-------
-------
-------
-------
-------
CONTENTS
Abstract iii
Figures vi
Tables vii
Acknowledgment viii
1. Introduction 1
Purpose 1
Users of this document 2
Organization of the report 3
2. Indoor Air Quality Research 5
Historical summary 5
Ongoing research 6
References used in Section 2 12
3. Indoor Air Quality 13
Pollutants 13
Factors that affect indoor ai11 quality 20
Review publications 24
Reference 26
4. Measurement Systems 27
Definitions 27
Instruments and methods 29
Key references and other information sources 36
5. Design Considerations 38
Design considerations for investigating building-
associated problems ..... 39
Methodology for the development of monitoring ..... 40
Probe placement 55
Additional reading 57
References 57
6. Data Reporting 59
Level I Reporting: Meeting objectives of
specific studies 59
Level II Reporting Preserving data for use in
other studies 60
7. Quality Assurance and Quality Control , 64
Elements of a quality assurance plan 64
Examples of qual'ty assurance plans 67
(continued)
-------
CONTENTS (concluded)
Appendixes
A. Summaries of instrunents 69
Introduction 69
Instruments 69
Asbestos and other fibrous aerosols 70
Biological aerosols 73
Carbon monoxide 80
Formaldehyde 98
Inhalable participate natter 112
Nitrogen dioxide 137
Ozone" 153
Radon/radon progeny 156
Sulfur dioxide 186
Data logging 195
EPA reference and equivalent methods .... 205
Glossary of instrument terns .... 205
B. Alternatives to comnercially available instrumention:
standard and accepted methods 212
Introduction 212
Air exchange 213
Inhalable particulate matter 223
Orpam'c pollutants 232
Formaldehyde 239
Radon 241
Fibrous aerosols 245
-vi -
-------
FIGURES
Number Page
1 Various aspects of indoor air quality studied during the
past 15 years 7
2 Schematic flow chart for development of design 41
3 Worksheet for first-level screening of instrument selection . . 51
4 Worksheet for second-level screening of instrument selection . 53
5 Format far reporting key factors of an indoor air qur.lity
study and its design 61
6 Format for Deporting scope of data collection and storage ... 62
-vn -
-------
TABLES
Number Page
1 A partial summary of ongoing research related to indoor
ai r quality 8
2 Sources and exposure guidelines of indoor air contaminants . . 14
3 Types of available measurement system categories by pollutant . 30
4 Summary of selected pollutant concentration measurement systems 31
5 Estimated a and J3 levels associated with selected sample sizes
and assumed differences between Yi and Y? . . . , 49
-vm-
-------
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This work was funded by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) under Contract Number 63-02-3679 to Research Triangle Institute
(RTI) and by RTI Subcontract Number 1-31U-2190 to GEOMET Technologies,
Inc.
We sincerely appreciate the guidance provided by EPA Project Officers
Lpnce Wallace and Eugene Harris and the cooperation of Edo Pellizzari of
RTI. David Berg of EPA loresaw the need for the guidelines and provided
early support and encouragement in initiating this work.
In addition to the persons named above, many others reviewed drafts
of this document. They are Gerald Akiand, Robert Allen, Annon Birenzvige,
Bill Furlong, Gary Furmen, Gerald Gardetca, John Girrian, Thad Godish, David
Grimsrud, Joseph Hens, David Harris, David Harrje, Robert Johnson, Mike
Koontz, Brian Krafthefer, Brian Leaderer, Denetrios Moscnandreas, Robert
iiininner, Francis Offermann III, Thomas Phillips, Fredrick Shair, Samuel
Silberstein, John Spongier, William Turner, James Woods, and John Yocom.
Joe Zabransky assisted in preparing an earlier version of this document, and
Mike Koontz prepared the subsection on determining the sample size.
To all these people and their organizations, we express gratitude for
their interest, time, and efrort. In many cases, these people served as
contacts for reviews of tne draft, within their organizations. We thank
all those who helped us with the review process.
We also want to acknowledge the assistance provided by the companies
whose products are reviewed in this document.
GEOMET's Publication Department, under the able direction of Leonora
Simon, provided word processing and editorial support; the editorial
assistance of Jo Ann Koffman deserves a special mention.
Niren Nagda and Harry Rector
-------
SECTION 1
INTRODUCTION
PURPOSE
The design of an indoor air quality monitoring program must include
considerations not generally required for outdoor monitoring. First, the
factors that affect indoor air quality can differ, or at least differ in
significance, from those that affect outdoor air quality. For example,
indoor sources such as (.invented gas appli'-ices have little or no effect on
the outdoor air, and the chemical decay of ozone occurs more readily indoors
than outdoors. Similarly, although the rate of air exchange between indoors
and outdoors through the building envelope has an important effect on indoor
air quality, this factor is not important in measuring outdoor air quality.
Second, some instruments and measurement methods used to quantify outdoor air
quality nay not be appropriate for monitoring indoor air quality.
This document offers guidelines to help users design and develop indoor
air ruality measurement programs. The guidelines apply to nonindustrial
indoor environments such as residences, office buildings, schools, retail
establishments, and indoor recreational areas. The information provided
should assist users in developing monitoring programs for meeting a variety
of objectives; examples of typical objectives are given below:
• Characterization of pollutant levels and assessment of
responsible "factors. Monitoring programs are conducted to
characterize Tevel s of indoor pollutants and to examine
factors responsible for those levels. This examination of
factors can be somewhat qualitative and exploratory, or it
can include quantitative assessment and modeling. An
example of such a program is monitoring formaldehyde
concentrations and examining the dependency of concentra-
tion on temperature and structure age. Another example is
monitoring various pollutants in selected indoor structures
and developing mathematical models for relating the
variation in concentrations to time, rate of air exchange,
and other parameters.
e Evaluation of impact on indoor air quality. These
monitoring programs usually involve "before and after"
measurements used to evaluate the impact of various
measures designed to conserve energy or alter indoor air
quality. Examples of such measures 'include retrofitting
to conserve energy or using devices to improve indoor air
i ty.
-------
e Exposure assessment. Many individual? spend about
~?U T>erce ntT~oTHtFeTr time indoors. Thus, monitoring
indoor air quality is useful for assessing hunan
exposure to pollutants. Monitoring data from such
studies can also be useful in comparing the indoor
contribution of a pollutant with the total exposure
and in research to assess health effects.
To a nore limited extent, the information in this document will also
aid in investigating indoor air quality problems and building-related
illnesses. However, this latter area of research is complex and has been
investigated mostly through case studies, rather than through a predesigned
research program. Suqnested solutions or procedures are limited by the
current state of the art.
Information presented in this document can help the user to design
one component of health-effect studies—namely measurement of pollutant
levels. Health-effect-based standards are provided but discussion of the
health effects of indoor pollutants are not within the scope of these guide-
lines. Similarly, this document does not address the design of studies
involving chambers and other specialized sampling conditions.
USERS OF THIS DOCUMENT
This document is primarily aimed at users who seek to characterize
indoor air quality and the related parameters. These persons may include air
pollution soecialists; building energy conservation specialists; health
department personnel; heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC)
enqineers; and undergraduate and graduate students in these and related
fields. The guidelines are prepared primarily for those with some knowledge
of air pollution monitoring or operation and analysis of building HVAC
systems, but with no indoor monitoring experience. Yot parts of the document
will be of use to those who are knowledgeable in indoor air quality research.
With the aid of this document, users can accomplish the following:
e Develop study design option:
e Develop a monitoring design
e Choose from a wide variety of instrumentation and measure-
ment methods tailored to the monitoring objectives
9 Use generally accepted quality assurance and quality
control principles
e Expand the utility of data collected.
-------
ORGANIZATION OF THE REPORT
This document addresses a variety of topics, which are listed below.
For readers who are unfamiliar with indoor air quality, d study of Sections 2
through 5 is suggested as a first step. These users can then focus on spe-
cific instrumentation, data reporting, and quality assurance needs presented
in Appendices A and B and in Sections 6 and 7. Those familiar with indoor
air quality research can begin with Section 4 and review the instrumentation
and methods before referring to Sections 5 and 6. To those who are experts
in indoor air quality research, Appendixes A and I! may serve as a useful
resource.
Section ?--Indoor Air Quality Research
A historical perspective will familiarize the reader with research
conducted in the field of indoor air quality. Ongoing research projects are
also listed.
Section 3--Pollutants and Other Factors Affecting Indoor Air Quality
Thirteen pollutants or pollutant groups and their indoor sources are
summarized. A generalized mass balance model relates various factors
affecting indoor concentrations; an example illustrates the use of the model.
Publications describing different aspects of indoor air quality research are
high!iqhted.
Section 4—Measurement Systems
This section discusses measurement and instrumentation characteristics,
operating principles, and sources of information. Instrumentation and
methods for measuring pollutant concentrations and air exchange rates are
summarized.
Section 5--Design Considerations
A discussion of various design considerations, including selection of
parameters, determination of sample size, and selection of a measurement
system, will help the user systematically develop a monitoring program.
Helpful hints on such specifics as probe placement are given, and feedback
and iterative procedures for developing a design are emphasized. Approaches
for addressing building-associated indoor quality problems are discussed.
Section 6--Data Reporting
Guidelines for data reporting will enable users and study investigators
to understand the descriptors required to make useful data sets accessible to
other users. Formats for reporting the scope and content of data are included
-------
Section 7--Quality Assurance and Quality Control
Quality assurance (QA) and quality control (QC) considerations, with
references, are discussed.
Appendix A
This appendix categorizes and reviews commercial instruments suitable
for measuring indoor air quality.
Appendix B
Standard or accepted methods can be used for certain measurements when
no off-the-shelf, commercial instrumentation is available. In some cases,
these methods can serve as alternatives to the instrumentation summarized in
Appendix A. Appendix B summarizes these methods.
