PB 212 730
A STUDY TO IDENTIFY OPPORTUNITIES FOR INCREASED SOLID
WASTE UTILIZATION. VOLUMES II TO VII
National Association of Secondary Material Industries, Incorporated
New York, New York
1972
DISTRIBUTED BY:
National Technical Information Service
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE
5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield Va. 22151
This document has been approved for public release and sale.
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4. Title and Subtitle
9. Performing Organization Name and Addres
National Association of Secondary Material Industries, Inc.
New York, New York 10017
BIBLIOGRAPHIC DATA
SHEET
'• Report No.
EPA-SW-40D.2-72
PB 212 730
5. Report Date
A Study to Identify Opportunities for Increased Solid Waste
Utilization. Volumes II to VII.
7. Author(s)
Battelle Memorial Institute. Columbus Laboratories
12. ^ponsorintr Organization Name and Address
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Solid Waste Management Programs
Washington, D.C. 20460
8. Performing Organization Rept.
10. Ptoiect/TaskA'ork Unit Xo.
11. EmoSJtX/Grant No.
G06-EC-00282
13. Type of Repon & Period
Covered
Final
15. Supplementary Notes
This study concerns the development cf greater solid waste utilization through analysis
of the secondary materials industry, its sources of supply, its consuming markets, and
its economic and technological problems. Eight separate materials and a general report
are included. The materials examined are aluminum, copper, lead, zinc, nickel and
stainless steel, precious metals, paper, and textiles. Problems inhibiting increased
recycling of these materials are identified, and recommended actions are proposed. A
survey of the secondary materials industry was the basis for many of the identified
problems and also provided numerous statistics on the scrap industry.
17. Kev 3'orjs and Document Analysis. 17o. Descriptors
•Refuse, 'Recycling, *Markets, Industrial wastes, Salvage, *Metal scrap
ITb. Iies::fie:s Open-Ended Terms "»j»~ '
*Soiid waste, *Resource recovery, "Secondary materials, 'Secondary materials industry,
Scrap industry, Paper, Textiles, Aluminum, Copper, Zinc, Lead, Precious metals, .Nickel
Stainless steel
lie. CO5AT1 Field/Croup J3B
NATIONAL TECHNICAL
INFORMATION SERVICE
18. Availability Statement
Release to public
19.. Security Class (This
Report)
UNCLASSIFIED
20. Security Class (This
Page
UNCLASSIFIED
21- No. of Pages
USCOMM-DC t
This report has been reviewed by the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency and approved for publication. Approval
jloes not signify that the contents necessarily reflect the
views and policies of the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, nor does mention of commercial products constitute
endorsement or recommendation for use by the U.S. Government.
As an aid to the reader, the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency has Included the master bibliography for the entire
nine-volume work at the back of this book.
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EPA-SW-40D. 2-72
A STUDY TO IDENTIFY OPPORTUNITIES
FOR INCREASED SOLID WASTE UTILIZATION
Volume II: Aluminum Report
Volume III: Copper Report
Volume IV: Lead Report
Volume V: Zinc Report
Volume VI: Nickel and Stainless Steel Report
Volume VII: Precious Metals Report
This report (SW-40d.2) on work performed under
solid waste management demonstration grant no. GO6-EC-00282
to the National Association of Secondary Material Industries, Inc.,
was written by BATTELLE MEMORIAL INSTITUTE, COLUMBUS LABORATORIES
and is reproduced as received from the grantee.
Book 1, which consists.=of
Volume I
Book 3, which consists of
Volumes VIII and IX
General Report (SW-40d.l) is available
fron the Department of Commerce, National
Technical Information Service, Springfield,.
Virginia.
Paper Report and Tes&ile Report (SW-40d.3) is
available from the Department of Commerce,
National Technical Information Service,
Springfield, Virginia.
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
1972
11
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This report and the others In the series were made possible by
the cooperation of a large number of people. Those who gave this help
Include:
o The owners and managers of a large number of recycling companies
who discussed the Industry with Battelle researchers
* The people at hundreds of recycling companies who completed and
returned the Industry Census questionnaires
• The managers and specialists of many users of materials—both
primary and recycled—and generators of scrap who discussed
recycling from their individual points of view
o The personnel of trade associations, trade publishers, and
other service groups who advised the researchers
o The staff members of NASHI who provided guidance, criticism,
and encouragement to the research team
o The members of the NASMI commodity committees who provided
insight and information without which meaningful results"
would have been difficult or impossible
o The staff of World Wide Information Service, Inc., who
interviewed a large number of recycling companies for the
industry census.
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ill
N 0 T
This report is part of a series of 9 volumes on the recycling of solid
waste materials:
VOLUME II
ALUMINUM REPORT
Volume
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
Materials Covered
General Report
Aluminum
Copper
Lead
Zinc
Nickel and Stainless Steel
Precious Metals
Paper
Textiles
. The reader should read Voluse I as well as the volumes covering
materials of specific Interest. Volume I provides a brief summary of the other
8 volumes, plus an analysis of activities and recycling problems common to all .
of the commodities. Areas of commonality Include such matters as legislation and
its 'effect on .recycling, and a description of the equipment used in processing
secondary materials. It also presents a statistical profile of that portion of
the secondary materials industry studied.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
SUMMARY ,,;. ..... xi
Aluminum Recycling Industry .......:..... xli
Aluminum Recycling Problems and Recommended Actions ....*. Xiv
INTRODUCTION. ...... .....: .' . .'.....".':-'. . . 1
Background ..... 1
Objectives ... . 2
Scope ..."'... 3
Research Methods '. 3
Literature Search 3
Extensive Survey 4
In-Depth Survey 4
Analysis and Synthesis 5
THE ALUMINUM INDUSTRY . 7
Characteristics of Aluminum 7
. ', Wrought Alloys ....".. 7
Casting Alloys. 8
Other Forms of Aluminum 8
Characteristics of the*Aluminum Industry 9
Materials Sources ...'.'. .9
Aluminum Producers 10
Production 14
Markets for Aluminum 16
Secondary Aluminum Markets 17
Market Outlook. . . '17
THE ALUMINUM .RECYCLING INDUSTRY 18
Characteristics of Aluminum Materials 18
Primary Aluminum Alloys 18
Secondary Aluminum Alloys 19
Scrap -Drosses .19
Characteristics of the Aluminum Recycling Industry 19
Scrap .Sources . . . '. . ". 19
New Scrap Sources 24
Old Scrap Sources. .25
Consumption of Aluminum Scrap by ^Ty.pe and Form 26
:Scrap"Prices . . . '."" ...... \ .*.. 29
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
(Continued)
TABT.E OF CONTENTS
(Continued)
Page
Page
Description of the Activities of the Organizations
That Hake up the Aluminum Recycling Industry. . .
Scrap Processors or Dealers
Primary Producers
Nonintegrated Producers
Aluminum Scrap and Secondary Aluminum Markets. . .
Scrap Markets
Secondary Aluminum Markets
Secondary Aluminum Prices
Industry Data
Materials Flow Pattern for Aluminum Recycling
Demand/Supply Analysis
ALUMINUM SCRAP RECYCLING PROBLEMS
New Scrap.
Old Scrap.
ALUMINUM RECYCLING INDUSTRY PROBLEMS.
Air Pollution Control
Composite Aluminum Scrap
Need for New Methods of Upgrading Aluminum Scrap
Conversion of Mixed Aluminum Scrap to
Pure Metal or a Practical Alloy
Sorting of Mixed Aluminum Alloy
Sorting of Aluminum from Nonferrous Scrap .
Recycling Wastes
Secondary Smelter Residues
Scrap Processing Residues
COURSES OF ACTION CONCERNING RECYCLING OF ALUMINUM.
Evaluation of Problems
Recommended Actions
High Priority Actions
Reclamation of Old Aluminum Scrap
From Container and Packaging Sources
Air Pollution Control.
Reclamation of Old Aluminum Scrap
From Transportation Sources
Lower Priority Actions
Other Actions .....
31
31
35
36
36
37
38
40
41
44
46
47
48
48
48
49
49
52
52
53
53
53
53
54
55
55
56
. 56
59
61
62
62
62
APPENDIX A
ALUMINUM ALLOY SPECIFICATIONS
APPENDIX B
CALCULATIONS OF ESTIMATED AVAILABILITY OF OLD ALUMINUM SCRAP.
1954.
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE I. ALUMINUM RECYCLING - MAJOR PROBLEMS
AND RECOMMENDED ACTIONS
TABLE 1. PRIMARY ALUMINUM CAPACITY, BY COMPANY. .
TABLE 2. ESTIMATED CAPACITIES AND LOCATIONS OF
LARGER SECONDARY ALUMINUM SMELTERS . .
TABLE 3. GENERAL STATISTICS FOR ESTABLISHMENTS,
BY INDUSTRY SPECIALIZATION AND PRIMARY
PRODUCT CLASS SPECIALIZATION: 1967 . .
TABLE 4. SUPPLY OF ALUMINUM, THOUSANDS OF TONS. .
TABLE 5. ALUMINUM SHIPMENTS, 1960 AND 1969,
BY END-USE CATEGORY, THOUSANDS OF TONS
TABLE 6. GRADES OF ALUMINUM SCRAP AND DROSS . . .
TABLE 7. NEW ALUMINUM SCRAP GENERATION BY INDUSTRY,
TABLE 8. NEW AND OLD ALUMINUM SCRAP CONSUMPTION,
AS REPORTED BY TYPE, 1969
TABLE 9. ALUMINUM SCRAP WHOLESALE'BUYING PRICES, CARLOAD
LOTS, DELIVERED TO BUYER'S WORKS, MARCH, 1971. .
TABLE 10. NONFERROUS SCRAP DEALERS' BUYING PRICES
FOR ALUMINUM, MARCH, 1971
TABLE 11. ESTIMATED DEMAND FOR ALUMINUM SCRAP, 1971-1980 . .
TABLE 12. PRODUCTION OF SECONDARY ALUMINUM ALLOYS,
BY INDEPENDENT SMELTERS, 1969. . . .
TABLE 13. OLD ALUMINUM SCRAP RECYCLING, 1969
TABLE 14. DEMAND/SUPPLY ANALYSIS FOR OLD ALUMINUM SCRAP,
1969, 1974, AND 1979
TABLE 15. IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF PROBLEMS CONCERNING
OLD ALUMINUM THAT WAS NOT RECYCLED IN 1969 . . .
TABLE 16. IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF OTHER
ALUMINUM RECYCLING PROBLEMS
TABLE 17. EVALUATION OF SEVEN PROBLEMS RELATED
TO RECYCLING ALUMINUM
TABLE 18. RECOMMENDED ACTIONS, HIGH PRIORITY
ALUMINUM RECYCLING PROBLEMS
TABLE 19. RECOMMENDED ACTIONS, LOW PRIORITY
ALUMINUM RECYCLING PROBLEMS
A-l
B-l
XT
12
13
15
14
16
20
24
28
29
30
38
39
45
46
50
51
57
58
- 63
8
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LIST OFJTABLES
(Continued)
Page
SUMMARY
TABLE A-l.
TABLE A-2.
TABLE A-3.
TABLE A-4.
TABLE A-5.
TABLE B-l.
FIGURE I.
FIGURE 1.
FIGURE 2.
FIGURE 3.
FIGURE 4.
FIGURE 5.
FIGURE 6.
FIGURE 7.
ALUMINUM ASSOCIATION ALLOY DESIGNATION
SYSTEM FOR WROUGHT ALLOYS ."'..-. .jj. ...
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION LIMITS OF SELECTED
WROUGHT ALUMINUM ALLOYS (PERCENT) ....'.
ALUMINUM ASSOCIATION DESIGNATION FOR
FOUNDRY (CASTING) ALLOYS
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION SPECIFICATION FOR
SELECTED ALUMINUM CASTING ALLOYS (PERCENT) .
DESIGNATIONS AND CHEMICAL SPECIFICATIONS FOR
ALUMINUM ALLOYS FOR DEOXIDATION
IN IRON AND STEEL MANUFACTURE
CALCULATION OF ESTIMATED AVAILABILITY
OF OLD ALUMINUM SCRAP, 1969
LIST OF FIGURES
FLOW DIAGRAM OF RECYCLING ALUMINIJM - 1969, SHORT TONS.
SOURCES AND MARKETS FOR ALUMINUM, 1969 .
FLOW OF MATERIAL IN THE COMMERCIAL
SECONDARY ALUMINUM INDUSTRY : ....'..
FLOW OF ALUMINUM SCRAP . .
ALUMINUM RECOVERY FROM .NEW AND OLD SCRAP
FOR THE YEARS 1959 TO 1969 .. . .
DIAGRAM OF SCRAP MATERIAL FLOW IN
SECONDARY ALUMINUM SMELTER ..,
AVERAGE VOLUME IN TONS PER YEAR OF (1) ALUMINUM SCRAP
PROCESSORS, AND'(2) ALUMINUM'SCRAP CONSUMERS,
BY REGION, 1969: .,- .'._.-.....
FLOW DIAGRAM OF RECYCLING ALUMINUM - 1969, SHORT TONS.
A-l
A-2
A-3
A-4
A-5
B-l
xiii
11
22
23
27
34
42
43
The economic recycling of waste materials Is desirable because (1) it
aids in .the conservation of natural resources and (2) reduces dependence on
foreign ores. Recycling is not a new concept, having been practiced for many
decades. Recycling, therefore, is of interest to the Office of Solid Waste
Management whose responsibility it is to fornulate and recommend solid waste
programs for the United States. This report on the recycling of aluminum
provides information and analyses to be used as a basis for program planning.
The report was prepared by Battelle-Columbus with the guidance and help of the
National Association of Secondary Material Industries (NASMI) . It is based on a
12-month study of aluminum recycling.
The report reviews briefly the demand and supply for aluminum scrap in
the United States. It analyzes the recycling of aluminum,. the operations" of scrap
processors and smelters, sources of aluminum scrap, markets for secondary aluminum,
and recycling rates by types of scrap. Based on this analysis the report presents
the problems faced by the aluminum recycling industry. Finally, it evaluates
these problems to determine priorities, and recommends courses of action to solve
or reduce these problems - with the emphasis on increasing recycling of aluminum
in order to reduce solid waste disposal problems.
Aluminum has a relatively high scrap value, and therefore, the scrap is
reclaimed under conditions where lower value scrap materials (such as steel,
and lead) would not be reclaimed. Yet, in terms of maintaining an environment
free of solid waste, the major problem in aluminum is the collection of old
aluminum scrap, especially that scrap in the form'of cans, or packaging foil, or in
the form of a part on a complex piece of equipment such as an automobile.
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xll
Aluminum Recycling Industry
The importance of recycled aluminum In the total aluminum market Is
unknown because statistics on aluminum scrap consumption are available only for
scrap which is actually purchased. On the basis of purchased scrap only, recycled
aluminum accounted for 18.6 percent of the aluminum supply in 1969 and the aluminum
recycled is 48 percent of aluminum calculated to be available for recycling.
Consumers of aluminum scrap, that is, the secondary smelters, primary
producers, and nonintegrated fabricators all buy and use new scrap. Although
definitive data are not available, nearly all of the new aluminum scrap produced
is recycled. On the other hand, old aluminu* scrap (generated when articles
containing aluminum become obsolete) Is cons oned by essentially only one element
of the recycling industry, the secondary smelter. Although only rough esti-
mates are possible, this report shows that only about 13 percent of the old
aluminum scrap theoretically available is recovered. Figure I presents a flow
diagram showing the data and estimated statistics of aluminum recycling in 1969.
Examination of this figure shows that an estimated 2.2 million tons of aluminum
were theoretically available for recycling in 1969. Of this amount, about
1 million ton was recycled - about 74 percent of this went Into casting alloys
and other secondary smelter products, while about 25 percent went into wrought
aluminum products.
If increased recycling of old aluminum scrap is stimulated, there is a
limited market available. This market is the secondary smelter, which In turn has
(1) The aluminum can recycling programs qualify the primary aluminum companies
as recyclers of old scrap. The quantities of aluminum recycled are very
small compared to those quantities recycled by the secondary smelters.
(2) Does not include new scrap that was not purchased.
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a limited product line, mainly'aluminum casting alloys, and therefore, limited
markets. Although the use of aluminum'casting alloys is growing rapidly,
increases in the old aluminum scrap supply at greater rates would necessitate
action to maintain a supply/demand balance. The possible actions are:
(1) Increased use of old scrap, relative to new scrap
by the secondary smelter
(2) . Development of new secondary alloys and/or' products
(3) Development, by the primary producers, of-methods of
utilizing old scrap (in much the same way that old •
can scrap is recycled). . - . •
'Aluminum Recycling Problems'and Recommended Actions
Aluminum recycling problems were outlined based on interviews with members
of the industry. The problems .were assigned priorities based on three factors:
• Potential for improvement of the environment
• Potential for conservation of natural resources
• Possibilities for realis'tic solutions.
Based on the above, the three problem areas that can be considered high priority are:
(1) Reclamation of old'aluminum scrap from "Container
and Packaging" sources
(2) Air pollution control ' j
(3) Reclamation of old aluminum scrap from "Transportation"
sources. ' .
The detailed definition and analysis of these problems, along with recommended
actions, are given in Table 1.
TTT*
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INTRODUCTION
la June, 1970, Battelie-Columbus undertook a research program for Che
National Association of Secondary Material Industries, Inc. (NASMI). This work
was carried out under a subcontract from an Office of Solid Waste Management
grant to NASMI. This report on aluminum is one of a series of eight commodity
reports plus a general or summary report.
Background
The Office of Solid Waste Management is responsible for formulating and
recommending Federal Government policies in the area of solid waste pollution.
This includes pursuing appropriate research to determine the status and problems '
of solid waste activities, and to develop programs to reduce solid waste
pollution.
16
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One approach to the reduction.of solid waste pollution Is'to reclaim
waste materials for reuse - the recycling concept. A well established industry--
the secondary materials industry-exists to accomplish this recycling. NASMI is
the trade association representing the nonferrous metals, paper, and textiles
portion of this industry.
The scrap processors, secondary smelters, and other companies that make
up the secondary materials industry have developed effective channels and methods
for recycling nearly all waste materials of economic value. These companies have
performed their difficult and essential functions well in the traditional economic
environment.
More recently, additional dimensions have been added to this traditional
economic environment. These new dimensions are (1) improvement of the environment
in which we live, and (2) increased need for conservation of natural resources.
Ho longer is economic gain the sole driving-force for'recycling of waste
materials. Social gain has been added in the forms of improved living conditions
and preservation of resources for future generations. ' In an economics-based
nation this creates problems of interpretation and evaluation of noneconomics-
based goals and activities.
The purpose of this series of reports is to identify obstacles to. thex
recycling of nonferrous solid wastes, and to recommend directions for investiga-
tion and research to overcome these obstacles.
Ob iectives
The objective of the study on which this report is based was to identify
opportunities for the increased utilization of solid waste. The major sub-
objectives were:
17
(1) 'To determine the'structure and functions of the secondary
materials Industry, and its relationships to sources of
supply and markets
(2) To identify and evaluate problems of recycling - materials,
sources, industry, and markets
(3) To determine opportunities for Increased recycling.
Scope
The major subjects included in the scope of the study are the secondary
materials industry, the materials it recycles, the sources of solid wastes, and
the markets for recycled materials. Activities peripheral to these major subjects
are considered where pertinent to recycling.
The materials included In the study are:
Aluminum
Copper and Copper Alloys
Lead
Zinc.
Nickel and Nickel Alloys
Precious Metals (Silver and Gold)
Paper
Textiles
Research Methods
The methods and procedures used in the study are discussed under four
types of activities. They include (1) literature search, (2) extensive survey,
(3) in-depth survey, and (4) analysis and synthesis.
Literature Search
The literature search included reviewing and studying books, Government
reports, industry reports, and trade jpurnals covering solid waste handling and
problems, recovery and market data, and recycling of valuable materials.
18
-------
4. _ ; __
The results of this effort, included the accumulation of data and descrip-
tive material, and an organized bibliography dealing with each of the cocraodities
covered in the scope of the study.
Extensive Survey
The extensive survey of the secondary materials industry consisted of a
mall survey and personal interviews with management personnel of conrpanies
involved with the collection, processing, and sale of secondary materials. About
600 responses were received.
The information developed through the extensive survey included dollar
sales, tons of major materials handled, types of solid waste processed, sources
of materials, investment, equipment and facilities, number of employees, the
amount of space used, and the grades and quantities of secondary materials
produced.
The data from the extensive survey provided statistical tabulations of
the regional distribution of the secondary materials industries by type of
commodity in terms of numbers of establishments, volume of business, and numbers
of employees.
In-Deoth Survey
The in-depth survey of selected members of the secondary materials
industries, their suppliers, and the users of their products served to identify
the major technical and economic problems facing those companies involved with
secondary material utilization. About 200 interviews were completed. Battelle-
Columbus and NASMI commodity specialists jointly selected the companies to be
Interviewed in depth.
19
Interview guides for each.of the commodities were prepared. The
problems and potential solutions for greatest recycling and waste utilization
that were developed from the literature search and prior Office of Solid Waste
Management work plus the knowledge of the NASMI commodity specialists provided
the basis for designing the Interview guide.
Analysis and Synthesis
The analysis and synthesis step was concerned with the collation and
analysis of data and information derived from both the literature, extensive
survey, and in-depth survey. The analysis and synthesis activity covered the
following tasks:
(1) Economic Data on the Secondary Materials Industries. The
economic data developed through the extensive survey of the
secondary materials industries were tabulated and analyzed as
to the amount and type of solid waste handled and as to
operational data such as number of employees, amount of space
required, capitalization, and geographic locations.
(2) Flow Diagrams and Life Cycles. Flow diagrams were developed
to indicate the flow of materials from primary production
and scrap sources through fabrication. Life cycle estimates
of various products were used to develop data on quantities
available for possible recycling.
(3) Demand-Supply Relationships. Estimates were made of future
demand and supply levels for secondary materials. The rela-
tionship between these data provide an indication of potential
surpluses or shortages of recycled materials through 1980.
•i-'J
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(4). Stability of Flow, and Consumption. This analysis is closely
related to the supply-demand analysis described above and
identifies the ability of the various secondary materials to
compete as source materials for manufacturers. A number of
factors were examined such as price changes in the secondary
materials, the availability of materials, and the effect of
sudden changes in the magnitude of demand.
(5) Direct Impacts of Technological Change. Direct technical and
technological factors were examined to determine their effect
on rates of processing and recycling. Potential changes that
could take place in technology that could decrease or increase
the rate of solid waste recovery were examined. This included
the identification of potentially recoverable solid wastes, the
problems limiting the recovery to current levels, and the possi-
bilities of technical advances through the use of known tech-
nology or through added scientific and engineering.research.
(6) Constraints on Expansion of the Secondary Materials Industries.
This analysis included consideration of elements critical to
expansion of recycling - labor and management availability, laws
and regulations, equipment availability, nature of solid waste
materials,- market needs, etc.
(7) Potentials for Expansion of the Secondary Materials Industries.
Based on the constraints identified in the above task, plus
examination of various methods for overcoming constraints, this
task determined the ability of the secondary materials industries
to meet new opportunities for recycling.
(8) Indirect Technological Change. The broad overall technological
trends indirectly affecting the secondary materials industries
.were examined, and their probable impacts determined.
'THE ALUMINUM INDUSTRY
In order to better understand the aluminum recycling industry, it 'is
important to know the makeup of th'e entire aluminum industry and its products.
Characteristics of Aluminum
Aluminum is the "newest" of the metals covered in this series of
reports, and in terras of production volume, is by far the most important. The
properties responsible for the widespread use of aluminum are its low density,
high strength-to-weight ratio, and good electrical and thermal conductivity.
Also, the metal and many of its alloys may be formed or cast easily, and it is
resistant to many forms of corrosion. The unit volume costs of aluminum are
relatively low, although not as low as steel.
Wrought Alloys
Wrought alloys are generally those which are rolled, drawn, extruded,
or formed by some fabricating method other than casting. These alloys are
designated by an identification system devised by the Aluminum Association.
(See Appendix A, Table A-l, for details of the identification system.) Permissible
impurity levels for wrought aluminum alloys are given in Appendix A, Table A-2.
Because of the very low impurity levels specified, the use of scrap in preparing
heats is usually limited to new scrap that Is well segregated.
21
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Casting Alloys
Aluminum casting alloys are used in die, permanent mold, and sand
casting. Aluminum Association designations for casting alloys are given in
Appendix A, Table A-3; while former commercial designations and chemical speci-
fications of selected alloys are given in Appendix A, Table A-4. Other designa-
tions and specifications for aluminum casting alloys have been issued by the
Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE), the American Society for Testing Materials
(ASTM), and various agencies of the Federal Government. In addition, some
aluminum producers have their own designations.
The specifications for many of the casting alloys permit more than
trace amounts of iron, zinc, and manganese. The use of scrap in preparation of
these alloys is not as critical as in the case of wrought alloys. In fact,
casting alloys are prepared from old scrap and new scrap that has not been highly
segregated.
Some casting alloy specifications are, however, highly restrictive in
terms of chemistry; and preparation using little or no scrap is dictated by the
specification.
Other Forms of Aluminum
Relatively low purity aluminum is used for deoxidizing iron and steel.
Specifications for "deox" along with the ASTM and commercial specifications are
given in Appendix A, Table A-5. Deox is essentially a low purity form of
aluminum, and in most cases can be .prepared readily from scrap. Aluminum in
metal, alloy, or scrap fora may be used in the reduction of certain ferroalloys,
in iron, zinc, and copper-base alloys, In the production of aluminum chloride,
explosives, pryotechnics. exotherroics, etc.
23
Characteristics of the Aluminum Industry .
The aluminum industry, for the purposes of this report, is viewed as
including the following types of companies.
(1) Primary Producers are those companies which produce aluoinum
metal from alumina. Some of the primary producers are fully
integrated, in that they own their own bauxite* source and
alumina plants. Most are Integrated forward in that tb.eyk.ovn
their own facilities for producing aluminum shapes from
primary ingot.
(2) Noninteerated Fabricators are those companies which buy
aluminum ingot, billet, and/or scrap, melt and fabricate
into a wrought form by rolling, extrusion, etc.
(3) Secondary Smelters are those companies which purchase aluminum
scrap and process it into secondary aluminum alloys.
(4) Scran Processors are r.hose companies which collect, sort,
process, and sell aluminum scrap. Most aluminum scrap pro-
cessors handle other scrap materials as well.
Materials Sources
Bauxite ore is used in the production of alumina, from which aluminum
is eventually derived. Bauxite comes from foreign sources. The major suppliers
in 1969 were Jamaica, Surinam, and the Dominican Republic. In some' instances
alumina is imported directly, the major sources being Australia and Surinam.
Bauxite, and other .aluminum containing minerals are plentiful, and laree deposits
exist. There appears to be no problem with future supply.
(See Material Sources.)
-------
- . ..•
.. . . Figure 1 gives- a graphical representatioVi' of the various aluminum
sources and markets in the year 1969. The market for aluminum is given by
product form and by end use categories. This figure shows dooes tic primary pro-.
duction accounts for 69 percent of the total aluminum supply, while secondary
recovery accounts for 19 percent, or about 1/5 of the supply of aluminum.
Alumifv^ yroducers ' ' "
Production of primary aluminum in the U. S. is dominated by the 'so-
• -3 ' '
called "Big Three" — Alcoaj- Reynolds, and Kaiser. These companies accounted for
73 percent of primary aluminum capacity existing in 1970. The companies producing
primary aluminum and their size in terms of production capacity are given in .
Table 1. Since power is a significant portion of production costs the primary
producers tend to locate near sources of low cost, electricity. Thus, they have
located generally in TVA and Bonneville po >er areas, or where cheap coal-based.
power is available. Despite an over suppl; situation, starting in the last
quarter of 1970, new reduction facilities are. under construction and others have . '
been announced for future construction. '
The secondary aluminum smelters are much smaller and more widely
scattered than primary producers. According to the Aluminum Scelters Research
Institute (ASRI) , about 35 companies actually prepare specification ingot for
direct sale to the end user. Table 2 presents the estimated capacities and loca-
tion of the large secondary smelters. .The eight companies listed are active in 18
locations and have nearly enough capacity to produce as much secondary ingot as
was shipped in 1969. The secondary smelters tend to locate near sources of scrap
and markets. Thus, much of the production capacity is in the Ohio, Indiana,
Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin areas. On the West Coast, the Los Angeles area is
a popular site for smelter location because of the abundance of aircraft scrap.
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-------
TABLE 1. PRIMARY ALUMIKWCAPACITT. BY COMPANY
Cofopany and Location
Aluminum Company of America:
Alcoa, Tennessee _ "*. •
Bedin, North Carolina . -.
Maasena, New York
Point Comfort, Texas ,. . ',.
Rockdale, Texaa -•-•'. ' :•-'
Vancouver, Washington
Warrlck, Indiana •
Wenatchee^ Washington
Totals
Anaconda Aluminum Company:
Columbia- Falls, Montana
Consolidated Aluminum Company:
New Johnsonville, Tennessee
Eaatalco Aluminum Company - '
Frederick, Maryland
Harvey Aluminum (Incorporated):
• • The Dalles, Oregon .
Intalco Aluminum Corporation: ,. - .. ..
Belllngham, Washington . •. • ... ^ ,'
Ka.t^or Aluminum and Chemir.al Corporation: f •
Chalmette, Loulslttn.i 1
Mead, Washington
Ravenswood, West Virginia . - iWi. , . ;
Tacoma, Washington .- '. - f •••
Totals • I ' , :
National-Southwire Aluminum Company: • r-~>.
Hawesvllle, Kentucky - - • .' .'•
Ormet Corporation '• -'•',•.'
Hannlbal;, Ohio '
'•Reynolds Metals Company: .i ' ^ :
Arkpdelphla, Arkansas ', . •. • '
Jonos Mills, Arkansas , . '
tisterhlll, Alabama' ..'
Longvlew, Washington
.Maasena, New York
San Patrlcio, Texaa
Troutdale, Oregon
Totals' . .
•- ' C.and Total '. .
Installed Capacity, Tons*
• -'•• 200,000
100,000
125,000
175,000
275,000
100,000
175,000
175.000
1,325,000
175,000
140,000
' 90,000
90,000
.265,000
260,000
206,000
163,000
81.000
710,000
". 90,000
240,000 '
. . 63,000
.122,000 .
200,000
190,000
128,000 ..
111,000 • .
loo.ooo .. •;.-
. ." 945,000 " !'"•'
4,070,000
* As of September, 1970.
Source: American,Metal Market, December 14, 1970, p. 12.-
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-------
-Table 3 gives Che latest available Bureau of Census Data (1967) oh the
primary aluminum industry and the secondary aluminum smelters. Several important
differences between these'two types 'of producers are indicated. For the secondary
smelters the cost, of materi'als. is :80 percent/of the value of their shipments.
For thevprimary ingot producer, this ratio is only_52-53 percent, due to the
necessary greater value added in,starting from bauxite.
.;. Table 3 is also useful..because it shows the relative difference in size
.•>"'"'. "'.' . . •
t of the primary industry as-'compa'red to the secondary smelters. For example, the
value/o'f ingot shipments-'by .the primary producers is almost four times that of the
secondary sthelters-. • • " •
Production -• . .
j'tj ,. '-~ The supply of aluminum in the U.S. is. given"'in Table 4 for 1968 and
1969. In 1969 primary production of 3,793,000 tons was supplemented by secondary
. "***'
recovery of 1,030,000 tons. -' V ' *,-•••-••''.',. - - '' ; :•;'
. . ":.r "'"'-'••:, . *-•- ";••' •"•" - '.'• '•' ••-.- -
• \ .TABLE 4. SUPPLY" OF ALUMINUM, THOUSANDS OF TONS
4
Domestic Production (Primary Ingot)
Domestic Secondary Recovery ... ,
•Recovery From Imported Scrap
Unwrought Imports.'
Imports of Mill. 'Products '
Shipments from GSA Stockpile • '• .
E.; • Total Supply
Source; The Aluinihurc Association,
1968
3,255
997 .
34 ' .
' 675.5 .
• 70
•'•' ' 56.5 :
5.098/ '
1969
3,793
1,030 -
. " ' 26 .' '
' 468.5.-. t
66.-
- ' 139.5
.5,523
Aluminum Statistical Review.
. ' 1969, p 13..
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12 _ .
TABLE 1. PRIMARY ALDHIKOM.CAPACITY, BY COMPANY
Company and Location
Aluminum Company of America:
Alcoa, Tennessee
Bad in, North Carolina
Maaaena, New York
Point Comfort, Texas
Rockdale, Texas - :
Vancouver. Washington
Warrick, Indiana
Wena tehee, Washington
Totals
Anaconda Aluminum Company:
Columbia- Falls, Montana
Consolidated Aluminum Company:
New Johns onvi lie, Tennessee
Eaatalco Aluminum Company
Frederick, Maryland
Harvey Aluminum (Incorporated):
The Dalles, Oregon
Intalco Aluminum Corporation:
Belllngham, Washington
Kaiser Aluminum and Chemical Corporation:
Chalmette, Louisiana
Head, Washington
Ravenswood, West Virginia
Tacoma, Washington
Totals
Installed Capacity, Tons*
200,000
100,000
125.000
175,000
275,000
100,000
175,000
175.000
1,325,000
175,000
140,000
90,000
90,000
265,000
260,000
206,000
163,000
81.000
710.000
Natlonal-Southwire Aluminum Company:
Hawesvllle, Kentucky
Ormet Corporation
Hannibal, Ohio
90,000
240,000
•Reynolds Metals Company:
Arkadelphla, Arkansas
Jones Mills, Arkansas
Llsterhill, Alabama
Longview, Washington
Massena, New York
San Patrlclo, Texas
Troutdale, Oregon
Totals
Giand Total
63,000 ,
122,000
200,000
190,000
128,000
111,000
100.000
945,000
4,070,000
* As of September, 1970.
Source: American Metal Market, December 14, 1970, p. 12.
27
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Table 3 gives Che latest available Bureau of Census Data (1967) oh the
primary aluminum industry and the-secondary aluminum smelters. Several important
differences between these two types of producers are indicated. For the secondary
smelters the cost of materials is 80 percent of the value of their shipments.
For the primary ingot producer, this ratio is only_52-53 percent, due to the
necessary greater value added in starting from bauxite.
Table 3 is also useful because it shows the relative difference in size
of the primary industry as compared to the secondary smelters. For example, the
value of ingot shipments by the primary producers is almost four times that of the
.secondary smelters.
Production
The supply of aluminum in the U.S. is given in Table 4 for 1968 and
1969. In 1969 primary production of 3,793,000 tons was supplemented by secondary
recovery of 1,030,000 tons.
TABLE 4. SUPPLY OF ALUMINUM, THOUSANDS OF TONS ' .
Domestic Production (Primary Ingot)
Domestic Secondary Recovery
Recovery From Imported Scrap
Unwrought Imports
Imports of Mill Products
Shipments from GSA Stockpile
Total Supply
Source: The Aluminum Association, Alun
1968
3,255
997
s. 34
675.5
70
56.5
5,098
1969
3,793
1,030
26
468.5
66
139.5
5,523
jinum Statistical Review.
1969, p 13.
29
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Markets for Aluminum
The markets for aluminum have been outlined in Figure 1, both by product
form and general end use. The shipments of aluminum, by major end use markets,
are given in Table 5 for the years 1960 and 1969. Total aluminum shipments have
grown from 2,366,000 tons in 1960 to 5,409,000 tons in 1969. This is equivalent
to a compound growth rate of 9.6 percent per year, much faster than the rate for
lead or zinc. As can be seen in Figure 1, the two largest end use categories are
"Building and Construction" which accounted for 21.8 percent and "Transportation"
which accounted for 18.4 percent of the aluminum market in 1969. The fastest
rate of growth, however, is exhibited by the "Containers and Packaging" market.
From 1960 to 1969 shipments of aluminum to this market, increased at the compound
growth rate of 15.7 percent per year.
TABLE 5. ALUMINUM SHIPMENTS, 1960 AND 1969, BY END-USE CATEGORY,
~~^^-~ ' THOUSANDS OF TONS
End-Use Category
Building and Construction
Transportation
Consumer Durables
Electrical
Machinery and Equipment
Containers and Packaging
Exports
Other
Total
1960
608.5
427.5
256.5
264.0
166.5
160.5*
308.5
174.0
2,366.0
1969
1,179.0
994.0
527.5
713.0
349.5
596.5**
503.5
546,0
5,409.0
* Metal and composite cans accounted for 47 thousand
tons of this category.
** Metal and composite cans accounted for 333 thousand
tons of this category.
Source: The Aluminum Association, Aluminum Statistical
Review, 1969, pp 34 arid 35.
31
17
Secondary Aluminum Markets
Scrap is utilized by primary producers and nonintegrated producers of
wrought alloy products. The scrap utilized is generally new (prompt industrial
scrap) and well identified with regard to alloy content. It is usually only a
portion of a furnace charge, the remainder being primary aluminum ingot. The
product, although it is made using scrap aluminum, is essentially Indistinguish-
able from a primary aluminum alloy made to the same specifications. The markets
for such a product are the same as for primary aluminum alloys and were covered
above.
Very important, however, are the markets for secondary aluminum alloys,
which are produced to specification by the secondary aluminum smelter. The
smelter utilizes both old and new scrap to produce mainly aluminum casting alloys,
although some deox, aluminum pig, and master alloys are also produced. In 1969
an estimated 741,000 tons of secondary products were produced by the secondary
smelters. Further information on secondary smelter production is given later in
the section titled The Aluminum Recycling Industry.
Market Outlook
The growth of the primary aluminum industry,' based on shipments, has
been at the compound rate of 9.6 percent per year from 1960 to 1969. Growth in
shipments from 1970 to 2000 are expected to slow somewhat, dropping to 6.4 percent
per year.^' At least one producer has estimated that the 1966-1975 rate will
probably be 3 percent compounded annually, considerably lower .than the optimistic
forecast above.
(1) S. P. Wlmpfen, "Nonferrcms Scrap Availability as. Viewed by a Materials v; :
Supply Specialist", Presented at the NASMI-Bureau of Mines Recycling.. '"
Workshops, Washington, D.C., January 7, 1971.
-------
18.
Secondary smelter'shipments grew 9.4 percent per ..year, from 1960 to 1969:
During the same period, shipments of aluminum die castings (the major secondary
market) grew at a rate of 11.1 percent per year. Future growth in secondary
aluminum is expected to average 8.5 percent per year from 1970 to 2000.
(1)
THE ALUMINUM RECYCLING INDUSTRY
The aluminum recycling industry includes the organizations involved in
getting aluminum scrap from its point of non-use, processing it, and transferring
it to a point of use. The types of organizations and their functions include:
Type
Scrap Processors or Dealers
Scrap Brokers
Secondary Aluminum Smelters
Primary Aluminum Producers, and
Nonintegrated Fabricators
Other Consumers
Recycling Function
Purchase, collect, sort, process,
and sell aluminum scrap
Buy and sell aluminum scrap
Prepare and consume new and old
aluminum scrap in the preparation
of secondary alloys
Consume new scrap in preparation of
primary alloys in ingot and wrought
forms
Consume scrap in preparation of
alloys, deox, chemicals, etc.
Characteristics of Alt
Materials
Primary Aluminum Alloys
Primary aluminum producers and nonintegrated fabricators are a part of
the aluminum recycling industry in the sense that they utilize aluminum scrap in
(1) S. P. Wjippfen, . op.cit.
33
19
the preparation of alloys. Even though the scrap content of these alloys might
be sizable, the materials produced are generally referred to as primary aluminum
alloys.
Secondary Aluminum Alloys . .-
Secondary aluminum alloys are alloys produced almost entirely from
scrap. These alloys are usually aluminum casting alloys or deox and are essen-
tially equivalent to similar primary alloys made to the' same specifications.
Scran Drosses . . .. .
^ . . --.
Table 6 provides definitions for standard grades of aluminum scrap and
for dross. The definitions are those of the National Association of Secondary
Material Industries.
Characteristics of the Aluminum Recycling Industry
A diagram showing the components of the aluminum recycling industry is
given in Figure 2. The scrap flows from its sources to a consumer; it may or may
not pass through a scrap dealer. Another diagram presenting the flow of aluminum
scrap is presented in Figure 3 and is self-explanatory.
Scrap Sources
Before discussing scrap sources in detail it is appropriate to discuss
the difference between new scrap and old scrap.. New scrap is taken to be scrap
that is generated in the production of alutninum metal or in the production of -
aluminum parts or a finished article made from aluminum. Old scrap is generally
scrap from aluminum containing articles which have been removed from service at
the end of their usable life.
'i'l
O-J
-------
20
TABLE 6, GRADES OF ALUMINUM SCRAP AND DROSS
HEW PIIRE At.irHTHITM Cl.TPPIHflS
Shall consist of new, clean, unalloyed sheet clippings end/or aluminum sheet cuttings, free from oil and
grease, foil and any other foreign substances and from punchingu lesa than 1/2 inch in size.
MIXED LOW COPPER ALUMINUM CLIPPINGS AND SOLIDS
Shall consist of new, clean, ancoated and unpainted lov copper aluminum scrap of two or more alloys and to be
free of foil, hair wire, wire acreen, dirt, and other foreign substances. Grease and oil not to total csore
than 1 percent. Also free from puncbinga less tban 1/2 inch ID size. Heu cao stock subject to arrangeaent
between buyer and seller.
JOXEP
t ALLOT SHEET ALUMINUM
Shall consist of clean old alloy sheet aluminum of two or more alloys and to be free of 70S (7000) series,
foil, Venetian blinds, castings, hair wire, screen wire, food or beverage containers, pie plates, dirt, and
other foreign substances. Oil and grease not to total core than 1 percent. Op to 10 percent painted siding*
and awnings are permitted.
SCRAP SHEET AMD SHEET UTENSIL ALUMTKTTH
Shall cons la t of clean, unpalnted old 2S (1100) or 3S (3003) aluminum sheet and sheet utensils, free from bub
caps, radiator shells, airplane sheet, foil, food or beverage containers, pie plates, oil cans and bottle
caps, dirt, and other foreign substances. Oil and gresst not to total more than 1 percent.
NEW PURR ALUMINUM WTRE AND CABLE
Shall consist of new, clean, unalloyed aluminum wire or cable free from hair wire, wire screen. Iron, insula-
tion and any other foreign substance.
OLD PURE ALUMTHUM Wjjffi AM) CABLE
Shall consist of old, unalloyed aluminum wire or cable containing not over 1 percent free oxide or dirt and
free from hair wire, wire screen, iron, insulation and any other foreign substance.
ALUMINUM PISTONS
(a) Clean Aluminum Pistons. Shall consist of clean aluminum pistons to be free from' struts, bushings, shafts,
iron rings and any other foreign materials. Oil and greast not to exceed 2 percent.
(b) Aluminum Pistons with Struts. Sball consist of clean whole aluminum pistons with struts to be free from
bushings, shafts, Iron rings and any other foreign materials. Oil and greo*t not to exceed 2 percent.
(e) Irony Aluminum Pistons. Should be sold on recovery basis, or by special arrangements with purchaser.
SEGREGATED ALUMINUM BORINGS AND TURNINGS
Shall consist of clean, uncorroded aluminum borings and turnings of one specified alloy only and subject to
deductions for fines in excess of 3 percent through a 20 mesh screen and dirt, free Iron, oil, moisture and
all other foreign materials. Material containing iron in excess of 10 percent and/or free magnesium or
stainless steel or containing highly flammable cutting compounds will not constitute good delivery.
MIXED ALUMINUM BORINGS AND TURNINGS
Shall consist of clean, uncorroded aluminum borings and turnings of two or more alloys and subject to deduc-
tions for fines In excess of 3 percent through a 20 mesh screen and dirt, free Iron, oil, moisture and «U
other foreign materials. Material containing iron in excess of 10 percent and/or free magnesium or stainless
steel or containing highly flammable cutting compounds will not constitute good delivery. To avoid dispute
should be sold on basis of definite maximum zinc, tin, end magnesium content.
M CASTINGS
Shall consist of all clean aluminum castings which may contain auto and airplane castings but no ingots, and
to be free of iron, dirt, brass, babbit, and any other foreign materials. Oil and grease not to total more
than 2 percent.
35
21
TABLE 6. GRADES 0V ALUMIKCM SCRAP AHD DROSS (Continued) .< ,
WBgCKEfl AJBPLAHE SHEET ALJBqgHM.
Should be sold on recovery basis or by special arrangeaents with purchaser.
pEW ALDMIftPM fOIL
Shall consist of clean, new, pur*, uncoate4. unalloyed alualnua foil, free from onodixed foil, radar foil and
chaff, paper, plastics, or any other foreign materials. Hydroullcally brlquetted material by arrangement only.
OLD ALUMINUM FOIL,
Shall consist of clean, old, pure, uncoated, unalloyed alasdnua foil, free from anodized foil, radar foil and
chaff, paper, plastics, or any other foreign cuterLals. Hydraulically brlquetted material by arraagezsent only.
AL.DMIKIM CRDTOIHCS
Should be oold on recovery basis or by special arrangements with purchaser.
ALUM HUM OMSSES. SPATTERS. SPILLIHCST SKIMMTKCS- AND SWEEPINGS
Should be flold on recovery basis or by special orrangeaenta with purchaser.
SSBATR? ALfftfTRfti
Shall consist of alumlmro scrap which hss been sweated or melted into a form or shape such as an Ingot, pit,
or slab for convenience ic shipping; to be free from corrosion, drosses or any foreign materials. Should be
sold subject to sample or analysis.
SECRETACED KEK ALUMINUM. ALV?Y CLIPPINGS AND SOLIDS
Shall consist of new, clean, uncoated and unpainted aluminum scrap of one specified aluminum alloy only and to
be free of foil, hair wire, wire screen, dirt, acd other foreign substances. Oil and grease not to total more
than 1 percent. Also free fron pun things less tban 1/2 inch in size. New can stock subject to arrangement
between buyer and seller.
KIXED KEV AUMTSDM ,-LLOY CLIPPINGS AND SOLIDS
Shall consist of new, clean, uncosted and unpaid ted alisainum scrap of two or more alloys free of 70S (7000)
series and to be free of foil, hair wire, wire screen, dirt, and other foreign substances. Oil and grease not
to total more than 1 percent. Also free froo punching* less than 1/2 inch In size.
SEGREGATED NEW AJtUMIKLfM CA3TIKCS. FORCINGS AKD EXTRUSIONS
Shall consist of new, clean, uncoated aluminum castings, forgings , and extrusions of one specified alloy only
and to be free from savings, stainless steel, zinc, iron, dirt, oil, grease and other foreign substsr.ces.
ALUfllSUM AUTO CASTINGS
Shall consist of all clean automobile alunintn castings of sufficient size to be readily identified and :o be
""free from iron, dirt, brass, babbit bushings, brass bushings, and any other foreign materials. Oil and grease
not to total more than 2 percent.
ALCKISPH AIRPLANE CASTINGS
Shall consist of clean aluminum castings from airplanes and to be free from Iron, dirt, brass, babbit
bushings, brass bushings, and any other foreign materials.' Oil and grease not to total more than 2 percent.
Source: The ftonfarrona Scrap Natal Industry— It* Operations. Procedures, Techniques", pp 116-117, published
by the Rational Association of Secondary Material Industries, Inc., 1967.
-------
23
T1
O
en Tl
1 i"
a o
I f
5 5
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w> _^
8 2T
O
If
s i:
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S o
70u
Primary aluminum
pig and ingot
( reduction plants)
1
r— -i"
| Producers of
(l,oOO-2,500J " mi" P'0<»UCtS
1
Runaround (home) Mill
scrap products
Secondary
aluminum ingo
(smelters)
i
, f IT—
Producers of
.and costings
(foundries)
1
co«i,,, "»»"»"c;J
1 '
Consumers of mill products
and castings
(manufacturers of end products)
I.
End products
i '
Old scrap
Il75
1
New (prompt
industrial) scrap
-------
28
29
TABLE 8. NEW AND OLD ALUMINUM-SCRAP CONSUMPTION,
AS REPORTED BY TYPE, 1969
Percent of Total
Type of Scrap Reported Consumption
New Scrap:
Solids:
Segregated low copper
Segregated high copper
Mixed low copper (*•'
High zinc (7000 series type)
Mixed clips
Borings and Turnings:
Low copper(l)
Zinc, under 0.5 percent
Zinc, 0.5 to 1.0 percent
Other
Foil, Dross, Skimmings, and Other
Total New Scrap
Old Scrap:
Solids
(2)
Sweated pig
Total Old Scrap
Grand Total
26.77
3.20
12.32
1.12
7.32
1.60
2.44
5.84
7.68
13.94
11.26
6.49
82.23
17.75
100.00
(1) Copper maximum 0.4 percent.
(2) Purchased for own use.
Source: Derived from U. S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, 1969,
Preprint on Aluminum, p 4.
. Scrap Prices.' Aluminum scrap prices vary depending on location and
type of scrap. Prices are somewhat volatile, that is, they are subject to rapid
change. Table 9 gives smelters' wholesale buying prices, and Table 10 gives scrap
dealers' buying prices as of March, 1971. At that time, an official aluminum
ingot price of $0.29 per pound was in effect, but price discounts of as much'as
$0.04 to $0.05 per pound were reported by industry sources. Recently, one
company has officially reduced its price to $0.23 per pound.
TABLE 9. ALUMINUM SCRAP WHOLESALE BUYING PRICES, CARLOAD LOTS,
DELIVERED TO BUYER'S WORKS, MARCH, 1971
Types of Scrap
Price, Cents Per'Pound
Aluminum Clips 3003
6061
1100
5052
Aluminum Clips 2014
2017
2024
Aluminum Clips 7075
Aluminum Clips Mixed
Old Aluminum Sheet
Aluminum Cast*
Aluminum borings, turnings,
clean dry basis, less than 1%
zinc and less than 1% iron
16.75-17.25
15.50-16.00
12.25-12.75
14.50-15.00
13.00-13.50
13.00-13.50
13.25-13.75
* Including clean crankcases and pistons.
Source: American Metal Market. March 10, 1971, p 23.
43
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Description of the Activities of the Organizations
That Make Up th'e Aluminum Recycling'Industry
Scrap Processors or: Dealers. The scrap processors handling aluminum.
usually also process other nonferrous materials, and in some cases also handle
ferrous materials. The scrap processor's functions are given in Figure 2. It.
has been estimated that approximately 70 percent of the aluminum scrap sold is
handled by scrap processors. .
Scrap processing is a local business in the sense that transportation
costs limit the distances over which low unit value materials can be shipped.
Thus, scrap dealers tend to locate in industrial areas close to both scrap gen-
erators and scrap consumers. A large portion of the scrap collected comes from
the immediate location of the processor; however, purchases from as far away as
200 miles are not unusual. Overland freight transportation costs severely limit
purchases from sources that are over 200-300 miles from the processor
Scrap processors have periods of imbalance to contend with due to the
fact^that the supply of scrap is much greater than demand. This'surplus is
sometimes exported to foreign countries as required by their own supply and'
demand situation. Obviously foreign markets can be served more economically
from coastal sources than from inland sources.
The flow of scrap at a processing facility consists of the following
general steps: collection, identification, sorting, processing, including the
use of sweat furnaces, packing, storing, and shipping.
OE
(1) . "Economic Study.of Salvage Markets for Commodities Entering the Solid Waste
Stream", by Midwest Research Institute, December, 1970, Chapter VI, p 5-6.
-------
32
In some cases scrap will have been sorted by the seller, or perhaps
all the scrap from one source will be one alloy. At times, new scrap will have
retained the original alloy identification markings put on the wrought product
by the primary producer. In such a case, identification by specific alloy is
possible. If none of the. above conditions exist, a general knowledge of the
use of alloys in the manufacture of various mill products and end products is
useful in sorting by general alloy type. The most prominent series of alloys
in use today are 1000, 3000, 6OOO, and 7000. Obviously, the scrap dealer must
keep abreast of current aluminum industry practice to know what alloys or series
of alloys are likely to reach the market and in what forms. Alloys and types
change too rapidly to be specific. For instance, aluminum beverage can bodies
are now almost exclusively produced from the 3004 or- 1100 alloy for deep drawing.
The tops, however, are 5182.
If the above avenues of identification fail, chemical and spectrographic
tests are used to classify the alloys into general categories.
After proper identification and sorting, the aluminum may be processed
in a number of different ways. Some scrap processors may shred or crush sheet,
castings, cans, and other aluminum solids, and remove iron contamination by
magnetic separation. The resulting fragments, generally smaller than fist size,
can be shipped in appropriate containers. Another processing step of great
importance is the removal of insulation from aluminum cable. The insulation is
removed by mechanical means. One way is a cable stripper, wherein a length of
cable is run through the stripper which longitudinally slits the insulation, and
the insulation is then removed by hand. A new method now utilized by many pro-
cessors is an expensive and sophisticated piece of eouipment called a "chopper".
The chopper cuts insulated cable and wire into very small pieces. The chopped
insulation is separated by air elutriation, and the product is then passed
•17
33
over magnets to remove any iron or steel contamination. The chopped aluminum
is then shipped to consumers as a relatively pure aluminum.
The other important function of the scrap dealer is packaging of
scrap. Scrap may be baled or briquetted for ease of shipment and handling.
The secondary smelter buys scrap, both old and new, from scrap dealers.
In some cases, secondary smelters will also buy scrap directly from an industrial
source. In this latter case, however, usually only several large sources are
utilized.
The scrap preparation functions which might be performed by the secondary
smelter have been described in a U. S. Bureau of Mines report. The following
is taken from that report.
"Approximately 85 percent of the total scrap purchased by secondary
smelters is from mill products, and 15 percent is from castings. Each
smelter segregates the scrap into four general classes:
(1) Sheet and castings
(2) Clippings and other solids
(3) Borings and turnings
(4) Residues (dross, slag, and skimmings) and sweated pit.
Each class of scrap has its specific mix of such factors as chemical
composition, metallic recovery, and physical form, which determines
not only its value but also the manner in which it must be processed.
Figure 5 shows the flow of each class of scrap material through a
secondary aluminum smelter. It is well to point out, however, that
not all smelters can process all four classes of scrap. Indeed it is
quite rare if they do because the necessity of processing each class in
a different manner calls for specialized equipment. Since not all
secondary smelters have the specialized equipment, they are limited in
what scrap they can process. Some smelters purchase all classes of
scrap, including the cheap low-grade material, and refine it in a compli-
cated processing circuit. Other smelters are limited to specific classes
of higher priced material that can be refined in a short, simple
processing circuit."
(1) D. L. Siebert, ''Impact of Technology on the Commercial Secondary Aluminum
Industry", 1C 8445, p 12. U.S. Bureau of Mines Report.
-------
35
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The secondary aluminum producers are an important part of the aluminum
recycling industry because they are':essentiaily the oniy volume users of old ...
aluminum scrap. However, with the growth in reclamation of aluminum cans, some
of the primary producers are now in the old scrap reclamation business. Volumes
to date, hovever, are minute compared to total industry use of old scrap.
Primary Producers.^Recycling by the primary producers is generally
limited to new scrap utilization. Major sources of scrap are the producers own
plants, their customers, and scrap dealers.
Primary producers generally purchase "pedigreed" scrap. That is, new
scrap which is well identified as to alloy type, clean,' bare, and prepared in a
readily usable form. Borings, turnings, and other finely divided or contaminated
forms of scrap are usually not purchased. The need for only "pedigreed" scrap is
justified because of the low impurity levels and narrow alloy specifications in
force for wrought alloys. A mislabled or contaminated scrap charge could be
extremely expensive if a "heat" is ruined.
Much of the new scrap obtained by the primary producers is obtained on
conversion agreements. There are two kinds of conversion agreements: (1) direct
toll, and (2) sale and purchase agreements. In a toll agreement the primary pro-
ducer agrees to take a given amount of scrap from a customer and return-an equiva-
lent amount of mill products, charging the customer the difference between the
value of the mill product and the scrap. Because this procedure is difficult to
administer, It is seldom used.
Today, most scrap purchased on a conversion agreement is on a sales and
purchase basis. Under this arrangement, the primary producers buy scrap outright
from their customers at a predetermined price. Generally, the primary producer
will buy back all the scrap generated from the products sold to a customer. This
scrap is used within the primary producer's company or may be sold. If the scrap
is in an undesirable form (such as borings and turnings) the primary producer may
sell the scrap to a dealer or a secondary smelter.
-------
36
Although the primary producers generally purchase "pedigreed" scrap,
because of their extensive operations , they are not equipped to handle less
desirable forms of scrap that arise within their company or are returned in con-
version deals. Therefore, foil, dross, some forms of painted or coated scrap,
etc., are usually sold to the secondary industry.
When primary ingot is short in relation to demand, the primary producers
tend to substitute scrap for primary metal. Because the primary producers purchase
the better grades of scrap, while secondary smelters are not as particular, they
do not usually compete directly. However, in periods when scrap is short, compe-
tition occurs.
Nonintegrated Producers. The nonintegrated producers are aluminum
fabricators that do not have primary aluminum reduction capabilities. A large
number of the nonintegrated producers specialize in extrusions. They must purchase
all of their aluminum requirements from outside sources. Clean alloy scrap of the
variety needed is therefore in great demand as long as it is a low cost substitute
for primary ingot.
The scrap needs of the nonintegrated producer are similar to those of
the primary producer, in that they purchase mainly "pedigreed" scrap. Because
most of the nonintegrated producers are extruders, their scrap purchases are
mainly of the 6061 and 6063 alloys, which are extrusion alloys.
A^'Fl^nym Scrap and Secondary Aluminum Markets
There are really two markets to consider when discussing recycling of
aluminum. The scrap market and the market for secondary aluminum products.
51
37
Scrap Markets
About 90 percent of the aluminum scrap generated goes to aluminum pro-
ducers (primary, secondary, and nonintegrated). However, there are several other
aluminum scrap markets worthy of mention. Such include steel deoxidatlon,
reducing agent in the manufacture of ferroalloys, steel alloying, zinc-base alloys,
copper-base alloys, and aluminum chloride. These "destructive" uses consumed
15,457 tons of scrap (gross weight) and 9,823 tons of dross (recoverable weight)
inl965.(1>
The consumption of purchased scrap in 1969, as reported by the U. S.
Bureau of Mines breaks down as follows:
Independent Secondary Smelters
Primary Producers
Nonintegrated Fabricators
Foundries
Percent
67.0
18.5
7.0
7.5
100.0
Slightly over 1 million ton of purchased scrap was estimated to have been consumed.
Scrap consumption for destructive uses, although not recorded by the U. S. Bureau
of Mines, probably amounted to less than 3 percent of total aluminum scrap con-
sumption in 1969. About 175,000 tons, or 17.5 percent of the purchased aluminum
scrap consumed was old scrap, with the secondary smelter being essentially the
only consumer.
(1) U.S. Department of Commerce/Business and Defense Services Administration,
Aluminum and Magnesium Division, "Aluminum Ingot and Scrap in Non-Aluminum
Uses 1965", p. 2, June, 1967.
-------
38
39
. The marketing department of a leading aluminum producer has .forecast
purchased aluminum scrap consumption for 1971 through 1980, based presumably on
current technology and practice. Selected data from the forecast are given in
Table 11.
TABLE 11.. ESTIMATED DEMAND FOR. ALUMINUM SCRAP, 1971-1980
TABLE 12. PRODUCTION OF SECONDARY ALUMINUM ALLOYS,
BY INDEPENDENT SMELTERS, 1969
Estimated Demand for
Thous aods__Q f
Year
1971
1974
1979
Total
1,050
1,375
1,910
From New Scrap
875
1,100
1,550
Aluminum Scrap
Tons
From Old Scrap
175
275
360
Source: S. T. Abbate, Presentation to NASMI Seminar,
University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, August 13, 1970.
Secondary Aluminum Markets
(
As explained earlier, certain so-called primary aluminum products are
made from scrap, but usually only "pedigreed" scrap is used to make these alloys.
Essentially the only volume consumers of old scrap, and contaminated or nonsegre-
gated new scrap, are the secondary smelters.
No data are available on secondary aluminum markets by segments. The
best available information is a breakdown by products produced, as given in .
Table 12. Based on the product breakdown for 1969, it appears that approximately
85 percent of the reported production is casting alloys. Another 7.5 percent is
relatively pure aluminum (usually sold to nonintegrated fabricators) and 4.9 per-
cent is deox. Die casting alloys are the major single product of the secondary
smelter, and they account for about 60 percent of reported production.
Alloy
Pure aluminum (Al minimum, 97.0 percent)
Aluminum-silicon: . ' - """
95/5 AI-S1, 356, etc. (maximum Cu, 0.6 percent) '
13 percent Si, 360, etc. (maximum Cu,0.6 percent)
Aluminum-silicon (Cu, 0.6 to 2 percent)
No. 12 and variations
Aluminum-copper (maximum Si, 1.5 percent)
No. 319 and variations
Nos. 112, 138
No. 380 and variations
Aluminum-silicon- copper-nickel
Deoxidizing and other descructive uses:
Grades 1 and 2
Grades 3 and 4
Aluminum-base hardeners
Al uminum-magnes ium
Aluminum- zinc
Miscellaneous
Production
Short Tons
47,641
17,285:
46,082
7,770
"6,208
779
50,883
363
356,444
25,223
19,579
12,093_
6,679
905
6,440 .
29,623
Total Reported
Estimate Based on Full Coverage
633,997
741,000
Source: U. S. Bureau of Mines," Minerals Yearbook, 1969, Preprint
on Aluminum. -
53
-------
41
Major markets for die cast aluminum products are: automotive (over SO percent),
hone appliances, and industrial and coianerclal machinery and tools.
The secondary smelters compete with primary aluminum producers for
markets in only one major product, casting alloys. In 1969, 849,000 tons of
aluminum castings were shipped. Thus, baaed on 0. S. Bureau of Mines
figures cited earlier, roughly 75 percent of the casting alloy in these shipments
was made by secondary smelters. The remainder vas supplied by the primary
producers. Most of the casting alloys supplied by the primary industry are in
the form of molten metal, and most of this is supplied to automobile makers.
Some of the casting alloys supplied by the primary Industry are made to chemistry
specifications, which cannot usually be met by the secondary smelter.
The deox market is estimated to be approximately 50,000 tons annually.
It appears that the secondary producers have 60 percent of this market, while
primary producers and scrap dealers have the remaining 40 percent. Although the
primaries and secondaries compete in this market, it is relatively unimportant.
In all of the other aluminum markets, there is essentially no compe-
tition between the secondary smelter and the->prlmary producer.
Secondary Aluminum Prices. Secondary aluminum alloys usually sell for
a slightly lover price than primary aluminum ingot, because the alloys are produced
easily from scrap. For instance, in March, 1971, the popular 380 secondary alloy
(with 1 percent maximum zinc) was quoted at 28 cents per pound, versus 29 cents
per pound for primary aluminum ingot. This price differential will fluctuate
depending on many factors, the most important of which appears to be the price
of scrap. In times of high scrap prices, the 380 secondary alloy might be quoted
at prices higher than primary ingot.
If primary alloy prices dropped sufficiently,, primary alloys could
conceivably capture all of the secondary alloy market (about 740,000 tons in terms
of 1969 results). On the other hand, if secondary alloy prices dropped sufficiently
the additional market captured would amount to about 210,000 tons in terms of 1969
results.
Industry Data
A' survey of the recycling industry developed data to afford profiles of
the industry and the companies making up the industry. Volume:I, General Report, in
this series gives many of these data.• A few data concerning aluminum are given here.
The average recycler of aluminum -compares with the average recycler of
all commodities as follows:
•". • ' • Investment In Number of Investment
Plant and Equipment Employees Per Employee
Aluminum
All Commodities
$1,739,000
$1,480,000
66
71
$26,200
$20,800
• •• Figure 6 shows the variation in annual.volume of aluminum handled, by census
region, for (1) aluminum scrap processors, and (2) aluminum scrap consumers. This
figure shows that in 1969 the average amount of aluminum processed by scrap dealers
which handle aluminum was 1,230 tons; while the average amount consumed by the
various consumers was 6,300 tons. The average volume of aluminum scrap handled by
scrap processors does not vary widely from region to region. On the other hand, there
are some significant region differences in the average volume of aluminum scrap
consumed. Three regions have particularly low average consumption per consumer;
they are the Pacific, New England, and West South Central regions. It is believed
that the unusually low annual consumption of aluminum scrap in these areas .is the
result of data obtained from sweaters, that consider.themselves to be consumers.
(1) The Aluminum Association, Aluminum Statistical Review, 1969, p 28.
(2) American Metal Market. March 10, 1971, p 23.
(1) Data from extensive survey.
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42
I. New England
2. Middle Atlantic
3. South Atlantic
4. East North Central " 7.
5. East South Central 6.
6. West North Central 9.
West South Central
Mountain
Pacific (includes Alaska.
and -Hawaii)
FIGURE 6. AVERAGE VOLUME IN TONS PER YEAR OF (I) ALUMINUM
SCRAP PROCESSORS, AND (2) ALUMINUM SCRAP
"- CONSUMERS, BY REGION, 1969
Source: Extensive survey
57
O
c.
in ~n
I 5
8 -<
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s
s c
g-o TO
"> m
s* 2
rr H. -<
rr S O
» n> r-
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E
c
2
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3 i
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44
Materials Flov Pattern for Aluminum Recycling
A dlagramatic table, representing the quantitative flov of aluminum
scrap to its various consumers, and to ultimate markets is given in Figure 7.
In the flow pattern shown, the widths of the various channels are proportional to
the quantities involved. The first column of Figure 7 shows the estimated amount
of aluminum available for recycling, by source, was 2,215,000 tons in 1969.
The Import source le simply aluminum scrap Imports.
The new scrap available for recycling was estimated to be essentially
the quantity that was reported as consumed. This presumes a 100 percent recycling
rate on new scrap. This is not precisely true, because some new aluminum scrap
Is lost in the form of low aluminum drosses, and recovery rates are less than unity.
According to industry sources, well over 90 percent of the new aluminum scrap Is
recycled. The 855,000 tons of new aluminum scrap shown as available for recycling
in 1969 represents only that scrap which was available for sale. A much greater
tonnage is likely to have been recycled within the primary aluminum companies,
and was never available for sale.
The amount of old scrap available for recycling had to be calculated
using various assumptions. Table 13 presents Battelle-Columbus' estimate of the
. old scrap available, by source, and the percent of recycling of the scrap
from each source. The 1969 "crop" of old aluminum scrap was based on expected
life cycles of various aluminum containing products. Details of the estimates
are given in Appendix B, Table B-l.
Of the estimated 1.3 million tons of aluminum becoming obsolete, only
175,000 tons of aluminum were reclaimed in 1969, or in other words, only 13 percent
of the aluminum becoming obsolete was recycled. However, It is likely that the
(1) Some scrap imports might be primary ingot, broken into pieces and assigned
to the scrap category.
59
45
TABLE 13. OLD ALUMINUM SCRAP RECYCLING, 1969
Scrap Source
Building and
Construction
Transportation
Consumer Durables
Electrical
Machinery and
Equipment
Containers and
Packaging
Other
Totals
Estimated
Aluminum
Becoming
Obsolete, Tons
71,000
329,000
197,000
7,000
61,000
486,000
183,000
1,334,000
Estimated
Old Aluminum
Recycled, Tons
9,000
100,000
25,000
6,500
15,000
2,000
17,500
175,000*
Estimated
Percent
Recycled
13.0
30.0
13.0
93.0
25.0
0.4
9.2
13.1
Estimated
Aluminum Not
Recycled, Tons
62,000
229,000
172,000
500
46,000
484,000
5,500
1,159,000
* Imports are ignored because it is believed that the old scrap component of
imports is not significant.
Source: U. S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook.1969, Preprint for Aluminum,
and Appendix B, Table B-l.
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amount of old aluminum scrap readily available tp the recycling industry Is
actually much smaller because!
(1) Some Items, especially .aircraft, are exported and are
then not scrapped In the United States
(2) Some items such as aluminum cans and other packaging items
are widely disseminated and usually are not collected
(3) Some obsolete Items such as certain military aircraft are being, •
stored (for use during emergencies) rather than being scrapped
(4) The data are not corrected for recovery yields.
Demand/Sunolv Analysis
A brief analysis of the expected future demand for old aluminum scrap
and the expected availability of old aluminum scrap is presented in Table 14. New
aluminum scrap supply and demand are not considered because, under current and
likely future conditions, there is sufficient demand for all that is available.
TABLE 14. DEMAND/SUPPLY ANALYSIS FOR OLD ALUMINUM SCRAP,
1969, 1974, and 1979*
Year
1969
1974
1979
Estimated Demand
for Old Aluminum
Scrap, Tons
175,000 .
275,000
360,000
Estimated Supply
of Old Aluminum
Scrap, Tons
175,000
324,000
451,000
Estimated Aluminum
Scrap Becoming
Obsolete, Tons
1,334,000
1,970,000
2,989.000
The 1974 and 1979 demand for old scrap Is baaed on estimates of alualnusi
recovered from old scrap as given in Table 11. The estimated supply or
crop of old scrap was estimated in the sane fashion as the 2969 figures
(see Table B-l, Appendix B). No change In technology vas presuaed. I.e.,
the percentage of recycling in each category waa presuaed to exhibit no
change from that given in Table B-l. Further, to estimate the old scrap
"crop" for 1974 sad 1979, ehipaeats of aluUm for th* Containers and
Packaging category had to be as11mted. For thl* nwtpOM, the figure*
37*,000 «nd 1,148,000 toe*, respectively, were oeed for 1*74 aod 1979.
61
The data in Table 14 Indicate a potential surplus of old aluminum scrap
amounting to 49,000 tons in 1974 and 91,000 tons in 1979, an indication that future
development of new markets for old aluminum scrap is needed. If the technology
of the recovery of aluminum from obsolete articles improves, then an even greater
excess of supply over demand can be expected.
How can such an excess of supply over demand be handled? To answer
this question is difficult. First, it should be noted that the data in Table 14 •
vere derived assuming that there .was a balance In supply" and demand in 1969. '
This may not be true, in fact industry sources claim a shortage in the supply of
old scrap. Quantification of the degree of under supply of old scrap in 1969 is
not possible when one considers the various types of scrap and alloys involved.
Therefore, at best, one can only make general statements. It appears likely that
the secondary smelters may be able to utilize the supply of;old scrap forecast
in Table 14. However, it Is also likely that future additions to the old scrap
supply by way of improved collection and recovery methods could not be absorbed
by the secondary smelters producing current product lines. Therefore, new markets
for old scrap and new products made from old scrap may be needed. This can be
accomplished'by product and market research and development; and by expanding the
use of old scrap by the primary aluminum industry.
ALUMINUM SCRAP RECYCLING PROBLEMS
There are several major problem areas that directly reduce the amount
of aluminum that is recycled. In this section a quantitative approach has been
taken in an effort to evaluate the effect of the problems on recycling aluminum.
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48
New Scrap
New, or prompt Industrial scrap Is recognized as valuable and conse-
quently nearly all Is recycled. Aluminum melting dross is treated and reclaimed.
Drosses containing as little as 10 to IS percent aluminum are treated to reclaim
the aluminum. There are no data to indicate the degree to which new scrap and
dross are recycled. Industry officials claim that well over 90 percent of the
new scrap generated is recycled.
Old Scrap
Table 15 presents the seven categories of old aluminum scrap generators
along with estimates of the quantities of old scrap that are pot being recycled.
The definition and analysis of problems associated with recycling of aluminum for
each end use category are given. In terms of estimated quantities of aluminum
not recycled, the Containers and Packaging, Transportation, and Consumer Durables
categories are the most important, and are discussed more fully In the section
entitled "Courses of Action Concerning Recycling of Aluminum".
ALUMINUM RECYCLING INDUSTRY PaOBT.F.MS
As a result of field Interviews several problem areas emerged as sig-
nificant factors in the aluminum recycling Industry. These are:
63
• Air pollution control
• Composite aluminum scrap
• Need for new methods of upgrading aluminum scrap
• Solid wastes
These problems are defined and analyzed in Table 16.
Air Pollution Control
The most often mentioned problem confronting the aluminum recycling
industry is the improved control of air pollution. This is especially true in
the case of the secondary smelters. Proper control of emissions is very
expensive and difficult to achieve with present equipment. An analysis of pollu-
tion control problem is given In Table 16. The increased recycling costs resulting
from strict air pollution control might lead to a slight decrease in recycling
painted, coated, or composite aluminum scrap which produce smoke when melted
directly.
Composite Aluminum Scrap
All segments of the aluminum recycling industry are faced with the con-
tinual problem of learning to process aluminum scrap contained in a never ending
parade of new (aluminum containing) products. Of particular difficulty is the
processing of composite scrap. Examples are such items as paper and vinyl coated
aluminum; painted, lacquered or enameled aluminum; and metal-metal composites
(1) For a review of the emission problems of the secondary smelter see "Impact
of Technology on the Comme'rcial Secondary Aluminum Industry", U.S. Bureau
of Mines publication, 1C8445.
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50
TABLE 15. IDENTIFICATION AMD ANALYSIS OF PROBLEMS CONCERNING OLD ALUMINUM THAT WAS NOT RECYCLED IN 1969
Building and Con-
,' • •traction Sources
Problem Definition 1. Aluminum item are used
for • myriad of items In '
the. building and con-
• striictlon category.
Transportation
. • • Sources
1., Not all aluminum on a
salvaged auto is
utilised.
Consumer- Dur- i
able Sources '
1. Scrap is wideify:
disseminated.
2. Host items have small
2. Small items that become
' obsolete are usually •
discarded.
3. Demolition of' old struc-
. tures yields negligible
amounts of aluminum per
structure.
obvious source' and is •
recovered if economical..
3. Other sources include
' trucka. trailers, buses,
• boats, etc. •
amounts of aluminum.
Estimate of Old
Aluminum Scrap Not
Recycled, tons
62,000
229,000
172.000
Estimate of Percent.
of Available Old
Aluminum Hat Recycled .
Problem Analysis 1.
2.
"- - :- - »7 -. ' ''. "
Better collection needed.
Much of the scrap is
heavily painted, vinyl
coated, etc. Therefore,
. ': . '.- .'-. 70 .; ' *
1. Better utilisation of
aluminum in the non-
ferrous fraction of auto
shredder scrap is needed.
87-:
I. Items except cooking
utensils and lawn
. furniture are not
: recycled to a high
degree. '•;
the additional steps 2.
needed for coating
removal makes scrap
.recycling less . .
economical. • 3.
Yield of aluminum scrap
per building is low.
Future yields will
Increase.
This area has limited 4.
possibilities for In-
creased recycling of
aluminum. ,
Improved collection of
abandoned autos is
needed.
Some old scrap is. not
recoverable because en
item, for instance: an
airplane, may be exported
or become obsolete - .
overseas.
Even though large quan-
titles of aluminum are
now being recycled,
transportation items repre-
sent a very promising area
in which to Increase re-
cycling of aluminum.
Part of problem is
learning to economically
recycle small-amounts of.
aluminum that are in old'
refrigerators, washing '~
machines, atr -conditioner*
i-
This is a promising area
in which to increase" the
recycling of aluminum.
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50a
TABU 13. IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF PROBLEMS CONCERNING OLD ALUMINUM
THAT HAS NOT RECYCLED IN 1969 (Continued)
Electrical
Sources
Machinery and
Equipment Source*
Problem Definition 1.
2.
Electrical transmission lines
are not a significant recycling
problem.
Electrical machinery-,- lighting
fixture* and large conduit,
etc., represent a small
portion of electrical sources,
but are widely disseminated
end not-recycled.
1. Scrap 1* widely disse-
minated la a myriad of
machines and equipment
such as special Indus-
trial equipment,
agricultural machinery,
'materials handling
equipment, irrigation :
pipe, process industries.
Estimate of Old
Aluminum Scrap Hot
^Recycled, coh«
500
46,000
Estimate of Percent
of Available Old
Aluminum Hat Recycled
75
Problem Analysis
Electrical transmission lines
are normally recycled.
Other electrical items are
recycled on a very limited
basis.
Based on the above esti-
mate, this area has very
limited possibilities for
increased recycling of
aluminum.
1, Better collection
needed.
2. Based on the above esti-
mate, this area has
Halted possibilities for
Increased recycling of
aluminum
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50b
TABU IS. IDENTIFICATION AMD ANALYSIS OF PROBLEMS CONCERNING OLD ALUMINUM
' ' '
THAT WAS NOT RECYCLED IN 1969 (Continued)
Packaging Sources
Other Source*
Problem Definition
1. Scrap -la extremely
widely disseminated.
2. Foil, capa, closures,
and containers are
found In household and
Industrial re'fusa.
3. In addition, aluminum
containers occur as
litter.
the 'other* category consists
mainly of defense Items.
Some Items become obsolete
outside of the U.S. and
may not be recycled In the
U.S. .
: Estimate of Old
Aluminum Scrap Mot
Recycled, tons
484,000
165,500
• Estimate of Percent
of Available Old/ ,
Aluminum Jjfljt .Recycled
99.6
89.8
Problem Aaalyai*
I.
2.
3.
4;
Collection Is a major
part of the problem.
Currant.collection
program* return a '
very small .'fraction
of the.alualnum
available.
Segregation of refuse
.within the household
may aid In utilisation.
Recovery.from municipal
refute nay provide'a
solution..
Legislation aimed at
segregation, and col-
= ;"' lection problems may
/ aid.
5. This area holds the most
promise for the Increased
' recycling of alualnum.
Much defense scrap Is .sold
on a bid basis. However,
much Is not being recycled
due to . lack of minimum
bids.
A small tonnage la des-
tructively consumed- and
therefore, not available
for recycling.
This area has limited
possibilities for In-
creased recycling of
aluminum. •
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TABLE 16. IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF OTHER ALUMINUM RECYCLING PROBLEMS
Title
Air Pollution Control
Composite Aluminum Scrap
Need for New Methods of
Upgrading Aluminum Scrap
Recycling Wastes
Problem 1. Costs of equipment very
Definitions high compared to total
capital investment of most
scrap dealers and secondary
smelters.
2. Reliability of present equip-
ment rates as poor.
3. Lack of uniform standards
and enforcement penalize
those that control emissions.
4. Continual changing of stand-
ards penalize those that have
purchased control equipment.
1. Composites of aluminum are
difficult to recycle.
2. Composites which combine
aluminum with paper, vinyl,
paint, and other coatings
create air pollution
problems on recycling.
3. Composites such as copper
coated aluminum wire or alu-
minum coated steel wire or
steel cans with aluminum ends
may only be recycled under
special conditions.
1. If old scrap could be re-
fined economically, it could
be utilized in making wrought
alloys.
2. Improved sorting of old alu-
minum scrap from other alu-
minum scrap or other non-
ferrous scrap Is needed.
1. Operation of the secondary
smelter produces waste
such as spent fluxes and
drosses.
2. Magnesium chloride wastes
are generated.
3. Processing of aluminum
cable gives rise to small
amounts of cable insula-
tion wastes.
Effect on Strict control of air emissions
Recycle Rate will tend to increase recycling
costs and lower recycling rates.
The use of various aluminum
composites tends to lower the
recovery rate or make recy-
cling uneconomical.
Improved upgrading techniques
•hould Increase recycling.
Essentially no effect.
Problem 1. Air pollution laws and en-
Analysis forcement are not uniform
throughout the country.
2. Financing of pollution con-
trol equipment is difficult
for the small smelter.
3. There appears to be a lack
of reliable equipment capa-
ble of attaining some air
pollution standards.
1. Manufacturers and designers
produce products without
special regard to recycling
problems.
2. Specific composites may be
recycled If a method and/or
market is found.
1. Development of Improved,
economic refining tech-
niques is a difficult
technical problem.
2. Scrap sorting problems may
be attacked by many methods.
Solutions are likely to be
highly specific.
1. Industry has learned to
process drosses and spent
fluxes for aluminum
content. Low aluminum
content material is a
disposal problem.
3. Cable insulation wastes
are a disposal problem.
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52
53
of 'aluminum with copper or steel or another aluminum alloy. These composites
either present recycling problems, or cannot be recycled economically.
The recycling problems created by composites have to be attacked on an
individual basis. Prevention of some of the recycling problems associated with
aluminum composites could be solved or eased if manufacturers gave some thought
to recycling in the design stage. For example, the steel beverage can with an
"easy open" aluminum top is not readily recycled either for the aluoinuo ends.
or the steel body. Perhaps the can industry could have made a more "recycleable"
can,.such as an all steel or all aluminum can, with the "easy open" feature.
Need for Key Methods of Upgrading Aluminum Scrap
The need for new methods of upgrading aluminum scrap can be attacked
by dividing the problem into three parts. In one, consideration is given to con-
version of a group of mixed aluminum scrap to pure aluminum or a'usable alloy.
In the second, consideration is given to separation or sorting of a mixed group
of aluminum alloys. The third has to do with separation of aluminum alloys from
other nonferrous alloys.
Conversion of Mixed Aluminum Scrap to
Pure Metal or a Practical Alloy
As mentioned earlier, magnesium is the only element that the secondary
smelters find practical to remove from aluminum. Electrolytic molten salt methods
of refining aluminum alloys are available but are too costly. Long range technical
research in the area of refining aluminum alloys Is indicated, .but likelihood of
complete technical and economic success i« not considered good.
Sorting pf ftfixed Aluminuin"A116v
The value of a mixed group of aluminum alloys can be improved if the
alloys are sorted by type. To date, various chemical spot tests or emission
spectrograph tests have been used. Faster and more economical methods are. needed.
from Nonferrous Scran
Sni-ting of
Much of the sorting of aluminum from nonferrous scrap can be done by
sight and feel. This "hand picking" can .be .accomplished economically If large
pieces are involved. With the advent of the auto shredder, the need for separa-
tion of metals from the nonferrous fraction of the shredder output arose. The
separation of aluminum from this nonferrous fraction is being accomplished and
is under investigation. Prominent methods of separation include heavy media
separation and air elutriation methods.
Recycling Wastes
Solid wastes resulting from recycling aluminum include wastes generated
by the secondary smelter such as dross, slag and magnesium chloride, and wastes
generated by the scrap processor such as cable insulation. The problem of solid-
wastes generated by the aluminum recycling industry is .basically an environmental
problem, rather than an industry problem. Recycling of these wastes would not be
expected to improve the recycling rate for aluminum.
Secondary Smelter Residues
The secondary smelter generates dross, slag (spent flux), and magnesium
chloride in the course of melting and .removing magnesium from aluminum.
70
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54
The drosses containing mainly Al.O,, aluminum, and some salts and dirt
are treated to recover the aluminum. Drosses containing as little as 10 to 15
percent aluminum can be treated for aluminum recovery. Leaner drosses are a
disposal problem. A portion of the drosses "produced" are sold or consumed In
making exothermic or "hot top" materials for the steel Industry.
Fluxes are used to protect the molten aluminum from oxidation and gas
absorption. The spent flux or slag Is a solid waste which Is reprocessed for
aluminum content. These fluxes may contain 10 to 20 percent aluminum and can be
upgraded by wet milling to 65 percent aluminum. The waste salts (containing a
mixture of NaCl, KC1, and a fluoride bearing salt such as cryolite) are brought
into solution in the wet milling operation, and at this point are liquid wastes,
which must be treated in some fashion.
In the chlorine treatment of molten aluminum for magnesium removal, the
compound MgCl~ is formed. This compound may be slightly contaminated with A1C1,
and other Impurities. Today, little use Is made of this compound, and it repre-
sents a disposal problem to most secondary smelters.
Scrap Processing Residues
The major solid waste generated In the processing of aluminum scrap is
cable insulation. Insulation could be paper, any of a number of various plastics,
rubber, or even glass. The insulation may be in small pieces (as from a chopper)
or in long lengths (as from a cable stripper). The amount of insulation waste
generated from aluminum wire insulation is very small compared to the Insulation
waste from copper wire. To date, no significant use for these wastes has been
found.
71
55
COURSES OF ACTION CONCERNING RECYCLING OF ALUMINUM
Having identified the major problems concerning the recycling of
aluminum, it is necessary to evaluate them and select those that are amenable to
solutions. Then, courses of action can be developed to lead to solutions for the
problems.
Evaluation of Problems
The problem areas that have been identified as significant cover a wide
range of importance and possibilities for solutions. It is necessary to evaluate
the differences In order to assign priorities for action.
Four of the problem areas can be assigned low priorities immediately.
Four problem areas dealing with old scrap generation: (1) Electrical,
(2) Machinery and Equipment, (3) Building and Construction, and (4) Other
Categories were assigned low priorities because the amount of old aluminum scrap
not recycled is estimated to be comparatively small. Thus, the above four problem
areas will not be given further attention.
To evaluate the remaining problems relating to the recycling of aluminum,
three criteria for judging the severity of the problems were developed. These
same criteria were also used in the other commodity reports in this series. The
three judgment criteria were based on the following questions:
(1) Will solution of the problem improve the environment?
(Possible Score 0-10)
(2) Will solution of the problem conserve natural resources?
(Possible Score 0-5)
(3) Can realistic solutions be found? (Possible Score 0-5)
-------
56
Table 17 presents the'problems enumerated in the previous "section and .'
shows the scores assigned to each problem by Battelle-Columbus. By this method
it is shown that the three major'problem areas are:
(1) Reclamation of old aluminum scrap from Container
and Packaging sources
(2) Air Pollution Control
(3) Reclamation of old aluminum scrap from Transportation
sources.
Recommended Actions
The recommendations of what to do about the seven major problems of
the aluminum recycling industry are covered in two parts:
(1) High Priority Actions
(2) Lower Priority Actions.
The high priority actions should be dealt with before attention is
given to the lover priority actions.
High Priority Actions
The high priority actions recommended here are important and far-
reaching enough to be in the public interest. Thus, participation by EPA is
desirable. Participation by NASMI and its members is also desirable, since the
problems and suggested actions to be taken are predominately within the range of
activities of the present aluminum recycling industry.
Table 18 presents the recommended action programs for the high priority
aluminum recycling problems. These programs are discussed below.
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73
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TABLE 18. RECOMMENDED ACTIONS, HIGH PRIORITY ALUMINUM RECYCLING PROBLEMS
Title
Reclamation of
Old Aluminum Scrap From
Container and Packaging Sources
Air Pollution Control
Reclamation of Old
Aluminum Scrap From
Transportation Sources
Actions 1. Continue current can reclamation
Recommended programs.
2. Utilize current collection systems to
obtain scrap, i.e., local refuse
collectors.
3. Promote segregation of aluminum from
refuse at the source by law or other
incentives, and/or
4. Develop an economic system for
recycling aluminum from municipal
refuse.
1. Push passage of realistic Federal
air pollution laws with strong pro-
vision for equal enforcement.
2. Provide financial aid, in the form
of low cost loans or rapid tax write-
offs to companies for purchasing
needed equipment.
3. Initiate research and development on
more dependable and maintenance-free
air pollution control equipment.
1. Learn to better utilize aluminum from
auto shredder scrap.
2. Continue research being performed by
industry and the USBM, EPA, and
NASMI.
By Whom<1)( )( EPA, NASMI, USBM, CEQ, Aluminum Producers
and Aluminum Can Producers
EPA, NASMI, ASRI, CEQ and Equipment
Manufacturers
EPA/NASMI and U. S. Bureau of Mines
oo
Specific 1. Intensify current USBM and other
Steps studies on utilization of urban
refuse.
2. Promote and/or sponsor pilot studies
on segregation of aluminum scrap from
other refuse at the source. '
3. Aluminum and aluminum can producers
should continue can reclamation
programs. Especially as an effective
way of removing litter.
1. The recommended air pollution laws
and financial aid can be promoted
through .contact with legislators.
2. Concerned organizations should pre-
sent specific air pollution control
equipment needs before manufacturers
and pressure for development of needed
equipment.
1. Continuation and intensification of
research and development by industry
and USBM.
2. An EPA/NASMI/USBM team could monitor
progress and point out areas where
further research is needed.
(1) The responsibility for recommended actions shown in this table are based on importance of the
•ction, benefit to the taxpayers, and opportunities for NASMI. They are the best judgments
of Battelie. /
(2) Recommended actions were distributed between high priority and lower priority based on the
evaluation with three criteria.
(3) It Is suggested that NASMI continue its leading role in recycling, recognizing that other
organizations such as the Bureau of Mines, Department of Commerce, Council of Environmental
Quality, HEW Office of Information, and State, Local, and Federal Legislatures must be
Involved.
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59;
Reclamation of Old Aluminum Scrap from-Container'and Packaging Sources.
The problem of reclaiming aluminum from cans; 'foil,.and other containers and '
packages is mainly one of collection. The vide public dissemination of these
items .makes collection.uneconomical.^ ., , „,-" .... '
Current .Can Reclamation rrograms. The aluminum can reclamation
programs sponsored by the major primary aluminum producers, and others are
becoming more and more successful. However, the 10 cents per pound payment
plus handling, processing, and transportation costs appear to exceed the actual
value of the.cans. Thus, it is the opinion of many that the can reclamation
programs are, in fact,, subsidized. ,;•..„. , ....
Collection of aluminum.cans^is made by,Interested individuals, or ' '
civic, charitable,.environmental, or other groups. The cans are taken to a
collection center which nay be operated by a primary aluminum company, a brewer
or his distributor or other interests. Subsequently, the cans are processed
by shredding and.magnetic separation operations. _ .
The processed can scrap is then shipped to primary aluminum plants for
recycling into can stock alloy. Because the lid of the aluminum can is made
from a different alloy than the body, there are limits on the amount of can
scrap which can be used in preparing a can alloy melt. Currently, only two
plants are equipped for charging aluminum can scrap into can stock melts. These
plants are located in Warrick, Indiana, and Lister Hill, Alabama. Thus, can
scrap generated on the West Coast must be shipped long distances to be recycled.
Can reclamation has operated outside the traditional scrap gathering
channels, with one exception. One major aluminum company is utilizing scrap
processors to process and ship can scrap to their can stock plant. It is
believed that the dealer receives 5 cents per pound for this function, giving
a total direct cost of 15 cents per pound. Other companies from time to time
may utilize scrap processors for the shredding and.magnetic separation operation.
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60
One might expect that the normal channels for aluminum can reclamation would .
include the scrap dealer-processor and the secondary aluminum producer. This
system did not and does not operate because of the high cost of collection
and the undesirable alloying elements in the cans. Aluminum cans (lid and body)
contain about 2.25 percent magnesium and 1 percent manganese on the average.
Both elements are usually undesirable in secondary alloys. The magnesia nay
be removed, at some cost, while the manganese content can be lowered only by
dilution.
In 1970, aluminum cans returned for recycling amounted to 2,875 tons
out of approximately 226,000 tons of aluminum shipments for making all aluaimm
UM2) . .,'....
cans. This amounts to less than a 2 percent recycle. Even though a
higher rate of can recycling is expected in 1971, it is unlikely that a significant
fraction of shipments will be recycled. The continuation of both the subsidy
and group Interest in collection is open to some doubt. The can collection
programs do little in the way of reclaiming all the other aluminum used In
containers and packaging.
Other Collection Methods. In light of the above, it is obvious that
other means of collection old aluminum cans, foil, etc., are also needed.
Perhaps the best way to collect this old scrap is to utilize a collection
system that is in use, the local garbage or refuse system. To utilize these
existing collection systems, two types of action are obvious.
First, household and industrial wastes might be segregated so that all
aluminum cans, foil, etc., are kept separate all through the'collection phase.
The aluminum once collected might then be recycled. To promote segregation by'
the householder and other municipal waste contributors, either a law or other
incentive is needed.
(1) Aluminum Association Press Release (no date)
(2) American Metal Market. March 19, 1971, p 10.
77
61
.A second, and'perhaps better, long .range action would be to develop
methods of reclaiming aluminum from municipal wastes. Other novel methods of
collection might also be the subject of pilot programs. EPA, CEQ, NASMI, and. the
U. S. Bureau of Mines would be logical participants in the above programs.
Air Pollution Control. The coming of more stringent air pollution
control regulations is viewed with 'apprehension by most secondary smelters. The
- ' -* *•" I • (I)
typical smelter may be faced with a large capital outlay for equipment which
may not be capable of satisfying air pollution regulations that are subject to
change. In addition, a secondary smelter that is eminently equipped to control
emissions is at a disadvantage in competing with one that isn't or only has to
meet less stringent regulations In some other location.
Most of the secondary smelters in Los Angeles County have survived the
strict air pollution laws in force there. They have managed to make the large
capital Investment required and have learned to live with equipment that Is
difficult to maintain.
Actions recommended include quick passage of realistic Federal air
pollution laws with strong provision for equal enforcement and financial aid In
the form of low cost loans or rapid tax write offs for purchasing needed equipment.
Both recommendations can be pursued by EPA, CEQ, and NASMI through contact with
legislators.
Research and development aimed at improving the reliability of air pollu-
tion control equipment used or needed by the secondary aluminum smelter should be
performed. NASMI and/or ASRI and the equipment manufacturers should meet and
determine specific needs. Research should be funded by the equipment manufac-
turers and the potential users.
(1) Large compered to total plant investment.
-------
62 ••..:
fip from Transportation Soyyceg - - ' More
efficient utilization of the aluminum in the nonfeirrous fraction of auto shredder
scrap is needed. The auto shredder has provided :'a source of aluminum scrap not •
previously available. In order to make the auto shredding; operation more' viable,
methods of reclaiming aluminum and other nonferrous metals have been and are
•; - .-• .-•>.... .:••.-••?«>. •.--.•JiMJ.',V.:,v.' •{,.;.-, . ' ••
being investigated. Methods such as hand picking,, heavy media separation, and...
air elutrlation are used or being tried In the recovery of aluminum. Recovery- --
•-. i: :.- :-vt-.--;- , ' •- -, ..-.-- '.;,.;.;• •; ..; ->•>- #•>•'..'. •'-. •;..'•' ' > • • -"r
ratios can be Improved. Further research by Indus try '.and government is'
recommended. Since the future reclamation of not only aluminum, but other metals
is tied to utilization of auto shredder scrap, and since shredders play an
-•-- •_••'- : ,i.J .-•:.-. «•/.•--.;!"*.-••*«.'.•• .. ••'
Important role in the removal of old auto hulks and even old appliances, an
EPA/NASMI/USBM team should monitor Industry/government progress in the area.
Lower Priority Actions ' '
The lower priority actions that are recommended are neither important
enough, nor far-reaching enough to warrant high priority action.
The low priority problems are:
(1) Need for New Methods of Upgrading Old Scrap
(2) Reclamation of Aluminum from Consumer Durables Sources
(3) Recycling Wastes
(4) Composite Aluminum Scrap.
These are presented in Table 19, along with suggested actions.
Other Actions
Additional actions are recommended in the general report of this series.
Some of these relate to the recycling of aluminum. Refer to the general report
. for additional information.
79
-------
TABLE 19. RECOMMENDED ACTIONS, LOW PRIORITY ALUMINUM RECYCLING PROBLEMS
Title
Need for New Methods
of Upgrading Old Scrap
Reclamation of Old
Aluminum Scrap From
.Consumer Durables Sources
Recycling Wastes
Composite Aluminum Scrap
Actions 1. Initiate research to find
Recommended economic methods of refining
aluminum.
• 2. Conduct research in the
areas of sorting aluminum
scrap.
3. Continue research on
recovery of aluminum from
low grade scrap.
1. Determine which consumer
durables contain the most
aluminum.
2. Determine the usual dis-
posal method(s).
3.-Recommend collection and
reclamation methods.
1. Push research on the
recovery of aluminum from
low grade drosses and spent
flux being undertaken by
USBM.
2. Initiate research on
products/markets for mag-
nesium chloride and cable
insulation waste as
recommended.
1. Educate manufacturers and
designers on the merits
of products designed for
recycling.
2. Perform technical and
market studies aimed at
utilizing metal composites.
By Whom^^^^EPA/NASMI/USBM and Industry NASMI/EPA
USBM/EPA/Industry
EPA/NASMI
Specific 1. Funding long term efforts
Steps to accomplish the above
aims is necessary. A look
at unconventional tech-
niques is needed.
1. Sponsor research to deter-
mine the usual or average
content of important con-
sumer durables, their
average life, and normal
disposal methods.
2. Initiate action depending '
on results of above
1. Product and market research
aimed at finding products
and markets for magnesium
chloride and cable insula-
tion waste should be per-
formed by sponsorship of
any of the above.
1. Start broad education pro-
gram that could be carried
out by NASMI. Could
include points on design
for recycling.
2. Upon identification of a
large amount of aluminum
metal composites which are
not being recycled, EPA/
NASMI could sponsor a
technical-economic study
aimed at finding new uses
for the scrap.
3. EPA/NASMI could pressure
can makers away from the
steel-aluminum can.
(1) The responsibility for recommended actions shown in this table are baaed on importance of the
action, benefit to the taxpayers, and opportunities for NASMI. They are the best judgments
of Battellc.
(2) Recommended actions were distributed between high priority and lower priority based on the
evaluation with three criteria. '
(3) It is suggested that NASMI continue its leading role in recycling, recognizing that other
organizations such as the Bureau of Mines, Department of Coonercc, Council of Environmental
Quality, 1IEW Office of Information, and State, Local, and Federal Legislatures mist be
involved.
-------
APPENDIX A
ALUMINUM ALLOY SPECIFICATIONS
81
-------
A-l
TABLE A-l. ALUMINUM ASSOCIATION ALLOY DESIGNATION
SYSTEM FOR WROUGHT ALLOYS*
Alloy Number
Aluminum - 99.00 percent minimum or 1XXX
greater aluminum alloys grouped
by major alloying elements
Copper 2XXX
Manganese 3XXX
Silicon 4XXX
Magnesium 5XXX
Magnesium and silicon 6XXX
Zinc 7XXX
Other Elements 8XXX
In the 1XXX group for minimum purities of 99.00 percent and greater, the last
two of the four digits in the designation indicate the minimum aluminum
percentage. These digits are the same as the two digits to the right of the
decimal point when the minimum aluminum percentage is expressed to the nearest
0.01 percent. For Instance, a 1050 alloy would contain a minimum of 99.50
percent aluminum. The second digit In the designation indicates modifications
In Impurity limits. In the 2XXX to 8XXX alloy groups the last two of the four
digits In the designation have no special significance. The second digit In
the alloy designation indicates alloy modifications.
Source: "Handbook of Aluminum", 3rd Edition, Published by Alcan
Aluminum Corporation, Cleveland, Ohio, 1970, p 225.
-------
TABLE A-2. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION LIMITS OF SELECTED WROUGHT
ALUMINUM ALLOYS (PERCENT)
Other Elements
Alloy
1060
1100
2024
3004
5052
6061
7075
Silicon
0.25 max
1.0 S1+
0.50 max
0.30 max
0.45 S1+
0.40-0.8
0.4 max
Iron
0.35 max
Fe max
0.50 max
0.7 max
Fe max
0.7 max
0.5 max
Copper
0.05 max
0.05-0.20
3.8-4.9
0.25 max
0.10 max
0.15 - 0.40
1.2-2.0
Manganese
0.03 max
0.05 max
0.30-0.90
1.0-1.5
0.10 max
0.15 max
0.30 max
Magnesium
0.03 max
—
1.2-1.8
0.8-1.3
0.10 max
0.8-1.2
2.1-2.9
Chromium
0.
0.
0.10 max 0.
0.
0.15-0.35 0.
0.04-0.35 0.
0.18-0.35 5.
Zinc
05 max
10 max
25 max
25 max
10 max
25 max
1-6.1
Titanium
0.03 max 0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.15 max 0.
0.20 max 0.
Each
03 max
05 max
05 max
05 max
05 max
05 max
05 max
Total
—
0.15 max
0.15 max
0.15 max
0.15 max
0.15 max
0.15 max
Aluminum,
Minimum
99.60
99.00
Remainder
Remainder
Remainder
Remainder
Remainder
Source: "Handbook of Aluminum", 3rd Edition, Published by Alcan Aluminum
Corporation, Cleveland, Ohio, 1970, pp 148-149.
I
NJ
-------
TABLE A-3. ALUMINUM ASSOCIATION DESIGNATION
FOR FOUNDRY (CASTING) ALLOYS*
Designation Number
Aluminum - 99.00 percent minimum . 1XX.X
and greater aluminum alloys ' ••:•
grouped by major alloying
elements
Copper 2XX.X
Silicon, with added copper and/or 3XX.X
magnesium
Silicon . 4XX.X
Magnesium 5XX.X
Unused series 6XX.X
Zinc 7XX.X
Tin 8XX.X
Other major alloying elements 9XX.X
The 1XX.X series Indicates aluminum in the form of ingot or Castings having a
minimum aluminum percent of 99.00. The second two digits Indicate the minimum
aluminum content and are the same as the two digits to the right of the decimal
in the minimum aluminum percentage when it is expressed to the nearest 0.01
percent. Special control of one or more-individual elements is indicated by
a letter prefix to the basic four-digit designation. In the 2XX.X to 8XX.X
designations the first digit identifies the alloy group. The second two digits
are assigned when the alloy is registered"a modification of the original alloy
is indicated by a .letter prefix to the numerical-designation.
A zero in the fourth place, XXX.0, is used when referring to compositions of
castings; and a one or a two in the fourth place, XXX.1 or XXX.2, is used when
referring to compositions of ingot. The compositional limits of XXX.1 ingot >.
differ from those of castings by prescribed amounts in respect to iron,
magnesium, and, in the case of die castings, zinc. When the limits for ingot'
are closer than those prescribed for XXX.1 ingot the designation XXX.2 applies.
Source: "Handbook of Aluminum", 3rd Edition, Published by Alcan
Aluminum Corporation, Cleveland, Ohio, 1970, p 226.
-------
TABLE A-4. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION SPECIFICATION FOR SELECTED ALUMINUM CASTING ALLOYS
(Percent) •' •:
Aluminum
Association
Alloy Number
Former
Commercial
Designation
Copper
Silicon
Magnesium .
