15.8
MILES AND STATIONS
"(THIS STATION, BIG CREEK, AN UNPOLLUTED
TRIBUTARY TO PIGEON RIVER; OTHER
STATIONS ARE PIGEON RIVER)
TOTAL GENERA OF ORGANISMS, EXCLUSIVE OF FISH, COLLECTED IN
PIGEON RIVER AND BIG CREEK (SEPT. 1953)
Figure 5. Vertical bar graph showing total genera of organisms ex-
clusive of fish, collected in Pigeon River and Big Creek, Sept. 1953
[after Mullican, unpublished!.
' ' '—I I L_
(I)
(2.1
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
(II)
(12)
JTATIONS
72 64 56 48 40 32 24 16 8 0
PERCENT REDUCTION OF GENERA
SEPTEMBER OVER JULY, 1952
LEGEND
TOTAL GENERA, JULY
TOTAL GENERA, SEPT,
4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52
NUMBER OF GENERA,
JULY AND SEPTEMBER, 1952
BASED ON COMPARISON OF BIOLOGICAL STUDIES IN
JULY, 1952 WITH CURTAILED INDUSTRIAL ACTIVITY
AND IN SEPT. 1952 AFTER RESUMPTION OF IN-
DUSTRIAL PRODUCTION
Figure 6. Horizontal bar graph showing effect of industrial wastes on
total genera of organisms in Mahoning River [after Ingram (6)1.
54
-------
meaningful form where, if done separately, interrelation between
organisms, pollution, and waste discharge history would be much
less apparent.
Collections of aquatic life on which Figure 6 is based were
made in July and September 1952. The July collections were
made after the great bulk of industrial production was curtailed by
a steel strike along the Mahoning River, Ohio, and while the load
of remaining pollution came from untreated municipal sewage.
September collections were made at the same stations after the
strike was settled and industrial production was resumed. Then
the pollution load consisted of both industrial and municipal
wastes. Differences in the number of genera of plants and animals
under conditions existing in July and September are shown in the
right-hand part of the chart. Stations 1 and 2 were control reaches;
all other stations were subjected to varying loads of pollution.
NOTE:
(SOURCE OF POLLUTION FROM
GLASS-SAND WASTES)
IN MILES
BAR GRAPH KEY
Figure 7. Vertical bar graphs, superimposed over a map, used to show
total genera and individuals of bottom animals per unit area [after
Bartsch(16)l.
-------
The left-hand side of the chart shows the per cent reduction of
genera in September over July 1952. It is obvious at a glance that
the biotic variety of the river was reduced concurrently with re-
sumption of industrial activity and the resulting increased pollu-
tion loads reaching the stream. That the indicated reduction is not
attributable to seasonal variation of aquatic life is attested by the
similarities in generic numbers collected at upstream Control Sta-
tions 1 and 2 in both July and September.
Figure 7 demonstrates the use of vertical bar graphs, super-
imposed over a map of an area, to pinpoint spatially the variation
in bottom organisms per square foot of area sampled. This graphic
example makes it possible to visualize the influence of settleable
solids from a glass sand operation in limiting both the number of
kinds and the quantity of individuals of bottom organisms. The
wastes are carried down a small creek and enter the river on the
south bank between Stations 1 and 2. Stations 1 and 1' represent
upstream control stations. The south half of the stream is the
area principally affected by the waste. Bottom organisms are
250
200
150
IOO
50
l.llll
250
200
150
100
50
•d
1
9
26 •
ULJ
I II III IV V VI VII
HEALTHY
I II III IV V VI VII
SEMI-HEALTHY
%
250
200
I 50
100
50
0
III ti.
III IV V
POLLUTED
n
£UU
2OO
150
100
50
n
-
-
.
3
1
6
I- •
II III IV V
VERY POLLUTED
Figure 8. Histograms, based on selected organisms, illustrating healthy,
semi-healthy, polluted, and very polluted stations in Conestoga
Basin, Pa. [after Patrick (3)].
56
-------
absent at Station 2, and only one was collected at Station 3. A
slight increase in kinds and numbers o£ individuals was noted at
Station 4. The stations in the north half of the stream show con-
trasting abundance of bottom organisms at Stations 1' to 4' which
are outside the influence of the glass sand waste.
Patrick (3) has vised vertical bar graphs to show the presence
and variation in abundance of selected species of organisms as
related to varying degrees of pollution. Bacteria, fungi, and aquatic
flowering plants are omitted from the graphs. When the biotic
data are so recorded, "... these histograms seem to fall into four
general groups which we have designated as healthy, semi-healthy,
polluted, and very polluted" (Figure 8). Species of organisms that
are associated in any one of the seven columns of a histogram have
been grouped together "Because certain groups behaved similarly
in response to a given environment . . ." (3). These "groups" that
form the columns labeled I to VII are characterized in Table I.
TABLE I—Classification of Groups
of Organisms Shown in Figure 8
GROUP * ORGANISM
I Blue-green algae; green algae of the genera Sf/geoc/on/um, Spi-
rogyra, and Trifaonema,- the bdelloid rotifers plus Cephalodella
megalocephala and Proa/es dec/p/ens
II Oligochaetes, leeches, and pulmonate snails
III Protozoa
IV Diatoms, red algae, and "most of the green algae"
V All rotifers not included in Group I, clams, gill-breathing snails,
and tricladid flatworms
VI All insects and c.rustacea
VII All fish
On the ordinate, the 100-per cent value represents the aver-
age number of species for each group found at stations charac-
terized as ". . . typically healthy stations" on the basis of chemical,
bacteriological, and biological data. The specific bases for inter-
preting the histograms to indicate whether they portray healthy,
semi-healthy, polluted, or very polluted conditions (Figure 8) are:
1. Healthy Station: Groups IV, VI, and VII are all above
the 50-per cent level. Groups I and II ". . . varying greatly depend-
ing on the ecological conditions and degree of enrichment of a
stream."
2. Semi-healthy Station: (a) Either or both Group VI or
57
-------
VII are below 50 per cent and Group I or II is under 100 per cent,
or (b) Either Group VI or VII is below 50 per cent, and Groups I,
II, and IV, are 100 percent or over; or Groups I and II are 100
per cent or over and Group IV is double width. The double width
of columns is explained as follows: " 'Semi-healthy' is the common
condition in which the balance of life as described for a healthy
station has been somewhat disrupted but not destroyed. Often a
given species will be represented by a great number of individuals.
This condition is noted in the histograms by a double width
column."
3. Polluted Station: (a) Either or both of Groups VI and
VII are absent, and Groups I and II are 50 percent or greater.
(b) Groups VI and VII are both present and below 50 per cent in
which case Groups I and II must be 100 per cent or more.
4. Very Polluted Station: (a) Group IV is below 50 per
cent and Groups VI and VII are absent, or (b) Groups VI or VII
are present and I or II are less than 50 per cent.
Wurtz (8) presents histograms (Figure 9), which deal with
selected organisms that are "tolerant" and "non-tolerant" of pollu-
tion. "Tolerant" and "non-tolerant" organisms are not listed by
scientific names but are shown by their relative abundance. Ranges
of pollution intensity reflected in the graphs are not defined.
Each histogram is constructed of four columns, each repre-
senting one of the following categories: (a) B: burrowing orga-
nisms, (b) S: sessile organisms, (c) F: foraging organisms, and (d)
P: pelagic organisms. Protozoa, non-tricladid turbellara, aschel-
minthes, and entomostracan Crustacea are omitted from the histo-
grams. Columns may extend up and down from a baseline. The
"non-tolerant" portion of the population is plotted above this line
and the "tolerant" portion below it. Wurtz (8) states, "The
columns are plotted as a frequency index in which the total num-
ber of species found at any station represents a frequency of 100
per cent for that station. Thus the contained area in all the
columns of any one histogram equals 100 per cent." He further
states that, "In general, the stream may be considered as a clean-
water stream when the non-tolerant species represent more than
50 per cent of the population. If the non-tolerant species drop
much below this level there is cause for concern as regards stream
conditions. The factor that causes this depression can be inter-
preted as pollution."
58
-------
For the "normal clean-water station" the four columns
making up a histogram, from left to right, would be "approxi-
mately" 5, 40, 45, and 10 per cent. These percentages that are
stated to exist for a "normal clean-water station," are qualified
by station: "However, this is considerably modified by environ-
mental conditions as well as by the effects of pollution. Never-
theless, the proper interpretation of the relative species diversity
in each column is the most sensitive method of evaluating stream
conditions. Unless gross differences exist between the total num-
ber of species at any one station compared with any other station,
this feature cannot be used for the interpretation of pollution. It
may, however, be considered as supporting evidence for the con-
clusions drawn as regards any particular station." Wurtz (8)
states that clean stations had from 53 to 115 species and polluted
stations varied in species from 3 to 46; species in the zones of
recovery varied from 25 to 75.