-------
SECTION 2
INDOOR AIR QUALITY RESEARCH
This section provides a brief overview of past and ongoing indoor air
quality research. In the case of past research, the section provides the
reader with a historical perspective rather than an exhaustive review.
A list of some of the ongoing research projects is also included.
HISTORICAL SUMMARY
The first major studies of indoor air quality, conducted in Europe and
the United States in the mid-1960s and early 1970s, measured indoor concen-
trations of outdoor po1lutants. Among the pollutants studied were total
suspended particles (TSP), sulfur dioxide (SCg), and carbon monoxide (CO)
(Bierstcker, DeGraaf, and Mass 1965; Yocorn, Cfink, and Cote 1971). These
early studies, as well as more recent efforts, demonstrated that indoor
levels of an outdoor pollutant are affected both by outdoor levels and by
indoor generation or removal. For example, indoor concentrations of CO are
dependent on outdoor levels and on the extent of emissions from unvented
combustion appliances within a structure. On the other hand, in the absence
of indoor sources, a pollutant such as ozone (03) can rapidly decay indoors.
Because of the importance of i-ndoor generation and decay, indoor air quality
research quickly expanded to address indoor sources (Cote, Wade, and Yocom
1974) and sinks (Spedding and Rowland 1970).
Although early indoor monitoring studies focused on pollutants governed
by ambient air quality standards, the monitoring of contaminants primarily
present indoors also began about the same time. For example, an early study
to quantify indoor levels of radon (Rn) was undertaken for the U.S. Atomic
Energy Commission in the late 1960s and early 1970s (Lowder et al. 1971).
Studies in Denmark in the early 1970 (Anderson, Lundquist, and Molhave 1974)
also identified formaldehyde (HCHO) as an indoor Contaminant.
Infiltration of outside air into a building envelope influences indoor
concentrations. Due to difficulties in predicting air infiltration, it has
been measured experimentally by employing tracer gas techniques. Initially,
air infiltration studies focused on the relation to energy consumption,
because air infiltration is an important component of the the heating and
cooling loads of buildings. Since the early 1970s, air infiltration has been
included as an important facet of indoor air quality monitoring in many
studies (Drivas, Simmonds, and Shair 1972).
In early research, the ratio of indoor to outdoor concentrations of some
pollutants was thought to be useful in predicting indoor concentrations
(Yocom, Clink, and Cote 1971). In the mid-1970s this ratio -was replaced by a
more fundamental mass balance approach (Shair and Heitner 1974). The mass
balance modeling approach, simple in concept, was adapted from odor modeling in
-------
industrial hygiene (Turk 1963). In the mass balance approach, described in
Section 3, all factors that have an impact on indoor concentration of
pollutants, such as rate of indoor generation, are considered in estimating
pollutant concentration. In addition to improving predictive capabilities,
the moss balance model permits a better understanding of the relation between
the various parameters influencing indoor air quality.
The miniaturization of monitoring equipment, which permits pollutant
measurements with devices that are readily portable or attachable to clothing,
started in the mid-1970s (EPA 1979). In the last 2 to 3 years, the develop-
ment of such devices has accelerated, and the current state of the art in
personal monitoring compares favorcbly to the technology of larger, station-
ary monitoring equipment. The advent of personal monitoring has encouraged
research on total human exposure that includes measurements at home, at work,
outdoors, while commuting, and during other normal daily activities.
Exposure synthesis studies began in 1975 (Fugas 1975). These studies
focus on "time budgets," or time spent by population subgroups in various
locations. These locations, such as home, work, or travel, are called
microenvironments. To synthesize exposure, the data on small, well-
characterized ranges of concentrations in a -microenvironment can be combined
with the time spent in that microenvironment.
Field studies to define actual exposure have been recently initiated.
These studies use personal sampling devices and activity logs completed by
participants to determine total exposure in the various microenvironments.
Figure 1 depicts the changing emphasis of indoor air quality research.
ONGOING RESEARCH
Table 1 summarizes ongoing research and .shows areas of current research
emphasis. The table, although not comprehensive, includes many of the
typical projects undertaken in the United States in the early 1980s. The
projects cover a range of pollutants. In addition to those already named,
the pollutants include nitrogen dioxide (M02), inhalable particulates (IP),
HCHO, Rn, and S02- Other studies encompass allergens, volatile organics,
and depletion of oxygen (02).
Government Agencies sponsor the majority of studies. The Agencies
include the EPA, the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), the Consumer Product
Safety Commission (CPSCK the National Institute of Environmental Health
Sciences (N'lEHS), the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), the Bonneville
Power Administration (BPA), and New York Energy Research and Development
Administration (NYERDA).
-------
1%7 1972 1977 1932
Indoor/outdoor relationship and indoor pollutant characterization
Indoor emission studies
Sinks
Indoor air quality modeling
Air exchange measurements
Use of personal monitors
Total exposure field studies
Legend:
Related research
Specific-area research
Figure 1. Various aspects of indoor air quality studied during the past 15 years
-------
TABLE 1. A PARTIAL SUMMARY OF ONGOING RESEARCH RELATED TO INDOOR AIR QUALITY
Area/brief ti'tlp
Characterization jnu
~Mo~fTeTfnn
Pollutants
ctudy frame
Sponsori ng
organizat'on
Principal
investigator*
Office builr'inqs, homes
for elderly, and
schools
Organics
Phase I. 1 building
each
Phase II: 2 buildings
each
CPA
Phase I:
E. Pellizzari, RTI
Phase II: not
selected
Air transport within
b'jil dinas
Monitoring and
modeling of energy
use, infiltration, and
indoor air quality
Pollutants in
residential air
Residential and
commercial indo' air
quality
Effects of residential
woodburning appliances
on indoor air quality
Assessment of natural
Rn and Rn proqeny in
U.-S. single-family
houses
Measurement of annual
indoor and outdoor
222Rn and its
relationship to
environmental variables
Studies of Rn in
buildings
Residential ventilction
Influence of building
design and other factors
on indoor air qual ity
Emissions
Emission from unvented
combustion sources; from
tobacco combustion; and
occupancy anl tobacco
odor
Rn progeny
CO, N02, IP,
Rn and Rn progeny,
HCHC
CO, N02, HCHO,
particulates,
volatile vapors
Rn, N02, HCHO,
RSP, CO
CO, CO?, N02>
particulates
Rn and Rn
progeny
Rn
Rn
Rn, Hi~HO, CO,
N02
CO, N02, S02,
03, RSP, HCHO
N02, CO, S02,
C02, 02
depletion;
particulates,
odor, CO, trace
elements, organics;
occupancy odor
3-compartment
chamber
2 identical
houses
40 homes
40 homes for
passive monitor-
ing of oollutants;
2 homes subset for
real -time
Test homes
40 representative
homes
Indoor/outdoor;
detailed, long-term
correlation for a
small number of
homes
140 homes
3 pairs of homes, to
assess heat exchanger,
weatherization, and
occupancy
4 homes
Chamber
DOE
EPRI
CPSC
Niagara
Mohawk/
NYERDA
TVA/BPA
DOE
DOE
DOE
Pacific Power
& Light/
Battell e
Northwest
NSF
NIEHS
D. Grimsrud,
A. Nero, LBL
N.L. Nagda,
GEOMET
T.G. Matthews,
Oak Ridge National
Laboratory
R. O'Neil , Niagara
Mohawk
J. Harper, TVA
0. Rundo,
Argonne National
Laboratory
N. Harley, New
York University
B. Cohen,
University of
Pittsburgh
D. Zerba, Pacific
Power & Light
C. Davidson,
Carnegie Mellon
O.A.J. Stolwijk,
B.P. Leaderer,
W.S. Cain;
John B. Pierco
Foundation/Yale
University
(continued)
* Addresses of principal investigators appear at the end of Table 1.
-------
TABLE 1. (continued)
Arej/brief title
Emission factors for
several indoor sources
Characterization of
emissions from unvented
gas stoves, wood stoves,
and kerosene heaters
Building materials
Characterization of
emissions fron unvented
Pollutants Study frame
N02, CO, 502, Chamber
C02, 02
depl etion
CO, N02, Research house
S02
Orqanics Chamber
All Chamber
Sponsoring
organization
NIEHS
DOE and
CPSC
DOE
GRI
Pri ncipal
investigator*
J.A.J. Stolwijk,
E.P. Leaderer;
John B. Pierce
Foundation/Yale
University
D. Grimsrud,
A. Nero, LBL
D. Grimsrud,
A. Nero, LBL
D. Moschandreas,
;ITRI
gas appliances, wood-
burning devices,
kerosene heaters,
cor!; ing, and cigarette
smok. i ng
Emissions from kerosene
heaters
Formaldehyde content in
various preserved wood
products suppli sd by
manufacturers
CO, C02, U02,
S02
HCHO
Chamber CPSC
Chemical analysis CPSC
of wood products
W. Porter, CPSC
T.G. Matthews,
Oak Ridge national
Laboratory
Controls (Including
Ventilation)
Pollutant-specific
removal techniques
Behavior of heat
exchangers
Rn, Rn progeny,
part'rulates
None
3-compartment
chamber
Chamber
DOE
DOE
EPA, BPA
D. Grimsrud,
A. Hero, LBL
D. Grimsrud,
A. Nero, LBL
Instrumentation
Development and field
evaluation of passive
samplers
Assessment of radioactive
and chemically active air
contaminants
HCHO, CO,
particulates
Rn, Rn progeny
Laboratory
DOE
Develop calibration DOE
facility, instrumenta-
tion, ana methods for
residential and
pjblic building
sampling
D. Grimsrud,
A. Nero, LBL
E. Knutson, DOE
(continued)
Addresses of principal investigators appear at the end of Table 1.
