PB-212 731
A STUDY TO IDENTIFY OPPORTUNITIES FOR
INCREASED SOLID WASTE UTILIZATION.
VOLUMES VIII AND IX.
Battelle Columbus Laboratories
Prepared for:
Environmental Protection Agency
1972
DISTRIBUTED BY:
National Technical Information Service
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE
5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield Va. 22151
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BIBLIOGRAPHIC DATA
SHEET
1. Report No.
EPA-SW-40D.3-72
PB 212 731
4. Title and Subtitle
A Study to Identify Opportunities for Increased Solid Waste
Utilization. Volumes VIII and IX.
5- Report Date
1972
6.
7. Auihur(s)
Battelle Memorial Institute, Columbus Laboratories
8- Performing Organisation Kept.
No.
9. Performing Organization Name and Address
10. Project/Task/Work Unit No.
National Association of Secondary Material Industries, Inc.
New York, New York 10017
11. SKOtKOCK/Grant No.
G06-EC-00282
12. Sponsoring Organization Name and Address
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Solid Waste Management Programs
Washington, D.C. 20460
13. Type of Report & Period
Covered
Final
14.
15. Supplementary Notes
16. Abstracts
This study concerns the development of greater solid waste utilization through analysis
of the secondary materials industry, its sources of supply, its consuming markets, and
its economic and technological problems. Eight separate materials and a general report
are included. The materials examined are aluminum, copper, lead, zinc, nickel and
stainless steel, precious metals, paper, and textiles. Problems inhibiting increased
recycling of these materials are identified, and recommended actions are proposed. A
survey of the secondary materials industry was the basis for many of the identified
problems and also provided numerous statistics on the scrap industry.
17. Key Words and Document Analysis. 17a. Descriptors
*Refuse, *Recycling, *Markets, Salvage
17b. Identifiers/Open-Ended Terms
*Solid waste, *Resource recovery, *Secondary materials, *Secondary materials industry,
Scrap industry, -Paper, Textiles, Aluminum, Copper, Zinc, Lead, Precious metals, Nickel,
Stainless steel
17c. COSATl Fie Id/Group 13B
Reproduced by
NATIONAL TECHNICAL
INFORMATION SERVICE
U S Department of Commerce
Sprin9field VA2215I
18. Avnilnbility Statement
Release to public
19. Security Class (This
20. Security Class (This
Page
UNCLASSIFIED
21. No.'of Pages
',. Mr Ic
FORM NTIS-35 (REV. 3-72)
USCOMM-DC 14852-P72
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NOTICE
THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRODUCED FROM THE
BEST COPY FURNISHED US BY THE SPONSORING
AGENCY. ALTHOUGH IT IS RECOGNIZED THAT CER-
TAIN PORTIONS ARE ILLEGIBLE, IT IS BEING RE-
LEASED IN THE INTEREST OF MAKING AVAILABLE
AS MUCH INFORMATION AS POSSIBLE.
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This report has been reviewed by,the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency and approved for publication. Approval
does not signify that the contents necessarily reflect the
views.and policies of the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, nor does mention of commercial products constitute
endorsement or recommendation for use by the U.S. Government.
As an aid to the reader, the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency has included the master bibliography for the entire
nine-volume work at the back of this book.
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EPA-SW-40D. 3-72
A STUDY TO IDENTIFY OPPORTUNITIES
FOR INCREASED SOLID WASTE UTILIZATION
Volume VIII: Paper Report
Volume IX: Textile Report
This report (SW-40d.3) on work'performed under
solid waste management demonstration grant no. G06-EC-00282
to the National Association of Secondary Material Industries, Inc.,
was written by BATTELLE MEMORIAL INSTITUTE, COLUMBUS LABORATORIES,-
and is- reproduced as received from the grantee.
Book 1, which consists of
Volume I
Book 2, which consists of
Volumes II to VII
General Report (SW-40d.l) is available
from the Department of Commerce, National
Technical Information Service, Springfield,
Virginia.
Aluminum Report, Copper Report, Lead Report,
Zinc Report, Nickel and Stainless 'Steel
Report, and1 Precious, Metals Report (SW-40d.2)
is available from the Department of Commerce^
National Technical information Service,
Springfield, Virginia.
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
1972
\.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This report and the others in the series were m.ade possible by
the cooperation of a large number of people. Thgse who gave this help
include:
• The owners and managers of a large numbgr of recycling companies
who discussed the industry with Battelle researchers
9 The people at hundreds of recycling companies who completed and
returned the Industry Census questionnaires
• The managers and specialists of many users of materials—both
primary and recycled—and generators of scrap who discussed
recycling from their individual point? of view
9 The personnel of trade associations, trade publishers, and
other service groups who advised the researchers
r. The staff members of NASMI who provided guidance, criticism,
and encouragement to the research team
• The members gf the NASMI commodity committees who provided
insight and information without which meaningful results
would have been difficult or impossible
• The staff of World Wide Information Service, Inc._ who
interviewed a large number of recycling companies for the
industry census.
3
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NOTICE
This report is part of a series of 9 volumes on the recycling of solid
wa'S't/ei'11 material's:
Volume Materials Covered
I General Report
II Aluminum
III Copper
IV, Lead
V ( Zinc
VI- Nickel and Stainless Steel
VII Precious Metals
VIII Paper
IX Textiles
:^fS-
.ii.v,vy«., .
. .'.&&*.
', .i^f'ft;':'.:. The reader should read Volume I as well as the volumes covering
materials of specific interest. Volume I provides a brief summary of the^ other
8 volumes, plus an analysis of activities and recycling problems common to all
of the commodities. Areas of commonality include such matters as legislation
and its effect on recycling, and a description of the equipment used in processing
secondary materials. It also presents a statistical profile of that portion of
the secondary materials industry studied.
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VOLUME VIII
PAPER REPORT
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
Movement from the Residential Sector
to Dealer/Processors 38
Movement from the Industrial/Commercial
Sector to Dealer/Processor 42
The Route from Dealers/Processors to Users 48
The Route from Generators to Users 49
Handling or Processing 55
Segregation and Sorting 56
Shredding and Hogging 62
Baling of Wastepaper and Paperstock 64
Characteristics of Dealer/Processors 65
USES AND MARKETS FOR PAPERSTOCK AND WOOD PULP 77
Paperboard 77
Containerboard 82
Boxboard 85
Other Paperboard 91
Paper . 94
Newsprint <. 94
Other Paper Grades 96
Other Uses and Markets for Paperstock 97
FACTORS CONSTRAINING INCREASED RECYCLING OF PAPERSTOCK 99
General Problems or Factors Broadly Constraining
Recycling 101
Relatively Declining Demand for
Combination Paperboard 101
Erratic Demand for Paperstock 103
Lack of New Nonpaper Products 104
Increasing Contamination 106
Absenteeism and Unavailability of Labor 106
Relatively High Costs of Transportation 108
High Costs of Sorting 109
Overpackaging 110
Position of the Integrated Virgin
Pulp Producers 110
Concentration of Wastepaper Sources Ill
User Preferences for Virgin Fibers Ill
7
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
Over Supplies of Bulk Grades 112
Competition for Activities of
Charitable Collectors 112
Regional Differences in Problems . . 113
Legislative Restrictions . 1.13
Irreversibility of Disposal Decisions 114
Factors Influencing Actions of Generators. . ... 115
Shortage of and High Cost of Space 116
Hazards in Handling and Storage 116
Cost of and Space Required for Baling
Equipment 117
Unfamiliarity with Market Needs 117
Lack of Interest in the Waste Business 117
Factors Influencing Actions of Collectors, Dealers,
and Processors ....................... 118
Limited Cooperation from Generators ......... . . 118
Tie Up of Vehicles ............. ....... 118
Costs of Baling Equipment ................ 119
Tie Up of Vehicles at Mills ..... - .......... 119
Extraordinary Demands by Users ............. 119
Poor Image of the Industry ................ 119
Relatively Small Size of Organizations ......... 120
Difficulties in Exporting ................ 121
Changing Philosophies in Customer
Organizations ............... ...... 121
Factors Influencing Actions of Paperstock Users. ....... 122
Inadequate Comparative Figures ............. 122
Technical Imperfections in Supplies ....... .... 128
Environmental Pollution ......... * ....... 128
DYNAMIC AND CHANGING ASPECTS OF THE PAPERSTOCK INDUSTRY ...... 13Q
The Impact of the Solid w^ste Problem ...... .... 130
Changes in Purchase Specifications and Procurement
Policies. . ................... ... 132
Removal of Regulatory Restraints ............. 133
Recent Progress and Outlook ............... 133
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS .................. 134
Analytical Approach and Conclusions . .......... 134
8
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
Page
Problems and Summary of Recommended Actions 138
Discussion of High Priority Problem Areas and Recommended
Actions 141
Relatively Declining Demand for Products Made from
Paperstock 141
Evaluation of Remedial Actions 142
Recommended Actions and Participants 144
Erratic Demand for Papers Loci' 146
Evaluation of Remedial Actions 146
Recommended Actions and Participants 147
Lack of New Products Made from Paperstock 148
Evaluation of Remedial Actions 148
Recommended Actions and Participants 150
Discussion of Lower Priority Problems and Recommended Actions 151
Increasing Contaminants. . . j 151
Evaluation of Remedial Actions 151
Recommended Actions and Participants 153
High Costs of Transportation 154
Evaluation of Remedial Action 155
Recommended Actions and Participants 157
Operational Problems 157
Evaluation of Remedial Actions 160
Recommended Actions and Participants 162
APPENDIX A
NEW GSA DEFINITION FOR RECLAIMED FIBER . A-l
APPENDIX B
ACTIVITIES CONSIDERED TO REDUCE CONSTRAINTS ON RECYCLING B-l
Technical Research and Development B-l
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xi
APPENDIX B (Continued)
New Product Research and Development
Economic and Marketing Research and Development
Pace
B-5
B-8
the Papa*
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE I. IDENTIFICATION OF QUANTITATIVE PROBLEMS OF PAPER
RECYCLING, 1969 kvi
TABLE II. IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF QUALITATIVE
PROBLEMS AFFECTING RECYCLING ..... xxiv
TABLE III. EVALUATION OF GENERAL PROBLEMS RELATED TO
RECYCLING OF PAPER ..xxjrl
TABLE IV. HIGH PRIORITY PAPER RECYCLING PROBLEMS AND
RECOMMENDED ACTIONS. •' xxvii
TABLE V. LOWER PRIORITY PAPER RECYCLING PROBLEMS AND
RECOMMENDED ACTIONS xxviii
TABLE 1. STANDARD INDUSTRIAL CLASSIFICATIONS RELATING TO
THE PAPER, PRINTING, PUBLISHING AND ALLIED
INDUSTRIES 11
TABLE 2. UNITED STATES PAPER AND BOARD PRODUCTION, IMPORTS,
EXPORTS AND CONSUMPTION - 1969 13
TABLE 3. UNITED.STATES PRODUCTION, IMPORTS, EXPORTS AND
CONSUMPTION PER CAPITA OF SELECTED GRADES OF
PAPER, 1969 14
TABLE 4. ORIGINS OF WASTE PAPER 35
TABLE 5. 1969 EXPORTS OF PAPER STOCK FROM SELECTED PORTS .... 50
TABLE 6. SIX LEADING IMPORTERS OF PAPERSTOCK - 1969 53
TABLE 7. DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS PURCHASING WASTE
PAPER FROM VARIOUS SOURCES 67
5
TABLE 8. DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS PURCHASING WASTE
PAPER FROM ORGANIZATIONAL AND INSTITUTIONAL
SOURCES .INCLUDING PAPER DRIVES AND FROM MUNICI-
PAL WASTE SOURCES. ...... 68
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
LIST OF TABLES (Continued)
TABLE 9. DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS BY THE TOTAL TONNAGE
OF WASTE PAPER AND PAPERSTOCK PURCHASED IN 1969
(INCLUDING PAPER HANDLED ON BROKERAGE OR AGENT
BASIS — WHETHER OR NOT IT PHYSICALLY MOVED THROUGH
PLANTS) BY RESPONDENTS 69
TABLE 10. AVERAGE PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL PURCHASES PHYSICALLY
HANDLED AND ESTIMATED TONNAGE PHYSICALLY HANDLED BY
RESPONDENTS IN EACH SIZE CATEGORY 71
TABLE 11. DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS BY THE MAXIMUM TONNAGE
OF PAPERSTOCK THEY COULD HAVE PHYSICALLY HANDLED
THROUGH THEIR PLANTS IN 1969 WITH THE FACILITIES
THEY HAD AT THAT TIME 72
TABLE 12. DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS BY NUMBER OF HOURS PER
WEEK THEY OPERATED THEIR PLANTS ON THE AVERAGE IN
1969 73
TABLE 13. ARITHMETIC MEAN TONNAGE OF WASTE PAPER AND PAPER
STOCK PURCHASED BY RESPONDENTS IN VARIOUS GEOGRAPHIC
REGIONS 74
TABLE 14. DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS BASED ON TOTAL VALUE OF
PLANT AND EQUIPMENT FOR HANDLING ALL SECONDARY
MATERIALS < 75
TABLE 15. DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS BASED ON 1969 GROSS
SALES OF ALL SECONDARY MATERIALS HANDLED 76
TABLE 16. TRENDS IN PAPERSTOCK MOVEMENTS AND STOCKS
(Short Tons) . . 78
TABLE 17. TRENDS IN PAPERSTOCK CONSUMPTION COMPARED WITH
CONSUMPTION OF TOTAL.FIBROUS MATERIALS IN PAPER
AND PAPERBOARD PRODUCTION (Thousands of Short
tons) , 79
TABLE 18. U.S. CONSUMPTION OF PAPERSTOCK BY KNOWN END USES
BY CATEGORIES OR GRADES - 1969 (Thousands of short
tons) 80
TABLE 19. TRENDS IN CONSUMPTION OF PAPERSTOCK BY KNOWN
END-USES (Thousands of Short Tons) 81
II.
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xiii
TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
LIST OF TABLES (Continued)
Page
TABLE 20.
TABLE 21.
TABLE 22.
TABLE 23.
TABLE 24.
TABLE 25.
TABLE 26.
TABLE 27.
TABLE 28.
TABLE 29.
TABLE 30.
TABLE 31.
TABLE 32.
TABLE 33.
TABLE 34.
TABLE 35.
COMBINATION PAPERBOARD AND SOLID WOODPULP BOARD
PRODUCTION BY TYPE (Thousands of tons) 83
PAPERBOARD PRODUCTION BY TYPE AND GRADE ......... 87
PAPERBOARD PRODUCTION CAPACITY BY REGION
AND TYPE - 1969 92
PAPERSTOCK CONSUMPTION BY REGION - 1963 .......... 93
PAPERSTOCK CONSUMPTION COMPARED WITH PAPER
AND PAPERBOARD CONSUMPTION I .... 100
TRENDS IN PRODUCTION OF COMBINATION AND SOLID
WOODPULP PAPERBOARD BY TYPE 102
MAJOR CONTAMINANTS IN WASTE PAPER 107
APPROXIMATE DEALERS BUYING PRICES FROM
GENERATORS OF PAPERSTOCK IN NEW YORK IN LATE
NOVEMBER, 1970 124
PRICES QUOTED FOR SELECTED GRADES OF PAPERSTOCK
BY MAJOR DEALERS AND BROKERS IN LATE NOVEMBER, 1970. . . 125
DELIVERED PRICES OF LEADING GRADES OF MARKET
WOOD PULP IN DECEMBER, 1970 126
WHOLESALE PRICE INDEXES, WOOD PULP, WASTEPAPER,
PAPER, BOARD, CONVERTED PRODUCTS, AND
ALL INDUSTRIAL COMMODITIES, 1959-1969 127
IDENTIFICATION OF QUANTITATIVE
PROBLEMS OF PAPER RECYCLING, 1969 131
IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF QUALITATIVE
PROBLEMS AFFECTING RECYCLING 136
EVALUATION OF GENERAL PROBLEMS RELATED TO
RECYCLING OF PAPER 137
HIGH PRIORITY PAPER RECYCLING PROBLEMS AND
RECOMMENDED ACTIONS • • •
139
LOWER PRIORITY PAPER RECYCLING PROBLEMS AND
RECOMMENDED ACTIONS 140
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XIV
TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
LIST OF FIGURES
Page
FIGURE 1. WASTEPAPER AND PAPERSTOCK FLOW CHART, 1969 37
13
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XV
SUMMARY
In 1969, approximately 58.2 million tons of paper and paperboard were
consumed in the United. States. Of this consumption, approximately 30 million
tons was in the form of paper, 23.5 million tons in paperbbard; and 4.6 million
tons in the form of construction paper and board. Newsprint accounted'for
approximately 9.8 million tons of paper consumed, approximately 6.8 million
tons of which was imported.
Of the 58.2 million tons of paper and paperboard consumed in the
United States in 1969, approximately 11.4 million tons or 19 percent was
recycled. The balance of 46.8 million tons, which represents 81 percent of
the total, was not recycled. Important problems related to the quantitative
aspects of paper recycling are summarized in Table I.
Changing Aspects of the Paperstock Industry
Over the period of time during 1970 and 1971 when the research upon
which this report is based was conducted, many changes have occurred that have
affected the paperstock industry. The major impetus for these changes has been
the growing awareness of the magnitude and serious nature of the solid waste
problem and the realization by society of the important role the paperstock
industry has played in the past and can play in the future to minimize solid waste
accumulation.
Up until quite recently, almost all discussions of paperstock and the
paperstock industry tended to deal with the volume of paper being recycled. Little
note was made of the great volume of paper and paperboard not recycled that has
moved into solid waste channels.
1.4
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XVj_.
Title
TABLE I. IDENTIFICATION OF QUANTITATIVE PROBLEMS OF
PAPER RECYCLING, 1969
Total U. S. Consumption of Permanent or Semi-Permanent
Paper and•Paperboard End Use Categories
PROBLEM
DEFINITION
As annual consumption of paper and
paperboard increases and the
percentage of material recycled
decreases, the quantity of waste-
paper falling into solid waste
channels increases significantly
These categories generally are not
considered to be economically
recoverable because of difficulties
of collection and/or separation.
THOUSANDS OF TONS CONSUMED
AND POTENTIALLY AVAILABLE
FOR RECYCLING (a)
58,200
10,000
(b)
THOUSANDS OF TONS
RECYCLED^3'
THOUSANDS OF TONS
NOT RECYCLED(a)
7. NOT RECYCLED(a)
11,400
46,800
81
._
10,000(b)
ioo(b)
1. Average annual per Capital consump-
tion is about 575 pounds per person.
2. Consumption is growing at an annual
rate of about 4.5 percent.
3. 12,000 kinds of paper and paperboard
are utilized in more than 100,000
end uses.
4. Major product groupings based on end
use are communications papers,
PROBLEM packaging papers and boards, construe-
BACKGROUND tion and industrial papers and boards,
and sanitary and personal use papers.
5. Percentage of recycled paper has
declined from 267. in'l959 to 197. in
1969.
6. NASMI (PSIA) and EPA are focusing
public attention on the need for
(a)increased recycling as a means of
reducing future solid waste problems
and conserving natural resources and
(b) increased purchasing of recycled
fiber products.
SOURCES: (n) The Statistics of Paper, 1970 Supplement, American Paper Institute, p. 24, 26.
(b) Pulp, Paper, and Board; BDSA Quarterly Industry Report; U. S. Dept. of Commerce;
October, 1970; p. 8-10.
Some grades are permanent or
semi-permanent end use
products in thetrselves.
Others are incorporated into
products having long-term use.
Categories include: papers for
permanent records and publica-
tions, construction paper and
board, and papers in electronic."
automotive, and other manu-
factured end uses.
This is not a promising area in
which to increase recycling of
paper.
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Title
TABLE I. IDENTIFICATION OF QUANTITATIVE PROBLEMS OF
PAPER RECYCLING, 1969 (Continued)
Newspapers Contalnerboard
PROBLEM
DEFINITION
Fluctuating and"relatively declining demand for
combination paperboard and high transportation
costs (resulting from distances from adequate
sources to markets) limit recycling of old
Fluctuating and relatively declining demand for
combination paperboard and high> transportation
costs limit recycling of containerboard.
THOUSANDS Or TONS CONSUMED
AND POTENTIALLY AVAILABLE
FOR RECYCLING (a)
9,800
15,900
THOUSANDS OF TONS
RECYCLED^3'
2,400
3,900
THOUSANDS OF TONS
NOT RECYCLED^3'
% NOT RECYCLED (3)
7,400
76
m
12,000
76
PROBLEM
BACKGROUND
1. These become available as wastepapers
in households, institutions, news-
paper plants, retail dealers and
distributors.
!
2. Substantial amounts of old news
are collected by charitable
agencies.
3. Some communities are calling on
residents to segregate old news
collected.
4. Relatively greater amounts of old
news were recycled during World War II
because of shortages of virgin pulp
and patriotic motivation of consumers
to save and turn in old newspapers.
5. Old news is used principally ir.
production of combination papec-
board, for which demand has been
declining .relative to solid paper-
boards.
6. De-inking of old newspaper for use .
in production of de-inked news is a
relatively new and growing end use.
1. This is the single paper and'paperboard
product produced in largest volume.
2. Consists of linerboard and medium and is
converted into packaging andtshipping
containers.
3. Very little ends-up as wastei-in the
residential sector.
4. Major amounts recycled are recovered
from converting plants and wholesale and
retail establishments.
5. Along with old news, old corrugated
container-board is used principally in
production of combination paperboard, but
increasing quantities of old corrugated
are moving' into, production of new
containerboard.
16
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TABLE I. IDENTIFICATION OF QUANTITATIVE PROBLEMS OF
PAPER RECYCLING, 1969 (Continued)
Title
Pulp Substitutes and
Mixed Papers
Under present conditions, demand and supply are
approximately in balance for pulp substitutes,
which are fairly homogeneous clippings and
other wastes from printers and converters.
PROBLEM
DEFINITION
Mixed papers include thousands of different
grades of paper and paperboard in various
states of contamination by inks, coatings,
laminations, etc., and therefore are difficult
to rr^
THOUSANDS OF TONS CONSUMED
AND POTENTIALLY AVAILABLE
FOR RECYCLING (a)
22,500
•THOUSANDS OF TONS
RECYCLED U'
THOUSANDS OF TONS
NCT RECYCLED^3'
% NOT RECYCLED (a)
5,100
17,400
77
PROBLEM
BACKGROUND
1. Mixed papers originate as wastes in offices,
plants, retailers, wholesalers, institutions,
and households.
2. If demand for end products made from
secondary fibers increases, segregation
or sorting of mixed papers into marketable
grades will be encouraged.
3. Toilet tissue consumed, which represents
1.3 million tons per year, is not recover-
able.
7
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xvii
With the growing awareness of the solid waste problem and the role which
the paperstock industry could play in alleviating the problem, the paperstock
industry has acquired a new identity and new image. Dealers and users have
received inquiries from environmentally concerned members of society as to how the
public can assist the paperstock industry in minimizing solid waste
accumulation. The industry response has been that the most constructive action
which consumers can take is to specify products made from secondary* fibers.
Recognizing that the combination paperboard industry has traditionally been the
major user of paperstock, the paperstock industry has urged that consumers demand
that the products they purchase be packaged in containers made from'combination
paperboard.
In response to the urgings of various organizations interested in
environmental quality, buyers of paper and paperboard products in government and
industry have started to shed their bias toward materials made from secondary fibers.
These biases, in many cases, have been manifested in the form of purchasing
specifications that have limited the markets for products made from secondary
fibers.
As a result of the collective efforts of EPA, CEQ, and the-paperstock
industry, specification changes have been initiated by some government agencies
and other organizations. The City of New York recently advised that^it would be
purchasing various grades of office paper made from reclaimed . fibers>i One of the
larger banking institutions in New York City began the utilization of paper made
from recycled fiber, and the paperstock industry, early in February of 1971,
anticipated that other corporations would follow this lead in the near future.*
* Stovroff, H., address presented at the Wastepaper Work Shop held during
•Recycling Day, New York, New York (February, 1971).
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xviii
The Federal government has also taken a new look at its paper purchasing
practices. Early in 1971, President Richard M. Nixon announced in his
Environmental Message that the General Services Administration (GSA) had
revised 14 specifications for paper products amounting to approximately one
third of the total purchases of "supply paper" by GSA. The other 12 specifications
were under review at the time.*
The Generation. Flow, and Use of
Wastepaper and Paperstock
Origins or Sources of Wastepaper
In a strict sense, paper and paperboard products, like any number of
other products are not really "consumed". First they are produced, and in the
process of this production or conversion, wastes are generated. Next they are
"used" and eventually discarded and become wastes, which unless they are diverted,
move into solid waste channels. It is this process of diversion, through recycling,
which is the prime function of the paperst.ock industry and a deterrent to the
excess accumulation of solid wastes.
* Brown, G., "The Federal Government and Recycling", American Paper Industry.
April, 1971.
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XIX
There are five major families of paperstock .grades based on
classifications established by the Bureau of Census and other agencies. These
grades are: mixed papers, news, corrugated, high grade pulp substitutes, and
high grade de-inking grades. Paperstock, by definition differs from wastepaper
in that paperstock is wastepaper which has been collected, sorted, and graded
to meet the specifications of .consuming industries.
Some 9 different broad categories or sectors ,of paper and paperboard
"consumers" generate wastepaper. The sectors include: the residential or
household sector, the institutional sector, office buildings, the retail
sector, the wholesale sector, the transportation sector, the printing! and
converting sector, the service industry sector, and1 other industrial and
commercial sectors. Mixed papers are generated in all sectors as areifsubstantial
quantities of newsprint. Relatively small quantities of corrugated shipping
containers reach the residential or household sector. The bulk of old corrugated
and similar shipping containers go no further than the retail, wholesale and
other industrial and commercial sectors and thereafter are discarded by these
generators. The more homogenous forms of wastepaper or those which can be
most readily sorted into more uniform, and therefore, higher grades of paper-
stock, are generated principally in the printing and converting sector. These
/
relatively homogenous high grades are principally in the form of cuttings or
trimmings resulting from the printing and conversion processes and never
reach "consumers" in the form of finished products as do other forms of
wastepaper.
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XX
Collection. Processing, and Distribution
Waste paper and paperstock move from generators to users through two
l .
basic channels. In following one channel, waste paper travels from generator
to dealer or processor (who segregates the waste paper into various forms of
paperstock); then the paperstock is moved from the dealer or processor to the
user. The other basic channel involves movement of processed waste paper (paper-
stock) from the generator directly to "^e user.
The movement of wastepaper from the residential sector to dealers
or processors is complicated by the fact that except for old newspapers, most
1 l (
wastepaper generated in the residential sector is Completely lacking in_
homogeneity and can only, at best, be classified as highly contaminated mixed
paper. Accordingly, this wastepaper generated in the residential sector is
/lowest in value and, under present technology, least economic to recycle. Yet,
the quantities thus generated are substantial and represent, perhaps, the greatest
challenge of all in the effort to minimize solid waste accumulation. Old
newspapers generated in residences are collected and moved to processors,
principally through the efforts of charitable groups, and then are recycled;
but there are significant differences in regional demand for this form of
wastepaper.
The movement of wastepaper from the industrial/commercial sector to
dealers and processors is complicated, particularly in metropolitan areas, by
!
the urgency of moving wastes quickly from generators' establishments. Business
firms recognize that waste materials, when stored on the premises, consume
valuable space which could be more productively devoted to profitable activity.
-------
Further, these wastes create hazards and tend to detract from the appearance of
an establishment. Some Industrial/commercial generators, depending upon the
nature of their activities and their resulting wastes, do some preliminary
segregating or sorting and baling of wastepaper, both in order tto enhance its
value in the marketplace and to minimize the costs of temporary storage of
this material.
It is difficult to make even broad generalizations about details
of the route for paperstock from dealers/processors to users. Patterns differ
widely depending upon the geographic areas considered, the grades of paperstock,
and the relationships between dealers and their customers. By comparison with
other commodities, paperstock is generally low in value with respect to its
weight and bulk. Thus, it has been uneconomic to move the low value grades
long distances to points of potential use. Unfortunately, it has been the
accumulation of these low value, bulk grades of paperstock which represents
a major challenge in the efforts to minimize flows of wastes into siolid
waste channels. Exportation of wastepaper, while increasing in response to
demand from fiber-poor foreign countries has, for the most part, been constrained
by the high costs of overseas shipment.
Substantial quantities of paperstock are moved directly from points
of generation to points of use. When such arrangements are made, to a large
degree by brokers and dealers, the vital functions of sorting and grading still
cannot be bypassed. Instead, these functions become the responsibility of the
generators, or in part, that of the paperstock users.
Handling and" processing of wastepaper consists of changing the character
of wastepaper to make it a marketable commodity in the form of paperstock,
-------
XX11
wherever these functions are performed. Segregating wastepaper, clearly
restricted to the generator level, differs from sorting in that segregating
involves keeping different types of wastepaper separate, initially, before
they become mixed together, while sorting calls for separating the types
after they have already been mixed together. Sorting may occur at either the
generator, processor, or user level. Shredding, hogging, and baling as these
operations may be practiced at the generator and processor levels are also
considered to be handling and processing functions.
Uses and Markets
Paperstock's percentage of total fibrous materials consumed in making
paper and paperboard has steadily declined from 26.4 percent in 1959 to 19.0
percent in 1969.
In 1969, 70.5 percent of all paperstock was consumed by the paperboard
industry, 17.5 percent in the production of construction paper and board including
wallboard,and 12.0 percent in the production of newsprint and other paper.
Although recent figures are unavailable as to the percentages of paperstock
consumed in the production of individual grades of paper and paperboard, it is
known that most of the paperstock used by the paperboard industry is consumed in
the production of so-called "combination" paperboard which, by definition, contains
less than 15 percent of virgin wood pulp. About 28 percent or 7.3 million tons
of paperboard produced in 1969 was classified as boxboard type, used principally
in the manufacture of folding cartons. Less than 15 percent of the total of
about 17.8 million tons of containerboard, used principally in the production
of corrugated and solid fiber shipping containers, is classified as combination
type containerboard.
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xxiii
The paper industry, by comparison with the paperboard industry, is
a far smaller consumer of paperstock. As has already been noted, only about
12 percent of total paperstock consumed in 1969 was consumed in the production
of papers other than construction papers. Except for the old news consumed by
newsprint de-inking mills and the mixed or other grades consumed by construction
paper mills, all of the paperstock consumed in the paper subdivision is either
high-grade de-inking paperstock or high-grade pulp substitutes. These grades
are consumed by mills producing sanitary and tissue paper, printing papers, book
papers, and fine papers. Although accurate or timely quantitative data on
consumption of paperstock in the production of other products is not available,
additional end uses do exist. Among these other products in which paperstock
is used as raw material are molded egg cartons, flower pots, funeral wreath
holders, soil pipe, and insulation materials. Significantly, it is known
that most of the paperstock consumed in the production of these products is in
the. form of low grades or bulk grades of mixed papers, news, and old corragated,
which as has been noted, contribute to the solid waste problem. The relatively
high cost of virgin wood pulp makes its use prohibitive in the production 'of
most of these products or materials.
Recommendations
The recommendations resulting from this study are in the form of
suggested actions which might be taken by the paperstock industry, by EPA, by
consuming industries and by others with relevant interest, in response to six
"families" of qualitative problems currently constraining recycling of paper.
These problem families are defined and analyzed in Table II following.
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TABLE II. IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF QrALITAriVE PROBLEMS AFFEC7I!« RECYCLING
Problen
Area
Relatively Declining penand
for Produces Made iron
Paperscock
Erratic Denand
for Paperstock
Lack of New Products Made
from Paperstock
Problem
Definition
1. Demand for combination paperboard
cartons has not increased at the rate
of that for cartons of virgin fiber,
therefore, virgin fiber paperboard
producers have gained an increasing
share of the market.
2. Some knowledgeable users and research
groups consider virgin fibers to be
superior to secondary fibers in certain
high volume end uses, especially where
high strength is required.
3. Packaging buyers sometimes choose
to overpackage (use virgin fiber
containers where secondary fiber
containers would suffice) to enhance
the marketability of their products.
1. Paperstock demand fluctuates as
demand for paper, board, and/or
converted products fluctuates. Some
seasonality because of mill shutdowns
in summer.
2. Hills are reluctant to carry
extensive paperstock inventories.
3. Paperstock is perishable and
hazardous to handle and store.
4. Space for storage of paperstock is
both limited and costly.
5. Some collectors go out of business
when demand is low.
1. Many authorities in the paperstock industry
feel that successful development of new products
nade froir paperstock is the "major factor" that
will caterially increase recycling.
2. Oversupplies of bulk grades of paperstock
add to the solid waste problem.
3. The only significant new use for piperstock
developed in the past decade has been as raw
material :or newsprint de-inking mills of
Garden State Paper Company.
Effect on
Eecytfle Rate
Major constraining effect on recycling
of paper.
Major Impact on paperstock industry
and, hence, on recycling of paper.
Development of new uses for paperstock
necessarily will increase recycling.
Remedial
Actions
Considered
1. Improve techniques for making
paper, board, and converted products
from paperstock to be more competi-
tive with those made from virgin
fibers.
2. Develop strategies to increase
acceptance of these products.
3. Develop educational programs to
offset the stigma associated with
recycled materials.
It, Determine the economic Impact and
various other impacts of lecislation
to restrict use of virgin fibers.
5. Provide Incentives to invest in
new capacity to use secondary fibers or
resume use of idle capacity.
6. Encourage the sovernmcnt and
others to spc
-------
Problem
Area
TABLE II. IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF QUALITATIVE-PROBLEMS AFFECTING RECYCLING
(Continued)
Increasing Contaminants
High Costs of
Transportation
Problem
Definition
1. Development and introduction of new
coatings, laminations, adhesives, etc., over
the past two or three decades have increased
contamination of waste paper generated.
2. High costs of sorting and the dependence
on hand labor make the proliferation of
contaminants a major factor constraining
recycling.
3. Most generators are unfamiliar with the
needs of markets for paperstock and the
problems created by contaminants.
4. Most generators are not interested in th<
waste 'business and have not been motivated
to cpoperate with the .paperstock industry.
5. Users of paperstock often impose extra-
ordinary demands on suppliers or question
reliability of supplies and suppliers.
1. Costs of transporting wastepaper
represent a high percentage of total
costs because wastepaper has low( -»
value relative to its bulk and weight;
2. Waste paper sources often are
concentrated in geographic areas distant
from users, resulting in high shipping
costs.
3. Variations in local supply/demand
situations make it difficult to
establish broad national policies.
4. "Red tape" tends «to restrict e::portin|
of paperstock.
Effect on
Recycle Rate
Major constraining effects on recycling
of paper.
Remedial
Actions
Considered
1. Develop inks, coatings, adhesives, e.tc.,
which do not inhibit recycling for use in
printing and conversion.
2. Improve techniques for segregating
wastepaper at the generator level.
3. Improve techoJques for sorting at
all levels.
4. Improve methods for cleaning and
de-inking at the user level. .
5. Consider legislation to penalize
producers or users of contaminating
materials.
Major impact on paperstock industry and,
hence, on recycling of paper.
1. Develop more economical means Df
transporting wastepaper and papers rock
over both short and long distances.
2. Consider establishment of freight:
rates more favorable to shippers of
wasteyaper and paperstock.
3. Consider subsidies to dealers 01
processors to offset the high coat : of
overseas shipments now restricting -
exporting.
4. Consider feasibility of producing
"market pulp" from paperstock.
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xxiv-b
Problem
Area
TABLE II. IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF QUALITAriVE PROBLEMS AFTECTING RECYCLING
(Continued)
Operational Problems
Problem
Definition
1. At wage rates usually offered for
processing wastepaper, labor is either
undependable or unavailable in many
areas where paperstock is generated or
processed.
2. By certain standards, some environ-
mental pollution results from use of
paperstock for making paper.
3. There is a need for more and better
economic analyses to support arguments for
using paperstock instead of virgin fibers.
4. The paperstock industry has suffered
from a poor image.
5. Many paperstock organizations are
relatively small.
6. Dealers' trucks often are tied up at
locations of generators and users for
excessive time periods.
7. Baling equipment is costly and
occupies costly space.
8. Users often consider risks in using
paperstock to be relatively high because
'of the limited liability of dealers.1
9. Growing competition for the efforts
of charitable agencies that collect
wastepaper may add to collection costs.
10. Changing philosophies in customer
organizations tend to limit the flexibility
of dealers in negotiations.
11. Financial community generators of
wastepaper and some government agencies
must retain the material temporarily.
12. Management decisions to dispose of
wastes by incineration are often difficult
to reverse.
Ef.;ect on
Recycle Rate'
Major constraining effects on
recycling of paper.
Remedial
Act ions'
Corsidered
1. Develop incentives to attract more
and better labor and management
level personnel.
2. Develop improved cleaning processes and/or markets for
wastes generated in che process of cleaning
paperstock by users.
3. Compile accurate figures on comparative
costs of using virgin versus secondary
fibers.
4. Consider the possibility of multiple
mergers of relatively small dealer/processor
organizations into fewer large firms which
are likely to have greater bargaining power
and greater overall capabilities.
5. Consider initiation of industrial engineering
studies aimed at optimizing the handling and
processing of wastepaper and paperstock.
-------
XXV
Table III following shows the rating of the qualitative problem
families against pre-determined criteria in order to arrive at a sequence
of priorities. Finally, Tables IV and V state the high and low priority action
recommendations suggested in response to the three high priority and the .three
low priority families of problems.
The relatively declining demand for products made from paperstock
-is seen as the highest priority individual problem constraining paper recycling
today. Activities recommended to arrest or reverse this trend consist of (1)
technical research to improve the character of products made from paperstock,
(2) development of strategies and educational programs to counteract prejudices
against products made from all classes of secondary materials; and (3) the encourage-
ment of government and other influential purchasers to amend specifications
which have made it impossible for marketers of recycled paper products to sell
their products to these agencies or companies. Some of these recommended
activities, of course, have already been initiated by companies and trade
associations concerned with the paperstock industry. It is recommended,, however,
that further support from EPA be solicited at least in connection with Che
technical research activities suggested.
The erratic demand for paperstock is identified as representative of
the second highest priority family of problems constraining recycling. It is
noted that the demand for paperstock would be extremely difficult to stabilize
effectively, but some activities recommended may serve to minimize the effects
of fluctuations in demand for paperstock. These activities include development
of improved technologies for compacting, hogging, shredding, or pelletizing
paperstock to improve the economics of warehousing this commodity. Again, EPA
support to manufacturers of equipment in undertaking these activities might be
solicited.
-------
TABLE III. EVALUATION OF GENERAL PROBLEMS RELATED TO RECYCLING OF PAPER
Problem
(Maximum Possible Score)
Relatively declining demand
for products made from
paperstock
Erratic demand for paperstock
Lack of new products made from
paperstock
- Increasing contaminants
High costs of transportation
Operational pro'-lems
Solution of Problem
Will Improve
Environment
(10)
10
10
10
9
6
5
' * Criteria and
Solution of Problem
Will Conserve
Natural Resources
(5)
5
3
3
3
2
4
Scores
Realistic Solution
Can Be
Found
(5)
5
4
2
1
4
1
Total
Score
(20)
20
17
15
13
12
10
Source: Judgements of Battelle project team with concurrence of NASMI Commodity Committee, April, 1971.
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xxvii
TABLE IV. HIGH PRIORITY PAPER RECYCLING PROBLEMS AND RECOMMENDED ACTIONS
Problem
Area
Action
Recommendations
. Recommended
Participants
in Above Actions^
Comments
on Other
,ti, I • •. , • : :.. .... .
Actions Considered
Relatively Declining Demand
for Products Made from
Paperstock
1. Conduct technical' research
to improve, paper ...^paperbpard,.
and converted .products made from
paperstock' arid/6r%reduce* costs.
2. Develop strategies and
educational programs. ;to increase
acceptance of and remove stigma
from products made of /pap'er'st'ock.
3. Push for nondiscriminatory
purchase specifications from
government agencies and others. '
.1. EPA, PSIA, paper and paper-
board producers, API, BRDA, IPC
and TAPPI. • .
2. PSIA and paper and paper-
board producers using recycled fibers.
3. NASMI
Efforts to get through'legislation
providing incentives for combina-
tion board producers or tehdlng
to restrict, use of virgin fibers
can be.expected to be a contro-
versial matter and therefore early
favorable effects can not be deter-
mined at this time.
Erratic Demand for Paper?tock
1. Improve methods of compacting,
hogging, and pelletizing waste
paper and paperstock.
2. Encourage negotiation of
longer term contracts for purchase
of- paperstock.
1. EPA and.equipment manufacturers
2. 'Paperstock dealers and PSIA.
i'-f.Would'1'.tend' v^p\ make the;. admin i:-1 r a -
'tion of' stockpiling by.government
iW!i.quite!"diff icult.
(a),,-.-.It, is'., suggested'that'NASMI continue its leading role in:-recycling, recognizing that oth,:r
organizations such as Department of Commerce, Council of Environmental'Quality, HEW Offi.ce
of Information, and State., Local, and Federal Legislatures must/also be involvec'..
JO
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TABLE IV. HIGH PRIORITY PAPER RECYCLING PROBLEMS AND RECOMMENDED ACTIONS
(Continued)
Problem
Area
Lack of New Products Made
from Paperstock
Action
Recommendations
1. Conduct technical and economic
research as to feasiblity of combining
waste paper with textile wastes and
other materials to produce new materials
or end products.
2. Conduct idea generation session to
identify new product possibilities, and
screen ideas generated with regard to
market opportunities, etc.
Recommended
Participants
in Above Actions'a'
1. EPA, PSIA, API, chemical, textile
and other product producers, and
contract research organizations.
2. EPA and contract research organiza-
tions.
Comments
on Other
Actions Considered
Investigation of alternative methods
of separating paper fibers in paper-
stock has been a continuing challenge
for paper and paperboard producers
and their representatives on TAPPI
committees.
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xxvili
TABLE Vi LOWER .PRIORITY PAPER RECYCLING PROBLEMS AND RECOMMENDED ACTIONS
Problem Area
Increasing Contaminants
High Costs of
Transportation
Action
Recommendat ions
1. Develop inks, coatings, adhesives,
etc., which do not inhibit recycling
for use in printing and conversion
of paper and paperboard.
2. Improve techniques for segrega-
tion and sorting of waste paper
and paperstock at all appropriate
levels.
3. Develop improved methods of
cleaning and de-inking and/or
coping with contaminants at the
user level.
1. Encourage'.'establishment of
freight rates, favorable to »
expansion of recycling of w-.'ste-
paper and paperstock..
2. Push for economic incentives
.to dealers or processors to *
increase recycling by offsetting
the high costs of overseas
shipments now restricting
exporting.
3. Investigate technical and
economic feasibility of
producing "market pulp" from
paperstock.
Recommended
Participants
in Above Actions(
1. EPA and ink and adhesives
manufacturers, etc.
2. EPA, equipment manufacturers
and contract research organiza-
tions.
3. EPA, PSIA, paper and paperboard
producers, API, BRDA and contract
research organizations.
1. EPA, NASMI, and paperstock
dealers and processors.
2. EPA, NASMI, paperstock
dealers and processors.
3. PSIA, EPA'j and BRDA.
Comments
on Other Actions
Considered
Efforts to encourage legislation
to penalize producers or users
of contaminating materials may
be unrewarding. If such legisla-
tion were enacted, difficulties
in administering and enforcing it
would limit its favorable effect
on recycling. However, the
possibility of such legislation
may encourage industry to give
priority to other alternatives.
The development of more
economical means of transporting
waste paper and paperstock may
be too large .and broad an
objective for the paperstock
industry alone. Efforts are
.already being made by others i,n
this general direction.
(a) It is suggested that NASMI continue its leading role in recycling, recognizing that other
organizations such as Department of Commerce, Council of Environmental Quality, HEW Office
of Information, and State, Local, and Federal Legislatures must also be involved.
-------
TABLE V. LOWER PRIORITY PAPER RECYCLING PROBLEMS AND RECOMMENDED ACTIONS
(Continued)
Problem Area
Action
Recommendat ions
Operational Problems
1. Develop better cleaning processes and/or conduct
programs to identify markets for residual
wastes generated in the process of cleaning
or deinking paperstock by users; then
conduct technical and economic feasibility
studies.
2. Assemble reliable bodies of
statistical data comparing economics
of using secondary fibers and virgin
fibers.
3. Conduct industrial engineering studies
aimed at optimizing the handling and
processing of wastepaper and paperstock.
Recommended
Participants
in Above Actions(a)
Comments
on Other Actions
Considered
1. PSIA, paper and paperboard
producers and contract research
organizations.
2. PSIA, combination paperboard
producers and other present users
of both secondary and virgin fibers,
3. PSIA
The thought of developing incentives
for labor may be too
large and broad an objective for the
paperstock industry alone. Others in
government and other industries are
already working on this problem.
Their success may prove to be beneficial
to the paperstock industry. No actions to
attract more management personnel were
identified during the study.
-------
xxix
"The critical meed for new- produets-vmade from paperstock is identified
as representative of the third high priority* family• of-'-problems.' Two'activities
are recommended in response to this problem-family. -These rare to Investigate the
feasibility of combining >paperst6ck^with other-materials to 'form- new materials
and to conduct idea generation sessions- aimed at the identification of potential
new products. The idea generation, clearly,-must be followed by economic
evaluation of the ideas generated before technical research in depth is
initiated. The most logical participants in these activities, supported by EPA,
are seen to be research organizations working cooperatively with paper 'and
paperstock industry trade-, associations-and with producers-of other basic
materials.
The problem of increasing contaminants in wastepaper and the effects
or symptoms of this problem are seen to constitute the first of the lower priority
families of problems constraining recycling. The activities recommended to
help solve this problem family consist of development of water> soluble materials
(inks, adhesives, etc.) which do not constrain recycling, development of improved
segregation and sorting techniques, and«-development of'improved cleaning and
de-inking techniques to permit -users to cope more effectively-with contaminants.
•EPA support for all of these activities might also be'solicited.- Participants
in the activities logically would include ink and adhesivetjtrianufacturers, equip-
ment-manufacturers, paper and paperboard producers, trade associations and
research organizations.
The high cost of transportation is identified as the second lower
priority family of problems constraining use of paperstock. The most viable
activities which would help to minimize the effects of this'general- problem are those
-------
XXX
pointed toward establishment of freight rates more favorable to shippers of
paperstock or toward the issuance of subsidies to paperstock dealers offsetting
the high costs of overseas shipment. Investigation of the feasibility of
producing "market pulp" from paper stock to reduce transportation costs is also
recommended. NASMI and member firms of the PSIA Division seem to
be the logical participants in such programs, with support from EPA and others
as appropriate.
The last family of problems constraining recycling consists of
problems broadly considered to be operational in nature. Operational problems
involve such areas as absenteeism and unavailability of labor,'environmental pollu-
tion resulting from the use of paperstock, lack of adequate data comparing the
costs of using virgin versus secondary materials, etc. No solutions are
visualized or activities recommended in response to certain of the operational
problems identified. In other cases, solutions are anticipated, hopefully, as
a result of broadly based activities already undertaken. Changes in welfare
programs, presently under study, for example, may have a significant effect on
"the broad problem of absenteeism and unavailability of labor in the paperstock
industry as well as other industries.
' N
The most viable activities recommended in answer to operational problems
consist of (1) development of better cleaning processes and/or identification and
analysis of markets(for unavoidable wastes generated in cleaning paperstock,
(2) the compilation of accurate figures on comparative costs of using virgin versus
secondary fibers, and (3) consideration of industrial engineering studies to optimize
handling and processing of waste paper and paperstock. All of these activities, it is
felt, seem to be appropriate to PSIA. Research programs could lead to development of
improved cleaning processes and assist in the identification and evaluation of
markets for residuals, possibly with some direct or indirect support from EPA. On the
35
-------
XXXx
other ha'tid** accumulation of data- on* comparative costs of, using; .virgin* ve/psus
secondary fibers is an activity which might: best be conducted; by PSIA wi>£h
necessary help from'members' integrated, with or closely associated, with paper or
paperboard producers who'have a background- of experience in using; both secondary
and virgin fibers.
-------
INTRODUCTION
In June, 1970, Battelle-Columbus undertook a research program for
the National Association of Secondary Material Industries, Inc. (NASMI). This
\
work was carried out under a subcontract from an Office of Solid Waste Management
grant to NASMI. This report on paper is one of a series of eight commodity
reports plus a general or summary report.
Background
The Office of Solid Waste Management is responsible for formulating
and recommending Federal Government policies in the area of solid waste pollution.
This includes pursuing appropriate research to determine the status and problems
of solid waste activities, and to develop programs to reduce solid waste
pollution.
-------
One -approach to the reduction of solid>-waste« pollution is to reclaim
waste materials for reuse - the recycling concept. A well established industry-
the secondary materials industry--exists to accomplish this recycling. NASMI
is the trade association representing the nonferrouS'.metals,.paper, and textiles
portion of this .industry. •
The scrap processors, secondary smelters, paperstock dealers, and
other companies that make up the secondary materials industry have developed
effective channels and .methods for recycling nearly all^waste.-materials of
economic value. These .companies have performed their difficult.and essential
functions well in the traditional economic environment.
More recently additional dimensions have been added to this traditional
economic environment. .-/These new dimensions are (1) improvement of the environ-
ment in which we live,.and (2) increased need for conservation of natural
resources. These new dimensions provide new challenges-and opportunities' for
the recycling industry. No longer is economic gain the sole driving force for
recycling of waste materials. Social gain has .been added in the forms of
improved living conditions and preservation of resources for future generations.
In an economics-based nation this creates problems of interpretation and
evaluation of noneconomics-based goals and activities.
The purpose of this series of reports is to identify obstacles to the
recycling of nonferrous solid wastes, and to recommend directions for investiga-
tion and research to overcome these obstacles.
38
-------
Objectives
The objective of the study on which this report is based was to
identify opportunities for the increased utilization of solid waste. The major
sub-objectives were:
(1) To determine the structure and functions of the secondary
materials industry, and its relationships to sources of
supply and markets
(2) To identify and evaluate problems of recycling - materials,
sources, industry, and markets, and
(3) To determine opportunities for increased recycling.
Scope
The major subjects included in the scope of the study are the secondary
materials industry, the materials it recycles, the sources of solid wastes, and
the markets for recycled materials. Activities peripheral to these major
subjects are considered where pertinent to recycling.
The materials included in the study are:
Aluminum Nickel and Nickel Alloys
Copper and Copper Alloys Precious Metals (Silver, Gold and Platinum)
Lead Paper
Zinc Textiles
Research Methods
The methods and procedures used in the study are discussed under four
types of activities. They include (A) literature search, (B) extensive survey,
(C) in-depth survey, and (D) analysis and synthesis.
-------
Literature Search
The literature search included reviewing and studying books, Government
reports, industry reports, and trade journals covering solid waste handliri'g and
problems, recovery and market data, arid recycling of valuable materials.
The results of this effort included the accumulation of data and1
descriptive material, and an organized bibliography dealing with each of the
commodities covered in the scope of the study.
Extensive Survey
The extensive survey of the secondary materials industry consisted of
a mail survey and personal interviews with management personnel of compani'es
involved with the collection, processing, and sale, of secondary materials.
About 600 responses were received.
The informatidh developed through" the extensive survey included dollar
sales, tons of major materials handled, types of solid waste processed, sources
of materials, investment, equipment and facilities, number of employees, the
amount of space used, and the grades and quantities of secondary materials-
produced .
The data from the extensive survey provided statistical tabulations of
the regional distribution of the secondary materials industries by type of
commodity in terms of numbers of establishments, volume of business, and numbers
of employees.
vIO
-------
In-depth Survey
The in-depth survey of selected members of the secondary materials
industries, their suppliers, and the users of their products served to identify
the major technical and economic problems facing those companies involved with
secondary material utilization. About 200 interviews were completed. Battelle
and NASMI commodity specialists jointly selected the companies to be interviewed
in depth.
Interview guides for each of the commodities were prepared. The
problems and potential solutions for greatest recycling and waste utilization
that were developed from the literature search and prior Office of Solid Waste
Management work plus the knowledge of the NASMI commodity specialists provided
the basis for designing the interview guide. Sample guides are reproduced in
the Appendix of the General Report.
Analysis and Synthesis
The analysis and synthesis step was concerned with the collation and
analysis of data and information derived from both the literature, extensive
survey, and in-depth survey. The analysis and synthesis activity covered the
following tasks:
(1) Economic Data on the Secondary Materials Industries. The
economic data developed through the extensive survey of the
secondary materials industries were tabulated and analyzed as
to the amount and type of solid waste handled and as to operational
data such as number of employees, amount of space required,
capitalization, and geographic locations.
-------
(2) Flow Diagrams and Life Cycles. Flow diagrams were developed
to indicate the flow of materials from primary production
and scrap sources through fabrication. Life cycle estimates
of various products were used to develop data on quantities
available for possible recycling.
(3) Demand-Supply Relationships. Estimates were made of future
demand and supply levels for secondary materials. The rela-
tionship between these data provide an indication of potential
surpluses or shortages of recycled materials through 1980.
(4) Stability of Flow and Consumption. This analysis is closely
related to the supply-demand analysis described, above and
identifies the ability of the various secondary materials to
compete as source materials for manufacturers. A number of
factors were examined such as price changes in the secondary
materials, the availability of materials, and the effect of
sudden changes in the magnitude of demand.
(5) Direct Impacts .of Technological.. Change. .Direct technical and
technological factors were examined to determine their effect
on rates of processing and recycling. Potential changes that
could take place in technology that could decrease or increase
the rate of solid waste recovery were examined. This'includes
the identification of potentially recoverable solid wastes,
the problems limiting the recovery to current levels, and the
•' •..*.-.'• ' • -
possibilities of technical advances through the use of known
.)-...-. . • . .
technology or through added scientific and engineering research,
-------
(6) Constraints on Expansion of the Secondary Materials Industries.
This analysis included consideration of elements critical to
expansion of recycling - labor and management availability,
laws and regulations, equipment availability, nature of solid
waste materials, market needs, etc.
(7) Potentials for Expansion of the Secondary Materials Industries.
Based on the constraints identified in the above task, plus
examination of various methods for overcoming constraints,
this task determined the ability of the secondary materials
industries to meet new opportunities for recycling.
(8) Indirect Technological Change. The broad overall technological
trends indirectly affecting the secondary materials industries
were examined, and their probable impacts determined.
Organization of the Paper Report
Following (1) the summary of the entire paper report and recommendations
and (2) this introduction, the reader is led through a series of sections
which follow the flow of wastepaper and paperstock from sources to users.
The earliest discussions cover the origins or sources of wastepaper, some of
which is eventually collected and processed into the form of paperstock. The
succeeding discussions cover collection, processing, and distribution of the
commodity and characteristics of the dealer/processors as determined from the
extensive survey data. Next, the uses and markets for paperstock are dis-
cussed.