Zinc .,
Iron
Manganese
Nickel
.titanium
Chromium
Others
Each
Die Casting Alloys ' .
A413.0
A360.0
B380.0
A380.0
F332.0
319.0*
356.0*
208.0
308.0**
213.0
A13
A360
380
A380
F132
319
356
108
A108
113
0.6
0.6
3.0-4.0
3.0-4.0
2.0-4.0
3.0-4.0
0.2 max
3.5-4.5
3.5-4.5
6.0-7.0
11.0-13.0
9.0-10.0
8.5- 9.5
8.5- 9.5
8.5-10.5
5.5- 6.5
6.5- 7.5
2.5- 3.5
5.5- 6.5
2.0- 3.0
1.10 max
0.45-0.6
0.10 max
O.lO max
0.6-.1.5
0.1 max
0.25- 0.40
0.10 max
0.10 max
0.10 max
0 . 5 max
0.35 max
1 . 0 max
2.0-3.0
1.0 max
1 . 0 max
0.30 max
1.0. max
1.0 max
1.5-2.5
., 1.0 max
1.0 max
1.0 max
1.0 max
Permanent
0.9 max
1.0 max
0.5 max
Sand
'• 1.0 max
1.0 max
1.2 max
0.35 max
0.35 max
0.5 max
0.5 max
Mold Castings
0.50 max
0.50 max
0.35 max
Cflfi £i&£8
0.50 max
0.50 max
0.6 max
0.50 max
0.50 max
0.50 max
0.50 max
0.50 max
0.35 max
0.35 max
0.25 max
0.25 max
0.25 max
0.25 max
0.25 max
0.25 max
0.25 max
0.25 max
— 0
— 0
0
0
0
o
-- 0
0
0
0
.20 max
.15 max
.20 max
.20 max
.20 max
.20 max
.05 max
.20 max
.20 max
.20 max
* Might also be used to produce sand castings. •
** Might also be used to produce permanent mold castings.
Source: "The Alloy Data Book" published by Apex Smelting Company, Division of AMAX Alimlnum Company, Inc., pp 28-34
65"
-------
A-5
TABLE A-5. DESIGNATIONS AND CHEMICAL SPECIFICATIONS FOR
ALUMINUM ALLOYS FOR DEOXIDATION
IN IRON AND STEEL MAHUFACTURE
ASTM
Designations
980A
950A
920A
900A
850A
Total
of All
Commercial Impurities,
Designation Aluminum Copper Zinc Magnesium Maximum
Special 98 rain 0.2 max 0.2 max 0.5 max 2.0
Grade 1 95-97.5 1.5 max 1.5 max 1.0 max 5.0
Grade 2 92-95 4.0 max 1.5 max 1.0 max 8.0
Grade 3 90-92 4.5 max 3.0 max 2.0 max 10.0
Grade 4 85-90 5.0 max 5.5 max 2.5 max 15.0
APPENDIX B
CALCULATIONS OF ESTIMATED
AVAILABILITY OF OLD ALUMUSIIM SCRAP
Source: "The Alloy Databook", published by Apex Smelting Company, Division of
AMAX Aluminum Company, Inc., p 34.
86
-------
H
2
s
W
Bi
A
O
o
TABLE B-l. CALCULATION OF ESTIMATED AVAILABILITY OF OLD ALUMINUM SCRAP. 1969
!
i
i
1 Source
1
Building and
: Construction
Transportation
Consumer Dursbles
Electrical
1 /
Machinery and
1 Equipment
Containers and
Packaging
Other
Estimated
Life Cycle,
Years
30
10
10
50
20
10
Year
or Years
Interest
1939
1958-1960
1958-1960
1919
1948-1950
1969
1958-1960
Aluminum
Shipments in
Year of
Interest, Tons
(350,000)
0.100
Estimated
Shipments
to Source
Corrected for
New Scrap Return
0.816
0.816
0.816
0.816
0.816
0.816
0.816
Total
Aluminum Scrap
1969, Tons
71,000
329,000
197,000
7,000
61,000
486,000
183,000
1,334,000
(a) Estimated Based on Primary Ingot Production.
(b) Primary Ingot Production.
(c) Actual
Sources: U.S. Bureau of Minea, Minerals Yearbook. Volume I-II, Chapter on Aluminum for 1958, 1959, and
1960, and The Aluminum Association; Aluminum Statistical Review. 1969 and Battelle Estimates.
Life cycle data obtained from "Resources in America's Future - Patterns of Requirements and
Availabilities 1960-2000", by H. H. Landsberg, L. L. Flschman, and J. L. Fisher, Published for
Resources for the Future, Inc. by The John Hopkins Preea.
-------
lii
TABLE OF 'CONTENTS
Page
SUMMARY
The Recycling Industry vli
Problems Till
Recommendations Till
INTRODUCTION 1
Background 1
Objectives 2
Scope 3
Research Methods 3
Literature Search 3
Extensive Survey 3
In-depth Survey 4
Analysis and Synthesis 5
THE COPPER INDUSTRY 7
Characteristics of Copper and Copper Alloy Products 7
Grades of Refined Copper 7
Grades of Brass Mill Products 9
Grades of Brass/Bronze Foundry Products 9
Characteristics of the Copper Industry 10
Materials Sources 10
Materials Flow 11
Copper Producers 11
Production 13
Markets for Copper 13
Historical Markets 13
Prices 13
End Uses for Copper 18
Brass 18
Wire 19
Castings 19
Powder 20
Other Uses 20
Market Outlook 21
'THE COPPER RECYCLING INDUSTRY 22
Characteristics of Copper Materials 22
Recycled Smelter Copper 22
Copper Scrap 22
Copper-Base Scrap 25
Skimmings, Spills and Drosses 25
Characteristics of the Copper Recycling Industry 30
Materials Sources 30
Markets for Recycled Copper 32
Historical Markets 32
SO
-------
iv.
TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
-Page
Prices
End-Use Patterns. • • • :" • • • •
Recycling Industry Data • •
Materials Flow Diagram for Copper Recycling
Demand/Supply Analysis
Demand for Recycled Copper • •
Supply of Recycled Copper ..... •
Demand/Supply Balance in Future 45
Effect on Copper Industry 46a
36
36
36
39
39
39
45
PROBLEMS THAT DIRECTLY REDUCE THE RECYCLING OF COPPER
47
Industrial Scrap 47
Obsolete Scrap 47
Other Direct Problems -. . . . 49
PROBLEMS .THAT DO NOT DIRECTLY REDUCE RECYCLING OF COPPER.
COURSES OF ACTION CONCERNING RECYCLING OF COPPER
Selection of Opportunities
Recommended Actions. . . .
50
52
52
53
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE I.
TABLE II.
TABLE III.
TABLE IV.
TABLE 1.
TABLE 2.
TABLE 3.
TABLE 4.
TABLE 5.
TABLE 6.
TABLE 7.
IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF PROBLEMS CONCERNING COPPER
THAT WAS NOT RECYCLED IN 1969
IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF PROBLEMS WHICH DO NOT DIRECTLY
REDUCE THE AMOUNT OF COPPER THAT IS RECYCLED
RECOMMENDED ACTION, HIGH PRIORITY COPPER PROBLEMS
RECOMMENDED ACTIONS , LOWER PRIORITY PROBLEMS . .
SPECIFICATIONS FOR MOST COMMON REFINED COPPER MATERIALS. . . .
X
xl
xiii
xiv
8
GENERAL STATISTICS FOR ESTABLISHMENTS, BY INDUSTRY SPECIALIZATION
AND PRIMARY PRODUCT CLASS SPECIALIZATION: 1967
PRODUCTION OF COPPER IN THE UNITED STATES
CONSUMPTION OF COPPER PRODUCTS BY TYPE
MAIN TYPES OF UNALLOYED COPPER SCRAP
TYPES OF UNALLOYED COPPER SCRAP
TYPES OF COPPER BASE SCRAP .
14
15
16
23
24
.26-27
91
TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
LIST OF TABLES (Continued)
Page
TABLE 8.
TABLE 9.
TABLE 10.
TABLE 11.
TABLE 12.
TABLE 13.
TABLE 14.
TABLE 15.
TABLE 16.
TABLE 17.
TABLE 18.
TABLE 19.
TABLE 20.
TABLE 21.
TABLE 22.
MAIN TYPES OF COPPER-BASE ALLOY SCRAP 28
MAIN LOW GRADE SCRAP AND RESIDUES USED AS FEEDS FOR
RECYCLED SMELTERS 29
CONSUMPTION OF COPPER SCRAP BY TYPE AND SOURCE, 1969 31
SECONDARY COPPER CONSUMPTION 33
CONSUMPTION OF PURCHASED COPPER SCRAP BY USERS IN THE
UNITED STATES IN 1969 35
MARKETS FOR SECONDARY COPPER, 1969 33
ESTIMATED COPPER SCRAP RECYCLING, 7.969 41
DEMAND FOR COPPER 45
SUPPLY OF COPPER AVAILABLE FOR RECYCLING
45
DEMAND/SUPPLY BALANCE FOR RECYCLED COPPER FOR 1974 AND 1979. . . 46
48
IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF PROBLEMS CONCERNING COPPER
THAT WAS NOT RECYCLED IN 1969
IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF PROBLEMS WHICH DO NOT DIRECTLY
REDUCE THE AMOUNT OF COPPER THAT IS RECYCLED
EVALUATION OF PROBLEMS INVOLVED IN RECYCLING OF COPPER
RECOMMENDED ACTION, HIGH PRIORITY COPPER PROBLEMS. . .
RECOMMENDED ACTIONS, LOWER PRIORITY PROBLEMS
51
52
54
55
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE I. RECYCLED COPPER FLOW, 1969
FIGURE 1. MATERIALS FLOW FOR COPPER, 1969
FIGURE 2. ELECTROLYTIC COPPER PRICES (PRODUCER) IN U.S
FIGURE 3. HISTORICAL MARKETS FOR COPPER AND COPPER-BASE SCRAP
12
17
34
FIGURE 4. A COMPARISON BETWEEN PRODUCER AND NO. 2 DEALER COPPER PRICES . . 37
FIGURE 5. VOLUME OF COPPER HANDLED BY TYPE OF RECYCLE, BY REGION ..... 40
FIGURE 6. RECYCLED COPPER FLOW, 1969 ................... 44
-------
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
LIST OF APPENDIXES
Page
APPENDIX A
MAJOR PRODUCERS OF COPPER ; . . . . A-l
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE A-l. U.S. COPPER REFINERY CAPACITY A-l
TABLE A-2. PRINCIPAL COPPER FABRICATORS A-2
APPENDIX B
END USES FOR COPPER PRODUCTS B-l
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE B-l. CONSUMPTION OF BRASS MILL PRODUCTS, BY .TYPE OF ALLOY AND FORM. . B-2
TABLE B-2. FINAL USE FOR BRASS MILL PRODUCT SHIPMENTS B-3
TABLE B-3. CONSUMPTION OF WIRE MILL PRODUCTS IN END-USE MARKETS B-4
TABLE B-4. CONSUMPTION OF COPPER AND COPPER-BASE ALLOY CASTINGS B-5
TABLE B-5. CONSUMPTION OF POWDER PRODUCTS 3-6
93
vii
SUMMARY
The economic recycling of waste materials is a desirable approach to the
disposal of solid wastes. Recycling, therefore, is of interest to the Office of
Solid Waste Management whose responsibility it is to formulate and recommend solid
waste programs for the United States. This report on recycling of copper and
copper alloys provides information and analyses to be used as a basis for program
planning. The report was prepared by Battelle-Columbus with the guidance and
help of the National Association of Secondary Material Industries (NASMI). It
is based on a 12-month study of copper recycling.
The report reviews briefly the demand and supply for copper in the
United States--both primary and secondary. It analyzes the recycling of copper--
the operations of scrap processors and secondary smelters, ingot makers and other
consumers—sources of copper scrap, markets for recycled copper, and recycled rates
by types of scrap. Based on this analysis the report presents the problems faced
by the copper recycling industry. Finally, it evaluates these problems to determine
priorities, and recommends courses of actions to solve or reduce these problems--
with the emphasis on increasing recycling of copper in order to reduce solid
waste disposal problems.
The Recycling Industry
The task of the procurement, identification and sorting, smelting, re-
fining, and sale of copper and copper-base alloy scrap for use by refineries, brass
mills, and ingot makers are functions of the copper recycling industry. Scrap
processors, brokers, secondary smelters, and ingot makers have developed efficient
and economic means of recycling the many different types and forms of copper scrap.-
-------
vili
Recycled copper makes up a significant proportion of total copper con-
sumption as seen below:
Percent
Source of Copper . of Total Consumption
Recycled copper 42.1
Foreign ores 8.4
Domestic ores 45.1
Other 4.4
TOTAL . 100. 0
Problems
Estimates of percentage recycling for the major identifiable markets
for copper were made to outline those channels where there was some obstacle to
recycling. Figure I is a schematic diagram of recycled copper flow. It shows
estimates of total amounts available for recycling in 1969, total amounts recycled
and total amounts not recycled for the major identifiable scrap forms. About
61 percent of the total copper available for recycling is returned to some copper
use. The principal markets for recycled copper are wire and cable, brass mill
products, and cast brass and bronze products.
Table I shows identification and analysis of those problems concerning
copper that was .not . recycled in 1969. Table II shows identification and analysis
of those problems that do not directly, reduce the amount of copper recycled. Thes
are problems that might have economic effects on an individual company or on the
industry, or make operations more difficult.
Recommendations
In order to identify those problems having the highest priority for
attention, evaluations based on several criteria were made of each problem. The
highest priority ideas are those that are so important that the public, as well
-------
Capper Wire
and Tube 850 9
Magnet Wire ::::: 150.6 :::
Cartridge Brass ;;;:;204.9 ;:;;•.
Additives I
Other ::: 1088.9 ::
Brass
Other
96.9
2455.7 ;& 966.4
Totol
Not
1489.3
Note: All quantities in thousand
short tons of copper
Copper content recycled as percent
of total available copper = 61 percent
1489.3
Recycled
700.7
wire and
Coble
Brass Mill
Products
Brass/Bronze
Foundries
IZ7.4 Other
FIGURE I. RECYCLED COPPER FLOW, 1969
Source: Battelle estimates, U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook.
"Copper" chapter.
-------
TABLE I. IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF PROBLEMS CONCERNING COFFER THAT WAS NOT RECYCLED IN 1969
Tttl.
Scrap Categories Where Some Copper Was Not Recycled
Copper Wire and Tub*
M«gnet Wire
Cartridge Bras*
1. Copper wire Is used for 1
th* following:
a) Insulated*comnunlcation
wire and cable
b) power wire and cable ;
e) coated magnet wire for
transformer and motor
windings
d) other types of Insula-
ted wire and cable for
building, automobile,
alrframe, and shipboard
applications
•) Insulated/appliance wire
•' and flexible cord sets
f) wire for large ;
PROBLEM trans fonnar and
DEFINITION motor windings.
2. Of the above,, magnet wire
la not Included (It launder
magnet wire problem).
3. Copper tube Is used for
the following typical 4
end-products:
a) plumbing tube
b) air conditioning and
refrigeration
c) heavy Industrial
equipment..
4. At the end of their use-
ful lives, comunlcatlon
cable, power cable, bare
wire from large trans-
formers and generators,
and plumbing tube from
larger buildings are col-
lected, processed, and
recycled. •
Magnet wire Is used for
windings In motors and
generators.
Motors range In sice from
common fractional horse-
power motors for house-
hold appliances to comnon
generators and larger frac-
tional horsepower motors
for automobiles, small
pumps, and machines, to
less common large horse-
power motors.
In short, the moat comnon
motors' contain small amounts
of copper Individually but
large amounts In .aggregate.
The larger comnon motors
contain large amounts of
copper but these don't
consume much In aggregate.
In addition, copper windings
are generally surrounded by
Iron making simple recovery
difficult.
I. Cartridge brass Is used
for small arms and am-
munition artillery shells.
2. Small arms and artillery
rounds are fired mostly
either at domestic mili-
tary bases or In battle-
fields-.
3. Small-arms and artillery
shells can be 100 per-
cent recycled • from
military training bases.
4. However, small arms shells
are often scattered In small
quantities over many
square'miles of land, but
shells are easily recog- '
nixed and are valuable.
5. Artillery shells are often
scattered In larger
quantltles--over many
square miles of land--
but these are easily
recognised as being
valuable.
THOUSAND SHORT
TONS OF COFFER .jsi-a,
NOT RECYCLED
PERCENT OF
AVAILABLE
COPPER fipl 18
. RECYCLED
144.5 76.7
91 37
1. After a usable service 1.
life of up to 50 years,
copper cable Is about 100
percent recycled as scrap
by utilities and phone com-
panies after being replaced.
2. Plumbing tube, which Is
generally In place for the
entire life of the building,
can have a life up to 60
PROBLEM to 65 years. When build- 2.
•ANALYSIS Ing Is torn down,,.copper
Is''Segregated and recycled.
3. Nearly all of the above Is
economically recyclable ex-
cept those applications In 3.
which the copper Item Is a
small fraction In a widely
dispersed consumer product, 4.
e.g., (a) air conditioning
•tand refrigeration tube and
(b) appliance wire.
t •
4. Thus perhaps 5 to 10 per-
cent should not be
recycled.
5. Yet IB percent Is not
recycled.
6. This area appears to be a
promising one In which to
Increase recycling of
copper.
After an average useful 1.
service life of 6 years
for magnet wire In a
consumer appliance to 10
or more years for larger
fractional horsepower 2.
motor applications In-
tended for Industrial or
farm use, the motor is
scrapped.
If economically recyclable, 3.
material returned, on aver-
age should equal magnet
wire use about 8 to 10
years ago.
.However, recycling rate Is
Just 9 percent. A.
This area appears to be a
promising one in which to
Increase recycling of
copper. 5*
Cartridge brass scrap
sells for about 30 cents
per pound In the United
States.
Items, like glass bottles,
etc:, with lower value
are being recycled In the
United States.
Logic would Indicate that
moat cartridge brass, at
market conditions, should
be recycled.
Yet only 63 percent- of
cartridge brass Jj,
recycled.
This appears to be s prom-
ising area in which to
Increase the recycling of
copper.
-------
NOT RECYCLED IN 196) (Continued)
TlClo
(Scrap Categories Where Some Copper Was Not Recycled
Other BrassCopper Used As Addltiv.
PROBLEM
DEFINITION
1. •) This category Includes
•It brass mill products
except those considered
in other categories:
• cartridge brats
• copper (unalloyed)
wire, tube, and strip.
b) This category Includes
all brass/bronze foundry
products.
c) Two brass mill products
which have been Included
In this .category, strip
for automobile radiators
and railroad car ba.t.j,
are analysed separately
In Table 13 In the text.
Each product Is about
90 percent recycled.
2. Brass mill products Included
are used In a myrald of
different applications,
e.g., plumbing and heating,
hardware, fasteners and
closures, watches, screw
machine products, etc.
3. Brasa/bronse cast products
are used In pumps and
valves, ship propellers,
plumbing fittings, etc.
This category Includes all copper.
powders, many of which are used to
strengthen Iron-based P/M parts.
This category Includes all copper
used by the steel, chemical,
aluminum, and other Industries
as an alloying additive.
la the above applications copper
Is a minor part of a much larger
system. For example, copper
contents for low-alloy steels
range from 0.20 to 3.00 percent.
Steels and other copper-containing
alloys are uneconomical to segregate
and use over for copper content.
Consequently, the copper content
Is sufficiently diluted to be
determined as lost.
tinWsANirsiiuirr-
TONS op corm'
NOT HKCYCI.KD
rTUdKHY or
AVAIURI.E
COPPER JJOJ
RECYCLED
496.5
AS. 6
96.9
100.0
PROBLEM
•ANALYSIS
1. Due to the lack of statis-
tical Information, It Is
not known what types of
products are being recycled
except strip for automobile
radiators and railroad car
boxes. Since the litter
ere tabulated separately,
recycling retes for these
can be calculated. As
shown In Table 13 In the
text, automobile radiators
and railroad car boxes are
/each about 90 percent
' recycled.
The brass mill snd brass
foundry Industries sell
products to a number of
different market segments.
Some of these are:
a) alloy copper tube
b) brsss/bronie valves
c) coinage
d) brans/bronze plumbing
fittings
e) tube for heat exchangers.
Due to the lack of data
concerning the above and
other large markets for
brass mill or brass foundry
products. It Isn't known
to what extend these pro-
ducts are being recycled.
3. This appears to be a prom-
ising area In which to
Increase recycling.
1. Copper, as an alloying element
In either aluminum or steel is
usually present In quantities'
under 1 percent.
2. In many cases, copper containing
alloys are produced In relatively
small tonnages.
3. It Is practically Impossible to do
either of the fallowing:
a) separate copper from alloy
b) segregste low copper alloys
from similar alloys containing
no copper for the purposes
of reusing copper content.
Result: copper is usually
diluted.
4. This Is not a promising area in
which to Increase the recycling
of copper.
-------
xi.
TABLE II. IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF PROBLEMS WHICH DO NOT
DIRECTLY REDUCE THE AMOUNT OF COPPER THAT IS RECYCLED *• '
Title
Wire Insulation
• Removal
Declining Secondary
Copper Markets
1. Most cable and wire
has been Insulated
or covered with either
lead, polyethylene, PVC,
rubber, asbestos or
paper and cloth.
2. To be recyclable, the
Insulation must be
removed.
3.' However, due to strln-
gency of air pollution
PROBLEM regulations, .processors
DEFINITION must-use either Incin-
eration equipment with
suitable pollution abate-
• merit equipment., or mech-
anical methods such as
cable stripping or frag-
mentizing.
4. There Is a trend toward
fragmentizing most ord-
inary Insulated wires
arid separating copper
from Insulation with air
.blowers or other suit-
able techniques. However,
the process Is difficult
with armored,or greased
cables.
1. Brass/bronze foundries have
lost the new railroad car
journal bearing market''to
roller bearings, and the
repair railroad1 journal
segment is expected to
decline to zero within 1Q
to 15 years. Other brass/
bronze application markets,
e.g., plumbing fittings, are
also expected to see reduc-
tion in share of market due
to competition.from plastic
materials.
2. Increasing competition from
aluminum In such areas as
service drop cable, bus bars,
and power cable—where less
serious design constraints.
exist is expected. However,
in some magnet wire applica-
tions, e.g., consumer ap-
pliances—where design is :
more constraining—might be-
come a future problem..
3. Use of some brass mill pro-
ducts, especially those used
, in construction, e.g., plumb-
Ing tube, copper/brass trim,
etc., will decline, relative
to plastics, aluminum, etc.
No significant effect on re-
EFFECT ON cycling. Some economic
RECYCLING effect because of Increased
RATE Investment for equipment.
No significant effect on rate"^of
recycling. Some effect on
amount of recycling for parti-
cular applications on a long-
term basis.
PROBLEM
ANALYSIS
1. The stringency of air 1.
pollution laws Is forcing
processors Into higher
cost equipment.
2. This is creating need for
larger processing opera-
tions to justify higher 2.
cost equipment.
3. Development of cheaper
"and more versatile equip-
ment methods, would be of
great help.
It is unlikely chat contin-
ued decline of those mar-
kets where some other
product has been found
superior can be slowed or
averted.
New products and alloys.
should be developed to utilize
properties possessed by copper as
compared with its substitutes.
(1) Problems adversely affect economics or practice of recycling but the effect
in terms of . amount cannot be measured. This situation is considered an
indirect effect:.
Material recycled
(2) Rate of recycling
Total available to be recycled
-------
TABLE II. IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF PROBLEMS WHICH DO NOT
DIRECTLY REDUCE THE AMOUNT OF COPPER THAT IS RECYCLKD
(Continued)
Title
Air Pollution Control
Customer Prejudice
PROBLEM
DEFINITION
1. During melting of brass at
• foundry. Ingot maker, or
secondary.smelter, small
quantities of zinc and other
materials are oxidized and
expelled from the melt as
flue dust.
2. Nothing can be done to solve
partlculate pollution by.
melters except by purchasing
pollution abatement equip-
ment.
3. Efforts to combat this prob-
lem In many cases may en-
tail higher costs.
Two charges often made against the re-
cycling Industry are: (a) Recycling
materials Industry Is often the most
Important reason for fluctuations In
price of refined copper, (b) Users of •
refined copper wire bar not made entlrelj
from ore sources sometimes claim that
such material is Inferior to that made
entirely from ore sources.
EFFECT ON
RECYCLING
RATE
No significant effect on the
amount of copper recycled.
Some economic effect on
smaller foundries because
• of increased investment cost.
No significant effect on the amount of
copper recycled. Little or no economic
effect.
PROBLEM
ANALYSIS
1. This will probably result
in fewer, but larger found-
ries and ingot makers.
2. Development of cheaper and
better pollution control
equipment would be of great
help.
Consumers and large producers of copper
find a small secondary copper source
a convenient target when copper prices
are rising. Swings in refined or other
copper prices are not primarily due to the
recycling Industry, but due to a combin-
ation of causes. Some of these are:
sharp increases/decreases In demand by
copper users, 'sharp decreases/increases
in supply by all copper suppliers including
changes in governmental stockpile levels.
2. Consumers find a small secondary copper
source a convenient target when they have
processing difficulties. Refined copper
wire bar made to specification from some
scrap sources is equivalent to that made
completely from ore in price and maxi-
mum Impurity levels. Yet, many consumers
of copper will purchase refined copper
made only from ore sources.
3. Making secondary copper products equlva-
.lent to primary copper products In
reputation, in addition to specification,
would be of great help.
100
-------
xii
as- the copper/copper recycling industry, would have interest in their solution.
Consequently, these problems are important enough to be acted upon by EPA.: 'These
"r .
problems with their recommended actions are ;shown in Table III. Lower priority
ideas are those which are important for the recycling industry to solve, but ;
whichVare not important enough for full-scale participation by the public. Con-
sequently, these problems are not important enough to be acted upon by EPA. The
problems with their recommended actions are shown in Table IV.
-------
TABLE III. RECOMMENDED ACTION, HIGH PRIORITY COPPER PROBLEMS
Title
Copper Wire and Tube
Copper Magnet Wire
Brass Products
.1
ACTIONS
RECOMMENDED
1. R&D should be undertaken to 1. R&D should be undertaken
develop economical techniques
and technology for the mech-
anical separation of copper
wire and tube from aluminum,
steel, plastics, and In-
sulations of various kinds.
to-develop an economic
process for recovery of
copper magnet wire from
small motors.
1. An investigation should
be undertaken to Jeter-
mine why 496,500,short
tons of 'copper contained
in brass product; were
not recycled in '.969j
BY WHOM
d)(2)(3)
EPA/NASMI
EPA/NASMI
EPA/NASMI
1. NASMI form a committee of
three copper smelters and
three major scrap pro-
cessors.
2. Committee discuss problem
with several of each of
the following:
• electric utilities
• cable manufacturers
• manufacturers of:
consumer durables
and durable goods
that employ copper
wire and tube.
3. Survey the following
organizations to find out
where copper wire and
tube are going when
discarded:
• scrap processors
• building dismantlers
• secondary smelters
• municipal waste
handlers.
4. Analyze the results of
2 and 3 above to deter-
mine if recycle rate is
indeed low; If so,
analyse how to
increase it.
5. Take appropriate actions
on feasible ideas gener-
ated by analysis.
1. NASMI form a committee of
three copper smelters and
three major scrap pro-
cessors.
2. Committee discuss problem.
with several of each of
the following companies:
• manufacturers of
fractional horse--
power motors
• manufacturers of
magnet wire.
3. Survey the following
organizations to find out
where magnet wire products
. are going when discarded.
• scrap processors
• secondary smelters
• municipal waste
handlers
• other.
4. Analyze the results
of 2 and 3 above to
determine if recycle
rate is indeed low;
If so, analyze how to
•increase it.
5. Take appropriate
actions on feasible
ideas generated by
analysis.
1. NASMI form a conclttee of
two copper smelters,
two major scrap processors,
and two ingot makers.|
2. Committee analyze why there
Is a low recycle rate.for
brass products. ; j
3. Committee discuss problem
with U.S. Bureau of Mines,
Department of Copnerce,
and Copper De\elc?ment
Association to find pos-
sible reporting errors.
4. Committee discuss problem
with original equipment
manufacturers an: other
final users of brass
products to find out where
and haw much bra is'goes into
various major markets.
5. Survey the following or-
ganizations to find out
where brass products are
going when discarded:
• scrap processors
• .secondary smelters
• municipal was:e handlers
• other.
6. Analyze the results of 3,
4, and 5 above to determine
if recycle rate is indeed
low, and if It ii, how to
increase it.
7. Take appropriate actions
on feasible Ideai generated
by analysis.
Notes: * Except copper magnet wire.
4 ** Except the following:
(a) cartridge brass
(b) unalloyed copper wire and tube.
(1) The responsibility for recommended actions shown In this table are based on Importance of the
* action, benefit to the taxpayers, and opportunities for NASMI. They are the best judgments cf Battelle.
(2) Recommended actions were distributed between high priority and lower priority based on the
• evaluation with three criteria.
• (3) It is suggested that NASMI continue its leading role in recycling, recognizing that other organization.;
such as the Bureau of Mines, Department of Commerce, Council of Environmental Quality, HEW Office of
Information, and State, Local, and Federal Legislatures must be Involved.
-------
xlv
TABLE IV. RECOMMENDED ACTIONS, LOWER PRIORITY PROBLEMS
xlv-a
TABLE IV. RECOMMENDED ACTIONS, LOWER PRIORITY PROBLEMS (Continued)
Title
Cartridge Brass
Legislative Problems
Title
— - Wire Insulation Removal
Declining Markets
An investigation should be
made. Find out why 76,000 short
ACTIONS tons of copper contained in
RECOMMENDED cartridge brass were not re-
cycled in 1969. A good
portion of this may be ex-
plainable by errors of
reporting or by exports of
copper contained in cartridge
brass from Southeast Asia
to countries other than the
United States.
An investigation should
be initiated to determine •
what steps can be taken to
amend various legislation
.practices which aren't in
the best Interest of the
recycling industry and the :
public. These problems are:
• Sale of emergency
stockpiles
• Restrictions on the expor-
tation of certain types
of scrap. |
An investigation should
be undertaken to develop
ACTIONS more effective methods of
RECOMMENDED wire insulation removal.
BY WHOM
(D(2)(3)
NASMI
NASMI
BY WHOM -
1. Form a committee 1.
representing
• major scrap processors and
• major export/ '.mport
dealers
Form a committee
representing
. NASMI,
• major scrap processors,
• and smelters.
I
t
j
i
RECOMMENDED
STEPS
4.
Committee analyze why there 2.
is a low recycle rate for
obsolete cartridge brass.
Committee discuss this prob-
lem with U.S. Bureau of Mines,
Department of Commerce, Depart-
ment of Defense, and Copper
Development Association.
Committee discuss this prob-
lem with several of each of
the following:
• Brass mills
• Cartridge and artillery
shell producers
Inform pertinent
committees in Congress on
the effects of various
legislation on the
recycling of copper
materials.
RECOMMENDED
STEPS
(1) The responsibility for recommended actions shown in this table are based
on importance of the action, benefit to the taxpayers, and opportunities
for NASKI. They are the best judgments of Battelle.
(2) Recommended actions were distributed between high priority and lower
priority based on the evaluation with three criteria.
(3) It is suggested that NASMI continue its leading role in recycling,
recognizing that other organizations such as the Bureau of Mines,
'Department of Commerce, Council of Environmental Quality, HEW Office
of Information, and State, Local, and Federal Legislatures must be
involved.
103
Continue R&D efforts and
initiate additional programs
to find new uses for copper
and brass products.
NASMI
NASMI/COPPER DEVELOPMENT ASSOCIATION/
BRASS & BRONZE INGOT INSTITUTE,
PRIMARY PRODUCERS
1. Form a committee
of major scrap pro-
2. Committee analyze.pres-
ent methods and problems
of removing insulation.
3. Committee investigate
methods and processes
for removing armored
steel and,grease, etc.,
from cable.
4. If no acceptable methods
are found, determine if
it is feasible to carry on R&D
to find out economic methods
to remove the above.
All interested organizations
cooperate in R&D programs
to promote continued use of
copper and develop new
applications, supplementing
efforts of copper and copper
alloy producers.
10-1
-------
xlv-b
TABLE IV. RECOMMENDED ACTIONS, LOWER PRIORITY PROBLEMS (Continued)
Title
Air Pollution Control
Customer Prejudices
An investigation should
be undertaken to determine
ACTIONS the best present pollution
RECOMMENDED ' abatement methods, and to
find improved, cheaper methods.
A campaign should be
undertaken to inform copper
users of quality of
secondary copper.
BY WHOM
NASMI/INGOT MAKERS
AND SECONDARY SMELTERS
NASMI
1. Set up a com- ,
mittee of:
• ingot makers and
• secondary smelters.
RECOMMENDED 2. Committee analyze pres-
STEPS ent pollution abatement
practices of industries
with probleas similar
to it.
3. Committee should obtain
advice froa prominent
pollution control equipment
manufacturers concerning
suitable equipment and cost.
Continue general publicity
and educational program;
including sponsorship of
technical seminars.
Start advertising and
educational program to
publicize recycling of
copper.
INTRODUCTION
In June 1970 Battelle undertook a research program for the National
Association of Secondary Material Industries, Inc. (NASMI). This was under a
subcontract of the Office of Solid Waste Management grant to NASMI. This repo
on copper and copper alloys is one of a series of eight commodity reports plus
general report.
Background
The Office of Solid Waste Management is responsible for formulatin
and recommending Federal Government policies in the area of solid waste poll.
This includes pursuing appropriate research to determine the status and prob
of solid waste activities, and to develop programs to reduce solid waste poll
One approach to the reduction of solid waste pollution is to recla:
waste materials Cor reuse - the recycling concept. A well established indusi
the secondary materials industry-exists to accomplish this recycling. NASK
the trade association representing the nonCcrrous metals, paper, and tcxtilei
portion of this industry.
-------
The scrap processors, secondary smelters, ingot makers and other companie:
that make up the secondary materials industry have developed effective channels and
methods for recycling nearly all waste materials of economic value. These
companies have performed their difficult and essential functions well in the
traditional economic environment.
More recently additional dimensions have been added co this traditional
economic environment. These new dimensions are (!.) improvement of the environ-
ment in which we live, and (2) increased need for conservation of natural
resources. These new dimensions provide new challenges and opportunities for
the recycling industry. No longer is econon-.ic gain the scle driving force for the
recycling of waste materials; Social gain has been added in the forms of
improved living conditions and preservation of resources for future generations.
In an economics-based nation this creates problems of interpretation and
evaluation of noneconomics-based goals and activities.
The purpose of this series of reports is co identify obstacles to the
recycling of nor.ferrous solid viastes, and to recorcr.end direciions for investiga-
tion and research to overcome these obstacles. _
Objectives
The objective of the study on which this report is based was to
identify opportunities for the increased utilization of solid waste. The n-.ajor
sub-objectives were:
(I/ To determine the structure and functions of the secondary
materials industry, and its relationships to sources of
supply and markets
(2) lo identify and evaluate problems of recycling - materials,
sources, industry, and markets, and
(3) To determine opportunities for increased recycling.
ir.7
Scope
The major subjects included in the scope of the study are the secondary
materials industry, the materials it recycles, the sources of solid wastes, and
the markets for recycled materials. Activities peripheral to these major
subjects are. considered where pertinent to recycling.
The materials included in the study are:
Aluminum -* • Kickei and Nickel Alloys,'.
„ _- —±» o
Copper and Copper Alloys Precious Metals (Silver, Gold, r.nd
Platinum)
Lead
Zinc
Peper
Textiles
Research Methods
The nethods and procedures used in the study are discussed under four
types of activities. They include (A) literature search, (B) extensive survey,
(C) in-depth survey, and (D) analysis and synthesis.
Literature Search
The literature search included gathering and examining books, Government
reports, industry reports, and trade journals covering solid waste-handling and
problems, recovery and market data, and recycling of valuable materials.
The results of this effort included the accumulation of data and descrip-
tive material, snd an organized bibliography dealing with each of the consnodities
covered in the scope of the study.
Extensive Survey
The extensive survey of the secondary materials industry consisted of &
mail survey and personal interviews with management personnel of companies involved
-------
with the collection, processing, and sale of secondary materials. About 600
responses were received from the mail survey.
The information developed through the extensive survey Included dollar
sales, tons of major materials handled, types of solid waste processed, sources
of materials, investment, equipment and facilities, number of employees, the
amount of space used, and the grades and quantities of secondary materials
produced.
The data from the extensive survey provided statistical tabulations of
the regional distribution of the secondary materials industries by type of
commodity in terms of numbers of establishments, volume of business, and numbers
of employees.
In-depth Survey
The in-depth survey of selected members of the secondary materials
industries, their suppliers, and the users of their products served to identify
the major technical and economic problems facing those companies involved with
secondary material utilization. About 200 interviews were completed. Batcelle
and NASM1 commodity specialists jointly. selected the companies to be interviewed
in depth.
Interview guides for each of the commodities were prepared. The
problems and potcnti.il solutions for greatest recycling and waste utilization
that were developed from the literature search and prior Bureau of Mines vork
plus the knowledge of the NASMI commodity specialists provided the basis for design-
ing the interview guide. Sample guides are reproduced in the Appendix of the
General Report.
109
Analysis and Synthesis
The analysis and synthesis step was concerned with the collation and
analysis of data and information derived from the literature, extensive survey,
and in-depth survey. The analysis and synthesis activity covered the following
tasks:
(1) Economic Data on the Secondary Materials Industries. The
economic data developed through the extensive survey of the
secondary material industries was tabulated and analyzed to
determine the amount and type of solid waste handled, and to
accumulate operational data such as number of employees, amount
of space required, capitalization, and geographic locations.
(2) Flow Diagrams and Life Cycles. Flow diagrams were developed
to indicate the flow of materials from primary production and
scrap sources through fabrication. Life cycle estimates of
various products were used to develop data on the amount of
materials available for possible recycling.
(3) Demand-Supply Relationships. Estimates were made of future
demand and supply levels for secondary materials. The rela-
tionships between these data provide an indication of potential
surpluses or shortages of recycled materials through 1980.
(*) Stability of Flow and Consumption. This analysis is closely
related to the supply-demand analysis described above and
identifies the ability of the various secondary materials to
compete as source materials for manufacturers. A number of
factors were examined such as price changes in the secondary
materials, the availability of materials, and the effect of
sudden changes in the magnitude of demand.
-------
THE COPPER INDUSTRY
(5) Direct Impacts of Technological Change. Direct technical and
technological factors were examined to determine their effects on
the rates of processing and recycling. Potential changes that
could take place in technology that could decrease or increase
the rate of solid waste recovery were examined. This included .
the identification of potentially recoverable solid wastes,
the problems limiting the recovery to current-levels, and the
possibilities of technical advances through the use of known
technology or through added scientific and engineering research.
(6) Constraints on Expansion of the Secondary Materials Industries.
This analysis included consideration of the elements critical to
expansion of recycling - labor and management availability,
laws and regulations, equipment availability, nature of solid
waste materials, market needs, e*:c.
(7) Potentials for Expansion of the Secondary Materials Industries.
Based on the constraints identified in the above task, plus
examination of various methods for overcoming constraints,
this task determined the ability of the secondary materials
Industries to meet new opportunities for recycling.
(8) Indirect Technological Change. The broad overall technological
trends indirectly affecting the secondary materials industries
were examined, and their probable Impacts determined.
111.
For years copper has been used in essentially three basic intermediate
product forms: copper wire and cable, brass mill products (including copper
tube), and brass copper and copper alloy castings. The market segments that use
these materials depend upon one or more of the outstanding physical properties
of the metal, e.'g., outstanding thermal and electrical conductivity, outstanding
machinability, good corrosion resistance, and good ductility.-
Characteristics of Copper and Copper Alloy Products
Copper and copper alloy products are produced in a wide range of differ-
ent chemical compositions and shapes, cast and wrought.
Grades of Refined Copper
Refined copper metal is marketed in four basic types: (1) electrolytic cathode,
(2) tough-pitch, (3) oxygen-free, and (4) deoxidized copper. Electrolytic cathode
is the direct product of electrolytic refining and can be sold without further
processing. Tough-pitch copper is refined either electrolytically or fire-refined
and then cast into various shapes containing controlled amounts of oxygen in
order to obtain adequate surface qualities on the casting. Oxygen-free copper is
electrolytic copper that has been further processed under reducing conditions in
an induction furnace to elmininate small cuprous oxide concentrations. Deoxi-
dized coppers are those coppers that have been freed of oxygen by the addition of
residual metallic deoxidizers, usually phosphorus and boron. See Table 1 for
standard chemical composition limits for the most common refined copper materials.
Copper is supplied in six basic shapes: cathodes, cast wirebar, cast
cakes, billets, ingots, and ingot bars and rod. Of the six, wirebar shapes and
wire rod accounted for about 60 percent of the total consumption in 1969. The re-
maining consumption is almost equally divided among the other four shapes.
-------
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TABLE 1. SPECIFICATIONS FOR MOST COMMON REFINED COPPER MATERIALS
Electrolytic Copper Wire Bars. Cakes. Slabs. Billets. Ingot and Ingot Bars
ASTM Designation: B 5-43
Chemical Composition--99.90 percent Cu, silver counted as copper.
Resistivity-Shall have resistivity not to exceed the following:
Resistivity, max. international ohm
i Wire Bars 0.15328
[when specified for electrical use 0.15328
Other Shapes
|other uses 0.15694
, Fire-Refined Copper for Wrought Products and Alloys
ASTM Designation: B 216-49
These specifications cover fire-refined copper for fabricating Into wrought products not Intended for electrical
purposes, and for alloying in cast and wrought alloys.
the copper in all shapes shall conform to the following requirements as to chemical composition:
Copper plus silver, minimum percent. .99.88
Arsenic, maximum percent 0.012
Antimony, maximum percent 0.003
Selenium plus tellurium, maximum
percent 0.025
Nickel, maximum percent. . . . 0.05
Bismuth, maximum percent . . . 0.003
Lead, maximum percent 0.004
Source: American Society for Testing and Materials, 1916 Race Street, Philadelphia, Pa. 19103.
113
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10
11
Characteristics of the Copper Industry
Copper is a relatively high-valued material, and is marketed interna- •
tionally as a concentrate, an ore, "blister", copper and copper alloy scrap,
refined metal, and fabricated products. The United States is one of the few
countries using the bulk of its mine output and its secondary copper in the pro-
duction of fabricated goods in addition to importing.relatively large quantities
of ore and other copper-containing products. The U.S. copper.industry is comprised
of integrated primary producers, copper wire and brass fabricators, and the secon-
dary copper industry^ The major producers of refined copper and their capacities
are shown 'in Appendix A. •
Materials Sources
The United States depends on the following basic sources for copper
bearing materials:
1969 Consumption
(thousand tons, copper content)
Domestic ores
Recycled scrap
Foreign ores
Stock change (refined and other)
Unaccounted
1,469
1,375
274
60
93
As seen above, most of the copper either is produced from domestic ores
or recycled scrap. However, smaller, but significant, amounts of copper are
derived from foreign ores.
115
Materials Plow
A diagram showing the materials flow from source of copper to fabrica-
ted product is shown in Figure 1. As shown, the major sources '• r copper are "
U.S. orebodies and recycled secondary materials. All of the ore, foreign or
domestic, and some of the scrap is consumed and refined by one of the large, verti-
cally integrated copper companies. The bulk of the refined products goes into
copper wire or brass manufacture; some of it is exported and some of it is sold
for foundry and other domestic use. Most of the scrap not made into refined .
products is recycled to either brass mills, ingot makers, or foundries in the form
of scrap or secondary ingot; although some ot It goes Into steel or aluminum manufacture.
Copper Producers•
Overall, the large producers of copper are usually vertically integrated
from ore to fabricated product; American Metal Climax, American Smelting and
Refining, Anaconda, Kennecott, and Fhelps Dodge maintain the largest refining
capacities. Furthermore, most of this capacity is in the form of electrolytic
refining.
Many producers who convert refined shapes into fabricated shapes are
divisions or subsidiaries of the copper refineries, e.g., Chase Copper and Brass
(Kennecott Copper Corp.) and Anaconda American Brass (Anaconda Co.). However,
major independents exist in each of the major fabrication fields; these companies
purchase their copper from the major domestic or foreign producers of refined
copper and domestic recyclers of copper and copper alloy scrap.
Other major producers of copper products are the recycling industry.
In addition to segregation and recycling of scrap, the recycling industry produces
a diversity of different alloys to be used as raw materials in the brass and
foundry-industries. The latter industries are discussed in detail in a subsequent
section.
?J.6
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12
Foreign Ores
;: Recycled j:
^Copper' ::
••Content ••
!;i,375.ood;
Note.: All figures are short tons
of copper content
93,000
I:; Source;:: Supply Consumption
FIGURE I MATERIALS FLOW FOR COPPER. 1969
Source: U.S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook.
"Copper" chapter.
117
13
Table 2 gives the latest statistical information on primary and secon-
dary copper smelters.
Production
Production of copper has increased from 2,236 thousand short tons in
1950 to 3,011 thousand short tons in 1965 and to 3,182.6 thousand short tons in
1969 (see Table 3). About 70 percent of this was refined copper from ore or scrap
sources; the rest was processed or produced as segregated scrap or secondary ingot
About 55 percent of the copper produced originated as ore; about 45 percent
originated as scrap.
Markets for Copper
The main uses for primary and recycled copper are in brass mill products,
wire and cable, cast foundry products, powder, and "other" miscellaneous uses.
These uses for copper are described in this section and in further detail in
Appendix B.
Historical Markets
Consumption of copper by main uses for the years 1950, 1955, and 1960
to 1969 is shown in Table 4. Copper consumption has grown slowly during the past
20 years in the brass mill products and wire and cable products. However,
foundry products, among the large consumers of copper, have remained essentially
constant during the same time period although there have been wide fluctuations
year to year.
Prices
Producer prices for electrolytic copper in the United States for selec-
ted years are shown in Figure 2. However, due to shortages of refined copper in
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TABLE 2. GENERAL STATISTICS FOR ESTABLISHMENTS, BY INDUSTRY SPECIALIZATION AND
PRIMARY PRODUCT CLASS SPECIALIZATION: 1967
Indus-
try of
Product
Cl&ss
Coc'e
333]
33412
Industry
or Product Class
Primary' Copper
Entire industry
Secondary Copper (pig, ingot,
Estab-
lish-
ments
(number)
32
All Employees
Number Payroll
(1,000) ($ million)
11.6 80.6
Value
.Added by Cost of
Manufacture Materials
($ million) ($ million)
262.6 935.0
Capital
Value of Expendl-
Shipments tares, new
' ($ million) ($ million)
1,184.1 M.7
shot, etc.)
(Primary product class of
establishment)
42
3.8
30.3
52.7
410.9
464.3
3.5
Source:- U. S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 1967 Census of Manufacturers. "Smelting and Refining of Nonferrous
Metals and Alloys".
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TABLE 3. PRODUCTION OF COPPER IN THE UNITED STATES
(Copper content, thousand short tons)
Type/Source
1950
1955
1960
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
Ore sources
Scrap sources
Total Refined
1,239.9
206.5
1,342.4
236.4
1,518.9
291.7
1,446.4 1,578.8 1,810.6
1,711.8
445.0
2,156.8
1,711.0
490.3
1,133.0
406.6
1,437.4
416.6
1,742.8
491.0
2,202.3 1,539.6 1,854.0 2,233.8
Secondary copper
Total Copper Produced
601.1
805.5
948.8
2,236.4 2,365.2 2,411.7 3,011.9 3,112.8 2,345.1 2,707.5 3,182.6
Source: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, "Copper" chapter.
U.S. Department of Commerce, Business and Defense Services Administration, Copper Report.
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TABLE 4. CONSUMPTION OF COPPER PRODUCTS BY TYPE
(thousand short tons)
Brass Mills
~~ Refined
Scrap „,
Recycled Ingot v
Total
Wire Mills(2)
Refined
Foundries
Re fined
Scrap
Recycled Ingot
Total
Powder Plants
Refined
Scrap
Recycled Ingot
Total
(L)
Other Industries v '
Refined
Scrap
Recycled Ingot
Total
Copper Consumed
'• Refined <5)
Scrap
TOTAL
1950
675.1
317.4
2.9
995.4
713.4
34.2
148.5
277.5
460.2
6.9
5.3
0.1
12.3
46.4
42.2
2.3
90.9
1,482.2
790.0
2,272.2
1955
647.0
356.4
6.0
1,009.4
812.7
24.5
115.6
250.4
390.5
9.1
10.9
1.2
21.2
23.0
50.9
1.8
75.7
1,523.1
786.4
2,309.5
1960
486.5
265.8
4.8
757.1
828.8
22.7
86.8
203.8
313.3
6.2
9.7
1.4
17.3
28.9
36.3
0.7
65.9
1,381.3
601.1
1,982.4
1961
599.8
266.1
4.3
870.2
823.8
23.9
74.1
201.6
299.6
7.2
7.6
2.1
16.9
29.1
35.7
1.2
66.0
1,493.3
583.2
2,076.5
1962
636.1
323.4
5.5
965.0
922.9
26.7
78;5
206.9
312.1
7.4
8.9
2.6
18.9
24.4
38.6
2.7
65.7
1,627.0
657.6
2,284.6
Copper
1963
673.9
346.9
5.2
1,026.0
1,036.2
22.4
92.1 .
216.1
330.6
8.1
8.2
3.3
19.6
23.8
40.4
2.4
66.6
1,768.1
710.9
2,479.0
Content
1964
690,4
389.9
5.2
1,085.5
1,097.5
25.3
99.1
232.7
357.1
7.8
14.1
3.0
24.9
26.5
42.2
3.2
71.9
1,852.2
784.7
2,636.9
1965
739.9
441.1
5.1
1,186.1
1,223.4
28.1
95.2
251.3
374.6
9.4
15.1
2.8
27.3
21.2
47.4
3.6
72.2
2,028.5
855.1
2,883.6
1966
928.5
472.0
5.2
1,405.7
1,370.8
42.9
116.2
. 262.8
421.9
13.1
17.0
3.4
33.5
25.3
50.4
3.2
78.9
2,400.3
910.5
3,310.8
1967
650.4
412.6
3.4
1,066.4
1,240.2
35.4
97.2
233.9
366.5
6.5
16.0
4.9
27,4
19.9
43.7
2.8
66.4
1,961.4
805.5
2,766.9
1968
652.5
452.6
4.1
1,109.2
1,189.3
31.0
92.8
241.1
364.9
' 7.7
17.5
4.6
29.8
19.4
43.4
3.8
66.6
1,906.3
853.5
2,759.8
1969
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17
1956 1957 1958 1959 I960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970
Year
FIGURE 2. ELECTROLYTIC COPPER PRICES (PRODUCER) IN U.S.
Source: Metals Week (formerly E 8 MJ) average domestic
delivered price. Suspended September 1,1967.
Resumed April 8, 1968.
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18
the United States, some consumers have had, upon occasion, to purchase copper from
the London Metal Exchange (LME). Consumers, however, who have .had to purchase
copper from the LME have done so at more widely fluctuating prices than those
who purchase from domestic producers.
End Uses for Copper
Brass mills and wire mills each account for over 40 percent of the total
copper consumption; foundry products account for about 13 percent of the total,
and other uses, e.g., powder, chemicals, the remainder of copper consumption.
Brass. Brass mills are the largest consumer of copper raw materials,
including scrap. Generally, copper, copper containing scrap, and alloying
materials are melted and cast into billets, slabs, or cakes, then fabricated into
tube, rod and wire, and sheet in subsequent processing steps. Brass mills
perform the above operations on a number of different copper and copper-base
alloys, e.g., pure copper, .brass, phosphor bronze, nickel silver. Since brass
mills do little refining during melting phases, they should be considered more
like fabricators than as foundries.
Brass mills supply both copper and copper-base alloys in all wrought
forms. On the average, about 35 to 40 percent of total brass'mill production
consists of pure copper shapes, sheet, rod and mechanical wire, and tube. In late
years, especially, copper tube for plumbing and commercial tube applications has
been the major portion .of the copper fabricated by brass mills.
Generally, the largest end uses for brass mill products are for plumbing,
heating, and architectural products in the construction industry; for automobile
radiators; for copper bus bars and other current carrying devices in the electrical
goods industry; and for use in a number of different applications in machinery
19
and industrial and construction equipment. Due to the .Vietnam conflict, however,
a far higher percentage of brass mill products have been used, since 1965, in
small arms and other types of ammunition. Other significant, but smaller, end
uses for brass mill products are in fasteners and fasteners, c.-.. -ige and condenser
tube.
Wire. Like brass mills, wire mills consume large amounts of copper raw
materials. However, most of the copper consumed is in the form of.a refinery
shape; little purchased scrap, or other recycled .material is directly used by wire
mills in wiremaking. However, recycled material reappearing as refined copper is
used to some degree. Generally, wire is fabricated by hot rolling wirebars or by
hot extrusion of billets into rods, which are then cold-drawn through various
sizes into finished shapes. After the wire has been drawn to finished shape,
it may be either shipped bare or receive one of the following treatments:
enameling; tinning, stranding; and/or insulating with plastic, rubber, lead,
paper, or other materials.
Wire mill products can be classified into three main categories: bare
wire, insulated communication wire and cable, and other insulated wires and cable.
Bare wire is used mostly as windings in many varieties of electrical machinery
such as transformers, generators, communications equipment, and electronic compo-
nents. Insulated communications wire and cable, as the classification denotes,
includes all communications cable except that which is used as bare wire in
equipment. Other insulated wires include magnet wire used as windings for small
electrical equipment, power wire and cable, insulated cable used for appliance
wire, and cable used for building and transportation.
Castings. As shown in Table 4, foundries are a large consumer of
copper-base materials, including scrap. Foundries rely heavily on scrap and
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20
other recycled materials for their raw materials input. In 1969, for instance,
about 90 percent of each pound of copper used by the foundry industry originated
from recycled sources. Total copper contained in materials consumed by foundries
has risen from about 313 thousand short tons in 1960 to 375 thousand short tons
in 1965 and to 407 thousand short tons in 1969. Most of this was in the form of
brass and bronze ingot, one of the major products of the copper recycling industry.
Sand castings represent the largest type of casting produced from copper-
based alloy materials; other types produced in some quantity are permanent mold
and die castings. These products are used in a wide variety of different applica-
tions, but the following are the most significant:
Valves and fittings, excluding plumbing
Metal plumbing fittings
Plumbing valves
Industrial pumps
Railroad journal bearings
Other bearings
High voltage switching gear.
Powder. Consumption of copper raw materials in powder manufacture is
not nearly so large as the three largest uses for copper: brassmaking, wiremaking,
and foundry products. As seen from Table 4, secondary copper materials have been
employed widely for powder production. In 1969, for instance, secondary mater-
ials accounted for about 75 percent of each pound of copper used in powder.
Other Uses. As shown in Table 4, consumption of copper in other
products, e.g., chemical, steel, aluminum, etc., is minor.
21
Market Outlook
Due to recent shortages and price variances of copper raw materials,
some customers have given serious thought to substituting somf -"her material for
copper. This has occurred in certain types of power and communications wire and
cable, and in brass mill and foundry applications in plumbing. In addition, one
major manufacturer of fractional horsepower tools has switched over to alunisua
magnet wire instead of copper wire for motor windings. In short, the outlook for
copper is not certain.
Battelle-Columbus estimates that annual growth rates for copper will be
lower than the 4 to 4.5 percent per year commonly mentioned in the press litera-
ture, which is well above historical growth rates. Battelle-Columbus estimates
that growth of total copper consumption will average about 2 percent annually
through 1979.
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22
THE COPPER RECYCLING INDUSTRY
23
The copper recycling industry's major functions include the purchase of
scrap from industrial and public sources, upgrading it to a specification scrap
fora or ingot and marketing it to a potential user.v Ttain types of companies
include :
Scrap processor/dealer or broker
Secondary smelter
Ingot maker.
Characteristics of Copper Materials
Recycled Smelter Copper •
Blister and/or black copper, both nearly pure copper, are the main
products of a secondary smelter. Low-grade scrap and residues, i.e., sweepings,
foundry skimmings, armatures, etc., are feed material for conversion into blister
copper. This blister copper may then be refined electrolytically by one of the
large, integrated producers into a high grade copper.
Copper Scrap ^ .
Copper scrap includes nev or obsolete scrap that is unalloyed. Although
NASMI includes five different types of copper scrap in its classification circular,'-2)
the Bureau of Mines lists three distinctly different unalloyed copper scraps in
its statistical data. They and their nominal compositions are all shown in Table 5.
Also given are the main uses for each of the different types of unalloyed scrap.
Brass mills can use unalloyed scrap for use as copper input in making brass or in
making unalloyed, refined shapes for later fabrication into plumbing tube. Copper
refineries, however, use unalloyed copper scrap to produce refinery shapes.
TABLE 5. MAIN TYPES OF UNALLOYED COPPER SCRAP
Type
Nominal Copper
Content, percent
Where Used
No. 1 wire and heavy
copper
No. 2 wire and heavy
copper
Light copper
99.9
96
92
Direct use in refined
shapes or alloying
agent in brassmaking.
Electrolytically
refined, then fabrica-
ted into refined
shapes or alloying
agent in foundry
products.
Smelted, electroly-
tically refined, then
fabricated into
refined shapes.
Source: National Association of Secondary Material Industries,
Circular NF-66.
(1)For a discussion of the functions of the recycling industry, see Volume 1—
General Report.
12) For a complete discussion of these, see Table 6. "2.^7
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TABLE 6. TYPES OF UNALLOYED COPPER SCRAP
NO. 1 COPPER WIRE
Shall consist of clean, untinned, uncoated, unalloyed copper wire and cable,
not smaller than No. 16 B and S wire gauge, free of burnt wire which is brittle.
Hydraulically briquetted copper subject to agreement.
SO. 2 COPPER WIRE
Shall consist of miscellaneous, unalloyed copper wire having a nominal 96 percent
copper content (minimum 94 percent) as determined by electrolytic assay. Should
be free of the following: excessively leaded, tinned, soldered copper wire; brass
and bronze wire; excessive oil content, iron, and nonmetallics ; copper wire from
burning, containing insulation; hair wire; burnt wire which is brittle; and
should be reasonably free of ash. Hydraulically briquetted copper wire subject
to agreement.
NO. 1 HEAVY COPPER
Shall consist of clean unalloyed, uncoated copper clippings, punchings, bus bars,
commutator segments, and wire not less than 1/16 of an inch thick, free of burnt
wire which is brittle; but may include clean copper tubing. Hydraulically
briquetted copper subject to agreement.
NO. 2 COPPER
Shall consist of miscellaneous, unalloyed copper scrap having a nominal 96
percent copper content (minimum 91 percent) as determined by electrolytic assay.
Should be free of the following: excessively leaded, tinned, soldered copper
scrap; brasses and bronzes; excessive oil content, iron and nonmetallics;
copper tubing with other than copper connections or with sediment; copper wire
from burning containing insulation; hair wire; burnt wire which is brittle;
and should be reasonably free of ash. Hydraultcally briquetted copper subject
to agreement.
LIGHT COPPER
Shall consist of miscellaneous, unalloyed copper scrap having a nominal 92
percent copper content (minimum 88 percent) as determined by electrolytic assay
and shall consist of sheet copper, gutters, downspouts, kettles, boilers, and
similar scrap. Should be free of the following: burnt hair wire; copper clad;
plating racks; grindings; copper wire from burning, containing insulation;
radiators; fire extinguishers; refrigerator units; electrotype shells; screening;
excessively leaded, tinned, soldered scrap; brasses and bronzes; excessive oil,
iron and nonmetallics; and should be reasonably free of ash. Hydraulically
briquetted copper subject to agreement. Any items -excluded in this grade are
also excluded in the higher grades above.
Source: National Association of Secondary Material Industries, Circular NP-66.
25
Copper-Base Scrap
Copper-base scrap includes new or obsolete scrap ge:-.:cated by users of
brass mill products and obsolete copper-base castings.
As this scrap has not been changed in its original composition, most of
It can be reused by itself or blended with other materials to produce products
similar in composition to that of the scrap from which it originated. Due to the
number of copper-base alloys, cast or wrought, there are a number o£ different
scrap classifications. See Table 7 for a complete discussion of NASMI copper-base
classifications. The Bureau of Mines, however, lists nine main categories of
copper-base alloy scrap. These are shown in Table 8.
Skimmings. Spills, and Drosses
Skimmings, spills, and drosses are relatively low copper containing resi-
dues and scrap generated during melting or casting operations at brass mills or
foundries. Other materials included under this category are grindings, irony
brass, and other copper resulting from various machining operations. As the
copper content of this material is generally too low for consumption in normal
melting practices, this material is upgraded by smelting, either at a secondary or
primary smelter, to a blister copper prior to subsequent electrolytic refining.
Main scrap classifications for this category are shown in Table 9.
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26
TABLE 7. TYPES OF COPPER BASE SCRAP
COMPOSITION OR RED BRASS
Shall consist of red brass scrap, valves, machinery bearings, and other machinery
parts. Including miscellaneous castings made of copper, tin, zinc, and/or lead.
Should be free of semi-red brass castings (78 percent to 81 percent copper);
railroad car boxes and other similar high-lead alloys; cocks and faucets; gates;
pot pieces; Ingots and burned brass; aluminum and manganese bronzes; iron and
nonmetallics. No piece to measure more than 12" over any one part or weigh
over 100 pounds.
RED BRASS COMPOSITION TURNINGS
Shall consist of turnings from red brass composition material and should be sold
subject to sample or analysis.
GENUINE BABBITT-LINED BRASS BUSHINGS
Shall consist of red brass bushings and bearings from automobiles and other
machinery, shall contain not less than 12 percent high tin base babbitt, and
•hall be free of iron-backed bearings.
RICH GRADE-LOW LEAD BRONZE SOLIDS
It is recommended these materials be sold by analysis.
BRONZE PAPER MILL WIRE CLOTH
Shall consist of clean genuine Fourdrlnier wire cloth and screen having a
minimum copper content I of 87 percent, minimum tin content of 3 percent, and a
ma-ir-timm lead content of 1 percent free of stainless steel and Monel metal
stranding.
< HIGH LEAD BRONZE SOLIDS AND BORINGS
It Is recommended that these materials be sold on sample or analysis.
MACHINERY OR HARD BRASS SOLIDS
Shall have a copper content of not less than 75 percent, a tin content of'not
less than 6 percent, and a lead content of not less than 6 percent—nor more than
11 percent, and total impurities, exclusive of zinc, antimony, and nickel of not
more than 0.75 percent; the antimony content not to exceed 0.50 percent. Shall
be free of lined and unlined standard red car boxes.
UHLINED STANDARD RED CAR BOXES (CLEAN JOURNALS)
Shall consist of standard unlined and/or sweated railroad boxes and unlined and/or
sweated car journal bearings, free of yellow boxes and Iron-backed boxes.
LINED STANDARD RED CAR BOXES (LINED JOURNALS) .
Shall consist of standard babbitt-lined railroad boxes and/or babbitt-lined car
journal bearings, free of yellow boxes and iron-backed boxes.
COCKS AND FAUCETS
Shall consist of mixed clean red and yellow brass, including chrome or nickel-
plated, free of gas cocks, beer faucets, and aluminum and zinc base die cast
material, and to contain a minimum of 35 percent semi-red.
MIXED BRASS SCREENS
To consist of clean mixed; copper, brass and bronze screens, and to be free of
excessively dirty and painted material.
YELLOW BRASS SCRAP
Shall consist of brass castings, rolled brass, rod brass, tubing and miscellaneous
yellow brasses, including plated brass. Must be free of manganese-bronze, aluminum-
bronze, unsweated radiators or radiator parts, iron, excessively dirty and corroded
materials.
YELLOW BRASS CASTINGS
Shall consist of yellow brass castings In crucible shape, no piece to measure
more than 12 Inches over any one part; and shall be free of brass forgings, silicon
bronze, aluminum bronze and manganese bronze, and not to contain more than
IS percent nickel plated material.
OLD ROLLED BRASS
Shall consist of old pieces of yellow sheet brass and yellow light tubing brass,
free from solder, tinned and nickel plated material, Iron, paint and corrosion,
rod brass, and condenser tubes.
NEW BRASS CLIPPINGS
Shall consist of the cuttings of new unleaded yellow brass sheet, to be clean and
free from foreign substances and not to contain more than 10 percent of clean brass
punchIngs under 1/4". To be free of Muntz metal and naval brass. •
-------
Shall consist of clean fired 70/30 brass shell cases free of primers and any other
foreign material.
BRASS SHELL CASES WITH PRIMERS
Shall consist of clean fired 70/30 brass shell cases containing the brass primers
and which contain no other foreign material.
BRASS SMALL ARMS AND RIFtE SHELLS. CLEAN FIRED
Shall consist of clean fired 70/30 brass shells free of bullets, iron and any other
foreign material.
BRASS SMALL ARMS AND RIFLE SHELLS. CLEAN MUFFLED (POPPED)
Shall consist of clean muffled (popped) 70/30 brass shells free of bullets, iron
and any other foreign material.
YELLOW BRASS PRIMER
Shall consist of clean yellow brass primers, burnt or unburnt. Free of iron,
excessive dirt, corrosion and any other foreign material.
BRASS PIPE
Shall consist of brass pipe free of plated and soldered materials or pipes with cast
brass connections. To be sound, clean pipes free of sediment and condenser tubes.
YELLOW BRASS ROD TURNINGS
Shall consist of strictly rod turnings, free of aluminum; manganese, composition,
Tobin and Muntz metal turnings; not to contain over 3 percent free iron, oil or other
moisture; to be free of grindings and babbitts; to contain not more than 0.30 percent
of tin and not more than 0.15 percent of alloyed iron.
NEW YELLOW BRASS ROD ENDS
Shall consist of new, clean rod ends from free turning brass rods or forging rods,
not to contain more than 0.30 percent tin and not more than 0.15 percent alloyed
iron. To be free of Muntz metal and naval brass or any other alloys. To be In pieces
not larger than 12" and free of foreign matter.
YELLOW BRASS TURNINGS
Shall consist of yellow brass turnings, free of aluminum, manganese and composition
turnings; not to contain over 3 percent of free iron, oil or other moisture; to be
free of grindings and babbitts. To avoid dispute, to be sold subject to sample or
analysis.
MIXED UNSWEATED AUTO RADIATORS
Shall consist of mixed automobile radiators, to be free of aluminum radiators,.
and iron finned radiators. All radiators to be subject to deduction of actual iron.
The tonnage specification should cover the gross weight of the radiators, unless
otherwise specified.
ADMIRALTY BRASS CONDENSER TUBES
Shall consist of clean sound Admiralty condenser tubing which may be plated or un-
plated, free of nickel alloy, aluminum alloy, and corroded material.
ALUMINUM BRASS CONDENSER TUBES
Shall consist of clean sound condenser tubing which may be plated or unplated, free of
nickel alloy, and corroded material.
MUNTZ METAL TUBES
Shall consist of clean sound Muntz metal tubing which may be plated or unplated,
free of nickel alloy, aluminum alloy, and corroded material.
PLATED ROLLED BRASS
Shall consist of plated brass sheet, pipe, tubing, and reflectors, free of soldered
tinned, corroded, and aluminum painted material, Muntz metal and Admiralty tubing,
and material with cast brass connections.
MANGANESE BRONZE SOLIDS
Shall have a copper content of not less than 55 percent, a lead content of not more
than 1 percent, and shall be free of Aluminum bronze and Silicon bronze.
MACHINERY OR HARD BRASS BORINGS
Shall have a copper content of not less than 75 percent, a tin content of not less
than 6 percent, anJ c lead ccntir.t of not less than £ percent--r.or norc than
11 percent, and total impurities, exclusive of zinc, antimony, and nickel of not
more than 0.75 percent; the antimony content not to exceed 0.50 percent. Shall be
tree of lined and unlined standard red car boxes.
~~
Source: National Association of Secondary Material Industries. Circular NF-66.
-------
28
TABLE 8. MAIN TYPES OF COFFER-BASE ALLOT SCRAP
Approximate Copper Content
Composition or Red Brass
Railroad Car Boxes
Yellow Brass
Cartridge Cases and Brass
Auto Radiators (unsweated)
Bronze
Nickel Silver
Low Brass
Aluminum Bronze
80 to 85
72 to 75
65
70
70
55 to 60
65
80 .
78 to 90
133
TABLE 9.
MAIN LOW GRADE SCRAP AND RESIDUES USED
AS FEEDS FOR RECYCLED SMELTERS
REFINERY BRASS
Shall contain a minimum of 61.3 percent copper and
maximum 5 percent iron and to consist of brass and
bronze solids and turnings, and alloyed and contam-
inated copper scrap. Shall be free of insulated
wire, grindings, electrotype shells and nonmetallics.
Hydraulically briquetted material subject to agree-
ment.
COPPER-BEARING SCRAP
Shall consist of miscellaneous copper-containing
skimmings, grindings, ashes, irony brass and copper,
residues and slags. Free of insulated wires; copper
chlorides; unprepared tangled material; large motors;
pyrophoric material; asbestos brake linings; furnace
bottoms, high lead materials; graphite crucibles; and
noxious and explosive materials. Fine powdered ma-
terial by agreement. Hydraulically briquetted
'material subject to agreement.
Source: National Association of Secondary Material
Industries, Circular NF-66.
Lu-J
-------
30
Characteristics of the Copper Recycling Industry
Scrap dealers collect, sort, and otherwise process the various grades
of copper and copper-base'scrap for potential use by smelters, ingot makers, or
brass mills. Most of the major dealers handle both copper and copper-base alloy
scrap but in addition also handle other materials, especially aluminum.
When processing copper scrap, usually insulated copper wire, dealers
use either incineration or mechanical methods to separate copper from insulation.
Due to air pollution laws, the latter technique, which chops or fragments the
cable prior to gravity separation of insulation from copper, is increasingly used
by the industry.
While brass mills commonly repurchase scrap from their large customers,
thereby bypassing the secondary industry, dealers do perform an important
function by processing the remaining portion. Segregation methods are mechanical,
i.e., recognition of metals by filing, drilling, etc.
Consumers of copper and copper alloy scrap and residues are ingot makers
(remelters), secondary smelters and refiners, brass mills, and foundries who convert
scrap into useful products. Ingot makers purchase and melt down a wide variety of
different types of scrap and make a specification ingot that is used by foundries as
one of their prime raw materials. Secondary smelters take low copper containing resi-
dues and scraps and upgrade these to blister copper or prior to subsequent electro-
lytic refining.
Materials Sources
The main sources for copper or copper-base scrap are manufacturers of
fabricated goods--as prompt industrial scrap--and end-users of various fabricated
goods and products as obsolete scrap. Table 10 gives copper scrap consumption by
type of scrap and source. As shown, the following four types of scrap represent
about 75 percent of total consumption: No. 1 wire and heavy copper, No. 2 wire,
mixed heavy and light copper, yellow brass, and low grade scrap and residues.
Furthermore, obsolete scrap represents a significant proportion (about 43 percent)
••3 *^r -
of total copper scrap consumption. j-iJO
31
TABLE 10. CONSUMPTION OF COPPER AND COPPER BASED SCRAP
BY TYPE AND SOURCE, 1969
(short tons of scrap)
Type of Scrap
No. 1 wire and heavy copper
No. 2 wire, mixed heavy and
light copper
Composition or red brass
gailroad-car boxes
Yellow brass
Cartridge brass
Auto radiators (unsweated)
Bronze
Nickel silver
Low brass
Aluminum brass
Low grade scrap and residues
Mixed alloy scrap
Total
Source: U.S. Department of
Prompt
Industrial
192,158
195,534
24,400
-
335,816
110,444
-
12,254
16,324
53,323
783
124,123
3,143
1,068,302
Interior, Bureau
Obsolete
146,137
157,910
74,950
26,736
65,829
21,655
69,250
28,821
5,436
1,243
387
224,649
-
823,003
Total
338,295
353,444
99,350
26,736
401,645
132,099
69,250
41,075
21,760
•; 54,566
1,170
348,772
3,143
1,891,305
of Mines , Minerals Yearbook.
"Copper" chapter.
-------
32
33
Markets for Recycled Copper
Since most applications for copper can be satisfied equally well from
either ore or recycled sources, scrap and other forms of secondary copper compete
with ore as copper inputs to brass and other copper products. The question of
which material is specified in a given product is generally one of price, the
price for a given copper unit regardless of origin.
•Historical Markets--
Secondary copper in its broadest sense, i.e., all products made from
scrap or similar origin, has historically represented a significant proportion
of total copper used. Table 11 shows the extent of the role of secondary in total
•copper consumption. Secondary has consistently supplied between 41 and 46 percent
of total copper consumption in the last two decades. In recent years, secondary
copper has amounted to about 46 percent of total copper consumption.
Figure 3 describes the historical markets for copper and copper-base
scrap. As shown, brass mills, ingot makers, and secondary copper producers, i.e.,
primary mills and secondary smelters, consume the bulk of the total scrap
purchased each year. Foundries, chemical plants, and other manufacturers
consume lesser amounts of scrap. Furthermore, Figure 3 shows that brass mill
and refinery consumption of scrap has increased greatly over the past decade
relative to other consumers.
Consumption of major types of copper bearing scrap by major consumers
is shown in Table 12. Brass mills, foundries, and ingot makers consume mostly
brass and other copper-base alloy scrap, products that they can melt with little
difficulty. Primary producers, on the other hand, purchase unalloyed copper
scrap to produce new refined shapes under controlled conditions, and along with
secondary smelters, they purchase low-grade scrap and residues to upgrade into
refined products.
137
TABLE 11. SECONDARY COFFER CONSUMPTION
(thousand short tons of copper content)
Year -
1950
1955
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
Source :
As Refined
Metal
206.5
236.4
291.7
281.7
289.7
302.1
351.1
445.0
491.3
406.6
416.6
491.0
U.S. Department of
Minerals Yearbook.
As Scrap
or Ingot
790.0
786.4
601.1
583.2
657.6
710.9
784.7
855.1
910.5
805.5
853.5
948.8
Interior, Bureau
"Copper" chapter
Total
996.5
1,022.8
892.8
864.9
947.3
1,013.0
1,135.8
1,300.1
1,401.8
1,212.1
1,270.1
1,439.8
of Mines ,
Percent of
Total Copper
Consumption
44
44
45
42
41
41
43
45
42
44
46
46
-------
if1
B I
600
§
~ 500
400
300
o 200
.O
Secondary Smelters
Brass Mills
Ingot Makers
Foundries
Other Industries
Primary Refineries
, o>
Q.
Q.
O
O
100
OQ M
n a.
3
»
g.
I
3
H
M
O
z
H-
3
T950
p
b
.1"?
ro CD
1952
1954
1956
1958 I960
Year
1962
1964
1966
1968
ft Mi O
to ro
t-> p
FIGURE 3. HISTORICAL MARKETS FOR COPPER AND COPPER-BASE SCRAP
?•
§.
Source: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook.
"Copper" chapter.
8
b
•o
So •
" M> O
-------
36
37
Prices
As world and domestic supplies of copper have been short in recent
years, prices have risen and fluctuated greatly since 1960, a year of relative
balance between supply and demand. Figure 4 shows prices' for U.S. producers'
copper and dealers' No. 2 copper scrap (buying prices). Note that during the
copper shortage both prices moved upward, but the scrap price was actually higher
than that for electrolytic copper.
End-Use Patterns
The major end-user markets for secondary copper, either as scrap or as
refined copper, are shown in Table 13. Since copper refined from secondary
smelting operations is generally made to ASTM specifications, the end-uses for
refined secondary are essentially the same as for the total refined copper output.
Consequently, wire mills are the largest consumers of secondary refined copper;
brass mills are next. Also, since wire mills generally don't consume scrap.
except that generated internally, i.e., home scrap, brass mills and foundries
consume most of the outside, purchased scrap. In total, then, brass mills are
the largest consumer of secondary materials with about 49 percent of the total;
foundries and wire mills trail with 26 and 20 percent of the total respectively.
Recycling Industry Data
A survey of the recycling industry developedrdata to provide a profile
of.the industry and the companies comprising the industry. The General Report,
Volume I, gives many of these data. Information concerning the copper and copper
alloy portion of the industry are given on page 39.
60
50
40
T3
C
I
2 30
en
0>
O
20
10
Producer copper,
electrolytic copper,
domestic refineries,
Atlontic Seoboord
Dealer's buying prices
for No. 2 scrap copper
1961 1963
1965 1967
Year :
1969 1971
FIGURE 4. A COMPARISON BETWJEEN PRODUCER AND NQ. 2
DEALER COPPER PRICES
111
-------
38
39
The average recycler of copper compares with the average recycler of
all conmodities as follows:
TABLE 13
End User
Wire and Cable
Brass Mill Products
Castings
Powders
Chemical Products
Other Industries
. MARKETS FOR SECONDARY COPPER, 1969
Type of Secondary Product,
(short tons)
.j. Scrap or Percent of Total
8 y PP
292.0 -- 292.0 20
179.8 520.9 700.7 49
11.5 357.7 369.2 26
1.7 21.0 22.7 1
1.0 3.0(1) 4.0 Nil
6.0 46.2 52.2 4
(1) Battelle estimates.
(2) Steel, aluminum, and other industries.
Source: U.S. Department
"Copper" chapte
1970 Report.
of Interior, U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook,
r; Copper Development Association, Anr.-j^l Data
Average Average Average
Investment in Number of Investment
Plant and Equipment Employees Per Employee
Copper $1,863,000 98 $19,000
All Commodities $1,480,000 71 $20,800
Figure 5 shows the variation in size by census region of copper and
copper alloy processors and copper smelters. There is some correlation with popu-
lation density, degree of industrialization, or other common regional indicators.
Materials Flow Diagram for
Table 14 shows estimated percentages
the major identifiable articles. Recycling of
i
tube, automobile radiators, railroad car boxes
(prompt industrial only) are all relatively h.'
brass are relatively low. Sources and methods
Copper Recycling
of copper recycled for several of
obsolete electric wire and plumbing
, and low-grade scrap and residues
gh; however, cartridge and other
for estimation, Table 14, are shown
on page 41.
Figure 6 is a schematic diagram of the recycling estimates made in
Table 14.
Demand/Supply Analysis
An analysis of the expected demand for copper inputs and their sources
is necessary to identify opportunities for increased markets for recycled copper.
Demand for Recycled Copper
The demand for copper inputs in 1969 and the estimates for future years,
1974 and 1979, are shown in Table 15. As shown, the demand for copper is expected
to increase at about 2 percent per year in the 1969-1979 period.
* Extensive survey data. J» '?'f
-------
40
17188
1
•
'
r
; ^
\
i
1985
- JS
\
\
^=n
t
»
<
t
«
<
«
»
i
t
«
i
• — -
y
/
f(
|S
~I4;738~
2343
1
Processors
I Smelters
Note: Volume in net tons
I. New England
2. Middle Atlantic
3. South Atlantic
4. East North Central
S. East South Central
6. West North Central
7. West South Central
8. Mountain
9. Pacific (includes Alaska
and Hawaii)
FIGURE 5. VOLUME OF COPPER HANDLED BY TYPE OF RECYCLE,
BY REGION
TABLE 14. ESTIMATED COPPEB SCRAP RECTCLIHC, 1969
• - Kind end Type of
Scrap'1'
Electric Wire and Cooper Tube
Proopt Industrial
Obsolete
__TOIM.i
Magnet Wire t±\
Prompt Industrial
Obsolete'5'
TOTAL
Cartridge Brass
Prompt, lodustrial
Obsolete'6'
TOTAL
Automotive Radiators
, - Prompt Industrial^7'
Obsolete
TOTAL
Railroad Car Boxes
prompt Industrial^*)
Obsolete
TOTAL
Other Brass. Cast and Wrought
Prompt Industrial
Obsolete
TOTAL
Low Grade Scrap and Residues
Prompt Industrial
Obsolete(')
TOTAL
Other Scrap (1°)
Prompt Industrial
Obsolete
TOTAL
Copper AlloyinR AddttivesO3)
TOTAL OBSOLETE
QttND TOTAL
Copper Concept
Available for
RacycllngV2'
(thousand tons)
379.7
471.2
850.9
isn.o
158.0
92.8
MB
-si
"•*
22.6
310.0
703.3
1,013.3
37.2
37.2
12.8
6.1
18.9
96.9
1,623.2
2.455.7
Copper" Content
Recycled'3)
' (thousand tons)
379.7
319.411 '
6l97l
"•»
13.5
92.8
it!
48.5
TTs
20.0
"20LO
310.0
213. 9(">
5B75
37.2
37.2
12.8
6.1
TO
--
656.8
1,489.3
Percent
Recycled
100
68
"82
9
9
.100
31
~63
91
91
88
-88
~100
30
52
-100
-Too
~100
Too
00
40
61
Copper Conten
Hot Ftecycle-
(thousand to.
151.8
T5TT5
m
"•?
76.7
4.5
4.5
2.6
2.6
489.4
489.4
"
"
96.9 '
966.4
966.4
!ote» : See following page*
155
•9 -\i
-------
42
43
Notes for Table 14.
(1) All scraps are separated Into prompt Industrial and obsolete scraps except
automobile radiators and railroad car boxes, both obsolete scrap types.
Obsolete low-grade scrap and residues, e.g., motor armatures and other contam-
inated copper scraps, were reclassified under other scraps so as to obtain
as realistic a figure as possible for the amount of copper recycled. ,
(2) Calculated from estimated life cycles of various end-use products. Consumption
for each end-use item was estimated using the following life cycles and
consumption patterns:
(3)
Source
Electric Wire and Copper Tube
Magnet Wire
Cartridge Brass
Automobile Radiators
Railroad Car Boxes
Brass, N.E.C.
Low-Grade Scrap and Residues
Copper Alloying Additives
Life Cycle,
(years)
45.0
10.0
0.5
12.0
3.5
30.0
0.5
14.0
Years of Copper Consumption
Used to Calculate Copper
Availability
1923-1931 average
1957-1958 average
1968-1969 average
1957-1958 average
Battelle estimate of 1966
1939-1942 average of brass
mill shipments
(50 percent scrap) plus
1941 - cast brass
products
1968
1955
Sources for Prompt Industrial Scrap estimates:
U.S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook.
"Copper" chapter; Department of the Army; Battelle estimates.
Notes for Table 13 (Continued)-
(6) Source: Department of the Army.
(7) Prompt industrial scrap for radiators included under Oth«r Brass, Cast
or Wrought.
(8) Little prompt industrial scrap, other than drosses or residues, generated in
manufacture of railroad car boxes; drosses and residues included separately
under own type.
(9) Obsolete low-grade scrap proportioned using figures under (3) above.
(10) For simplicity, recycling assumed under this category to be 100 percent.
(11) Includes copper-base scrap exports.
(12) Includes unalloyed copper scrap exports.
(13) Includes copper used as copper or other additive to steel, aluminum, etc.
b.
Obsolete scrap was estimated in the following way:
1. Obsolete scrap, for .each end-use item, returning in the same
form of scrap as the product was sold originally, was added
a proportion of the obsolete low-grade scrap and residues
using the following make-up of low-grade scrap and residues.
Type of Scrap
Proportions of Total
Ashes (incinerator)
Sweepings (warehouse)
Breakage (irony brass)
Armatures (generators, etc.)
Armored (fine Insulated wire)
Large Contaminated Brass
Refinery Brass
12.5
12.5
25.0
20.0
10.0
5.0
15.0
100.0
(4) Prompt industrial scrap generated during manufacture included under Electric
Hire and Cable.
(5) Obsolete scrap returned to smelters as armatures in (3) above.
1,17
'1 --S
-------
H-
•O rt
n re
y a
•o e-
c
w~
D
n
13
j-Vjj— "
' (p
I ' O
: -< TI
: Q. 0
• 5'
: ^
: -s O
.*..- I
^
< ro
o H i.
= 2 01
o o in
— — '•>]
&
' Vt 1
: o
: 0>
:
3x$^w£:*:*S l
ID
30
8
(D
a.
£
O>
45
TABLE 15. .DEMAND FOR COPPER
, Thousand Short Tons
of Copper Content
Year
1969
1974
1979
. Recycled
1,439.8
1,621.7 ,;.
1,828^6 '.'••
Primary
i;685.3
1,828.7
• 1,980.9
Total
3,125.1
3,450.4
3,809.5
Recycled,
Percent of
Total Consumption
46
47
48
Source: Battelle estimates. . /:"
Supply of Recycled Copper ' .
Future availability of recycled copper, based on present recovery rates
is shown in table 16 (calculated by same method used to calculate 1969 availability);
(see Table 14).
TABLE 16. SUPPLY OF RECYCLED COPPER
(thousand short tons, copper content)
Year
1969
1974
1979
Recycled Copper
Content
1,439.8
1,798.0
1,781.9
Source: Battelle estimates.
Demand/Supply Balance in Future
In order to provide a view of what the future will be for the copper
recycling industry, a demand/supply balance has been constructed using data from
Tables 15 and 16 shown above. See Table 17.
-------
46
TABLE 17. DEMAND/SUPPLY BALANCE FOR RECYCLED COPPER
FOR 1974 AND 1979
(Thousand short tons, copper content)
Year
1974
1979
Demand
1,621.7
1,828.6
Supply
1,798.0
1,781.9
Apparent Balance
176.3 (surplus)
46.7 (deficit)
Source: Battelle estimates.
Since Table 17 assumes that the same incentives, i.e., price, cost, etc.,
are the same in 1974 and in 1979 as exist today, an apparent balance can be calcu-
lated based on (1) current recovery practices, (2) scrap availability forecasts,
and (3) market forecasts. A moderate surplus and a moderate deficit of recycled
copper is indicated for 1974 and 1979 respectively.
The major reason for the apparent future surplus and deficit for recy-
cled copper are: (1) surplus of good obsolete scrap from products made during the
period 1925 to 1930, (2) shortage of good obsolete scrap from products made during
the period 1931 to 1939, and (3) slow growth of many copper markets (copper wire
and cable, brass mill products, and foundry products). However, these balances do
not show what will happen. In 1974, for instance, it is expected that recycled
copper demand will increase relative to the supply at the expense of lower demand for
primary copper. However, the indicated surplus -for 1974 may cause downward price
pressures and may discourage copper recycling.
151
46a
Effect on Copper Industry
If different incentives, i.e., price, cost, etc., are different in
1974 as exist today, apparent balances calculated in Table 17 no longer apply.
It is expected that an additional 329,000 tons of copper in copper and brass
products can be recycled annually under ideal conditions •. This additional
amount represents about a 18 percent increase in the recycled copper supply in
1974. However, it represents only about 9 percent of total copper supply in
1974, or only about a 1.75 percent per year growth in total copper supply from
1969 to 1974. Since total supply fluctuates often by as much as 10 to 15 percent
per year, the copper industry should have little trouble in absorbing this new
supply.
(1) The 329,000 tons of copper was calculated.based on the following changes in
percent recycled.
Additional
Recycled
1969, Goal, Copper Content
percent percent (thousand tons)
Copper Wire and Tube
Magnet Wire
Cartridge Brass
Other Brass
82
9
63
52
91
20
90
70
TOTAL
77
17
55
180
329
-------
47
PROBLEMS THAT DIRECTLY REDUCE THE RECYCLING OF COPPER.-
There are several problems that directly reduce the rate of recycling of
copper. These will be discussed in detail in the following paragraphs.
Industrial Scrap . "
.»
As shown in Table 14 all industrial scrap generated, including ashes,
sweepings, and other low-grade residues, are about 100 percent recycled. Some
copper is lost during melt-down in brassmaking and in foundries and during smelting
operations, but these losses are so small in proportion to the total copper con-.
taining industrial scrap recycled, i.e., a fraction of one percent, that they are
not worth further study.
Obsolete Scrap
As shown in Table 14 recycling of copper in different categories varies
from 91 and 88 percent respectively for automotive radiators: and: railroad car
boxes to 82 percent for copper wire and tube to just- 52 percent for" other brass.
The main problems that directly reduce the rate of recycling.involve the following
scrap materials:
Copper wire and tube
Copper magnet wire
Cartridge brass
Other brass.
Table 18 presents these problems along with a discussion of the problem
definition, problem magnitude, and problem analysis.
-------
48
TABLE 18.
IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF PROBLEMS CONCERNING COPPER THAT WAS
NOT RECYCLED IN 1969
Title
Scrap Categories Where Some Copper Was Not Recycled
Copper Wire and Tube
Magnet Wire
Cartridge Brass
1. Copper wire Is used for
the following:
a) Insulated conmunlcatIon
wire and cable
b) power wire and cable :
c) coated magnet wire for
transformer and motor
windings
d) other types of Insula-
ted wire and cable for
building, automobile,
alrframe, and shipboard
applications
e) Insulated appliance wire
and flexible cord sets
f) wire for large ;
PROBLEM transformer and
DEFINITION motor windings.
2. Of the above, magnet wire
Is not Included (it Is under
magnet wire problem).
3. Copper tube is used for
the following typical t
end-products:
a) plumbing tube
b) air conditioning and
refrigeration
c) heavy industrial
equipment.
4. At the end of their use-
ful lives, communication
cable, power cable, bare
wire from large trans-
formers and generators,
and plumbing tube from
larger buildings are col-
lected, processed, and
recycled.
Magnet wire is used for
windings In motors and
generators.
Motors range in size from
common fractional horse-
power motors for house-
hold appliances to common
generators and larger frac-
tional horsepower motors
for automobiles, small
pumps, and machines, to
less common large horse-
power motors.
In short, the most common
motors contain small amounts
of copper ...-.xvidually but
large amounts in aggregate.
The larger common motors
contain large amounts of
copper but these don't
consume much in aggregate.
In addition, copper windings
are generally surrounded by
Iron making simple recovery
difficult.
1. Cartridge brass la uaed
for small arms and am-
munition artillery shells.
2. Small arms and artillery
rounds are fired mostly
either at domestic mili-
tary bases or in battle-
fields.
3. Small arms and artillery
shells can be 100 per-
cent recycled from
military training bases..
4. However, small arms shells
are often scattered In small
quantities over many
square miles of land, but
shells are easily recog-
nized and are valuable.
S. Artillery shells are often
scattered In larger
quantltles--over many
square miles of land—
but these are easily
recognized as being •
valuable.
THOUSAND SHORT
TONS OF COPPER 151-8
NOT RECYCLED
PERCENT OF
AVAILABLE
COPPER NOT 18
RECYCLED
144.5 76.7
91 37
PROBLEM
ANALYSIS
4.
After a usable service 1.
Ufa of up to 50 years,
copper cable is about 100
percent recycled as scrap
by utilities and phone com-
panies after being replaced.
Plumbing tube, which is
generally In place for the
entire life of the building,
can have a life up to 60
to 65 years. When build- 2.
ing Is torn down, copper
is segregated and recycled.
Nearly all of the above Is
economically recyclable ex-
cept those applications in 3.
which the copper item Is a
small fraction in a widely
dispersed consumer product, 4.
e.g., (a) air conditioning
and refrigeration tube and
(b) appliance wire.
Thus perhaps 5 to 10 per-
cent should not be
recycled.
After an average useful I.
service life of 6 years
for magnet wire In a
consumer appliance to 10
or more years for larger
fractional horsepower 2.
motor applications In-
tended for Industrial or
farm use, the motor Is
scrapped.
If economically recyclable, 3,
material returned, on aver-
age should equal magnet
wire use about 6 to 10
years ago.
However, recycling rate is
Just 9 percent. .4.
This area appears to be a
promising one in which to
increase recycling of
copper. S-
Cartridge brass scrap
sells for about 30 cents
per pound In the United
States.
Items, like glass bottles,
etc.. with lower value
are being recycled in the
United States.
Logic would Indicate that
most cartridge brass, at
market conditions, should
be recycled.
Yet onlv 63 percent of
cartridge brass /j
recycled.
This appears to be a prom-
ising area In which to
incresse the recycling of
copper.
5. Yet 18 percent Is not
recycled.
6. This area appears Co be a
promising one in which to
increase recycling of
copper.
1 '4
-------
TAIII.K IB. lliKIJTIKirATION AND ANAJ.YK IS Of PKODI.KHS CONCKUNI NC COl'I'I'.H TIIAT WAS
NOT KKCYIXKU IN i»ov (Continued)
TUlo
Scrap CatCKortcs Hhnre Sumo COPIHT Wan Not Recycled
Other Brass Copper Used AD Additive
PROBLEM
DEFINITION
1. a) This category Includes
alt brass mill products
except those considered
In other categories:
• cartridge brass
• copper (unalloyed)
wire, tube, and strip.
b) This category Includes
all brass/bronze foundry
products.
c) Two brass mill products
which have been Included
In this category, strip
for automobile radiators
and railroad car boxes,
are analyzed separately
in Table 13 In the text.
Each product Is about
90 percent recycled.
2. Brass mill products Included
are used in a myraid of
different applications.
O.K., plumbing and. heating,
hardware, fantenor9 and
c 1 OrUireti, watches, screw
maclttnn products, etc.
3. Brass/bronze cast products
' are used In pumps and
valves, ship propellers.
plumbing fittings, etc.
This category Includes all copper
powders, many of which are used to
strengthen Iron-based P/H parts.
This category Includes all copper
used by the steel, chemical,
aluminum, and other industries
as an alloying additive.
In the above applications copper
la a minor part of a much larger
system. For example, copper •
contents for low-alloy steels
range from 0.20 to 3.00 percent.
Steels and other copper-containing'
alloys are uneconomical to segregate
and use over for copper content.
Consequently, the copper content
Is sufficiently diluted to be
determined as lost.
THOUSAND SHOUT
TONS OF COPPER 496.5
NOT RECYCLED
PKRCENT OF
AVAILABLE
COPPER NOT 5p
RECYCLED
96.9
100.0
PROBLEM
ANALYSIS
Due to the lack of ntatts-
tlcol information. 1C la
not known'what types of
products ore being recycled
except atrip for nutomnbtlo
radiators and railroad car
ho«an. Since Che latter
are tabulated separately,
recycling rates for'these
can be calculated. As
shown In Table 13 in Che
text, automobile radiators
and railroad car boxes are
each about 90 percent
recycled.
The brass mill and brass
foundry Industries sell
products to a number of
different market segments.
Some of these are:
a) alloy copper tube
b) brass/bronte valves
c) coinage
d) brass/bronte plumbing
fittings
e) Cube for heat exchangers.
Due to the lack of data
concerning the above and
other large markets for
brass mill or brass foundry
products, It isn'c known
to what extend chese pro-
ducts are being recycled.
This appears to be a prom-
ising area In which to
Increase recycling.
Copper, as an alloying element
In either aluminum or steel Is
usually present In quant it lee
under I percent.
In many caned, copper containing
alloys are produced In relatively
small tonnages.
It Is practically Impossible Co do
either of the following:
a) separate copper from alloy
b) segregate low copper alloys
from similar alloys containing
no copper for the purposes
of reusing copper content.
Result: .copper Is usually
diluted.
This Is not a promising area in
which to Increase the recycling
of copper.
1 >5
-------
49
Other Direct Problems
Other problems that directly reduce the amount of recycling, but which
cannot be measured quantitatively, are those problems caused >w'legislative
action. They are as follows:
(1) Sale of emergency copper stockpile
(2) Restrictions on the exportation of certain types of scrap
(3) Subsidies allowed to primary industries, but not to recycling
industries, in the form of ore depletion allowances.
All of the above actions will decrease, everything else being equal, the
price for copper scrap. Since lowered prices might decrease collection and segre-
gation of copper scraps in those areas where it had been economic to do so, a
lowered recovery rate will probably result.
-------
50
PROBLEMS THAT DO NOT DIRECTLY REDUCE RECYCLING OF COPPER
These are problems that might have economic effects on an individual
company or on the industry, or make operations more difficult. The economic
effects, however, are not serious enough to have effect on recycling, but in
some cases, e.g., air pollution control (see Table 19, page 51), where industry.
structure is changed somewhat to achieve economies of scale, processing and
smelting costs are increased somewhat by added investment costs. Those problems
for copper are:
• Wire insulation removal
.•• Declining markets
• Air pollution control
• Public prejudices.
Table 19 presents these problems along with a discussion of problem
definition, problem magnitude, and problem analysis.
The solid wastes generated by the copper recycling industry and their
disposal do not appear to be a problem. Wire and cable insulation, which has been
removed during processing activities, appears in a relatively dense form and is
simply and inexpensively removed from the processor's yard to the landfill by
truck. Smelter slags also appear in a dense form arid are easily removed to the
disposal site by truck. These are the only important solid wastes generated by
the copper recycling industry.
-------
51
TABLE 19. IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF PROBLEMS WHICH DO NOT DIRECTLY
REDUCE THE AMOUNT OF COPPER THAT IS RECYCLED (1)
Title
Wire Insulation
Removal
Declining Secondary
Copper Markets
__. - ' 1. Most cable and wire
has been Insulated
or covered with either
lead, polyethylene, PVC,
rubber, asbestos or
paper and cloth.
2. To be recyclable, the
Insulation must be
removed.
3. However, due to strin-
' gency of air pollution
PROBLEM regulations, processors
DEFINITION must use either Incin-
eration equipment with
suitable pollution abate-
ment equipment, or mech-
anical methods such as
cable stripping or frag-
mentizing.
4. There is a trend toward
fragmentizing most ord-
inary Insulated wires
and separating copper
from insulation with air
blowers or other suit-
able techniques. However,
the process is difficult
with armored or greased
cables.
3.
Brass/bronze foundries have
lost the new railroad car
journal bearing market to
roller bearings, and the
repair railroad journal
segment is expected to
decline to zero within 10
to 15 years. Other brass/
bronze application markets,
e.g., plumbing fittings, are
also expected to see reduc-
tion in share of market due
to competition from plastic
materials.
Increasing competition from
aluminum in such areas as
service drop cable, bus bars,
and power cable--where less
serious design constraints
exist Is expected. However,
In some magnet wire applica-
tions, e.g., consumer ap-
pliances --where design is
more constraining—might be-
come a future problem.
Use of some brass mill pro-
ducts, especially those used
,in construction, e.g., plumb-
ing tube, copper/brass trim,
etc., will decline relative
to plastics, aluminum, etc.
No significant effect on re-
EFFECT ON cycling. Some economic
RECYCLING effect because of increased
RATE investment for equipment.
No significant effect on rate^'of
recycling. Some effect on
amount of recycling for parti-
cular applications on a long-
term basis.
PROBLEM
ANALYSIS
1. The stringency of air
pollution laws is forcing
processors into higher
cost equipment.
2. This is creating need for
larger processing opera-
tions to justify higher
cost equipment.
3. Development of cheaper
and more versatile equip-
ment methods would be of
great help.
1. It Is unlikely that contin-
ued decline of those mar-
kets where some other
product has been found
superior can be slowed or
averted.
2. New products and alloys
should .be developed to utilize
properties possessed by copper
compared with its substitutes.
(1) Problems adversely affect economics or practice of recycling but the effect
in terms of amounc cannot be measured. This situation is considered' an
indirect effect.
Material recycled
(2) Rate of recyclinn
Total available to be recycled
-------
TABLE 19. IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF PROBLEMS WHICH DO NOT DIRECTLY REDUCE THE
AMOUNT_pF_CpPPER TtlAT IS RECYCLED (1) (Continued)
Title
Air Pollution Control
Customer Prejudice
PROBLEM
DEFINITION
1. During melting of brass'-at
a foundry, ingot -maker, -or
secondary.smelter, -small
quantities of zinc and other
materials are .oxidized and
.expelled from the"melt as
flue dust.
2; Nothing -can be done to solve
participate pollution by
melters except by purchasing
pollution abatement-equip-
ment .
3. Efforts to combat this prob-
lem In many -cases 'may en-
tail higher'Costs.
Two charges often made against the re-
cycling Industry are: (a) Recycling
•materials Industry Is often the most
Important reason for fluctuations In
price of refined copper, (b) Users of
refined copper wire bar not made-entirely
from ore sources sometimes claim that
.such material .is inferlot to that made
entirely from-'ore sources.
No significant effect on the
EFFECT ON amount of copper recycled.
KKOYCI.1NC Some economic effect on
HATE .smaller foundries because
of increased investment cost.
No significant effect on the amount of
copper recycled. Little or.no economic
effect.
PRODIil'SM
-ANALYSIS
1. This will .probably result
in-fewer, but larger found-
ries and ingot makers.
2. Development of cheaper and
better pollution control
equipment would be of great
help.
1. Consumers and large producers of copper
find a small secondary copper source
• a convenient target when copper prices
. are rising. Swings in refined or other
copper prices are not primarily due to the
.recycling Industry, but due to a combin-.
at ton of causes. Some of these are:
sharp increases/decreases in demand by
.copper users, sharp decreases/increases
in supply by all copper suppliers Including
changes in governmental stockpile levels.
3.
•Consumers find a small secondary copper
source a convenient target when they have
processing difficulties. Refined copper
wire bar made'to specification from some
scrap sources is equivalent to that made
completely from ore In price and maxi-
mum Impurity -levels. Yet, many consumers
of copper will purchase refined copper
'made only from ore sources.
Making secondary copper products equiva-
lent to primary copper products in
reputation, in addition to specification,
•would be of great help. .
-------
52
COURSES OF ACTION CONCERNING RECYCLING OF COPPER
In this section, the problems delineated in the above analysis are
evaluated to determine priorities, and recommended courses of action are made to
help solve or reduce these problems - with the emphasis on increasing recycling
of copper in order to reduce solid waste problems.
Selection of Opportunities
In order to identify those problems that have the highest priority for
attention, evaluations based on several criteria were made on the problems
identified.* See Table 20. The highest total scores, then, indicate the problems
of highest importance. As shown, the following problem subjects are the most
significant: copper wire and tube, magnet wire, and other brass.