-------
TABLE" 1. (concluded)
Area/brief tift
Pollutants
Sponsoring
Study frame organization
Principal
investigator*
Exposure Studies
24-hour exposure of
residents of Washington,
D.C., and Denver
24-hour exposure of
residents of chemical -
industrial cities
Total exposure to
emissions of unvented
gas appliances
Characterization of
24-hour exposure of
three population
subgroi'ps
Assessing exposures and
adverse health effects
associated with alterna-
tive heat sources in
residences
Pol'utants, aero-
alle~genj, and respir-
atory diseases
CO
18 volatile
organic!
CO, N02
CO
N02, CO, C02,
.-02, HCHO,
0? depletion
TSP, kSP. 03,
CO, N02, pollen
Laci111, fungi,
algae
1,000 person-
days in each
location
bOO person-days
in two major
industrial areas
Large multi-
pollutant field
study
200 person-days
Field study
200 homes in
4 geographic
clusters
FPA
EPA
GRI
EPRI
NIEHS/CPSC
EPA
T. Hartwell, RT1;
T. Wey, PEDCo
E. Pellizzari,
RTI
J. Spengler,
Harvard
N.L. Hagda, GEOMET
J.A.J. Stolwijk,
B.P. Leaderer;
John B. Pierce
Foundation/Yale
University
M.D. Lebowitz,
University of Arizona
Data Evaluation
Evaluati'n of indoor All
air quality data for
making r:sk assessments
Evaluation of risk of Pn and Rn
exposure to Rn for progeny
derign of epidemio-
logical studies
Data from past
studies
Data from past
studies
EPRI
DOE
J. Yocom, TRC;
J. Spengler,
Harvard
A. Uero,
D. Grimsrud,
LBL
Addresses and phone numbers:
Argonne national laboratory, Argonne, IL 60439, (312) 972-4168.
Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, (412) 578-2951.
GEOMET Technologies, Inc., 1801 Research E^ulevard, Rockville, HD 20850, (301) 424-9133.
Harvard School of Public Health, 665 H;jntington Avenue, Boston, HA 02115, (617) 732-1255.
IIT Pesear, h Institute, 10 West 35th Street, Chicago, IL 60616, (312) 567-4310.
Lawrence Berkeley Laboratories, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, (415) 486-4023.
Niagara Mohawk, 300 Erie Boulevard West, Syracuse, HY 13202, (315) 474-I51U
Oak Ridge national Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TK 37830, (615) 574-6248.
Pacific Power & Light, Portland, OR 97204, (5C3) 243-4876.
Pierce, John B., Foundation, Vale Universicy, 290 Congress Street, New Haven, CT 06519, (203) 562-9901.
PEDCo Environmental, Inc., 11499 Chester Road, Cincinnati, OH 452H6, (513) 782-4700.
Re;earch Triangle Institute, Research Triangle Park, I1C 27709, (919) 541-6000.
Tennessee Valley Authority, Chattanooga, TH 37401, (615) 751-OQil.
TRC Environmental Consultants, Inc., 800 Connecticut Boulevard, East Hartford, CT 06108,
(203) 289-8531.
University of Arizona, University Health Sciences Center, College of Medicine, Tucson, AZ 65724
(602) 626-6379.
U.S. Department of Energy, Environmental Measurements Laboratory, 376 Hudson Street, New York NY 10014
(212) 620-3570.
10
-------
Utility organizations sponsor the remainder of the listed indoor research
studies. Prominent among these are the Electric Power Research Institute
(EPRI) and the Gas Research Institute (GRI). Certain utilities such as the
Niagara Mohawk Power Company and the Pacific Power & Light Company also
support such ^search.
In general, the ongoing research is aimed at examining important factors
influencing indnor air quality, with the possible exception of sink processes.
The largest number of projects relate to characterizing indoor air quality.
All pollutants known to be important are under study in at least one such
project. About half the studies involve a limited number of structures--
generally two to three houses. The other half involves larger field studies
involving 40-150 structures.
Quantitative determination of emissions is the focus of seven studies.
Virtually all indoor sources found in a residential environment are being
studied- Five such studies are addressing emissions from unvented space
heaters, particularly gas and kerosene heaters. These studies, except for
one, are being conducted in chambers or under laboratory conditions.
A small number of studies involve the development of control systems
to reduce indoor levels and instrumentation to measure indoor air quality.
These are chamber or laboratory studies. The passive monitors, critical to
large-scale field studies, have been undertaken for a number of pollutants.
With the advent of personal monitors, a number of field studies are being
conducted or ^re planned. Although the majority of field studies involve
pollutants such as CO and NC2, one study involves measuring personal
exposure to volatile organlcs.
In addition, in two studies researchers are evaluating data collected in
previous studies to estimate the risk of exposure' to various pollutants.
As results of the studies enumerated in Table i become available, the
data will provide answers to many of the current questions but may fall short
of a rationally representative data base. The next generation of studies are
likely to involve passive monitoring in large-sc^le field studies, detailed
characterization of contaminant transport within structures, and intensive
investigations of indoor air cleaning control systems.
11
-------
REFERENCES USED IN SECTION 2
Anderson, I., G.R. Lundquist, and L. Molhave. 1974. "Formaldehyde in
the Atmosphere of Danish Homes." Ugeskr. Laeg. 136(38):2133-39 [in
Danish]. ~
Biersteker, K., H. DeGraaf, and Ch.A.G. Nass. 1965. "Indoo- Air Pollution
in Rotterdam Homes." Int. J. Air Water Pollut. 9:343.
Cote. W.A., W.A. Wade III, and J.R. Yocom. 1974. "A Study of Indoor Air
Quality." Contract No. 68-C2-0745, EPA 650/4-74-042. U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Washington, D,C.
Drivas, P.J., P.G. Simnonds. and F.H. Sheir. 1972. "Experimental Charac-
terization of Ventilation Systems in Buildings." Environ. Sci. Technol.
6:609.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1979. "Proceedings of the Symposium
on the Development and Usage of Personal Monitors for Exposure and
Health Effect Studies." D,T. Mage, and L.A. Wallace, eds. EPA-600/
9-79-032, Research Triangle Park, N.C.
Fugas, M. 1975. "Assessment of Total Exposure to an Air Pollutant."
Proceedings of the International Conference on Environmental Sensing and
Assessment. Paper 38-5, Vol. 2, Las Vegas, Nev., September 14-19.
Lowder, W.M., A.C. George, C.V. Gogolak, and A. Blay, 1971. "Indoor Radon
Daughter and Radiation Measurements in East Tennessee and Central Florida
HASL Technical Memorandum No. TM-71-8, Health and Safety Laboratory, U.S.
Atomic Energy Commission, New York, N.Y.
Shair. F.H., and K.L. Heitner. 1974. "A Theoretical Model for Relating
Indoor Pollutant Concentrations to Those Outside." Environ. Sci.
Techno! . 8:444-51.
Spedding, D.J., and R.P. Rowland. 1970. "Sorption of Sulfur Dioxide by
Indoor Substances--!. Wallpaper." J. Appl . Chem. 20:143-46 (also see
20:26-28 and 21:68-70). L
Turk, A. 1963. "Measurements of Odorous Vapors in Test Chambers:
Theoretical." ASHRAE J. 5(10) :55-58.
Yocom, J.E., W.L. Clink, and W.A. Cote. 1971. "Indoor/Outdoor Air Quality
Relationships." J. Air Pollut. Control Assoc. 21:251.
12
-------
SECTION 3
INDOOR AIR QUALITY
A number of pollutants can be present in the indoor environment. These
pollutants include those generated indoors, and those generated outdoors
and migrating indoors. The indoor concentrations of these pollutants are
dependent on various factors, including rate of indoor generation and rate of
infiltration from outside.
This section provides a summary of information on 13 of the most common
indoor pollutants and pollutant groups and the factors that affect indoor air
quality. Sources and recommended exposure guidelines are listed (Table 2).
A mass balance model relates various factors to indoor concentration levels.
and a simple numerical example illustrates use of the mass balance model.
Finally in this section, helpful publications are cited and summarized.
POLLUTANTS
Asbestos and Other Fibrous Aerosols
Asbestos, which identifies a group of inorganic silicate mineral fibers,
is a widely used component of school, residential and private and public
structures. The indoor release of asbestos depends on the cohesiveness of
the asbestos-containing material and the intensity of the distributing force.
For example, friable asbestos in the soft or loosely bound form used in fire-
proofing can become airborne easily by a disturbance of the material surfdce.
Hard asbestos-containing materials such as vinyl floor products release
asbestos only upon sanding, grinding, or cutting. Studies show that indoor
fiber counts and mass concentrations may exceed those outdoors, and on
occasion the levels may approach the occupational standards (2 fibers per
ml). During normal use, buildings containing asbestos have not shown higher
fiber counts than are found outdoors. Limited data apply mostly to schools
and a few office buildings, but the general public exposure to asbestos
fibers in public buildings appears to be exceedingly low.
Biological Aerosols
Considerable evidence indicates that a number of contagious disease
organisms--inc"uding those associated with influenza, Legionnaires' disease,
tuberculosis, measles, mu.nps, and chicken pox--are capable of airborne
transmission in the indoor environment. Respiratory diseases such as
common colds and pulmonary infections also involve airborne transmission.
The transmission occurs when the human respiratory tract emits liquid particles
that evaporate to a particle size that can remain airborne for ? period of
13
-------
TABLE 2. SOURCES AMD EXPOSURE GUIDELINES OF INDOOR AIR CONTAMINANTS
Pollutant/sources
Guideli nes
Asbestos -'.id Other Fibrous Aerosols
Friable asbestos: fireproofing,
thermal and acoustic insulation,
decoration.
Hard asbestos: vinyl floor and
cement products, automatic brake
1i ni ngs (0) .*
Biological Aerosols
Human and animal metabolic activity
products, infectious agents,
allergens, fungi, bacteria in
humidifiers, bacteria in cooling
devices.
Carbon Monoxide
Kerosene heaters, gas stoves,
gas space heaters, wood stoves,
fireplaces, smoking, and auto-
mobiles (0).