•13
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The section following presents discussions of all of the factors identified as
constraining recycling. Another section discusses the dynamic and changing
aspects of the paperstock industry. The final section presents the conclusions
•and recommendations, and includes identification of those activities which,
in the judgement of the Battelle- Columbus research team, appear most feasible
TO pursue. The most logical participants in these recommended actions, also,
are identified.
In the preparation of a technical report of this type, the authors
are aware of the fact that the work, eventually, will be exposed to a variety
;f types of readers with different backgrounds and different interests. It is
felt that the sequence followed in this report will appear helpful and logical
to the greatest number of readers, those who have little or no prior exposure to
all aspects of the wastepaper and paperstock industry. However, those readers
who feel they already have a substantial'background in this area are invited
to follow a reading sequence to suit their own specific needs. For example,
such a reader might logically move directly from the section dealing with
summary and recommendations to the sections reviewing constraining problems
and conclusions and recommendations; and then, if he so desires refer to
the intermediate sections detailing the flow of wastepaper and paperstock.
-------
ORIGINS OR SOURCES OF PAPERSTOCK
This section of the report deals with the sources from which waste-
paper may be collected for purposes of recycling or for disposal. The combined
output of these sources represents the total potential supply of wastepaper
which may be diverted, in the form of paperstock, to recycling channels or which
may be permitted to flow into solid waste channels. It should be recognized
that wastepaper is not deliberately manufactured, but is involuntarily generated
by a great number of sources without any consideration of the paperstock needs
of the marketplace or the capacity of the environment to absorb this material
along with other solid wastes.
Forms of Wastepaper
|
In general, there are three broad forms of wastepaper characterized
by the circumstances under which they are generated. These are:
(a) Production or conversion waste -- the waste generated in
paper and paperboard mills, or by converting or printing
plants. That waste generated at the mill level through
manufacturing error, conventionally designated as wet or
dry "broke", when returned to a re-pulping unit in the mill
for reprocessing, is not generally counted as wastepaper. The
cuttings or sheets, either printed or unprinted, generated at
the converting or printing plant levels are, however, classified
as wastepaper if it is necessary for them to move through
external channels before being returned for reprocessing.
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10
(b) Overruns or overissues -- excess quantities of finished paper
or paperboard products which cannot be marketed through the
channels originally planned. Overruns of particular specifica-
tion papers, custom printed papers or packages or overissues of
newspapers and other periodicals are marketed or otherwise
disposed of as wastepaper either by the producers or purchasers
of these items rather than the originally planned end users.
(c) Discarded end products -- paper and paperboard products which
have reached end users and served the purposes for which they
are intended or which have outlived their usefulness. Such y
wastepaper can range from yesterday's newspaper to the wallpaper
in aged tenements being razed to provide space for new
construction.
Wastepaper and Paperstock Categories
i
i
From the standpoint of the wastepaper generator, the designations
for the categories of wastepaper with which he is concerned are, quite simply,
the same as those for the end products themselves which now represent waste.
In short, when the generator considers the components of his solid waste, he
is inclined to think in terms of old envelopes, bags, newspapers, magazines,
cardboard boxes, etc. The great number of categories of wastepaper which might
be established on this basis is evident when one considers the detailed listing
of paper and paperboard classifications in Table 1 based on U. S. Department of
Commerce Census Bureau SIC designations. Tables 2 and 3 show total and per
capita U. S. consumption of major grades of these products. It is more
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11
TABLE 1. STANDARD INDUSTRIAL CLASSIFICATIONS RELATING TO
THE PAPER, PRINTING, PUBLISHING AND ALLIED INDUSTRIES
Group No.
261
262
263
264
264
264
264
264
264
264
264
265
265
265
265
265
Industry No.
2611
2621
2631
2641
2642
2643
2644
2645
2646
2647
2649
2651
2652
2653
2654
2655
Description
Pulp Mills
Paper Mills, Except Building
Paper Mills
Paperboard Mills
Paper Coating and Glazing
Envelopes
Bags, Except Textile Bag 5
Wallpaper
Die Cut Paper and Paperboard and
Cardboard
Pressed and Molded Pulp Goods
Sanitary Paper Products
Converted Paper and Paperboard
Products, Not Elsewhere Classified
Folding Paperboard Boxes
Set-up Paperboard Boxes
Corrugated and Solid Fiber Boxes
Sanitary Food Containers
Fiber Cans, Tubes, Drums, and
266
271
2661
2711
Similar Products
Building Paper and Building
Board Mills
Newspapers: Publishing,
Publishing and Printing
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12
TABLE 1. STANDARD INDUSTRIAL CLASSIFICATIONS RELATING TO THE
PAPER, PRINTING, PUBLISHING AND ALLIED INDUSTRIES (Cpnt'd.)
Group No.
Industry No.
Description
272
273
2721
2731
Periodicals: Publishing,
Publishing and Printing
Books: Publishing, Publishing
and Printing
273
274
275
275
275
276
277
278
278
2732
2741
. 2751
2752
2753
2761
2771
2782
2789
Book Printing
Miscellaneous Publishing
Commercial Printing, Except
Lithographic
Commercial Printing, Lithographic
Engraving and Plate Printing
Manifold Business Forms
Greeting Card Publishing
Blankbooks, Loose Leaf Binders
and Devices
Bookbinding and Related Work
Source: Standard Industrial Classification Manual, Bureau of the Budget, 1967.
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TABLE 2. .UNITED STATES PAPER AND BOARD PRODUCTION, IMPORTS,'EXPORTS AND
CONSUMPTION - 1969
Production, Imports,
Thousands of tons Thousands of tons
All grades 53,481 7,493
Paper 23,460 7,186
Paperboard 25,553 23
Wet machine board 134 9
Construction paper
and board 4,332 275
Exports, Apparent Consumption
Thousands of tons Thousands of tons Pounds per Capita
2,766 58,209 572.9
619 30,027 295.5
2,083 23,493 231.2
4 139 1.4
59 4,550 44.8
Source: The Statistics of Paper - 1970 Supplement, American Paper Institute, p. 24, 25, 30,
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TABLE 3. UNITED STATES PRODUCTION, IMPORTS, EXPORTS AND CONSUMPTION PER CAPITA
OF SELECTED GRADES OF PAPER, 1969
Production,
Grade Thousands of tons
Newsprint
( Ground wood, paper - uncoated
Coated printing and converting
Book, uncoatod
Writing and related
Bleached bristols
Unbleached kraft, packaging
and industrial converting
paper
Packaging and industrial
converting paper except
unbleached kraft
Special industrial paper
Tissue and other machine
creped paper
Sanitary paper
Tissue paper except
sanitary and thin
3,163
1,153
3,330
2,585
2,912
973
3,867
1,270
585
3,620
3,378
242
Imports, Exports,
Thousands of tons Thousands of tons
6,790 127
204 6
_-.-„ 7fl
47 9
13 82
59 127
10 21
54
20
N. A. 17
N. A. 2
New Supply, -
Thousands of tons
9,826
1,351
3,260
2,623
2,843
973
3,799
1,259
532
3,600
3,360
240
Consumption,
Pounds per Capita
96.7
13.3
32.1
25.8
28.0
9.6
37.4
12.4
2.6
35.4
33.1
2.4
Source: The Statistics of Paper.- 1970 Supplement, American Paper Institute, p. 26, 27.
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15
conventional, however, for wastepaper processors and users, as well as big
generators, to think of wastepaper grades in terms defined by the Paperstock
Institute of America. In its circular PS-70 the Institute lists 46 individual
grades of paperstock "as they should be packed and graded" for sale through
recycling channels.
Individual dealer/processors may market as many as 100 different
i - • •
grades of paperstock, a great,number of which are custom packed to meet the
t
specifications of particular customers. Broadly speaking^ there are five
general categories of paperstock each of which includes a number of stock
> •
PSIA grades or custom packs.. These five grades, according to Bureau of the
Census codes for materials consumed in manufacturing are; as follows:
/ .
Code Grade
941111 -, Mixed papers (e.g.. office waste basket
contents,, used business forms)
941112 News •-—/-. "~ --..'
"-^ * J .•''
941113 Corrugated. . - : -.
's v
941114 High grade pulp substitutes (e.g. kraft
- cuttings, white ledger stock, shavings)
941115 High grade deinking
(e.g. No. 1 books & magazines; colored
ledger stock)
Considering these five grades, it-is also common to combine the mixed,
news, and corrugated into one category designated as "bulk grades" or "low
„,*•• "
grades" and to designate the two remaining grades simply as "high grade" paper-
stock. These designations, it may be noted, refer to the amounts available
or the desirability and value of the grades for recycling applications rather
than the nature of the paper or paperboard products which make up the wastepaper.
For example, a particular low grade pack of paperstock might contain what were
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16
originally high quality and high value converted paper or board products but
would be classified as low grade because of the presence of plastic costings
or adhesives that reduce the value of the pack in recycling channels.
In the sections following, the categories of wastepaper generated by
each of the various classes of generators are discussed. It may be noted that
the components and character of the so-called "mixed" grade differ substantially
by type of generator. The other grades are fairly, constant as to their
components but are, in some cases, limited as to the number of sources from
which they may be collected.
Generators of Wastepaper
Broadly considered, there are two general categories of wastepaper
generators -- consumer and industrial .-- just as there are two general categories
of markets for the output of paper and paperboard mills and converters. While
there are no precise data as to the amount of paper and paperboard products
which reach consumers as compared with the amount shipped to industries, it is
generally conceded that the industrial sector is by far the greater of the two.
This is accounted for, to a large degree, by the fact that so great a proportion
of corrugated shipping containers, which constitute a large part of overall
paper production, never reaches consumers. In order to gain a clear understanding,
however, of the types and character of wastepaper generated in these two broad
sectors, it is necessary to consider the individual components of these sectors,
separately, and the kinds of wastepaper generated within them.
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17
The Residential or Household Sector
As has been indicated above, this sector receives far less paper
and, therefore, generates far less wastepaper than do the industrial sectors.
The residential category includes all forms of households -- single family,
multi-family, low, medium, and high income, and urban, suburban, and rural.
Broadly speaking, the residential sector generates only two categories of
i
wastepaper, in line with the definitions employed in this section of the report.
These are the news grade and the mixed grade of wastepaper. Old corrugated
and the two high grades of wastepaper are not generated to any appreciable
degree.
Of the two grades generated, only the news grade is currently
being recovered and recycled to a significant degree. This is because old
newspapers are relatively easy to segregate from other forms of household
waste. Substantially larger quantities of old news could be recovered from
household waste, but thus far, the demand for old news as a paperstock commodity
has not been great enough to maximize segregation and collection.
The mixed grades of wastepaper generated in residential sources
consist mostly of packaging materials which have become contaminated through
use and as a result of becoming mixed with other forms of household wastes.
These mixed papers historically have been rarely recovered and recycled because
of difficulties in segregating them at the source and the relatively small
quantities generated at individual sources. Recent efforts, however, h?ve been
made to separate paper fibers from collections of municipal wastes but the long-
term opportunities for success in these activities are not yet clearly known.
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18
The various forms of paper products constituting the mixed paper
category in residential waste for the most part include the following:
(a) Folding cartons -- these paperboard containers move through
consumer channels for a wide variety of end uses. Among
these are various wet and dry food products, cosmetics and
soap, beverages (carriers), hardware, appliances, medicinal
products, etc. The differences in types of paperboard, coatings
and inner linings used in the construction of these cartons
tend to complicate efforts to segregate these cartons by
categories from residential waste.
(b) Milk containers -- these paper containers used extensively in
residences, are heavily coated with plastic. The technology
for recycling these containers after segregation from other
forms of residential waste is still in the developmental stages.
(c) Magazines -- most medium and high income residences generate
fairly large quantities 'of a wide variety of publications,,.
Because of the coatings
used on the paper, the adhesives used
in the bindings and other contaminants so often found in *these
: ' .- f . ' 1 .. • "
publications, magazines have insignificant value in recycling
channels under present technologies.
(d) Kraft bags and wrappings -- most homes collect fairly larjge
quantities of grocer's sacks and other kraft wrapping or
packaging material, some of a seasonal nature. The sacks are
popularly used as containers for other household trash, and
along with the other kraft materials become contaminated and
undesirable for recycling purposes.
-------
(e) Paper plates, cups, etc. -- these disposable items, generated
with a high degree of seasonality, for the most part, become
wet and contaminated through use and are therefore undesirable
for recycling under present technologies.
(f) Other disposables (towelling and facial tissues) -- these
products, for the most part, become irretrievably mixed with
other household wastes in the process of use.
(g) Other paper products -- those other forms of paper product which
normally enter homes include stationery, school supplies, papeteries,
books, and all types of incoming personal and merchandising mail.
Quantities generated are relatively small and the frequency and
volume of movement of them into solid waste channels is unpredict-
able. Such paper products as decorative wall paper and the
linings on gypsum construction boards, for the most part, have
very long life cycles and may never reach solid waste channels
until the buildings in which they have been used are eventually
" razed.
For the most part, old corrugated shipping containers do not constitute
a major grade of wastepaper generated in the residential sector. Except in rare
and unpredictable instances corrugated shipping containers go no further than
industrial or retail establishments. When consumers purchase large applicances
packaged in corrugated shipping containers, disposal of the containers is
often assumed by the vendor. Fairly large quantities of corrugated
shipping containers are generated in homes when families move to
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20
new residences but, economic mechanisms for recovery of these relatively small
quantities, by comparison with the quantities generated in industries, ^are
difficult to establish.
The high grade pulp substitutes and the deinking grades of paperstock
currently originate entirely with industrial and converter generators .wjho
generate fairly large quantities of homogenuous and relatively uncontaminated
wastepaper. Under present technology and economics, the residential sector
cannot be logically considered an economic sources of these grades. ...While every
'home does generate some wastepaper which might meet the specifications of high
grade paperstock users, the high effort of sorting out and collecting these
materials from the mix of other paper and nonpaper wastes generated in homes
has, thus far, prohibited their recovery.
The Institutional Sector
For the most part, the types of wastepaper generated in the institutional
sector including schools, restaurants, hotels, etc., are quite similar to those
generated in the residential sector. Because institutions, generally speaking,
are larger generators than individual homes, it has been possible, however, to
recover and recycle a greater proportion of the paper wastes generated in these
sources. Certain paper products such as disposable paper cups and plates,
generated in large volume in institutional feeding operations can be more
economically segregated and collected from institutional wastes than they can
be from residential wastes.
For the same reason, the ratio of recovery of old news and corrugated
from institutional wastes is potentially greater than that for residential
wastes.
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21
In addition, there are other forms of wastepaper, generated in such
institutions as large;schools and hospitals, which rarely if ever are found in
the residential sector to any appreciable degree. Among these are quantities of
duplicating papers, old index cards, file folders, and, in great volume, tabulating
cards, when institutions have their own electronic data processing facilities.
Finally, some institutions maintain their own in-plant printing operations and
generate the same forms of waste printing papers generated in independent
I
printing firms. These additional forms of wastepaper are all potentially
collectable and recyclable.
Office Buildings
The forms of wastepaper generated in office buildings vary depending
upon the nature of the operations of the occupants of these buildings. Office
buildings, both in large and small cities, may contain administrative offices
of groups of similar firms or mixtures of many different types of enterprises.
In larger cities, like New York and Chicago, there is a tendency for certain
types of firms.to cluster in particular areas. Some office buildings along
Wall Street or lower Broadway in New York City are tenanted almost entirely by
stock brokerage and other financial firms. Similarly, advertising agencies
have historically clustered in buildings along sections of Madison Avenue in
New York.
Also, some office buildings in large cities are tenanted almost
entirely by banking firms, insurance companies, or, as in the case of Washington,
D. C. and the state capitals, government or state agencies. In general, however,
the nature of the wastepaper generated in office buildings tends to be fairly
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22
consistent. The major differences occur when certain office buildings are
occupied to a substantial degree by banking or insurance firms which generate
large quantities of tabulating.cards or by small printing or converting firms
which generate cuttings arid waste sheets. The tabulating cards, because of
their relative homogeneity and fairly light printing, are quite desirable for
recycling purposes. The printing and conversion wastes also have potential
value depending upon the degree to which they are uncontaminated and ma^r be
economically segregated from other wastes.
For the most part, however, office building waste is broadly considered
as mixed paper or that which is collected from the many small waste baskets
common to facilities of this type. This mixed paper, generally regarded' as the
grade with the least value in recycling channels, varies in value to the degree
to which it contains undesirable contaminants. In office buildings, the list of
contaminants may include paper clips, rubber bands, staples, plastic cups and
large quantities of carbon paper. The need to remove these contaminants before
the mixed paper may be used for even such a utilitarian purpose as roofing
paper, governs the value of the mixed paper in the marketplace.
There are two special sets of circumstances which apply to office
building mixed wastepaper and not to grades generated in other sources which
effect the movement of the commodity. First, wastepaper generated in banks and
other financial institutions is commonly stored for periods of up to two'months
before it is released for disposal. This temporary storage time is generally
established to permit employees to look for and recover valuable documents,
cash, etc., which may have been inadvertantly discarded.
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23
Second, mixed wastepaper generated in government agencies, and often
in private business firms, is frequently, as a matter of policy, run through
shredding machines so that information on the paper can not get into unfri?.ndly
hands and be used to the disadvantage of the generator. The process of shredding
of course, makes it extremely difficult, if not impossible, to remove contaminants
from the shredded mixed wastepaper.
While most office employees in large cities commonly bring a morning
newspaper to work with them, having read the publication while commuting by
public conveyance, recovery of old newspapers from office buildings, for
recycling purposes is not widely practiced. Very often, office employees take
the newspapers home with them again at the end of the working day. If the
newspapers are discarded in the office areas, they are, most often, mixed in
with the other office waste and are economically unrecoverable as a distinct
wastepaper category.
Again, depending on the nature of the operations of office building
occupants, varying quantities of old corrugated boxes are received and discarded.
When buildings contain large numbers of printing, converting, light manufacturing
or service operations that receive fairly large quantities of supplies in corru-
gated shipping containers, it is economic for collectors to segregate old
corrugated from mixed wastepaper. When the quantities are small, however, in
comparison with the greater volume of other forms of mixed paper, segregation
generally is not economic.
The Retail Sector
Retail outlets of all types are, generally, large receivers of paper
products and therefore, large generators of waste paper. The grade most
•*)
V .- •»,'
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24
predominantly generated, however, is the old corrugated grade since sofmany
consumer products are shipped in corrugated containers to all classes of retail
establishments.
The principal retail sector generators of wastepaper are supermarkets,
variety stores, department stores, liquor stores, and drug stores. Insaddition,
there are other types of retail establishments including bakery shops,^automotive
supply dealers, hardware, sporting goods, toys, and retail lumber dealers.
Some of these classes of retailers also receive and thereby accumulate fairly
large quantities of paper wrapping materials. Many items of apparel, for example,
are not necessarily packaged in corrugated shipping containers.
Practices vary sharply as to disposition of wastepaper collected in
retail establishments. The governing factor, by and large, is the demand for,
and therefore, the value of the wastepaper in a given .area. Some big super-
market chains, for example, collect and assemble old corrugated boxes f-rom
their stores in particular regions and sell them to dealers or users far
reprocessing. In other regions, the same chains make no effort to market the
corrugated waste and let the stores dispose of the material individuality through
solid waste channels. The utlimate disposition of the corrugated in such
regions, therefore, may take the form of either incineration, dumping, :or
sanitary land fill.
Because of current pressures to control incineration practices so
as to reduce air pollution, some of the material formerly burned is probably
being recycled through the efforts of trash haulers faced with limitations in
dumping or land fill space in which to dispose of the material.
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25
During the intensive field interviewing phase of the research program
on which this report is based, two department stores located within blocks of
each other in a large city in the East were visited. One of the stores has
established a policy of incinerating on the premises all of the wastepaper
generated in the establishment. While no accurate records are maintained as
to the amounts of such wastepaper generated, it was reported that the store's
gas fired incinerator operates constantly from 8:30 in the morning until 9:30
every night. It has a capacity of between 800 and 1,000 cubic feet, so it is
estimated to burn between 25 and 30,000 cubic feet of wastepaper per day including
such potentially valuable paperstock items as tab cards and sheets. The liquor
department, alone, during the holiday season, generates as many as 300 to 400
empty corrugated liquor cases a day all of which are burned. When there are
special sales in the store, as for example, in the shoe department, thousands
of empty shoe boxes are generated and burned per day.
In the neighboring competing store, the policy and practice is quite
the opposite. This establishment generates an average of approximately 10 tons
a day of wastepaper including corrugated. Approximately 70 percent of this
wastepaper, or the cleaner material with a minimum of contaminants such as
carbon paper, is baled in the store and sold to a local paperstock dealer.
The costs of the necessary sorting and baling, reportedly, substantially exceed
the revenue which the store receives for the baled wastepaper. However, the
store's cost studies have shown that the real and intangible costs of adopting
other methods of disposal would exceed the present net loss on handling
wastepaper. The costs of operating a crew of incinerator personnel, plus the
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26
high cost of maintenance on an incinerator, along with the safety risks and!
the danger of violating air pollution codes have all been realistically
reviewed in this instance.
I
The Wholesale Sector
i
I In general, wholesalers, distributors, or jobbers, as these enterprises
are variously designated, are not considered to be large generators of wastepaper
in comparison with other sectors. Wholesalers in most industries and particularly
in consumer product lines, traditionally perform more of a warehousing function
than a. repackaging function. Accordingly, the packaging papers and shipping
containers which these organizations receive, in the course of their business
operations, are generally passed along, intact, to retailers who must eventually
assume the responsibility for disposing of these materials.
There are, of course, some exceptions to this general observation.
Distributors of newspapers, magazines, and other publications, typically generate
fairly substantial quantities jDf overissue news and magazines. Practices vary
regionally and in terms of types of printed material as to disposition p_f these
forms of wastepaper. In some cases, materials are returned to the publishers
for disposition and in others, the materials are marketed or otherwise disposed
of by the wholesalers. Depending upon the local market demand, this wastepaper
may have relatively high value in "recycling channels. Over issue news, for
example, may move, through recycling channels, to several reprocessing end
uses including deinked newsprint and folding boxboard. Over issue magazines,
on the other hand, currently, have low value to reprocessors because of the
contaminants such as heavy clay coatings, binding adhesives, and difficult-to-
remove plastic inserts which they so often contain.
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27
Those industrial distributors and other wholesaling organizations who
perform grading and repackaging functions, as has been indicated earlier, do
generate some quantities of waste packaging papers and board and cannot reuse
these materials in their own shipping operations. (Wholesalers of drugs,
toiletries, hardware, sporting goods, and toys, for example, very often
endeavor to use incoming corrugated shipping containers as containers for
outgoing small orders of a variety of items for delivery to dealears.) Again,
the method of disposition of the unresuable packaging materials depends entirely
upon the nature and condition of the materials and the local demand for them
in recycling channels. If the material is relatively clean and free of
contaminants and may be readily segregated from other forms of waste, wholesale
generators may find it economic to market the materials to dealers or users.
On the other hand, if the waste consists largely of containers heavily coated
with wax or other formulations to keep them "rigid-when wet", the waste is
generally unattractive to end users.
As in the case of administrative headquarters for retailing organiza-
tions, the office waste of wholesaling organizations is roughly comparable to
that grade of mixed papers generated in office buildings and discussed in an
earlier section of this report.
The Transportation Sector
All firms in the various areas of the transportation industry --
railroads, airlines, bus lines, etc., -- generate quantities of wastepaper
above and beyond that generated in their administrative office operations. The
only grade, however, of any real significance is old news found principally
03
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28
in local and suburban railroad cars, subway cars, and buses and terminals. The
used newspapers are discarded, for the most part, by relatively short-distance
commuters en route to their places of employment.
Where sufficient demand exists for old news, as in New York C.ity. and
Chicago, it has been economic for transportation company employees or employees
of wastepaper collection firms to sort out old newspaper from the other forms of
waste generated in transportation facilities. These other forms of wastepaper,
broadly classified as mixed paper waste, include magazines, other publications,
and a wide range of'forms of waste packaging papers including wrappers for
candy, gum, cigarettes and cigars, all for the most part, far too contaminated
to permit economical reprocessing.
The Printing and Converting Sector
Printers and converters of paper and paperboard products generate
all categories of wastepaper and are the largest source of the wastepaper
currently being recycled. A comprehensive study of solid waste management
practices in the printing and publishing industry was recently completed on
behalf of EPA and includes substantial data on the types and amounts of waste-
paper generated by newspapers, periodicals, book publishers and printers,
commercial printers, both lithographic and non-lithographic, and .related types
of establishments.*
* Solid Waste Management in the Printing and Publishing Industry, a report
prepared for the Bureau of Solid Waste Management under contract CPE-69-6
by Battelle Memorial Institute.
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29
In general, because of the relative homogeneity of the wastepapers
generated in printing plants, recovery ratios are high at least for the waste-
paper generated in the larger establishments and those geographic areas where
demand exists. Newspapers, which generate as many as 7 or 8 different grades of
wastepaper including newsprint mill wrappers, unprinted newsprint from the outer
or inner plys of rolls which, for one reason or another, do not get on the
press, printed news in the form of overissues, etc., generally market a greater
share of wastepaper than do other printing establishments. Printers of books and
magazines generate a wider variety of types of wastepaper than do newspapers,
because of the more varied nature of the printed end products. Similarly,
commercial printers handling broad ranges of custom printing jobs, generate even
wider varieties of wastepaper than do printers of newspapers, periodicals, or
books. The variations in grades of papers used and the degrees to which these
papers are covered with ink are quite pronounced in the commercial printing
industry.
Generally speaking, however, the printing industry, overall, is a good
source of both the high grade pulp substitutes and high grade deinking categories
of wastepaper. These grades are principally generated during the cutting and
trimming operations. Newsprint, both printed and unprinted, of course, is
generated principally by the newspaper segment of the printing industry although
some book and magazine printers generate quantities of these grades as well.
All segments of the printing industry generate quantities of mixed
papers. The components of these mixed papers, the degrees to which they are
contaminated, and hence, the value of these mixed papers in the marketplace for
recycling purposes depends upon the nature of the operations of the particular
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30
generating printing establishement and the degree to .which segregation ;pr sorting
of wastepaper is practiced at the source.
The converting sector is composed of many thousands of individual
companies who produce a wide range of paper and paperboard products, both
printed and imprinted... Among these products are such familiar items as envelopes,
bags, filing folders, index cards, folding paperboard boxes, setup paperboard
boxes',, corrugated ahd solid fiber shipping containers, cups, pails, fiberf, cans,
•"':. ',• ' ' -:'::. , ' '- • '"' ?."• '' .-'•.>•.(•.•"•'•'•.'•-'••" •':" . . f' .-" ' '"' ' • " ' ' '''.•••'•
:tubes, drums, .etc. ,.:; • •••'•"-•• ' '"! : •
All of the producers of these items generate waste in- the form of
.trimmings and cuttings to some degree. Obviously, like printers, these;converters
make every effort to keep waste to a minimum so as to maximize usage of raw
materials purchased. ^However, some waste is' unavoidable, in spite of careful
control of sheet or web widths and the layout of items to be die cut. ^Again,
the value of the waste materials thus generated, and the likelihood of such
waste materials being reprocessed depends upon the nature and the condition of
the;materials and how well they are segregated or sorted. Generally speaking,
however, paper and paperboard converters are attractive sources of bothjhigh-
'•'''. N.
grade pulp substitutes and high-grade deinking categories of wastepaper ^.because
of the relative homogeneity of the wastepapers generated. Envelope converters,
in particular, along with producers of file folders, imprinted index ,car;ds, etc.,
are most attractive sources of these grades. Indeed, with a minimum of effort
on the..part of the generator, such high grades of wastepaper can b,e and ,are
shipped directly from generator plants to the mills which ultimately reprocess
them.
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31
Paper and paperboard converters, for the most part, do not generate
any appreciable quantities of old news other than that discarded by plant or
office employees. Converters, like printers, do however, generate quantities of
old corrugated in the form of incoming shipping containers, single or double-
faced corrugated wrappings around incoming shipments of raw materials, and, in
some instances, disposable corrugated pallets.
Finally, paper and paperboard converters, like printers, generate
quantities of mixed paper or that wastepaper remaining, generated in both
production and office operations, after the higher grades of more homogenous
wastepaper and paperboard have been culled out. Clearly, the components of
this residual mixed paper generated in paper and paperboard converting operations
are quite different from those mixed papers generated in other sources and, may,
in many instances, be much more desirable and command higher prices in the
marketplace.
The Service Industries' Sector
Service industries, as herein considered, include a wide range of
communications, electric, gas, water, and related services. For the most part,
the wastepaper generated at these sources is quite similar to that generated in
office buildings, institutions, wholesale organizations and to some extent the
residential sector. Firms in the service industries sector, are, however,
particularly large generators of electronic data processing tabulating cards
and related forms and sheets which have outlived their usefulness. Here again,
the nature of wastes generated are somewhat similar to that generated in banks
and insurance companies. Accordingly, service industries are attractive sources
of the higher grades of wastepaper in which these relatively homogeneous products
may be included.
' •••*•<
VL5 f
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32
Service industries are not generally identified as large generators of
either old corrugated or news. The corrugated generated, is for the most part,
that .received in connection with incoming shipments of supplies. Again, the
only old news generated is that discarded by plant and office employees at work.
In the communications segment of the overall service industries sector,
the question of who, in fact, actually "generates" the many millions of outdated
telephone directories discarded each year, remains unanswered. For maay years
telephone companies made conscientious efforts to collect their old books when
the new ones were distributed. Reportedly, these efforts were never wholly
successful but one company did, at one time, recover as many as 45 percent of
the old books. These were then disposed of through recycling channels. In
recent years, however, telephone companies have discontinued their efforts to
recover the old books when it became clear that the cost of recovery was too
high. .
As a result of this discontinuance of collections, the problem of
disposing of the expired directories rests with the telephone company subscribers.
The magnitude of the problem is demonstrated by the fact that some 2,400 different
telephone directories, using 140,000 tons of paper are distributed in the country
every year.*
As in the case of other forms of wastepaper discussed in preceding
sections of this report, the value of these old telephone directories is
diminished when the directories are mixed in with other forms of wastepaper and
other forms of solid waste. This mixture is, for the most part, unavoidable
when the disposal of the directories in relatively small individual ^quantities,
be'comes the responsibility of the many millions of telephone subscribers in the
country. ; . .
.
* "Old Phone Books Posed a Problem", The New York Times, January 10, 1971, p 55.
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33
Other Industrial and
Commercial Sectors
In the introductory portion of this section of the report, it may be
recalled, the point was made that there are two general categories of wastepaper
generators -- consumer and industrial/commerical -- just as there are two general
categories of markets for the output of paper and paperboard mills and converters.
In order to gain a clear understanding of the types and character of wastepaper
generated in these two broad sectors, it was necessary to review the individual
components of these sectors separately, the kinds of wastepaper generated
within them and to identify those categories of wastepaper which, currently,
are moving into recycling channels from these sources.
Broadly considered, the residential sector and that part of the
institutional sector made up of hotels, motels, and to some degree, hospitals,
may defensibly be included in the overall consumer category. All the other
sectors reviewed -- office buildings, retailers, wholesalers, transportation
companies, printers, converters, and service industries may be considered in
the industrial or commercial category, although some exceptions to this generali-
zation are apparent.
Still remaining are all of the additional industrial and commercial
enterprises which make up the American economic structure. These sectors
include all other manufacturing firms, agricultural, mining, construction
enterprises, etc. All of these, understandably, also receive paper products in
some forms in the course of their operations and hence, generate varying amounts
of wastepaper. The grade generated in greatest volume in all these industries
must necessarily be designated as the mixed paper grade because of the hetero-
geneous nature of the input. Because of the existance of constraints similar
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34
to those touched on in discussions of other generatorsj very little of this
mixed paper currently moves into recycling channels compared to the volume
generated.
Old corrugated is also generated in substantial volume in these
I
remaining types of enterprises as a result of receipt by these enterprises, of
substantial quantities''of shipping containers, corrugated overwraps, etctl The
automotive and aircraft industries, for example, generate substantial quantities
of old corrugated. Where there is sufficient demand for this material t'o
justify the effort and expense of segregating and baling it, considerable
quantities of old corrugated generated in these sources are moving into
recycling channels.
The third distinct grade of wastepaper generated in these industries
consists of the tabulation cards and sheets which, when appropriately segregated
can potentially move through recycling channels as high grade deinking paperstock
or high grade pulp substitutes. Old news is not distinctly an identifiable grade
of wastepaper generated in these industries. However, it is obvious as in the
case of office buildings and other industrial sectors described, that th'ese
remaining industries do generate substantial quantities of old news discarded by
office and plant employees. Again, depending upon the demand for this grade in
particular areas, it may be feasible for firms in these industries to ma'ke
efforts to collect and dispose of their accumulated old news to recycling
channels.
Table 4 summarizes the origins and sources of waste paper as described
in this section in terms of types of waste paper generated by the various
sectors of generators discussed.
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35
TABLE 4. ORIGINS OF WASTE PAPER
Types
Generators
Residential
Institutional
Office Buildings
Retail
Wholesale
Transport
Printers
Paper and Paperboar/l Converting
Paper and Paperboard Mills
Service Industries
Other Industrial
*"O
0)
X
•H
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
to
J5
— < i
3
P-t
Q>
•a
to
o
j:
00
•H
rc
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
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36
PAPERSTOCK COLLECTION. -PROCESSING.
AND'DISTRIBUTION'
The movement of wastepaper from generators to ultimate users of
paperstock is accomplished by a wide variety of means and through a number of
different types of organizations. The governing factors are the sources of
the wastepaper, the types of wastepaper to be moved and the quantities involved.
.Some wastepaper moves directly from generators to users while other amounts
pass through as manytas three different organizations before finally reaching
the end user's plant. .-
Figure 1 (Waste Paper and Paperstock Flow Chart) graphically.shows
the types and amounts of these materials that flow from the generators,and
ultimately to users. , This simplified diagram does not attempt to break out
separately the limited quantity of wastepaper that actually is transferred directly
• from,generators to users. (Rather, all of the wastepaper is shown flowing through
the central box, which represents refuse haulers, collectors, dealers, etc.)
Precise statistics on the amount of wastepaper or paperstock flowing directly
from generators to users are not available, and even available estimates may be
in error. Battelle Relieves that at least 80 percent of all wastepaper and
paperstock recycled in the United States is handled to some .degree by the paperstock
industry.* Another source feels that the proportion handled by the paperstock
industry is well above 90 percent at present and was very close to 100 (percent in
the recent past. In this context, "handling" could range from performing a
brokerage function (without physically handling the wastepaper) to actually
sorting and processing the wastepaper. On the basis of a survey completed by
* Captive dealer/processors owned by paper companies, such as Pioneer Paper Stock
Division of Container Corporation of America (Marcor), are defined .as part of the
paperstock industry. .,.,_
''
-------
GENERATORS
COLLECTORS. PROCESSORS. DISTRIBUTORS
RESIDENTIAL
SINGLE FAMILY
MULTI FAMILY
1 & 2<«)
INSTITUTIONAL 1. 2. 4 ft 5
SCHOOLS
EATING/DRINKING
AMUSTMENT PLACES
HOTELS/MOTELS
OFFICE BUILDINGS 1. 2. 4 & 5
GENERAL
SPECIALIZED
BANKS
INSURANCE
LIGHT MFG.
RETAIL
FOOD
VARIETY
DEPARTMENT
OTHER
1 ft 3
TRANSPORT
LOCAL
LONGDISTANCE
PAPER AND PAPERBOARO
.. CONVERTING 1, 4, & 5
BOXES AND CARTONS
•BAGS
ENVELOPES
CUPS . --:
PAILS
Alb)
WHOLESALE
1 8,3
PRINTERS
NEWSPAPERS
PERIODICALS
BOOKS
COMMERCIAL
1.2. 4ft 5
PAPER AND PAPERBOARD
MILLS
5
SERVICE INDUSTRIES 1. 4. & S
TELEPHONE
POWER AND LIGHT
OTHER INDUSTRIAL
AUTOMOTIVE
AIRCRAFT
APPLIANCES
1. 3. & S
REFUSE HAULERS - Alb)
COLLECTORS - B
CHARITABLE CROUPS - C
DEALERS. BROKERS OR - D
PROCESSORS
PAPERBOAKO MILLS
BOXBOAHD
CONTAINER BOARD
1
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37 a
NASMI fo.r jthls study, it appears pcob^bjle ;that dealer/processors physically
handle through their plants slightly ICAS :thah half of-the wastepaper and paperstock
which they purchase and sell.
As previously indic.ated, production waste ^generated at the .p^aper .mill
level, commonly called "brqke", :generally is not counted as .was.tepaper and is
excluded from the data o,n Figure 1 and the above estimates.
The various alternative channels for wastepaper and the nature of)
the handling or processing that may occur at each step in the distributjion
channels are discussed in this section of the report. Three basic routes are
traced. These are:
A. The. route from generators to dealers or processors;
B. The. route from dealers or processors toy;users
C., x The: routeJ from generators direc.tly to -users.
The discussions of handling or processing of wastepaper or, in effect
making paperstock out of wastepaper, convey the fact that various degrees and
forms of handling or processing occur at all of the stages in the channel, but
the greater part of these functions are performed by the specialists in this
.work, known as paperstock dealers and participants in the overall secondary
materials industries. The number of these organizations and the volume and
nature of their activities are reviewed in detail in a subsequent s.ection of
7-1
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38
this report based on tabulations and analyses of the extensive survey
conducted by NASMI.
The Route from Generators to
Dealers or Processors
In order to consider the alternative routes for wastepaper from
generators to processors we must reflect on who the generators are and the kinds
of wastepaper they generate as discussed in the preceding section of this
report.
Movement From the Residential Sector
to Dealer/Processors
In the residential sector, the grade most generated is generally
categorized as mixed paper and consists of all forms of paper products, including
the many forms of packages used in homes. For the most part such paper is not
separated from other forms of household waste. This mixed paper, except for
pioneering experiments in certain cities never reaches processors and moves
instead in the trucks of municipal or independent trash haulers directly to
dumps, sanitary landfill projects, or incinerators.
In some cases transfer stations have been established where household
refuse is temporarily collected after being deposited there by local collection
trucks so that it may be transfered to other vehicles for more economical
transport to distant sites. The pioneering experiments and other methods
of residential waste disposal include, notably, the operation of a
one-ton per-hour-capacity "Hydrasposal" system pilot plant in Middletown,
Ohio, by Black Clawson Company. EPA has authorized as a demonstration
project, a 150 ton-per-day installation in Franklin, Ohio, which is
V':>
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39
presently under construction by the same company. Under this system, residential
waste is hauled directly to the pilot plant. About half of this waste ttends to
I
be paper and paper products. The machine breaks up and rejects nonfibuous
materials and retains the fibrous material to be repulped. Other methods of
separation and recovery of wastepaper from residential trash are under 'study.
These include an air classification technique. ,
In some communities where sanitary landfill projects are maintained,
residents are also permitted to transport excess quantities of accumulated
household wastes in t.heir own vehicles to the landfill sites during certain
hours on specified days. By and large., however, most of the .mixed paper ^wastes
generated in individual or multi-family residences, both urban and rural, are
hauled away to disposal sites without further processing,, other than compacting
in the trash hauler truck and do not enter recycling channels. The relatively
recent introduction cfcf. household trash compactors serves principally to reduce
the volume, but not the weight, of paper and other wastes generated in Ethe home
and does not affect the ultimate disposition as presently foreseen. Conceivably,
if all of the residences in a given area were to install these appliances.,
there might be no need or use for the compacting equipment which is conventional
in most local trash haulage trucks.
While, for the most part, old aewspapers generated in residences.
move a-long with the mixed papers and other wastes to disposition sites described
in the foregoing paragraphs, substantial quantities have moved in the past, and
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40
will continue to move, into recycling channels. Because of the fairly uniform
sizes of newspapers and the way in which they are folded, it is fairly easy to
segregate and collect old news in the average residence. Because of the bulk
of collected newspapers, housewives are reluctant to deposit them in the trash
containers in the kitchen and other rooms in the residence. This is also true,
of course, to some degree of old magazines, but generally, these are not
collected in as great volumes in homes as are newspapers.
i
Whenever sufficient pressure is exerted, through the form.of appeals
to either patriotic or ecological feelings, great quantities of old news may be
collected from the residential sector and recycled. There are really .only one
or two factors that inhibit collections. One is the need for the resident, in
most cases, to find space in the garage or basement o.f the home, in which
sufficient quantities of old news may be stored prior to disposition; The
other is the necessity, generally, that the resident tie the newspapers into
bundles, so that they do not blow around outdoors, before disposition.
Several methods have been identified for moving old newspapers from
the residential sector (and other sectors as well) to dealers and processors
for eventual recycling.* These are:
(1) Pickup at curb by professional scavengers. In San Francisco,
stimulated by the efforts of the local newspapers, householders
put their papers on the curb separately from other solid wastes
so that the professional scavengers may pick them up with ease.
* "Recycling Wastepaper into Newsprint", a presentation by Richard B. Scudder,
Chairman, Garden State Paper Company at the API Seminar on "Recycling Waste-
Paper", October 16, 1970, Washington, D. C.
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41
(2) Pickup by charities. In Union, New Jersey, charities such as
The Salvation Army, Goodwill Industries, the Boy Scouts, and other
such organizations come directly to homes and collect the
accumulated newspapers.
(3) Compulsory segregation. The community of Irvington, New Jersey,
passed a law which requires that householders 'must put their
papers separately on the curb once a month. The accumulated
papers are picked up by charities such as those named .above.
This program provides an income for the charities and, reportedly,
reduces the city's refuse service cost by about 20 percent,
(4) In San Diego, California, drop boxes are set out in convenient
locations by charitable groups and householders are asked to
deposit their old newspapers periodically in these boxes. Two
hundred such boxes were set out in San Diego by the local
Kiwanis Club and, for every full box, the youth activities -:
that the club sponsors get-$5 and the city salvage operation
gets $8. ...'..••'••
There are, of course, potentially, many variations on these four
methods of moving old news into recycling channels. In some instances, drop
boxes are placed in communities by large captive dealer organizations. In a
growing, number of cities, householders put out their bundles of newspapers
along -with their other trash and the community's trash hauling trucks pick up
the bundles while making their regular rounds. Special racks have been slung
under the trucks to contain the bundles of newspaper and keep them;separate
from the other trash.
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42
As has already been noted, the residential sector does not receive
nor generate significant quantities of old corrugated. Consequently, that
which is generated, for the most part, is disposed of into solid waste channels
along with other mixed papers and it never reaches the dealers or processors.
The same is also true of the relatively small individual quantities of residentially
generated wastepaper which, if they could be readily segregated from or culled
out of the mixed papers generated, might be classified as high-grade paperstock.
Actually, it is these "relatively small individual quantities" generated in the
residential sector which, in the aggregate, constitute much of the unrecycled
wastepaper generated today. In short, the problem to society is not with the
high grades of paperstock which are being recycled but, rather, the bulk grades
of wastepaper which move into solid waste channels.
Movement from the Industrial/Commercial
Sector to Dealer/Processors
The industrial/commercial sector, as defined earlier in this report,
includes all of the institutions, office buildings, retail and wholesale
establishments, transportation companies, printing and converting plants,
service industries and all other enterprises that generate wastepaper in the
course of their business activities. As has been noted, the kinds, the amounts,
and the conditions of the wastepapers generated in this sector vary widely.
Further, the value of or the likelihood of recycling these wastepapers differs
substantially from industry to industry, from company to company, and from one
geographic area to another.
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43
Although the urgency is obviously much greater in highly populated
built-up metropolitan areas, there is one pressure that appears to be common
to all industries. That is the need and desire to be rid of waste materials
generated as quickly as possible. The reason for this desire, obviously, is the
realization that waste materials, when stored on the premises, consume valuable
space which could be more productively devoted to profitable activity. Further,
accumulations of waste materials, and particularly such highly flammable materials
as wastepaper, create .hazards and tend to detract from the appearance of an
establishment. In big cities, where space is at a premium, generators cannot
tolerate the accumulation of bulky qualities of wastepaper for more than
several days at the most. Indeed, instances have been reported when big; city
newspapers have been forced to suspend operations because unusual circumstances,
like a blizzard, have interrupted the movement of wastepaper generated out of
the printing plants.
The form in which wastepaper is moved from generator's) establishments
to dealers or processors depends upon the amount and type of wastepaper generated,
which, in turn, determines the degree to which the generator is equipped!; to semi-
process and bale the wastepaper generated. Generators of fairly homogeneous
wastepaper in large quantities, such as printers/converters, usually do some
segregating of wastepaper by general categories. The segregating may be<
accomplished either through the use- of a vacuum duct system in the plant which
automatically keeps different types of waste separate or by the manual efforts
of plant workers assigned to the task. Most large generators also have baling
equipment used simply to reduce the amount of space occupied, by accumulated
wastepaper until it is removed from the premises.
50
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44
Much wastepaper, however, is moved in loose form contained in burlap
or paper bags to the facilities of refuse contractors or paperstock processors.
The bags, or, in some cases carts, are frequently the property of the refuse
contractor or processor who leaves a fresh supply at the generator's plant when
he removes the filled bags or carts. Generally speaking, it is not economical
to haul wastepaper in loose or bag form for more than relatively short distances
because of the low value of the material compared with its bulk and weight.
This is particularly true of the low grades of wastepaper like the crumpled
mixed wastepaper generated in office buildings.
The actual movement of wastepaper from generators' plants to dealer/
processors' plants may be accomplished in trucks owned either by the generators,
refuse contractors or dealer/processors. In areas where demand for wastepaper
is weak, generators may move wastepaper in their own vehicles in order to save the
.cost of having a refuse contractor haul the material away. In other cases, the
generator may elect to use his own vehicles for this purpose in order to get a
higher price for the wastepaper delivered to the processing plant.
In short local hauls of wastepaper, some processors who pick up the
material from generators use old vehicles no longer suitable for long-distance
hauling. Both generators and processors, in general, have demonstrated
resourcefulness in the effort to minimize the costs of local movement of
wastepaper generated.
The strategic location of a processor's plant is one means of both
reducing the cost of movement of wastepaper and stimulating recycling. An
example of such a strategic location is that of Edison Salvage Corporation,
a new processing facility opened in August of 1970 in Edison, New Jersey.
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45
The facility is "located,nextdoor to the town dumps, and the location couldn't
be more ideal from the owners' standpoint."* In the words of one of the owners,
"what we hope is that trucks from refuse contractors, paper companies, and .other
industries throughout the area will deposit their clean corrugated and 6the;r
paper at our specially constructed plant before completing their trip to the
dumping ground."
In order to keep the facility economically operative, there is an
obligation on the part of the refuse contractors and others who bring their
wastepaper to the facility to separate their corrugated and- paper from other
refuse in advance. It is believed that the costs of assuming this responsibility
are offset by the savings in dumping costs which the generators or contractors.
incur when they dump their wastes in open ground landfills, especially since
the state of New Jersey recently doubled the price for dumping solid waste in
i ' .
such sites. In addition,, .the generator or contractor is paid for the separated
corrugated and other paper that was previously allowed to go completely tocwaste.
Again, the foregoing comments apply principally to the so-calledtbulk
grades "Of: wastepaper'. which contribute most to; environmental pollution problems.
With regard to, the:. so-called high grades of was.tepaper or paperstock, .it .may be
noted that,; in jnost area^, 'there is active competition among, dealers, or-, pro.cessbrs
to obtain-these grades fromr gene rat o'rs. In order to earn the privilege of picking
up eventually :high grade wastepaper from converters and other big generators' of .,
high /gra.d.e^.materialfii,;'dealers will agree to. remove all of the wastepaper generated
in a plant,including in- some cases, large quantities of material which has no
marketable value. If the dealer demonstrates a desire to be selective, about
* Fiber Market News, August, 1970, p 1.
82
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46
what he will pick up from a good generator, he may find that he is denied
further access to this source. Dealer/processors, in such cases, will often
also provide the generators with free equipment or equipment leased to the
generator at a very low rate, for baling the wastepaper generated. While, this
of course, makes it easier and more economical for the dealer to transport the
material from the generator's plant to the processing facility, it also serves
the purpose of saving the generator space in his own plant until the processor
picks up the bales.
Considering the five major grades of wastepaper or paperstock indivi-
dually, some patterns of movement from generators to dealers/processors become
apparent. Old newspapers, for the most part, are transported from industrial/
commercial generators to processors by refuse contractors. In some cases, old
newspapers are also transported by the charitable organizations who pick up the
material from the residential sector. Those old newspapers, overissues or.
similar categories of old news generated in newspaper plants or in newspaper
distribution channels, are, for the most part, picked up and moved to processors'
plants in the dealers' own vehicles.
Mixed papers, from office buildings, institutions, and other big
generators of mixed papers, are for the most part, moved by refuse contractors
although some generators bring them into processing plants themselves. As was
noted earlier, the assumption of this responsibility by generators usually is
the result of an effort to save the cost of having the waste hauled away.
Dealer/processors also pick up large quantities of mixed papers themselves but,
usually, only when these lower grades are picked up with higher grades at the
same time.
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47
Old corrugated, generated in retail stores arid in industrial plants
which receive incoming^shipments in corrugated shipping containers, etc., is,
I
for the most part, moved to processors by refuse contractors. The pattern at
Edison Salvage Company, described earlier, is fairly typical in this regard.
However, there are also many instances where generators transport old "corrugated
I
to processors or when processors pick up the material in their own vehicles. In
the retail segment,' some big supermarket chain organizations collect old'
corrugated boxes from individual store locations and move them to central
warehousing points''from which they are later transferred to processors' plants,
eithe^Un- the chain's own' vehicles or those of the processors. The distances
over'which it.'Is feasible to transport old corrugated boxes from generators to
processors depends'largely upon the degree to-which the material has been compacted
If individual stores or generating plants have baling facilities at the
generating site and can make fairly dense bales, the material, obviously^
can be transported greater distances fairly economically.
- "As to the high grade-deinking paper's tock or pulp : substitutes, movement
to processors facilities is, almost without exception, a responsibility assumed
by the processor. This pattern, again,, stems1 from the fact that demand is
generally quite high for these grades, and processors compete among themselves
for the opportunity to1 collect theni from desirable sources. It ha's been'noted,
.. -\
incidentally, that this pattern could also, once again, apply to bulk grades if
demand for these grades were to increase significantly in response to new
pressures in society.
84
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48
The Route From Dealers/Processors to Users
One broad generalization that may be safely made is that the higher
the quality and value of paperstock produced in processors plants, the greater
the distance the material can be shipped to users. Thus, dealer/processors
with some notable exceptions tend to cluster relatively closely to the using .
mills who consume mixed paper, news, and old corrugated. There is no precise
pattern, however, as. tp. whose vehicles ..are used for the relatively local transport
of the low grades of paperstock. Further, there is no standard procedure as
to who assumes the responsibility for the transportation charges. In some
cases, paperstock is shipped "f.o.b. shipping point" and in other charges are
prepaid to destinations. How the charges are handled depends entirely upon
the terms of the purchase agreement made between the seller and the buyer.
For relatively short distances of movement, the dealer may move
the paperstock in his own vehicle. However, there are many instances,
particularly in metropolitan areas, where mills pick up the necessary paperstock
from the processors' plants on return trips to mills after having completed
deliveries of finished paper or paperboard in the same area. If vehicles of
both the dealers and the users are unavailable or if it is uneconomic to use
them for longer distance transport of paperstock, public carriers' vehicles
are used instead. Both rail and truck transport of paperstock are common in
domestic movement of this commodity. Export shipments or overseas shipments,
obviously, are handled by steamship lines.
With regard to export, at the present time at least, relatively few
dealer/processors are engaged in solicitation of foreign markets. Those most
active in exporting are principally the larger firms in the industry located
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49
t
relatively close to seaports. Many of the smaller dealers have little interest
in pursuing foreign markets because of the difficulties and cost involved in
making export shipments. In the New York City area, particularly, the need to
fill out complex sets of business forms, and the losses in time incurred: in
getting shipments through port facilities are discouraging to the smaller
dealers. The larger dealers, having set up special departments for handling
export marketing, are better equipped to handle the details involved. liable 5,
following, is a statistical compilation of 1969 exports of paperstock showing
i
selected ports of departure, destinations, tonnage, aggregate value, and value
per ton. Table 6, following, lists the 6 leading importing countries during
1969 and shows the tonnage and value of the paperstock imported by each.
The Route From Generators to Users
Direct shipment of paperstock from generators to users is relatively
common in the paperstock industry. Most of such movement is arranged by\
generator/processors acting in the roles of "brokers" who, unlike brokers in
other industries, actually do take title to the commodity transported. When
direct shipment occurs., invariably the generator, e.g., a big envelope converting
•• .- v, . • , .. ;.;••.> ... .-• « ' •;. I-- ' ."-•-
plant, has established, procedures and has adequate facilities to segregate or
sort wastepaper generated by grades and to bale it properly for economical
shipment.
Many dealer/processors of paperstock operate principally as brokers
in this sense, since a relatively small portion (as low as 5 percent in some
cases) actually is physically handled through their plants. Depending upon the
nature of the grades so brokered, the broker must rely upon the integrity and
-------
TABLE 5. 1969 EXPORTS OF PAPER STOCK FROM SELECTED PORTS
Port of Departure Destination
New York City, New York Uruguay
Netherlands
Spain
Italy
Lebanon
Indonesia
Hong Kong
Charleston, South Carolina Venezuela
Uruguay
Italy
Philippines
Taiwan
Japan
Republic of
South Africa
Savannah, Georgia Venezuela
Peru
United Kingdom
Netherlands
Italy
Japan
Australia
Quantity, tons
799
170
602
7,512
209
250
125
431
137
557
280
1,108
410
426
1,816
695
118
372
13,114
120
320
Dollar Value
Per Ton
41
25
66
50
177
141
51
51
94
42
67
55
62
99
58
60
96
107
39
60
32
Dollar
Value
32,878
4,268
40,280
375,684
37,152
35,315
6,458
22,078
13,000
23,673
19,000
61,281
25,500
42,523
105,923
42,220
11,367
40,000
514,601
7 , 200
10,397
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TABLE 5. 1969 EXPORTS OF PAPER STOCK FROM SELECTED PORTS (Continued)
Port of Departure Destination
Los Angeles, California Venezuela
. Netherlands
. Italy
Thailand
South Vietnam
Malaysia
Singapore
Philippines
Korea
Hong "Kong
Taiwan
Japan
Australia
San Francisco, California Thailand
Singapore
Philippines
Korea
Taiwan
Japan
Australia
Portland, Oregon . Venezuela
Italy
Philippines
Korea
Hong Kong
Taiwan """
Japan
Australia
Quantity, tons
1,360
201
1,511
2,107
720
583
1,810
4,157
2,570
150
692
21,349
2,996
876
1,096
1,5.23
220
1,110
12,806
1,958
300
551
1,368
1,577
120
1,6'27
13,859
263
Dollar Value
Per Ton
58
47
16
63
29
26
34
43
60
29
81
60
67
65
49
63
51
70
57
76
39
19
92
— 62
27
43
67
82
Dollar
Value
79,286
9,612
24,988
133,653
20,910
15,200
63,019
181,058
156,007
4,450
56,280
1,300,084
201,. 602
57,193
54,233
97,299
11,400
78,418
733,847
150,202
11,968
10,750
126,285
98,198
3,270
71 ', 144
940,326
21,578
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TABLE 5. 1969 EXPORTS OF PAPER STOCK FROM SELECTED PORTS (Continued)
Port of Departure
Miami, Florida
Total all ports of departure
and destinations
Destination
Dominican Republic
Venezuela;
Spain
Italy
Japan
Quantity, tons
304
5,670
1,560
776
824
288,738
Dollar Value
Per Ton
61
40
26
29
35
49
Dollar
Value
18,644
231,079
40,902
22,504
29,427
$14,372,861
Source: Unpublished data from Paperstock Conservation Committee. American Paper Institute.