BSFP BSFP BSFP BSFP BSFP BSFP BSFP BSFP BSFP
18
21 .3
M-7 M-8
M-6 8/28A8 8/28/48
14 M-5 9/B/*W RECOVRY DEGRAD.
M-3 M-4 8/27/48 RECOVERY
8/26*48 a/2648 RECOyERY
DEGRADr—SEPTIC
IOO-1-
AH
3 8/2648
SEPTIC
Figure 9. Histograms, based on selected organisms, illustrating stream
reaches of clean, degradation, septic, and recovery conditions [after
Wurtz (8)1.
59
-------
STA.NO.I
MICHIGAN
STA.No.3
STA.No.7
STA.No.9
Florence y)ron Mountain
• Kingsford
Niagara/ ^Norway STA.No.IO
STA.No.6
WISCONSIN
CLEAN WATER
FACULTATIVE
POLLUTIONAL
NO.I4
Figure 10. Sector diagrams showing percentages of clean water,
facultative, and pollutional bottom organisms [after Surber (5)].
SECTOR DIAGRAMS
Sector diagrams have long been used to express biological con-
ditions in polluted water. A paper by Surber (5) is a recent ex-
ample in which such diagrams are used to show the abundance
of bottom animals that he groups as clean-water, facultative, and
pollutional, in studies of the Menominee and Kalamazoo Rivers,
Michigan (Figure 10). He states that probably, ". . . only the use
of 'facultative' requires explanation: facultative animals are those
60
-------
forms that are able to live in fairly heavily-polluted areas as well
as in clean-water situations." This interpretation has not always
been used; some workers, unfortunately, have lumped in this
category organisms whose responses to pollution are not known. In
addition, it is not always clear whether the categories refer to the
total number of species or to total population.
LINE GRAPHS
The line graph, of course, has been the common base for
graphical presentation of most data found in reports of water
pollution surveys. Too often, no attempt is made to project the
significance of long lists of animal and plant names into interpre-
tative graphs that are meaningful to those not familiar with scien-
tific biological names. Through this simple device, however, one
can avoid such long lists of names which for apparent lack of
meaning are usually entombed in an appendix of the report.
Simple line graphs when used where appropriate in place of or
to supplement name lists, can prove to be most useful to all who
find need to read water pollution survey reports. Such enhance-
ment of bacteriological, chemical, and physical data often could
prove to be the yeast that leavens the bread.
In a recent paper, Beck (7) uses simple line graphs to dem-
onstrate the usefulness of a new method for reporting biotic data.
This method is one of the few attempts to express biotic condition
as a single number. The number, called the "Biotic Index," is
derived in two steps:
1. For a given stream station, determine the number of
species of organisms that tolerate no appreciable organic pollution
(Class I), and the number of species that tolerate moderate organic
pollution but cannot exist under near-anaerobic conditions (Class
II).
2. Biotic Index = 2(n Class I) + (n Class II).
This Biotic Index may be defined as "... an index value based on
biological findings and indicative of the cleanliness (with regard
to organic pollution) of a portion of a stream or lake." The index
may vary from 0 to 40; the index that may. be accepted without
explanation as indicative of a clean stream is 10; a grossly polluted
stream will have an index of 0; and a moderately polluted stream,
1 to 6.
61
-------
30
X
UJ
Q 20
O
o
m
10
TWO BIOLOGICAL SURVEYS MADE
AT THE SAME STATIONS ONE
YEAR APART
\\__I953____
'954^
2 3
STATIONS
40
30
X
UJ
a
o
i—
O
CD
20
10
1954
\
BIOTIC CONDITIONS BEFORE
(1954) AND AFTER (1955) INITIAL
OPERATION OF A PULP MILL
BETWEEN STATIONS 4 AND 19
19
STATIONS
Figure 11. Presentation of biological data expressed as biotic index
[after Beck (7)].
The clarity with which a graphic plot of biotic indices ex-
presses stream condition is shown in Figure 11.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Appreciation is expressed to the following persons who sup-
plied data for incorporation into this paper: Mr. William M.
Beck, Jr., Biologist, Florida State Board of Health; Mr. Harold
-------
Mullican, Chief Biologist, Tennessee Stream Pollution Control;
Dr. Ruth Patrick, Curator of Limnology, The Academy of Natural
Sciences of Philadelphia; Mr. Eugene W. Surber, Assistant Federal
Aid Supervisor, Region IV, U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, At-
lanta, Georgia; Dr. Charles B. Wurtz, Consulting Biologist, Phil-
adelphia, Pennsylvania; and Mr. Croswell Henderson, Water
Supply and Water Pollution Research, Robert A. Taft Sanitary
Engineering Center of the U. S. Public Health Service.
REFERENCES
1. Wylie, P., "A Layman Looks at Biology." Amer. Inst. Biolog. Sci.
Bull., 9, 12 (1959).
2. Bartsch, A. F., "Biological Aspects of Stream Pollution." Sewage
Works Jour., 20, 2, 292 (Mar. 1948).
3. Patrick, R., "A Proposed Biological Measure of Stream Conditions,
Based on a Survey of the Conestoga Basin, Lancaster County,
Pennsylvania." Proc. Acad. Natural Sci. Phila., Cl, 277 (1949).
4. Henderson, C., "Value of the Bottom Sampler in Demonstrating
the Effects of Pollution on Fish-Food Organisms and Fish in the
Shenandoah River." Prog. Fish-Cult., 217 (Oct. 1949).
5. Surber, E. W., "Biological Effects of Pollution in Michigan Waters."
Sewage and Industrial Wastes, 25, 1, 79 (Jan. 1953).
6. Ingram, W. M., Figure 7, page 88, in "Report of Water Pollution
Study of Mahoning River Basin including Ohio Portion of
Shenango River Drainage Area, 1952-1953-1954." Water Pollution
Control Unit, Sanitary Eng. Div., Ohio Dept. Health, 91 pp. (Oct.
1954).
7. Beck, W. M., Jr., "Suggested Method for Reporting Biotic Data."
Sewage and Industrial Wastes, 27, 10, 1193 (Oct. 1955).
8. Wurtz, C. B., "Stream Biota and Stream Pollution." Sewage and
Industrial Wastes, 27, 11, 1270 (Nov. 1955).
9. Bartsch, A. F., and Ingram, W. M., "Stream Life and the Pollution
Environment." Pub. Works, 90, 104 (July 1959).
10. Ingram, W. M., Bartsch, A. F., and Jex, G., "Water Quality Affects
Aquatic Life." Poster No. 15, U. S. Dept. of Health, Education, and
Welfare, Public Health Service (1954).
11. Anon., "The Illinois." The Hiram Walker Spirit, p. 3 (Mar. 1956).
63
-------
12. "Water Quality Affects Aquatic Life." U. S. Dept. of Health, Edu-
cation, and Welfare, Public Health Service Poster No. 15, in West
Virginia Conservation (Aug. 1955).
13. Mackenthun, K. M., "The Living Waters." Wisconsin Conserva-
tionist, 13, 35 (July, Aug., Sept. 1956).
14. Mullican, H. N., and Sinclair, R. M., "The Living Waters." Ten-
nessee Conservationist, 3; and 20 (Feb. 1958).
15. "Tennessee Public Health." Edited by H. P. Hopkins, 8, 16 pp.
(Apr. 1959).
16. Bartsch, A. F., "Settleable Solids, Turbidity, and Light Penetration
as Factors Affecting Water Quality." Proc. Second Seminar on
Biolog. Prob. in Water Pollution. Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engi-
neering Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, (SEC)) . TR W60-3, 118 (I960).
64
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Chapter IV*
EMPIRICAL EXPRESSION OF ORGANISMS
AND THEIR RESPONSE TO ORGANIC
POLLUTION IN A FLOWING STREAM
Increased field investigations over the past 10 years, directed
toward the abatement of pollution, have prompted this pictorial
presentation to show the impact of pollution upon the stream
environment and in turn upon the stream life, or biota. The illus-
trations were developed initially for use in training- sanitary engi-
neers and supporting scientists at the U. S. Public Health Service's
Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center in Cincinnati, Ohio.