Formal dehyde
Particleboard, paneling, plywood,
ceiling tile, urea-formaldehyde
foam insulation, other construction
material s.
Inhalable Particulates
Smoking, vacuuming, combustion
sources (0), industrial sources,
fugitive oust (0), and other
organic particulate constituents.
0.2 fibers/ml for fibers longer than
5 ur .oased on ASHRAE* guidelines
of 1/10 of U.S. 8-hour occupational
standard).
None available.
9 ppm for 8 hours (NAA9S§);
35 ppm for 1 hour (NAAQS).
0.1 ppm (based on Dutch and West
German Guidelines as reported in
ASHRAE Guidelines, 1981, and
National Research Council report,
1981).
55 to 110 ug/m3.annual .**
150 to 350 ug/rtP for 24 hours.
Metals and Other Inorganic Particulate Contaminants
Lead: old paint, automobile exhaust (0).
Mercury: old paint, fossil fuel
combustion (0).
Cadmium: smoking, use of fungicides (0).
Arsenic: smoking, pesticides, rodent
poisons.
Nitrates: Outdoor air.
Sulfates: Outdoor air.
1.5 ug/m3 for 3 months (NAAQS).
2 ug/m3 for 24 hours (ASHRAE).
2 ug/m3 for 24 hours (ASrlRAE).
None available.
None available.
4 ug/m3 annual , 12 ug/m3 for
24 hours (ASHRAE).
(continued',
* ASHRAE--Anerican Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers.
t (0) refers to outdoor sources.
§ NAAQS--U.S. National Ambient Air Quality Standards.
F These numbers indicate the probable range for the new NAAQS for participates of
10 urn or less in size. Based on "Recommendations for the National Ambient Air
Quality Standards for Particulates--Revised Draft Paper," Strategies and Air
Standard Division, Office of Air Programs, EPA, October 1981.
-------
TABLE 2. (concluded)
pollutant/suurces
Guidelines
Nitrogen Dioxide
Gas stoves, gas space heaters,
kerosene space heaters, combustion
sources (0), automobile exhaust (0).
Ozone
Photocopying machines, electro-
static air cleaners, outdoor air.
Pesticides and Other Semivolatile Organics
Sprays and strips, drift from area
applications (0).
Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons and Other
Organic Particulate Constituents
Woodburning, smoking, cooking,
coal combustion, and coke ovens (0).
Radon and Radon Progeny
Diffusion through floors and
basement walls from soil in contact
with a residence, construction
materials containing radium, untreated
groundwater containing dissolved
radon, combustion of natural gas used
in cooking and unvented heating.
Radon from local soil emanation (0).
Sulfur niniri de-
Kerosene space heater' , coal and oil
fuel combustion sources (0).
Volatile Organics
Cooking, smoking, room deodorizers,
cleaning sprays, paints, varnishes,
solvents and other organic products
used in homes and offices, furr,-' shi ngs
such as carpets and draperies, clothing,
furniture, emissions from waste dumps (0).
0.05 ppm annual (HAAQS).
Not exceeding 0.12 ppm once i. year
(NAAQS).
5 ug/m3 for chlordane (NRC).*
Hone available.
O.Oi working level (ASHRAE guidelines).
80 ug/m3 annual;
315 ug/m3 for 24 hours (NAAQS).
Hone available.
* national Research Council. 19G2. "An Assessment of Health Risk of Seven Pesticides
Used for Termite Control," national Academy Press, Washington, D.C.
15
-------
time. Natural air currents or convective ventilation flows then transport
the particles and deposit them in other human airways. The effect of reduced
building ventilation on the incidence of infections is unknown.
Only a few airborne allergens are found in enclosed spaces. A broad
array of pollens, fungi, algae, actinooycetes, arthropod fragments, dusts,
and pumices are confirmed airborne antigen sources that evoke adverse human
responses; evidence is still emerging to implicate airborne bacteria, protozoa.
ano other groups in a similar manner. Although human exposure to airborne
allergens recurs for varying periods of time, no reliable indoor or outdoor
concentration data for allergens exist.
Carbon Monor.xide
CO originates indoors primarily due to incomplete fuel combustion in gas
appliances, wood stoves, unvented space heaters, and tobacco smoke. Auto-
mobile emissions originating in attached or underground garages can also be a
significant source. CO is essentially nonreactive, and in the abse.tce of
indoor sources, average indoor CO concentrations generally compare to outdoor
concentrations. Cut if indoor sources are present, indoor levels can be two
or more tines greater than those outdoors. Indoor levels can occasionally
exceed the 8-hour ambient standard, especially if significant indoor sources
are present. Exceedar.ces of the 1-hour standard have not been observed, but
sufficient data have not been collected in high-risk environments such as
northern city tenements in winter.
Formaldehyde
HCHO, formerly used in insulation, is a component in binders used in
commercial wood products. Indoor sources of HCHO include particleboard,
plywood, hardwood paneling, furniture, urea formaldehyde foam insulation,
tobacco smoke, and gas combustion. Some of the highest concentrations,
exceeding 0.1 ppm, have been found in tightly constructed mobile homes where
internal volumes are small compared with surface areas of HCHO-containing
materials. HCHO emissions increase with increasing temperature and humidity.
Inhalable Particulate Matter
Concentrations of IP matter are determined as mass per unit volume of
all particles below a defined aerodynamic diameter, which is commonly 10 urn.
Within this size range are two fractions — a coarse fraction of 2.5 to 10 un
and a fine fraction of 0 to 2.5pni. The fine fraction is associated with
alveolar penetration.
Until recently, measurements of particulate matter have centered on
TSP matter, with essentially no size selection. S;nce the late 1970s,
determinations have focused upon respirable suspended particulates (RSP)
(0 to 15 urn, with correspond!na coarse and fine subdivisions at 2.5pml and
respirable dust (0 to 7.5 pm). It is probably more important to stipulate
consideration of particle size than to stimulate the exact size selection.
16
-------
The fine and coarse fraction of IP have different sources and chemical
composition. Fine particles are mainly produced by coagulation of AHken
nuclei (<0.1 imi) and by vapor condensation onto these nuclei. Fine particles
typically consist of sulfates, nitrates, ammonium salts, organics, and lead
produced by various combustion processes and atmospheric transformations.
Coarse particles are mainly produced by mechanical forces such as crushing
and abrasion. Generally, these particles consist of finely divided minerals
such as oxides of silicon, iron, and aluminum; plant, animal, and insect
fibers; tire particle:, and sea salt.
Chemical analyses of IP suggest that indoor and outdoor compositions
differ, indicating that the building envelope acts as a barrier to outdoor
sources. However, indoor IP mass may exceed outdoor level0., ind1eating that
indoor sources such as smoking, other combustion, and reentrained dust
ai e important determinants for indoor concentrations.
Metr-ls and Other Inorganic Farticulate Constituents
Metals found in the indoor environment include heavy elemental substances
such as lead (Pb), mercury (Hg), and arsenic (As). These substances are
components of the participate matter discussed elsewhere in this section.
Evidence indicates that these metals have no significant indoor sources. One
exception, however, is lead, which contaminates old, low-income housing when
the feet of occupants grind peeling lead-base paint into small-size particles.
In addition, smoking and the use of some pesticides contribute to indoor
levels of heavy trace metals such as arsenic and cadmium. Reentrainment
is another possible indoor source when dust and particles enter a building
either through infiltration or by being brought in by footwear.
Other inorganic constituents include sulfates and nitrates. Information
on indoor generation of sulfates and nitrates is not available.
Nitrogen Dioxide
N02 sources ere the same a? those for CO, but NC>2 emissions result
frcm high-temperature fuel cocbustion, whereas CO results from incomplete
combustion. N02 is a relatively reactive gas. In the absence of indoor
sources, indoor N02 levels are usually equ;d to or somewhat lower than
outdoor concentrations. If indoor sources are present, indoor N0£ concen-
trations can exceed outdoor levels by a factor of five or more. Short-term
(1-hour or 24-hour) indoor NOj concentrations in residences with indoor
sources can also exceed the annual NAAQS of 0.05 ppm.
Ozone
I
/ In most cases, the source of indoor 03 is ambient air. Exceptions
' include certain types of office copying machines and air cleaners that
I work on electrostatic principles. 03 decays very rapidly indoors. The
half-life period for 03, or the tine required to reduce to one-half of
the original concentration, is less than 30 minutes. Thus, high indoor 63
levels are seldom encountered.
17
-------
Pesticides and Other Semi volatile Organics
Pesticides include a large group of commercially available toxic organic
compounds used to control pests. Indoor sources of these substances include
spray cans, pest strips and other coated surfaces, and contaminated fruits
and flowers. Some of the pesticides commonly used in or near the indoor
residential environment are chlordane, used to control carpenter ants and
termites; dichlorvos, used in flea collars for dogs and cats; and carbamate,
used in home insecticides. Limited data exist on indoor concentrations of
pesticides.
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) have excellent dielectric properties for
use in electric transformers and capacitors. PCBs are no longer used in indoor
applications, but large office buildings sometimes have PCB-containing trans-
formers and many homes still contain PCB-filled fluorescent light ballasts.
Limited data exist on indoor PCB concentrations.
Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons and Other Organic Participate Constituents
Polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) represent a large family of complex
organic substances that include known and suspected carcinogens. Although
benzo-a-pyrene (BaP) may not well represent PAH exposures, BaP has often been
measured as a surrogate indicator. PAHs are derived from incomplete organic
combustion in such processes as coke manufacture, asphalt production and use,
and coal burning. Indoors, the principal sources of PAH are woodburm'ng,
smoking, and cooking. A combustion source emits PAHs in a vaporous form that
quickly condenses on suspended aerosols.