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53
TABLE 6. SIX- LEADING IMPORTERS OF PAPERSTOCK- - 1969
1 '
Country
Canada
Japan
Mexico
Italy
Venezuela
Philippines
Total
Quantity, tons
84,074
. 61,406'
i
42,894
31,571
14,173
11,163
245,281
Dollar Value Per Ton
38
61
55
40
48
57
48
Dollar Value
3,250,677
3,776,1,19
2,383,709
1,266,073
687,705
644,769
$12,009,052
- . • - - . . . . . •-.
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54
efficiency of the generators with whom he is dealing so that his customers,
the mills, actually receive the grades ordered. As has been noted in other
sections of this report, a mill's inadvertent receipt and use of paperstock
contaminated and not of the quality ordered, can ruin the end products and
seriously damage mi11^equipment.
If the quality control considerations are not especially high, as in
the case of mills producing unaesthetic products and buying the cheapest grades
of mixed papers, the broker is not subject to as much concern as he is when
brokering shipments of high-grade deinking or high grade pulp substitute paper-
stock. Nevertheless, the broker still has an obligation to his customer to
provide grades as close as possible to accepted industry standards.
Some quantities of low grades and high grades of paperstock are also
shipped directly from big generators to big users without the participation of
brokers. When this occurs, the generator, in a sense, assumes the responsibility
and role of the broker and negotiates his own arrangements with the users. As
such, the generator has the same responsibility to his customers as a broker has,
to supply paperstock of the grade and quality specified. The major and very
obvious weakness in this system is that the generator's rate of generation of
wastepaper is not always precisely in phase with the demands of his customers.
Accordingly, the big generator at times may be in a position where he is unable
to market his rapidly accumulating waste to his regular customers and must
then either find other outlets for it or dispose of it through solid waste
channels. When such conditions arise, such a generator may find difficulty in
locating a market for his waste that might have been available to him through
traditional paperstock brokerage channels.
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55
..Although, as has already jbe.en .noted, ,gener.at.or:s .are under ,c,ons;tant
pressure to dispose .of their wastepaper, the .need .fo.r them to dispose of it,
i
> . ' \ (
for the most part, is not ,so critical as the need for ;using .mills to pbtsain
paperstdck when the demand for paper.stpck end •prod.uc.ts .is high. As ;a result,
some large users of paperstock .have established their own .d.ealer/pro.cessiing
captive facilities ;so }that they will .always 'bje ;ass.ur:ed of .adequate :suppl!ies
when needed.
Again, as in the case ;of .movement of .pape-rstQc;k :f:rjom .deal.er.s -tjo
users, there are no precise standard practices as to Whoae Chicles
or who absorbs the transportation Charges f.Ar'direct jmo^eroent :of ^
from generators to users.
^Handling or 'Processing
Processing of .wastjepaper., or changing the charac.ter ;of wastepiaper to
make it a marketable commodity in ithe form pf paperstock, ;is per farmed :prily at
the generator and deajer/proeessor .leye'JL-s.. The dist.ineJt.iKe .characteristics of
wastepaper processing are that they are :e.S;S,en.tl.al.ly ;d:ry ;and jCpld ppe.rat3.ons.
Except for the use of moisture to minimize c.irc.ulatipn of idust,, processing
of paperstock does nojt inyplye the use :pf .water, .other liq.uids or
heat .in any form as in the propessing of $£•?,&? jmefeals. Jhe .pperati.ons ;which
occur at the user mill level, inc.luding cleaning ;and ipuliping of paperstock
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56
are not normally considered in the broad area of processing, but, rather
represent functions undertaken in the course of manufacturing a new product.
One possible exception to this generalization is the operation of the Hydrasposal
unit by Black Clawson Company in Middletown, Ohio, described in other sections
of this report. In the Hydrasposal operation, technically, an intermediate
product is the result. As presently developed, this intermediate product
requires further processing at the mill level.
Handling or processing, as considered in this section of the report,
consists exclusively of segregation or sorting, hogging, or shredding and baling
of wastepaper. Each of these operations is described in the sections following.
Segregation and Sorting
Segregating and sorting operations range from the simple activities of
the housewife who keeps her old newspapers separate from other household wastes
to the sophisticated operations that take place at a modern paperstock dealer/
processor plant. In between are many other levels of activities. Among these
are the employment of vacuum duct systems in printing and converting plants to
maintain separation of grades of wastepaper generated; the activities which take
place in a large newspaper printing plant which result in segregating wastepapers
generated into as many as 8 different specific grades; and the work of a refuse
contractor who pulls out of his collected wastes marketable quantities of old
corrugated boxes and newspapers.
Generally speaking, the higher the grade of paperstock desired, the
greater the need for quality control and for skill in detecting significant
differences in wastepapers generated and the contaminants which they contain.
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57
Clearly, the need for precision or perfection is not so significant in ihe
segregation or sorting operations directed toward the packing of a low grade
of paperstock or one with relatively low value in the marketplace.
The PaperStock Institute of America, a commodity division of £he ,
National Association of Secondary Material Industries, Inc., has defined
"outthrows"and "prohibitive materials" which may be permitted in various
standard grades packed and marketed by paperstock dealers.* Outthrows are
defined as "all papers that are so manufactured or treated or are in such
form as to be unsuitable for consumption as the grade specified." Prohibitive
materials are defined as "any materials which by their presence in the
packing of paperstock, in excess of the amount allowed, will make the
packing .unusable as the grade specified, or any materials that may be
damaging to equipment."
The PSIA adds further that it is "important to note in connection with
(outthrows and prohibitive materials) that a material can be classified ;as an
'outthrow' in one grade, and as a 'prohibitive material1 in another gradfe".
"Carbon paper for example, is 'unsuitable' in Number 2 Mixed Paper and is, there-
fore, classified as an 'outthrow'; whereas it is 'unusable1 in White Ledger and
in this case is classified as 'a prohibitive material'."
In the discussions following, the broad term "rejects" is .employed to
describe both outthrows and prohibitive materials removed in the sorting process
at whatever levels such sorting process occurs. Basically, at the processor
* Paperstock Standards and Practices Circular, PS-70, PSIA, January 1, 1970.
94
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58
level two general methods of sorting are practiced, depending upon the nature of
the facility in which the sorting activities are conducted. The first of these
is the so-called vertical operation and the second is the horizontal-type operation.
Vertical Processing. Vertical handling and sorting of wastepaper,
traditionally, is conducted in multi-story facilities usually three levels high.
The techniques, in general have changed very little over the past 40 or 50 years.
Some reasonably large and successful paperstock packing plants have made no
real basic changes in their facilities in several decades other than the
installation of new elevators, materials handling equipment, or baling machines.
It has been noted, however, that owners of such plants, up until recently could
not clearly visualize any significant growth opportunities in their industry and
were naturally reluctant to make the investment needed to expand.
In a typical three-story vertical paperstock packing plant, incoming
bales, bags, or carts of potentially high-grade paperstock are first deposited
on the third floor of the facility and segregated in terms of the general
nature of the materials received. The bales are opened and banding materials
are immediately cut up with special cutting equipment developed for the purpose,
to prevent hazard to employees. Women workers, each assigned to work on a bale
or other quantity of wastepaper at a time, then hand sort the components of the
bale. The work area floor has, down its center, a line of 10 or more apertures.
The workers throw the components of the particular grade of paperstock desired
into the appropriate apertures in the floor. At the same time, they put the
rejected materials into adjacent carts to be removed, subsequently, for further
processing.
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59
A section of the second floor of the building,, directly under the
section of the third floor described, vaguely resembles a narrow hall in. a hotel
lined with a series of doors closely spaced together. Each door leads to a:room
or closet fed by one of the apertures in the floor of the third level of-the
structure so that each closet, in effect, has an open "ceiling". The> floor
of the second floor hall is actually a conveyor belt leading, to another1 large
aperture in the "floor" at the end of the hall.
When a sufficient quantity of a desired grade- of paperstock has been
4
accumulated in each of the appropriate closets on the second, floor of the plant,
the appropriate doors are opened and accumulated materials are permitted,, to spill
out onto the conveyor belt floor. The conveyor belt is then activated and the
accumulated materials are moved to the aperture in the second floor halll and
allowed to drop into the hopper for the baling machine located on the fi?rst floor
of the structure.
Other processing operations are typically conducted on the second floor
of the structure as well. One of these operations is cutting bindings from
books and other publications with a guillotine cutter since these bindings often
contain unrecycleable adhesives. Another is sawing cores of paper rolls- to
remove the valuable remaining yards of paper which remain on such rolls.. The
first floor of the structure, in addition to serving as the site for the;1 baling
machine, is also used to house the necessary outgoing shipment activities or
administrative offices.
Horizontal Processing, the typical horizontal paperstock processing
facility is a large one-story structure, which, in a warm climate such as in
Florida, may have one or more open- walls. The facility may even be an extension
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60
of uncovered yard areas in which some basic sorting and storage activities are
conducted.
The designation "horizontal" in this sense does not necessarily apply
to the type of baling practiced in a particular plant. Like a vertical
operation, a horizontal operation may include the use of both vertical and
horizontal baling equipment. The key characteristic of the horizontal paperstock
processing operation is the fact that materials are moved by carts or conveyors
horizontally through the plant rather than by the use of gravity and elevators
as in a vertical processing operation.
In a typical horizontal operation, incoming deliveries of bales, bags,
or carts of wastepaper are received at the extreme end of the facility.
Appropriate amounts of wastepaper are then assigned to individual workers,
operating independently who break the bands and proceed to paw through the
resulting pile, pulling out undesirable material to be rejected. Both the
rejects and the components of desired paperstock grades are then placed in
rolling carts. The carts containing the desired wastepaper are then moved
along with carts collected from other workers to the baling operations. The
carts containing the rejected materials may be set aside for further sorting or
stored for subsequent baling, with other materials collected, as lower grades of
paperstock. The filled carts removed from the sorting areas are quickly replaced
with empty carts so that sorting operations may continue without interruption.
It is difficult to determine which of the two operations -- vertical
or horizontal -- is the most economically desirable in the long iun. A number
of factors dictate the selection of the type of operation under different
circumstances. Obviously, a horizontal operation calls for a greater use of
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61
land and may be entirely practical where land is both available and cheap and
relatively clcse to bpth wastepaper generators and paperstock users. In
* -
congested metropolitan areas, the vertical type operation is the only practical
answer. Some operators of old vertical facilities periodically conside-r the
merits of abandoning present facilities and constructing new horizontal facilities
in outlying areas. However, for the most part, it is difficult in the ceyes of
these operators to justify the necessary investment required for such moves.
Combination Operations. The preceding discussions of vertical and
horizontal sorting or processing operations focus, for the most part, on the
sorting of high grade deinking paperstock and high grade pulp substitutes for
which quality standards are most high. Many paperstock dealer/processors operate
both vertical and horizontal facilities but handle the bulk or lowest value
grades (news, mixed, old corrugated) on a strictly horizontal basis. Clearly,
the need for careful hand sorting of these grades of paperstock is not as critical
as it is for the high grades. Yet, it is urgent that certain types of ^contaminants
be removed before even the cheapest grades of paperstock can be marketed.
One interesting example of a decontamination procedure of th;is type
is that conducted by a large wastepaper collector whose trucks carry much of
downtown Manhattan's office trash to the company's processing plant in Jersey
City, New Jersey.* Here, sorting is important and the company shreds and bales
wastepaper for reuse by manufacturers of roofing shingles, tar paper, chip
board, etc. Pieces of metal would damage the shredder, a,key component of the
plant. Hand sorting proved slow and costly.
* Waste Trade Journal, October 31, 1970, p 9.
38'
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62
The company installed a 72-inch wide self-cleaning magnetic device
to separate tramp iron from the mixed paper. About 75 percent of the weight
of the metal removed by the magnet is made up of soft drink cans,. Paper clips
baling wire — even an occasional piece of angle iron -- and other miscellaneous
scrap are among the remaining 25 percent.
The magnet is mounted about 27 inches above a conveyor that feeds the
shredder. The conveyor is one of three that carries wastepaper from the trash
truck to the baler. By the time the waste reaches the magnet, its depth has
been reduced from 5 feet to about 2 feet. About 700 pounds per minute --
70 cubic feet -- ride under the magnet. A day's load averages 300 tons and the
plant operates 6 days a week.
Shredding and Hogging
The point has already been made in preceding sections of this report
that in order to transport paperstock most economically, the commodity must be
as tightly packed as possible. Shredding or hogging of paperstock is the means
most often employed to achieve this objective. The functions may be accomplished
at either the generator or processor level. The equipment involved, however, is
costly both to buy and to maintain so investments can only be justified on the
basis of economies in shipment or increased revenues. Some large generators
such as paper converting plants and retail organizations have already installed
such equipment but most of it is found at the dealer/processor level.
Shredding and hogging equipment may be used in conjunction «rith both low grad
and high grades of paperstock. A facility described earlier is used entirely for low
39"
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63
, grades -- corrugated and news. Similar facilities, however, at other processing
plants are used alternately for both low grades and high grades.
In at least .one plant, an air conveyor system and the equipment 'served by it are
compactly housed in a new one-story 12,000 square foot 'structure separated from the
original three-floor-building which, by comparison has about '110,'000 square
feet of operating space. An additional 5,000 square feet concrete slab 'provides
. x ' • *
a stock receiving stir face for the new facility, incoming low-grades'are'^riibved
by front end loader to either of two Mayfran conveyors —"a'72 inch'by:45 foot
unit feeding old corrugated and scrap rolls to the hbgger,fand a SO'inch'-'by
30 foot unit for materials hot to be hogged, such as news" 'and*ledger,'"which
go directly to the fan.
One effect of this distinction is to improve efficiency of the" baler,
by approximately equalizing the density of hogged corrugated and of fah*;;shredded
news. Thus, hogged corrugated'weighs about 2 pounds"per'cubic 'footAwhile
hogged. news is reduced to only about a half pound. Howe'ver,"-''!'fari''sh"5rei'd'(i'ed!"ln'ews
remains at about 1-1/2 pounds. Since the baler is a fixed!;'!'sfcfr6ked:':machi;'ne at
fixed time per stroke, it follows that the greater the density''of"ma'vteri'al
received, the fewer strokes, and less time required to compact* it1 •^•ntovi>ales.
For specific figures, in this case, it is found that" if 'the";Americarit''Baier
Company, Model No. 12849 unit 'requires, say, 20 stroUes'''tb'*;p>roaace.>i
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64
Heavier materials must still be hogged. The equipment at Buffalo is
a Logemann No. 4872-CF heavy duty unit with 72 inch infeed throat and 2000
horse power drive. This power, and a 48 inch hammer swing, provide for all
contingencies of breaking up such heavy materials as butt rolls at a constant
production rate.
Baling of Wastepaper and Paperstock
Like shredding and hogging equipment, wastepaper baling equipment is
used at both the generator and processor levels. However, there is a much
greater usage of baling equipment than hogging and shredding equipment at the
generator level.
In general, there are two basic forms of baling equipment -- the vertical
stroke type baler and the horizontal type baler. Both have their advantages and
are preferred by some users. More details on the characteristics of and trends
in preferences for different types of baling equipment are included in the general
report in this series. In general, however, it may be noted that the larger
and the more complex a particular piece of baling equipment is, the greater
is the demand upon the user to have employees knowledgeable in the basics of
hydraulics and the greater the need to provide the necessary maintenance.
The range of costs and capabilities in baling equipment is quite wide.
A relatively small and uncomplicated unit for use by a small generator of waste-
paper might cost as little as $1,000. On the other hand, a large and sophisti-
cated piece of equipment such as that used in a modern paperstock packing plant
might cost as much as a quarter of a million dollars.
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65
Reportedly, the highest density paperstock baler used in the United
States was installed at the Gardena California plant of Pioneer Paperstock'
Company, Division of Container Corporation of America (MARCOR). This baler,
popularly known as "the monster" was built by Logemann for Pioneer at a cost of
about $100,000 15 years ago. While it is said to be unlikely that this piece of
equipment would ever be duplicated, the estimated present cost, today, would be
in the range of $300,000 to $400,000.
The "monster" at one time baled paperstock to a density of 48ito 49
pounds per cubic foot. Baling to this degree of compaction called for 1-1/4
inch strapping since using any narrower width of strapping might, hazardously,
result in broken bales. Baling is now at a density of about 30 to 35 pounds
per cubic foot on this particular piece of equipment.
This degree of compaction, however, is still well above the average in
the industry. High density bales are generally packed to average about 25
pounds per cubic foot and the more typical pack is in the range of 17 to 18
pounds per cubic foot.*
Characteristics of Dealer/Processors
The set of nine statistical tables following represents the results
of the tabulations of industry responses to the extensive survey questionnaires
employed in the industry census conducted by NASMI during the summer of 1970.
Overall census results are included in the general report in this series and
data on characteristics of respondents concerned with other commodities are
included in the other commodity reports.
* The Future of Secondary Fibers in Paper Mills, 0. T. Reeves, Container
Corporation of America, American Paper Industry magazine, May, 1970.
102
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66
The paper section of the questionnaire employed was somewhat more
detailed than sections dealing with other commodities. Consequently, more
data are presented on characteristics of processors and dealers concerned with
paper than those concerned with other commodities. Further, potentially more
data can be made available through cross tabulation of results.
A total of 173 census respondents confirmed that they do handle
wastepaper in some form. Table 7 shows that 96 of the respondents, or 55 percent
of the total number handling wastepaper, reported obtaining at least some of
their wastepaper from manufacturing, converting, and printing plants, etc.
Forty-seven respondents, or 27 percent of the total number, reported obtaining
over half of their wastepaper from manufacturing, converting, and printing plants.
Eighty-three of the respondents, or 48 percent of all of the respondents
handling paper, reported obtaining at least some of their paper from collector/
dealer sources. Nineteen respondents, or 11 percent of the total, reported
obtaining over half of their wastepaper from collector/dealer sources. The
number of respondents who reported obtaining wastepaper from other sources is
also shown in Table 7.
Table 8 shows that of the 76 respondents obtaining some of their
wastepaper from organizational and institutional sources including paper
drives, about 24 percent of these respondents obtained over half of their
wastepaper from such sources. Of 24 respondents obtaining some portion of
their wastepaper from municipal wastes, about 25 percent obtained over half
of their wastepaper from municipal waste sources.
Table 9 shows that of 109 survey respondents, about 11 percent purchased
200,000 tons or more of wastepaper and paperstock in 1969 including paper handled
only on a brokerage or agent basis and accounted for an estimated 50 percent of the
total purchases
-------
TABLE 7. DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS PURCHASING WASTE PAPER
FROM VARIOUS SOURCES(a)
Source
Number of Respondents Obtaining
Following Proportions of Waste Pamper
Purchases from Indicated Source's
1-25 26-50 51-75 75+
Percent Percent Percent Perce'nt
Total
Industrial and commercial sources
Manufacturing, converting, and
Printing plants, etc.
Office buildings
34 15 17 30
34 1 00
96
35
Supermarkets, Department stores,
and other retail outlets
44
55
Colleetor/dearer sources
42
22-
15
83
Over-the-scale sources (including
Institutions, where applicable)
42
13
66
Other
Total number of respondents
173
(a) Requested information: "Indicate the approximate percentage of waste paper
your company purchased from each of the following sources in 1969 (whether
or-not the paper was physically handled through your plant or plants)."
Source: Extensive Survey of Paperstock Industry and Other Secondary Materials
Industries, conducted by NASMI, 1970.
104
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68
TABLE 8. DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS PURCHASING WASTE PAPER FROM
ORGANIZATIONAL AND INSTITUTIONAL SOURCES INCLUDING PAPER
DRIVES AND FROM MUNICIPAL WASTE SOURCES (a)
Source
Number of Respondents Obtaining
Following Proportions of Waste Paper
Purchases From Indicated Sources
1-25 26-50 51-75 75+
Percent Percent Percent Percent
Total
Organizational and institutional
sources including paper drives
51
13
76
Municipal waste
14
24
Total number of respondents
173
(a) Requested information: "Estimate the percentage of the above waste paper that
came from the following."
Source: Extensive Survey of Paperstock Industry and Other Secondary Materials
Industries, conducted by NASMI, 1970.
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TABLE 9. DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS BY THE TOTAL TONNAGE OF WASTE PAPER AND PAPERSTOCK
PURCHASED IN 1969 (INCLUDING PAPER HANDLED ON BROKERAGE OR AGENT BASIS—-
WHETHER OR NOT IT PHYSICALLY MOVED THROUGH PLANTS) BY RESPONDENTS; ESTIMATED..
PURCHASES OF RESPONDENTS IN EACH SIZE CATEGORY
Size Category
(Range of Tonnage)
0 - 25,000
net tons
25,000 - 50,000
50,000 - 75,000
75,000 -100,000
100,000 -125,000
125,000 -150,000
150,000 -175,000
175,000 -200,000
200,000 and over
TOTAL
Number of
Respondents'3'
30
31
16
8
7
2
2
1
12
109
Sources: (a) Extensive Survey of Paper
Estimated Purchases of
All Respondents in Size Category
tons(b>
375,000
^ —
1,162,000
1,000,000
700,000
788,000
275,000
325,000
188,000
4,700,000
9,513,000
stock Industry and Other Secondary
Share of Total Estimated Purchases
, Handled by Respondents in Size Category,
percent 'c'
. A
•
12
11
7
8
3
3
2
50
100
Materials Industries, conducted by
NASMI, 1970.
(b) Estimated by assuming that the midpoint of each size category represents average tonnage purchased
by all respondents in the size category; tonnage for 200,000 and over category estimated based on
information from Meld calls, et-e. (Some double counting of tonnages may ex-i-st in -these estimates
because of wastepaper and paperstock that passed through more than one dealer or processor in its
route from generator to user.)
(c) Calculated using estimates indicated in (b).
106
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70
if the same wastepaper or paperstock passes through more than one dealer or
processor in moving from generator to user.
Table 10 combines survey responses and estimates from Table 9 to estimate
tonnage physically handled by the respondents. On the basis of this information, it
is estimated that about 45 percent of the total purchases by respondents is physically
handled through their plants.
Table 11 shows that of 91 respondents, about 28 percent could have
physically handled no more than 10,000 tons of paperstock through their plants
in 1969 with the facilities they had at that time, while another 28 percent
could have handled over 50,000 tons of paperstock.
Table 12 shows that of 99 survey respondents, only about 18 percent
operated their plants less than 41 hours per week in 1969 and more than 42
percent operated their plants in excess of 45 hours per week in 1969.
Three additional tables provided are based either on a cross-tabula-
tion of survey statistics from the paper section of the census form or upon
basic data in the general portion of the census form.
Table 13 shows the average or arithmetic mean tonnage of wastepaper
and paperstock purchased by census respondents in each of the 9 geographical
census regions. For example, the average purchases of 35 respondents in the
East North Central region in 1969 was 67,500 tons of wastepaper and paperstock.
Tables 14 and 15, respectively, show the ranges of total value of
plant and equipment for handling all secondary materials and 1969 gross sales
of all secondary materials for those survey respondents who confirmed that they
handled paper.
-------
TABLE 10. AVERAGE PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL PURCHASES PHYSICALLY HANDLED
AND ESTIMATED TONNAGE PHYSICALLY HANDLED BY RESPONDENTS"
IN EACH SIZE CATEGORY
Size
(Range
0 - 25,000
25,000 -
50,000 -
75,000 -
100,000 -
125,»QQP -
150 ,.000 -
175,0.00 -
200,000 and
Total
Category
of Tonnage)
net tons
50,000
75 ,000
100,000
125,000
150,000
.175,000
200,000
over
Number of Respondents^3'
30
31
16
8
7
2
2
1
12
109
Average Percentage of
Total Purchase_s Physically
Handled Through Plants by
Respondents in Size Cate-
gory^)
73
53
52
64
49
.10
35
25
42
,46
Estimated Purchases
Physically Handled
Through Plants by All
Respondents in Size
Category, tons'c'
275,000
615,000
513,000
449 , 000
384,000
;28,000
114,000
47,000
1.960,000
4,;385,000
Sources:
(a) Table 9.
i(b) Calculated .from responses to-Extensive Survey of Paperstock Industry and Other Secondary Materials
Industries , conducted by NASMI, 1970, giving equal weight to each respondent in the size category.
The 46 percent figure for all respondents'was calculated -using total estimated purchases and 'tota"!
' estimated purchases physically handled by all respondents.
(c) Calculated by applying average percentage of purchases physically handled to the total estimated purchases
•(from Table 9) for each size category. (Some double counting of tonnages may exist in these figures
because of wastepaper and paperstock that passed through more than one dealer or processor in its route
from generator to user.)
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72
TABLE 11. DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS BY THE MAXIMUM TONNAGE OF
PAPERSTOCK THEY COULD HAVE PHYSICALLY HANDLED THROUGH
THEIR PLANTS IN 1969 WITH THE FACILITIES THEY HAD AT
THAT TIME.
Range of Tonnage
0 - 6,000 net tons
6,000 - 10,000
10,000 j 15,000
15,000 - 20,000
20,000 - 25,000
25,000 - 35,000
35,000 - 50,000
Over 50,000
Total
Number of Respondents
21
4
6
6
9
9
11
25
91
i
Percent of Total
- i
23.1
n4.4
v6.6
6.6
9.9
9.9
12.1
27.5
100.0
Source: Extensive Survey of Paperstbck Industry and Other Secondary Materials
Industries, conducted by NASMI, 1970.
109
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73
TABLE 12. DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS BY NUMBER OF HOURS PER WEEK
THEY OPERATED THEIR PLANTS ON THE AVERAGE IN 1969.
Range of Number of
Hours Per Week
Plants Were Operated Number of Respondents Percent of 'Total
Less than 35 3 3.0
36 to 40 15 15.2
41 to 45
Over 45
Total
38
42
99
38
42
100
.4
.4
.0
«
i
Source: Extensive Survey of Paperstock Industry and Other Secondary Materials
Industries, conducted by NASMI, 1970.
•4! •' .A
-iX -U.. . f
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74
TABLE 13. ARITHMETIC MEAN TONNAGE OF WASTE PAPER AND PAPERSTOCK
PURCHASED BY RESPONDENTS IN VARIOUS GEOGRAPHIC REGIONS
Region in Which Business
Was Conducted
Mean Quantity
Number of Respondents Per Respondent, tons
New England
10
50,000.0
Middle Atlantic
27
71,759.3
South Atlantic
13
45,192.3
East North Central
35
67,500.0
East South Central
West North Central
West South Central
Mountain
Pacific
Outside United States
5
5
4
1
11
0
57,500.0
87,500.0
50,000.0
112,500.0
92,045.5
0.0
Source: Extensive Survey of Paperstock Industry and Other Secondary Materials
Industries, conducted by NASMI, 1970.
>J .•" ,3
-k.JL..I_
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75
TABLE 14. DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS BASED ON TOTAL VALUE OF
PLANT AND EQUIPMENT FOR HANDLING ALL SECONDARY MATERIALS,
Total Value
of Plants and
Equipment Handling Paper
(thousand dollars)
Percent of
Number of Respondents Total Respondents
1 - 250
42
34.1
251 - 500
29
23.6
501 - 1000
25
20.3
1001 - 2000
2001 - 7000
15
10
12.2
8.1
7001 - 10,000
0.8
More than 10,000
0.8
Total handling paper
123
100.0
Source: Extensive Survey of Paperstock Industry and Other Secondary Materials
Industries, conducted by NASMI, 1970.
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76
TABLE 15. DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS BASED ON 1969 GROSS SALES OF
ALL SECONDARY MATERIALS HANDLED.
Total 1969 Gross
Sales by Millions of Dollars
Under 1
1-3
3 - 5
5-8
8-12
12 - 20
20 - 30
30 - 50
Over 50
Total handling paper
Number of Respondents
36
59
21
12
12
5
3
3
0
151
Percent of
Total Respondents
23.8
39.1
13.9
7.9
7.9
3.3
2.0
2.0
0.0
100.0
Source: Extensive Survey of Paperstock Industry and Other Secondary Meterials
Industries, conducted by NASMI, 1970.
11.3
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77
USES AND MARKETS FOR
PAPERSTOCK AND WOOD PULP
As background for this section, Tables 16 and 17 show trends for the
past decade in paperstpck movement and stocks and in paperstock consumption
compared with consumption of other fibrous materials in paper and paperboard
productions.
Any discussion of markets for paperstock and wood pulp and the
competition between these two commodities in these markets is complicated by
the fact that there are so many different grades of paperstock. Some of these
are substitutable for wood pulp in certain applications and some are not.
Further, there are some end uses for paperstock in which it would be completely
uneconomic to use wood pulp as substitutes. Perhaps the most defensible generali-
zation which can be made is that paperstock, for the most part, is employed as
a raw material in the production of bending boxboard, while wood pulp is used
as a raw material principally for paper and other categories of paperboard.
Tables 18 and 19 identify known end uses for paperstock and trends in paperstock
consumption.
In the following sections of this report, the various categories of
paper and paperboard in which paperstock and wood pulp are used at the present
time are defined and discussed. The problems and constraints which have, thus
far, tended to limit the use of paperstock to the production of certain categories
of paper and paperboard are reviewed in a succeeding section in this report.
Paperboard
By definition, paperboard is one of the two broad subdivisions of the
paper industry, the other being paper. Paperboard and paper differ in weight,
114
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TABLE 16. TRENDS IN PAPERSTOCK MOVEMENTS AND STOCKS (Short tons)
Year
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
Mill
Inventories
9,267,000
8,965,000
9,027,000
9,076,000
9,640,000
9,490,000
9,907,000
10,712,000
9,944,000
10,362,000
10,478,000
Mill
Consumption
9,414,000
9,021,000
9,018,000
9,075,000
9,551,000
9,493,000
9,935,000
10,541,000
9,888,000
10,286,000
10,446,000.
Inventory
617,000
561,000
570,000
571,000
598,000
596,000
568,000
674,000
826,000
583,000
608,000
Imports
72,500
67,500
62,500
66,600
55,187
78,446
98,075
117,000
145,268
107,578
93,099
Exports
127,700
153,200
215,200
209,500
229,641
250,536
265,763
245,000
239,167
242,688
288,819
OO
Source: Paperboard Packaging magazine, August, 1970, p. 50 (Based on Bureau of Census Reports).
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TABLE 17. TRENDS IN PAPERSTOCK CONSUMPTION COMPARED WITH CONSUMPTION
OF TOTAL FIBROUS MATERIALS IN PAPER AND PAPERBOARD PRODUCTION
(Thousands of Short Tons)
Year
1959
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
Woodpulp
25,189
30,220
32,031
34,143
36,649
36,015
40,813
43,400
Paper stock
9,414,
9,551
9,493
9,935
10,451
9,888
10,286
. 10,446
Other Materials
979
1,285
954
1,003
1,054
914
907
894
Total
35,582
41,056
42,478
45,077
47,664
46,683
52,006
54,740
Paperstock
Percentage of Total
26.4
23.2
22.3
22.0
21.3
20.9
19.7
19.0
• ; •' --...' . • - - : . _ - .
Source: Paperboard Packaging magazine, August, 1970, p. 51 (Based of Bureau of Census Reports).
1J6
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TABLE 18. U. S. CONSUMPTION OF PAPERSTOCK BY KNOWN END USES BY
CATEGORIES OR GRADES - 1969 (Thousands of short tons)
End -Use
Category
or Grade Paperboard
Mixed paper 1,835
Old corrugated 3,468
News 1,455
High grades 1,291
Total 8,049
Percent of
Total 70.5
Construction
Paper and Board
Including News Fine
Gypsum Wallboard Print Paper Total Percent of Total
1,000 2,835 24.8
400 - 3,868 33.9
600 360 --- .2,415 21.1
1,000 2,291 20.2
2,000 360 1,000 11,409
17.5 3.2 8.8 --- 100.0
00
o
Source: Unpublished estimates from Paperstock Conservation Committee, American Paper Institute.
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TABLE 19. TRENDS IN. CONSUMPTION OF PAPERSTOCK BY KNOWN END-USES,
(Thousands of short tons)
Paperboard
Including Wet
Year Machine Quant i-tj
1963 7544.6
1964 7499.4
1965 7523.0
1966 7690.0
1967 7821.5
1968 8009.8
1969 8009.5
Paper Construction
Percent Including Percent Paper and Percent Pulp Percent
of Newsprint of Paperboard * of Mills of Total .
r. Total Quantity 'Total •-•Quantity Total: Quantity 'Total- -• Quantity Percent
78 1198.0 13 842.7 9 27.5 — 9612.8 100
79 1177.1 13 787.4 8 29.1 --- 9493.0 100
76 1498.3 15 814.0 8 n.a. --- 9935.3 100
76 1534.4 15 934.6 9 n.a. •— . 10,159.0 100
77 1403.7 14 870.1 9 29.7 --- 10,125.0 100
77 1429.9 14 891.2 9 31.1 10,362.0 100
77 1445.9 14 901.2 9 31.4 — - 10,478.0 100
. • . . •„ . .
Source: Census of Manufagfurgs. §££9B£44ialtions bv Paperboard Packaging magazine, August, 1.9,7,0, p. 50.
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82
, and rigidity. Paperboard is generally at least ...12 inch thick
1. heavier and .ore rigid than paper. There are, however, some exceptions
. this ruU. Blotting paper, felts, and drawing paper in excess of 12 points*
re classified as paper while corrugating medium, chip board and liner board
ess than 12 points, are classified as paperboard. The general public tends to
,mplov the ten. "cardboard" as the designation for paperboard or any fibrous
.terial stiffer and heavier Chan paper, but this is a misnomer since cardboard,
,ithin the industry, actually is a particular grade of paperboard.
The major categories of paperboard are designated as Containerboard
ana boxboard. The former includes those grades principally used in the manu-
facture of corrugated shipping containers (also called corrugated boxes, while
ents the grades used for fabricating folding or setup boxes.
the latter represents tne graueo
i , f«r these end products of paperboard is somewhat confusing and
The nomenclature for these ena v
tends to vary geographically and even within companies in the industry. It has
been recorded but not generally accepted that the te™ "box" should be used
exclusively to designate solid fiber or corrugated shipping containers while the
aesignation "carton" should be appHed to the interior package, co^only used
to. enclose soap Po»der, cereals, cigarettes, and similar products.
Containerboard
Containerboard is by far the largest category of paperboard. Table 20
Shows that in 1969 Containerboard accounted for approximately 68 percent of total
„ s paperboard production. As a general class of material, Containerboard
nay be either ..11* fiber or corrugated combined board used in the manufacture
* Thousandths of an inch.
-fl f, <
L...''. •-
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83
TABLE 20. COMBINATION PAPERBOARD AND SOLID WOODPULP BOARD
PRODUCTION BY TYPE (Thousands of tons)
Type
Containerboard Type
Combination
Solid
Boxboard Type
Combination
Solid
To'tal Paperboard
Combination
Solid
1969
Tonnage
17,829
2,567
15,262
8,548
4,755
3,793
26,378
7,323
19,055
Percent of Total
Paperboard Production
67.6
9.7
57.9
32.4
18.0
14.4
100.0
27.8
72.2
Percent of Sub-Total
100.0
14.5
85.5
100.0
55.5
44.5
Source: Paperboard Industry Statistics - 1969, American Paper Institute,
Paperboard Group, p. 9.
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84
of shipping containers. Corrugated combined board consists of two layers
of linerboard with a fluted sheet of corrugating medium glued in between. The
designation also includes minimal amounts of chip and filler board used to
increase bulk and rigidity.
At the present time, relatively little paperstock is used in the
production of containerboard. More than 85 percent of the total containerboard
produced in 1969 was designated as "solid", (in a different sense than "solid"
as contrasted to corrugated board) because it contained less than 15 percent
of secondary fibers. The relatively small amount of paperstock used as raw
material in the production of containerboard was used almost entirely in the,
.-•''•-••'-'• • i •.' •' i • ' . ' " '
corrugating medium and chip and filler components of containerboard and to ar
insignificant degree in liner board.
The general grade of paperstock used in the production of container-
board is designated as "corrugated" and consists of old corrugated shipping
containers recovered from industrial generators and corrugated clippings
generated in corrugated box plants. The paperstock is mechanically disintegrated
in water to provide a pulp suspension. The stock is further processed to
remove foreign materials but: is not deinked. Various efforts have been made
to promote the use of greater quantities of paperstock in containerboard, and,
in view of present pressures and interests in solid waste utilization, these
efforts undoubtedly could be increased in the future. The Herty Foundation
has developed samples of containerboards, containing as much as 50 percent of
reclaimed fiber from old corrugated containers, with structural and appearance
properties almost indistinguishable from those of 100 percent virgin kraft pulp.
•"(' •'.-'•"-8
-A. .*»• .*_
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85
Recently, Crown Zellerbach Corporation established a new secondary
fiber system at Antioch, California, constructed adjacent to Crown's existing
paper mill and converting operation and equipped to supply 200 tons a day of
secondary fiber pulp primarily from reclaimed corrugated boxes, for remanufacture
into liner board.* All systems, including pulping, cleaning, pumping, and
i
purification are designed to be expanded to 300 tons per day with minimum modifi-
cation of the basic plant.
Among the major producers of containerboard in the United States
are such firms as International Paper Company, St. Regis, Container Corporation
(MARCOR), Continental Can Company and Westvaco. All of these firms, in addition
to other producers of containerboard, have vast forest holdings. Their pulp
mills are located close to both their forest resources and their paperboard
mills in southeastern and northwestern United States. This is apparent in
Table 22. The virgin wood pulp is moved directly from the adjacent pulp
mills to the high-speed and efficient fourdrinier machines in the board mills
which produce the bulk of containerboard consumed. Then, the containerboard is shipped
in roll form to converting plants for fabrication into either solid fiber or
corrugated shipping containers. Containerboard, of course, is available in
a variety of weights or "tests" to fit the specifications for the end products.
Boxboard
Boxboard is the other general category of paperboard'. As Table 20
shows, boxboard accounted for approximately 32 percent of total U. S. paperboard
production in 1969. The three general classifications of boxboard are folding
* Pulp and Paper magazine, December, 1970, p 112.
•f ••">••
.j». ,«V
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86
boxboard, set-up boxboard, and that used for milk cartons and food service.
More than half of the total boxboard produced in 1969 is classified as
combination type or made primarily from paperstock. The remainder is categorized
as "solid" or produced from virgin wood pulp.
Table 21 shows that: of the three categories of boxboard, folding
boxboard accounts for the bulk of the paperstock consumed. Only negligible
amounts of paperstock are employed in the production of food service grades.
Set-up boxboard production is relatively small, accounting for only about
2 percent of total paperboard production in 1969. Yet all set-up boxboard
produced is classified as combination board made from paperstock.
The grades of boxboard used in the fabrication of milk cartons, frozen
food containers and the like are all produced entirely from virgin sulphate pulps
and are made on the fourdrinier machine.
Folding boxboard, produced from paperstock, is, for the most part,
made on the cylinder board machine. The board is produced in layers or plies
of varying composition. For example, the top ply or liner, which becomes the
outer or printed surface of the folding carton, is most often a layer of the
highest quality material. The bottom liner, which becomes the inside of the
folding carton, may be a less expensive grade and also may have any of several
functional properties. Finally, the filler or center sections are usually
reworked fibers.
In the cylinder board manufacturing process, prepared pulp, looking
like lumpy oatmeal, is pumped into vats where formulation of the boxboard
takes place as a cylinder of fine wire mesh rotates and picks up the fibers
and transfers them to a moving flat felt belt, thus forming a continuous web
-fi •;!•••,
-X/V..-.J
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TABLE 21. PAPERBOARD PRODUCTION BY TYPE AND GRADE
. - _ - - --
CONTAINERBOARD - DOMESTIC USE
Llnerboard
Combination
Solid
Corrugating materials
Combination
Solid
Chip and filler
Combination
Solid
BOXBOARD - DOMESTIC USE
Folding
Combination
Solid
Set-up
Combination'
Solid
Milkcarton & food service
Combination
Solid
ALL OTHER (including export)
Containerboard
Combination
Solid
1969 Tonnage
14,397
9,699
347
9,352
4,393
777
3,615
305
280
25
6,424
4,262
2,629
1,633
497
497
1,665
40
1,624
5,557
3,432
1.-162
2,269
Percent of Total Paperboard
54.6
36.8
1.3
35.5
16.7
2.9
13.8
1.1
1.1
24.4
16.2
10.0
6.2
1.9.
1.9
6.3
0.1
6.2
21.0
13.0
4.4
8.6
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TABLE 21. PAPERBOARD PRODUCTION BY TYPE AND GRADE (Continued)
1969 Tonnage
Percent of Total Paperboard
Boxboard
Combination
Solid
TOTAL PAPERBOARD
2,125
1,589
536
26,378
8.0
6.0
2.0
100.0
Source: Paperboard Industry Statistics - 1969, American Paper Institute,
Paperboard Group, p. 10-11.
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89
of paper-board as it c.omes off the machine. The cylinder machine can produce
board with as many different layers as there are cylinders, perhaps 5 ,to :8 in
.1 '"''-•. •"••••'
'
number.
After enough water has been extracted from the web so that it can
support itself, it travels through a series of steam-heated drying .rolls and
the layers are combined by pressure. The pulp, which started into the machine
as 95 percent water, emerges as boxboard with a moisture content of about
5 percent. . ,
The types of folding boxboard most commonly used for making folding
cartons are discussed below in approximately ascending value order alo,ng with
other pertinent information.*
Chip Boards. This classification includes semi-bending chip, bendinj
chip and news vat lined chip. These grades are used for the lower grades of
' t
folding cartons, gift boxes and general purposes.
Manila and Mist Boards. This classification of boxboards includes
those used largely for making suit boxes such as are supplied in department
stores for packaging and wearing apparel, and for other forms of folding
cartons in which good bending qualities and a surface well adapted to printing
in fancy colored designs are essential properties.
Patent Coated Board. Boxboard used far better grades of folding
boxes is patent coated on one or both sides and made in many combinations, such
as patent coated manila, patent coated newsboard, patent coated news, .center
manila back, etc. Each of these grades has its place in the folding- box trade
where cost, quality or appearance may dictate the grade.
* The Folding Carton, Paperboard Packaging Council, Washington, I). C., 1969.
126
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90
Clay Coated Board. This Is a high grade folding boxboard, coated with
\
clay (by air knife, brush, machine, etc.) used in the manufacture of folding
boxes. Distinguishing features are brightness of color, excellence of printing
surface and permanence of color and brightness.
Cast Coated Board. This high grade folding boxboard has an exceptionally
high gloss finish which is obtained by drying the coating of the web of board by
applying it to a highly polished surface.
Laminated Board. Laminated board is made by combining two or more
similar or dissimilar sheets by use of adhesives such as starch, resin, asphalt
or other binder. Parchment paper to paperboard; glassine paper to boxboard;
colored or patterned paper to boxboard; foil to boxboard; etc.
Solid Bleached Sulphate Board. This board is made entirely of virgin
sulphate pulps and when suitably treated may be used for liquid, moist or
oily foods; usually made on a fourdrinier machine, and frequently machine-clay
coated.
Kraft (natural or bogus) Boards. Sulphate or kraft board, brown
colored throughout, is used generally as a packaging medium for automotive parts,
bolts, nuts, hardware, etc., where strength is required but eye appeal is not
necessary. Bogus kraft is an adulterated board colored brown to look like
kraft usually with an extra strength or kraft-like finish.
Virtually all of the grades of paperstock marketed are used in the
production of folding boxboard. The designations for some of the grades of
folding boxboard enumerated above, it may be noted, are derived from ths types
of paperstock employed. For example, news vat line chipped is a combination of
chip news lined on one or both sides. Typically, the bulk grades of paperstock,
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91
mixed, news, and old corrugated are used in the furnish for the bottom liner
or the center for cylinder board. The high grades are used for the top ply
or liner which becomes the outer printed surface of the box.
As Tables 22 and 23 show, most of the producers of boxboard made from
paperstock are located in the northeast and north-central states relatively close
to generators of wastepaper. Among the major producers of cylinder board made
from paperstock are such firms as Container Corporation, Continental Can,
Hoerner Waldorf, Whippany Paperboard, and Federal Paperboard Company, Inc.,
Producers of solid bleached sulphate board, the competing board made entirely
of virgin sulphate pulps and produced on the fourdrinier machine are principally
located in the southeast and northwest.
Other Paperboard
Paperstock is .also utilized in the production of paperboard grades
other than containerboard and boxboard. Among these are grades used for such
end products as fiber cans, drums, tubes, cores, binder boards used in binding
books, and shoe board used for shoe reinforcement and such parts as counters and
innersoles. Other grades are used for coasters, electrical pressboard and
trunk fiberboard. Finally, paperstock is used in the production of building
or construction grades of paperboard such as those used as the outer liner
for gypsum board.
For these end uses, the cheaper or bulk grades of paperstock are
mainly used. In the production of roofing paper which might be included in the
construction grades category, mixed papers and old corrugated are used to a
substantial degree. While roofing paper is a highly utilitarian and unaesthetic
-------
TABLE 22. PAPERBOARD PRODUCTION CAPACITY BY REGION AND TYPE - 1969
Region
Northeast
North Central
Southern
Pacific
Total
Combination Paperboard : Solid Paperboard
Capacity, thousands of tons Percent of Total Capacity, thousands of tons Percent of Total
3,059 36.6 286 1.5
2,968 35.5 1,585 8.2
1,393 16.6 14,204 74.0
946 11.3 3,123 16.3
8,366 100.0 19,198 100.0
Source: Paperboard Industry Statistics - 1969, American Paper Institute, Paperboard Group, p. 4.
-•it ";>Q
,f— ."•-» \y
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TABLE 23. PAPERSTOCK CONSUMPTION BY REGION - 1963
Region
Northeast
North Central
South
West
Total
Percent of
total
Consumption
Paper
Mills
.431
629
30
47
1,137
12.1
by Indicated
Paperboard
Mills
2,782
2,887
1,144
731
7,544
80.1
Users, thousands of tons
Bldg. Paper
and Board Mills. Total
230 3,443
219 3,735
211 1,385
79 857
739 9,420
7.8 100.0
Regional
Consumption As a
Percent of Total
, /. • • \ •. .. •
36.5
39.7
14-7
9.1
— • — .
100. 0
U>
Source: Unpublished data, Bureau of the Census, U. S. Department of Commerce, 1963.
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94
product, the raw materials which go into its production must still meet
specific standards. Even though roofing paper, eventually saturated, is made
from low grade paperstock, the presense of spots caused by contaminants in
the web can reduce the value of a particular run of roofing paper or make it
unsaleable. The spots can eventually become weak spots in the paper and result
in a leaky roof. Further, these weak spots can cause costly and time consuming
breaks in the paper web when it is being run on the paper machine.
Paper
The general category of paper represents the second of the two broad
subdivisions of the paper industry, the other being paperboard. Compared with
paperboard, the paper subdivision presently is a relatively small consumer of
paperstock. In 1969, the paper subdivision, excluding construction papers,
accounted for only 12 percent of paperstock consumed. (See Table 18).
Except for the old news consumed by news print deinking mills, all of
the paperstock consumed by the paper subdivision is either high grade deinking
paperstock or high grade pulp substitutes.
Newsprint ,
Newsprint is a low cost non-durable, light-weight paper made principally
from mechanical pulps. Most newsprint is consumed in newspapers,! although
amounts are also used in such products as hand bills, shopping news, comic
books, etc. Ground wood pulp, the principal furnish for newsprint, has a high
lignin content which causes yellowing. Blue dyes are added to counteract the
yellowing and give newsprint its grayish cast.
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95
More than 75 percent of the domestic demand for newsprint is supplied
by imports, mainly from Canada. The United States made newsprint duty free
during the 1920's, and Canadian suppliers quickly dominated the U. S. market.
U. S. manufacturers, however, including some major newspaper publishing organiza-
tions, own a substantial part of Canadian newsprint capacity. In recent years,
there has been a substantial increase in U. S. newsprint capacity, particularly
in the South. ,
Use of paperstock or specifically, old news, in the production of
newsprint in the United States is a relatively new phenomenon over the past
decade. From the standpoint, however, of minimizing the flow of wastes into
solid waste channels and husbanding our natural resources, this phenomenon has
been most interesting. At the present time, only one company, Garden State
Paper Company, of Garfield, New Jersey, a subsidiary of Media General Corpora-
tion, has demonstrated success in deinking old news and producing newsprint from
the secondary fibers thus reclaimed. Currently, Garden State has its main; mill
at the New Jersey headquarters location, a second mill in Pomona, California, and
a third in Alsip, Illinois, near Chicago, operated as a venture with the Field
organization. A fourth mill is now reportedly planned for construction in;
i
southwestern Ohio. Production at the three existing mills reportedly totaled
{ • •
about 360,000 tons in 1969, less than 5 percent of total newsprint consumed, but
still representing a major factor in consumption of old news.
Precise details on the chemistry of Garden State's deinking process
are not available for publication, but it is known that the process is economically
feasible and techniques used for collection of the necessary raw materials have
been successful.
-fl ••"
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96
Other Paper Grades
Paperstock is also used in the production of grades of paper other
than newsprint. Recent statistics as to the amounts and types of paperstock
used as raw material for these other specific grades of paper are unavailable
or incomplete. However, it is known that substantial quantities of paperstock
are consumed in the consumption of sanitary and tissue paper, printing papers,
book paper, and fine paper, even though virgin wood pulp accounts for, by far,
the greater share of fibrous raw materials consumed.
For the most part, the grades of paperstock used in the production of
these other types of paper are the so-called high grades or least contaminated
grades. As has been noted, the best or most valuable grades of. paper are
principally collected from generators of fairly homogenous cuttings or other
forms of wastepaper such as ledger sheets and tabulation cards. Some of the
paper mills who consume paperstock can use the incoming material as direct
substitutes for virgin pulp almost as received from paperstock processors. A
wrapping tissue mill, for example, may limit its paperstock consumption to
side run rolls and tab cards with little or no ink on them. This paperstock
is then used only in the furnish for the mill's second grade of wrapping tissue
in which the presence of some ink contamination is allowable. For the best
grade of white wrapping tissue, however, the mill would use virgin fibers
exclusively.
An increasing number of paper mills, over the past decade, has been
installing costly but highly effective deinking equipment, making it possible
for the mills to use paperstock in the production of paper grades comparable
in quality to those made exclusively with virgin fibers. Firms which have
133
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97
installed such equipment include some that are integrated with virgin pulp
producing mills and others who purchase'virgin pulp on the open market. It is
estimated that thePpresent capacity of paper mills producing office,Sprinting,
offset, and related grades of paper from recycled material exceeds 500,000 tons
annually. Such companies as St. Regis Paper Company, Kimberly-Clark, Tileston
and Ho11ingsworth (Diamond International Corp.), Bergstrom Paper Company,
~ • .; .
Oxford Paper Company, Allied Paper Mills (division'-of SCM) .Georgia-Pacific
Company, Newton Falls Paper Mill (McCalls publications), are representative
of the firms having substantial productive capacity.*
Other UsesAahd Markets for.iPaperst'ock.
In addition to paperboard and paper, paperstock is used as raw'
material in the production of a number of other products. Among these are
molded products such, as egg cartons, flower pots, and funeral wreath'holders
and a variety of construction products such as soil pipe., and insulation materials,
Statistics are unavailable as to the amounts of paperstock consumed in these
end uses but the quantities are believed to be nominal in comparison^with the
total volume of wastepaper generated. Interestingly, however, it is''known that
most of the paperstock consumed in the production of these products is in the
form of the low grades or bulk grades of mixed papers,'hews and old Corrugated
which contribute most to the solid waste problem.
One particularly interesting end-use in this-broad area is a reportedly
"highly effective cellulosic-type building insulation'manufactured from 100
percent recycled paper". The manufacturing process for cellulose1 insulation
* "Memorandum to Alvin R. Aim, Council on Environmental Quality from M. J. Mighdoll,
Executive Vice President, NASMI, dated December 4, 1970.
131
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98
consists of processing the cellulosic materials into a fibrous form and results
in a product that is retardant to fire, decay, and vermin, is non-irritating, and
non-corrosive. Cellulose, a loose fill insulation, can be installed above
ceilings and under floors or be injected into wall cavities through openings
i
as small as 3/4 of an inch. Cellulose insulation is currently being used in !
• I •
new and existing residential structures including mobile and modular! homes.
It is also used in limited industrial applications. A new spray-on application
makes cellulose insulation more adaptable to commercial structures. In 1969,
i
approximately 50,000 homes and apartment units were insulated with cellulose
insulation.*
Except for the higher grades of molded pulp products used in food
packaging applications, these additional nonpaper and nonpaper board applica-
tions for paperstock do not consume virgin wood pulp. The relatively high cost
of virgin wood pulp makes its use prohibitive in these applications, so paperstock
is the only feasible alternative in the production of these highly utilitarian
and nonaesthetic products.
* National Cellulose Insulation Manufacturers Association, Lima, Ohio, 45802.
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99
FACTORS CONSTRAINING INCREASED RECYCLING
OF PAPERSTOCK
During the course of the literature search and intensive interviewing
phases of the study, a great many problems or factors constraining the recycling
of paper were identified. (Table 24 demonstrates the decline in paper recycling
as a percentage of total paper and paperboard consumption over the past decade.)
Some of these factors have had and will continue to have impact upon the
attitudes, plans, and actions of only one link in the chain of distribution of
paperstock -- generator, dealer/processor, user -- while others impact on all of
the links and the interfaces between them as well. In the following sections of
this report, these problems and factors constraining recycling are discussed
individually. The distribution links on which each of the factors has impact are
identified, and the nature of these impacts are reviewed. The order of discussion
is as follows:
• General problems or factors broadly constraining recycling
• Factors influencing actions of generators
• Factors influencing actions of collectors, dealers, and
processors
o Factors influencing actions of paperstock users.
All of these factors have tended in the past, either directly or indirectly,, to
increase the flow of wastepaper into solid waste channels. This increased flow,
of course, has added to the tangible and intangible costs to society of disposing
of all wastes.