To show schematically the effects of pollution on biota,
raw domestic sewage has been chosen as the pollutant. With such
a waste, the lowering of dissolved oxygen and formation of sludge
deposits are the most commonly seen of the environmental altera-
tions that damage aquatic biota. Fish and the organisms they feed
on may be replaced by a dominating horde of animals such as
mosquito wrigglers, bloodworms, sludge worms, rattailed maggots
and leeches. Black-colored gelatinous algae may cover the sludge
and, as both rot, foul odors emerge from the water and paint on
nearby houses may be discolored. Such an assemblage of abnormal
stream life urges communities not to condone or ignore pollution,
but to abate it without delay. This biotic picture emphasizes that
pollution is just as effective as drought in reducing die utility of
a valuable water resource. They help to make clear that pollution
abatement is a vital key to the over-all problem of augmenting
and conserving waters of this land.
No two streams are ever exactly alike. In their individu-
alism streams differ from each other in the details of response to
•Published xvith permission of PUBLIC WORKS MAGAZINE in which the
original title was "Stream Life and the Pollution Environment," by Alfred F. Bartsch
and William Marcus Ingram, Vol. 90, No. 7, pp. 104-110, 1959: the original illustra-
tions were in color.
65
-------
the indignity of pollution. In the following paragraphs, and in
the charts they describe, the hypothetical stream is made to con-
1'orm exactly to theory, showing precisely how an idealized stream
and its biota should react in a perfect system. In reality, of course,
no stream will be exactly like this although the principles shown
can be applied with judgment to actual problems that may be
encountered.
ASSUMED CONDITIONS
The stage for discussion is set in Figure 1. The horizontal
axis represents the direction and distance of flow of the stream
from left to right. Time and distance of flow downstream are
shown in days and also in miles. The vertical scale of quantity—
or more accurately, concentration—expressed in parts per million,
applies to dissolved oxygen and biochemical oxygen demand at
distances upstream and downstream from the origin of the sewage
discharge, which is identified as point zero. Here, raw domestic
sewage from a sewered community of 40,000 people flows to the
stream. The volume flow in the stream is 100 cubic feet per
second, complete mixing is assumed, and the water temperature
is 25°C. Under these conditions the dissolved oxygen (D.O.) sag
THE ENVIRONMENT
2 1
24 12
1 2
12 24
345678
DAYS
36 48 60 72 84 96 108
MILES
Figure 1. The assumptions in the hypothetical pollution case under
discussion are a stream flow of 100 cfs, a discharge of raw sewage
from a community of 40,000 and a water temperature of 25°C,
with typical variation of dissolved oxygen and BOD.
66
-------
carve reaches a low point after two and one-quarter days of flow
and then rises again toward a restoration similar to that of up-
stream, unpolluted water.
The biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) curve is low in up-
stream, unpolluted water, increases at point 0 from the great
charge of sewage and gradually decreases from this point down-
stream to a condition suggestive of unpolluted water. BOD and
D,O, are so interrelated that the dissolved oxygen concentration is
low where BOD is high, and the converse also is true. From left
to right the stream zones are: clean water, degradation, active
decomposition, recovery, and clean water.
EFFECTS OF REAERATION
Figure 2 represents an interpretation of the two principal
antagonistic factors that have to do with the shape of the D.O. sag
curve. The biochemical and other forces that tend to exhaust D.O.
supplies, called collectively the process of deoxygenation, would
reduce such resources to zero in about a day and one-half if there
were no factors in operation that could restore oxygen to water.
The river reach where D.O. would be completely gone would
occur about 18 miles downstream from the point of discharge
of sewage from the municipality. However, with reaeration fac-
THE ENVIRONMENT
BIOCHEMICA
OXYGEN DEMAND
DEOXYGENATION
REAERATION RATE
3456789
DAYS
24 36 48 60 72 84 96 108
MILES
Figure 2. The dissolved oxygen concentration in the stream is par-
tially destroyed by the pollution load. Full depletion is avoided by
reaeration processes.
-------
tors at work, there is appreciable compensation Tor de oxygen at ion,
and in tins way the actual contour of the oxygen sag curve is
determined. Thus, the low point of the curve is not attained at
one and one-hall days of flow at mile IS with a /.cro D.O., but in
reality is reached at about two and one-quarter days of flow at
about mile 27. The D.O. here does not go to /cro. but to 1.5 ppm.
If the population of the city remains fairly uniform through-
out the year, and the How is relatively constant, the low point of
the D.O. sag curve can be expected to move up or down the stream
with fluctuations in temperature. In winter, one can expect to
find the low point farther downstream than shown. In other sea-
sons, if temperatures exceed the 25°C upon which the charts are
based, D.O. will be depleted more rapidly and drastically with the
low point farther upstream.
The reach of any stream where the D.O. sag curve attains
its low point obviously is the stream environment poorest in D.O.
resources. It represents a place where aquatic life that may need
a high D.O. can suffocate or from which such life may move to
other stream areas where the D.O. resources are greater.
p.M.—^
THE ENVIRONMENT
Figure 3. Dissolved oxygen fluctuates according to available light, a
result of photosynthesis. Thus, values on the lower curve are subject
to daily variation.
08
-------
EFFECT OF LIGHT
The upper graph of Figure 3 illustrates fluctuations of dis-
solved oxygen that may occur over a 24-hour period at a single
point in a stream with average density of aquatic greenery such as
planktonic algae or larger submerged plants. For sake of explana-
tion, any point in the recovery zone would exhibit such diurnal
D.O. variations. The lower graph shows only linear changes in
D.O., and gives no indication of the daily variation in availability
of this vital gas that may occur at any single selected point.
If this selected point is in the recovery zone at mile 72, one
can see from Figure 3 that D.O. varies from a low of about 80 per-
cent saturation at 2:00 a.m. to about 140 percent at 2:00 p.m.
Diurnal variation such as this is a result of photosynthesis chiefly
in algae but in other plants also. During daylight hours these
plants give off oxygen into the water in such large quantities that
if the organic wastes are not sufficient to use up much of the D.O.
in oxidizing sewage, the water commonly becomes supersaturated
at some time during daylight hours. In addition to giving off
oxygen, the photosynthetic process results in the manufacture of
sugar to serve as the base from which flows the nutritional support
for all stream life. The process of photosynthesis can be illustrated
schematically as:
6 GO2 + 6 H2O CCH12O6 + 6 O,
This action proceeds through the interaction of the green pigment,
chlorophyll, contained in living plant matter, of sunlight, carbon
dioxide, and even water to form the raw materials into a simple
sugar and surplus oxygen.
While photosynthesis occurs, so also does respiration which
proceeds 24 hours on end irrespective of illumination. In this well-
known process O2 is taken in and CO2 is given off. The algae,
during daylight may yield an excess of oxygen over and above their
respiratory needs, the needs of other aquatic life, and the needs for
the satisfaction of any biochemical oxygen demand. Under these
conditions, surplus oxygen may be lost to the atmosphere. "During
hours of darkness photosynthesis does not occur and gradually, the
surplus D.O. that was present is used up or reduced by algae, fish,
various insects, clams, snails and other aquatic life in respiration,
and by bacteria in satisfaction of the BOD. That is why oxygen
resources are poorest during early morning hours. During hours
of darkness, a stream is typically dependent on physical reaeration
for its oxygen resources after exhaustion of the "bank of dissolved
69
-------
oxygen," that was elevated to supersaturation levels by aquatic
plants.
Obviously, on stream sanitary surveys where organic wastes
such as domestic sewage are pollutants, it is important to sample
each station over 24 hours at intervals that are appropriate to
reveal information on diurnal D.O. variations. If this is not done
and station 1 is sampled consistently around 8:00 a.m. and station
6 around 5:00 p.m. over a weekly or a monthly survey, critical
D.O. concentrations will not be found. If interval sampling over
24 hours cannot be done because of workday restrictions, reversing
the time of sampling from the upstream to the downstream station
on alternate days will at least show variations of D.O. that one can
expect through an 8-hour workday.
EFFECT OF ORGANIC MATTER
The bottom graph of Figure 4 illustrates reasons for the
decrease in the BOD curve progressively downstream and offers an
explanation for the depression in the oxygen sag curve. On this
THE ENVIRONMENT
ORGANIC
NITROGEN
DECOMPOSITION OF
NITROGENOUS ORGANIC MATTER
AEROBIC -NO,, CO,, H,0, SO, E
ANAEROBIC—-MERCAPTANS, IN-
DOLE, SKATOLE, H,S, PLUS MIS-
CELLANEOUS PRODUCTS
DECOMPOSITION OF
CARBONACEOUS MATTER
ANAEROBIC -ACIDS,
ALCOHOLS, CO,, H,,
CH4, PLUS MISCEL-
LANEOUS PRODUCTS
4
DAYS
12 24 36 48 60 72 84 96 108
MILES
Figure 4. With a heavy influx of nitrogen and carbon compounds from
sewage, the bacterial growth rate is accelerated and dissolved
oxygen is utilized for oxidation of these compounds. As this pro-
ceeds, food is "used up" and the BOD declines.