Concentrations of these substances 5re in the nanogram-per-cubic-meter
range; and a great deal of debate has focused on the amount of total PAH
missed by sampling only condensed PAH. However, exposure to the vapor phase
PAHs may not be as significant as PAHs condensed onto particulates. Data on
indoor to outdoor concentration comparisons are not available.
Radon and Radon Progeny
Rn is a noble gas that has three naturally occurring radioactive iso-
topes (atomic masses of 219, 220, and 222) with half lives of 3.96 seconds,
55.6 seconds, and 3.82 days, respectively. Because of its longer half-life,
222Rn and its associated progeny (210p0lonium, 214Lead, 214Eh smuth, and
214p0ionium) are the principal sources of Rn exposure.
Rn is spontaneously released from radium-containing geological materials.
The gas may diffuse through pore spaces of the material or be transported by
water and eventually enter' the indoor air space by bulk diffusion through
foundation materials, diffusion through cracks, or entry through the water
st'pply. Additionally, a building composed of radium-beading material may
itself be a source of Rn.
18
-------
Rn progeny "levels are related to radon concentrations,* and both are
determined by competing mechanisms of production and removal. However, the
progeny ions may be intercepted by indoor surfaces (plate out), as well as
become attached to aerosols. Generally, between 50 and 95 percent of the
progeny ions become attached to aerosols, some of which could leave indoors
due to air exchange.
Outdoor levels of Rn are generally on the order of 10~1 nCi/m^, cor-
responding to 10~3 to 10-4 WL. Average indoor levels are estimated to be
on the order of a few nanocuries per cubic meter (10~3 to 10~2 WL). Extreme
cases exceeding 50 nCi/m^ (on the order of 10~1 WL) have been reported.
Sulfur Dioxide
Except for kerosene space heaters, indoor sources of S02 are rare. It
has been postulated that sulfur in kerosene can result in indoor S02
concentrations. Like 03, S02 also undergoes chemical transformation on
indoor surfaces such as upholstery fabrics, draperies, and carpets, resulting
in lower indoor concentrations. The half-life period for SOg , however, is
longer than for 63. In the absence of indoor sources, indoor S02 concen-
trations in homes have been genera"1 ly found to be lower than outdoor concentra-
tions .
Volatile Organics
A long list of volatile organic vapor compounds are emitted indoors.
These compounds are commonly found in many modern building and decorating
materials and in a variety of consumer products. Principal indoor sources
of these compounds include solvents, furnishings, and other consumer products
such as aerosols and coatings. Various indoor activities such as cooking,
smoking, and arts and crpfts also generate emissions of volatile organics.
Concentrations of these pollutants vary widely from home to home, depending
on source, strength, rate of ventilation, and other factors. The expense of
chemical analysis limits the measurement of indoor concentrations of volatile
organics, but studies show that indoor concentrations exceed outdoor levels.
Rn concentrations are usually seated in nanocuries per cubic meter
(nCi/m^). A curie is defined as 3.7 x 10^ radioactive disintegrations
per second. Rn progeny activity is usually expressed in terms of working
level (WL). One working level corresponds to any combination of Rn progeny
in a liter of air that ultimately emits 1.3 x 1CP rnegael ectronvol ts
(MeV) of alpha particle energy. In the ideal case 1 nCi/m^ is equivalent
to 0.01 WL. In realistic situations, this relationship may be as low as
1 nCi/m3 per 0.005 WL, for two reasons: Progeny ions remain unattached
or the ions attach to other surfaces and thus are not measured.
19
-------
FACTORS THAT AFFECT INDOOR AIR QUALITY
Many factors acting alone or in combination can influence the indoor
concentrations of a pollutant. For example, pollutants infiltrate from
outdoors, indoor sources generate pollutants, indoor air exfTitrates, and
decay or cleaning devices remove pollutants. Thus, indoor changes in pollutant
mass, which govern indoor concentrations, can be expressed as
accumulation rate rate of [input + generation output - sink]
VdC
T n
dt
dt
rate of
= change in
mass due to
infiltration
,of outdoor ai rl
I generation\
I indoors 1
:&xfiltration '
Df indoor air,
indoor removal
of pollutants
(1)
where: V is the indoor volume
C-jn is the indoor concentration.
The four terms in the right-hand side of the equation are discussed
below.
Infiltration of Pollutants from Outdoors
The amount of pollutants that infiltrates indoors is a product of two
factors: (1) volume rate of air exchange (v\l, where v is the air exchange
rate measured in air changes per hour) between outdoor and inuoors through
the building envelope and (2) outdoor pollutant concentrations (Cou-t).
Additionally, when outdoor air enters a structure, a certain fraction, f, may
be deposited in the cracks and crevices in the building envelope resulting
in a filtration or scrubbing effect. Thus, the infiltration of pollutants
for outdoor air over a time period, dt, can be expressed as (1 - fh-VCoutdt.
Indoor Generation
A variety of indoor sources—appliances and materials—generate certain
pollutants. When a source is constantly producing these contaminants for a
time period, dt, the indoor generation could be expressed as Sdt, where S is
the rate of indoor emission. Although, to a limited extent, quantitative
values for S may be estimated through indoor studies, chamber studies yield
more reliable information.
20
-------
The expression for S is more complex when a time-varying source is con-
sidered. For example, a gas range may be turned on for limited periods some
days and not at all on other days. When the burner is on, the gas flow rate
is varied to suit cooking. Even more important is that the quantitative
information on S for various indoor sources and pollutants, even when treated
as a constant rate, is not often available. Additionally, a generation term
to account for the indoor reentrainment of a contaminant such as particulate
matter is difficult to quantify.
Exfiltration of Indoor Air
Exfiltration, like infiltration, is the product of volume rate of air
exchange UV) and the concentration of air (Cex-jt) leaving the structure.
In cases where the indoor space can be assumed to be well mi^ed, Cexit will
be the same as C-jn. Thus, the exfiltration term can be expressed as
A further discussion on mixing appears later in this section.
Indoor Pollutant Removal or Decay
Certain pollutants such a; NOg, 03, and SOj decrease in concentra-
tion due to chemical decay or adsorption of the contaminants, particularly
on indoor surfaces. The rate of decey can be expressed as Xdt, which has
been scudied to a limited extent for such pollutants. Another sink for
indoor pollutants is their removal through ?ir cleaning devices. This term
would be simpler to quantify, as it depends on the volume of air going
through a cleaning device ano the efficiency of the device. This removal
term can be expressed as qFC-jndt when q is the volume Mow rate and F is
the fraction removed by cleaning devices.
Generalized Mass Balance Equation
Considering the four terms in equation (I), a generalized mass balance
equation for indoor concentration under well-mixed conditions would be
VdCin (1-f) v VCoutdt + Sdt - cVCindt - Xdt qFCindt
or
dcin S - '\
dt V V V
To account for imperfect mixing of the interior, a mixing factor is
introduced. The mixing factor, m, can be defined as the ratio of reside ice
time of a pollutant under well-mixed conditions over actual residence tine.
21
-------
In other words, the air exchange rate for a pollutant is the product of m
and the air exchange rate, or equal to mi>. Thus, in the abience of ideal
mixing conditions, the equation (2) can be modified to
dC-jn C
~dT = (1"f)m"Cout ^ -
qpcin
V
(3!
This differential equation can be solved if the form of the parameters
on the right-hand side are known. The form of this time-dependency (or depend-
ency on other variables) will vary for different pollutants and different
situations. Thus, a general solution will be exceedingly complex. Illustra-
tive solutions of this equation for two different conditions are given below.
Example
CO nay be the simplest case to consider. CO does not decay (thus, X
and cannot be removed by available air cleaning devices (F = 0). It also
does not get deposited during infiltration (f = 0). Further assume that
outdoor concentration of CO is zero, the house is completely tight ( v - 0)
circulation fan is on (m 1), and a gas burner of the cooking range is on at
the maximum setting. The emission rate for CO has been found to be 1800 mg/h
(Traynor et al. 197y). If we assume an average single family residence of
1500 ft^, the house volume (V) would be approximately 325 m^.
Given this information, one can insert proper numerical values into
equation (3):
0)
the
dC
0
0
dt
out
(4)
or,
dt
1 / 1
325 \m3
in i> T onn /mg\ l/l\ rr/mg i\ no PP|n
—- = 1800 I —-1 x —I = 5.5 [ -2. x — 1 4.8 l1^-
V
(5!
Thus, in such a case, the indoor concentration would increase at the rate of
almost 5 ppm per hour. If we assume that the initial indoor concentration
before turning on the burners was zero, at the end of 2 hours the indoor
concentration will be 9.6 ppm.
-------
Let us now make the same example somewhat more realistic by assuming an
air exchange rate of one-half air changes per hour ( i< =0.5 h-1). If we
assume that Cout is 2 ppm and remains constant, initial indoor concentration
(i.e., before starting trie gas range) will be equal to outdoor concentration.
With the forced air fan on providing good mixing (m 1), equation (3) becomes
dt
1 xO.5 ± xCir, ^
mg
(6.69
Rearranging equation (6),
dcin
1 - 0.075 C
— 6.69 dt
in
325 Vm3
Solving the differential equation,
= 13.3 (1 e"°-5
<-in,o °
Thus, to calculate Cjn after 2 hours,
Cin,2 I3-3 I 1 ~ ~ ) ^in,o-
But according to initial conditions, C-jnj0 = 2.3 mg/m3, thus,
cin,2 h = 5-3 P
(6)
(7]
(8)
(9)
-------
With an air exchange rate of only 0.5 air changes per hour, the indoor
concentration does not increase as rapidly as it did for the earlier case
with no air exchange.
REVIEW PUBLICATIOi.5
Several publications—books, journal articles, proceedings of symposia,
and technical reports—describe different aspects of indoor air quality and
related research. Below is an annotated bibliography of some of the important
publications providing additional information.
National Research Council, Committee on Indoor Pollutants. 1981. Indoor
Pollutants. National Academy Press, Washington, O.C.