.36
-------
TABLE 24. PAPERSTOCK CONSUMPTION COMPARED WITH PAPER AND PAPERBOARD CONSUMPTION
Year
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967,
1968
1969
Paper and Paperboard
Consumpt ion,
thousands of tons
38,820
39,227
40,406
42,208
43,406
45,968
48,762
. 52,790
51,996
53,812
58,300
Paperstock
Consumption,
thousands of tons
9,267
8,965
9,027
9,076
9,640
9,490
9,907
10,712
9,944
10,362
10,478
Recycling
Ratio,
percent
23.9
22.4
22.4
21.5
22.2
20.5
20.3
20.2
19.1
19.2
17.9
o
o
Source: Paperboard Packaging Magazine, August, 1970. Based oh Bureau of Census Reports, and PSIA data, P. 49.
137
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101
General Problems or Factors
Broadly Constraining Recycling
The problems and factors enumerated below tend to impact on tithe attitudes,
plans, and actions of all links in the chain of distribution of paperstock from
source to end user.
Relatively Declining Demand for Combination Paperboard
Without question, the factor which, in the recent past, has 'been the
major obstacle to efforts to increase recycling has been the relative -decline in
demand for and production of paperboard made .at least in part from recycled fibers'.
This relative decline is demonstrated most dramatically in Table 25. i?It may be
noted that total paperboard production over the period from 1960 to 1969 increased
about 10.5 million tons or 65.6 percent. Of this total production, soil id
paperboard, containing 85 percent or more .virgin wood pulp, increased '9.9 million
tons or 108 percent .while combination paperboard increased a scant 569,,000 tons
or 8.4 percent.
Over the same period of time, production of containerboard-tjype of
paperboard made principally from virgin fibers increased 113 percent while
combination containerboard only increased about 6 percent. Similarly, solid-type
boxboard production increased 86.8 percent while combination boxboard production
increased only about 10 percent.
A number of factors have contributed to the strong growth and demand for
and production of solid paperboard at the expense of combination paperboard made
138
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TABLE 25. TRENDS IN PRODUCTION OF COMBINATION AND SOLID WOODPULP PAPERBOARD BY TYPE
Type
Containerboard type
Combinat ion
Solid
Boxboard Type
Combination
Solid
Total paperboard
Combination
Solid
Production,
1960
9,568
2,426
7,141
6,358
4,328
2,031
15,927
6,754
9,172
thousands of tons
1969 1960-1969
17,829
2,567
15,262
8,548
4,756
3,793
26,378
7,323
19,055
Increase
8,261
141
8,121
2,190
428
1,762
10,451
569
9,883
Percent
Increase,
1960-1969
86.4
5.8
113.8
34.5
9.9
86.8
65.6
8.4
107.9
Source: Paperboard Industry Statistics, 1969, American Paper Institute, Paperboard Group, p. 9.
o
N:
.33
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103
*
from secondary fibers. Among these have been the increased availability of virgin
wood pulp, resulting from production capacity increases by integrated companies,
and a general desire on the part of packagers to upgrade their folding carton
packaging by the use of solid bleached sulphate boxboard promoted as "white all
the way through". The net result has been the creation of prejudices or biases
against .board made from secondary fibers which have been difficult to overcome.
This relatively declining demand for combination paperboard has seriously arrested
the growth of producers of combination paperboard exclusively and the combination
paperboard operations of firms producing paperboard both from virgin wood pulp and
paperstock. Efforts have been made to increase the efficiency of producing
combination paperboard and to improve the quality of combination paperboard so that
t -
it will be indistinguishable from the virgin fiber product. The development and
installation of the Inverform paperboard machine by Federal Paper Board Company,
Inc., has been just one of such activities.
The relative decline in demand for combination paperboard has also had
its impact upon dealer/processors of paperstock and the generators of wastepaper
since it has been difficult for both of these links in the distribution chain to
command sufficient revenue for the paperstock or wastepaper marketed. This, in
turn, has resulted in increasing flows of wastepaper into solid waste channels.
i <
Erratic Demand for Paperstock
The combination paperboard industry, which represents, of course, the
prime market for paperstock, is characterized by a high degree of irregularity in
* Not all of the relative decline in demand for combination paperboard is
attributable to growth of sblidboard. Some traditional end uses for combination
board, such as in cookie and cracker packaging, have suffered from the substi-
tution of all-plastic packaging.
140
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104
demand. The demand for end products, combination board folding cartons,
fluctuates sharply through the year, and, in addition, most combination paperboard
mills shut down for repair and service for several weeks during the month of July.
Since mills do not, typically, inventory more than two or three weeks supply of
paperstock, purchases are periodically cut back sharply in anticipation of
reduced need. Mills contend that they cannot economically maintain the inventories
which would stabilize these peaks and drops in demand because of the low value of
paperstock relative to its weight and bulk. The prices at which end users of
paperstock will buy the various grades of paperstock fluctuate throughout the
year. When demand is high, higher prices are offered, and when demand is low,
prices are reduced. This results in a continuing shift in the activities of
wastepaper collectors. When demand is good and prices are favorable, collectors
aggressively seek out new generator sources, but when demand is down, collectors
do not find it economical to service marginal generators and use their trucks and
labor for other purposes. This temporary or prolonged abandonment of some
generators forces them to find new ways of disposing of waste. Further, the
curtailment or change in activities of collectors resulting from erratic demand
very often makes it difficult for dealer/processors to obtain the necessary
supplies of wastepaper for conversion into paperstock when demand picks up..*
Lack of New Nonpaper Products
There is a critical need for new nonpaper products in which, preferably,
the bulk grades of paperstock might be used as raw material,to counteract the
relative decline in demand for paperstock in traditional paperboard applications.
Producers of combination paperboard who operate cylinder machines have long
sought to identify and exploit markets for such new products but, as yet, with
1
* For a further discussion of demand, supply, and prices of paperstock, see
pages 4-62 through 4-76, Economic Study of Salvage Markets for Commodities Entering
the Solid Waste Stream, prepared for the Bureau of Solid Waste Management by
Midwest Research Institute. 1970. 6 •• • '
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.little real success. The Boxboard Research and Development Council has been
at the forefront of these activities.;
Thus far, however, those newer uses for paperstock considered have1, for i
the most part, either beeri uneconomical to market or have not promised sufficiently
"< * I " ' ' ' i :- . ' •..,•-•' ;
interesting potential sale's volume. For example, one effort to produce and market.
a pelletized form of animal feed from paperstock was reportedly abandoned wrfeh it '
was determined that the costs of producing the feed in this form far exceeded the
current market price for hay. The use of wastepaper in the form of cellulose
insulation is interesting but, as yet, consumption of wastep'aper for this applica-
tion has been relatively small. The only new use for paperstock with a
realistically large potential developed over the past decade has been as raw
i . . • ."• . , . ' -.•.•'-
material for the newsprint deinking mills of Garden State Paper Company. • >
Paperstock industry leaders, in general, have regretfully reported: in. recent1
months that there are no other new arid exciting products on the horizon that'might
utilize wastepaper. Clearly., the critical need, for new high-volume products1 and
the satisfaction of this need affects the attitudes and actions of all levels in
-1 • . .>.•'• '
the movement of wastepaper. With assured markets for paperstock, some generators
would be spared the costs of having to have wastepap'er hauled away-or iricineVated.
•i ' ' •' • .•'"'."'
At the other end of the chain, mills would be encouraged once again to operate
idle equipment or invest in'such new equipment as would be required for the
production of the identified new products. Lacking new products, in the face of
past trends, the outlook for generators, collectors, dealers, processors, and
users of paperstock would be dismal indeed were it not for the dynamic: changes
142
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106
which have occurred in the past year which have resulted in revived interest in
traditional products made from paperstock.
Increasing Contamination
The development of new materials over the past two or three decades,
used in conjunction with paper and paperboard products, has critically complicated
the problem of sorting out economically recyclable wastepaper from the growing
volume of wastepaper generated.
Table 26 lists the major contaminants found in wastepaper. The
relatively new hot-melt adhesives and wet-strength papers, along with many
different types of plastics and coatings, have been particularly troublesome to
generators, processors, and users. Most users of paperstock who can also, if
they so choose, economically use virgin wood pulp in the furnish for their products,
refer to an element of risk in using secondary fibers. Although they may be able
to produce their end product for $30 to $40 per ton less by using paperstock, they
may be risking much more than the savings. If an undetected contaminant in the
paperstock gets through to the end product, many tons of the finished end product
have to be repulped or marketed at a reduced selling price. For this reason and
in order to relieve the fears of users in this regard, the paperstock industry and
the Paperstock Conservation Committee of the American Paper Institute have been
making great efforts to increase awareness and improve recognition of potentially
costly contaminants by persons generating and sorting wastepaper.
Absenteeism and Unavailability of Labor
All levels of distribution of wastepaper and paperstock are plagued by
labor problems. The tasks of sorting and handling wastepaper at the generator
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107
TABLE 26. MAJOR CONTAMINANTS IN WASTE PAPER
SHINY PAPERS
Glassine
Wax
Ink Wads
Fluorescent
Lacquered
PLASTICS
Films
Synthetic Papers
Plastic Foam
Coated Boxes
Shrink-wraps
Cellophane
ASPHALT & CARBON
PAPERS
Insulation Bags
Carbonless paper'
Bags with Black Liners
Tar Laminated Boxes
GLUES & TAPES
Hot Melt Adhesives
Pressure Sensitive
Tar Tapes
Gummed Labels
COATED ,& TREATED
PAPERS
Photographic
Blueprint
Parchment
Foil
Wet Strength
Filter
BINDINGS
Thread
Metal
Plastic
Rope
Lates
JUNK
Wire
Wood
Glass
Metals
Twine
Paper Clips
Rubber Bands
Staples
Source: "Toby Trashound says, "Keep These Out of Paper Stock!1"
American Paper Institute, Inc., 1970, Distributed by Paperstock
Conservation Committee.
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108
level are repugnant to most of the workers who can be recruited to perform them.
Because of lack of knowledge and interest in many generator organizations, it is
difficult to set understandable standards or procedures for workers of low
intellect to follow. Consequently^ the necessary sorting tasks are often perr
formed ineffectively. At the processor level, it is necessary to make the most
economical usage of facilities and move the wastepaper through the plant as
rapidly as possible. In the face of relatively declining demand and the generally
unfavorable economics of paperstock distribution, packers cannot justify high
rates of pay for the performance of sorting tasks. As a result, workers cannot be
relied upon to report regularly for work at paperstock packing plants. Under
conditions such as these, the economics of the plants suffer and commitments both
to pick up accumulated wastepaper or deliver processed paperstock cannot be
reliably met. Finally, because of .the past image of the paperstock industry and
the relative declines in paperstock usage, the industry has had difficulty in
attracting young and educated talent with management potential talent to its ranks. T
fairly recent surge of interest in ecology and recycling may, to some extent,
alleviate some of this problem in the future.
Relatively High Costs of Transportation
Because wastepaper and paperstock are relatively low-value commodities
in relation to their bulk, the costs of transporting them even short distances
loom quite high. This unfavorable relationship tends to limit the scope of the
marketing area, particularly for the lower priced grades, to a radius of about
100 miles from the point of collection or processing. As a consequence, dealers
and users resourcefully develop means of minimizing transportation costs by using
trucks employed to transport finished mill products to converting plants to
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109
transport wastepaper to paperstock packing plants on return runs. The
relatively high costs of shipping even the highest grades of paperstock overseas
i ' '
have .also seriously hampered the growth of exports of paperstock to foreign
countries which have a critical need for this commodity. .
• l .
High Costs of Sorting
i ' '
Related to the problems of increasing contaminants and unavailability
of labor is the problem, principally at the dealer/processor level, of the high
>
cost of sorting wastepaper into marketable grades of paperstock. Since so much
. • V- •'•
reliance must be placed upon hand operations, the costs of sorting are often out
of balance with the value of the incoming material to be processed. Although
methods described in another section of this report are employed to make:sorting
and baling as efficient as possible, these methods have really .been little
changed over the past three or four decades and there has been little progress
in automation of the necessary tasks. Consequently, there may be "a direct
labor cost of $20 or $25 a ton" if wastepaper comes into-a packing plant "'mixed
up" so that it is necessary to undertake "some of the slow sorting-type
ir
operations". Clearly, these high costs affect all links in the chain of
distribution of paperstock. If the responsibility for careful sorting were either
pushed back to the generator level or pushed forward to the user level, t
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110
Overpackaging
The most critical problem constraining recycling of paper has been
expressed as the relatively declining demand for paperstock in the face of in-
creasing demand for virgin fiber packaging. Some of this declining demand, in
the view of many knowledgeable sources in the industry (even firms which have
equal access both to virgin and secondary fibers), is purely the result of
overpackaging stemming from psychological factors. Clearly, some industrial
and consumer products such as hardware, sporting goods, toys, and others do not
really need to be packaged in solid bleached sulphate cartons at greater costs
than if packaged in combination board cartons. The high-quality standards set
by merchandisers in many large packager organizations make it virtually impossible
for producers of combination board to successfully solicit the business. The
desires for solid white paperboard and freedom from small spots on the inner
liner of a carton are formidable obstacles to combination board producers and
have impact in the wastepaper industry all the way back to the generator level.
Successful appeals to consumers and packagers can result in the lowering of
artificially high standards. In past time frames, the appeal to patriotism during
war years has been successful. Similarly, well-planned appeals to current
interests in ecology may be equally as effective. Advocates of more direct action
have advanced proposals to tax packaging on a basis reflecting degrees of
sophistication of packages relative to products packaged.
Position of the Integrated Virgin Pulp Producers
As has been noted, the producers of paper and paperboard integrated with
virgin pulp sources have enjoyed some competitive advantages over the users of
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111A
secondary fibers for at least the past decade. This has been the result of
increased virgin pulp capacity and improved technology for producing virgin
pulp. Further, integrated paper companies have practiced highly effective
management of their forest resources to provide them with a continuing
availability of pulpwood. Since 1960, paper companies have planted over 3 billion
trees on their own land and have prepared ground extensively for natural
reseeding. Research has also been conducted by forest products companies to
increase the growth rate and enhance the disease resistance of the trees from !
which they draw their timber and to obtain the maximum yield of wood fiber.
Captively produced wood pulp represented about 90 percent of all virgin
pulp consumed in domestic paper and board mills in 1968. A large proportion of
this captively-produced pulp was used by paper and board mills located adjacent
to the producing pulp mills.** Also, the paper industry owns 50 million acres of
commercial forests, which represent about 10 percent of total commercial forest
lands in the United States, and leases several million acres of private forest
lands in addition. (However, about two-thirds of the paper industry's wood require-
ments are currently obtained from the lands of farmers, other private owners and
state and federal government agencies.)***
I . ;
Concentration of Wastepaper Sources
The fact that wastepaper, for the most part, is generated in the populated
areas in the northeast and northcentral states while the potentially largest users
are located in the southeast and northwest, puts paperstock at a distinct economic
disadvantage. With adequate forest resources located adjacent to producers' mills
* "The Paper Industry's Part in Protecting the Environment," American Paper Institute,
1970, p. 4.
** Economic Study of Salvage Markets for Commodities Entering the Solid Waste Stream,
research study prepared by Midwest Research Institute for the Bureau of Solid Waste
Management, 1970, p. 4-20.
I
*** "The Paper Industry's Part in Protecting the Environment", American Paper Institute,
1970, p. 17.
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111B
in the southeast and northwest, usage of paperstock in these areas has been
and probably will continue to be moderate.
User Preferences for Virgin Fibers
There are many applications in which secondary fibers are superior to
virgin fibers. In bending boxboard, for example, the secondary fibers provide
superior bending qualities and printability. Yet there is a "stigma" attached
to using products made from secondary fibers that has been and may continue to
be difficult to overcome.
1-39
-------
112
In addition, for many applications It appears to be technically true
that virgin fibers are stronger than secondary fibers and provide
superior end products. Producers of virgin fiber llnerboard, for example, have
been able to establish that corrugated shipping containers made mostly from
virgin fiber linerboard and medium are stronger yet lighter in weight than^
ones fabricated from combination containerboard. The savings in shipping ,
costs to users obviously may make the stronger and lighter container more
attractive than the alternative container. However, this whole problem is'
now the subject of serious discussion and investigation.
i
Over Supplies of Bulk Grades .
Restrictions on the use of incinerators in major metropolitan areas
have, among other factors, resulted in over supplies of bulk grades of wastepaper.
Since dumping sites are also becoming limited, greater quantities of old news,
corrugated boxes, and mixed papers tend to flow to dealers. Without new markets
and adequate demand for'these grades, their value tends to fall so low that it is
: . * ' ;
not economical to haul and handle them.
Competition for Activities of Charitable Collectors
While the effects have not yet been generally recognized, increased
activities by Boy Scouts and other charitable agencies in picking up usedcaluminum
cans for recycling,could affect the economics of recycling old news. One-of the
main reasons why it has been economical, thus far, to recycle old news has been
* "Why Recycle Waste Paper When Surplus of Waste Paper is Being Destroyed or
Burned," editorial from Waste Trade Journal. November ,28, 1970.
loO
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113
the fact that the charitable agencies perform the collection operations at
relatively low cost. If these agencies, because of the greater financial return
promised, devote more of their activities to collecting aluminum cans or other
items, collection of old news will decline.
Regional Differences in Problems
It has been noted that the wastepaper or paperstock industry is a
fairly local business because of the low value of the commodity relative to its
I
bulk. This fragmentation of the industry makes it difficult to make broad policy
plans affecting the country as a whole. Adding to the complications is the fact
that problems at the generator and collector level differ sharply from area to
area. In large metropolitan areas, for example, the pressures to move out
accumulated waste quickly are much more severe than they are in outlying areas.
Accordingly, in the more populated areas, there is considerably less time and
space available to undertake preliminary or secondary wastepaper sorting functions
than in the outlying areas.
Legislative Restrictions '
Two particular constraints on recycling of paper stand out. One of
these, the set of obligations imposed on producers of folding cartons of
combination paperboard, is no longer a current problem, but the unmeasurable
impact of the problem ten years ago still remains. More than a decade ago when
the Food Additives Amendment to the Food and Drug Act was pasted, producers of
folding cartons from combination paperboard were obliged to prove that their
products could be safely used for packaging food products. While the producers
• • *=•-!••. J* r*.-dM*-t)«v*y
were able to establish the safety of their products satisfactorily, the publicity
-------
114
'•.about their obligations was damaging to the combination board producers and
fhdirectly helped the marketing efforts of the competing producers of solid
bleached sulphate board.
The other type of legislative restraint that has highly deterring
effects upon the paperstock industry is the maze of inconsistent zoning and
licensing regulations in various parts of the country that make it difficult for
sorting and packing plants to find facilities in which to operate. The contention
is that these operations are unsightly and tend to reduce property values. The
zoning regulations also impact on generators and users who, if not so constrained,
might be able to undertake some of the sorting and baling operations that now
must be performed by dealer/processors.
Irreversibility of Disposal Decisions
The erratic nature of demand for paperstock and the effects of
fluctuations in demand have been noted earlier. Beyond these, however, are the
constraints on recycling that result from difficulties in getting generators to
reverse a decision, once made, to adopt means of disposing of wastepaper other
than through collectors and dealers. It has been said that once the "business"
type generator has made the decision to discontinue the generation (pre-processing
and sale) of wastepaper based on a detailed cost analysis, it will take something
more than the "price brings it out, price shuts it off" approach used with
"Street" generators tc bring that industrially generated paper back into the usable
*
secondary fibers market. Executives are not likely to reverse such deliberate
* From an address on the use of secondary fibers by Dr. Wilbur H. Miller for the
Empire State Annual TAPPI Meeting, Lake Placid, New York, June 12, 1965.
-------
115
decisions because of a price fluctuation of uncertain size and uncertain
duration. The only appeal likely to be sufficient to reverse such decisions
would be some specific arrangement for a specific period of time.
There are also technical/economical reasons why it is difficult to
alter policies regarding disposition of solid waste. "There is a segment of the
^ .
public which feels that incineration is the solution to the solid waste crisis.
It has been proposed as a quick solution. By burning it up, the problem
disappears, according to its proponents. There is no question that incineration
i
will do much of what is claimed.
"However, once the system is set up to incinerate, it would be very
difficult to disturb this system and to ever be able to reclaim usable fiber.
The design of incinerators is based on the:amount of organic material available
in waste, and any major change in the components upsets the operation of the
*
equipment."
Related to this constraint is the fact that generators who, because
of low revenue for wastepaper generated, have invested in costly incineration
equipment with the necessary scrubbers, etc. are reluctant to idle this equipment
when the demand for and value of wastepaper returns to higher levels.
Factors Influencing Actions of Generators
In the foregoing section, problems constraining recycling at all levels
in the distribution of wastepaper and paperstock were discussed. The following
* From an article "Debates on Recycling Paper Not New to Industry But . . ." by
John H. Rich, President, Garden State Paper Company, Inc., Waste Age Magazine.
July-August, 1970.
-------
11.6
are problems unique to generators that have tended to minimize recycling and
i * • . ' '
i •; • • •
maximize disposition of wastepaper either through incineration or dumping.
Shortage of and High Cost of Space' ;
The claimed unsightliness of the operations of sorting, baling, .and
,1 ' ' • .••''•
storing of wastepaper has already been touched, upon in the discussion of :
legislative constraints on recycling. Because of the desire to be "a good.
neighbor", a generator may avoid, the sorting and baling functions that he might
otherwise perform. Further, in congested metropolitan areas where production
space is limited and costs for such space are relatively high, generators will
> ' • '. '.-'''•'
be more inclined to employ,limited and costly .space for production of end
products rather than for the handling of wastes.
Hazards in Handling and Storage
Wastepaper, when stored outdoors, is highly perishable. When stored
indoors, large quantities of stored wastepaper present.a potential fire hazard
because it requires relatively little heat to set wastepaper afire. Also, tightly
packed bales of wastepaper continuingly are in danger of breaking
the bands that bind them.in such.a way as to cause severe.physical injury to
employees who may be working nearby. Finally, because of the relative unevenness
of bales, there is constant danger that stacked, bales will topple over, crushing
nearby workers or equipment. In general, accumulations of wastepaper tend to
slow down production operations and adversely effect the efficiency of a
generator's plant.
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117
Cost of and Space Required for Baling Equipment
While in some cases, as has been discussed in earlier sections of this
report, dealer/processors supply baling equipment to generators of fairly
homogenous wastepaper, in most cases the generator has to stand the cost of such
equipment himself. Coupling the cost of the equipment with the cost of the space
required for the installation of the equipment and the conduct of the necessary
bperations creates a cost burden which most generators are reluctant to accept.
At the same time, generators are well aware of the fact that wastepaper, if not
sorted at least in a preliminary way and baled, has relatively low value in the
market place.
Unfamiliarity With Market Needs
Most smaller generators of mixed wastepaper are completely unfamiliar
with the end uses to which the components of the mixed grades may be put if
carefully segregated. Since this unfamiliarity exists at the managerial level,
the problem is even more critical at the level of those assigned to do rough
sorting of wastepaper and removal of contaminants.
Lack of Interest in the Waste Business
Except for big generators of relatively homogenous wastepaper, most
generators are not particularly interested in the handling and disposition of
waste materials. The feeling, generally, is that managerial skills and time can
be moire profitably devoted to the production and marketing of tl;? company's own
products. Accordingly, the responsibility for waste handling is pushed off on
whatever personnel can be most easily spared for the obligations. Among large
1.-5
-------
118
generators of fairly homogenous wastepaper, it is quite common for the purchasing
agent to bear the responsibility for disposal of wastepaper because of his skills
in dealing with outside agents who compete with each other.
Factors Influencing Actions of Collectors.
Dealers, and Processors
Limited Cooperation From Generators
Many dealers contend that generators do not cooperate sufficiently with
them, particularly in the area of warning dealers when new inks or new adhesives
of a highly contaminative nature are used in the production of the generator's
end product. If dealers know about the existence or intrusion of these contami-
nants in advance, steps can be taken to effectively assure that they are removed
before they reach the unknowing users. Without cooperation and complete frankness
in this regard, the problem of contaminants is seriously aggravated.
Tie Up of Vehicles i
Because of the urgency of some generators' need to get wastepaper
removed, they call on collectors to provide vehicles (trucks and trailers) often
well in advance of real need. Consequently, these vehicles are tied up for extended
periods of time and at high cost to the collectors or dealers who provide them.
-------
119
Costs of Baling Equipment
In order to get generators to bale accumulated waste so as to minimize
hauling costs, dealers are frequently obliged to underwrite the costs of the
equipment provided. This obligation reduces the dealer/processor's net revenue
in a framework in which prices for paperstock are greatly constrained by user-
related factors.
Tie Up of Vehicles at Mills
Because paper and paperboard mills typically do not carry substantial
inventories of paperstock, these mills frequently call upon dealer/processors to
bring in shipments just before the time of most critical need. This may result
in delays in unloading of trailers and extended "waiting time" at the mills.
Since the value of these vehicles is high and the time of the personnel assigned
to operate them is costly, dealers are forced to absorb unanticipated costs which
they are not in the position to pass along.
Extraordinary Demands by Users
In situations when competition for the business of major mills is keen,
mills frequently force processors to undertake a degree of sorting not .justified-
by the prices paid. For example, a mill may offer to pay only the going price
for a relatively roughly sorted grade of old corrugated and expect to receive a
grade which does not require any further mill level sorting.
Poor Image of the Industry
Paperstock dealers and processors like other dealers in secondary
materials have been plagued for generations by an image that has made it difficult
-'I t-t
Ji •/
-------
120
for the industry to command respect in business society. In an effort to offset
the effects of this image weakness, the industry has, in recent years, tended to
shun the use of the terms "wastepaper", "scrap", "junk", "trash", etc. and to
adopt more euphonious terminology. There are clear signs that the current
interest in ecology is putting the industry in a more favorable light and will
make it easier for the industry to offset the effects of the intangible limita-
tions under which it suffered in the past.
Relatively Small Size of Organizations |
! I
The paperstock industry is made up of a relatively great number of small
companies fairly well confined to local markets. As such, the industry has been
unable to support research and development activity at a level comparable with
that undertaken by large integrated producers of virgin pulp. While virgin pulp
producers have continually taken steps to improve technologies related to sources
(forest management) and the production of virgin pulp, paperstock dealers and
processors have been fairly well confined to techniques established 30 or 40
years ago. The paperstock industry^as made great strides, relative to its size
and capabilities, with the adoption of the use of new forms of materials-handling
i
equipment, hogging and shredding equipment, and baling equipment but, for the most
part, operations are quite unsophisticated. Again, until recently, there was
little incentive for processors to make the investment called for. However,
in light of rapidly changing conditions, attitudes in this regard are changing
as well.
/r? fr
-------
121
Difficulties in Exporting
While it is well established that substantial demand for U.S. paperstdck
exists in foreign countries suffering from fiber shortages, only a relatively few
i
of the larger paperstock 'dealers appear to be in a position to participate in
export marketing. Again, the relatively small size of so many companies in the
industry makes the problems of exporting loom rather formidable. Even some
larger dealers interviewed in the course of the intensive survey seemed to be
reluctant to pursue export markets. The contention was that export shipments are
troublesome and costly to make. The heavy volume of paperwork necessary in
preparing export shipments, the delays in port facilities on the Ea.st Coast, and
other "headaches" appear to make export marketing unattractive to any but the
largest processors who can support the necessary trained specialists. Obviously,
too, the high cost of shipping paperstock, relative to its value, makes it
necessary for the dealer/processor to be extremely resourceful in finding profitable
outlets for his products in foreign countries.
Changing Philosophies in Customer Organizations
Veteran management level personnel in paperstock processing companies
bemoan the changes in thinking and organization in their traditional outlets for
paperstock. Rigid policies as to delegation of responsibility in using mills,
from the presidential level down to the purchasing agent, make it difficult for
both users and processors to benefit from special "deals" which become available
from time to time. Paperstock is not a homogenous manufactured product. As
such, quantities become available, frequently, from sources not normally antici-
pated. These may be in the form of side runs or damaged rolls of paper that are
-------
122
not normally available. In past years, owners of paperstock processing firms
simply phoned owners of mills or announced the availability of these unantici-
pated supplies and negotiated the sale of them directly. Today, however, with
the responsibility for all purchasing delegated to a buying department accustomed
to buying and bound by policy to buying standard products, these "deals" cannot
be so easily negotiated. The effort to impose rigid policies on an industry that
depends for its existence on products which are "produced manually and may not be
*
technically perfect" has had significant constraining effects.
Factors Influencing Actions of Paperstock Users
In addition to such general factors as the relative decline in demand
for products made from paperstock, the problems of contamination, increasing
costs, and others which tend to constrain recycling at all levels in the distri-
bution of wastepaper and paperstock, there are a few specific factors which are
unique to users.
Inadequate Comparative Figures
While it has been demonstrated that there are some applications for
which paperstock is not suitable and others for which use of wood pulp is
infeasible, there still remain a number of situations in which one commodity is
clearly substitutable for the other. This is the case, particularly, where the
alternatives to a paper mill may be a particular high deinking grade of paperstock
or a virgin pulp. The users who have already invested in deinking facilities and
* From Section VI, "Grade Definitions", of "Paperstock Standards and Practices-PS-70,"
published by Paperstock Institute of America, a commodity division of National
Association of Secondary Materials, Inc.
-------
123
employ both virgin pulp and deinking grades of paperstock in their furnishes
generally have a fair understanding of the comparative economics of using one
raw material versus the other.
Unfortunately, however, there are other mills using both secondary and
primary fibers who cannot so clearly establish the comparative costs of using one
raw material versus the other. Further, mills who do not presently use secondary
' *
fibers have little data to guide them in planning future actions.
Tables 27, 28, 29, and 30 show comparisons of prices of paperstock and
market pulp and trends over the past decade. However, because of the multiplicity
of cost factors involved, the variations in grades of paperstock and virgin wood
pulp, the differences in market conditions in the various geographical regions,
and the unique circumstances in individual companies, it is difficult to make
generalizations as to the comparative economic advantages of using virgin fibers
versus secondary fibers. Without some meaningful and reliable data, the possi-
bilities of getting a mill to switch from virgin to secondary fibers is
critically minimized. ;
The question to be resolved is "Who can and should take the responsibility
for making the necessary 'determinations?'1. In the area of primary materials,
generally the obligation rests with the producers or manufacturers who convince
the users of the benefits of using their products in preference to alternatives.
For example, plastics manufacturers develop bodies of data to show users the
advantages of using plastics in preference to paper or metals. However, paperstock
is not a manufactured product in the normal sense and the suppliers, the paperstock
dealers, for the most part, have not had the resources to commit to market develop-
ment in this sense. i • >
* "Paperstock in the Paper Industry—A Technical Analysis," Wilbur H. Miller,
TAPPI, April, 1964. '
loO
-------
124
TABLE 27. APPROXIMATE DEALERS BUYING PRICES FROM GENERATORS OF
PAPERSTOCK IN NEW YORK IN LATE NOVEMBER, 1970'
Category and Grade
Range of Prices per Ton
Low or Bulk Grades
No. 1 mixed paper
Folded news, ordinary
Old corrugated boxes
High Grades
High Grade Deinking Grades
Ledger stock, colored
No. 1 books and magazines
High Grade Pulp Substitutes
Double lined hew corrugated
Nominal - $2.00
$7.00 - 8.00
7.00 - 9.00
17.50 - 20.00
Nominal
kraft cuts
Ledger stock, white
No.
No.
No.
1 soft white shavings
1 hard white shavings
1 hard white envelope cuttings
22.50 - 27.50
25.00 - 27.50
35.00 - 40.00
35.00 - 40.00
55.00 - 57.50
(a) Fibre Market News. November 27, 1970, p. 4.
-------
TABLE 28. PRICES QUOTED FOR SELECTED GRADES OF PAPERSTOCK BY MAJOR DEALERS AND
BROKERS IN LATE NOVEMBER, 1970^
(c) Category and Grade
Low or Bulk Grades
(2) No. 1 mixed paper
(6) No. 1 news
(10) Old Corrugated containers
High Grades
High Grade Deinking Grades
(38) No. 1 colored ledger
(43) No. 1 books
High Grade Pulp Substitutes
Range of Prices
New York Boston
$ 1.00 - 5.00 $ 3.00 - 7.00
5.00 - 7.00 5.00 - 7.00
12.00 -20.00 16.00 -18.00
20.00 - 27.50 35.00 - 40.00
4.00 - 11.00 16.00 - 18.00
per Ton(b)
Chicago Los Angeles
$1.00 - 6..00 .. $ 4.00 - 7.00
12.00 -15.00 8.00 -12.00
17.00 -19.00 17.00 -20.00
25.00 - 30.00 25.00 - 30.00
4.00 - 9.00
(13) Doubled lined kraft corru-
gated cuts 27.50 - 45.00 22.50 - 27.50 22.50 - 27.50 22.50 - 27.50
(40) White ledger 25.00 - 32.50 42.00 - 47.00 37.50 - 47.50 40.00 - 47.50
(28) No. 1 soft white shavings 37.50 - 42.50 50.00 - 55.00 40.00 - 50.00 40.00
(30) Hard white shavings 57.50 - 80.00 80.00 - 85.00 75.00 -'80.00 70.00 - 75.00
(31) Hard white envelope cuttings 60.00 -.85.00 100.00-105.00 82.50 - 87.50 82.50 - 90.00
(a) Paper Trade Journal. December 7, 1970, p. 48.~
(b) Mill prices, f.o.b. truck shipping point, Volume tonnage including brokerage.
(c) Indicates grade number per PSIA"paper stock standards and practices, Circular PS-70.
-------
TABLE 29. DELIVERED PRICES OF LEADING GRADES OF MARKET WOOD PULP IN DECEMBER, 1970
Grade of Wood Pulp
Groundwood
Bl. groundwood
Kraft Bl. Stwd.
Kraft Bl. Hwd.
Kraft Semi-Bi.
Kraft Unbl.
Sulphite Bl.
Sulphite Unbl.
U.S.
$ 90/ 95
100/105
169/172
146/155
163/164
130/145
162/167
142/147
Source
U. S. Delivered Price
Canadian
$ 90/ 95
100/105
169/172
146/148
163/164
—1152
162/167
142/147
per Ton
Swedish
N.A.
N.A.
174/179
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
162/180
N.A.
Finnish
$172/
162/ — -
167/
152/157
169/172
154/157
(a) Paper Trade Journal. December 7, 1970, p. 48.
.t.3
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127
TABLE 30. WHOLESALE PRICE INDEXES, WOOD PULP, WASTEPAPER, PAPER, BOARD, CONVERTED
PRODUCTS, AND ALL INDUSTRIAL COMMODITIES, 1959-1969.
[ 1957-59 = 100, except at noted]
Item
1969P 1968' 1967
1966
1965 1964
1963
1962
1961 ; 1960
19S9
All industrial, commodities
112.7
109.0
106.3
104.7
102.5
101.2
100.7
100.8
100.8
101.3
'ulp, paper, and products group 108.2
Wood pulp subgroup 98.0
Sulfate. unbleached 102.1
Sulfote, semibleached1 109.2
Sulfota, bleached. 96.1
Sulflte, bleached 95.7
Sulfire, unbleached1 101.2
Groundwood 100.0.
Soda, bleached . . . 90.8
Waste paper subgroup ;. . < 108.3
No. J newt 150.6
No. (mixed ... . .., 110.0
Old corrugated boxes' 101.5
.009 semichemical kraft clippings'. ... 114.2
.009 mixed kraft clippings' 122.0
White news blanks'. 99.8
Poper subgroup 116.6
Paper except newsprint 119.2
Printing paper 102.7
Book paper, A grade 122.9
Book paper, No. 2 PI. offset 125.6
Wood bond 124.1
Writing paper 125.8
Wrapping paper 117.7
'Butcher's paper 117.5
Waxing paper 102.3
Wrapping tissue .' 111.8
Newsprint 108.9
Paperboard subgroup 94.4
Container board 4 91.1
Uinerboard4 94.3
Corrugating medium 84.3
Folding'boxboard 98.1
Setup boxboord 106.5
Converted products subgroup 108.8
Sanitary papers, etc 119.6
Paper bags, shipping sacks 102.4
Boxes, shipping containers 108.0
Gummed tape .104.8
Gomes, toys, novelties 117.4
Office supplies 107.2
Composite cans J 107.7
Building board subgroup 97.1
Insulation board 97.8
Hordboord and particleboard 98.7
105.2
98.0
102.1
109.4
96.1
95.7
101.2
100.0
90.8
101.5
167.9
99.8
92.9
96.2
101.8
102.5
112.7
115.3
101.5
119.6
121.4
120.6
121.8
110.2
112.6
102.1
111.3
105.4
92.2
89.0
92.3
82.1
96.1
101.9
105.9
114.2
98.4
105.1
103.4
115.0
107.4
105.8
92.8
92.7
95.0
104.0
98.0
102.1
109.4
96.1
95.7
101.2
100.0
90.8
78.1
122.5
65.4
72.2
76.6
77.4
111,7
110.0
112.1
101.9
117.6
118.5
114.1
118.3
107.7
109.3
101.5
108.8
104.3
97.3
97.5
100.0
92.3
95.9
99.6
104.8
109.7
103.9
103.3
102.6
112.8
107.2
102.8
91.9
89.7
95.9
102.6
98.0
102.1
109.4
96.1
95.7
101.2
100.0
90.8
105.0
123.0
103.2
119.2
116.3
124.6
118.6
107.3
109.4
101.7
115.1
115.4
111.0
113.2
104.0
107.6
101.0
107.3
101.6
97.1
97.5
100.0
92.3
95.3
99.2
102.3
104.3
102.7
101.1
102.4
102.0
106.3
100.7
92.6
88.3
99.2
99.9
98.1
103.1
109.4
96.1
95.7
101.2
100.0
90.8
99.4
121.3
104.6
99.5
108.8
114.7
116.7
104.1
106.1
101.4
110.6
110.8
106.7
109.2
101.3
105.4
100.1
104.2
98.7
.96.4
97.5
100.0
92.3
93.5
97.2
99.3
101.2
96.8
98.7
99.6
102.0
103.6
102.4
92.7
88.1
99.8
99.0
96.1
102.9
105.9
94.5
92.8
98.0
100.0
86.1
92.4
110.2
94.7
98.3
101.8
107.7
106.1
103.6
104.9
101.4
109.4
109.7
106.2
106.3
97.0
102.7
99.9
104.1
100.1
96.4
97.5
100.0
92.3
93.6
97.4
98.3
100.5
90.4
99.1
98.5
102.0
102.9
101.3
94.0
90.1
99.9
99.2
91.7
98.1
97.7
90.6
88.2
95.0
100.0
82.6
92.2
119.0
98.5
90.8
90.8
95.8
101.3
102.4
103.1
101.4
107.4
107.4
104.3
104.2
93.5
100.4
99.9
102.7
100.2
94.7
94.6
n.o.
n.a.
94.0
97.7
99.7
100.8
90.1
101.8
98.7
102.0
103.1
n.a.
96.3
92.1
101.8
100.0
93.2
98.8
98.1
91.5
90.2
97.3
100.0
87.7
97.5
122.8
109.7
93.8
98.2
100.7
100.6
102.6
103.4
101.4
107.6
107.0
103.7
103.0
98.6
101.2
99.9
102.7
100.2
93.1
92.4
94.7
87.6
93.6
97.1
101.0
101.1
97.9
101.8
99.8
102.0
102.3
n.a.
97,2
94.5
101.0
98.8
95.0
100.0
n.a
94.4
91.0
n.a
100.0
89.9
80.5
90.2
n.a
82.3
n.a
102.2
102.9
101.7
106.1
105.7
102.6
101.8
100.9
101.4
99.8
100.4
100.2
92.7
91.2
95.0
82.9
93.9
96.9
99.5
101.9
99.1
98.4
101.3
98.7
102.3
n.a.
100.8
101.0
100.0
10I-.8
100.2
100.0
n.a
100.1
100.0
.n.a
100.0
100.1
90.3
89.2
n.a
84.7
,n.o
n.a
• n.o
102.0
102.7
102.6
105.5
n.a.
102.6
101.7
101.3
102.0
99.8
97.6
100.2
99.4
99.6
n.a.
n.a.
99.3
99.1
102.8
102.9
99,. 6
103.9
103>
100.4
hoi'.s
n.a.
101.4
102*. 2
99; 5
101.3
101.0
100.7
100.0
n.a
100.6
100.8
n.a
100.0
100.8
121.4
111.6
151.0
108.3
n.o
n.a
n.a
100.6
100.7
10'1.6
101.9
n.a.
101.8
100.6
98.6
100.2
99.8
97.9
100.2
99.9
100.0
n.o.
n.a.
100.0
99.6
100.3
100.3
99.6
100.6
98.7
100.4
100.2
n.a.
101.8
102.5
100.3
Index based an January 1962 prices. J Index based on December 1963 prices. } Index based on January 1958 prices. Particleboard
luded only beginning in 1968. The lower levels lor the container board indexes beginning in 1968 were caused by a change in the .reporting
thod to reflect discounts from published list prices.
Source: US. Deportment of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Wholesale Prices and Price Indexes.
SOURCE: Pulp, Paper and Board, April, 1970, p. 32.
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128
Technical Imperfections in Supplies
Users of paperstock, for the most part, hold that the key to successful
use of paperstock is the selection of reliable dealer/processors. This is said
to be the best insurance against: getting inferior supplies of raw materials con-
taining undetected contaminants. Yet, paperstock can never be guaranteed as
"technically perfect" and dealer/processors still must rely upon the cooperation,
frankness, or honesty of the generators. When undetected contaminants do get by
the processor's scrutiny, the user does not concern himself with problems at the
generator level but takes the dealer/processor to task. Users contend that
these instances of inferior raw materials stem from the inability or unwillingness
of the dealer/processors to control their sources of supply, the generators.
Unfortunately, as has been demonstrated in other sections of this report, the
proliferation of contaminants, the general pressures on dealer/processors, and
other factors make this "control" difficult for dealer/processors to exercise.
Environmental Pollution
Although it is true that the operation of a deinking plant and other
cleaning facilities in conjunction with a paper mill produces residues of waste
(ink, clays, and other materials) not produced when the raw material is virgin
market pulp, the environmental pollution resulting from the use of paperstock
has been shown, under some circumstances, to be far less than that resulting from
the operation of wood pulping facilities and a slush pulp system adjacent to a
paper or paperboard mill. In recent months, Container Corporation of America
-------
129
announced the conversion of a corrugating medium mill in Carthage, Indiana,
from a wood-base material mill to a paperstock material mill. It was reported
that water and air pollution problems resulting from the wood pulping operations
would thereby be eliminated.*
Nevertheless, a major pressure on users of paperstock is the need to
dispose of residues generated in deinking and cleaning. A leading producer of
printing papers in southwestern Ohio has, for this reason, made a substantial.
investment in equipment over the past few years permitting the mill to thicken
its residual clays etc. so this waste material may be readily hauled away. The
point was also made that' if new uses could be developed for these residual
clays, then the mill would not have to pay to get the material hauled away and
the economics of using the paperstock as raw material would be substantially
improved.
* Boxboard Containers Magazine, July, 1970, p 84.
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130
DYNAMIC AND CHANGING ASPECTS
OF THE PAPERSTOCK INDUSTRY
Over the period of time during 1970 and 1971 when the research upon
which this report is based was conducted, many changes occurred that have
affected the paperstock industry. The major impetus for these changes has been
the growing awareness of the magnitude and serious nature of the solid waste
problem and the realization by society of the important role the paperstock
industry has played in the past and can play in the future to minimize solid
waste accumulation.
Up until quite recently, almost all discussions of paperstock and the
paperstock industry tended to deal with the volume of paper being recycled. Little
note was made of the great volume of paper and paperboard not recycled that has
moved into solid waste channels. Table 31 summarizes the magnitude and character
of the solid waste problem in terms of the various categories of paper and
paperboard not recycled. In 1969, it is estimated that a total of 46.8 million
tons of paper, consumed and potentially available for recycling, moved into solid
waste channels.
The Impact of the Solid Waste Problem
With the growing awareness of the solid waste problem and the role which
the paperstock industry could play in alleviating the problem, the paperstock
industry has acquired a new -identity and new image. Dealers and users have
received inquiries from environmentally concerned members of society as to how
the public can assist the paperstock industry in minimizing solid waste accumula-
tion. The industry response has been that the most constructive action which
consumers can take is to specify products made from secondary fibers. Recognizing
-------
TABLE 31.
131
IDENTIFICATION OF QUANTITATIVE PROBLEMS OF
PAPER RECYCLING, 1969
Title
Total U. S. Consumption of
Paper and Paperboard
Permanent or Semi-Permanent
End Use Categories
PROBLEM
DEFINITION
As annual consumption of paper and
paperboard increases and the
.percentage of material recycled
decreases, the quantity of waste-
paper falling into solid waate
channels increases significantly
These categories generally are not
considered to be economically '!
recoverable because of difficulties
of collectionand/or?separation.
THOUSANDS OF TONS CONSUMED'
AND POTENTIALLY AVAILABLE i'
FOR RECYCLING (a)
58,200
io,ooov
THOUSANDS OF TONS
. RECYCLED U;
THOUSANDS OF TONS
NOT RECYCLED (a).
% NOT RECYCLED^
. i . .'•••'
11,400
' 46,800
81
1. Average annual per capital constmp-
tion is about 575 pounds per person.
•» «•
10,000
1. Some grades are permanent or
semi -permanent end use
products in themselves.
1
I
•i
jj
I
Others are incorporated into ;
products having long-term use. .
• 'i
Categories include: papers for-
permanent records and publlca- ,
tions, construction paper and
board, and papers in electronic:
automotive, and other manu- [
factured end uses.
This is not a promising area tr.r
which to increase recycling of
paper.
2. Consumption is growing at an annual
rate of about 4.5 percent. 2.
3. 12,000 kinds of paper and papertoard
are utilized in more than 100,000 3.
.end uses.
4. Major product groupings based on end
use are communications papers,
PROBLEM packaging papers and boards, corstruc-
BACKGROUND tion and industrial papers and boards,
and sanitary and personal use papers. 4.
5. Percentage of recycled paper has
declined from 26% in 1959 to 197. in
1969.
6. NASMI (PSIA) and EPA are focusing
.public attention on the need for
(a)increased recycling as a means of
reducing future solid waste problems :
and*conserving natural resources and
(b) increased purchasing of recycled '
fiber products. • . ' •
SOURCES: (a) The Statistics of Paper, 1970 Supplement, American Paper Institute, p. 24, 26.
(b) Pulp, Paper, and Board; BDSA Quarterly Industry Report; U. S. Dept. of Commerce;
,. . October, 1970; p. 8-10.
-------
131a
TABLE 31. IDENTIFICATION OF QUANTITATIVE PROBLEMS OF
PAPER RECYCLING, 1969
Title
Newspapers
Containerboard
PROBLEM
DEFINITION
Fluctuating and relatively declining demand for
combination paperboard and high transportation
costs (resulting from distances .from adequate
sources to markets) limit recycling of old
nevs.
Fluctuating and relatively declining demand for
combination paperboard and hlglf transportation
costs limit recycling of Containerboard.
THOUSANDS OF TONS CONSUMED
AND POTENTIALLY AVAILABLE
FOR. RECYCLING (a)
9,800
15,900
THOUSANDS OF TONS
RECYCLEDta}
2,400
3,900
THOUSANDS OF TONS
NOT RECYCLED^
7. NOT RECYCLED (a)
7,400
12,000
76
76
iPROBLEM
BACKGROUND
1. These become available as wastepapers
in households, institutions, news-
paper plants, retail dealers and
distributors.
2. Substantial amounts of old news
are collected by charitable
agencies.
3. Some communities are calling on
residents to segregate old news
collected. . •
4. Relatively greater amounts of old
news were recycled during World War II
because of shortages of virgin pulp .
and patriotic motivation of consumers
to save and turn in old newspapers.
5. Old news is used principally in
production of combination paper-
board, for which demand has been
declining relative to solid paper-
boards .
6. De-inking of old newspaper for use
in production of de-inked news is a
relatively new and growing end use.
1. This is the single paper and paperboard
product produced in largest volume.
2. Consists of llnerboard and medium and is
converted into packaging and shipping
containers.
3. Very little ends up as waste In the
residential sector.
4. Major amounts recycled are recovered
from converting plants and wholesale and
retail establishments.
5. Along with old news, old corrugated
Containerboard la used principally In
production of combination pnperbotrd, hut
increasing quantities of olo corrugated
are moving into production of new
Containerboard.
-------
TABLE 31,
Title
IDENTIFICATION OF QUANTITATIVE PROBLEMS OF
PAPER RECYCLING, 1969
Pulp Substitutes and
Mixed Papers
PROBLEM
DEFINITION
Under present conditions, demand and supply are
approximately in balance for pulp substitutes,
which are fairly homogeneous clippings and
other wastes from printers and converters.
Mixed papers include thousands of different
grades of paper and paperboard in;various
states'of contamination by inks, coatings,
laminations, etc., and therefore are difficult
to recycle. •; '
THOUSANDS OF TONS CONSUMED
AND POTENTIALLY AVAILABLE
FOR RECYCLING (a)
22,500
THOUSANDS OF TONS
U'
5,100
THOUSANDS OF TONS
NOT RECYCLED(a)
7. NOT RECYCLED ^
17,400
77
1. Mixed papers originate as wastes in offices,
plants, retailers, wholesalers, institutions,
and households.
2. If demand for end products made from
secondary fibers increases, segregation
or sorting of mixed papers into;marketable
grades will be encouraged. !
1 "; '
3. Toilet tissue consumed, which represents
1.3 million tons per year, is not recover-
able;. •'• ' . -
PROBLEM
BACKGROUND
-------
132
that the combination paperboard Industry has traditionally been the major user
of paperstock, the paperstock industry has urged that consumers demand that the
products they purchase be packaged in containers made from combination paperboard.
As a major processor has said:
We know, as dealers that the secondary fiber using mills have
much capacity which is not being used and can produce larger
amounts of materials from recycled fiber, if the demand exists.
The message we expect to leave with you (consumers) is that
demand will develop markets, and all of us, as the consumers,
must create this demand.* :
Changes in Purchase Specifications
and Procurement Policies
In response to the urgings of various organizations interested in
environmental quality, buyers of paper and paperboard products in government
and industry have started to shed, their bias toward materials made from virgin
fibers. These biases, in many cases, have been manifested in the form of
purchasing specifications that have limited the markets for products made from
secondary fibers.
As a result of the collective efforts of EPA, CEQ, and the paperstock
industry, specification changes have been initiated by some government agencies
and other organizations. The City of New York recently advised that it would be
purchasing various grades of office paper made from reclaimed fibers. One of the
larger banking institutions in New York City began the utilization of paper made
from recycled fiber, and the paperstock industry, early in February of 1971,
anticipated that other corporations would follow this lead in the r.^ar future.*
* From an address by Haskell Stovroff of Buffalo Paperstock Company and chairman
of NASMI's Solid Waste Utilization Committee at the Wastepaper Work Shop held
during Recycling Day in New York City, February, 1971.
-------
The Federal government has also taken a new look at its paper
purchasing practices. Early in 1971, President Richard M. Nixon announced in"
his Environmental Message that the General Services Administration (GSA) had
revised 14 specifications for paper products amounting to approximately one
third of the total purchases of "supply paper" by GSA. The other 12 specifica-
tions were under review at the time.* (The latest GSA definition for reclaimed
fiber available when the research was performed appears in Appendix A.")
Removal of Regulatory Restraints
j
A great many individual local regulatory restraints on the paperstock
I i
industry and other sectors of the secondary materials industry have been!identified
!
and earmarked for study and reevaluation. As M. J. Mighdoll has commented, "Does
it amaze you that we demand solid waste collection and more recycling in our cities-
and then construct municipal regulations that remove the companies equipped fco do
this from the urban community?"**
Recent Progress and Outlook
Many of the actions considered and recommended in the next major
section of this report are already being undertaken by the paperstock industry.
In the months ahead, it is anticipated that more of the recommendations will be
implemented and still other potentially constructive courses of action will become
apparent.
In an address to the Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry
in New York City in late February of 1971, F. S. Crysler, Executive Vice President
* Brown, G., "The Federal Government and Recycling", American Paper Industry.
April, 1971.
** From an address by M. J. Mighdoll, Executive Vice President, NASMI, at Recycling
Day in New York, Waldorf Astoria Hotel, February 2, 1971.
-------
134
of Container Corporation of America, concluded, "There is a solid waste pollution
crisis. Part of the solution is incineration combined with heat recovery or
power generation. The other part of the solution is the proper utilization of
secondary paperstock. You can provide the impetus to speed the acceptance of
those recycling concepts."
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Analytical Approach and Conclusions:
i i-
An earlier section of this; report focused on the problems constraining
i .. .
the recycling of paper. These problems were organized, arrayed, and discussed
under four basic categories:
(1) Those broad and general in impact ;
(2) Those which have been influencing the actions of generators
' principally
(3) Those which have been influencing the actions of collectors/
i
dealers/processors J
(4) Those which have been influencing the actions of paperstock
users. I
j :
A great many actions which might be undertaken in response to problems
or factors constraining the recycling of paper were identified or suggested
during the literature search, intensive survey, and analysis phases of the study.
These remedial actions, which are reviewed in Appendix B, typically were one of
il
the following types:
'I) Technical research and development efforts to improve current
I ] • t
products or procedures
-------
135
(2) Research and development activities leading to new products
(3) Economic and marketing research and development activities.
Further analysis of both problems and possible remedial actions was
necessary in order to focus effectively on major problems and establish priorities
of action. As this analysis proceeded, it became apparent that many of the
problems, identified as constraining recycling were interrelated or, in some
instance, symptomatic of other problems. Groups or related "families" of problems,
therefore, were reorganized into the following six general problem areas:
(1) Relatively declining demand for products made from paperstock
(2) Erratic demand for paperstock
(3) Need for hew products made from paperstock
(4) Increasing contaminants in wastepaper
(5) High cost of transportation
(6) Operational problems at all levels.
These general problems and the remedial actions considered in each area are
summarized in Table 32.
Problems in some of the areas more urgently require solutions than
problems in other areas, and some problems might be more readily and more
completely solved than others. Table 33 ranks the six general problem areas in
order of priority, considering criteria that reflect problem urgency and ease of
solution.
Time and budget limitations of the study did not allow detailed
analysis of each of the remedial actions considered (listed in Table 32 for
each general problem area) in order to select recommended actions. The action
recommendation selections represent the best judgments of the Battelle project team
and members of the NASMI Commodity Committee, who drew upon their past experience
I-'J"'!
C J
-------
Problem
Area
136
TABLE 32. IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF QUALITATIVE PROBLEMS AFFECTING RECYCLING
Relatively Declining Demand
for Products Made from
Paperstock
Erratic Demand
for Paperstock
Problem
Definition
1. Demand for combination paperboard
cartons has not increased at the rate
of that for cartons of virgin fiber,
therefore, virgin fiber paperboard
producers have gained an increasing
share of the market.
2. Some knowledgeable users and research
groups consider virgin fibers to be
superior to secondary fibers in certain
.high volume end uses, especially where
high strength is required.