70
-------
graph there has been superimposed, in white, the shape of the
log curve of bacterial growth rate. Accelerated bacterial growth
rate is a response to rich food supplies in the domestic raw sewage.
During rapid utilization of food, bacterial reproduction is at an
optimum, and utilization of D.O. becomes fairly proportional to
the rate of food oxidation.
The upper graph illustrates, in principle, the progressive
downstream changes in nitrogen from the organic form to the
nitrate form. It demonstrates the initial high consumption of
oxygen by bacteria that are feeding on proteinaceous compounds
available in upstream waters in freshly discharged domestic sewage.
With fewer and fewer of these compounds left in downstream
waters, the BOD becomes reduced and the D.O. increases. Fat
and carbohydrate foodstuffs rather than proteins could have been
chosen just as well to show this phenomenon.
The nitrogen and phosphorus in sewage proteins can cause
special problems in some receiving waters. Experience has shown
that increasing the amount of these elements in water can create
conditions especially favorable for growing green plants. In free
flowing, clear, pebble brooks they appear as green velvety coatings
on the stones or as lengthy streamers waving gently in the current.
They are not unattractive and even, in the poetry of Nature, are
complimented by the name "mermaid's tresses." These plants are
not like the troublesome ones which occur mostly in more sluggish
streams, impoundments or lakes, especially when they are arti-
ficially fertilized by sewage. In the clean brook, they not only are
attractive and natural to see, but also they are a miniature jungle
in which animals of many kinds prey upon each other with the
survivors growing to become eventual fish food.
In more quiet waters, the algal nutrients in sewage are
picked up for growth by less desirable kinds of algae. With great
supplies of nitrogen and phosphorus made available, free-floating,
minute blue-green algae increase explosively to make the water
pea soup green, smelly and unattractive. In some unfortunate
localities, nuisance blooms of algae have become so objectionable
that waterfront dwellers have had to forsake their homes and see
their property depreciate in value. The problem has been studied
at a number of localities, and some studies are still in progress.
Special legislation has even been formulated requiring that sewage
treatment plant effluents not be discharged to susceptible lakes
solely because of the algal nutrients they contain. Sometimes,
under conditions not well understood, some blue-green algae de-
velop poisons capable of killing livestock, wildlife and fish. Fortu-
71
-------
nately, such occurrences are rare. It is completely clear that
sewage disposal and biological responses of even such lowly plants
as algae go hand-in-hand sometimes to plague the desires of man.
AQUATIC PLANTS
In the lower part of Figure 5 a profile is shown of the water
and stream bed with the vertical scale of the latter exaggerated.
Sludge deposits begin to accumulate just below the point of sewage
discharge. These deposits reach their maximum thickness near
the point of origin but blanket the stream bed for many miles
downstream. The substance of the deposits gradually is reduced
by decomposition through the action of bacteria, moulds and other
sludge-dwelling organisms, until it becomes insignificant about
thirty miles below the municipality.
Also, at the outfall the water is turbid from fine solids held
in suspension in the flowing water. Larger floating solids, destined
to sink eventually to the stream bed as settleable solids, are visible
FACTORS AFFECTim
THE BIOTA
2
24
1
12
3 4
DAYS
12 24 36 48
MILES
5
60
6 7
72 84
8 9
96 108
-
Figure 5. Shortly after sewage discharge, the moulds attain maximum
growth. These are associated with sludge deposition shown in the
lower curve. The sludge is decomposed gradually; as conditions
clear up, algae gain a foothold and multiply.
72
-------
on the water surface as they drift downstream. Both the fine and
large solids contribute to the sludge deposit, and as they settle
progressively to the bottom of the stream bed, the water becomes
clear and approaches the color and transparency of upstream water
above the point of sewage discharge.
The upper graph illustrates the relative distribution and
quantities of algae, various moulds, and filamentous bacteria such
as Sphmrotilus. From mile 0 to mile 36, high turbidity from
floating debris and suspended solids is not conducive to algal pro-
duction. Thus, except for slimy blue-green marginal and bottom
types, algae are sparse in this reach. In order to grow well algae
need sunlight, and here it cannot penetrate the water effectively.
Also, floating solids that settle out of the crater carry to the bottom
with them floating algae that drift into the polluted zone from
clear water areas upstream.
Blue-green algae that may cover marginal rocks in slippery
layers and give off foul odors upon seasonal decay masquerade
under the names: Phormidium, Lyngbya, and Oscillatoria. Green
algae that accommodate themselves to the putrid zone of active
decomposition frequently include Spirogyra and Stigeoclonium.
Gomphonema and Nitzschia are among the diatoms that are
present here.
Algae begin to increase in numbers at about mile 36. Plank-
ton, or free-floating forms, steadily become more abundant and
reach their greatest numbers in algal blooms some 40 to 60 miles
farther downstream. This is where reduced turbidity, a lack of
settleable sewage solids, final mineralization of proteinaceous or-
ganics to nitrate-nitrogen fertilizers, and favorable oxygen relations
result in an ideal environment for growth of abundant aquatic
plants.
Algae that inay be found abundantly here may be repre-
sented by the bluegren genera Microcystis and Anaba&na; the
pigmented flagellates are represented by Euglema and Pandorina;
the green algae by Ciadophom, Ankistrodesmus, and Rhizoclon-
hnn; and diatoms by Meridian and Cyclotella. Rooted, flowering,
aquatic plants that form underwater jungles here are represented
by the "water pest," Elodea, and various species of pond weeds
known as Potomogeton. Such aquatic forests and meadows present
an excellent natural food supply for the aquatic animals, and also
serve them with shelter. Thus, commonly as plants respond down-
stream in developing a diversified population in the recovery and
clean water zones, animals follow a parallel development with a
great variety of species. In such reaches where the stream consists
73
-------
of numerous alternating riffles and pools, a great variety of fish are
likely to occur.
In the reach where algae are scare [sic: scarce], from about
mile 0 to mile 36, various moulds and bacteria are the dominant
aquatic plants. Sphaerotilus filaments may abound in riffle areas
at about mile 36 where physical attachment surfaces are available
and where oxygen, although low, is adequate. Bacterial slimes may
cover rocks and other submerged objects and bank margins. Such
slimes have an abundant supply of available food in readily usable
form of carbohydrates, proteins and fats and their digestion
products. They are not bothered especially by high turbidities
or by settleable solids. They do well living in the center of sludge
or near it, in what to them is an "apple-pie" environment.
BACTERIA AND THE CILIATES
Associated with the bacterial slimes are certain ciliated
protozoans that feed on bacteria and engulf small particles of
settleable organic matter. Such ciliates are also found in aeration
tanks of sewage treatment installations as a component of activated
sludge and on the surface of rock in trickling filter beds. Common
ones are Epistilis, Vorticella, Colpidium, and Stentor.
Figure 6 illustrates the interrelations between bacteria and
animal plankton, such as ciliated protozoans, rotifers and crusta-
ceans. The quantities shown and the die-off curves for sewage
bacteria in toto and for coliform bacteria separately are theo-
retically accurate. The center curve for ciliated protozoans and the
last curve representing rotifers and crustaceans are more accurate
in principle than in actual quantities.
After entering the stream as a part of the sewage, bacteria,
including coliforms, reproduce to become abundant in an ideal
environment. Here they feed on the rich organic matter of sewage
and by multiplying rapidly offer, a ready food supply for ciliated
protozoans which are initially few in number. After about a day
of flow the bacteria may be reduced through natural die-off and
from the predatory feeding by protozoans. After about two days
of flow, the stream environment becomes more ideal for the ciliates,
and they form the dominant group of animal plankton. After
seven days, the ciliates fall victim to rotifers and crustaceans which
represent the principal microscopic animal life in the stream.
It has been long suspected that the efficiency of this sewage-
consuming biological machine depends upon a close-knit savage
74
-------
THE BIOTA
SEWAGE BACTERIA
NO. PER ml.
- COLIFORM
(NO. PER Ml.)
Figure 6. Bacteria thrive and finally become prey of the ciliates, which
in turn are food for the rotifers and crustaceans.
society in which one kind of organism captures and eats another.