The National Research Council (NRC) report, containing over 500 pages,
is a comprehensive review and appraisal of indoor air quality literature.
This report includes chapters on sources and characterization of indoor
pollutants, factors that influence exposure, monitoring and modeling, healtn
effects, welfare effects, and control of indoor pollution. Recommendations
for further research are presented, and an extensive list of references
follows each chapter. Although the NRC report lacks author or subject
indexes, the report can serve as a starting point for any literature review.
l-leye*", C.B. Indoor Air Quality. 1933. Addi son-V.'esley Publishing Co., Inc.,
Reading, Mass.
Intended for specialists as well as nonspecial ists, Meyer's book provides
a useful review of the chemical, physical, and biological parameters of
indoor air quality. Opening chapters of the 434-page book provide an overview
and trace the history of indoor air problems. Other chapters discus^ comfort
factors, building parameters, indoor pollutants and sources, monitoring
techniques, indoor concentrations and exposure, health effects, control
techniques, anc regulatory trends. Summaries of results and data from
various "esearch studies are included. The hard-bound book is supplemented
by an extensive bibliography that is current to March 1952. Author and
subject indexes enhance the utility of the book.
Wadden, R.A., and P.A. Scheff. 1983. Indoor Air Pollution, Characterization,
Prediction, and Control. John VJil ey and Sons, Inc. , Somerset, I-J.J.
Developed for an Air Pollution Control Association Continuing Education
Course on indoor air pollution, this book provid-es a review cf indoor air
quality problems and offers methods for identification and amelioration. The
text is organized into four areas: (1) characterization, including i;idoc>-
sources, measurement techniques, and health effects criteria; (i] prediction,
v.hich summarizes indoor air quality models; (3) control, describing control
systems standa'-d^ and design; and (4) application, which addresses both
commercial a.ic' domestic applications. (This textbook was unavailable for
review at tie ^'rue of publication.)
24
-------
Emnjrpnment International. 1982. Vol. B, Nos. 1-6, Special Issuer
""Indoor Air Pollution." Pergamon Press, Elmsford, N.Y.
This special issue contains 67 artirlps selected through peer review
from more than 100 papers presented at the International Symposium on Indoor
Air Pollution, Health and Energy Conservation held at Amherst, Massachusetts,
in 1981. The volume addresses five topics: (1) Policy and Public Health;
(Z) Sources, Concentrations, and Exposures to Pollutants (with specific
attention to Rn, organics, HCHO, CO, and aerosols); (3) Health and Comfort
Aspects of Indoor Pollutants and Indoor Climate; (4) Engineering Aspects of
Ventilation, Contaminant Control, and Energy Conservation; and (5) Modeling
the Physical and Chemical Behavior of Pollutants Within Structures.
Bui>^ing Air Change Rate and Infiltration Measurement. 1980. C.M. Hunt,
J.D. King, and H.R. Trechsel, edlTASTM STecial Technical Publication 719.
American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, Pa.
This volume contains papers presented at a symposium held on March >3,
1978, in Washington, D.C., and organized by the ASTM subcommittee E06.41 on
infiltration performance. Eleven papers cover two major areas—measurement
aspects of infiltration and significance of air infiltration on such factors
as energy consumption, building design and codes, and indoor air pollution.
The volume also contains a transcript of the panel discussion and a symposium
summary.
Yocom, J.E. 198?.. "Indoor-Outdoor Air Quality Relationships." J. Ai r
Pollut. Control Assoc. 32(5):500-20. See also, Discussion Papers,
J. Air Pollut. Control Assoc. 32(9):904, September 1982.
The article reviews research conducted on the relationships of indoor
and outdoor air quality. The Air Pollution Control Association (APCA)
commissioned the article as a critical review paper, and it was presented
and critiqued at the APCA meeting in Mew Orleans in June 1982. The article
begins with a historical overview, followed by a review of research on a
pol 1 utant-by-pollutant basis. The conclusions consist of generalized ratios
of indoor to outdoor concentrations for each pollutant. Although these
generalized ratios can be useful, various discussion papers point out the
limitations of such an approach.
Wallace, L.A., and W.R. Ott. 1982. "Personal Monitors: A State-of-the-Art
Survey." J. Air Pollut. Control Assoc. 32(6):601-10.
The progress in personal monitoring is reviewed in this article. It
defines types of personal monitors and samp1ing approaches, reviews their
history, and discusses the current status on a pol1utant-by-pol1utant basis.
The article is especially useful because it characterizes instruments in
terms of "field-tested" and "laboratory-tested" equipment. In addition, the
article defines the research needed to further develop personal monitors.
25
-------
Meyer, C.B., and R.P. Hartley. 1982. Inventory of Current Indoor Air
Quality Related Research. EPA-600/57-81-119, IJTIS PB 82-127-952,
National TecTinicTTlnfcTnTiation Service, Springfield, Va.
This bibliography, prepared in 1981, lists a total of 171 current or
recent projects covering six areas of indoor air quality research: monitoring,
instrumentation, health effects, control technology, risk assessment, and
pollutant characterization. The bibliography cross-references the following
subjects: Rn, nitrogen oxides, CO, HCHO, asbestos, RSP, organics, tobacco
smoke, odors, 03, biological pollutants, and multipollutant studies.
Information on each project includes principal investigator, project sponsor,
funding level, and abstract.
Sandia National Laboratories. 1982. Indoor Air Quality Handbook for
Designers, Builders, and Users of Energy-Efficient Residence's^Sc ndi a
82-1773, Albuquerque, N. Mex. ~ ~ ' ~~~
The purpose of this handbook is to assist designers, builders, and users
of energy-efficient residences in achieving the apparently conflicting goals
of energy efficiency and good indoor air quality. In an easy-to-understand
style, the handbook covers a variety of topics including effects of building
systems, health effects, evaluation, control, and legal aspects.
REFERENCE
Traynor, G. 1979. "Gas Stove Emissions." Presented at the Annual Technical
Review on Building Ventilation anc1 Indoor Air Quality, Lawrence Berkeley
Laboratory, Berkeley, Calif., October 30-31.
26
-------
SECTION •'•
MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS
Many measurement instruments and nethods developed for outdoor ambient
and workplace monitoring have been adapted to indoor settings, but relatively
few instruments and analytical methods have been developed specifically for
indoor monitoring. Two types of measurement systems can be used for indoor
monitoring. The first consists of purchasing off-the-shelf, commercially
available instrumentation, and the second requires assembling commercial ly
available components.
The use of commercially available -instrumentation offers obvious benefits:
The measurement techniques are accepted, and the user avoids the time or
effort needed to assemble and test measurement systems. For some applications,
however, commercial instrumentation is unavailable or too expensive. In some
of these cases, users can assemble a measurement system by ur^ng commercially
available components.
This document defines an "instrument" as a ready-to-use measuring
device, such as a GE carbon monoxide detector, that can be purchased preas-
sembled. In contrast, a "method" indicates that the user must assemble
various components, possibly from different suppliers, to construct a system
by using a standard or an accepted method. Sampling for organic vapors, for
example, may be carried out by o number of methods, all of which involve a
user-fabricated sorbant trap for sample collection followed by gas chrom-i-
tography associated with various detention systems such as mass spectroscopy,
electron capture, or flame ionization.
This section addresses both measurement systems. A categorization
scheme is defined. Operating principles of various measurement systems are
outlined and measurement systems currently available are listed. Finally,
sources of information and key references for instrumentation and methods are
given. The background provided in this section, combined with the design
considerations described in the next section, will enable users to select the
appropriate measurement systems.
DEFINITIONS
In selecting instrumentation or methods, users must consider the
monitoring objectives. The following questions will help to define the
monitoring objectives:
o Is recording the peak concentration of a pollutant
important to the study? Will short-term (from a few hours
to 1 day) time-weighted averages suffice? Or are long-term
averages (many days, weeks, or months) needed7
27
-------
o Will the exposure characterization measurement be conducted
for a fixed location or for individuals who may move from
one nicroenvironment to another?
To translate these objectives into instrument or method categories,
users can consider three factors. First is sampling mobility, followed by
operating characteristics and, finally, output characteristics. The instru-
ments and methods in use provide three classes of sampling mobility:
o Personal--The unit may be conveniently carried or worn by
a oerson.
9 Portable--The unit may be hand-carried from one place to
another during sampling, but the unit does not offer the
convenience of a personal device.
» Stationary—The unit must operate from a fixed location.
Obviously, either a personal or portable measureiTient system can be used in a
stationary mode. Portable instruments or methods are often the only recourse
for personal mom tor ing of some pollutants, and such instruments are less
expensive than the equivalent stationary instruments.
Within each class of mobility are two categories of operating character-
istics:
• Active—A power source is required to draw sample air
to a sensor or collector.
• Passive—No power suurce is required; sample acquisi-
tion relies on diffusion.
Finally, within each mobility and operating class, users must define the
needed output characteristics of the measurement system:
• Analyzer—Almost simultaneously, the unit produces a
signal that corresponds to the pollutant concentration.
e Col lector—The collected sample is analyzed, or quanti-
tated, in a laboratory.
Analyzers are most useful in determining peak concentrations. Additionally,
because the analyzer produces time series information, the integrated results
can generate time-weighted average concentrations. Data obtained from
collectors are limited only to time-weighted average concentrations, informa-
tion on peak concentrations is net available.
28
-------
This classification system produces 12 combinations of categories,
ranging from simple stationary/passive/collectors to sophisticated personal/
active/analyzers.
INSTRUMENTS AND METHODS
The measurement parameters of greatest interest in indoor air quality
monitoring are pollutant concentrations, air exchange rates, and environmental
variables. The paragraphs below summarize the technologies associated with
these measurements. Appendix A describes the instruments, and Appendix B
discusses the various methods that use components.