3. Packaging buyers sometimes choose
to overpackage (use virgin fiber
containers where secondary fiber
containers would suffice) to enhance
the marketability of their products.
1. Paperstock demand fluctuates aa
demand for paper, board, and/or
converted products fluctuates. Some
seasonality because of mill shutdowns
in summer.
2. Mills are reluctant to carry
extensive, paperstock inventories.
3. Paperstock is perishable and .
hazardous to handle and store.
4. Space for storage of paperstock is
both limited and costly.
5. Some collectors go out of business
when demand is low.
Effect on j
Recycle Rate}
Major constraining effect on recycling
of paper;
Major impact on paperstock industry
and, hence, on recycling of paper.
Remedial
Actions
Considered
1. Improve techniques for making
paper, board, and converted products
from paperstock to be more competi-
tive with-those made from virgin
fibers.
2. Develop strategies to increase .
acceptance of these products.
3. Develop educational programs to
offset the stigma associated with
recycled materials.
A. Determine the economic impact and
various other impacts of legislation
to restrict use of virgin fibers.
5. Provide incentives to invest in
new capacity to use secondary fibers or
resume use of idle capacity.
6. Encourage the. government and
others to specify products made
from recycled paper.
1. Improve methods of compacting and
hogging paperstock so as 'to conserve
storage space.
2. Investigate techniques for
pelletizing wastepaper • or paperstock.
3. Encourage negotiation of longer
term contracts for .paperstock.
4. Provide incentives for increased
warehousing by processors and users.
5. Encourage the government to
stockpile paperstock.
-------
Problem
Area
TABLE 32. IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF QUALITATIVE
PROBLEMS AFFECTING RECYCLING (Continued)
Lack of New Products Made
from Paperstock
Problem
Definition
1. Many authorities in the paperstock industry
feel that successful development of new products
made from paperstock is the "major factor" that
will materially increase recycling.
2. Oversupplies of bulk grades of paperstobk
add to the solid waste problem. '
3. The only significant new use for paperstock
developed in the past decade has been as raw
material for newsprint de-inking mills of \
Garden State Paper Company.
Effect on i
Recycle Rate!
Development of new uses for paperstock
necessarily will increase recycling.
Remedial
Actions
Considered
1. Investigate the possibility of combining
bulk wastepaper with waste textiles to result
in new materials and to solve two environ-
mental problems simultaneously.
2. Investigate the possibility of combining
waste paper with lignins or tall^oil to
result in new materials.
/
3. Investigate alternative methods of
separation of paper fibers in waste paper.
4. Ideas for possible new products should
be first screened as to market feasibility
(size and character of market, etc.)
before extensive technical research is
performed.
-------
136b
Problem
Area
TABLE 32. IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF QUALITATIVE PROBLEMS AFFECTING RECYCLING
(Continued) . •
Increasing Contaminants
High Costs of
Transportation
Problem
Definition
Effect on
Recycle Rate
Remedial
Actions
Considered
1. Development and introduction of new
coatings, laminations, adhesives, etc., over
the past two or three decades have increased
contamination of waste paper generated.
2. High costs of sorting and the dependence
on hand labor make the proliferation of
contaminants a major factor constraining
recycling.
3. Most generators are unfamiliar with the
needs t>f markets for paperstock and the
problems created by contaminants.
4. Most generators are not interested in thi
waste business and have not been motivated
to cooperate with the paperstock industry.
.5. Users of paperstock often impose extra-
ordinary demands on suppliers or question
reliability of supplies and suppliers.
1. Costs of transporting wastepaper
represent a high percentage of total
costs because wastepaper has low
value relative to its bulk and weight.
2. Waste paper sources often are
concentrated in geographic, areas distant
from users, resulting in high shipping
costs.
3. Variations in local supply/demand
situations make it difficult to
establish broad national policies.
4. "Red tape" tends to restrict exporting
of paperstock.
Major constraining effects on recycling
of paper.
1. Develop inks, coatings, adhesives, etc.,
which do not inhibit recycling for use in
printing and conversion.
2. Improve techniques for segregating
wastepaper at the generator level.
3. Improve techniques for sorting at
all levels.
4. Improve methods for cleaning and
de-inking at the user level.
5. Consider legislation to penalize
producers or users of contaminating
materials.
Major impact on paperstock industry and,
hence, on recycling of paper.
L. Develop more economical means of
transporting wastepaper and paperstock
aver both short and long .distances.
2. Consider establishment of freight
rates more favorable to shippers of
wastepaper and paperstock.
! i- '
3. Consider subsidies to dealers or
processors to offset the high costs 'of
overseas shipments now restricting
axporting.
4. Consider feasibility of producing
"market pulp" from paperstock.
17'G
-------
. 136 c
Problem
Area
•Problem
Definition
TABLE 32. IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF QUALITATIVE PROBLEMS AFFECTING RECYCLING
(Continued)
\
Operational Problems
I'. At wage rates usually offered for • •
processing wastepaper, labor is either
•undependable or unavailable in many
areas where paperstock is generated or
processed.
2. By certain standards, some environ-
mental pollution results from use of
paperstock for making paper.
3. There is a need for more and better
economic analyses to support arguments for
using paperstock instead of virgin fibers.
A. The paperstock industry has suffered
from a poor image.
5. Many paperstock organizations are
relatively small.
6. Dealers' trucks often are tied up at
locations of generators and users for
excessive time periods.
7. Baling equipment is costly and
occupies costly space.
8. Users often consider risks in using
paperstock to be relatively high because
of the limited liability of dealers.
9. Growing competition for the efforts
of charitable agencies that collect
wastepaper may add to collection costs.
10. Changing philosophies in customer
.organizations tend to limit the flexibility
of dealers in negotiations.
11. .Financial community generators of
wastepaper and some government agencies
must retain the material temporarily.
12. Management decisions to dispose of
wastes by incineration are often difficult
to reverse.
Effect on
Recycle Rate'
Major constraining effects on
recycling of paper.
Remedial
Actions
-.Considered
1. Develop incentives to attract more
and better labor and management
level personnel.
2. Develop improved cleaning processes and/or markets for
wastes generated in the process of cleaning
paperstock by users.
3. Compile accurate figures on comparative
costs of using virgin versus secondary .
fibers.
4. Consider the possibility of multiple
mergers of relatively small dealer/processor
organizations into fewer large firms which
are likely to have greater bargaining power
and greater overall capabilities.
5. Consider initiation of industrial engineering
studies aimed at optimizing the handling and
processing of wastepaper and paperstock.
s
-*. t
-------
TABLE 33. EVALUATION OF GENERAL PROBLEMS RELATED TO RECYCLING OF PAPER
Criteria and Scores
Solution of Problem
Will Improve
Environment "
Solution of Problem
Will Conserve
Natural Resources
Realistic Solution
Can Be Total
Found Score
(Maximum Possible Score)
Relatively declining demand
for products made from
paperstock
Erratic demand for paperstock
(10)
10
10
(5)
(5)
(20)
20
17
Lack of new products made from
paperstock
Increasing contaminants
High costs of transportation
Operational problems
10
9
6
5
3
3
2
4
2
1
4 .
1
15
13
12
10
- - - • — — - — • — - • - —
Source: Judgments of Battelle project team with concurrence of NASMI Commodity Commit tee -,• April, 1971
1V8
-------
138
in this area. In selecting the recommended actions, qualitative consideration
was given to criteria such as (a) the importance of the action to solving the
problem, (b) technical feasibility and overall likelihood of success for the
action, (c) benefits to society, and (d) relative magnitude of time.and costs to
effect solutions.
Problems and Summary of
Recommended Actions
As indicated in Table 33, the following are the three general
problem
areas having highest priority:
(1) Relatively declining demand for products made from paperstock
(2) Erratic demand for paperstock '
(3) Lack of new products made from paperstock.
Table 34 summarizes (a) action recommendations, (b) recommended participants in
the actions, and (c) comments on other actions considered relative to these
high priority problem areas.
Action recommendations, participants, and comments on other actions
considered relative to the following lower priority problem areas are shown in
Table 35:
(4) Increasing contaminants
(5) High cost of transportation
(6) Operational problems.
Information summarized in Tables 32, 34, and 35 is discussed and
amplified in the following sections.
-------
139
TABLE 34. HIGH PRIORITY PAPER RECYCLING PROBLEMS AND RECOMMENDED ACTIONS
d
1
Problem
Area
Action
Recommendations
Recommended
Participants
In Above Actions^
Comments
on Other
Actions Considered
Relatively Declining Demand
for Products Made from
Paperstock
1. Conduct.technical research
to improve paper, paper-board,
. and converted products made from
paperstock and/or reduce costs.
2. Develop strategies and
educational programs to increase
acceptance of and remove stigma
from products made of paperstock.
3. Push for nondiscriminatory
purchase specifications from
government agencies and others.
1. EPA, PSIA, paper and paper-
board producers, API, BRD*A, IPC
and TAPPI.
2. PSIA and paper and paper-
board producers using recycled .fibers.
3. NASMI
Efforts to get through legislation
providing incentives for combina-
tion board producers or tending
to restrict use of virgin fibers
• can be expected to be a contro-
versial matter and therefore early
favorable effects can not be deter-
mined at this time.
Erratic Demand for Paperstock
1. Improve methods of compacting,
hogging, and palletizing waste
paper and paperstock.
2. Encourage negotiation of
longer term contracts for purchase
of paperstock.
1. EPA and equipment manufacturers
2. Paperstock dealers and PSIA.
Economic Incentive programs to
increase warehousing of paperstock
by processors and users may prove
to be too difficult to administer.
Lack of homogeneity of paperstock
and difficulty in grading uniformly
would tend to make the administra-
tion of stockpiling by government
quite difficult.
(a) It is suggested that NASMI- continue its leading role in recycling, recognizing that other
organizations such as Department of Commerce, Council of Environmental Quality, HEW Office
of Information, and State, Local, and Federal Legislatures must also be involved.
.60
-------
139 a
TABLE 34. HIGH PRIORITY PAPER RECYCLING PROBLEMS AND RECOMMENDED
ACTIONS (Continued)
Problem
Area
Lack of New Products Made
from Paperstock
Action
Recommendations
1. Conduct technical and economic
research as to feasiblity of combining
waste paper with textile wastes and
other materials to produce new materials
or end products.
2. Conduct idea generation session to
identify new product possibilities, and
screen ideas generated with regard to
market opportunities, etc.
Recommended
Participants
in Above Actions
1. EPA, PSIA, API, chemical, textile
and other product producers, and
contract research 'organizations.
2. EPA and contract research organiza-
tions.
Comments
on Other
Actions Considered
Investigation of alternative methods
of separating paper fibers in paper-
stock has been a continuing challenge
for paper and paperboard producers
and their representatives on TAPPI
committees.
-------
140
TABLE 35. LOWER PRIORITY PAPER RECYCLING PROBLEMS AND RECOMMENDED ACTIONS
Problem Area
' Increasing Contaminants
High Costs of-;
Transportation
Action
Recommendations
1. Develop inks, coatings, adhesives,
etc., which do not inhibit recycling
for use in printing and conversion
of paper and paperboard.
2. Improve techniques for segrega-
tion and sorting of waste paper
and paperstock at all appropriate
levels.
3. Develop improved methods of
cleaning and de-inking and/or
coping with contaminants at'the
user level.
1. Encourage establishment of
freight rates favorable to
expansion of recycling of waste-
paper and paperstock.
2. Push'for economic.incentives
to dealers or processors to
increase recycling by offsetting
the high costs of overseas
shipments now restricting
exporting.
3. Investigate technical and
economic feasibility, of
producing "market pulp" from
paperstock.
Recommended
Participants
In Above Actions(a)
Comments
on Other Actions
Considered
1. EPA and ink and adhesive's
manufacturers, etc.
2. EPA, equipment manufacturers
and contract research organiza-
tions. ,, .
3. EPA, PSIA, paper and paperboard
producers, API, BRDA. -and contract
research organizations. . •
1. EPA, NASMI, and paperstock
dealer's and processors.
2. EPA, NASMI, paperstock
dealers and processors.
3. PSIA, EPA, and 3RDA.
Efforts to encourage legislation
to penalize producers or users
of contaminating materials may
be unrewarding. If such legisla-
tion were enacted, difficulties
in administering and enforcing it
would limit its favorable effect
on recycling. However, the
possibility of such legislation
may encourage industry to give
priority to other alternatives.
The development of more
economical means of transporting
waste paper and paperstock may
be too large and broad an
objective for the paperstock
industry alone. Efforts are
already being made.by others in
this general direction.
(a) It is suggested that NASMI continue its leading role in recycling, recognizing that other
organizations such as Department of Commerce, Council of Environmental Quality,.HEW Office
of Information, and State, Local, and Federal Legislatures must also be involved.
-------
TABLE 35. LOWER PRIORITY PAPER RECYCLING PROBLEMS AND RECOMMENDED
ACTIONS (Continued)
Problem Area
Action
Reconunendat ions
Operational Problems
1. Develop better cleaning processes and/or conduct
programs to identify markets for residual
wastes generated in the process of cleaning
or deinking paperstock by users; then
conduct technical and economic feasibility
studies.
2. Assemble reliable bodies of
statistical data comparing economics ;
of using secondary fibers and virgin ,
fibers.
3; Conduct industrial engineering studies
aimed at optimizing the handling and
processing of wastepaper and paperstock.
Recommended
Participants
in Above Actions(a)
Comments
on Other Actions
Considered
1. PSIA, paper and paperboard
producers and contract research
organizations.
2. PSIA, combination paperboard
producers and other present users
of both secondary and virgin fibers,
3. PSIA
The thought of developing incentives
for labor may be too
large and broad an objective for the
paperstock industry alone. Others in
government and other industries are
Already working on this problem.
Their success may prove to be beneficial
to the paperstock industry. No actions to
attract more management personnel were
identified during the study.
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Discussion of High Priority Problem Areas
and Recommended Actions
Relatively Declining Demand for Products
Made from Paperstock
The following three factors contribute to the broad problem of
relatively declining demand for products made from paperstock:
!
(1) Relatively declining demand for combination paperboard,
: . (••..•
which is a major consumer of paperstock
(2) Increasing demand, for paper and paperboard made from virgin
fibers, especially for applications where high strength is
required
(3) Over packaging (use of virgin fiber containers where secondary
fiber containers would suffice) to enhance the marketability of
products.
I
All of these factors are interrelated. The trend away from the use
of paperstock in paperboard and in major grades of paper is illustrated in
Table 17 in this report. This trend is well established and likely to be
i i
difficult to reverse.
The position of paper companies integrated backward into pulp producing
facilities and woodlands tends to be a further constraint on a major shift back
to use of secondary fibers. The position of these producers is strong and appears
likely to become stronger, in view of planned capacity increases and improving
i
technology. i
The properties of secondary fibers have 'gained strong acceptance in some
i ,
applications, but certainly not for all. In contrast, there has been inadequate
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demonstration and promotion of the desirability of secondary fibers for
appropriate applications.
Overpackaging (or the use of virgin fiber products in applications
in which secondary fiber products might be adequate) is both a symptom and a
cause of the overall problem — and a result of affluence, psychological factors,
and improving economics of virgin paper products, plus good merchandising by
virgin fiber product producers.
The problems and factors described above combine to make relatively
declining demand a major constraint on efforts to increase recycling of waste
paper. Without a corresponding increase in demand, an increase in supply
serves merely to depress prices.
Evaluation of Remedial Actions. The following actions were considered
as possible solutions to the problem of declining demand for products made from
paperstock:
(1) Improve techniques for making paper, board, and converted
products from paperstock so they will be more competitive
with those made from virgin fibers
(2) Develop strategies to increase acceptance of these products
(3) Develop educational programs to offset the stigma associated
with recycled products
(4) Determine the economic impact and various other impacts of
legislation to restrict the use of virgin fibers
(5) Provide incentives for paper companies to invest in new
capacity to use secondary fibers or resume use of idle
capacity
(6) Encourage the government and others to specify products made
from recycled paper.
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The appearance and physical properties of some grades of paper and
board made from secondary fibers are less desirable to users than the correspond-
ing characteristics of competitively priced paper and board made from virgin
fibers. On the other hand, improved characteristics and/or economics for
products made from secondary fibers could result from research efforts in one or
all of the following areas: (a) processing of fibers preparatory to papermaking,
(b) the papermaking process itself, and (c) converting operations, such as
off-machine coating. Consequently, research to improve techniques for making
paper, paperboard, and converted products from secondary fibers appear worth
pursuing. Actually, such research represents a continuation and extention of
research already being conducted by paperstock users and converters of paperstock
products to improve their products.
The development of strategy and educational programs to increase
acceptance of products made from recycled paper represents a continuing challenge
to marketing and merchandising personnel in integrated mills tied to captive
paperstock sources as well as to PSIA. Appeals to public concern with ecology
should be more effective than traditional techniques for increasing product
acceptance.
Of all the activities considered in response to the general problem
of declining demand, activities to encourage government and other influential
purchasers to specify products made from recycled paper and board promise the
quickest and most dramatic, if not the greatest, results. These activities have
already been initiated by NASMI and some results have already been achieved, as
indicated earlier in this report. The most immediate impact of these activities
will be on demand for recycled paper rather than combination paperboard, since
government agencies buy relatively more paper products than paperboard products.
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However, government agencies also might be able to encourage the use of secondary
fibers in the packaging of items which they buy.
The possible impacts of legislation to restrict use of virgin fibers
or to provide incentives for greater use of production capacity for secondary .
fiber products should be carefully studied before any such legislation is proposed.
The total cost to society of second-order and third-order impacts as well as
first-order impacts of such legislation should be carefully considered to assure
that new problems are not created in an attempt to solve existing problems.
Furthermore, any such legislation, which favors one industry group at the expense
of another industry group, is likely to be subject to considerable debate before
conclusions are reached that are fair to all parties concerned.
Recommended Actions and Participants. It appears that the greatest
benefits to recycling will accure from emphasizing the following activities:
• Technical research to improve products made from paperstock
and/or decrease costs
• Development of strategies and educational programs to
increase acceptance of products made from paperstock
.» Adoption of nondescriminatory purchasing specifications by
government agencies and others.
As already indicated, worthwhile areas for technical research would include:
(a) processing of fibers preparatory to papermaking, (b) the papermaking process,
and (c) converting processes. Battelle recommends a close examination of each
of these areas to identify specific research possibilities and to select the
most promising alternatives. Examples of research that might produce beneficial
results include:
• Work to improve cleaning and deinking processes for paperstock
0 The development of special papermaking processes to utilize
paperstock near sources of supply, such as major metropolitan areas
(such mills probably would have relatively small capacities and may use
air-forming or low-moisture processes)
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• The development of low-cost coatings and/or coating methods
that would allow upgrading of the appearance of solid paperboard
made from secondary fibers. \
i ,
Research on papermaking processes is likely to involve higher riisk and
require a longer time and higher level of funding than research on either fiber
preparation or converting. Research on dry-or low-moisture papermaking involves
processes that would be more revolutionary than those likely to be considered in
fiber preparation and converting areas.
While the major responsibility for technical research to improve
characteristics of primary and end products made from paperstock rests with
i
producers of these products, government participation through the medium, for
example, of EPA grants would help to expand these efforts. Joint action
initiated by producers with organizations such as the American Paper Institute,
PSIA:; Boxboard Research and Development Association,
The Institute'of Paper
Chemistry, and TAPPI could also result in expanded research efforts.
The development of strategies and educational programs is the
responsibility of paper companies, particularly those integrated producers with
captive paperstock suppliers and converting operations. However, joint action
on such programs with the PSIA also appears feasible.
In the short term, the most promising activity appears to be the
encouragement of the government and others to specific paper made using recycled
fibers. Such actions can best be taken by NASMI as a continuing public relations
effort in conjunction with efforts to increase the recycling of other
commodities.
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146
Erratic Demand for Paperstfock
A number of related factors contribute to the erratic demand for
paperstock. The basic problem and related factors include:
(1) Paperstock demand fluctuates as demand for paper, board, and/or
converted products fluctuates; mill shutdowns in the summer
increase the seasonal variations in demand
(2) Mills are reluctant to carry extensive paperstock inventories \
; \ . •
(3) Paperstock is perishable and hazardous to handle and store
(4) Space for storage of paperstock is both limited and costly
(5) Some collectors .go out of business when demand is low.
Factors (2) through (4) contribute in the erratic demand and are unfavorable to
actions that might otherwise minimize the effects of erratic demand on generators
and collectors of wastepaper.
Because of the high seasonality factors in the end products made 'from
paperstock, it is'unlikely that demands can be effectively stabilized throughout
the year. At best, remedial activities can only be expected to minimize some of
'. •' ' '
the worst effects of the fluctuations in demand for paperstock.
Evaluation of Remedial Actions. The following were identified during the
study as actions that might be suitable for minimizing the erratic nature of the
demand for paperstock:
(1) Improve methods of compacting and hogging paperstock so as to
conserve storage space
(2) Investigate techniques for palletizing wastepaper or paperstock
(3) Encourage negotiation of longer-term contracts for paperstock
(4) Provide incentives for increased warehousing by processors and
users
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147
(5) Encourage the Government to stockpile .paperstock.
The first two activities listed above would be the subject of research.,and
development projects, while several of the remaining activities entail^the need
for economic research to evaluate the feasibility of the actions.
Improved methods of compacting and hogging wastepaper as well as methods
of producing high-density, wastepaper pellets would allow storage of greater amounts
of wastepaper in a given space, and generally would improve the economics of
warehousing paperstock.
The negotiation of longer-term contracts for paperstock would allow
collectors as well as generators of wastepaper to plan further ahead and thus '.
somewhat reduce the risks in handling wastepaper or paperstock.
Economic incentive programs to .increase warehousing of paperstock by
processors and users are likely to face major administrative problems because of
the large number of companies that would have to be involved .to make suc.h programs
effective. A lack of homogeneity in paperstock and problems in grading, paperstock
uniformly are other pbstacles to effect administration of a stockpiling, effort.
Recommended Actions and Participants. Consideration of the f.oregoing
alternatives suggests that greatest benefits to recycling would accrue from
efforts to:
e Improve methods of compacting, hogging, and pelletizing
wastepaper and paperstock
• Encourage negotiation of longer-term contracts for .purchase of
paperstock.
: • ' " ' ' ' i
Equipment manufacturers are the logical ones to take the initiative in developing
improved methods of compacting, hogging, and pelletizing, but support from EPA
'may be necessary to encourage such efforts. Paperstock dealers and;PSIA are the
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148
logical parties to undertake efforts to encourage negotiation ot longer-term
contracts .
Lack of New Products Made from
Paper stock
It has been felt by many authorities in the paperstock industry that
successful development of new products made from paperstock is the only way to
materially increase recycling. Because new product opportunities currently are
limited and because demand for paperstock for current applications has an upper
limit, oversupplies in bulk grades of paperstock merely add to the solid waste
problem.
The need for new products becomes more urgent as existing markets for
products made from paperstock decline and supplies of wastepaper increase.
Recycling using existing technologies may not be able to absorb increasing
quantities of the bulk grades of wastepaper generated. The only major new use
for paperstock developed in the past decade has been as raw material for newsprint
de-inking mills.
Evaluation of Remedial Actions. The following actions aimed at remedying
the lack of new products became apparent during the research program:
(1) Investigate the possibility of combining bulk wastepaper
with waste textiles to produce new materials
(2) Investigate the possibility of combining wastepaper with
lignins or tall oil to produce new materials
(3) Investigate alternative methods of separating paper fibers
in wastepaper
(4) Screen all new product ideas as to market feasibility
' before launching extensive technical research.
-a. *. A
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The combining of textile waste with wastepaper would be highly desirable
because success in this effort would contribute to solving two environmental
problems simultaneously by using both wastepaper and textile wastes. Possible
new products in this area would include industrial wiping rags as well as
other product applications for which recently commercialized non-woven fabric
technologies are currently competing.
Investigating the possibilities of combining wastepaper with lignins
or tall oil is suggested as a starting point of a more broad investigation to
determine the feasibility of combining wastepapers with still other materials.
A reasonable way to start such efforts for utilizing wastepaper would
be to conduct idea generation sessions aimed at identifying new product possibil-
ities. Such sessions should include persons who are well versed in the chemistry
and physical properties of the materials in question. The results of such idea
generation sessions should be carefully screened, and market and feasibility
investigations should be undertaken for the most promising of the opportunities
identified.
Limited idea generation sessions held at Battelle during the s tudy
produced candidate applications such as the following:
• Insulation materials
• Paving materials
0 Door cores
• Particleboard
0 Fuel products (logs, etc.)
• Animal feeds
• Concrete forms
e Concrete underlayers
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150
• Structural members
• Land stabilizers
• Oil slick controls
• Ship canal seepage controls.
1
An investigation of alternative methods of separating paper fibers in
paperstock could be of benefit by producing either higher quality fibers or
lower cost fibers than are currently available. The availability of higher
quality or lower cost fibers might encourage use of secondary fibers for some
applications from which they might otherwise be excluded. Investigations of this type
have been carried on in the past by paper and paperboard producers and to date ^aye not
been fruitful. However, Special technologies, such as those associated with ultrasonic
or lasers, may have application here. i
Recommended Actions and Participants. The following appear to be the
most promising of the alternatives considered:
• Undertake technical and economic research on the feasibility
of combining wastepaper with textile wastes and other materials
to produce useful new materials or end products
• Conduct idea generation sessions to identify new product
possibilities, screen the ideas generated with regard to
market potential, and conduct feasibility studies for most
promising opportunities.
Logical organizations to become involved in the first of these two alternatives
include EPA; PSIA; API; producers of chemicals, textiles, and other products;
and contract research organizations. EPA and contract research organizations
are probably the most likely participants in the second of the two alternatives.
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Discussion of Lower Priority Problems
and Recommended Actions
Increasing Contaminants
Important aspects of the general problem of increasing contaminants
include the following:
(1) The development and use of new coatings, laminations, adhesives,
etc., over recent years have introduced more contaminating
elements into paper and paperboard products.
(2) The high costs of sorting and dependence on hand labor increase
the impact of this proliferation of contaminants.
(3) Most generators are unfamiliar with the problems created, for
paperstock users by contaminants.
(4) Most generators have not been motivated to cooperate with the
paperstock industry.
(5) Users of paperstock often impose extraordinary demands on
suppliers or question reliability of supplies and the suppliers.
The overriding problem of increasing contaminants in wastepaper is a
result of product development efforts over the past two decades by paper product
producers, converters, and their suppliers. The high costs of sorting and the
dependence on hand labor to remove contaminants from wastepaper tend to compound
this problem. The limited cooperation offered by generators stems principally
from a lack of interest in the waste business and their unfamiliarity with the
needs of the markets for paperstock.
i '
Evaluation of Remedial Actions. Major actions considered during the
study as ways of combating the presence of increasing contaminants in paperstock
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152
were:
(1) Develop inks, coatings, adhesives, etc., which do not
inhibit recycling of the paper and board on which they are
used
(2) Improve techniques for segregating wastepaper at the generator
level
(3) Improve techniques for sorting wastepaper at all levels
(4) Improved methods for cleaning and de-inking at the user
level
(5) Consider legislation to penalize producers or users of
contaminating materials.
All but the last of the abovementioned activities would require some
type of technical research and development effort. Considering the first alterna-
tive, some progress has already been made in developing water soluble materials
which do not contaminate wastepaper as seriously as do some of the adhesives a;nd
inks more commonly used. However, much more must be done if this constraint
is to be minimized. Obviously, the achievement of success in developing non-
contaminating products would reduce the urgency of undertaking work on the other
alternatives suggested above.
The second through the fourth of the recommended actions would increase
the capabilities of the paperstock industry and users to cope with contaminants.
Efforts to encourage legislation that would penalize producers or users
of contaminating materials are likely to meet significant resistance and would
only tend to increase the cost or decrease the performance of paper and paperboard
products if suitable non-contaminating alternatives were not available. If
legislation were enacted, difficulties in administering and enforcing it probably
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would limit its favorable effect on recycling. However, the possibility of such
legislation may encourage industry to give greater emphasis to other alternative
actions ''
Recommended Actions and Participants. Because it is unlikely that any one
of the alternatives just discussed will be completely successful in eliminating
the impact of contaminants, it is recommended that all of the following alternatives
be pursued:
e Develop inks, coatings, adhesives, etc., which do not
inhibit recycling to be used in printing and conversion
operations
• Improve the techniques for segregating and sorting wastepaper
and paperstock at all appropriate levels
• Develop improved method of cleaning and de-inking and/or
coping with the contaminants at the user level.*
The development of products which do not inhibit recycling most logically
would be undertaken by producers of the offending inks, adhesives, etc. Because
of the urgency of the need, some support for this type of activity by EPA is
indicated.
The initiative for developing equipment for segregating and sorting
wastepaper logically falls to equipment manufacturers who might draw upon their
own research and development capabilities as well as upon outside capabilities.
Again, support from EPA'would expedite these activities, since equipment
manufacturers otherwise :might not be sufficiently motivated to undertake such
development efforts.
* Actions of this type was .previously recommended to help solve the general
problem of declining demand because of the relationship between contaminants
and product quality, which in turn affects the competitive position of
products made from paperstock.
36
1
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154
Activities to improve methods of cleaning and de-inking should be
continued and expanded by present users of paperstock with inputs from API,
BRDA, and PSIA. Again, EPA aid would stimulate such activities. In some casies,
paper mills have been able to cope with contamination by introducing additives
that conceal or otherwide neutralize the effects of contaminants. Further
investigation of this approach is suggested. '
High Costs of Transportation
The following problems contribute to the general problem of high
transportation costs:
(1) Low value of wastepaper relative to its bulk and weight
(2) Location of important wastepaper sources distant from
major users
(3) Variations in local supply/demand situations, which increa
the difficulty of establishing broad national policies
(4) Difficulties in exporting.
the first three of these problems broadly constrain recycling, whil.e
the last problem has impact primarily on collectors, dealers, and processors of
paperstock. All of these problems relate to the basic problem of the need to
move wastepaper and paperstock, commodities with relatively low value in relation
to weight and bulk, from points of generation and processing to points where it can
be used. Locations of wastepaper sources vary as a function of population and
business concentration, while potential users (primarily paper mills) often are
located close to sources of virgin raw materials.
137
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155
Regional differences tended to compound the overriding problem,
t ,' i
i ' •
since these differences increase the difficulty of identifying broad remedial
' ' /
activities that can be undertaken on a nationwide basi's.
i '
i ; •
The "red tape" and delays in making export shipments tend to cqmpound
i '. /
the associated problem of high costs of overseas movement of paperstock.
/
Evaluation of Remedial Action. The following activities were considered
/ i*
' i
"irTresponse, to the general problem of high transportation costs:
(1) Develop more economical means of .transporting wastepaper
' , T •
and paperstock j
•' ' !
' ' i i '
(2) Consider establishment of freight rates more favorable to
•' i I •
shippers of wastepaper and paperstock
(3) Consider subsidies to dealers or processorsjto offset high
I /
costs of overseas shipments ' ; ? ;
(4) Consider feasibility of producing "market pulp" from
paperstock. . < j
The need for more economical means of transportation, of course,
i /
extends to many other areas in addition to the paperstock industry, and any
I
general satisfaction of this need would be beneficial to the oaperstock industry.
Some of the actions already recommended to solve the problem of erratic demand,
such as developing improved methods of compacting, hogging,1 and pelletizing
wastepaper and paperstock,', would also have some benefit/in/the transportation
area, since increasing the(density of paperstock would/allow more efficient
utilization of transportation resources. Also, the development of new paper-
\ i /
making processes that could', economically use secondary fibers would allow reduced
/ i
transportation costs if paper mills using secondary fibers ,were located near
' I '. / / ;
large sources.of wastepaper. .
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156
The establishment of lover freight rates for vastepaper and
paperstock as well as subsidizing overseas shipments should help to increase
utilization of solid waste. Actions to improve the economics of exporting
could offset some of the difficulties caused by two other problems now
seriously constraining recycling — declining domestic markets and the lack
of products made from paperstock. The establishment of strong export markets might
also tend to attenuate some of the wide swings that currently occur in demand
for paperstock. Of course, shipping wastepaper overseas would improve the global
balance of recycling but would not contribute directly to raising the recycling
rate in the United States.
Activities aimed at establishing export subsidies and freight rates
more favorable to shippers of paperstock are likely to meet resistance. Changes in
freight rates and establishment of export subsidies should be preceeded by careful
analyses and should be made only if these analyses confirm that the desired benefits
will be produced at acceptable costs in terms of primary and secondary effects of
such changes.
The NASMI Commodity Committee indicated that past attempts to sell
market pulp in the United States had not been particularly successful. However,
a trade paper article published subsequent to the Commodity Committee meeting
suggested that sale of market pulp in the export market might be attractive
because of transportation cost savings1from the denser bales and because some.
foreign mills do not have facilities for processing paperstock into suitable
pulps.* Consequently, Battelie recommends further investigation of the feasibility
of this alternative.
* "Recycling: Movements in Overseas Markets", Fibre Market News, June 2, 1971, p. 6-7
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157
Recommended Actions and Participants. Actions already
recommended to Investigate the feasibility.of new papermaking processes
(to help .solve the problem of declining demand) -and to develop improved methods of
compacting paperstock (as a solution to the problem.of erratic demand) could
help to reduce transportation costs. In addition, the following act-ions that
could be .beneficial to transportation costs are recommended:
• Encourage establishment of freight rates favorable to
expansion of recycling ,of wastepaper and paperstock
.- .• Encourage subsidies to offset the high costs .of overseas ship-
ments
• Investigate the technical and economic feasibility o^f producing
market pulp from paperstock.
Activities pointed .toward establishment of favorable freight rates,.and
f
.subsidies to dealers for overseas shipments most logically^would be conducted .-by
-NASMI and paperstock dealers.and processors. Any actions of this type should be
proceeded by detailed studies that would -quantify the costs and bene-flts of such
actions ;and confirm or refute the desirability of undertaking specific actions.
Such studies could be conducted ,or funded by EPA.
A study of the feasibility of producing market pulp logically should
be authorized by PSIA, possibly with support from EPA and/or BRDA.
Operational Problems
A number of the problems constraining recycling may be classified ,as
operational problems of the paperstock industry or the industries using paperstock.
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158
These include:
(1) Absenteeism and unavailability of labor in many areas at the
wage rates usually offered for processing wastepaper
(2) Environmental pollution resulting from use of paperstock
(3) Inadequate economic analyses to support substitution of
paperstock for virgin fibers
(4) The poor image of the paperstock industry in the past
(5) The relatively small size of many organizations in the paper-
stock industry
(6) Excessive loss of time by dealers' trucks at generator and user
locations
(7) High cost of baling equipment and related space in paperstock
processing operations
(8) Users appraisals that risks in using paperstock often are high
because of limited liability of dealers
(9) Growing competition for the assistance of charitable organizations
that collect wastepaper
(10) Changing philosophies in user organizations that tend to limit
the flexibility of their negotiations with dealers
(11) Need for temporary retention of wastepaper by some financial
organizations and government agencies
(12) Management decisions (that are often difficult to reverse) to
incinerate wastes.
Some of these problems are broad in impact, while others primarily affect the
actions and plans of selected generators, dealer/processors, or users.
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159
Considering'the^problems individually, :it becomes apparent that the
paperstock industry&problem of absenteeism*and unavailability of labor is also a
problem of ;>many other - industries as well. 'Thus,ir the solution to 'thi'sj/problem
may very we'll ^hinge ?on the success ,:of others ins Indus try^and .in "gover.nmentti.who
are attacking it. ., ;
. i - . .
Mater ""pollution can *be eaused~by*the Residues left -after 'delinking and
otherwise^pcoces^tngf'paper-stock. ^Thi'svpPoblemi-oari>be^8erious:^tottheKextent vthat
enforcement of -.pollution control ^-standards -makes ." it uneconomic "for. paperstock
l
i
users to operate. In such situations, the costs to society of the resulting water
^pollution ^versus the solid waste problem must be evaluated in the light of various
alternatives available- ;
• -' " ••' • -. : 1 •
The lack of adequate comparative figures to support the favprable
i
economics of using paper.stock is, to a large degree, arsymptom of past apathy
.on the part of users about this^subject. Further, this lack of data reflects
the understandable 'inadequacy of-promotional .effort,4whichrhas "been both a'cause and
a result of^the less-than-glamorous image of-'the "wastepaper^or ^paperstock
industry ;in the-past-
'A prime > cause of 'in'ade:quate ! promotional '.and public irelations ; efforts ,
however, ;has been:'the -relativelyIsmail -size sbf 4dealer-/pr,oeessor -organizations
.and the resulting fragmentation of their effort.
The image'xof the .paper-stock industry has :been'matertally .improved in
recent vyears through'.the conscientious ^ef forts of both .fche ;:Eaper,stock Institute
•of America ..'and rthe ;'Paper'stoek.Conservation Committee, a division rbf The American
''Paper'JtInstitute. '.Over^ the past year, »these :-efforts have -successfully been
focused upon an audlenee^ that Is '(much-more^conscious of ecototgical issues and,
. - -i »
thetefore, .more receptive to .such promotion.
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160
Certain other operational problems, such as the unnecessary tieup of
dealers' trucks at generators and mills, may be ameliorated to some degree by
the strengthening of dealers' bargaining power through merger or some other
action. No clear solution is visualized for the problem of limited liability of
dealers, as expressed by users. Until wastepaper processing technology improves,
paperstock will continue to be an "imperfect" product, so that the liability for
all of the risks in its use cannot logically be assumed by the supplying dealers.
Solutions to the remaining operational problems listed, specifically
costs of equipment, competition for activities of collectors, changing philosophies
and the need for temporary retention of wastepaper by some generators, are not
clearly apparent at this time.
Evaluation of Remedial Actions. The following possible actions were
suggested or identified in response to the broad family of operational problems
constraining recycling:
(1) Develop incentives to attract more and better labor and
management level personnel into the paperstock industry
(2) Develop improved cleaning processes and/or new uses for the wastes
generated in cleaning and de-inking paperstock
(3) Compile accurate data on the economics of using virgin versu«
secondary fibers for promising potential secondary fiber
applications
(4) Consider the possibility of merging relatively small dealer/
processor organizations into fewer large firms having greater
bargaining power and greater capabilities
(5) Conduct industrial engineering studies aimed at optimizing
the handling and processing of wastepaper and paperstock from the
time it is generated until the time it is reused.
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As jpreyipusly nojtgd, ..problems of .absenteeism .and labor shpritages for
jobs of low skill .are shared .with other industries. Aside from .underitaking the
obvious actions £o make such jobs as attrjictiye -as ,poj5sible, the pap.ers,tock
industry pr,obaj*ly must rely $n the results .of jnpre |)r^oad programs 4being under-
taker. by othejrs in industry .and go^etjnmejnt . 'Ihe changes in welf ajre ^pgrjims
presently .under study .event.uall..y ^may /have -jorne impact in jtlris jrea. jRecruiting
of management J.,eyel Mpje.rspjmel ;is >yie_wed ,as .an indiyidujl Company >prp,bj.jem, ..and ,no
- ( . . - . i
appropriate actions .iby^EglA or jEPA to .s.ojl^e this (prpblem <,wer.e : idjent:i-Mjed ^during
the study. .
Re,search is called for to minimize .water , or air .ponut ion by ;wastes
.generated in cleaning or using :paperstock. .Also, disposition of unav^pidable wastes in
* ' i . ' •
a way that they dp ,not .add to .Rollutipn :but instead -faypr ably affect.,jthe econpmics ;of
using .papers tpck is a (highly ..de.sir.ab.le .goal .
-The cpmpilatipn ,of jacciurate id&ta on fche .c.pmpjirati'Ke costs .of iUs
virgjLn >and .secondary fibers is also highly - •des.ir.ab.le . Withput such information
it is difficult fp.r .paperstpc.k dealers and processors to direct their- marketing
^'
effo.rts ,and for interested .parties to select .Ipngerrtenn re^s^arch and develop-
ment .ef forts leading to greater ut i l^i zat ion ,of ,p,aper stock in ibpth current and
new applications.
Consideration of the >possibilit:y .of . merging. small 4eale.r/processor
organizations into larger firms logic al ly .should be the -responsibility of the
particular companies that might be iny,olved in .Sguch .actions. Merger candidates
,o,byipus.ly will want 5 to ,giye .cat-e-f.ul consideratipn to their, :pr,esent capabilities
'' '
AS separate .organizations .versus the cpmbined c^apabiliti^es resulting from
merger, .as well as to a large .nimiber of other factors.
"••-•/t
A; • J
-------
162
Conducting industrial engineering studies aimed at optimizing
handling and processing of wastepaper and paperstock seems particularly
appropriate to some type of central sponsorship in view of the highly fragmented
nature of the paperstock industry and the diversity of its sources and the users
of paperstock. Few of the participants in the paperstock industry have the
resources or coverage to undertake such studies on an individual basis, yet
benefits are likely to accrue to society and to the industry from a study to
optimize handling and processing of various kinds of paperstock. Any lowering of
6perating costs could allow lower selling prices(which in turn could stimulate
markets)and greater cash flows (which could provide funds for new investments
in market development efforts and equipment).
Recommended Actions and Participants. The greatest benefits to recycling
appear likely to accrue from the following:
• Develop improved cleaning processes as needed and/or conduct idea
generation sessions and programs to identify markets for wastes
generated when cleaning or de-inking paperstock; then, conduct
feasibility studies for promising applications
• Assemble reliable bodies of data comparing the economics of
using secondary and virgin fibers in various applications
• Conduct industrial engineering studies aimed at optimizing the
handling and processing of wastepaper and paperstock from the
time it is generated until the time it is reused.
Studies to identify and evaluate new markets for wastes geneiated in
processing paperstock logically falls in the province of paper and paperboard
producers and possibly also PSIA. Efforts to develop improved cleaning processes
have already been discussed as solutions to previously-mentioned problems.
£05
-------
163
s;. to; acAumulatgf epmparatiYe; costs: of using virgin and
secondary- fibers could be initiated by PSIA but would require close
cooperation- from appropriate, p.ape.rt and' paper-boardproducers;.. Paper companies
with captive paperstq.ck dealer organizations., would- bej- in< a;,particularly, good;
position to participate in such a-program. The work-would, be purely of an
internal nature and, would-involve.assembly of data, at representative mfelIs in
different pacts? of the;, country;?, op^er at ing,, under;, different, se£st of, ciTcum.stanceS;.
Industrial engineering studies to optimize! handling and processing of
wastepaper logically,., sho,Urld^be initiated: by,-, PS.IA,, possibly,-w,ith funding; by EPA.
-------
APPENDIX A
NEW GSA DEFINITION FOR RECLAIMED FIBER
Part I
A. Paper, paperboard, and fibrous wastes from factories, retail
stores, office buildings, homes, etc., after they have passed through their
end-usage as a consumer item including:
' • Used corrugated boxes
• Old newspapers
• Old magazines
• Mixed waste paper
• Tabulating
• Used cordage
B. All paper, paperboard, and fibrous wastes that enter and are
collected from municipal waste.
Part II
A. Dry paper and paperboard waste generated after completion of the
papennaking process* including:
• Envelope cuttings, bindery trimmings and other paper and papei:-
board waste, resulting from printing, cutting, forming, and other converting
operations
• Envelope cuttings, bindery trimmings and other paper and paper-
board waste, resulting from printing, cutting, forming, and
other converting operations
• Bag, box, and carton manufacturing wastes
• Butt rolls, mill wrappers, and rejected unused stock
* The papermaking process is defined as those manufacturing operations up to
and including the cutting and trimming of the paper machine reel into
smaller rolls or rough sheets.
-------
B. Finished paper and paperbpard from p.bsplete; inventories of paper
and p|ipgr.:m_er.C:b|u^ts,>. wholesalers^, dealers, printers, converters
or others.
C. Fibrous by-products of harvesting, manufacturing, extractive, or
»'
wood-cutting pr.pces.ses, flax- straw, lirttej-s, bagassie, slash and other-, forest
residues.
Di Wast.e geneiatedvVib.y, the cpnyersipn of. goods: made: from fibrous
materials., l.e> , waste-ro,pjer frqmj. cp.rdage,,manufacture,, textile-.mill, waste and
cuttings/.
E. Fibers rec.pvftred, from waste water which otherwise would enter
the waste stream.
S.OS.
-------
APPENDIX B
ACTIVITIES CONSIDERED TO REDUCE
CONSTRAINTS ON RECYCLING
A great many potential activities or actions which might be undertaken
I
in response to problems or factors constraining the recycling of paper were sug-
gested or identified during the literature search, indepth survey-,- and analysis
phases of the study. Clearly, much has been written and many viewpoints have
been expressed in industry gatherings as to how recycling might be increased.
Further, most people interviewed during the course of the .indepth survey were qu:Lte
articulate in stating their ideas on the subject. Ideas suggested by persons
interviewed and ideas identified during the literature search and analysis, alonjj
with others advanced in idea generation sessions at Battelle, are presented in
t
this appendix. The proposed actions or activities are classified under one of
three general headings:
(1) Technical research and development
(2) New product research and development
(3) Economic and marketing research and development.
The general definitions of each of these headings, and the activities
considered under each, are included in the following sections.
Technical Research and Development
The research activities listed hereunder all tend to fall into the
general areas of processing of wastepaper and paperstock, production of products
presently made from paperstock,or production of end products presently made from
materials in which paperstock is used. (It should be noted that by definition
paperstock is wastepaper that has been processed to some degree so as to make it
suitable for marketing to users.)
£€9
-------
B-2
Improve the Techniques for Segregation
of Wastepaper at the Generator Level
Segregation means keeping various forms of wastepaper separate at the
source so that they do not become mixed. This is now accomplished in establish-
i
ments of big generators through the medium of vacuum duct systems or .in smaller
organizations through simple hand segregation activities. If more reliable and
less costly means of separating waste paper grades at the generator level can be
developed and widely implemented, problems of contamination and the need for
subsequent sorting will be minimized.
Improve Techniques ffor Sorting .at
Processor and User .Levels
Any technologies that will minimize the need for manual sonting and the
continuing need to make decisions will improve the economics of recycling. The
need to make decisions, imposed on workers with low levels of intelligence and
interests, is one of the principal reasons for the difficulties in maintaining
consistency of pape.rstock quality. Some electromechanical means of separating
types of wastepaper in a mixed bale or basket could have broad application.
Develop More Economical Methods of Compacting and
Hogging for Use at the Generator and Processor Levels
The goal should be to make bales at a maximum density -- perhaps several
times the density now achieved -- without danger that the bales will break.
The obvious merit in developing methods of maximum compaction is the saving in
space achieved in storage and in shipment.
£1*;
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B-3
Investigate Techniques for Pelletizine Either
Unsorted Wastepaper. or Hleh Grades of Paperstock
Some work hag already been done In this area, but not with recognizable
success. Again, the major belief it of pelletifcing lies in saving space.
Develop Means £t»f Producing "Market Pjulp" From
Either Unaorted,Was.tepajjex or. .High Grades of Paperstock
The assumption is that generators or processors, who now only sort, Hog,
and bale paperstbck in a dry form, would engage in the activity of manufacturing
pulp by some fortd of wet process and then market the resulting pulp to users.
With the development of the necessary technologies would come some specialization
on the part of processors. Processors would tend to make grades of pulp appropriate
to different markets that they might serve.
Develop Impxoveil..Me.thods .for Cleaning
Paperstbck .at the Using Mill Level
the freedom of mills to use more contaminated or lower grades of papers Lock
with less risk would come with improved cleaning methods. The improved cleaning
equipment should have the capability to isolate plastics, wet strength paper,
carbon papers, hot melts, etc.
Develop Improved Methods of De-Inking Paperstock So.TheLre
Are No Evidences of Residual Gray in the Final Furnish
The efforts by Garden State Paper Company in de-inking old news are
well known, but further research could be directed toward reducing the cost of
news de-inking and improving the appearance of other grades of paper made from
de-inked paperstock.
-------
B»4
Develop Products Used in Printing or Conversion
of Paper and Paper-board --Inks. Adhesives. Goat inks.
Etc. — Which Do Not Inhibit Recycling
Efforts are already being made along these lines, but much still remains
to be done. If the present forms of such products are modified so they no longer
contaminate paperstock, obviously the need for segregation, .sorting, and tcleaning
will be minimized. Any developmental efforts along these lines should take into
consideration the continuing need to .protect 'the environment from new for-ms of .
pollution. Reportedly, the manufacture of one new water-soluble ink creates an
air pollution problem which does not result from manufacture of regular inks.
Investigate Alternative Methods of Separation
of Paper Fibers in Wastepaper:
The idea of treating wastepaper with jets of steam, as differentiated
from regular pulping methods, has been suggested.
Investigate the Feasibility of Combining Waste
Lignins or Tall Oil Pitch Residues With Wastepaper
So That These Added Materials May Serve Simply.as
Binders in the Production of Possible NonAesthetic 'Products
This thought .suggests eliminating the need for breaking wastepaper down
into basic fibers, as is done in conventional production of paper and paperboard.
Investigate the Possibility of Combining Nonrecyclable
Textile 'Wastes With Bulk Grades of Wastepaper to Form
New Types of Products in Web Form wi'th Characteristics .Not
Present in Currently Available Grades of Paper or Eaperboard
This thought is similar to that expressed above, with the further hope
that the portions of cotton or other textile fibers in the unrecyclable textiles
would provide the desirable characteristics. Polyester components in such textile
wastes could serve as binding agents.
-------
B-4
Develop Products Used in Printing or Conversion
of Paper and Paperboard — Inks. Adhesives. Coatings.
Etc. — Which Do Not Inhibit Recycling
Efforts are already being made along these lines, but much still remaint
to be done. If the present forms of such products are modified so they no longer
contaminate paperstock, obviously the need for segregation, sorting, and cleaning
will be minimized. Any developmental efforts along these lines should take into
consideration the continuing need to protect the environment from new forms of
i
pollution. Reportedly, the manufacture of one new water-soluble ink creates an
air pollution problem which does not result from manufacture of regular inks.
Investigate Alternative Methods of Separation
of Paper Fibers in Wastepaper
The idea of treating wastepaper with jets of steam, as differentiated
from regular pulping methods, has been suggested.
Investigate the Feasibility of Combining Waste
Lignins or Tall Oil Pitch Residues With Wastepaper
So That These Added Materials May Serve Simply as
Binders in the Production of Possible NonAesthetic Products
This thought suggests eliminating the need for breaking wastepaper down
into basic fibers, as is done in conventional production of paper and paperboard.
Investigate the Possibility of Combining Nonrecyclable
Textile Wastes With Bulk Grades of Wastepaper to Form
New Types of Products in Web Form with Characteristics Not
Present in Currently Available Grades of Paper or Paperboard
This thought is similar to that"expressed above, with the further hope
that the portions of cotton or other textile fibers in the unrecyclable textiles
would provide the desirable characteristics. Polyester components in such textile
wastes could serve as binding agents.
-------
B-6
Develop New. Uses and Markets for the Waste Materials
Generated in the Process of Cleaning Paperstock
While this activity does not involve developing new.market's for paperstock,
the development of markets for the clays, inks, and other residues resulting from
cleaning paperstock will provide revenue or at least reduce the cost 'of disposal
of these residues :foir pfaperst£>ck users arid thereby make the use of paperstock
economically -more^d'e'sirabl'e.
Investigate Possibilities of Increased Use of
Wastepaper for Insulation in Construction
i
Quantities are already being used by such firms as Hagen Industries, but
further research may. open opportunities for more favorable competition with other
insulating materials. , .
*'
Develop a Use for Wastepaper as. a
Component of Paving Materials
Feasibility should be examined as to the possibility of mixing paperstock
with asphalt or concrete or using the material in road bases.
I
i
Develop an Economic Door Core
Material From Wastepaper
Such a material might compete with kraft honeycomb.
Develop a Substitute for Particleboard, (
Now Made From Wood Chips, for Furniture
and Construction Applications
The material, like particleboard, could be subsequently covered with a
plastic laminate.
'U4
<<*..
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B-7
Investigate Potential Use of Wastepaper as Fuel
The possibility of using wastepaper in fabricated fire place logs has
been suggested, but the market does not seem to be large enough to warrant
development. Other fuel applications, such as in industrial steam generation,
however, can be visualized.
Continue Efforts to Make Wastepaper
Into Some og of .Animal Feed
The Boxboard Research and Development Association has done work along
!
these lines in the past but without real success. The limiting factor, thus far,
has been the fact that other forms of feed, like hay, are available at costs well
below the cost of collection and conversion of wastepaper into a suitable food
product.
Investigate Possibility of Using Paperstock
in Combination, Wi{h Other yaste Materials
as a Material for Concrete Forms Which Might
be Removed^ After .1&g._995V:i£%lTe ttos Set or be
Left to Deteriorate
Solid fiber materials are now in use for this application, but the
development of a cheaper wastepaper-based substitute may be feasible.
Develop a Concrete Underlayer Made From
Wastepaper Combined With Other Waste Materials
If impregnated with water resistant materials, this new product might
serve as a substitute for the plastic films currently used in this application.
*•?. ? e"
*'-« A O
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B-8
Develop Structural Members From Wastepaper
Combined With Other Waste Materials
This idea wpuld call for development, as well, of particular ^shapes of
members to provide the necessary strength characteristics.
Investigate Feasibility of Developing Products
Made From Wastepaper Combined With Other Waste
Materials. Possibly Imbedded With Quick Growing
Seed, to Serve as a Land Stabilizer in Areas
Devastated by Strip "'Mining or "Oi'sturbed in"".the
Course of 'Highway Construction Worth Slope Applications:)
Develop Products Made From Wastepaper. With or
Without Other Additives, for Control of .Oil Slicks
Resulting From Tanker Collisions or Leaks From
Off-Shore Oil Wells " .
Investigate Feasibility of Use of Wastepaper as a
Lining to Control Seepage of Pollutants Into Ship
Canals Constructed by the Army Corps of Engineers
Fracturing the "crust" .at the bot.tpm of existing waterways ogt.e'n permits
the intrusion of contaminants fo.rmerly sealed off.
Economic and Marketing .Research and Development
While there are many authorities in .the field of .paper recycling who
feel that the only way to increase recycling is to develop new high-voljune
products, others recognize that increasing the sale of existing product^ made from
paperstock will accomplish the same objective. The act.ivoltd.eis .de;scrib.ed hereunder
relate to improving the marketing or the economics of paperstock or of products
made from paperstock.
-------
B-9
Develop Strategies Or Marketing Techniques
Aimed at Increasing Acceptance of Cylinder
Paperboard and Folding Cartons Made From I
Cylinder Paperboard
Container Corporation of America has made a good start in this direction
by the use of the recycling symbol printed on cartons made from paperstock to call
consumers' attention to the fact that these cartons are made from recyclsd
materials. NASMI has developed a symbol, are using it, and encouraging others to
adopt it. Other major users of paperstock might need assistance in developing
appropriate strategies.
Develop Information Needed for Consumer
and Packager Educational Programs Designed
to Remove the Stigma Associated With the
Use of Recycled Materials
The positive aspects of such programs would be to demonstrate the
actual advantages, to individuals, companies, and the public at large, in the use
of recycled paper.