Classical research of some time past showed that a single kind of
bacterium mixed with sewage in a bottle could not do an efficient
or rapid job of breaking down the sewage. Several kinds could
do a better job, supposedly because one bacterial type, in acting
upon parts of the sewage as food, prepared it for acceptance by
another. With several bacteria a multilateral attack was made
possible. But even a system like this is inefficient. Bacteria work
best only when they are growing rapidly and they do this when
they multiply frequently by splitting into two. It is important then
that they not be permitted to attain a stable high and lazy popula-
tion. In the bottle the task of stabilizing sewage goes most rapidly
when ferocious bacteria-eating ciliates are introduced to keep the
population at a low and rapidly growing state.
These relations between the bacteria eaters and their prey,
discovered in the bottle, apply as well to efficient functioning of
a modern sewage treatment plant. In some sewage treatment plants,
examination is made routinely to see how the battle lines are
drawn up between the bacteria eaters and their prey. It now be-
comes more obvious why sewage disappears so efficiently from the
75
-------
stream. It also is clear why the bacteria, the ciliates, the rotifers
and the crustaceans increase, persist for awhile, and then decrease
along the course of passage of the stream.
THE HIGHER FORMS
Figure 7 illustrates the types of organisms and the numbers
of each type likely to occur along the course of the stream under
the assumed physical conditions that were stated earlier. The
upper curve represents the numbers of kinds or species of organisms
that are found under varying degrees of pollution. The lower
curve represents the numbers of individuals of each species. In
clean water above the city a great variety of organisms is found
with very few of each kind represented. At the point of waste
entry the number of different species is greatly reduced, and they
are replaced by a different association of aquatic life. This new
association demonstrates a severe change in environment that is
drastically illustrated by a change in the species make-up of the
biota. However, this changed biota, represented by a few species,
is accompanied by a tremendous increase in the numbers of in-
dividuals of each kind as compared with the density of population
upstream.
THE BIOTA
3 4
DAYS
12 24 36 48 60 72 84 96 108
MILES
Figure 7. The [upper] curve shows the fluctuations in numbers of
species: the [lower] the variations in numbers of each.
76
-------
In clean water upstream there is an association of sports
fish, -various minnows, caddis worms, mayflies, stoneflies, hellgram-
mites, and gill-breathing snails, each kind represented by a few
individuals. In badly polluted zones the upstream association dis-
appears completely or is reduced, and is replaced by a dominant
animal association of rattailed maggots, sludge worms, bloodworms
and a few others, represented by great numbers of individuals.
When downstream conditions again resemble those of die upstream
clean water zone, the clean water animal association tends to reap-
pear and the pollution tolerant group of animals becomes sup-
pressed. Thus, clean water associations of animals may form param-
eters around polluted water reaches. Such associations may be
indicative that water is fit for multiple uses, while the presence of
a pollution tolerant association of animals indicates that water has
restricted uses.
Pollution tolerant animals are especially well adapted to life
in thick sludge deposits and to conditions of low dissolved oxygen.
The rattailed maggot, En'stalis tenax,, is not dependent on oxygen
in water. This animal shoves its "snorkle-like" telescopic air tube
through the water surface film to breathe atmospheric oxygen.
Thus, even in the absence of oxygen it is one of the few survivors
where most animals have suffocated. Those who have worked
around sewage treatment installations have probably observed the
flesh or milkish colored rattailed maggot in rhe supernatant over
sludge beds where dewatering performance was poor. Commonly
associated with it in this supernatant over sludge beds are the
immature stages of the well-known "sewagefly,"" Psychoda, and
wrigglers of the sewage mosquito, Culex pipiens. The rattailed
maggot turns into a black and brownish banded fly about three-
quarters of an inch long, called a "bee fly" because it closely
resembles a bee. It differs by having two wings instead of four and
does not sting. Sludge worms, Tubifex,, are dependent upon the
dissolved oxygen in water; however, they are well adjusted to
oxygen famine and commonly are found in water with as little
as half a part per million. They are actually aquatic earthworms,
cousins of the terrestrial earthworms found in lawns and used as
fish bait. These worms feed on sludge by taking it into the digestive
tract. In passing it through their alimentary canal, they remove
organic matter from it, thus reducing the biochemical oxygen
demand. Sludge worms one and one-half inches long and as thick
as a needle have been observed to pass fecal pellets totaling five feet
nine inches through the digestive tract in 24 hours. Fecal pellets that
are extruded from the anal openings have on occasion been found
-------
to have a biochemical oxygen demand of one-half of that of sludge
that was not "worked-over" by them. The sludge worms are then,
"actually crawling BOD," in that they incorporate sugars, proteins
and fats that are present in sludge into their body cellular com-
ponents. It may be difficult to visualize the magnitude of BOD
removal that one worm, needle-thick in size and one and one-half
inches long, can accomplish in relation to an extensive sludge
deposit. However, when it is realized that from 7,000 to 14,000
of these worms may be found per square foot of bottom surface
in sludges, considerable work is done in removing BOD. By the
same token, for example, wrigglers of sewage mosquitoes. [Sic: ,]
Culex pipiens, that feed on the organics of sewage and emerge as
adults to fly out of water represent BOD removed. In this instance
it is "flying BOD" that is factually taken out of water, whereas the
crawling BOD of sludge worms is not removed, but is recycled back
as the worms die.
The worm-like body of organisms composing the pollution
tolerant association of the rattailed maggot, sludge worms, blood
worms, and leeches is an ideal type to have for successful living in
sludge. As settleable solids fall to the bottom, such organisms are
not trapped and buried in them to die, but by wriggling with their
worm-like cylindrical bodies, manage to maintain their position
near the surface of sludge in communication with the water inter-
face. Sow-bugs that are shown in Figure 7 with the "wormy-
THE BIOTA
SLUDGE WORMS
o
(E
a
in
S1 2 AQUATIC INSECTS
(X25)
2
24
SOW BUGS (X 30)
AQUATIC
Figure 8. The population curve of Figure 7 is composed of a series of
maxima for individual species, each multiplying and dying off as
stream conditions vary.
78
-------
horde" do have well-developed appendages, but their life may be
marginal on stream bank areas and on the surface of rocks pro-
truding from sludge covered bottoms. Thus, they are not buried
by settleable solids.
The invertebrates shown in clean water do not form suc-
cessful populations in streams where settleable solids sink to form
sludge deposits. Because their appendages may become clogged
with sludge as solids settle, they may be carried readily to the
bottom and be buried alive.
POPULATION FLUCTUATION
Figure 8 shows that the population curve of Figure 7 is
actually composed of a series of population maxima for individual
species. The species form a significant pattern in reference to
each other and to the varying strength of the pollutant as it de-
creases progressively downstream. Sludge worms such as Tubifex
and Limnodrilus can better withstand pollution than other bot-
tom invertebrates. Thus, they reach great numbers closer to the
source than other bottom dwelling animals. In turn they are
replaced in dominance by red midges, also called bloodworms or
Chironomids, and then by aquatic sow-bugs, Asellus. The sludge
worms and red midges are so numerous in contrast to the other
organisms shown in Figure 8 that numbers of the latter are exag-
gerated 25 and 30 times to permit showing them effectively.
Finally, when the effects of pollution have largely subsided in the
environment, a variety of insect species represented by few in-
dividuals of each dominates the bottom habitat.
The story of pollution told here emphasizes that stream
pollution and recovery may follow an orderly scheme under the
influence of interacting physical, chemical and biological forces.
Using streams as dumping places for sewage triggers the environ-
mental and biotic changes that have been shown. These changes
are not desirable. In most cases, in addition, they are hazardous to
public health and otherwise impair the usefulness of valuable water
resources. The needed remedy is to confine all of these interacting
forces in an acceptable sewage treatment works so that this example
of the Nation's water resources is protected for present and future
use.
79
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Bartsch, A. F. 1948. "Biological Aspects of Stream Pollution."
Sewage Works Journal, vol. 20, No. 2, pp. 292-302.
2. Brinley, Floyd J. 1942. "Biological Studies, Ohio River Pollution,
I. Biological Zones in a Polluted Stream." Sewage Works Journal,
vol. 14, No. 1, pp. 147-152.
3. Brinley, Floyd J. 1943. "Sewage, Algae and Fish." Sewage Works
Journal, vol. 15, No. 1, pp. 78-83.
4. Claassen, P. W. 1932. "The Biology of Stream Pollution." Sewage
Works Journal, vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 165-172.
5. Eliassen, R. 1952. "Stream Pollution." Scientific American, vol.
18, No. 3, pp. 17-21.
6. Hubbs, C. L. 1933. "Sewage Treatment and Fish Life." Sewage
Works Journal, vol. 5, No. 6, pp. 1033-1040.