Pollutant Concentrations
Pollutants of interest in indoor air quality monitoring include CO, l'02,
£02, 03, HCHO, and Rn and Rn progeny. Other pollutants of interest may
be considered as classes of pollutants with variable compositions: fibrous
aerosols (of which asbestos is of great concern), biological aerosols, a
number of organic vapors (including pesticides), and IP- Table 3 shows a
number of measurement techniques available for the above pollutants.
Tab!,- 4 highlights the operating principles of selected pollutant
measurement systems. For each pollutant and operating principle, the categories
of instruments or methods are listed. The table also cross-references parts
of Appendixes A and B. For CO, N02, S02, and 03, stationary analyzers
have been developed to support the monitoring required by the I1AAQS. Instru-
ments that appear on the EPA List of Reference and Equivalent Methods for
these pollutants are listed in Appendix A. In some cases, portable analyzers
based on reference and equivalent methods are available.
Recent advances in electrochemical oxidation cells and supporting
electronics have produced personal and portable analyzers for CO and S02-
Signal integrating and data logging devices, which can be used for integ^a-
tion over time of continuous readings for personal monitors, are available
(Appendix A). While such devices have been extensively used with CO personal
monitors, they can be used with any device providing a continuous anjlog
voltage signal. Passive collectors are available for N0.2 and S02-
Commercially available devices for monitoring HCHO include an automated
wet chemical analyzer and two passive collectors. For fibrous aerosols,
especially asbestos, users can determine concentrations with manual methods
or with a portable analyzer.
Portable IP Analyzers are based on optical scattering and on piezoelectric
resonance. One manufacturer offers an optical-scattering analyzer sufficiently
miniaturized for personal monitoring of IP- Stationary collectors are also
available. Appendix B discusses methods for collecting IP for personal
exposure and for analyzing organic and inorganic constituents.
29
-------
Table 3. TVPtS OF AVAILABLE MEA3UREMIST SYSTEM CATEGORIES 3Y POLLUTANT-
Personal
Active Pass'vt
Asbestos and other
Fibrous Aerosols
Coll ector
Analyzer
Biological Aerosols
Col 1 ector
Analyzer
Carbon Monoxide
Collector
Analyzer
Portable Stationary
Active i Passive Active Passive I
Formdldehyde
Collector
Analyzer
-Y-,
Collector
Inhalable Participates
Analyzer
^r
Collector ^,
Petals and Other
Inoi"ianic* ^articulate
Constituents
Analyzer
Nitrogen Dioxide
Collector
Analyzer
Collector
Ozone
Analyzer
Pesticides and Or.:>er
Senivolatile Organics
Collector I
Analyzer
I Polynuclear Aromatic Hydro- Collector j
j carbons 3 Other Organic 1
i Participate Consti'-uents* Analyzer
Radon and Salon Progeny
Collector
Analyzer
Collector
Sulfur Dioxide
Analyzer
Volatile Orqanics
Collector
Analyzer
* Oroanic/i norqam'c collection is similar to that for lp; nethcds discussed in Appendix 3 cover
analytical techniaues.
LEGEND:
7 One or more commercially available instruments for this pollutant anu measurement
jrement category are summarized in Appendix 3.
/7.//7 A/ /' One or more connercially available inst
\\j-.J-J/'//.}. catenory are summarized in Appendix A.
One or rrore methods for this pollutant ar.d
i.*.'.'.".".'! I nstrjnents 35 well as methods are summdnze-i in Appendixes A and 3.
30
-------
rAIILE 4. iurt'A!;'-' IF SELECTED POLLUTANT CONCENTRATION MCASURtMENT SYSTEMS
Pollutant
Asbestos ind
other fibrous
aerosol s
Indue
elect
dot'jc
from
fiber
Operating principle
^d Oscillation /Optical Scatter ing--
e aTr passe~s tTTrouqTT a~n"bsc"Tllating
ric field. Fibers are detected by
ting right-angle scattering pulses
la^uer illumination aligned ^i tli the
axi s.
Personal ,
portable,
or stationary
Portdble
Acti ve
or
passive
Active
Analyzer
or Appendix
col lector cross-reference*
Analyzer Al-1
Fi1tration--A 1aborjtory analyzes the
TITters".
Personal
Active
Collector
01olonic
aerosols
lmpdcttoj]--Sampl ,e.
Microbial colonies are Incubated for
24 hours and counted Punually.
Stationary
Active
Collector
A2-1, A2-2
Carbon
mono*1de
Nondispersive Infrared (fJD_IR)--infrared Stationary Active Analyzer
rTfffali~on~paVsc":>~throijg'li para"!lei optical
cells, one containing sample air, the
other containing reference CO-free air.
The difference in absorbance relates to
CO concentration.
Gas Filter Correlation (GFCK-Infrared Stationary Artive Analyzer
raHiYtron p'aTses tnrougTT~a~spi nnl ng f 11 t?r
wheel that contains a sealed CO reference
cell and a nitrogen reference cell. The
IR beam then passes through a chamber con-
taining sample air and is detected. The
signal difference observed between the
nitrogen cell and the CO cell relates to
CO concentration.
Electrochenical Oxidation—Sample air Personal Active Analyzer
passes~into an elcctrocTie"mical cell Personal Passive Analyzer
where oxidation of CO to CO? Portable Active Analyzer
produces
-------
TABLE 4. (continued)
Pollutant
Inhal able
parti cul ate
matter
Operating principle
Optical Scatterinq--Sjmule air passes
ThTmTgh a TiTe-seTective inlet prior to
enterinq an optical cell. Forward light
scattering from controlled light source
relates t^ IP concentration.
Personal ,
portable.
or stationary
Pers^al
Portable
Active
or
passive
Passive
Active
Fi1tration--Sample air passes through a Stationary
sTzTT-leTe'ctive inlet. Particles in size
range(s) of interest are retained on
filter(s) for mass detenni nation in
Ipbo-'atory.
Impaction--Sample air passes through a Personal
slTrTes of selective stages; inertial
effects cause particles in sue range of
interest to -.ollide with collector surface.
Piezoelectric [;esonance--Sample air passes Portable
tm-~6i7qh a sTzV-sclectTve inlet. Particles Stationary
within the size rang? of Interest are
electrostatically precipitated onto a
quartz crystal. Alterations in oscillation
frequency relate to collected mass.
Active
Active
Analyzer
or
collector
Analyzer
Analyzjr
Col lector
Collector
Appendix
cross-reference*
A5-1
A5-2
A5-3, A5-4, B
A5-5
Metals and
other
i norgani c
paniculate
constituents
Hi iroqen
d 1 uxi tic
Filter Collection/Laboratory Analysis--
Tnorgamc constituents are coiTet.tcd~ by
passing sample air through a suitable
fMter. Metals may be quantitated by
atomic absorption spectroscopy, neutron
activation analysis, proton- .' nduced
X-ray fluorescence. Nitrates and sulfates
can be determined spectrophotometri cally .
Hris-Phase Chfini lurnl nescence--Photon
emission lluit "accomp~arTes~reaction of NO
with 03 is monitored to simultaneously
quantify HO and NOX. Nux Is quantified
hy first reducing all oxides of nitrogen
to nitric oxide, "NO. N(>2 is the algebraic
difference between NOX and NO.
Triethanol Amine (TEA) Adsorption—NO?
is quantitatively sorbed onto treated
substrate for subsequent quantitation
in the laboratory.
Wot Chemical -N0;> reacts with
a reaqent system and is quantified
colorimctrical ly .
Personal
Portable
Stationary
Stationary
Portable
Personal
Portable
Personal
Acti ve
Active
Active
Active
Active
Passive
Active
Passive
Collector B
Collector
Collector
Analyzer EPA Reference Method,
Apnendlx A
Analyzer A6-1
Collector A6-3, A6-5
Analyzer A6-4
Collector A6-2
fi denotes the appendix where system 1s discussed; the numbers following A show Instrument summary number.
(continued)
-------
TABLE 4. (continued)
Pollutant
Ozone
Operating principle
Gas-Phase Chemi lumi ne see nco --Photometric
3etectTon of "~th~e~ cheniiYumTnescence
resulting from the gas-phase reaction
between ethylene and 63.
Personal ,
portable,
or stationary
Stationary
Portable
Gas-Solid Phase Chemlluminescence-- Stationary
Photometric "cfeTectTon~bT tHe
chemi1umi nescence result1ng from
the reaction between 63 and
rhodami ne-B.
Ultraviolet Absorption—Measurement of Stationary
the tli rfe rence~l n~ nTFrav 1 ol e t in ten si ty
between samplf air and reference.
Acti ve
or
passi ve
Active
Active
Active
Active
Analyzer
or
collectcr
Appendix
Analyzer EPA Refe,ence Method,
Appendix A
Analyzer A7-1
Analyzer EPA Equivalent Method,
Appendix A
Analyzer EPA Equivalent Method,
Appendix A
Pestic'des
and other
serni vol ati 1 e
organi cs
Poly aromatic
hydrocarbons
and other
orqani c
pjrticul ate
constituents
Radon/
radon
progeny
borbant Collection/Laboratory Analysis--
Semi vol a ti 1 e organics are collected by
passing sample air through polyurethane
foam. In the laboratory, compounds are
extracted for chromatographic quanti tation.
Filter Col 1 ret 1 ^./laboratory An^tjsls--
CrqanTc" const" i "t'..l-n"tY~are colTecTeT~6y
passing sample air throu' h a suitable
filter. Organic constituent may be
quantified through a number of
chromatographic techni ques.
Filtration/Gross Alpha Count1ng--Rn
progeny collect onto a filter; consequent
alpha activity relates to working level.
Electrostatic Coll ectlor./Thermoluml nescent
Persinal
Portable
Stationary
Persona]
Portable
Stationary
Stationary
Stationary
Active
'Vcti ve
Active
Active
Active
Acti ve
Active
Passwe
Collector B
Collector
Collector
Collector B
Collector
Collector
Collector A8-2
Collector A8-1, .'8-6
DosTmetry^Rn passes into a specTal
cTiamKer Vhere subsequent progeny (Ions) are
electrostatically focused onto a thermo-
HrMncscent dosimeter (TLO) chip.