Provide Assistance and Supporting Information
Needed to Encourage Government Agencies and
Other Influential Users of Paper Products to
Specify Products Made From Recycled Paper
NASMI has already taken some effective steps in this direction, but
further aggressive action is indicated.
Investigate the Possibility of Calling Upon
the Government to Stockpile Wastepaper as it
Stockpiles Agricultural Products in Order to
Control Supply and Demand Fluctuations
; Before this can be achieved, however, some evidence of success in
-improving the compaction and consistency of quality of paperstock must be apparent.
-------
B-10
Develop Means of Encouraging Paperstock Users
to Warehouse Greater. .Quantities of Paperstock
in Anticipation of Needs in Order' to Minimize
the Erratic Shifts iriiDemand .Which Presently Exist
.,.
Encourage the Negotiation of Longer Term Contracts
for Purchase of Paperstock From Dealer/Processors
to Minimize Erratic Fluctuations in Paperstock Prices:
Develop Incentives for Present Paperstock Users
to Invest in' Additional Equipment arid Provide
Increased Capacity to Use Paperstock in the
Production of Paperboard and Other Products
According to the most recent API capacity survey, v.eryi lit-.tle new,
equipment for utilization of wastepaper is now planned by major producers.
Investigate Possibilities of Developing Incentives
for Semi-Skilled Labor at Both the Generator and
Dealer/Processor Level
i ' ' . . '.
i • • r
One of the problems inhibiting increased recycling i;s the
unavailability of labor to perform the sorting functions, required. The economics
of wastepaper sorting often do not permit payment of wages much in excess of what
workers can get from welfare agencies. Research activities might also be directed
toward finding incentives for bringing more young people with management potential
into this industry.
-------
B-ll
Facilitate the Compilation of Accurate Figures
on Costs of Using Virgin Pulp Versus Paperstock
Many users do not maintain such records and, therefore, cannot validly
compare the merits of using one raw material versus the other.
Develop More Economical Means of Transporting
Wastepaper Over Both Short and Long Distances
The development of high-density bales is related to this activity. One
idea suggested was the possible development of some form of raft, made of wastepaper,
which might serve as a means of moving wastepaper over water. The comparison with
existing practices of floating pulp logs down rivers was noted.
Investigate the .Possibility. ..of Government Subsidies
to Paperstock Dealers to Offset the High Cost of
Ocean Transport.j)f gaper stock
Such actibns would be aimed at increasing exports to foreign countries
where paperstock is in short supply.
Investigate the Possiblity of Special Freight Rates
for Overland Transport of Paperstock by Rail or Truck
Lower rates could encourage movement of paperstock from areas in the
United States where large quantities are generated to mill locations in other areas.
-------
Investigate ..the .Feasibility of :Merpers
of Dealer/Processor Organizations
. One means of attacking the problem 9f the small -.size of many' ftoms in
the industry and the fragmentation of the paperstock industry could bevconsidered.
This is the possibility'-of multiple mergers of thp .relatively small 'dealer/processor
organizations into /fewer .large firms with 'greater bargaining,-power -and^greater
capabilities overall.
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VOLUME IX
TEXTILE REPORT
-------
Ill
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
SUMMARY ...... 1 ................ .Vi
INTRODUCTION . 1
Background ................... 1
Objective. ............ 2
Scope ...... .......... 3
Research Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Literature Search 3
Extensive Survey. 4
In-depth Survey . . . • 4
Analysis and Synthesis . ... . ' 5
Report Outline .... . . . . ... . ....... 7
THE U. S. TEXTILE INDUSTRY. ............... 9
Present and Future Domestic Production 9
Textile. Fiber Materials and Blends . • ; ; 10
Textile End Products . ... . . . . 13
THE SECONDARY TEXTILE INDUSTRY ............... 15
Structure of the Industry . • .. ... . . . . . . ... . . 15
The Economic Value of the Industry i . . . . . .... . '. 15
Social Value of the Industry ....... 20
Basic Functions^Performed by the Industry . . . . . . . . . 20
SOURCES OF SECONDARY'TEXTILE FIBER'S. . . . . ... . . . . . 21
General Composition of Secondary Textiles- . 21
Mill Waste ..'......., 23
Fabrication Waste . . 25
Old Rags 26
MARKETS FOR SECONDARY TEXTILE PRODUCTS. ...... 28
Papermaking . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Vulcanized Fiber . ........... 30
Roofing and Flooring ................ 31
Wiping Cloths . ... . . . . . . . '. . . . . . . , 32
Reprocessed Textile Products . . . . < ... . . ... . ... 33
Flock and Filler 34
Batting and Padding . '. ... . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Used Clothing . ..../............ 36
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iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
MAJOR OBSTACLES TO REUSE OF TEXTILE WASTE,
Special Obstacles to Reuse ...... . 40
The Fiber-Blend Problem ....... 40
Paper and Vulcanized Fiber. ....;..... 42
Wiping Cloths 44
The Wool Problem. 45
The Wool Labeling Act of 1939 45
Lack of Domestic Wool Reprocessing Capacity .... 47
Competition from European Rag Sources ...... 47
Foreign Restrictions of Used Clothing Imports ... 48
Wool Problem Summary 48
The Cotton Mill Waste Problem .......... 49
Padding and Batting Markets 49
Increased Cost of Recovering Fibers 50
General Obstacles to Reuse • 51
Space and Capital Equipment Needs . . ... . . . • 51
Increased Labor Costs .... 52
Increased Transportation Costs . 52
Increased Pollution Control Requirements 53
Competition from Virgin Materials 53
RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS 55
Research on Fiber Blends 55
Fiber Separation ........ 56
Chemical Separation. ............. 56
Market Selection 57
Research on Wool 58
Cotton Mill Waste 59
General Research Requirements .... 61
LIST OF APPENDIXES
APPENDIX A. INFORMATION OF VARIOUS SOURCES AND CATEGORIES OF SECONDARY
TEXTILE FIBERS A-l
APPENDIX B. SUMMARY OF B4STC STATISTICAL DATA RELATED TO THE GENERATION
AND USE OF SECONDARY TEXTILE FIBER B-l
APPENDIX C. COMMON MAN-MADE FIBERS. . C-l
-------
TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE I. IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF SPECIAL PROBLEMS THAT . -
REDUCE REUSE OF TEXTILE WASTE. .,....,... x
TABLE II. IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF GENERAL PROBLEMS THAT
AFFECT THE REUSE OF TEXTILE WASTE ..,,,.... Xi
TABLE 1. ESTIMATED TEXTILE FIBER CONSUMPTION 1960-1980 ,10
TABLE 2. ESTIMATED DOMESTIC PRODUCTION OF MAN-MADE FIBER
1960-1980 j 12
i
TABLE 3. ESTIMATED CONSUMPTION OF TEXTILE FIBERS BY END USE '
1960-1980 * ... 13
TABLE 4. GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF SECONDARY TEXTILE DEALERS • * . . 18
TABLE 5. IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF SPECIAL PROBLEMS THAT
REDUCE REUSE OF TEXTILE WASTE 33
TABLE 6. IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF GENERAL PROBLEMS THAT
AFFECT THE REUSE OF TEXTILE WASTE 39
TABLE 7. SUMMARY TABLE ON TEXTILE WASTE REUSE . . . . .... 41
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE I. WASTE TEXTILE UTILIZATION FLOWS ix
FIGURE 1. U. S. TEXTILE FIBER CONSUMPTION (1960-1970) 11
FIGURE 2. WASTE TEXTILE UTILIZATION FLOWS 16
FIGURE 3. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF SECONDARY TEXTILE
FIBER HANDLED BY DEALERS 19
FIGURE 4. TYPICAL FLOW OF TEXTILE FIBERS IN PROCESS AND THE
RESULTING GENERATION OF TEXTILE WASTE 22
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vi
SUMMARY
The primary purpose of this project was to identify the problems and
opportunities.,for increased recycling of waste textiles through the secondary
materials industryr~"~The-major determinants of the total waste textile problem
include the domestic consumption, complexity of fiber systems, scrap generation
:^-.. . 7~~""". - ~ ..,,... ,, . ,. -..i,. x _•
in various steps,of production, markets for waste te'xtiles, arid the systems or
'"''.IT _., ""*""" '•••-
mechanisms.for. scrap collection, sorting, arid distribution.
-The U. "Is; Textile Industry consumed approximately 10 billion pounds of
' , ""^-,,: "••'•••"'.'•,.
textile fiber in 1970, and it is anticipated that this will increase to 15 billion
pounds by 1980. A major.change in fiber composition has occurred since the end
of World War II with the, development of synthetic nonce lluibs'ic fibers. '.The
principal textile fibers consumed in 1970 consisted of -cottori, nylon, polyester,
rayon, acrylic, cellulose acetate, textile glass, wool, and the polyolefans.
Considerable growth Is anticipated for all of the synthetic fibers with 'lesser
or even negative growth seen for cotton and wool. Furthermore, "the 'use''iof 100
percent cotton arid wool fabric will decline rapidly "as "the ^ria't'ural Sfibet? materials
are blended with synthetic fibers, especially polyester.
The secondary textile industry is made up of organizations that buy,
sort, process, export, and sell a 'wide variety of -waste textile "products. Of
the total secondary materials industry, textiles-is a relative'ly'small part of
the total business with about 5 percent of the organizations having-more than
10 percent of their business in textiles. However, the vimp*6ftarice of-the companies
handling textile waste should not'be underestimated as-they ;'asre-one'.of' the-.key
elements to the potential reuse of billions of pounds of textile waste-each year.
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vii
Textile waste materials are produced at every stage of textile process-
ing from the harvesting of the cotton boll to the production of apparel, house-
hold items, and other manufactured goods0 Other waste products are generated
as the normal life cycle of a product is completed, and the material is given
to a collection agency, sold, or discarded. Figure I illustrates the flow of
waste textiles through the secondary dealer into specific end markets. Approxi-
mately 1.6 billion pounds of waste textiles are reused each year with another
2.5 billion pounds being dumped or incinerated. These figures were obtained by
combining Tariff Commission estimates with data generated in the extensive and
intensive surveys conducted as a part of this study. Additional research is
recommended to refine these gross figures and to provide a breakdown within
selected categories of products and fibers.
The major markets for secondary textile fibers include paper, vulcan-
ized fiber, wool products, wiping cloths, padding and batting, nonwoven fabrics,
flock, roofing, and used clothing.
Major problems facing the secondary textile industry and selected sol-
utions to improve the reuse of waste textiles are summarized in Tables I and II.
Each of the problems and research recommendations needs to be considered
in the context of the secondary textile industry. The federal, state, and local
governments should realize that the secondary materials industry is a major factor
in the reduction of solid waste problems on all levels. Legislation, technical
developments, and marketing assistance are needed and should be justifiable to
help maintain this ecologically important industry.
Table III was developed to establish priorities related to the eight
problems described in Tables I and II. The order of priority is dependent on
-------
viii
factors such as environmental improvement, conservation of resources, and the
feasibility of finding a realistic solution. The problem of reusing mixed fiber
blends is undoubtedly the most critical in recycling waste textiles for the decade
of the seventies.
-------
GENERATORS:
USERS:
Fiber Producers ond Textile Mills
Manufacturers
Apparel Home Industrial . Miscel-
Furnishings Products Icneous
Consumers Used
Discards
Collecting Institution
/./ billion Ib
SECONDARY. MATERIALS
INDUSTRY'
WASTE TEXTILE DEALER
(Broker, Sorter, Processor)
Cotton Mill Waste
• ..», . -,V;,i»
and
Fiber Blends
i.
Cotton Mill Waste
and
Cotton Rags
Cotton Rags
and
Cotton-Rich Blends
Wool and
Wool Blends
Synthetics
(Nylon, Rayon, etc.)
Paper Mills
' '' dnd :'"-'
Vulcanized Fiber .
45O million Ib
Reprocessed
1 , and
Used Wool.
2OO million ID
2OQ million Ib
'FIGURE- 1.
IOO million Ib
WASTE TEXTILE UTILIZATION FLOWS
ISO million Ib
ZOO million Ib
Sources Estimates on Waste Generators derived from: (a) Old and New Rag Waste: Extensive Survey and
Summaries of Trade and Tariff Information. Schedule 3, Vol. 6. and (b) Fiber Producers and Textile
Mill Waste: American Textile Manufacturers Institute and Textile Organon. Vol. XII, 197C, p 31.
Estimates on Users were derived primarily from Summaries of Trade and Tariff Information,
Schedule 3. Vol. 6, pp 119-124. Adjustments were made to reflect NASMI committee input.
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TABLE I. IDENTIFICATION AMD ANALYSIS OF SPECIAL PROBLEMS
THAT REDUCE REUSE OF TEXTILE WASTE
Title
Fiber Blend Problem
Wool Problem
Cotton Mil}. Waste
Problem
Definition
Estimate of
Volume of
Material
Involved
Recommended
Actions
0 Dramatic increase in fiber blends,
especially polyester-cotton
o Proliferation of other synthetic
fibers, new materials and treat-
ments
° Secondary textile fiber markets.
require relatively pure materials
° Traditional markets such as paper
Industry and vulcanized fiber are
shifting to other raw materials
5 to 10 billion pounds
° Determine the quantities of blends
being generated as mill waste,
new rags and old rags
° Develop methods for separating
fiber blends in relatively pure
components
° Increase demand for nixed fiber
waste by new product and market
development
0 Provide incentives and protection
in exporting of rags
° Wool Labeling Act--discrimlnates against
secondary fiber
° Lack of domestic capacity for reprocess-
ing secondary wool
° Increased competition from foreign suppliers
in the European reprocessing areas
o import restrictions on used clothing in
developing nations
200-300 million pounds
0 Review and modification of Wool Labeling
Act
° Increase publicity on the advantages of
reprocessed wool
o Define Incentives for reestablishment of
wool reprocessing industry in U.S.
° Provide Incentives and protection in
exporting of rags
° Try to have old clothing Import regulations
modified In developing nations
o Reduced demand as a result of
competition from plastic foams
• ° Reduced demand because of flsmma-
billty regulations
° Increased contamination in waste
because of improved separation
methods at the textile mills
° Poor working conditions in cotton
waste reprocessing plants
100-200 million pounds
° Increase demand by new product
development, Inexpensive methods
for flameproofing, and new market
development
° Develop new, less expensive methods
for processing cotton mill waste.
Processes should greatly reduce
air-borne fibers and contaminants
o Reevaluate flamnsbllity laws to
consider toxicity of fumes as
well as burn rate
mded actions shown in this table are based on importance of the action, benefit to the taxpayers,
They are the best judgments of Battelle.
Note: The responsibility for rec
and opportunities for NASMI.
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TABLE II. IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF GENERAL PROBLEMS
THAT AFFECT THE REUSE OF TEXTILE WASTE
Title
Space and Capital
Equipment Needs
Increased Labor Costs
Increasing
Transportation Costs
Increased
Pollution Control
Competition from
Virgin Mafertal
Problem
Definition
° Low-density product
requires substantial
space to operate
o Lov-value product
requires inexpensive
handling and processing
° Aesthetics of secondary
fiber plants limit
"available locations
° Labor supply influences
location requirements
0 High capital investment
required
o Physical nature of
textile waste requires
handsorting
0 Low density and low
value add to handling
costs
» Undesirable working
conditions limit
labor supply and tends
to increase costs
o Transportation costs
often limit shipment
of secondary textiles
to processing centers
° Transportation costs
limit exports to
distant countries
° Industrial waste is
highly concentrated in
selected regions that
may be long' distance
from the converting
industry
o Increases cost of oper-
ation for processors
and marketing outlets
° Marginal processors
and markets have
., stopped operations
due to increased costs
• to meet standards
° Renewable materials (wood pulp
and cotton linters) are replac-
ing textile waste in selected
grades of paper
o Virgin wool is being used in
place of secondary wool
° There have been decreases in
the cost of virgin synthetics
0 The.development and use of dis-
posable nonwoven products
competes with wiping rags
0 Key factor is the need
for efficient inexpen-
sive equipment and
Recommended processes to handle
Actions low-value, low-density
waste to
. a) reduce labor costs
b) maintain good visual
appearance
c) reduce storage and
processing space
requirements
° Improve available equip-
ment to reduce labor
requirements in hand-
ling, sorting, clean-
Ing, and other process-
ing steps
0 Provide financial sub-
sidies or rebates to
counteract' increasing
labor cost's
o Provide transportation
subsidies for recycled
materials
° Provide demonstration
grants to show feasi-
bility of locating
user plants near
generation centers
° Provide funds for anti-
pollution devices and
nonpolluting processes
for companies using
secondary textiles
° Provide price stabilization for
specific secondary textile
fibers similar to those guar-
• anteed for cotton and wool
producers
o Limit imports of low-cost syn-
thetics that compete with
secondary fibers
0 Modify the Wool Labeling Act to
encourage the use of secondary
wool and other secondary tex-
tile fibers
Note: The responsibility for recommended actions shown in this table are based on importance of the action, benefit to the taxpayers,
and opportunities for NASMI. They are the* Hes't" judgments of Battelle.
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INTRODUCTION
In June, 1970, Battelie-Columbus undertook a research program for the
National Association of Secondary Material Industries, Inc. (NASMI). This work
was carried out under a subcontract from an Office of Solid Waste Management
grant to NASMIo This report on textiles is one of a series of eight commodity
reports plus a general or summary report.
Background
The Office of Solid Waste Management is responsible for formulating
and recommending Federal Government policies in the area of solid waste pollution.
This includes pursuing appropriate research to determine the status and problems
of solid waste activities, and to develop programs to reduce solid waste pollution.
One approach to the reduction of solid waste pollution is to reclaim
waste materials for reuse - the recycling concept. A well established industry--
the secondary materials industry—exists to accomplish this recycling. NASMI is
the trade association representing the metals, paper, and textiles portion of
this industry.
>
-------
The scrap processors, secondary'smelters, and other'"companies that make
i .
up the secondary materials industry have developed effective channels,and methods
for recycling nearly all waste material's of economic value.- These companies have
performed their difficult: and essential functions well in the' traditional ^economic
environment. ,
More recently additional dimensions have been added to this traditional
economic environment. These new dimensions are (1) improvement. ofUthfe.envjLrori-:
\
ment in which we live, and (2) increased need for conse.rv.'a'.tionr.of.l-na.tur:al.iL
resources. These new dimensions provide 'new challenges ^arid opportunities sfo'r •
the recycling industry. No longer is economic gain, the sole driving forcd' for
recycling of waste materials. Social gain has been added'-inrtherform's of 2
improved living conditions and1 preservation of resources-f6r'rfuture">geher^tionsi
In an economics-based nation, this creates problem's of interpretation^arid*
evaluation of noneconomi^cs-based' goals and activities.
•.'••.' '*
The purpose of this series of reports is to identify obstacles to the1
recycling of solid wastes, and to recommend' direction's far irive'stigatiori and
research to overcome these obstacles.
Ob-jectives
The objective of the' study'on which this re'port is basleU was to*
identify opportunities for the increased utilization of solid wa'ste". The major
subobjectives were:
(1) To determine the structure and functions of the; setb'hdary
materials industry, a'nd its relationships to sources of
supply and ma'rkets
(2) To identify and evaluate problems of recyci!injg"--m"at'e"ria"ls,
sources, industry, arid markets
(3) To determine opportunities for increased recycling.
-------
Scope
The major subjects included in the scope of the study are the secondary
material industry, the materials it recycles, the sources of solid wastes, and
the markets for recycled materials. Activities peripheral to these major subjects
are considered where pertinent to recycling.
The materials included in the study are:
Aluminum Nickel and Nickel Alloys
Copper and Copper Alloys Precious Metals (Silver and Gold)
Lead Paper
Zinc Textiles
Research Methods
The methods and procedures used in the study are discussed under four
types of activities. They include (A) literature search, (B) extensive survey,
(C) in-depth survey, and (D) analysis and synthesis.
Literature Search
The literature search included reviewing and studying books, Government
reports, industry reports, and trade journals covering solid waste handling and
problems, recovery and market data, and recycling of valuable materials.
The results of this effort included the accumulation of data and
descriptive material, and an organized bibliography dealing with each of the
commodities covered in the scope of the study.
-------
Extensive'Survey!
The- extensive survey of the secondary material industry consisted of
a mail survey"and personal interviews with management personnel of companies
involved with the collection, processing, and sale of secondary mate rials i,(
About 600 responses were received.
The information developed through the extensive'survey included^dollar
sales, tons of major materials handled, types of solid.waste processed, sources
of materials, investment, equipment and facilities, number of employees, the
amount of space used, and the grades and quantities of secondary materials
produced.
The data from the extensive survey provided'statistical tabulations of
the regional distribution of the secondary material industries by type of;;
•-..'. i
commodity in terms of numbers of establishments, volume of business, and numbers
of employees.
In-depth;. Survey.
, The in-depth survey of selected members of the secondary material
industries, their suppliers, and' the users of their products served to identify
the major technical and' economic problems facing those companies, involved1, with
secondary material utilization. About 200 interviews were completed. Battelle
and NASMI commodity specialists jointly selected the companies to be interviewed
in depth1.
Interview guides for each of the commodities we.re prepared. The
problems and potential solutions for greatest recycling and waste utilization
that were developed from the literature search and prior Office of Solid Waste
-------
Management work plus the knowledge of the NASMI commodity specialists provided
the basis for designing the interview guide. Sample guides are reproduced in
the Appendix.
Analysis and Synthesis
The analysis and synthesis step was concerned with the collation and
analysis of data and information derived from both the literature, extensive
survey, and in-depth survey. The analysis and synthesis activity covered the
following tasks:
(1) Economic Data on the Secondary Material Industries. The
economic data developed through the extensive survey of the
secondary material industries were tabulated and analyzed as
to the amount and type of solid waste handled and as to
operational data such as number of employees, amount of
space required, capitalization, and geographic locations.
(2) Flow Diagrams and Life Cycles. Flow diagrams were developed
to indicate the flow of materials from primary production
and scrap sources through fabrication. Life cycle estimates
of various products were used to develop data on quantities
available for possible recycling.
(3) Demand-Supply Relationships. Estimates were made of future
demand and supply levels for secondary materials. The rela-
tionship between these data provide an indication of potential
surpluses or shortages of recycled materials through 1980.
(4) Stability of Flow and Consumption. This analysis is closely
related to the supply-demand analysis described above and
identifies the ability of the various secondary materials to
-------
compete as source-materials for manufacturers. A number of
factors were examined-such as price changes in the secondary
materials, the-availability of materials, and the effect of
sudden changes in the magnitude of' demand..
(5) Direct Impacts of•>.Technological Change.. Direct technical! and
technological factors were examined to determine their effect
on rates of proces
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Report Outline
The secondary textile industry at present is one of the key elements
in the recycling of textile waste products. The primary purpose of this project
has been to identify methods to aid recycling of textile fibers through the
secondary industry and others. At the present time the secondary textile industry
is in an economically depressed state because there exists a number of inherent
factors that have inhibited or restricted the recycling of textile waste materials.
These factors are both supply oriented and market oriented. For example, the
increased proliferation of textile blends has reduced the availability of pure
cotton rag waste. Major users of waste cotton have been the paper and vulcan-
ized fiber industries, both of which require high purity cotton fiber for satis-
factory processing. Because of contamination with synthetic fibers, a number of
mills have changed to other sources of fiber such as wood pulp or cotton linters.
As the trend toward fiber blends continues, the markets for pure cotton waste
will dwindle along with the supply. The result will be increased use of virgin
materials and increased accumulation of waste textile materials.
A simple flow model of waste textiles would consist of goods progressing
from (1) the sources of waste (mills, manufacturers, consumers) through the
(2) dealer or processor in (3) a final product (wiper, paper, roofing).
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8
•In organizing this report,:, each of these major categories of 'the recyc-
ling process is described in general with special emphasis on problems related to
waste utilization. As an introduction to the total problem of textile Cwaste
generation, the first section describes the current and future consumption of
textiles in the United States in general terms. Indirectly the annual^consump-
tion of textile fibers defines .the total recycling problem since the production
of 1970, for example, results in new waste in 1970 or 1971 and used waste in later
years in the form of old clothing, -rags, etc. Factors such as new trends in fibers,
•fiber blends, and end-use products will result in new and challenging recycling
problems.
i.
| The second section follows the flow of these'.'.waste products into the
'secondary materials industry with an attempt to describe the scope :and-i.functions
I •-.••- • •
jof this group of companies. iThe -third section of ,the report'describes Jin"more
i detail the sources and types of .textile waste. The most-obvious conclusion that
ii '
vone comes to in this .section is-.that ..there ds a great wariety ^and. complexity of
•waste products produced.
The fourth' section describes .in .general terms the .traditional markets
for waste textile products and .the existing problems associated with each of ;
these markets. The last two sections review and summarize the recycling problems
and provide reconmendations for the potential broadening of waste utilization.
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THE U. S. TEXTILE INDUSTRY
The United States Textile Industry employs about one million people in
7,500 plants, most of which are located in eastern U.S. The normal annual out-
put is approximately 17 billion square yards of fabric. This is enough to wrap
a yard wide strip around the earth nearly 400 times. If an estimated waste
factor of 10 percent is applied, the waste generated would wrap the earth 40
times.
In analyzing the present and future quantities of solid waste gener-
ated, a number of factors should be considered:
(1) The present and future domestic consumption of textiles
and manufactured textile products
(2) The type of textile fiber blends used domestically
(3) The type and form of end products to be produced
domestically.
Each of these topics will be discussed in more detail in the following sections.
Present and Future Domestic Production*
In 1970 the consumption of textile fibers in the U.S. was about 10.5
billion pounds with an annual per capita consumption of approximately 50 pounds.
Past consumption and future estimates for textile fibers are shown below:
Most of the tabulated data and conclusions presented in this section were
derived from an article by Walter Fedor which appeared in the Chemical and
Engineering News of April 20, 1970.
-------
10
TABLE 1. ESTIMATED TEXTILE FIBER CONSUMPTION 1'960-1980
Total Consumption
Year , (billions of pounds)
1960
1965
1970
1975
1980
6.5
8.5
10.5
12.5
15.6
Percent
Natural
Fiber
69
59
39
29
25
Percent
Man-Made
Fiber
31
41
61
71
75
The major trend indicated in this table is that the consumption of
textile fiber will increase about 50 percent in the decade 1970 to 1980. The
second land perhaps more alarming fact, with respect to solid waste generation,
is the dramatic shift in the production and use of man-made fibers from 1960 to
1980. In the future, a growing percentage of these man-made fibers will be used
in blends that are difficult if'.not impossible to recycle with existing technology.
Textile Fiber Materials and Blends
The type of textile fibers used varies widely depending on the end-use
product requirements. The major textile fibers currently include cottbn and wool
as natural fibers, and nylon, polyester, acrylic, rayon, cellulose acetate, and
polyolefins as the major man-made or synthetic fibers. Figure 1 illustrates the
relative importance of the major categories of fibers up to about 1970. One
very obvious trend is the increasing use of man-made fibers, especially the
noncellulosics such as nylon, polyester, and acrylics.
-------
11
900
800
700
600
500
450
400
350
300
250
200
MIlllMi OF KUKOi Ml NOin
PCICEXTtOE SCALE CllitT:
ElJUIl VEHTICM. DimUCEi
SHOW EQUAL PEtCENTiGE CHMQES
r-
COTTOK
ISO
35
30
25
I960 1961 1962 1963 I96U 1965 1966 1967 1968
FIGURE 1. U. S. TEXTILE FIBER CONSUMPTION (1960-1970)
Source: Textile Organon. August 1970, p 150
1969
1970
Data are 3-month moving averages, plotted at the middle month. For cotton
and wool, consumption means fiber put into process at spinning mills. The
man-made fiber data are U.S. producers' domestic shipments plus imports for
consumption of (a) rayon staple and rayon+acetate yarn and (b) the noncellu-
losic fibers. Acetate staple and textile glass fiber are not included.
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12
TABLE 2. ESTIMATED DOMESTIC PRODUCTION OF MAN-MADE FIBER
(millions of pounds)
Year
1960
1965
1970
1975
1980
Rayon
740
- 1080
1215
1450
1700
Acetate
290
445
580
735
910
Nylon
375
935
1565
2000
2600
Polyester
100
400
1365
1770
2800
Acrylic
150
370
600
845
1100
Olefinic
13
65
280
450
790
Textile
Glass
175
280
525
725
900
(1) Chemical and Engineering News, April 20, 1970.
L . .
Table 2 indicates a growth of approximately 106 percent in the produc-
tion of polyester fiber in the next 10 years, with a corresponding increase of
67 percent for nylon and 40 percent for rayon. Very significant percentage in-
creases in other syn'thetic fibers are also expected, especially in polyolefins
and glass, but these are on the low end of the scale with respect to^absolute
consumption. In general, little .growth is anticipated in .the use of cotton and
the use of wool will probably decline. 'Furthermore, as mentioned previously,
future trends indicate a growing use of blends of fibers; 'therefore, although
cotton consumption will remain relatively stable, much of this will go into
blends with polyester. For example, it is estimated that production of polyester-
cotton blends will increase from 2,360 million linear yards in 1-970 to about
9,100 million linear yards in ,1980. This is approximately a 300 percent increase
in 10 years. This means that less pure cotton will be available for .use in the
1 " ' ' • '
manufacture of rag paper and vulcanized fiber.
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13
The complexity of textile fiber variation is not completely apparent
until one becomes aware of the growing proliferation of fiber types and names.
Appendix C describes in very brief summary the broad range of textile fiber
materials available today. In all probability, there will be new fibers avail-
able and in production by 1980.
Textile End Products
The production and use of a wide variety of textile products is the
determining factor in total textile fiber consumption and greatly influences
the type of fiber to be used. Three very broad textile end-product categories
are apparel (39 percent), home furnishings (29 percent), and industrial (19 per-
cent). The remaining 13 percent goes to produce a variety of miscellaneous
products. Home furnishings include rugs, carpet, upholstery, draperies, slip
covers, and bedding. The relative consumption of textiles in these three
categories is shown as follows:
TABLE 3. ESTIMATED CONSUMPTION OF TEXTILE FIBERS BY
END USE (1960-1980)(1) (billions of pounds)
Year
1960
1965
1970
1975
1980
Apparel
2.86
3.56
4.10
4.63
5.30
Home
Furnishings
1.30
1.87
3.05
4.00
5.62
Industrial
0.84
1.44
2.00
2.37
3.12
Miscellaneous
1.49
1.62
1.37
1.50
1.56
(1) Chemical and Engineering News, April 20, 1970,
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14
Any changes that occur within each of these major categoriesrwill be a
major'influencing factor with respect to recycling. For example, if the major
growth in home furnishings is in carpet and not draperies, then considerably .
different technology and processes will be required to utilize the oldcatid new
waste generated. Estimates indicate, in fact, that one of the major components
of household furnishings is carpeting and that shipments are expected to increase
90 percent in the next 10 years (from $1.75 billion to $3.26 billion in 1980).
Carpets are made mostly of synthetics including nylon, acrylics, polypropylene,
and polyester.' Carpet,construction is further complicated by the use of various
backing materials including jute and polypropylene, and also'the incorporation
of binding adhesives. Similar but less dramatic problems exist in analyzing the
apparel'market since the relative ratios of hosiery, suits, overcoats, shirts,
underwear, etc., will have a major influence on the type of fiber being used and
i
their ease and economics of recycling. In the apparel tttarket, factors such as
(1) knitting versus weaving, (2) coated fabrics, (3) impregnated fabrics, (4)
i ' . "
bonded textiles, (5) nonwbven fabrics, (60 stretch fabrics', (7) spun-bonded
products, and (8) adhesive forming of apparel, will -all present new obstacles
and challenges to recycling.
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15
THE SECONDARY TEXTILE INDUSTRY
Structure of the Industry
The secondary textile industry is comprised of business organizations
that buy, sort, process, export, and sell a wide variety of waste textile products.
The characteristics of these organizations vary from the small local rag dealer
to sophisticated, highly capitalized regional or international processor-dealers.
Of the total membership (approaching 1,000 companies) of The National Association
of Secondary Materials Industry, Inc. (NASMI), approximately 5 percenter 50
companies have a significant part (over 10 percent) of their business in textile
fibers. Other secondary textile companies may be members of other organizations
such as the National Association of Wiping Cloth Manufacturers, the Textile Fiber
and By-Products Association, or may not belong to any national association. In
any case, these dealers as a group provide the mechanism by which the major portion
of secondary textiles are recycled or reused in a variety of end-use products.
Figure 2 is a schematic view of the general flow of secondary products from waste
generators to secondary materials dealers to the end user or processor.
The remainder of this section on the Secondary Textile Industry will
be devoted to discussions of (1) the economic value of the industry, (2) the
\
social benefits of the industry, and (3) the basic functions performed by the
industry.
The Economic Value of the Industry
As part of the extensive survey portion of this study, all members of
NASMI were polled with respect to both their total operation and to operations
related to specific commodity items. The information provided in the extensive
survey indicates that the respondents account for the handling of somewhat over
(•*''.
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GENERATORS:
Fiber Producers and Textile Mills
Manufacturers
Apparel Home Industrial Miscel-
Furnishings Products Igneous
Consumers Used
Discards
Collecting Institution
SECONDARY MATERIAL.?
INDUSTRY'
and
Fiber Blends
USERS:
! WASTE TEXTILE DEALER \B Wlion u>
: (Broker, Sorter, Processor)
Waste Cotton Mill Waste Cottoi
ond
ids Cotton Rags
- j -
Paper Mills
ond
Vulcpmzed Fiber
i Rags
ond
Cotton-Rich Blends
i
Wipers
45 O million Ib
Woo
and
Synt
hetics
Wool Blends (Nylon, Rayon, etc.)
-
Reprocessed
and
Used Wool
!
Flock
ond
Filler
3OO million Ib
20O million Ib
20Q million Ib IOO million Ib
"FIGURE 2. WASTE TEXTILE UTILIZATION FLOWS
ISO million Ib
Sources Estimates on Waste Generators derived from: (a) Old and New Rag Waste: Extensive Survey and
Summaries of Trade and Tariff Information. Schedule 3. Vol,~6. and (bj Fiber "Producers "and "Textile
Mill Waste: American Textile Manufacturers Institute and Textile Organon. Vol. XII, 1970, p 31.
Estimates on Users were derived primarily from Summaries of trade and Tariff Information.
Schedule 3. Vol. 6. pp 119-124. Adjustments were made to reflect NASMI committee input.
Mixed
Blends
ZOO million Ib
-------
17
1 billion pounds of new and old rags annually. When this is combined with other
available information, it appears that the total amount of secondary textile
fiber being reused each year is about 1.6 billion pounds. As shown in Table
4, the value of plant and equipment for individual dealers is in excess of
$250,000 for 60 percent of the industry with an average investment of about
$842,000. Gross sales are less than 3 million dollars for 75 percent of the
secondary textile industry companies. Since a large volume of secondary textile
products require handsorting, the average investment per employee is small
($8,900) compared to all commodities combined (about $25,000/employee).
The results of the extensive survey indicate that about 70 percent of
the old and new rags are handled by dealers in three adjacent geographical
regions. As shown in Figure 3, the Middle Atlantic region accounts for 36 per-
cent, the South Atlantic 21 percent, and the East North Central 14 percent.
These figures do not include producer and mill fiber waste, but do represent
about two-thirds of the secondary fiber processed.
Overall, the total capital investment in plant and equipment that
currently is available for processing waste textile materials is estimated to be
in excess of $50 million. As will be discussed later in this report, additional
investments in the form of new processes and equipment will be required in the
future if the industry is to handle increasing quantities of secondary textile
fibers.
2.-15
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18
TABLE 4. GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF SECONDARY'TEXTILE DEALERS
(In Terms of Value of Plant and Equipment
and Gross Sales)
Value of Plant and Equipment
(1000 of dollars) •. . .
1 Commodity
Textiles
All categories
Less than
... 250
40.5%
33.3%
f
Less than
14 0
I6i3%
251-.500
16.7%
18.7%
501-1000
21.4%
18.5%
1001^2000
16.7%
13.9%
Over
2001-7JOOO; 7.000
4.8% 0.0%
11.3% 4.3%
Gross Sales, 1969
(mil 1 ions o f dollars )
lr.3.
57.1%
,3-5 ...
10.2%
,:5r8
10.2%
Over
8-12 12
6.1% 0.0%
Waste Textile. Indus try'Averages
Average Investment i!n
Plant and Equipment
Average Numtfer of 'Employees
Average Irive:stmerit "per
Employee
Approximate Ave'fa'ge Irivestmerit
per Employee for ;Nbntextile
Operations
$84'2;000
'95
$ 8,900
$ 25,'000
2-16
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19
I. New England
2. Middle Atlantic
3. South Atlantic
4. East North Central
5. East South Central
2%
1%
6. North West Central
7. West South Central
8. Mountain
9. Pacific (includes Alaska and Hawaii)
2%
Cuttings and Rags
FIGURE 3. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF SECONDARY
TEXTILE FIBER HANDLED BY DEALERS
Source: Extensive survey of 49 dealers
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20
Social Value of the Industry
'The social value of the industry is related to a number .of aspects of
the business* 'First is its basic function of recycling waste products. This.
means that a'potentially environmental contaminating material is utilized as an
* •.'-.• ''
economically valuable raw material. The total value of this recycling^process
relates to its capacity to reduce solid waste accumulation as well as pollution
of air and water and1 generally to improve the environment. Another mavjor social
benefit provided by this industry is the employment of a large number of people
with varying levels of skill. Some highly trained individuals .are required to
sort and grade complex mixtures of ragsvand fibers. ;0n the other hand, employees
of lesser'skill may be used to sort and handle easily separated types of materials.
Basic Functions 'Performed by the.Industry
Ip
The secondary textile materials industry performs many .important func-
i
tions in the recycling of waste products. In brief summary, these functions
include:
(1) Collection and purchase of waste textiles
I
(2) Transportation to 'the secondary dealers
(3) General classification according to rough grades
(4) Individual sorting for specific categories 'and .grades
(5) "Establishment of 'grades for specific end-uses
(6) Cutting of select pieces for-ease of handling
(7) Washing and cleaning old rags
(8) Removal of-metal and other contaminants
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21
(9) Compressing and baling for storage and shipment
(10) Warehousing
(11) Selling-"domestic and foreign.
This list of functions performed by the industry is not intended to be
complete, since tremendous variation exists among companies with respect to the
type of waste product being processed, and the potential end-use and final customer
for the product.
SOURCES OF SECONDARY TEXTILE FIBERS
General Composition of Secondary Textiles
Secondary textile fibers are produced at every stage of manufacture
from the basic cotton boll and synthetic fiber spinning to end-product fabri-
cation. Other waste products are generated as the normal life cycle of a product
is completed and the material finally discarded. Figure 4 illustrates the various
points in manufacture where waste is generated and also briefly outlines the
variety of end products that result from manufacture. Again, the end product
fabrication step implies the generation of two additional types of waste—new
waste from trimmings and rejects and old waste from product wear or absolescence.
Complete statistics on the generation of waste at each stage of manu-
facture generally are not available. In fact, the little attention given by
many large companies to waste generation, utilization, and disposal is quite
surprising. On the other hand, some companies maintain very thorough records
including tonnage generated in a wide variety of grades, selling prices, percent
waste discarded, methods of disposal, cost of disposal, etc.
-------
Linters
Bogging
Motes
Sweeps
Comber Noils
NATURAL FIBERS
(Cotton and Wool)
• Cleaning-Combing
Quality Fiber
Waste Yarn, Thread, Fibers —
Cloth + All Above
Trimming + All Above -
SYNTHETIC FIBERS
(Polyester, Nylon, Rayon)
Melt or Solvent Spin
I . . •
Chop-Comb
Waste Fiber and
Monbfiiament
ro
TRANSPORTATION
iSeat Cover
'.intJB.nb/ Trim
Cushions- Batting
Sell
Discard
CONSUMER
HOUSEHOLD
Carpet
Drapes
Towels..
Upholstery
AVoil Cover
Bedding
CONSUMER
.vAP'PARCL
\6iuterwjear
iSjwe.atefs
Ihirt^klrts
Trousers
::Socks
.Xies .
;Hjat.s ,,,
;,0rriarrients
Shoes
'New
Rags
Discard Sell
"Old
Rags
Discard
INDUSTRIAL S
INSTITUTIONAL
lOyendl Is
vUnifp'rms
JSHeiits
Towels
Discard
AGRICULTURE
Bags
Bales ...
tobacco Cloth
Sell
TYPICAL FLOW OF TEXTILE FIBERS IN PROCESS AND
THE RESULTING GENERATION OF TEXTILE WASTE
GOVERNMENT
Uniforms
Tents ;
Bedding
'ma 'New
Rags Rags
' Discard Sell
Discard
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23
Based on a limited number of interviews in the intensive survey, three
basic categories of secondary textile fibers were defined as mill waste, fabri-
cation waste, and old rags. These are described briefly as follows.
Mill Waste
Mill waste includes a wide variety of materials ranging from cotton
gin waste to trimmings or remnants produced in the weaving or knitting mills.
The waste may be in the form of fibers, threads, yarns, monofilament, or fabric
composed of synthetic, natural, or blends of materials.
The variety of products contained in this category is demonstrated by
comparisons of cotton mill waste and synthetic fiber producers' waste. Cotton
mill waste comprises a variety of products including motes, cord fly, cord strips,
comber noils, and spinning room sweeps. These various grades and types of waste
are generated and collected at different stages of processing. Each category
has a different characteristic and economic value.
Synthetic fiber waste is generated at each step of processing from fiber
spinning (extrusion) to weaving. For example, some of the grades of rayon waste
include bleached open-waste combing, manufacturer's viscose threads, white thread
garnetted, rayon staple fiber noils, etc. Other types of synthetic fiber waste
(nylon, polyester, acetate, etc.) are generated by the basic fiber producers such
as Du Pont, Allied Chemical, and Monsanto, as well as in the textile mills.
The average amount of waste produced in cotton processing is typically
about 15 percent on a weight basis. The average waste from processing synthetic
fibers is much less. The major use for many of these waste products is for
specialty or lower grade textile products. For example, the major portion of
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24
synthetic fiber waste produced by'the chemical companies is sold to the'garnet-
ting industry. The garnetters process the waste into fibers suitable for yarn
spinning, weaving^ or knitting. In combination with'cbiton' or wool, the synthetic
fiber waste is useful in the fabrication of apparel produced at lower cost than
comparable products made from virgin materials.
As a typical "case study", the description aiid information provided
i .
by one integrated textile mill during the intensive survey indicated the*
following waste problems and practices.
° Cotton waste—weekly'consumption of 2500 bales of cotton
at 500 Ibs/bale. Approximately 14 percent (175,000 Ibs/
week) of the total becomes waste or by-product ih:"the
form of dusthouse, fly, motes, etc. Each of these waste
products has a different economic value depending*' on'* the
level of contamination1 and fiber characteristics; For
example, motes generally will provide a- yield of 35 per-
cent usable fiber arid 65 percent' unusable waste* that must
be burned or dumped.1 Of'the total 175,000 Ibs of' by^
product, about 10 percent of 17,500 lbs/weekvis completely
useless and must be dumped.
• Synthetic-fiber spinning--total figures were not provided,
but it was indicated that only 2 to 3 percent waste is
generated, most of which is reused.
(C,
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25
• Textile weaving operation—approximately 100,000 Ibs of
waste are generated each week. Of this, about 25 percent
or 25,000 Ibs are sold as remnants. The other 75 percent
is produced at the finishing plant and is in the form of
smaller pieces and of mixed composition. The composition
consists of grades such as corduroy, synthetic rag, sheet-
ing rag, mixed colored, etc. Of the 75 percent from the
finishing plant, 12 or 13 percent (10,000 Ibs/week) is in
a mixed color, mixed fiber category under 9 inches in size.
The only possible use for this material is in roofing, but
due to oversupply in this market, most of the mixed rag
grade is dumped or burned.
These figures and data on mill waste generation were generally corrob-
orated during other interviews in the intensive survey.
Fabrication Waste
Another area in which textile wastes are generated is that of fabri-
cating the various textile products such as apparel, home furnishings, and
industrial products. For example, apparel fabrication involves placing a number
of layers of fabric on a cutting table to prepare component parts for garments.
The layout is done with considerable attention given to minimizing the amount of
trimming that is produced; however, the clippings still amount to a sizable per-
centage (about 10 percent) of the fabric consumed. In 1970, with an estimated
4.1 billion pounds of fiber consumed in apparel manufacture, this would result
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26
in 400 million pounds of cuttings arid trimmings. A survey* of the apparel industry
(based on 5 percent of' the industry) indicated that 60 percent of all the apparel
waste generated is salvaged. The total volume of waste sent to dealers from
apparel manufacture is1 estimated at 240 million pounds, selling at 1 to-20 cents
a pound. The total inherent value of the 400 million pounds, is closer to $80 to
$160 million, based on pure fiber costs of 20 to 40 cents per pound. Off the 160
million pounds of apparel waste that does not go to dealers, 99 percent is hauled
and dumped'.
Waste generation in the fabrication of household, industrial,.and other .
miscellaneous items is not currently defined. However, based on a 5 percent waste
generation factor for manufacturing household goods with 60 percent of this going
to dealers, approximately 90 million pounds will enter the recycle stream and 60
million pounds will be dumped. (See Appendix B for details.) Since these three
categories of nonapparel fiber manufacturers often utilize complex blends of
materials including carpet backing, adhesives, coatings, glass fiber, impregna-
tions, dyes, and finishes, it is expected that less than 10 percent of this total
waste 'is reused.
Old Rags
The third source of waste textiles is the collection of a variety of
products completing their normal Ifcfe cycle. The life cycle .may *>e completed
either from wear, obsolescence, or change in styles. The majority of products
entering the reuse process are old and discarded garments. Most of these are
collected by institutions or agencies such as Goodwill Industries and St. Vincent
d'e Paul Society. Some of the used garments are resold to consumers, while a large
* Source: Unpublished data from Apparel Research Foundation survey.
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27
percentage is sold to the secondary textile dealer for sorting and processing.
Old rags represent a wide combination of items including cotton, wool, and
synthetic fibers in a variety of forms. To obtain a reasonable degree of homo-
geneity, the mixed rags must be sorted by hand labor.
A large percentage of the rags sent to the secondary dealer from the
collecting agency is in the form of usable clothing. A number of dealers have
indicated that the used clothing could be a profitable item for export to under-
developed countries; however, in many instances protective import tariffs prevent
resale of these usable garments.
Statistics on old rag reuse generally are unavailable. The Tariff
Commission has total rag reuse (old and new rags) estimated at "more than a
billion pounds". However, as mentioned previously and based on a consumption
of 3.6 billion pounds of textile fiber in 1965 for apparel, and 1.30 billion
pounds of fiber in 1960 for home furnishings, an estimate of 750 million pounds
of old rags being reused in 1970 would seem realistic. The other 3 billion pounds
of obsolete and worn apparel probably ends up in the municipal waste after being
used as wiping cloths and for other miscellaneous reasons around the home.
The National Association of Wiping Cloth Manufacturers estimate they
annually process about 900 million pounds of rags with a yield of about 50 per-
cent for usable wipers. What percentage of these rags are old and what percent
are new rags is not defined, although a high percentage is probably old rags
from charitable institutions.
Actually, more work is required to more accurately establish data on
the broad generalization presented here. For example, a weighted-average estimate
of textile waste generation would take into account end product differences such
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28
as the relatively high reuse of new cot-tbh rags and virtually zero reuse of waste
carpet-trimmings. Furthermore, of the total amount of old rags reaching the
secondary dealer, a' significant portion (20 percent) may be discarded or dumped
because of low quality or lack of markets for that grade.
! Figure 5, presented earlier in this section of the report, contains
approximately IS to 20 categories or sources of textile waste. This is a gross
simplification since'the secondary materials industry lists over100 grades of
different textile wastes,, Detailed descriptions of waste textile grades are
shown in Appendix A.
MARKETS FOR SECONDARY TEXTILE EBOiPtJGTS
The major markets for secondary textile products are shown in the lower
portion of Figure 2 and consist of papemaking, vulcanized fiber, wipers, repro-
cessed wool* roofing, padding and batting, flock and filler, and used clothing.
Each of these markets is described briefly in the following sections. The
statistics presented were derived primarily from U.S. Tariff Commission data as
presented in Summaries of Trade and Tariff Information. Schedule 3, Volume 6,
and from NASMI committee members. Appendix B contains details for these and
other statistical sources. .
Pape making
Insofar as Western civilization is concerned, paper was originally made
from thoroughly disintegrated cellulosic rags. Much of this was, at first, linen,
but as the cotton industry developed, this fiber became the principal constituent.
In response to the industry's critical shortage of cotton and linen rags, experi-
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29
merits were conducted which led to the use of wood fibers. At the present time,
wood pulp is the predominant material and rag stock is used only in those appli-
cations where the high strength and durability needed can be obtained solely
through its use. Some technological changes, such as the increasing use of
microfilm for record-keeping, have brought about a reduction in the demand for
rag paper.
Although the total quantity of cellulosic materials consumed by the
paper industry has been increasing in recent years, the amount of rags used has
been declining. Tariff Commission figures indicate 425 million pounds of cotton
rags were consumed by the paper industry in 1967. NASMI estimates consumption
in papermaking in 1967 at 62 million pounds and 44 million in 1970. The recent
decline in the use of cotton rags in papermaking is due to (1) contamination of
cotton with synthetics and (2) competition from cotton linters and cotton mill
waste, especially combers. The incentive to shift to cotton linters and comber
waste is related to reduced cost and reduced risk of contamination. Paper mills
that have continued using cotton rag stock for papermaking rely heavily on their
sources of supply to provide a high-quality waste material.
In general, most paper manufacturers studied preferred to cook their
own rag pulp since they already have the equipment and they can maintain better
control. Some companies buy part of their rag pulp from processors,such as the
Cheney Company,that specialize in the preparation of cotton rag pulp.
A potentially major factor in this field are processes under develop-
ment by the large textile manufacturers. For example, Burlington Mills is cur-
rently supplying a cotton pulp that apparently works satisfactorily in a number
of paper mill operations. This process was supposedly developed to produce
high-quality cotton pulp from polyester-cotton blends. However, it is currently
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30
speculated that' the 'starting material is probably cotton comber and the process
will not be used with polyester-cotton blends as a starting material while comber
is in good supply.
-."An important aspect of the Burlington operation'is that they seem to
be selling direct to the paper companies with a reported capacity for &6 million
pounds of pulp per year. This "could have a serious impact "on secondary textile
dealers that specialize in sale of high-quality cotton rags to the paper industry.
Another ecologically important' factor of this concept'is that;'cehtraii'zed proce'ss-
ing of rag pulp; might simplify waste disposal that currently5 results in many mills
from the caustic cooking of rags. With increasing legislatibn and control of
industrial pollution, centralization of pulping7with''efficiieht effluent treat-
ment might provide a means for continued use of cbtt'on pulp'ln the form of rags
or mill waste.
. -Vulcanized Elber
Vulcanized fiber is'ma'de by-preparing' 'suilt'abl&'p'aper,^ stacking it 'to
the desired 'thickness, and tre'ating it wi'th zinc "chibrl'de"'to:'produce a gelatinous
condition. In the gelatifrous-stage, all Of Ihe layers5 fuse^'into one Homogeneous
mass. It is then necessary' to' leach" out1 the?-zinc chloride fallowing fehe cellu-
lose to reharden. The resulting product has*>been popular for'a'l'orig time, being
very strong and durable. It is a familiar component:of ih'sul'atiTig separators
for train rails, foot lockers, instrument cases, and similar applications.
Despite its interesting structural properties, vulcahi'zed fiber mate-
rials have certain' shortcomings that'prevent its widespread use relative to
synthetic polymers,1'and its recent growth history is hot impressive. 'The pro-
duction of vulcanized fiber was estimated at 50 million pounds in 1968,
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31
indicating that the maximum consumption of rags would be approximately the same.
Actually, in recent years the industry has been converting from all cotton rags
to linters and high-grade wood pulp due to the presence of synthetics in the rags.
It was reported during this study that one major company, out of a total of six,
had converted entirely to linters and wood pulp. More details on the declining
use of cotton rags are presented in other sections of this report.
Roofing and Flooring
Another market area for secondary textiles, somewhat related to the
previous two, is in the manufacture of saturating felts for roofing and linoleum
type flooring. In making these materials, rags are processed much as they are
for paper. They then are made into a loosely bound web of a more open structure
than that usually found in paper. This open web is then saturated with tar or
asphalt, and sprinkled with finely divided mineral granules. In the case of
flooring, the felt is used as a substrate, which is impregnated with a layer of
resinous or polymeric material.
Because this felt must be low in cost and is surrounded by the resinous
material, this market is generally considered an outlet for offgrade rags,
especially fiber blends or dark colors. Generally, rag dealers use this as an
outlet for those types of rags, such as ones of high synthetic content, which
are not applicable to other areas. There are indications, at least in some cases,
that this practice is unwise. One roofing plant official interviewed said that
the presence of synthetic fibers causes weak spots in roofing, ultimately leading
to leaks. This plant had changed completely to the use of wood pulp. At the
same plant, another official claimed that the move to wood pulp had been prompted
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32
entirely by price. In any case, this company had removed their rag preparation
equipment, and could not go back without considerable expense.
At another mill the manager said that they were using rag stock, were
quite satisfied with the general situation and, in fact, were benefiting from
the lowered prices of rags. This could either indicate prejudice on the part
of the one mill, or lower quality control on the part of the other.
The overall .market for rags in roofing and flooring was estimated at
200 million pounds in 1967 by the Tariff Commission. More recent estimates would
probably be placed at the same level, although this market fluctuates Widely with
trends in the construction .industry. The total dollar value of textile's used has
probably declined substantially with the overall decline in prices of waste rags
and competition from wood pulp.
Wiping. Cloths
The market for wiping cloths is probably the largest single market for
old and new rags. Generally, the trade considers a wiping rag as 18 x .18 inches
1 >
or larger. For some uses, however, rags as small as 12 x 12 inches are acceptable,
The major requirement of a wiper other than size is absbrbehey. The favored
material is cotton which has high surface energy and readily absorbs greases,
paints, dyes, solvents, and aqueous-based fluids. Total annual consumption of
waste textiles as wiping cloth is estimated at 450 million pounds (1969).
Actually, more rags could be consumed by this market, but there is ah insufficient
supply of waste material generated to meet the size and absbrbency requirements.
The majority of wiping cloths are produced from old rags. They are
sorted, cut to remove buttons and other contaminants as required, washed
thoroughly and sterilized. They are graded and bagged or baled and sold
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33
principally to industry and government agencies. One of the largest single
customers is the Armed Forces who purchase through a central procurement
facility.
Reprocessed Textile Products
-This section is concerned with the recycling of waste textile materials
into apparel, blankets or other textile products that might also use virgin or
top-quality textile fibers. One major use of textile waste fiber is the internal
recycling of waste generated in the various steps of textile manufacturing.
Since these materials are handled internally,- statistics are not generally
available and would not be very meaningful if available.