7. Ingram, W. M. 1957. Handbook of Biological References on
Water Pollution Control, Sewage Treatment, Water Treatment.
Public Health Service Publication No. 214 (Revised 1957), pp. 1-95.
8. Katz, M. and A. R. Gaufin. 1953. "The Effects of Sewage Pollution
on the Fish Population of a Midwestern Stream." Transactions
American Fisheries Society, vol. 82, pp. 156-165.
9. Lackey, J. B. and C. N. Sawyer. 1945. "Plankton Productivity of
Certain Southeastern Wisconsin Lakes as Related to Fertilization.
I. Surveys." Sewage Works Journal, vol. 17, No. 3, pp. 573-585.
10. Lackey, J. B. 1945. "Plankton Productivity of Certain Southeast-
ern Wisconsin Lakes as Related to Fertilization. II. Productivity."
Sewage Works Journal, vol. 17, No. 4, pp. 795-802.
11. Olson, T. A. 1932. "Some Observations on the Interrelationships
of Sunlight, Aquatic Plant Life and Fishes." Read at Sixty-second
Annual Meeting, American Fisheries Society, Baltimore, Maryland,
pp. 1-11.
12. Purdy, W. C. 1926. "The Biology of Polluted Water." Jour. Amer.
Water Works Assoc, vol. 16, No. 1, pp. 45-54.
13. Richardson, R. E. 1928. "The Bottom Fauna of the Middle Illinois
River, 1913-1925." Bull., Illinois Natural History Survey, vol. 17,
No. 2, pp. 387-475.
14. Streeter, H. W. and E. B. Phelps. 1925. "A Study of the Pollution
and Natural Purification of the Ohio River. III. Factors Concerned
in the Phenomena of Oxidation and Reaeration." Public Health
Service Bulletin No. 146, pp. 1-75.
15. Suter, R., and E. Moore. 1922. "Stream Pollution Studies." State
of New York Conservation Commission, Albany, N. Y., pp. 3-27.
16. Tarzwell, C. M. and A. R. Gaufin. 1953. "Some Important Bio-
logical Effects of Pollution Often Disregarded in Stream Surveys."
Purdue University Engineering Bulletin, Proc. 8th Industrial Waste
Conference (May 4-6, 1953), pp. 295-316.
80
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Chapter V
SELECTED BIOLOGICAL
REFERENCES ON
RESPONSES OF ORGANISMS
TO GROSS POLLUTION
A. THE STREAM ENVIRONMENT
BARTSCH, A. F. and W. M. INGRAM
1959. * Stream Life and the Pollution Environment. Public
Works, Vol. 90, No. 7, pp. 104-110.
BEAK, T. W.
1959. Biological Survey of the St. Glair River. Industrial
Wastes, Vol. 4, No. 9, pp. 107-109.
BECK, W. M., Jr.
1955. Suggested Method for Reporting Biotic Data. Sewage
and Industrial Wastes, Vol. 27, No. 10, pp. 1193-1197.
BLUM, J. L.
1956. The Ecology of River Algae. Botanical Review, Vol. 22,
No. 5, pp. 291-341.
BRINLEY, F. J.
1942. Biological Studies, Ohio River Pollution, I. Biological
Zones in a Polluted Stream. Sewage Works Journal,
Vol. 14, No. 1, pp. 147-152.
BRINLEY, F. J.
1942. Relation of Domestic Sewage to Stream Productivity.
Ohio Journal of Science, Vol. 42, No. 4, pp. 173-176.
BRINLEY, F. J.
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106
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Chapter VI
DATA ANALYSES
AND INTERPRETATION
The biologist is routinely confronted with data analyses
and interpretation. Through the years some pieces of information
have been very helpful, and these are presented in this chapter.
These pieces are grouped broadly into sections pertaining to con-
version factors, a chemical dosage chart for the chemical treat-
ment of water, techniques for plankton counting, bio-assay bench
charts, and selected references on data collection and analyses.
Sub-groups, listed alphabetically, are to be found in the conversion
factor section. The conversion factors that are presented have
been selected from a large number and hopefully will contain
many of those that are used often by the biologist, but not suf-
ficiently routine to be retained in memory.
ACRES
Hectares
Square Meters
Acres
Acres
Acre-feet
Grams Per Square Meter
Kilograms Per Hectare
CONVERSION FACTORS
X 2.471 :
X 2.471 X 10-":
X 4047
X 43,560 :
X 325,851 :
X 8.922
X 0.8922
Milligrams Per Square Centimeter X 89.22
Milligrams Per Cubic Meter X 2.72 X 1Q-3
Acres
Acres
Square Meters
Square Feet
Gallons
Pounds Per Acre
Pounds Per Acre
Pounds Per Acre
Pounds Per Acre-foot
107
-------
AREA
Circle —Square of the diameter X 0.7854.
Rectangle —Length of the base X height.
Sphere —Square of the radius X 3.1416 X 4.
Square —Square the length of one side.
Trapezoid —Add the two parallel sides X height H- 2.
Triangle —Base X height -r- 2.
CIRCUMFERENCE
Circle—Diameter X 3.1416
DISSOLVED OXYGEN
Micromoles Per Liter X 32 X 10'4 = Grams Per Liter
Millimoles Per Liter X 32 = Milligrams Per Liter
Micromoles Per Microliter X 32 X 103 = Milligrams Per Liter
Millimoles Per Square Meter X 2848 X 1 0~4 = Pounds Per Acre
DOSAGE FORMULA (Chemical)
Length (ft.) X Width (ft.) X Average Depth (ft.) X 62.4 X Desired Con-
centration in ppm X 10~6 — Pounds of Active Material Needed
Speed of Boat (feet per hour) X Width of Spray Pattern (feet) X Depth
of Calculated Treatment (feet) X 62.4 X Desired Concentration in
ppm X 1 0~6 := Pounds of Active Material Needed Per Hour
FEET
Fathoms X 6.08 = Feet
Meters X 3.281 = Feet
Acres X 43,560 = Square Feet
Square Meters X 10.76 — Square Feet
Square Feet X 929 X 10~4 = Square Meters
Gallons X 1337 X 10~4 = Cubic Feet
Cubic Feet X 7.48 = Gallons
Gallons Per Minute X 2.228 X 1 0~3 = Cubic Feet Per Second
Cubic Feet Per Second X 448.8 = Gallons Per Minute
Million Gallons Per Day X 1.547 = Cubic Feet Per Second
Cubic Feet Per Second X 6463 X 10'4 = Million Gallons Per Day
108
-------
GALLONS
Acre-feet
Cubic Feet
Liters
Pounds of Water
Gallons Per Minute
Gallons of Water
Gallons
Gallons
Gallons
Cubic Feet Per Second
Cubic Feet Per Second
Gallons Per Minute
Million Gallons Per Day
Parts Per Million*
MILES
Kilometers
Statute Miles
Miles
Nautical Miles Per Hour
X 325,851
X 7.48
X 2642 X 10-"
X 1198 X 10-"
X 1440
X 8.345
X 1337 X 10-"
X 231
X 3.785
X 6463 X 10-"
X 448.8
X 2.228 X 10-3
X 1.547
X 8.345
X 6214 X 10-"
X 1.15
X 1.609
X 1.0
= Gallons
= Gallons
= Gallons
= Gallons of Water
= Gallons Per Day
= Pounds of Water
= Cubic Feet
— Cubic Inches
= Liters
= Million Gallons Per Day
— Gallons Per Minute
= Cubic Feet Per Second
= Cubic Feet Per Second
= Pounds Per Million Gallons
= Miles
~ Nautical Miles
= Kilometers
= Knots
PARTS PER MILLION
Milligrams Per Liter X 1.0
Grams Per Liter X 1000
Micrograms -Per Liter X 1 0~3
Micrograms Per Gram X 1.0
Cubic Centimeters Per Liter X 1.4545
Milligrams Per Gram X 103
Cubic Millimeters Per Liter X 1.0
Cubic Microns Per Milliliter X 10~4
Parts Per Million X 8.345
Parts Per Million
Parts Per Million
Parts Per Million
Parts Per Million
Parts Per Million
Parts Per Million
Parts Per Million (Volume)
Parts Per Million (Volume)
Pounds Per Million Gallons
109
-------
POUNDS
Milligrams Per Square Meter X 8922 = Pounds Per Acre
Grams Per Square Meter X 8.922 = Pounds Per Acre
Kilograms Per Hectare X 0.8922 = Pounds Per Acre
Milligrams Per Square Centimeter X 89.22 — Pounds Per Acre
Milligrams Per Liter X 2.72 = Pounds Per Acre-foot
Milligrams Per Cubic Meter X 2.72 X 10'3 = Pounds Per Acre-foot
Micrograms Per Square Meter X 8.92 X 104 = Pounds Per Acre
Acre-feet of Water X 2.7 X 10' = Pounds of Water
Gallons of Water X 8.345 = Pounds of Water
Parts Per Million X Cubic Feet Per Second X 5.4 = Pounds Per Day
(Gallons Per Minute X 2.228 X 1 O'3 — Cubic Feet Per Second)
Parts Per Million X 8.34 X Gallons Per Day X 1 O'6 = Pounds Per Day
(Gallons Per Minute X 1440 = Gallons Per Day)
STANDARD UNITS
Areal Standard Units — 20/j. X 20/j. = 40Qp.2
Cubic Standard Units = 20/j, X 20/j. X 20^ = SOOOjU3
Cubic Standard Units X 8 X 1 0~3 = Parts Per Million By Volume
VOLUME
Cone —Square the radius of the base X 3.1416 X height H- 3.