TABLE 20. EVALUATION OF PROBLEMS INVOLVED IN RECYCLING OF COPPER
Criteria and Scores
Copper Wire and Tube
Magnet Wire
Cartridge Brass
Other Brass, nee.
Legislative Problems
Solution of
Problem Will
Improve Environment
(10)
10
10
2
10
3
Wire Insulation Removal 3
Declining Markets
Air Pollution Control
Public Prejudices
0
7
0
Solution of
Problem Will
Conserve Natural
Resources
(5)
5
5
5
5
4
1
0
0
0
Ease of
Solution
(5)
2
2
5
2
5
5
5
5
5
Total
Scores
17
17
12
17
12
9
5
12
5
Notes: (1) First criteria is considered most important and is assigned max score
of 10.
(2) Other two criteria are considered less important and are assigned max
scores of 5 each.
(3) The higher the total score, the more attractive the problem is for
further action.
* One problem, copper additives, was not evaluated for the following reason:
collection of copper used in small quantities in steel, aluminum, chemicals, and
other products for recycling beyond an unforeseen development seems impossible.
-------
53
Recommended: Act ions
In the above, a'J.1 problems were separated into the- following categories:
(1) High priority for action
(2) Low priority for action
(3) Not worthy of further consideration.
Highest priority ideas are those which are so important that the public,
in addition to the copper/copper recycling industry, would Have interest in \
their solution. Consequently, these problems are important eh'ough to be acted
upon by EPA. These problems with their recommended actions are shown in Table 21.
Low priority ideas are those that are important for the recycling indus-
try to solve, but which aren't important enough for full-scale participation by.
the public. Consequently, these problems a-ren't felt to be important enough to
. N
be acted upon by EPA. These problems with' their recommended' actions are shown in
Table 22.
-------
54
TABLE 21. RF.fOMMKNDF.D ACTION, HIGH PRIORITY COPl'EK PROULEMS
Title
Copper Wire and Tube
Copper Magnet Wire
Brass Products
ACTIONS
RECOMMENDED
R&D should be undertaken to 1.
develop economical techniques
and technology for the mech-
anical separation of copper
wire and tube from aluminum,
steel, plastics, and in-
sulations of various kinds.
R&D should be undertaken
to develop an economic
process for recovery of
copper magnet wire from
small motors.
1. An investigation should
be undertaken to deter-
mine why 496,500 short
tons of copper contained
in brass products were
not recycled in 1969.
BY WHOM
(D(2)(3)
EPA/NASMI
EPA/NASMI
EPA/NASMI
1. NASMI form a committee of 1.
three copper smelters and
three major scrap pro-
cessors.
2. Committee discuss problem 2.
with several of each of
the following:
• electric utilities
• cable manufacturers
• manufacturers of:
consumer durables
and durable goods
that employ copper
wire and tube. 3.
3. Survey the following
organizations to find out
where copper wire.and.
tube are going when
discarded:
• scrap processors
o building dismantlers
• secondary smelters
• municipal waste 4.
handlers.
4. Analyze the results of
2 and 3 above to deter-
mine If recycle rate is
Indeed low; If so,
analyze how to 5.
Increase it.
5. Take appropriate actions
on feasible ideas gener-
ated by analysis.
NASMI form a committee of
three copper smelteis and
three major scrap pro-
cessors.
Committee discuss problem
with several of each of
the following companies:
• manufacturers of
fractional horse-
power motors
• manufacturers of
magnet wire.
Survey the following
organizations to find out
where magnet wire products
are going when discarded.
• scrap processors
• secondary smelters
• municipal waste
handlers
• other.
Analyze the results
of 2 and 3 above to
determine if recycle
rate Is indeed low;
if so, analyze how to
increase it.
Take appropriate
actions on feasible
Ideas generated by
analysis.
1. NASMI form a committee cE
two copper smelters,
two major scrap prccesscrs,
and two ingot makers.
2. Committee analyze why there
Is a low recycle rate for
brass products.
3. Committee discuss problem
with U.S. Bureau of Mir.is,
Department of Commerce,
and Copper Development
Association to find pos-
sible reporting errors.
4. Committee discuss problem
with original equipment
manufacturers and other
final users of brass
products to find out where
and how much brass goes into
various major markets.
5. Survey the following or-
ganizations to find out
where brass products ar=
going when discarded:
• scrap processors
• secondary smelters
• municipal waste handlers
• other.
6. Analyze the results of 3,
4, and 5 above to determine
If recycle rate Is indeed
low, and If it is, how to
Increase it.
7. Take appropriate actions
on feasible ideas generated
by analysis.
Notes: * Except copper magnet wire.
** Except the following:
(a) cartridge brass
(b) unalloyed copper wire and tube.
(1) The responsibility for recommended actions shown in this table are based on importance of the
action, benefit to the taxpayers, and opportunities for NASMI. They are the best judgments of Battille.
(2) Recommended actions were distributed between high priority and lower priority based on the
evaluation with three criteria.
(3) It Is suggested that NASMI continue its leading role in recycling, recognizing that other organizations
such as the Bureau of Mines, Department of Commerce, Council of Environmental Quality, HEW Office o:
Information, and State. Local, and Federal Legislatures must be involved.
loO
-------
55
TABLE 22. RECOMMENDED ACTIONS, LOWER PRIORITY PROBLEMS
Title
Cartridge Brass
Legislative Problems
An investigation should be
made.Find out why 76,000 short
ACTIONS tons of copper contained in
RECOMMENDED cartridge brass were not re-
cycled in 1969. A good
portion of this may be ex-
plainable by errors of
reporting; or by^exports of
co'pper cbntaine'd in cartridge
brass fronT-Sou'theast Asia'
to countries other than the
United States.
An investigation should
be Initiated to determine
what steps can be taken to
amend various legislation
practice's which aren.'t In
the best interest .of'.the
recycling Industry' and the
public. .These problems are:
•" SaieT of emeTrgency
stockpiles
• Restrictions on th'e expor-
tation, of certain types
of scrap.
BY WHOM
(D(2)(3)
NASMI
NASHI
RECOMMENDED
STEPS
1. Form a committee. 1,
representing. • ; .
•' major scrap processors and
• major export/import
dealers
2. Committee analyze "why] there 2,
is, a" low recycle".rater for
obsolete cartridge brass.
Form a committee
representing
•' NASMI,
...•••-•*
major scrap processors,
and smelters.
3. Committee discus's/ this probV
tern with U.S. BureW of Mines",*"
Department 'of Commerce", •Depart-
ment, of .Defense, arid Copper
Development Association.
^ Committee ^dlYcuss .this orotr-
1 em .with; several of e'ach of
thejfollowlng: . .
• Brass mills
•' Cartridge and artillery
shell producers
Inform^p'eYtinent >
adaaitteis^lH Congress on
the';'e'ffects" of. various
legislation' on' the'
recycling; of copper
materials.
(1)
(2)
(3)
The responsibility, for recommended actions shown in this table are based
on importance of the action, benefit to the taxpayers, and opportunities
fbr'NASMI,. They are the best judgments of Battelle.
Recommended actions were distributed between high priority and lower
priority based on the evaluation with three criteria.
It is suggested that NASMI continue its .leading role in recycling,
recognizing that other organizations such as the Bureau of Mines,
Department of Commerce, Council of Environmental Qual'lty, HEW Office
of Information, and State, Local, and Federal Legislatures must be
involved.
lol
55a
TABLE 22. RECOMMENDED ACTIONS. LOWER PRIORITY PROBLEMS (Continued)
Title
Wire Insulation Removal
Declining Markets
ACTIONS
RECOMMENDED
A'n Investigation should
be undertaken to develop
:more effective methods of
wire Insulation removal.
Continue R&D efforts' and
Initiate additional programs
to find new uses for copper
and brass products.
BY^WHCfcT
NASMI
NASMI/COPPER DEVELOPMENT .ASSOCIATION/
BRASS & BRONZE INGOT INSTITUTE,
PRIMARY PRODUCERS
1. Form a committee
of major scrap pro-
cessors.
2. Committee'analyze pr'e's-
RECOMMENDED erit methods and problems
STEPS of removing insulation.
3. Committee Investigate'
methods and processes
for removing armored
steel and grease, etc.,
from cable.
4. If no acceptable' methods
a're" found', determine If
.it Is .feasible .to. carry.on^ R&D
to" fimf out'Vcohbmlc .metnoas
.to remove the above.
1. All interested organizations
cooperate in R&D programs
to promote continued use of
. copper a'nd develop new'.
applIca'tions,' supplementing
efforts of c'opp'er and copper
alloy producers.
-------
55b
TABLE 22. RECOMMENDED ACTIONS, LOWER PRIORITY PROBLEMS (Continued)
Title Air Pollution Control
An investigation should
be undertaken to determine
ACTIONS the best present pollution
RECOMMENDED abatement methods, and to
find improved, cheaper methods.
NASMI/ INGOT MAKERS
BY WHOM AND SECONDARY SMELTERS
1. Set up a com-
mittee of:
• ingot makers and '
• secondary smelters..
RECOMMENDED 2. Committee analyze pres-
STEPS ent pollution abatement
practices of industries
with problems similar
to it.
3. Committee should obtain
advice from proninent
pollution control equipment
manufacturers concerning
suitable equipment and cost.
Customer Prejudices
A campaign should be
undertaken to inform copper
users of quality of
secondary copper.
NASMI
1. Continue general publicity
and educational program?
including sponsorship of
technical seminars.
2. Start advertising and
educational program to
publicize recycling of
copper.
APPEHDIX A
MAJOR PRODUCERS OF COPPER
TABLE A-l. U.S. COPPER REFINERY CAPACITY
(Annual capacity at end of 1969 in tons of 2,000 Ib)
Electrolytic
The Anaconda Company
Great Falls, Montana
Asarco
Baltimore, Maryland
Perth Amboy, New Jersey
Tacoma, Washington
Cerro Copper & Brass -
Div. of Cerro Corp.
St. Louis, Missouri
Inspiration Consolida-
ted Copper
Inspiration, Arizona
International Smelting
and Refining Co.
Raritan, Perth Amboy,
New Jersey
Kennecott Copper Corp.
Garfield, Utah
Kennecott Refining Corp.
Anne Arundel County,
Mary land
Phelps Dodge Refining Corp.
El Paso, Texas
Laurel Hill, Long Island,
New York
United States Metals
Refining Co.
190,000
318,000
168,000
156,000
44,000
70,000
150,000
186,000
276,000
420,000
155,000
Lake and Fire Refining
Calumet & Hecla Corp.
Universal Oil Products Company
Hubbell, Michigan
Kennecott Copper Corp.
Hurley, New Mexico
Phelps Dodge Refining Corp.
El Paso, Texas
Laurel Hill, Long Island, New York
Quincy Mining Co.
Hancock, Michigan
United States Metals Refining Co.
Carteret, New Jersey, a subsi-
diary of American Metal Climax,
Inc.
White Pine Copper Co.
White Pine, Michigan
TOTAL LAKE AND FIRE REFINED
TOTAL REFINED COPPER CAPACITY
Casting Capacity
(1) Electrolytic (including
scrap)
(2) Lake
30,000
103,000
25,000
20,000
15,000
85,000
90,000
368,000
2,676,000
2,380,000
135,000
Carteret, New Jersey, a
subsidiary of
American Metal
Climax, Inc. 175.000
TOTAL TANK. CAPACITY 2,308,000
(3) Fire refining (in addition
to capacity reported under
Item 1)
208,000
It, 3
-------
A-2
TABLE A-2. PRINCIPAL COPPER FABRICATORS
CAPTIVE FABRICATORS
Brass Mills
Chase.Brass andjCopper
The Okonite. Company - • • „ , — ^
The'Anaconda American Brass Corporation
Phelps Dodge Copper Products Corporation
Calumet & Hecla-Wolyerine Tube Division
C. G. Hussey & Company, Division of
Cooper Range Company
Sew Haven Copper Company
Cerro Copper & Brass Company, Division of
Cerro Corporation
Kennecott Corporation
Kennecptt Corporation
The Anaconda' Company
Phelps. Dodge,
Calumet & Hec-la
Cooper Range
Tennessee Corporation
Cerro Corporation
-• -v_
Wire'Mills
Ana'cbnda. Wire. and Cable . .
Cycle Wire, and "Cable Corporation
Katfield Wire and Cable Division
Anaconda Company
Cerro Corporation
Continental Copper and
Steel Industries, Inc.
-. ,,
INTERDEPENDENTS
Brass Mills
Bohn.Aluminum & Brass Corporation
Bridgeport Brass Company, Division of
National Distillers & Chemical Corporation
Bridgeport Rolling Mills Company
The Bristol Brass Corporation
Chicago Extruded Metals Company .
DatVo.it. .Gasket^s, Manufacturing" Company
The Electric Materials Company
International Silver Company
Miller Company .
Mueller Brass Company, ...
Sew England Brass Company t.
Olin Mathieson Chemical' Corporation
H. K. Porter Company, Inc., Riverside-Alloy
Metal Division
Reading Tube Company,
Division Reading Industries
Scovill Manufacturing Company
Triangle Conduit & Cable Company, Inc.
U.S. Mint Service
Volco Brass & Copper Company
Western Electric Company, Inc.
Wire 'Mil Is
Rod's, 'Inc.
Rome Cable .Corporation
Triangle Conduit &
Cable Company, Inc.
Western Electric Company,
Inc.
-------
APPENDIX B
END USES FOR COPPER PRODUCTS
Table B-l shows consumption of brass mill products by type of alloy and
product form. Note that copper forms have consistently averaged from 35 to 40
percent of total consumption.
Table B-2 shows the final uses for brass mill shipments irrespective of
alloy for 1965 and 1969. Most end uses have retained their market segments. How-
ever, building product uses have declined somewhat from 29.7 percent of the total
in 1965 to 23.5 percent in 1969.
Table B-3 gives consumption of wire mill products by end-use markets.
communications wire and cable, magnet wire, and building/transportation wire and
cable represent the largest markets for copper wire mill products. Total copper
wire markets have increased from 760 thousand short tons in 1960 to 1,294 thousand
short tons in 1969.
Tables B-4 and B-5 give consumption of various types of copper foundry
products and powder products by type. Although foundry products are shown to have
increased in the past ten years, the markets for foundry products have not grown
since a high of approximately 600 thousand short tons, gross metal weight, was
achieved in 1951. Consumption of copper powder products increased rapidly from
1960 to 1965 but remained essentially constant thereafter.
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B-3
TABLE B-2. FINAL USES FOR BRASS MILL PRODUCT SHIPMENTS.
Final Uses
Building products .
Automotive and other
transportation
Consumer's goods
(include coinage)
Fasteners and fastenings
19
Quantity
Thousand S.T.'
442.1 ;
254.5 '
125.0
77.4 ;•
Air conditioning, refrigeration,
and appliances 105.7 !
Electrical goods ' 212.9 i
Machinery and industrial
equipment
Military
Export
221.8 :
43.2 i
t
' 6.0 '
55
Percent
29.7
17.1
8.4
5.2
7.1
14.3
14. '9
2.9
0.4
19
.Quantity
Thousand S.T .•
365.4
228:6
116.6
57.5
136.8
i
208.4
228.6
206.8
6.2
&9
Percent
23.5
14.7
7.5
3.7
8.8
13.4
14.7
13.3
0.4
Total
1,488.6 100.0
1,554.9 100.0
Source: Copper Development Association estimates. .
Ba'ttelle estimates.
U.S. Department of Commerce, Business and Defense Services,
Administration, Copper Report.
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TABLE B-5. CONSUMPTION OF POWDER PRODUCTS
(total metal weight, thousand short tons)
H
H<
O
Product
Granular
Flake
Total
1960
16.5
3.0
19.5
1965
28.5
2.5
31.0
1966
30.0
3.5
33.5
1967
25.0
3.0
28.0
1968
28.5
3.0
31.5
1969
29.0
3.0
32.0
Source: Copper Development Association, Annual Data 1970.
s-a
1V1
-------
ill
' TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
SUMMARY vii
The Lead Recycling Industry. vii
Problems of Lead Recycling viii
Recommendations. xii
INTRODUCTION 1
VOLUME IV ... .
Background 1
Objectives . 2
LEAD REPORT Scope 3
Research Methods 3
Literature- Search ; . . . ; 3
Extensive Survey 4
In-depth Survey 4
Analysis and Synthesis 5
THE LEAD INDUSTRY 7
Characteristics of Lead •.... 7
Pig Lead 7
Anticocial Lead 8
Miscellaneous Lead-Base Alloys 9
Lead Oxides, Pigments, and Chemicals 9
Characteristics of the-Lead Industry 10
Materials Sources .......... 10
Materials Flow. 11
Lead Producers 11
Markets for Lead 14
Lead Use Pattern 15
Secondary Lead Markets 15
Market Outlook ...... 15
THE LEAD RECYCLING INDUSTRY 18
. Characteristics of Recycled Lead 18
Secondary Lead 18 ..
Scrap and Drosses 18
Characteristics of the Lead Recycling Industry 19
Materials Spurces ..-.•. ... ..• . 21
Recycled Lead Markets. ,. 22
Use Patterns 23
Industry Data 24
Materials Flow Pattern for Lead Recycling :*.•-• • 26
Demand/Supply Analysis 29
Demand. ...... 29
Supply • 29
Denar.d/Supply Balance 30
Effect on Lead Industry 30a
-------
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
LEAD SCRAP RECYCLING PROBLEMS
LEAD RECYCLING INDUSTRY PROBLEMS
COURSES OF ACTION CONCERNING THE RECYCLING OF LEAD
APPENDIX A
LEAD MARKETS
APPENDIX B
LEAD RECYCLING INDUSTRY DATA FROM EXTENSIVE SURVEY
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE I. IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF PROBLEMS CONCERNING LEAD
THAT WAS NOT RECYCLED IN 1969
TABLE II. IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF PROBLEMS THAT DO NOT DIRECTLY
REDUCE THE AMOUNT OF LEAD THAT IS RECYCLED
TABLE III. RECOMMENDED ACTIONS, HIGH PRIORITY LEAD RECYCLING PROBLEMS . .
TABLE IV. RECOMMENDED ACTIONS, LOWER PRIORITY LEAD RECYCLING PROBLEMS. .
TABLE 3. GENERAL STATISTICS FOR LEAD ESTABLISHMENTS, 1967
TABLE 4. LEAD CONSUMPTION BY TYPE OF METAL, U.S., 1969
Page
31
31
31
34
34
35
36
39
39
40
42
44
44
A-l
B-l
X
x-
xiii
xlv
8
9
13
15
TABLE 5.
TABLE 6.
TABLE 7.
TABLE 8.
TABLE 9.
TABLE 10.
TABLE 11.
TABLE 12.
TABLE 13.
TABLE 14.
TABLE 15.
TABLE 16.
TABLE Al.
TABLE A- 2.
TABLE A- 3.
TABLE A-4.
TABLE A-5.
TABLE A- 6.
TABLE A-7.
LIST OF TABLES (Continued)
LEAD CONSUMPTION IN THE U.S., BY PRODUCTS
GRADES OF LEAD SCRAP AND DROSSES
CONSUMPTION OF LEAD SCRAP BY TYPE, 1969
LEAD SCRAP PRICES, 1969
RECYCLED LEAD PRODUCTION, 1960-1969
CONSUMPTION OF SECONDARY LEAD BY USE, 1969
LEAD SCRAP RECYCLING, 1969
IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF PROBLEMS CONCERNING LEAD
THAT WAS NOT RECYCLED IN 1969
IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF PROBLEMS THAT DO NOT DIRECTLY
REDUCE THE AMOUNT OF LEAD THAT IS RECYCLED
EVALUATION OF TEN PROBLEMS RELATED TO RECYCLING OF LEAD. . . .
RECOMMENDED ACTIONS, HIGH PRIORITY LEAD RECYCLING PROBLEMS . .
RECOMMENDED ACTIONS, LOWER PRIORITY LEAD RECYCLING PROBLEMS. .
UNITED STATES CONSUMPTION OF LEAD
SHIPMENTS OF BATTERIES, U.S. MANUFACTURERS, BY USE CATEGORY,
PERCENT 1966-1968 AVERAGE
AVERAGE BATTERY LIV5, 1949-1968
BATTERIES PRODUCED PER TON OF LEAD CONSUMED, 1946-1968 ....
CONSUMPTION OF LEAD IN THE PRODUCTION OF TETRAETHYL LEAD,
1964-1969
U.S. CONSUMPTION OF LEAD AS OXIDES, PIGMENTS, AND CHEMICALS,
EXCEPT BATTERIES AND TETRAETHYL LEAD
DISTRIBUTION OF WHITE LEAD (DRY AND IN OIL), LITHARGE, ANT)
RED LEAD SHIPMENTS BY INDUSTRIES 1969
Pace
16
20
21
22
22
23
27
33
37
41
43
45
A-l
A- 2
A-3
A-4
A-4
A-5
A-6
-------
vl
TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
LIST OF TABLES (Continued)
Page
TABLE B-l. SECONDARY MATERIALS INDUSTRY—AVERAGE BUSINESS
STATISTICS FOR LEAD B-l
TABLE B-2. AVERAGE SIZE OF LEAD SCRAP PROCESSORS, ANNUAL TONS,
BY REGION ' B-l
TABLE B-3. AVERAGE SIZE OF SECONDARY LEAD • SMELTERS, ANNUAL TONS,
BY REGION ' ; . . . . B-2
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE I. SCRAP/SECONDARY LEAD FLOW, 1969 lx
FIGURE 1. MATERIALS FLOW BALANCE, LEAD, 1969 • 12
FIGURE 2. LEAD CONSUMPTION, U.S., 1945-1969 14
FIGURE 2-A. MONTHLY AVERAGE LEAD PRICES AT NEW YORK AND LONDON,
1960-1969 ....-.........-..:.'.. 14b
FIGURE 3. AVERAGE SIZE IN TONS PER YEAR OF LEAD OF (1) LEAD SCRAP
PROCESSORS, AND (2) LEAD SMELTERS', BY REGION, 1969. •'.-... 25
FIGURE " 4. SCRAP/SECONDARY LEAD FLOW, 1969 28
FIGURE A-l. TOTAL LEAD USED BY BATTERY MANUFACTURERS. . A-2
FIGURE A-2. LEAD OXIDE MADE BY BATTERY MANUFACTURERS A-3
176
Til
SUMMARY
Lead, because of its relative inertness in metallic form, is seldom
lost, and it is valuable enough so that industry has always sought to recover
it. Consequently, its recycling record is rather good with about 49 percent of
total U.S. lead production in 1969 being recycled lead. However, according to
Battelle-Columbus estimates, 821,000 tons or almost 60 percent of the lead
theoretically available for recycling in 1969 is not recycled. It is possible
that solution of problems identified during the study could -mean that about an
additional 250,000 tons of lead could be recycled.
The Lead Recycling Industry
(1)
The lead recycling industry takes scrapped lead from the point of
(2) .
scrappage to a point of reuse.- The functions include buying and selling, physical
movement, and change of form of the lead. The scrap materials are old batteries,
other old lead and lead alloys, and lead drosses from melting operations. The
recycled lead that is the output of the industry covers a range of types and puri-
ties of lead and lead alloys of which some are equivalent ir. characteristics and
uses to primary lead.
The importance of recycled lead in the total lead carket is shown by
1969 supply data for lead:
Lead Source
Domestic ore
Imported Ore
Imported Metal
Recycled Lead
U.S. Stockpile
TOTAL
Short Ions of Lead
515,000 '
125,000
285,000
605,000
15.000
Percent of Total
. " - V,*. .' ' ' ' ~"'~
1,545,000
34
8
18-
39
!_
100
(1) Hone scrap is not Included in this report.
(2) For a discussion of the functions of the recycling industry, see Vol. 1,
General Report.
-------
vlil
• Figure 1 summarizes data concerning the recycling of lead for the year
1969. The quantities of lead that were calculated to be available for recycling
in 1969 are shown at the left (light shading). The quantities not recycled are
shown next (dark shading). No tetraethyl lead or lead oxides are recycled because
the nature of these applications makes recovery nearly impossible. Most solder
and ammunition are not recycled for the same reason.
The lead that is recycled is shown in the unshaded portions. It is
apparent that large quantities of lead are being recycled from several sources.
This recycled lead is then being marketed for several applications as shown on
the right of Figure I. Overall, the recycling of lead is highly successful, yet
only 42 percent of the amount theoretically available is being recycled.
Problems of Lead Recycling
The problems of lead recycling are of two types: (1) those that dir-
ectly reduce the recycling of lead, and (2) those that do not directly reduce the
recycling of lead. Those in the first category are problems that reduce
recycling in measurable quantities. Those in the second are problems that
adversely affect economics or practices of recycling but the effect in terms of
amounts of lead can not be measured.
Table I describes the problem situation for each of the five itiajor scrap
sources and the extent to which lead was not recycled in 1969 in each case. The
relative degree of recycling shown is based on a Battelle estimate of the amount
of scrap of each type theoretically available for recycling that year.
Table II presents the five problems that do not directly reduce the re-
cycling of lead. The first two are market problems and the other three are
operating problems of the recycling industry.
-------
27I.OOO;
SSS.OOO
Notes: (II All quantities in
short tons of lead
(2) Home scrap not included ^
(3) Estimoted 25% of scn/p
by-posses processors,
dealers, and brokers
Batteries
4OO.OOO
Bearings
13.000
100.000 38.000
l,406,000!j; 821,0001::
"*'*8*
j Available
•; Lead, in •
::::Scrop:::
585.0OO.
Recycled
(15% Prompt Industrial
85% Obsolete)
Secondary
Lead markets
FIGURE I SCRAP/SECONDARY LEAD FLOW, 1969
-------
TABLE I IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF PROBLEMS CONCERNING LEAD THAT WAS NOT RECYCLED IN 1969
Scrap Categories Where Sorae Lead Was Not Recycled
Batterv Lead
Lead Cable Sheathing
Bearing Lead
_OtAer Obsolete If si
PROBLEM
DEFINITION
1. Antimonial lead is used for_
structural and electrical
parts of lead-acid storage
batteries.
2. Lead oxides (usually produced
by the battery manufacturers)
are used for active materials
on battery electrodes.
3. A typical automotive battery
contains 10 Ibs of antimonial
lead and 10 Ibs of lead
oxides when manufactured.
4. Automotive battery sales are
based on a trade-in allowance
for the old batteries.
5. Thus, most worn out batteries
are collected bv sellers of
I. Lead, because of its corrosioni
resistance, is used to sheath
underground power and commu-
nications cables. -,
2. Polyethylene and other
elastomeric sheathings have
been developed that have
economic advantages over
lead.
3. Consumption of lead for
cable sheathing has de-
creased to about 25Z of
what it once was.
4. At the end of their
service lives, lead-
sheathed cables are
sold aa scrap.
Tin-lead mixtures arc <-omnion- 1.
ly used as solders.
Cost of solders is decreased
by increasing the lead content. 2.
High-lead solders are common-
ly used for auto body and
radiator use, cans, and other
non-critical applications.
In most uses, the lead be- 3.
comes intimately attached in
small quantities to much lar-
ger quantities of other
materials (copper, steel).
4.
At the end of the useful
lives of soldered products,
method of disposal depends
on value of materials other 5
than the solder.
Lead-base alloys are often
used as bearing surfaces
for rotating parts .
1. Considerable lead is used for
its corrosion resistance in
pipe, fittings, and sheet.
Such bearings are used where 2.
the lower friction of rolling
type bearing is not needed,
or where cost or environnental 3.
factors rule against rolling-
type bearings.
4.
Lead is a small constituent
of a much larger system of
other materials in bearing 5.
uses.
Disposal of smaller lead bear-
ings depends generally on
the other materials. 6.
Disposal of larger lead bear-
Some lead is used in foil
and collapsible tubes.
Considerable lead is used
as caulking material.
Some lead is used in weights
and ballasts.
Some lead is used for several
minor uses such as in terne
metal, electric plating,
annealing, and galvanizing.
Disposal toethods vary widely
depending on use and location
at the end of the product's
useful life.
TONS OF LEAD
221 RECYCLED 135.000
7. OF AVAILABLE
LEAD NOT RECYCLED . 28
98,000
75
56 000 23,000 38,000
06 70 38
PROBLEM
ANALYSIS
1. Most worn-out batteries are
collected in economically re-
cyclable quantities as a
result of marketing practices
for new batteries.
2. The recycling industry is set
up to recycle battery lead
effectively.
3. Logic and industry opinion
would indicate that only a
few 7. of battery lead should
not be recycled.
4. Yet 281 la not recycled.
5. This is a promising area in
which to increase recycling
of lead.
1. After an average service life
of 40 years, lead-sheathed
cable is nearly 10G7, sold as
scrap according to electric
utilities and phone companies
that use it.
2. Nearly all this lead is econ-
omically recoverable once it
enters the recycling industry.
3. Thus only a few 7. should
not be recycled.
4. Yet 757. is not recycled.
5. This is a promising area in
which to increase recy-
cling of lead.
1. In most cases, lead in
solder ends its service life
as minute quantities of lead
bonded to other metals.
2. Thus, collection of this lead
for recycling usually is inci1
dental to collection of
the other metals to which
the lead is attached.
3. In most cases, economics
dictate that the lead not
be separated from these
other materials.
4. In some cases it is separa-
ted and recovered as lead,
especially when the tin
content of the solder can be
recovered as tin.
5. This is an area that has
some promise for Increasing
the recycling of lead.
1. Much bearing lead is dis-
posed of as part of a
system that is primarily
nu-de of other aetals. (For
exb-nple, it does not pay to
disassemble an auto engine
for the small amount of
lead in the bearings.)
2. When bearings are large and
easily accessible, lead is
often separated and re-
cycled .
3. This area is not promising
for increased recycling of
lead.
1. Sooe of this lead (for
example, foil, collapsible
tubes, terne netal) is
in forms or locations
that make recycling
difficult.
2. Some is easily recyclable
(such as weights and
ballasts, pipe and fittings,
sheet).
3. Other (caulking, annealing)
is marginal as to the econ-
omics of recycling and
depends on specific cases.
4. Overall, the recycle rate
is relatively high.
5. This area has licited possi-
bilities for increased
recycling of lead.
-------
TABLE II. IDDrTlFICATlOli'A10>;JUULT8lS OF »IDBU» TBaT 00 HOT DIKECTLY UOliCC
THE MOUNT 07 LEAD'THAT IS ftZCTCLED
*••' •" - - -.-.- ..«
s
. .' Definition ;
"*•••- ^ 1
1
1
. ' • -i
' • ; Effect on .
• ... tecyel* tale
".'' ' ' i
• • . •.-. S
Analysis '
" - :
.{
t'-
\:
--. -v-:;vV- •-
' Market/ V , lf
l.,The tetra'cthyl lead . '
- "Barker, 'sreaent Is i
expected to decline •
to zero within 10 year*. •'
.2. .Cable sheathing, -typ'e
-metal; and caulking lead
/markets are expected ~to •
continue to decline
'slowly in 'the future. *
3. Overall, growth of m i
-conventional Market* for *
lead vtll be very sasjll" '
*ln tb*' 'future ' "r
• \
\ '-
;*
-'
Sew* preseur* on economies
.of, recycling but no algnifi-. '
caot effect on quantities of •
lead thai will be recycled.
... . ' - . • _ |
1. it la unlikely that 'd>- .;
".cline of tctraeth'yl. lead - ""
. \ market ''eefBtent can be . . -
'prevented In face -of
..government pressure, and
policies of auto, manu- . .
facturera * oil conpanles.
2. It. Is unlikely that contln-
,ued decline of SOBC other, •
•arket Yegnentc. can be pre-
• -'vented where plastic* and
o'tber lute rials, have per- •
. fonunce and economic . •
•• advantages over lead. . -;
3. Prorotlon/and 'develb'pWnt -
', Vfforts atibuld be^concen- |
't rated "on 'oarket *egne'nts \:
vhere lead has advantages.'
4.1 Also, nev\u>es and .new t
t -a'l loVs' ;OT;' f ab /iVa* t ion c'^f'.
.'d-ethod* a'^buld 'be.- 'developed
.•^lo create ~ntv Basket aeg- t
"ceats 'for 'lead..
CuHtober 'Prejudices Battery Case DiBpossl "attery Acid Disposal Batterv Breaking
"1. SoeW lead^users cl.l. , .-3
'•that •econdary lead 'la, . .
Inferior -to prlnary lead.
2. It la doubtful if ..they ~!
'actually believe thta
generalUatlon.
3. They protably uae thla
ea baala for bargalnlnt
purposes.
, ^ *
' . *
•-. • -' ' - |
Ko significant effect on
'qoantltles*of .lead-that are
recycled. Little •-, *
economic 'effect. • ;
1. 'Secondary lead la not' ;
'inferior to -primary for
the *BM grades.
2. Proaot'lboal efforts • ..
Infomlng cuatoawra of
equal quality of sacottdsry,
plua advantages of
recycling say be desirable.
-i
' -.-'
1. For 'every ton of battery •
• ilead that. la recycled, one-
fourth to one-half ton of
byproduct cerea.-sre produced.
2. These are worthless and .
• ns possible jaourcs of ,,
-teed poisoning.
3. -The disposal problev Is . •.
large la qasntlty of cases.
and require* care In ssithod
of dlapoaal.
'. •. a
•o •significant effect oi
. quantities 'of Iced chat «re"
recycled. Slljtfat ecooomic
• effect because of dlspbeel •
'cost. ;
1. Battery ceses';~csuse an an- '
- • usually .large -and unique
• disposal probies).
2.. However, disposal coat a
• -are not' a large percent
of total operating cost.
3. Finding soew uses for
.battery ca«ea'would be
advantageous.
4. There la a trend to plastic
cVses In piece of rubber.
It U _po«slble to charge
furnace*. ' .
• * ''V-J i
""*" '•" • . ',
:-•--- .ia-~ .• .' , '-
J
. 'For every .ton of battery
lead that Is recycled.
;one-feurth to one-half
ton of byproduct acid Is ;
produced. • J
'. This 1* worthies* and 'can
pollute surface and ground *
'waters.
3. The disposal probles la
•large in 'quantity of acid,
end requires csr* in
'Mthod of disposal.
•
' ?
Bo significant effect en. '
quantities 'of lead that. ere '
recycled. Slight ecooomic '
effect because "of disposal -
cost. v
L. Battery'acid causes an on-'
oaually large 'and difficult
disposal .problem.
2. Rovever, disposal costs
src not s large percent
of total operating costs.
3. finding Improved disposal
methods would 'be
advantageous.
i
|
— .- -.-- -~-.. ,.:-&.
1. Scrap batteries 'must hive
the case opened to pet
the lead out.
, Z. Eand and nachln* 'methods
. a'r* wsed.
:3. /Tors ere sheared or aawed
off. Or-cases are broken
by aleiage'hapBiers or
entsMng tucbines.
4. Keaiwl and band-operated
•rswjcitlns; bte*kln» are unpleeeent
jots, •shin* it difficult to
Mr* and retain workers.
"l. There la e trend to 'more
eatomeUc machine breaking.
*. So** loaWtrlal batteries »r*
^iBieaicel cenceiaers requiring
cutting torches 'to get~tha
•batteries 'oiit.
*Re algetficBBt effect on the
^ejoeniitiem of lead recycled. See*
economic effect because of iocrest
Vlabor cost and investment cost foi
•'equlpcWnt.
1. tojivstlabtllty of labor, =plns
rlncremslnf cost of labor 'is .
forcing expsnston of machine
: bresUn* m«tbods.
2. This is. cawing larger and few
breaking* operation*.
3. C
-------
xii
Recommendations
The ten problems were assigned priorities based on three factors:
• Potential for improvement of the environment
• Potential for conservation of natural resources
• Possibilities for realistic solutions.
On this basis, .three of the problems were classified as high priority,
and the other seven as lower priority. Table III gives recommended actions
for the high priority problems. Table IV gives recommendations for the lower
priority problems.
The question of who takes action is difficult to answer. Battelle
suggests that NASMI and EPA continue their leadership in working on solid waste
problems, recognizing that many other Federal Government agencies such as the Bureau
of Mines, Council of Environmental Quality, and Department of Commerce, as well
as state and local agencies will be involved.
-------
xlil
TABLE III. RBCOMNENOKD ACTIONS, HIGH mOHlTY LEAD KlCycUIIC PIIOIILEIU
Actions
• Recommended
^OXDO)
By Whoa
•
Specific , .
Step*
Battery tend That it
Not Rreyelcd
An Investigation should
b* undertaken to determine
why 135, 000 tont of battery
lead were not .'recycled in
1969, Once tnla*;dctermi-
nation has 'been made,
appropriate additional
analyses and 'plan* can be
made to increase "the 'recycle
rate If feasible.
EPA/NASMI
1. form • cocnlttee of
secondary • leod'taclter*
end major processors. of
lead -scrap • • ,
2. Committee analyse and .dis-
cuss the 'possible and ,prob*
,able reasons for 'the large •
quantity of battery lead .
that is' hot recycled.
3, -Survey' organisations
involved In battery lead
recycling:
scrap ; processors
. -secondary 'smelters
battery rctallera
to determine what batteries
are not being recycled and
.why.
A 1
• .to determine if it is feas-
ible to increase the recycle
rate for battery lead, and if
' so -how. x
5. .'Take necessary actions (based
on 4)"'to Increase battery
lead 'recycling.
Uad Cable Sheathing That is
Not Recycled . . .
An Investigation should
be undertaken to- determine
why 98.000 tons of lead cable
sheathing were not reeyled In
1969. Part of this nay be ex-
ing by 'recycle companies or the
U;S. Bureau of Minos. 'However,
It Is difficult to see how the
entire 98^000' tons could be
explained this .way. Once
reasons for the1 low recycle
rate are 'determined,* approprl*
ate additional 'actions can be
planned.
- ' ' **.
BPA/HASMI
1. Torn a c omit tee of
secondary Isad snelteri
,. and major .processors of
' lead 'scrap.
2.- Committee analyze and
. discuss the possible
reasons Cor the low
' recycle rate for lead
cable sheathing.
3. Discuss with the
'. U.S. Bureau of Mines
possible misunderstandings
In reporting' of 'lead
cable ^sheathing.
4. Survey organizations .
involved in' lead cable
she* thine recycling:
scrap. processors
'electric utilities ,
telephone companies
cable-manufacturers.
5 . Ana 1 y*c survey ' re -
suits to determine if
recycle rate 'la indeed
low, and If It in, how
to'incrcase •it;
6. .Take appropriate actions
(based on results of S).
Battery Case Disposal
Disposal of battery
cases provides an excel-
lent subject for analysts
of solid-waste by product
problems. Cases .are .^
cannot be burned -without
air pollution, are hszard-
ous' to health, and. are
dirty and unpleasant to
handle.
Ah investigation
should be undertaken to
If major 'uses can be ,
found, the generation of
solid waste will be great-
ly reduced, and .'economics
of battery lead recycling
will,'be improved.
EPA/NASMI
1. Form a committee of
battery breakers,
••alters, scrap 'pro-
cessors i aod specialist*
in breaking.
2. ( Committee .prepare
rather ''comprehensive
write-up -on battery
cases: •> ••
. . sices' --
materials .
condition' of cases
.foreign ''materials
(Uad. acid, dirt).
• ' . - *>c.' •• . ' .,'-.'
3; Retain research organization
to seek uses via'
; Idea generation by
. creative groups
.. Interviews with people
and organisations
pertinent to the
subject
. evaluation of idea
. for new uses
, rcconmcndni ion's . 'I of
additional action's
if any
, •
feasibility of
best IdcoM for. us'co
5 ." ConJiict Rf.D on'-fi-ntiblc tdf
(1)
(2)
(J)
Tin; rotponslbllity for reeoDMnded .ctloai ihoim in'thli t.ble >rc b.icd on Inporconcc of th.
action, benefit to th. t«xp.y«ri, «nd oppottunltl.i for HASHI. They* are the best ludnxnii '
of Battcllc. . . •
RcconmoiKlcd octlons were dl.tribut.d between hljh priority and lower priority baied on the
evaluation.with three, criteria. . . -
It Is unvested that'N»Sra continue Iti leading role In recycling, recognlilng that other
orgonlzntlons such as the Bureau of Mine., DapartBint of Conierco, Council of Environmental
Quality, IIEU Office of InforMtlon. and St.te, loc.l. and Federal Ugiil.ture. mat be '
Involved. • •• ..-. . . .• . • •' • ••. . ,'.•••
183
-------
TABLE IV RECOMMENDED ACTIONS. LOWER PRIORITY LEAD RECTCLIKG PROBLEMS
Solders
• Bearing Lead
• Other Obsolete lead
Scrap that are
Not Recycled
Declining Market
Sceneries
Actions
Recommended
A brief investigation should
be undertaken to determine
the feasibility of increas-
ing the recycling of solders,
bearing lead, and other -
obsolete lead scrap. If
any feasible possibilities
are found, additional actions
can then be planned.
R&D should be pursued to
develop new markets for
lead. This may include
new alloys or compounds,
new forms, etc.
Custpr-.er PrtMudlcos
Ba11cry Acid Disposal Eattorv Br
Publicity should be used
to inform lead users of
the purity, and quality of
secondary and priir.ary
lead. Additionally, the
public service aspects
of using secondary lead
should be featured—clean
up the environment, save
natural resources.
An investigation
should be undertaken
to determine present
battery acid dispos-
al methods, and to
find improved
methods.
An investigation
should be under-
taken to develop
improved methods
of battery break-
ing.
(D(2)(3)
By wnoa
SASXI
NASMI/Lead Industries
Association/ILZRO
NASMI/NASMI Member
Companies
HASXI/Battery
Breakers
XASXI/Battery
Breakers
Specific
Scepa
1. Set up a comnittee of
secondary smelters
and scrap processors.
2. Corr-.ittee analyze what
is not being recycled
and why.
3. Recommend if it is
feasible to try to
increase recycling rate
or not.
4. Survey recycling
industry, if justified
(based on 3), to more
accurately determine
what and why of materials
not being recycled.
5. Determine what next
actions to take.
1. Set up a
cor-.-nittee of one
NASMI staff member,
and 2 secondary
snelters to co-
ordinate recycling
industry interests
with Lead Industries
Association/iLZRO
activities.
2. Discuss with
Lead Industries
Association how to
work together to
develop new lead
markets—funding of
R&D, selection of
projects, etc.
1. Continue general •
publicity prograias
that promote recycling
Inaugurate
specific program to
publicize recycling
of lead.
3. Help member
companies design
publicity and adver-
tising programs.
1. Set up a
corsittee of
•battery breakers-
• smelters, scrap
processor*
and specialist*
in breaking.
2. Prepare a report
on present
disposal methods
and problems.
3. Investigate similar
disposal problems
of other Indust-
ries.
4. Discuss improved
methods of disposal
with equipment and
materials suppliers
5. Determine what add!
tional actions
should be taken.
Set up a
committee of
battery breakers-
•meltert, scrap p
cessors, end
specialists
in breaking.
Prepare a report
on present
breaking methods,
equipment, and
problems.
Investigate impro'x
methods of breakir
Determine what
additional steps
to take.
x
H-
(1) The responsibility for rccontnondcd actions shown In this table arc based on importance of tr-
action, benefit to the taxpayers, and opportunities for NASH1. They are the best judgr.er.:*
of Battcllc.
(2) Kccoirmcndcd actions wore distributed between high priority and lower priority based on the
evaluation with three criteria.
(3) It is sur.p.er.u-d that NASMI continue Its lending role in recycling, recognizing that other
orc.nnix.il ionr. such as tin- liurcju of nines, Department of Commerce, Council of Environr.c-r.:a 1
Ounllty, IICW Office of lnform.it ton, anJ Slate, Local, ami Federal Legislatures must be
involved.
-------
INTRODUCTION
In June, 1970, Battelle-Columbus undertook a research program for the
National Association of Secondary Material Industries, Inc. (NASMI) . This work
was carried out under a subcontract from an Office of Solid .Waste Management
grant to NASMI. This report on lead is one of a series of eight comodity
reports plus a general or summary report. • . •
Background
The Office of Solid Waste Management .is responsible for .formulating
and recommending Federal Government policies in the area of solid waste pollution.
This includes pursuing appropriate research to determine the status and problems
of solid waste activities, and to develop programs to reduce solid waste pollution.
.-• , _ One approach to the reduction of solid waste pollution .is to reclaim
waste materials for reuse - the recycling concept. ~A~~welT established industry--
the secondary materials industry-exists to accomplish this recycling. NASMI is
the trade association representing the nonferrous metals, paper, and textiles
portion of this Industry.
lc-5.
-------
The scrap processors, secondary smelters, and other companies that
make.up the secondary materials Industry have developed effective channels and
methods for recycling nearly all waste materials of economic value. These
companies have performed their difficult and essential functions well in the
traditional economic environment.
More recently additional dimensions have been added to this traditional
economic environment. These new dimensions are (1) improvement of the environ-
ment in which we live, and (2) increased need for conservation of natural
resources. These new dimensions provide new challenges and opportunities for
the recycling Industry. No longer is economic gain the sole driving force for
recycling of waste materials. Social gain has been added in the forms of
Improved living conditions and preservation of resources for future generations.
In an economics-based nation this creates problems of interpretation and
evaluation of noheconomics-based goals and activities.
The purpose of this series of reports Is to Identify obstacles to the
recycling of solid wastes, and to recomend directions for investigation and
research to overcome these obstacles.
Oblectives
The objective of the study on which this report is based was to
identify opportunities for the increased utilization of solid waste. The major
sub-objectives were:
(1) To determine the structure and functions of the secondary
materials industry, and its relationships to sources of
supply and markets
(2) To identify and evaluate problems of recycling - materials,
sources, industry, and markets, and
(3) To determine opportunities for Increased recycling.
1SG
Scope
The major subjects Included in the scope of the study are the secondary
materials industry, the materials it recycles, the sources of solid wastes, and
the markets for recycled materials. Activities peripheral to these major
subjects are considered where pertinent to recycling.
The materials included in the study are:
Aluminum Nickel and Nickel Alloys
Copper and Copper Alloys
Lead
Zinc Textiles
Precious Metals (Silver, Gold, and
Platinum)
Paper
Research Methods
The methods and procedures used in the study are discussed under four
types of activities. They include (A) literature search, (B) extensive survey,
(C) in-depth survey, and (D) analysis and synthesis.
Literature Search
The literature search Included reviewing and studying books, Government
reports, industry reports, and trade journals covering solid waste handling and
problems, recovery and market data, and recycling of valuable materials.
The results of this effort Included the accumulation of data and
descriptive material, and an organized bibliography dealing with each of the
commodities covered in the scope of the study.
167
-------
Extensive Survey
The extensive survey of the secondary materials industry consisted of
a mail survey and personal interviews with management personnel of 'companies
involved with the collection, processing, and sale of secondary, materials.
About 600 responses were received.
The information developed through the extensive survey included dollar
sales, tons of major materials handled, types of solid waste processed, sources
of materials, investment, equipment and facilities, number of employees, the
amount of space used, and the grades and quantities of secondary materials
produced. • " •
The data from the extensive survey provided statistical tabulations of
the regional distribution of the secondary materials industries by type of
commodity in terms of numbers of establishments, volume of business, and numbers
of employees. . •.. ,''•"..
In-depth Survey -. ' .
The in-depth survey of selected members of the secondary materials
industries, their suppliers, and the users of their products served to Identify '
the major technical and economic problems facing those companies involved with
secondary material utilization. About 200 interviews were completed. Battelle
and NASMI commodity specialists jointly selected the companies to be interviewed
in depth. .
Interview guides for each of the commodities were prepared. The
problems and potential solutions for greate'st recycling and waste utilization
that were developed from the literature search and prior 'Office of Solid Waste
iss
Management work plus the knowledge of the NASM1 commodity specialists provided
the basis for designing the interview guide. Sample guides are reproduced In
the Appendix.
Analysis and Synthesis
the analysis and synthesis step was concerned with the collation and
analysis of data and Information derived from both the literature, extensive
survey, and in-depth survey. The analysis and synthesis activity covered the
following tasks:
(1) Economic Data on the Secondary Materials Industries. The
economic data developed through the extensive survey of the
secondary materials industries were tabulated and analyzed -as
to the amount and type of solid waste handled and as to
operational data such as number of employees, amount of
•space required, capitalization, and geographic locations.
(2) Flow Diagrams and Life Cycles. Flow diagrams were developed
to Indicate the flow of materials from primary production
and scrap sources through fabrication. Life cycle estimates
of various products were used to develop data on quantities
available for possible recycling.
(3) Demand-Supply Relationships. Estimates were made of future
demand and supply levels for secondary materials. The rela-
tionship between these data provide an indication of "potential
surpluses or shortages of recycled materials through 1980.
(4) Stability of Flow and Consumption. This analysis is closely
related to the supply-demand analysis described above and
identifies the ability of the various secondary materials to
189
-------
compete as source materials for manufacturers. A number of
factors were examined such as price changes in the secondary
materials, the availability of materials, and the effect of
sudden changes in the magnitude of demand.
(5) Direct Impacts of Technological Change. Direct technical and
technological factors were examined to determine their effect
on rates of processing and recycling. Potential changes that
could take place in technology that could decrease or increase
the rate of solid waste recovery were examined. This includes
the identification of potentially recoverable solid wastes,
the problems limiting the recovery to current levels, and the
possibilities of technical advances through the use of known
technology or through added scientific and engineering research.
(6) Constraints on Expansion of the Secondary Materials Industries.
This analysis included consideration of elements critical to
expansion of recycling - labor and management availability,
laws and regulations, equipment availability, nature of solid
waste materials, market needs, etc.
(7) Potentials for Expansion of the Secondary Materials Industries.
Based on the constraints identified in the above task, plus
examination of various methods for overcoming constraints,
this task determined the ability of the secondary materials
industries to meet new opportunities for recycling.
(8) Indirect Technological Change. The broad overall technological
trends indirectly affecting the secondary materials industries
were examined, and their probable impacts determined.
IS <)
THE LEAD INDUSTRY
Primary and recycled lead can be used interchangeably for most appli-
cations. Thus, many of the markets for recycled lead are the same as those for
primary lead, and there is competition between the two sources to supply lead
to its markets.
This first section of the report provides a brief review of the lead
industry - including both primary and recycled producers. Included are:
Characteristics of Lead
Characteristics of the Lead Industry
Markets for Lead
Market Outlook.
Characteristics of Lead
A variety of types and forms of lead are produced. Major among these
are:
Pig lead
Antimonlal lead
Miscellaneous lead-base alloys
Lead oxides, pigments, and chemicals.
Table 1 gives specifications for the four common grades of pig lead
(also called soft lead). Of these grades, corroding lead and chemical lead are
not normally produced from scrap.
A fifth grade of pig lead is remelt lead produced from scrap. Since
this Is not reduced or refined, it is not a standard specification product. Its
composition will vary depending upon the composition of the scrap that is melted.
-------
Antimonial Lead
Antimonial lead (also called hard lead) includes a range of alloys
meeting the specifications of different users. It Is produced mainly from
battery scrap and used largely in the manufacture of new batteries. Table 2 is a
quote from The Association of American Battery Manufacturers, Inc. (AABM)
yearbook pertinent to antimonial lead.
TABLE 1
STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS FOR PIG LEAD
(A.S.T.M. Designation B29-55)
Silver,
Silver,
Copper,
Copper,
maximum,
minimum ,
maximum,
minimum,
percent
percent
percent
percent
Corroding
Lead
0.0015
--
0.0015
--
Chemical
Lead
0.020
0.002
0.080
0.040
Acid
Copper
Lead
0.002
--
0.080
0.040
Common
Desilverized
Lead
0.002
—
0.0025
—
Silver and copper together,
maximum, percent 0.0025
Arsenic, antimony, and tin
together, maximum, percent
Zinc, maximum, percent
Iron, maximum, percent
Bismuth, maximum, percent
Lead (by difference),
minimum, percent 99.94
0.002
0.001 '
0.002
0.050
0.002
.0.001
0.002
0.005
0.002
•_i .
0. 001
0.002
0.025
0.005
t . V
0.002
0.002
0.150
99.90
99.90
99.85
132
TABLE 2
BATTERY MATERIALS SPECIFICATIONS
Unless otherwise detailed in this specification all material
used in the construction of batteries shall conform to the
best commercial practices. Active material, grid alloy or
miscellaneous lead parts smelted from other batteries must
• be refined prior to subsequent use in new batteries.
Source: American Association of Battery Manufacturers,
Yearbook. 1970.
Miscellaneous Lead-Base Alloys
A variety of other lead-base alloys are produced in limited quantities.
More important among these are:
Babbitts - used as bearing materials
Solders - used for joining and filling metals
Type metals - used in printing plates.
These alloys are generally produced to custpmer specifications, standard
specifications, and brand names.
Lead Oxides, Pigments, and Chemicals
include:
Nonmetal forms of lead that are produced in significant quantities
Litharge
Red lead
White lead
Black oxide
Tetraethyl lead.
193
-------
10
11
Specifications for oxides used in batteries (black oxide, litharge)
are covered by the quote of Table 2. Other oxides meet public or private
specifications depending on the customer.
Characteristics of the Lead Industry
The lead industry includes the institutions and activities necessary
to process the lead-containing raw materials into the various usable grades of
lead and lead compounds. Included are several types of companies:
Integrated producers - mining, concentrating, saelting and refining
Miners - mining, concentrating of ores
Primary smelters - smelting and refining from ore
Secondary smelters - smelting and refining from scrap
Scrap processors - collecting, sorting, melting of scrap.
Materials Sources
materials:
The U.S. lead industry depends on the following sources for lead
(1)
Domestic ores
Imported ores
Imported metal
Drosses, residues, and scrap
1969 Supply
(lead content), tons
515,000
125,000
285,000
605,000
In recent years, domestic ores have Increased substantially as a mater-
ials source, while the other three sources have remained constant.
Materials Flow
There are four major sources of lead raw materials as shown above.
In addition, the U.S. Strategic Stockpile can be a source or a market depending
on whether it is a net seller or buyer in a specified year.
Figure 1 provides a materials flow balance for lead for the year 1969.
The major importance of recycled lead is apparent, as is the heavy market depen-
dence on batteries and tetraethyl lead. None of the other individual uses exceed
90,000 tons or about 5 percent of total consumption.
Lead Producers
Production of primary lead in the U.S. is dominated by five producers
with over 85 percent of the total primary production:
American Smelting & Refining Company (38Z)
St. Joseph Minerals Company (20%)
American Metal Climax Company (n.a.)
Bunker Hill Company . (19%)
U.S. Smelting, Refining & Mining Company ( 7%)
There are over 2CO additional companies that smelt or reroelt lead in
the United States. Most of these are secondary producers. The largest of these
is NL Industries Inc.
Table 3 provides 1967 data (latest available) concerning primary and
secondary lead smelters. This table is incomplete because more diversified
companies are not included. Even so, it shows 19 primary and 112 secondary
companies.
(1) U.S. Bureau of Mines.
(1) "Economic Analysis of the Lead-Zinc Industry", April 1969, Chas. River Associates,
Inc., Cambridge, Mass.
19-1
-------
TABLE 3
GENERAL STATISTICS FOR LEAD ESTABLISHMENTS, 1967
Indus-
try of
Product
Class
Code
3332
33413
Industry or
Product Class
Primary Lead
Entire industry
Secondary Lead (pig, ingot,
Estab-
lish-
ments
(number)
19
All
Number
(1,0005
2.7
Employees
Payroll
($ million)
18.9
Value
Added by
Manufacture
($ million)
48.3
Cost of
Materials
($ mil-lionl
270.8
Value of
Shipments
($ million)
304.0
Capital
Expend 1 -
new
($ million)
18.5
shot, etc.)
(Primary product class of
establishment)
Establishments with 757. or
more specialization
62
50
3.4
2.4
23.3
16:5
43.0
26.9
218.6
149.-0
263.5
178.5
3.4
3.0
Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 1967 Census of Manufacturers. "Smelting and Refining,of
Nonfcrrous Metals and Alloys", p. 33C-10 and p. 33C-19.
SOURCE
CONSUMPTION
SE
535,000 ::::::0ther Manufacturing
Li«ii;::?r^>^ Additions to Inventories
Notes: (I) Quantities are'.in
short tons
(2) Supply and consumption
are balonced-by "Unexplained
Losses" use
OXN. Une«ploined Losses
FIGURE I. MATERIALS FLOW BALANCE., LEAD, 1969
Source; U.S. Bureau.of Mines, Minerals'Yearbook. 1969,
"Lead" chapter
-------
Markets for Lead
Markets for lead have Increased slowly over the past 25 years - at an
average annual rate of 0.5 percent. Figure 2 gives annual consumption since
1945 as reported by the U.S. Bureau of Mines.
I.4OO
(.too
.1000
I eoo
eoo
400
eoo
l»45
I9CO
1970
FIGURE 2. LEAD CONSUMTPION, U.S., 1945-1969
Source: U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook. 1969,
p. 625.
Table 4 gives a breakdown of lead consumption for 1969 by type of metal.
Much of the soft lead is further processed to make lead oxides and tetraethyl lead.
Most of the antimonial lead is used to manufacture storage battery parts.
Figure 2-A provides historical price data monthly for a 10-year period.
198
-------
15
TABLE 4
LEAD CONSUMPTION BY TYPE OF METAL,
V.S., 1969.
Type of Metal
Short Tons of Lead
Soft Lead . 900,858
Antimonial Lead . 384,324
Alloys (other than copper-base) 51,426
Copper-Base Alloys ' 15,367
Other . 37.383
TOTAL 1,389,358
Source;- U.S. Bureau of Mines.' Minerals
Yearbook. 1969, "Lead" chapter.
Lead Use Pattern
The market for lead is characterized by one very large use (storage
batteries - representing about 40 percent of the lead consumed annually), one large
use (tetraethyl lead - representing about 29 percent of the lead consumed), and
many small uses. Table 5 provides a use pattern for lead for 1969. Additional
information is given in the Appendix concerning uses of lead.
Secondary Lead Markets
Markets for secondary lead accounted for 585,000 tons in 1969. .This is
included in the previous subsections on markets and use patterns. A more complete
consideration of markets for secondary lead is presented in a later section,
"The Lead Recycling Industry". . ' .
Market Outlook
• ' The market outlook for lead Is not favorable. If present trends continue,
It is' expected that tetraethyl lead (TEL) demand will decrease to nearly zero
£00
16
TABLE 5
LEAD'CONSUMPTION IN THE U.S.,' BY PRODUCTS
(Short tons)
':Product
Metal Products: :
Ammunition
Bearing Metals
Brass and Bronze
Cable Covering "'
Caulking Lead-
Casting Metals
Collapsible Tubes
Foil -
Pipes, Traps, and Bends
Sheet Lead : • • '
Spider
Storage Batteries:'• •
Battery Grids, Posts, etc.
Battery Oxides ;
Terne Metal
Type Metal
TOTAL
Pigments:
White Lead
•Red Lead and Litharge
Pigment Colors
Othert1)'
TOTAL
Chemicals;
Gasoline Antiknock Additives
Miscellaneous Chemicals
TOTAL
Miscellaneous Uses:
.Annealing
Galvanizing
Lead Plating
Weights and Ballast
' TOTAL
Other, Unclassified Uses
GRAND TOTAL
* •
1969
79,233
17,406
21,512
54,203
9^918
12,484
5,881
19,407
25,818
72,626
280,386
302,160
1,583
25.660
973:134
6,617
79,898
14,670
271,128
602
271.730
4,252
1,797
406
17.366
23,821
18.'287
1,389,358
_(1)Includes lead content of leaded zinc oxide and other
pigments. "
(2) Includes lead which went directly from scrap to fabrica-
ted products.
Source: U.'S. Bureau of Mines.. Minerals Yearbook. 1969,
"Lead" chapter.
SOI
-------
17
18
during the next 10 years based on redesign of automotive engines and increased
production of higher octane gasoline constituents. The automobile manufacturers
and petroleum companies seem to be dedicated to this course.
The U.S. Bureau of Mines estimates annual growth rates during the 1970's
as follows:
Percent
Primary lead 1.6
Secondary lead 2.5
These estimates do not take into account the decreasing deaand for lead
in TEL. If the TEL market it lost by 1980, this is an annual average loss of
1.7 percent of the total lead market during the 11-year period from 1969-1980.
Subtracting this from the 2.1 percent growth rate estimated by the Bureau of Mines
gives a growth rate of only 0.4 percent annually. This compares with an average
annual growth rate of 0.5 percent during the last 25 years.
The importance of this low future growth rate is that it nay depress
lead prices. This could then adversely affect the recycling of lead because of
depressed scrap prices.
202
) ;
THE LEAD RECYCLING INDUSTRY - ••,, "
The lead recycling industry is organized to collect, process, and refine
scrapped lead, and again make it available for use. This industry and the mater-
ials it handles are reviewed in this section. The topics included are:
'Characteristics of Lead Materials
Characteristics of the Lead Recycling Industry
Recycled Lead Markets
Materials Flow Pattern for Lead Recycling
Demand/Supply Analysis.
Characteristics of Recycled Lead
Secondary Lead
All grades of lead can be made from scrap by secondary smelters. How-
ever, ASTM corroding lead and ASTH chemical lead are not normally produced by
secondary smelters. Antimonial lead to customer specifications is the largest
single tonnage of secondary lead. Other alloys such as bearing metals, type
metals, and solders are important. Soft lead is also a large output of secondary
smelters. Large tonnages of this soft lead are used to make tetraethyl lead and
battery oxides.
Scrap and Drosses
The raw materials of the lead recycling industry are a variety of types
of scrap and drosses. These materials vary from almost pure soft lead to drosses
and alloys with over 25 percent impurities. Also, some lead scrap is mechanically
mixed with other materials and must be separated. Notable examples of such
products are storage batteries and lead-sheathed electrical cable.
For a discussion of the functions of the recycling industry see Vol. I,
General Report. • ** r> r^
-------
._.._ 19
Table'6 "provides NASMI. definitions of standard, grades of lead scrap.'"'•-'.. •
Characteristics of the Lead Recycling Industry
Scrap metal dealers collect, handle, sort, segregate, and process the
various grades of lead scrap for eventual shipment to secondary lead smelters,
refiners, and consumers. A majority of these dealers also collect and handle other
scrap metals. However, some dealers specialize in lead scrap, particularly those
processing scrap batteries.
Dealers utilize modern equipment and materials handling methods in the
processing of lead scrap. Lead cable strippers, for example, are used in removing
the lead sheathing from cable. The separation of battery lead from batteries now
involves saws, choppers, and guillotines.
A large proportion of scrap batteries by-passes the scrap metal dealer
'who'is not a specialist. The processing of scrap batteries requires expensive
equipment. Also, disposal of cases and acids'is often difficult.
Lead scrap consumers consist of remelters, smelters, refiners, and manu-
facturers who convert scrap and residues into useful products.
Equipment and facilities in the secondary lead smelting and refining
industry range from small remelting pots to complex furnace operations. These
operations involve furnaces of various types, such as sweaters, blast and rever-
beratory furnaces, refining kettles, and special systems to recover lead and alloy
metals. All secondary metal plants are equipped with chemical analysis facili-
ties and spectrographic units. These are used to determine the compositions of
the purchased scrap, and to adjust composition of the refined lead to desired
specifications. ' '
204
.20
TABLE 6
GRADES OF LEAD SCRAP AND DROSSES
SCRAP LEAD - SOFT
Shall consist of clean soft scrap lead, free of all foreign materials such as
drosses, battery lead, lead covered cable, hard lead, collapsible tubes, foil,
type metals, zinc, iron, and brass fittings, dirty chemical lead. Free of
radioactive materials. ' . -•
MIXED HARD'/SOFT SCRAP LEAD
Shall consist of clean lead solids, free of foreign materials, such as drosses,
battery lead,, lead covered cable, collapsible tubes, type metals:, zinc, iron
and brass fittings, dirty chemical lead'. Free of radioactive materials.
BATTERY PLATES
If cells (plates, separators, and lugs) or battery plates, must be reasonably
free of rubber. May be bought and sold by assay or as agreed between buyer and
seller.
DRAINED WHOLE BATTERIES
Batteries to be free of liquid and extraneous material content. Aircraft
(aluminum or steel cased) and other special batteries subject to special
agreement .
BATTERY LUGS
Shall be free from battery plates, rubber and foreign material. A minimum of
97 percent metallic -content is required.
LEAD COVERED COPPER CABLE
Free of armored covered cable, and foreign material.
LEAD DROSS
Should be clean and reasonably free of foreign matter, iron, dirt, harmful chemi-
'cals or other metals. Free of radioactive materials. Assay basis, , or as agreed
between buyer and seller. Other metals present such as antimony, tin, etc., to
be accounted for as agreed between buyer and seller.
LEAP WEIGHTS
May consist of lead balances with or without iron, as may be specified. Free of
foreign materials.
MIXED COMMON BABBITT
Shall consist of lead base bearing metal containing not less than 8 percent tin,
free from Aliens Metal, Ornamental, Antimonial and Type Metal. Must be free
from all zincy and excessive copper in the alloy.
Source : NASMI .
-------
21
22
Materials Sources , . "
Lead for recycling comes from melters of lead (mostly as drosses and
residues), from users of lead who generate scrap in making lead products, from users of
lead-containing products as obsolete scrap, from demolition of buildings, and
from scrappage of obsolete equipment containing lead.
The importance of the various types of lead scrap is shown in Table 7
which gives lead scrap consumption data by type of scrap.
TABLE 7
CONSUMPTION OF LEAD SCRAP BY TYPE, 1969
TABLE 8
LEAD SCRAP PRICES. 1969
Price,
Item i per Ib
Drosa
Soft lead
Battery plates
8
12
7
Type of Scrap
Soft lead
Hard lead
Cable lead
Battery-lead plates
Mixed common babbitt
Solder and tinny lead
Type metals
Drosses and residues
GRAND TOTAL
Short Tons
of Scrap
57,791
15,553
31,983
520,913
12,220
11,853
32,462
114.988
797,763
Source: U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals
Yearbook. 1969, "Lead" chapter.
Lead scrap prices vary greatly depending on prices of new lead,
the grade of scrap, geographical location, availability, and other factors.
Table 8 provides a rough indication of typical prices in 1969.
Whole batteries, (drained) 4
Common Babbitt 10
Source: NASMI lead committee.
Recycled Lead Markets
Table 9 gives a 10-year history of recycled lead production (consump-
tion is about the same as production). Also included is secondary production
as a percent of total lead consumption. This has remained in the range of 40-46
percent for the 10-year period.
TABLE 9
RECYCLED LEAD PRODUCTION, 1960-1969
106
\
Year
1960
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Source :
Short Tons
of Secondary Lead
470,000
453,000
444,000
493,000
542,000
576,000
573,000
554,000
551,000
604,000
U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals
Percent of Total
Lead Consumption
46
44
40
42
45
46
43
44
42
44
Yearbook. i4o4
and 1969, "Lead" chapter.
-------
23
Use Patterns' ' • .
The use pattern for secondary lead Is similar to that for all lead.
Secondary and primary lead are more often than not indistinguishable from each
other. Table 10 gives 1969 consumption data for. secondary lead. The importance
of batteries and tetraethyl lead as markets is apparent.
TABLE 10
CONSUMPTION OF SECONDARY LEAD BY USE, 1969
Use
Batteries
Tetraethyl lead
Solder
Type metal
Cable sheathing
Bearing metal
Other uses
TOTAL
Ions of Lead.
400,000^^
75,000<2>
31,000<3>
28,000(3)
19,000<3>
13,000<3>
19.000(3)
585,000<3)
Percent of Total
69
13
5
5
3
2
"JL
. 100
Notes: (1) Battelle estimate based on U.S. Bureau of
Mines data. •
(2) Battelle estimate based.on opinions of
secondary lead industry.
(3) U.S. Bureau of Mines_data. _. . _' .
Source: U.S."Bureau of Mine's, Minerals •Yearbook. 1969',
"Lead" chapter.
2Q8 .-
24
Industry Data •• .
A survey of the recycling industry developed data to afford profiles
of the industry and the companies making up the industry. Volume I, General
Report, in this series gives many of these data. A few data concerning lead
are given here and in Appendix B of -this-report. ••"'•'
The average recycler of lead compares with, the'average recycler of all
commodities as follows:
Lead
All commodities
(1)
Investment in Number of Investment
Plant and Equipment Employees per Employee
$1,652,000
.,1,480,000
95
71
17,300
20,800
Figure 3 shows the variation in size by census region of (1) lead
scrap processors and (2) lead smelters. There is little correlation of sizes
with population density, degree of industrialization, or other common regional
indicators.
(1) Data from extensive survey.
209
-------
X
26
Materials Flow fattern for Lead Recycling ' •;
Using data on scrap sources and markets for secondary lead-.In 1969,*
plus calculations of the quantities of lead scrap that should have been generated
in 1969, it Is possible to develop a materials flow pattern. Table 11 presents
these data. Footnotes show sources and methods of derivation. ' >
The first column of the table gives data concerning the quantities of
lead that should have been scrapped In 1969 based on life cycles of the various
sources. Thus, drosses are Immediately available as a byproduct of lead melting.
At the other extreme are lead sheathlngs for cable which are in use for an average
of 40 years before they are scrapped. 'The quantity of lead used in production of
cable sheathing in 1929 (actually the 1923-1935 average was used to smooth year-to-
year variations) is the amount that should have been scrapped in 1969, and this
is the 130,000 tens shown in Table 11. The other entries in the first column
were calculated in a similar manner using the life cycles given in footnote (2).
Figure 4 presents the data of Table 11 In graphic form. The widths of
the various channels are proportional to the quantities involved. The total
amount of lead calculated to be available for recycling is shown by lightly
shaded areas, the rec -cled lead is shown by the unshaded areas, and the lead that
is not recyeled is shown by darkly shaded areas. It can be seen that industrial
scrap is not a problem - essentially all of it is recycled. But for the large
categories of obsolete scrap—batteries, oxides, and cable sheathing—large quanti-
ties apparently are not recycled. The major reason for this is that it is not
economically feasible. This will be discussed later in a problems section.
fcii
-------
LEAD SCRAP RECYCLING, 1969
Scrap Source^ /
Drosses and residues
Batteries
Tetr.aethyl lead
Oxides and .chemicals
Cable sheathing
Spider
Bearing metal
Type metal
Ammunition
Other obsolete scrap
-TOTAL
Tons" of Lead Calculated j>otiB
to be Available for1 of Lead
Recycling2) Recycled
88,000
485,000(4)
271,000
125,000
130,000
65,000
33,000
29,000
80,000
<6> 100,000
1,406,000
88,000<3)
350,000<3>
--
--
32,000<3)
9,000<3>
10, 000 <3)
29,OPO<3)
5,000<5)
62, 000 (3)
585,000<3)
Percent
Recycled
100
72
0
0
25
14
30
,100
6
62
42
Tons of Lead
Not Recycled
:.--
135,000
271,000
125,000
:98,000
56lV0,00
23,000
'••!•-
75,0,0,0
38,000
821,000
Notes: (1) "Drosses.and residues" covers prompt industrial ,scra.p. ..All other
headings in column cover obsolete scrap.
(2) Calculated from estimated life cycles and consump.ti.Qn .of lead t.hat
number of years prior to 1969. The life cycles used,,.and t;he y,eatr,s
for which consumption data obtained are as follows:
Source
Drosses and residues
Batteries
TEL '
.Oxides and chemicals
Cable sheathing
Solder
Bearing metal
Type metal
Ammunition
Other obsolete scrap
Years of JLead Consumption
Life Cycle Used ,to Calculate
(years) Lead .Availability
0.1 .1-969
2.3: l966-rl96r- average
0.2 -1969
20.0 1949-1950 average
40.0 1923T1935 ""
20.0 1949^1950 "
20.0 1949-1950 "
2.0 i966-,i968 "
0.5 1968rl969 "
30.0 1938-i939 "
(3) Based on U.S. Bureau of Mines data.
(4) Includes 40,000 tons/year of lead in litharge (Battelle estimate).
(5) Estimated by Battelle.
(6) Copper-based allots not included.
i
Source: U.S. Bureau of Mines.. Minerals Yearbooks. 1935 to 1969, "Lead" chapters.
-------
28
Prompt
Type
Notes: (I) All quantities in
short tons of lead
(2) Home scrap not included
(3) Estimated 25% of scrap
by-passes processors,
dealers, and brokers
Bearings
Ti^OOO
19,000
100.000 38,000
iKf«>6JQPoi|p!iS22i
Available:;! Recycled |;
•Lead in ii;
;;Scropll:::
585.0OO
Recycled
115% Prompt Industrial
85% Obsolete)
Secondary
Lead markets
FIGURE 4. SCRAP/SECONDARY LEAD FLOW, 1969
13
-------
"29
.'' - Demand/Supply Analysis
A brief analysis of expected future demand and supply for secondary
lead provides one indication of the future environment for lead recycling.
Demand ' •'. •
Demand for secondary lead in 1969 and future years is forecast as
follows: (Based on growth rate for secondary lead of 0.4 percent
annually [see Market Outlook subsection, p. 15]).
Short Tons
1969 585,000
1974 595,000
1979 ' 610,000
Supply
Future availability of secondary lead, based on present recovery'rates
is as follows: (Calculated by same method used to calculate 1969 availability
[see Table 11]). -
Secondary Production
1969- - '" . 585,000""
1974 740,000
1979 830,000
\\A
30
Demand/Supply Balance - ' •
Surpluses of secondary lead (or lead scrap) are indicated for 1974
and 1979 based on (1) current recovery practices, (2) scrap availability forecasts,
and (3) market forecasts:
Short Tons of Lead
1974 1979
Demand
*,. t '
Supply
Surplus
595,000 610,000
740,000 830,000
145,000 220,000
The major reasons for the apparent future surplus of secondary lead
are: (1) loss of TEL market, (2) nongrowth and decline of other markets (cable
sheathing, type metal, solder, plumbing products, etc.), (3) rapidly increasing
availability of lead scrap as calculated from life cycle data. However, these
surpluses do not show what will happen. In reality it is expected that demand
will increase to the supply level at the expense of lower demand for primary
lead. The price of recycled lead is discounted to encourage its use. Buying
prices for scrap are set to follow price reductions. However, if recycling in-
creases more rapidly than expected, markets for secondary leac." may become more
critical to the recycling process in the future.
-------
30a
Effect on Lead Industry
It is reasonable to expect that an additional 213,000 short tons of
lead could be recycled annually under ideal conditions. If.this much
additional lead can be recycled by 1974, about 25 percent will be added to the
predicted recycled lead supply in that year.
This is less than 13 percent of total supplies, or about a 2-1/2 percent
Increase each year for the 5 years between 1969 and 1974. This should not cause
major upheaval in the lead industry. This additional recycled lead will be
marketed at the expense of lower sales of domestic and imported primary lead
because of the lower price for recycled. Since, there are large year-to-year
variations in primary lead supplies (in the 1965-1969 period imported metal
varied by 175,000 tons from lowest to highest year, production from domestic
ores varied by 250,000 tons), growth of recycled lead supplies over a 5-year
period should not cause unusual problems for the primary suppliers.
(1) The 213,000 tons was calculated based on the following changes in percent
recycled:
Additional
1969, Goal, Recycled,
Batteries
Cable
Solders
Other Obsolete
TOTAL
tons
72
25
14
62
90
90
50
80
86,500
85,000
23,500
18.000
213,000
216
31
LEAD SCRAP RECYCLING PROBLEMS
There are several problems that directly reduce the amount of lead
that is recycled. In order to provide as quantitative a base as possible for
analyzing the effects of the problems on recycling, the organization of this
section follows the types of scrap.
Industrial Scrap
There are no types of prompt industrial lead scrap that are not close
to 100 percent recycled. This is also true of drosses, flue dusts, and other
materials generated during smelting of secondary lead. Some lead is lost in
slags during secondary smelting, but these losses are very small. Thus, there
are no problems concerning industrial lead scrap that directly reduce the amount
of lead that is recycled.
Obsolete Scrap
Recycling of lead according to class of use varies from 0 percent
(tetraethyl lead) to pearly 100 percent (type metal). The problem areas involve
the following classes of uses:
(1) Tetraethyl lead
(2) Oxides
(3) Cable sheathing
(A) Bearing lead
(5) Battery lead
(6) Solder
(7) Ammunition lead
(8) Other obsolete lead scrap.
(1) Problems that do not directly reduce the amount of lead that is recycled are
discussed in the next major section of the report.
(2) Type metal scrap is not Included because it la about 100 percent recycled.
2.17
-------
32
Table 12 presents these problems in-eight columns based on 1969 data.;
Included are: (1) definitions of the problems (2) tons of lead not recycled,
(3) percent of lead calculated to be available but that was not recycled, and
(4) analyses of the problems.
Four of the problems hold little or not promise for increased recycling
of lead under present econimic conditions. These involve the following categories
of lead that is not recycled:
• Tet'raethyl lead
• Lead oxides and chemicals
• Ammunition lead
• Bearing lead.
In all four of these cases the lead is so widely dispersed, or so con*
tamlnated with other materials as to be virtually unrecoverable. Only for tetra-
ethyl lead is this condition likely to change in the future. If catalytic air
pollution control systems are installed on motor vehicles,- the lead may be
recoverable by the service stations that service the catalytic systems. Of if
the systems do not require servicing, the lead might be recoverable when the auto
is scrapped.
Two of the problems hold considerable promise for Increased recovery and
recycling of lead. These are the following categories where not. all lead is now
recycled:
• Battery lead
• Lead cable sheathing.
In both of these areas it is difficult to explain the high losses since
recycling is economically attractive. It is believed that errors in reporting may
account for some of the apparent losses. Some lead cable sheathing is probably
reported in the "other" category. Perhaps even some of the battery lead is
218
-------
33
TABLE 12 IDEOTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF PROBLEMS CONCERNING LEAD THAT WAS NOT RECYCLED IN 1969
Tetraethvl Lead
Lead Oxides and Chemicals
(Excluding Battery Oxides and Tetraethyl Lead)
PROBLEM
DEFINITION
1. Tetraethyl lead is added
to gasoline in minute
quantities.
2. The lead is converted to
lead oxides and other
compounds in the engine
cylinder.
3. This lead is then deposi-
ted on engine parts, in
the exhaust system, and
exhausted to the atmosphere.
1. Included in this category are
white lead, red lead, litharge
(except for batteries), leaded
zinc oxide, and miscellaneous
chemicals.
2. These oxides and chemicals are
used primarily in paints, cer-
amic glazes, rubber, insecti-
cides, and several minor uses.
3. In nearly all uses, the lead
compound becomes a minor con-
stituent of a larger system.
TONS OF LEAD
NOT RECYCLED
271,000
125,000
% OF AVAILABLE
LEAD NOT RECYCLED
100
100
PROBLEM
ANALYSIS
4.
1. Annual discharge of lead for
an average auto is 5 Ib.
2. Recovery of this lead has in-
significant economic value to
the auto owner.
3. In the future, pollution-
control devices may collect
the lead.
4. These devices will probably
require regular servicing.
5. The lead may be economically
recoverable by the service
station, and could then be
recycled.
6. But lead in gasoline will
decrease in future to reach
near zero in 10 years.
7. Therefore, this is not a promising
area in which to increase
recycling of lead.
1. Lead is usually under 1% of a
system with other materials.
2. The other materials are usually
low-value materials such as wood,
rubber, ceramics, or steel.
3. Little of these other materials
are recycled.
It is nearly impossible techni-
cally and economically to separate
the lead from the other materials
for recycling the lead only.
5. This is not a promising area in
which to increase recycling of
lead.
*-. .-•<
-------
33a
TABLE 12 -IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF PROBLEMS CONCERNING ^LEAD THAT 'WAS 'NOT-RECYCLED {N 1969 (Continued)
.: s^gP:gategbr:ies;;WKer.e' Spine::^ad Was;.;Not Recycled
Battery Lead
,;£tead«Cab le Shea thin g .
.,. '.Ammunition Lead
PROBLEM
DEFINITION
1. Antimonial lead is used for
structural and electrical
parts of tlead-acid storage
••'batteries.
V2. Load oxides (usually produced
by the ba'ttery''manufacturers)
"arc used 'for active''materials.
on battery electrodes.
3. A typical*automotive battery
contains '10 Ibs of' antimoriial
• lead and 10 Ibs of lead
oxides when manufactured.
4. Automotive- battery 'sales' 'are
-'based on a trade-in allowance
for the did batteries .
•5. Thus,-most worn out batteries
'"are" collected by 'sellers of
•hew batteries.
1. Lead is used to 'sheath under-
ground 'power'' and communica-
tibhs cables because'bf -its
•" 'c'o'rrbslon 'resistance.
2." Polyethylene' and other
elastomcric sheathings have
'been developed 'that"h'Sve
''economic"'advantages over
lead.
3. '"Consumption of 1'ead 'for
'cable 'sheathing-'has'1de-
creased to about 25%'bf
"what it'once"was.
4. At the end of their
-^service- lives, lead-
-''sheathed cables are
sold as scrap.
1. Lead is used for most
'small'arms slugs and
shot.
2Y This lead is fifed 'from
'guns at targets.
3.^Mbst-'targets are'out-
doors'(hunting areas,
•ba 11 le f i'e Id s , -t'ra'p -
'shootiny ranges).
4. 'thus, small bits'bf
lead are scattered 'over
thousands of square
"'miles of land 'and water.
5.'''Some lead is- fired
Into backs'topped
'targets at shooting
ranges.
"TONS OF LEAD
),:000._; ... _ . /'98-.000
75,000
I OF AVAILABLE
LEAD ..NOT''RECYCLED
28
75
94
PROBLEM
'•ANALYSIS
l.'Most1 worn'-out batteries"are
- collected in economically 're-
cyclable 'quantities as a
result of'fmarkcting practices
for new b'atterics.
2. The recycling industry is-set
up to recycle battery lead
effectively-.
3.-Logic and11 industry opinion
would indicate 'that only a
few 7. of'battery lead should
not be recycled.
4. Yet 28 percent is. not,
•recycled. /
5. This is a*promising'area In
which to'increase-recycling
of lead.
I/After an average servi'ce-1 life
-'•bfv'4p years,' read-'she!athed
''cable is' nearly' -i'00%- sold as
-"scrap"ac'cprdihg to electric
'•utilities and 'phone 'companies
'that use it.
1.-Except for some shooting
range artraunlcion, the
'•lead is scattered 'in
tiny bits over large
land 'and water'areas of
the earth.
fraction of a cent.
2.'Nearly all this'lead is econ- 2. Each'bit is 'wb'rth "only a
'omically recoverable once it
* enters 'the 'recyc ling -•'iridus try.
3.'Thus 'only! a 'few % should '
' not•be recycled.
4 .: Yet 757. is not recycled . .
5. This is'aipromising ar'on in
which'- to increase recy-
cling of lead .
3.: Thus, -collection'of 'this
lead (ekcept 'from shoot-
' Ing ranges) if com-
pletely 'uneconomic .
4. This aBea has no promise
• for''increased recycling
of lead.
-------
33b
TABLE 12 IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF PROBLEMS CONCERNING LEAD THAT WAS NOT RSCYCLED IN 1969 (Continued)
Solders
Other Obsolete Lead Scran
PROBLEM
DEFINITION
1. Tin-lead mixtures are common- ^
ly used as solders.
2. Cose of solders is decreased
by increasing the lead content. 2.
3. Hiph-lcad solders are common-
ly used for auto body and
radiator use, cams, and other
non-critical applications.
4- In most uses, the 'lead be- 3.
comes intimately attached in
small quantities to much lar-
ger quantities of other
materials (copper, steel).
4.
5. At the end of the useful
lives of soldered products,
method of disposal depends
on value of materials other 5.
than the solder.
Lo;Hl-hase alloys .ire of ton
usod au bearing surfaces
for rotating parts.
1. Considerable lead is used tor
its corrosion resistance in
pipe, fittings, and sheet.
Such bearings arc used where 2.
the lower friction of rolling
type bearing is not needed,
or where cost or environmental 3.
factors rule against rolling-
type bearings.
4.
Lead is a small constituent
of a much larger system of
other materials in bearing 5.
uses.
Disposal of smaller lead bear-
ings depends generally on
the other materials. 6.
Disposal of larger lead bear-
ings is sometimes based on
the lead value.
Some lead is used in foil
and collapsible tubes.
Considerable lead is used
as caulking.
Some lead is used in weights
and ballasts.
Some lead Is used for several
minor uses such as terne
metal, lead 'plating, anneal-
ing, and galvanizing.
Disposal methods vary widely
depending on use and location
at the end of useful lives of
products.
TONS OF LEAD
NOT RECYCLED
56,000
23,000
38,000
X OF AVAILABLE
LEAD MOT RECYCLED
86
70
38
PROBLEM
ANALYSIS
1. In most cases, lead in
solder ends its service life
as minute quantities of lead
bonded to other metals.
2. Thus, collection of this lead
for recycling usually Is a
side light to collection of
the other metals to which
the lead is attached.
3. In most cases, economics
dictate that the lead not
bo separated from these
other materials.
4. In some cases it is separa-
ted and recovered as lead,
often when the tin content
of the solder is recovered
as tin.
5. This is an area that has
some promise for increasing
the recycling of lead.
1. Much bearing lead is dis-
posed of as part of a
system that is primarily
made of other metals. (For
example, it does not pay to
disassemble an auto engine
for the small amount of
lead in the bearings.)
2. When bearings are large and
easily accessible, lead is
often separated and re-
cycled.
3. This area is not promising
for increased recycling
of lead.
1. Some of this lead (for
example, foil, collapsible
tubes, tcrne metal) is
in forms or locations
that make recycling
difficult.
2. Some is easily recyclable
(such as weights and
ballasts, pipe and fittings,
sheet).
3. Other (caulking, annealing)
is marginal as to the econ-
omics of recycling and
depends on specific cases.
4. Overall, the recycle rate
is relatively high.
5. This area has limited possi-
bilities for increased
recycling of lead.
-------
34
reported in the "other" category. Incomplete reporting by scrap processors and
smelters may account for additional errors. However, it is unlikely that such
errors can account for more than one-fourth of the apparent loss of the battery
lead or more than one-half of the apparent loss of cable sheathing.
Discounting possible reporting errors, the actual loss of battery lead
would still exceed 100,000 tons in 1969. This can be explained by such possible
loss categories as military batteries, discards into trash collection channels,
"permanent storage" losses in homes and garages, end similar factors.
The other two problem areas offer limited possibilities for increased
recycling of lead:
• Solders
• Other obsolete lead scrap.
In both of these categories there are wide variations in the types of
applications so that some lead is economically recoverable while other lead is not.
It is doubtful that more than a minor amount of additional lead could be realisti-
cally recycled in these categories.
Other Problems
Depletion Allowances
One other important problem that directly reduces the recycling of lead
but for which it is impossible to measure the magnitude of the reduction, is the
subsidy allowed the primary industry in the form of ore depletion allowances. A
similar subsidy for the secondary lead industry would allow higher scrap purchase
prices and processing costs at fixed profit levels and sales prices. An unknown
O)
additional quantity of lead would be recycled as a result.
(1) See Volume I, General Report, for additional discussion of depletion
allowances.
-------
35
Cal.c ium. -Lead -
Another- problem way arise- in. the • futU're* tfet could:.s'eriously affect the
recyclirig:-of battery lead; , Th.fs-'-is~-a cHange-front 'ant-imonial• -lead: to calcium lead
alloys for storage-battery^parts. There is ' activity .'in the acea-of such a change,
but it is. impossible to-pre.ddct if and when-such--a change1 will occur for the bulk
of automotive batt'eries-'.
If this change-does;take placejrapidly it-could-Jsefiously interfere with
recycling. Antimonial lead-would be pouring into "the smelter* as scrap:, but anti-
mony would have- to-be- removed and calcium^added-1 to provide the new- alloys required
by the battery manufacturers-. This;'could;-slowi< the flow'-of iriefeal through the smelters
as they adjust to new.-operating procedures-^ It: c'ould also cause"a buyers' market
in antimony that-wbuld make it difficult to sell the antlm'ony;
If this .problem^ does iarisey it'would1 .be tempor'ary in'nature-. Within a
few- ye'ars the ca-lcium?.ba't'tfeMes^w'ouid'1 be?- coming-back.'.as-.s'crapv The- smelters
would settle down'-to'- the- riew:;r'outinei of" sm'elt-ingrvcalcium- le'ad Unstead -of anti-
mbriial lead.
-------
36
LEAD RECYCLING INDUSTRY PROBLEMS
There are several problems faced by the lead recycling industry that
have no direct measurable effect on the rate of recycling. Rather, they have
economic effects on the industry, or make operations more difficult. These may
indirectly affect the recycling rate. These problems are:
(1) Declining markets for lead
(2) Customer prejudices against secondary lead
(3) Battery case disposal
(4) Battery acid disposal
(5) Slag disposal
(6) Battery breaking.
Table 13 discusses each of these problems. Included are (1) titles of
problems, (2) definitions of problems, (3) effect on recycling, and (A) analyses
of problems.
Two of the problems in Table 13 concern the markets for lead:
• Declining markets
• Customer prejudices .
Customer prejudices against secondary lead are relatively minor and do
not cause a serious problem. It is deserving of little or no attention other than
to say promotional efforts could help erase .any irrational user preference for
primary over secondary.
Declining market segments for lead could have significant affects on
the economics of lead recycling. The secondary smelters will have to find new
markets as tetraethyl lead demand falls off. Equally important, prices for lead
may decline because of this loss of an important market.
-------
,.TABLE 13
37.
IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF PROBLEMS THAT DO NOT; DIRECTLY^
REDUCE THE AMOUNT OF. LEAD ..THAT IS. RECYCLED
D«cllnlng Overall
Customer•Prejudices
"•'Battery- Case -^Disposal
.'Problem
Definition
1. The tetraethyl lead
, market segment is
,-expected to decline
to zero within 10 years.
2. Cable sheathing, type
metal, and calking'lead
markets are expected to
continue to decline
slowly in the future.
3. Overall, market growth
for lead will be very
small in the future
1. Some lead, users claim
that.secondary lead is
inferior to primary lead.
2. It is. doubtful if they
. actually..believe this
generalization.
3. They probably use this
as basis for bargaining
purposes.
IV'.For. every ton 'of 'battery . i
'vajtead that isi:recycled," one- ;
- fourth to: one-half ton of •
•>'byproduct'''c'ases '-are'produced.:
2-.jfh.ese are ^worthless and j
i ai possible1 source of i
.lead poisoning. !
3.'The- disposal problem is large j
•in quantity of- cases, and ;
.'requires care in'method 1
•;6f disposal, j
Effect .on
; Recycle, Rate
So'me pressure on. economics
of recycling but no signifi-
cant effect on quantifies of
lead, that, will be -recycled. '
No significant ef ff-c.t on
quantities of lead that-are
recycled. ..Little cr no
economic"effect.
\ Nonsignificant effect oh
,..:qu'4ntities pf~le.ad that 'are
•'recycled. -Slip.ht economic
:;'.Vef fett"Because of'-.disposal
"•'cost. .'•''.'
• ..Problem
Analysis
1. It is unlikely that decline
pf-,the,ftetraethyl lead
..^market segment can be
..prevented in face of
^government pressure, .and '.
...policies of .auto manu-
facturers 4, oil companies.
2. It is,.unlikely' that contin-
•cued.»decline .of some other
•market,, segments can; be pre-
-.vvented-where plastics .and
viOther .materials have.- per-
• formance and economic
- advantages over lead.
3, .Promotlrr' and development .
. ;.efforts- should be -concen-
.-jtrated on. market.segments '
'.where .lead has advantages.
6. Also,..new uses and new
alloys or fabrication
...me.thods should be Developed
,to .create new market seg-
ments for .lead.
Secondary lead :.s.;not
inferior tO'prinary for
.the same grades.
.Promotional efforts
informing, custoners'of
.equal.quality ol.'> secondary,
plus- advantages of .
recycling -may b«; .desirable.
1.. 'Battery -cases cause an un-
;usuallv.'tl;arga-and unique
;;dispcsal problem.
2 .r-KoweveT: , disposal costs
- 'are not a large percent
,pf. total operating cost.
•3 .,t-.F.indinR ^-some uses for
.^battery cases would be
4.'5i,there .is^a'-.trend to plastic
- -cases in place of rubber.
•,It .is.possible to charge
. ''these to- the -.smelt ing
-furnaces.
(1) Problems,adveriny .affect economics or practices .of recycling but tha effect In «'ternsl;of. amount c«.n -nofbe
.'neasurcd. Thi/« airv.atJon ii conitdered. an: Indirect effect.
(2) .Includes.markets.for primary^ and recycled .metals.
-------
37a
TABLE 13 IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF PROBLEMS THAT DO NOT DIRECTLY
REDUCE THE AMOUNT OF LEAD THAT IS RECYCLED (Continued)
Battery Acid Disposal
Slag Disposal
Battery Breaking
Problem
Definition
Effect on
Recycle Rate
For every ton of battery
lead that is recycled,
one-fourth to one-half
ton of byproduct acid is
produced.
2. This is worthless and can
pollute surface and ground
waters.
3. The disposal problem is
large in quantity of acid,
and requires care in
method of disposal.
Significant quantities of
lead-containing slags are
produced as a byproduct
of secondary smelting of
lead.
2. These have no economic
value.
3. They are commonly disposed
of by dumping on company premises.
4. Alternative disposal methods
may be required at some future
date.
Problem
Analysis
No significant eifect on
quantities of lead that are
recycled. Slight economic
effect because of disposal
cost.
1. Battery acid causes an un-
usually large and difficult
disposal problem.
2. However, disposal costs
are not a large percent
of total operating costs.
3. Finding improved disposal
methods would be
advantageous.
No effect on recycling. Little
or no economic effect now.
1. Slag disposal is a normal type
of business activity.
2. No attention need be given
to this problem.
1. Scrap batteries must have
the case opened to get
the lead out. •
2. Hand and machine methods
are used.
3. Tops are sheared or sawed
off. Or cases are broken
by sledge hammers or
crushing machines.
4. Manual and hand-operated
machine breaking are unpleasent
jobs, making it difficult to
hire and retain workers.
5. There is a trend to more
automatic machine breaking.
6. Some industrial batteries are
in metal containers requiring
cutting torches to get the
batteries out.
No significant effect on the
quantities of lead recycled. Some
economic effect because of increasii
labor cost and Investment cost for
equipment.
1. Unavailability of labor, plus
increasing cost of labor is
forcing expansion of machine
breaking methods.
2. This is causing larger and feve;
breaking operations.
3. Continued development of better
and safer machine breaking
methods is desirable.
-------
38
The other four problems of Table 13 involve operations of the lead
recycling industry:
• Battery case disposal
• Battery acid disposal
• Slag disposal
• Battery breaking.
The first three of these problems Involve waste disposal. Of these,
slag disposal is relatively minor. It could become more Important in the
future, but has little or no effect on recycling at present.
Disposal of battery cases and battery acid are much more serious
problems than slag disposal. Both wastes can be classed as hazardous because
of lead content (as sludge). Both are generated in relatively large quantities.
Both warrant attention so as to prevent pollution and health hazards.
Battery breaking is the last problem. It is an unpleasant operation If
mechanized breaking equipment is not used. Thus, labor is hard to find to fill
breaking jobs. Fortunately, the recycling Industry is making good progress in
the mechanization of the breaking operation, and the problem is being solved.
-------
39
COURSES OF ACTION CONCEBMING THE RECYCLING OF LEAD
Having Identified the major problems concerning the recycling of lead,
It Is necessary to evaluate them and select those that are amenable to solutions.
:•••...-••;. .,»...- - .... . , , :-.(>.
Then, courses of action can be developed to lead to solutions for the problems.
Evaluation of Problems
The fourteen problems that have been Identified cover a wide range of
Importance and possibilities for solutions. It is necessary to evaluate the
differences in order to assign priorities for actions.
Four of the problems can be assigned low priorities readily. These,
with the reasons the; are low priority, are as follows:
Reason- for Low Priority
- *-.y;-is. .jA.y.'-^;..;:! *\- vv •
The actions leading1 to^-the*'solution of the
problem are" already underway': '
.'• ' -^ li:-/ •?."•• <••'• ••!"• ' tw.ri'.' •
(1) Lead-.is being- removed from
gasoline:' •'"• ' • ' -
-•
Problem
Tetraethyr lead that is
riot' recycled'
(2) Automotive 'pollution' control^
' device's"ia're'iiijaer ;de'yelbpment
iha't'!c'6uid -malie 'the* lea'd' '
recyclable'. '"*• '••'
Cb'irectTori1 aTrid'•'sepa'r'at-i.'on-cof"the1 lead 'is-v' it-'
beyond 'any' foreseeable tecnnlca'l- or" economic
development 'thafwould make It feasible.
No feasible collection method seems possible.
Slag disposal This is" no more than a minor operating
problem 6'f the sec'onda'ry smelters;
It is recommended that no further attention be given to these four
Lerfd; oxide's that are not
'recycled] ' • '
Ammunition lead that is
' not' recycled
• '
problems.
The other ten' problems are all of some importance and a method was
needed for determining which ones are more important.
The method used Is based oh how the ten compare with each other when
scored with three criteria:
• Solution of the problem will improve the environment
• Solution of the problem will conserve natural resources
•" Realistic solutions can be found :
In the context of this report, the first of these criteria is believed
• ' ; • - - - . .^ ,
to be more important than the other two. It is weighted to allow a high score
equal to the total of the other two.
Table 14 presents the results of the evaluation of the ten problems using
the three criteria. In this evaluation three of the problems have total scores
substantially higher than the other seven. They are those" involving battery lead,
lead cable sheathing, and battery case disposal. . •
These three problems are rated as high priority, and actions to solve
'>.••;•• .'•••! ;-. ' -- ,.-- i . . -. .-.;.' :r' .-. r ;--i M •>•••••'- _t.- - i<••••. i-..
them should be fully investigated before considering the seven lower priority
problems.
Recommended Actions
The recommendations of what to do about the ten major problems of the
i. ..: ... ;^i. - - :;utm.;?yu_". »P'.-SX,*>£ ,^'h"1^ tcu. pe£ '. "•'!" '. '• rr ' ~ i.t:'! ;urnii ' •"-.
lead recycling industry are'covered in two parts:
(1) High priority actions
(2) Lower priority action's
'!'••'
The high priority actions should be dealt with before attention is given
to the lower priority actions.
-------
41
TABLE 14 EVALUATION OF TEN PROBLEMS RELATED
TO RECYCLING OF LEAD
Criteria and Scores
Problems
Battery lead
Lead cable sheathing
Solders
Bearing lead
Other obsolete lead scrap
Declining markets ?
Customer prejudices
Battery case disposal
Acid disposal
Battery breaking
Solution
of Problem
Will Improve
Environment
(10)
10
8
4
2
3
0
0
10
5
1
Solution
of Problem
Will Conserve
Natural
Resources
(5)
5
4
2
1
2
0
0
0
0
0
Realistic
Solutions Can
be Found
(5)
5
5
1
1
3
5
5
5
5
5
Total
Scores
20
17
7
4
8
5
5
15
10
6
Notes: (1) First criteria is considered most important and is assigned maximum
score of 10.
(2) Other two criteria are considered less important and are assigned
maximum scores of 5 each.
(3) The higher the total score, the more attractive the problem is for
further action.
829
42
High Priority Actions
The high priority actions recommended here are important and far-
reaching enough to be In the public interest. Thus, participation by EPA Is
desirable. Participation by NASNI and its members Is also desirable since
the problems and actions are predominately within the boundaries of the lead
recycling Industry.
Table 15 presents the recommended action programs for the high priority
lead recycling problems.
The solutions to the first two problems— battery lead and lead cable
sheathing—involve learning the details as to why large quantities of. lead are
shown as not being recycled. The members of the recycling industry interviewed
suggest that these are statistical errors based on incomplete or inaccurate
reporting. The U.S. Bureau of Mines does not think such large quantities can be
accounted for in this way. The Battelle-Columbus method of calculating quantities
(based on life cycles) available for recycling probably introduces some error.
These possible statistical errors may mean that the 135,000 tons of battery lead
shown as not being recycled is as much as 25 percent too high. If so, about
100,000 tons were not recycled - still a large amount. Table 15 recommends that
NASMI survey members discover why this lead is not being recycled, and based on this
determine what actions to take. A similar recommendation is made concerning lead
cable sheathing.
The solution recommended for the third high priority problem—battery
case disposal—is to seek economic uses for battery cases.
-------
TABLE 1« RECOMMENDED ACTIONS. HIGH PRIORITY tEAD RECYCLIKC PRODtEKS
Battery tend Tlial U
Hot Rrrycird
Coble Shrolhlnp. That It
Hot Recycled
Battery Case Disposal
Actions
Recommended
An investigation should
be undertaken to determine
why 135.000 ton* of battery
lead were not recycled in
19C9. Once this .determi-
nation has been made,
appropriate additional
Analyses .ind plans, can be
nude to increase the recycle
rate .if fe.as,iblo.
' An Investigntlon should
be undertaken to determine
vhy 98,000 ton: of,lead coble
shcathlnr. wore not>,rccyled in
1969. 1'art of this nay be ex-
plainable by .errors in report-
Ing by recycle companies or the
U.S. Bureau of Mines. However,
1C is difficult to sec how the
entire 9,8,000 tons could be
explained this way.. Once
t*e«»orw*>ud opportunllles for NASMI. They arc the best judeccnti
Of Battclle.
(2) Rrcoam-ndi-d actions were distributed between .high priority and lover priority based 'on the
evaluation with llir.ee criteria. ".
(J) It is suc.r.cstrd that .NASMI continue its leading role in recycling. reeoRnlzlng that other
ori;nn<7.ntions turli as 11»- liurc.ui of Hlni-s, Do,part,mcnt of Comrorrfr, Council of FiwlronnentJ1
-------
44
Lower Priority Actions
The lower priority actions that are recommended are neither important
enough, nor far-reaching enough to be of much interest to the public. Thus,
participation by EPA is not recommended. The problems involve primarily
NASMI, its members, other companies involved in the lead recycling industry, and
other organizations concerned with lead.