The most significant recycling of waste textiles through external
routes involves the reuse of wool fibers in the woolen system. The market for
wool rags is well established, although the demand and prices are subject to
considerable variation. Wool rag classifications as established by the National
Association of Secondary Material Industry through its Wool Stock Institute
include: mixed wool knits, rough mixed khaki, and mixed flannels, to name just
a few. A more complete listing and description of various grades are included
in Appendix A.
The consumption of wool rags and trimmings in the U.S. is estimated at
100 million pounds annually (1967). Furthermore, of the total export of rags
in 1967 (342 million pounds), approximately 28 percent or nearly another 100
million pounds were wool. The principal export market for wool has traditionally
been Italy where the rags are reprocessed into new woolen fabrics.
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34
Flock..ahd .Filler
Flock and filler are both supplied in chopped fiber form. In sthe pro-
cess of flocking, the chopped fibers are applied to the surface of another material
to provide a textured or plush appearance and feel. Fillers are used internally
in plastic materials to increase tensile strength and impact resistance rand, in
some cases, to reduce cost.
Flock is made from two types of fibers: v-i-f'gin ;aiid wa?ste. Vfirgih
fibers are required when the application is such that the length must be^ uniform.
This is precision cutting. For those applications where uniform fiber length is
not necessary, and for fillers, random cutting is acceptable and waste may be
used. Random cut flock traditionally has been made from cotton. In redent
times, nylon has become more popular.
Applications using precision-cut (virgin) flock have been increasing
rapidly. At the same time, several of the large markets for random cut fillers
t •-
have been lost because of modern technological developments. An example of this
is in phonograph records, which were once made of filled shellac. They are now
made of unfilled vinyl, and are being partially supplanted by magnetic tape.
As in most industries, the trend has been toward Higher speed produc-
I :
tion. In order to do this, uniformity of material becomes of increasing importance.
Flock manufacturers would like to have the waste that they use carefully segre-
gated and labeled as to composition. They would also like it to be separated
and labeled by denier. They feel that the mills arid the dealers should be made
more conscious of their needs in these respects.
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35
A possible development that might increase the use of chopped secondary
fiber would be the development of a large-scale, wet-laid nonwoven fabric industry,
This would be based on nonwoven materials made from a slurry on a paper machine.
While the major component of these materials would be wood pulp, it has been found
desirable to include synthetic fibers (5 to 25 percent) for increased tensile and
tear strength. Material costs are a major factor in this industry since the final
fabric will sell for 6 to 15 cents per square yard. It has been suggested that
blended fibers from secondary textile materials, being quite low in cost, could
be cut to suitable size by chopped fiber manufacturers and still be inexpensive
enough to be used in nonwoven structures.
Batting and Padding*
Batting, padding, and upholstery industries are major outlets for
cotton mill waste and man-made fiber waste. In 1963 these industries consumed
about 185 million pounds of soft cotton waste, 195 million pounds of cotton
linters, 14 million pounds of hard cotton waste, and over 115 million pounds of
synthetic and other unclassified waste.
Since 1954 there has been a continual decline in the number of firms
supplying these industries. For example, from 1954 to 1963 the number of firms
decreased from about 200 to about 180—and the number of employees decreased
from 9100 to 6900.
Most firms engaged in manufacturing padding and upholstery filling have
relatively few employees with about 80 percent having less than 50 employees each
(1963). Although considerable increases in production were reported from 1954
* Source of statistics in this section is U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Economic Research Service Bulletin 334, "Marketing and Utilization of
Cotton Mill Waste", Washington, D.C., March, 1967.
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36
to 1963, more recently the use of waste textiles in padding and upholstery has
been declining as urethane foams increase in use.
Used Clothing
On the generation end of the cycle, used clothing originates largely
in charitable institutions, where it has been donated by a consumer. Examples
of the types of organizations involved are: the Salvation Army, St. Vincent De
'
-------
industry. NASMI has suggested this, and the Department of Commerce has recommended
it to the State Department. Apparently nothing further has developed.
MAJOR OBSTACLES TO REUSE OF TEXTILE WASTE
Having previously described briefly the background of the U.S. textile
industry and the secondary textile industry, this section deals primarily with
the major problems that inhibit or prevent reuse of textile waste materials.
Each of the problems or obstacles described is exceedingly complex since it
invariably extends over various aspects of society, commerce, government, and
the secondary materials industry. Since the problems are complex--simple,
uncomplicated solutions are not readily available. In fact, in most cases each
problem area will need additional research for more complete definition with a
systematic search for realistic solutions. However, the first step in solving
any problem is its identification as a problem and, second, the development of
a preliminary base of information to describe the extent of the problem.
Therefore, the primary purpose of this section is to identify and describe in
limited detail the major obstacles to the reuse of textile waste. The following
section will provide suggestions for further research that hopefully will lead
to workable, realistic solutions.
This section has arbitrarily been divided into two basic subsections.
The first subsection describes a number of special problems that are related to
three specific waste products. The second section deals more with general prob-
lems that embrace many aspects of the total waste industry. The various problems
identified are summarized in Tables 5 and 6 along with selected solutions to these
problems. Details of these problems are presented in the following sections of
-------
TABLE 5. IDENTIFICATION. AND 'ANALYSIS OF SPECIAL PROBLEMS
THAT SEDUCE REUSE OF TEXTILE WASTE
Fiber Blen'd Problem
. • -Wool Problem
Cot-ton Hill Waste ,..
Problem
Definition
Estimate o'f
Volume 'of
•'Material
Involved
Recommended
Actions
° Dramatic increase in fiber blends,
especially polyester-cotton
o Proliferation of other synthetic
fibers, new materials and treat-
ments
° Secondary textile fiber markets
require relatively pure materials
° tra'ditional "markets such as paper
'industry and vulcanized fiber, are
shifting to other 'raw materials
5 Vo 10 billion pounds
0 Determine 'the quantities of blends
being 'generated as mill waste,
new rag's and 'old rags
° Develop methods 'for separating
fib'er blends "In rela'tiveiy 'pure
. components
° Increase demand "for mixed fiber
waste by 'new product and inarke't
'development
° ProVi'de incentives an'd 'protection
'i'n exporting of rag!s
0 Wool Labeling Act—discriminates against
secondary fib'er
° Lack of domestic capacity for reprocess-
ing secondary wool . ......
0 Increased competition from foreign suppliers
in the European reprocessing areas
o Import restrictions oh used clothing in
developing nations
200-300 million pounds
0 Review and modification of Wool Labeling
Act
° Increase publicity oh the 'advantages of
reprocessed wool
o 'Define incentives 'for Veestabli'shSent *o'f
wool reprocessing indu's'try in 'U/S;
'° 'Pr'ovi'de incentive's -arid Jprb'te'c'ti'6h in
Vxpb'rtirig 'of rags
° Try 'to 'have 'old cl'bihiiig •'imp'brt regula'tibn's
%'bd'ifled 'in developing n'ation's
° Reduced demand as a result of
competition from plastic foams
9 Reduced demand because of flamma-
billty regulations
° Increased contamination in waste
because of improved separation
methods 'at the textile mills
° Poor working conditions In cotton
'waste reprocessing plants
100-200 million pounds
OJ
00
° Increase demand by new product
development, inexpensive methods
for flameproofing, 'and new market
development
° Develop "new, less 'expensive methods
for processing cotton mill waste.
•Processes should ^greatly reduce
'air-borne fibers 'and "contaminants
'o Reev'aluat'e fl'ammab'll'i'ty laws to
cohsider 5tbxi"ci'ty 46f fumes as
'well as burn rate
- Note:
: The responsibility. ffb:r re'commended act ibhs shown in this table are" based on importance'of Che "ict'iSn, 'berie'f ft "to the taxpayers,
.'and "opportunities 'for NASMI. They 'a're the best Judgments "of 'Ba'ttelle.
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TABLE 6. IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF GENERAL PROBLEMS
THAT AFFECT THE REUSE OF TEXTILE WASTE
Title
Space and Capital
Equipment Needs
Increased Labor Costs
Increasing
Transportation Costs
Increased
Pollution Control
Competition from
Virgin Material
Problem
Definition
0 Low-density product
requires substantial
space to operate
0 Low-value product
requires Inexpensive
handling and processing
0 Aesthetics of secondary
fiber plants limit
available locations
° Labor supply influences
location requirements
0 High capital investment
required
o Physical nature of
textile waste requires
handsorting
° Low density and low
value add to handling
costs
° Undesirable working
conditions limit
labor supply and tends
to increase costs
o Transportation costs
often limit shipment
of secondary textiles
to processing centers
° Transportation costs
limit exports to
distant countries
° Industrial waste is
highly concentrated in
selected regions that
may be long distance
from the converting
industry
° Increases cost of oper-
ation for processors
and marketing outlets
° Marginal processors
and markets have
stopped operations
due to increased costs
to meet standards
° Renewable materials (wood pulp
and cotton linters) are replac-
ing textile waste in selected
grades of paper
o Virgin wool is being used in
place of secondary wool
° There have been decreases in
the cost of virgin synthetics
° The development and use of dis-
posable nonwoven products
competes with wiping rags
° Key factor is the need
for efficient inexpen-
sive equipment and
Recommended processes to handle
Actions low-value, low-density
waste to
a) reduce labor costs
b) maintain good visual
appearance
c) reduce storage and
processing space
requirements
° Improve available equip- o Provide transportation
ment to reduce labor
requirements in hand-
ling, sorting, clean-
ing, and other process
ing steps
° Provide financial sub-
sidles or rebates to
counteract increasing
labor costs
subsidies for recycled
materials
0 Provide demonstration
grants to show feasi-
bility of locating
user plants near
generation centers
Provide funds for anti-
pollution devices and
nonpolluting processes
for companies using
secondary textiles
0 Provide price stabilization for '
specific secondary textile
fibers similar to those guar-
anteed for cotton and wool
producers
o Limit Imports of low-cost syn-
thetics that compete with
secondary fibers
o Modify the Wool Labeling Act to
encourage the use of secondary
wool and other secondary tex-
tile fibers
Note: The responsibility for recommended actions shown in this table are based on Importance of the action, benefit to the taxpayers,
and opportunities for NASMI. They are the best judgments of Battelle.
'.:..., 7
K» *.- i
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40
the text with specific recommendations being presented in the last section of
this report. Table 7 summarizes, eight b,asic problems with respect to improve-
'• t- .
ment of the, environment, conservation ,of resources, and feasibility of finding
a realistic solution to the problem. The fiber blend problem has the highest
priority for future work. .
i , . '/',-.•
Special Obstacles to Revise ' ,
' ' ' . •
There are a number of special problems, or obstacles related to, the re-
. --tf. • -L. n, ; • .- ^ . '-'~' • "•>•' V ' iff'. I.' , r, |l -, & n • t - . ., . V'? ^f'lf-'\\J tT ~f r\ •'' .. • : .-,-.* f - s.
use of textile waste products that are either very broad in nature or so, basic
to the total waste utilization problem that they require special attention. As
one might expect, in analyzing these problems the majo.r, symptom that appears is
one of oversupply or depressed prices, or both. The three general groups of
materials that are causing major concern in the secondary, materials industry are
(1) fiber blends, (2) wool, and (3), cotton mill waste. Each of these special
problems is described separately as. follows.
The Fiber-Blend Problem
Prior to World War II, the number of types of textile fibers available
were rather limited, s,o separation and reuse was, not a major problem. In 1942,
the primary commercial textile fibers consisted of cotton, wool, rayon, cellulose
acetate, and some nylon and silk. Table 2, presented previously, demonstrates
very dramatically the rapid increase in both the number of types of fibers since
World War II and also the, greatly, increased volume of production. Much of the
increase in types and volume of new fibers being produced is related to the
growing trend for polyester-cotton blends and; polye.ster-wp.ol blends. However,
more complex combinations of materials, exist in carpeting or auto, upholstery
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41
TABLE 7. SUMMARY TABLE ON TEXTILE WASTE REUSE
/
Problem Def^iition
Fiber Blend Problem
Wool Problem
Cotton Mill Waste
Space and Capital
Equipment Needs
Increased Labor Costs
Increasing Transpor-
tation Costs
Increased Pollution
Control Requirements
Competition from
Virgin Material
Solution
of Problem
Will Improve
Environment*
(0-10 scale)
7
2
2
4
4
4
2
6
Solution
of Problem
Will" Con serve
Natural Resources
(0-5 scale)
5
1
1
3
3
-- '•-•• ••••• .. ,
3
1
4
Realistic
Solution
Can be
Found
(0-5 scale)
3
4
2
2
2
•'.,-.
2
2
•y *
2
Total
15
7
5
9
9
9
5
12
* Relative only to textiles and not total solid waste,
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42
arid padding where fibers are joined with adhesives, foams, backing materials,
-,, -*,ki_ ,-.-.•. i i . .
and plastic films. Little or none of these highly complex composite products
can be reused at the current level of technology.
The increasing trend toward use of cottonrpolyester blends and wool-
polyester blends probably represents the major problem of the 1970's, since they
are not only generally unusable in themselves, but they tend to become mixed with
other usable waste textiles and thereby reduce the economic value of the total
waste supply. Because of the rapidly growing volume of material composed of
polyester-cotton blends, the remainder of this section will be devoted to further
discussion of this problem.
Historically, the three major markets for cotton were (1) rag paper,
(2) vulcanized fiber, and (3) wiping cloths. Since rag paper and vulcanized
fiber manufacture have similar manufacturing and materials requirements, these
can be dis.cussed together as a group.
Paper and Vulcanized Fiber. A number of subsidiary problems have
been caused by the proliferation of fiber blends in the waste textile area.
First, the purity of a. given shipment of cotton waste becomes more doubtful
every year as polyester-cotton blending increases. In the manufacture of rag
paper, the allowable maximum level of synthetic fiber contamination is 1 to 2
percent, although in c.ome cases none is allowed. The limit of allowablet contami-
nation for use in vulcanized fiber is even less.
This increase in blending has directly reduced the amount of pure
cotton ava.ilable which then requires mpre sorting or greater control to maintain
quality. Other factors of concern are the greater number- of rejected bales and
a final higher price of cotton to the paper mills.
270
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43
The basic decrease in the supply of pure cotton rags is apparent from
a number of trends. One is a shift from rag pulp to cotton linters or 100 per-
cent wood pulp. This means that virgin materials are now being used to replace
secondary textile waste. The reasons for this shift are basically economic, and
under current conditions rag pulp costs about 25 cents/pound to produce while
linters and wood pulp are approximately 15 and 10 cents, respectively. Further-
more, one accidental use of a contaminated batch of cotton rag can cost a paper
mill or a vulcanized fiber plant thousands of dollars. Of the three major vulcan-
ized fiber plants operating in the UeS., one has changed over to .linters and pulp
entirely, while the other two are seriously considering a similar change.
Another factor in the cotton rag business as related to papemaking is
the possible development of rag pulping facilities at the textile mill level.
During a number of interviews in the intensive survey, the Burlington Mills
process for separating cotton from polyester-cotton blends was mentioned. Exact
confirmation of the details of this process has not been possible. Some sources
indicated that the process may eventually be capable of handling polyester blends,
but the major consensus is that the process currently uses only cotton comber
waste.
The eventual total development of this process or similar processes
would help to resolve the supply situation for the paper mills, but this again
would possibly be substituting a virgin by-product fiber for a waste fiber.
Furthermore, continued development of similar processes could have adverse
effects on the traditional secondary materials industry.
•"3 '.'•>'
o *• 2
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44
Wiping Cloths. The growth in polyester-cotton blends has not as yet
had any great impact on the wiping cloth business for a number of reasons. First,
wipers are to a large extent recovered from old rags that have been through the
normal wear cycle. Also, the functional use of wipers is not as sensitive to
small percentages of polyester fiber, although combinations of 50:50 (polyester:
cotton) or 65:35 do not have satisfactory absorption characteristics to be a. good
wiper. Third, wipers typically require a rag of fairly large dimensions; so hand-
sorting can be used effectively to remove rags that contain large percentages of
synthetic fiber. Overall, the wiper portion of the secondary textile industry
is by far the most profitable segment of the industry. A number of dealers have
commented that this is the one part of the business that supports many of the
other more marginal areas. The future for wipers continues to appear promising;
however,.the continued growth of fiber blending undoubtedly will reduce the.
percentage of usable rags and decrease secondary industry profits.
The Cotton.Producers' Institute and other c.oncerned groups have devel-
oped interesting methods for providing permanent press characteristics tp cotton
with spme of the desirable effects of cotton-polyester blends. .However, in the
foreseeable future it seems unlikely that these modified cotton products will
i
have much of an impact on the growth of polyester-cotton blends. Furthermore,
some of the cotton treatments produce undesirable effects that limit their use
\ .
in papermaking or cloth wipers.
In summary, the amount of cotton-polyester waste that is generated is
a substantial fraction of the total waste problem and is increasing. Markets
for the blends are small and unstable. Secondary dealers, in most cases, buy
mixed fiber blends at minimum prices in order to maintain their relationship
with primary generators. Frequently the dealer ends up disposing of the fiber
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45
blend by burning or dumping. Identification of new markets for fiber blends
would greatly reduce the overall textile waste problem. Also, development of
methods to separate or improve the absorbency of fiber blends might open new
markets or expand existing ones.
The Wool Problem
Probably the second most severe problem facing the secondary textile
industry in 1971 is the accumulation of waste wool products. The wool problem
is extremely complex because there are many subsidiary factors involved. The
major market for wool rags is in Europe where waste wool is reprocessed and
converted back into fabric. Traditionally, mixed grades of wool have been used
in roofing felts, but this market is quite depressed because of oversupply and
trends toward use of other fiber sources. Some of the reasons behind the over-
supply of wool include:
(1) The Wool Labeling Act of 1939
| '
(2) Lack of domestic wool reprocessing capacity
(3) Competition from European rag sources
(4) Foreign restrictions on used clothing imports.
The Wool Labeling Act of 1939. The Wool Products Labeling Act of 1939
was passed, apparently for several reasons. One was to benefit the wool growers,
by making a clear distinction between their product and wool derived from secon-
dary sources. A second, more openly avowed, purpose was to protect the public
from being sold a supposedly inferior product.
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46
The first of these purposes might be questioned when it is pointed put
that only a fraction of the American wool demand is grown in this country. The
!
remainder must be filled with imported and secondary wool. -
In regard to the second of the stated purposes, it is p:robably true
' i •
that there were cases in which product quality was| not carefully"controlled and
attempts were made to deceive or cheat the consumer. However, there are author-
. ' • '...I.
ities in the use of wool who claim that wool is not inferior or reduced in quality
• ' i • • ' ' ' ' '•
after it has been processed and used. Certainly, it must be agreed that some
fiber shortening and fibrillation takes place. Since wool comes in a great
variety of grades, it seems likely that reprocessing would merely transfer the
wool involved into a slightly lower grade. Dealers and users of secondary wool
generally believe that fabrics made from secondary wool and from primary wool
cannot be differentiated by trained wool experts. It appears, therefore, that
there is no discernible difference between new and reprocessed wool that is not
commensurate with the differences between grades in new wool.
There is a psychological factor, however, with reused wool which causes
the labeling to have a discriminatory effect. This takes the form of an instinc-
tive feeling that the secondary fibers as well as the resulting apparel are
inferior or unclean, despite the fact that the fibers have been carded, scoured,
and cleaned thoroughly (prior to respinning) which would almost certainly remove
any actual soil and provide a high degree of sterilization. The doubtful valadity
of this criticism is pointed up when the condition of even the dirtiest old rag
is compared with that of freshly shorn wool. -Although the consumer's image of ,
a sheep may be a clean, white lamb, in actual fact a sheep is extremely dirty.
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47
The wool not only picks up all types of dirt from the surroundings, but also
soaks up and attracts natural oils and perspiration (suint) from the sheep as
well as excretory remnants.
Lack of Domestic Wool Reprocessing Capacity. Partially because of
the Wool Labeling restrictions and the stigma associated with reused wool, the
wool reprocessing industry in the U.S. has dwindled to where it is currently an
insignificant factor in the total U.S. textile industry. Although a considerable
amount of reprocessed wool is used by the American consumer,- a major share of
this is reprocessed in foreign countries, especially Italy. Major reasons for
the foreign exodus of the wool reprocessing industry were the Wool Labeling Act
and the labor-intensive nature of wool reprocessing. As mentioned previously,
the Wool Labeling Act applies to both domestic and foreign-made products. How-
ever, since it is virtually impossible to tell the difference between a virgin
fiber and a reprocessed fiber, it is normal practice for imported reprocessed
wool to be identified only as wool. Reprocessed or used wool produced in the
U.S. must be marked accordingly.
Reprocessing of wool from new or old rags into high-quality fabric
requires considerable handsorting of materials for texture and color. In fact,
a wide variety of colors and color combinations are produced in the Italian
industry by physical blending of separate color batches. Some of this blending
skill is still found in the few woolen reprocessing mills remaining in New England
and other parts of the U.S.
Competition from European Rag Sources, The fact that the mejor portion
of wool reprocessing is located in Europe results in many export oriented problems
for the secondary textile industry. For example, because of growing affluence
e'
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48
in Europe, more rags are now generated overseas against which U.S. rags must com-
pete. Second, European governments, especially the British, provide economic
incentives and payment protection for^the export of rags and other materials.
This means that the U.S. secondary dealers operate at a higher risk with arlower
return. Finally, increased labor and transportation costs for domestic and-foreign
shipments act as additional barriers for U.S. waste textile exports.
Foreign Restrictions of Used Clothing Import8f Actually, much of the
old woolen rags collected in the U.S. are in the form that they could be used by
large segments of the world's population as clothing. However, many of the uncle-
veloped and developing nations have import restrictions on clothing in order to
/
encourage the establishment of domestic industries. Many of the secondary textile
dealers interviewed indicated that, to a large extent, these import restrictions
are effective only in depriving the population masses of low-cost secondary
apparel. This problem is indeed highly complicated since the establishment of
import quotas or other restrictions by foreign nations are generally outside the
control of the secondary materials dealer, or the U.S. government. However, it
appears that some effort should be taken by the governments concerned to permit
the movement of low-cost usable clothing to the needy people of the world.
Wool Problem Summary. It generally appears that the migration of the
wool reprocessing industry to Europe is not favorable in the long run for the
utilization of U.S. generated secondary wool. It also seems that the Wool Label-
ing Act in its current form serves no useful purpose other than to encourage the
use of virgin wool fibers, most of which are imported from outside the U.S.
Finally, if nothing is done to encourage a resurgence in the domestic wool
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49
reprocessing industry, then perhaps action should be taken to encourage increased
waste wool exports. Increased wool exporting would have a three-way effect of
reducing textile waste accumulation, aid the secondary textile industry, and
improve the U.S. balance of payments.
The Cotton Mill Waste Problem
Cotton mill waste consists of various grades of fibrous products accum-
ulated or collected at different steps in cotton textile processing. These are
designated by terms such as motes, dusthouse, card fly, cord strips, comber
noils, clearer, sweeps, threads, and rags. Average annual production of cotton
mill waste probably exceeds 250 million pounds. The dollar value of this waste
has decreased dramatically in the past 5 years because of price reductions. For
examplej American Textile Manufacturers Institute statistics indicate the average
price per pound of waste was 5.4 cents in 1969 as compared to 9.0 cents in 1965.
Detailed figures for each grade are shown in Appendix A.
Overall problems of this segment of the secondary textile waste industry
are due to a number of factors including (1) loss of markets in padding and bat-
ting resulting in oversupply and (2) increased cost of recovering fiber.
Padding and Batting Markets. Probably the major deterrent to the
reuse of cotton mill waste in the 1970's will be a decline in the traditional
padding markets as a result of competition from urethane foams. Within a rela-
tively few years, the automotive cushioning market has changed almost 100 percent
from the use of cotton batting to polyurethane foam. The average consumption of
textile waste was estimated at about 30 pounds per automobile, totalling something
in excess of 200 million pounds a year. The primary incentive for the change
from cotton to foams is related to the light weight of foams, ease of handling,
«•-> •'•<***.
f* t' f
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50
and lower labor costs to the automobile manufacturer. The Textile Fiber and By-
Producta Association has attempted to reverse the trend to foams by emphasizing
the supposedly toxic nature of fumes generated by burning urethane foam. .However,
little or no success has been achieved to promote safety legislation in this area.
In fact, in some ways cqtton waste is at a disadvantage under existing flammability
laws since cotton will support combustion, although it does not produce highly
toxic fumes.
The general burn characteristics of cotton may also be a disadvantage
in other traditional markets, such as home furnishing and bedding, since there
is a movement toward flammability legislation in these areas. Realistically,
all factors such as burn rate and smoke toxicity should be considered in legis-
lation designed to protect the safety of the consumer.
Increased Cost of Recovering Fibers. Another major factor1in the reuse
of cotton mill waste is the relatively high cost of recovering the usable fiber
fraction. In recent years the cotton cleaning processes have been upgraded con-
siderably, resulting in lower-grade cotton by-products. This, of course, means
that greater volumes of by-product must be processed to acquire a given grade of
usable fiber. Also, the general increased affluence, minimum wages, and welfare
benefits that affect the U.S. labor force have increased costs of separation.
One other major factor that may be looked on indirectly as.a cost is
the very poor working conditions that are normally present in cotton by-product
processing plants. Environmental conditions of extreme heat, high humidity, low
temperatures, and fiber-contaminated air all contribute to limiting the available
labor supply and to increasing costs.
^v £
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51
General Obstacles to Reuse
Space and Capital Equipment Needs
A textile recycling facility shares with the other elements of the
secondary materials industry a poor image as an urban neighbor. The industry
deals with a low unit value material, which cannot usually justify the cost of
maintaining a highly attractive plant or investments in equipment.
The fiber industries, textiles and paper, by their very nature are
forced to maintain enclosed facilities, but they are also susceptible to wind-
blown spills and the like during in- and outbound handling.
Secondary materials facilities are, therefore, usually located in areas
that are relatively low in value, widely separated from all but the most inferior
housing areas, and generally quite exposed to any urban renewal type programs.
After the area has been taken over for urban renewal or new freeways, or similar
purposes, the dealer is then faced with choosing a new location. All of the
available area has, however, been zoned in such a way as to discourage low-value,
unsightly establishments, which many authorities consider to include secondary
materials facilities. The dealer, therefore, has great difficulty in relocating,
and only rarely can establish himself in a new spot attractive 'enough to encourage
the maintenance of an efficient plant. There also are tax and licensing situations
adverse to a dealer.
As has been noted, this same public aversion also is
a factor in market-
ing recycled products. The public impression is of salvaged junk, and therefore
inferior and somehow tainted.
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52
Increased Labor Costs
Although increasing labor costs have been mentioned in a number of
specific cases in this report, the total adverse effects on the waste textile
industry are serious enough to warrant special attention. Increased labor costs
resulting from minimum wage legislation and general increased welfare benefits
L
probably affect the textile waste reuse more than many other types of waste com-
modities. The great effect of increased labor costs on textiles is due to the
high labor requirements involved in sorting, handling, and processing the hundreds
of grades of secondary textile products. Furthermore, the bulky nature of textiles
results in a high handling cost per unit weight. In many cases the working con-
ditions in the plants are such that only the most destitute worker will consider
this for employment. Part of the solution to these problems includes increased
capitalization to reduce labor requirements and/or improve working conditions.
However, most of the secondary textile dealers are reluctant to invest in; equip-
ment when markets are declining, or the return on investment is minimal o,r highly
risky. Furthermore, in>, many instances, equipment or processes are not currently
available and may involve high risk development.
Increased Transportation Costs
In many ways increased transportation costs have a similar and markedly
more severe impact on textile waste reuse when compared with many other waste
commodities. The very nature of waste textiles which include low value, high
bulk, and tremendous variation, presents a serious disadvantage in shipment.
In many cases, what were once marginal sources of waste, or marginal dealers or
markets, are no longer operating. This results in an even greater distance
28®
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53
between various elements of the reuse process with even greater increases in
transportation costs. The final result is a decrease in reuse of secondary
textile materials and increased accumulation of solid waste residues.
Increased Pollution
Control Requirements
Increasing trends in the control requirements of water, air, and solid
waste pollution will have a variety of effects on recycling of textile waste
materials.
Where certain waste materials are currently disposed of by burning or
by landfill, legislation to control these practices will tend to increase re-
cycling. However, where environmental legislation tends to increase the cost
i
of operating a textile waste processing plant, paper mill, or vulcanized fiber
plant, the economic incentives for textile reuse may be eliminated. For example,
a number of paper mills have changed from using rag pulp to virgin wood pulp or
cotton linters to avoid the contamination of streams by bleach, caustic, and dyes
resulting from the processing of waste cotton denim. Part of the solution to
this problem may be the establishment of grants or subsidies to help support the
installation of selected pollution abatement equipment that allows for reuse of
secondary materials.
Competition from Virgin Materials
The primary incentive for using secondary textile fibers traditionally
has been the availability of quality materials at low cost. In recent years,
the uniformity and reliability of certain grades of secondary fib^r has decreased
as a result of fiber and other chemical contaminants being present. The major
incentive to the use of virgin materials is uniformity and reliability of product.
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54
As mentioned previously, virgin materials are currently competing successfully
with secondary fibers in the production of paper, vulcanized fiber, wool process-
ing, and upholstery cushioning for a variety of reasons. The one area th^at seems
to justify special attentipn in this study is the fairly recent development and
growth of disposable nonwpyen fabrics. There is no question that disposal of
these products, whether in a sewer system, incinerator, or landfill, presents
problems. Furthermore, future anticipated use in hospitals, schools, hotels,
airplanes, restaurants, factories, and military establishments indicates added
pressure for conventional means of disposal. For example, the sale of disposable
sheets, pillowcases, gowns, and masks to hospitals was around $125 million in
1967. The American Hospital Association estimates that this would increase to
about $300 million in 1970.
<
The industrial market uses a wide variety of products made from non-
woven fabrics. Industrial wipers alone represent a market that is currently
estimated at over $200 million a year.
These recent developments and trends in disposable nonwoven fabrics
could represent an outlet for low-cost secondary fibers; however, to date
virtually all nonwoven structures, are produced from virgin materials. Further-
more, these virgin products offer strong competition for secondary textile wipers
in many markets.
Since the sale of rag wipers Is one of the most profitable segments of
the secondary materials industry, decreases in the size or elimination of this
market could have a severe impact on the continued existence of marginal or
' \ '
even profitable operations.
£82
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55
RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS
The major output of this study is the identification of the problems
or obstacles to recycling waste textile fiber as described in the previous
section. The objective of this current section is to outline suggested future
research that might, in a relatively short time, result in increased reuse of
textile fiber waste. Future research recommendations, for the most part, are
directed toward specific problem areas, although in some cases the recommended
work might be general in nature and could be related to several specific
problems.
Research on Fiber Blends
Three possible alternatives to the reuse of fiber blends include (1)
reuse as a fabric or yarn, (2) reuse as a fiber, or (3) reuse as a chemical. It
would be advisable to attack this major problem with a broad technical-economic
research program. This program would include (1) the identification of the major
sources of waste fiber blends, (2) determining specific characteristics of dif-
ferent blends, (3) exploring the feasibility of automatically separating fabrics,
fibers, or chemicals from the blends, and (4) identification of markets for the
resulting products of separation. The technical and economic portions of the
study should be carefully balanced so there is close interaction between these
two phases of research. Initially, it appears that the major research input
would be technical in order to test a number of research ideas on separation,,
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56
Fiber Separation
The physical separation of cotton-polyester blends or wool-polyester
blends into pure components would greatly increase the value of these materials.
The possibility of achieving a physical separation on mixed fibers of this type
seems to be remote, although little or no information was available on any
attempts made to produce fiber separation,, Intuitively, it seems possible that
techniques using electrostatic energy, differential densities, or differential
solubilities might be investigated.
Chemical Separation
Chemical separation of various portions of fiber blends might be
achieved by selective degradation of one of the fiber components or perhaps
hydrolysis of both components followed by a physical separation.
One example of this type of process that is currently being explored
in industry involves the selective hydrolysis of the polyester fiber in cotton-
polyester blends. The details of this process are not as yet known, but it
apparently involves hydrolysis of the polyester in order to recover the tere-
phthalic acid and relatively pure cotton fiber. The terephthalic acid or its
derivates are eventually used in the polymerization of new polyester resin.
Depending on the complexity of the final process and the characteristics of the
resulting products, it is conceivable that members of the secondary materials
industry would incorporate processes such as this into their operations. How-
ever, at this stage of development little is known about the economics or
technology involved in this type of process.
£84
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57
Another process that might be applicable to fiber blend separation is
photodegradation of cellulosics, using inorganic salts as catalysts. This method
is currently under investigation at the Gillette Company Research Institute,
Selective solvent separation of fiber blend components is also techni-
cally feasible, although cotton, polyester, and wool are not readily soluble in
common solvents.
Market Selection
Potential markets for the products achieved by separation or purifi-
cation will depend greatly on their nature and physical properties. Certainly
the traditional markets, such as papemaking for cotton and reprocessed fabric
for wool, would be prime candidates. Other new markets may become apparent as
new products are developed or become potentially possible. For example, a cotton
residue containing 5 to 10 percent polyester fiber might be marketable as a non-
woven wiper raw material, providing the absorbency and cost of the fiber is
satisfactory to meet the demands of this market.
The possible use of secondary wool in cigarette filters might be con-
sidered. CSIRO, the Australian research organization, has reported that wool
fiber filters are about twice as effective in the removal of tobacco tars as
those made from cellulose acetate. It has been pointed out that wool being a
protein will react with the components in smoke that are most apt to react with
the cilia of the lungs that are also proteinaceous.
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58
Research on Wool
Problems inherent in the reuse of secondary wool are probably less
technical than political or market oriented. As pointed out previously, one
major factor in the loss of domestic capacity and relocation in Europe was the
Wool Labeling Act. Therefore, research recommended to aid reuse of secondary
wool might include:
• Investigation of the need to repeal or amend the Wool Labeling
Act. Perhaps a better method for defining wool quality would
be by fiber length, strength, color, and denier, rather than
by source or history,,
® Investigation of the means to stimulate consumer acceptance
of secondary wool products. This might involve the develop-
ment of advertising to reverse consumer bias against repro-
cessed wool. Increased demand for secondary wool products
might provide the incentive for resurgence of the wool re-
processing industry in the U.S. In the past, the wool re-
processing industry was ranked as a critical element during
wartime.
* Investigation of the possibility of changing government
procurement procedures to require use of secondary wool
in military uniforms, blankets, or accessories. This
would alter some existing standards that presently call
for virgin wool.
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59
• Investigation of the possible establishment of Federal incen-
tives to aid in exporting new or old wool rags. This might
include recommendations for prepayment or guaranteed payment
for shipments to developing nations. Consideration should be
given to subsidy of transportation to foreign nations to min-
imize solid waste accumulation.
• Investigation of the need and possible mechanism for greater
export of secondary clothing to undeveloped countries. This
may require long-term negotiations between the U.S. Government
and the governments of underdeveloped nations to reduce or
eliminate protective tariffs on used clothing.
• Initiation of selective studies on the possible use of wool
protein or amino acids in nonfiber or nontextile uses. For
example, enzymatic hydrolysis of wool might produce a rela-
tively low-cost source of amino acids for food or food
supplements.
Cotton Mill Waste
The two major problems that inhibit the reuse of cotton mill waste are:
(1) loss of existing markets in padding and batting, and (2) increased cost to
recover the fiber portion of the waste. Future work directed to overcome these
obstacles might include:
• A detailed reevaluation of the cotton mill waste industry.
In March, 1967, a fairly optimistic report was issued by
the U.S. Department of Agriculture Economic Research Service
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60
(ERS-334) on "Marketing and Utilization of Cotton Mill Was.te".
One major conclusion described in the Summary of this report
was that-, "Uses of mill waste is expected to continue to increase,
as technology broadens outlets. Some of this increase will
likely occur through more in-mill use, while the remainder
will occur as greater consumption by existing waste manufac-
turers." It appears that very dramatic changes have occurred
in this field during the past 5 years since the price of mill
waste has decreased about one-half, and new research should
be conducted to clarify these changes.
• Continued investigation of new markets for co.tton mill waste
in papennaking, plastic reinforcing, foam supplements, arti-
ficial leather, ceiling tile, floor covering, and soil con-
ditioners. Specific characteristics of each grade of cotton
mill waste need to be defined and compared to-,newer types of
mill waste including synthetic fibers and fiber blends.
• Investigation?of means to improve selected properties of
cotton and other mill wastes„ For. example., if fire resis-
tance legislation is truly a threat to continued use of
cotton mill waste in upholstery and bedding, then the
development of inexpensive flame retardants should be
given high priority.
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61
• Investigation of possible legislation against the use of
urethane foams in upholstery and bedding, based on the
proposed toxicity of smoke and fumes generated by burning
urethane foams. Actually, the entire question of fire
resistance, smoke generation, and fumes toxicity needs
careful revaluation. Previously developed standards were
oriented primarily toward burn rate and support of combus-
tion with little or no concern for smoke generation and
toxicity of combustion by-products. Recently, it has
been suggested that more deaths occur from smoke and gas
inhalation than from the heat of combustion.
• Investigation of the feasibility of developing new equip-
ment and processes for automatic cleaning, separating, and
handling mill waste to reduce the overall labor needs and
to improve working conditions for workers. Consideration
might be given to recommending certain tax incentives or
subsidies of the development or installation of waste
processing equipment.
General Research Requirements
Most of the recommended actions described in the previous sections were
directed toward three specific problem areas of fiber blends, wool, and cotton
mill waste. Additional actions also probably are needed to help maintain the
secondary textile industry in its very vital position in waste recycling.
Therefore, more general research might include:
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62
• A detailed investigation of the space and capital equipment
needs of the secondary materials dealer. This, of course,
closely parallels the comments made previously in discus-
sing the needs of the cotton mill waste dealer. However,
a comprehensive study of available equipment, investment
requirements, preferred operating procedures-t and plant
location studies might help some of the more marginal
secondary dealers to continue to operate. Municipal sup-
port of selected dealerships might be justified where it
can be shown that the secondary materials industry provides
for the removal of large quantities of material that are
potentially a solid waste burden. ; .
• A specific study.to determine how general reductions in
the contribution of labor to cost can be made. These
reductions might be realized through the development of
automatic sorting equipment or improved equipment to
supplement labor. As mentioned previously, tax incentives
or governmental funds might be provided for the development
of this equipment or its installation.
• Investigation of the feasibility and means to reduce trans-
portation costs in order to facilitate textile waste reuse
domestically and overseas.
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63
* An investigation of the impact of local, state, and federal
pollution legislation on textile waste recycling should be
undertaken. Consideration would be given to the factors
that act as both stimulants and deterrents to textile waste
utilization.
* An investigation of the impact of the development and growth
of disposable nonwoven fabrics on textile waste utilization
should be initiated. If this study indicates that waste
textile fibers can be used extensively in disposable non-
woven structures, then additional research might be directed
toward developing products to utilize specific waste textile
fibers. Consideration should be given to the fact that
disposable nonwoven products may present more of a waste
recovery problem than the original waste textile fiber.
Furthermore, disposable nonwoven wipers may have adverse
effects on the secondary materials dealer who depends on
the old rag wiper business to maintain his marginal business,
-------
APPENDIX A
INFORMATION ON VARIOUS SOURCES AND
CATEGORIES'OF SECONDARY TEXTILE FIBERS
-------
A-l
AMERICAN TEXTILE MANUFACTURERS INSTITUTE, INC
1501 JOHNSTON BUILDING
CHARLOTTE, N. C. 28S02
November 20, 1970
TO PRODUCERS OF COTTON MILL WASTE FOR SALE
Gentlemen:
Enclosed is ATMI's consolidated report on "Shipments of Cotton Mill Waste for Sale"
covering the Third Quarter, 1970.
Based on 125 individual mill returns, shipments of cotton waste totaled 44,03.3,986
pounds with a value of $2,376,097 during the 13-week period ended October 3, Il970.
The computed average value of these shipments at 5.40 cents per pound compares with
an average of 5.27 cents per pound in the previous Second Quarter of 1970, and an
average of 5.44 cents per pound during the Third Quarter, a year ago.
SHIPMENTS OF WHITE! COTTON MILL WASTE FOR SALE
(average cents per pound)
Classification
Jute Bagging
Motes
Dusthouse
Card Fly
Card Strips
Comber Noils
Clearer
Card/Spinning Room Sweeps...
Soft-Threads (white)
Hard/Slasher Threads (white)
Clean Rags
Total Cotton Waste
13 wks.
ended
7/4/70
4.58
1.87
0.76
2.25
7.08
12.95
2.02
0.74
.44
.65
.48
5.27
A more detailed tabulation of Third Quarter 1970 data is attached for your fur-
ther information.
Statistics Section, Economic Information Division
American Textile Manufacturers Institute, Inc.
Attachment
293
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A-2
1501 JOHNSTON BUILDING
AMERICAN TEXTILE MANUFACTURERS INSTITUTE, INC Jfpi&fiyp CHARLOTTE N c SBSOS
May 26, 1966
PRODUCERS OF WHITE COTTON MILL WASTE FOR SALE
tlemen:
Losed is ATMI's consolidated report on "Shipments of White Cotton Mill
te for Sale" coyering the First Quarter, 1966.
3d on 129 individual mill returns, shipments of cotton waste totaled
267,823 pounds, with a value of $4,615,452 during the 13-week period
2d April 2, 1966, The computed average value of these shipments at
) cents per pound compares with an average 8,03 cents per pound in the
/ious Fourth Quarter of 1965, and an average of:8.98 cents per pound
Lng the First Quarter, a year ago,
SHIPMENTS OF WHITE COTTON MILL WASTE FOR SALE
(average cents per pound)
13 wks. 13 wks. 13 wks.
Classification ended ended ended
4/2/66 1/1/66 4/3/65
Jute Bagging..., 7.04 7.25 7.63
Motes ,......., 3,31 3.23 4.25
Dusthouse........................ 1,32 1,22 2.61
Card Fly,. 3.43 3.46 4.64
Card Strips 12.22 12.60 13,21
Comber Noils 14,19 12,90 15.44
Clearer 3.77 3.88 4.44
Card Room Sweeps,.. ., 1.07 0.98 2.05
Spinning Room Sweeps ,. 0.92 0.86 1.92
Soft Threads (not garnetted) 8,73 8.46 9.18
Hard Threads
Slasher Threads...
Rags. 10,15
A more detailed tabulation of First Quarter 1966 data is attached for your
further information. •
'!/•
Statistics Section, Economic Information Division
American Textile Manufacturers Institute, Inc.
Attachment
-------
National $ss0eiation of
* * ' * •'•*
Secondary Material Industries, Inc*
Standards and Practices /or Wool Stock
CIRCULAR WS-63
(
Approved by . Tf|, Division,
Official Copies of this Classification !4ways carry the Association's Seal
EFFECTIVE AS OF APRIL 1, 1963
(Supersedes GWS-53)
ftom/
ASSOCIATION HEA
271 Madison Aveove, NwOfii 16, N. Y.
-------
A-4
COMBINED STANDARDS AND PRACTIC
I. QUANTITY — If the terras "more or less" or "about"
or similar terms are used, it is understood that delivery may be
for a variance of 1.0% on the specified commodity.
A. A contract for a carload unless otherwise agreed upon,
shall mean the minimum quantity recognized by the official
classification tariff of the district in which the seller is
located.
B. A short ton shall be understood to be 2,000 Ibs. A metric
ton shall be understood to be 2204.6 Ibs. A long ton shall
be understood to be 2240 Ibs.
2. PROMPT shipping instruction means shipment within
fourteen days of order date unless otherwise agreed upon be-
tween buyer and seller. IMMEDIATE shipping instruction
means shipment within five days of order date unless otherwise
agreed upon between buyer and seller.
3. All deliveries shall be as represented by the seller. Any
delivery containing in excess of the specified amount of rejec-
tions may, at the buyer's option, be rejected or with seller's
approval assorted and the objectionable excess material may be
taken to account at market price or returned.
4. New sweater cutters, seamers, jerseys, thread waste, and
all other new woolen stock shall be sold on a net weight basis.
All old woolen stock and new woolen clips shall be sold on a
5% maximum tare basis. The bales to be packed in tare con-
sisting of wrappings which will not contaminate the contents.
5. All merchandise to be weighed over tested scales and
detailed weight notes to be furnished with invoices.
6. MOISTURE in excess of the natural content is not allow-
able. If excess moisture content is found, it gives the buyer
the right to rejection or price adjustment with the approval of
the seller.
7. All contracts are subject to civil commotion, strikes, fires,
floods and other acts of God, with the buyer having the option
of cancelling the portion of the contract so delayed without
penalty to the seller or he may elect to take the goods at con-
tract price; if he so elects, shipment to be effected at a time
mutually agreed between buyer and seller. In case of loss of
all or any portion of the goods covered by a contract made under
this agreement, the quantity lost shall not be replaced.
A. In the event of a general embargo of railroad transporta-
tion companies, .because of which shipment cannot be
made within the time specified on the order, the order shall
remain in force provided the embargo does not continue
for more than two weeks, and shipment is made within
reasonable time after the embargo is lifted.
B. The seller shall immediately notify the buyer when he is
unable to ship because of a general freight embargo and
the buyer shall, within 48 hours after receiving such noti-
fication, week-ends and holidays excluded, advise the seller
either by mail or telegraph, whether he elects to have the
order remain in force or cancelled in case embargo re-
mains in force longer than two weeks.
C. In the event an embargo is in force for a period of two
weeks the buyer has the right within that period to desig
nate another means of transportation. Should the chang<
in transportation result in increased shipping cost, the
difference in price shall be borne by the buyer.
8. Terms shall be as agreed between buyer and seller.
9. A contract should include the following:
A. MATERIAL: Material specified as subject, to classifica-
tion or specification adopted by the National Association
of Secondary Material Industries, Inc.
B. QUANTITY: Should be definite.
C. PRICE: Should be stated in definite figures per specific
unit of weight.
D. PLACE OF PURCHASE: Should be specifically stated if
F.A.S. or delivered pier. Wharfage and unloading for the
account of the seller.
E. SHIPMENT: Whenever possible, shipping instructions
should be part of the contract.
F. DELIVERY: Should be stated.
G. TERMS: Must be inserted as agreed upon.
H. CONDITIONS: Any conditions affecting the contract
shall be set forth in clear and definite terms.
I. RESPONSIBILITY AND ARBITRATION. It is recom-
mended that the following two clauses regarding respon-
sibility and arbitration be included as a part of all con-
tracts.
CONTRACTS: RESPONSIBILITY
The retention of stock without written claim or objec-
tion for more than 30 days or after the picking, mixing
or carding or other processing of the stock in any manner,
whichever shall come first, shall constitute an uncondition-
al acceptance of the same by the buyer; and thereafter no
such stock shall be returned nor any claim or liability
whatsoever relating to such a stock survive against the
seller, except where excess tare or improper packing are
found upon use of-stock.
CONTROVERSIES: ARBITRATION
The parties hereto agree that if, within ten days after
written notice thereof, they are unable through informal
mediation or otherwise to settle any controversy or claim
arising out of or relating to this contract or the breach
thereof, then the same shall be settled by arbitration in
accordance with the Rules of the American Arbitration
Association and the judgment upon the award rendered
by the arbitrator(s) may be entered in any court having
jurisdiction thereof.
10. The following are the grade definitions established by the
Textile Division for old wool stock:
-------
A-5
WOOL STOCK Circular WS-63 -
EFFECTIVE AS OF
APRIL 1, 1963
GRADED WOOL STOCK
Ail deliveries must be as represented by the seller and may
contain rejections not exceeding 5% based on net weight of
accepted material, to be paid for at purchase price. Any delivery
containing in excess of the specified amount of rejections may,
at the buyer's option, be rejected and with seller's approval
assorted and the objectionable excess material may be taken to
account at the market price or returned. AH the outthrows
produced in resorting may either be returned for full credit to
the seller or may be paid for at a price agreed upon by buyer
and seller. Objectionable materials shall include all cotton,
rayon, uaskirted material and synthetics.
MIXED ROUGH WORSTEDS
To contain all grades and colors of men's worsted pants, suit
jackets, and men's worsted topcoats. This stock may contain
rejections not exceeding 3% based on net weight of accepted
material, to be paid for at purchase price. Any delivery contain-
ing in excess of the specified amount of rejections may, at buyer's
option, be rejected and with seller's approval assorted and the
objectionable excess material may be taken to account at market
price or returned.
ROUGH WOOL BODIES
To contain all colors, and grades of ladies' wool coats. This
stock may contain rejections not exceeding 3% based on net
weight of accepted material, to be paid for at purchase price.
Any delivery containing in excess of the specified amount of
rejections may, at buyer's option, be rejected and with seller's
approval assorted and the objectionable excess material may be
taken to account at market price or returned.
ROUGH MIXED KHAKI
To contain a minimum of 60% of rough khaki wool worsted
jackets and pants and 40% of khaki wool overcoatings and/or
suitings. This stock may contain rejections not exceeding 3%
based on net weight of accepted material, to be paid for at pur-
chase price. Any delivery containing in excess of the specified
amount of rejections may, at the buyer's option, be rejected and
with seller's approval assorted and the objectionable excess
material may be taken to account at market price or returned.
ROUGH KHAKI WORSTEDS
To contain khaki wool worsted jackets and pants. This stock
may contain rejections not exceeding 3% based on net weight
of accepted material, to be paid for at purchase price. Any de-
livery containing in excess of the specified amount of rejections
may, at the buyer's option, be rejected and with seller's approval
assorted and the objectionable excess material may be taken to
account at market price or returned.
delivery containing in excess of the specified amount of rejec-
tions may, at the buyers' option, be rejected and with seller's
approval assorted and the objectionable excess material may be
taken to account at market price or returned.
MIXED ROUGH OVERCOATING
To consist of all colors and grades of mens wool overcoatings,
pea jackets, mackinaws.snow suits and snow suit pants. This stock
may contain rejections not exceeding 3% based on net weight
of accepted material, to be paid for at purchase price. Any
delivery containing in excess of the specified amount of rejec-
tions may, at the buyer's option, be rejected and with seller's
approval assorted and the objectionable excess material may be
taken to account at market price or returned.
MIXED ROUGH SUITINGS
To contain alt colors of men's wool jackets, topcoats and pants,
either tweeds or flannels. This stock may contain rejections
not exceeding 3% based on net weight of accepted materials,
to be paid for at purchase price. Any delivery containing in
excess of the specified amount of rejections may, at the buyer's
option, be rejected and with seller's approval assorted and the
objectionable excess material may be taken to accoun at market
price or returned.
MIXED WOOL KNITS
To contain all grades and colors of wool knitwear. This stock
may contain rejections not exceeding 3% based on net weight
of accepted material, to be paid for at purchase price. Any
delivery containing in excess of the specified amount of rejec-
tions may, at the buyer's option be rejected and with the seller's
approval assorted and the objectionable excess material may be
taken to account at market price or returned.
SKIRTED MIXED WOOL MERINOES
To contain all grades and colors of wool garments that are
free of linings. This stock may contain rejections not exceeding
3% based on net weight of accepted material, to be paid for
at purchase price. Any delivery containing in excess of the
specified amount of rejections may, at the buyer's option be re-
jected and with the seller's approval assorted and the objection-
able excess material may be taken to account at market price
or returned.
11. The following are the grade definitions as have been
established by the Textile Division for new woolen stock:
MIXED WORSTED
To contain new woven cuttings, free of sewings, made from
worsted yarns and free of synthetics.
ROUGH KHAKI CLOTH
To contain khaki wool overcoatings, jackets and pants. This
stock may contain rejections not exceeding 3% based on net
weight of accepted material to be paid for at purchase price. Any
MIXED TWEED
To contain new unfelted woven cuttings, free of sewings,
made from coarse woolen yarns of two or more colors and
free of synthetics.
-------
A-6
MIXED SHETLAND
To contain new unfelted woven cuttings, free of sewings,
made from woolen yarns and cuttings to be all in solid colon
and free of synthetic*.
MIXED FLANNEL
To contain new uafelied woven cuttings, free of sewings, nude
from fine woolen yarns and cuttings to be all in solid colon
and free of synthetics.
MIXED OVERCOATING
To contain new woven cuttings, free of sewings, made from
woolen yarns .and free of synthetics.
MIXED GABARDINES
To contain new woven cuttings, free of sewings, made from
worsted yarns and cuttings, solid in color and free of synthetics.
MIXED WORSTED SWEATER CUTTERS
To contain new knitted, unfelted cuttings, free of sewings,
made from worsted yarns and free of synthetics.
MIXED WORSTED SEAMERS
To contain sewed cutoffs of sweater cuttings, free of synthetics.
MIXED WORSTED JERSEY
To contain new fine unfelted, knitted cuttings, free of sewings,
made from single-ply worsted yarn and free of synthetics.
MIXED WOOLEN SWEATER CUTTERS
To contain new knitted, unfelted cuttings, free of sewings,
made of woolen yarns and free of synthetics.
WORSTED THREAD WASTE
To contain all-wool spinning and/or weaving threads con-
sisting of worsted-spun yarns and free of synthetics.
WOOLEN THREAD WASTE
To contain all-wool spinning and/or weaving threads con-
sisting of wool-spun yarns and free of synthetics.
-------
Association of
Industries, Inc.
Standards and Practices for Cotton*Synthetics
CS-65
Approved
d by Textile Division, vV
N.A.S.M.I. J)
Official Copies of this Classification always carry the Association's Seal
EFFECTIVE AS OF JANUARY 1, 1965
(Supersedes CR-50)
Issued from
ASSOCIATION HEADQUARTERS
271 Madison Avenue, New York, N. Y. 10016
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A-8
COMBINED STANDARDS AND PRACTICES FOR COTTON-SYNTHETICS — CS-65
PREAMBLE
These standards and practices are recommended for
use in the United States and Canada. Contracts and
specifications for export transactions should be negotiated
on an individual basis.
Basic to the success of any buyer-seller relation-
ship Ja an atmosphere of "good faith." In keeping
with this, the following underlying principles have
been accepted as necessary to the maintenance of
amicable dealings:
I. Sellers must use due diligence to ascertain that ship-
ments consist of properly packed stock and that ship-
ment is made during the period specified.
2. Arbitrary rejections, deductions and cancellations by
the buyer are counter to acceptable good trade practice.
3. Shippers must guarantee the quality of all stock
shipped but shall not warrant its use or the finished
product made therefrom.
Each transaction covering the purchase or sale
of materials described in this circular should be
confirmed in writing and include agreement on
the following items:
1. QUANTITY: If the terms "more or less" or "about"
or similar terms are used, it is understood that de-
livery may be for a variance of 10% on the specified
commodity.
A. A contract for a carload unless otherwise agreed
upon, shall mean the minimum quantity recogniz-
ed by the official classification tariff of the district
in which the seller is located.
B. A short ton shall be understood to be 2,000 Ibs.
A metric ton shall be understood to be 2204.6 Ibs.
A long ton shall be understood to be 2240 Ibs.