Cube —Cube the length of one edge.
Cylinder —Square the radius of the base X 3.1416 X height.
Pyramid —Area of the base X height -4- 3.
Sphere —Cube the radius X 3.1416 X 4 -4- 3.
PLANKTON COUNTING
Some waters contain (phyto- and/or zoo-plankton) in num-
bers large or small as to require dilution or concentration of
samples as the case may be, to obtain accurate counts. Many
natural waters require neither dilution nor concentration and
should be enumerated directly. Correspondingly, zooplankton
usually are not adequately abundant to be accurately counted and
110
-------
02468
AVERAGE DEPTH (FEET)
(100* x 200' x 4' = 5 Ibs (active) for I ppm-, 10.95 Ibs per acre at 41 depth.)
Figure 1. Chemical Dosage Chart. To achieve a chemical concentration
of 1 mg/1 in water having an average depth of 8 feet requires 10
pounds of the active chemical for an area 200 feet by TOO feet, or
21.8 pounds per acre.
Ill
-------
require concentration. Selection of methods and materials used
in plankton enumeration depends on the study objectives, density
of plankters in the waters being investigated, equipment available,
and the investigator's experience.
A. SEDGWICK-RAFTER COUNT
The Sedgwick-Rafter (S-R) cell has been and continues
to be the most commonly employed device for plankton enumera-
tion. It is easily manipulated and provides reasonably reproducible
information when used with a calibrated microscope equipped
with an eyepiece measuring device, usually a Whipple micrometer.
It can be used to enumerate undiluted, concentrated, or diluted
plankton samples. The biggest disadvantage associated with the
S-R cell is magnification. The S-R cell cannot be used to enumer-
ate very small plankton unless the microscope is equipped with
special lenses that provide sufficient magnification (400x or greater)
and clearance between objective lenses and the S-R cell.
The Sedgwick-Rafter cell is 50 mm long by 20 mm wide
by 1 mm deep. Since the total area is 1,000 mm-, the total volume
is 1 X 1012 cubic p., 1,000 mm3, or 1 ml. A "strip" the length of
the cell thus constitutes a volume 50 mm long, 1 mm deep, and
the width of the Whipple field. Two or four strips usually are
counted, depending on the density of plankters. Counting more
than four strips is not expedient when there are a lot of samples
to be enumerated; concentrating procedures then should be em-
ployed, and counts made of plankters in the concentrate.
No. per ml = Actual Count X 1,000
Volume of "strip" (mm3)
If the sample has been concentrated, the concentration factor is
divided into the actual count to derive the number of organisms
per ml. For separate field counts (usually 10 or more fields):
No. per ml = ave. count per field X 1,000
Volume of field X No. of fields
When special lenses are not used and there is a need to
enumerate small plankton, usually very abundant, certain other
procedures outlined below may be employed in conjunction with
and related to counts obtained from the S-R cell.
112
-------
B, MEMBRANE FILTER
(McNabb, C. D. 1960. Enumeration of Freshwater Phyto-
plankcon Concentrated on the Membrane Filter. Limnology
and Oceanography, 5(1) : 57-61.
The membrane filter method of plankton counting requires
a vacuum pump, special filtering papers, and experience in deter-
mining the proper amount of sample to be filtered. Plankton in
water samples containing substantial quantities of suspended mat-
ter such as silt may be difficult to enumerate by this method
since in the process of filtering the suspended matter tends to
crush the plankton or otherwise obscure them from the investi-
gator's view. However, the method has certain features that make it
particularly adaptable for use on most other waters. Primary
among these features, the method permits the use of conventional
microscope lenses to achieve high magnification for enumeration
of small plankton (the membrane filter retains very small or-
ganisms), provides relatively rapid processing of samples if the
investigator is familiar with the procedure and the plankton,
does not require counting of individual plankters to derive enu-
meration data, and increases the probability of observing the less
abundant forms.
The sample is filtered through a 1-inch membrane filter.
The wet filter is removed and placed on top of two drops of
immersion oil on a microscopic slide; two drops of immersion oil
are placed on top of the filter. The filter is air-dried at room
temperature until clear (approximately 48 hours). A cover slip
is added prior to examination.
When examined, the magnification and sampling field or
quadrat must be of such size that the most abundant species will
appear in at least 70 but not more than 90 percent of the micro-
scopic quadrats examined (80 percent is optimum). Otherwise
the field size or the amount of sample concentrated must be
altered. The occurrence of each species in 30 random microscopic
fields is recorded.
Number of organisms per milliliter = density (d) from
following table X number of quadrats or fields on mem-
brane filter + number of milliliters filtered X formalin
dilution factor [0.96 for 4 percent formalin].
113
-------
CONVERSION TABLE FOR MEMBRANE FILTER TECHNIQUE
(Based on 30 Scored Fields)
TOTAL OCCURRENCE
F%
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
Where F -
3.3
6.7
10.0
13.3
16.7
20.0
23.3
26.7
30.0
33.3
36.7
40.0
43.3
46.7
50.0
53.3
56.7
60.0
63.3
66.7
70.0
73.3
76.7
80.0
83.3
86.7
90.0
93.3
96.7
100.0
total number of species occurrences
0.03
0.07
0.10
0.14
0.18
0.22
0.26
0.31
0.35
0.40
0.45
0.51
0.57
0.63
0.69
0.76
0.83
0.91
1.00
1.10
1.20
1.32
1.47
1.61
1.79
2.02
2.30
2.71
3.42
?
total number of quadrats examined
C. DROP COUNT
(Prescott, G. W. 1951. The Ecology of Panama Canal Algae.
American Miscroscopical Society, 70: 1-24).
Plankton samples that have been highly concentrated can
be enumerated by the drop count method. It requires only basic
equipment such as microscope, slides, cover slips, and a calibrated
large-pore dropper, and facilitates use of high power lenses for
114
-------
identification and enumeration of organisms. Certain disadvantages
are inherent in the method: 1) because water normally is used as
a mounting medium enumeration must be accomplished relatively
rapidly to prevent dessication and subsequent distortion of or-
ganisms; 2) results are not sufficiently accurate when only one
slide-mount is examined, thus necessitating preparation and enu-
meration of at least three or more slide-mounts; and 3) the in-
vestigator should be sufficiently familiar with plankton to rapidly
identify and count the specimens encountered. The concentrate
is thoroughly mixed in the stored vial. A large-pore dropper
delivering a known number of drops per milliliter is used to
transfer one drop of concentrate to a glass slide. A cover slip
is applied; 5 low-power fields and 10 high-power fields are ex-
amined, and the number of each species is recorded at the
magnifications used. Enumeration is repeated on 3 such mounts
for a total of 15 low-power fields and 30 high-power fields.
No. per ml = ave. no. per field X no. of fields per drop or
per cover slip X no. of drops per ml H- the concentration
factor.
The concentration factor = ml of original sample H- ml
of concentrate X (100—percent of preservative in sample).
D. DIATOM COUNTS
Some phytoplankton samples primarily consist of diatoms.
Such organisms generally are difficult to identify without special
preparation as distinguishing characteristics are obscured by pro-
toplasm. Destruction of the protoplasm by heat or chemicals
provides recognition of taxonomic features. Destruction by heat
often is preferred to that by chemicals because the former does
not require special glassware and reagents, reduces the risk of
losing organisms during sample preparation, and decreases proc-
essing time. When there is need to derive diatom data, such
organisms can be properly concentrated by settling-decanting or
centrifuge-decanting techniques that employ a 2 to 4 percent
solution of household detergent to free organisms lodged on the
walls of sample containers and water-surface films.