Table 16 presents the recommended action programs for the lower
priority problems of lead recycling.
Programs are already underway concerning two of these problems. The
Lead Industries Association has an R&D program to develop new markets for lead
to replace declining market segments. NASMI has a program to promote recycled
materials, including lead, as a means of overcoming customer prejudices.
Other Actions
Additional actions involving markets, scrap sources, recycling industry
operations, equipment, and legal requirements are recommended in Volume 1, the
General Report of this series. Some of these relate to the recycling of lead.
Refer to the General Report for additional information.
-------
TABLE 16 RECOMMENDED ACTIONS, LOWER PRIORITY LEAD RECYCLING PROBLEMS
Actions .
Recommended
(D(2)(3)
By wnom
a. V
f" •-
Specllfic
'Steps
Solders
• Bearing Lead
• Other Obsolete 'Lead'
Scrap that are
Not Recycled
A brief investigation should '
be undertaken to determine
the 'feasibility o'f 'increas-
ing, the recycling of solders,
bearing lead, and other .
obsolete lead scrap. If
any feasible possibilities
are 'found, additional actions
can then be "planned. '
NASMI
1. Set up a committee of
secondary 'smelters
and scrap processors.
•2. Commit t e'e,ahaly'ze. what
is not being recycled
and why. :
3. .Recomneni "tiE :i?t ils
feasible'to try to.
increase recycling rate
or not.
•4. Survey recycling.,'.
ind'us t ry, i'f just if led
{bjised pn^3),,^oim~pre '„-:'.
•ae'curafely ^determine -. '.
what and why of materials
"hot 'being recycled.
5. 'be'termine 'what 'next
actions to take.
Declining Market
, Segments
R&D should be pursued to
develop new markets for
lead. This may include
new alloys or compounds,
new forms, etc.
NASMl'/Lea'd .Industries
Association/ILZRO
I. Set up a
.committee of one
NASMI staff member,
•and 2 'secondary
'smelters to cb-
'ord'inat'e recycling
[industry interests
with -Lead Industries
Assbciation/ILZRO
-activities.
2. Discuss ^
^Le'ad indus'tries
'Association how. to
work together to
..develop new^l^a/d c,.
^(rk"ets--fu'nid;ing of
:RiD, selection of
"projects, etc.
Customer Prejudices
Publicity should be used
to Inform lead users of
the purity, and quality of
secondary and primary
lead. Additionally, the
public service aspects
of using secondary lead
should be featured—clean
up 'the environment', save
natural resources.
NASMI/NASMI Member
Companies
1. Continue general •
publicity program.?
that promote recycling',
2. •Inaugurate -,"
specific 'p'ro'gTam .'to
"publicize recycling
of 'lead.
3. Help member
companies design
publicity and adver-
tising programs.
Battery Acid Disposal Battery Breaking
An investigation
should be undertaken
to determine present
battery acid dispos-
al methods, and to
find improved
methods.
NASMI'/Battery
Breakers
An investigation
should be under-
taken to develop
improved methods
of battery break-
ing.
NASMI/Battery
Breakers
1. Set up a
committee of
•battery breakers-
• smelters, scrap
'processors
and -specialists
in breaking.
2. Prepare a report
on present
disposal methods
and problems.
3. investigate similar
disposal problems
•of. other -indust-
ries.
A. Discuss improved
methods .of disposal
with equipment and
materials suppliers
5. Determine what addi
tional actions
: 'should'be taken.
Set up -a
conaaittee of
battery breakers-
smelters,, 'scrap pro-
cessors;, «nd
specialists
in breaking.
Prepare, a report
on present
breaking methods,
equip-ient, and
problems.
Investigate icprbved
methods -of breaking
Determine what
additional steps
to take.
Ul
(1) The responsibility for reconinended actions shown in this table are based on importance of the
action, benefit to the taxpayers, and opportunities for NASMI. They are the best iudenert*
of Battelle.
(2) Recommended actions were distributed between high priority and lower priority based on the
evaluation w'ith three criteria.
(3) It is suggested that NASMI continue its leading role in recycling, recognizing that other
• organization^ such as tHe Bureau of Mines, Department of Commerce, Council of Environmental
Quality, 11EW Office of Information, and State, Local, and Federal Legislatures must -be
involved.
-------
APPENDIX A
LEAD MARKETS
Uses of Lead
Table A-l provides a detailed breakdown of lead consumption by use
since 1965.
TABLE
A-l. United States Consumption of Lead '
(In short tons)
1965
1966
1967
1968
TOTAL
1,241,482
1,323.877. 1,260,516
1,328,790
1969a
Ammunition
Bearing metals
Brass and bronze
Cable covering
Calking lead
Casting metals
Collapsible tubes
Foil
Pipe, traps and bends
Sheet lead
Solder
Storage batteries
Terne metal
Type metal
White lead
Red lead and litharge
Pigment colors
Other pigments
Gasoline antiknock
additives
Misc. chemicals'
Annealing
Galvanizing
Lead plating
Weights and ballast
Other uses unclassified
57,322
21 ,600
23,699
59,645
66,584
5,046
10,893
4,805
19,837
27,569
77,819
455,347
2,109
. 33.416
8,414
79,853
12,553
8,063
225,203
346
5,719
1,775
240
14,135
19,490
78,435
21,588
25,447
6fi,491
63,250
6,671
1 1 .987
6,041
19,984
28,938
78,898
472,492
1,966
30,421
8,131
89,500
13,695
8,562
246,879
614
5,441
1,639
428
18.090
18,289
78.766
19.561
20,467
63,037
48,789
10,083
1 1 ,299
6,148
20,184
26,763
68.833
466,665
1,620
28,554
8,087
76,589
13,041
5,473
247,170
609
4,202
1,854
532
15,794
16.396
82,193
18,441
21,021
53,456
49,718
8,693
9,310
6,114
21,098
28,271
74,074
513,703
1.427
27,981
5,857
86,480
14,163
3,234
261,897
629
4,194
1,755
389
16,768
17,924
79.233
17.406
21,512
54,203
44,857
9,918
12,484
5,881
19.407
25,818
72,626
582.546
1,583
25,660
6,617
79,898
14.670
1,201
271,128
602
4,252
1,797
406
17,366
18,289
1,389,358
U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbooks. 1965, 1967, and
1969, "Lead" chapters.
Storage Batteries. Table A-2 gives the percent distribution of numbers
of motor vehicle batteries shipped by category of usage for the 3-year period
1966-1968.
-------
A-2
TABLE A-2. SHIPMENTS OF BATTERIES,; U.S. MANUFACTURERS,
BY USE CATEGORY, PERCENT,
1966-1968 AVERAGE
Use Category
Percent of Total Units
Replacement
Original Equipment
Export
TOTAL
76
23
1
100
Source: American Association of Battery Manufacturers,
Yearbook. 1970.
Figure A-l shows lead consumption by battery manufacturers annually
since 1946. .
r . :!!,:-.
'•&
& V dfi.
1946 280,000
1947 380.000 _
1951 353.800
1952 330 000 300
1953 356,500
1954 337,300
1955 380,000
1956 37P.771 „
1957 saivOlS
1958 312,725
i960 353.196 •
1962 419,906
1963 439.100
1964 429.348
1965 455,347
1966 472.492
1967 466,665
1968... 513^703
1969... 582, 546
,'
/
•4
^S
7
^
•4
'^
9
\
^
>
•J
\
1
J
•I
\
3
j
j
S3
\
J7
3
sf
/
•
-.:
•^
a
^
J
/
it
/
•<
S
a
/
•61
f
•*7
•t
$
•69
FIGURE A-l. TOTAL LEAD USED BY BATTERY MANUFACTURERS
Includes primary,;secondary,.and
antlmonlal lead in tons of 2000 Ibs.
Source: U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbooks. 1946 to
1969, "Lead" chapters.~
235
-------
A-3
Figure A-2 shows the annual production of lead oxide by battery
manufacturers since 1946.
Year
Torn
1947 69.000
1948 69.000 ...
1949 55.000
1950 80,000
1951 77,000
1952 76,000 »>
1953 82.000
1954 79,233
1955 113,800 160
1956 106,956
1957 127,583
1958 120,324 i»
1959 152.341
1960 139,847
1961 147,130 eo
1962 161,023
1963 182.934
1984 178,038 „
1985 192,655 ..
1966 198.941
1987 203,571
1968 214,346
"s
/^
A'
'JW '5J 'IS '57 •» •«! 'U •« '47 •»
FIGURE A-2. LEAD OXIDE MADE BY BATTERY
MANUFACTURERS
(lead content)
Source: U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbooks.
1947 to 1969, "Lead" chapters.
The average lives of batteries have been increasing during the last
20 years. Table A-3 shows the average lives for four 5-year periods. This
extension of service life reduces the number of batteries purchased and thus
the amount of lead that might be used if battery life was not increasing.
TABLE A-3. AVERAGE BATTERY LIFE, 1949-1968
5-Year Period
1949-1953
1954-1958
1959-1963
1964-1968
Average Life,
21
24
25
27
Months
Source: American Association of Battery
Manufacturers, Yearbook. 1970.
A-4
The yield of batteries per ton of total lead consumed increased until
the mid-1950's. Since then it has remained about constant. Table A-4 shows the
number of batteries manufactured per ton of lead consumed for three 3-year periods.
TABLE A-4. BATTERIES PRODUCED PER TON OF
LEAD CONSUMED, 1946-1968
3-Year Period
Number of Batteries
Per Ton of Lead
1946-1948
1956-1958
1966-1968
82
92
90
Source: American Association of Battery
Manufacturers, Yearbook. 1970.
The yield of batteries per ton of lead is expected to remain about
constant in the future. However, battery life will probably continue to increase.
Thus, annual lead consumption for batteries will increase somewhat slower than
the increase for motor vehicles in use.
Tetraethyl Lead. Table A-5 provides historical data on consumption of
lead for the production of tetraethyl lead. This material is used as a constituent
of antiknock additives for gasoline.
TABLE A-5. CONSUMPTION OF LEAD IN THE PRODUCTION OF
TETRAETHYL LEAD, 1964-1969
Year
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
Source :
Tons of Lead
223,466
225,203
246,879
247,170
261,897
271,128
U.S. Bureau of Mines,
Minerals Yearbooks.
1964 to 1969, "Lead"
chapters.
137
-------
A-5
It is expected that tetraethyl lead will be phased out of motor vehicle
fuels within the next ten years for the following reasons:
(1) The U.S. Government is currently considering taxing lead content
of motor fuels to reduce air pollution. This method or some other
action- is expected to discourage lead use.
'- -(2) The auto manufacturers have taken a stand favoring removal of ..
lead from gasolines.
,(3) The petroleum, companies, have recently,, introduced lead.-free
fuels, .and. are planning new refinery facilities to upgrade
octane values of blending-stocks.
Other Oxides. Pigments, and Chemicals. Table A-6 gives consumption
data.for lead in nonmetallic applications (except1 battery oxide and tetraethyl.
lead). -
TABLE: A-6. u.s1.. CONSUMPTION-or LEAD; AS OXIDES, .PIGMENTS-, AND:
CHEMICALS, EXCEPT BATTERIES'. AND; TETRAETHYL LEAD:
(tons)
White lead
Red lead, and' litharge
Pigment colors
Other pigments
Lead plating
Misc. chemicals.
1965
S',414
79,853
12,553
8,063
240'
346
1966,
8', 131
89i500
13', 695
8;, 562.
428=
614.
1967?
8'i087
76', 589'
13,041
5,473'
532.
609
l'968r
5,857
86', 480'
14,163:
3,234.
389?
629
1969
6,617
79,898
14,670
1,201
406
602
Source: U.S. Bureau, of Mines*. Minerals' Yearbooks. 1965 to 1969-, "Lead" chapters.
Consumption of the major, lead oxides by use is given in Table A-7.
A-6
TABLE A-7. DISTRIBUTION OF WHITE LEAD (DRY AND IN OIL), LITHARGE,
AND RED LEAD SHIPMENTS,^ BY INDUSTRIES, 1969
(short tons)
Industry
White Lead - Paints
Ceramics
Other
TOTAL
Red Lead
Paints
Other
TOTAL
Ceramics
Oil refining;
Rubber
Other
TOTAL
10,359
9,191
12.986
22,177-
21,570.-
1,603
' 1,794
110'. 752.'
135', 719
(1) Excludes-basic lead- sulfate, figures withheld
to avoid disclosing individual company confi-
dential data.
Source: tt.'Si Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook.
1969, "Lead" chapter.
208
-------
APPENDIX B
LEAD RECYCLING INDUSTRY DATA
FROM EXTENSIVE SURVEY
TABLE B-l. SECONDARY MATERIALS INDUSTRY--AVERAGE BUSINESS
STATISTICS FOR LEAD
Average Investment
in Plant and
Equipment
Average Number
of Employees
Average Investment
per Employee
1,652,000
95
17,300
TABLE B-2 .
AVERAGE SIZE OF LEAD SCRAP PROCESSORS,
ANNUAL TONS, BY REGION
Region
Tons per Year
of Lead
Total United States
New England
Middle Atlantic
South Atlantic
East North Central
East South Central
West North Central
West South Central
Mountain
Pacific
731.1
922.7
1,014.3
522.2
493.4
650.0
850.0
1,376.9
377.3
676.2
B-2
TABLE B-3.
AVERAGE SIZE OF SECONDARY LEAD SMELTERS,
ANNUAL TONS, BY REGION
Region
Tons per Year
Total United States
New England
Middle Atlantic
South Atlantic
East North Central
East South Central
West North Central
West South Central
Mountain
Pacific
2,532.8
500.0
4,483.9
2,416.7
1,945.7
500.0
3.400..0
3,562.5
666.7
1,842.1
-------
ill
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
VOLUME V . . SUMMARY... Vii
Zinc Consumption and Production ................. yli
ZINC REPORT .,-.-. The ?,inc Recycling Industry ................... Vlli
Problems of Zinc Recycling. . x
' Recommendations xlii
INTRODUCTION. . : 1
Background ........................ 1
Objectives . . ........ 2
Scope. 3
Research Methods ................ ...... 3
Literature Search ........................ 3
Extensive Survey. ........................ 4
In-depth Survey .......................... 4
Analysis and Synthesis. ........... 5
THE ZINC' INDUSTRY ''•'•: • • • ^
- . _. .,' Characteristics-of-Zinc;--k-: ............;.. 7
Grades of Slab Zinc and Zinc Dust 7
. Zinc Die Casting Alloys ......... .9
Zinc Oxide. .....;,........ 10
Characteristics of th'e Zinc Industry ................. 10
Materials Sources 11
Materials Flow. ......................... 11
Zinc Producers. ........... .. 11
Markets for Zinc.. 13
Zinc Use Patterns ........................ 15
v Markets_for Recycled Zinc .... , , , . . ... ......... 16
Market Outlook . 7 . 16
THE ZINC RECYCLING INDUSTRY 17
Characteristics of Zinc Materials. ... ..... 17
Secondary Zinc. ....... 17
Scrap and Drosses 17
Characteristics of the Zinc Recycling Industry ... 19
Materials Sources ...... . 19
Recycled Zincs Markets' . '. 20
Use Patterns 21
Industry Data. . . ............. 23
Materials Flow Pattern for Zinc Recycling 25
£-.13
-------
IT
TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
Demand/Supply Analysis 28
Demand ' 28
Supply 28
Demand/Supply Balance 28
ZINC SCRAP RECYCLING PROBLEMS 29
Industrial Scrap 29
Obsolete Scrap 29
Other Problems 32
ZINC RECYCLING INDUSTRY PROBLEMS 32
COURSES OF ACTION CONCERNING THE RECYCLING OF ZINC 34
Evaluation of Problems 34
Assignment of Priorities 34
Recommended Actions 36
High Priority Actions 36
Lower Priority Actions 38
Other Actions 40
LIST OF APPENDIXES
APPENDIX A. ZINC MARKETS A-l
APPENDIX B. ZINC RECYCLING INDUSTRY DATA FROM EXTENSIVE SURVEY B-l
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE I. IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF PROBLEMS CONCERNING ZINC THAT
WAS NOT RECYCLED IN 1969 xi
TABLE II. RECOMMENDED ACTIONS, LOWER PRIORITY ZINC RECYCLING PROBLEMS. . . xil
TABLE III. RECOMMENDED ACTIONS, HIGH PRIORITY ZINC RECYCLING PROBLEMS . . . xlv
TABLE IV. RECOMMENDED ACTIONS, LOWER PRIORITY ZINC RECYCLING PROBLEMS. . . XV
TABLE 1. GRADES OF SLAB ZINC 8
TABLE 2. ASTM B 240—63-STANDARD SPECIFICATION FOR ZINC-BASE ALLOYS
IN INGOT FORM FOR DIE CASTING 9
TABLE 3. ASTM SPECIFICATIONS FOR AMERICAN AND FRENCH PROCESS
ZINC OXIDE 10
-------
TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
LIST OF TABLES (Continued)
TABLE 4.
TABLE 5.
TABLE 6.
TABLE 7.
TABLE 8.
TABLE 9.
TABLE 10.
TABLE 11.
TABLE 12.
TABLE 13.
TABLE 14.
TABLE 15.
TABLE 16.
TABLE 17.
TABLE A-l.
TABLE A"-2.
TABLE A-3.
TABLE B-l.
TABLE B-2.
TABLE B-3.
Page
GENERAL STATISTICS FOR ZINC ESTABLISHMENTS, 1967. . . . . . ... .14
ZINC CONSUMPTION BY TYPE OF MATERIAL, U.S., 1969. 15
ZINC USE PATTERN, 1969 15
GRADES OF ZINC SCRAP AND DROSSES. ................ 18
CONSUMPTION OF NEW AND OLD ZINC SCRAP IN THE U.S. in 1969 .... 19
ZINC SCRAP PRICES, 1969 20
RECYCLED ZINC PRODUCTION, 1960-1969 21
CONSUMPTION OF SECONDARY ZINC BY USE, 1969 22
ZINC SCRAP RECYCLING, 1969 . . ........ 26
IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF PROBLEMS CONCERNING ZINC
THAT WAS NOT. RECYCLED IN 1969 .............
30
IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF PROBLEMS THAT DO NOT DIRECTLY
REDUCE THE AMOUNT OF ZINC THAT IS RECYCLED. 33
EVALUATION OF NINE PROBLEMS RELATED TO RECYCLING OF ZINC. .... . 35
RECOMMENDED A.CTIONS, HIGH PRIORITY ZINC RECYCLING PROBLEMS 37
RECOMMENDED ACTIONS, LOWER PRIORITY ZINC RECYCLING PROBLEMS ... 39
ZINC DIE CASTINGS USE PATTERN, 1969 A-l
.GALVANIZING ZINC USE PATTERN A-l
ZINC CpNTENT"QF- ZINC -PIGMENTS AND-COMPOUNDS PRODUCEDJBY- -: — -.-
DOMESTIC MANUFACTURES, BY SOURCES, 1969 A-2
AVERAGE SIZE OF ZINC SCRAP PROCESSORS, ANNUAL TONS,
BY REGION B-l
AVERAGE SIZE OF ZINC SMELTERS, ANNUAL TONS, BY REGION B-l
SECONDARY MATERIALS INDUSTRY - AVERAGE BUSINESS STATISTICS
FOR ZINC . . . B_2
VI
TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
LIST OF FIGURES '
Page
FIGURE I. SCRAP/RECYCLED ZINC FLOW, 1969 ix
FIGURE 1. MATERIALS FLOW BALANCE, ZINC, 1969 ..\ .. 12
FIGURE 2. TRENDS IN THE ZINC INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES, 1945-1969 •. . . 13
FIGURE 2-A.MONTHLY AVERAGE ZINC PRICES AT EAST ST. LOUIS AND LONDON,
1960-1969 15a
FIGURE 3. AVERAGE SIZE IN TOSS PER YEAR OF ZINC OF (1) ZINC SCRAP
PROCESSORS AND ZINC SMELTERS, BY REGION, 196? 24
FIGURE 4. SCRAP/RECYCLED ZINC FLOW, 1969 27
r: r f*
«.-•.,'6
-------
Tli
SUMMARY
The economic recycling of waste materials is a desirable approach to the
disposal of solid wastes. Recycling therefore is of interest to the Office of
Solid Waste Management whose responsibility it is to formulate and recommend
solid waste programs for the United States. This report on the recycling of zinc
provides information and analyses to be used as a basis for program planning. The
report was prepared by Battelle-Columbus with the guidance and help of the National
Association of Secondary Material Industries (NASMI). It is based on a 12-month
study of zinc recycling.
The report reviews briefly the demand and supply for zinc in the
United States - both primary and secondary. It analyzes the recycling of zinc -
the operations of scrap processors and smelters, sources of zinc scrap, markets
for recycled zinc, and recycling rates by types of scrap. Based on this analysis
the report presents the problems faced by the zinc recycling industry. Finally,
it evaluates these problems to determine priorities, and recommends courses of
actions to solve or reduce these problems - with the emphasis on increasing
recycling of zinc in order to reduce solid waste disposal problems.
Zinc Consumption and Production
Although zinc is used in hundreds of consumer products, four basic markets
account for 85 percent of the total consumption of zinc:
Percent
Die casting 35
Galvanizing 28
Oxides and chemicals 12
New brassmaking 10
2-7
ylH
Recycled zinc, however, comprises only a small percentage of total
U.S. zinc production:^1'
Primary zinc production
Recycled zinc production
The Zinc Recycling Industry^2)
The zinc recycling inudstry takes scrapped zinc from the point of scrap-
page to a point of reuse. The functions include buying and selling, physical
movement, and change of form of the zinc. The scrap materials are mostly drosses
and residues from zinc melting operations. The recycled zinc that is the output
of the industry covers a range of types and purities of zinc and zinc alloys of
which some are equivalent in characteristics and uses to primary zinc.
The importance of recycled zinc in the total zinc market is shown by
1969 supply data for zinc:
Zinc Source Short Tons of Zinc Percent of Total
Domestic ores 459,000 26
Imported ores 582,000 33
Imported metal _329,000 19
Recycled zinc 378,000 22
TOTAL 1,748,000 100
Figure I summarizes data concerning the recycling of zinc for the year 1969.
The quantities of zinc that were calculated to be available for recycling in 1969 are
shown at the left (light shading). The quantities not recycled are shown next (dark
shading). No galvanized steel or zinc oxides and chemicals are recycled because the
nature of the applications for these materials makes recovery nearly impossible.
(1) Zinc recycled as a constituent of brass is not included.
(2) Home scrap is not included in this report.
(3) For a discussion of the functions of the recycling Industry, see Vol I
General Report. ' '
(4) Includes 194,000 tons of zinc recycled as brass.
-------
ix
PI
r n
o d
m u
P s
t t.
Golvoniied
Clippings
50.000,
Flue Oust
.50,
20,000 17.000
Other Pjoiii|rt Industnoi:
130.000,
Notes: (t) All quantities in short tons of zinc
(2) Zinc recycled os.bross'not included
(3) Home scr.ao.not included. ;:....
(4) Prompt industrial above broken line,
-.obsolete.below. ....... .
(5) Estimated 50% of scrap by-passes
- -. processors,'-deafens, and brokers
1.271 POO
7otdl.?Zinc
182,000
Recycle^
Available in Scropj:;;: Recycled ijij (77% Prompt Industrial
Recycled Zinc
.Markets
FIGURE I. SCRAP/RECYCLED ZINC FUOW, 1969
249
The zinc, that is rec'ycled is shown in the unshaded pprtipn. It is -
apparent that large quantities of zinc are being recycled from industrial sources,
but not from other sources. The recycled zinc is then marketed for several
applications as shown on the right of Figure 1, namely, slab zinc, zinc dust,
alloys, and oxides and chemicals. Overall, the recycling of zinc is at a very
low rate with less than 15 percent of the amount theoretically available being
recycled.
Problems of Zinc Recycling
The problems of zinc recycling are of two types: (1) those that
directly reduce the recycling'of zinc, and (2) those that do not directly reduce
the recycling of zinc. Those in.the first category are problems because they
reduce recycling in measurable quantities. Those in the second because they, ad-
versely affect economics or practices of recycling but the affect in terms of
amounts of zinc can not be measured.
Table I presents the 6 problems that directly reduce recycling. They
are classified by the type of zinc scrap to be recycled. The problems in each
category is the very sizeable amounts of zinc that are not~recycled. In some in-
stances there are real reasons why the zinc cannot be recvcled.
Table II presents the three"?roblems that do not directly reduce the recy-
cling.of zinc. The first two are market problems and the other one is an operating
problem of the recycling industry.
-------
TABLE I. IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF PROBLEMS CONCERNING ZINC THAT WAS NOT RECYCLED IN 1969
Scrap Categories Where Some Zinc Was Not Recycled
Galvanized Clippings
Flue Dust
Zinc Base Alloys
Problem
Definition
4.
5.
Fabrication of galvanized
sheet and strip gives trimmings
that are scrapped.
This is recycled as steel
scrap with the zinc still on
it.
This zinc is lost out the
stack of the steel furnace
or is collected by air
pollution control equipment
and dumped.
The zinc often corrodes
furnace refractories during
steel melting.
Thus, none of the clip-
ings are recycled for zinc
content.
In smelting of zinc and
brass, some zinc is evaporated
Much of this zinc is now
recovered by air pollution
control equipment.
In most cases, the material
is high in chlorine content,
and is quite fluffy.
Because of the chlorine and
low density, it is difficult anc
costly to recycle.
Thus, only 15 percent is
recycled.
Nearly all zinc base
alloy scrap is in the form
of die castings.
The die castings vary In
size from fractional ounce
to a few pounds.
The die castings often
contain Inserts of steel,
brass, or other materials.
Over half of the die castings
are in autos.
Most of the remainder are
also attached to large
amounts of other materials
in home appliances, mach-
inery, farm equipment, etc.
There has been no economical
method for separating most
of the die castings from the
other materials.
Thus, less than 10 percent
of the zinc base alloys are
recycled.
Tons of Zinc
Not Recycle^
50,000
17,000V
320,000
Percent
of Avail-
able Zinc
Hot Recycle-
100
85
91
Problem
Analysis
5.
Galvanized clippings contain 4
or 5 percent zinc and 95 or 96
percent steel.
The materials values per ton
are about:
Steel - $30
Zinc - $12
Total $42
Only about $30 per ton of
clipping is now being paid.
An economic method for sep-
arating the zinc from the
steel would Increase the
value by $12 per ton — a 40
percent Increase.
In addition, It would reduce
corrosion of steel furnace
refractories and make air pol-
lution control easier.
1. Flue dusts from zinc and
brass smelting usually con-
tain 40 to 50 percent zinc.
2. Each pound of dust contains
5 to 7t worth of zinc.
3. An economic method of re-
covering the zinc would
increase the recycling of
zinc.
4. Also, it would provide ad-
ditional incentive for strict
air pollution control measures
1. Zinc in die castings has low
Impurity levels.
2. Inserts of other metals can
be easily removed.
3. The difficulties involve
economical separation of the
die castings from the larger
products (autos, appliances,
etc.) of which the die cast-
Ings are a part.
4. Larger, easily-accessible die
castings can be removed by
hand.
5, Smaller, nonnccesstble die
castings can be removed by
disintegration and separa-
tion equipment such as auto
hulk shredders.
6. Separation from ferrous metal:
is easily accomplished mag-
netically.
7. Separation from, nonferrous
metals is much more
difficult.
8. More economic methods of sep-
aration of zinc from nonfer-
rous scrap would Increase
recycling substantially.
(1) Does not Include steel furnaces.
(2) This is total quantity of zinc that were originally used. By the time of scrappage much of the zinc
has been washed away (maybe 50 percent) and would be virtually Impossible to recover.
-------
TABLE I. IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF PROBLEMS CONCERNING ZINC T11AT WAS NOT'RECYCLED IN 1969
('Continued)
.Scrap Categories Where Some Zinc WUH Not Recycled
Problem
Definition
Old Galvanized
1: Old"galvanized metal Is
. '-scrapped In^'a* great' variety
• of f6rms--biickets, tanks,
'bridges, 'fencing; autos,
swfann-'silos, ''etc.
2. "Much of the*zinc has been
i ':rcbrr6ded'away'while pro-
tectIng-the base metal
'•'during the'useful lives of
-the products. The 'zinc"has
' . •"'been -washed'bff Iritb'the
'"ground or'ihto'-sewers and
•'"streams.
3. ' If"the*products 'are recycled,
• It Is as"the'base metal,' not
* as"zinc.
4: :i-fhus, no:ol'd galvanized
' zinc Is recycled.• It is
•'wasted In'the flue'gases of
•'. ' iron and'steel furnaces If
• not washed'away In use.
' Oxides' and 'Chemicals
•Close'-to'half of'.-'the»zinc
•oxides 'and 'chemicals1.are
scrapped- as constituents
of rubber products.
Most of- the'remainder are
'scrapped as'constituents
of'paintsy.rp'apers, 'textiles,
and^chemicals.
Zinc-' 6xides'.4and chemicals
'•are> nearly-always'-'a 'minor
"percentage of 'these'products.
These1'products1 are generally
not recycled.
It ls;j not'economic to recycle
; -the;zinc In" these1 products.
• •Thus;-' no'zinc oxides or
•'chemicals''are ^recycled'.
'Other Obsolete Scrap
''Other-obsolete zinc scrap In-
cludes rolled zinc (used In dry
cells), zinc dust (used in paints),
-'.'and a"varlety o£'mlnor • V
uses.
Recycling of'this zinc Is
•generally not economic because
it is in very small and conCam-
-inated pieces (such as dry cells),„
or Is "intimately'mixed:with'and
'•'attached to other materials
•(such as in paint).
Thus, only a.small percentage of
this 'zinc scrap Is recycled.
Tons of Zinc
Not Recycle
39tf;000
190>006
(2)
122,000
•Percent
• of Avail-
s-able 'Zinc
,;t)oi ; Recycle
100
;ioo
94
Problem'
Analysis
1." In"most cases, the'percentage
of zinc in old galvanized
'•products is too-small to be
".economicsllyfiseparated.
2.' Thus, it is more-practical
to-recycle'the zinc with'the
-steel scrap.
3. In'the'lron or'steel-'furnace,
' the"zlnc'"evaporates''and can
1 be collec'tedTrom the flue
• gases by-air-.pollution'con-
't'rol 'equipment.
4.(- Ih'the'flue "dust; the-zinc is
1 ••mixed"with 'iron oxide and
""other "materials.
5. 'Ztnc'contenf-can' range,''from
•"under S"percent to'over 25
"percent. •
6. -'Economic', recovery methods
•for'thls'zinc could sub-
stantially- increase the re-
' ':cycling of- zinc.
?; "•' In.'addition; !'the Incentive
. vwould' be'increased to instal
^ good sir pollution control
. • -equ Ipmeht.
Economic-recovery of zinc
• oxides'and chemicals from
scrapped1rubber products
-might be 'possible If economic
recycling of-rubber Is'accom-
pl'ished.
1•••An6ther*p6ssiblllty is- re'covery
' of zinc as--flue dust If'scrapped
Vrubber'can'-be- burned as fuel.
•"Recovery of- zinc oxides.and
'chemicaTsV^from'imos't'-other 'pro- '
'ducts will-remain 'uneconomic
"because" of»'dl'lutloh -and. dis-
persion ''in-'use.
'• Eco'hbmlc '-rubber, recycling
'meth'ods could allbW'Zlnc recov-
ery;'and substantially increase
the recycling of'zlnc.
I. Dispersion and dilution of most
forms of other obsolete scrap
prevent economic recovery.
2. Opportunities for increased re-
cycling: are strictly limited.
-------
TABLE II. IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF PROBLEMS THAT DO NOT DIRECTLY
REDUCE THE AMOUNT OF ZINC THAT IS RECYCLED
(1)
Declining Overall Markets
(2)
Customer Prejudices
Air Foliation Control
Iroblem
I'efinition
1. Zinc's largest market segment—
die casting --has not grown
since 1965.
2. The consensus of industry spokes-
men is that little or no growth
will occur in the future—perhaps
there will be a decline.
3. Other market segments are
expected to continue present
growth rates in the future.
1. Some zinc users claim that
recycled zinc is inferior
to primary.
2. This is seldom true.
3. Some users will be using re-
cycled zinc without knowing it
because they buy from a
primary producer and think
this means they get primary zinc.
1. Most zinc smelters use chloride
fluxes that make flue gases
extremely corrosive.
2. Collection of solid pollutants from
flue gases is difficult with bag
houses because the chlorides attack
the fabrics.
3. The collected dust is high in zinc
(40 - 50 percent), but of low value
because of high chloride and because
very fluffy and hard to handle.
4. Investment cost for equipment is
relatively hi.gh for small smelters.
X
Effect on
Recycle Rate
Perhaps slight pressure on economics,
but not important. No significant
effect on quantities recycled.
This has some effect on economics of
zinc recycling—causing price dis-
counting. No significant effect : .
on recycle rate.
Pollution control measures effect economics
of recycling moderately by adding to invest-
ment and operating costs of a smelter. No
measurable effect on quantities that are
recycled.
.problem
Analysis
1. Competitive materials (such as
plastic moldings, aluminum die
castings), and redesign of
products to reduce need for
decorative die castings are
reducing the demand for zinc
die castings.
2. Development of improved designs
and fabrication methods to re-
duce ccsts of zinc die castings
could prevent loss of markets.
3. Also, development of alloys
with greatly improved prop-
erties could gain new markets
in new applications (such as
replacement of brass in valves
and other plumbing products).
1. Recycled zinc is not inferior to
primary zinc for the same grades.
2. Promotion of equal quality and
desirability of recycling could
help overcome prejudices.
1. Air pollution control problems of zinc
smelting are 'rather severe and
require costly equipment.
2. Some smelters may have problems providing
investment capital for air pollution
control equipment.
3. Aid in borrowing money may be needed.
•;i) Problems adversely affect economics or practices of recycling but the effect in terms of amount cannot be measured. This situation
is considered an indirect effect.
(2) Includes markets for primary and recycled rr.otals.
-------
Recommendations
The nine., problems, ,werte assigneiuprdor-ities; .based on three factors:
• Potential for improvement' of the, environment
• Potential-for conser^va'tion of nat;ur,ali.respurces .
• . Possibilities for, realisticx sohitfcons:. !
On this, basis., three of the.j'prpbl'emsjiwere classified as. high; priority,
and the other six-.,as» lower-: pciorri'ty. Tab,fetIII vgijy.es recpmmg.nded: actions .for
0
the high priority problems:. Table IV gives- recommendations for the lower
priority problems;..
The question of; who -takes action^is difficult: to answer at this time.
Battelle suggests that NASMI and: EPA continue; their leadership in working on
solid waste programs, recognizing that-.many other Federal, Government agencies
such as the Bureau; of Mines, Council of. Environmental Quality, and Department of
Commerce, as wel-1 as; state and local agencies:, will be involved.
-------
TADLE in. RECOMMENDED ACTIONS, HIGH PRIORITY ZINC RECYCLING PROBLEMS
Zinc Base Alloys
Old Galvanized
Air Pollution Control
Actions
4
Recommended
R&D should be undertaken
to develop economical methods
and equipment for the mechan-
ized separation of zinc, alum-
inum, copper, and nonmagnetic
stainless steels.
R&D should be undertaken
to develop an economical process
for recovery of zinc from flue
dusts. (In addition to steel
and Iron furnaces, this should
Include zinc and brass furnaces.)
An Investigation should be
made of the need for financial
lelp by smelters In meeting,
air pollution standards. Also.
methods for providing help If
needed.
By Whom
EPA/NASMI
EPA/NASMI
EPA/NASMI
Specific
Steps
1* Form a committee of
•crap processors.
2. Committee analyze the major
sorting problems for non-
ferrous metals
• types of metals
• forms of metals
• quantities, etc.
• etc.
3. Committee analyze the major
sorting methods now In use:
• hand picking
• heavy media
• sweating
• etc.
4. Committee review problems
and methods with major
equipment manufacturers to
determine If economic sort-
Inn methods can be Installed
with present equipment.
5. If so, prepare guidebook of
practical installations.
6. If not, undertake R&D to
develop methods and
equipment needed.
2.
3.
Form a flue dust committee
representing zinc smelters,
brass smelters, steel milla
(using high-zinc scrap
charge), iron foundries
(using high-zinc scrap
charge).
Committee survey other smelt-
ers and mills to determine
present flue dust:
• recovery methods
• composition of dust
• disposal of dust
• etc.
Committee analyze present
recycle methods and econ-
omics for zinc flue dusts.
Initiate R&D on promising
approaches with goal of
developing economic pro-
cesses for recycling most
dusts.
1> Establish a committee to
conduct the investigation.
Committee survey the zinc
smelters to collect data
concerning status, methods,
and problems of air pollution
control. Emphasis on econ-
omic impact on smelters.
Committee to develop finan-
cing plans to meet Investcen:
needs of smelter for air
pollution control systeos
where hardships occur.
Committee present data
and recommendations to
EPA and legislative bodlei
concerning needs—fast
tax writeoffs, guaranteed
loans, etc.
(IT The responsibility for reconmendcd actions shown In this table are based on Importance of the
action, benefit to the taxpayers, and opportunities for NASMI. They are the best Judgoenti
(.?* Reconmended actions were distributed between high priority and lower priority based on the
evaluation with three criteria. •
O) It Is suggested that NASMI continue Its leading role In recycling, recognizing that other
- organizations such as the Bureau of Mines, Department of Conmerce, Council of Environmental
Quality. HEW Office of Information, and State, Local, and Federal Legislature! must bt
* Involved.
-------
TMU iv. nwimm Acnons. unit PIIOIITT me ucvcum: nanaa
teconnanded
»»-»'<2>
Spectfta
Stepe
Calvaalsed Clipping*
. . g&O should be undertaken
to. develop an ecoooolcat ^process
for the recovery of sine fron
galvanised clipping*.
3> Msm
1. QMIT mi Chmical* Conpany
•' " concerning it* degalvanlalng
, aroceM.
J. If It look* good end 1* *o«n
to be ccnnarcUllted.
' HASHl *top actions. '*
i. It net to be *ooa connarcial-
Ised, determine why and "what
. additional work needed. ; '
>; If promising., encourage further
develoontnt and-coMMrclalt-
sat ion of the'HaT proccs*.
i. If not pronleing. Initiate an
g&O program to 4evelop-a'eoand.
and'ecoabnlc degalwanlslng'
• process.
.0*ide and Chevlcals
R&D should be undertaken
to develop processes for the.'
recovery of material* fron tire*
and other rubber product*.
Included are the rubber, sine
oatde, sulfur compounds, carbon
black, fiber*, and ateet wire.
Or, develop nethods for using
oid rubber a* fuel and recovering
by-product* of conbua'tbrn.
KA5HX
1. Invest Kate oreaant
status of old rubber
recycling:
e quantities available .
e present recycling
, ' activities
e Up enderway.
e etc.-
I. Undertake g&O to develop
- oconebie netted, for re/
; cycling old rubber.
_ "
\
Other Obeolote Scrap
An tnveatlgatlon ehould be
nada of the* fenalbllity of re-
cycling additional ov«ntiti«»
of other 'obsolete sloe •crap-
dry call*, sine duat, etc.
.-., . BASHI
1. lUSJa aet op cnsiaUtna ef
•crap pTocaaaora.
2: . CoaailKtee analyae wbat alne
*cr*p 1* not now r«cyclno>
J. Cenmltte* de«Ue whether or
. not It wooU be feealele -
to try to Incrceao recycle
'„ rate for! sane of" thia scrap: .
». If f*«*lbl* (3 above). Invert- .
igata nbre elonely «ha* aeoes
to be- done to Increaee '
" recycling.'
3. lecoanwjnd actions mealred to
increase recycling.
. • , .
Dec UN tag Market*
t&D should be continued to
develop higher-oar foneence sine
alloy* that can gain w «ark»ta
for sine die eaatlaga.
•ASMI/Zlnc Inatltwte
1. HASMI aet up'connlttee
of -one KASNI staff ninftef
and two dle-caatlng alloy
producer* to coordinate
recycling Industry Interest a
with Zinc Institute g&O
activities. • _
•I. Coewlttee dlscnas with zinc
Institute bow to work, together
to develop new sine die-cast*
fng alloy*, nstnaf act wring-
Methods, and narket a—pro ject*
finding, etc.
- .- - -
Customer Prejudice*
Publf It? *hould be used
to Inform *er* of recycled
tint: that t 1* eoual lo
eiMlltr to prlnary sine.
Tie rubUc ty to saving the
envlronawn and aavlng natvral
re*ource*.
, KAS1I/KASM1 Hsnber Conpanles
1. NASHI continue general pro-
notion of recycling concept.
: 2. KA5KI and approprlat*
nenber conpaales it art ^
specific progran to pro- <
'. -note recycled sine.
j-
i
'f
:: . -
(!) The responsibility, for recommended actions shown In this table are based on iapbrtance^of'.the
action, benefit to the taxpayers» and'opportunities for NASHI. They'are the best.judgments
of'Battelle. .„>..,
(2)< Recocsnended actions uere distributed between high priority and lower priority based.oa the*
•valuation with three"criteria;
. (3), It is suggested'that HASMI continue its'leading role in. recycling', recognizing that other,. '
organizations such as tKe 'Bureaurof'Mincs; Dcparttaent of^ Connterce,' Councll\of Environment's!
Quality,. HEW Office of Informat ion'/'and .'State,' LocaT;' »nA, Federal* Legislature's oust be"'
Involved/ " -
(• ' '
-------
INTRODUCTION
In June, 1970, Battelle-Columbus undertook a research program for the
National Association of Secondary Material Industries, Inc. (NASMI). This work
was carried out under a subcontract from the Office of Solid Waste Management
grant to NASMI. This report on zinc is one of a series of eight commodity
reports plus a general or summary report.
Background
The Office of Solid Waste Management is responsible for formulating
and recommending Federal Government policies in the area of solid waste pollution.
This includes pursuing appropriate research to determine the status and problems
of solid waste activities, and to develop programs to reuuce solid waste pollution.
One approach to the reduction of solid waste pollution is to reclaim
waste materials for reuse - the recycling concept. A well established industry--
the secondary materials industry—exists to accomplish this recycling. NASMI is
the trade association representing the nonferrous metals, paper, and textiles
portion of this industry. ri-.ty
-------
The scrap processors; secondary smelters, and other companies that
nake up the secondary materials industry have developed effective channels and
methods for recycling nearly all waste materials of economic value. These
.companies have performed their difficult and essential furictTon's"we 11 in the
traditional economic environment. ' .
More recently additional dimensions have been added to this traditional
economic environment. These new. dimensions are (1) Improvement of the envlron--
nent in which we live, and (2) increased need for conservation.of natural
resources. These new dimensions provide new challenges and opportunities for
the recycling industry. No longer is economic gain the sole driving force for
recycling of waste materials. .Social gain has been, added in the forms of
improved living, conditions and preservation of resources for future generations.
In an economics-based nation this creates problems of interpretation and'
evaluation of noneconomics-based goals and activities. :
The purpose of' this se.ri.es of reports Is to. identify obstacles to the
recycling of solid wastes, and to recommend directions for investigation and
research to overcome these obstacles.
Objectives
The objective of the study on which this report is based was to
• , . . . . . .: ... . . . . i!U . .» '.' . r . I .' ,fc . ,.i .' . 5> ..:...-) . i - .. I
identify opportunities for the increased utilization of solid waste. The major
sub-objectives were:
(1) To determine the structure and functions of the secondary
materials industry, and its relationships to sources of
supply and markets
(2) To Identify and evaluate problems of recycling - materials,
sources, industry, and markets, and ...
(3) To determine opportunities for Increased recycling..
2-':j 8
Scope . .....
The major subjects included in the scope of the study are the secondary
materials Industry, the" materials it recycles, the sources of solid wastes, and-
the markets for recycled materials. Activities peripheral to these major
subjects are considered where pertinent to recycling.
The materials. Included in the study, are:
Aluminum Nickel and Nickel Alloys
Copper and Copper Alloys Precious Metals (Silver and Gold)
Lead • Paper
Zinc - Textiles
Research Methods
The methods and procedures used in. the study are discussed under four
types of activities. They include .(A) literature search, (B) extensive survey,
(C) "in-depth survey, and (D) analysis and synthesis.
Literature Search
.-• The literature search Included reviewing and studying books, Government
reports, industry reports, and trade journals covering solid waste handling and
problem's, recovery and; market data, and recycling of valuable materials.
The results of this effort included the accumulation of data and
descriptive material, and an organized bibliography dealing with each of the
commodities covered in the scope of the study.
-------
.Extensive Survey .
The extensive survey of the secondary materials industry consisted of
a mall survey and personal interviews with management personnel of companies
involved with the collection, processing, and sale of secondary materials.
About 600 responses were received.
The information developed through the extensive survey included dollar
sales, tons of major materials handled, types of solid waste processed, sources
of materials, Investment, equipment and facilities, number of employees, the
amount of space used, and the grades and quantities of secondary materials
produced.
The data from the extensive survey provided statistical tabulations of
the regional distribution of the secondary materials industries by type of
commodity in terms of numbers of establishments, volume of business, and numbers
of employees.
In-depth Survey
The in-depth survey of selected members of the secondary materials
industries, their suppliers, and the users of their products served to Identify
the major technical and economic problems facing those companies involved with
secondary material utilization. About 200 interviews were completed. Battelle
and NASMI commodity specialists jointly selected the companies to be Interviewed
In depth.
Interview guides for each of the commodities were prepared. The
problems and potential solutions for greatest recycling and waste utilization
that were developed from the literature search and prior Office of Solid Waste
Management work plus the knowledge of the NASMI commodity specialists provided
the basis for designing the interview guide. Sample guides are reproduced in
the Appendix.
Analysts and Synthesis
The analysis and synthesis step was concerned with the collation and
analysis of data and information derived from both the literature, extensive
survey, and in-depth survey. The analysis and synthesis activity covered the
following tasks:
(1) Economic Data on the Secondary Materials Industries. The
economic data developed through the extensive survey of the
secondary materials Industries were tabulated and analyzed as
to the amount and type of solid waste handled and as to
operational data such as number of employees, amount of
space required, capitalization, and geographic locations.
(2) Flow Diagrams and Life Cycles. Flow diagrams were developed
to indicate the flow of materials from primary production
and scrap sources through fabrication. Life cycle estimates
of various products were used to develop data on quantities
available for possible recycling.
(3) Demand-Supply Relationships. Estimates were made of future
demand and supply levels for secondary materials. The rela-
tionship between these data provide an indication of potential
surpluses or shortages of recycled materials through 1980.
(4) Stability of Flow and Consumption. This analysis is closely
related to the supply-demand analysis described above and
Identifies the ability of the various secondary materials to
-------
•'compete as source materials for manufacturers.'- A'number of •
factors were examined such as price changes in Che secondary
materials, the availability of materials, and the effect of
sudden changes in the magnitude of demand. • .
(5) Direct Impacts of Technological Change. Direct technical and
technological factors were examined to determine their effect
on ra_tes of processing and recycling. Potential changes that
could take place in technology that could decrease or increase
the rate of solid waste recovery were examined. This Includes
the identification of potentially recoverable solid wastes,
the problems limiting the recovery to current levels, and the
possibilities of technical advances through the use of known
technology or through added scientific and engineering research.
(6) Constraints on Expansion of the Secondary Materials Industries.
This analysis included consideration of elements critical to
expansion of recycling -labor and management availability,
laws and regulations, equipment availability, nature of solid
waste materials, market needs, etc.
(7) Potentials for Expansion of the Secondary Materials Industries.
Based on the constraints identified In the above task, plus
.= •• - KZ *'• :••:: '••'.'••< )...••.>•: '.'.If.-' .--•. .
examination of various methods for overcoming constraints,
this task determined the ability of the secondary materials
Industries to meet new opportunities for recycling.
(8) Indirect Technological Change. The broad overall technological
trends indirectly affecting the secondary materials industries
were examined, and their probable Impacts determined.
THE ZINC INDUSTRY . .
r This first section of the report provides a brief description of the
zinc industry—the overall framework of which zinc recycling Is a part. Included
are the characteristics of zinc—primary and recycled, and the characteristics
of the zinc industry—primary and recycled.
Characteristics of Zinc
.The major forms of primary and recycled zinc that are produced are:
Slab zinc
Zinc dust
Zinc die casting alloys
Zinc oxide.
Grades of Slab Zinc and Zinc Dust
Slab zinc is produced in six standard grades which range from about 98.3
to more than 99.99 percent zinc.
The specifications (ASTM designation: Revision: B6-62T) for primary slab
zinc provide that the zinc be made from ore or other material by distillation or elec-
trolysis, and not by "sweating" or remelting of scrap. The grades and maximum
impurities are shown In Table 1. .
. Zinc produced from newly mined ores Is termed primary or virgin zinc.
When zinc is produced from scrap or residues, it is termed secondary redistilled
or remelt zinc dependent upon the process utilized for recovery. Primary zinc is
referred to as electrolytic or distilled zinc according to the reduction process
used.
-------
••J
TABLE 1
GRADES OF SLAB ZINC
Name
Special high grade
High grade
Intermediate
Brass special
Prime Western
Lead
0.003
0.07
0.20
0.60
1.60
Maximum.
Iron
0.003
0.02
0.03
0.03
0.05
percent ^ '
Cadmium
0.003
0.03
0.40
0.50
0.05
Total
0.010
0.10
0.50
1.0
—
Minimum
Percent
Zinc (2)
99.99
99.90
99.50
99.00
98.0
(1) ASTM Standards, B6-62T.
(2) Difference, by deduction of listed allowable impurities.
NOTE: Analysis shall not regularly be made for tin but when used for die castings,
if found, by the purchaser, tin shall not exceed 0.001 percent. Greater
amounts may constitute cause for rejection.
Where it is specified by the purchaser at the time of purchase that the
special high-grade zinc is to be used for the manufacture of zinc-base,
die-casting alloy ingot, the maximum permissible tin content shall be
0.002 percent and the maximum permissible lead content shall be 0.005
percent.
Analysis shall not regularly be made for aluminuc. When used for the manu-
facture of rolled zinc or brass, aluminum, if found by the purchaser, shall
not exceed 0.005 percent. Greater amounts may constitute cause for
rejection.
Specifications for zinc dust have not been adopted by the industry, but
chemical purity and particle sizes are closely controlled to particular customer
requirements. Commercial-zinc dust ranges from 95 to 99.8 percent zinc with the
balance being principally oxidized zinc plus impurities of lead and iron. A
representative particle size gradation would be 100 percent minus 100-mesh and
25 percent minus 325-mesh although some specifications call for more than
97 percent passing a 325-mesh screen.
Zinc Die Casting Alloys
Zinc die casting alloys are any of several zinc-base alloys in which
aluminum and copper are the principal alloying elements. The most widely used
of these alloys have compositions described by ASTM Specification B 86, -63 alloys AG40A
and AC41A (die castings) and ASTM Specification B 240, alloys AG40A and AC41A
(ingots). These specifications are shown in Table 2.
TABLE 2
ASTM B 240--63-STANDARD SPECIFICATION
FOR ZINC-BASE ALLOYS IN INGOT FORM
FOR DIE CASTING
Composition
Percent
Aluminum
Copper
Magnesium
Nickel
Iron
Lead
Cadmium
Tin
Zinc
AG40A
Alloy
XXIII
3.9 - 4.3
.10 Max.
.025 - .05
'• .
.075 Max.
.004 "
.003 "
.002 "
*
AC41A
Alloy
XXV
3.9 - 4.3
.75 - 1.25
.03 - .06
—
.075 Max.
.004 "
.003 "
.002 "
*
'*. Remainder. ''••-. ri
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10
Zinc Oxide ... ... •' . -. -.• ..' .. "...
Zinc burns in air to form the white powdery zinc oxide used widely in
pigments and rubber. Table 3 presents ASTM Specifications (D-7.9-44). for • . • —
American and French process zinc oxide. ••'•..
TABLE 3
ASTM SPECIFICATIONS FOR AMERICAN AND FRENCH
. - "• -PROCESS ZINC OXIDE • • -"
Zinc oxide
Sulfur
Moisture and other
volatiles
Total impurities
Retained on 325-mesh ...^
(44-micron) sieve ,,
Percent
Minimum
Maximum
ii
ii
ii
American
Process'*^
• 98.0
0.2 .
0.5
2.0
1.0
French
Process
99.0
0.1
0.5
1.0
."-'T.O
(2)
(1) Produced directly.from ores.
(2) Produced from slab zinc or zinc scrap.
Characteristics of the Zinc Industry
The zinc industry includes the institutions and activities required to
process zinc-containing raw materials to produce zinc metal,- oxides, and chemicals.
Included are several types of companies: • - .
Type of Company . Activities
Integrated producers - mining, concentrating, smelting and
refining
Miners
Smelters
- mining, concentrating of ores
smelting and refining from ore
Secondary smelters - distillation, smelting, and refining.
from scrap, and production of die casting
alloys
Scrap processors - collecting, sorting, etc.,''o~f "scrap
«->.-o ••••- •
**t! O
11 •'
Materials Sources '.
The U.S. zinc industry depends on the following sources for zinc.
materials:
(1)
1969 Consumption
(zinc content, tons)
Domestic ores • • .
Imported ores ..". ';. 11.
Imported metal . <
Recycled zinc
. 459,000
. 582,000
329,000
378,000<2>
Materials Flow .'-•••.
"- • - ' .f~
The 4 sources of zinc raw materials shown above, plus the U.S. strategic
stockpile supplied the U.S..zinc market in 1969. Figure-1 provides a materials
flow balance based on these 5 sources of'"zinc. Although scrap is a major source
of zinc, over half is alloyed with copper and is recycled as brass. Thus, it is
not zinc scrap, but only a constituent, of copper-base alloys scrap.
The use pattern of Figure 1 shows the heavy dependence of zinc on die
casting (zinc base alloys) and galvanizing for Its markets. Oxides are also large
because zinc oxide is used in rubber tires.
Zinc Producers .
"" ..." Production of slab zinc in the United States has been dominated by seven
producers with over 85 percent of the total (includes primary and recycled).(3)
St. Joseph Lead Co.
The Anaconda Co.
American Smelting
& Refining Co.
Percent
17
16
14
Percent
New Jersey Zinc Co.
American Zinc. Co.
Bunker Hill .Co.
American Metal Climax
12
11
(1) U.S. Bureau of Mines. Minerals Yearbook. 1969, "Zinc" chapter.
(2) Includes 194,000 tons of zinc in copper-base.alloys. This is nearly all
recycled as brass and bronze rather than being recovered as zinc.
(3) Based on 1966 production, from "Economic Analysis of the Lead-Zinc Industry",
April 1969. Chas. River Associates Inc., Cambridge, Mass. Svj*7
-------
12
ti^U=l:;::;;::;;;;::;;:::;: 1.905.000 |
I::-:: Scrap I:::::::::::::::: 376,000
lUnexpToTrie'd'Up's'ies
Notes- I. Quantities in short tons
2. Includes brass scrap that is recycled as brass
scrap without extraction of zinc. This accounts
for 194,000 tons of zinc. Thus, only I79.OOO
tons of zinc were used to make new brass
FIGURE I. MATERIALS FLOW BALANCE. ZINC, 1969
Source: U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook.
1969. "Zinc" chapter
13
Table 4 gives 1967 data (latest available) concerning primary and -
secondary zinc smelters. These data are misleading in the case of secondary zinc.
There are many more than 14 establishments involved in recycling of zinc. The
remelters, smelters, oxide producers, etc., are not included in the table.
Markets for Zinc •
The markets for zinc have increased at an average annual rate of about
1.8 percent since 1945. Figure 2 gives annual consumption data for this period.
Table 5 provides a breakdown of zinc consumption for 1969 by type of
material. Most of the slab zinc is used for galvanizing, die casting alloys, and
brassmaking. Muc'i of the "other and unspecified" category is zinc oxide made
from ore and scrap.
S.IOO
1.800
1.500
c
9
S 1.200
FIGURE 2. TRENDS IN THE ZINC INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES,
1945-1969
Source: D.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook. 1969,
"Zinc" chapter, p. 1144.
-------
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'TABLE s'-" ;.--.
ZINC CONSUMPTION BY TYPE OF MATERIAL,
U.S'J, 1969''
Type of Material
Short Tons of Zinc
Slab zinc 1,368,000
" "Recycled copper-base alloys 194,000
Zinc dust 55,000
' Other and unspecified 288.000
TOTAL '.- 1,905,000
Source: U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook.
1969, "Zinc" chapter.
Figure 2-A shows monthly average zinc prices at East St. Louis and Londo
1960-1969. It is interesting"to note that domestic zinc prices were steady at
13 cents per pound during 1960, dropped to il;5 cents in 1961 and 1962,.then rose,
stepwise, -to 14.5 cents in later 1964 and stayed at this level until early in 1967
when prices dropped to 13.5 cents. Prices eventually rose to 15.5 cents during th
last half of 1969. London prices have been below domestic price levels except
during 1964 and early 1965.
Zinc Use Patterns \
The market for slab zinc is dominated by two large uses - die casting
and galvanizing. ..Table 6 gives a percent distribution by major uses of slab zinc
sales in 1969: Additional information is given in the appendix concerning the
yarious uses of zinc. ; . ' . "
'"'-... TABLE 6 .
ZINC USE PATTERN, 1969
Use
Die casting
Galvanizing
Brassmaking
Rolled zinc
Other uses
TOTAL
Source: U.S.
Tons of Zinc
585,000
482,000
184,000
49,000
100,000
1,400,000
Bureau of Mines, Minerals
Percent of Total
42
34
13
4
7
100 .
Yearbook. 1969,
"Zinc" chapter.
•71
-------
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16
Markets for Recvcled'Zinc .,' • • ' __•..
Markets for recycled zinc totaled 376,000 tons in 1969. This zinc is
included in the foregoing data on zinc markets and use patterns. A more complete
consideration of markets for recycled zinc is presented in the next major section,
"The Zinc Recycling Industry".
Market Outlook
The market outlook for zinc is not good. The U.S. Bureau of Mines fore-
casts the following annual growth rates in the 1970's:
Percent
Primary zinc 1.1
Recycled zinc 1.2
Applying the Bureau of Mines growth factors to zinc gives future
markets as follows:' '
Short Tons of Zinc
Total
1969
1974
1979
Increased availability of old-zinc die casting scrap could boost recycled
zinc markets substantially - probably at the expense of primary zinc. It is expec-
ted that the supply of old die casting scrap will increase greatly as more shredders
of steel scrap are put in operation, and improved methods are developed for sepa-
ration of the nonferrous metals fraction. Based on this, one can speculate that
recycled zinc markets may be 250,000 tons by 1974 and 300,000 tons by 1979 - or
perhaps much higher than these figures.
Total
I,i32,000
1,623,000
1,715,000
Primary
1,350,000
1,430,000
1,510,000
Recycled
182,000
193,000
205,000
(1) Zinc content of old and new brass not included.
-------
17
18
TABLE 7
THE ZINC RECYCYING INDUSTRY, ; , . ' ,^
The zinc recycling industry is organized to collect, process, and refine
scrapped zinc, and make it available for reuse'--?This industry and the materials
it handles are reviewed in this section. The topics covered are:
Characteristics of Zinc Materials
Characteristics of the Zinc Recycling Industry.
Recycled Zinc Markets .
Materials Flow Pattern for Zinc Recycling
Demand/Supply Analysis.
Characteristics of Zinc Materials
Secondary Zinc .'.-.'.
Not all grades of slab zinc can be produced by a secondary smelter. As
an example, Special High Grade is 99.99 percent zinc and the secondary smelter
cannot achieve this purity. In practice, the only grade of recycled slab that is
produced in substantial quantities is Prime Western. The other important types
of recycled zinc are dust, oxide, die casting alloys, and brass. Of these, over
half the recycled zinc is contained in recycled brass. . .
Scrap and Drosses I-
A variety of zinc scrap and drosses provide the raw materials for zinc
recycling. In composition, these materials vary from almost 100 percent zinc
content to about 60 percent zinc.
Standard grades of zinc scrap and drosses have been defined by NASMI.
These are shown in Table 7. •.-...•
GRADES OF ZINC SCRAP AND DROSSES
For.a discussion of the functions of the recycling industry see Vol I,
General Report. • . ' - .
OLD ZINC DIE CAST SCRAP
Shall consist of miscellaneous old zinc base die castings, with or without .iron and other—-
foreign attachments. .Must be-free of-borings, turnings, dross pieces, chunks, melted
pieces and skimmings. All unmeltables, dirt, foreign attachments, and volatile substances
(such as rubber, cork, plastic, grease, etc.) are deductible. • Material containing in
excess of 30 percent iron will not constitute good delivery.
NEW'ZINC DIE CAST SCRAP
Shall consist of new or unused, clean, zinc base die castings. . Castings to be unplated,
unpainted, and free from corrosion. " ' • • " "• '.-..-•
NEW PLATED ZINC DIE CAST SCRAP .
Shall consist of new or unused clean, plated zinc base die castings, free from corrosion.
. ZINC DIE-CAST AUTOMOTIVE GRILLES
Shall consist of clean, old or used zinc base die cast automotive grilles, free from -
soldered material. All foreign attachments and extraneous material are deductible.
OLD SCRAP ZINC
Shall consist of clean dry scrap zinc, such as sheets, jar lids, clean unalloyed castings
and anticqrrosion plates. Borings and turnings are .not "acceptable. Material must not be
excessively corroded or oxidized. All foreign attachments and extraneous materials are
deductible. •
NEW ZINC CLIPPINGS
Shall consist of any new pure zinc sheets or stampings free from corrosion. To contain
no foreign material or attachments. Printers zinc, such as engravers zinc, lithograph
sheets and addressograph plates subject to special arrangements. Printers zinc to be
free of routings.
ZINC DIE CAST SLABS OR PIGS
Shall consist of melted zinc base die cast materials, in'smooth clean solid slabs or pigs.
Material to be free from drosses and to contain a minimum zinc content of 90 percent.
GALVANIZERS SLAB ZINC DROSS
Shall consist of galvanizers unsweated zinc dross in slabs with a minimum zinc content of
92 percent and shall be free of skimmings. Broken metallic pieces under 2 inches in diam-
eter shall not exceed 10 percent of the weight of each shipment. Slabs shall not weigh.
over 100 pounds each.
PRIME ZINC DIE CAST DROSS
Shall consist of metal skimmed from the top of pot of molten zinc die cast metal. Must be
unsweated, unfluxed, shiny, smooth, metallic and free from corrosion or oxidation. Should
be poured in igDids..or in small mounds weighing not over 75 pounds each. Zinc shall be a
minimum of 85 t percent....
ANY OTHER GRADES OF ZIHC-BEARIHG MATERIALS HOT MENTIONED ARE SUBJECT TO SPECIAL ARRANGEMEg'
Source: NASMI. 2,'f fir
-------
19
Characteristics of the Zinc Recycling Industry
.. Scrap'metal processors collect, handle, sort," segregate, and otherwise
process the various grades of zinc scrap for shipment to secondary smelters.
Most of these processors also handle other scrap metals. A small amount of zinc
scrap was generated as a by-product of steel shredders in 1969. This quantity is
increasing so more old die casting scrap is recycled each year.
Old zinc scrap is often contaminated with dirt, plating, inserts, or
other items. Because of the contaminants, and the low melting and boiling points
of zinc, sweating the zinc off the contaminants is a common practice. This
operation is done by both processors and smelters. The secondary smelters, in
addition to sweating, distill, refine, and alloy zinc to produce slab, alloys,
dust, or oxide.
Materials Sources
Zinc for recycling comes as prompt industrial scrap (mostly drosses,
skimmings, and residues), and as obsolete scrap (mostly old die castings and rolled
zinc). Table 8 gives zinc scrap consumption data.
TABLE 8
CONSUMPTION OF NEW AND OLD ZINC SCRAP IN THE
UNITED STATES IN 1969
(short tons)
Class of Consumer and
Type of Scrap
New clippings
Old zinc
Engravers' plates
Skimmings and ashes
Sal skimmings
Die-cast skimmings
Galvanizers' dross
Diecastings
Rod and die scrap
Flue dust
Chemical residues
TOTAL
Source: U.S. Bureau of
New Scrap
670
--
—
74,269
8,397
4,890
66,496
—
—
8,603
36.797
200,122
Consumption
Old Scrap
_„
6,463
3,392
--
--
—
—
38,312
1,590
—
"*
49,757
Total
670
6,463
3,392
74,269
8,397
4,890
66,496
38,312
1,590
8,603
36.797
249.879
Nines. Minerals Yearbook. 1969,
"Zinc" chapter.
20
Zinc scrap prices fluctuate depending on slab zinc prices, type,
and quality of scrap, location of scrap, availability of scrap, and other factors.
Table 9 provides a rough indication of 1969 prices for zinc scrap. When scrap
prices are at a low level, zinc dusts and low grade scraps are not recycled. This
means that more solid waste is generated and disposed of and our natural resources
depleted.
TABLE 9
ZINC SCRAP PRICES, 1969
Item
New die cast scrap
New clippings
Old zinc scrap
Old irony die cast scrap
Galvanizers' drosses
Die casters' drosses
Price,
cents per Ib
10
9
7
6
9
7
Source: Zinc recycling companies.
Recycled Zinc Markets
Table "10 gives a 10-year history of recycled zinc production (consumption
is about the same). This table shows total zinc recycling and zinc recycling ex-
cluding copper-base alloys. The amount of noncopper-base zinc recycled has
maintained a relatively constant ratio with total consumption at around 10 percent
over the period.
-------
21
22
TABLE 10
RECYCLED ZINC PROBOCTIOHU), 1960-1969
Year
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964.
1965
1966
1967
1968
* *' f If
1969
(1JT Includes
Source: U.S.
. Total
(Short tons, of
266,000
238,00.0,
262,000
268,000
298,000
353,000
360,000
320,000
355,000
376.000
production' of Alloys • '
. - K~" 't , -~ i ,• • W £•• i'.i ' . .. /
Bureau of Mines, Minerals
Excluding
Copper-Ba'se
Zinc)
158,000
13?,OQO;
148,000
149 000
164.000
191, 000
193,000
177,000
192,000
182,000
'. •' . • - '" * ,
Yearbooks .
1961, 1963, 1965; 1967, 1969S VZinc'.'-
chapters.
Use Patterns
Table 11 gives consumption data for recycled zinc by form of recovery.
Copper base alloys are over half the total. This zinc remains in the alloy - it is
not separated as zinc. Other forms of recovery are small compared with copper
base alloys. '
TABLE 11
CONSUMPTION OF SECONDARY Z1XC BY USE, 1969
. Form of 'Re'c'overy
As metal:
By distillation:
Slab zinc(1)
Zinc dust
By remelting
TOTAL
In zinc-base alloys
In brass and bronze
In aluminum-base alloys
In magnesium-base alloys
In chemical products:
Zinc oxide (lead-free)
• Zinc-sulfate
Zinc chloride
Miscellaneous
• TOTAL
GRAND TOTAL
1969
68,677
33,241
19,980
196,244
6,853
459
21,049
11,986
10,9i7
'j.346
268.834
376,391
(1). includes zinc content of redistilled slab
made from remelt die-case slab.
j-
Source: U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook.
1969, "Zinc" chapter.
-------
23
Industry Data
A survey of the recycling industry developed data to afford profiles of
the industry and the companies making up the industry. Volume I, General Report
in this series, gives many of these djgta. A few data concerning zinc are given
here and in Appendix B of this report.
The average recycler of zinc compares with the average recycler for all
commodities as follows:
(1)
Zinc
All commodities
Investment in Number of Investment
Plant and Equipment Employees Per Employee
$1,103,000
1,480,000
43
71
$25,500
20,800
Figure. 3 shows the variation in size by census region of (1) zinc scrap
processors and (2) zinc smelters. There is some correlation of sizes of smelters
. with degree of industrialization - the heavily industrialized Middle Atlantic
and East North Central regions support much larger smelters than the other
regions.
(1) Data from extensive survey.
24
(I) Zinc Scrop
Processor
(2) Zinc Smelter
I. New England
2. Middle Atlantic
3. South Atlonlic
4. East North Central 7.
5. East South Central 8.
6. West North Central 9.
West South Central
Mountain
Pacific (includes Alaska
and Hawaii.)
FIGURE 3. AVERAGE SIZE IN TONS PER YEAR OF ZINC OF (I) ZINC
SCRAP PROCESSORS AND (2) ZINC SMELTERS, BY REGION. 1969
Source: Extensive Survey
Cot
-------
Materials Flow Pattern for Zinc Recycling
With data on scrap sources and markets for secondary zinc in 1969, plus
calculations of the quantities of zinc scrap that should have been generated in
1969, it is possible-'to develop a materials flow pattern. Table 12 presents
these data. Footnotes show sources and methods of derivation. .
The first column of the table gives data concerning quantities of zinc
that should have been scrapped in 1969 based on life cycles of the-various
sources. Thus, drosses are immediately available as a by-product of galvanizing
and die casting operations. At the other extreme is old galvanized which is in use
for an average of 20 years before being scrapped. /The quantity of zinc used in galva-
nizing in 1949 (actually the 1948-1950 average was used to smooth year-to-year
variations) is the amount that should have been scrapped in 1969, and this is
the 390,000 tons 'shown in Table 12. The other entries in the first column were . .
calculated in a similar manner using the life cycles given in footnote (2). ' . .
Figure 4 presents the data of Table 12 in graphic form. The widths of
the various channels are proportional to .the quantities involved. The total
'• '. '••'•' - • • >;:' • ' Y • •".'"'• •
amount of zinc calculated to be available for recycling is shown by lightly
shaded areas, the recycled zinc is shown by unshaded areas, and the zinc that is
not recycled is shown by darkly shaded areas. It can be seen that industrial
scrap is not a problem except for galvanized clippings and flue dust.
All categories of obsolete scrap zinc show'very low'recycle rates—large
quantities apparently are not recycled. The major reason for this is that it has
not been economically feasible—except for zinc base alloy scrap. This is not re-
cycled because of a combination of technical and economic reasons based on
difficulty of separation of the die castings from junked autos, appliances, and
other products. This will be discussed later in a problems section.
26.
TABLE 12
ZINC SCRAP RECYCLING, 1969
Scrap Sources
Galvanized clippings
Flue dust
(6)
Other prompt industrial
Zinc base alloys
Old galvanized
Oxides and chemicals
'Other obsolete scrap
Total'6'
Tons of Zinc
Available- for
Recycling'2'
50,000(3)
20,000(4>
138,000
353,000
390,000
190,000
130,000.
1 .271 ,000
Tons of
Zinc . . Percent
Recycled Recycled
- ' 0
3,000(5) 15
138,000(5) 100 ,
33,000(5) 9
0 .
0 . .
8,000(5) 6
182,000 14
Tons, of Zinc
Not. Recycled
50,000
17,000
" _ • >-*
320_, 000
. . 390,000
190,000
122,000
1,089,000
Notes: (i) "Galvanized Clippings"; "Flue Dust" and "Other Prompt Industrial"
cover all the prompt industrial scrap. All other sources in this
column coyer obsolete scrap. ".' .-. •'' •••' •-. '; • •
(2) Calculated from estimated life cycles, and consumption of zinc
that number of years prior 'to 1969. The life cycles used, and
.the years for which_ consumption data were used are as follows:
Source
. . Galvanized clippings
Flue -dusts .
Other^prompt industrial :
Zinc base:alloys
Old galvanized
Oxides and chemicals
Other obsolete scrap
Life Cycle
-(Years)
-------
27
Galvanized
Clippings
50.0OO
Flue Dust
50,
20.000 ^17.000
Other Prompl Induslriol
Old :::::::390.000
Gaivaniied-iil!;;!!
Guides a::::::::::!90,OOO,
Chemicals
(5)
130,000
All quantities in short tons of zinc
Zinc recycled as brass not included
Home scrap not included
Prompt industrial above broken line,
obsolete below
Estimated 50% of scrap by-passes
processors, dealers, and brokers
1,271,000
Total Zinc
Available in Scrap
= Not
i;:j Recycled
182.000
Recycled
(77% Prompt Industrial
23% Obsolete)
Recycled Zinc
Markets
FIGURE 4. SCRAP/RECYCLED ZINC FLOW, 1969
28
Demand/Supply Analysis
A brief analysis of expected future demand and supply for recycled zinc
provides an indication of the future recycling environment.
Demand
The demand for secondary zinc in 1969 and two future years, 1974 and 1979,
is forecast as follows (see p. 16):
Year Short Tons
1969 182,000
1974
1979
193,000
205,000
Supply
Future availability of recycled zinc, based on present rates of re-
covery is as follows:
Year
1969
1974
1979
Production of
Recycled Zinc
182,000
196,000
212,000
Demand/Supply Balance
An insignificant surplus of recycled zinc is indicated for the future
based on present recovery practices:
Short tons
1974
Demand
Supply
Surplus
It is expected that production of recycled zinc will be higher than indi-
cated for 1974 and 1979, based on better recovery of old die castings. Thus, the
indicated surpluses may be much larger than shown, resulting in possible downward
price pressures, and requiring more aggressive marketing.
£83
1974
193,000
196,000
3,000
1979
205,000
212,000
7,000
-------
28a
Effect on Zinc Industry
It is reasonable to expect that an additional 274,000 short tons of zinc
could be recycled annually under ideal conditions. If this much additional
zinc can be recycled by 1974, about 140 percent will be added to the predicted
recycled zinc supply in that year.. However, this is only about 20 percent of
total supply. This is less than a 4 percent increase each year for .the 5 years
between-1969 and 1974. This should not cause major upheaval in the zinc industry.
This additional recycled zinc will be marketed at the expense of lower sales -of
domestic and imported primary zinc because of the lower price for recycled. ,
Since, there are large year-to-year variations in primary zinc supplies (in the
1965-1969 period imported metal varied by 175,000 tons from lowest to highest
year, production from domestic ores varied by 11-5,000 tons), and because imported
metal supplies are increasing rapidly, growth- of recycled zinc supplies over a
5-year period should not cause unusual problems for the primary suppliers. ... .
. I*, •
(1) The 274,000 tons was calculated based on th'e following changes in percent
recycled:
Additional
..1969V Goal-, Recycled,
Galvanized Clippings
Flue Dust
Zinc Base Alloys
Old Galvanized
0
15
9
0
80
80
50
20
TOTAL
tons
40,000
• 1-3,000
143,000
78.000
274,000
£86
29'
ZINC SCRAP RECYCLING PROBLEMS
There are several problems that directly reduce the amount of zinc that
is recycled. In order to provide as quantitative a base as.possible for analy-
zing the effects of the problems on recycling, the organization of this section
follows the types of scrap. .
Industrial Scrap
There are two types of prompt industrial zinc scrap that have a low re-
cycle rate: (1) galvanized clippings and (2) flue dusts. Table 13 presents
these problems along with those concerning obsolete scrap.
\ ' '
Obsolete Scrap
Recycling of ob'solete zinc scrap is generally under 10 percent of scrap
calculated to be available for recycling. The problem areas of obsolete scrap
involve the following classes of uses:
(1) Zinc base alloys (die castings)
(2) Old galvanized
'(3) Oxides and. chemical's
(4) Other obsolete zinc scrap. . ".
Table 13 preseVts th'e'se problems' cased or. 1969 data. Included are:
(1) definitions of the problems, (2) tons of zinc not recycled, (3) percent of
available zinc not recycled, and (4) analyses of the problems.
(1) Problems that do not directly reduce the amount of zinc that is recycled are
discussed in the next major section of the report.
-------
TABLE 13. IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF PROBLEMS CONCERNING ZINC THAT WAS NOT RECYCLED IN 1969
Scrap Categories Where Some Zinc Was Not Recycled
Galvanized Clippings
Flue Dust
Zinc Base Alloys
Problem
Definition
4.
5.
Fabrication of galvanized
sheet and strip gives trimmings
that are scrapped.
This Is recycled as steel
scrap with the zinc still on
It.
This zinc Is lost out the
stack of the steel furnace
or Is collected by air
pollution control equipment
and dumped .
The zinc often corrodes
furnace refractories during
steel melting.
Thus, none of the clip-
Ings are recycled for zinc
content.
In smelting of zinc and
brass, some zinc Is evaporated
Much of this zinc Is now
recovered by air pollution
control equipment.
In most cases, the material
is high in chlorine content,
and is quite fluffy.
Because of the chlorine and
low density, it is difficult an
costly to recycle.
Thus, only 15 percent Is
recycled.
Nearly all zinc base
alloy scrap is in the form
of die castings.
The die castings vary in
size from fractional ounce
to a few pounds.
The die castings often
contain inserts of steel,
brass, or other materials.
Over half of the die castings
are in autos.
Most of the remainder are
also attached to large • I
amounts of other materials'
in home appliances, mach-
inery, farm equipment, etc.
There has been no economical
method for separating most
of the die castings from the
other materials.
Thus, less than 10 percent
of the zinc base alloys are
recycled.
Tons of Zinc
Not Recycle*
50,000
17,000^
320,000
Percent
of Avail-
able Zinc
Not Recycle'
100
85
91
Problem
Analysis
1. Galvanized clippings contain 4
or 5 percent zinc and 95 or 96
percent steel.
2. The materials values per ton
are about:
Steel - $30
Zinc - $12
Total $42
3. Only about $30 per ton of
clipping Is now being paid.
4. An economic method for sep-
arating the zinc from the
steel would increase the
value by $12 per ton--a 40
percent Increase.
5. In addition, it would reduce
corrosion of steel furnace
refractories and make air pol-
lution control easier.
1. Flue dusts from zinc and
brass smelting usually con-
tain 40 to 50 percent zinc.
2. Each pound of dust contains
5 to It- worth of zinc.
3. An economic method of re-
covering the zinc would
increase the recycling of
zinc.
4. Also, it would provide ad-
ditional incentive for strict
air pollution control measures
1. Zinc in die castings has low
impurity levels.
2. Inserts of other metals can
be easily removed.
3. The difficulties involve
economical separation of the
die castings from the larger
products (autos, appliances,
etc.) of which the die cast-
ings are a part.
4. Larger, easily-accessible die
castings can be remqved by
hand.
5. Smaller, nonaccespible die
castings can be removed by
disintegration and separa-
tion equipment such as nutn
hulk shredders.
6. Separation from ferrous mot.il:
is easily accomplished mag-
netically.
7. Separation from nonferrous
metals Is much more
difficult.
8. More economic methods of sep-
aration of zinc from nonfcT-
rous scrap would Incream-
recycling substantially.
(1) Does not include steel furnaces.
(2) This is total quantity of zinc that were originally used. By the time of scrappage much of the zinc
has been washed away (maybe 50 percent) and would be virtually impossible to recover.
-------
Scrap Categories Where Some Zinc W.iu Not Recycled
Old Galvanized
Oxides and Chemicals
Other Obsolete Scrap
Problem
Definition
3.
Old galvanized metal is
scrapped in a great variety
of forms--buckets, tanks,
bridges, fencing, autos,
farm silos, etc.
Much of the zinc has been
corroded away while pro-
tecting the base metal
during the useful lives of
the products. The zinc has
been washed off into the
ground or into sewers and
' streams.
If the products are recycled,
it:is as the base metal, not
as zinc.
Thus, no old?galvanized
tine is recycled. . It is
wasted in the flue gases of
iron and steel furnaces if
not washed away in use.
Close to half of the zinc
oxides, and chemicals are
scrapped as constituents
of rubber products.
Most of the remainder are
scrapped .as constituents
of paints, papers, textiles,
and-chemicals.
Zinc oxides and chemicals
are- nearly always a minor-
percentage of these products.
These'products are generally
not recycled.
It is not economic to recycle
the zinc in these products.
Thus, no zinc oxides or
chemicals are recycled.
Other obsolete zinc scrap In-
cludes rolled zinc (used ..in dry
cells), zinc dust (used in paints),
and a variety of minor
uses.
Recycling.of this zinc is
generally not economic because
it is. In very small and contam-
inated, pieces (such as dry cells),
or is intimately mixed with and
attached to other materials
(such as in paint).
Thus, only a small percentage of
this.zinc scrap is recycled.
Tons of Zinc
Not Recycle
390,000"
190,000
(2)
122,000
Percent
of Avail-
able Zinc
Not Recycle
100
100.
94
Problem
Analysis
1. In most cases, the percentage
of zinc in old galvanized
products is too small to be
economically separated.
2. thus, it is more practical
to recycle the zinc with the
steel scrap.
3. In the iron or steel furnace,
the zinc evaporates and can
be collected- from the flue
gases by air pollution con-
trol equipment.
4. In the flue dust, the zinc is
.mixed with iron oxide and
other materials.
5. Zinc content can ranges-front
under 5 percent to over 25
percent.
6. Economic recovery methods
for this zinc could sub-
stantially Increase the re-
cycling of zinc.
7. In addition, the incentive
would be Increased to install
good air pollution control
equipment.
Economic recovery of zinc
oxides and chemicals from
scrapped.rubber products
might be possible if economic
recycling of rubber is accom-
plished.
Another possibility is recovery
of zinc as flue dust if scrapped
rubber can* be.: burned as fuel.
Recovery of zinc oxides and
chemicals from most other pro-
ducts- will remain uneconomic
because of; dilution and- dis-
persion in use.
Economic rubber recycling
methods could.allow, zinc recov-
ery, and substantially increase
the recycling of zinc.
Dispersion and dilution of most
forms of other obsolete scrap
prevent economic recovery.
Opportunities for increased re-
. cycling are strictly limited.
-------
31
Increased recovery and recycling in most of these categories will be
quite difficult and complex. Only the "Galvanized Clippings" and "Zinc Base
Alloys" categories are amenable to straightforward solutions. The "Flue Dust",
"Old Galvanized", and "Oxides and Chemicals" categories require more involved con-
sideration and approaches. The zinc from old galvanized is difficult if not
impossible to remove. Thus, it is more promising to charge the old galvanized to
steel furnaces as steel scrap, collect the zinc in flue dusts, and attempt to
develop economic methods for recovering the zinc from the flue dusts. The flue
dust problem is complicated by the wide variation of compositions depending on
types of furnaces (zinc, brass, steel) and operating practices.
Solution of a large part of the zinc oxides and chemicals problem
depends on developing methods of recovering other values from old rubber products.
As explained in the previous section of the report, all recycling data
are based on U.S. Bureau of Mines data. Some members of the recycling industry
take exception to these data. This applies primarily to the zinc base alloys
category. The industry spokesmen state that the recycle rate in the zinc base
alloy category is more like 75 percent than the 9 percent shown in Table 13. Thus,
the quantity not recycled in 1969 would be only 90,000 tons instead of the
320,000 tons shown. The U.S. Bureau of Mines does not believe its data can be
understated by more than 100 percent.
The situation then is this:
Tons of Zinc in Zinc Base Alloys
That Was Not Recycled in 1969
Table 13 data 320,000
Data within U.S. Bureau of Mines
limits of error 290,000-320,000
Zinc recycling industry estimate 90,000
-------
32
Other'r'Probl'emsy...
One -important1, other rproblem directly reduces the^recycling of zinc ,
but it is impossible tp; measure i the magnitude. of the: reduction. . This is the sub-
sidy allowed1 thei-primar-y industry in therform'Of ore depletion, allowances. A
similar subs idy:if or .-the "secondary zinc? industr.y'would/allbwi.thigherr scrap purchase
prices and process irig^cbsts.' at fixed, profit .levels and-'tsales prices . An-unknown
additional^ quantity' of zinc* would be recycled^asua result;.,
ZINC -'REG YCMNG>INDUSTRYv.PROBLEMS .y . '
!
There are . several ;problems'-.;faeed by -the. .zincijrecycldng,: industry that :
! ••
f ,
have no direct quantitative effect on the >rate. of recycling!.', Rather,, they have
economic ef fectsr on -the industry, or make '.operations •«moEe>difficult . These '
problems are :
'(1) Declining .markets for-zinc .....'.
(2) Customer -prejudices against -secondary zinc
(3) Air pollutionvcontrol; . :.
Table • 14 discusses-each of these- problems ... Included are (1) titles of
problems, (2) def initions-of problems-, -:-. (3) ^effects 'on 'recyclingy :and . (4) analyses
of problems.-
Two-'of the^-problems fcinrTable !d4*,eoncern' theama.r.ke^si for. zinc :
• ^Declining'-markets, -
Both' problems are relatively minqr^andodesery.ing^gf,,. little, or no attention.
The third 'probiem-^airupollutionjcontrol.-^presentsi. a serious economic
problem for some'-secondary.'zinc smesLtersv? The investment costvfor equipment can
be high - perhaps 'beyond the capability.iof , someti.sme-lters; tO't.raise.:the money .
,(1) See "Report No. 1, Summary" for,'additional^.discussion, of depletion allowances
-------
TABLE 14. IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF PROBLEMS THAT DO NOT DIRECTLY
RFDTirF. THE AMOUNT OF ZTNC THAT T f. lIF.rvri.F.n
(1)
Declining Overall Markets
(2)
Customer Prejudices
Air Polljtion Control
I'roblam
Definition
!• Zinc's largest market segment--
die casting —has not grown
since 1965.
2. The. consensus of industry spokes-
men is that little or no growth
will occur in the future—perhaps
there will be a decline.
3. Other market segments are
expected to continue present
growth rates in the future.
1. Some zinc users claim that
recycled zinc is inferior
to primary.
2. This is seldom true.
3. Some users will be using re-
cycled zinc without knowing it
because they buy from a
primary producer and think
this means they get primary zinc,
1. Most zinc smelters use chloride
fluxes that ir.ake flue gases
extremely corrosive.
2. Collection of solid pollutants from
flue gases is difficult with bag
houses because the chlorides attack
the fabrics.
3. The collected dust is high in zinc
(40 - 50 percent), but of low value
because of high chloride and because
very fluffy and hard to handle.
4. Investment cost for equipment is
relatively high for small smelters.
Effect on
Recycle Rate
Perhaps slight pressure on economics,
but not important. No significant
effect on quantities recycled.
This has some effect on economics of
zinc recycling—causing price dis-
counting. No significant effect .
on recycle rate.
Pollution control measures effect economics
of recycling moderately by adding to invest- ^
ment and operating costs of a smelter. No *•"*
measurable effect on quantities that are
recycled.
Problem
Analysis
1. Competitive materials (such as
plastic moldings, aluminum die
castings), and redesign of
products to reduce need for
decorative die castings are
reducing the demand for zinc
die castings.
2. Development of improved designs
and fabrication methods to re-
duce ccsts of zinc die castings
could prevent loss of markets.
3. Also, development of alloys
with greatly improved prop-
erties could gain new markets
in new applications (such as
replacement of brass in valves
and other plu.-nbing products).
1. Recycled zinc is not inferior to
primary zinc for the same grades,
2. Promotion of equal quality and
desirability of recycling could
help overcome prejudices.
1. Air pollution control problems of zinc
smelting are rather severe and
require costly equipment.
2. Some smelters may have problems providing
investment capital for air pollution
control equipment.
3. Aid in borrowing money may be needed.
;i) Problems adversely affect economics or practices of recycling but the effect in terms of amount cannot be measured.
is considered an indirect effect.
This situation
-------
34 '
COURSES-OP ACTION CONCERNING THE RECYCLING-OP -ZINC -
Having identified the major problems concerning the recycling of zinc.
it is necessary to evaluate them and select those that are amenable to solutions.
Then, courses of action can be developed to lead to solutions for the problensV
Evaluation of Problems
The nine problems concerning the recycling of zinc are not all of equal
importance or priority. A method is needed for determining which ones are more
important.
The method used is based on how the nine compare with each other when
scored with three criteria:
• Solution of the problem will improve the environment
• Solution of the problem will conserve natural resources
• Realistic solutions can be found.
In the context of this report, the first of these criteria Is believed -
to be more important than the other two. It is weighted to allow a high score
equal to the total of the other two.
Table 15 presents the results of the evaluation of the nine problems
using the three criteria. In this evaluation, three 'problems have total scores
substantially higher than the other six:
Low Recycling Rate of Zinc Base Alloys
-^. Low Recycling Rate of Old Galvanized
Air Pollution Control.
Assignment of Priori tit.,.
The three problems listed above are rated as high priority, and actions
to solve these should be fully investigated before considering the five lower pri-
ority problems (reduced from six because flue dust problem has been transferred
to old galvanized oroblem).
293
35
TABLE 15. EVALUATION OF NINE PROBLEMS RELATED
TO RECYCLING OF ZINC
Criteria and Scores .
Problems
Galvanized clippings
Flue dust
Zinc base alloys
Old galvanized
Oxides and chemicals
Other obsolete scrap
Declining markets
Customer prejudices
Air pollution control
Solution of
Problem Will
Improve
Environment
3
2
10
10
6
5
0
0
10
Solution of
Problem Will
Conserve Nat-
ural Resources
1
1
5
5
3
2
0
0
0
Realistic
Solution
Can Be
Found
5
3
5
2
1
0
5
5
5
Total
Score
9
6
20
17
10
7
5
5
15
Hotes: (1) Fir]it criteria is considered most important and is assigned maximum
score of 10.
(2) Other two criteria are considered less important and are assigned
maximum scores of 5 each.
(3) The higher the total score, the more attractive the problem is for
_ further action.
-------
36
Recommended Actions
The recomnendations of what to do about the eight major problems of
the zinc recycling industry are covered in two parts:
(1) High priority actions
(2) Lower priority actions
The high priority actions should be dealt with before attention is
given to the lower priority actions.
High Priority Actions
The high priority actions recommended here are important and far-reaching
enough to be in the public interest. Thus, participation by EPA is desirable.
Participation by NASMI and its members is also desirable since the problems and
actions are predominately within the boundaries of the zinc recycling industry.
Table 16 presents the recommended action programs for the high priority
zinc recycling problems.
The solution for the first high priority problen--zinc base alloys—
involves improved methods for the separation of old die castings from other
materials - primarily from junked autos. The major potential for increased re-
covery of zinc is from scrap steel shredders. The output of shredders is increasing
each year to make more mixed nonferrous scrap available. Zinc is the major con-
stituent of this scrap. The first activity toward a solution of this problem
should be a review by a NASMI committee of present separation practices and
development efforts. Based on this, further R&D can be undertaken if needed.
-------
37
TABU 16. RECOMMENDED ACTIONS, HIGH PRIORITY ZINC RECYCLING PROBLEMS
Zinc Base Alloys
Old Galvanised
Air Pollution Control
Actions
Recommended
R&D should be undertaken
to develop economical methods
and equipment for the mechan-
ized separation of sine, alum-
inum, copper, and nonmagnetic
stainless steels.
R&D should be undertaken
to develop an economical process
for recovery of zinc from flue
dusts. (In addition to steel
and iron furnaces, this should
include sine and brass furnaces.)
An Investigation should Tie
made of the need for financial
help by smelters In meeting,
air pollution standards. Also,
methods for providing help if
needed.
By When
EPA/NASMI
EPA/NASMI
EPA/NASMI
Specific
s—'Steps
1. Form a committee of
scrap processors.
2. Committee analyze the major
sorting problems for non-
ferrous metals
a types of metals
• forms of metals
• quantities, etc.
• etc.
3. Committee analyze the major
sorting methods now In use:
• hand picking
• heavy media
• sweating
• etc.
4. Committee review problems
and methods with major
equipment manufacturers to
determine if economic sort-
ing methods can be Installed
with present equipment.
5. If so, prepare guidebook of
practical installations.
6. -If not, undertake R&D to
develop methods and
equipment needed.
Forma flue dust committee
representing zinc smelters,
brass smelters, steel mills
(using high-zinc scrap
charge), iron foundries
(using high-zinc scrap
charge).
2. Committee survey other smelt-
ers and mills to determine
present flue dust:
• recovery methods
• composition of dust
• disposal of dust
• etc.
3. Committee analyze present
recycle methods and econ-
omics for zinc flue dusts.
4. Initiate R&D on promising
approaches with goal of
developing .economic pro-
cesses for recycling most
dusts. . , ,
1. Establish a committee to
conduct the investigation.
2. Committee survey the zinc
•smelters to collect data
concerning status, methods,
and problems of air pollutici
control.. Emphasis on econ-
omic impact on smelters.
3. Committee to develop finan-
cing plans to meet InvesCcec:
needs of smelter for air
pollution control systeas
where hardships occur.
*• Committee present data
and recommendations to
EPA and legislative bodies
concerning needs--fast
tax writeoffs, guaranteed
. loans, etc.
(1) Iho responsibility for recoomcnded actions shown In this table are based on Impotence of the
action, benefit to the taxpayer*, and opportunities for NASMI. They are the best Judgoenti
(2) Reconroended'actions were distributed between high priority and lower priority based on the
evaluation with three 'criteria.
(3) It is suggested that NASMI continue Its leading role In.recycling, recognizing that other
organizations such as tne Bureau of Mines, Department of Connie re c, Council of .Environmental
Quality. JEW Office of Information, and State, Uocal, and Federal Legislatures oust bt
Involved.
-------
38
The solution to the second high priority problem of zinc—old
galvanized--depends on recovery of the zinc from flue dusts of iron and steel
furnaces that use old galvanized scrap charges. It is believed not to be economic
to remove the zinc directly from the galvanized scrap. Recovery of zinc from the
flue dusts of zinc and brass furnaces should also be included. The first acti-
vity toward a solution should be an investigation by a NASMI committee of present
flue dust compositions and recovery practices. Based on the results of this, R&D
programs can be designed.
The solution to the last high priority zinc problem--air pollution
control—involves helping zinc smelters meet air pollution control regulations.
The cost of control systems for zinc smelters can be high - as much as one-third
of the total cost of new smelting capacity. This can put a severe financial
burden on some smelters. They may be unable to borrow sufficient money to
install control equipment. The solution proposed is based on an investigation by
a NASMI committee to determine possible relief that is needed - fast tax writeoffs,
loan guarantees, or other actions.
Lower Priority Actions
The lower priority actions that are recommended are neither important
enough, nor far-reaching enough to be of much interest to the public. Thus, par-
ticipation by EPA is not recommended. The problems involve primarily NASMI, its
members, other companies involved in the zinc recycling industry, and other
organizations concerned with zinc.
Table 17 presents the recommended action programs for the lower priority
problems of zinc recycling. Two of these problems--declining markets and customer
prejudices--are relatively minor. Continuation of existing NASMI programs should
pretty well solve the customer prejudice problem. Perhaps expanded attention is
-------
xuu i>. uctwarocD Acnms. uvoi FRIOUTY ziic ucicunc ntmaa
Actions
R«cocm«ndc4
»«-
.Specific
Stepe
Galvanized Clipping!
R&D should be undertaken
to develop an economical procese
for the recovery «* «1«* *"•
islvanleed cllpplnga.
<3> KASHJ
1. Query H&T CM- 1 e«l« Company
concerning It* dcgalvanlxlng
proc*t».
I. tr It look* good and .it aoon .
to be coDBerclallied,
HASM1 step Action*.
). 1( not to be soon coanerclal*
ited, determine whr and what
additional work needed.
,. 1C premising* encourage further
development and conptcretalf*
satton of the Mil process.
I. K not proelslns, InltUtc aa
UD progran to d*v«lop a-*ow>4
and tconoalc dtgalvanlt Ins
proc«»».
Ox Id* -and Chcmlcali
R&D should be undvrtakra
to develop processes tor the
recovery of Mterlals from tin*
Included are thc~ruobcrt sine
oxide, sulfur, compounds, carbon
black, fiber*, and steel wire.
Or, develop Methods" for using L
old rubber ••• fuel and recovering
by-products of combustion.
HASHJ ,
t. lnv*»tleat* present
statas of old rubber
ncycllagt
• quantities available
• present recycling
activities
• UD underway
• etc.
1. Oadartahe UO to develop
ecoooMle •itnod* Co* re* *
cycling old robber.
Other obsolete Scrap
An Investigation Bhoald be
made of the' feasibility of re-
cycling additional quantities
dry cells, sine dust, etc.
HASHI
1. HASHI set tip coaisittee of
acrsp processors. ' '
1. Conlttec analyse vhat tine
scrap' Is not aow recycled-
and yhy. - •
3. Committee decide whether or
not It would be feealble
to try to Increase recycle
rate Cor some of this scrap.
4. If Ceaslble (3 above). Invest-
igste awre closely whet need* '
to be done -to Increase
recycling.
$. Recommend actions required te
Increase recycling. ~, '-"
Declining Market* .
R&D should be continued to
develop hlgher-perfonunce t,lnc
alloys that can gain new markets
KASHI/Zinc Institute
1. BASH! set tip comlttee .
Of one XASHI staff neater
^,/" end two die-casting alloy
producers to coordinate
recycling industry Interest*
with Zinc Institute R&D
activities. ' ;
t. Committee diecbs* with Zinc
Institute bow to; work together
to develop new tine die-cast*
ing el leys, manufacturing
methods, end markets—project!
fond log, etc. \
1 -
Cuitrmer Prejudice* ; -
. Publl ty *hould be used
to Infom erf of ecycled -
sine that - Is cqu 1 la
-qtijlltf tt* rlnarr Inc.
Tie public v to sa Ing the
- resource!.
•ASM1/KASHI Member Coopaatee
1. XASHI continue. general pro- '
motion of recycling concept. •
2. ' USHt sad appropriate
ember companies start/ J£
•pacific program to pro-
mote recycled «lnc. .,
:— " "
(1) The responsibility for recamended Actions shown in this table are based on importance of the
action, benefit to the taxpayers, and opportunities for. KASH1. they are the beat judgments
. of Battclle. . ' •-_ -, . - ..'*».•:-' Vv.:; r ; •''.'•'•"' -•-....
.(2) RccoRmended actions vere distributed between high priority and lower priority based oh the
tvaluotion with three criteria. ,; ;^ ' •. -s .-, _** sTj^."'^;'^'. *-,•,.- .:'«:.". ii.-r-. ; £.
(3) It is -suggested<-that- NA5Hl*continue •it*,-leading rolc^ in. recyclin8»~:Vecogiil
-------
40
needed for declining markets since additional quantities of recycled zinc are ex-
pected to become available in the future.
The oxides and chemicals problem warrants investigation by NASMI to
determine the Association's position relative to scrap rubber. A successful solu-
tion may require utilization of zinc, sulfur, and other values in addition to
the rubber.
The other two lover priority problems--galvanized clippings and other
obsolete scrap—involve solutions that require more knowledge concerning present
practices and potential opportunities. In the case of other obsolete scrap the
need is a close look at what scrap processors are handling to determine what is
and what is not being handled. It Is a matter of looking closely for additional
opportunities for recycling.
The solution suggested for galvanized clippings is to check with
M&T Chemicals Co. concerning its dezincing process. Based on the results, deci-
sions can be made concerning the practicability of dezincing and how to fit it
into the recycling industry.
Other Actions
The reader is referred to Volume i of this series - General Report.
It presents problems and recommended actions that apply to the entire recycling
Industry. Problem categories include markets, scrap sources, recycling Industry
operations, equipment, and legal requirements.
APPENDIX A
ZINC MARKETS
-------
APPENDIX A
• .\. •.'".'.... ' ' " ' . ZIHC MARKETS '-•••' •-- '
Die Casting _ .. .
Table A-l gives use pattern for zinc die castings.
TABLE A-1
. " "ti 3T" v''
ZINC DIE CASTISCS USE PATTERN, 1969
•Using Industry
'Auto
Home '"appliances
Machinery and 'tools
'Other
.-• -.-.. -.TOTAL-.
Ton* of Zinc •
315,000
:95,000
:80V006
^95_,P06
585VPOO • ' --'
.-..— * - *-. ..... ,3 • - ., . ,-^,1, i _*•.>'
Percent of
'54
16
ii
16
• - -.* - ioo
j^... - —
Total
:Source: Discussion 'with Die Casting Institute.
Galvanizing
Table A-2 gives the use pattern for zinc in galvanizing.
.TABLE A-2.; . ....
iGALVANIZiUG ZINC USE PATTERN
Use
Sheet and strip
Tube and pipe
Wire
.Structural shapes
Fencing and other mesh
Tube and pipe fittings
Other uses
TOTAL
:Tcms of Zinc
252;00.0
66,000
32,000
19,000
18,000
11,000
78.000
476,000
Percent of
53
14
7
4
4
2
:i6
100
Total
Source: Discussion with Hot Dip Galvanlzers Association.
001
-------
A-2
Braaa Products
In 1969, 179,000 tons of slab zinc were used to produce brass and other
copper-base alloys, and an additional 194,000 tons of zinc were contained in
recycled brass and other copper-base alloys.
Oxides and Chemicals
I I
Table A-3 shows the 1969 content of zinc in oxides and chemicals -
total and by zinc source.
TABLE A-3
ZINC CONTENT OF ZINC PIGMENTS*1* AND COMPOUNDS PRODUCED
BY DOMESTIC MANUFACTURES, BY SOURCES, 1969
(short tons)
Pigment or Compound
Zinc oxide
Leaded zinc oxide
TOTAL
Zinc chloride*2'
Zinc sulfate
Ore
Domestic
82,643
1.705
84,348
—
5,503
Zinc in
Compounds
Foreign
23,949
1.539
25,488
--
5,342
Pigments and
Produced From
Slab Zinc
41,362
— — —
41,362
W
—
Secondary
Material
28,115
— II —
28,115
W
10,897
Total Zinc
in pig-
ments and
Compounds
176,069
3.244
179,313
11,632 -
21,742
W - Withheld to avoid disclosing individual company confidential data.
(1) Excludes zinc sulfide and lithopone; figures withheld to avoid disclosing
individual company confidential data.
(2) Includes zinc content of zinc ammonium chloride and chroraated zinc chloride.
Source: U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook. 1969, "Zinc" chapter.
Other Uses
APPENDIX B
ZINC RECYCLING INDUSTRY DATA
FROM EXTENSIVE SURVEY
short tons)
Other uses for zinc in the U.S. in 1969 were as follows (zinc content in
(2)
Rolled zinc
Zinc dust
Other Uses
49,000
55,000
38,000
(1) For an.analysis of brass, see the report In this series on copper and
copper-base alloys. .-.. • .