2. PROMPT shipping instructions means shipment with-
in fourteen days of order date unless otherwise agreed
upon between buyer and seller. IMMEDIATE ship-
ing instructions means shipment within five days of
order date unless otherwise agreed upon between
buyer and seller.
3. All deliveries shall be as represented by the seller.
Any delivery containing in excess of the specified
amount of rejections may, at the buyer's option, be
rejected or with seller's approval assorted and the
objectionable excess material may be taken to account
at market price or returned.
4. All merchandise to be weighed over tested scales and
detailed weight notes to be furnished with invoices.
5. MOISTURE in excess of the natural content is not
allowable. If excess moisture content is found, it
gives the buyer the right to rejection or price adjust-
ment with the approval of the seller.
6. Terms shall be as agreed between buyci and sell*.;.
7. Tare weight not to exceed 3%.
NEW CUTTINGS
All grades as defined herein must be clean, dry and
free of rubber, leather, slasher, wool, silk, rayon, wood,
paper, muss, pasted stock, adhesives, masking tape,
plastics, paint, acetate, grease, oil, paraffin, latex, water-
proofed materials or synthetic materials and any other
foreign materials, unless otherwise specified.
The specifications for some of the grades listed below
indicate specific exclusion of synthetic fibers and other
injurious materials to the papermaking process. They
are mentioned in the particular specifications for em-
phasis and because the particular grades are more sus-
ceptible to such foreign material. However, the limita-
tions in the foregoing paragraph are applicable, not only
to the grades for which the specific limitations are men-
tioned, but also to all of the grades when referred to
in sales for use in writing paper mills.
Specifications For Grades
1. No. 1 WHITE SHIRT CUTTINGS AND/OR
BLEACHED WHITE DUCK CUTTINGS: Table
cuttings of white shirts, b.v.d.'s, bleached twill, drill
or duck materials, accumulated from shirt factories
or other garment factories, free of color, starched or
loaded materials.and lawns.
2. No. 1 WHITE HEADINGS AND/OR BLEACHED
WHITE DUCK HEADINGS: Headings of white
shirts, b.v.d.'s, or sheeting material, bleached twill,
drill or duck materials, free of color, starched or
loaded materials, lawns and thrums.
3. WHITE TERRY COTTON, free of synthetics,
colors, and colored thread.
4. WHITE LAWN CUTTINGS AND/OR HEAD-
INGS: Table cuttings of white materials of lighter
weight than No. 1 White Shirt Cuttings and/or
Headings, including embroidered materials, which
must be free of starched or loaded materials and laces.
'•7
-------
COMBINED STANDARDS AND PRACTICES FOR COTTON-SYNTHETICS — CS-65
5. WHITE SHRUNK CUTTINGS AND/OR HEAD-
INGS: White cuttings and/or headings which may
be loaded or starched, but free of wiggin or buckram.
6. No. 1 UNBLEACHED MUSLIN CUTTINGS: Table
cuttings of unbleached materials of sheeting, drill,
twill or muslin construction; the packing must be
free of unbleachable colored selvages, starched or
loaded cuttings, canton flannel glove cuttings, heavi-
ly shived materials, heavy canvas, osnaburgs and
thrums.
• •
7. No. 1 UNBLEACHED HEADINGS: Headings of
unbleached materials of sheeting, drill, twill or mus-
lin construction; the packing must be free of un-
bleachable colored selvages, starched or loaded cut-
tings, canton flannel glove cuttings, heavily shived
materials, heavy canvas, osnaburgs and thrums.
8. No. 1 UNBLEACHED THRUMS: New unbleach-
ed strips, mill stock with threads attached and may
contain mill and weaver knots but must be free of
slasher and unbleachable colored selvages.
9. HEAVY UNBLEACHED CANVAS CUTTINGS:
Heavy unbleached canvas cuttings, with or without
colored stripes.
10. OSNABURG CUTTINGS: The same materials de-
fined in No. 1 Unbleached Cuttings, except that
they may contain shivy cuttings.
11. BLEACHED FLANNEL CUTTINGS AND/OR
HEADINGS: Table cuttings of bleached canton
flannel or flannelette linings and/or headings.
12. UNBLEACHED FLANNEL CUTTINGS: Table
cuttings of unbleached flannel or flannelette linings
and/or headings.
13. BLEACHED AND/OR UNBLEACHED WIGGIN
CUTTINGS: Cuttings of starched, openweave
buckram materials.
14. No. 1 BLEACHED SHOE CUTTINGS: Table cut-
tings of bleached materials from shoe linings. This
material may be starched or drilled or fleece-backed,
but free of pasted stock.
15. No. 1 UNBLEACHED SHOE CUTTINGS: Table
cuttings of unbleached materials from shoe linings.
This material may be starched or drilled or fleece-
backed, but free of pasted stock.
16. HEAVY DRILL UNBLEACHED SHOE CUT-
TINGS: Table cuttings of unbleached materials
from shoe linings which may be starched, but which
must be free of fleece-backed shoe cuttings, and
pasted stock.
17. UNBLEACHED FLEECE-BACKED SHOE CUT-
TINGS: Table cuttings of unbleached fleece-backed
materials from shoe linings which may be starched;
the packing may contain heavy drill unbleached
shoe cuttings, but must be free of pasted stock.
18. EASTERN CANTON FLANNEL GLOVE CUT-
TINGS: Table cuttings of unbleached material ac-
cumulated by cotton or canvaS glove factories, and
which must be free of colored stock.
19- STRIPED GLOVE CUTTINGS: Glove cuttings of
various colored stripes.
20. BLEACHABLE YELLOW AND/OR BLUE STRIP:
ED GLOVE CUTTINGS: Table cuttings of bleach-
able yellow and/or blue striped glove materials, free
of all other colors.
21. TAN AND/OR GREY GLOVE CUTTINGS: Table
cuttings of tan and/or grey glove materials, free of
all other colors.
22. MIXED GLOVE CUTTINGS: Table cuttings of
mixed colored gloves.
23. WINE BROWN JERSEY GLOVE CUTTINGS:
Table cuttings of wine brown jersey gloves, free of
all other colors.
24. PASTEL MUSLIN CUTTINGS: Bleachablc pink
and/or peach and/or blue and/or pastel woven table
cuttings or crinkly pajama cuttings which must be
free of rubber and corset cuttings.
25. No. 1 LIGHT SILESIAS: Table cuttings of linings
from men's clothing, free of black threads, heavily
starched or loaded materials and dark colors.
26. No. 1 NEW GREY SILESIAS: Table cuttings of
linings from men's clothing consisting exclusively
of bleachable grey colors.
27. No. 1 NEW CREAM SILESIAS: Table cuttings of
linings from men's clothing consisting exclusively of
bleachable cream colors.
28. No. 1 LIGHT FLANNELETTES: Pastel and light
printed flannelette table cuttings.
29. GREY FLANNELETTE CUTTh-JGS: Intcrlinings
of coats which may include tan Kasha.
30. TAN KASHA: Only tan interlinings of coats.
31. No. 1 PERCALES: Table cuttings of light colored
print rags from shirts, shorts and pajamas; the pack-
ing may contain bleachable solid colors but must be
free of woven materials and dark colors.
U.OJL
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A-10
COMBINED STANDARDS AND PRACTICES FOR COTTON-SYNTHETICS— CS-65
32. No. 1 LIGHT PRINTS: Printed table cuttings of
ladies' garments; the packing may contain blcachable
solid colors but must be free of woven materials,
33. BLEACHABLE DENIMS: Table cuttings of white-
faicked blue overall materials or blue overall materi-
als with express-stripes. The packing must be free of
colored threads and thrums. They must be bleachable.
34. BLUE DENIM THRUMS: New white-backed blue
overall, express-striped blue overall or bleachable
blue overall strips, mill rags with threads attached.
The packing may contain mill and weaver knots but
must be free of slasher.
35. UNBLEACHABLE DENIMS: Table cuttings of
blue overall materials that are not bleachable.
36. MIXED SPORT DENIMS: Table cuttings of all
denim materials and weights, free of synthetics.
37. INDIGO BLUE CUTTINGS: Table cuttings of
indigo blue materials.
38. BLACK AND WHITE COVERTS: Table cuttings
of black and white cotton covert materials.
39. GREY COVERTS: Table cuttings of grey cotton
covert materials.
40. BLUE COVERTS: Table cuttings of blue cotton
covert materials.
41. GREY CHEVIOTS: Table cuttings of grey cheviot
shirt materials.
42. BLUE CHEVIOTS: Table cuttings of blue cheviot
shirt materials.
i
43. BLUE CHAMBRAY CUTTINGS: Table cuttings
of blue chambray materials.
!
44. TICKING CUTTINGS (MATTRESS CUTTINGS):
Table cuttings of light colored mattress cuttings
which must be free of feathers, hair, metallic sub-
stances, dark colored materials and treated materials.
45. FANCY SHIRT CUTTINGS: Table cuttings of
woven and printed cotton materials accumulated
from shirt factories.
46. No. 1 WASHABLES: Colored cuttings in print or
solid colors. Woven materials may be included.
47. SUN TAN KHAKI CUTTINGS: Table cuttings
from pants and shirting materials of sun tan shades.
48. GREY CHINO CUTTINGS: Table cuttings from
pants and shirting materials of grey twill and drill.
49. HERRINGBONE GREEN TWILL CUTTINGS:
Table cuttings of herringbone green twill materials.
50. MIXED KHAKI CUTTINGS: Table cuttings of
any and all shades of khaki cuttings.
51. CORDUROY CUTTINGS: Table cuttings from
corduroy garments free of cottonades and unions.
•
52. COTTONADES: Table cuttings of all work gar-
ments or similar materials of all colors, free of
unions.
53. NEW ROOFING CUTTINGS: Consisting of a
mixture of cuttings, any and all colors from gar-
ments of rayon, silk, synthetic fibers, cotton, wool,
or a mixture of any or all of the above mentioned
fibers. Not guaranteed free of rubber.
54. COLORED SYNTHETIC CUTTINGS: Consisting
of a mixture of cuttings, any and all colors, from
garments of rayon, silk, cotton or synthetic fibers
but must be free of wool, haircloth and metallic
fibers.
55. BLEACHED UNDERWEAR CUTTERS (FREE OF
FLEECE-LINED CUTTERS): Table cuttings of
bleached underwear, free of trimmings, noodles,
scanners, and synthetic materials.
56. BLEACHED UNDERWEAR CUTTERS (WITH
FLEECE-LINED CUTTERS): Table cuttings of
bleached underwear, free of trimmings, noodles,
seamers and synthetic materials.
57. UNBLEACHED OR EGYPTIAN UNDERWEAR
CUTTERS (FREE OF FLEECE-LINED CUTTERS):
Table cuttings of unbleached underwear, free of
trimmings, noodles, seamers and synthetic materials.
58. UNBLEACHED OR EGYPTIAN UNDERWEAR
CUTTERS (WITH FLEECE-LINED CUTTERS):
Table cuttings of unbleached underwear, free of
trimmings, noodles, seamers and synthetic materials.
59- BLEACHABLE PASTEL UNDERWEAR CUT-
TERS: Table cuttings of bleachable pastel shades
of underwear, free of trimmings, noodles, loopers,
seamers and synthetic materials.
60. PASTEL COLORED TERRY COTTON: Free of
synthetics, consisting of only pastel colors.
61. SILVER GREY OR RANDOM UNDERWEAR
CUTTERS (FREE OF FLEECE-LINED CUTTERS):
Table cuttings of bleachable silver grey or random
underwear cutters, free of trimmings, noodles, loop-
ers, seamers and synthetic materials.
-------
A-ll
COMBINED STANDARDS AND PRACTICES FOR COTTON-SYNTHETICS — CS-65
. MIKED SILVER GREY AND/OR RANDOM
OJTTEM: Table cuttings of bleachable silver grey
os random underwear cutters, free of noodles, loop-
ers, and seamers, containing fleeced and unfleeced
ft. DARK COLORED KNITTED UNDERWEAR
CUTTERS: Table cuttings of solid colored under-
wear or knitted materials, which must be free of
geamero.
64. JAZZ CUTTERS: Table'cuttings of striped and/or
solid colored underwear or knitted materials, which
must be fo <—,
!/« J
-------
A-12
COMBINED STANDARDS AND PRACTICES FOR COTTON-SYNTHETICS — CS-65
88. OLD COTTON PANTS: Shall consist of all com-
plete cotton garments, commercially free of oil, rub-
ber, leather, grease, paint and miner's garments. Must
not contain strips, skeleton garments or synthetics.
\9. MIXED COTTON PANTS AND OVERALLS:
Shall consist of all complete cotton garments, com-
mercially free of oil, rubber, leather, grease, paint
and miner's garments. Must not contain strips, skele-
ton garments or synthetics.
X). OLD BLUE OVERALLS: Shall contain only blue
overalls consisting of complete cotton garments,
commercially free of oil, rubber, leather, grease,
paint and miner's garments. Must not contain strips,
skeleton garments or synthetics.
91. COTTON FILLED QUILTS: Quilts consisting of
cotton only, commercially free of wool, synthetics,
metallics, rubber and plastics.
92. COTTON PANTS TOPS: Shall consist of square
cut cotton pants tops without legs, commercially free
of oil, rubber, leather, grease, paint arid miner's gar-
ments. Must not contain strips, skeleton gaiments
or synthetics.
93. BLUE OVERALL TOPS: Shall contain only square
cut blue cotton overall tops, commercially free of
oil, rubber, leather, grease, paint and miner's gar-
ments. Must not contain strips, skeleton garments or
synthetics.
SUPPLEMENTAL CLASSIFICATION
AS OF MAY 1,1967
94. MIXED INSTITUTION RAGS shall consist of all
items of clothing and household textiles, except
those items removed for sale as clothing in the
retail store of the institution. Mixed Institution Rags
shall not contain American flags, carpets,, rugs,
stuffed toys, cotton pillows, mattresses, rubberized
materials, plastic materials, cattle hair pads, belts,
fiberglass items, or any items of any nature not con-
sidered in the textile category. No other items shall
be removed from "honest" mixed institution rags
that will cause the mixed rags to be reduced in value.
:;04
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APPENDIX B
SUMMARY OF BASIC STATISTICAL DATA
RELATED TO THE GENERATION AND
USE OF SECONDARY TEXTILE FIBER
-------
B-l
APPENDIX B
SUMMARY OF BASIC STATISTICAL DATA
RELATED TO THE GENERATION AND
USE OF SECONDARY TEXTILE FIBER
1. Extensive Survey Results
(Volume of Cutting and Rags Handled)
Cotton ' 415.0 X 106 Ibs
Wool 162.5 X 106 Ibs
Synthetic 167.5 X 106 Ibs
Synthetic blends 265.0 X 106 Ibs
Total 1,010.0 X 106 Ibs
II. Cotton Mill Waste
(Based on Third Quarter 1970 report from American Textile
Manufacturers Institute, Inc., Charlotte, North Carolina)
"Based! on 125 individual mill returns, shipment of cotton
waste totaled 44,033,986 pounds ". These data were
multiplied by 4.0 and rounded to give a- total of 200 million
pounds/year.
III. Synthetic Fiber Producers Waste
(Based on Textile Organon. Vol XLI, 1970, page 31)
Synthetic fiber shipments for 1969 included 39.4 million
pounds of rayon and 162.7 million pounds of noncellulosic,
indicating a minimum of 200 million pounds.
-------
B-2
IV. U.S. Tariff Commission Data on Consumption of Rags
(Summaries of Trade and Tariff Information. Schedule 3. Volume 6,
1968, pages 119-124)
Based on use of old and new rags by the following industries
(millions of pounds)
Paper and paperboard 425 .
Roofing and Linoleum 200
Fibrous form (reprocessing, flock) 250
Wiping rags 300 ($60 million)
Wool 100
Exports (1967) 342
Total 1617
V. National Association of Secondary Materials
(Paper presented at Textile Workshop, Recycling Day, Feb. 2, 1971,
by R. H. Frankel, Vice President of NASMI)
Waste Generation
New cuttings and clippings 300-400 million Ibs/year
Old Clothing 120 million Ibs/year
Users
Paper Industry 62 million Ibs (1967)
44 ditto (1970)
Vulcanized Fiber 100 million Ibs (1969)
60 ditto (1970)
-------
B-3
VI. Battelle Estimate of Old and New Rags Available in 1970
A. Estimate of Old Rags Available 1970
Apparel: Assume life cycle of 5 years for
j 1965 consumption of fibers was 3.6 billion
pounds. Assume 1.6 billion is unrecoverable
consumption--wear and loss in washing, etc.--
leaving 2 billion pounds to be recycled or
disposed.
Home Furnishings: Assume life cycle of 10 years; 1960 consump,-
tion of fibers was 1.30. Assume 0.3 billion
i
is unrecoverable consumption due to wear,
fire, etc.—leaving 1 billion pounds to be
disposed.
Total;
Assume old rags from industrial and miscel-
laneous products to be negligible, the total
old rags available for recycling in 1970 was
about 3 billion pounds. Of this, about 30
percent or 750 million pounds enters the
dealers' processing operation and 2.2 billion
would be discarded.
B. Estimate of New Rags Available from Apparel Trimmings (1970)
(Survey of 5 percent of apparel industry based on yards
converted)
Assume 4.1 billion pounds of fiber consumed in apparel manu-
facture in 1970. Survey indicates trimmings of 10 percent
with 60 percent of the waste being salvaged and sold to
dealers. The other 40 percent is dumped.
-------
B-4
Therefore, 400 million pounds of waste are generated with
240 million pounds going to dealers and 160 million pounds
to the dump. If a similar estimate using 5 percent waste
generation is used for home furnishings at 3.0 billion
pounds for 1970, then 90 million pounds of scrap would go
to dealers in the form of remnants ?nd trim waste. Approx-
imately 60 million pounds would be dumped.
This indicates an estimated 330 million pounds of new rags
generated in manufacture of apparel and home furnishings
are sent to dealers each year.
Total rags available in 1970 includes 750 million pounds
of old rags and 330 million pounds of new rags, or a total
of about 1.1 billion pounds of rags.
Total rags being dumped or burned include 2.2 billion pounds
of old rags and 220 million pounds of new rags. In addition,
some rags entering the dealer's plant are eventually removed
and destroyed for a total of about 2.5 billion pounds.
-------
APPENDIX C
COMMON MAN-MADE FIBERS
-------
C-l
APPENDIX C
COMMON MAN-MADE FIBERS
Data presented in this Appendix were taken directly from the
publication, Guide to Man-Made Fibers, published by the Man-Made Fibers
Association, Inc., 350 Fifth Avenue, New York, New York 10001.
-------
C-2
Texffl© Fiber Pro'dicts MeBtifkatira Aett
Pursuant to the provisions of Section 7(c) of the Act, the following generic names for manufactured
fibers, together with their respective definitions, are hereby established:
(a) acrylic — a manufactured fiber in which the fi-
ber-forming substance is any long chain synthetic
. , polymer composed of at, Jeast 85% by weight of
acrylonitrile units (H-CH,—CH—).
CN
(b) twedecpylllc — a manufactured fiber in which the
fiber-forming substance is any long chain syn-
thetic polymer composed of less than 85% but
at least 35% by "weight of acrylonitrile units
( — CHS — CH — ) , except fibers qualifying under
I ' '> $ '-••''
CN ..;.;:••••<>• • •.-.:.-•- ,-.-.
category (2) of .Paragraph (j) of Rule 7.
(c) poOyoofler — a manufactured fiber in which the
fiber-forming substance is any long chain syn-
thetic polymer composed of at least 85% by
weight of an ester of a dihydric alcohol and
terephthalic acid (p — HOOC — C0H<, — COOH>).
(d) Fsjyom — a manufactured fiber composed of re-
generated cellulose, as well as manufactured fi-
bers composed of regenerated cellulose in which
substituents have replaced not more than 15% of
the hydrogens of the hydroxyl groups.
(e) oeeflolto — a manufactured fiber in which the fi-
ber-forming substance is cellulose acetate. Where
not less than 92% of the hydroxyl groups are
acetylated, the term triacetate may be used as a
generic description of the fiber.
(f ) carrara — a manufactured fiber in which the fiber-
.' forming substance is any long chain synthetic
{polymer composed of at least 80% by weight of
vinylidene chloride units ( — CH,-^CGI2 — ) .
( g ) taslom — a manufactured fiber in which the fiber-
forming substance; is composed of any regener-
ated naturally occurring proteins.
(h)'ny9rlll — a manufactured fiber containing at least
85% of a long chain polymer of vinylidene dini-
Urile (— CH^—C(CN)2— ) where the vinylidene
dinitrile content is no less than every other unit
in the polymer chain. •••',•
( i ) nylon — a manufactured fiber in which the fiber-
forming substance is any long chain synthetic
poly amide having recurring amide groups
(( — C — NH — ) as an integral pan of the polymer
ft '. : .;
chain.
(1) a manufactured fiber in. which the fiber-
forming substance is a hydrocarbon such as
natural rubber, polyisoprene, polybutadiene,
copolymers of dienes and hydrocarbons, or
amorphous (non-crystalline) polyclefins.
(2) a manufactured fiber in which the fiber-form-
ing substance is a copolymer of acrylonitrile
and a diene (such as butadiene) composed
of not more than 50% but at least
,' ' 10% by weight of acrylonitrile units
(—CH8—CH—);The term "lastrile" may be
••'•'•: ''-'•'/' .CN V''.'/
used as a generic description for fibers fall-
:: ing within this category., ,
(3) a manufactured fiber in which the fiber-
forming substance is a polychloroprene or a
copolymer of chloroprene in which at least
35% by weight of the fiber-forming sub-
stance is composed of chloroprene units
{ j ) roibboF — a manufactured fiber in which the fi-
ber-forming substance is comprised of natural or
oynthetic rubber, including the following cate-
gories:
(k) cpiand®« —•*• a manufactured fiber in which the
fiber-forming substance is a long chain synthetic
polymer comprised of at least 85% of a seg-
mented polyurethane.
( I ) vioraO -r- a manufactured fiber in which the fiber-
forming substance is any long chain synthetic
polymer composed of at least 50% by weight of
vinyl alcohol units (—CH,—CHOH—), and in
which the total of the vinyl alcohol units and any
one or more of the various acetal units is at least
85,% by weight of the fiber.
(m) plofiira — a manufactured fiber in which the fi-
ber-forming substance is any long chain synthetic
polymer composed of at least 85% by weight of
ethylene, propylene, or other olefin units, except
amorphous (non-crystalline) polyolefins qualify-
ing under category (1) of Paragraph (j) of
Rule 7.: ;
(n) vlnyon—-a manufactured fiber in which the fi-
ber-forming substance is any long chain synthetic
polymer composed of at least 85% by weight of
vinyl chloride units (—CH,—CHCl—).
(o) metallic.—a manufactured fiber composed of
metal, plaistic-coated metal, metal-coated plastic,
or a core completely covered by metal.
(p) gloss — a manufactured fiber in which the fiber-
forming substance is glass. .
-------
Properties of Man-Made Fibers
(Standard laboratory conditions for fiber tests: 70°F. and 65% relative humidity)
FIBER
BREAKING TENACITY'. SPECIFIC
(grams per ttcciier) GRAVITY-'
( standard) (wcs)
STANDAUI)
MOISTUUE
REGAIN^
EFFECTS OF HEAT
CELLULOSSC FIBERS:
acetate
(filament and staple)
1.2 801.5
0.8 Jo 1.2
1.32
6.0
Sticks at 350 to 375° F.
Softens at 400 to 445'F.
Melts at 500' F.
Burns relatively slowly.
rayon
(filament and staple)
regular tenacity
medium tenacity
high tenacity
high wet modulus
0.73 to 2.6
2.4 to 3.2
3.0 to 6.0
2.5 So 5.5
0.7 to 1.8
1.2tol.9
J. 9 to 4.6
1.8 to 4.0
1.50 to 1.53
1.50 to 1.53
1.50 to 1.53
1.50 to 1.53
13
13
13
13
Does not melt. Decomposes
at 350 to 464° F.
Burns readily.
triacetate
(fitameng and staple)
B.2 do 1.4 0.8to 1.0
1.3
3.2
Before heat treatment, sticks
at 350 to 375* F. After treat-
ment, above 464*F. Melts
at 575'F.
. NON-CELLULOSIC WBERS;
acrylic
(filament and staple) 2.0 to 3.5
1.8 to 3.3 1.14 to 1.19
1.3 to 2.5 Sticks at 450 to 497'F., de-
pending on type.
modacrylic
(filament and staple)
2.0 to 3.5 2.0 to 3.5 1.30 to 1.37
.4 to 4 Will not support con bustion.
Shrinks at 250" F. Stiffens at
temperatures over 300° F.
nylon
nylon 66 (regular tenacity
filament)
nylon 66 (high tenacity
filament)
nylon 66 (staple)
nylon 6 (filament)
nylon 6 (staple)
olefin (polypropylene)
(filament and staple)
polyester
regular tenacity filament
high tenacity filament
regular tenacity staple
high tenacity staple
earan (filament)
tpandex (filament)
3.0 to 6.0
6.0 to 9.5
3.5 to 7,2
6.0 to 9.5
2.5 .
4.8 to 7.0
4.0 to 5.0
6.3 to 9.5
2.5 to 5.0
5.0 to 6.5
up to 1.5
0.6 to 0.9
2.6 to 5.4
5.0 to 8.0
3.2 to 6.5
5.0 to 8.0
2.0
4.8 Jo 7.0
4.0 to 5.0
6.2 to 9.4
2.5 to 5.0
5.0 to 6.4
up to 1.5
0.6 to 0.9
1.14
1.14
1.14
1.14
1.14
.91
1.22 or 1.38*
1.22 or 1.38*
1.22 or 1.38*
1.22 or 1.38*
1.70
1.20 to 1.21
4.0 to 4.5
4.0 to 4.5
4.0 to 4.5
4.5
4-5
_ _
0.4 or 0.8*
0.4 or 0.8*
0.4 or 0.8*
0.4 or 0.8*
—
.75 to 1.3
Sticks at 445* F. Melts at
about 500* F.
Same as above.
Same as above.
Melts at 414 to 428* F.
Melts at 414 to 428* F.
Melts at 325 to 335* F.
Melts at 480 to 550* F.
Melts at 480 to 550* F.
Melts at 480 to 550* F.
Melts at 480 to 550" F.
Softens at 240 to 280° F.
Self-extinguishing.
Degrades slowly at tempera-
tures over 300* F. Melts at
446 to 51 8* F.
vinyon (staple)
0.7 to 1.0 0.7 to 1.0 1.33 to 1.35 up to 0.5
Becomes tacky and shrinks at
150* F. Softens at 170* F.
Melts at 260* F. Will not
support combustion.
• Depending on type.
1 BREAKING TENACITY: The stress at which a Tiber breaks, expressed in terms of grams per denier.
* SPECIFIC GRAVITY: The ratio of the weight of a given volume of fiber to an equal volume of water.
•STANDARD MOISTURE REGAIN: The moisture regain of a fiber (expressed as a percentage of the moisture-free weight) at
70* F. and 65% relative humidity.
NOTE: Data given in ranges may fluctuate according to introduction of fiber modifications or additions and deletions of fiber types.
10 3.S3
-------
FOR: EN^IIU|WrOLME^ REPQ.RT-
-------
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-------
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-------
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-------
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Copper rebounds higher in outside market. Engineering and Mining
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«.*..*.
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1 • •'•?•• .',•: .•• •' •
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[Air Pollution Control in the Secondary Me'tal Industry; 1st Axi-r Pollution
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10
[Sullivan, J. D. Lead smelting and refining. Columbus, Battelle
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[Ex Parte no. 262; increased freight rates and charges. Verified
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[U.S. Interstate.Commerce Commission. Ex Parte no. 265; increased
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12
Ashes richer than ore, recovery study underway. Engineering and
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[Bennett, K. W. Secondary aluminum:, moving upv Iron Age, 200:56-57,
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Bennett, K. W. World market battles for U.S. scrap. Iron Age,
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[Bishop, F. C. MMitary-space scrapyards hold gold-silver bonanza.
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Bjorling, G., and G. A. Kolta. Recovery of valuable metals from slags,
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Cash in trash? Maybe. Forbes, 105(2):18-24, Jan. 15, 1970.
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Chepchugova, A. G., and S. I. Ivanov. Opredeleniye zasorennosti loma
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Chip collection system; centrifugal separators reduce waste by swallowing
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[Cogen, L. L. Oxygen in the secondary lead industry. Proceedings,
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[Copper-brass-bronze; special supplement. American Metal Market.,
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[Copper-nickel section. American .Metal.Market, sec. 2, Apr. 27, 1970.]
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i-,t>
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Dumontet, J. Deux aspects de 1'industrie de 1'affinage de 1'aluminium.
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[Executive Reorganization Plans.... Reorganization Plan no.3;
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[Forbes, R. H. Silver recovery. American Metal Market, 15-16, sec.
2, Mar. 16, 1970.]
With a new kind of metalworking machine called AutoForge, you can
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[GM's new way to save scrap; (reconstituted steel). Business Week,
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George, P. C. America's neglected pollutant, solid waste [in four
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Grosspietsch, W., H. Prohl, and W. Stiehler. Wirtschaftliche
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Haake, G. Stand und entwicklungstendenzen bei der verarbeitung von
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[Status and development trends in the processing of copper and copper
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[Hanus, D., and Przybyslawski, A. Metal recovery from bimetallic scrap
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[He turns junk into gold. Dun's Review, 51, Dec. 1968.]
[Hershaft, A. Solid waste treatment. Science and Technology), 34-45,
June 1969.]
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[International precious metals report. American Metal Market, 1A-31A,
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[Jakobi,J. Secondary European aluminium smelting. Metal Bulletin,
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Jangg, G., and K. Schuetz. Nasschemische aufarbeitung von
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[Jarman, G. Mechanical separation of scrap wire and insulation. Wire
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[Kaplan, J. Gold, the untouchable metal. American Metal Market, sec. 2,
Apr. 14, 1969.]
Kemp, M. , and G. Schrade. Fusione di trucioli d'ottone in un forno
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II Rame, 7(26):39-42, 1969.
Kleespies, E. K. , J. P. Bennetts, and T. A. Henrie. Gold recovery from
scrap electronic solders by f used-salt electrolysis. Journal of Metals,
22(l):42-44, Jan. 1970.
[Krzakala, J., and H. Kolasa. Econometric model of non-ferrous metals
recovery from scrap and waste material. Rudy i Metale Niezelazne,,
14 (5): 263-270, 1969.]
Lead and zinc supplement — 1968. American Metal Market, 75(63), sec.
2:5-42, Apr. 1, 1968.
Liebscher, S. Refining storage battery scrap. German Patent 41.,881;
filed May 19, 1964; issued Oct. 15, 1965.
!
[Long look at nickel: as the projects proliferate. Metals Week,
13-15, 19-20, 25-27, Sept. 14, 1970.]
Mantle, E. C., and N. H. Jackson. The reclamation of scrap. Copper^
2(l):6-8, Jan. 1968.
Martin, H. G. Precious metals. American Metal Market, 12-29, sec. 2, /
Apr. 14, 1969. ,'
[Mechenov, P., R. Dimitrov, P. Lesidrensky, and I. Rosenov. Vacuum-
electrothermal production of zinc powder from zinc scrap.
Godnisnjak na khimiko-Technologicheskiya Institut, 13(1):7-20, 1966.]
[Metal recovery from scrap. Die Casting Engineer, 12(-2):48, Mar-Apr.
1968.]
Metals recovery^ seen one solution for solid wastes. Oil, Paint and
Drug Reporter, 197(12) :4, 38, Mar. 23, 1970.
.-
«. J' .NvCJ
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[Mighdoll urges lifting curbs on recycling of solid wastes. American
Metal Market. 57(59) :16, Mar. 30, 1970.]
Mnukhin, A. S., B. Ya. Krasil'shchik, G. R. Fedorova,- and A. M.
Verblovskiy. Issledovaniye protsessa karbonilirovaniya nikelya iz
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scrap.] Tsvetnye Metally, (5):38-40, May 1968.
[Molten salts: new route to high-purity metals. Chemical Engineering.
26(18):36, 38, 1968.]
Morgenbesser, D. Scrap industry faces environmental change. American
Metal Market. 77(62):!, 18, Apr. 2, 1970.
Naumov, N. M., Yu. A. Kuznetsov, and L. Ya. Zarubinskaya. Rassortirovka
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.Neal, tt. R. Scrap has a bundle of problems. Iron Age. 197(25):73-78,
. June 23, 1966. :
[Nickel section. American Metal Market, Sept. 12, 1968; Mar. 3, 1969;
Feb. 24, 1970.]
[Offer new cable stripper. American Metal Market, 21, June 10, 1970.]
[Ohio City will install system to sort, reclaim solid wastes. American
Metal Market. 21, June 10, 1970.]
[Old gold: to buy or not to buy. Jewelers' Circular-Keystone,
137(9):38-41, June 1967.]
Pollution control in copper wire reclaiming by use of afterburner in
new dual-chamber furnace. Industrial Heating, 37(3):450, 452, 454,
456, Mar. 1970.
[Precious metals section. American Metal"Market, 1-24A, sec. 2, Oct.
4, 1968.]
[Reclaiming refuse; efforts to save, reuse waste products slowed by
variety of problems. Wall Street Journal, 175(122):!. 23, June 23,
1970.]
Baliski, S., Z. Nowakowski, E. Klis, J. Kaniut, J. Wolszakiewicz, and
A. Wawrzak. (Instytut Metali Niezelaznych). Recovery of metals
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[Recycling: practical answer to the problems of air pollution, water
pollution, solid waste. American Metal Market (Special Issue),
1-42, sec. 2, Mar. 16, 1970.]
Rose, K. Secondary metals now accepted as of high quality. Materials
& Methods. 29(l):56-59, Jan. 1949.
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16
[Ruth, J. P. Electroplated gold for industrial use on the upswing.
American Metal Market, 9A-24A, Dec. 8, 1969.]
[Ruth, J. P. Gold plating's role in computers expands. American
Metal Market,.1-20, Feb. 18, 1969,]
[Schwartz, W., and W. Haase. Short rotary furnace and its application
in the treatment of battery scrap. NML Technical Journal, 6(1):42-44,
Feb. 1964.]
Scrap recovery cuts purchases of prime metal. Modern Metals, 21(7) :(84,
Aug. 1965.
Scrap salvaging system will save an extra $11/2 million in 5 .years.
Material Handling Engineering, 23(4);97-98, April 1968.
[Secondary materials supplement. American Metal Market, sec. 2, Mar.
16, '1970.]
[Sen, M. C., and T. Banerjee. Recovery of lead from scraps. NML
Technical Journal, 8(3);33-38, Aug. 1966.]
Sherman, J. V. Sophisticated .scrap; the metal reclaiming business
has come a long way from the junkyard. Barron's, 47(49):3, 10, 12,
Dec. -4, 1967..
Klimczok, R., R. Kaminow, S» Zielinski, and A. Krawczyk. Metallic
zinc recovery from zinc wastes. Polish Patent 54,393; filed Sept.
9, 1966; issued Feb. 15, 1968.
Smolyarenko, V. -D. , L. N. Kuznetsov, and L. E. Nikol'skiy.
Znergeticheskaya rabota zlektropechi pri byplavke nerzhaveyushchey
stali. [Energy performance of the .electric furnace when melting
stainless steel.] Stal, (4):321-324, Apr. 1969.
[Solid waste disposal. A Bill (HR11833), the Resource Recovery Act
of 1970 passed by Senate. Congressional Quarterly Weekly Report,
28(33):2,043, Aug. 14, 1970.]
[Solid waste disposal. (Action on) a Bill ,(HR11833), the Resource
Recovery Act of 1970. Congressional Quarterly Weekly Report, 28(42):
2,546-2,547, Oct. 16, 1970.]
Solid waste disposal. [Action on] a Bill (HR 11833-HR 91-1155).
Congressional Quarterly Weekly Report, 28(25):1,587, June 19, 1970.
[Solid waste disposal. [Action on] a Bill (S.2005 - S. Rpt. 91-1034),
the Resource Recovery Act of 1970. Congressional Quarterly Weekly
Report, 28:1,941-1,942, July 13, 1970.]
Prescott, J. H.,'and J. E. Browning. Solid wastes schemes sifted.
Chemical Engineering, 77(11):80-82, May 18, 1970.
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Solid wastes. Environmental Science & Technology, 4(5);384-391. May,
1970.
[Secondary metals.] American Metal Market, 74(72), sec. 2:15-43,
45-46, Apr. 17, 1967; 75(53):7-42, Mar. 18, 1968.
[Special scrap forum section. American Metal Market, sec. 2, May
25, 1970.]
[Copper metals.] American Metal Market, 74(184), sec. 2:23-90, Sept.
. 25, 1967; 75(178), sec. 2:21-82, Sept. 16, 1968.
Lead and zinc. American Metal Market. 73(143):9-31. 33-42, July 25,
1966; 74(140):20-21, July 24, 1967; 75(63), sec. 2:5-42, Apr. 1,
1968.
Stadler, F. Ueber das legieren von nichtrostendem stahl. [Alloys for
stainless steel.] Neue Huette, 11(10):600-604, Oct. 1966.
[Telyuk, I. I., and A. M. Dukhota. Remelting aluminum alloy shavings.
Mashinostroenie Inform N-T, Sb., 31(l):55-56, 1965.]
[Texas Instruments' product could affect the copper industry. (Copper
encased aluminum rods.) Wall Street Journal, 175(112):31, June .9,
1970.]
Tremolada, G., and L. Afduni. Lead refining with sulphamate bath at
the A. Tonolli e Cs. Electrochimica Metallorum, 1(4):457-470, 1966.
[Turning junk and trash into a resource. Business Week, 66-67, 70-71,
74-75, Oct. 10, 1970.]
Vaughan, R. D. Reuse of solid wastes: a major solution to a major
national problem. Waste Age, 1(1):10, 14-15, Apr. 1970.
Waste recovery: big business in the 70's. Chemical & Engineering
News, 48(9);14-15. Mar. 2, 1970.
[The wide world of secondary metals 1969 secondary metals supplement.
American Metal Market. 1-42, Apr. 14, 1969.]
Will industry sell recycling. Modern Packaging, 43(9):46-49, Sept. 1970.
Woolley, H. B. New patterns, new outlook for world gold. Engineering
and Mining Journal, 168(10):86-92, October 1967.
Books and Pamphlets on
the Textile Industry and its Wastes
AATCC technical manual, v.46. Research Triangle Park, N.C., American
Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists, 1970. 433 p.
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[Brown, V. Solid waste as it relates to paper stoc
Paper Stock Institute, National Association of Secondary Material
Indus tries,^Inc., San Francisco, Mar. 1970. 11 p.]
Chopra, S. N., and G. H. Guild (Chemcell Limited). Retreatment of
synthetic fibres. British Patent 1,120,272; filed Jan. 21, 1966;
issued July 17, 1968.
Combustion Engineering, Inc. Technical-economic study of solid waste
disposal needs and practices. Public Health Service Publication No.
1909. Washington, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1969. 705 p.
Milnes, A. H. (Cook & Co. Manchester, Limited). Controlled pneumatic
waste collection for textile machines. British Patent 987^001;
filed Jan. 14, 1964; issued Mar. 24, 1965.
[Erskine, W. Expanding consumption of secondary fibres in the
seventies. Remarks at Paper Stock Institute, National Association
of Secondary:Material Industries, Inc., San Francisco, Mar. 1970.
14 p.] ;
Whalon, E. G., T. Reid, and A. J. Osowski (The Hale Manufacturing
Company). Method and apparatus for treating thermoplastic synthetic
filaments particularly waste thermoplastic synthetic filaments.
British Patent 1,019,818; filed May 19, 1964; issued Feb. 9, 1966.
[Hutchins, W. E. Secondary textile materials; a buyer's view. Presented
at National Association of Secondary Material Industries, Inc. Annual
Meeting, Los Angeles, Mar. 1968.] :
Japan Exlan Company Limited. Production of polyacrylonitrile fibres.
British Patent 1,006,040; filed May 28, 1964; issued Sept. 29, 1965.
[Lewis, J. A study of the problems connected with the use of cotton
rags in the paper industry. New York, Cotton Rag Council, 1959.]
Lipsett, C. H. :Industrial wastes and salvage; conservation and
utilization. 2d ed. New York, Atlas Publishing Company, Inc., 1963.
406 p.
• /
Luey, A. T. Technological advances in secondary fiber usage. Presented
at National Industrial Solid Waste Management Conference, University
of Houston, Mar. 24-26, 1970. 7 p.
[Guide to man-made fibers. New York, Man-Made Fiber Producers
Association, Inc., 1969. 16 p.]
i
[Man-made fiber .fact book. New York, Man-Made Fiber Producers
Association, Inc., 1967. 82 p.]
[Man-made fibers, a summary of origins, characteristics and uses. New
York, Man-Made Fiber Producers Association, Inc., 1964. 48 p.]
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Marks, R. H. Method of waste fiber utilization. British Patent
1,107,394; filed May 24, 1965; issued Mar. 27, 1968.
Bullock, H. L. (National Engineering Company of Canada, Limited).
Electrostatic separation. British Patent 1,021,800; filed Mar. 20,
1964; issued Mar. 9, 1966.
1964 man-made-fiber chart. Textile World. 114(7):181-198, July 1964.
Press, J. J., ed. Man-made textile encyclopedia. New York, Textile
Book Publishers, Inc., 1959. 913 p.
Rich, J. H. Address. Presented at National Industrial Solid Waste
Management Conference, University of Houston, Mar. 24-26, 1970. 14 p.
[Shane, W. M. What time is it for textiles? Address at National
Association of Secondary Material Industries, Inc., Miami Beach,
Apr. 1967.] !
[Standard & Poor's industry surveys: basic analysis, textiles-apparel.i
New York, 1970. p.32-67.] i
[Technical and production data of principal man-made fibers and
metallic, stretch and bulk yarns produced in the United States.
America's Textile Reporter. Rev. llth sec. Boston, 1962. 33 p.]
Temafa, Textilmaschinenfabrik Meissner Morgner & Co. GmbH.
Improvements in and relating to feed hoppers for preparatory textile
machines. British Patent 1,126,668; filed Apr. 5, 1967; issued Sept.
11, 1968.
[Textile industries facts, 1969-1970, Atlanta, Textile Industries,
1969.]
1964 man-made-fiber chart. Textile World, 114(7):181-198, July 1964.
[Trutzschler, H, Improvements in or relating to a multiple swift
textile waste tearing machine. British Patent, June 26, 1961.]
U.S. Congress. Senate. An Act [to encourage increased consumption
of cotton], 88th Cong. 2d sess., Mar. 6, 1964. Washington. 34 p.
Problems of the domestic textile industry; hearings before a Subcommittee
of the Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce, U.S. Senate,
85th Cong., 2d sess., S.Res.287, pt.4. Washington, U.S. Government
Printing Office, 1959. p.1,211-2,067.
[U.S. Congress. Senate. Committee on Interstate and Foreign Ccronerce.
Problems of the domestic textile industry, report pursuant to
S.Res.287. 85th Cong. Washington, U.S. Government Printing Office,
1959. 28 p.]
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20
Federal Trade Commission. Rules and regulations under the Wool Products
Labeling Act of 1939. Washington, U.S. Government Printing Office,
[1941], 28'p.
[Rules and regulations under the Textile Fiber Products" Identificatibn
Act, effective Mar. 3, 1960. Washington, U.S. Federal Trade
Commission, 1959; 31 p.]
[Federal Water Pollution Control Administration. The cost of clean
water, v.4. Textile mill products. Washington, U.S. Government
. Printing Office, 1968. (in 10 parts).]
?t
[Telegram on used clothing exports. Washington, U.S. Department of
State, 1970. 2 p.]
Summaries of trade and tariff information. Schedule 3. Textile
fibers and textile products, v.2. Washington, U.S. Tariff
Commission, 1969. 158 p.
Journal Articles on the
Textile Industry and its Wastesj
Aerated lagoon:handles 10-million gpd. Textile World, 116(2);86-87,
Feb. 1966.
Ashmore, W. G. ' Waste control today-: why you need it; how it works;
how it pays off in three mills. Textile World, 114(4):44-54, April
1964. '
Bowen, D. A. Engineering tackles the textile environment. Textile
World, 120(7):122-23, July 1970. ,
Bringardner, D. J., and P. P. Pritulsky. Latest word on identifying
today's fibers. Textile World, 111(12):47-59, Dec. 1961.
[Cleaning up wool waste. Textile -World, 69, Aug. 1970.]
[Cotton, bad days on the plantation. Time, 94, Oct. 10, 1969.]
Fast way to measure trash in cotton and waste. Textile World, 113(6):
64-65, June 1965.
Fedor, W. S. Textiles in the seventies. Chemical & Engineering
News, 48(17):64-73, April 20, 1970.
Garbage: uses of "urban ore". Chemical & Engineering News? 48(8):17,
Feb. 23, 1970.
Gee, N. C. Fibre identification in reclaimed textiles. Materials.
Reclamation Weekly, 115(19):195, 197-201, Nov. 8, 1969.
Hargreaves, E. M. Solvent degreasing- will it replace conventional
scouring? Textile World, 115(2):104-106, Feb. 1965.'
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How four cotton mills control spinning waste. Textile World,
110(3):63, Mar. 1960.
King, P. J. Improving profits with better waste control. Textile
World, 112(6):64-67, June 1962.
Kurie, J. F. World trends in cellulosic and natural fibers. American
Dyestuff Reporter, 58(25);17-20, 37, Dec. 15, 1969.
[Latest word on low-cost mill-waste disposal. Textile World,
71-75, June 1970.]
Man-made fiber waste production. Textile Organon, 37(6):97, 104,
120, June 1968.
Morrison, R. D. New photomicrographs included in current method on
fiber identification. American Dyestuff Reporter, 52(22);28-47,
Oct. 28, 1963.
Pinault, R. W. Low BOD starch derivative promises less pollution.
Textile World, 112(1);95. Jan. 1962.
Newest problem: mill costs and the new minimum wage. Textile World,
111(6):50-56, June 1961.
Producers' waste shipments. Textile Organon, 40(2);31, Feb. 1969.
Producers' waste shipments. Textile Organon, 41(2):31, Feb. 1970.
[Reclaiming refuse; efforts to save, reuse waste products slowed by
variety of problems. Wall Street Journal, 175(122);!, 23, 1970.]
Recycling can head off pulp crisis. Paperboard Packaging, 55(1):30-33,
Jan. 1970.
Salable waste can be an expensive proposition. Textile World,
110(4):113, Apr. 1960.
Smith, S. G. Identification of unknown synthetic fibers; part IV;
revision, new fibers, cross sections. American Dyestuff Reporter,
49(21):27-35, October 17, 1970.
Solid wastes. Environmental Science & Technology, 4(5):384-391, May,
1970.
[Spivak, S. M. Is cutting waste going to waste? The Bobbin,
19:34, April 1970.]
One system treats sewage, solid wastes. Chemical & Engineering News,
48(12):44-46, Mar. 23, 1970.
Textile water pollution clean up picks up speed; what government
regulations mean to you; what your company can do; what other
companies are doing. Textile World, 117(11):52-66, Nov. 1967.
«.-<• xJtO
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Waste recovery: big business in the 70's. Chemical & Engineering
News, 48(9):14-15, Mar. 2, 1970.
Wastewater machine. Textile World, 118(9);154, Sept. 1968.
What's ahead in textile technology? Textile World, 120(6):48-50, June
1970.
Wilson, F. C. Waste at roving- How much is too much?. Textile World,
114(9):78-79, Sept. 1964.
Wilson, F. C., and C. W. Foster. 7 steps to cutting waste costs.
Textile World, 116(2):72-75, Feb. 1966.
[Woods, M. Solid waste: refuse or reuse? Toledo Blade Magazine,
4-7, July 12, 1970.]
i ' . • .
Books and Pamphlets on the ;
Paper Industry and its Wastes:
[Fibre Market'News. Paperstock Institute Special Iss.ue. Oct. 13, 1966.]
[Fibre Market News. Special Issue covering the 12th De-Inking
Conference b'y; TAPPI on subject of secondary fibre usage, Oct. 19,
1967.] ' ] '.
[Fibre Market'News. Special Issue. Nov. 14, 1969.]
»
[Fibre Market'News. Special Issue. Nov. 15, 1968.]
[Introduction to de-inking; de-inking of wastepaper. TAPPI Monograph
Series No. 31. New York, Technical Association of the Pulp and
Paper Industry, 1967.]
Kirkpatrick, W. A., II. Wastepaper utilization and deinking in the
board and paper industry. In C. E. Libby, ed. Pulp and paper science
and technology, v.l. Pulp. chap.14. New York, McGraw-Hill Book
Company, 1962. p.375-393.
[The newsprint problem. Special Antitrust Subcommittee of the
Committee on the Judiciary. Washington, U.S. Government Printing
Office, September 14, 1953.]
[Paperstock annual review number. Fiber Market News, Nov. 13, 1970.]
National Academy of Engineering-National Academy of Sciences.
Policies for solid waste management. U.S. Public Health Service
Publication No. 2018. [Washington], U.S. Department of Health,
Education, and Welfare, 1970. 64 p.
[The statistics of paper, 1970 supplement. New York, American Paper
Institute, July 1970.]
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Tuchman, S. G. The economics of the waste paper industry. Ph.D.
Thesis, New York University, June 1963. 327 p.
[1969-1970 Waste trade directory of the world. New York, Atlas Publishing
Company.]
Journal Articles on the
Paper Industry and its Wastesi
[Allin, W. M. Solid waste management. New York, American Paper
Industry, June 1970.
[Beggs, A. K. A look ahead at the pulp and paper industry. Presented
to the American Pulpwood Association, New York, Feb. 23, 1965.]
Cash in trash? Maybe. Forbes^ 105(2):18-24, Jan. 15, 1970.
Contest-winning symbol promotes recycling concept. Boxboard Containers,
78(3):39-41, Oct. 1970.
Edwards, J. R. How paperboard is doing and meaning of the capacity
survey. Paper Trade Journal, 154(51);28-30, Dec. 21, 1970.
[Erskine, R. W. Paperstock in the packaging world. Presented at
Paperstock Institute Fall Conference, Phoenix, Oct. 14, 1966.]
Evans, J. C. W. Capacity survey indicates modest increases for years
1971-73. Paper Trade Journal, 154(48);37-41. Nov. 30, 1970.
Federal incentives for recycling likely to pass Congress in '70.
Chemical 26. 7(5):38-39, May 1970.
[Graham, G. A. (Consolidated Fibers). Address to the American
Newspaper Publishers Association, Purchasing Agents Division,
Meeting, San Francisco, Apr. 15, 1969.]
[Hartung, J. W. (St. Regis Paper Company). A partnership in
paperstock. Presented at PSIA Meeting, Apr. 18, 1966.]
[Katovich, R. Foreign trade division vice-president looks to
improvements in exports of paper stock during 1971. Fibre Market
News, January 2, 1971.]
[Ledbetter, W. C., Jr. A strong paper chain—better quality fiber.
Presented at Canadian Pulp and Paper Association Meeting, Montreal,
Jan. 29, 1970.]
[Lehto, B. 0. (Charles T. Main, Inc.). The economics of recycling.
Presented at Recycling Seminar, Technical Association of the Pulp
and Paper Industry Annual Conference, New York, Feb. 24, 1971.]
[Mighdoll, M. J. Recycling resources: new economics, new technology,
new challenges. Fiber Market News, Nov. 13, 1970.]
•U'V.f
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24
Miller, W. H. Paper stock in the paper industry—a technical analysis.
Tappi, 47(4):36A', 42A, 46A...68A, Apr. 1964.
Miller, W. H. ;A new look at the problem of secondary fibers supply.
Paper Industry, 46(6);495-8, Sept. 1964. ,
[New homes for old, newspapers-waste makes wealth. Graphic Communications
Weekly, Jul-y.. 7. 19 70. ]
i~' • / . • '
i- • '
[New paperboard'made from recycled fiber. Fibre Markef News, July 29,
1970.] ',-'" '
[Newspaper facts, Sept., Nov., 1969; Jan., Mar., May-June, 1970. New
York, Newsprint Information Committee.]
Bird, D. Old phone books pose a problem. New York Times, 120;55,
Jan. 10, 1971r.
Koplik, P. H. Outlook for expansion in the U. S. exports of secondary
fibers. Pap'er Trade Journal, 154(10);37, Mar. 9/1970.
Reclaimed fibers—50/50 board compares favorably with virgin kraft.
Paperboard Packaging, 54(8):23, Aug. 1969.
[Reclaiming refuse. Wall Street Journal, June 23, 197.0.]
1 !' ' ; . • "
Recycling a losing proposition. Paperboard Packaging, 55(8):8, Aug.
1970. ' ' "•"'. ;
Recycling waste paper helps solve a problem. Public Works, 100(12):
67-68, Dec. 1969.
Recycling; will(we drown in trash--or learn to reuse it? New York
Times, 120, sec. 4:7, Feb.. 7, 1971.
! . ,
Reeves, 0. T. The future of secondary fibers in paper mills. American
Paper Industry. 52(5);62-63, May 1970. . .
[Rich, J. H. Debates on recycling paper on new to industry but....
Waste Age, July-Aug. 1970.] ; : ;. ; , •
Solid waste recycling now possible. American Paper Industry,
52(6):18, June 1970.
Roden, H. E. Symbol sought for recyclable package. Boxboard
Containers, 7(7(12):82, July 1970.
n '
[There is money,, in wastepaper. Reprint from Web Printer, 9, 1969.]
Turning junk and trash into a resource. Business Week, No. 2145:67,
Oct. 10, 1970. :* ^
J ' • '• • • • ' i
Erskine, R. W. 1 Secondary fibres: recycling turns solid waste into
profits. Boxboard Containers, 77 (10): 61, 170, 187-188, 19.0, 200,
203, May 1970.
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[White, P. Research, program by PSI—significant event of year.
Commercial Bulletin, Oct. 27, 1962.]
[Why recycling wastepaper when surplus of wastepaper is being destroyed
or burned. Waste Trade Journal, Nov. 28, 1970.]
[Williams, L. E. The changing role of the paperstock industry.
Presented at PSIA Convention, Bermuda, Oct. 20, 1967.]
[Williams, L. E. (Container Corporation of America). Managing the
solid waste function. Presented at the Packaging Institute Forum,
Chicago, Oct. 1970.]
Williams, W. C. Use it/reuse it. Political, economic pressures
brighten future for waste. Pulp and Paper^ 44(10);61-65, Sept. 1970.
Williams, W. C. CCA makes corrugating medium at 1,100 ft/min from
100% waste paper. Pulp and Paper, 44(12)-.112-116, Nov. 1970.
Wilson, A. W. Industry environmentalists and top execs differ on
recycling solid wastes. Pulp and Paper, 44(10);69-73, Sept. 1970.
Will industry sell recycling? Modern Packaging, 43(9):46-9, Sept.
1970.
Write on scrap. Chemical Week, 108(3):16. Jan. 20, 1971.
ya732
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