A cover slip is placed on a hot plate that is sufficiently warm
to increase the evaporation rate of (but not boil) the concentrated
plankton sample. Several drops of concentrate are transferred to
the cover slip by means of a large-pore calibrated dropper and
allowed to evaporate to dryness. (This may be repeated on con-
115
-------
centrates containing few diatoms until the entire sample has been
transferred to the cover slip, but precautions are taken to prevent
a residue that is too dense to recognize the organisms.) After
evaporation, the residue on the cover slip is incinerated on the
hot plate at temperatures ranging from 600-1,000°F, effecting
adequate incineration in s/4 to i/3 hour respectively. A drop of
distilled water is placed on a clean slide. The cooled cover slip
with its residue is carefully transferred to the slide thus forming
a water mount for identification and enumeration of diatoms.
Permanent and more easily handled mounts, especially for process-
ing at high-dry and oil immersion magnifications, arc prepared
by using Hyrax instead of water as a mounting medium. When
Hyrax is used, heating of the slide to near 200°F for 1 to 2 minutes
prior to application of the cover slip hastens evaporation of solvent
in the Hyrax and reduces curing of the medium to about 20
seconds (solvent-free Hyrax is hard and brittle at room tempera-
ture) . A firm but gentle pressure is applied to the cover glass
by means of a forceps or other suitable instrument during cooling
of the Hyrax mount (about one minute) to assure penetration of
the medium into the diatom cells.
Enumeration and calculation to derive numbers of diatoms
per ml are similar to those for the drop count. If examination
reveals uneven distribution of diatoms in either the water or
Hyrax mount, only proportionate counts of the species present
are conducted and these are related to enumerations made by
previously outlined methods.
E. ALGAL VOLUME
Expression of plankton data as numbers of individuals per
unit of water is often not meaningful since such data are only
indices of the amount of plankton present. Similarly, plankton
data derived and reported as areal standard units or cubic standard
units are somewhat obscure because such units are arbitrarily
selected and do not directly connote the amount of plankton
present on a volume to volume or weight to weight basis: the
former unit is a square surface with edges of 20 microns (//,); the
latter is a cube 20 ^ long, 20 ^ wide, and 20 ^ deep.
Plankton data derived and reported on a volume to volume
basis (ppm) are more useful and more widely understood than
other data. Optical measurements with a calibrated microscope
and ocular micrometer are best suited to other plankton. The
116
-------
shape o£ such organisms determines the measurements made to
derive their volume, and the unit of measurement is the micron.
Wet Algal Volume (ppm) = Number of organisms per
milliliter X average species volume in cubic microns
X 10-6-
BIO-ASSAY DILUTION CHART
A Guide to the Selection of Experimental Concentrations, Based on
Progressive Bisection of Intervals on a Logarithonic Scale
Col. T
10.0
1.0
Col. 2
3.2
Col. 3
5.6
1.8
Col. 4
7.5
4.2
2.4
1.35
Col. 5
8.7
6.5
4.9
3.7
2.8
2.1
1.55
1.15
BIO-ASSY DOSAGE CHART
For Preliminary Screening of an Effluent Waste
Percent of waste
in test jar
100
75
56
32
18
5.6
1
0
Total (ml)
Gallons required
Waste added
(ml)
2,500
1,875
1,400
800
450
140
25
0
7,190
2
Dilution water
added (ml)
0
625
1,100
1,700
2,050
2,360
2,475
2,500
12,810
3V3
117
-------
DILUTION TABLE
Concentration Desired
To prepare solutions of concentrations Indicated at
left, take number of milliliters of stock solution
shown below, and make up to one liter with suit-
able dilution water.
%
100.
10.
5.6
3.2
1.8
1.0
.56
.32
.18
.1
.056
.032
.018
.01
.0056
.0032
.0018
.001
.00056
.00032
.00018
.0001
.000056
.000032
.000018
.00001
.0000056
.0000032
.0000018
.000001
ppm
or
mg/L
1,000,000
100,000
56,000
32,000
18,000
10,000
5,600
3,200
1,800
1,000
560
320
180
100
56
32
18
10
5.6
3.2
1.8
1.0
.56
.32
.18
.10
.056
.032
.018
.010
ppb
or
MJ/L
1,000
560
320
180
100
56
32
18
10
Stock sol:
10%
100 gm/L
1,000
560
320
180
100
56
32
18
10
5.6
3.2
1.8
1.0
Stock sol:
1 %
10 gm/L
1,000
560
320
180
100
56
32
18
10
5.6
3.2
1.8
1.0
Stock sol:
.1 %
1 gm/L
1,000
560
320
180
100
56
32
18
10
5.6
3.2
1.8
1.0
Stock sol:
.01 %
1 gm/L
1,000
560
320
180
100
56
32
18
10
5.6
3.2
1.8
1.0
Stock sol:
.001 %
.01 gm/L
1,000
560
320
180
100
56
32
18
10
5.6
3.2
1.8
1.0
118
-------
BIO-ASSAY SHEET
Name of Material Tested:
Source of Material: _^___
Test Animal(s):
Date:
. Time Begun:
Strength of Test Solution:
Air Added L-
Quantity of Dilution Water: _
Water Temp:
Aquaria
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
0
cc. of test
solu. added
Concen-
tration
p.p.m.
No. of
Test
Animals
24-hour
Sur-
vival %
48-hour
Sur-
vival %
72-hour
Sur-
vival %
96-hour
Sur-
vival %
Remarks
*
Concentration (p.p.m.) at which 50% of test animals survive: TL
Using Doudoroff's (S. & I.W. 23 (11) 1380-1397) proposed tentative formula for the estimation of a presumably biologically safe concentration (C):
C = 48-hr. TL_ X 0.3 = =
-------
SELECTED REFERENCES ON DATA
COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS
SAMPLERS
COOKE, W. B.
1956. Colonization of Artificial Bare Areas by Micro-orga-
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638.
GUYER, G. and R. HUTSON
1955. A Comparison of Sampling Techniques Utilized in an
Ecological Study of Aquatic Insects. Journal of Eco-
nomic Entomology, Vol. 48, No. 6, pp. 662-665.
NEEDHAM, P. R. and R. L. USINGER
1956. Variability in the Macrofauna of a Single Riffle in
Prosser Creek, California, as Indicated by the Surber
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PATRICK, R., M. H. HOHN and J. H. WALLACE
1954. A New Method for Determining the Pattern of the
Diatom Flora. Notulae Naturae, Academy of Natural
Sciences of Philadelphia, No. 259, pp. 1-12.
QUADRI, S. V.
1960. A Small Drag Net for Capture of Bottom Fish and In-
vertebrates. Progressive Fish Culturist, Vol. 22, No. 2,
pp. 90-91.
THOMAS, M. L. H.
1960. A Modified Anchor Dredge for Collecting Burrowing
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USINGER, R. L. and P. R. NEEDHAM
1956. A Drag-Type Riffle-Bottom Sampler. Progressive Fish
Culturist, Vol. 18, No. 1, pp. 42-44.
WALKER, C. R.
1955. A Core Sampler for Obtaining Samples of Bottom Muds.
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120
-------
ORGANISM IDENTIFICATION
GENERAL REFERENCES
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1955. Taxonomic Keys to the Common Animals of the North
Central States, Exclusive of the Parasitic Worms, Insects,
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GARNETT, W. J.
1953. Freshwater Microscopy. Constable and Co., Ltd., 10-12
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1950. Field Book of Seashore Life. G. P. Putnam's Sons, New
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MORGAN, A. H.
1930. Fieldbook of Ponds and Streams. G. P. Putnam's Sons,
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1941. «A Guide to the Study of Fresh-Water Biology. Corn-
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1953. Fresh-water Invertebrates of the United States. The
Ronald Press Co., New York, 769 pp.
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1951. A Manual of the Common Invertebrate Animals Ex-
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854 pp.
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1959. Fresh Water Biology. John Wiley and Sons, New York,
1,248pp.
INSECTS
BERNER, L.
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1949 How to Know the Immature Insects. Wm. C. Brown
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121
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COMSTOCK, J. H.
1940. An Introduction to Entomology. Comstock Pub. Co.,
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1952, Guide to the Insects of Connecticut. IV. The Diptera
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FISH
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1947. Northern Fishes. Univ. Minn. Press, Minneapolis, 276
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1920. The Fishes of Illinois. Nat. Hist. Survey, Illinois, Vol.
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1947. Fishes of the Great Lakes Region. Cranbrook Inst. Sci.
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University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Ind. (Bimonthly)
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Journal of the Sanitary Engineering Division
Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers, Ann Arbor,
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Journal Water Pollution Control Federation
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