(2) U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook. 1969, "Zinc" chapter.
302
303
-------
APPENDIX B
ZINC RECYCLING INDUSTRY PATA
FROM EXTENSIVE SURVEY '
TABLE B-l • /
AVERAGE SIZE OF ZINC SCRAP PROCESSORS,
.ANNUAL TONS, BY, REGION ' .:
"•' Region •" "" "
Total U.S.
New England
Middle- Atlantic
South' Atlantic
East' North Central
East South Central
West North Central
West South Central
Mountain '. '.':!' , _«. ......
Pacific-
Tons Per Year
273.7
110.9
380.9
193.5
245.8
167.5
327.3
f 37 .5
. 104:5
332.1
TABLE B-2
AVERAGE SIZE OF ZINC SMELTERS,
ANNUAL'TONS, .BY...REGION; ;,
Region
Tons Pe'r Year
Total U.S.
New England
Middle Atlantic
South Atlantic
East North'Central
East South Central
West North Central
West South Central
Mountain
Pacific
250.0
2605.8
843.8
2190.8
600.0
812.5
785.7
250.0
1250.0
304
B-2
TABLE B-3
SECONDARY MATERIALS INDUSTRY -
AVERAGE BUSINESS STATISTICS FOR ZINC
.Average
Investment
in Plant and
and Equipment
Average
Number,.of
Employees
Average
.Investment
Per Employee
403,000
43
25,500
-------
ill
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
VOLUME VI
NICKEL AND STAINLESS STEEL REPORT
SUMMARY ix
The Recycling Industry ix
Nickel Alloy Problems x
Nickel Alloy Recommendations xiv
Nickel Stainless Steel Problems xrti
Nickel Stainless Steel Recommendations XZl
INTRODUCTION 1
Background 1
Objectives 2
Scope 3
Research Methods 3
Literature Search 3
Extensive Survey 4
In-depth Survey 4
Analysis and Synthesis 5
THE NICKEL INDUSTRY . • 7
Characteristics of Nickel 7
Electrolytic Cathode 7
Characteristics of the Nickel Industry 8
Materials Sources 8
Materials Flow 9
Markets for Nickel 9
Prices 9
Use Patterns 9
Stainless Steel 13
Low Alloy Steels 14
Electroplating Materials 14
Superalloys. 15
Cast Iron 17
Nonferrous Alloys 18
Copper-Base Alloys 19,
Market Outlook 19
THE NICKEL RECYCLING INDUSTRY 20
Characteristics of Nickel Materials 20'
Master Alloys 2Q
Scrap 20
Secondary Nickel 20
5C7
-------
Iv
- TABLE. OF CONTENTS
.. . (Continued)
Paee
Characteristics of the Nickel Recycling Industry . . . : :"":' . ...""•• 24"
-• .Materials Sources- 24
Markets for Recycled Nickel and Nickel Alloys. . . . 25.
Use Patterns. :..,.. 25
Prices.;. ;.;. .............. .... ....... ' 27
Recycling Industry Data. . . 27
Materials Flow Pattern for Nickel Alloys Recycling . _........ 28
Demand/Supply Analysis ..'..".:.....'.:'......... 28
Demand for,Recycled Nickel and. Nickel Alloys 34
Supply of Recycled Nickel and Nickel Alloys . .34
Demand/Supply Balance in Future ...... . 34
PROBLEM THAT DIRECTLY REDUCE THE RECYCLING OF NICKEL SCRAP ...... • . . 36
Industrial Scrap . '.'.... : .•••36"
Obsolete Scrap .;.....,.. 36
Other Direct Recycling Problems. . .' :...... 37-
PROBLEMS THAT DO NOT DIRECTLY REDUCE THE RECYCLING OF NICKEL. ...... 39
COURSES OF ACTION CONCERNING RECYCLING OF NICKEL. ......;.... .39
' Selection of Opportunities ..........;.......... >3'9.
Recommended Actions. 41
THE STAINLESS STEEL INDUSTRY. .45
Characteristics, of Nickel Stainless Steels .45
Nickel-Bearing-Stainless Steels . . . _. 45
Characteristics of .the Stainless Steel Industry. . ........ 47
Material Sources. . .47
Materials ;F1<>W.".. 1;,. ...."...... . . . 47.
Stainless Steel Producers ......... 49
Productlpn. . ,.. . . ,. .................... 49
Markets.-for.JStainiess;.Steels ..;.:;....'..;.>.:.. *9 .
His toricaljiarkets. ...................... '49-
Prices^for Stainiess Steel. 51
Use. Patterns 51
Ma'rket Outlook. ;..................'.... 55
THE STAINLESS STEEL RECYCLiNG INDUSTRY . 55
Characteristics of Stainless Steel Scrap Materials ........ 55
Characteristics of the .Stainless Steel
Scrap Recycling Industry 57
Materials Sources " 58
C9
-------
QP CONTENTS
(Continued)
Markets for Recycled Nickel Stainless Steel Scrap
Historical Markets
Use Patterns
Argon-Oxygen Melting Technology
Prices
Recycling Industry Data
Materials Flow Pattern for Nickel Stainless Steel Recycling. . . .
Demand/Supply Analysis
Demand
Supply
Demand/Supply Balance
PROBLEMS THAT DIRECTLY REDUCE THE RECYCLING
OF NICKEL STAINLESS STEEL SCRAP
LIST OF TABLES
Industrial Scrap
Obsolete Scrap .
Other
PROBLEMS THAT DO NOT DIRECTLY REDUCE
RECYCLING OF NICKEL STAINLESS STEEL SCRAP
COURSES OF ACTION CONCERNING RECYCLING
OF NICKEL STAINLESS STEEL SCRAP
Selection of Opportunities
Recommended Actions. , . .
APPENDIX A
PRINCIPAL PRIMARY NICKEL GRADES
APPENDIX B
CONSUMPTION OF NICKEL CONTAINING PRODUCTS . .
Page
58
59
60
60
60a
61
63
63
63
67
67
69
69
69
69
72
74
74
74
A-l
B-l
l" ')
TABLE I.
TABLE II.
TABLE III.
TABLE IV.
TABLE V.
TABLE VI.
TABLE VII.
TABLE VIII.
TABLE 1.
TABLE 2.
TABLE 3.
TABLE 4.
TABLE 5.
TABLE 6.
TABLE 7.
TABLE 8.
TABLE 9.
TABLE 10.
TABLE 11.
TABLE 12.
TABLE 13.
TABLE 14.
TABLE 15.
TABLE 16.
TABLE 17.
Page
IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF PROBLEMS CONCERNING
NICKEL AND NICKEL ALLOYS THAT WERE NOT RECYCLED
IN 1969 ............... ,
IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF PROBLEMS THAT DO NOT
DIRECTLY REDUCE THE AMOUNT OF NICKEL AND NICKEL
ALLOYS THAT ARE RECYCLED .......
RECOMMENDED ACTIONS, HIGH PRIORITY NICKEL AND NICKEL
ALLOY PROBLEMS
RECOMMENDED ACTIONS, LOWER PRIORITY NICKEL ALLOY
PROBLEMS .....
IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF PROBLEMS CONCERNING
STAINLESS STEEL THAT WAS NOT RECYCLED IN 1969
IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF PROBLEMS THAT DO NOT
DIRECTLY REDUCE THE AMOUNT OF NICKEL STAINLESS
STAINLESS STEEL THAT IS RECYCLED, 1969 ..
RECOMMENDED ACTIONS, HIGH PRIORITY STAINLESS STEEL
PROBLEMS .......
RECOMMENDED ACTIONS, LOWER STAINLESS STEEL PRIORITY
PROBLEMS ........................ Xxill
8
11
12
xii
xlii
XVl
xlx
REFINEL ELECTROLYTIC NICKEL SPECIFICATIONS
HISTORICAL PRICES FOR NICKEL, SELECTED YEARS 1940-1971
CONSUMPTION OF PRIMARY NICKEL IN THE UNITED STATES . .
U. S. CONSUMPTION OF PRIMARY AND RECYCLED NICKEL
BY USE, 1969
COMPOSITIONS AND COMMON FORMS OF SUPERALLOYS
TYPICAL NICKEL BEARING MASTER ALLOYS AVAILABLE TO
USERS OF RECYCLED MATERIALS
TYPICAL SPECIFICATIONS FOR NICKEL CONTAINING SCRAP . .
CONSUMPTION OF NICKEL AND NICKEL ALLOY,
INCLUDING STAINLESS, SCRAP IN 1969
CONSUMPTION OF NICKEL BEARING FERROUS SCRAP,
BY TYPE Or MANUFACTURE, IN 1968
STOCKS AND CONSUMPTION OF NEW AND OLD NICKEL SCRAP
IN THE UNITED STATES IN 1969
DEALER'S BUYING PRICES FOR NICKEL SCRAP
NICKEL ALLOY SCRAP RECYCLING, 1969
ESTIMATED DEMAND FOR NICKEL CONTAINED
IN NICKEL ALLOY SCRAP
SUPPLY OF NICKEL AVAILABLE FOR RECYCLING
DEMAND/SUPPLY BALANCE FOR RECYCLED NICKEL
FOR 1974 AND 1979
IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF PROBLEMS CONCERNING
NICKEL AND NICKEL ALLOY THAT WAS NOT RECYCLED
IN 1969
IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF PROBLEMS THAT DO NOT
DIRECTLY REDUCE THE AMOUNT OF NICKEL AND NICKEL
ALLOYS THAT ARE RECYCLED
13
16
21
22
25
26
26
27
30
34
35
35
38
40
309
-------
LIST OP TABLES
(Continued) '
41.
42
44
46
--TABLE 18. EVALUATION OF PROBLEMS INVOLVED IN RECYCLING.OF..NICKEL . .
TABLE 19. REJpMMENIfflB/ACTIpHS.VHIGH'PRIORITY NICKEL ' '•->' •' ---
•'.'•' '~'~Ain>~ NICKEL ALLOY PROBLEMS. ...'.......
TABLE 20. RECOMMENDED'ACTIONS,'LOWER PRIORITY
"•'••• 'NICKEL ALLOY PROBLEMS. ..::.' ;......
TABLE 21. -MOST COMMON NICKEL-BEARING STAINESS STEELS ...... . . .
TALBE 22. U.~ S. PRODUCTION OF NICKEL STAINLESS STEEL s .
INGOTS, SHORT TONS . ... .' . . . .' ..;........ 50,
TABLE 23. PRICE FOR TYPICAL^ALLOYS AND SHAPES OF STAINLESS .
STEEL AS OF DECEMBER 24, 1970. . . V . '. '. . ." '. . . . . 52
TABLE 24. HISTORICAL PRICE BEHAVIOR OF STAINLESS STEEL BASE
PRICE, 304 STAIN1ESS STEEL SHEET-. ..'...."..... 52
TABLE 25. DOMESTIC SHIPMENTS' OF STAINLESS STEELS BY AISI
.MARKET CLASSIFICATION, 1969. ....'-.......... 53
TABLE. 26. DOMESTIC TRADE BALANCE IN STAINLESS STEEL MILL PRODUCTS. . 54
TA'BLE,! 27. NASMI SPECIFICATIONS FOR.STAINLESS' STEEL SCRAP . ." :. . . . 56,
TABLE 28. SOURCES OF RECYCLED NICKEL CONTAINING MATE'RIALS, 1969. . . 58
TABLE 29. RECYCLED NICKEL STAINLESS SCRAP CONSUMPTION IN '
THE 0NITED STATES; 1951-1969 . •.'".-.' ..'..' 59
TABLE 30. CONSUMPriON OF NICKEL STAINLESS STEEL
''-f' " SCRA'P BY-USER, l'968. . . . . . ...... . . 60,
TABLE 31. PRICE RANGES'FOR SELECTED NICKEL' STAINLESS, SCRAP;
PRJffiUCTS TO PITTSBURGH, PENNSYLVANIA, 197<£1971 61"
TABLE 32. STAINLESS SCRAP RECYCLraG, 196'9. .'.'V . .'-.'."'. 64.
TABLE 33". IDEOTIFICATiON" AND ANALYSIS OF* PROBLEMS CONCERNING
STAINLESS STEEL THAT WAS NOT'RECYCLED IN 1969. -71
TABLE 34. IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF PROBLEMS' THAT
DO NOT DIRECTLY REDUCE THE AMOUNT OF" NICKEL
STAINLESS STEEL THAT IS RECYCLED, 1969 73
TABLE 35. RECOMMENDED ACTIONS, HIGH-PRIORITY '
• STAINLESS'STEEL'PROBLEMS .':'.".- 75
TABLE 36. RECOMMENDED ACTIONS, LOWER STAINLESS STEEL , -
APRIORITY PROBLEMS; . .'"•.- . .'. '.•'. .'..... 76
TABLE A-l. PRINCIPAL' PRIMARY NICKEL-GRADES. .............. A-2
TABLE B-l. MARKETS 'FOR Ni,CKEL-CONTAININGrL6w. ALLOY; STEEL. . . . . . . B-2
TABLE B-2. ESTI^TED;'MARKETSi'FORflVACUDfrMELTED"s'teR^LOTS,'" "
"BY ALLOY TYPE', 1969 ' .';-. .'•".• ': '.' . '.".'. B-3
TABLE B-3. ESTIMATED PRESENT Ul'.S. CONSUMPTION.OF
NICKEL-BASE'NONFERROUS ALLOYS: ;'"; . . . B-3
TABLE B-4. CONSUMPTION't'OF NICKEL USED" IN COPPER-BASE ALLOYS . ... . . B?4
TABLE B-5. NICKEL "'USED IN PRODUCTION OF CAST'lRON, 1969 . '.' B-4
311
vlil
LIST OF FIGURES
Page
FIGURE I. NICKEL RECYCLING FLOW DIAGRAM, 1969 .........
.FIGURE II. RECYCLEp NfCKEL STAINLESS STEEL -FLOW, 1969.- ... ; . :
FIGURE I." MATERIALS FLOW BALANCE FOR NICKEL, 1969 ........
FIGURE 2. .AVERAGE AMOUNTS OF NICKEL AND NICKEL ALLOY, EXCLUDING
STAINLESS STEEL, PROCESSED BY EACH DEALER IN
..... EACH CENSUS REGION. . . . . '. '.-'•. . . ..... . .
FIGURE 3. NICKEL RECYCLING FLOW DIAGRAM, 1969 .
.'FIGURE 4. MATERIALS FLOW BALANCE, NICKEL STAINLESS STEELS, 1969
FIGURE 5. STAINLESS STEEL SCRAP. PROCESSED IN EACH CENSUS
REGION, PER DEALER .......... .......
FIGURE 6. RECYCLED NICKEL STAINLESS STEEL FLOW, 1969. ...
xl
i-
10
29
33
48
62
66
•> I C*
oJL-4
-------
Ix
SUMMARY
The economic recycling of waste materials is a desirable approach to
the disposal of solid wastes. Recycling, therefore, is of .interest to the Office
of Solid Waste Management Problems, whose responsibility It is to formulate and
recommend solid waste programs for the United States. This report on recycling of
nickel and nickel stainless steel provides information and analyses to be used as a
basis for program planning. The report was prepared by Battelle-Columbus with the
guidance and help-of the National Association of Secondary Material Industries
(NASMI). It is based on a twelve-month study of nickel recycling.
The report is divided into two sections, nickel and nickel stainless
steel. Each section reviews briefly the demand and supply for nickel or nickel
stainless steel in the United States. Each analyzes the recycling of nickel -
the operations of scrap processors and smelters, sources of'nickel or stainless
steel scrap, markets for recycled nickel or stainless steel, and recycling rates
by types of scrap. Based on this analysis, the report presents the problems
faced by the nickel and stainless steel recycling industry. Finally, it evaluates
these problems to determine priorities, and recommends courses of actions to solve
or reduce these problems - with the emphasis on increasing recycling of nickel
and stainless steel in order to reduce solid waste disposal problems.
The Recycling Industry
The task of the procurement, identification and sorting, refining, and
sale of nickel alloy or stainless scrap for use by nickel or stainless steel users
is the function of the nickel recycling industry. Scrap processors, brokers, and
secondary smelters have developed efficient means of recycling the many different
types and. forms of nickel alloy or stainless steel scrap.
3J3
-------
xl
Recycled" nickel contents of nickel alloys and stainless steels make up
a significant proportion of total nickel consumption as seen below,:.
Source
• v/«' f
Recycled Nickel
Primary Nickel .
Total
Percent of Total
Nickel"'- Consumption
35 '
100
Nickel Alloy Problems
Estimates of percentage recycling for the major Identifiable markets
were made to outline those channels for which there was some obstacle to recycling.
Figure I is a schematic diagram for the recycling of nickel in nickel alloys. . It
shows estimates of total amounts available for recycling, total amounts recycled,
and total amounts not recycled for the major nickel alloys except stainless steel. '
About 40 percent of the total nickel available for recycling is returned to some
nickel use.
Table I shows identification and analysis of the problems concerning
nickel alloys that were not recycled in 1969.
Table II shows identification and analysis of those problems which do
not directly reduce the amount of nickel alloys recycled. These are problems ,
• —- 1~- *-.-'';' .-. • ~~- - - •-'-vi££^v ''A.'-'^-^,-,. • . •' -V-' ~' -
that might have economic effects on an individual company or on the industry,
or make operations more difficult.
Coppen-Bose'Ai
8786 ••
106,011 ;;;
Nickel; ill! Nickel
Available ••••••••••• v-wt--
• p- . iiiJii Not-
_ ,. iii-ii Recycled
Recycling:-:!::........'......!
Note: All quantities in short
tons, of nickel content
42,193
Nickel
Recycled
Copper-Base Alloys
4600
Non-ferrous Alloys
-. 350
42,193
Recycled
Markets
FIGURE I. NICKEL RECYCLING FLOW DIAGRAM, 1969
314
Note: See Table 12, page 30, for breakdown between prompt industrial and obsolete.
Source: U.S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbooks.
"Nickel" and "Iron and Steel Scrap" chapters; Battelle-Columbus
estimates. . ,'"r " ."" ~,
" " " . ' . •" CIS
-------
TABLE I.
Title
IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF PROBLEMS CONCERNING NICKEL AND NICKEL ALLOYS THAT
WERE NOT RECYCLED IN 1969.
Industrial Low
Alloy Steel
Scrap Categories Where Some Nickel Was Noy Recycled
Electroplating
Materials
Obsolete Low
Alloy Steel
Problem
Definition
1. Nickel contents In low
alloy steel average
about 0.80 percent.
2. Low alloy steel is
shipped to various
original equipment
manufacturers (OEM)
who machine and other-
wise fabricate it.
3. After fabrication,
scrap is usually
returned back to
steel mills.
1. Nickel is used in
thicknesses of 1.2
to 1.6 mils as an
underplate for auto-
mobile bumper, grills,
and other trim. About
1 pound of nickel is
used-for each bumper.
Automotive applications
represent about SO per-
cent of total nickel
plating market.
2. Nickel is used in
thicknesses of 0.4 to
1.2 mils for consumer
appliances, furniture,
and sports equipment.
These applications
represent the bulk of
the remaining portion
of the nickel plating
market.
3. In all uses, nickel
becomes a minor con-
stituent of a larger
system.
Nickel contents in
low alloy steel run
from about 0.40 to
3.75 percent with an
average around 0.80
percent. Generally,
other elements are
present, too.
Nickel containing
low alloy steels
represent about 16
percent of total low
alloy steel production.
Low alloy steels are
used in many diverse
applications as a
standard constructional
material. When a low
alloy steel part is
scrapped, the low alloy
steel is generally not
recycled as a nickel
alloy steel but as a
low alloy steel. Con-
sequently, the nickel
is diluted enough to
be considered lost.
Tons of
Nickel Not 3,100
Recvled
Percent of '
Available 81
Nickel Not
Recycled
21,475
100
25,500
100
Problem
Analysis
1. Nickel is just one of
several different con-
stituents of low alloy
steel.
2. It is fairly easy to
determine (unlike obso-
lete low alloy scrap)
what type of low alloy
steel is being recycled
without testing. Know-
ledge of OEM's processing
provides needed infor-
mation.
3. Yet only 19 percent of
the available nickel
is recycled.
4. This seems a promising
area to increase the
.recycling.
Nickel is small part 1.
of larger system and
is covered on two
sides by metal.
For automobiles, other
system components are
steel, copper, chromium,
zinc and zinc-alloys
2.
Steel-chromium items are
generally recycled back to
the steel industry--bsji the
nickel is diluted so
much as to be called
lost. Zinc items, in 3.
many instances, aren't
being recycled.
For consumer goods,
other systems compo-
nents are plastic,
copper, steel, wood,
and glass. In addi-
tion, these items are e>-
small and generally
are discarded to
municipal waste after
termination of useful
life.
This Is not a promising
area to increase re-
cycling.
Nickel is only one of
several different con-
stituents of low alloy
steel. In most common
low alloy steels, total
alloy content is gen-
erally less than 3 .
percent.
It is difficult to dis-
tinguish one alloy steel
grade from another (for
nickel content) or from
mild steel.
Since scrap prices for
nickel containing types
of low alloy steel are
roughly equal to those
of nonnickel containing
grades, there is little
Incentive to segregate
small quantities of steel.
This is not a promising
area to Increase the re-
cycling of nickel.
116
-------
TABLE I. IDENTIFICATION AND-ANALYSIS OF PROBLEMS CONCERNING NICKEL
AND .NICKEL ALLOYS THAT WERE NOT RECYCLED IN 1969
(Continued)
Title
Cast Iron
Copper-Base Alloys
Problem:
Definition
1. Nickel is used in
residual amounts-of
about 0.10 percent
in gray iron.
2. Nickel is used as.
Problem'
Analysis
1. After an average life
cycle, of -16 years,
cast-iron Is sold as
scrap.'
2. As most of- the nickel
contained in obsolete-
scrap- Is in gray Iron,.
andtraost materials
recycled are-gray iron
going into-gray.iron
production, it would
follow .-that'most-of
the.nickel should be
j recycled.
3. Yet only 57 percent
Is being recycled.
This Is a promising
area in which -to
increase recycling
of nickel.
1. In -1969|- 17,267 s. t.
of ;nlckel'silver (conr
talnlng.about:15 percent
nickel) were recycled.
About 4,666 s.t. of ,
cupronlckel was, recycled.
... x •
2. Nickel and copper.are .
valuable commodities,
selling-for $1.33/lb ..
and $0.50/lb.respective-
ly in primary form.
3. Cupronickel is generally
used in heat exchangers
and Is easily recovered.
Coinage, is generally
recovered:'-by 'the'' mint
but some.is lost to
hoarding., Nickel
silver is .often plated.
with-silver; this is
generally ..recycled.
4. Yet, only 47 percent is
being-recycled. This is
a promising area in which
• to Increase-recycling of
nickel.
-------
TABLE II. IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF PROBLEMS THAT DO NOT DIRECTLY REDUCE
THE AMOUNT OF NICKEL AMU NICKtL ALLOYS THAI' AKt RECYCLED (1)
Problem
Customer Prejudices
Alloy Separation
Conservation of Elements
Other Than Nickel
I. There have been periodic
shortages of primary nic-
kel In the past 20 years.
There was a very serious
shortage existent from
1967 to 1970.
PROBLEM 2. This has forced some
DEFINITION users of nickel to favor
primary over recycled In
times of nickel over-
capacity so that alloca-
tions will be made to
them In "tight" times.
3. In addition, despite good
economics of using scrap,
It Is "easier" to use
primary.
1. Superalloys and some
nonferroua alloys are
of very similar com-
position. All are non-
magnetic and are dif-
ficult to identify by
other usual methods,
e.g., color, spark,
acid testing.
2. However, small differ-
ences in chemistry cause
large differences in
physical properties of
superalloys.
3. Consequently, much
effort is expended In
separation of these
alloys.
1. All superalloys contain
significant amounts of
other elements beside
nickel, e.g., molyb-
denum, cobalt, columblun,
titanium, tungsten.
2. In recent years, most
superalloys have been
recycled Into stainless
steel melting; this
recovers the nickel and
chromium contents of
scrap but dilutes to a
minimum most other
elements.
EFFECT ON
RECYCLE
RATE
No significant effect on
the amount of rlckel re-
cycled.
No significant effect on
th* amount of nickel re-
cycled.
No significant effect on
the amount of nickel re-
cycled; great effects on
other materials.
PROBLEM
ANALYSIS
1. Recycled nickel scrap
Is not Inferior to
primary materials In
most steel melts.
2. There Is a need for
promotional efforts
that will Inform buyers
and actual users (many
times different persons
In steel mills, for
Instance) of advantages
of using recycled
materials.
3. New methods should be
developed to aid buyers
and users of scrap to
••ka) scrap easier to
use.
1. This Is a normal busi-
ness activity In the
recycling Industry, but
a more difficult one.
2. As all material Is being
recycled, no grave prob-
lems exist.
3. Continued development
by superalloy melters
and recycling Industry
on new recycling methods
to recycle scrap back
to superalloy melters.
Instead of stainless
melters. Is desirable
from a conservation
standpoint (for this
problem, ••• next
colusjn).
I. All superalloys, by
definition are melted
in vacuum Induction
equipment. Little, If
any, refining can be
done in these furnaces.
2. Any heat with off-
specification chemistry
must be scrapped if
dilution of impurities
is not possible. All
superalloys are produced
to Aerospace Material
Specifications, military
specifications with strict
chemistry and physical
property requirements.
3. Superalloy meltera
consider the risk of
using scrap to be great.
However, a few of the
leading melters are
using some scrap In
their melt charges.
However, of the total
amount ot scrap gen-
crated, only a small
fraction is returned to
superalloy melting.
4. In the late 1960's,
there was a great short-
age of primary nickel.
Stainless steel melters,
desperate for nickel
supplies, learned how
to use superalloy scop
as nickel and chromium
Inputs in stainless
steel melting.
3. Continued development by
superalloy melters and
recycling industry on
methods to increase re-
cycling of superalloy
scrap is desirable.
(1) Problems adversely affect economics or practices of recycling but the effect in
terms of amount cannot be measured. This situation la considered an indirect
-------
f
i
xlv"
..-,..-• ' Mlckel Alloy Recommendations . v .
J . In order, to identify thoee^problems that have the, highest priority. .,
for attention, evaluations based on several criteria were made on each . . I
problem. Highest priority ideas are those that are so.important that'the
public, besides the nickel alloys recycling industry, would have interest
'... '- -. '..... .. . *iV. > - -tf.tr frifciiv.i* .t-«..,*'--:s$Ets:: etsr..,' ••-? ' :
in their solution. Consequently, these problems are Important enough to be >
acted upon by EPA. These problems with their recommended actions are shown j
-• ' •• ' .' -. -J ;• • ,"v '. /.•• '• . '" •, .. v .*;. *';. • :
• • '••.'• i
In Table III for nickel alloys. Lower priority ideas are those which are i
sufficiently Important for-the recycling Industry to solve, but which aren't :
important enough for full-scale participation by the public.. Consequently,
these problems aren't Important enough to be acted upon by EPA. These problem;
,-::..• --v;s '••• fS:.f}-. ••' f- ..-.•.', r>f ?,•: • ti ''-J";¥ *' •f'" . Vy--"'
-------
xvi
TABLE IV. RECOMMENDED ACTIONS, LOWER PRIORITY NICKEL ALLOY PROBLEMS
Title
Electroplating
Products
Low Alloy Steel
(Obsolete)
Low Alloy Steel
(Industrial)
RECOMMENDED
ACTIONS
A brief investigation
should be made to
determine whether any
recycling of nickel in
electroplated nickel
products is economical-
ly feasible. If any
potential solutions are
found, action can be
planned at that point.
An investigation should be
made to determine why an
estimated 100 percent of
the nickel in available
nickel alloy steel is not
being recycled. Part or all
of this may be explained by
reporting errors by the re-
cycling companies, or by
lack of statistics reported
by the U.S. Bureau of Mines.
An investigation should be
made to determine why an
estimated 80 percent of the
nickel in available Indus-
trial nickel alloy steel is
not being recycled. Part
or all of this may be ex-
plained by various report-
ing errors or incomplete
reporting.
BY WHOM(1)(2)(3) NASMI/NASMI MEMBERS
ISISV 7ISIS MEMBERS
ISIS/ IS IS MEMBERS
SPECIFIC
STEPS
1. Set up a committee
composed of nickel
processors and
nickel smelters.
2. The committee should
analyze the recycling
problems pertinent to'
electroplated nickel.
3. The committee should
determine whether
there is any way to
increase recycling
that is attractive.
4. If anything appears
to be attractive, the
committee should recom-
mend specific steps
to take in order to
make recycling feasible.
1. Form a committee
composed of pro-
cessors.
2. The committee should
analyze and discuss the
possible reasons for the
relatively low recycle
rate.
3. The committee should
discuss with the Bureau
of Mines why there are
possible reporting errors.
4. The committee should
analyze all of the data
to select the next action.
1. Form a committee
composed of pro-
cessors. .
2. The committee should
analyze and discuss the
possible reasons for the
relatively low recycle
rate.
3. The committee should
discuss with the Bureau
of Mines why there are
possible reporting errors.
4. The committee should
analyze all of the data
to select the next
action.
(1) The responsibility for recommended actions shown in this table are based on Importance of the
action, benefit to the taxpayers, and opportunities for NASMI. They are the best judgments
of Battellc.
(2) Recommended actions were distributed between high priority and lower priority based on the
evaluation with three criteria.
(3) It is suggested that NASMI continue its leading role in recycling, recognizing that other
organizations such as the Bureau of Mir.es, Department of Commerce, Council of Environmental
Quality, HEW Office of Information, and State, Local, and Federal Legislatures must be
involved.
(4) Institute of Scrap Iron and Steel (ISIS).
-------
TABLE IV. RECOMMENDED ACTIONS, LOWER PRIORITY NICKEL ALLOY PROBLEMS
(Continued*) „
Title
Cast Iron
Copper-Base Alloys
•RECOMMENDED
ACT-IONS
An investigation should be
made to determine why-about
43 percent of the nickel in
available cast iron is not
recycled.
An. investigation should-;be
made to determine why an
estimated 53 percent of the
nickel in copper-base alloys
is not recycled. Part of
this error may be.explained
by reporting errors or incom-
plete reporting.
BY WHOM
ISIS/ISIS MEMBERS
NASMI/NASMI MEMBERS
SPECIFIC
STEPS
1. Form a committee
composed of proc-
cessors.
2. The committee should <
. analyze, and discuss the
. .possible, reasons for the
, relatively low recycle
rate.
3; The, committee should
discuss with the Bureau
of - Mines why there,, are
possible reporting errors.
4. The committee should
analyze all of the data
to select the next
action.
1. Form a committee
composed of nickel
processors.
2. The committee should, ana-
lyze, and discuss the pos-
sible, reasons for the
relatively low recycle
rate of nickel-contain-
ing copper-rtase. alloys.
3. The committee should, dis-
cuss, with the Bureau of
Mines possible-misunder-
standings in the report-
ing of nickel-containing
copper-base;
4. A survey of-'the recycling
and user industries'to-de-
termine, where these: alloys
are used., and where-.they
might be lost should be
initiated.
5. The committee should ana-
lyze all data to select
the next actions.
-------
TABLE IV. RECOMMENDED ACTIONS, LOWER PRIORITY NICKEL ALLOY PROBLEMS
(Continued) • '
Title
Alloy Separation
Customer Prejudices
RECOMMENDED
ACTIONS
An investigation should be
made to look for improved
methods of nickel alloy
segregation.
Publicity programs should
be undertaken to point
out the advantages of
using recycled materials
over competitive materials
BY WHOM
NASMI/NASMI MEMBERS
NASMI/NASMI MEMBERS
SPECIFIC
STEPS
1. Form a committee
composed of nickel
processors.
2. The committee should •
analyze the present at-
tempts to expedite, and
to make more accurate,
the analysis of various
nickel-base scraps.
3. The committee should
investigate- new techniques
in alloy separation.
4. The committee should de-
termine what future steps
are necessary to solve
the problem. '.
1. NASMI should continue
its present publicity
programs and seminars.
2. NASMI should develop
specific programs to-
ward nickel recycling
in areas where it
would be most advan-
tageous.
3. NASMI should retain a
metallurgical or other
consultant to assist
NASMI in finding ways
to use scrap and to
instruct potential
scrap users in' these
methods.
<.*
O-i
*.»:, ij
-------
xvli
Nickel Stainless'Steel Problems
Figure II is a schematic diagram for-the recycling of stainless
steels. It shows estimates of total amounts available for recycling, total
amounts recycled, and total amounts .not--recycled for stainless steel. •. An ...
estimated 88 percent of the total stainless steel available for recycling.
is reused in one'way or another. .' • • . - ../••.-.
Table V shows identification and analysis of the problems concerning
nickel stainless steel that was not recycled in 1969.
Table VI shows identification and analysis of those problems which
do not directly reduce the amount of stainless steel recycled. These are
problems that might have economic effects on an individual company or on the
industry, or make operations more difficult.
-------
xvlll
xiz
TABLE V.'
IDENTIFICATION AKD ANALYSIS OF PEOBLEMS CONCERNING
STAINLESS STEEL THAT WAS NOT RECYCLED IN 1969 .
Prompt
Industrial
! 429.400
Total
Available
Nickel
Stainless
Steel
$ Not 3
: Recycled:
Note: All quontities in short tons
of nickel stoinless steel
378.4OO
Recycled
Steel Goslings
52,900
Recycled
Nickel
Stainless
Market
FIGURE H. RECYCLED NICKEL STAINLESS STEEL FLOW, 1969
Title
PROBLEM DEFINITION
TONS OF STAINLESS
SOI RECYCLED
PERCENT OF AVAILABLE
STAINLESS NOT RECYCLED
Obsolete Stainless Steel .__
1. Prompt stainless steel.scrap is estimated to be
about 100 percent recycled. Obsolete stainless
steel scrap Is only 76 percent recycled.
2. This problem cannot be broken down further due to
the lack of adequate statistical information.
3. Stainless steel is used In a myriad of different
applications, e.g., automobile parts and trim,
aircraft engine components, and appliances and
cutlery. ••• -
4. Applications where stainless steel is a large part
of a system are generally.recycled, but those
applications, e.g., cutlery and small appliances,
where stainless steel is a small part of a system
are probably not completely recycled.
51,000 '"
24
1. Stainless steel Is often a small part of a larger
system in consumer appliances and other stainless
uses.
2. These Items are small and generally are discarded
to municipal waste after termination of useful life.
3. This seems a promising area to Increase recycling.
PROBLEM ANALYSIS
Source: U.S. Deportment of the Interior, Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbooks.
"Nickel" and "Iron and Steel Scrap" chapters.
-------
TABLE -VI. iDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS' OF PROBLEMS THAT DO NOT
DIRECTLY REDUCE THE.AJCuNT OF NICKEL STAINLESS STEEL
THAT-IS RECYCLED, i969' that ma'de only'
from pri'mary- materials.
i ! ' :. • j .../• ;-M.,;-r;, ..-. .-.,'•. '.• •
2. There -is; a need; for promotional j
and- educational^ efforts thiat will
ikfbrajbuyers- and' actual" users of
advantages' of .using recycled
•-• ' materials*.- ,' • '"
-- • -— "
(1) Problems' adversely affect economics or .practices of T7^ ~.
recycling but the' effect in" terms" of amount cannot be" .
measured-. This situation is considered ah indirect effect.
3127
:-.',- . Nickel Stainless Steel Recommendations -
. _ _ In order to identify those problems-that have the highest priority
for attention, evaluations based-on several criteria were made on each .,
problem. Highest priority ideas are those that are so'important. that the ....
public,-besides the stainless steel .recycling industry, would have interest
in their solution." Consequently, these problems are important enough to be
acted upon by EPA. ' These problems with their recommended actions are shown
in Table" VII for nickel stainless steel. Lower priority ideas are those which
are sufficiently important for the recycling. Industry to solve, but which
aren't important:enough for full-scale participation by the public.- Consequently,
these problems" aren't important enough to be acted upon by EPA. These problems
with their recommended actions are shown in Table VIII for.nickel stainless steel.
-------
zxli
nd.il
TABLE VIII. RECOMMENDED ACTIONS, LOWER STAINLESS STEEL PRIORITY PROBLEMS
TABLE VII.
RECOMMENDED ACTIONS, HIGH PRIORITY
STAINLESS STEEL PROBLEMS
Title
RECOMMENDED
ACTIONS
SPECIFIC
STEPS
Obsolete Stainless Steel
An investigation should be undertaken
to determine why approximately 51,000
tons of nickel stainless steel were
not recycled in 1969.
EPA/NASMI
1.
2.
Form a committee representing the
following:
• Stainless steel processors
• Stainless steel fabricators
• Stainless steel mills
The committee should discuss the problem
with other people knowledgeable in the
area of obsolete stainless steel scrap
including:
Municipal land fill operators
Small scrap collectors
3.
The committee should discuss and analyze
why obsolete stainless steel scrap is not
being recycled.
The committee should determine what
additional actions should be taken.
(1) The responsibility for recommended actions shown in this
table are based on importance of the action, benefit to the
taxpayers, and opportunities for NASMI. They are the best
judgments of Battelle.
(2) Recommended actions were distributed between high priority
and lower priority based on the evaluation with three
criteria.
(3) It is suggested that NASMI continue Its leading role In re-
cycling, recognizing that other organizations such as the
Bureau of Mines, Department of Coamerce, Council of Environ-
mental Quality, HEW Office of Information, and State, Local,
and Federal Legislatures must be Involved.
Title
Customer Prejudice
Against Recycled Material
RECOMMENDED
ACTIONS
\
KASMI should undertake a broad publicity
program to:
(1) Outline to the public the conservation
features of using scrap.
(2) Kelp large users of scrap to publicize
their conservational actions.
(3) Help small users of scrap with their
problems BO they will be less reticent
to use scrap.
BY WHOMUX2X3)
NASMI/NASMI MEMBERS
SPECIFIC
STEPS
(1) >;ASMI should continue its recycle
programs, conferences, etc., to inform
the public and promote conservation
aspects of recycling.
(2) Furthermore, NASMI should promote
seminars to discuss new and useful
techniques of using additional stainless
scrap inputs, in steelmaking.
(3) KASMI should promote research in methods
of utilizing higher amounts of.scrap.
(1) The responsibility for recommended actions shown In this table are based
on importance of the action, benefit to the taxpayers, and opportunities
for NASMI. They are the best judgments of Battelle.
Recommended actions were distributed between high priority and lower
priority based on the evaluation with three criteria.
It is suggested that NASMI continue its leading role in recycling,
recognizing that other organizations such as the Bureau of Mines,
Department of Commerce, Council or Environmental Quality, HEW Office of
Information, and State, Local, and Federal Legislatures must be involved.
030
-------
INTRODUCTION •
. In June, 1970, Battelle-Columbus undertook a research program for the
National Association of Secondary Material Industries, Inc. (NASMI). This work
was caYried out tinder a subcontract from Che Office of Solid Waste Management
grant to NASMI. This report on nickel and stainless steel is one of a series of
eight commodity reports plus a general or summary report.
Background ' . . -
The Office of Solid Waste Management is responsible for formulating
and recommending Federal Government policies in the area of solid waste pollution.
This includes pursuing appropriate research to determine the status and problems
of solid waste activities, and to develop programs to reduce solid waste pollution.
One approach to the reduction of solid waste pollution is to reclaim
waste materials for reuse - the recycling concept. A well established Industry--
331
-------
the secondary materials industry-exists to accomplish this recycling. NASM1 is
the trade association representing the nonferrous metals, paper, and textiles
portion of this Industry.
The scrap processors, secondary smelters, and other companies that make
up the secondary materials industry have developed effective channels and methods
for recycling nearly all waste materials of economic value. These companies have
performed their difficult and essential functions well in the traditional economic
environment.
More recently, additional dimensions have been added to this traditional
economic environment. These new dimensions are (1) Improvement of the environment
in which we live, and (2) Increased need for conservation of natural resources.
These new dimensions provide new challenges and opportunities for the recycling
industry. No longer is economic gain the sole driving force for recycling of
waste materials. Social gain has been added in the forms of improved living con-
ditions and preservation of resources for future generations. In an economics-
based nation this creates problems of interpretation and evaluation of noneconomics-
based goals and activities.
The purpose of this series of reports is to Identify obstacles to the
recycling of nonferrous solid wastes, and to recommend directions for Investiga-
tion and research to overcome these obstacles.
Oblectives
The objective of the study on which this report is baaed was to identify
opportunities for the increased utilization of solid waste. The major sub-
objectives were:
(1) To determine the structure and functions of the secondary
materials industry, and its relationships to sources of
supply and markets
(2) To identify and evaluate .problems of recycling -'
materials, sources, industry, and markets
(3) To determine opportunities for increased recycling.
Scope
The major subjects included in the scope of the study are the secondary
materials industry, the materials it recycles, the sources of solid wastes, and
the markets for recycled materials. Activities peripheral to these major subjects
are considered where pertinent to recycling.
The materials included in the study are:
Aluminum Nickel and Nickel Alloys
Copper and Copper Alloys Precious Metals (Silver, Gold, and Platinum)
Lead Paper
Zinc Textiles.
Research Methods
The methods and procedures used in the study are discussed under four
types of activities. They include (A) literature search, (B) extensive survey,
(C) in-depth survey, and (D) analysis and synthesis.
Literature Search
The literature search included reviewing and studying books, Government
reports, industry reports, and trade journals covering solid waste handling and
problems, recovery and market data, and recycling of valuable materials.
333
-------
The results of this effort included the accumulation of data and
descriptive material, and an organized bibliography dealing with each of the
commodities covered in the scope of the study. .
Extensive Survey • . \ . • -.. ....
The extensive survey of the secondary materials industry consisted of a
mail survey and personal interviews .with.management personnel of companies Involved
with the collection, processing, and sale of secondary materials. About 600
responses were received.
The information developed through the extensive survey included dollar
sales, tons of major materials handled, types of solid waste processed, sources of
materials, investment, equipment and facilities, number of employees, the amount
of space used, and the grades and quantities of secondary materials .produced..
The data from the extensive survey provided statistical tabulations of
the regional distribution of the secondary materials industries by type of commodity
in terms of numbers of .establishments, volume of business, and numbers of employees.
In-De'oth Survey
The in-depth survey of selected members of the secondary materials indus-
tries, their suppliers, and the users of their products served to Identify the
major technical and economic problems facing those companies involved with the sec-
ondary material utilization. About 200 interviews were completed. Battelle and
NASMI commodity specialists jointly selected the companies to be interviewed in
depth.
Interview guides for each of the commodities were prepared. The problems
and potential solutions for greatest recycling and waste utilization that were
developed from the literature search and prior Office of Solid Waste Management
work plus the knowledge of the NASMI commodity specialists provided the basis for
designing the interview guide.
Analysis and Synthesis
The analysis and synthesis step was concerned with the collation and
analysis of data and information derived from the literature, extensive
survey; and in-depth survey. The analysis and synthesis activity'covered the
following tasks:
(1) Economic Data on the Secondary Materials Industries. The
economic data developed through the extensive survey of the
• secondary materials industries were tabulated and analyzed as
to the amount and type of solid waste handled and as to
operational data such as number of employees, amount of
space required, capitalization, and geographic locations.
(2) Flow Diagrams and Life'Cycles. Flow diagrams were developed
to indicate the flow of materials from primary production and
scrap sources through fabrication. Life cycle estimates of
various products were used to develop .data on quantities
available for possible recycling.
(3) Demand-Supply Relationships. Estimates were made of future
demand and supply levels for secondary materials. The rela-
tionship between these data provide an indication of potential
surpluses or shortages of recycled materials through 1980.
(4) Stability of Flow and Consumption. This analysis is closely
related to the .supply-demand analysis described above and
Identifies the ability of the various secondary materials to
-------
compete as source materials for manufacturers. A number of
factors were examined such as price changes In the secondary
materials, the availability of materials, and the effect of
sudden changes In the magnitude of demand.
(5) Direct Impacts of Technological Change. Direct technical and
technological factors were examined to determine their effect
on rates of processing and recycling. Potential changes that
could take place in technology that could decrease or Increase
the rate of solid waste recovery were examined. This includes
the Identification of potentially recoverable solid wastes, the
problems limiting the recovery to current levels, and the possi-
bilities of technical advances through the use of known tech-
nology or through added scientific and engineering research.
(6) Constraints on Expansion of the Secondary Materials Industries.
This analysis included consideration of elements critical to
expansion of recycling - labor and management availability,
laws and regulations, equipment availability, nature of solid
waste materials, market needs, etc.
(7) Potentials for Expansion of the Secondary Materials Industries.
Based on the constraints identified In the above task, plus
examination of various methods for overcoming constraints,
this task determined the ability of the secondary materials
Industries to meet new opportunities for recycling.
(8) Indirect Technological Change. The broad overall technological
trends Indirectly affecting the secondary materials industries
were examined, and their probable Impacts determined.
THE NICKEL INDUSTRY
Although nickel is used in unalloyed forms, such as on electroplated
surfaces and in chemical process equipment, most nickel is used in alloy form.
Nickel is used in varying amounts in stainless steel, low alloy steel, cast
Iron, cupronickels, permanent magnet materials, and many other different
applications. The nickel used in stainless steels, however, is the subject of
the second section of this report; except for clarification in statistical form,
the subject of stainless steels will not be mentioned further in this discussion
of nickel.
Characteristics of Nickel
which are:
Nickel Is used in a number of different forms. The most popular of
Electrolytic cathode
Nickel oxide sinter
Ferronickel
Pellets and powder
Recycled nickel.
Electrolytic Cathode
Electrolytic cathode accounts for over 60 percent of the total U. S.
consumption of primary nickel. Electrolytic cathode, one of the purest fores of
primary nickel, can be used in virtually any application that requires nickel.
Table 1 gives the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) Specification
for electrolytic cathode. Appendix A describes other grades of primary nickel.
037
-------
-8
'TABLE 1. REFINED ELECTROLYTIC NICKEL SPECIFICATIONS
Ni .99.89 rain-
Co 0.15 max
Cu 0.02 max
C 0.03 max
Fe 0.02 max
S 0.01 max
P,-Mn, Si, As, Pb, Sb,
Bl, Sn, Zn, less Chan
0.005 each
Source: American Society for Testing and
Materials
Characteristics of the Nickel Industry
Unlike the copper industry, producers of nickel do not process their
nickel and make finished goods. Most nickel is sold in the primary form. .
International Nickel does, however, produce semifinished nickel alloy forms.
Materials Sources
U. S. nickel consumers depended on the following sources for their
nickel in 1969:
.Source
Domestic Refined-Metal
Foreign Refined Metal
Recycled Metal
Total
1969 Consumption*
(Short Tons. Nickel Content*)
•8,119,
94,160
42,193
144,472 .
* Excludes primary nickel and stainless steel scrap going
into stainless steel melting. The second section of this
report will discuss this furthar.
208
Materials Flow - • . • -.-'••' - . - ' • -:'"•.-.'
A diagram outlining the materials flow from source of nickel to fabri-
cated product is shown in Figure 1. As shown, the major sources of nickel for
U. S. -consumers are foreign refined and .domestic •recycled materials.
• , -Markets for Nickel
Historically, the main markets for nickel have been as alloying .addi-
tions to steel and nonferrous alloys, as electroplating products, and as additions
in other miscellaneous applications, r
Prices ...'•• • . . • ,.--.'
Historical prices for primary nickel are shown in Table 2. Note the
rapid rate of Increase in prices from S0.78 per pound in 1965 to $1.33 per pound
at present. Reasons for the recent increases in the price are twofold: (1) the
demand/supply, imbalance: for nickel,'and (2) the rapid increase in cost of
extracting nickel from ore. From'' 1967 to 1969, a severe shortage of nickel
resulted due to a long miners' strike and unanticipated .nickel demand increases.'
Also .during this period, inflationary trends forced operating costs up.
-Use Patterns . .'.••'• •'
The major uses for nickel are for alloying additions to stainless steel,
low alloy constructional, steels, cast irons, and copper-base alloys; for electro-
plating.products ; for superalloys;'and other nickel-base alloys; for uses in other
applications such as" batteries, chefflicals,-catalysts, and electronic alloys.
:
-------
10
; Foreign Refined
: 94,160
Source
of
Nickel
144,472
Note:
All quantities in short tons
of nickel content
Total
Supply of
Nickel
Stainless and
Alloy Steel
45,654
10,087
Markets
For
Nickel
FIGURE I MATERIALS FLOW BALANCE*FOR NICKEL. 1969
(•EXCLUDES PRIMARY NICKEL AND RECYCLE STAINLESS
STEEL SCRAP GOING INTO STAINLESS MELTING)
Source: Battelle estimates; U.S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Mines;
Minerals Yearbook. "Nickel" and "Iron and Steel Scrap" chapters.
11
TABLE 2. HISTORICAL PRICES FOR NICKEL, SELECTED YEARS 1940-1971
Basis: Electrolytic cathode, dollars (U.S.)
per pound, fob Port Colborn.
Year
1940
1945
1950
1955
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
Present
Price
Dollars Per Pound
0.35
0.35
0.44792
0.645
0.74
0.77653
0.79895
0.79
0.79
0.7775
0.8525
0.94
1.03
1.28
1.33
310
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TABLE 3. CONSUMPTION OF PRIMARY NICKEL IN THE UNITED STATES
Consumption In the United States (exclusive of scrap) by
uses as reported by the U. S. Bureau of Mines, In short
tons of nickel.
1960
Ferrous :
Stainless Steel
Other Steels
Cast Iron
Nonferrous
High temperature^6' and
electrical-resistance alloys
Electroplating:
Anodes (f>
Solutions(g)
Catalysts
Ceramics
Mignets
Other
Total, partly estimated
30
15
4
26
10
15
1
1
108
,086
,331
,605
.567
,095
,847
970
,515
365
778
,970
,159
1961
34.213
18,238
4,649
28,789
11,294
15,737
770
1,519
366
773
2,167
118,515
1962
29,711
18,608
5,503
28,215
12,862
16,953
904
1.566
439
910
3,006
118,677
1963
34,140
19,727
5,509
24,794
13,505
18,621
1,050
1,613
554
777
3,796
124.478
1964
48,301
24,679
6,605
23,639
15,291
19,446
1,645
2,167
529
664
3,954
146.920
1965
51,700
27,009
6,937
37,082
18,464
19.450
2,037
2,241
501
828
5,835
172,084
1966
65,910
27,807
7.286
57,303
5,423(e)
13,828
1,925
(h)
00
807
7,544
187,833
1967
53,936
23,661
6,596
47,400
.4,311
23,721
4,041
(h)
(h)
806
6,019
173,798
1968
44,858
29,014
6,322
47,048
3,886
24,919
3.522
(h)
(h)
748
8,349
159,306
J969
39,458
23,864
f 5,588,.
f 12,709*
< 26.265^
} 5.474(d)
V
(l9,242
(h)
(h)
—
9,137
141,737
(0 Comprises copper-nickel alloys, nickel-silver, brass', bronze, beryllium alloys, magnesium and aluminum alloys, Monel, Inconel, and
malleable nickel. • .-..'•••
(b) Superalloys.
(c) Other nickel- and nickel alloys.
(J) Nickel-copper and copper-nickel alloys. . .
(e) High temperature alloys now under nonferrous alloys or with heat-resisting under stainless.
(f) Figures represent quantity of nickel used for production of anodes, plus cathodes used as anodes in plating operations.
(3) Figures do not cover all consumers. . . ...
(h) Now included in "other" group. .......
Source: U.S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook. "Nickel" chapter.
-------
13-
Table 4 gives' consumption of nickel, primary and recycled, in its '
principal uses for 1969. Recycled nickel containing products are used extensively
by the steel industry. It accounted for consumption of 117,662 short tons of
nickel content in 1969. Other industries, e.g., cast iron and copper-base alloys
producers, also relied on recycled nickel for a large fraction of their nickel
inputs. Among all nickel users, only the electroplating industry relied little
on recycled nickel materials.
TABLE 4. V. S. CONSUMPTION OF PRIMARY AND RECYCLED NICKEL
BY USE, 1969
Stainless/Alloy Steel
Cast Iron
Superalloys
Electroplating
Nonferrous Alloys
Copper-Base Alloys
Other
Total
Short
Primary
63,322
5.588
12,709
19,242
26,265
5,474
9,137
141,737
Tons of Nickel
Recycled
54,340
4,589
4,600
0
6,000
4,264
950
. 74,743
Content
Total
117,662
10,177
17,309
19,242
32,265
9,738
10,087
216,480
Source: U.S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Mines,
Minerals Yearbook. "Nickel" chapter, and
Battelle-Columbus estimates.
Stainless Steel. Since stainless steel consumes from 30 to 35 percent of
the primary nickel each year and almost an equal amount of nickel in mill revert and
recycled scrap, nickel stainless steels are Important enough to be considered as a
313
-------
. . •_. ri4. ..._ _. . _. i_
separate topic, and are discussed separately in .the second section of this report.
See the next section for stainless steel recycling information, problems, and
recommendations for action. . ..•..-, ; :
Low Alloy Steels. Nickel is used in amounts of 0.50 to 3.50 percent to.
strengthen and otherwise modify steels of low alloy content. .There are five
types of nickel-containing low alloy steel: nickel, nickel-chronirai, nickel-
molybdenum, nickel-chromium-molybdenum, and nickel-chromlum-inpiybde'num-vanadium.
At present, the largest markets for nickel-containing low alloy steels are the
automotive, farm Implement, electrical equipment, aerospaces, Mining, and metal-
working Industries. These steels are used in making many kinds.of machinery
parts, such as gears, axles', drill bits, and turbine/generator rotors. Although
nickel containing low alloy steels continue to be used in quantity, the rate of
growth has slowed in the last five years. See Appendix B for further detailed
consumption of alloy steel. ..•',. .
Electroplating Materials. Nickel is consumed in several different _.
forms in electroplating baths. A rolled anode, containing 99 percent nickel and
small amounts of nickel oxide to depolarize it has been the leading product for
electroplating. It is still being used by platers in some quantity. Another
popular product for use in plating baths is sheared electrolytic nickel cathodes
which are contained in titanium baskets as anode material. There has been a very
significant trend in the increased usage of electrolytic nickel (called SD nickel),
with small additions of sulfur (about 0.02 percent) so that rapid dissolution of
the anode material will occur, and in nickel plating salts that are introduced as
additions directly to the plating baths.
15 " • . '
•;' For years, electroplating has been a large and growing consumer of
nickel. In 1969, electroplating accounted for roughly 14 percent of total nickel
consumption. Electroplaters, in general among nickel consumers, have been the
most affected by the recent nickel shortage. Small platers had extreme problems
in obtaining enough nickel even at greatly Increased prices.
About 50 percent of the nickel consumed for electroplating applications
Is'for automotive use. About.1 pound of electroplated nickel is used on each car
bumper; other applications include grills, door handles, lower body trim, and wind-
shield wiper parts. For car applications that must endure corrosion and denting,
e.g., bumpers, plated nickel thicknesses must be 1.5 rails.
The bulk of the remaining nickel is used in home appliances, utensils,
furniture, and sports equipment. These applications consume about 30 to 35 per-
cent of the nickel consumed for electroplating. Host of these applications
require only 25 to 50 percent of the plating thicknesses of automotive applications.
There are other small industrial plating applications for nickel, and nickel is also
electroformed.
Sunerallovs.* These alloys are generally used in elevated temperature
portions of aircraft jet engines, industrial gas turbines, rockets, and similar
uses. Many of the alloys are nickel-base with small additions of various elements
-.. A . r .. -. ' - ' - '.- •' - ' .. ' • - . .
to achieve specific property characteristics in strength, fatigue resistance, and.
oxidation resistance. Some of the most common superallby compositions are shown
in Table 5. Many of these compositions are casting alloys for making blades and
vanes, while others are forging alloys for discs, shafts, rings, and casings.
These alloys .have been developed to achieve high values of structural Integrity
and low cycle fatigue resistance at elevated temperatures. Consequently, these
alloys are to be differentiated from other nickel-base alloys.
-------
16
TABLE 5. COMPOSITIONS AND COMMON FORMS OF SUPERALLOYS
Alloy rVnignatkin
Alloy 7 ISC
Alloy 713I.C
Alloy 901
Alloy «01
A-286
II-1UOO
D-979.
GMtt 235- D
Hottelloy alloy K-235..
Ha-tMloy alloy X.
Inconel alloy 700
Inconel alloy 718
Inconel alloy 722 ....
Inconel alloy 750 ...
Inconel alloy 750 ..
IN 100
IN 102
L-605
M-22
MAH-.M 200
MAR-M 246
M-252
Nimonic alloy 90
N-1SS
PDRI. 162
llefracialoy 26
Kene 41
Hene41
8-816
TD-Nickel
TD-NicLel
TRW 1900
Udimet 500
I'dimet 500
Cdimet 520
Cdimet 630.
Vdimet 700
Unitemp AF 1753
Wupoloy
X-40
16-25-6
Nominal chemical composition, percent
C
0 12
.05
.05
.05
.10
.0.1
.04
15
15
.10
.as
.12
.04
.W
.04
.04
18
.06
.10
.13
.15
.15
.15
.10
.06
.07
.15
.15
.12
.03
09
.38
.01
.ii
.08
.07
.05
.03
.08
.24
.08
.50
.06
Mn
0.10
1.35
.25
.90
.50
.15
.10
.05
.20
.55
.70
1.50
.50
.10
.50
1.50
.80
1.20
<.01
.75
1.35
Si
0.10
.50
.20
.80
.50
.30
.30
.20
.30
.20
.30
.50
.50
.70
.70
.50
1.00
.40
<.01
.76
.70
Cr
12.5
12.0
12.5
15.0
8.0
15.0
13.5
15.5
15.5
22.0
22.0
15.0
15.6
18.6
15.0
15.0
10.0
15.0
20.0
5.7
9.0
8.0
20.0
12.0
18.5
19.5
15.0
21.0
10.0
18.0
18.0
20.0
<.01
10.3
18.0
19.0
19.0
18.0
15.0
16.3
19.5
25.5
16.0
Ni
Bal
Bal
42.5
26.0
Bal
Bal
26.0
Bal
Bal
Bal
Bui
Bui
Bal
Bal
Bal
Bal
Bal
Bnl
10.0
Bal
Bal
Bui
Bal
Bal
Bal
Bui
Bui
20.0
Bal
Bal
Bal
20.0
Bal
Bal
Bal
Bal
Bal
Bal
Bal
Bal
Bal
10.5
25.0
Co
10.0
1.5
28.5
15.0
Bal
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
1.1
18.0
15.0
20.0
20.0
11.0
Bal
.03
10.0
18.5
19.0
12.0
18.5
7.2
13.5
Bal
Mo
4.2
4.5
5.7
1.3
6.0
4.0
2.7
5.0
5.5
9.0
3.0
3.7
3.1
3.0
3.0
2.0
2.5
10.0
r
3.5
3.0
4.0
3.2
10.0
4.0
<.01
4.0
4.2
6.0
3.0
5.2
1.6
4.3
6.0
W
4.0
.6
3.0
15.0
11.0
12.5
10. 0
8.6
2.5
2.0
4.0
9.0
1.0
3.0
8.4
7.8
Cb
2.0
2.0
4.0
5.0
.9
3.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
4.0
1.5
6.5
Fe
Bal
Bal
27.0
Bal
4.5
10.0
18.5
3.0
.7
.4
18.5
6.5
6.8
7.0
Bal
Bal
16.0
4.0
<.01
18.0
9.5
Bal
Ti
0.8
.6
2.8
2.0
1.0
3.0
1.7
2.5
2.5
.2
2.2
.7
.9
2.4
2.5
4.7
.6
2.0
1.5
2.6
4.0
2.5
2.4
4.0
1.0
2.6
3 1
1.0
2.9
3.0
3.0
1.0
3.5
3.2
3.0
Al
6.1
£.9
.2
.2
6.0
1.0
0.1
3.5
2.0
.2
3.0
3.4
.4
.6
.8
5.5
.4
6.3
5.0
5.5
1.0
4.0
1.3
1.4
5.0
6.5
.2
1 5
<0.1
6.3
2.9
3.0
2.0
.5
4.3
1.9
1.3
B
0.012
.010
.015
.015
.015
.010
.005
.050
.014
.005
.015
.015
.005
.050
.020
005
.030
.006
.007
.005
.030
.008
.006
Zr
0.10
.10
.10
.06
.03
.60
.05
.05
.05
.10
.10
.05
.05
.06
.06
Other
4.0 Ta
1.0 V
.02 Mg
3.0 Ta
1.5 Ta
.15 N
2.0 Ta
2.2 ThOi
.16 N
Form
Cut
X
x
X
X
X
z
Bar
z
z
z
z
z
X
Sheet
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
z
X
X
Source: U.S. Bureau of Standards, Nickel and Its Alloys. Samuel J. Rosenburg,
Washington, GPO, 1968.
-------
17
One trend in the materials used for aerospace applications is the
replacement of iron-based superalloys with nickel- and- cobalt- based .superalloys as
higher, more efficient temperatures are sought in advanced engines . The trend" '
can be illustrated from the materials trends in GE engines as follows: .
. ALLOY BASE. PERCENT
Speed
Subsonic
Supersonic-
Mac'h 3
Subsonic '.
. Fan':
Supersonic
Engine .
J47
J79
C93
TF39
CF 6
GE 4
Time
Period
1950
1955
1960
1969 .
1969
1974
Al. Mg
22
3
1
2
2
1
11
0
2
7
33
33
12
Fe
70
85
24
18 .
18
15
Si. Co
8
10
68
47
47
72
Engine
Dry Weight,
Pound
2,554
3,620 ,
n.a.
7,026
7,026
11,303
. . Appendix B gives, .estimates of- the markets for' vacuum melted-.wrought
and cast superalloys in 1969. '.-•_. ,
Cast Iron. There are four basic types of nickel-containing cast iron:
(1) nickel-containing gray iron, (2) ductile iron,. (3) Ni-resist iron, and
•(4) Ni-hard iron. Of these, nickel-containing gray irons and ductile irons are
by far the largest and most important.
; The production of gray iron was about 16 million short tons in 1969.
Its.nickel composition is about 0.1C percent. Not much nickel is deliberately
added to gray iron production, but since large quantities of iron ,and steel
scrap are .used by this industry, a residual of 0.. 10 to 0.15 percent nickel will
be' present. Gray iron is used in a myriad of different applications; motor
vehicles, agricultural equipment, mining and construction equipment, machine-tool
frames, and foundry metal working equipment are-a few typical applications for ;
gray iron.
-------
18
The "annual production of ductile Iron has Increased from about 190
thousand short tons in 1960 to about 1.6 million short tons In 1969. Nickel is
used in ductile iron to carry magnesium, a necessary nodulizing agent. Ductile
iron is used for the following automotive applications: steering knuckles for
passenger cars and trucks, crankshaft gears, disc brake components, and flywheels.
Ductile iron is also used in farm, industrial, and construction machinery and
tractors.
Ni-resist and Hi-hard cast irons contain higher amounts of nickel than
do other cast irons to develop unique combinations of properties. Ni-reslst,
generally containing 18 to 22 percent nickel, is used for valve and pump parts
In the marine and petrochemical fields, and for piston and piston ring inserts
for automotive applications. Ni-hard is used for grinding balls and liners for
ball mills, rolls for steel mills, and In various types of crushing equipment.
Nonferrous Alloys. These alloys, like most of the superalloys, are
nickel-base, but are used primarily for their corrosion and oxidation resistance
at ambient or moderately elevated temperatures. These materials are used as
industrial heat treating racks, trays, and furnace parts and as pyrolysls furnace
parts In the petrochemical industry. However, they can also be used in lower
temperature applications in chemical, marine, and consumer product applications.
A few of the principal materials Included are: nickel, Inconel 600, Monel 400,
Hastelloy B, Hastelloy C, Incoloy 800, and Carpenter 20CB-3. Estimated consump-
tion of these alloys is shown in Appendix B.
19
Copper-Base Alloys. The principal "copper-base alloys containing nickel
are: (1) cupronickel and cupronickel-copper composite for coinage, (2) cupronickel
condenser tubing, (3) nickel-silver, and (4) cast bronzes and brasses. It is
expected that growth of nickel consumption In these materials will not be above
2 or 3 percent per year unless desalination programs, presently hampered by
political and technical problems, show a resurgence. Appendix B gives nickel
consumption estimates for copper-base alloys.
Market Outlook
r
Battelle-Columbus estimates that the annual growth rates for nickel
will continue at a moderate rate of increase. Battelle-Columbus estimates that
growth of total nickel consumption in nickel alloys will average about 6 percent
per year through 1979.
i.19
-------
.20
THE NICKEL RECYCLING INDUSTRY
Characteristics of Nickel Materials
The main products of the nickel recycling industry are: (1) master
alloys used as additions in foundry and steel mill melting, (2) segregated scrap,
and (3) refined recycled nickel. ' .-• •
Master Alloys
These alloys are used by foundries, steel mills, and other users as
alloying additions to heats. Table 6 shows typical master alloys available in
pig, bar, and shot from most nickel alloy recyclers. Ferronickel, Monel, and
nickel-magnesium are also available. In addition to the above, master alloys
containing known, but usable, residual contents are promoted by recyclers--
usually at a price below that of the major master alloys.
Scrap
Segregated scrap is the most widely used form of recycled nickel
material. A very active national and international market exists for stainless
steel and high nickel alloy scrap. Typical specifications for nickel-containing
scraps' are' listed in Table 7.'
Secondary Nickel
One producer has taken complex alloy mixtures, those difficult to up-
grade by conventional techniques, e.g., a nickel-cobalt-copper-molybdenum-other
alloy, and blended these into sulfide mattes with controlled sulfur contents to
-------
21
TABLE 6. TYPICAL NICKEL BEARING MASTER ALLOYS AVAILABLE
TO USERS OF RECYCLED MATERIALS
STAINLESS STEELS
201: AISI 201
202: AISI 202
302: AISI 302
ACI-CF-20
AMS-S3S8
303: AISI 303. SAE 30303F
SAE 40303A. ACI-CF-l4Fa
AMS S440E
304: AISI 304. SAE 30304
SAE 40304. ACI-CF-8
304LC: WAO 8370
304ELC:
308: AISI 308
SAE 70308. ACI-HF
307: AISI 30*. SAE 30307
SAE 40309. ACI-CH-20
SAE 70307. ACI-HH
310: AISI 310. SAE 30310
SAE 40310. ACI-CK-20
AMS 5345 A
AMS S344A
SAE 70310. ACI-HK
SAE 703IOA. ACI-HL
312: SAE 40312. ACI-C6-30
SAE 70312. ACI-HE
316: AISI-314
AISI-3I4L
SAE 40314. ACI-CF-8M
AMS 5340A
AMS 53418
321: AISI 321
327: SAE 70327, ACI-HO
330: SAE 70330. ACI-HT
331: SAE 70331. ACI-HU
334: SAE 70334, ACI-HW
347: AISI 347
SAE 40347, ACI CF-8C
AMS 5343A
AMS 5342C
C
mai.
.IS
.IS
.08 - .20
.20
.25
.15
.14
.15
.08
.08
.04
.03
.08
.20 - .40
.20
.20
.20 • .50
.25
.20
.10- .18
.18
.20 - .40
.20 - .40
.30
.20 - .50
.10
.0}
.08
.15
.15- .25
.08
.50
.3S - .75
.35 - .75
.3S - .75
.08
.08
.10
.12
HIGH TEMPERATURE c Mn
ALLOYS •"•«• ""••
AMS 5355 ( 17- 4PH*) .08 1.0
AMSS378 (17 -4PH*) .08 .0
AMS5373A (Sttllilt 4") .70-1.4 .0
AMS 5387 (Sltllitt 4") .70-1.4 .0
AMS 53758 (Sltllitt 23") .35 - .45 .0
AMSS378B (Sttllitt 27") .35 - .45 .0
AMS 5380C (Sttllilt 30") .40 - .50 .0
AMS 53878 (Sttllitt 31") .45 - .55 .0
AMS S38SC (Sttllilt 21") .20 -.30 .0
AMSS388B (HaittlloyC") .IS .0
AMS 5387A (Hatttlloy C") .15 .0
AMS 5379 (Hailtllor X") .20 .0
AMS 53720 (NI-Rttitt IA*"| 2.4 -2.8 1.0-1.5
MR
mai.
S.S • 7.S
7.S • 10.0
2.0
I.S
2.0
2.0
I.S
2.0
2.0
I.S
1.0-2.0
1.0-2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
1.5
2.0
2.0
I.S
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
I.S
2.0
2.0
2.0
I.S
2.0
2.0
2.0
I.S
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
1.5
2.0
2.0
Si
mai.
.0
.0
.S
.5
.0
.0
.0
0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.S • 2.S
Si
mai.
1
1.
|.
1.
1.
0
0
0
0
0
0
2.0
1.
1.
0
0
2.0
1.
1.
1.
0
0
0
2.0
t
0
0
2.0
1.
5
2.0
.5 • 1.5
.5- 1.5
3.0
3.0
2.0
2.0
1.
1.
1.
I _
1
0
0
5
75
)
2'0
2.5
2.5
2.5
1.0
2.0
I.S
1.0
P/S
rrtfii.
.04/.04
.04/04
—
—
—
.04/.04
_
__
—
.04/.03
.30/12
Cr
14.0 - 18.0
17.0 • 17.0
17.0- 17.0
18.0- 21.0
17.0 - 17.0
17.0 - 17.0
18.0- 21.0
17.0- 17.0
18.0 - 20.0
18.0-21.0 '
18.0- 21.0
18.0- 20.0
17.0-21.0
18.0 - 23.0
22.0 - 24.0
22.0 - 24.0
24.0 - 28.0
24.0 • 24.0
23.0- 27.0
23.0 - 24 0
23.0 • 24.0
24.0 - 28.0
28.0 - 32.0
24.0 - 30.0
24.0 - 30.0
14.0 - 18.0
14.0 - IB.O
18.0-21.0
14.0- 18.0
17.0 - 20.0
17.0- 17.0
24.0 • 30.0
13.0- 17.0
17.0 • 21.0
10.0 - 14.0
17.0- 17.0
18.0-21.0
17.0 - 20.0
18.0 - 17.5
Cr Ni
155- 17 S 3.0 -5.0
15.5- 17 5 30 -5.0
27.0- 31.0 30 mai.
27.0 • 31.0 30 mai.
23.0-27.0 .50-3.0
23.0 • 24 0 30.0 - 35.0
24.0 • 28.0 14.0 • 14.0
24.5-24 5 75 - 115
250-270 1.75-3.75
ISO- 17.5 Rtm.
15.0 • 17.5 Rtm.
20.5-23.0 Rtm.
1.8- 2.4 14.0 • 14.0
Ni
I.S 5.0
4.0 4.0
8.0 10.0
8.0 11.0
8.0 10.0
8.0 10.0
7.0 12.0
8.0 10.0
8.0 11.0
8.0 11.0
8.0 110
v.o n.o
10.0 12.0
7.0 12.0
12.0 IS.O
12.0 15.0
11.0 14.0
17.0 22.0
17.0 22.0
17.0 22.0
17.0 22.0
18.0 22.0
18.0 22.0
8.0 11.0
8.0 II. 0
10.0 14.0
10.0 14.0
7.0 12.0
12.0 14.0
12.0 IS.O
8.0 11.0
4.0 7.0
33.0 37.0
37.0 41.0
S8.0 62.0
7.0 12.0
7.0 - 12.0
7.0 - 12.0
10.0 • 14.0
Mo
_
^
I.S mai.
I.S mai.
1.0 mai.
4.5 • 4.5
5.5 • 45
_
S.O • 40
14.0- IB.O
14.0 • 18.0
8.0 - 10.0
P
OTHER
.04, S .03 unltii othtrwiit nottd
P .04 nui.; N .25 mai.
P .04 mai.: N .It mai.
S .04 i
Mo .S
nai.
mai.: Cu .S mat.
P. S. St .07 mill.: Zr -4- Mo .4 mai.
S .20
S .18-
S .04 I
.40; Mo .40 • .80
.35; Mo .75 mai.; Cu .50 mai.
nai.
Mo. Cu .50 mai.
Mo. Cu .40 mai.
Mo .50 mai.: S .04 mai.
S .04 r
nai.
Mo .50 mai.: N .20 mai.: S .04 mai.
S .04 r
S .04 n
nai.
nai.: Mo. Cu .50 mai.
Mo. Cu .50 mai.
S .04 r
S .04 r.
S .04 n
nai.; Mo .50 mai.
nai.; Mo .50 mai.
nai.
Mo .SO mai.; S .04 mai.
Mo 2.0 • 3.0
Mo I.7S • 2.S
Mo 2.0 - 3.0; S .04 mai.
Mo 1.5- 2.2S; Cu .50 mai.
S .04 mai.: Mo 1 .75 -2.5
Ti 5.0
i C min.
Mo .50 mai.; S .04 nui.
Mo .50 mai.; S .04 mai.
Mo .50 mai.; S .04 mai.
Mo .50 mar; S .04 mai.
Cb 10.0 i C min.
Cb 8.0 i C • 1.0: S .04 mai.
Cb +
S .04
Cb +
Co
—
_
Rtm.
Rtm.
Rtm.
Rtm.
Rtm.
Rtm.
Rtm.
'.S mai.
1.5 mai.
.50- 2.5
Ta 10.0 i C- I.3S; Mo. Cu .50 mai.;
mai.
Ta 10.0 i C - 1.5; Mo. Cu .50 mat.
OTHER
Cu 3.0- 5.0; Cb + Ta .45 mai.; N .04
Cu 3.0 • S.O; Cb + Ta .45 mai.- N 04
W 3.5 - 5.5; Ft 3.0 mai.
W 35 • 5.5; Ft 3.0 mai.
W 4.0 • 4.0; Ft 2.0 mai.
Ft 2.0 mai.
Ft 2.0 mai.
W 7.0 • 8.0; Ft 2.0 mai.
Ft 3.0 mai.; 8 .007 mai.
W 3 75-525; Ft 4 S - 7,0; V .20- 60
W 3.75 • 5.25- Ft 4.5 - 7.0; V .20 • .60
W .20- 1.0; Ft 17.0-20.0
Cu 4.0 • 7.0; Pb .001 out.
Source: Alloy Metal Products, Inc.
-------
TABLE 7. TYPICAL SPECIFICATIONS FOR NICKEL.CONTAINING SCRAP
NEW NICKEL SCRAP
Shall consist of new clippings, plate, skeleton,\ and all other rolled shapes. Nickel plus Cobalt,
minimum - 99%; Cobalt, maximum - 0.25%; Copper, maximum - 0.50%. -This grade shall be free of all castings.
OLD NICKEL-SCRAP
All rolled nickel scrap shall come under this classification. Shall consist of clean scrap and shall be free
of soldered, brazed, sweated, welded, or painted material. Nickel,, minimum - .987=; Copper,.maximum - 0.507.."
MISCELLANEOUS NICKEL SCRAP
Shall consist of.miscellaneous(Nickel Scrap such as Carbonized Scrap, Castings, Strippings, Peelings, Baskets
and/or Turnings, and shall be packed and sold separately on basis of analysis.
S-816 ETC. ' •
Shall consist of alloys in which the principal constituents are nickel, ^cobalt, chromium, and other alloying
elements. It shall be.sold on,the basis of description and analysis.. (This .category refers to such alloys
as Hastelloys, Stellites, S-816, .etc.)
NI-RESIST SOLIDS
Shall consist of .clean Ni-Resist Solids and shall be sold according .to type or analysis (Type 1 -..approxi-
mately 6% Copper, all others, such as Types II, III, IV, and V - free .of| Copper); shipment shall be of uniform
grade unless otherwise agreed on by buyer and seller arid must,be free ofyforeign attachments and all other
contamination.
HI-RES1ST BORINGS
Shall consist of clean and dry Ni-Resist Borings and shall be sold according to type or analysis (Type I -
approximately 6% copper, all others, such as Types II, III, IV, and V - -.free of copper); shipment shall be of
uniform grade unless otherwise,agreed on by buyer and seller. iMust be free o£ all contamination.
NEW CUPRO-NIGKEL CLIPPINGS AND SOLIDS ' ;
Shall consist of.new, clean Cupro-Nickel clippings, plate, pipe, and other rolled forms. The shipment must be
of a uniform grade and form agreed on by buyer and seller, whether it,be\70 Copper 30 Nickel, 80 Copper
20 Nickel, 90 Copper 10 Nickel, or any other standard Copper Nickel-Alloy. .Must be free of foreign attach-
ments and all other contamination. • •. ' '. •
1 ', • : OLD .CUPRO-NICKEL SOLIDS
Shall consist of old, clean Cupro-Nickel Solids. The shipment must :be of a uniform grade agreed on by buyer
and seller, whether it.be 70 Ccjpper 30 Nickel, .80 Copper 20 Nickel, 9.0 Copper 10 Nickel, or any other standard
Copper Nickel Alloy. It must be free of soldered, brazed, or sweated material, as well as foreign attachments
and all other contamination. Mixed solids should be packed and sold separately. .
SOLDERED CUPRO-NICKEL SOLIDS
Shall consist of.soldered, brazed, or sweated Cupro-Nickel Solids. The shipment must be of a uniform grncle
agreed on by buyer and seller, .whether it be 70 Copper 30 Nickel,.,,80: Copper 20 Nickel, 90 Copper 10 Nickel, or
any other standard Copper Nicke.l Alloy. Must be fre;e of trimmed .seams apd edges,, and all other contamination.
Mixed solids.should be packed and sold separately, j
t •
GUPRO-NICKKL TURNINGS AND.BORINGS
I • ..;.....
/ I
Shall consist of clean:and dry Cupro-Nickel Turnings and Borings. The shipment must be.of a uniform gra
-------
TABLE 7. TYPICAL SPECIFICATIONS FOR NICKEL CONTAINING SCRAP (Continued)
MISCELLANEOUS NICKEL COPPER AND NICKEL-COPPER-IRON SCRAP
Shall consist of miscellaneous scrap in which the basic elements, by weight, are Nickel and Copper, such as
Copper Nickel Peelings, Plating Racks and Hangers and all Nickel and Copper in attached or combined form. In
all cases, miscellaneous Nickel Copper Scrap should be sold by description and analysis.
NEW MONEL CLIPPINGS AND SOLIDS
Shall consist of new, clean, regular and/or R-Monel Clippings, plate, and other rolled shapes. Must be free
of foreign attachments and all other contamination.
MONEL RODS AND FORCINGS
Shall consist of regular and/or R-Monel Rods and Forgings. K and KR Monel Rods and Forgings must be packed.
and sold separately. Must be free of foreign attachments and all other contamination.
OLD MONEL SHEET AND SOLIDS
Shall consist of clean, regular and/or R-Monel Solids, such as sheet, Plate, Pipe, Rods, and Forgings, and
Screen or Wire Cloth. Must be free of foreign attachments and all other contamination, soldered, brazed,
welded, or sweated material.
SOLDERED MONEL SHEET AND SOLIDS
Shall consist of soldered and/or brazed regular and/or R-Monel Sheet and Solids. Must be free of trimmed
seams and edges and all other contamination.
SOLDERED MONEL WIRE. SCREEN. AND CLOTH
Shall consist of soldered and/or brazed Regular Monel Wire, Screen, and Cloth. Must be free of trimmed seams
and edges, nonmetallic filling, and all other contamination.
NEW MQNEL WIRE. SCREEN. AND CLOTH
Shall consist of new, clean Regular Monel Wire, Screen and Cloth, free of soldered material, as well as all
other contamination.
MONEL, CASTINGS
Must contain a minimum of 607. Nickel and shall consist of clean, Regular, S or H Monel Castings. Must be free
of foreign attachments and all other contamination.
MONEL TURNINGS AND BORINGS
Must contain a minimum of 60% Nickel and shall consist of clean and dry Regular and R-Monel Turnings and
Borings. K, KR, S, H or nixed Monel Turnings and Borings must be packed and sold separately. Must be free of
all contamination. '
Source: NASMI, Circular NF-66.
-------
24.
be toll refined Into pure" nickel by the Sherritt-Gbrdon ammonia leach process. ...
Other researchers have described other techniques for separating nickel from
* . '••-•• . . '
scrap. . '• '. ' • " ." . ''•....••'.':•.''••
Characteristics of the Nickel Recycling Industry^ •'-.-
Secondary nickel processors collect, sort, and,otherwise, process various
grades of nickel and nickel-containing scrap for'potential use by foundries, steel-.
mills, and other users. Most major superalloy producers specialize only in this
material or one other material, such as cobalt alloys or titanium.alloys. Other
nickel alloys generally are handled.by secondary stainless steel processors. :
When processing superalloy scrap, such as obsolete jet/engine .turbine.
components or new machine turnings, dealers use a variety of different methods to
segregate scrap. To Identify and separate various grades of obsolete scrap,
spark testing followed by more accurate chemical.and spectrum analysis is.employed.
For.machine turnings, processing steps include crushing, degreaslng, analysis, and.
packaging. ..;,.. ; ... ..'••- _. . • - •• ' '
The consumers of nickel and nickel alloy scrap are generally steel mills,.
foundries, and melters of superalloys.
Materials Sources . :
Available data on the consumption of new and old nickel scrap are
incomplete. Table 8 gives nickel and nickel alloy scrap consumption In 1969 by.
type of scrap and source. "
* See Powell, H. E., Smith, L. L., and Cochran, A. A., "Solvent Extraction of
Nickel and Zinc from a Waste Phosphate Solution", Bureau of Mines Report of
Inv. 7336, 1970, 14 pp.
(1) For a discussion of the functions of the recycling industry see Volume I,
General Report. ...
25
"TABLE 8.' CONSUMPTION OF NICKEL .AND NICKEL ALLOY, INCLUDING
.•'•*'• STAINLESS, SCRAP IN 1969
Type
Short Tons of Scrap
Unalloyed nickel
' Monel .metal .
. Nickel s_ilyef
Cupronickel
Miscellaneous nickel alloys
Nickel residues
/Stainless ,
Alloy steel :.
..Cast iron -
Total
8,538
3,887
17,267.
4,666
4,951
6,255
326,000
.83,500
4,589,000
5,044,064
Source: U.S.,. Bureau of.Hlnes, Minerals Yearbook..
'' -... "Nickel" and "Iron and Steel Scrap"
. .' chapters, and Battelle-Columbus estimates.
Markets for Recycled Nickel and Nickel Alloys
.;__; . The. markets for recycled nickel and nickel alloy .scrap. are generally
'much the same as those for primary nickel. .Steel mills, foundries, and other
metal melt ers .have traditionally been the largest users of recycled nickel .
.'materials. •";=• '''.,'• • • '->'* ' : ''•'-••'.-".'
•^Use Patterns ' .. -, - . : • -....•
. .,<;•• Recycled nickel materials come in two basic forms: those, containing
.. •" relatively low amounts of nickel, e.g., stainless steels, cast irons, and low
:. 'alloy steels, and those containing higher amounts, e.g., superalloys, nonferrous
." .. "alloys, and copper- base alloys. Table 9 shows the consumption of low-nickel
: bearing materials by type of customer and type of scrap. Table 10 shows the same
.' !-•"• .for. high-nickel alloys.. ...-•'• ,'..:.
OcT-1
35£
-------
26
TABLE 9. CONSUMPTION OF NICKEL BEARING FERROUS SCRAP, BY TYPE
OF MANUFACTURE, IN 1968C1)
Consumption of Scrap
(Thousand Short Tons)
Stainless Alloy Cast Iron
Steel mills
Manufacturers of steel castings
Iron foundries and miscellaneous users
815
29
34
2,685
131
133
5,737
323
8,063
Total 878 2,949 14,123
(1) No statistics reported for 1969.
Source: U. S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook.
"Iron and Steel Scrap" chapter, Battelle-Columbus estimates.
TABLE 10. STOCKS AND CONSUMPTION OF NEW AND OLD NICKEL SCRAP
••' • IN THE UNITED STATES IN 1969
(Gross Weight, Short Tons)
CbuH of consumer and
Smelters and refiner*:
Unalloyed nickel
Monel metal
Nickel silver » .- ....
ToUl
Foundries and plants, of other manu-
facturers:
Unalloyed nickel
Monel metal .. ........_.
Cupronickct ' _.
Total
Grand total:
Unalloyed nickel
Nickel silver >
Tottl
Stock*
of jrear
108
607
564
98
21
636
394
10
1,999
6,060
336
739
602
617
2,663
6,168
366
1.S76
1,660
3,892
5. 643
381
4,961
6,974
17,387
13,637
268
11,666
320
868
14,763
16,197
4.160
17,299
701
4,961
7,832
82.160
<
New
1.108
682
738
61
2,463
4,194
72
92
11,475
4.088
297
461
1.180
674
12.213
4,088
61
2,750
4,666
!on*uinptl<
Old
470
3.061
4. 954
. 428
4,900
2,799
11,230
6,888
152
100
150
706
7,746
7,368
3,213
5,054
678
4,900
8. MS
18.976
an
Total
1.678
3.643
6,692
428
4.961
5.252
16,424
6,960
244
11,576
4,238
1,003
8.207
8,638
3,887
17,267
4.666
4,951
6,256
28.681
Stock*.
• fflH Af
ye«r
90
756
616
61
10
1,743
2.699
7,071
34
2.080
1,142
190
7,296
7,161
790
2,695
1,193
10
1,933
9.894
1 Entailed from total* because It I* eopper-baw (crap, although containing considerable nickel.
Source: U. S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Mines,
Minerals Yearbook. "Nickel" chapter.
0./6
-------
27
Prices
Table 11 shows prices for selected nickel scraps in 1970. These scrap
prices-reflected the tight supply of primary nickel in early 1970 by being
slightly-above the producer's price for cathode nickel during.the first quarter
of 1970. However, as the supply imbalance eased in the latter half of 1970,
scrap nickel prices dropped to about 60 percent of the first quarter 1970 prices
by early 1971. :
TABLE 11. DEALER'S BUYING PRICES FOR NICKEL SCRAP
Basis: FOB New York, Dollars Per Pound
' J3ate
March 5,
1970
Nickel
Nickel
Nickel
Nickel
anodes rolled
rod ends
sheet, clips
turnings
i.
. i.
i.
0.
25-1.
25-1.
25-1,
75-1.
.50
.50
.50
.00
June 4,
1970 /
1.00-1.
1.00-1.
1.00-1.
0.70-0.
10
10
10
80
September 3,
•--.'. 1*7P
1
i
i
0
.00-1.
.00-1.
.00-1.
.70-0.
10
10
10
80
January 7 ,
1971
0
0
0
0
.8
-------
28
The average'recycler of nickel and nickel alloys compares with the
average recycler of all commodities as follows:
Nickel and Nickel Alloy
All Commodities
Average
Investment
in Plant and
Edulmnent
$1,348,000
1,480,000
Average
Number of
59
71
Average
Investment
Per EmDlovee
$22,700
20,800
Figure 2 shows the variation In size by census region of nickel and
nickel alloy processors. There appears to be some correlation with population
density, degree of Industrialization, and other conmon regional indicators.
Materials Flow Pattern for Nickel Alloys Recycling
Table 12 gives Battelle-Columbus estimates concerning nickel alloy
recycling in 1969. Many simplifying assumptions were made so that construction
of this table could be possible. The assumptions, sources, and methodology used
are included as footnotes to the table. Figure 3 shows these estimates in a flow
diagram.
As shown, about 40 percent of the available nickel in nickel alloy scrap
Is being recycled.
Demand/Supply Analysis
To show what can be expected of nickel alloy recycling, an analysis of
expected future demand and supply Is made In this section.
Data from extensive survey.
29
251.2
I. New England
2. Middle Atlantic
3. South Atlantic
4. East North Central
S. East South Central
6. West North Central
7. West South Central
8. Mountain
9. Pacific (includes Alaska
and Hawaii)
FIGURE 2. AVERAGE AMOUNTS OF NICKEL AND NICKEL ALLOY.
EXCLUDING STAINLESS STEEL, PROCESSED BY EACH
DEALER IN EACH CENSUS REGION. ALL FIGURES IN
NET TONS PER YEAR
-------
30
TABLE 12. NICKEL ALLOY SCRAP-RECYCLING,; 1969;
Kind and Type of Scrap
Electroplating Materials'
Prompt Industrial
Obsolete
TOTAL
(2)
Superalloys
Prompt Industrial
Obsolete
TOTAL
(2)
Non ferrous Alloys
Prompt Industrial
Obsolete
TOTAL
Alloy Steel
Prompt Industrial
Obsolete
TOTAL
Cast Iron •
Prompt Industrial
Obsolete
TOTAL
Copper-Base Alloys
Prompt Industrial
Obsolete
TOTAL
Permanent Magnet Alloys'
Prompt Industrial
Obsolete
TOTAL
Chemicals and Chemical lUscs
Prompt Industrial •
Obsolete
TOTAL
Other Uses
Prompt • Industrial '
Obsolete
TOTAL
TOTAL INDUSTRIAL
TOTAL OBSOLETE
GRAND TOTAL
Nickel
Available for
Recycling(15)
(Short Tons)
350 gj
21.125UJ
21,475
(3)
7'350m
5.250
12,600
6,250
12.900
19,150
.'
3,100^
25.500P;
28 , 600
((>)
8.100*°'
8,100
3,486 ..
5.300
8,786
100'
- 800
900 .
/ ~> \
100(7)
' 800 .
900-
/ ~1 \
800(7)
4,700
5,500
21,536
84.475
106,011
Nickel
Recycled
(Short Tons)
0
0
0
n.a.
n.a.
12,600(13)
2,170
11.331.,.,.
13,501(14)
19,150 Old
.n.a.
n^ a m '
•640
/ O \
1 O 1
• » \v/
4.589
4,589
3,486
: 778.
4,264 -
n.a.-
n.a.' .:
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
,
600^:?,
__3_5p_ • '
950
-. :.
--
42,193
Nickel
. Not
Percent Recycled
Recycled (Short Tons)
0 . 350
_£> 21.125
0 21,475
-- --
.. ... -- . -- •
Too o
— • • —
..'
100 0
'.•--•
. ' -- • , — .
2 27,960
_- ._;.••
57 '3.511
57 3,511
100' 0
15 4.522
47 4,522
-- 100
'• .— 800
-- 900
100
--• 800
-- 900
75 . 200
7 4.350
17 4,550
,'_•«
-_•
'/,0 63,818
Note: Footnotes are listed on the following page.
-------
FOOTNOTES TO TABLE 12
(1) Source: International Nickel Company
(2) Superalloys and other nickel-base alloys differentiated in the following way:
(a) Superalloys - those nickel-base alloys used for their structural
Integrity and low cycle fatigue resistance at
elevated temperatures.
(b) Nonferrous alloys - those alloys which are used either at high or low
. temperatures for their oxidation or corrosion
resistance to various media. Includes Inconel
(ordinary types), Incoloy, nickel, etc.
(3) Source: Battelle-Columbus estimates -
1964 estimated superalloy mill product shipments (A) = 42,000,000 Ibs
Percentage scrap rate (B) = 50 percent
Average nickel content (C) = 50 percent
(A) x (B) x (C) = TOTAL NICKEL USED IN PARIS " 10,500,000 Ibs.
(4) Any bar anode scrap is consumed by electroplater as scrap held in titanium
baskets. Material lost is material lost in filtration, etc., during bath
purification.
(5) ASSUMED: (a) 40 percent of each heat contained nickel alloy scrap
(b) 50 percent yield of each ingot to mill product
(c) 15 percent scrappage of industrial uses of alloy products.
(6) ASSUMED: (a) Primary nickel additions average about 60 percent of total
nickel content although total scrap usage is relatively high '
(b) Foundry yield from melt to shipped casting averages about
63 percent.
(7) Source: Battelle-Columbus estimates.
(8) Recycled mostly at foundry.
(9) Estimated nickel content of nickel alloy steel recycled.
(10) Estimated 20 percent industrial scrap generation.
(11) Reported by U. S. Bureau of Mines as aluminum-base.
(12) Estimated nickel content of nickel contained in cast iron recycled.
(13) All superalloy scrap recycled in either of two places: stainless steel
melting or superalloy melting.
-------
.32
(14) Some nonferrous scrap going into stainless melting. . BatteUe-Columbus
estimates about 5,700 short tons, or the remaining amount available, has
been consumed by stainless steel melters.
(15) Calculated from estimated life cycles of various end-use products.
Consumption for each end-use item was estimated using the following life
cycles and consumption patterns:
33
Source
Electroplating
Automobiles
Consumer Products
Superalloys
Jet Engine
Other Aerospace
Nonferrous Alloys
Chemical
Heat Treating
Alloy Steel
Cast Irons
Copper- Base Alloys
Permanent Magnets
Chemicals and Chemical Uses
Other Uses ' '
Life Cycle.
(Years)
12
4
16"
16
18
10
2
10
Tears of
Nickel Consumption
Used to Calculate
Nickel Availability
1957
1966
1962
1953
1953
1951-1952 Average
1959-1960 Average
1967-1968 Average
1959;-1960 Average
Note: AH quontities in short tons
of nickel stoinless steel
378,400
Recycled
Steel Costings
22.700
52,900
Recycled
Nickel
Stoinless
Market
Source: Battelle-Columbus Estimates, and U.S. Department of Interior,
'Bureau of-Mines,"Nickel" and^ "Iron''and .Steel-Scrap" chapters.
FIGURE 3. RECYCLED NICKEL STAINLESS STEEL FLOW, 1969
. .r: . •'• '.?*i . &,:„ w> V r"-'i f' • -J^'-S--" T j^-*-«- r* . /
Source: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbooks.
"Nickel" and "Iron and Steel Scrap'.' chapters.
-------
Demand for Recycled Nicke]
34
Hicka! Alloys
The demand for nickel inputs in 1969 and the estimates for future
years, 1974 and 1979, are shown in Table 13. As shown, the demand for nickel
contained in recycled alloys is expected to increase at about 6 percent per year
in the 1969-1979 period. During this period, demand for recycled nickel content :
will Increase from 42,193 short tons in 1969 to 75,400 short tons in 1979.
TABLE 13. ESTIMATED DEMAND FOR NICKEL CONTAINED
IN NICKEL ALLOY SCRAP
Year
1969
1974
1979
Short Tons of
Nickel Content
42,193
56,300
75,400
Source: Battelle-Columbus Estimates.
Supply of Recycled Nickel and Nickel Alloys . - .
Using the same technique that was employed to develop the total availa-
bility of nickel as shown in Table 14, the supply of recycled nickel was calculated
for 1974 and 1979 assuming similar recycling rates as in 1969.
Demand/Supply Balance in Future
In order to provide a view of what the future will be for the nickel
alloy recycling Industry, a demand/supply balance has been constructed using data
from Tables 13 and 14, and Is shown in Table 15.
35
TABLE 14. SUPPLY OF NICKEL AVAILABLE FOR RECYCLING
Year ..
1969
1974
1979
Recycled Nickel Content
(Short Tons)
42,193
49,300
59,700
Source: Battelle-Columbus Estimates.
TABLE 15. DEMAND/SUPPLY BALANCE FOR RECYCLED NICKEL
FOR 1974 AND 1979
(Short. Tons, Nickel Content)
Year
Demand
Supply
Apparent Deficit
1974 56,300 49,300
1979 75,400 59,700
7,000
15,700
Source: Battelle-Columbus Estimates.
Since Table 15 assumes that the same incentives, i.e., price, cost,
etc., are the same in 1974 and 1979 as exist today, an apparent balance can be
calculated.. Recycled nickel shortages (apparent) of 7,000 short tons and 15,700
short tons are expected in 1974 and 1979. It is expected that these apparent
shortages will force nickel prices upward with the following effects or. the
nickel Industry with everything else being held equal:
Industry Effect
(1) Recycling Industry Will encourage increased recycling
(2) Nickel users Will discourage increased usage of nickel.
-------
35a
'- If Incentives are different in 1974"arid 1979 than as exist today, e.g';,
if recycling is encouraged by new legislation, new technology, etc., Battelle
estimates that only small increases in nickel alloy recycling (or about, a , ^
S percent increase in the recycled nickel supply) will result.; Main reasons are:
• High nickel containing superalloys and nonferrous alloys,. •
currently representing about 30 percent of nickel available for .
recycling (not Including nickel in stainless steels), are
presently 100 percent recycled.
• Nickel contained in electroplating materials and alloy steels,
currently representing about,50 percent of nickel available for :
recycling (not including nickel rin stainless steels), occur, as ,.;,
such small percentages in a'larger system (see Table 16, page 38)
that only massive, and presently unforeseen, incentives will cause
nickel recycling in these materials to increase.
36
,)
REDUCE THE RECYCLING OF NICKEL SCRAP
There are several problems that directly reduce the rate of recycling
of nickel scrap. These are discussed in detail in the following. . . . .
" ->--. -.• :. • • .. -i '' . ,<
" • - • -' " • • , Industrial Scran " •
As shown in Table 12, all industrial nickel bearing scrap generated;
including grindings, turnings, and other materials, is about 100 percent recycled.
There are known to be small amounts lost in electroplating solution.effluents, or
about 350 short tons in 1969, and there are lesser amounts lost in electrolytic
machining of superalloys; these amounts aren't considered great.enough to be
classified as a problem. Although adequate statistical data are not available,
it is known that greater, amounts of .nickel .are lost, through dilution of nickel
containing low alloy steel. About 81 percent, or about 2,500 short tons of nickel
contained in industrial alloy steel scrap are not being recycled.
Obsolete Scrap
.„ As shown in Table 12, the recycling of nickel obsolete.scrap, varies
from nearly 100 percent for .stiperalloys and nonferrous alloys, to 57 and 47 per-
. .'a*-'. .-.** - r •••-•.• fc v ' .. *~ -.-.-'•-' '!•'•'- '- ..^ • - . ''"''.. " . ." •' .
cent for cast iron and copper-base alloys, respectively; to 0 percent each for •
low .alloy steel and electroplating. The main problems that directly reduce the
rate of nickel recycling are related to the following obsolete scrap meterials:
Electroplating materials
Low alloy steel
Cast iron
Copper-base alloys '•
Other uses for nickel.
-------
37
Table 16 presents these, problems, along with the prompt., low alloy steel
scrap problem, with a discussion of problem definition, problem magnitude, and
problem analysis.
Other Direct Recycling Problems
Other problems that directly reduce the amount of recycling, but which
cannot be measured quantitatively, are those problems caused by legislative
action. They are as follows:
(1) Sale of emergency nickel stockpile
(2) Restrictions on the exportation of certain types
of nickel bearing scraps
(3) Subsidies allowed to primary industries, but not to
recycling industries, in the form of ore depletion
allowances.
All of the above problems will decrease the price for nickel scrap,
everything else being equal. Since lowered prices might decrease collection and
segregation of nickel scraps in those areas where it had been economic to do so,
a lowered recovery rate might result. The General Report, Volume I, gives a
discussion of these problems that are common to entire secondary industry.
-------
TABLE 16. IDENTIFICATION^ AND ANALYSIS OF 'PROBLEMS CONCERNING NICKEL AND NICKEL ALLOY THAT
WAS"NbTREC~YCLED"iN 1969 '."•'..
industrial aLow
Title . Al'-lby 'Steel
Scr'ab. Cateaorles.-Wliere.' Seine iNickel
Electroplating
Materials
-..WasMNbt-Recvcled -
Obsolete Low
Alloy 'Steel .-•
Problem
Definition
1. Nickel -conteri ts 'in "low
alloy' steel''average
about'0;80 -percent.
2.
Low alloy-steel is
sh'ippe'd 'to various
original equ'i-pnfent '
'manufacturers '(OEM) '
who' machine and 'other-
wise fabricate It.
3.
After fabrication;
'scrap' is usually
'returned 'back "to
'steel 'mills.
3.
•Nickel *i's 'used 'In
thicknesses'>b'f 1:2
to 1;6 miis'as 'an
underp'late 'for 'auto-'
mobile bumpe'r, 'grill's;
'and '-other '-trim. • Ab'out-
1 ••pound bf<'-nickel >ie
used 'for "eachi 'bumper; •
AutonibtiVe' ap"plircat'ions
repre'se1it""about- Sp'per-
'cent 'of 'total "'nickel •
p tat i"rig vinark"e"t.'
Nickel ''la used-'in'.
thlck'ries'ses-'bf -b:'4'.:to'
1.2 "mils ''for '•consumer '
'appliances, -furhl'turei •
"and 'sports 'equipment.
These'applications
represent ;the bifik''bfl1
'the remai'ni'ng-'port'iori
of /lthe'nickel 'pla'tiiig
market. ,
In ail'uses; nickel '
'becomes -a lm'lndr*coif-
st'i'tuent of a •larger
system:'
Nickel'-contents in
Ibw'-aliby steel run
from''about O.AO^tb
3.75 •pe'rcerit with an'-
average around 0.80
pe'rcenf. Gene'ral'ly,
btKer'e'lemerits are
'present',' too.
!2; '"Nickel containing
16w-al-loy steels
represent 'about 16
pe'rce'ht iof tot'al low
al'ldy'steel production.,
3. Low'ol'ldy'Steels arc
used in many Ml'vcrse
•applications as a
standard constructional
.mate'ri'al. WKe'n a low
alloy-steel p'art is
scrapped, "the low alloy
steel is :generally not
re'cyc'led as a nickel
alloy steel'but as a
'low'alloy steel. Con-
sequently, the.nickel
is 'diluted enough 'to
be "considered- lost.
Tons of
Nickel Not
Recyled.
Percent of
Available
Nickel Not
Recycled. , ..
3,100 ' ' '21,475 '],: ' 25,500 '
81 iOO-' . . . 100 •
Problem
Analysis
1. Nicke'lJis just'on'e'bf
several dlf feferit !cori-
stitue'htS''of low "al-ioy
steel.
2. It is-fai'r'ly'easy to
determine '(unlike'obso-
lete' low* alloy 'sc'r'ap) •'
what'type of low -alloy*
steel -is 'be'ing recycled
without testing. Know-
ledge 'of -OEM's p'rb'cessthg'
prov'.ide's needed ih'fo'r--
matlbn.
3. Yet -only .19 'percent -of
the '•available nickel
is recycled.•
4. This:seems- a -promising
area/tb 'ihcre'a'se the
recycling:
. 'Ni'ck'el 'i's ^sm'all fpa'rt '
of •"'larger "system ond'
is ''covered oh : two •
side's ;b'y '•me'fal'.'
For autbmobii le's , .'otHer
sy s tem''cbmp6neri t s •• are
steel-, copper; chromium1;1.
zinc anil-'zinc-alloys
- ' , ' , 2
Steel'-c^rbmiuin'''! terns are '
'gene rally rec'y c led • -bick *t b
the •steel •iri''
much :• as 'tb;;be"'ca'lliied"
-lbs't.L Zinc items"'; '-In
many ''instances,' 'a'ren't
being 'recycled.
4. • "For'consumer good's,-
' btKer '*sys' tems-cbm'p'S-
•"nent's^are^plastic; .
cbp'pe'r; steely wo'pdv •
a'nd ;glass'-. In 'a'adi- '
tiijri; .'these' item's' a're' '
'small 'arid^'generally
are -discarded -'to
munici'pal 'waste 'after
termination 'of 'useful'
life.-.-
5. This is 'not a 'prbmtsiiig-.
area 'to-'increas"e 're-
cycling. .
Ntckol; is only one of
se'vnral different con-
stituents of low alloy
steel. In most common
.'low alloy steels, totiil
alloy content is gen-
erally less than 3
percent.
It 'is difficult to dis-
tlng'ulsh one alloy steel
'grade from ario'the'r (for
inlcU'el :coritent) or from
'ml-ld !si-eel.
• Since scrap prices for
nicKel containing types
ofulow alloy steel arc
'roughly equal to those
of norinickel containing
grades, there is little
incentive to segregate
small quantities of steel.
This"is not a promising
area to-increase the re-
cycling -of nickel.
-------
TABLE 16. IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF PROBLEMS CONCERNING NICKEL
AND NICKEL ALLOY THAT WAS NOT RECYCLED IN 1969 (Continued)
Title
Cntcgorlcn Whnrc Some Nickel Una Not Recycledj
Cast Iron
Copper-Base Alloys
Problem
Definition
1. Nickel is used in
residual amounts of
about 0.10 percent .
in gray iron.
2. Nickel is used as a
carrier for magnesium
in ductile iron in
amounts up to 0.65
percent.
3. Almost all cast iron
production is gray
iron with some malle-
able and some ductile.
4. Gray iron is used for
a number of different
applications; such
as motor vehicles and
miscellaneous indus-
trial equipment.
Ductile iron Is
used for automotive
applications and in
miscellaneous types
of industrial equip-
ment.
2.
Nickel is used in
copper-base alloys for
coinage, condenser
tubing, nickel silver
products, and nickel
brasses/bronzes.
Coinage and condenser
tube are generally
recycled.
3. Nickel silver, however,
is used for a wide
variety of consumer
applications: springs,
tableware, fishing
reels, and other
similar uses.
4. Disposal of these
alloys depends partly
on the value of other
materials and partly
on the shape and size
of nickel silver part.
Tons of
Nickel Not 3,511
Recvled
Percent of
Available 43
Nickel Not
Recycled
4,522
53
Problem
Analysis
1. After an average life
cycle Of 16 years,
cast Iron is sold as
scrap.
2. As most of the nickel
contained in obsolete
scrap Is in gray iron,
and most materials
recycled are gray iron
going into gray iron
production, it would
follow that most of
• the nickel should be
recycled. .
3. Yet only 57 percent
is being recycled.
This is a promising
area In which to
Increase recycling
of nickel.
1. In 1969, 17,267 s.t.
of nickel silver (con-
taining about 15 percent
nickel) were recycled.
About 4,666 s.t. of
cupronickel was recycled.
2. Nickel and copper are
valuable commodities,
selling for $1.33/lb
and $0.50/lb respective-
ly in primary form.
3. Cupronickel is generally
used in heat exchangers
and is easily recovered.
Coinage is generally
recovered by the mint
but some is lost to
hoarding. Nickel
silver is often plated
with silver; this Is
generally recycled.
4. Yet only 47 percent is
being recycled. This is
a promising area in which
to increase recycling of
nickel.
-------
39
PROBLEMS THAT DO NOT
DIRECTLY REDUCE THE RECYCLING OF NICKEL
These are problems that might have economic effects on an individual
company or on the secondary industry, or make operations more difficult. Those
for nickel are:
• Customer Prejudices
• Alloy Separation
• Conservation of Resources, other than nickel.
Table 17 presents these problems along with a discussion of the following:
problem definition, problem magnitude, and problem analysis.
COURSES OF ACTION CONCERNING RECYCLING OF NICKEL
1 To determine those problems that are important enough to be of interest
to the public, and therefore EPA, a screening of the problems was made to separate
out those problems that are important - but not far reaching enough to interest
the public.
Selection of Opportunities
In order to identify those problems that have the highest priority for
action, evaluations based on several criteria were made on each problem in Table 18.
The highest scores, then, indicate the problems of highest importance.
-------
TABLI'17. IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF PROBLEMS THAT DO NOT DIRECTLY REDUCE
THE AMOUNT OF-NICKEL ANU NICKbL ALLuVS . 1'HAl AKt. kii-VCLEL (1)
Problem >•
Customer Prejudices:
Alley•SeparatIon-
Conservation of Elements •
Other Thin Nickel
1. There have /.been periodic
shortages of.primary nic-
kel In.the.past 20 years.
There wan a very serious.
shortage existent 'from
1967 to 1970.'
PROBLEM 2; This has forced-some
DEFINITION;-' users of nicker to favor-
primary over recycled In
times of nickel over-
capacity so' that alloca--
tIons will'be mode to
them.In "tight'!' times.-.
3. In addition, despite good
economics of using'scrap,
It la "easier" to usev
primary.
1. SuperaHoys and some:
nonferrous alloys are:.
of very similar com-
position.. All are-non-
magnetic andvare'dif-
ficult to Identify by
other'usual methods,
e.g., color, spark,
acid testing:
2. However; small differ-
ences In chemistry cause
large- differences In
physical properties of
superalloys.
3. .Consequently; much--
effort Is expended;In
separation of these
alloys.
1. All-superalloys-contain •
significant, amounts of
other .elements beside •
nickel-, a.g;, molyb-
denum, cobalt/ columblum,
titanium,- tungsten-.
2; In recent-years, most.
superalloys-have-been
recycled Into stainless
steel melting; this
recovers the nickel and-
chromium-contents of
scrap but dilutes to a
minimum-most.other
elements. .
EFFECT ON '
RECYCLE
RATE,
No 'significant- effect on
the amount of nickel re-
cycled. '
No 'significant effect on
the amount of nickel re-
cycled.
No significant effect on •
the amount of nlcVel re-
cycled;! great effects-on
other,,nut erla Is:
PROBLEM-/
ANALYSIS'.-'
1. Recycled nickel scrap.
Is not- inferior to i
primary materials.In
most steel! melts.
2.. There .is « need for -
' promotional1 efforts i
that will Inform buyers
and actuali users '(many •
times different persons
In steel mills,' fort"
Instance) of advantages;"
of using recycled .
materials.i
3. New methods .should be
developed to aid buyers:,
and users of scrap.to •
make scrap easier to
use.
1. .This is a normal busi-
ness activity in the •
recycling Industry,- but -
a .more .difficult one.:
2..As-all material Is being ;
recycled, no grave prob-
lems .exist.
"3." Continued .development
by .Superalloy melters i -
and.-recycling .Industry ••
on new recycling•methods»
to recycle scrap,back
to Superalloy .melters,. .
Instead 'of 'stainless--
melters,-,is desirable •
from a .conservation •
standpoint (for this
problem,, see next
column).
1. All! superalloys, by ,
definition are melted •
In vacuum induction
equipment. Little, if•
any,i refining can be '
done In these\£urnacea.-
2. AnyAeat with'off -
specification .chemistry '
must .be 'scrapped If
dll'iitlon.'pf '.Impurities-...
is not-.possible. All
'. superallpys .are-produced-'*
torAeroopace Material .
Specifications,- military-
specifications with'strict
chemistry,-and- physical
property 'requirements.
3.'.Superalloy melters •
consider'the risk of-
using-scrap-to-be 'great.
However, a few of the.
leading roelters are
using some .scrap In '
their melt Charges. •
However,- of the itotal
amount oi scrap gen-
erated, only a sraaM -
fraction'.Is returned to r
Superalloy melting.
. 4., ;In ;the late 1960's, .
there was a great short-
age! pf primary .nickel-..
Stainless- steel meltara,
desperate 'for nickel •
supplies;- 1 earned jho«.
to use Superalloy .sccap ;•.
as .nickel and.chromluB
Inputs in stainless
steel melting.,
3. • Continued -development .by••>•
Superalloy iwlters and
recycling Industry on-
methods to Increase .-re-
cycling of Superalloy .
scrap Is desirable.
(1) Problems adversely affect economics or .practices of recycllngubut- the, effect- In
terms of amount cannot-be measured.-.This situation-Is considered :an-indirect
etiect. .-••'•
-------
41
TABLE 18. EVALUATION OF PROBLEMS INVOLVED IN RECYCLING OF NICKEL
Criteria- and Scores • '.'.
Electroplating
Products
Low Alloy Steel
Cast Iron
Copper-base Alloys
Customer Prejudices
Alloy Separation
Conservation of
Resources Other .
Than Nickel
Solution of
Problem Will
improve .•'*
Environment v
(10)
4
4
4
. : 4 ...
0
5
10
' Solution of "'.
Problem Will
Conserve
Natural „.
'Resources
(5)
5
5
4
4
3
4
5
." *•" ", '•
Ease of/.;
Solution^ '
(5)
0
0
3
- 3 - -..
5
" "- 2. .
2
' ." .- "•'
>-'""' i - ' •-
' lcores<3>
: 9
9
•'"•• 11-
, : :• 11 -"
-\ ,..-. 6
-.-'•;• . ^-11 '- '-
17
(1) First criterion is considered most important and is assigned maximum score
of 10. '•'.-''•'•'
(2) Other two criteria are considered less important and are assigned maximum*
scores of 5 each.
(3) The higher the total score, the more attractive the problem is for further
action. ,.. ' : '
Recommended Actions
In the above, all problems, were separated Into the following categories:
(1) Highest priority for action ..
(2) Low priority for action . ''.!''
(3) Worthy of Immediate high priority consideration without 'screening.
Highest priority ideas are those which are so Important that tHe public,
besides the nickel recycling industry, would have interest in ttfeir solution.
Consequently, these problems are Important enough to be acted upon;by EPA. These
problems with their recommended actions for solution are shown .in Table 19.
-------
. -^^//.^-i^i^^'iri^K^'t!^/
TABLE 19. RECOMffiNDEp ACTIONS, HIGH PRIORITY NICKEL '.-.
AHD NICKELALLOY PROBLEMS
Title
RECOMMENDED
'ACTIONS
SPECIFIC
Conservation of Resource*
' Other Than Hickel '. '
An investigation should be undertaken to
determine what elements and how much of
other elements are being 'lost during the *
recycling of superalloy. r' *
EEA/NASMI
1. Form a commit tee representing the
•' ' ' "• ..... ''"
• Klckel processors . •«'
• Secondary nlcluil smelters - •'•-..
•' Y*';si?» BSl^f *'c£* syj??Kf?is*!! • '-•••'''"
?• T^e committee should discuss and analyze
.- ' ' wtiy superailpy scrap is being riscycled1 .
. Into less exotic materials ' s'ucfi'as '"'
**•'•.• T-:- :a 'fy^vT* -yi-i • >KJ T * » - • r. --,-.--- - f, > -y r.' ; .— ;:•. *•; -y ~^,ff. ^~',-'---l$«-i.->!-.'\: C*Z;3? •-
(1) The responsibility for recommended actions shown in this table are
'' based on importance' of the actloiSj' benefit t6- tfie- taxpayers,!"andr' '
i>ppo«is?-sif?'for %§l^r TT^s? SFf ysrtfIj'48^f?li";°"rSfSFt}if • v
(2) Recommended actions were distributed between-high priority and lower
priority based on the evaluation with three criteria 1
(3) It is suggested that NASMI continue its 'leading role in recycling,
recogniiing that other organisations such 'as the Bureau of Mines;
Department of Comoerce, Council of Environmental Duality, HEW Office
of" Information, and State, Local, 'and Fediaral Legisiatures"must be
inyoived. V. '.'"'". '''•'. '.*' . . ' ".. ..... ' '"'Y ' *" ' "'''"• l '>" " ""'_'_' !.__
43 • '• '
Lower priority ideas are those which are important for the recycling
industry to solve, but which aren't important enough for full-scale participation
by the public. Consequently, these problems aren't important enough to be acted
upon by EPA. These problems with their recommended actions are shown in Table 20.
One problem, that of the lack of adequate statistical information, is
. worthy of imm.edi.ate further consideration. The lack of statistics on the con-
sumption and recycling of some types of nickel containing products makes accurate
".' analysis difficult. . ,
-------
44
TABLE 20. RECOMMENDED ACTIONS, LOWER PRIORITY NICKEL ALLOY PROBLEMS
Title
Electroplating
Products
Low Alloy Steel
(Obsolete)
Lov Alloy Steel
(Industrial)
RECOMMENDED
ACTIONS
A brief Investigation
should be made to
determine whether any
recycling of nickel in
electroplated nickel
products is economical-
ly feasible. If any
potential solutions are
found, action can be
planned at that point.
An investigation should be
made to determine why an
estimated 100 percent of
the nickel in available
nickel alloy steel is not
being recycled. Part or all
of this may be explained by
reporting errors by the re-
cycling companies, or by
lack of statistics reported
by the U.S. Bureau of Mines.
An investigation should be
made to determine why an
estimated 80 percent of the
nickel in available indus-
trial nickel alloy steel is
not being recycled. Part
or all of this may be ex-
plained by various report-
ing errors or incomplete
reporting.
BY WHOM(l)(2)(3) NASMI/NASMI MEMBERS
ISIS(A)lSIS MEMBERS
ISIS/ISIS MEMBERS
SPECIFIC
STEPS
1. Set up a committee
composed of nickel
processors and
nickel smelters.
2. The committee should
analyze the recycling
problems pertinent to
electroplated nickel.
3. The committee should
determine whether
there is any way to
increase recycling
that is attractive.
4. If anything appears
to be attractive, the
committee should recom-
mend specific steps
to take in order to
make recycling feasible.
1. Form a committee
composed of pro-
cessors.
*
2. The committee should
analyze and discuss the
possible reasons for the
relatively low recycle
rate.
3.'The committee should
discuss with the Bureau
of Mines why there are
possible reporting errors.
4. The committee should
analyze all of the data
to select the next action.
1. Form a committee
composed of pro-
cessors.
2. The committee should
analyze and discuss the
possible reasons for the
relatively low recycle
rate.
3. The committee should
discuss with the Bureau
of Mines why there are
possible reporting errors
4. The committee should
analyze all of the data
to select the next
action.
(1) The responsibility for recommended actions shown in this table are based on importance of the
action, benefit to ,the taxpayers, and opportunities for NASMI. They are the best judgments
of Battelle.
(2. Recommended actions were distributed between high priority and lower priority based on the
evaluation with three criteria.
.(3) It is suggested that NASMI continue its leading role in recycling, recognizing that other
organizations such as the Bureau of Mines, Department of Commerce, Council of Environmental
Quality, HEW Office of Information, and State, Local, and Federal Legislatures must be
involved.
(4) Institute of Scrap Iron and Steel (ISIS).
*":•' f"
-------
44 a
TABL& 20. RECOMMENDED ACTIONS,-
(Corit-iriue'd) ___
^^
Title
Cast-iron
•Copper-Base' A5l!loys
RECOMMENDED
ACTIONS
An*Tlnve«rtig'atIon"should- be' -
made- to'- determine why 'about
43 percent- of the nickel • in'
available• 'cast' 'Iron- is*:n'ot
recycled".
• Ah- investigatIbtf should' be"
- made"' to det'ertnin'e why an
es t imated' 53" percent of the'
h'i'ckei' in' copper'-base* alloys.
'is- not-' recycled.' -part1'of
• this* erro'fJmay be'i'ex'pi'a'ined
by* reporting" .error's1 or -incom-
plete reporting.'
BY WHOM
•MEMBERS'
NASMi/NASMI'MEMBERS .
SPECIFIC
STEPS
1.* Form a •committee
composed 6f-"pr6c-'
cessors.
2.- •Tne"':c'dinmi:tte'e1-should
• analyze'-'and discuss the -
possible' •reason's for "the'
"relative'ty low-fe'cycle'
."'rate'.
,'• . .
3.•' The'' c'ommi-tte'e" sh'ouId
discuss with- the' -Bureau
• of Mihies''why'-'tKere''are ' .
possible'-reporting errors.
4.' ThV cdmrnit'tee'-'should
-analyze all1 df^he"'data-
to1 select the next
• action.
1. Form a committee
• composed of nickel
.processors.
2. The' committee should -"ana-
lyze .arid-- discussv the'po's-'
sible reasons 'for the
relatively.low recycle
'rate' of hickeF-contain-
ing copper-base alloys.
3'. The committee* should' dis-
cuss' w'itti the'-'Bureau of
MineV po°s!8ibi;e'ilmis und'er-
staridihgs" in" 'th'e' report-
• Ing" of' ni'ckel-'cbntaining
1 coppeV-'base.
4'-'' A- "survey: of the' Recycling •••
and user 'indusfries; to de-
termine--whe re 'these' 'alloys
1 are" used' arid": where they
':'might be* ;lostvrshould; be
• •" Inlitiiafcied/' :• - ' "
5. The committee should'. ana-
lyre all data to" select
:- the- n'ex"t-: act Ions.
-------
44b
TABLE 20. RECOMMENDED ACTIONS, LOWER PRIORITY NICKEL ALLOY PROBLEMS
(Continued)
Title
Alloy Separation
Customer Prejudices
RECOMMENDED
ACTIONS
An investigation should be
made to look for improved
methods of nickel alloy
segregation.
Publicity programs should
be undertaken to point
out the advantages of
using recycled materials
over competitive materials.
BY WHOM
NASMI/NASMI MEMBERS
NASMI/NASMI MEMBERS
SPECIFIC
STEPS
1. Form a committee
composed of nickel
processors.
2. The committee should *
analyze the present at-
tenpts to expedite, and
to make more accurate,
the analysis of various
nickel-base scraps.
3. The committee should
Investigate new techniques
in alloy separation.
4. The committee should de-
termine what future steps
• are necessary to solve
the problem.
1. NASMI should continue
its present publicity
programs and seminars.
2. NASMI should develop
specific programs to-
ward nickel recycling
in areas where it
would be most advan-
tageous.
3. NASMI should retain a
metallurgical or other
consultant to assist
NASMI in finding ways
to use scrap and to
Instruct potential
scrap users in these
methods.
3v8
-------
45
THE STAINLE.S'Sv.S-TEEL. INDUSTRY1
•'•-''•"' ' ••' - f.
Stainless steel,, an alloy usually'containing'chromium-, nickel., and iron,
is used in a number of different, end--use markets. It is, generally''produced by
most, of the large; steel mills that .also manufacture carbon',, tool,, and other steels
and is provided ifn .any .shape :and. in different .chemical.-compositions:1.' The U. S..
stainless steel industry\is,large-and currently; is^producing,at a rate of about
1 million ingot tons per: year.-
Characteristics of Nickel Stainless Steels
."• L
The major types o.f nickel.-stainless;.j,s:teels arer •
American Iron and ;Stee 1 Ins-ti.tute (AISI)'. 300;. series
or chrome-? nickel-iron alloys•>-
AISI 200 seriies or, chrome-.nickel-manganese-iron ^alloys.
Nickel-Bearing Stainless Steels
The AISI- 300 series s.tainless 'steels .are the- .200 series- steels* that also contain, some, nickel * In these
grades manganese has replaced a portion of the.'nickel content:. For example, the
composition of these-grades, is about. 18 percent.: chromium', 4..;5 percent nickel,
t. . • '"
6.5 percent .manganese, and••:the balance ,iron.-..:
The AISI 400-series, stainless, steels, contain little;. if any, nickel.
Consequently j nickel contained-in these steel's represents; a-negligible fraction of
*'^ ;' 1Tk
the total amount of nickel being recycled. *i ? ,f
-------
TABLE 21. MOST COMMON NICKEL BEARING STAINLESS STEELS
AISI '
Type No.
201
202
301
302
303
304
304L
308L
309
310
316
316L
321
347
Source:
Chromium
16.00-18.00
7.00-19.00
16.00-18.00
17.00-19.00
17.00-19.00
18.00-20.00
18.00-20.00
19.00-21.00
22.00-24.00
24.00-25.00
16.00-18.00
16.00-18.00
17.00-19.00
17.00-19.00
Nickel
3.50- 5.50
4.00- 6.00
6.00- 8.00
S. 00-10. 00
8.00-10.00
8.00-11.00
8.00-11.00
10.00-12.00
12.00-15.00
19.00-22.00
10.00-14.00
10.00-14.00
8.00-11.00
10.00-12.00
U.S. Bureau of Standards, Nickel
Carbon
0.15 max.
0.15 max.
Over 0.08-0
Over 0.06-0
0.15 max.
0.08 max.
0.03 max.
0.03 max.
0.20 max.
0.25 max.
0.10 max.
0.03 max.
0.08 max.
0.08 max.
and Its Alloys.
Manganese
5.50- 7.50
7.50-10.00
.20 2.00 max.
.20 2.00 max.
2.00 max.
2.00 max.
2.00 max.
2.00 max.
2.00 max.
2.00 max.
2.00 max.
2.00 max.
2.00 max.
2.00 max.
Samuel J. Rosenburg,
Silicon
1.00 max
1 . 00 max
1.00 max.
1.00 max.
1.00 max.
1.00 max.
1.00 max.
1.00 max.
1.00 max.
1.50 max.
1.00 max.
1.00 max.
1.00 max.
1.00 max.
Sulphur
0.030 max.
0.030 max.
0.030 max.
0.030 max.
0.07 min.
0.030 max.
0.030 max.
0.030 max.
0.030 max.
0.030 max.
0.030 max.
0.030 max.
0.030 max.
0.030 max.
Phosphorous Other Elements
0.060 max. N 0.25 max.
0.060 max. 0.75 max.
0.045 max.
0.045 max.
S 0.07 min. Zr or Mo 0.060 max
0.045 max.
0.045 max.
0.045 max.
0.045 max.
0.045 max.
0.045 max. . Mo 2.00-3.00
0.045 max.
0.045 max. Ti 6 x C min.
0.045 max. Cb + Ta 8 x C min. -1.25 t?.ax. -
Washington, GPO, 1968.
-------
• " Characteristics of the Stainless Steel Industry
The nickel stainless steel industry is composed of several different
types of companies: producers of stainless steels, fabricators of stainless '
steels, and the stainless steel recycling industry. The stainlessvsteel recycling
industry is discussed in detail in a subsequent section. ,.
Material Sources
•-.-.. • : ; ia: .•. > '
The United States stainless steel industry relied oh.the following
'•- » ' -^ .'..-?".- <-*- «• *™f*/* -. ?ttt '•-
sources for. its nickel Inputs In 1969: >. •
Nickel Content
- ' • . (thousands'of short tona^ ' .
."'-• • . ' ^ -J ••"•.''
.Domestic ores : - . ' . 7;500
Imported metal (largely from Canada) v ,'- • 31,958
"».. ... if -••'." '.-.-' -'•-- ' ' ' '-..-'-
Recycled Materials . •
:'•••' -.!•• ,i.«'. .-i-.. • . . , • • •' • .
Stainless steel .scrap 32,600
" -.-rli''!?-.. '•.."••"..• '• •-. >.-L- ' * . . • .
Superalloy and nickel-base scrap 17,742
TOTAL NICKEL CONTAINED IN '•' ' :'. ; 89,800
DOMESTIC"PRODUCTION OF STEEL ^
Source: Battelle-Columbus estimates, U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbooks,
• '^Nickel" and' "Iron and Steel Scrap" chapters '•> •'.': ''"'.'
. - ..-•''•' •'•.". -i . • • '
Materials Flow
Figure 4 shows the- amounts of refined nickel metal from foreign and
domestic producers and of recycled nickel contained-in stainless steel and in
.- . . - - ••. ••"-""»>
superalloy and other nickel-base scrap,
-------
49
Stainless Steel Producers
EC O)
£• *
3 ft
n r»
rl (D
b **
a m
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at :
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The largest stainless steel producers are the following:
Allegheny-Ludlum Steel Corporation
U. S. Steel Corporation
Republic Steel Corporation
Armco Steel Corporation
Easco Corporation
Crucible Steel Corporation
Jones and Laughlin Steel Corporation
Smaller, but Important producers of stainless steel are the following:
Carpenter Technology Corporation
Washington Steel Corporation
Jessop Steel Company
Joslyn Manufacturing and Supply Company
Production
The production of nickel stainless steels has grown about 7 percent per
year since their introduction in the 1920's. Table 22 shows the ingot production
of the more popular grades of nickel containing stainless steels in recent years.
Note that production of nickel stainless steels has remained relatively constant
in the last six years.
Markets for Stainless Steels
Stainless steels are used In virtually every industrial, public, or
private sector of the economy. Due to its low cost relative to its advantages,
e.g., corrosion resistance, appearance, and strength, as compared to other
standard materials of construction, the growth in stainless steel usage has been
steady and rapid.
Histori gal Markets
In 1934, the principal applications for nickel containing stainless
063
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steels were for building'trim, household cooking utensils,-marine fittings, auto-
mobile hardware and fittings, power equipment, military equipment, turbine blading,
..chemical apparatus, and miscellaneous parts and trim in outdoor equipment. Today,
many of the applications have remained the same and have, grown in size with their
respective Industries. However, new applications have been found either by
replacing another material, e.g., stainless steel replacing chrome-nickel plated
steel consumer products, or by developing totally new applications in.new fields,
e.g., nuclear, petrochemical, and aerospace.
Base prices for various stainless steel alloys and stainless steel
shapes are shown In Table 23. Cold rolled sheet and strip, which accounts for
over 50 percent of sales, costs $0.54 to $0.5825 per pound for ordinary 18 per-
cent chrome-8 percent nickel varieties', and $0.78 to $0.935 per pound for more
highly alloyed forms of stainless. The AISI 200 series, often a competitor to
'..'• •'.'"• '•. ....':'.' -' .-•.i . -:n ',' -- '<}'• •'• " •' '" "'•''"' •'•• - •
the 300 series, are about $6.125 to $0.1325 per pound cheaper than their 300
series counterpart.
Table 24 gives a historical picture of prices for AISI 304 stainless
steel sheet. As shown, prices of stainless have fluctuated to a small degree
over the last six years, but remained essentially constant to October, 1969. .
At that point, base prices rose considerably from $0.48 to $0.5825 per pound by
January, 1970.. However, i-t might be added that discounts have b'eeri common for
the past several' years. x - •
Use Patterns .
The domestic shipments of stainless steel by major market classification
are given in Table 25. Steel service centers and warehouses take the largest
-------
52
amounts of stainless steel. These companies purchase relatively large quantities
from steel producers and process it to fill small orders by cutting, coating,
polishing, etc. Other large markets for stainless steel are with original equip-
ment manufacturers, e.g., automotive, aircraft, and consumer durables. Other
markets include export, construction, transportation, and steel for conversion.
TABLE 23. PRICE FOR TYPICAL ALI.OYS AND SHAPES OF STAINLESS STEEL
AS OF DECEMBER 24, 1970
Base price, cents per pound, f.o.b. mill.
Produce
Billets, forging
Bars , s true tures
Plates
Sheets
Strip, hot- rolled
Strip, cold-rolled
Wire, cold- finished
Red, hot-rolled
201
38.00
52.25
41.75
48.75
36.00
48.75
49.75
...
202
41
56
39
53
39
53
54
46
.50
.75
.50
.75
.00
.75
.00
.25
301
43.25
66.50
51.75
54.00
37.25
54.00
63.75
60.50
302
46.25
71.00
55.50
58.25
40.50
58.25
68.00
65.00
303
48.
74.
69.
56.
--
56.
71.
68.
50
50
75
75
-
75
50
25
304
46.25
71.00
55.50
58.25
40.50
58.25
68.00
65.00
316
63.25
97.25
84.75
89.50
62.50
89.50
93.25
93.00
321
56.50
86.75
75.75
78.00
53.50
78.00
83.00
79.00
347
61.50
94.25
86.75
93.50
63.50
93.50
90.25
85.25
Source: iron Age, for date specified in Table.
TABLE 24. HISTORICAL PRICE BEHAVIOR OF STAINLESS STEEL BASE PRICE,
304 STAINLESS STEEL SHEET
(Cents per pound, f.o.b. mill)
Month
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
Average
1963
48.00
48.00
48.00
48.00
48.00
48.00
48.00
45.25
45.25
41.75
41.75
41.75
45.97
1964
41.75
41.75
41.75
42.50
42.50
42.50
42.50
42.50
42.50
42.50
42.50
42.50
42.31
1965
42.50
42.50
42.50
42.50
42.50
42.50
42.50
39.00
39.00
39.00
39.00
39.00
41.04
1966
39.00
39.00
39.00
39.00
39.00
39.00
39.00
39.00
39.00
39.00
41.75
41.75
39.45
1967
41.75
41.75
41.75
41.75
41.75
41.75
41.75
41.75
41.75
44.00
44.00
44.00
42.31
1968
44.00
44.00
44.00
44.00
44.00
44.00
44.00
45.50
45.50
45.50
45.50
45.50
44.625
1969
45.50
45.75
45.75
45.75
45.75
48.00
48.00
48.00
48.00
55.50
55.50
58.25
49.15
Source: Iron Age> for date specified in Table.
*~\ "— --u
Jeb
-------
53.
TABLE 25. DOMESTIC SHIPMENTS OF STAINLESS STEELS BY AISI
MARKET CLASSIFICATION, 1969
Market Classification • -Net Short Tons
(1) Steel for conversion . . ,. ''.r..',','. . 81,133 ,j.v.;
(2) Forging .•••:;• . -;. .:••'- 20,659. .'f*
(3) Fasteners . .-• "" ,. .' .^.,": ..'.''^ _ '•', ••' 18,964;^ •&
(4) Service centers :•"-' '• • '•'•'• S •'"' '373,701 '-';
(5) .Construction , :.. .. 5,236
(6) Contractors' products ' • ' - 26,138
(7) Automotive , ..,. ,.:. "123,277.
•(8) Railroad,: . '3,852
(9) Shipbuilding 2,226
(10) Aircraft.,., - ; 11,163
(11) ;0il. and gas drilling ,,..;.,,- ^ .. 558
(12) Mining, quarrying, and lumbering . 420
(13) Agricultural, <• - .. .... .< v^-". .'•:;:,•":'- :;1,^73
(14) Machinery, industrial,..equipment,-..-and tools 61,331
(15) Electrical machinery and equipment . 20,703
(16) Appliances, utensils,, and cutlery ..^.t- 54,448 .
(17) Other domestic and-commercial equipment.. , 21,1'94
(18) Container packaging and shipping materials 5,295
(19) Ordnance and other military .2,589
(20) Expprt: .. . 41,182
(21) Nonclassified "22,603
. - .TOTAL ••- • --- - - - -•••- • -'898,145-
Source: American Iron and Steel Institute, Annual Statistical Reports.
257
-------
54
..Within single end-user markets, the major markets for stainless steel
in 1969 were as follows: •
SIC
Number . . . Ma lor Markets
346131 Automotive hubcaps
3722 Aircraft engines
3300 ' On-site construction
3452 . Fasteners, e.g., bolts, rivets, screws
3461 Home and hospital utensils
342915"- Automotive hardware
3623 Welding, electrodes
34294 Builder's hardware
3431 Metal plumbing fixtures
14644 . Chemical process equipment
Source: Battelie-Columbus Estimates.
Approximate Stainless
Steel Consumption
fShort TonsV'
40,000
25,000
25,000
25,000
20,000
'20,000
15,000
15,000
10,000
10,000
Although the domestic stainless steel industry has remained relatively
stagnant In recent years (see Table 22), imported stainless steel products have
grown rapidly to supply the growing domestic demand for these steels. For example,
imported stainless steels have grown from 79,762 short tons in 1964 to about
175,000 short tons in 1969 (see Table 26). Domestic exports of stainless steel
have declined in the same time period. At present, imports represent about 20 peff-
cent of all stainless steel sold in the United States.
TABLE 26. DOMESTIC TRADE BALANCE. IN STAINLESS STEEL MILL PRODUCTS
Year
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
Foreign
Steel Imports
(Short Tons)
79.762
113,480
137,394
149,354
174,062
175,000
Domestic
Steel Exports
(Short Tons)
74,456
54,252
55,519
65,625
52,668
41,182
Net Imports
(Short Tons)
5,306
59,228
81,875
83,729
121,394
134,000
Source: American Iron and Steel Institute,
Annual Statistical Reports.
058
55>
In addition to the above, an immeasurable amount of stainless steel is
being imported as a part in a final product. Japanese cutlery, for example, is
currently Imported.in large quantities and is estimated to have more than.33 per-
cent of the total domestic market.
Consequently, due to the rising amounts of imports, there should be
ample amounts of scrap available for recycling In the future. However, since the
domestic stainless steel industry isn't growing with domestic stainless steel
demand, a surplus of stainless steel scrap may be forthcoming.
Market Outlook
Battelle-Columbus estimates that the annual growth rate for stainless
steel will be about 4.5 percent per year In the foreseeable future.
THE STAINLESS STEEL RECYCLING INDUSTRY
The stainless steel recycling industry consists of brokers, dealer/
processors, and ingot makers. Generally, In the processing of stainless scrap,
many of the above functions are carried out by the same company. The Industry
purchases new scrap from industrial fabricators and obsolete scrap from dis-
mantle ra of old machines, plants, etc.; segregates and otherwise processes it
into a product suitable for steel melts. In some cases, scrap is melted down
and sold with a guaranteed analysis.
Characteristics of Stainless Steel Scrap Materials
Major types of stainless steel scrap are given In Table 27. Although
stainless scrap material is sold by specification only, dealer/processors give
ass
-------
I .
TABLE, 2.7. NA.SMI SPECIFICATIONS. FOR STAINLESS. STEEL SCRAP
,i . STAINLESS STEEL SCRAP
( • ... -..:;.-- ,~.-~-.~-J*",f.•.•:.-.-..;:•.
I I . ' '
18-8 sjt.ainless steel scrap, shall consj.st.of c I.e. an scrap, cqntaini.ng^ a, minimum of 7% nickel., 1670 chromiuni and
have a', maximum of 0.50% molybdenum, 0.50% copper, 0.045% phosphorous, .ond,p.03|i sulphur, and otherwise free: of <
harmful contaminants'. .Material to. bej prepared to 'individual consumer's^ specifications.
I . " : • -^ ' ' •f • * ..:-""' ' STAINLESS SjTEEL; CASTINGS ;: ' •'
: ! ••• • ... •'•• .'. -;. ' - '•• ...;""'-:''•'' "-••••-r-J-"~;.;- • • • • . ., •. '
Stainless, ste.el castings,, .submit '.analysis, ,sizrc of-/pieces, and' p.hysi,catl,* description. - „• .V • '
' ;' i'!:-': .•-..... .'•'- ••'' r-H^"..- : ,v.."' • """ '."•• STAINLESS STEEL. TURNINGS- •_ ' • •...',.;• ' - : .
18-8 turnings, machine, shpp grade for' dir.ect 'mi;l-l- delivery. shall; ;contain a. minj.nium, of 7% nickel and...1:6%
chromium .and be free .of/ajl. nonferroys metals., .nonmetallics, eKcessiye, ir.on, oi'lj 'and harmful contaminants.
. . SHORT OR- CRUSHED..STAINLESS' STEEL TURNINGS - .- ... . ' . '.
Crushed or. s.hort turnings to conform,.ch.emi;cal;ly^ to. the.machine, shop grade speci.ficatipns.
' • " 11-14% CHROME- STAINLESS SCRAP,
i • ' . ' , •
Straight chrcimc stainl,esTsA scrap; shall, contain 11-147., chrome., phpsphor,o,us and.;s.ul.p.hu'r 0..037,, maximum, and. shol 1
not contain over 0.50% nl.qkeL and othciylse.be tree. from,.harmful cpntaminants, Material, to, be 'prepare.iJ to
Individual- consumer.'s specificati.pns;. • t
i ' ' .. " . ' '..'*..'
! •'..''. .14-^18% CHROME STAINTESS" SCRAP . ' .
Straight chrome- stainless,, scrap shall; contain. 14-18% chr.ome, phospprous and sulphur.. 0.03% maximum, and shall
not contain over 0.50% nickel, and. otherwise be, free fr.om, harmful contaminants." Material to be. prepared, to
Individual- consumer's sped ficcitipns.^ . . . ,
BATTERIES
To be spl.d by type and to be: free of. cr.ates and liquid;. . .
H.IGH-NT.CK-EL SCRAP,
Shall; consist of nickel-.ste.el bilie.t, bl.qom, bar crops,, or,, other shapes, o.f. similar section find .equal grade,
not pye.r 0.04; percent of phosRliorpus. or; sulphur., between 3 percent and. 3. 5-. per cent of, nickel (lower, or .'-higher
in nickel content to be duly, cpnside.rjed.) , fr.ee fr(om. pthe.ri/a.lloys. Mus,t be cle^n. material. Size of matcriol
to, be agreed, upon, between, buyer, snd seller. , :
NO. 1 CHROMtllMr.NTCKEL - •...•-.;,• ..
Shall consist of chr.pmium-.nicke] s.tee.l billet,, bl-opm, bar cr.op, or, other shapes, of similar section an.d. ecjual
gr.ado, not over 0.0''i percent o,f phpspho.rous or sulphiir, between 3 and. 3.5 percent o.f nickol (lower, or higher
nickel, con.tent to be duly cons.ld.er.eil.)...,. no,t oye.r 0.5 percent of- chroinium, fra.e. fr.om other alloys. Must be
• clean ma.terial. Sisc of- ma.terial to .be agreed upon betwecp buyer and'seller,.
; ' . '" • . ' . NO. 2. C
Shall consist of chromijUtii-ni-ckel st.oe.l bille.t, bl.oom, bar crops, or. other s_hapcs o.f similar suction and cqr.;ri
grade, np,t over 0.04 pprce.nt o,f.. plioJiphor.ojjs,. or suJ.pluir, between. 1.5. and 2 . 5, .percent of nickol (lov.u;r or hi.^l^'i:
nickel conte.nt to be duly consiclci'ed)' , between 0.5 and 1 percent of chr.pmium, free fr.om o.iher alloys. Musi: be
•clean '.ma.l.eria,! . Size of material to. be. agreed, upon between buyer and seller.
. <1-L- ST.F.F.L TURN'T.NGS '• • ' ' , • ' .- . .
; '• •«!
Shall consis,t..,of; hfia.vy short first-.cut turnings from nicke;!^ steel forgings . Nlcke.l and chromium content to he-
specified on ench indiv.i-djua.l s.ale.. To. weigh no,! less tlin.n 7-5 pounds per cubic foot. .To be free from dirt .1;.-;.'.
other foreign materials. •
Spurc*: NASJ«, Circular. NF-66.
-------
57 -. - - — -
particular attention to the separation of molybdenum-containing grades, e.g.,
AISI 316, from nonmolybdenunrcontaining grades, e.g., AISI 304 and 301.
Characteristics of the Stainless"Steel
- Scrap Recycling Industry
Stainless steel scrap is purchased from scrap generators, processed
and segregated, and sold to a user of stainless steel scrap—usually a stainless
steel mill. Unlike many materials which can be easily identified, e.g., brass by
color tests, carbon steel by magnetic means, a stainless steel processor generally
is forced to use more costly, processing. A stainless steel processor generally
uses more costly testing techniques, Including spark and acid testing, to properly
identify and segregate various grades of stainless steel from similar materials.
Stainless steel scrap is often generated in the form of machine chips
and turnings. Processors have procured relatively expensive forms of equipment
to crush, degrease, and otherwise process machine turnings. Since ordinary or
nonmolybdenum stainless steel machine turnings can be "contaminated" with molyb-
denum containing stainless steels, processors generally melt down a representative
sample of a lot of machine turnings and determine its chemical composition by
spectroscopic and x-ray methods. The chips and turnings can be sold "as is" or
melted down in electric furnaces to an ingot form with a known composition.
Stainless steel scrap consumers are generally stainless steel mills and
steel foundries. These mills, which can use up to 100 percent of total heat weight
in scrap, charge, stainless scrap along with primary nickel, carbon steel scrap,
and ferrochromium. The economics of using stainless steel scrap ie closely linked
to the price and analysis of scrap versus that of primary materials.
-------
58
Materials Sources
.-' . Jf.
Sources of nickel inputs come from primary nickel received from
domestic and foreign sources and from recycled sources, in the form of both prompt
Industrial and obsolete scrap. The amount of nickel.Inputs coming from various
sources is shown In Table 28. . ...
TABLE 28. SOURCES OF RECYCLED NICKEL CONTAINING MATERIALS, 1969
Material
Stainless scrap
Other scrap (including superalloy,
ferroalloys, and other high nickel
containing materials)
TOTAL
' Average •
Nickel Content,
Percent
"•• io ' '•--•'
50- : •
Short Tons
of Scrap
'326VOOO
35,484
361.484
Battelle-Columbus estimates.
Markets for Recycled Nickel Stainless Steel Scrap
The historical markets for recycled stainless steel scrap are:
(1) stainless steel mills, (2) stainless steel foundries, and (3) cast iron and
other miscellaneous uses. Stainless steel mills are by far the most Important
consumers of stainless steel scrap and other .nickel-containing materials.
Stainless steel foundries, other than those captlvely owned by stainless steel
mills, are relatively minor consumers of stainless steel scrap materials.
59
Historical Markets-'
-...' Table 29 gives the recent history of the role of recycled nickel stainless
steel scrap in stainless steel ingot production. As shown, purchased or recycled
scrap represented from 19to 23 percent of total nickel Inputs used.in stainless
steel production from I960 to 1968. However, In 1969, recycled scrap represented
about 33 percent of the total nickel inputs used in stainless steel,production.
-TABLE 29. RECYCLED NICKEL STAINLESS SCRAP CONSUMPTION
. : IN THE UNITED STATES, 1961-1969
Estimated Purchased,Nickel
Stainless Scrap Consumed
(Thousands'of Short Tons')
Estimated
Total Nickel
Consumption .for...
Stainless Steels1 '
Nickel Content
in Purchased
Stainless Scrap,as
Year
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
Total
Weight11'
143
142
174
209
204
267
232
224
326
Nickel Content
14
14
17
21
20
27
23
22
33
.(Thousands of
Short Tons)
74
70
81
101
101
119
100
97
102
Nickel Consumption
in Stainless Steel
19
20
21
21
20
23
23
23
33
'(!•)' Equal to. 0.7 tines (total scrap consumption - receipts, as reported by
U. S. Bureau of Mines).
(2) Equal to 0.10 times'(total ingot production of AISI 200 and 300 series ,
stainless steels.)
Source: U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook. "Nickel" and "Iron and Steel
Scrap" chapters, and Battelle-Columbus estimates.
092
G33
-------
' .• i. -. — '.*»;?«, •
""-"''
S
>«•<
!«•«
.<*«•<
t»i
394
395
-------
i^
' •'*' -' '"'" "•• ' • " '• "'"- •-"-• '-' '
& .^M^&lc^i^Si^^a^ :;«t^S^a^&^
; TABLE 31. . PRICE RAHGES FOR SELECTED NICKEL STAINliSS SCRAP. PRODUCTS ,,
Per Cross TToh)
•="• ."• '.-4-'-.4 _>;• -.|V. .-_-„ .'"_ ,-,i f'-.- fiMBrchily' - i:'june:;. tt , c August'31, ^j January.. 4,
' '•"'"Scrap*type '."'.' ' ;i97b' • • •"'ftTO"-' 7/51970''.' .^''1971 '
IS'Chrome^S nickel bundles/solids 385-395 -385-400 *
: ..
18 Chrome- 8 nickel turnings
.
300^310 .'285r300 23Qr240
; ,270-280
160-170
•Source: 1 ran Age. for • datrea-«peclfled-dnrTahle.
•
/vRecv'c l~tng' J m^ufl try'- Data ;";.''"''
'A^'survey of the recycling industry', developed; data to. provide a. prof lie
'of -the in'dustry!Tand the" companies comprising the: Industry. V The: General Report,
V'Vbliime" I,'vgives'many~ of these- data, i Information concerning !tbe stainless steels
Portion of the ^industry "are:-given-below. ..v 5,
: The average recycler;'of -stainless ^teels:;comparesiwith the-.-ave.rage
-'riecycler'of 'all: commodities ras'follows:* -' ; . . ?i.
A Average" •'•*•• •- ^«;,«.
"Investment in '.-Average
nd ';* v.**'' ?>!Nuiiiber.'i'o£
/...Average
Inyes tment
Stainless Steels
'$1)419(660
, ,33;400
./ 20,800
'•'Figure 5 shows'the variation, in size by census region of/.stainless
steel'processors.• There"isiapparently no correlation'with-population density,
-.degree of Industrialization;'and other .common regional indicators.
752.Z
. .Note;-. All .figures in net \
- I, ..^New.Enqlpnd 4. Eo»t North Cenlrol .7. West South Central
,1 2.yMiddle,,Atlontie „ S. ^s|VsSouth'u:-
* '.Extensive' survey data.
396
097
-------
63
• Materials F^ow Pattern for
Nickel Stainless Steel Recycling
Table 32 gives Battelle-Columbus estimates concerning nickel stainless
steel scrap recycling in 1969. Many simplifying assumptions were made so th'at
construction of this table could be possible. The assumptions, sources, and
methodology used are included as footnotes of the table. Figure 6 shows these
estimates in a flow diagram.
As shown, about, 88 percent of the total nickel stainless steel available
for recycling (industrial and obsolete scrap) is apparently being recycled. Most
of the stainless is returned to the steel mill; however, some of it is sent to
\ • . •'
iron and steel foundries, and, some of i,t la exported overseas, largely to Japan,
Sweden, and Italy.
Demand/Supply Analvaia
To show what can be expected in the future for nickel stainless steel
recycling, an analysis of expected future demand and supply is made in this
section.
U. S. demand for recycled nickel stainless steel In 1969, 1974, and 1979
is forecast as follows:
Demand for Recycled
Nickel Stainless Steel
(Short Tons>
1969
1974
1979
326,000
357,000
445,000 '•
64
TABLE 32. STAINLESS SCRAP RECYCLING, 1969
Source and Type of Scrap
Aerospace and Power
Industrial
Obsolete
Construction and Machinery
Industrial
Obsolete
Consumer Products*
Industrial
Obsolete
Automotive
Industrial
Obsolete
Chemical, Petrochemical,
and Marine
Industrial
Obsolete
All Other Stainless
Products
Industrial
Obsolete
TOTAL INDUSTRIAL
TOTAL OBSOLETE AND/OR
EXPORTED
GRAND TOTAL
TOTAL NOT RECYCLED
Stainless Steel
Available for
Recycling^)
(Thousands of
Short Tons)
20.6
36 . 8
39.5
5.8
45.9
58.4
31.2
58.2
29.9
20.3
52.4
30.4
219.5
209.9
429.4
Not Applicable
Stainless Steel Percent
Recycled (2) . Recycled
20.6
n.a. .
39.5
n.a.
45.9
n.a.
31.2
n.a.
29.9
n.a.
52.4
n.a.
219,5
158.9
378.4
51.0
v 100
•
v 100
--
y~ 100
-• '
v»100
"
w.100
--
-v» 100
—
v*\ 100
76
88
Note: Footnotes are listed on the following page.
C99
-------
.-.-•/.,. ^'^.-ti-'^Xv^-W;. £-.-'.. '.'-,, %,'.\w--~--1*.-'.^'*''>"• *' •
:3^,-^i«v^?!iita^Vi:;.^i»"^«s4l4i^-MpJ^?A^%1;
65
FOOTNOTES TO TABLE 32:
66
. .;•• L ',.$$#-1*r iv'i'H: ''
f «&vT.^r»-.vi-.-^t v«n;ii^lt'j»^£ '-1.
(1) The sources for scraps were calculated in the following way:
scrap
for Industry. A .
2
• ••
shlpBents to industry A -
"~ •..*.
Obsolete scrap was calculated from estimated life cycles and the con-
sumption of nickel stainless steel that number of years 'prior to 1969.' 'The:
'life cycles used',* and'the years for which constmytlon- data "were 'obtained— '-,
are as follows:
• . Years of Hickel Stainless
*SteelJConsumption -Used"
Life to Calculate Nickel-' •.
Cycle Stainless Availability
11 ' 1958. '"1''-''"
22 1947 ,
12 1957 '" .' -
12 1957 . ; n;.
t2 1957
20 1949
Aerospace and power
Construction'and machinery
Consumer products
Automotive .-• •'• •
Chemical', • petroleum, and marines
AIT other stainless products ' >
(2) (a) Industrial scrap Is essentially 100 percent recycled. That.which is.
1 •• hot ;is. estimated at a fraction of*l' percent. • -'-\ •• - "^ :
(b) Sources for recycled obsolete scrap could not be determined with any
1 degree of accuracy-due to, "complete rlack.-of statistics "in this area.
Total amount of-obsolete scrap was calculated,by the following '
equation: - .-.''" •: f "• • r . . ,•
„. , . . Grand total scrap purchased less estimated'
Obsolete scrap recycled = indugtnal >crap generated less'scrap exports.
(3) All exports assumed to be either industrial or obsolete scrap.
Prompt
Industrial
Note: "All.quantities in short tons
»*-?? of'nickel.stoinless steel-
!i!ili!:i;l!!i=!=i=ij:S?SS$;:S:SS^
::429:40Oii:$: 5I.OOO S
::4?9.40q::£ 51.000 g
:=::::: Not *'•
378.4OO
Recycled
Steel CoMincs
• 22 .'700
52,900
Recycled
iNickel
Stoiniess
Market
FIGURE 6. RECYCLED NICKEL STAINLESS STEEL FLOW, 1969
Source: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbooks.
"Nickel1!, iind "Iron and Steel Scrap" chapters. • . ; .'.. •'! .-.',.'
-------
By 1974, the Industry should have experienced Che full effect of the
Increase in scrap usage per heat due to greater flexibilities of the new argon-
oxygen melting technology. Recycled nickel stainless steel demand should increase
from 326 thousand short tons In 1969 to 357 thousand short tons, in 1974, and to
445 thousand short tons In. 1979. -
Supply • . .
The future availability of recycled stainless steel scrap, based on the
calculations and methodology presented in calculating total scrap available for
recycling in Table 32, is .given as follows:
Supply of Recycled Nickel
Stainless Steel "Scrap^
(Short Tons^
1969
1974
1979
326,000
366,000
434,000
(1) Total nickel stainless steel scrap
recycled less that exported.
The above calculations assume that stainless steel imports and scrap
exports will remain about the same in the future as in 1969.
ysupplv Balance ' • .
Unlike other metals, e.g., copper and lead, the demand/supply picture
for stainless steel appears to be essentially in balance based on present recovery
estimates, product life cycles, and market forecasts. The future demand/supply
picture is expected to be as follows:
68
Nickel Stainless Steel
(Short Tons')
Demand
Supply (1)
Surplus (+)
1974
357,000
366,000
9,000
1979
445 , 000
434,000
-11,000
(1) Assume about 50,000 tons of nickel stainless
steel scrap exported in 1974 and 1979. This
was deducted from total domestic generation
of scrap to derive .total domestic supply.
The surplus and deficit shown are only approximate. It is assumed that
domestic prices, domestic scrap supplies, or scrap exports will rise or fall so
that a demand/supply balance will be achieved.
If foreign demands for scrap are larger than in the past, a small
deficit for 1979 will be turned into a much larger one. This will increase
domestic prices.
If incentives are different in 1974 and 1979 than as exist today, e.g.,
if recycling is encouraged by new legislation, new technology, etc., Battelle
estimates that only small Increases in stainless, or about a 4 to 5 percent maximum
increase In the recycled nickel supply, steel recycling will result. Main reasons
are:
• All prompt industrial scrap, or about 220,000 short tons, is
presently being recycled.
• Most obsolete scrap (about 75 percent), or about 160,000 short
tons, Is presently being recycled.
403
-------
. 69
. PROBLEMS THAT DIRECTLY REDUCE " - .
THE RECYCLING OF NICKEL STAINLESS STEEL SCRAP
Unlike the situation with most other commodities, there are only a
few identifiable problems that directly reduce the amount of nickel stainless
steel that is recycled.*
Industrial Scrap
Prompt industrial nickel stainless steel scrap is about 100 percent
recycled. Those small amounts that are not represent only a very small fraction.
of one percent. These are usually'flue.dusts and slags associated with the
melting of stainless steel charges. ••-.-.
Obsolete Scrap
Due,to the lack of statistics, only an aggregate figure for obsolete
scrap recycling can'be determined with,any degree of accuracy. In this case,
recycling of nickel stainless steel scrap is about 76 percent of the total
amount available.
Table 33 presents the problems associated with obsolete scrap based on
1969 estimates. Included are: (1) problem definition, (2) tons of nickel . .
stainless steel scrap not recycled, (3) percent of- available nickel stainless
steel scrap noj recydled, and (4) problem analyses. '-....'
Other
Other problems that directly effect the recycling of nickel stainless
steel—but which are impossible to measure quantitatively—are legislative problems.
Problems that do not directly reduce the amount of recycling but which are
important due to other reasons are discussed in the next major section of the
report.
70 ^
Some of the. most important are: (1) discriminatory subsidies allowed nickel
producers in the form of ore depletion allowances, (2) purchase and sale of
emergency stockpiles primarily include primary nickel producers, "(3) export >
restrictions on.movement of stainless scrap. All of the above tend to favor -..
use of primary over recycled, other things remaining equal. If the above .
problems were resolved, additional amounts of stainless recycling would result.*
* See "Report No. 1, Summary" for additional information of depletion
allowances.
-------
71
TABLE 33.
IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF PROBLEMS CONCERNING
STAINLESS STEEL THAT WAS NOT RECYCLED IN 1969
Title
Obsolete Stainless Steel
PROBLEM DEFINITION
1. Prompt stainless steel scrap is estimated to be
about 100 percent recycled. Obsolete stainless
steel scrap is only 76 percent recycled.
2. This problem cannot be broken down further due to
the lack of adequate statistical Information.
3. Stainless steel is used in a myriad of different
applications, e.g., automobile parts and trim,
aircraft engine components, and appliances and
cutlery.
4. Applications where stainless steel is a large part
of a system are generally recycled, but those
applications, e.g., cutlery and small appliances,
where stainless steel is a small part of a system
are probably not completely recycled.
TONS OF STAINLESS
NOT RECYCLED
51,000
PERCENT OF AVAILABLE
STAINLESS NOT RECYCLED
PROBLEM ANALYSIS
1. Stainless steel is often a small part of a larger
system in consumer appliances and other stainless
uses.
2.
These items are small and generally are discarded
to municipal waste after termination of useful life.
3. This seems a promising area to increase recycling.
4C6
72
PROBLEMS THAI DO NOT DIRECTLY REDUCE
RECYCLING OF NICKEL STAINLESS STEEL SCRAP
There is only one problem faced by the stainless steel recycling
industry that has no direct quantitative effects on recycling. However, it
generally has an economic effect on the industry or Industry members, or it
has a nuisance effect on the industry.
(1) Customer prejudices against recycled materials.
Table 34 discusses this problem. Included are (1) titles and
definitions of problems (2) effects on recycling, and (3) analyses of problems.
407
-------
73
74
TABLE 34. IDENTIFICATION AND AHALYSIS OF. PROBLEMS THAT DO
'NOT DIRECTLY REDUCE THE'AMOUNT OF NICKEL STAINLESS
STEEL THAT IS RECYCLED, 1969
Customer Prejudices
Title • Against Scrap
PROBLEM
DEFINITION
EFFECT ON
RECYCLE RATE
PROBLEM
ANALYSIS
1. Some scrap types, e.g., stain-
less steel turnings, aren't
being purchased by some; scrap
users and are being exported
overseas to foreign steel
producers.
2. Despite good economics of using
scrap, stainless steel mill's
sometimes prefer,primary over
scrap.because (a) it is easier to
use.primary and (b) 'they, prefer
to use more.expensive primary, so
that they are assured-adequate
nickel supplies during shortages.
None. Most of this scrap is
recycled by. exporting it overseas.
1. For most applications, stainless
steel made from recycled scrap
is not inferior to that made only
from primary materials.
2. There ,is a.need for promotional
and educational efforts that will
inform buyers and actual users of
advantages of using recycled
materials. -' .
(1) Problems adversely affect economics,or practices of
recycling but the effect in terms of amount cannot be
ceasured. This situation is considered an indirect effect.
COURSES OF ACTION CONCERNING
RECYCLING OF NICKEL STAINLESS STEEL SCRAP
This section analyzes what actions EPA, the recycling industry,
and others should take in resolving problems outlined in the last two sections.
" - • .•-•-.. Selection of Opportunities
In the above analysis, two problems were delineated: obsolete nickel
."'"'' " : . • V." ••'-"'. ~-
stainless steel scrap not recycled and customer prejudices against recycled
materials. From an environmental and conservational point of view, the first
problem is of much higher priority than the second.
Recommended Actions
High priority ideas are those which are so important that the public,
in addition to the stainless steel recycling industry, would have interest in
their solution. Consequently, these problems are important enough to be acted
upon by EPA. These problems and their recommended actions are shown in Table 35.
Lower priority ideas are those that are important for the recycling
industry to solve, but which are not important enough for full participation by
the public. Consequently, these problems are not important enough to be acted
upon by EPA. These problems with their recommended solutions are shown in Table 36.
One problem, .that of ^the lack of adequate^ statistical information, is^
worthy of immediate consideration. The lack of statistics on the consumption and
recycling of some types of nickel stainless steel makes accurate analysis difficult.
•3GS
409
-------
75
76
TABLE 36. RECOMMENDED ACTIONS, LOWER STAINLESS STEEL PRIORITY PROBLEMS
TABLE 35.
RECOMMENDED ACTIONS, HIGH PRIORITY
STAINLESS STEEL PROBLEMS
Title
RECOMMENDED
ACTIONS
Bt
Obsolete Stainless Steel
An Investigation should be undertaken
to determine why approximately 51,000
tons of nickel stainless steel were
not recycled in 1969.
EPA/NASMI
1. Form • committee representing the
following:
SPECIFIC • Stainless steel processors
STEPS • Stainless steel fabricators
• Stainless steel mills
2. The committee should discuss the problem
vith other people knowledgeable In the
area of obsolete stainless steel scrap
including:
• Municipal land fill operators
• Small scrap collectors
3. The committee should discuss and analyze
why obsolete stainless steel scrap Is not
being recycled.
4. The committee should determine what
additional actions should be taken.
(1) The responsibility for recommended actions shown in this
table are based on Importance of the action, benefit to the
taxpayers, and opportunities for NASMI. They are the best
judgments of Battelle.
(2) Recommended actions were distributed between high priority
' and lower priority based on the evaluation with three
criteria.
(3) It is suggested that NASMI continue Its leading role in re-
cycling, recognizing that other organizations such as the
Bureau of Mines, Department of Commerce, Council of Environ-
mental Quality, HEW Office of Information,, and State., Local,
and Federal Legislatures nuat be involved.
Title
Customer Prejudice
Against Recycled Material
RECOMMENDED
ACTIONS
NASMI should undertake a broad publicity
program to: •
(1) Outline the conservation features of
using scrap to the public.
(2) Help large users of scrap to publicize
their conservatlonal actions.
(3) Help small users of scrap with their
problems so they will be less reticent
to use scrap.
BY WHOM W (2) (3)
NASMI/NAEMI MEMBERS
SPECIFIC
STEPS
(1) NASMI should continue its recycle
prop.rams, conferences, etc., to inform
the public and promote conservation
aspects of recycling.
(2) Furthermore, NASMI should promote
seminars to discuss new and useful
techniques of usinp additional stainless
scrap inputs in steelmaking.
(3) NASMI should promote research in methods
of utilizing hipher amounts of scrap.
(1) The responsibility for recommended actions shown in this table are based
on Importance of the action, benefit to the taxpayers, and opportunities
for NASMI. They are the best judgments of Battelle.
(2) Recommended actions were distributed between high priority and lower
priority based on the evaluation with three criteria.
(3) It Is suggested that NASMI continue its leading role in recycling,
recognizing that other organizations such as the Bureau of Mines,
Department of Commerce, Council of Environmental Quality, HEW Office of
Information, and State, Local, and Federal Legislatures must be involved.
•5.11
-------
APPENDIX A
PRINCIPAL PRIMARY NICKEL GRADES
-------
A-l
APPENDIX A
PRINCIPAL PRIMARY NICKEL GRADES
Table A-l gives the types, producers, approximate nickel content, main
uses, and descriptions of the principal grades of primary nickel.
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-------
APPENDIX B
CONSUMPTION OF NICKEL COOTAHTCHG PRODUCTS
-••• • '• '• •••••••"-•••. • APPENDIX B' • ' " ' '
:-..•'. CONSUMPTION OF NICKEL CONTAINING PRCTOUCTS
- Table B-l gives, the consumption pattern for the principal nickel-
containing low alloy steels.
416
-------
B-2
TABLE B-l. MARKETS FOR NICKEL-CONTAINING LOU ALLOY STEEL
Type
and Grade
Nickel
2515
Nickel -Chromium
3312
Nickel-Molybdenu
4620
4621
4626
4815
4817
4820
Average Nickel
Content, percent 1965
50.314
3.50
113.915
3.50
i ' 493,096
0.85
0.85
0.85
3.50
3.50
3.50
Nlckel-Chromlum-Molybdenum-Vanadlum 130,878
4335V
1.82
Nickel -Chromtum-Molybdemin 1,656,269
4317
4320
4340
8620
8622
8640
8645
8660
8720
9310
94317
GROUP TOTAL
1.82
1.82
1.82
0.55
0.55
0.55
0.55
0.55
0.55
3.25
0.45
0.77 2,444,472
Total Production,
. abort tona
1966 1967 1968 1969
76,727 35,430 38,948 53,649
102,926 80,055 69,808 78,950
484,126 386,252 370,709 296,845
130.239 182,624 157,452 142,855
1,718,158 1,434,339 1,553,654 1,905,279
2,512,176 2,118,700 2,190,571 2,477,578
Source: American Iron and Steel Institute, Annual Statistical Report«.
B-3
Table B-2 gives consumption of principal superalloys In 1969.
TABLE B-2. ESTIMATED MARKETS FOR VACUUM-MELTED SUPERALLOYS,
BY ALLOY TYPE, 1969
Alloy and Type
Wrought Products
A-286
Incoloy 901
Inconel 718
X-750
Waspaloy
V-57
Rene 41
Inconels 700/702/722
0-700/Astroloy
D-979
Inconel 625
m-102/U-520/Inc. 801
U-500
All other
Total Wrought
Cast Products
Total Weight
Metal Content,
short tons
5,500
5,000
5,000
2,750
2,000
1,000
500
300
300
300
750
150
125
3.250
26,425
7,000
33,425
Nickel Content,
short tons
1,375
2,130
2,750
2,040
1,160
250
280
160
160
135
450
100
69
2.130
13,189
5,500
18,689
Source: Battelle-Columbus estimates.
Table B-3 gives estimated consumption of nickel in principal nickel-base
nonferrous alloys In 1969.
TABLE B-3. ESTIMATED PRESENT U.S. CONSUMPTION OF
NICKEL-BASE NONFERROUS ALLOYS
Type
Nickel
Inconel 600
Monel 400
Hastelloy B
Hastelloy C
Incoloy 800
Incoloy 825/Carpenter 20CB-3
Other
TOTAL
Nickel
Content ,
percent
100
76
67
64
56
32
42
50
•« f o
Estimated
Nickel
Consumption
(short tons)
4,000
6,100
10,000
1,900
1,700
4,865
1,700
2.000
32.265
-------
B-4
Table B-4 gives estimated nickel consumption In principal copper
>ase alloys in 1969.
TABLE B-4. CONSUMPTION OF NICKEL DSED
IN COPPER-BASE ALLOYS
Type of Product
Nickel Content
(thousand short tons)
Scrap
Primary
Total
Cupronickel condenser tube, nickel . .
silver, and other wrought products 3.3
Cast brasses and bronzes 0.9^)
TOTAL 4.2
5.9
(2>
9.2 .
0.9
10.1
Sources: (1) Copper Development Association, Annual Data 1970.
(2) This total slightly higher than that given
by U.S. Bureau of Mines.
Table B-S gives estimated consumption of nickel in various cast
Lrons in 1969.
TABLE B-5. NICKEL USED IN PRODUCTION OF
CAST IRON, 1969
VOLUME VII
PRECIOUS METALS REPORT
Type
Short Tons of Nickel Consumed
Scrap '*' Primary Total
Gray Iron •
Ductile iron
Ni-Resist/Ni-Hard
TOTAL
12,700 3,300 16,000
6,000 2,000 8,000
600 300 900
19,300 5,600 24,900
(1) Includes revert and recycled scrap. Recycled scrap accounts for
about 4,589 s.t. of nickel consumption In cast iron.
Source: Battelle estimates.
-------
ill
iv
TABLE OF CONTESTS
TABLE OF CONTESTS (Continued)
PRECIOUS METALS RECYCLING.
Summary . • •
Gold . .
Silver .
Platinum
INTRODUCTION
Background
Objectives
Scope
Research Methods
Literature Search
Extensive Survey
In-depth Survey
Analysis and Synthesis
The Gold Industry
Characteristics of Gold
Gold Alloys
Special Alloys
Gold Compounds
Legal Considerations
Characteristics of the Gold Industry
Materials Sources
Materials Flow
Gold Producers
Markets for Gold
Jewelry
The Arts
Dental Applications
Industrial Applications
Market Outlook
The Gold Recycling Industry .
The Characteristics of Secondary Gold ...
Characteristics of the Gold Recycling Industry . . .
Materials Sources
Materials Flow
The Recycling Industry
Markets for Recycled Gold
Demand-Supply Analysis
Obstacles and Problems that Reduce the Recycling of Gold.
Prompt Industrial Scrap
Industrial Wastes and Sweepings
Old Industrial Scrap
Old Consumer Scrap
viii
vlii
ix
xii
xvili
1
2
3
3
3
4
4
5
8
8
9
11
11
12
12
12
13
17
20
24
25
25
26
28
29
29
30
30
31
32
34
34
37
37
39
39
42
Problems Not Directly Related to Recycling of Gold . . . .
Industry Statistics
Courses of Action Concerning Recycling of Gold ......
Selection of Opportunities . .
Recommended Actions
The Silver Industry . . . .
Characteristics of Silver
Characteristics of the Silver Industry
Materials Sources
Materials Flow
Silver Producers
Markets for Silver
Consumer-Oriented End Uses
Industrially-Oriented End Uses
Other End Uses
Prices
Market Outlook
The Silver Recycling Industry .
Characteristics of Secondary Silver
Characteristics of the Silver Recycling Industry . . .
Materials Sources
Materials Flow .
The Recycling Industry .
Markets for Recycled Silver
Demand-Supply Analysis .
Obstacles and Problems that Reduce the Recycling of Silver
Prompt Industrial Scrap . . . .
Industrial Waste and Sweepings
Old Industrial Scrap
Old Consumer Scrap
Photographic Scrap and Waste
Problems Not Directly Related to Recycling of Silver . . .
Industry Statistics
Courses of Action Concerning Recycling of Silver
Selection of Opportunities
Prompt Industrial Scrap . ......
Old Industrial Scrap
Industrial Wastes and Sweepings
Photographic Scrap and Waste
Recommended Actions
Platinum-Group Metals Industry
Characteristics of the Platinum-Group Metals ......
Characteristics of the Platinum-Group Metals Industry
Materials Sources
Materials Flow
Platinum-Group Metals Suppliers .
Markets for the Platinum Group Metals
Chemical Industry Markets
Petroleun Industry Markets
Glass Industry Markets
44
44
45
45
46
49
49
50
50
52
55
59
61
61
63
64
65
67
67
67
67
69
70
71
71
73
73
75
77
78
81
85
85
88
88
88
89
90
91
92
95
95
96
96
96
100
101
104
106
108
-------
Vl'V
TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
'"- ... .••-- " " ••''•,
Electrical and Electronics Industry Markets
Other Markets
Platinum Group Metal Prices . .•
Market Outlook •....•..'..:..: .
Characteristics of the Platinum Group Metals Recycling
Industry
Materials Sources
Materials Flow
The Recycling Industry
Demand/Supply Analysis
Obstacles. and Problems that Reduce Recycling of Platinum Group
Metals
Prompt Industrial Scrap' . . . . : ;.'..'...:.
Obsolete Scrap
Problems- Other Than Supply and Economics
Courses of Action Concerning Recycling of the Platinum Group Metals
Recommended Actions' . . . . ".
Environmental Protection Agency . .
Recycling Industry •
LIST OF APPENDIXES
.PPENDIX A. PRECIOUS METALS RECYCLING INDUSTRY DATA FROM EXTENSIVE
SURVEY.
-..;.- •*-
PPENDIX B. EXTENSIVE SURVEY •
LIST OF TABLES
•
'ABLE I. IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF PROBLEMS CONCERNING GOLD THAT
WAS NOT RECYCLED IN 1969 . . . . ; '.'.".•
•ABLE II. RECOMMENDED ACTIONS, HIGH PRIORITY GOLD RECYCLING PROBLEMS .
•'- - • *> •• • • ' ..-'"•' '' •
'ABLE III. IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF PROBLEMS CONCERNING SILVER
THAT WAS NOT RECYCLED IN 1969 . . :...'.'..'
'ABLE IV. RECOMMENDED ACTIONS, HIGH PRIORITY SILVER RECYCLING
PROBLEMS ; :
'ABLE V. IDENTIFICATION AND ANLYSIS OF QUANTITATIVE PROBLEMS OF
. . i . ... PLATINUM GROUP METALS RECYCLING ; .
• -- •-" •••, . • : .'....•.,-. • •
•ABLE VI. RECOMMEND ACTIONS, HIGH PRIORITY PLATINUM GROUP METALS
RECYCLING PROBLEMS
'ABLE 1. SOURCES OF GOLD, 1965-1969
.... ) '
108
112
115
117- -
118
. 118
120
122
124
125
125 •
"128
131
132
132
132
133
. A~l . .)
B-l
f
Xi '
xili
xv • -
xvii
xxil
xxiii
14
)
TABLE
TABLE
TABLE
TABLE
.
TABLE
TABLE
TABLE
TABLE.
TABLE .
TABLE
TABLE
TABLE
TABLE
.'. TABLE
- ..
TABLE
-
TABLE
TABLE
. IV,
TABLE
TABLE
2.
3.
4.
b.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
SOURCES OF NEWLY MINED GOLD IN THE UNITED STATES
REFINERY. PRODUCTION OF GOLD. IN THE UNITED STATES, 1965-1969. •
INDUSTRIAL CONSUMPTION OF GOLD IN THE UNITED STATES, '
1965-1969 . . . .
IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF PROBLEMS CONCERNING GOLD
THAT WAS NOT RECYCLED IN 1969
RECOMMENDED ACTIONS, HIGH PRIORITY GOLD RECYCLING PROBLEMS .
SOURCES OF SILVER, 1965-1969 ......'...
SOURCES OF NEWLY MINED SILVER IN THE UNITED STATES,
1965-1969
INDUSTRIAL CONSUMPTION OF SILVER IN THE UNITED STATES,
1966-1969
IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF PROBLEMS CONCERNING SILVER
THAT WAS NOT RECYCLED IN 1969
RATIONALIZED FLOW OF SILVER IN INDUSTRIAL USES IN THE
UNITED STATES. 1969
RECOMMENDED ACTIONS, HIGH PRIORITY SILVER RECYCLING
PROBLEMS
SOURCES OF PLATINUM-GROUP METALS, 1965-1969 .....'...
REPORTED SALES OF PLATINUM GROUP METALS TO CONSUMING
INDUSTRIES, 1965-1969
REPORTED SALES OF PLATINUM GROUP METALS TO THE CHEMICAL
INDUSTRY, 1965-1969 . . .
REPORTED SALES OF PLATINUM GROUP METALS TO THE .PETROLEUM
INDUSTRY, 1965-l'969 ' \ .'."...'. :
REPORTED SALES OF PLATINUM GROUP METALS TO THE GLASS
INDUSTRY, 1965-1969 ....
REPORTED SALES OF PLATINUM GROUP METALS, TO THE ELECTRICAL
AND ELECTRONICS INDUSTRY, 1965-1969
REPORTED SALES OF PLATINUM GROUP METALS TO MINOR CONSUMING
INDUSTRIES, 1965-1969 .......
REFINERY OUTPUT OF RECYCLED PLATINUM GROUP METALS, 1965-
1969
Paee
18
21 .
23
38
48
53
58
6.2
74
86
94
97
103
.105
107
109
111
113
121
-------
Til
Till
TABLE
TABLE
TABLE
LIST OF TABLES (Continued)
21. RATIONALIZED FLOW OF PLATINUM GROUP METALS, ANNUAL
AVERAGES BASED ON 1965-1969
22. IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF QUANTITATIVE PROBLEMS OF
PLATINUM GROUP METALS RECYCLING
23. RECOMMENDED ACTIONS, HIGH PRIORITY PLATINUM GROUP METALS
RECYCLING PROBLEMS
TABLE A-l.
TABLE A-2.
TABLE A-3
AVERAGE SIZE OF PRECIOUS METALS SCRAP PROCESSORS, ANNUAL
TONS, BY REGION
AVERAGE SIZE OF PRECIOUS METALS SOLUTIONS PROCESSORS,
ANNUAL GALLONS, BY REGION •
AVERAGE SIZE OF PRECIOUS METALS SMELTERS, ANNUAL TROY
OUNCES, BY REGION • . . .
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE 1. APPROXIMATE ANNUAL FLOW OF GOLD, UNITED STATES .
FIGURE 2. APPROXIMATE ANNUAL FLOW OF SILVER, UNITED STATES
FIGURE 3. APPROXIMATE ANNUAL FLOW OF PLATINUM-GROUP METALS, UNITED
STATES
FIGURE A-l REGIONAL DISTRIBUTION OF PRECIOUS METALS REFINERS
Page
123
126
134
A-l
A-2
A-3
16
56
99
A-4
I )
PRECIOUS METALS RECYCLING
This report deals with problems and opportunities in the recycling of
gold, silver, and the platinum group metals, collectively known as precious metals.
To place recycling In its proper perspective, each segment of the precious
metals industry is analyzed briefly as to materials sources, materials flow,
markets for the metals, and demand-supply relationships.
In general, recycling of the precious metals has been well advanced
for a number of years. The metals are relatively high priced and domestic mine
sources in the United States have been unable to satisfy the demand for them.
Both factors have helped to stimulate recycling when the metal value was readily
recognized and economical to recover.
In broad perspective, the recycling of precious metals appears to be
related to the usages made of them. Traditionally, they have been prized for
their beauty and permanence for personal adornment, art, and household decoration.
Such products tend to have extensive useful life cycles, frequently spanning
generations, and their return to the recycle system is problematical. Since
World Uar II, increasing recognition has been made of the physical properties
of the precious metals that fit them to functional uses in industrial applications.
Here, the resulting products have finite life cycles measured in years and the
discarded products frequently can be salvaged for recycling of the precious metal
content. In all instances, though, the manufacture of products containing
precious metals results in unavoidable scrap and waste that is recycled promptly
at relatively high levels of recovery, averaging nearly 90 percent of that generated.
Problems associated with recycling of the precious metals are
difficult to rate In terms of priorities, but the principal opportunity appears
to lie In the salvage of discarded consumer goods and industrial equipment con-
taining the metals. * ->£•
•
-------
Gold . ,.- .„., . _ —,'•,; ;' •'••'•':
Between 1965 and 1969, consumption of gold in nonmonetary uses in the
United States rose from about 5.25 million troy ounces to:7.'10'million ounces,
averaging about 6.25 million ounces annually. Of this average.annual consumption, .
60 percent was used in the production of jewelry, art and decorative ware,
9 percent in dental applications, and 31 percent in industrial equipment and
devices. This contrasts with the traditional pattern of 75 percent for jewelry
and the arts, 10 percent for dental, and 15 percent for industrial that pertained
prior to 1958. Since then the reliability of performance provided by gold in
electronic equipment and components and -in space exploration hardware—as electrical
connectors, heat shields, and brazing alloys—has rapidly increased its usage in
the industrial sector. Concurrently, usage in jewelry in particular has out-
paced the rise in personal disposable income (the usual indicator), reflecting
'an'extended period of economic prosperity as'well as a shift in consumer
preference toward the richer gold alloys.
Between 195S and 1969, consumption of gold increased at an average
annual rate of 13.1 percent. The recessionary economy in 1970 arrested this
spectacular growth and indications are that growth in the first half of the
1970 decade may average no more than about 5 percent annually.
The present level of recycling of gold scrap and waste, both the*
prompt industrial return and salvaged consumer arid industrial products, supplies
about 29 percent of net nonmonetary consumption. An additional 25 percent is
.provided by domestic mine production of new gold and the balance comes from imports.
There is little prospect that domestic mining can furnish more than incremental
additions to supply at present price levels for gold and increases in the amount
4 £7
-------
of recycled gold will be difficult to achieve'. Thus, the United States will
continue to be dependent on Imports of gold to satisfy future demand levels.
Table I sunmarizes the problems and analyses of gold recycling. The
primary obstacle to better recycling of gold is the economic infeasibility
of collecting small quantities of gold-containing scrap from individuals or
from lean industrial sources. Consumer-oriented products usually have a
significant gold content (40 percent or more) but the recycling value to the
consumer is only a fraction of the value ascribed to the article and insuffi-
cient to motivate him to seek a market outlet except in special circumstances.
Accordingly, individual jewelry and art articles, if discarded, are more likely
to be consigned to trash dumps than to be returned to the recycle system.
Industrially-oriented products normally contain minor quantities of gold (less
than 1 percent), complicating Identification of gold values and necessitating
joint recovery of several salvageable values to be economically feasible.
Collection of electronic and industrial equipment scrap containing gold and
segregation techniques for ferrous, nonferrous, and precious metal scraps has
been feasible only in selected instances of geographic concentration of salvage
centers, for example, military salvage depots. Modest increases in the recycling
of old industrial gold scrap are possible but will depend on the identification
of geographic areas having high levels of equipment discard and the development
of efficient disassembly methods to permit segregation of components having gold
contents of 2 percent or more.
Because the present level of recycling appears to be approaching the
limit of economic feasibility, actions recommended to Improve it tend to fall
in the category of general promotion of the recycling concept. The principal
specific recommendation involves a continuation of training programs instituted
-------
TABtE I. IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF PROBLEMS CONCERNING GOLD THAT WAS NOT RECYCLED IN 1969.
Title
Prompt Industrial Scrap
Scrap Categories Where Some Gold Was Not Recycled
Industrial Wastes and Sweepings
Old Industrial Scrap
Old Consumer Scrap
Problem Manufacturing processes often
Definition generate unusable materials
In small volume in a number
of installations, often
these are contaminated and are
not recycled.
Polishing, buffing, plating
operations and metal melting
generate wastes with a small
gold content
The gold values are not
economic to recover.
Thus, acrap gold Is not
recycled.
Cold content of discarded
articles Is low, frequently
less than 1 percent
Nongold content Is variable,
usually other metals and
frequently plastics, paper,
and cloth
This Is a major area of gold
not being recycled.
Service life of consumer
goods dependent on factors
other than economics
Consumer's Ides of article value
to be scrapped Is much higher
than the materials cost
Individual article has small
amount of gold and' variable gold
content _
GOLD NOT
Recycled
100-150,000 ounces
annually
20-30,000 ounces annually
400,000 ounces annually
Unknown
Percent of
Available
GOLD ggT
Recycled
10
20
80
Unknown
1. Rate of recycling Is high
when scrap' csn be segregated
by alloy and. color
2. Segregation becomes difficult
when same worker has to handle
several alloys and different •
product forms In same day
Problem 3. Jewelry, arts, and .dental .
Analysis Industries have many'Small
shops with one or two pro-
duction workers.
4. In small shops, production of
saleable goods represents more
economic use of labor than
collecting scrap .
5. This Is not a promising area
because the economically re-
coverable scrap Is being
recovered . -
6. Institutional promotion by the
refining Industry Is desirable
to maintain level of recovery
now achieved
1. Gold content of wastes and
sweepings Is variable, from
0.1 percent to 5.0 percent
2. Balance of material has no
significant recovery value
3. Efficient collection Is dif-
ficult because of dilution
4.' This Is not s promising area
because the economically
recoverable waste la being
recycled .. ... .. s» .
S. Institutional promotion by
the refining industry is .
desirable to maintain level
of recovery now achieved
1. Aside from military salvage
depots no effective mechanism
exists for economic collection
of discarded equipment
2. Discarded equipment has variable
gold content—some none, others
up to 1 percent gross weight
3. Identification of gold-bearing
scrap is difficult at times
4. No effective processes exist
to treat bulk scrap for gold
recovery. -
S. Upgrading to recoverable gold
level is uneconomic unless
large volumes of scrap are
collected
6.' About two-thirds of economi-
cally recoverable gold Is
being recovered- . •'"
1. Some improvement is possible
via joint USBM-DOD programs
now underway
1. Consumer has little economic
incentive to recycle gold
unless a direct replacement
of an article is being made
2. Unreported recovery believed
to be substantial via small
manufacturing jeweler
3. No effective mechanism exists
to collect discarded articles
from individual consumers
4. Improvement In1 recycling
definitely possible but not
necessarily economic for
consumer
-------
by the U.S. Department of Defense and the U.S. Bureau of Mines for better ident-
ification of gold-cpntaining components of military scrap. Table II summarizes
the actions recommended.
Silver
Between 1966 and 1969, consumption of silver in nonmonetary uses in
the United States declined from about 184 million troy ounces to a level near
140 million ounces. Primarily, the decrease is attributable to erosion of
markets for silver in selected consumer-oriented products and photographic uses
accompanied by a lack of growth in industrial applications. Historically,
>. 4
photographic uses for silver have accounted for nearly one-third of annual
consumption, consumer-oriented products for about one-fourth, and industrial
applications for the balance of a little over 40 percent; In contrast to the
situation in gold, industrial applications for silver developed shortly after
World War II and appear to have matured technologically. Consumer-oriented
applications, especially silver-plated tableware and household furnishings
including mirrors, have suffered from substitution of alternative materials--
stainless steel and chrome plating in particular—and changes in life style with
respect to the home. But most of these negative factors are believed to have
reached a point where silver will be able to retain its share of expanding markets.
The outlook for silver in the 1970 decade is optimistic as soon as the
effects of the 1970 recession wear off. A recent study by the U.S. Bureau of
Mines projected overall growth for silver at a rate of 3.0 to 3.5 percent per year,
paralleling the increase in durable goods manufacture. This appears to be
reasonable as long as it is applied to 1970 as a base year to arrive at consumption
of 155 to 160 million ounces of silver in 1975.
-------
TABLE II. RECOMMENDED ACTIONS, HIGH PRIORITY GOLD RECYCLING PROBLEMS
Title
Prompt Industrial Scrap
Industrial Wastes and Sweepings
Old Industrial Scrap
Old Consumer Scrap
tions , . Recycling industry should
commended . continue promotional efforts
for collecting and recycling
small volumes of scrap.
Recycling industry itiouTd
.continue promotional efforts
for collecting, segregating
and using small volumes of
scrap with low gold content.
Recycling industry should
continue promotional and
training efforts to ensure
that scrap with low cold content
Is collected and recycled.
Recycling industry should
continue promotional efforts
to encourage ultimate consumer
. to turn in discarded articles.
Whom
(D(2)(3)
EPA/NASMI
EPA/NASMI
EPA/NASMI
EPA/NASMI
:ciflc
;ps
1. Continue institutional
advertising on Value of
scrap and 'probable cost
savings by recycling
1. Continue institutional
advertising on value of scrap
and probable cost savings by
recycling
1.
2.
3.
Continue institutional 1.
advertising on value of
scrap and heed to'recycle
to conserve resources
Support USBM-DOD training 2.
.programs for identification
and segregation of gold-
bearing scraps
Support .R&P eff.orts to
develop processing of gold-
bearing scraps to economic
recovery level
Continue institutional adve
tising on value of scrap an<
need to recycle to conserve
resources
Support efforts by service
clubs to act as collection
agencies for consumer scrap
I) The responsibility for recommended actions shown in this table 'are based on importance of the
action, benefit to the taxpayers, and opportunities for NASMI. They are the best judgments
of Battelle.
I) Recommended actions were distributed between high priority arid lower priority based on the
evaluation with three criteria.
i) It is suggested that NASMI continue its leading role in recycling, recognizing that other "
organizations such as the Bureau of Mines, Department of Commerce, Council of Environmental
Quality, HEW Office of Informal ion, and State, Local, and Federal Legislatures must be
involved.
-------
Currently, recycling of silver is at a high level from recent attempts
to improve its recovery from salvaged military and industrial equipment. When
annual consumption is about 140 million ounces, prompt industrial scrap should
be about 30 million ounces and old scrap, including photographic wastes,
would add an additional 30 million ounces. In 1968 and 1969 recycled silver
exceeded 90 million ounces or over 60 percent of total consumption. There are
reasons to believe that little improvement over this level can be achieved. An
additional 28 percent of consumption is supplied by domestic mine production of
new silver with the balance of about 12 percent derived from imports since the
U.S. Treasury Department ceased selling silver in 1970. Expansion of domestic
mine output is unlikely at recent silver prices and any increase in recycled
silver will be small so that imports will be needed to satisfy future demand levels.
Table III summarizes the problems of silver recycling. The primary
obstacle to better recycling of silver has been economics--the economics of
collection and segregation of old scrap from private and industrial consumers.
Consumer-oriented products — tableware and household decorations, jewelry,
dental and medical devices, and mirrors—are purchased with every intention of
keeping them for a lifetime. Accidental damage and normal wear produce small
quantities of scrap each year that is potentially available for recycling.
However, the individual consumer seldom bothers to determine the scrap value of
the single article he has unless it is sterling silver and he wants to replace
a piece in a set. Silver plated articles or jewelry are more apt to wind up in
the trash and disappear into a municipal dump.
Some industrial products have readily identifiable contents of silver
and a pattern of usage that encourages recycling. The U.S. Navy u.ses silver
batteries in submarine service and has organized the collection and recycling of
discards. Military electronic equipment with silver batteries and/or silver
-------
TABLE III. luKNI'lFICATIo:: A.NI) ANALYSIS OK 1'KOKI.KMS LI'XCIIHXISt. SII.VKK THAI WAS NOT RECYCLF.t' IN 14«9
Title
Problem
Definition
Silver 'HOT
Recycled
.Percent of
Available
Silver HOT
Recycled
Problem
Analyst*
Prompt Industrial Scrap
Manufacturing *proce»»e» often
generate 'unuacble material!
In email volume In a number •
of installations, often these
•re contaminated and are not
recycled.
1,500,000 ouncea annually
5
1. Recycling la at' a high
level'when scrap can 'be
aggregated by alloy and
and product form.
2. Small shops handling a
a few ouncea of allvcr
per day have difficulty
Industrial Wastes and Sweepings Old Industrial Scrap Old Consumer Scrap
Polishing, buffing, plating
operations and metal melting
generate wastes with a small
silver content. The silver values
are not economic to recycle.
Thus this scrap silver
la not recycled.
270,000 ounces annually . .
45
from'0.1 percent to 20.0
percent
2. Balance of material has
no 'significant recovery
value
Silver content of discarded
articles is variable
Low silver-content articles
usually have other metals,
sometimes nonmetalllc materials.
This is a major area where
silver is not recycled.
20-25,000,000 ounces
annually
33
1. Aside from military
salvage depots no
effective mechanism
exists for economic
collection of dis-
carded equipment
2. Discarded equipment
Service life of consumer
goods dependent on fac-
tors other than economics.
Consumer's idea of value
of article to be scrapped
Is mach higher than the
materials coat.
2-3,*000,000 ounces
annually
50
1. Consumer has little
economic Incentive
to recycle silver
unless a direct re-
placement of an
article la being
made
Photographic Scrap
Silver recoverable only
at certain stages which
occur at geographical ly
dispersed locations
Economic recovery possible
only at certain levels of
film processing or dispo-
sal
20-^5,000.000 ounces
annua I ly
50
from apent processing
solutions and dis-
carded film and prints
recovering silver
In'collecting scrap
economically 3.
3. Thla Is not a promising
area becauae the econo-
mically recoverable acrap 4.
Is being recovered
4. Institutional promotion
by the refining Industry
Is desirable to maintain S.
level of recovery now.
achieved
Efficient collection la
difficult because of
dilution
This Is not a promising
area because the econo-
mically recoverable waste
la being recycled
Institutional.promotion
by -the- refining i'ndustfry
la desirable to-malntaln
level of recovery now
achieved
7.
has-variable silver
content--some none,
others up to 60 per-
cent of gross weight
Identification of
silver-bearing scrap
Is difficult at times
No effective processes
exist to treat bulk
'scrapf for silver
recovery
Upgrading to 'recover-
able silver level Is
uneconomic unless
large volumes of
scrap are collected
About two-thirds of
economically recover-
able silver is being
recovered - -
Some Improvement is
possible via Joint
I'SBM-nOI) protir.ims
now underway
2. Some recovery Is
unrcportcd, probably '
from small manufac-
turing jewelers
3. No effective mecha-
nism exists to collect
discarded articles
from Individual
consumers
4. Improvement In re-
cycling definitely
possible but not
necessarily economic
4.
5.
6.
certain Governmental
users
Large volurae generator's
of discarded film and
prints also recover
silver effectively
Essential problem for
small user is the lack
of "incentive to co fleet
store, and recycle the
small quantities gen-
erated
About 80 percent of
economically recover-
able silver is being
recycled
Improvement is possible
and desirable hut con-
. .. suner apathy has to be
overcome
"i
-------
xvi
contact points is another example that accounts for recent increases in silver
recycling. But products such as silver bearings and silver brazing alloys
illustrate the situation of continuing loss to recycling because the silver
content of the discard is low (less than 5 percent by weight) and uneconomic to
collect.
Photographic wastes in processing solutions and used film and paper have
received concentrated attention in the past five years from the makers of photo-
graphic supplies who recognize the irreplaceable nature of silver in their
products. Recovery of silver probably has been doubled over that span by the
establishment of a network of collectors and processors of photographic wastes.
Virtually all the large and medium-sized users and processors of paper and film
are now covered for recycling and nearly half of the silver used by this industry
annually is now being recovered. At least one-third of annual silver consumption
in photography cannot be recovered because of economic considerations or archival
usage. The balance is potentially recoverable but a variety of logistical and
legal problems remain to be solved before recovery is accomplished.
Aside from photographic uses, the present level of recycling of silver
appears to be approaching the limits of economic feasibility. Actions recommended
thus tend to be general in character along the lines of promotion of the recycling
concept, including continuation of the programs underway by the U.S. Department
of Defense and the U.S. Bureau of Mines. The problems of photographic wastes
also merit general promotion of recycling to overcome user complacency as well as
legal action to permit federal governmental agencies, other than the Veterans
Administration, to deal with private industry for treatment of their photographic
wastes.
Table IV summarizes the actions recommended for easing the silver re-
cycling problems.
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TABLE IV. RECOMMENDED ACTIONS. HIGH PRIORITY SILVER RECYCLING PROBLEMS
Title
Prompt Industrial Scrap
Industrial Wastes and Sweepings
Old Industrial Scrap
Old Consumer Scrap
Photographic Scrap
Actions ' Recycling industry should
Recommended continue promotional efforts
for collecting and recycling
small volumes of scrap
Recycling Industry should
continue promotional efforts
for collecting, segregating
and using small volumes of
scrap with low silver content
Recycling industry should
continue-promotional and -
training efforts to ensure
that scrap with,low silver
content is collected and
recycled
Recycling Industry should
continue promotional *
"efforts to encourage
ultimate consumer to
turn in discarded
articles
Recycling industry shouli
continue promotional
efforts to ensure collection
and processing of photo-
graphic scrap
Legislation should be pro-
moted to allow Governmental
Installations to receive
credit for silver recovered
By When
EPA/NASMI
EPA/NASMI
EPA/NASMI
EPA/NASMI
EPA/NASMI
Specific 1. Continue 'institutional 1. Continue institutional 1. Continue Institutional
Steps advertising^ on value of advertising on. value of advertising on value of
scrap, and probable cost scrap. and probable cost scrap and need to re-
savings by recycling savings by recycling cycle to conserve
- s . • resources
•:.•'•• •..''•••' 2. Support' USBM-DOD.
'•••'.'•' training programs for
~ •'.'••'• identification and
1 segregation of silver-
. , bearing scrap
. " 3. Support R&D efforts
'.'-;» . to develop processing of
•''.'-• •_[• silver-bearing scraps to
•••••. ';' . . economic recovery level
I. Continue institutional
advertising on value
of scrap and need to
recycle to conserve
resources
• ' y "
2. Support efforts by
service clubs to act
as collection agen-
cies, for consumer
scrap
1. Continue institutional >
advertising on need to '
conserve resources' T
r
2. Sponsor legislation to
allow Government instal-
lations to use industrial
reclamation services and
receive credit for silver
recovered
3. Support 'efforts by ser-
vice clubs to act as
collection agencies for
photographic wastes
-
(1) The: responsibility 'for recommended "actions shown in this table are'based oh importance of tn'ie
action,..benefit to the taxpayers, 'and opportunities for NASMI. They are the best judgments
of. Bat te lie.. ., - .,. „ ... ., _. • . .,, : .. . .....
(2) Recornmended actions were distributed between high priority and lower priority based on the
evaluation,with three criteria. .
(3) It is-suggested tliat NASMI continue .its leading, role in recycling, recognizing that other
organizations such as the Bureau of Mines, Department of Commerce, Council of Environmental
Quality, HEW Office of Information, and State, Local, and Federal Legislatures must be
involved.
-------
xix
Platinum . •-.*••
Consumption of the platinum group metals in the United States is difficult
to pinpoint. Sales to consuming industries are reported annually but since about
1960 the amount of material that is refined for consumers on a toll basis has
been nearly equal to or above reported sales. For the 1965rl969 period, for
example, reported sales to industry averaged 1.38 million troy ounces annually
while toll refining yielded an average of 1.91 million ounces per year that also
was available to consumers. In view of this situation it is not.surprising to
find that more than 84 percent of reported sales were made to consumers who
applied the metals in industrial applications over which they had control. The
balance of 16 percent of reported sales went to producers of consumer-oriented
products such as jewelry and dental and medical devices. Nearly 54 percent of
the reported sales were of palladium, platinum accounted for 41 percent and
the remaining 5 percent was split among iridium, osmium, rhodium, and ruthenium.
The latter four are used predominantly as alloying agents with platinum or
palladium.
The electrical and electronics industry received nearly 39 percent of
reported 'sales in the 1965-1969 period, of which 80 percent was palladium. It
is used primarily in telephone switching relay contacts to assure reliability of
circuit connections for dial telephones. Platinum is used for contact points in
voltage regulators and other industrial control equipment and as the points for
aircraft sparkplugs.
The chemical industry received a little more than 28 percent of reported
sales, of which 52 percent was palladium and 42 percent was platinum. Both
palladiunu-and platinum are used as catalysts .for hydrogenation-dehydrogenation
reactions and platinum catalyzes the oxidation of ammonia to nitric acid.
Platinum also is fabricated into laboratory ware and corrosion resistant processing
equipment.
The petroleum industry received a little more than 12 percent of reported
sales, of which 88 percent was platinum. Platinum catalyzes reforming reactions
in hydrocarbons, an efficient way to increase the octane ratings in gasoline.
Other applications for the platinum group metals take advantage of
their resistance to corrosive environments at high temperatures, their strength
to weight characteristics and chemical inertness, their color and permanence, and
other physical properties.
The market outlook for the platinum group metals is hazy. Palladium,
long an undesirable byproduct, probably will be back to that status before 1980.
Central exchange relays are being replaced by semiconductor switching devices
to accommodate touch tone number selection systems. Complete conversion to
touch tone would eliminate a demand for at least 0.5 million ounces of palladium
per year. In the opposite direction, a bar. on lead in gasoline would create an
additional demand for platinum for reforming catalysts that could exceed 3.5
million ounces. There appears to be little prospect that lead in gasoline will
be phased out before 1975 and in the meantioe automobile manufacturers will be
adapting their engine designs to accept lover octane ratings in gasoline. If
both these conditions prevail, the need for added reforming capacity would be
moderated substantially and the new demand could be spread over several years as
the facilities are built. Expanding markets in other applications suggest that
overall, consumption of the group as a whole will remain in the vicinity of 1.0
'137
-------
'JOtl
'to 1.25 million ounces per year, through 1975 but shifting gradually toward - ' ' '
platinum and away from palladium. .-...•
As'mentioned 'earlier, recycling of the-platinum group metals is. practiced .
extensively although much of this material does not change ownership , in the . .
process. .Considering only the reported sales to consumers'.as( a measure of .
consumption, recycled material that is sold to refiners supplies a little-under
19 percent of annual average consumption and domestic mining contributes about
2 percent. The balance is imported. No significant improvement in the output
of the domestic mining industry is expected. A few small placer deposits in
Alaska are the only known domestic reserves of the .platinum group metals.'
Recycling, which may actually account for over 60 .percent of annual usage, already
is at a high level with respect to the amount of scrap generated and unlikely to .
experience significant improvement. -A'continued dependence on imports is projected.
In the absence of reliable data'on recycling of prompt industrial
and old scrap, a rationalized flow calculation indicates that.,consumers use
about 3.30 million ounces annually of the platinum group metals, return about
18 percent of this as prompt industrial scrap, and concurrently recycle old
scrap and wastes equivalent to 50 percent of consumption. Indications are that
less than 60,000 ounces of.the group.metals generated as prompt industrial scrap
miss being recycled, largely.because the generators handle such small quantities
of the metals that segregation of scrap is uneconomic. Similarly, the recycling
of old industrial scrap and waste is believed, to. include nearly all that is
economically recoverable and the consumers seldom relinquish control of the products
and can assure their recovery. Old consumer scrap may represent a modest opportunity
to increase recycling provided that the general public can be motivated to turn in
discarded articles instead of throwing them in the trash can.
. Tabie v identifies and analyses the platinum-group recycling problems.
The major obstacle to better recycling of the platinum group metals is economics,
the economics of collecting and segregating small quantities of scrap and waste -
from widely divergent locations, this applies to prompt industrial scrap, old
industrial" scrap, and old consumer scrap. A solution for this problem is
difficult to visualize. The high level of recycle for the platinum group
metals already' achieved limits recommended actions to the general promotion of
the recycling concept. " ' " ' '. . .
Table VI summarizes the recommended actions for platinum-group metals.
439
-------
TABLE V.
IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF QUANT1TATIVK PROBLEMS
OF PLATINUM GROUP METALS RECYCLING
xxili
Title
Prompt Industrial Scrap
Obsolete Scrap
TABLE VI.
RECOMMENDED ACTIONS, HIGH PRIORITY
PLATINUM GROUP METALS RECYCLING PROBLEMS
Problem Manufacturing processes
Definition generate unusable materials
in' small volume in a number
of installations that are often
contaminated and not recycled
Platinum
-NOT Recycled
Percent of
Available
Platinum NOT
Recycled
Problem
Analysis
Platinum content of discarded articles
frequently is low, usually masked by
other metals
Individual consumer goods articles
have small amount of platinum. Con-
sumer's idea of value of article is
much high than the materials cost
60,000 ounces
40,000 ounces
1. A very high percentage of
available scrap is recycled
2. Aside from accidental loss,
only small shops find it
uneconomic to recover
platinum
3, This is not a.promising area
because the economically
recoverable scrap is being
recovered
4. Institutional promotion by
the refining industry is
desirable to maintain level
of recovery now achieved
1. Recycling of obsolete industrial
scrap is high in spite of low
content of platinum at times
2. Recycling of discarded consumer
articles is economic only when
consumer turns article in
3. Consumer has little economic
incentive to recycle platinum
unless a direct replacement of
the article is being made
4. No effective mechanism exists to
collect discarded articles from
individual consumers
5. Unreported recovery via small
manufacturing jewelers believed
to exist
6. Minor improvement may be possible
without economic benefit to
consumer
Title
By
Specific
Steps
Prompt Industrial Scrap
Obsolete Scrap
Action
Recommended
Recycling industry
should continue
promotional efforts for
collecting and recycling
small volumes of scrap
Recyling industry should
continue promotional efforts
to encourage ultimate con-
sumer to turn in discarded
articles even in small
amounts
EPA/NASMI
EPA/NASMI
Continue institu-
tional advertising
on value of scrap
and probable cost
savings by re-
cycling
Continue institu-
tional advertising
on value of scrap
and need to recycle
to conserve re-
sources
(1) The responsibility for recommended actions shown in this table are based on
importance of the action, benefit to the taxpayers, and opportunities for
NASMI. They are the best judgments of Battelle.
(2) Recommended actions were distributed between high priority and lower prior-
ity based on the evaluation with three criteria.
(3) It is suggested that NASMI continue its leading role in recycling, recognizing
that other organizations such as the Bureau of Mines, Department of Commerce,
Council of Environmental Quality, HEW Office of Information, and State, Local,
and Federal Legislatures must be involved.
•Ml
-------
OITRODUCTION
In June, 1970, Battelle-Columbus undertook a research program for the
National Association of Secondary Material Industries, Inc. (NASMI). This work
was carried out under a subcontract from an Office of Solid Waste Management
grant to NASMI. This report on precious metals is one of a series of eight
commodity reports plus a general or summary report.
Background .
. The Office of Solid Waste Management is responsible for formulating
and recommending Federal Government policies in the area of solid waste pollution.
This includes pursuing appropriate research to determine the status and problems
of solid waste activities, and to develop programs to reduce solid waste pollution.
One approach to the reduction of solid waste pollution is to reclaim
waste materials for reuse - the recycling concept. A well established industry--
the secondary materials industry—exists to accomplish this recycling, NASMI is
the trade association representing the nonferrous metals, paper, and textiles
portion of this industry.
-------
The scrap processors, secondary smelters, and other companies that
sake up the secondary materials industry have developed effective channels and
nethods for recycling nearly all waste materials of economic value. These
companies have performed their difficult and essential functions well in the
traditional economic environment.
More recently additional dimensions have been added to this traditional
economic environment. These new dimensions are (1) improvement of the environ-
cent in which we live, and (2) increased need for conservation of natural
resources. These new dimensions provide new challenges and opportunities for
the recycling industry. No longer is economic gain the sole driving force for
recycling of waste materials. Social gain has been added in the forms of
inproved living conditions and preservation of resources for future generations.
In an economics-based nation this creates problems of interpretation and
evaluation of noneconomics-based goals and activities.
The purpose of this series of reports is to identify obstacles to the
recycling of nonferrous solid wastes, and to recommend directions for investiga-
tion and research to overcome these obstacles.
Objectives
The objective of the study on which this report is based was to •
identify opportunities for the Increased utilization of solid waste. The major
sub-objectives were:
(1) To determine the structure and functions of the secondary
materials industry, and its relationships to sources of
supply and markets
(2) To identify and evaluate problems of-recycling - materials,
sources, industry, and markets, and
(3) To determine opportunities for Increased recycling.
The major subjects included in the scope of the study are the secondary
materials industry, the materials it recycles, the sources of solid wastes, and
the markets for recycled materials. Activities peripheral to these major
subjects are considered where pertinent to recycling.
The materials included in the study are:
Aluminum Nickel and Nickel Alloys
Copper and Copper Alloys Precious Metals (Silver, Gold and Platinum)
Lead Paper
Zinc . Textiles
Research Methods
The methods and procedures used in the study are discussed under four
types of activities. They include (A) literature search, (B) extensive survey,
(C) in-depth survey, and (D) analysis and synthesis.
Literature Search
The literature search included reviewing and studying books, Government
reports, industry reports, and trade journals covering solid waste handling and
problems, recovery and market data, and recycling of valuable materials.
The results of this effort included the accumulation of data and
descriptive material, and an organized bibliography dealing with each of the
commodities covered in the scope of the study.
-------
Extensive Survey ••
The extensive survey of the secondary materials industry consisted of
a mail survey and personal interviews with management personnel of companies
involved with the collection, processing, and sale of secondary materials.
About 600 responses were received. ... ._.'.,.
The information developed through the extensive survey included dollar
sales, tons of major materials handled, types of solid waste processed, sources
of materials, investment, equipment and facilities, number of employees, the
amount of space used, and the grades and quantities of secondary materials
produced. .
• .,' • The data from the extensive survey provided statistical tabulations of
the regional distribution of the secondary materials industries by type of
commodity in terms of numbers of establishments, volume of business, and numbers
of employees.
In-depth Survey ' . ~ • •
Ttie in-depth survey of selected members of the secondary materials
industries, their suppliers, and the users of their products served to identify
-•-,.- .• . • i •• " • ..•• * . -.- - .
the major techni'cal and economic problems facing those companies involved with
secondary material utilization. About 200 interviews were completed. Battelle
and NASMI commodity specialists jointly selected the companies to be interviewed
in depth.
Interview guides for each of the commodities were prepared. The
problems and'potential1 solutions for greatest recycling and waste utilization
that were developed from the literature search'and prior Office of Solid Waste
Management work plus the knowledge of the NASMI commodity specialists provided
the basis .for designing the interview guide. Sample guides are reproduced in.
the Appendix.
Analysis and Synthesis
The analysis and synthesis step was concerned with the collation and
.analysis of data and information derived from both the literature, .extensive
survey, .and .in-depth survey. The analysis and synthesis activity covered the
following tasks: . •
(1) Economic Data on the Secondary Materials Industries. The
economic data developed.through,the extensive survey of the.
secondary materials industries were tabulated and analyzed as .
to the amount and type of solid waste handled and .as to
operational data such as number of employees, amount of
space required,,capitalization, and geographic locations.
(2) Flow Diagrams and Life Cycles. Flow diagrams were.developed
to indicate the flow of materials' from primary production
and scrap sources through fabrication. Life cycle estimates
of various products were used to develop data on quantities
. • available for possible recycling. .
(3) Demand-Supply Relationships. Estimates were made of future
demand and supply levels for .secondary materials. The rela-
tipnship between these data provide an indication of potential
'surpluses or shortages of. recycled materials through 1980. ,..;
(4) Stability of Flow and Consumption. This analysis is closely
related to the supply-demand analysis described above and:'~
identifies the ability of the various secondary materials to
-------
compete as source materials for manufacturers. A number of
factors were examined such as price changes In the secondary
materials, the availability of materials, and the effect of
sudden changes in the magnitude of demand.
(5) Direct Impacts of Technological Change. Direct technical and
technological factors were examined to determine their effect
on rates of processing and recycling. Potential changes that
could take place in technology that could decrease or increase
the rate of solid waste recovery were examined. This Includes
'"' • ' • ' •••'
the identification of potentially "recoverable solid wastes,
the problems limiting the recovery to current levels, and the
possibilities of technical advances through the use of known
technology or through added scientific and engineering research.
(6) Constraints on Expansion of the Secondary Materials Industries.
This analysis included consideration of elements critical to
expansion of recycling - labor and management availability,
laws and regulations, equipment availability, nature of solid
waste materials, market needs, etc.
(7) Potentials for Expansion of the Secondary Materials Industries.
Based on the constraints identified in the above task, plus
examination of various methods for overcoming constraints,
this task determined the ability of the secondary materials
Industries to meet new opportunities for recycling.
(8) Indirect Technological Change. The broad overall technological
trends Indirectly affecting the secondary materials industries
were examined, and their probable impacts determined.
4-18
-------
-8
-.' •:•'•_: The Gold Industry .
Characteristics of Gold
"HOre than any other metal, gold lias symbolized the dreams and
.aspirations, as well as the greediness, of man. Since the start of recorded
history, it has been held in high esteem for its beauty and workability, and
the quest for the yellow metal has continued down to the present day"*. Its
permanence and density are contributing factors to the role it still plays in .
international monetary circles both legal and otherwise. But of chief interest
to this study are the properties of gold that account for its Industrial usage.
Gold is the most malleable and ductile of the metals. It is a good
conductor of heat and electricity. It resists attack by common chemical
materials or atmospheric components. It alloys readily with silver, the
platinum group metals, copper, lead, zinc, nickel, and mercury, and can be
tailored to a range of colors without serious loss of.tarnish resistance.
Although its principal nonmonetary applications traditionally have been in the
fields of personal adornment, art, and decoration, gold's physical properties
have been exploited Increasingly in recent years In strictly utilitarian appli-
cations in industrial equipment and technologically sophisticated hardware for
communication devices and space exploration. .-
Gold is widely disseminated in the earth's crust, occurring in virtually
all the geologic, rocks.known but at very low concentrations. By unknown . .
mechanisms, it appears to have been concentrated to some degree in.base metal
sulfide ores where it still exists as the native metal. 'During the erosion
and weathering of mountain ranges, it has been further concentrated in alluvial
basins from which it could be recovered by placer mining. Although more abundant
than silver, commercially exploitable deposits have been relatively small in
*Anonymous, "Gold — symbol of excellence, measure of wealth,"
Metals Week. Vol. 39 (40), 11 (Sept. 30, 1963)
'
gold'content and size. One authority has estimated that world production of :-
gold to the year 800 A.D. totaled not more than 3.75 million ounces, a quite
minor amount in view of the 2.5 billion plus ounces mined since the discovery
of the'Americas. The point is that gold is relatively scarce and currently
known commercial deposits have limited production potentials. However, the
gold that is mined is seldom lost Irretrievably although it may disappear
from the market place.
Newly mined gold is prepared for use by refining to base bullion, an
impure form containing a minimum of 90 percent gold. The common form for
marketing is refined bullion that is 99.5 percent pure gold, but other commercial
grades are available up to 99.99 percent pure. For jewelry and other decorative
uses, gold alloys are identified by the gold content on a classification system
based on "karat", a term meaning a 24th part. ' Pure gold is 24 karat (kt);
coronon jewelry alloys are 22 kt (91.6 percent gold), 18 kt (75 percent),
14 kt (58.4 percent), and 10 kt (41.7 percent).
Gold Alloys. Pure gold is so ductile and soft that it has few
significant applications. The bulk of the materials Issued to industrial
users consist of alloys of gold that have been tailored to specific applica-
tions with respect to color, hardness, workability, and price.
Pure gold is required for the production of gold leaf. The art of
making this product in the United-States is.confined.to•two-companies that
have automated the process and five aging artislans who still use hand beating
methods. Simplified, a gold coupon, 1 1/4 Inches square and one thousand of an
inch thick is beaten out to a sheet about 4 1/2" x 4 1/2"; the sheet is quartered
and each quarter is again beaten out, the resulting sheets again quartered and
rebeaten. The original area has been expanded by a factor of 64 and the final
-------
10
leaf Is about 1/200,000 inch thick. In spite of the apparent fragility of gold
leaf It retains its appearance for many years when applied to statues or building
domes exposed to the atmosphere.
A wide variety of gold alloys find applications in jewelry, art,
dentistry, and strictly industrial uses. The most common jewelry alloys are
identified as to gold content by a classification system based on the "karat,"
a term meaning a 24th part. Jewelry alloys start at 22 karat (kt) or 91.6
percent pure gold and range down to 10 kt or 41.7 percent pure gold. From
18 kt to 10 kt, alloys may be prepared that are reddish yellow, yellow (like
pure gold), greenish yellow, or white. In addition, malleability can be
controlled to better suit a number of different fabrication techniques and
tempered to provide varying degrees of work handening. A detailed elucidation
of jewelry alloys would be inappropriate here. The yellow colored alloys
usually contain gold, silver, copper, and zinc. For the white colored alloys,
nickel replaces the silver.
Dental alloys may have a range of gold content from 60 percent to
92.5 percent. Varying proportions of silver, copper, platinum, palladium, and
zinc account for differences in workability to accomodate the various operations
performed by .the dentist or dental laboratory. The softest alloys contain
between 80 and 92.5 percent gold while the hardest are based on 60 to 70 percent
gold.
Gold alloys are available in a variety of forms to suit the subsequent
fabrication technique. Sheet and strip are provided for stamping and blanking
operations, tubing for roll forming, wire for chain manufacture and assembly
buildup, and grain for casting. In addition to these solid gold mill products,
gold alloys are clad on base metals for sheet, strip, tubing, and wire for
S)
11
selected end-use products in the field of art and decorative applications.
"Gold filled" is the designation for materials consisting of a karat gold layer
on base metal in which the gold represents l/20th or more of the total weight
of the composite. "Rolled gold plate" is used to designate composite materials
in which the karat gold layer is less than l/20th of the total weight. Federal
Trade Commission regulations require that consumer goods articles be stamped to
identify them as gold filled or rolled gold plate and that the marking include
the karatage of the gold layer and, in the case of rolled gold plate, the ratio
of the gold layer to total weight (i.e., 1/40 10K gold rolled plate).
Special Alloys. Brazing alloys are formulated to give a desired bond
strength. Jewelry brazes need rather low bond strength and seldom contain more
than 30 to 35 percent gold. Jet engine brazes require high bond strength and
a much higher percentage of gold (70 to 80 percent) to assure the metallurgical
bond. Alloying elements include silver, copper, and nickel.
"Liquid Gold," used in the decoration of glass and ceramics, and Cor
microcircultry consists of 22 kt gold powder suspended in a varnish-type vehicle.
After application, the article is fired in a kiln which converts the gold to a
thin adherent film that is decorative or electrically conductive.
Gold Compounds. The principal gold compounds are plating salts.
Substantial improvement in the speed of deposition, integrity of the deposited
film, and finish appearance have been achieved in the past few years with
proprietary bath formulations and complete plating systems. The major suppliers
of plating salts offer extensive technical service as well as system design and
engineering and equipment.
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12
Legal Considerations. It is Illegal for a private individual in the
United States to own or hold gold other than a limited number of coins,
commemorative medals, or manufactured articles. . ..' -
Because of monetary considerations, the United States Government
maintains a measure of control on gold by.requiring that producers, refiners,
dealers, and consumers be licensed and report their gold .transactions and -
stocks. Exceptions are made only for those that handle less than 50 ounces at
any given time and less than 350 ounces in any monthly period.
Characteristics of the Gold Industry
Materials Sources. In the United States, gold is mined from place!
and lode deposits and recovered as a by-product in the refining of copper,
lead, and zinc. Additional supplies are available from the refining of foreign
ores and base bullion as well as from consumer and Industrial products containing
gold that are scrapped for salvage. Further, until March 1968, the U. S.
Treasury Department was authorized to sell any excess gold it was holding
(that is, not needed for the legal support of currency). These sources
frequently were insufficient to satisfy nonmonetary demands in this country
and imports of refined bullion from other countries were needed. . .
Domestic mine production of gold in the United States peaked in 1940
Jith an output of a little more than 4.8 million ounces. During World War II
a number of lode gold mines were closed to divert the mining manpower to more
critical needs and many of them have never been reopened. After the war,
steadily rising costs for operations and exhaustion of deposits contributed to
13
a long-term decline in the output of new domestic gold. ' In contrast to this
situation, world production of gold has been increasing rather regularly since
1944, lead by South Africa and Russia to a level of about 46 million ounces.
Table 1 presents the recent (1965-1969) production of gold in a number of
important producing countries, refinery production in the United States from '
both primary and secondary sources, and U. S. imports and exports of unrefined
and refined gold. The increases in South Africa and Russia barely compensate
for declines in other areas that are suffering from the same economic squeeze
that is evident in the United States.
Refinery production in the United States after 1966 has to be
estimated since the Bureau of the Mint no longer does refining for private
Industry. Growing industrial consumption suggests an increase in recycled
scrap, especially in 1969 when the free market in gold rose to over S44 per ounce.
Import data probably represent a close approximation of the quantities
channelled to refiners (ore and base bullion) and into industrial markets
(refined bullion). Not too many countries settle international trade deficits
with the United States by sending us gold. However, our exports of refined gold
reflect almost completely international monetary transactions rather than
commercial trade in gold.
Materials Flow. In recent years, the Office of Docestic Gold and Silver
Operations, in the Treasury Department, has collected and published data relating
to the flow of gold to industrial consumers and back to refiners for reprocessing.
No attempt has been made by this or any other official agency to determine the
quantitative relationships between supply and demand for gold or the details of
receipts by and returns from specific consuming industries. Through 1967, the
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published statistics showed net industrial consumption, determined by the total
quantity issued less the total quantity returned for reprocessing, and an
estimated allocation of net consumption to broad classes of consumers. The
cycle obviously includes scraps, wastes, and sweepings generated by manufacturing
industries in the course of their conversion of gold received into saleable
products as well as old scrap reentering the cycle after use by ultimate consumers
But differentiation between these two sources of recycle materials is difficult
because the manufacturing industries usually receive the salvaged consumer scrap
and combine it with their own conversion scrap for delivery to a refiner. Thus
the exact quantities of salvaged old scrap are unknown although they represent
a net addition to supply in any given year.
Based on reported statistics for the 1965 to 1969 period and prior
Battelle studies of the gold industry, Figure 1 presents an approximate annual
flow of gold in industrial uses in the United States. A total of 8.090 million
ounces of gold was issued to industrial consumers in addition to which they
apparently received 0.320 million ounces in salvaged scrap from consumers. Of
these gross receipts, 1.820 million ounces were returned to refiners for
reprocessing while 6.590 million ounces were incorporated into saleable or
usable products in circulation.
The quantity issued is estimated to have originated from 3.720 million
ounces processed by refiners and 3.110 million ounces of imported refined bullion,
of which 0.560 milli'on ounces represents a net addition to refiners' and importers
stocks to balance reported net consumption of 6.270 million ounces.
It should be noted that the flow diagram shown does not include any
allowance for gold reprocessed by refiners for consumers on toll. Refiners
contacted during this study admitted that toll refining of gold is increasing
since the two-tier pricing system was instituted in 1968. The magnitude of this
4-6
-------
16
Impor ted .Ores and-
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New Domestic Ores
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crop 485
crop 75
Alloys Available
' to'Denfai Use*
Refinery Production
. 3720
Refined Metal and
' Semimanufactures
Available to Industrial
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u
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Available to Jewelry and Art Uses
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Into
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Additional' Inventory. Held by
Industrial and Private Consumers'
FIGURE 1. APPBOXIMATE ANNUAL FLOW OF GOLD. UNITED STATES
(Based on 1965-1969 data, in thousands'of troy ounces)
Battelle Columbus Laboratories
1
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17
facet of .the recycling' industry is indeterminable from the information received
for this study but is believed to be relatively minor and would influence only
refinery production since'stocks held by consumers are not accounted for in the
.flow diagram presented. . . .
Gold Producers. The producers of gold in the United States consist
•of mining companies and refiners with some organizations performing both functions.
Newly mined gold is produced from placer deposits, lode deposits
containing primarily gold and silver, and base metal mines for copper, lead, and
zinc having recoverable gold. Table 2 presents the production of gold from
various types of mines in the 1965-1969 period. Placer mining is declining
because of exhaustion of known deposits and rapidly rising labor costs and may
soon disappear as a significant source in this country.
Gold lode ores predominantly originate from three large mines that
have been able to minimize labor cost increases by mechanization of mining. The
roster of small lode mines is decreasing steadily because of economic factors.
Homestake Mining Company's deep deposit at Lead, South Dakota, has been the
largest single gold producing property in the United States in recent years.
This operation produces nearly 600,000 ounces of gold annually and recent
development at very deep levels indicates that this mine may have a productive
life'of 6 to 10 years yet. Carlin Gold Mining Company initiated a large open
pit operation in 1965 at Eureka, Nevada, to tap reserves of about 11 million tons
of ore containing 0.32 ounces of gold per ton. Peak production was in 1967 with
an output of 337,000 ounces but the last several years have been lower because
of lower grade ore being treated. The third largest mine is the Lander, Nevada,
openpit operation of American' Exploration and Mining Company which began operation
in 1969.
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Gold recovery from base metal mining depends on the level of operation
of these properties ar.d the concentration of gold in the ores which ranges
from 0.001 ounces to 0.385 ounces per ton. Electrolytic refining of copper,
lead, and zinc yield slimes with a high content of gold and silver that are
readily treated for recovery of the precious metals. Copper accounts for an
average of more than 82 percent of annual gold output from the base metals.
Current expansions, especially in Arizona and New Mexico, should boost gold
recovery from copper over the 600,000 ounces per year level. Among the top
25 gold producing tines (that accounted for 97.6 percent of total production),
13 were copper mines, 2 were copper-lead-zinc mines, and 2 were lead-zinc mines.
The gold refining industry until 1968 consisted of a handful of companies
dealing with base metal recovery circuits, a group of 10 to 15 companies treating
recycled scraps, ar.c the U.S. Bureau of the Mint. The latter did virtually
all the upgrading of new gold bullion to refined bullion since tolling charges
by the Mint were lover than those imposed by private refiners. Since the Mint
withdrew from toll refining, a number of the private refiners have added silver-
gold parting circuits and refined bullion casting equipment. The current refining
industry is believed to be capable of handling between 6 and 8 million ounces
of .gold per vear from all sources--new domestic mine production, imported ores and
base billion, and recycled scrap.
Among the companies dealing with new mine production, Komestake Mining,
Kennecott Copper Company, The Anaconda Company, American Smelting and Refining
Company, and American Metal Climax are important factors. Engelhard Industries
and Handy and Karcan are the largest of the refiners of scrap, followed by (in
alphabetical order) American Chemical and Refining Company, Joseph Behr & Sons.
Cincinnati Gold J. Silver Refining Company,Eastern Smelting & Refining Company,
-------
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Martin Metals,Pease and Cuirren, Sabin Metal Corporation, Sel-Re'x'Corporation, -
Simmons Refining Company, Sltkln Smelting and Refining, Spiral Metal Company,
United Refining and Smelting, and Wlldberg Brothers Smelting and Refining.
Any of these are believed to be able to''handle •aay''materlal'ylth'a'.gold content
of more than 2 or 3 percent. A few are capable of handling more dilute materials,
for example sweepings and wastes. .•'•:• • ' • "
Table 3. presents'rep'orted refinery '"production, of newly.mined gold .
from domestic ores, and Battelle estimates of refinery production from Imported
ores and base bullion and from purchased recycled materials. The yield from •
Imported ores and base bullion has been calculated at 96.75 percent-of the gold
content of Imports for the given year, the historic basis for-determining the
price to be paid for such materials. The estimates of output'from recycled
materials does not include any allowances for process losses. Thus,'the
total represents the quantity of gold available from refiners for sale to In-
dustrial consumers or licensed dealers.
Markets for Gold
Historically, consumer-oriented applications have accounted for more
than two-thirds of the gold consumed annually in the United States. Jewelry
represented the largest market segment followed by art and decorative uses and
dental applications. Gold is valued in these markets for its aura of affluence"
as well as for Its beauty and durability. The strictly utilitarian applications
for gold in Industrial products'have gained prominence only since World War'II
with the development of sophisticated technology in electronics, aviation, and ,
space exploration. ' - ." - .
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22
Immediately after World War II, Industrial consumption of gold In
the United States spurted to new highs as economic prosperity continued
without a post war depression. The buying public had disposable funds and
jewelry was an outlet for this pent-up purchasing power. From 1946-1950,. average
annual net industrial consumption was nearly 2.6 million ounces. In the
-^'
succeeding decade this fell to an annual average slightly under 2 million'
ounces as consumer buying returned toward normal patterns, with a definite
upsurge In the final years of the period. Consumption In 1960 was 3 million
ounces, advanced to 4.2 million ounces In 1964 and then continued to rise, as
shown -in Table 4.
Between 1934 and 1968, the price of gold In the United States was
fixed at $35 per ounce by the U.S. Government. When.the Treasury Department
.withdrew from refining and the purchase of newly mined gold in March 1968, a
free market in gold was created. Speculators and Investors In foreign countries
forced prices upward during 1968 and 1969 until the problem of how South Africa
would market its current production was solved. At the peak, gold prices in
Paris and Zurich exceeded $45 per ounce and rose In the United States to a high
of $44.25 per ounce on March 10, 1969. The establishment of Special Drawing
Rights (SDR) in the International Monetary Fund and resumption of sales to free
markets by South Africa restored confidence in the continued availability of .gold
for Industrial uses and prices declined to the level of $35 to $37 by. year end.
Minor fluctuation in 1970 toward $39 per ounce reflected short-term availability
of industrial supplies in the face of declining demand in the United States.
To date, the price of gold has had relatively little influence on
demand for the metal in nonmonetary applications. In the major consumer-oriented
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24
of gold in the final product determine the decision to buy. In industrially-
oriented uses, gold .provides vital functionalities that are. attainable with
substitute materials only after costly research, engineering, and development.
;Price fluctuations since '1968 undoubtedly have intensified efforts to reduce
the quantity of gold needed in industrial applications—efforts initiated when
the price of gold was controlled—but where functionality is involved it will
continue to be used until a much higher.price level is reached and held...
Jewelry. Gold is consumed in the'manufacture of rings, pins, brooches,
earrings, bracelets, necklaces, cuff links, tie pins, and other articles of
•personal adornment. All the forms of gold provided by refiners except. leaf and
pastes and suspensions find applications, led by casting "alloys, sheet--and
: strip, and tubing. 'Casting is an economical-means of manufacturing class rings,..
complex pins and'necklace parts, and1 mounting'bases-for stones. Stamping and
blanking of sheet and strip are used for mounting1 bases for stones,;bracelet and
necklace parts, earrings, and cuff links. Roll'forming of tubing Is used for
wedding bands and shanks for ladles fashion rings and men's-rings.
An important share of the growth*of gold in jewelry since 1958 has to
be attributed to the-popularity of class rings for college and .secondary1'school.
students. This rapidly growing market is served by Investment casting of 10 karat
alloys in a range of colors. An Individual ring may contain up to half an-ounce of
10 karat alloy, about $7.worth of gold in an-article retailing for $18 to $25. .
One general trend in 'the jewelry industry''is worth noting;- a gradual
swing'.to'the alloys of higher gold content. Through the;1950's, about*,75 percent
of the gold used by the industry'was.issued in the form of 10 karat alloys. .The
12 karat, 14 karat,-and 18 karat alloys were found only in more expensive pieces
25
whose appeal was based primarily on design considerations rather than intrinsic
value. During the 1960's, the proportion of 12 karat and 14 karat jewelry
increased to-the point that they now account for over half of the gold used.
Further, there is evidence that 18 karat usage is about to grow substantially,
possibly as a result of American consumers' exposure to European jewelry which
uses this karatage extensively. Overall, this trend toward the better grade
alloys may account partially for increasing.gold consumption since 1958 but
Its impact is difficult to assess in'comparison•to growth-of-the total market
for jewelry related to population or to expansion of the value of the jewelry
•market from-inflationary;factors.
.The Arts. This category includes a variety of uses for gold. Gold
leaf is used for architectural decoration, on statuary, and .for book gilding.
Karat gold,.;gold clad materials, and plated gold in strip and wire.form are used
to fabricate pens, pencils, lipstick cases, watch bands, watch cases, spectacle
. parts, and trophies. Gold suspensions and pastes are used to decorate dlnnerware,
drinking glasses, glass bottles, and household furnishings of glass and ceramic.
This category of gold consumption has had a slow rate of growth in
recent years because of the substitution of nongold containing materials for
economic as well as fashion reasons. Some facets, such as -gold.leaf, actually
have .declined from.the incursion of metallized plastics and.surface treated
"metals such as'-anodized"aluminum. However,-gold-.retains its share of: these
markets based on its automatic association with quality for appearance and
durability. . .
Dental Applications. Gold is unaffected.by body fluids and is
accepted^as a.permanent repair for tooth decay in fillings, Inlays, caps, and
-------
26
crowns or as supports for artificial teeth In bridges. Casting alloys"
constitute the most used form of gold although leaf and wire have specialized
applications.
Dental technology and patient preference determine the amount of gold
used in dentistry. Recently, dental technology has been swinging toward the
retention of natural teeth for as long as possible which increases the
opportunity to use gold. Further, certain ethnic groups in American society
prize gold for its Inferrence of affluence as represented by caps and crowns.
Both factors contribute to growing markets for dental gold.
Industrial Applications. Gold is used industrially for electrical
contacts, electronic components and conductors, for braze joining of machine
components exposed to high temperatures, and as protective coatings for
equipment components. About 70 percent of the gold consumed in industrial
uses is applied by plating on base metal substrates. Brazing alloys are the
next largest form, followed by suspensions and pastes, wire, and sheet and strip.
The corrosion resistance and electrical conductivity of gold assure
its place in separable connectors and sockets for low-current, moderate voltage
electronic circuits that operate at low signal levels. Reliability of circuit
r
operation is critical and the choice of metals for contact points is gold or
platinum or the alternative of nonseparable contacts. For the highest levels
of reliability, gold button contacts are used but the usual solution Is gold
plated contacts. While the number of such contacts has been increasing rapidly
in the past five years, gold consumption has not kept pace because manufacturers
have continued to refine their plating techniques to be more and more selective
of the areas where gold Is applied. The trend is toward plating only the potential
27
contact surfaces which may represent 5 to 10 times as much area as that
involved in the actual mating contact surfaces. Further Improvements may
involve redesign of connectors, an expensive procedure. These connectors are used
with electronic equipment such as computers and calculators and semi-portable
communications equipment, for example plug-in telephones.
Other uses for gold in electronics include plating of semiconductor
conponents for heat dissipation, conduits on printed circuit boards and micro
circuit assemblies, and electroformed thick films and wave guides. Lead wires
for semiconductors and electron tubes frequently are gold wire. Brazing alloys
make electrical connections in circuit boards and miniature and micro circuitry.
Jet engines for aircraft represent a significant market for brazing
alloys outside the electronics field. The large jet engines now in use may
contain 20 to 30 ounces of gold to attach seals and manifolds. Even more
spectacular is the usage of gold brazing in the rocket engines for Saturn
launchers. To cool the thrust chamber, fuel and oxidizer on the way to the
engine are routed through tubes brazed to the outside of the chamber. The
limited number of Saturn engines built keeps this application in the minor category.
Suspensions and pastes are used to form heat reflective shields for
engine shrouds on certain military aircraft, for face masks and other protective
equipment for steel workers, for communications satellites, and for cryogenic
equipment and jet thrusters on space exploration vehicles. None of these require
substantial quantities of gold for individual items but no direct substitute has
been discovered.
Gold finds applications in chemical laboratory ware, bolometers, X-ray
targets, rayon spinnerets, and in specialized gasketlng materials.
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28
Market Outlook ' """-.•.".'
The National Materials Advisory Board* recently projected net
industrial gold consumption for 1973 at 8.761 million ounces, an increase of
2 million ounces over their 1968 estimate. This corresponds, to an average'
annual growth rate of 5.3 percent which agrees favorably with projections made
by Battelle in previous studies^ of the gold industry, assuming a .price no
higher than about $43 per ounce. .Preliminary indications are that 1970 will
fall below the trend line projection because of the stagnation of industrial
expansion in this country. Similarly, recovery in 1971 appears to be slower
than expected and a new base for expansion may be appropriate. Unless the
American and world economies return soon to the annual growths considered to
be normal, it is probable that gold consumption may not approach the 8.5 million
ounces level until 1975 or later.
Prospects for increasing the domestic mine production of gold are not
encouraging unless a drastic rise in price is experienced. This latter condition
appears unlikely in view of the continued commitnent of the United States
Government to the $35 per ounce price. Although domestic mining and recycling of
scraps and wastes will not supply annual demand in the United States, Free World
production of new gold will exceed industrial demand and the U.S. deficit can be
met by imports. Undoubtedly, the free market price will-be higher than the
monetary standard set by the United States but levels exceeding $50 per ounce are
not anticipated through 1975 in the absence of disruptive political situations.
*Anonymouns, "Trends in Usage of Gold", NMAB-254, National Research Council,
National Academy of Sciences - National Academy of Engineering, Washington, B.C.
September 1969, p 14
29 .'-••--
The Gold Recycling Industry
' Characteristics of Secondary Gold "''•
Refined secondary gold is undistinguishable from any other refined gold.
The value of gold-containing materials, be they recycled scraps and wastes or
newly mined concentrates and byproduct recoveries, is based on the gold content
with suitable deductions to process it to refined bullion. If the gold value of
recycled, materials is less than the value of nongold components they are more
likely to be reprocessed for the other values without credit for the gold and it
may be lost or disappear for years in other material's flow cycle.
Gold-bearing scraps and waste are paid for on the basis of gold content,
determined by analytical tests, and the market price for gold on the day that the
refined product is available for sale. Processing charges and adjustments for
.'.. ....'. i .-..,.>, ' . '.. * . . - , • . •„ >".-••..!.
processing losses are deducted from the total value in settling payments.
Depending on the type of scrap or waste, the reprocessing cycle may require up
to four weeks, an unavoidable delay in settling accounts between seller and buyer.
Aside from the dealer-processors and refiners there are no markets for
recycled gold. The requirement of the Federal Trade Commission for karat
identification of jewelry alloys effectively forces gold users to know the chemical
analysis of the alloys they purchase and gold refiners to separate the constituents
.1*3 . ... A...V -. • ; ' v-,^.4. #.. 1 . ^.i . .. ^fi^Or«..-3 5^1 V.-'V. ::.%*•*.-.,. ".• ' *•
of scrap to assure meeting karat standards. In special circumstances of well
segregated scrap of known 'alloy composition, a dealer-processor or refiner may
remelt and readjust composition without going through the complete separation of
constituents. In this case, the reprocessing charge is adjusted to reflect the
minimal work involved.
'1.0
-------
30
31
Refined secondary gold must meet all the specifications for refined
bullion. It therefore commands a price equivalent to that for newly refined
gold. This is accepted by consumers who do not inquire about the origin of the
gold when making purchases.
Characteristics of the Gold Recycling Industry . .
Materials Sources. Gold-containing materials for recycling consist of
scraps, wastes, and sweepings. Scraps usually originate from the fabrication of
products or component parts by metal working techniques and retain the essential
characteristics of the original metal with respect to gold content and form.
Wastes result from secondary metal finishing operations (such as grinding or
polishing) on metallic products or component parts, or from residues associated
with electroplating, operations or the manufacture of brazing alloys or suspensions
and pastes. Generally, the gold content of wastes is substantially lower than
the materials supplied to the consumers. Sweepings consist of gold-containing
residues resulting from cleanup operations in shops or factories where gold is
used. The gold content usually is low (1 percent or less) and the balance of
the material collected has essentially no recoverable value. Some shops make a
practice of burning sweepings to remove combustible materials and concentrate
the gold content so that reprocessing charges are lower.
Discarded and obsolete products containing gold usually consist of
metallic items in which the gold is readily identifiable. Consumer-oriented
products tend to consist of alloys with several precious metals but the gold Is
easily recognized and frequently the principal value recoverable. Industrially-
oriented products tend to consist of composite materials with gold representing
a very minor part of the total weight. A printed circuit for a computer illustrates
the point. A plastic base supports an etched copper foil to which are connected
metallic, ceramic, and encapsulated components. On one or more edges of the
board are gold-plated spring wire contacts. As received from the scrapyard that
dismantled the computer, an average circuit board has a gold content value of
6 cents per pound. If the board is trimmed so that only the contact spring
assemblies are left as metallic components, the value increases to 60 cents
per pound. Further upgrading could be performed by removing the spring assemblies
from the board support but the usual procedure would be to burn the board and
dissolve the metallic residue in acid leaving a sludge with a fairly high gold
content.
Prompt industrial scrap normally includes scraps, as defined above, generated
in manufacturing operations and recycled to a refiner or a dealer-processor on a
fairly regular schedule. In circumstances where the scrap generator is able to
segregate scraps from various alloys (for example, from ring shank production or
dental castings manufacture), the material may be either processed on toll or
purchased by the refiner with the credit applied toward additional purchases of
gold semimanufactures. Old scrap includes industrial wastes and sweepings as
well as discarded or obsolete items being returned to the recycle system from
i
consumers. It generally has to be completely refined with separation of the
metallic components and is purchased by the dealer-processor or refiner. Frequently,
old jewelry scrap is accumulated by manufacturing Jewelers and melted, for convenience
in handling and assaying, along with prompt industrial scrap. When delivered
to a refiner, it is impossible to identify the origin of the scrap leading to
uncertainty as to the efficiency of primary manufacturing operations or the actual
quantities of old scrap being recycled.
Materials Flow. The basic flow pattern for recycled gold starts
with the generation of prompt industrial scrap or industrial wastes and sweepings
-------
32
33
by consumers performing manufacturing operations or the salvage of discarded
old scraps by dealer-processors. Large volume generators, of prompt industrial
scrap or industrial wastes frequently deal directly with the refiners—acting as
dealer-processors—in order to speed the delivery of materials needed in the '
manufacturing operations. Small volume generators of industrial scraps and
wastes may use brokers or local dealer-processors who in turn sell to refiners.
Especially in the jewelry industry, the small generator of industrial scrap may
act also as a dealer-collector for old scrap. It is believed that virtually all
of the old consumer scrap.that is salvaged enters the recycle system by way of the
small industrial scrap generator rather than flowing to dealer-collector in
"over-the-scale" transactions.
...-,.- • • j- • .
From the refiners, who ultimately receive.nearly all-the scraps, wastes,
and sweepings, refined gold is reissued to industrial consumers in the various
forms and ^alloys needed; The recycle circuit, is included., in. Figure 1 (page 16)
which shows the approximate* flow of gold.
The RecyclingjIndustryJ There is essentially no .information available
to quantify relationship's within the recycle chain. Prior; to .1968, the U.S.
Bureau of the Mint accumulated recycle data from its own transactions and those
of the large private refiners processing, ores and base bullion. Dealer-processors
and small refiners handling secondary, materials .excluslyeiy'were'-nbt contacted .
and the magnitude of their reprocessing and refining .operations, was not, included',
"_^- ., -.;- .'•-- -: '.'*'• ~-.r.-~, ...'..'• ",<;•-.' ,^i>+f- #--~
-------
35
34 • .
The prompt industrial scrap represents 18.5 percent of the gold issued. If the
20 percent figure proposed previously is correct, it could indicate that the
unreported recycling contains a minimum of 120,000 ounces of prompt industrial.
scrap and perhaps 300,000 ounces of old scrap.
In the identifiable recycle system, all of the 1,817,000 ounces of
scrap pass through the refineries (called dealer-processors). Perhaps 1,350,000
to 1,400,000 ounces of this represents prompt Industrial scrap recycled directly
from generator to refiner. Some small fraction of prompt industrial scrap plus
part of the old scrap reaches the refinery by way of dealer-brokers who nay
handle 300,000 ounces annually. Further, up to 150,000 ounces per year aay
reach the refinery by way of dealer-collectors in over-the-scale transactions
involving Industrial and consumer obsolete scrap.
In the context of the objectives posed for this study, unreported •
recycled materials do not constitute a problem per se. The assumption of an
unreported recycle stream is believed to be valid and constitutes a mechanism
for channeling old consumer scrap into the recovery system. The opportunity lies
in stimulating the general public to use the existing system whether or not the
data get reported.
Markets for Recycled Gold
Markets for recycled gold are the same as those for gold in general.
Gold consumers are concerned only that the materials they purchase meet the
compositional and physical properties specifications established without regard
to the origin of the gold. Admittedly, scrap gold commands a price less than
the price of the material they purchased, the difference being the cost to re-
process the scrap to usable form. But gold in ores or base bullion alsc has to
be refined and even refined bullion usually requires subsequent processing to
become a usable .form. ' - " -
Demand-Supply Analysis
)) Net industrial consumption of gold has been increasing at an average
annual rate of about 13.1 percent since 1958. Since that date nearly 51 million
ounces of gold has been funneled into the American economy in consumer and
industrial products. The durability of gold suggests that theoretically it all
should be available for recovery and recycling at some distant future date.
Practically, much of it disappears into what could be described as consumer
hoarding—not for speculation but for sentimental value—and some is lost through
discard to rubbish piles in wastes that are considered to be uneconomic for
recovery.
Future demand for gold for industrial uses is expected to.expand but
4*'-' "
at a rate substantially below that experienced in the past 12 years. 'This is
evidenced by preliminary reports of consumption in 1970, which fell.below 1969,
and indications that usage in industrially oriented applications aay..,stagnate
or decline in the future. The primary determinant of growth in the 1970 decade
probably will be the jewelry industry where consumer demand tends to follow
gross economic indicators. Overall, annual growth at an average rate of 5.3
percent may be appropriate for the 1971 to 1980 period, taking as the base
the final tally for 1970.
Domestic mining is not expected to expand substantially beyond the
1.8 million ounces per year level as long as the price of gold does not exceed
$50 per ounce for an extended period of time. The new large open pit mines
will compensate for the closing of small lode mines and byproduct recovery from
copper ores should increase to over 600,000 ounces per year. However, the
potential for a major boost in gold production within five years does not exist
even if the price of gold was raised to $70 per ounce tomorrow. Domestic
mining will supply not more than one-fourth of projected demand.
-------
: Recycling of gold by industrial consumers currently supplies nearly *•
30 percent of net industrial consumption and includes both industrially generated
scraps and wastes and old scrap from consumer and industrial products salvage. '
More than 80 percent of the 1.8 million ounces recycled annually in the. 1965-1969
period originated as prompt industrial scrap and represented nearly 90 percent of
that available for recovery. An average of 300,000 ounces originated annually .
from old scrap, estimated to be less than 40 percent of the amount actually
discarded but including most of the economically recoverable material under
existing methods of identification and processing. It would be expected that
the prompt industrial scrap generated would remain as a resonably constant 20
percent of net industrial deliveries and that recovery would gradually Improve
toward a level of 95 percent of that.generated. Any improvement, in the recovery
of old scrap from consumer and industrial products will be difficult to achieve.
Overall, recycled gold will be'insufficient to cover the gap between domestic
supply and demand and the United States "will have to rely on Imports of refined
bullion in:the period to 19,80.
37
Obstacles and Problems that Reduce the Recycling'of Gold.•» : ' "
Table 5 summarizes the problems Identified and the analyses presented
in succeeding paragraphs. '...;', • .
Prompt Industrial Scrap ...
Prompt industrial' scrap results from the conversion of gold-containing
materials into usable or saleable products or components. Some fraction of the
material purchased does not emerge in products or components because of inefficiencies
inherent in the conversion processes used. Predominantly, prompt industrial scrap
has'the same alloy composition and physical form as the material purchased but
is unusable by the purchaser because of size or other considerations.
It is generated primarily by metal working operations such as stamping
or coining, cutting, casting, blanking or drawing. The loss from yield depends
on the metalworking technique, ranging from about 5 percent for casting to over
40 percent for certain stamping operations. Recycling of this scrap is readily
identifiable as an economic means of reducing the materials*cost in the product
being made and most consumers do segregate and collect it for return to refiners-.
This type of scrap originates primarily in the jewelry, arts, and
dental industries where metallic gold and gold .alloys are handled. All except
the smallest shops have established relations with •dealer-collectors, brokers,
•or refiners ih-order''to assure prompt delivery of gold in usable form and a ready
outlet for scrap.
The major obstacle to increased recovery of prompt industrial scrap is
apathy on the part of the consumer. In small shops, daily production may involve
several alloys and a variety of mill product forms (sheet,'Strip, tubing*, wire, \f
casting grain), each of which is used in small quantities.' Segregation' of scrap, >
even by alloy only, presents problems because the generator is more concerned
about production than about scrap collection. Further, the quantity of scrap
478
-------
TABLE 5. ' IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF PROBLEMS CONCERNING GOLD THAT WAS NOT RECYCLED IN 1969.
Scrap Categories Where Some Gold Was Not Recycled
Title
Problem
Definition
GOLD NOT
Recycled
Percent of
Available
GOLD HOT
Recycled
Prompt Industrial Scrap
Manufacturing processes often
generate unusable materials
in small volume In a number
of Installations , often
these are contaminated and are
not recycled.
100- 150,000 ounces
annually
10
Industrial Wastes and Sweepings
. Polishing, buffing, plating
operations and metal melting
generate wastes with a small
gold content
The gold values are not
economic to recover.
Thus, scrap gold Is not
recyc led .
20-30,000 ounces annually
20
Old Industrial Scrap
Gold content of discarded
articles la low, frequently
less than I percent
Nongold content Is variable,
usually other metals and
frequently plastics, paper.
and cloth
This Is a major area of gold
not being recycled.
400,000 ounces annually
80
Old Consumer Scrap
Service life of consumer
goods dependent on factors
other than economics
Consumer's Idea of article value
to be scrapped Is much higher
than the materials cost
Individual article has small
•mount of gold and variable gold
content
Unknown
Unknown
I. Rate of recycling Is high
when scrap csn be segregated
by alloy and color
2. Segregation becomes difficult
when same worker has to handle
seversl alloys and different
product forms In same day
Problem 3. Jewelry, arts, and dental
Analysis Industries have many small
shops with one or two pro-
duction workers.
4. In small shops, production of
saleable goods represents more
economic use of labor than
collecting scrap
S. This Is not a promising area
because the economically re-
coverable scrap Is being
recovered
6. Institutional promotion by the
refining Induatry la desirable
to maintain level of recovery .
now achieved
1. Gold content of wastes and
sweepings Is variable, from
0.1 percent to 5.0 percent
2. Balance of material has no
significant recovery value
3. Efficient collection Is dif-
ficult because of dilution
4. This Is not a promising area
because the economically
recoverable waste Is being
recycled
S. Institutional promotion by
the refining Industry Is
desirable to maintain level
of. recovery .now achieved
1. Aside from military salvage
depots no effective mechanism
exists for economic collection
of discarded equipment
2. Discarded equipment has variable
gold content--aome none, others
up to 1 percent gross weight
3. Identification of gold-bearing
scrap Is difficult at times
4. No effective processes exist
to treat bulk scrap for gold
recovery
5. . Upgrading to recoverable gold
level Is uneconomic unless
large volumes of scrap are
collected
6* About two-thirds of economi-
cally recoverable gold Is
being recovered
7. Some Improvement Is possible
via joint DSBH-DOD programs
now underway
1. Consumer has little economic
Incentive to recvcle gold
unless a direct replacement
of an article Is being made
2. Unreported recovery believed
to be substantial via small
manufacturing Jeweler
3. No effective mechanism exists
to collect discarded articles
from Individual consumers
4. Improvement In recycling
definitely possible but not
necessarily economic for
consumer
-------
involved may be small so'that' long-term collection is fequired..'to accumulate a •
saleable amount. The solution to this type of. consumer apathy appears to be in
the education of management and workers to the value being lost and, if appropriate,
training in identifying various kinds of scrap for segregation. The gold refining
industry has been promoting the concept of recycling for many years with large ;
consumers and others who request help. Beyond a continuation.of the institutional
advertising they currently support, no effective programs were discovered.
Industrial Wastes and Sweepings ;.
Metal finishing operations, the production of brazing alloys, and .
electroplating operations involve procedures that result in gold-containing
wastes. The gold content of the waste material usually is.considerably lower
than that of* the material purchased and the ph'ysical form frequently is different.
Polishing and buffing of jewelry, artware, and dental castings'leaves traces of
gold in the polishing compound. Fluxes and covercoats for melting braz'ing . .
alloys may trap some metal. Spent plating baths and'wash water recovery systems
contain small percentages of gold as salts. Properly handled the gold is.recover-
able in spite of the fact that it may be less than 1 percent of the weight of the
scrap; The problem here is to avoid accidental dumping or discard of the gold-
bearing wastes either from carelessness or lack of recognition of value. Again,
educational advertising such* as that already supported by the refining industry
seems to be the most logical approach.
Old Industrial Scrap
Old industrial scrap consists primarily of electronic equipment
components and gold brazed jet engine parts that have been scrapped for salvage.
-------
40
41
The gold content of the original product usually.is less than 2.percent of the
total weight and identifiable only by trained inspection or test. Effective
recovery of the gold is complicated by the presence of large percentages of
aluminum or nickel-based alloys with copper, lead, zinc, tin,-and pias'tic materials
as contaminants. Currently available processing methods are not amenable
economically to treatment of the scrap in bulk form for isolation of the gold
content from the other nonferrous metals:
In electronic equipraent--military communication and navigation devices
and industrial computers—the gold is present as thin-plated film on connectors,
contact points, and semiconductor•components. Dismantling of the original
instrument or device with segregation of recoverable metals is necessary to
upgrade the gold-bearing parts to a level of economic gold recovery. Printed
circuit boards for computers are rather readily identifiable as potential gold
scrap because most of the gold content is on the connectors mounted on the edges
of the boards. Gold-plated transistors and diodes with gold lead wires are more
difficult to spot because not all such components contain gold. Furthur, perhaps
one component out of a dozen is gold plated and should be segregated to permit
gold recovery.
The salvaging of jet engines is practiced routinely because of the
value Inherent in the metal parts--casings, rotors, turbine blades, etc. Certain
models made by one of the two major manufacturers--Pratt and Whitney—have gold-
brazed parts such as rotor sea~ls and turbine blades. When such engines are
Identified, salvagers recover as much of the brazing alloys as they can by
"sweating" the parts after disassembly. Complete recovery is difficult because
by nature the brazing alloys when melted form a thin film that clings to the
' ) base metal unless wiped off by an expensive hand operation. Bulk melting of the
parts results in loss of the gold since the high performance alloys used in jet
engine parts are not reprocessed to the pure component metals but diverted into
other alloying uses.
The U.S. Bureau of Mines has been working with the Department of
Defense for several years to develop techniques for identifying separable
components in military salvage. Studies made by the Bureau suggest that
military salvage depots currently handle scraps containing about 300,000
ounces of gold, of which an unknown percentage can be recovered by presently
available processing techniques. However, it is recognized that the salvage
depots represent the most effective approach for solving the logistical
problem of accumulating large quantities of gold-containing scraps to justify
the development of segregation techniques.
Similarly, there is an evident need to devise collection procedures
for nonmllitary electronic equipment discards to permit recovery of gold and
other precious metals. The recent establishment of companies specializing in
salvage of computer conponents, working with the large computer manufacturers,
is a further attempt to solve this problem. But data are not available to
indicate that potential loss because of noncollection or the effectiveness of
the collection that is now going on.
Overall, the old industrial scrap being salvaged annually may contain
as much as 500,000 ounces of gold. Perhaps as much as 150,000 ounces of this
can be segregated and isolated to the point that economic recovery of the gold
is feasible but it is doubtful that more than 100,000 ounces actually is
being recovered.
-------
Old Consumer Scrap '. . "- ''• -. ..' -. • ; ,T • ...
Old scrap appears to offer an opportunity to improve the recycling of .
gold. "No one knovs how much gold is discarded annually by ultimate consumers,
the general public. Recent estimates suggest that municipal refuse may contain
up to 0.6 ounce of gold per ton, from discarded jewelry, watch cases, and
spectacle frame parts. Whether or not these estimates, are representative is
questionable but there is no question that gold-containing articles do get discarded
instead of being returned for recycling. The average individual has difficulty in
V
justifying the time and effort to accumulate gold-bearing scrap and then to find
a dealer-collector who will purchase it for a reasonable fraction of the inherent
value. Actually, the economics of the recycling system tend to discourage the'
recovery of individual consumer articles. The consumer places a value on the
articles that reflects his purchase price although the contained gold may represent
less than 25 percent of that price. When he comes to sell it, the gold content
value has to be discounted to compensate'for dealer-collector's fees and refinery.
charges. Refiners calculate that their charges for analysis and reprocessing
make it uneconomic for seller and buyer alike to handle anything less than . -
25 ounces of gold content. Individual consumers seldom accumulate that much
gold in a lifetime. •
No readily apparent solutions to thi_s^ problem of collecting consumer -.
gold scrap were suggested by the contacts made during the course of this study.
The appeal made during World War II by the U.S. Government resulted in a temporary
Increase in the recycling of old scrap. The value of the scrap received is believed
to have been substantially below-the cost of the appeal'and currently infTated
costs for mass media advertising mitigate against the economics of a similar
483
43
approach at this time. Perhaps the" best alternative would be to enlist-the help
of service organizations—church groups, Boy Scouts, Rotary clubs, etc.—to
act as collection agencies.in.return for any revenues derived from the sale; of
the scrap.> ., To be effective, such an effort would have to be promoted for
several years by a national organization as a public service. ,
464
-------
Problems NQt Directly Related to Recycling of Gold
Industry Statistics .
The lack of adequate statistics relative to the flow of gold through the
manufacturing complex to the American economy complicates any attempt to analyze
the magnitude of the problems Involved In recycling and determine priorities for
their solution. Unquestionably, gold disappears from the flow cycle in many
forms and at a wide range of concentration of gold content. It might be possible
to quantify some of the more readily apparent areas of loss merely by estimating
the effective life cycle of selected products containing gold and the probability
of recovery based on the level of contained gold. But such studies would be
highly theoretical and impossible to verify In any quantitative sense.
From a practical viewpoint, the value to be derived from having access
to complete statistical information is questionable and the cost of collecting
and reporting it can be readily determined to be excessive. However, the avail-
ability of more detail on the throughput of domestic gold refineries--production
from foreign ores and base bullion, sources of recycled gold by the same classi-
fications used for net industrial consumption--would be a welcome addition for
industry analysts. Hopefully, the U.S. Bureau of Mines may include such data
in its annual canvass of .the refinery industry now that it has assumed this
reporting responsibility.
Courses of .Action Concerning Recycling of Gold , ._
Selection of Opportunities
All the evidence gathered by this study Indicates that the major
opportunities to Improve the recycling of gold Involve the collection and processing
of old scraps from ultimate consumers and Industrial products. By and large,
the manufacturing segment of the gold industry Is aware of the value of recycling
and further Improvement from this sector, while possible, will not materially
affect the demand-supply situation. Thus, the development of priority rating
information appears to be superfluous.
Intuitively, the general public is complacent about recycling gold
because the monetary return falls far below the value ascribed to individual
pieces by the owner. In the final analysis, the existing system for collecting
gold consumer scrap fails to provide an economic incentive to the ultimate consumer
for recycling except In those few Instances where direct replacement of an
article leads to a trade in. From a gross materials flow viewpoint, this does
constitute an opportunity to improve recycling but the cost of achieving even
a modest increase in recycling may be prohibitive.
In the case of old industrial scrap, the potential for recovery is
apparently less than for consumer-oriented products but the probability of
effecting Improvement is better. Basically, the problem still hinges on
economics—the economics of collection and processing for segregation. The
precious metals content of the equipment being scrapped is Insufficient to justify
salvage for that value alone so that concurrent recovery of several values is
needed. In general, military and industrial electronic equipment contains steel,
copper, and aluminum as salvageable values as well as plastic and textile wastes.
The economics of recovery for the base metals favor the handling of large volumes
of them by automated or semi-automated means. Currently, only military salvage
456
-------
46-
.depots and the large computer manufacturers can accumulate the-volume of scrapped
equipment needed to setup disassembly lines for segregation of the various metal
values. Experiences gained In these installations.undoubtedly will be transferable
in part to dealer-collectors who could serve as'local processors.for discarded
office equipment (desk calculators, dictation.equipment, intercom systems) and
consumer appliances (radios and television sets) where suitable arrangements can
be made vlth servicing organizations. The key to such Installations .will be
the ability to Identify .the various salvageable components and to devise efficient-
disassembly methods. . '...-..-• • .'-.-.'•
Recommended Actions . ' ./
For the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the most apparent action'-.
would be the general promotion of recycling for consumer and industrial products
containing gold as well as other values. Concurrently, support could be furnished . . •
to other governmental agencies, such as the Department of Defense and the U.S.
Bureau of Mines, to continue their educational and training programs in scrap
recycling, possibly, expanding the training programs to private industry on a
cost-sharing basis.
Obviously, enlightened self-interest suggests tnat the recycling
industry should continue Its educational and promotional advertising on an Individual
company basis as well as conduct seminars and training sessions under the auspices •
of NASMI at national and regional assocition meetings. Beyond this NASMI may.
be in a position to coordinate governmental and private Industry efforts to
develop more efficient methods for processing multi-metal scraps or disassembly
of electronic equipment. .Overall, the aim should be to identify and upgrade
gold scrap to acceptable range for refining or to develop ..recovery processes for
scraps containing less than 2 percent of gold. ' - . -;-, ...
•-"••':••" • " - 457 •"• • •'./ •.-.•-• '. .. ••• •
47"
• ""• ... : -;- -"'•-• . •• •••'*..-•'-•' ' '- : :..:..•
Stimulation of-recycling by'individual consumers offers..formidable •
problems. One approach suggested by representatives of the recycling industry
was the enlistment of local service organizations—Rotary, clubs, Boy .Scout troops,
church groups—to act as collection agents for jewelry and art objects. Revenues
derived from the sale of the scrap collected would be used to further the .programs
of the organizations for the common good. Here, as a.public service, NASMI
might be able to stimulate such'service groups by working with their national
offices in the organization and planning of programs to be carried out at the
local level. Continued encouragement and support would be needed to- sustain
interest in such programs because of changing leadership in local clubs.
Table 6 summarizes the actions recommended. -_.,--
458
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TABLE 6. RECOMMENDED ACTIONS, HIGH PRIORITY GOLD RECYCLING PROBLEMS
Title
Prompt Industrial Scrap
Industrial Wastes and Sweepings
Old Industrial Scrap
Cld Consumer Scrap
Actions Recycling Industry should
Recommended continue promotional efforts
for collecting and recycling
small volumes of scrap.\
Recycling Industry should
continue promotional efforts
for collecting, segregating
and using small volumes of
scrap with low gold content.
By When
(D(2)(3)
EPA/NASMI
EPA/NASMI
Recycling Industry should
continue promotional and
training efforts to ensure
that scran with low cold content
is collected and recycled.
EPA/NASMI
Recycling Industry should
continue promotional efforts
to encourage ultimate consuce
to turn In discarded articles
EPA/NASMI
Specific
Steps
1. Continue Institutional
advertising on value of
scrap and probable cost
savings by recycling
1. Continue Institutional
advertising on value of scrap
and probable cost savings by
recycling
1. Continue Institutional
advertising on value of
scrap and need to recycle
to conserve resources
2. . Support USBM-DOD training
programs for identification
and segregation" of gold-
bearing scraps
3. Support R&D efforts to
develop processing of gold-
bearing scraps to economic
recovery level
1. Continue institutional ad'
tlsing on value of scrap .
need to recycle to conseri
resources
2. Support efforts by servlc*
clubs to act as collectloi
agencies for consumer scr;
(1) The responsibility for reconmended actions shown in this table are based on importance of the
action, benefit to the taxpayers, and opportunities for NASMI. They are the best judgments
of Battelle.
(2) Reconrr.ended actions were distributed between high priority and lower priority based on the
evaluation with three criteria.
(3) It is suggested that NASMI continue its leading role in recycling, recognizing that other
organizations such as the Bureau of Mines', Department of Commerce, Council of Environmental
Quality, HEW Office of Information, and State, Local, and Federal Legislatures must be
involved.
-------
.The Silver Industry
Characteristics of Silver
Silver is one of the metals known to man before the advent-of recorded
history. Found as native metal, 'it was prized for its easy .workability, bright
appearance and relative permanence. It probably was used first in articles, of
personal adornment, later extended to household utensils and decoration, and
adopted by the Romans as the basis for their monetary system prior to the
Christian Era.
The whitest of the metals, silver is the best conductor of heat and
electricity and second only to gold in malleability and ductility. It readily
forms alloys with gold, the platinum group metals, copper, nickel, lead, zinc,
tin, and mercury, arid will tolerate substantial amounts of alloying agents
without sacrificing its basic appearance or permanence. Both the metal and
certain of its compounds exhibit catalytic activity for selected chemical reactions
and a number of its compounds, especially the halides, are sensitive to light.
Silver is a scarce metal but durable. It is widely disseminated In
the earth's crust, usually associated with other metals. As an indication
of its relative abundance, it has been estimated that for every 10.million parts
of iron in the lithosphere there are 2 parts of silver. However,. it_ also is
believed that most of the silver that has been mined since the evolution of man
still exists In .metallic form in jewelry, coins; bullion, and art objects held
by individuals or institutions for sentimental or hoarding reasons. This does
not indicate that any significant portion of the silver hoard is available for
use In any given year or at anytime.
-------
50
Silver for coinage or.Industrial uses.usually is first refined to bullion
which may contain gold, copper, lead, or zinc, depending on the original source.
This is processed to refined silver containing a minimum of 99.9 percent silver,
which is suitable as a starting point for most commercial applications. Because
pure silver is too soft for the majority of metallic uses, it is alloyed with
copper for common commercial grades such as sterling (92.5 percent silver,
7.5 percent copper) or coinage metal (90.0 percent silver, 10.0 percent copper).
These are usually expressed in "fineness", designating the parts per thousand of
the silver content. Sterling is 925 fine and coinage metal is 900 fine.
In order to assure flexibility in channeling silver into any of its
industrial uses, as well as to isolate the more valuable components of ores, base
bullions, scraps, and residues, the refining of silver normally proceeds to the
production of commercial silver bullion with a fineness of 999 minimum. Thus,
secondary silver is undistinguishable from primary silver and enters the marketplace
on an equivalent basis pricewise. This does not preclude the production of alloys
such as sterling or coinage metal from secondary sources without the full refining
procedure when applicable but such alloys still would command prices equivalent
to those changed for newly prepared alloys.
Characteristics of the Stiver Industry
Materials Sources. In the United States silver has beta available
from new mine production, from stocks held by the Treasury Departcent, from
imports, and from recycled scraps. New mine production in this country has failed
to meet the demand for coinage and industrial applications for many years. Imports
of ores and concentrates and base bullion, for refining in this country, supple-
mented domestic mine production but still failed to provide all the silver needed.
431.
51
However,, as long as .the Treasury Department could release silver from the stock-
pile accumulated since 1934, industrial consumers were assured of adequate material
to meet their requirements.
With the prospect of continuing shortages of hew silver production,
the United States began to demonetize silver in 1965. The Coinage Act of 1965
provided for the complete removal of silver from newly minted quarters and dimes
and the reduction of the silver content of half dollars from 900 fine to .400
fine. In 1967, Public Law 90-29 was enacted providing for a termination date
of June 24, 1968, for the redemption of outstanding silver certificates,, thus
limiting the amount of silver that the Treasury Department needed to hold
for the purpose. This legislation also provided for the transfer of 165 million
ounces of silver from the Treasury Department to the National Strategic Stockpile
with the balance of Treasury holdings available for disposal at a minimum price
of SI.29 per ounce at a rate of 2 million ounces per week. During 1969, the
rate of Treasury sales was lowered to 1.5 million ounces per week open to all
competitive bidders, domestic or foreign, and legislation was proposed for the
minting of a commemorative silver dollar that would consume 47.5 million ounces
of silver. By November 10, 1970, the 2.1 billion ounces of silver held by the
Treasury Department in 1958 had been sold or transferred and the United States
silver industry was on'its own to get the material it needed. Actually, in the'
12 year period from 1958 through 1970, the Treasury Department supplied over
1 billion ounces of silver for coinage and sold at least as much to American industry
and private investors. But the essential point is that the United States Govern-
ment no longer will act as a balance wheel for the silver market and prices in
the future are likely to reflect near-term supply-demand balances.
-------
• 52.
53
.To put the:recent supply, situation in perspective,.Table 7 presents
world mine production of silver by countries, refinery production in the United
States, and imports into the United States for the 1965-1969 period. For 1969,
the U.S. Bureau of Mines estimated that world new silver supply was about 10\
million ounces less than consumption (286 million ounces .versus 387 million . .
ounces), of which nearly. 64 million ounces was supplied from the Treasury stock-
pile. Concurrently, private investors and speculators outside of India were
believed to hold about 400 million ounces that, could be available to consumers . .-
at prices up to $3 per dunce. In .the United States, silver prices peaked for.
1969 at over $2 per ounce in January, declined to $1.54 near mid-year and
closed at.about $1.80 per ounce. !-.-.- . . . -
Materials- Flow. The flow of silveri.into.Wd, through the American economy
remains a matter for conjecture. Reportedstatistics are Incomplete, especially
..:•-.••<•. • : ••; ..••'•. -! •'.-•• .'.. . •'<:-- i.' • ••••!: -••;T"'-:i' • >• • -•- - ' ; .- •••
with regard to the transactions of."private-and Institutional; Investors and
speculators, the ultimate .destination of monetary silver, and the definitive
identification of scrap'.sources. The demonitlzatlon of silver by the United
States. Government, now essentially accomplished, should clear the decks for more
accurate reporting in the.future on the physical movement of.silver within the
industry but it may take.several years more to establish an approach that recognizes
silver primarily as an'industrial commodity .and; .is geared to .reporting.accurately
its flow. . V . • . , :...'..._ . .
In contrast to the. situation for .gold,,.the ownership of silver, by private
individuals in the United .'States is legal'.: Moreover, silver's value is high ;
enough that the physical accumulation;, of a substantial hoard is not difficult.
Silver thus represents an- easy Way-to transport and store relatively large
TABLE 7. SOURCES OF SILVER, 1965-1969
(in millions of troy ounces)
'•'.'. • ' • ' .. . " 1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
New Mine- Production
"
United States
.Canada
Mexico
Peru
Australia
Japan
U.S.S.R.
Others
Total
39.
32.
40.
36.
17.
9.
31.
51.
257.
8
3
3
5
3
0
0
3
5
43
32
42
32
18
10
33
53
266
.7
.8
.0
.8
.9
.3
.0
.2
.7
32.
37.
38.
32.
19.
10.
35.
52.
258.
1
2
3
1
8
8
0
9
2
32.
.45.
40.
3,6.
2i.
10.
' 35.
53.
275.
7
4
0
4
3
7
0
6
1
41 .
41 !
.42.
•34.
24.
9
9
9
1
7
10.8
37.
55.
288.
0
2
5
UniVed. States 'ReVlnery Production . . : :
•'.. .--,'. ,: .', .i ..'•>'.
Primary 'from dome's tic ores
Primary -.'from foreign ores
Secondary
Total
39.
45.
61.
145.
V (\\
0
0
0
0
-.-
48
31
53
133
.4
.1
.7
.2
30.
23.
58.
113.
•3
8
9
0
;• , '
42.
31.
92.
165.
1
2
1
4
/ ; '
62.
- .'42.
94.
199.
7
0
5
2
United States Imports . .
Ore and base bullion
Refined bullion .
47.
8
6..9 -
36
27
.6
.0-
;25.
29.
6
9
28.
41.
8
9
32:
39.
3
5
Source: "Minerals Yearbooks", U.S. Bureau of Mines.
(1) Bureau of the-Mint estimate of recovery of silver mined during the year
>at domestic, mines. -..
(2) Estimated by Battelle Columbus Laboratories. '"'
433
-------
54
blocks of funds for investment or speculation. However, no mechanism exists for
determining on a regular basis the quantity and value of such silver or the move*
ment of it from and to the marketplace for industrial use.
Silver containing coins have virtually ceased to circulate in the
United states. Receipts of such coins at the Treasury Department during the
1965 to 1970 period suggest that private and institutional investors hold large
stocks that eventually may be melted and refined for the silver content value.
This remelted silver as well as any future repayment of. lend-lease obligations
in silver could be refined for industrial use if necessary. But here again, a
mechanism to trace the flow of such silver outside Government hands is needed.
Prior to 1966, the U.S. Bureau of the Mint was responsible for collecting
and publishing data on the refining of silver in its own and industrial refineries.
However, the Mint was concerned primarily with new silver and failed to solicit
information from most of the secondary industry. The U.S. Bureau of Mines
initiated industry-wide collection of refining operations' data late in 1965
and published its findings for 1966 as the first full year. However,the
designations adopted for new and old scrap are inconsistent with industry usage
and the Bureau makes no attempt to eliminate duplication of reporting that
results from the transfer of silver-containing materials from one refiner to
another. Through 1965, one of the Mint's refineries and four industrial refineries
were the only installations in the United States capable of separating silver
alloys into their pure component metals. All the other so-called refiners
processed scraps to saleable alloys where possible and sold unusable scrap and
waste to the ultimate refiners, who in turn reported it as scrap received from
industry. The magnitude of such duplicate reporting is not known, and, hopefully,
will be eliminated eventually as the Bureau of Mines improves its data collection
and reporting activity.
55
• Granting the imponderables indicated above, Figure 2 presents a synthesized
flow diagram for silver in 1969 based on reported statistics. According to these
data, 239 million ounces of refined silver were available for sale (199 million
from refiners and 40 million from imports). Deliveries to industrial and coinage
uses totalled 193 million ounces and 58 million ounces were exported, the
implication being that stocks held by investors and speculators had a net
outflow of 12 million ounces.
Silver Producers. In recent years, nearly two-thirds of all the new
silver mined in the United States has been recovered from the refining of base
metal ores—copper, lead, and zinc. From 30 to 35 percent results from the
operation of mines primarily for silver and about 1 percent comes from mines
operated principally for gold and silver. These ratios have remained relatively
constant for the past twenty years.
Production of byproduct silver from base metal ores depends on the
level of output of the base metals. Sulfide copper ores in the United States
average a little better than 10 ounces of silver per ton of copper. The copper
mines of the western states account for the bulk of the 13 to 14 million ounces
of silver produced from this type of ore.
Occurrence of silver with lead, zinc, and complex base metal ores is
highly variable. The lead ores of Idaho have averaged over 80 ounces of silver
per ton of lead in recent years, but the Missouri lead belt contains only about
2 ounces per ton of lead. Zinc ores also are variable and recovery of subsidiary
metal values including silver depends on the primary production process used.
Electrolytic refining of zinc offers the principal opportunity to isolate silver,
and the ores so treated appear to have averaged about 30 ounces of silver per
436
-------
: 56
New Domestic Ores .
'./'" 42' '-'•"' '
imported Ores
and Base Bunion
32
1
Imported
Refined
Metal
4O
— v,
Domestic
Or<
Stock Pile
'• „?
\
f
New Scrap
Recycled
32
1
Old Scrap Recycled
'"-•• '"• 62 -.'-•••
Refinery. Production.-
199
l • ;
\—S
, Investor and
Speculator
Stockpile
—/
•>-»
Refined Metal and Semimanufactures
Available to Consumers
l93
Scrap 32
Metal Content of
Products.Sold to
Consumers
142
Additional Inventory
Held by industrial
and .Private Consumers
'
FIGURE 2. APPROXIMATE ANNUAL FLOW OF SILVER,UNITED STATES
(based on 1969 data, In millions of
troy ounces)"
Source: Eattelle Columbus Laboratories
57
ton-of .zinc recently, increasing production from base metal mines in the future
seems to assure a rising recovery of silver that could approach 30 million
ounces by 1975,- in contrast to the 25 million ounces in 1969.
There are perhaps 70 active silver mines in the United States that
yield about 15 million ounces of silver per year. Most of these are small,
frequently marginal, operations that may or may not produce during a given year.
However, there are four big operations in Idaho and Colorado, three of which
yielded over a million ounces per year each with all four appearing among the
25 leading silver producing mines. The Sunshine Mine of Sunshine Mining
Coapany is the largest single producer with an output of 8.33 million ounces in
1969. The Galena Mine of American Smelting and Refining Company is the third
largest producer, yielding 3.03 million ounces in 1969. The Crescent Mine of
The Bunker Hill Company was the seventh largest mine in the United States.
Future production from silver mines will depend to a large extent on its price.
The deposits generally are deep, narrow-veined and expensive to develop and
maintain. At prices up to ?3 per ounce, known silver deposits in the United
States have a production potential of up to about 2.7 billion ounces of silver,
according to a recent study by the U.S. Bureau of Mines.* Expansion beyond the
current level of about 15 million ounces annually will necessitate substantial
capital investment that is unlikely to occur until firm evidence evolves.that
silver prices will remain over $2 per ounce for an estended period of time.
Table 8 summarizes the sources of newly mined silver in the United
States for the 1965-1969 period. The extended strike in the copper industry
reduced production from this source in both 1967 and 1968.
*Banister, D., and Knostman, R.W., "Silver in the United States", Information .
Circular #8427, U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines, Washington,D.C.,.
1969, Table 1, page 5.
-------
58
59
TABLE 8 . SOURCES OF NEWLY MINED SILVER IN THE
UNITED STATES,. 1965-196?
(in millions of troy ounces)
Source
Gold Ore
Gold-Silver Ore
Silver Ore
Copper Ore
Lead Ore
Zinc Ore
Complex Sulflde Ores
Old Tailings
TOTAL
1965
0.5
0.1
13.4
12.7
5.3
0.5
7.0
0.3
39.8
1966
0.4
Q.I
14.4
13.1
4.0
1.8
9.5
0.6
43.7
1967
0.4
0.1
12.3
8.2
3.0
0.5
7.6
0.4
32.1
1968
0.4
0.1
12.5
9.4
2.5
0.5
6.8
0.5
32.7
1969
0.3
0.2
14.8
13.6
5.2
0.3
6.9
0.6
41.9
Source: "Minerals Yearbooks", U.S. Bureau of Mines.
Note: Details may not add to totals because of Independent
rounding to nearest 100,000 ounces.
499
At1the refinery level, the 1965 to 1969 period.was one of transition! "
Until the enactment of The Coinage Act of 1965, the U.S. Mint and four private
companies had facilities capable of producing silver bullion. The Mint decided
to close its refinery as the need for monetary silver decreased and to give up
immediately (i.e., 1966) the refining of scrap and waste for Industrial consumers.
Between 1965 and 1970, at least 6 private companies Installed facilities to refine
silver to bullion purity »nd an unknown number of others equipped themselves to
produce high-purity silver chemicals. Thus, currently the capacity to refine
silver from ore, concentrates, base bullion, scraps, and wastes (estimated to
be 321 million ounces by Charles River Associates) exceeds the level of demand
for refined silver originating from domestic sources and foreign sources of
unrefined materials. The leading refiners are Engelhard Minerals and Chemicals,
Handy and Harman, American Smelting and Refining Company, and Amax Copper, Inc.
Major new names In refining Include Agmet, Incorporated, Joseph Behr and Sons,
Goldsmith Division of NL Industries, Martin Metals, Sabin Metal Corporation,
Sttkln Smelting and Refining, Spiral Metal Company, and Wildberg Brothers
Smelting and Refining. Eastman Kodak, E. I. duPont, MalHnckrodt Chemical
Works, and Sel-Rex Corporation are among the top producers of silver chemicals.
Additionally, there are up to 30 other organizations that participate
to some extent in the Importation of silver, the collection and processing of
scraps and wastes, or the brokerage of silver-containing materials.
Markets for Silver
Silver finds a wide range of industrial and artistic applications
based on its malleability and ductility, tensile strength, high electrical and
thermal conductivities, acid resistance, melting point, and chemical reactivity.
Its durability, color, and polishing characteristics were exploited for many
years in coinage and decorative uses. Since the latter part of the 1950 decade, rapidly
500
-------
60
rising industrial. uses based on .its physical and chemical properties: started .
to strain the ability of the mining industry to supply enough .silver under the
controlled price needed to stabilize coinage uses. After much political debate,
the decision was taken in 1965 to demonetize silver and let. it find .its own ......
market level as an industrial commodity. . , -,.. .
Prior to World War II, industrial consumption of silver was largely
in the field of the decorative arts and photography and ranged up. to a maximum
of about 40 million ounces annually.. During and after World War 11, technological
advances in electrical and electronic equipment and in the application of industrial
and medical photography more than doubled silver usage to the.100 to 130 million
ounces level annually. Further advances in technological sophistication, including
electrical batteries and metals joining techniques, initiated another boom in
industrial silver consumption after the recovery from the. recession year of 1958.
According to statistics compiled by the U.S. Bureau of the Mint, noncoinage uses
in the United States received over 204 million ounces of silver.in 1963 from
refiners and importers, the largest quantity ever issued. Actual industrial
consumption in saleable products is not known because the method of reporting
scrap returns from industry and other sources did not differentiate between a
prompt scrap return and the recycling of old scrap. This procedure for reporting • .
industrial usage continued through 1965, at which time a net industrial consumption
of 137 million ounces (198 million ounces issued and 61 million ounces returned)
was reported. Further, the breakdown of industrial consumption by end use was
published only at irregular intervals and year to year comparisons of selected
end uses were difficult.
50
Starting in 1966, the U.S.. Bureau of Mines began the publication of.
industrial consumption based on their own collection of data from refiners and
other marketers of silver. The extent of coverage and accuracy of returns of
these data are undefinable. Informed industry, sources feel that the first
several years of reporting may contain irreconcilable duplications that distort ,
net consumption (the .purported basis) by as.muchjas,' 25 percent. In any event,
by .1968 and 1969 both the Bureau of Mines and industry were in substantial
agreement that net industrial consumption was about 140 Co 145 million ounces per
year as shown in Table .9. Preliminary indications are that 1970 consumption will
be lower. .-'..'.
Consumer-Oriented End Uses. Silver usage in consumer oriented products--
electroplated and sterling ware, jewelry, dental and medical,, and mirrors—tends
to follow economic prosperity. It rises in periods of increasing personal
disposable incomes and contracts when incomes plateau or decline. Both plated
and sterling tableware narkets are being eroded by stainless steel but the
"elegance" of silver still preserves a minimum market that probably will never
disappear.
Overall, these five categories of end use account for about 25 percent
of silver consumption and should increase at a.rate at least equal to that for ..
population growth, or -between 1.5 and 2.0 percent. • . ' -
Industrially-Oriented End Uses. Silver usage in industrially-oriented
end uses--brazing alloys, electrical and electronic'products, catalysts, and
bearings—depends on a price-performance relationship. Silver fulfills a physical
function that is important, if not vital, to the intended use of the ultimate '.!
0
product whether this be industrial equipment or consumer goods. Alternative ways
502
-------
62
63
TABLE 9 . INDUSTRIAL CONSUMPTION OF SILVER IN THE
UNITED STATES, 1966-1969
(In millions of troy ounces)
End Use
Electroplated Ware
Sterling Ware
Jewelry
Photographic Materials
Dental and Medical Supplies
Mirrors
Brazing Alloys and Solders
Electrical Batteries
Electrical and Electronic Contacts
and Conductors
Catalysts
Bearings
Miscellaneous
TOTAL
As Reported by Industry
1966
21.5
30.9
6.3
48.4
2.5
2.9
18.4
12.5
33.7
2.7
0.6
3.2
183.7
150.0
1967
17.9
30.3
5.8
50.3
2.7
2.2
15.4
11.4
26.8
5.8
0.6
1.9
171.0
145.0
1968
15.3
28.3
4.5
41.6
3.1
1.7
15.1
5.8
25.8
2.3
0.5
1.2
145.3
145.0
1969
12.7
20.3
3.0
41.4
1.6
1.5
16.5
3.8
34.6
4.1
0.5
1.6
141.5
147.0
Source: "Minerals Yearbooks", U.S. Bureau of Mines; Handy and Harnan
Note: Details may not add to totals because of independent rounding
to the nearest 100,000 ounces.
are available to achieve technologically equivalent results in virtually all
these applications but the solutions based on silver represent the most economic
ones at present. This could well hold true for most of the applications even
if the price of silver should double in a few years. The research and engineering
cost and new capital investment for alternative materials or manufacturing
procedures suggest a relative inelastic demand-price relationship. For example,
silver contact points in a step relay for a TV set might be replaced by
palladium-plated beryllium copper without loss in reliability or signal transfer
efficiency. But the cost to redesign the relay and to set up the equipment to
fabricate it become prohibitive until the materials cost for the silver containing
relay far exceeds the materials cost for the alternative relay.
Overall, these uses accounted for about 40 percent of annual silver
consumption recently and are expected to grow at only a modest rate in the
future. Ways to conserve the amount of silver needed to satisfy the performance
requirement have been and are being sought—for example, bimetallic contact
points instead of solid silver—but the number of applications continues to
increase. A growth rate of 4 to 5 percent per year appears reasonable.
Other End Uses. To date, silver in photographic uses has been irreplace-
able. Other light sensitive chemicals are known but nothing has been discovered
that compares to the silver halides--silver chloride, silver bromide, and silver
iodide—in speed, range of response, and ease of subsequent processing. So in
spite of large research expenditures to displace it, silver seems assured of
these markets for another five to ten years at a minimum. Further, the markets
for industrial, commercial, and medical photography continue to increase and
amateur photography also grows.
503
504
-------
: Thts use accounted'for. 29 percent of silver consumption in'. 1969., slightl-y
belov the historic proportion. A return to about one-third of industrial usage
is expected with future growth at a rate of about 4 percent. . , .
Prices. Silver prices in the United States have been influenced by
governmental policies with respect to its value as money for many, years. In
Che 1930's legislation authorized unlimited purchase of newly mined domestic silver
at $0.6464 per ounce (one half the $1.293 per ounce that represents the monetary
equivalent of the silver content of silver dollars and subsidiary coinage).
Newly mined silver flowed to the Treasury Department and industrial users had
to go to foreign sources for their needs, usually at lower prices.' .
In 1946, >to stimulate the domestic mining industry, which had 'been
drastically curtailed during World War II, the price for newly mined silver was
raised to. $0.9050 per ounce, still above the market price for foreign silver.
By 1955, the market price approached the support price and purchases from .
Treasury stocks were needed to supplement domestic production that was going into
industry. Treasury's "free" stocks—the portion of total inventory not needed
to support outstanding silver certificates—were sold at $0.9050 per ounce plus
a handling charge and effectively placed a ceiling on silver market prices until
1961 when they were exhausted. Between 1961- -and 1963, the .market price advanced
CO $1.293 as domestic production was channeled to industry and coinage.requirements
were met by retiring $5 and $10 silver certificates thus freeing some Treasury stock.
The Coinage Act of 1965 resulted in freeing further Treasury stocks
no longer hee'ded for' coinage'and subsequent downward revisions 'in-the support-
stocks held for-silver certificates permitted Treasury sales at $1.293 per ounce
into 1967. On May 18, 1967, Treasury announced a limitation'on sales to domestic
'users only-and-the prohibition of private melting and'export of silver coins,
which stimulated a two-tier pricing for silver. Prices jumped sharply on the
nongovernmental markets but the dual pricing situation was eliminated on
July 14, 1967, with the announcement that'future Treasury sales would be at.
.auction rather than the fixed monetary equivalent of $1.293. However, prices
continued to rise and reached a peak of $2.565 per ounce in mid-June, 1968'. There-
after, a gradual decline set in as.the market reacted to short-term supply and
demand relationships and during 1969 silver ranged from a high of $2.025 early
in the year to a low of $1.540 near mid-year before closing at a little over
$1.800. There was little speculation activity during 1970 and with supplies
relatively free, even the end of Treasury's sales during November did not
stimulate the market which ranged from a high of $1.900 to a low of $1.600,
winding up the year at the lower end of the range.
Market Outlook. During 1969, the U.S. Bureau of Mines published a
study that related consumption of silver with the index of durable goods manu-
factured for the 1954 to 1965 period. The correlation developed in this study*,
which would have predicted a silver consumption of 163 million ounces in 1969
(versus a reported 141.5 million ounces), appears to require some modification.
Preliminary indications are that 1970 will be even farther below the trend line,
probably establishing a.new base from which future, calculations can be made.
Without question, the current applications for silver suggest rising
consumption in the decade ahead and a continuation of the supply deficit.
Industry sources stress the latter aspect as justification for the predication that
prices about $2.00 per ounce are inevitable with the big question being what
*Banister, D. and Knostman, R.W., ibid, Table 7, page 25.
see
-------
66
price wilt.bring significant quantities on the market ..from speculators' hoards...
Assuming a gradual recovery from the depressed industrial activity of 1970,
demand for silver in the United States could Increase at a rate of about 3 to 3.5
percent per year until 1975. This would suggest a demand level of 155 to 160
million ounces annually at that time (up. from the 135.million ounces of 1970)
and the prospect that prices would range from. $2.25 to $2.75 per ounce.
•567--:-/'.:
67
The Silver Recycling Industry . •
Characteristics of Secondary Silver
As mentioned previously, secondary silver is undistinguishable from
new silver with respect to purity, performance, or price. Selected scraps, for
example the stamping waste from sterling ware production, may be remelted and
rerolled to strip without isolation of the component metals, but the price for
this material to consumers is the same as that charged for newly made alloys.
Essentially, the specifications for industrial silver alloys or com-
pounds are rigid within limits so narrow that only the equivalent of complete
refining is tolerable regardless of the source of the silver. There are no
markets for "off grade" or impure silver alloys or compounds, except to the
refiners for recycling.
Characteristics of the Silver Recycling Industry
Materials Sources. Silver-containing materials for recycling consist
of scraps, wastes, and sweepings. Scraps normally originate from the fabrica-
tion of products or component parts by metal working techniques and usually
retain the essential characteristics of the original metal with respect to silver
content and form. Wastes result from secondary metal finishing operations (such
as grinding or polishing) on metallic products or component parts, or from
residues associated with electroplating operations or the manufacture of brazing
alloys and solders or silver chemicals. Generally, the silver content of wastes
is significantly lower than the materials supplied to the consumer. Sweepings
consist of silver-containing residues resulting from cleanup operations in shops
or factories in which silver is used. The silver content frequently is low
>CS
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68
(1 percent or less), and the balance of the .material collected has essentially .
no recoverable value. '*•-.-
Discarded'and obsolete products containing silver usually consist of .
metallic items in which the silver content is .readily identifiable. . Unless other.
precious metals are present, this old scrap .normally has a .relatively high silver
content. Discarded jewelry, worn out silver batteries, obsolete.or damaged
contact points, junked bearings, and spent catalysts illustrate the principal
sources of old scrap. Broken mirrors and 8liver-brazed industrial machinery
parts illustrate potential sources of old scrap whose low silver content frequently
precludes their recycling. . .
For convenience in subsequent discussions, prompt industrial scrap is
considered to be the high metallic content scrap resulting from metal working :
operations mentioned above. Old scrap is considered to be the wastes and sweepings
originating in industrial plants and the discarded products or components that
have outlived their usefullness by individual or industrial' consumers.' •
The data reported by the U. S. Bureau of Mines for 1966 to 1969 on
refinery production from new and old scrap represent the best available information.
As shown in the accompanying tabulation, old scrap is the more important source.
Refinery Production of Silver.''Millions of Ounces
Xfiflr..
1966
1967
1968
1969
Froph Qld S,crjiD
36.6
33.5
57.5
62.5 . .,.
From New Scrap
17.0
25.4
. 34.6
-. 32.0...,
TotaLlSfiraD
53.7. _
58.9
92.1
94.5
69
Source: "Minerals Yearbooks'.', U. S. Bureau of Mines.'
However, in view of reported industrial consumption In the sane years, the
figures given for new scrap are subject to question. Two explanations are
immediately obvious: '(1) consumers tend to hold prompt industrial scrap when
the prospect of a price rise is imminent, as in 1966 and 1967, or (2) the
first few years, of reporting by a new agency contain unresolved discrepancies
until the respondents become acquainted with the forms and definitions. The
former appears more probable, and consolidating the four years would suggest
the issuance of about 750 mil lion'ounce's to industry from which the prompt
industrial scrap return was nearly 110 million ounces, a loss to yield of
. slightly less "than IS percent'which is within reason.
".'The' increase 'from 33.5 million ounces in 1967 to 57.5 million ounces
in 1968 for old scrap may or may not be related to the price rise. The
. , recycling of old scrap has tended to be rather variable in the past and
largely dependent on consumer oriented products. Intensified emphasis, on
recovery and recycling of obsolete military and industrial electrical and
electronic equipment as well as the uncontrolled price probably account for
the jump.
Materials Flow. Industrial and consumer generated silver refuse •
follow slightly differing .paths to the ultimate recipient, the refiner. Prompt
industrial scrap, old industrial scrap, and wastes and sweepings reach the
refiner by way of a'dealer-collector or dealer-processor. Many of .the refiners
act as dealer-collectors, especially for large industrial generators, while the
smaller generators usually are serviced by dealer-processors who consolidate
various types of scrap and waste from several sources. Industrially generated
"•»; scrap and waste seldom passes through more than, two hands en route to the
5G9
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70
refiner. Refiners pay for scraps and wastes on the basis of an analysis of a
sample for silver content.
Consumer generated scrap normally enters the recycle chain at a small
dealer-collector who may be a retail jeweler, a dental laboratory, or an "over-
the-scale" dealer. Brokers specializing in precious metals visit the dealer-
collectors on a fairly regular basis, fulfilling the function of consolidating
small quantities of scrap into shipments to refiners that can be handled
economically. Refiners pay for scrap only after analyzing the material for
silver content, which may entail a bulk melting of the shipment to assure a
representative sample. The broker pays on the basis of his estimate of the
silver content, as does the dealer-collector, although both will discount either
the weight or the price of silver in order to assure a profit on the transaction.
The Recycling Industry. There Is virtually no information available
on the quantitative relationships in the recycle chain. Refiners, of course,
eventually treat all recycled silver and there probably are at least 70
companies that claim to be refiners. Beyond this, the number of brokers and
dealer-collectors is unknown and the quantities of silver scrap passing through
their control is not reported. The Intensive survey conducted for this study
identified 111 organizations that handle silver out of the 578 responses, of
which 67 claim to do some refining. These obviously include large dealer-
collectors, some of the larger brokers of industrial scraps and wastes, and
the principal refiners but few of the small retail outlets or laboratories
that serve as dealer-collectors for consumer generated scrap, or the brokers
that service them. Battelle estimates that the primary collection and accu-
mulation function is performed by over 500 companies or shops, including the
ones identified by the Intensive survey, and that Industrially generated scrap
71
and waste, both prompt and old, accounts for at least 75 percent of the 94.5
million ounces recycled in 1969.
It should be noted that the recycling of silver from photographic uses
is considered to be an industrial rather than a consumer oriented situation.
Moreover, at least a part of the 70 refiners Identified by the Intensive survey
are believed to be dealer-processors in the context that they buy old film and
paper and process it to a silver containing ash, if not carrying the refining
to the ultimate stage of purified silver compounds or metal.
Markets for Recycled Silver
Markets for recycled silver are the same as those for silver in general.
This results from the fact that the silver Industry makes no distinction between
primary or secondary sources for the materials sold. While it is true that
silver-containing scraps and residues do not yield the full silver price to
the seller, the pricing basis is the prevailing price for silver less a
charge for the reprocessing and refining. And, the recovered silver commands
full price when reissued to consumers. Thus, the usage pattern for secondary
silver is coincident with the pattern for primary silver.
Demand-Supply Analysis
Nonmonetary net consumption of silver has exceeded 100 million ounces
annually since 1955. This represents the disappearance of more than 2 billion
ounces of silver into the American economy in consumer and industrial products.
Aside from accidental loss, this material theoretically should be available for
511
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72,_y,
.recycling at.'sane-;time in the future when the products have outlived their use-
fulness. Much of it never will actually be recycled because of sentimental
attachment, archival considerations, or the difficulty of economic collection
and processing. From the viewpoint of logic, the potential recovery of old
scrap should exceed 100 million ounces annually if the problems of logistics
and economics.of collection could be solved. Indications derived from recent
data suggest that the probable achievable, level under current pricing is about
75 million ounces annually which might be increased to 80 to 85 million ounces
if the price goes to $3 per ounce.
Prompt Industrial scrap, currently in excess of 30 million ounces
annually, represents an area where improvement is possible under present
pricing for silver. Representatives of the recycling industry contacted
during this study believe that a 10 to 15 percent increase could be achieved
at an annual consumption level of about 145 million .ounces. . ....
Overall, recycled silver might supply about 100 million ounces -and
new domestic mine procution about 40 to 50 million ounces versus a demand of
150.million ounces or more. This would leave a deficit to be furnished by
imports and dehoarding of investor and speculator stocks that.appears to be
manageable. Considering established import-export trade relationships, the .
projected supply-demand balances for the next five to ten years will hot
exert substantial pressures to increase the recycling of silver. More likely
would be a decline in old scrap return to a level of about 50 to 60.million
ounces per year with a consequent net increase in imports of refined metal
to fill the deficit gap. • --.,-,.,
Obstacles and Problems'that Reduce the;
-";•"•'•' :Reeve Una "of Silver' • "'
'":••'.'•.. '" ?- ' J* ' T- ' .
t-W-w JtM.tXS - --._.-.
i .;'. . :""
Problems identified and the analyses contained ^in succeeding paragraphs
are summarized in Table 10. ...
"Prompt Industrial Scrap: < ' ; ' .'"?.-.
As used here,'prompt industrial scrap consists primarily of metallic
waste of relatively high silver content generated by the'application of metal
working processes to sheet, strip, tubing, wire, and casting alloys. The mill
product forms used may be solid silver alloys or bimetallic composites in which
silver is clad on a base metal. Stamping, blanking, drawing,! and casting
operations result in unusabla'wastes ranging from 5 percent to over 40 percent
of the metal purchased by consumers. Recycling of this scrap is readily
Identifiable as an economic means of reducing the manufacturing cost of the
end product and most consumers do segregate and collect it. .
This type of scrap originates primarily in ,the' sterling ware, jewelry,
dental and medical, electrical and electronic industries. Sterling ware pro-
ducers, Jewelry manufacturers, and dental and medical laboratories maintain
close ties with the refiners of silver and have recycled scrap for many years.
Only the smallest consumers who work infrequently with silver may be lax in
segregating their scrap for efficient recycling but the materials usually are
collected with other precious metals and eventually returned.
The electrical and electronic industries also are well aware of the
value of silver and the need to recycle it for assurance of future supplies.
In contact points in particular, manufacturers have been active in adapting
clad metals to replace solid silver in order to reduce the cost of materials.
The lower silver content of bimetallic components introduces problems in
segregating this scrap from solid silver scrap for efficient recycling and the
reduced value of the scrap per unit weight may lead to carelessness in handling
554
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TABLE 10. IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF PROHU'.NS CONCERNl.NC. SILVER THAT WAS HOT RECYCLED IN 1969
Title
Scrap Categories Where Some Stiver Wat Mot Recycled
Prompt Industrie! Scrip
Industrial Waste* and Sweepings
Old Industrial Scrap
Old Consumer Scrap
Photographic Scrap
Problem Manufacturing processes often
Definition generate unusable materials
la small volume In a number
of Installations, often these
•re contaminated and are not
recycled.
Polishing, buffing, plating
operations and Betel netting
generate wastes with a snail
•liver content. The sliver values
are not economic to recycle.
Thus this *crap silver
Is not recycled.
Silver content of discarded
articles is variable
Low silver~content articles
usually have other swtals,
sometime! noranetalllc Material*.
This is a major area where
silver is not recycled.
Service life of consuner
goods dependent on fac-
tors other than economics-
Consuner'a Idea of value
of article to be scrapped
Is much higher than the
materials cost.
Sliver recoversble only
at certain stages which
occur at georgraphtcally
dispersed locations
Economic recovery possible
only at certain levels of
film processing or dispo-
sal
Silver HOT
••cycled
1,500,000 ounces annually
270,000 ounces annually
20-25,000,000 ounces
annually
2-3,000,000 ounces
annually
20-25,000,000 ounces
annually
Rstcent of
available
Silver HOT
Recycled
33
50
50
•robin
Analysts
1. Recycling Is st s high 1.
level when scrsp csn be
segregated by alloy and
and product form
2. Small shops handling a 2.
a few ounces of silver
per day have difficulty
In collecting scrap
economically >.
3. This la not a promising
are* because the econo-
mically recoverable scrap 4.
is being recovered
4. Institutional promotion
by the refining Industry
Is deslrsble to maintain ' ).
level of recovery now
achieved
Stiver content of wastes
and sweepings is variable*
from 0.1 percent to 20.0
percent
••lance of material has
no vignlfleant recovery
value
Efficient collection la
difficult because of
dilution
This Is not a promising
area because the econo-
mically recoverable waste
la being recycled
Institutional promotion
by the refining Industry
Is desirable to maintain
level of recovery new
achieved
1. Aside from military
salvage depots no
effective mechanism
exists for economic
collection of dis-
carded equipment
2. Discarded equipment
has variable silver
content—some none,
others up to 60 per-
cent of gross weight
3. Identification of
silver-bearing scrap
Is difficult at times
4. No effective processes
exist to treat bulk
scrap for silver
recovery
S. Upgrading to recover-
able sliver level Is
uneconomic unless
large volumes of
scrap are collected
6. About two-thirds of
economically recover-
able silver is being
recovered
7. Some improvement Is
possible via joint
fSBM-DOD programs
now underway
I. Consumer has little
economic Incentive
to recycle sliver
unless a direct re-
placement of an
article Is being
made
2. Some recovery Is
unrcported, probably
from small manufac-
turing jewelers
3. No effective mecha-
nism exists to collect
discarded articles
from Individual
consumers
4. Improvement In re-
cycling definitely
possible but not
necessarily economic
1. Silver Is recoversble
from spvnt precetslng
solutions and dis-
carded film and prints
2. Large processors are
recovering silver
affectively, except
certain Governmental
users
3. Large voluae generators
of discarded ft In and
prints slso recover
silver effectively
4. Essential problem for
•mall user Is the lack
of Incentive to collect
•tore, and recycle the
•mall quantities gen-
erated
S. About 80 percent of
economically recover-
sble silver Is being
recycled
6. Improvement Is possible
.tnd deslr.iMe but con-
sorter apathy has to be
overcome
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75
Chat results In losses; ' ' • '• •'-"'
Overall, the refiners feel that these industries are recovering more
than 95 percent of the prompt Industrial scrap generated and that the remainder
would be difficult and expensive to get. Improperly trained labor and careless-
ness are cited as the principal problems of collection and to alleviate them the
refiners conduct educational and promotional advertising campaigns and shop
practice training for consumers' personnel, if so requested.
Industrial Waste and Sweepings
Metal finishing operations, the production of brazing alloys and
solders, electroplating operations, and mirror manufacture involve procedures •
that result in silver-containing wastes. These may range from a low of several
percent of silver content up to about 20 percent and be produced continuously
or sporadically.
Polishing and buffing of sterling or electroplated ware and jewelry
Illustrate metal finishing from which'spent polishing compounds accumulate.
Such waste has a low silver content but tends to be collected to prevent a
health hazard in the factory. In shops where the silver polishing can be
isolated, the segregation of silver waste is readily accomplished and returned
to a refiner when a convenient quantity has been collected.
The manufacture of brazing alloys and solders involves metal melting
and casting with their inherent opportunities to lose metal into slags and
cover coats, by spillage, and reject products. Silver content of the alloys
is variable although higher than in the slags and melting pot cover coats but
all sources of waste present problems of segregation and collection. From
their knowledge of this industry, the silver refiners believe that less than
80 percent of the available waste is being returned for recovery. They have
\
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76
attempted to make Che industry.aware of the desirability.of better collection
through institutional advertising and sales contacts to little avail. Feu of
the companies in this industry can afford to have labor continuously available
to specialize in waste recovery and the emphasis for production labor is
production rather than "housecleaning."
Electroplating and mirror manufacture involve the handling of silver
chemicals and large volumes of solutions and wash waters. Spent plating
solutions and metallic wash water recovery units are the usual wastes that are
recycled. Careless handling of solutions and Inattention to the recovery unit
account for most of the loss of silver that does not go out with the product.
The refiners provide metallic recovery units and manuals of instruction for
their operation which has resulted in significant savings to the consumers
operating them. But again, production labor is concerned primarily with produc-
tion while the value of spent solutions and recovery units is difficult to see.
The larger shops and facilities that have continuous plating do a more effective
job of salvage than the small shops. For this reason It is probable that more
than 90 percent of the recoverable silver is recovered. The economics of
trying to recover the balance do not appear favorable to the consumer and there
is little more that the refiners can do. There are unavoidable losses from
very dilute wash waters for which no practical recovery methods are presently
available. Potentially, Ion exchange techniques offer the best hope for
treating very dilute solutions for complete removal of silver. If necessary,
a technically acceptable unit could be developed rather quickly but the
economics will remain unfavorable If they depend on the value of the silver
recovered.
SJ7
77
Old Industrial Scrap
Old industrial scrap consists predominantly of worn-out silver
batteries, discarded silver bearings, contact points in military and industrial
electrical or electronic equipment, and spent chemical catalysts. Having served
their intended purposes, they become available for the recovery of silver.
In the past five years, military disposal agents have become well
avare of the value left In discarded silver batteries and contact points.
Intensive efforts are being made to recover batteries and points from field
connmnication equipment and submarine service in order to assure a continuing
supply of silver for defense applications. By 1969, the U. S. Bureau of Mines
estimated that military salvage depots around the world were recovering silver
at a rate of 12 million ounces annually. Undoubtedly, this does not represent
the total silver content of the equipment withdrawn from service in any given
year. Battlefield losses and salvage at remote isolated locations present
difficult collection problems logistically and the very low silver content of
certain types of aircraft and electronic equipment scrap virtually preclude its
segregation and collection. Minor increases in the quantity of recycled silver
probably are possible under current conditions of collection and identification
but the limit of economic recovery is believed to be fairly close to actual
recovery.
Discarded bearings, industrial control equipment, and commercial
communications equipment are a source of recovered silver. The amount of silver
actually recovered Is less than the amount available, although both quantities
are not known with any degree of accuracy. The logistics of collecting such
scrap and the segregation of the silver content to a level of economic recovery
are the major obstacles to recycling of this scrap.
518
-------
78
Sliver catalysts are recycled frpm the chemical industry at a high ..
level of recovery. The materials are readily segregated, have an identifiable
silver content, and need to be replaced with a similar product. Losses in this
recovery cycle tend to be the accidental spills and careless materials handling
that is difficult are difficult to eliminate. Little improvement is possible.
No data are available to even suggest the magnitude of the problem
of recovering more silver frpm old industrial scrap. In recent years, the
consuming industries that account for most of the products' that would be
classified as industrial scrap have used between 35 and 40 percent of the net
consumption of industrial silver. This would suggest that, since 1955, between
•600 and 700 million ounces of silver was funneled into end products that had
an effective useful life ranging from one "year to"over 10 years. The assumption
that annual production of these industrial products in recent years has merely
replaced" those scrapped indicates that 60 • "to 70 million ounces of silver would .
be the amount scrapped annually.~ In view of attempts to reduce the sliver
content of electrical and electronic components,' a figure nearer 70 million
ounces per year appears to be more reasonable. However, reported recovery from
all old scrap — including all the discarded consumer-oriented products -- averaged
only 47.5 million ounces annually in the 1966,to 1969 .period. -Thus, it'appears
that at least 20 million ounces, per year is not being'recycled, .in spite of
continuing efforts by.the refiners to promote recovery and reuse. : ...
Old Consumer Scrap _, „• .
Old consumer scrap includes jewelry,.-tableware, flatware, trophies,
artware, mirrors, and dental and medical products that have been discarded
because of damage or obsolescence. It consists 01 sterling alloys,' coinage
alloys, silver plate on copper- or nickel-base-alloys, dental amalgams, special
• - .-" -.:-• • •• .. -' . , .'
alloys for dental or medical use, and silver on glass. . ' '
. 79
Sterling jewelry, table and flatware, and dental and medical products
that are discarded by individual consumers usually find their way into the
recycle system because the silver value is recognized. Retail jewelers fre-
quently will pay some fraction of the metal value of articles presented for
their appraisal and, thus, function as a dealer-collector in the recycle chain.
Dentists and hospital medical personnel also collect (with or without payment)
silver-containing alloys, pins, supports, and other devices that patients no
longer need. These then are returned to refiners by way of brokers, dental
laboratories, or dealer-processors. However, very little of the outstanding
inventory of these products in the hands of individual consumers is returned
for recycling. The majority is kept for sentimental reasons and frequently
passed from one generation to the next with no thought of salvage. The chief
obstacle to recycling usually is apathy to the inherent value, once the
sentimental attachment has been broken. A single piece of jewelry or even
several pieces offer little incentive to the average American to collect them
and take them to someone who is willing to pay for them. Many times, the first
unresolved question for the consumer Is "who will give me a fair price?" The
demise of the Itinerant "junk collector" has removed a vital link in the
recycling of precious metals including silver, and no one is making a concerted
effort to replace.him. . •
Mirrors and silver plate ready for discard are more likely to be
thrown out as refuse than to be presented for reclamation. In the case of
mirrors, the salvage value of the silver is less than the time and Inconvenience
of trying to find a suitable buyer. In the case of silver plate, individual
items encounter the same resistance to sale as mirrors, but if the owner will
tolerate the inconvenience of storage eventually he may accumulate enough
520
-------
80
81
silver to make recovery worthwhile. The problem for these items is that their
salvage value is much less than appearance would Indicate and even the most
reputable dealer-collector has difficulty explaining the discrepancy. Dealer-
collectors also encounter difficulty in making their services known to the
general public despite the local advertising they do.
Again, no data are available to Indicate the quantity of old consumer
.scrap recycled In any given year or its specific source. Moreover, the need of
both dealer-processor and refiner for accurate knowledge of the metallic
composition of the scrap leads to bulk melting of the material .which destroys
the identity of the source. Further, the useful life cycle of the products is
not predictable. In the 1966-1969 period, the average net consumption of silver
in these products has been nearly 54 million ounces annually. It is probable
that not over 1 percent of this represented the direct replacement of articles
damaged or discarded during the course of a given year. Assuming that articles
are discarded several years after their utility has expired on the average,
Battelie estimates that between I.5 and 2.S million ounces of silver were
reclaimed annually from Old consumer scrap during the 1966-1969 period.
For certain sectors of the general public, economics will play a
major role in determining the useful life cycle of silver-containing jewelry
and household decorative Items. They .are purchased in good times and sold
during hard times. But this type of transaction represents a minor percentage
of the silver going Into consumer-oriented products and recycling can be in-
creased only by appealing to motivations other than economic for the bulk of
the general public.
) Photographic Scrap and Waste
Photographic scrap and waste consists of solutions from the processing
of film and paper and used film and paper. Recognizing the impending silver
shortage, the major producers of photographic supplies initiated promotional
and educational program as early as 1965 In an attempt to recover and recycle
as much as possible. Substantial progress has been made but this category of
silver consumption still represents a major opportunity to decrease the dis-
appearance of material that potentially could be recycled.
Depending on the end use, photographic film and paper may contain
from 0.01 to 0.70 ounces of silver per pound. The developing and fixing
processes remove a part of this but the residue Is left in the film or paper.
When discarded, these materials could have a silver scrap value of 15 to 35 cents
•j per pound with silver at the $1.50 to $2.00 per ounce price level.
During processing, the silver not needed to form the image concentrates
in the fixing bath and wash waters. Under controlled conditions, exhausted
fixing solutions could contain up to 1 ounce of silver per gallon although
wash waters would be much more dilute.
Overall, the photographic industry estimates that two-thirds of the
silver contained in film and paper could be recovered. The balance is lost la
archival records .(industrial, commercial, and family snapshots) or occurs in
such small quantities at such dispersed locations (logistical loss) that
collection is uneconomical. In the 1966 to 1969 period, the amount recovered
in the United States has risen from about 30 percent of the total consumed to
something over 40 percent and may reach 45 percent in 1970. The steady increase
in recovery Is attributed to the efforts of the photo supply Industry aimed at
) commercial film and paper processors and the industrial, commercial, and
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82
Institutional users of X-ray and business record films. In addition to direct
mall and Institutional advertising promotions that stress the econoalc oppor-
tunities for recovery, they have offered technical service help In connection
with proprietary systena (metallic or electro-chemical) for removing silver
from fixing baths and wash waters, and encouraged the formation of a network
of film and paper collector-processor* that now blanket the country to service
the user who could not afford his own separate recovery system, for example,
the basic publication on photographic silver recovery from Eastman Kodak
Company (Publication J-10), lists 98 Installations nationwide that handle one
or more facet* of recovery.
Several classes of photographic supply users are recognised by the
supply producers as opportunities for Increased recovery within the two-thirds
limit of economic recovery. A major class Is government Installations other
than the Veteran* Administration (VA). Several year* ogo> enabling legislation
was enacted to permit the VA to use Industrial firm* rather than governmental
agencies to recover and refine Its silver-bearing wastes with the credit
therefrom accruing to the VA. All other federal government Installations
have to send their scrap* and wastes to governmental installations with' the
value of the recovered silver going Into general revenue funds. Many state
and local governmental Installations have similar restrictions. These proce-
dures minimize the Incentive for agency and departmental heads to actively
promote efficient recovery and recycle since they dp not benefit directly.
Another major class Is the small industrial or conmeVcial Instillation
handling classified Information but unable to support a separate Incinerator
for photographic waste. The photographic waste usually Is burned with paper
and the silver content of the resulting ash Is too low to permit economic
recovery.
83
A third major class of user Is business firms who record technical
and scientific Information on special sensitized papers for analytic and records
work. Exploration areaa for petroleum or mining companies Illustrate one aspect
of this class. The papers they use have a high content of silver but usually
get discarded as refuse because the information recorded he* temporary usefulness,
. frequently at quite remote'locations. Even at centralized locations, the time
and effort to collect and recycle small quantities appears unwarranted.
User complacency also is a major contributor to photographic silver
loss. This area has a bearing on the three classes discussed above bat is
applicable specifically to many small commercial and industrial photographic
departments operated In connection with other activities, in general, the
darkroom of such installations is operated Intermittently and current solution
recovery system* are not applicable. Film and paper waste also 1* small in
volume and inconvenient to store.for any length of time. The economic incentive
for the operator/of such an Installation to recover silver is far leoa than the
Incentive to get more business and It la unlikely that what he would recover
from silver would have much effect on profit or loss.
In connection with reprocessing used film and paper, the economics
of recovery could be Improved significantly if markets could be found or
developed for the'film or paper base and for the emulsions in which the
silver is held. To date, these nonsllver values are recovered only in highly
specialized situations, for example, by the producers of film and paper treating
large quantities of wastes of known composition. Other processors of used film
and. paper incinerate film and paper scrap because the variability of composition
> precludes economic handling of the nonsllver values. A solution to this
problem would have to Include quite imaginative approaches to finding uses
for relatively low-valued products as well as extensive research and development'
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84
for efficient methods of separating the components from small quantities of
diverse waste materials.
In connection with solution wastes, there are three principal methods
for treating exhausted fixer baths. Metallic recovery units, called "silver
filters" or "silver savers", consist usually of steel wool in canisters
through which the solution Is passed with the silver depositing on the steel
wool. The loaded steel wool is treated by refiners for silver recovery.
Electrolytic systems use an electrical current to deposit the contained silver
on plates which are then recycled to the refiner. Precipitation systems use
chemicals to reduce the silver content to metal which is then filtered and
sent to'refiners. Any of these systems are effective as long as the silver
content of the spent fixer bath is about 0.5 gram per liter or more.
However, wash waters are more dilute than this, perhaps of the order
of 0.05 grams of silver per liter. At these low concentrations, none of the
available commercial systems are selective enough to recover silver economically.
Ion exchange systems appear to offer some hope for solving this problem if the
production cost of the resins can be reduced by several orders ofi magnitude
through the discovery of suitable materials. Research is being carried out
in this area in the hope of having technically and economically feasible
systems if stringent controls are placed on the discharge of silver to public
sewers. No near-term breakthrough is anticipated.
As a rough approximation, recovery of silver from photographic wastes
in the United States in 1969 is estimated by Battelle to have been between
15 and 20 million ounces. Intensified efforts by the photo supply industry
may result soon in an increase of 2 to 3 million ounces per year but a minimum
of about 20 million ounces are being lost, of which less than 5 million ounces
is considered to be potentially recoverable.
85
Problems Not Directly Related to Recycling of Silver
Industry Statistics
One difficulty in any analysis of the problems and opportunities in
recycled silver is the lack of adequate statistics on the flow of silver into
and out of the industrial manufacturing complex and through the hands of industrial
and private consumers. The available data fall far short of those needed to
measure the potential for recovery in any given end use, to allocate actual
recovery to end uses, and thereby to assess the magnitude of the scrap recovery
problem. Of course, studies such as this help to highlight gross problem areas
and a tentative order of magnitude for those problems. In lieu of better data,
Battelle presents a rationalized flow of silver in industrial applications in
the United States based on available data for 1969 in Table 11. It should be noted
that this presentation ignores losses in processing recycled silver by equating
refinery production from scrap sources with the quantities received by refiners.
Further, it is assumed that net industrial consumption represents the quantities
of silver converted into saleable products for the year, an addition to the amount
in circulation.
A further difficulty with the statistics lies in the possible duplication
of data in the recycle system.. The existence of several levels of refining
complicates the task, of following recycled silver through the system. For example,
a dealer-processor specializing in photographic wastes will report the recovery
of silver even though the silver is contained in an ash having no commercial use.
The ash is sold to a refiner, who reports receipt of silver waste from industry
and the production of refined silver suitable for use by consumers. Unless the
scrap nature of the dealer-processor's product is identified by the statistical
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reporting agency and eliminated from the recovery data, the data will contain
duplication of information. In actuality, the situation is much more complex
than the illustration cited because some refiners generate wastes and sweepings
in the course of their operations that are sold to other refiners who are better
able to handle these wastes, but the transfer may be treated as a new increment
of scrap generation and recovery. The magnitude of error arising from duplicate
counting is unknown and not critical to the continued functioning of the recycle
industry.
-------
88
Courses of Action Concerning Recycling of Silver
Selection of Opportunities
Without question, substantial quantities of silver are being lost each
year because scraps and wastes are not returned to the recycle system. All the
evidence accumulated during the course of this study suggests that the primary
opportunity for Increasing recycling lies In the area of reclaiming old scrap
that has been in the hands of individual and institutional consumers as products
that contain some silver. By comparison, the recovery of silver from prompt
Industrial scrap represents a minor opportunity for Improvement. Qualitatively,
top priority should be assigned to all the problems associated with the reclama-
tion of old scrap.
Prompt Industrial Scrap. As suggested in Table 8, the generation of
prompt Industrial scrap exceeded recovery by a minimum of 2.2 million ounces in
1969. Actual recovery of- 32 million ounces in that year may include some scrappage
from prior years that was held by generators for a better silver price. Never-
theless, the amount generated but not recovered in any given, year probably is
less than 10 percent of the reported recovery. Achievement of the 90 percent
level of recovery is attributable to growing recognition by consumers of the value
of their scraps from continuing promotional and educational programs supported
by the recycling industry. In those consuming industries where silver represents
a major share of the materials cost in products--jewelry, sterling ware, dental
and medical, and mirrors—recycling has been practiced for many years. In all
probability, further improvement in recycling is economically infeasible because
of the difficulty in overcoming consumer indifference or the inability to resolve
the logistics problems of collection of small quantities of scrap.
For those consuming industries where silver represents a minor materials
cost but fllfllls a vital performance function—electric batteries, electrical
:-;?*»
89
and electronic contacts and conductors, catalysts, and bearings — good recognition
of the value of silver recycling now exists as a result of efforts by the recycling
industry. Here again, consumer indifference and the logistics of small-volume
collection remain the principal obstacles to improved recycling.
Aside from continued education and promotion by the recycling industry
and governmental agencies such as the Bureau of Mines, General Service Administration
and the Defense Department, there appears to be little that could be suggested
as a worthwhile program. Assuming that the 2.2 million ounces loss figure is correct
the American economy is wasting nearly $4 million (silver at $1.80 per ounce')
but the cost of recovery is likely to be more than the value.
Old Industrial Scrap. The problem with old industrial scrap Is that
no one has a firm idea of the amount of silver contained in discarded, worn-out,
or obsolete industrial equipment. Studies of military and space equipment salvage
by the Bureau of Mines suggests that at least 12 million ounces of silver are
contained in the materials scrapped annually. Sources in the recycling industry
feel that the largest single consumer of silver batteries, the U.S. Navy Department,
has done an excellent job of recovering and reclaiming this specific source.
Here, the silver content is readily identifiable and sufficiently concentrated
to support the economics of recycling. But the silver content of airborne
electronic equipment or field communication equipment is much lower than in
batteries and complicated by the presence of other nonferrous metals and nonmetallic
materials. Segregation- solely for the value of the silver probably is uneconomic
and the military seems to be the principal institutional agency capable of
accumulating the large volumes necessary to make simultaneous recovery of aluminum,
copper, gold, silver, and iron economically feasible.
-------
90
, Programs for training .military salvage experts in the identification " •
and segregation of precious metals scrap have been underway for .several years
now and can be credited with some part of the. .recent increase to over 60 million
ounces reported recovered from old scrap^ In addition, the recycling industry
has supported educational and promotional campaigns aimed at nonmilitary Industrial
salvage concerns in the hope of increasing recovery and reclamation of silver. . .
Industrial Wastes and Sweepings. Very little is known about the'quantities
of industrial wastes and sweepings that are generated or recycled in any given
year. Electroplating'and polishing wastes from .consumer-oriented products and
electrical contacts and conductors probably account'for the bulk of this'potential.
The brazing alloys and bearings industries also generate some of this type of
material. -
The recycling industry feels that only brazing.alloys and bearings
offer much opportunity to substantially improve recycling.on a percentage basis,
although the absolute quantities involved will be small. Currently recycling
about 3.1 million ounces of silver per year,.an increase.of about 0.6 million
ounces is believed to be possible. The other industries are estimated to be
recovering nearly 90 percent of their potential with the losses attributed
primarily to operator carelessness, accidental spills, and dilute wash waters.
' ' * •
These are difficult to prevent and may be.considered to be economically'infeasible.
Overall, no specific programs offering logical solutions to the problems
of this category of waste were discovered during this study. At best it represents
a minor.opportunity for increased recycling.
91
Old Consumer Scrap. The products that are the source of this scrap--
plated and sterling tableware and flatware, household decorations, trophies and
medals, and dental and medical devices--usually have values associated with them
that exceed the value of the silver content. By nature they represent the
achievement of affluence or excellence in some specific field and are considered
by the owners to be permanently removed from the recycle system. Whether or
not they are fulfilling a functional or aesthetic need currently is insufficient
justification to consider that they are or are not available for recycling. The .
quantities.actually discarded annually because of damage, obsolescence, replace-
ment, or economic necessity are unknown. However, scrappage is likely to occur
on single items more frequently than on large collections of articles and the
primary problem for the recycling industry is one of collection. The demise of
the itinerate "junk man" removed the initial link in the recycle system that has
not been replaced to date. .
.The response to governmental appeals for scrap silver during World War II
demonstrated that some individual owners could be stimulated to search for and
turn in unused silver articles. The appeal then was to patriotism. In the
absence of a~-similar motivation, it is doubtful that any appeal to the general
public.will be effective in increasing the flow of old consumer scrap for recycling.
Photographic'Scrap and Waste. Photographic scrap and waste appears to
offer the best opportunity to increase substantially the recycling of silver.
Theoretically, perhaps as much as 90 percent of the quantity consumed in any
given year should be available for recycling within a two or three year period;
the balance going into permanent archival record uses. This suggests that the
potential for recovery in 1969 was about 37 million ounces, not including
any materials in consumers' hands from prior years. In contrast, recovery was
531
-------
92
estimated to be 20 million ounces total of which an unknown quantity cane froo
the 41 million ounces supplied to consumers In 1969.
Consumer apathy Is the underlying cause for failure to recycle photo-
graphic silver scrap and waste. Various rationalizations are used to explain
the lack of consumer motivation for recycling but the principal one is economic .
In the context that the cost of collection and processing exceeds the value to be
credited to the consumer for the sliver recovered. Small Industrial, commercial,
and medical photographers account for most of the loss. There is virtually no
existing oechanlsm by which .they could be reimbursed even if they were willing
to bring their scrap and waste to a central collection point because analysis of
the silver content of small lots is prohibitively expensive. Eastman Kodak*
suggests that the minimum economic level for recycling used film and paper Bay
be 25 pounds per week If the silver content Is 0.10 ounces per pound. Even then,
several weeks accumulation IB desirable In order to minimise the charge per
pound for analysis. .
Recommended Actions.
For the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the only apparent
action would be the general promotion of recycling of Industrial scraps and wastes
emphasizing the advantages of recycling over solid waste disposal. Some selected
programs aimed at other governmental agencies, such as the Department of Defense
or the National Aeronautic and Space Agency could be Implemented to support
the existing training and educational programs. Also, EPA might take the lead
In sponsoring legislation that would permit governmental agencies other than the
*Anonymous, "Recovering Silver from Photographic Materials", Kodak Publication J-10,
Eastman Kodak Company, Rochester, New York, 1969, p. 6.
533
93 .
VA to receive credit for silver recovered from photographic wastes.
. The recycling Industry obviously will continue its institutional
advertising and promotional campaigns for recycling. Concerted or joint action
In this area Is not recommended. But through NASMI, support might be generated
to stimulate the formation of service club collection agencies for .photographic
wastes.
Several suggestions were advanced by representatives of the recycling
Industry contacted during this study in this connection. The tenor of then was
that service organisations—for example, Rotary International, Boy Scouts of
America, church groups, or professional or trade associations—might be persuaded
to act as the accumulation center for local photographers and use any funds
derived from the sale of th« scrap In furthering the programs of the organization.
The photographer consumer would derive no economic benefit other than the
possible lessening of his contribution In support of the organization's.program.
Alternatively, a local governmental unit might serve as the accumulator with toe
revenues received going to defray specified expenses (for example, school supplies}
for which the taxpayer would then not be liable. Experience along these lines
Indicates that interest In such programs is hard to sustain in service organizat ice
because of changing 'leadership. This should not deter the suggestion that such
programs be tried and continued as long as possible, but the stimulus for then
will have to Involve a philanthropic group willing to Invest annually in a venture
of questionable durability.
Table 12 summarizes the recommended actions.
534
-------
TABtE 12. RECOtWETOED ACTIONS. "HIGH PRIORITY SILVER RECYCLING PROBLEMS
Title
Prompt Industrial Scrap
Industrial Wastes and Sweepings
Old Industrial Scrap
Old Consumer Scrap
Photographic Scrap
Actions Recycling Industry'Should
Recocoended continue promotional efforts
for collecting and recycling
small voluaes of scrap
Recycling Industry should
cont-lnue promotional efforts
for collecting, segregating
and using snail volumes of
scrap with low silver content
Recycling Industry should
continue promotional and
training efforts to ensure
that scrap with low silver
content is collected and
recycled
Recycling industry should
continue promotional
efforts to encourage
ultimate consumer to
turn In discarded
articles
Recycling industry »hruH
continue prcsotlcnal
efforts to ensure collection
and processing of photo-
graphic scrap
Leelslation should be oro-
Doted to allow Governmental
Installations to receive
credit for silver recovered
credit for silver recovered
EPA/NASMI
EPA/NASMI
EPA/NASMI
EPA/NASMI
Specific
Steps
1. Continue institutional
advertising on value of
scrap and probable cost
savings by recycling
1. Continue institutional
advertising on value of
scrap and probable cost
savings by recycling
1. . Continue institutional
advertising on value of
scrap and need to re-
cycle to conserve
resources
1. Continue institutional
advertising on value
of acrap and need to
recycle to conserve
resources
I.
2.
Continue institutional
advertising on need to
conserve resources
Sponsor legislation to
3.
Support USBM-DOD
training programs for
Identification and
segregation of silver-
bearing scrap
Support R&D efforts
to develop processing of
silver-bearing scraps Co
economic recovery level
2. Support efforts by
service clubs to act
as collection agen-
cies for consumer
scrap
3.
allow Covern-ent instal-
lations to use industrial
reclamation services and
receive credit for silver
recovered
Support efforts by ser-
vice clubs to set as
collection agencies for
photographic wastes
(1) The responsibility for recommended actions shown in this table are based on importance of the
action, benefit to the taxpayers, and opportunities for NASMI. They are the best judgments
of Battelle.
(2) Recorciended actions were distributed between high priority and lower priority based on the
evaluation with three criteria.
(3) It is suggested that N'ASMI continue its leading role in recycling, recognizing that other
organizations such as the Bureau of Mines, Department of Commerce, Council of Environmental'
Quality, HEW Office of Information, and State, Local, and Federal Legislatures must be
involved. • •
-------
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"95' ''';';' ' ":•'••••''
Platinum-Group Metals Industry _ •, .
Characteristics of the Platinum-Group Metals • . .- ' .
The metals or' the platinum group consist of platinum, palladium,
iridlum, osmium, rhodium, and ruthenium. These .metals are characterized by
high density, hardness, and relatively high melting points. Their usefulness
in industry and the decorative arts derives from excellent resistance to cor-
rosion at atmospheric conditions or at high temperatures, moderately good -..
electrical conductance coupled with abrasion and corrosion resistance, catalytic
activity for a variety of chemical reactions, and maintenance of a bright, tarnish-
free appearance. ' ' ' •' . ".':'.'
Usually found in conjunction with other metals -- gold in placer de-
posits, copper and nickel in the Canadian suitide deposits, and chromium in the
South African Merensky Reef district -- the platinum-group metals are produced
as by-products or co-products with all members of the group represented. . .
Platinum and palladium are relatively far more abundant than the other metals .of". .
the group, usually representing more than 90 percent of the group's total occurrence.
However, the platinum to palladium ratio is subject to rather wide variation --
from 3:1 to 1:3 — depending on the deposit. Initially isolated as a crude
platinum or palladium, the Individual metals are separated by .chemical methods
and purified for use. Commercial' platinum has a' purity of 99.7 percent but many
of its end-use products require 99.9 or 99.99 percent purity. Thermocouples and
resistance thermometers need 99.999 percent purity. Palladium and the other
group metals usually are refined to 99.9 percent purity. These high levels of
purity as well as relative scarcity -- total world production of platinum group .
metals in 1969 was about 220 tons — accounts for the high prices these metals
command. . "*"'..
-------
'..*?
96
The platinum-group metals are used principally in metallic form. Un-
alloyed platinum and palladium are readily malleable and soft and the other
group members are used as alloying agents to Improve hardness, abrasion re-
sistance, and stiffness. Also, the _yarious members of the group exhibit slight
differences In catalytic activity and, recently, platinum- rhenium combinations
have been found to be more effective than platinum alone in petroleum reforming.
For the purposes of this discussion, however, the platinum- group metals can
be considered to consist of platinum and palladium and their alloys.
Characteristics of the Platinum-Group Metals Industry
.3 • Materials Sources. Since 1965, the United States has produced less than
i percent of the newly mined platinum-group metals output of the world but has
consumed 43.4 percent of that output. Thus, the United States is dependent on
foreign sources for new metal. However, the uses to which these metals are put
are predominantly nonconsumptlve — in the usual context of that term — and
annual supplies available to users Include substantial quantities of old metal
rerefined by a domestic recycling industry. Table 13 presents world mine pro-
duction of new metal, details of refinery production of new and secondary metal
in the United States, and imports into the United States of refined metal and'
semimanufactures for the period 1965 through 1969.
Materials Flow. The basic source of platinum- group metals that are
used by consumers in the United States has been imports for many years. Recovery
of the metals from domestic mining operations — some Alaskan placer deposits
and selected gold and silver by-product separations -- has supplied negligible
quantities of new metal In comparison to annual needs. For the 1965 through
1969 period, domestic mining output averaged slightly over 27 ,$00 troy ounces , .
annually while imports of refined metals for consumption averaged* 1,250,000
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98
ounces. . Since preparations'for World.War II began In 1940 In this country,.- .
the United States has produced less than 800,000 ounces from domestic sources .
but has Imported over 21,250,000 ounces, against which exports have been about
2,680,000 ounces. ' . . •
Theoretically, the current Inventory of the platinum-group metals
In the United States'Is about 20,000,000 ounces, assuming.that none has been
lost In products or In recycling. Undoubtedly, products containing platinum-
group metals (jewelry, dental and medical Items, electrical and electronic
equipment) have been exported from the United States or shot Into space and
losses due to accidents and reprocessing are Inevitable. No reliable data
regarding the current Inventory of readily reprocessable platinum-group metals
were discovered In the course of this study, but Battelle estimates that It Is
between 6,000,000 and 8,000,000 ounces. It Is held principally by companies'
that produce chemicals, the petroleum refiners, manufacturers of glass, and-.
the telephone'companies. But the Important point Is that this'Inventory provides
more platinum-group metals for reclaimatlon annually than the-quantity of new
metal added to that Inventory.
Based on the statistics for 1965 through 1969, the approximate annual
flow of platinum-group metals in the United States Is presented In Figure 3 ..
In brief, annual refinery production of new metal averages about 40,000 ounces,
purchased scrap and waste averages nearly .260,000 of which 190,000 ounces are
generated by consumers and 70.-000 ounces are imported, and toll refining
, of spent catalysts and obsolete equipment averages 1,900,000 ounces, a refinery
throughput of about 2,200,000 ounces. In addition, about 1,300,000 ounces
of refined metals are Imported to make a total of 3,500,000 ounces of refined
metal or semimanufactures available to consumers. Approximately, 3;000,000
5x19
Imported Refined Metal
1300
Reported
SaWs for
Consumer
Products,
99
Domestic *Twetpings
Wufcle, flJWl Scrop
Imported
Sweepings,
waste,
ondScrpp
On
and. New
Crude Metal
I9O
7
0
40
Refinery Production
2200
30O Refined from Purchased
Materials .
I9OO Refined on Toll from Large
Consumers
Refined Metal
Available
Scrap Return ISO
Exports of Refined
Metal, Scrap, arid Ore
ond Semimanufactures
to Consumers
3500
Reported Sales for Products Controlled
by Large Industrial Consumers
3000
_L
For
Toll
Refining
1900
Additional Inventory in Products
Controlled by Large Industrial Consumers
Estimated to be 7000-9OOO
FIGURE 3. APPROXIMATE ANNUAL FU3H OF PLATINUM-GROUP METALS, UNITED STATES
(Based on 1965-1969 Data, In thousands of troy ounces)
.V-
Source: Battelie's Columbus Laboratories
5*0
-------
100
ounces of this supply la used by the chemical, petroleum,, glass, and electrical
companies with the bulk of It remaining under their control because of the nature
of the products produced. Some 300,000 ounces gets exported from the country
In the form of crude metals, refined metals, semimanufactured metal forms, and
waste and scraps. The balance of 200,000 ounces disappears (less a scrap re-
covery of about 40,000 ounces) Into dental and medical devices, Jewelry, and
miscellaneous Industrial products usually containing minor quantities of the
group metals. These products are sold and represent an addition to the unre-
ported Inventory of metals held by ultimate consumers.
Platinum-Group Metals Suppliers. The suppliers of platinum group
metals fall Into two distinct categories: those that have access to primary
sources of the metals, and those that depend primarily on secondary sources.
Currently, there are between 30 and 40 companies In the United States that claim
to be able to refine these metals. Four of these are affiliated or have working
arrangements with companies that mine ores containing the metals. The remainder
process scraps and waste of all the precious metals Including the separation and
recovery of the platinum group metals.
Matthey Bishop, Inc., Engelhard Minerals and Chemicals Corporation,
Amax Copper, Inc., and American Smelting and Refining Company (ASARCO) have
access to primary sources of the metals.
Matthey Bishop Is an affiliate of Johnson, Matthey & Company, the
English organization that refines the output of the Rustenberg platinum mine
in South Africa. Its refining operation Is supplemented by metal working facilities
to produce a full range of pure or alloyed metals In grain, strip, tube, or wire
form as well as chemical compounds for plating or catalysts. Imports of refined
metals from the parent company for industrial uses are channelled through
Matthey Bishop but Imports for the jewelry trade are handled by the parent
51!
101
company directly. The Rustenberg mine Is the largest producer of platinum in
the Free World.
The Engelhard refinery handles crude primary platinum and pal-
ladium and all forms of secondary materials. It is supplemented by metal
working facilities and special chemical facilities to produce a full range of
pure and alloyed metals, plating solutions, and catalysts. This refinery handles
a part of the crude primary platinum recovered by International Nickel Company
from their Canadian nickel-copper operations. In addition, Engelhard imports
refined metals for conversion to semimanufactured products -- strip, tubing, or
wire.
Amax and ASARCO recover the platinum group metals in the course
of their refining of both primary and secondary copper, gold, and silver. Both
are capable of handling virtually any form of ore, concentrate, scrap, waste,
or sweepings. Both tend to specialize in metal recovery, largely as the pure
metals.
Among the refiners dealing primarily with secondary materials,
the more important companies include (listed alphabetically): Joseph Behr and
Sons; Handy and Hartnan; Martin Metals; Sel-Rex Corporation; United Refining and
Smelting Company; and Wildbere Brothers Smelting and Refinine Company.
Markets for the Platinum Group Metals
The platinum group metals are fabricated into specialized pro-
cessing equipment for the chemical and glass Industries, into wire and formed
contact points for the electrical and electronics Industries, into cast and
542
-------
102
built up support, parts for the dental and medical professions, and Into cast and
stamped findings for the jewelry manufacturing Industry. .Salts of the various
metals also are made in the preparation of catalysts for the chemical and
petroleum refining industries, as well as for plating baths that are used by -
the electrical and jewelry manufacturing industries. .,
Actual consumption of the platinum group netals is difficult to
assess. Sales to consumers are reported annually by the refiners and metal trading
firms to the U. S. Bureau of Mines but there is evidence that, at times, some
purchased materials go into consumers' inventories rather than being utilized im-
mediately. Further, as shown in the flow diagram (Figure . 3, page 99), toll
refining of consumer-owned materials provides additional supplies for which no
use classification is available. Moreover, the reported data for refinery pro-
duction, imports for consumption, exports, and changes In suppliers' stocks do
not balance statistically with reported sales to consumers. Aside from the
f.
problems of accounting for net changes in consumers' Inventory stocks (for.which '
no data are reported), the principal obstacles to a statistical balance appear
. to lie (1) in the amount of foreign crude metals absorbed by consumers, and (2) in
the distribution of the exports of ores, scrap, and refined metals. . The best
approximation of consumption apparently is the reported sales to consumers, which,
as shown in Table 14, averaged 1,380,000 ounces annually in the 1965-1969 period.
The electrical and electronics Industries took 38;8 percent of
reported sales, an average of 535,000 ounces per year. The chemicals industry
purchased 28.2 percent of the available metals, an average of 390,000 ounces
per year. These two. plus the petroleum and glass Industries, accounted for
84.A percent of sales, and probably represent at least an equivalent percentage
of the material refined annually on toll.
Brief discussions of the individual consuming markets follow.
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Chemical Industry Markets. The chemical Industry uses the platinum
group metals directly as catalysts and as specialized equipment. Platinum
laboratory ware, especially Ignition crucibles, has long been recognized as an
outstanding example of the high-temperature corrosion resistance of these metals.
These same properties are Important also in applications such as spinnerettes
for artificial fibers, anodes for electrochemical processing, rupture discs
for processing operations, and highly resistant processing equipment. Products
such as these are fabricated from sheet and strip platinum with minor additions
of rhodium, ruthenium, or iridium for Improved abrasion resistance or high
temperature performance.
In the catalysis area, platinum and palladium are used to promote
oxidation reactions (ammonia to nitric acid), and hydrogenation or dehydrogenation
reactions (for vegetable oils and specialty organic chemicals). A platinum-
rhodium alloy is fabricated into wire gauze for use in the production of nitric
acid, while palladium has been gaining favor as the catalyst for hydrogenation
reactions.
The larger chemical companies try to retain control of their equipment
and catalysts containing the platinum group metals by returning their worn out
or damaged equipment and spent catalysts to the refiners for reprocessing on a
toll basis. Table IS presents sales of the individual platinum group metals to
the chemical Industry for the 1965-1969 period. Battelle estimates that the
chemical industry has between 1,000,000 and 2,000,000 ounces of platinum group
metals tied up In equipment and catalysts, and that about 250,000 to 300,000
ounces of the annual sales to the industry are used to maintain that inventory.
Annual additions to the Inventory probably average less than 100,000 ounces.
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Petroleum Industry Markets. The petroleum Industry uses the platinum
group metals primarily as catalysts based on platinum. A recent minor use for
palladium Is developing as a diffusion mevbrane for the purification of hydro-
gen. .
Platinum deposited on Inert substrates Is used for reforming operations
In petroleum refining, isually Involving hydrogenstIon. The products of this
operation are blended into gasoline where they increase the octane rating.
Unalloyed platinum still accounts for the bulk of this application, but starting
in 1968 a platinum-rhenium alloy was commercialized on the basis of improved
yields of aromatic reformate compounds and significantly longer catalyst life.
Both factors will contribute to a decrease in the amount of platinum needed to.
produce a given quantity of reformate. However, demand for platinum reforming • .
catalysts could increase by a factor of 15 if the petroleum refining industry
is forced to remove lead antiknock compounds from gasoline to comply with anti-
pollution regulations.
Crude hydrogen, available in petroleum refineries from several catalyzed
reactions, can be purified by diffusing the hydrogen through thin membranes of
palladium metal. This is likely to remain a rather small market for palladium
since the membranes are quite thin and last for a long time before requiring
replacement. . ' . •
Virtually all the catalysts used by the petroleum industry are. repro- •
cessed by the refiners on a toll basis. The high level of sales in 1966 and 1967,
as shown in'Table 16, is believed to reflect a deliberate buildup of. Inventory by
the petroleum companies, who would have purchased more In 1968 and 1969 if It had
been available. Battelle estimates that the petroleum Industry has between 2,000,000
and 2,500,000 ounces of platinum tied up in catalysts, both installed and held as
replacement charges.
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Glass industry Markets. 'The glass industry uses platinum and Its
alloys In sheet and tubing forms for Its high temperature corrosion resistance.
Optical glasses and laser glass formulations are prepared In platinum-
lined crucibles to assure the chemical composition of the products. Glass
melting furnaces for selected formulations -- boroslllcate glasses , textile grade
fiber glass, and similar compositions — may have platinum-lined stirring
equipment as well as platinum sheet linings at the liquid level line In addition
to platinum thermocouple wells. For fiber glass, forehearths may have platinum
linings on the refractories and the fiber forming bushings are fabricated from a
platinum-rhodium alloy. Various levels of rhodium have been tried In an attempt
to extend the life of the bushings, starting with a 90 pt-10 Rh alloy and
ranging up to 70 Pt-30 Rh. Rhodium Increases the abrasion resistance but also
makes the material more difficult to work In fabrication of the bushings. An
80 Pt-20 Rh alloy appears to be a reasonable compromise between performance and
workability.
The glass industry tends to retain ownership of the platinum it has and
uses and the high level of purchases In 1966 as shown in Table 17 is believed
to have added to the inventory held for future use. The five-year average
purchase of 70,000 ounces probably represents about 50,000 ounces for maintenance
of an Inventory estimated at 500,000 to 750,000 ounces plus about 20,000 ounces
annually for additional new equipment and fittings.
Electrical and Electronics Industry Markets. The electrical and
electronics industry uses the platinum group metals as contact points in relays,
magnetos, thermostats, voltage regulators, and control devices, as thermocouple
wire, as sparkplug electrodes, as temperature or current limiting fuses, as
protective coatings on resistance heating elements, in metal to glass seals.
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arid in sophisticated electronic circuitry;. Table 18 .presents reported sales
to these markets for 1965-1969. Strip and wire mill products probably are the
most commonly used forms, although plating of contact parts and resistance'
heating wire Is Important and paste formulations are made for seals and .electronic
circuitry. . '.
Since the Introduction of the dial telephone in the late 1940's, the
communications Industry has been the major consumer-of the palladium supplied
to the electrical and electronic industry. Palladium contact points in central . '
exchanges-switching relays assure reliability of current flow, for trouble-free
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operation. Expansion of dial,telephone systems continued through 1969 but further
ii'VJ" . ' 3»-.''.';>- ;-•' ' .' ' ' ' • *'"' '' ' ~ (!''- ' '".'-. - " •'
increasesjin the annual sales of palladium to this segment of"the industry .appear -
unlikely because of the greying popularity of touch-tone dialing for which the
central exchange depends on solid-state switching devices rather than relays;
Metals WeeS^Cvolume 42, No! 4, January 25,.1971, page 25) recently suggested that
this market; for palladium may disappear within a few years while the scrapping!
of relayed.central exchanges will throw large quantities of secondary palladium. .
on the shrinking market. ' . • ... .•_ ... '
Platinum (frequently alloyed) is favored for spark plug electrodes,. .
thermocouple wire, magnetos, voltage regulators, resistance heating elements, -
relays for control devices, and electronics circuitry. Pastes based on either
platinum or palladium are used for glass to metal seals for electronic vacuum
tubes and for printed circuits and thick film devices.
Central exchange equipment usually remains under the ownership .of the
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•-• a refiner for processing on toll. The quantity of palladium ti-_j u'p tn :
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central exchange equipment Is unknown but could be between 3,000.000 and 5,000,000
ounces. The platinum-containing products tend to be sold to industrial, com-
mercial, or military users where the probability of effective scrap recycling
is lower.
Other Markets. Dental and medical uses include cast metals for special
dental fillings and caps from platinum-palladlum-gold-silver-copper alloys,
bridges, tooth pins, anchors, cone pins, plates, hinges, and other prosthetic
devices from strip and wire forms of several alloy combinations of platinum group
metals with gold and silver, and platinum or palladium wire reinforcement for
dental porcelains. Platinum electrodes are incorporated into a heart pacing device
designed for implanting within the body for certain types of heart failure.
Palladium usually accounts for two thirds of these applications, as illustrated
in Table 19.
The jewelry and decorative Industries take platinum and palladium alloys
in grain, strip, and wire forms for cast and fabricated mountings for precious
stones and for complete rings, pins, pendents, bracelets, and necklaces.
Electroplated rhodium provides a bright, tarnish-free finish for jewelry findings
and high quality reflectors. Palladium brazing compounds with gold are used to
assemble jewelry and other art objects.
Among the miscellaneous uses for the platinum group metals, galvanic
corrosion protection systems, platinum-edged razor blades, antipollution devices,
and brazing alloys deserve mention. Platinum-coated electrodes provide the
nonfouling contact for introduction of the low-voltage, low-amperage current that
can protect metallic boat hulls from corrosion in salt water or dissimilar metal
parts in industrial equipment exposed to conducting liquids. A number of such
systems have been designed and Installed on large ocean boats and floating dry
docks, as well as In the condenser water headers of large Industrial boilers.
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115
The latter use significantly reduces the clean out needs and .maintenance •
shutdowns resulting from condenser tube fouling and corrosion-induced failure.
A platinum-chromium alloy applied to stainless steel razor blades is
claimed to provide the most durable edge ever achieved. The .alloy, principally
platinum, is applied by vapor deposition techniques only along the'edge of the
blades in quite thin films.' Although one of the more "exotic" uses for platinum,
this application consumes quite modest quantities of the metal. J •
Platinum Is one of the catalytic agents being used in devices and
systems now being offered commercially or under test to convert obnoxious and
poisonous effluents to harmless gases. Systems based on platinum have been
installed on a few plants to decolorize the tail gases from nitric acid produc-
tion facilities. Somewhat similar systems are under test on exhaust stacks for'
spray painting booths to convert organic solvents to carbon dioxide and water,
eliminating an odorous nuisance. Platinum also is being tested as a catalyst •.
^*v for cleaning up the exhaust of internal combustion engines, especially for.
\automobiles. Here, the catalyst promotes oxidation of the unburned hydro-
carbons, carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide, and nitrous oxides to nontoxlc
nitric oxides. To date, platinum-based catalyst systems rapidly lose efficiency
because of poisoning from the lead residues of antiknock compounds. Further,
the automotive industry has considered them to be too expensive for use on
current models of cars. Both objections appear to be well founded.. However,
research is being continued, and the probability of platinum based exhaust converters
for automobiles is undeterminated today.
Brazing alloys based oh palladium or platinum are finding increasing
use in high temperature situations. They are particularly suitable for joining
ti:in-walled tubing to headers, for example in rocket engine cooling systems.
However,' the experience gained in this application is now being applied in
less severe service where extended service life is desirable, as in nuclear
reactor Installations. . , . •
Platinum.Group Metal Prices . :
: The platinum group metals are relatively expensive and prices .are
sensitive to the supply-demand balance. Moreover, a two-tier pricing system
has been In effect for many years in the Free World. Free World sources for
platinum have been unable to supply all the metal desired by consumers for many
years until- 1970.but the major producers have followed conservative pricing
policies consistently for dealing with large established customers. Metals
reaching Free World markets from Russia and small quantities supplied by minor
Free World producers have been marketed by brokers at prices variably above
. the producer-quoted prices depending on the severity of the unbalance of supply
and demand. This is usually referred to as the "dealer price".
In 1965, the platinum group metals were priced as follows, in dollars
per troy ounce:
Metal Producer Quotations
Platinum $97 to $100
: . Palladium $32 to $35 • -
: ; Irldium . $100 to 105 -
Osmium $230 to $250
Rhodium $182 to $185 -
Ruthenium $55 to $60
By the end of 1965, Free World supplies were definitely lagging behind demand and
continued to do so until about the second quarter of 1970. During the intervening
Dealer Quotations
$135 to $140
-------
116
period,' the producer price for platinum moved upward gradually Co a high of
$130 to $135 per ounce late In 1969 while the dealer price peaked at about
$300 per ounce In mid 1968. By the end of 1969, the premium charged by dealers
had fallen from $160 per ounce to about $47 per ounce with the dealer quote
at $177. In 1970, the premium disappeared entirely and although producers main-
tained the $130 to $135 quotation they were conceding discounts of $10 to'
$15 per ounce. .
Prices of palladium, consistently In an excess supply situation,
remained relatively stable over the 1965-1969 period. Slight Increases In
1966, 1967, and 1968 raised the producer price to $45 to $47 per ounce by mid
1968, returning to $37 to $39 near the end of 1969. Dealer prices reflected
a premium that peaked at $12 per ounce when the dealer quotation reached $56 -
In mid March 1968. By the end of 1969, dealer quotations were below producer
quotes at $35.50 to $36 per ounce.
For the minor metals, prices Increased Irregularly from the 1965
quotations and then declined Coward the end of 1969. Irldlum advanced to a
producer price of $185 to $190 during 1967, nearly double the 1965 opening of
$100, then retreated to $160 to $162. Osmium jumped to a producer quote of
$300 to $450 In 1967 and 1968, falling back Co the $200 to $250 level In late
1969. Rhodium rose from $185 In 1965 to Che range of $245 to $250 by late 1967
but was back down to $215 to $220 In 1969. Ruthenium maintained the producer
price of $55 to $60 until 1969 when a drop to about $45 was noted.
Prices for platinum-group metals scrap are not listed by any of the
metal trade journals. However, the usual practice of scrap purchasers is to
determine the specific metallic content of the scrap, deduct probable repro-
cessing losaes. and pay for the probable recovered metals at prevailing new
metal prices less the processing charge. Depending on the form and content
of metal, processing charges may range from $5 to $15 per ounce.
117
Market Outlook • - •" '
Future markets for the platinum group metals present a series of
enigmas. Certain applications for platinum appear to have good growth prospects
without serious threats of replacement or discontinuance. This situation
would be applicable to hydrogenatlon catalysts and processing and laboratory
equipment in the chemicals Industry, to glass industry uses, to electrical
industry uses for platinum, and to the minor markets for all the metals.
Platinum-based catalysts for nitric acid are threatened by the recent.
commercialization of nonplatinum catalysts. At best, the growth of platinum-
using systems will be slowed from the rapid expansion of the 1963-1968 period;
at worst, the market for platinum catalysts in nitric acid could disappear by
1980. Most probable is a modest growth based on continued use of platinum
catalysts but more efficient utilization of the metal charged to the reactor.
In the petroleum industry, the service life of reforming catalysts Is
being extended by the platinum-rhenium alloys which require less platinum per
barrel of throughput. Reforming requirements will continue the 10 percenc per
year growth pattern of the past ten years if lead is not legislated out of
gasoline. Under this assumption, platinum demand in petroleum will probably
remain above 100,000 ounces per year. If, however, lead is removed from
gasoline, platinum demand for reforming catalysts could skyrocket to more than
2,250,000 ounces. New plants would have to be built to handle the increased
reforming load and it is difficult to visualize this occurring in less Chan
a 5-year period afcer the decision is reached. Still, the potential new demand
of 700,000 ounces per year is believed by some industry observers to have
been the motivation for Che recent expansion In production capacity for platinum
in South Africa. Based on the assumptions that lead will be phased out of
S.--8
-------
.118
119
gasoline gradually in the .1975 to 1985 period and that further Improvements in
reforming catalysts can be achieved, Battelle believes that the reforming catalyst
demand will not create a shortage of platinum in the foreseeable future.
Palladium demand in the electrical and electronic Industry, as
mentioned earlier, appears to be headed toward .lower annual levels with the con-
tinuing conversion to touch-tone dialing. The currently installed switching
equipment based on palladium contact relays eventually will be scrapped, but
reclaimatlon of the palladium may well depend on the development of new markets
for this metal that cannot be visualized at this time. Other markets for palladium
appear to have some growth potential.
Overall annual sales of the platinum group metals could continue at
the 1,000,000 to 1,250,000 ounce level for several years, perhaps beyond 1975,
but with increasing emphasis on platinum at the expense of palladium.
Characteristics of the Platinum Group Metals ••••.-. ...
Recycling Industry • . .
Materials Sources. The source materials for secondary platinum group
metals consist of scrap, wastes, and sweepings. These materials originate from
the processing of the metals Into usable parts for Industrial, commercial, or
consumer products or from the dismantling of damaged, worn out, or obsolete
equipment and the discarding of consumer items containing the netals. These
sources may be classified as "prompt Industrial scrap" and "old scrap" for con-
venience in following the flow of the platinum group metals through the recycling
industry.
. i-.ii. '-Prompt Industrial.scrap includes the waste material generated in the
course of the fabrication of equipment or the manufacture of component parts
for inclusion in industrial, commercial, or consumer products. It originates
In the factories and shops of consumers of the platinum group metals and thus
excludes the "in-house" scrap generated and recycled by the refining' Industry:
It consists primarily of metallic wastes resulting from the conversion of sheet,
strip, tubing, wire', or grains to fabricated parts by metal working processes-
including casting. In general, it is readily segregated from other metallic
and nonmetaliic scraps and contains the same percentage of platinum group metal
~ content as the material purchased. Depending on the amount of.platinum group
metals handled, it may be returned to the refiner for reprocessing on toll or
sold to the refiner as scrap. Examples of prompt industrial' scrap include the
trimmings from stamping and blanking operations; sprues, gates, and risers from
casting operations; trimmings from sheet, tubing, and wire in fabrication of
equipment or assemblies; and reject subcomponents or parts that cannot be re-
worked .
Old scrap consists primarily of consumer articles that have been dis-
• • ' .
carded, industrial equipment that is damaged or worn out, parts salvaged from
obsolete commercial, industrial, or military equipment, and spent catalysts from
the chemical or petroleum industries. It also includes wastes such as spent
plating solutions, polishing compounds containing metallic particles, and floor
sweepings from shops where the metals are processed. The platinum group metals
content of old-scrap ranges from nearly 100 percent to less than 1 percent
. depending on the source and extent of segregation effected by the collector. It
may represent part of the processing loss incurred in treating metals purchased.
- in the current year or the return to the recycling system of products sold many
years in the past. Examples of old scrap include discarded jewelry; spent
catalysts; uorn out aircraft sparkplugs; damaged laboratory or production equip-
ment; contact points from obsolete switching equipment or control devices;
polishing wastes; floor sweepings; even worn out wooden floors.
-------
120
Materials Flog.' The platinum group metals are returned to the're-
cycling Industry by a variety of routes. A large percentage of the prompt
Industrial scrap follows the relatively short route of generator to dealer-
collector. The dealer-collector may also be the refiner or he may be a broker
handling several types of metallic scrap. In either event, the scrap ultimately
reaches a refiner for reprocessing to saleable forms of the pure and alloyed
metals and chemical compounds.
A substantial share of the old scrap appears also to follow the route
of generator to dealer-collector, especially from sources In the chemical, petro-
leum, glass, and electrical and electronics Industries. This Is evidenced by .
the quantity of material that Is rereflned on a toll basis for the consumer-
generator. However, old scrap Is sold by certain generators to dealers, dealer-
collectors, and Industrial generators for .entry Into the recycling system.
This .may be Illustrated by the example of platlnum-or palladium-containing
jewelry that Is turned In to a manufacturing jeweler at the time of a new purchase.
Accumulations over a period of time at this level may be sold to dealers having
no processing facilities as a part of their purchases of all the precious metals.
In turn, they sell the scrap jewelry to refiners for reprocessing. Similarly,
generators of wastes that have a low content of platinum group metals — for
example, used polishing compounds, spent plating baths, and floor sweepings —
are more likely to sell these materials to dealer-collectors than to try to
retain ownership by toll refining.
The available data on recycled platinum group metals are presented
In Table 20. From Information received from refiners in the course of this
study, Battelle estimates that the reported recovery represents about 98 per-
cent of the material received by the refiners and probably represents about
95 percent of the material available for recycling. In other words, prompt
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122
Industrial scrap and obsolete products discarded had an annual average
platinum group metals content of perhaps 2,300,000 ounces, of which 2,200,000
1 C i. '
ounces were recycled with a recovery of about 2,160,000. ounces.' -
From the reported data relating to recovery of the various metals
and opinions expressed by dealer-collectors and refiners, Battelle further -
estimates that prompt industrial scrap accounted for approximately 600,000
ounces of the 2,200,000 ounces actually recycled, heavily weighted1 in favor.. -..
of palladium used by the electrical industry. By inference,, this indicates
•that much of the platinum was recovered from old scrap, probably spent catalysts
used by the chemical and petroleum industries. Table 21 presents Battelle's
rationalization of the flow of platinum group metals for an average year.in
the 1965-1969 period. It should be noted that the amount of purchased scrap
recycled in the last three years of the period increased substantially during
the height of the shortage of supplies. This suggests that recovery of the
platinum group metals from old scrap represents an opportunity to improve the
supply situation if suitable economic incentives are provided.
The Recycling Industry. The recycling industry for the platinum
group metals consists of at least 49 companies that refine the metals and an
unknown number of collectors and brokers that serve to link .the generators .
of scrap to the refiners. The extensive survey for this study identified 193 .
organizations (out of 578 responses) that handle all the precious metals.
The responses suggested that 112 of these have no refining facilities, while 73
claim,to refine one or more of.the precious metals, including 49 that refine
the platinum group metaln. ".....
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124
Dealer-collectors who also refine form the backbone of the recycling
Industry. They service the major Industrial consumers, many on a toll refin-
ing basis, and purchase crude metals from collector-processors that perform
a segregation function. There are between 12 and 15 established refiners In-
cluding the companies listed In the section dealing with platinum group metals
suppliers. Hatthey Bishop and Engelhard are the largest Integrated refiners,
probably accounting for 75 percent of refined metals capacity. The top 15 may
process as much as 90 percent of the total.
In terms of the quantity of platinum handled, the collector-processors
dealing with electrical and electronic scrap are the moat Important. They
supplement th'e integrated dealer-collectors on the collection side and sell to
the refiners,*.; Numerically, the largest group of collector-processors is the
manufacturing Jewelers, especially the small shops associated with retail out-
lets. The discarded jewelry they purchase or take In trade is readily segregated
and usually melted down into gold, silver, or platinum crude ingots. These are
returned, frequently through brokers, .to the refiners. Although the volume of
.such activities'is not large—estimated by Battelle to be about 10,000 ounces per
year—it is a fairly steady source of recycle material.
Demand/Supply Analysis
In spite of the extensive recycling that occurs regularly with the
platinum group metals, the supply of secondary material falls far short of total
demand in the United States. As measured by reported sales to consumer, demand
has increased steadily since 1940 with most of the new supply being furnished by
imports. There is a distinct possibility that this pattern will be reversed .
with respect to palladium in the next five years whereby secondary sources (largely
telephone switching equipment) will be able to supply more than enough material
to satisfy continuing needs in the chemical, electrical, and consumer-goods
markets. However, Increasing demands for platinum will continue to depend on
Imports of foreign metal although secondary refining also will expand to handle
toll reprocessing of industrial materials. r- t—
125
Obstacles and.Problems that Reduce Recycling of Platinum Group Metals
Table 22 presents the problems identified and analyses discussed In
succeeding paragraphs.
Prompt Industrial Scrap
The prices of the platinum group metals always have encouraged their
recycling when their functionality has been lost. The relative sizes of the toll
reprocessing and secondary recovery activities indicate the awareness of Industry
to the value in platinum group metals scrap. Whereas about 250,000 ounces of
secondary metals are produced annually at the present time, 1,900,000 ounces are
processed without change in ownership of the metals. To a considerable extent,
this relationship is possible because the principal applications for the metals
lie:in industrial products that never leave the control of the primary industrial
consumer. Catalysts for the chemical and petroleum industries, and contact points
for telephone switching relays illustrate this situation. The products used by
these industries are expected to fulfill an important function and when that
function no longer is efficiently performed the products are returned for re-
working or reactivation. This is not to say that the ultimate in recycling has
been achieved. Accidental spills, careless handling of materials, fires, hurricanes,
or other disasters can result in disappearance of the platinum group metals. Al-
though such losses are known to occur, their incidence is minor in comparison
to the careful handling of the metals and the products they are in.
To counter these losses, the refiners have been conducting institutional
advertising aimed at the industrial consumer for many years and supplementing this
with technical services for operating personnel and discussions with financial
and top management personnel of consumers. As expressed by one refiner inter-
viewed, "if we can get top oanageroent, the financial people, and factory foremen
aware of the possibilities for scrap recovery, we usually have an excellent
'
-------
- . . 126'••.•':•.•.'..:'•.-• •'".',;••:
TABLE 22. IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF: QUANTITATIVE PROBIEMS
OF PLATINUM GROUP METALS RECYCLING ' r
Title
Platinum
NOT Recycled
Percent of .
Available .
Platinum NOT
Recycled
Prompt Industrial Scrap
Obsolete Scrap'
Problem Manufacturing processes often
Definition generate unusable materials
In small volume In a number
of installations that are
often contaminated and not
recycled. •
Platinum content of discarded articles
frequently is low, usually masked by
other metals. . . .
Individual consumer goods: articles
have small amount of platinum. Con- ,
Burner's idea of value of-article is
much higher than the materials cost
Some of this platinum is not recycled.
60,000 ounces
40,000 ounces
: 1. A very high percentage of
available.scrap is recycled
2. Aside from accidental loss,
only small shops.find it
uneconomic to recover
platinum
Problem 3. This is not a promising.area
Analysis because the economically
. recoverable scrap is being
recovered :
4. Institutional promotion by
the refining industry is
desirable to maintain level
of recovery now achieved
1. 'Recycling of obsolete industrial
scrap is high in spite of. low
content of platinum at times
2. Recycling of discarded consumer
articles is economic only when
consumer turns article in
3. Consumer has little economic
incentive to recycle platinum
unless a .direct replacement of
the article is being made
4. No effective mechanism exists to
collect discarded articles from.
individual consumers
5. Unreported recovery via'Small '
manufacturing jewelers believed
to exist
6. Minor Improvement may be possible
without economic benefit to
consumer
127
response'and get nearly everything available". . He also'reported that their own
studies indicated'that about 90 percent of the prompt industrial scrap generated
was being recycled with most of the losses concentrated in small factories and
shops that handle modest quantities o'f platinum group metals annually. ;His
solution includes a continuation of .present efforts, to educate all.:levels of
•personnel at consumers' installations with.the expectation that the improvement :
noted in recycling during the past five years will be continued. t
.Without question, the shortage ofJprimary new metals that developed
In 1965 and intensified through 1968 accounted for the sudden increase In re-
processing of consumer-owned metals starting in 1966 and in purchased scrap from
1967 on: Aside from the Increased value of scrapr-asreflected by rising prices
for refined metals--many consumers had to searcfr'for material to be reprocessed
in order to assure at least part of their needs. The latter aspect probably
was the dominant factor in view of .limited opportunities to substitute for platinum
.and palladium in most uses.. Thus, the .actual effectiveness of the refiners'.
efforts to boost recycling may be questionable from the strictly'economic view-
point but certainly valid from the viewpoint of improving the overall supply
picture.
As!noted in Table. 21 , Battelle estimates that an average, of about
. 600,000, ounces, of'.prompt 'industrial scrap;was'recycled' annually* in" the" 1965-1969
period. Over 85 percent of this is believed to be originating from the fabrication
of contact points and other components of telephone switching systems, industrial
control devices, voltage regulators for automotive use, aircraft spark plugs,
and wirerbased products such as thermocouples and resistance heating elements.
Nearly.'all the balance also resulted from the manipulation of sheet, strip,
-------
128
tubing, and^wlre .(I.e., mill.product forms) into the desired products. Very
little direct loss is believed to occur in the conversion of compounds to
catalysts, plating solutions, brazing compounds, or other non-mill product
forms. The total represents less than 20 percent of the amount of. the platinum
group metals that was available to consumers (3,280,000 ounces), for processing -
into usable products. It may account for about 30 percent of an estimated
delivery of 2,000,000 ounces of platinum group metals in mill product form,
a reasonable rate of scrap and waste generation by the metal working processes.
The refining industry feels that small shops handling less than a few
thousand ounces of platinum group metals annually are responsible for most of
the loss of prompt industrial scrap. There are many one-or-two man shops in
jewelry manufacture, dental laboratories, and specialty electrical concerns
where the secondary metal processing operations (machining, grinding, polishing,
and plating) produce such small volumes of waste that segregation and collection
becomes a major problem. The craftsmen who perform these operations are concerned
primarily with the output of usable products whose value is many times that of the
value of platinum group metals in the scrap. Even optimun recovery of the waste
would not significantly affect the final cost of the products and there Is thus
little economic incentive to divert high-priced labor to segregating and collecting
it. There is little that the refining industry or scrap dealers can do to over-
come this problem beyond the institutional promotion they are maintaining.
Obsolete Scrap
Obsolete scrap is believed to account for 1,550,000 ounces annually
of refined platinum group metals in the 1965-1969 period (see Table 20). The
chemlc.il, petroleum, and electrical and electronics industries were responsible
5.9
129
for 90 percent of this and virtually all was toll, refined and returned to the
consumer-generators. Platinum and palladium catalysts—deposited on inert
substrates—for the petroleum and chemical Industries may have accounted for
nearly half of the total, about 700,000 ounces, returned for reprocessing after
1 to 2 years of service. Platinum gauze catalysts for chemicals and petro-
chemicals (largely nitric acid) probably accounted for an additional 200,000
ounces. A majority of the old scrap from the electrical and electronics Industry
is believed to consist of'telephone relay contacts from obsolete or damaged
central exchanges, with minor quantities originating from discarded aircraft
sparkplugs, military hardware, Industrial control devices Including thermocouples,
and automotive voltage regulators. Other significant sources of obsolete scrap
were chemical laboratory and process equipment, glass tank equipment and linings,
fiberglass bushings, and imported scrap for rerefining.
The potential volume of old scrap that could be available for recovery
of the platinum group metals is uncertain. From discussions with consumers and
refiners, Battelle estimates that a minimum of about 7,000,000 ounces of platinum
group metals are being used or held In Inventory by the large Industrial companies.
The actual figure may be closer to 9,000,000. Since 1940, when industrial ex-
pansion boomed to support the prosecution of World War II, new domestic production
and Imports of the platinum group metals have totalled over 22 million ounces.
Exports of refined and unrefined metals over the period would reduce the net In-
flow Into the system by about 2.7 million ounces to 19.3 million ounces. Further,
perhaps as much as 4 million ounces have been converted into consumer held
products by the jewelry and dental and medical Industries, leaving about 15.3
million ounces channelled into Industrial uses. Undoubtedly, there have been
exports of Industrial products and equipment containing the metals and an
allowance must be made for accidental disappearance and reprocessing losses.
5',"0
-------
-130
But the nearly 7 million ounces of new supplies made available between 1965
and 1969, less the 1.5 million ounces of exports suggests, that the potential
recoverable amount Is between 7-and 9 million ounces, of which not over 2 million.
V ' ; • ' ' . ' ' • - ' -
ounces represents unused Inventory held by the chemical, petroleum, and glass
Industries partly In product form and partly as Ingots of.refined metals. •
Theoretically, all of the 7 to 9 million ounces could be returned eventually
for reprocessing. Battelle's rationalized flow'of the metals suggests that a
little over 1.5 million ounces were returned annually in the 1965-1969 period.
However, declining prices during 1970 that reflect a change to surplus supplies .
may also reflect a lower level of recycle for old scrap both purchased and toll
refined. ' .
One of the major problems associated with old scrap Is the segregation
of the platinum group metals. Electrical control devices, relays, and Industrial
and military electronic equipment frequently contain base metals and/or nonmetallic
materials in addition to the platinum group metals. In many instances, the
platinum group metals account for less than 1 percent of the weight of the item . .
being discarded. The cost of segregating the precious metals content to the
point that it represents over 50 percent of the recycle weight may be prohibitive
under current approaches to recycling which start with manual disassembly.
Bulk melting is a possible alternative approach as long as the base metals consist
principally of copper. Appreciable quantities of iron or aluminum, however,
preclude this approach because methods for treating such scrap are riot conducive
to recovery of the platinum group metals or the economic separation of aluminum
from copper or iron from aluminum and copper.
Generalizations about this problem tend to be meaningless beyond the
comments given above. Each salvage operation for these industrial-type scraps
presents specific and frequently unique problems. Usually, an effective
131
segregation can be achieved If the volume of scrap Is large, for example with
thousands of relays. The real problem arises when the units,being salvaged
arrive at-a collection point a few at a time, at irregular intervals, or mixed
in with other items:for reclamation. No ready solutions for'this problem are
known to exist but the refiners can offer helpful suggestions in many instances
If they'are'made .aware of the opportunities.. •-.'..-
' ' With respect to old scrap from the 'jewelry and dental and medical
industries, collection and segregation is less of a problem because the gold and
silver also present, is recognized as economically recoverable. The'.major obstacle
to increased recycling of these obsolete products is' the reluctance of consumers
to turn the articles in for reclamation. Aside from speculative hoarding—
believed to be minimal in the United States— sentimental attachment to the article
and indifference to the reclaim value result in wastage and loss of all the
precious metals. Nationwide''campaigns aimed at consumers have temporarily
boosted recycling of the precious metals In the past with .the primary stimulus
of patriotism. Similar campaigns based on antipollutlon objectives might persuade
some consumers to search for reclamable articles but the lasting effects of such
promotions was questionable.
'-"•••'•• Problems Other Than Supply and Economics
. Representatives of the -recycling industry for platinum group metals
failed to identify any significant problems In areas other than those noted in
the preceding section. The collection, processing, segregation, and refining of
the platinum group metals require minimal space, virtually no hazardous or
offensive treatment methods, and no unusual labor skills. The refiners are
.T ' • f .
faced with tightening requirements for air and water effluent treatments but these
have no specific hazards or complexities unique to the platinum group metals.
571
ssz
-------
132
133
Courses of-Action Concerning Recycling
of the Platinum Group Metals
The problems of the platinum group metals recycling Industry have .
a predominant economic orientation. The supply of scrap-available In any given
Tear falls far short of demand for the metals but the quantities collected and
reprocessed represent nearly the maximum economic recovery under, present con-
ditions. The experieace of the 1965-1969 period demonstrates that consumers
and scrap collection agencies can increase the annual recycle of the platinum
group metals under the Impetus of a severe supply shortfall. However, less.than
20 percent of the Increase came by way of purchased scrap that represented a
real Increase in the available supply and even a part of that increase was
generated by foreign consumers.
Fundamentally, courses of action are needed to stimulate the flow of
scrap containing the platinum group metals to the refiners. In terms of priorities,
there is little difference in the magnitude of Improvement to be achieved between
the recycling of prompt Industrial scrap and that of old scrap. Both represent
opportunities for consumers and recyclers alike. However, from the viewpoint of
the consumers, the problem is most severe in small shops and factories and the
general public, an audience that is difficult to reach and uneconomic for the
refiner to cultivate extensively. Programs aimed at these low-volume generators of
scrap will undoubtedly benefit from indirect education of some of the large-
volume generators who also will see the promotional materials.
Recommended Actions
Environmental Protection Agency. Battelle recommends that the Environ-
mental Protection Agency Initiate a promotional campaign to stimulate the recycle
of all solid waste materials, including a series for the precious metals. The
% emphasis should be on the need to conserve these metala to reduce the dependence
of the United States on foreign sources. Inputs for the precious metals series,
by way of illustrating what to look for, could be provided by the refining .
industry working through their subcommittee of the NASMI Committee on Solid
Wastes. The campaign should have an Intensive phase with broad use of all .
communication media — radio, television, newspapers, trade journals, and general
readership magazines — and an extensive phase that repeats the basic message over
several years. ;
Recycling Industry. Battelle recommends that the recycling industry
continue the individual company-sponsored promotional and educational advertising
and technical service activities that currently are being carried out. They can
supplement the EPA campaign, especially for the larger-volume consumers of the
platinum group metals, by detailing specific instances or opportunities for re-
cycling. :
Table 23 summarizes the recommended actions.
574
-------
L
%i>
134
TABLE 23. RECOMMENDED ACTIONS, HIGH PRIORITY
•'' . 'PLATINUM CROUP METALS RECYCLING 'PROBLEMS
Title
By Hbo.-(lH2>''0>
Prompt Industrial Scrap
Obsolete Scrap
Action
Recommended
.Recycling industry .
should continue
promotional efforts for
collecting and recycling
small volumes of scrap.
Recyling industry should
continue promotional efforts
to encourage ultimate con-
sumer to turn in discarded
articles even in small
amounts . • • " . ,
EPA/NASMI
EPA/NASHI
APPENDIX A
PRECIOUS METALS RECYCLING INDUSTRY DATA
FROM EXTENSIVE SURVEY
Specific
Steps
Continue institu-
tional .a'dvertising
on value of scrap
and probablr cost
savings by rc-
cycling
1. .Continue .institu-.
tlonal advertising
on value of scrnp
.and need to recycle
to conserve re-
sources
(1) The responsibility for recommended actions shown in this table are based on
importance of the action, benefit to the taxpayers, and opportunities for
NASMI.. They are the best judgments of Battelle. .'••.""'.
(2) Recommended actions wore distributed between high_priority and lower prior-
ity based on the evaluation with three.criteria.
(3) It is sugsebtrcl that NASMI continue its leading role in recycling, recognizing
that other organizations such as the Bureau of Mines, Department of Commerce,
Council-of Environmental Qu.ilHy, HEW Office of Information, and State, Local,
and Federal Lcnisl.iLurcs must be involved. ' :
575
576
-------
A-l
TABLE A-l. AVERAGE SIZE OF PRECIOUS METALS SCRAP
PROCESSORS, ANNUAL TONS, BY REGION
Region
Total United States
New England
Middle Atlantic
Sooth Atlantic
East North Central
East South Central
West North Central
West South Central .
Mountain
Pacific
Unknown
Number of
Companies
115
9
29
11
27
1
4
2
5
26
1
Tons Per Year,
Gross Weight
6.6
8.0
10.3
7.9
3.6
1.0
3.5
1.0
1.6
6.9
1.0
5.7
A-2
TABLE A-2. AVERAGE SIZE OF PRECIOUS METALS
SOLUTIONS PROCESSORS, ANNUAL
GALLONS, BY REGION
Region
Total United States
New England
Middle Atlantic
South Atlantic
East North Central
East South Central
West North Central
West South Central
Mountain
Pacific
Unknown
. iiumber of
Companies
42
5
is
0
9
0
1
0
0
9
0
Gallons Per
Year
1656
2720
2S08
0
761
: 0
50
0
0
433
0
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3. South Atlantic
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5. East. South Central
6. West North Central
7. West Soutn Central
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9. Pacific (includes Alaska
and Hawaii)
FIGURE A-i. REGIONAL DISTRIBUTION OF PRECIOUS METALS REFINERS
C-V
-------
APPENDIX B
EXTENSIVE SURVEY
APPENDIX B
EXTENSIVE SURVEY
The extensive survey of the secondary materials industry consisted of
a mail survey and personal interviews with management personnel of companies
involved with the collection processing, and sale of secondary materials. About
600 responses were received.
The information developed through the extensive survey included dollar
sales, tons of major materials handled, types of solid waste processed, sources
of materials, investment, equipment and facilities, number of employees, the
amount of space used, and the grades and quantities of secondary materials
produced .• ...
The data from the extensive survey provided statistical tabulations of
the regional distribution of the secondary materials industries by type of
commodity in terms of numbers of establishments, volume of business, and numbers
of employees.'
.53:5
-------
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-------
10
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[U.S. Interstate Commerce Commission. Ex Parte no. 259 (etc.);
increased freight rates, 1968 Paper and textile waste. Non-ferrous
metal scrap; brief in behalf of National Association of Secondary
Material Industries, Inc. New York, 1968. 44 p.]
[Ex Parte no. 262; increased freight rates and charges. Verified
statement of Frankel Brothers & Company, Inc.... Washington, U.S.
Interstate Commerce Commission, 1969. 10 p.]
[U.S. Interstate Commerce Conmission. Ex Parte no. 265;. increased
freight rates and charges. Verified statement of National Association
of Secondary Material Industries, Inc., New York, 1970. 16 p.]
[Oral argument...
Washington, U.S.
reference Ex Parte 265; increase freight rates.
Interstate Commerce Commission, 1970. 5 p.]
[U.S. Interstate Commerce Conmission. Petition for suspension before
the Interstate Commerce Conmission. New York, National Association
of Secondary Material Industries, Inc., 1969. 4 p.]
593
11
Kingston, G. A., F. V. Carrillo, J. J. Gray, and P. Mcllroy. Availability
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Circular-8469. Washington, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1970.
57 p.
Turner, S. Economic aspects of gold and silver. U.S. Bureau of Mines
Information Circular 6740. Washington, U.S. Department of Commerce,
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Nichols, I. L., and L. Peterson. Leaching gold-bearing mill tailings
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Oldright, G. L. Leaching silver in unroasted tailings with ferric salts
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Davis, C. W. Methods for the recovery of platinum, iridium, palladium,
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- ' r
[U.S. Bureau of Mines. Mineral facts and problems. 1965 ed. Washington,
U.S. Government Printing Office, 1965.]
U.S. Bureau of Mines. Minerals yearbook, [1932-1970].
Government Printing Office, (1933-1970). 18 v.
Washington, U.S.
Zadra, J. B. A process for the recovery of gold from activated carbon
by leaching and electrolysis. U.S. Bureau of Mines Report of
Investigations 4672. Washington, U.S. Department of the Interior,
Apr. 1950. 47 p.
George, L. C. and A. A. Cochran. Recovery of metals from electroplating
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Progress Report 27. Washington, U.S. Department of the Interior, 1970.
9 p.
Schack, C. H., and B. H. derations. Review and evaluation of silver-
production techniques. U.S. Bureau of Mines Information Circular
8266. Washington, U.S. Department of the Interior, 1965. 41 p.
Secondary gold in the United States. U.S. Bureau of Mines Information
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30 p.
[Secondary nonferrous metals industry in California, with data on Nevada
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Dannenberg, R. 0., and G. M. Potter. Silver recovery from waste
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of the Interior, Apr. 1968. 22 p.
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12
13
Ashes richer than ore, recovery study underway. Engineering and
.Mining -Journal. 169(6):256. June 1968. .. ,,-.'.
[Bennett, A. Scrap: evidence of integration on aluminium. Metal
Bulletin, 139-145. Winter 1969.1 • . .
[Bennett, K. W. Secondary aluminum: moving up. Iron Age, 200:56-57,
Nov. 16, 1967.] . .•"-!..''
Bennett, K. .W. World market battles for U.S. scrap. Iron Age, •
205(10):47, Mar. 5, 1970. . :.
[Bishop, F. C. Military-space scrapyards hold gold-silver bonanza.
American Metal Market. 77(58):20. Mar. 27, 1969.]
Bjorling, G., and G. A. Kolta. Recovery of valuable metals from slags,
leached residues, and scraps by a wet oxidation method. Journal of ,
Chemistry U.A.R.. 9(2):205-216. 1966.
Cash in trash? Maybe. Forbes. 105(2):18-24. Jan. 15, 1970.
[Cashing in on precious-metal scrap. Purchasing Magazine. 87-89, Apr.
21, 1966.] .- . . .
Chepchugova, A. G., and S. I. Ivanov. Opredeleniye zasorennosti loma
tsvetnykh metallov. [Determination of the contamination of non-ferrous
metal scrap.] Tsvetnye Metally. (11):88-90, Nov. 1968.
Chip collection system; centrifugal separators reduce waste by swallowing
uncontaminated metal particles. Compressed Air Magazine. 71(1):15,
Jan. 1966.
[Cogen, L. L. Oxygen in the secondary lead industry. Proceedings,
Metallurgical Society, AIME, on Pyrometallurgical Processes in
Nonferrous Metallurgy. New York, 1965. p. 319-331.]
[Copper-brass-bronze; special supplement. American Metal Market,
1-74, sec. 2, Sept. 21, 1970.]
[Copper-nickel section. American Metal Market, sec. 2, Apr. 27, 1970.]".--•
Dean, K. C. , H. Dolezal, and R. Havens. Sew approaches to solid
mineral wastes. Mining Engineering. 21(3):59-62, Mar. 1969.
Dean, K. C., R. Havens, and E. G. Valdez. Stabilization of mineral
wastes. Industrial Water Engineering. 6(10);30-33. Oct. 1969.
[Dean, K. C. Utilization and stabilization of solid wastes. In
Proceedings; 16th Ontario Industrial Waste Conference, Niagara .Falls,
June 15-18, 1969. p.18-42.)
Denev, D. Processing of battery scrap in an electric furnace.
Ru'dodobiv Metalurgiya, 23(4):41-47. 1968.
Dumontet, J. Deux aspects de 1' Indus trie de 1'affinage de 1'aluminium.
[Two aspects of the aluminum refining industry.] .Revue de
1'Aluminium, (380):1207-1219, Dec. 1969.
[Executive Reorganization Plans.... Reorganization Plan no.3;
establishing the new Environmental Protection Agency; consolidates
- major programs to combat pollution in a single Agency independent of
existing Departments. Congressional Quarterly Weekly Report,
28(41):2,466, Oct. 9, 1970.] '
[Forbes, R. Hv Silver recovery. American Metal Market, 15-16, sec.
' 2, Mar. 16, 1970.]
With a new kind of metaluorking machine called AutoForge, you can
combine casting, forging and trimming to... forge good parts from
scrap metai:. Machinery. 75(9) ;114-115. May 1969.
[GM's new way to save scrap; (reconstituted steel). Business Week,
24, Mar. 7, 1970.]
George, P. C. America's neglected .pollutant, solid waste [in four
parts].. Nation's Cities. 8(6):8-9. 12-15. June 1970; 8(7):16-19,
July 1970; 8(8):16-20, Aug. 1970; 8(9):24-27, Sept. 1970. '
[Gold market guide. .Metals Week, 10-35, Sept. 30, 1968.]
Grosspietsch, W.,. H. Prohl, and W. Stiehler. Wirtschaftliche
aufarbeitung von kupferhaltigen sekundaerrohstoffen. [Economic '." .
recovery of copper-bearing secondary raw materials.] Neue Huette, -,
14(l):18-23, Jan. 1969.
Haake, G. Stand und entwicklungstendenzen bei der verarbeitung von
kupfer- und kupferlegierungs-schrotten; II; verfahren der
metallurgisch-chemischen schrottverarbeitung—kabelschrottaufbereitung.
[Present practice and trends in the scrap recovery of copper and
copper alloys; II; metallurgical and chemical process: cable scrap
treatment.] Neue Huette. 14(11):647-651, Nov. 1969.
Haake, G. Stand und entwicklungs tendenzen bei der verarbeitung von
kupfer- und kupferlegierungs-schrotten; I; aoeglichkeiten der
schrottverwertung—direkter schrotteinsatz bei der legierungsherstellung.
. [Status and development trends in the processing .of copper and copper.
alloy scrap; I; possibilities of using scrap—direct introduction of
scrap in the production of alloys.] Neue Huette., 14(10):593-596,
. Oct. 1969.
[Harms, D., and Przybyslawski, A. Metal recovery from bimetallic scrap
steel/Al-Sn alloy. Rudy i Metale Niezelazne, 13(11):573-576, Nov. 1968.]
[He turns junk into gold. Dun's Review. 51, Dec. 1968.]
[Hershaft, A. Solid waste treatment. Science and Technology, 34-45,
June 1969.], .
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14
[International precious metals report. American Metal Market, 1A-31A,
sec. 2, Sept. 8, 1970.]
[Jakobi.J. Secondary European aluminium smelting. Metal Bulletin,
22-3. Oct. 19, 1965; 25-26, Oct. 22, 1965.]
Jangg, G., and K. Schuetz. Nasschemische aufarbeitung von
buntmetallschrott. [Hydrochemical treatment of non-ferrous metal
scrap.] Zeitschrift fuer Erzbergbau und Metallhuettenwesen..21(7):
299-305, July 1968. .
[Jarman, G. Mechanical separation of scrap wire and insulation. Wire
Journal. 2(12);51-53. 1969.]
[Kaplan, J. Gold, the untouchable metal. American Metal Market, sec. 2,
Apr. 14, 1969.]
Kemp, M., and G. Schrade. Fusione di trucioli d'ottone in un forno
elettrico a crogiuolo B.F. [The melting of brass swarf in a low-
frequency electric crucible furnace (coreless induction furnace).]
II Rame. 7(26);39-42. 1969.
Kleespies, E. K., J. P. Bennetts, and T. A. Henrie. Gold recovery from
scrap electronic solders by fused-salt electrolysis. Journal of Metals,
22(l):42-44, Jan. 1970.
[Krzakala, J., and H. Kolasa. Econometric model of non-ferrous metals
recovery from scrap and waste material. Rudy i Metale Niezelazne,
14(5):263-270, 1969.]
Lead and zinc supplement—1968. American Metal Market. 75(63), sec.
2:5-42, Apr. 1, 1968.
Liebscher, S. Refining storage battery scrap. German Patent 41,881;
filed May 19, 1964; issued Oct. 15, 1965.
[Long look at nickel: as the projects proliferate. Metals Week,
13-15, 19-20, 25-27, Sept. 14, 1970.]
Mantle, E. C., and N. H. Jackson. The reclamation of scrap. Copper,
2(l):6-8, Jan. 1968.
Martin, H. G. Precious metals. American Metal Market, 12-29, sec. 2, .
Apr. 14, 1969.
[Mechenov, P., R. Dimitrov, P. Lesidrensky, and I. Rosenov. Vacuum-
electrothermal production of zinc powder from zinc scrap.
Godnisnjak na khimiko-Technologicheskiya Institut, 13(1):7-20, 1966.]
[Metal recovery from scrap. Die Casting Engineer, 12(2):48, Mar-Apr.
1968.]
Metals recovery seen one solution for solid wastes. Oil, Paint and
2>™J!_ReP?.r.?!?'.'. 197(12):4, 38, Mar. 23, 1970.
53?
15
[Mighdoll urges lifting curbs on recycling of solid wastes. American
Metal Market. 57(S9);16. Mar. 30, 1970.]
Mnukhin, A. S., B. Ya. Krasil'shchik, G. R. Fedorova, and A. M.
Verblovskiy. Issledovaniye protsessa karbonilirovaniya nikelya iz
anodnogo skrapa. [Carbonyl processing of nickel obtained from anode
scrap.] Tsvetnye Metally. (5):38-40, May 1968.
[Molten salts: new route to high-purity metals. Chemical Engineering.
" 26(18):36, 38, 1968.]
Morgenbesser, D. Scrap industry faces environmental change. American
Metal Market. 77(62):!, 18, Apr. 2, 1970.
Naumov, N. M., Yu. A. Kuznetsov, and L. Ya. Zarubinskaya. Rassortirovka
otkhodbv alyuminiyevykh splavov metodom vikhrevykh tokov. [Sorting
aluminum alloy waste by the eddy-current method.] Tsvetnye Metally.
(9):92-93, Sept. 1969.
Neal, H. R. Scrap has a bundle of problems. Iron Age. 197(25):73-78,
June 23, 1966.
[Nickel section. American Metal Market. Sept. 12, 1968; Mar. 3, 1969;
Feb. 24, 1970.]
[Offer new cable stripper. American Metal Market. 21, June 10, 1970.]
[Ohio City will install system to sort, reclaim solid wastes. American
Metal Market. 21, June 10, 1970.]
[Old gold: to buy or not to buy. Jewelers' Circular-Keystone,
137(9):38-41, June 1967.]
Pollution control in copper wire reclaiming by use of afterburner in
new dual-chamber furnace. Industrial Heating, 37(3):450, 452, 454,
456, Mar. 1970.
[Precious metals section. American Metal Market. 1-24A, sec. 2, Oct.
4, 1968.]
[Reclaiming refuse; efforts to save, reuse waste products slowed by
variety of problems. Wall Street Journal, 175(122):!, 23, June 23,
1970.]
Baliski, S., Z. Nowakowski, E. Klis, J. Kaniut, J. Wolszakiewicz, and
A. Wawrzak. (Instytut Me.tali Niezelaznych). Recovery of metals
from conductors and cables. Polish Patent 55,668; filed Apr. 17,
1965; issued Aug. 30, 1968.
[Recycling: practical answer to the problems of air pollution, water
pollution, solid waste. American Metal Market (Special Issue),
1-42, sec. 2, Mar. 16, 1970.]
Rose, K. Secondary metals now accepted as of high quality. Materials
& Methods. 29(l):56-59. Jan. 1949.
S9S
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17
[Ruth, J. P. -Electroplated gold for industrial use on the upswing.
American Metal Market., 9A-24A. Dec. 8, 1969.]
[Ruth, J. P. . Gold 'plating's role in computers expands. Acerican
Metal Market; 1-20, Feb. 18, 1969.]
[Schwartz, W., and W.. Haase. Short rotary furnace and its application
in the treatment of battery scrap. NML Technical Journal, 6(l):42-44,
• Feb. 1964.] ' • . . ,- ' • -
Scrap recovery cuts purchases of prime metal. Modern Metals, 21(7):84,
Aug. 1965. . , .
Scrap salvaging system will save an extra $1 1/2 million in 5 years.
Material Handling Engineering. 23(4);97-98. April 1968. :V
[Secondary materials supplement. American Metal Market, sec. 2, Mar.
16, 1970.]
[Sen, M. C., and T. Banerjee. Recovery of lead from scraps. NML
Technical Journal.' 8(3):33-38. Aug. 1966.]
Sherman, J. V. Sophisticated scrap; the metal reclaiming business
has come a long way from the junkyard. Barren's, 47(49):3, 10, 12,
Dec. 4, 1967.
Klimczok, R., R. Kaminow, S. Zielihski, and A. Krawczyk. Metallic
zinc recovery from zinc wastes. Polish Patent 54,393; filed Sept.
9, 1966; issued Feb. 15, 1968. '
Smolyarenko, V. D., L. N; Kuznetsov, and L. E, Nikol'skiy.
Znergeticheskaya rabota zlektropechi pri byplavke nerzhaveyushchey
stall. [Energy performance of the electric furnace when melting
stainless steel.] Stal. (4);321-324. Apr. 1969.
[Solid waste disposal. A Bill (HR11833), the Resource Recovery Act
of 1970 passed by Senate. Congressional Quarterly Meekly P^eport,
28(33):2,043, Aug. 14, 1970.] -
[Solid waste disposal. (Action on) a Bill (HR11833), the Resource
Recovery Act of 1970. Congressional Quarterly Weekly Report, 28(42):
2,546-2,547, Oct. 16, 1970.]
Solid waste disposal. [Action on] a Bill (HR 11833-HR 91-1155).
Congressional Quarterly Weekly Report, 28(25):!,587, June 19, 1970. .
[Solid waste disposal. [Action on] a Bill (S.2005 - S. Ept. 91-1034);
the Resource Recovery Act of 1970. Congressional Quarterly Weekly
Report, 28:1.941-1,942. July 13, 1970.]
Prescott, J. H., and J. E. Browning. Solid wastes schemes sifted.
Chemical Engineering, 77(11):80-82, May 18, 1970.
Solid wastes. Environmental Science & Technology, 4(5);384-391, May,
' 1970. . ...•-.
[Secondary setals.] American Metal Market, 74(72). sec. 2:15-43,
45-46, Apr. 17, 1967; 75(53):7-42, Mar. 18, 1968.
" [Special scrap forum section. American Metal Market, sec. 2, May
"•'•• 25, 1970.]... •': ,. ..:\.; . .•••-- . - .. '
[Copper metals.] American Metal Market. 74(184). sec. 2:23-90, Sept.
. 25, 1967; 75(178), sec. 2:21-82, Sept. 16, 1968.
Lead and zinc. American Metal Market. 73(143) :9-31, 33-42, July 25,
1966; 74(140):20-21, July 24, 1967; 75(63), sec. 2:5-42, Apr. 1,
1968.
Stadler, 7.. Ueber das legieren von nichtrostendem stahl. [Alloys for
stainless steel.] Neue Huette. 11(10);600-604. Oct. 1966.
' [Telyuk,. I. I., and A. M. Dukhota. Remelting.aluminum alloy shavings.
Mashinostroenie Inform N-T, Sb., 31(l):55-56. 1965.]
[Texas Instruments' product could affect the copper industry. (Copper
• encased aluminum rods.) Wall Street Journal, 175(112):31, June .9,
. 1970.] . ' • ' '
Tremolada, C-., and L. Afduni. Lead refining with sulphamate bath at
the A. Toriolli e Cs. Electrochimica Metallorum. 1(4) :457-470, 1966.
[Turning junk and trash into a resource. Business Week, 66-67, 70-71,
74-75i Oct. 10, 1970.] -
Vaughan, R. D. Reuse of solid wastes: a major solution to a major
national problem. Waste Age. 1(1):10. 14-15, Apr. 1970.
Waste recovery: big business in the 70's. Chemical & Engineering
News, 4S(9).:14-15. Mar. 2, 1970.
[The wide world of secondary metals 1969 secondary metals supplement;
American Hetal Market. 1-42. Apr. 14. 1969.]
Will industry sell recycling. Modern Packaging. 43(9):46-49, Sept. 1970.
Woolley, H.-B. New patterns, new outlook for world gold. Engineering
and Mir-lng Journal, 168(10) :86-92. October 1967.
. *' ' Books and Pamphlets on
the Textile Industry and its Wastes
AATCC technical manual, v.46. Research Triangle Park, N.C., American
Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists, 1970. 433 p.
600
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18
[Brown, V. Solid waste as it relates to paper stock. Presented at
Paper Stock Institute, National Association of Secondary Material
Industries, Incv, San Francisco, Mar. 1970. 11 p.]
Chopra, S. N. , and G. H. Guild (Chemcell Limited). Retreatment of
synthetic fibres. British Patent 1.120,272; filed Jan. 21, 1966;
issued July 17, 1968.
Combustion Engineering, Inc. Technical -economic study of solid waste
disposal needs and practices. Public Health Service Publication No.
1909. Washington, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1969. 705 p.
Milnes, A. H. (Cook & Co. Manchester, Limited). Controlled pneumatic
waste collection for textile machines. British Patent 987,001;
filed Jan. 14, 1964; issued Mar. 24, 1965.
[Erskine, W. Expanding consumption of secondary fibres in the
seventies. Remarks at Paper Stock Institute, National Association
of Secondary Material Industries, Inc., San Francisco, Mar. 1970.
Hhalon, E. G. , T. Reid, and A. J. Osowski (The Hale Manufacturing
Company) . Method and apparatus for treating thermoplastic synthetic
filaments particularly waste thermoplastic synthetic filaments.
British Patent 1,019,818; filed May 19, 1964; issued Feb. 9, 1966.
[Hutchins, W. E. Secondary textile materials; a buyer's view. Presented
at National Association of Secondary Material Industries, Inc. Annual
Meeting, Los Angeles, Mar. 1968.]
Japan Exlan Company Limited. Production of polyacrylonitrile fibres.
British Patent 1,006,040; filed May 28, 1964; issued Sept. 29, 1965.
[Lewis, J. A study of the problems connected with the use of cotton
rags in the paper industry. New York, Cotton Rag Council, 1959.]
Lipsett, C. H. Industrial wastes and salvage; conservation and
utilization. 2d ed. New York, Atlas Publishing Company, Inc., 1963.
406 p.
Luey, A. T. Technological advances in secondary fiber usage. Presented
at National Industrial Solid Waste Management Conference, University
of Houston, Mar. 24-26, 1970. 7 p.
[Guide to man-made fibers. New York, Man-Made Fiber Producers
Association, Inc., 1969. 16 p.]
[Man-made fiber fact^book. New York, Man-Made Fiber Producers
Association^-Inc. , 1967. 82 p.]
[Man-made/fibers , a summary of origins, characteristics and uses. New
..York, -Man-Made Fiber Producers Association, Inc., 1964. 48 p.]
601
19
Marks, R. H. Method of waste fiber utilization. British Patent
1,107,394; filed May 24, 1965; issued Mar. 27, 1968.
Bullock, H. L. (National Engineering Company of Canada, Limited).
Electrostatic separation. British Patent 1,021,800; filed Mar. 20,
1964; issued Mar. 9, 1966.
1964 man-made-fiber chart. Textile World. 114(7);181-198. July 1964.
Press, J. J., ed. Man-made textile encyclopedia. New York, Textile
Book Publishers, Inc., 1959. 913 p.
Rich, J. H. Address. Presented at National Industrial Solid Waste
Management Conference, University of Houston, Mar. 24-26, 1970. 14 p.
[Shane, W. M. What time is it for textiles? Address at National
Association of Secondary Material Industries, Inc., Miami Beach,
Apr. 1967.]
[Standard & Poor's industry surveys: basic analysis, textiles-apparel.
New York, 1970. p.32-67.]
[Technical and production data of principal man-made fibers and
metallic, stretch and bulk yarns produced in the United States.
America's Textile Reporter. Rev. llth sec. Boston, 1962. 33 p.]
Temafa, Textilmaschinenfabrik Meissner Morgner & Co. GmbH.
Improvements in and relating to feed hoppers for preparatory textile
machines. British Patent 1,126,668; filed Apr. 5, 1967; issued Sept.
11, 1968.
[Textile industries facts, 1969-1970, Atlanta, Textile Industries,
1969.)
1964 man-made-fiber chart. Textile World, 114(7):181-198, July 1964.
[Trutzschler, H. Improvements in or relating to a multiple swift
-textile waste tearing machine. British Patent, June 26, 1961.]
U.S. Congress. Senate. An Act [to encourage increased consumption
of cotton]. 88th Cong. 2d sess., Mar. 6, 1964. Washington. 34-p".
Problems of the domestic textile industry; hearings before a Subconnaittee
of the Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce, U.S. Senate,
85th Cong., 2d sess., S.Res.287, pt.4. Washington, U.S. Government
Printing Office, 1959. p.1,211-2,067. ' -^
[U.S. Congress. Senate. Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce.
Problems of the domestic textile industry, report pursuant to
S.Res.287. 85th Cong. Washington, U.S. Government Printing Office,
1959. 28 p.]
60?
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20
Federal Trade Commission. Rules and regulations under the Wool Products
Labeling Act of 1939. Washington, U.S.- Government Printing 'Office;
[1941]. .28 p. . • '~"~ :•' .• .' ''__•.-.' '• '.:-••"'
[Rules and regulations under the Textile Fiber Products Identification
Act, effective Mar. 3, 1960. Washington, U.S. Federal Trade ;
Commission, 1959. 31 p.] - :,'.-'.-.•.•
[Federal Water Pollution Control Administration. The cost of clean
water, v.4. Textile mill products. Washington, D.S. Government
. Printing Office, 1968. (in 10 parts).] '',--.. '•'•'•
[Telegram on used clothing exports. Washington, U.S. Department of
: State, 1970. 2 p.] • / .".'. /; •'.'.' :
Summaries of trade and tariff information. Schedule 3. Textile
fibers and textile products, v.2. Washington, U.S. Tariff '
Commission, 1969. 158 p.
Journal Articles on the .
Textile Industry and its Wastes;
Aerated lagoon handles 10-million gpd. Textile World. 116(2):86-87,
Feb. 196.6.
Ashmore, W. G. Waste control today-: why you need it; how it works;
how it pays off in three mills. Textile World. 114(4):44-5.4, April
"-1964. "-.• ••'.;• ; • -••• - •; . ;••; .
Bowen, D. A. ': Engineering tackles the textile environment. Textile
World. 120(7):122-23, July 1970.
Bringardner, D. J., and P. P. Pritulsky. Latest word on identifying
today's fibers. Textile World. 111(12):47-59, Dec. 1961.
[Cleaning up wool waste. Textile World. 69, Aug. 1970.]
[Cotton, bad days on the plantation. Time. 94, Oct. 10, 1969.]
Fast way to measure trash in cotton and waste. Textile World, 113(6):
64-65, June 1965. .
Fedor, W. S. Textiles in the seventies. Chemical & Engineering
News. 48(17):64-73, April 20, 1970.
• -Garbage: uses of "urban ore". Chemical & Engineering News,. 48(8):17,
Feb. 23, 1970.
Gee, N. C. Fibre identification in reclaimed textiles. Materials
Reclamation Weekly. 115(19);195, 197-201, Nov. 8, 1969.
Hargreaves, E. M. Solvent degreasing- will it replace conventional
scouring? Textile World. 115(2):104-106. Feb. 1965. ,
60,3
21
How four cotton mills control spinning waste. Textile World
110(3):63, Mar. 1960. -~-..-"
King, P. J. Improving profits with better waste control. Textile
World. 112(6)-.64-67. June 1962. ;
Kurie, J. F. World trends in cellulosic and natural fibers. American
Dyestuff Reporter. 58(25):17-20.'37. Dec. 15, 1969.
[Latest word on low-cost-mill-waste disposal. Textile World.
71-75, June 1970.] . .
.Man-made fiber waste production. Textile Organon. 37(6):97, 104,
120, June 1968. ' !
Morrison, R. D. New photomicrographs included in current method on
fiber identification. African Dyestuff Reporter, 52(22)i:28-47,
Oct. 28, 1963.
Pinault, R. W. Low BOD starch derivative promises less pollution.
Textile.World. 112(1):95. Jan. 1962.
Newest problem: -mill costs and the new minimum wage. Textile World.
111(6):50-56,.June 1961.
Producers' waste shipments. Textile Organon. 40(2):31. Feb. 1969.
Producers' waste shipments. Textile Organon, 41(2);31, Feb. 1970. ..'.-
[Reclaiming refuse; efforts to save, reuse waste products slowed by
variety of problems. Wall Street Journal. 175(122):!. 23, 1970.]
Recycling can head off pulp crisis. Paperboard Packaging, 55(1):30-33,
Jan; 1970.
Salable waste can be an expensive proposition. Textile World,
110(4):113, Apr. 1960.
Smith, S. G. Identification of unknown synthetic fibers; part IV;
revision, new fibers, cross sections. American Dyestuff.Reporter.
49(21):27-35, October 17, 1970.
Solid wastes. Environmental Science & Technology. 4(5);384-391. May,
-1970. . .,
..-[Spivak, S. M.,, Is cutting waste going to waste? The Bobbin,
19:34, April 1970.] ' .' "
One system treats sewage, solid wastes. Chemical & Engineering News,
48(12):44-46, Mar. 23, 1970.
Textile water pollution clean up picks up speed; what government
regulations mean to you; what your company can do; what other
companies are doing. Textile World. 117(11):52-66, Nov. 1967.
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Waste recovery: big business in the 70"s.
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Chemical & Engineering
Wastewater machine. Textile World. 118(9):154, Sept. 1968.
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Wilson, F. C., and C. W. Foster. 7 steps to cutting waste costs.
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[Woods, H. Solid waste: refuse or reuse? Toledo Blade Magazine,
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Paper Industry and its Wastes;
(Fibre Market News. Paperstock Institute Special Issue. Oct. 13, 1966.]
[Fibre Market News. Special Issue covering the 12th De-Inking
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[Fibre Market News. Special Issue. Nov. 14, 1969.]
[Fibre Market News. Special Issue. Nov. 15, 1968.]
[Introduction to de-inking; de-inking of wastepaper. TAPPI Monograph
Series No. 31. New York, Technical Association of the Pulp and
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Kirkpatrick, W. A., II. Wastepaper utilization and deinking in the
board and paper industry. In C. E. Libby, ed. Pulp and paper science
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[The newsprint problem. Special Antitrust Subcommittee of the
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[Paperstock annual review number. Fiber Market News, Nov. 13, 1970.]
National Academy of Engineering-National Academy of Sciences.
Policies for solid waste management. U.S. Public Health Service
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[The statistics of paper, 1970 supplement. New York, American Paper
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Tuchman, S. G. The economics of the waste paper Industry. Ph.D.
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Journal Articles on the
' Paper Industry and its Wastes
[Allln, W. H. Solid waste management. Hew York, American Paper
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[Beggs, A. K. A look ahead at the pulp and paper industry. Presented
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Cash in trash? Maybe. Forbes. 105(2);18-24. Jan. 15, 1970.
Contest-winning symbol promotes recycling concept. Boxboard Containers.
78(3):39-41, Oct. 1970.
Edwards, J. R. How paperboard is doing and meaning of the capacity
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[Ersklne, R. W. Paperstock in the packaging world. Presented at
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Evans, J. C. W. Capacity survey indicates modest increases for years
1971-73. Paper Trade Journal. 154(48);37-41. Nov. 30, 1970.
Federal incentives for recycling likely to pass Congress in '70.
Chemical 26. 7(5):38-39, May 1970.
[Graham, G. A. (Consolidated Fibers). Address to the American
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[Hartung, J. W. (St. Regis'Paper Company). A partnership in
paperstock. Presented at PSIA Meeting, Apr. 18, 1966.]
[Katoyich, R. Foreign trade division vice-president looks to
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[Ledbetter, W. C., Jr. A strong paper chain—better quality fiber.
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[Lehto, B. 0. (Charles T. Main, Inc.). The economics of recycling.
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[Mighdoll, M. J. Recycling resources: new economics, new technology,
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Miller, W. H. Paper stock in the paper industry—a1 technical analysis.
Tappi. 47(4) :36A. 42A. 46A^. .68A. Apr. 1964.
Miller, W. H. A new look at the problem of secondary fibers supply.
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[New homes for old newspapers-waste makes wealth. Graphic Communications
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[New paperboard made from recycled fiber. Fibre Market News, July .29,
1970.]
[Newspaper facts, Sept., Nov., 1969; Jan., Mar., May-June, 1970. New
York, Newsprint Information Committee.]
Bird, D. Old phone books pose a problem.' New York Times, 120:55,
Jan. 10, 1971. '"' ,
Koplik, P. H. Outlook for expansion in the U. S. exports of secondary
.fibers. Paper Trade Journal. 154(10);37. Mar. 9. 1970.
Reclaimed fibers—50/50 board compares favorably with virgin kraft.
Paperboard Packaging. 54(8):23, Aug. 1969.
[Reclaiming refuse. Wall Street Journal, June 23, 1970.] . .. .
Recycling a losing proposition. Paperboard Packaging. 55(8):8, Aug.
1970. ,
Recycling waste paper helps solve a problem. Public Works. 100(12):
67-68, Dec. 1969. .
Recycling; will we drown in trash—or learn to reuse it? New York
Times. 120. sec. 4:7, Feb. 7, 1971.
Reeves, 0. T. The future of secondary fibers in paper mills. American
Paper Industry. 52(5);62-63i May 1970. •
[Rich, J. H. Debates on recycling paper on new to Industry but....
Waste Age. July-Aug. 1970.1 ,
Solid waste recycling now possible. American Paper industry.
52(6):18, June 1970.
Roden, H. E. Symbol sought for recyclable package. Boxboard
Containers. 77(12):82, July 1970.
[There is money in wastepaper. Reprint from Web Printer. 9, 1969.)
Turning junk and trash into a resource. Business Week,• No. 2145:67,
Oct. 10, 1970.
Erskine, R. W. Secondary fibres: recycling turns solid waste into
profits. Boxboard Containers. 77(10):61, 170, 187-188, 190, 200,
203, May 1970.
607
[White, P. Research program by PS I — significant event of year.
. r- -Commercial Bulletin. Oct. 27. 1962.] . .
[Why recycling wastepaper when surplus of wastepaper is being destroyed
or burned. Waste Trade Journal. Nov. 28, 1970.] :
- [Williams, L. E. The changing role of the paperstock industry.
Presented at PSIA Convention, Bermuda, Oct. 20, 1967.]
: {Williams, L. E. (Container Corporation of America). Managing the
solid waste function. Presented at the Packaging Institute Forum,
Chicago, Oct. 1970.]
Williams, W. C. Use it/reuse it. Political, economic .pressures
brighten future for waste. Pulp and Paper. 44(10) :6J-65, Sept. 1970.
Williams, W. C. %C A makes corrugating medium at 1,100 ft/min from
100% waste paper. Pulp and Paper, 44 (12); 112-116, Nov. 1970.
Wilson, A. W. Industry environmentalists and top execs differ on
recycling solid wastes. Pulp and Paper. 44(JO) :69-73, Sep,t..l9.7Q. .
•..- ••. • -..•.- '- . • . . .:^$i£'
Will industry sell recycling? .Modern Packaging. 43 (9); 46-9, Sept.'>;
1970. . . . . • :
Write on scrap. Chemical Week. 108(3) :16. Jan. 20, 1971.
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