Subsequent alpha disintegrations create
rrtctastable defects 1n the TLD, which U
deactivated and quantified in the
1 ahoratory.
f>ab Sanjilp/Alpha Scintillation -Rn
proqVny coTlect Tn ~& fIItor"; T
-------
TABLE 4. (concluded)
Pollutant
Operati ng
princf |ile
Persona) ,
p.v table.
or stationary
Active
or
passi ve
Analyzer
or
col lector
Rd Ion/ Filtration/Alpha Spectroscopy Couplerl Stationary
r^ ion to"T)^ct7os"U_cTc_ CcQTecTTpn /ATpha
pro'ieny S^cc'troscopy-^n pVogeny (TonsT are
(continued) colTecteiTon a filter; subsequent alpha
decay relates to wording level. Rn
passes into a special chamber where sub-
sequent decay ions are electrostatically
focused onto a detector; subsequent alpha
d^cay relates to R" ^,>Lt;iLrotior..
t"llt_r^i':lnj.'!_AJH1A anfl ^ctl3 Spectroscopy-- Stationary
P7r~pVc"«T"e"ny~Tre~"cbll eVte~d~~~on a TTTter;
subsequent alpha and L-eta activity
relate to working level.
TRACK ETCH~--Alpha-sensitive film Stationary
registers damagp tracks when
chemically etched; averagp Rn
concentration is related to the
number of danage tracks per unit area.
Spr£tion/Garm_a_A_ct1v1 ty--Rn is Stationary
a~3s"o?'&ird~bnto acfTva»."ed* charcoal;
subsequent gamma activity 1s
related tc average Rn concentration.
Active
Passive
Active
Appendi x
cross-reference*
Analyzer
A8-4
Analyzer A8-5, AS-7
Collector A8-8
Collector B
Sulfur Flame Photometric Detection (FPD)-- Stationary Active
dioxide HeTsuVenient of su1fur-specUfc~emiss1ons
from hydrogen-rich air flame.
Pulsed Fluorescence--Measurement of the Stationary Active
uTtFn~s~Tty"oTl^e~in"t!-3violet fluorescence
of S02 etcUod by a high-intensity light
source.
Analyzer EPA Equivalent Method
Analyzer EPA Equivalent Method
Volatile
orgamcs
Wet Chemical --SQ^ reacts with a reagent
sys^'em and is quantified conducto-
metrically or colorirretrical ly-
Electrochemical Oridation--Safnple air
passes Tnto an eTectrochemical cell where
oAJddtion of bO;> produces a signal
pr uijcrtioned to concentration.
Sorbant Col lection /Laboratory Analysis--
Volatile organics are cuTlc"~tccT~by
passing sample air through a suito'ulc
ahsorbant column. In the laboratory,
corpounds of interest arr desorbcd for
chromotographic quanti tatl on .
Stationary
Portable
Personal
Personal
Personal
Portable
Stationary
ActUe
Active
Ar ti ve
Passive
Active
Acti ve
Active
Analyzer EPA Equivalent Method
Analyzer A9-3
Analyzer A9-1
Analyzer A9-2
Collector B
Collector
Collector
A or B denotes the appendix where system is discussed; the numbers following A show instrument summary number.
-------
For Rn and Rn progeny, a variety of sophisticated monitors are available.
Many are small enough to be considered portable, but the measurement techniques
are most often geared to stationary measurements. Two types of passive Rn
collectors are available—the TRACK ETCH"1 radon detector and two thermolumi-
nescent dosimeters. In addition, a recently developed passive collection
method relies on adsorption onto caarcoal.
As a class, organic vapors involve hundreds of chemicals, including
pesticides, and many methods of analysis. Appendix 13 describes some common
broad-spectrum collection methods.
Methods for coTlecting and analyzing biological aerosols are discussed
in specialized references such as the following:
• Gregory, P.M. 1973. Microbiology of the Atmosphere. 2d ed.
John Wiley and Sons, New ''ork, \{7T~. ~ ' ~~
Air Exchange Rates
The continual transfer of air across the building envelope is an impor-
tant determinant for indoor pollutant levels. Air exchange results from one
of the following:
• Infiltration—the uncontrollable leakage of air through
cracks, joints, and pore spaces in the building envelope
e Natural Ventilation—deliberately augmented air exchange
through the opening of do^rs, windows, and vents
• Mechanical Ventilation—reliberately augmented air
exchange through the use of fans.
In the absence of natural or mechanical ventilation, the rate of air
infiltration is dependent on many factors such as type of structure, wind
velocity, orientation of the stricture, and indoor-outdoor temperature
di fferences.
The quantification of air exchange rate^ generally relies on indirect
measurements. General methods, described in Appendix B, include fan pressur-
ization, tracer gas dilution, rnd measurement of cracks. Fan Pressurization
and Tracer Gas Dilution have b?en designated as standard practice by the
ASTM for evaluating infiltration rates on a single test basis. The passive
method using the tracer gas dilution technique is also available. The ASHRAE
crack method relies upon measurement of the lengths of cracks, such as those
around windows and doors, for calculation of air exchange.
35
-------
Users can measure air flow through mechanical ventilation systems
with a variety of instruments and methods including visual tracers (i.e.,
smoke releases), anemometers, and pi tot tubes. Append-'xes A and P do not
discuss this topic, but detailed procedures and instrument descriptions
appear in the following publications:
American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygiem'sts.
1980. Industrial Ventilation. 16th ed. Committee on
Industrial Ventilation, Lansing, Mich.
American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning
Engineers. 1980. ASHRAE Handbook--1977 Fundamentals. New
York, N.Y. ' ' ~~'
Environmental Quantities
Important environmental quantities in indoor air quality monitoring are
air temperature, humidity, wind speed and direction, solar radiation, and
barometric pressure. Users can locate dealers for the required measuring
devices through the catalogs and resource directories identified in the next
subsection.
KEY REFERENCES AMD OTHER INFORMATION SOURCES
References and information sources for instruments and methods include
scientific literature describing fundamental technologies, catalogs and
directories describing products, end manufacturers' literature en individual
products. Recognized sources of information in the scientific literature
include the following:
» Air Pollution. 1976. 3rded., Vol. Ill, "Measuring,
Monitoring and Surveillance of Air Pollution." A.C.
Stern, ed. Academic Press, New York, N.Y.
« American Conference of Governmental Industria Hygiem'sts.
1976. Air Sampling Instruments for Evaluation of Atmospheric
Contaminants. 5th ed.Cincinnati, Ohio.
g Linch, A.L. 1981. Evaluation of Ambient Air Quality by
Personal Monitoring,~VoT7T":""Gases and Vapors," and
VoTTTT: "Aerosols, Monitor Pumps, Calibration, and
Quality Control." CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton, Fla.
a Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, Environmental Instrumentation
Groups. Instrumentation for Environmental Monitoring.
University of California"Berkeley, Ca~.(1st ed. in 1972,
with periodic updates).
36
-------
• American Public Health Association. 1977. Methods of Aj_r
Sampling and Analysis. 2d. ed. M. Katz, ed. "UasTmi'gTon,
C'.C. '
Especially useful are tho professional journals that periodically
offer reviews and information on recent developments. The Journal of the Air
Pollution Control Association, the American Industrial Hygiene Association
Journal, and Analytical Chemistry aTe examples. TFcTse journals 'often refer to
additional literature on instruments and methods.
Examples of consolidated catalogs include Pollution Equipment News,
published seven times a year, and Industrial Hy"gTene News, published six
times a year. Reirbach Publication"of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvani,', circulates
both without charge to qualified subscribers. Each catalog continually
updates a number of product lines, and an annual buyer's guide cross-references
manufacturers by thoir products. Some professional societies also publish
annual directories "listing instrument manufacturers by their products.
Examples include the Directory and Resource Book from the Air Pollution
Control Association and the Guide to Scientific Instruments from the American
Association for the Advanceme7FtT~of Science.'
Finally, many instrument manufacturers publish technical notes cover-
ing instrument operation, special applications, and other information.
Many references cited for individual instrument summaries in Appendix A
include such manufacturers' notes.
37
-------
SECTION 5
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
When designing a monitoring program, the user must consider objc-ctives,
available technology, and resources. An examination of objectives is especi-
ally important if the collected monitoring data are to fulfill the needs of
the program. Indoor air quality monitoring programs typically fall under
either of two broad categories of study objectives:
1. To support applied research
2. To investigate problems associated with
specific buildings.
Examples of objectives in the first category include comparing indoor
and outdoor pollutant levels, evaluating the impact of indoor source emissions,
and determining changes caused by weatherization. The second category of
studies often occurs when occupants or a building complain of illnesses or
perceived health effects they associate with problems in indoor air quality.
The two categories of studies are entirely different, at least in terms
of approach. For the first category of studies, the current base of knowledge
permits the user to postulate the contaminants to be monitored. If, as an
example, an evaluation is needed of the impact of weatherization, monitoring
is considered for combustion gases, radon, and formaldehyde. If a study is
aimed at source characterization, the selection of contaminants for monitoring
will be even more straightforward, because most of the source emissions
are known.
In contrast, the determination of which contaminants will be monitored
is an important part of an investigation of building-associated air quality
problems. In an extreme case, the identification of problem contaminants
completes the investigation, and no monitoring program may be required.
This section presents some preliminary considerations for those who
investigate building-associated air quality problems. In addition, ? methodo-
logical sequence useful in designing monitoring programs is described. This
metnodology is based on the results of past research, the current state of
knowledge, factors that affect indoor air quality, and available technology
for measurement systems, lecause available resources are an importont
consideration, this sectioi; points oul the need to consider resourced at
different stages in the design developrc-nt. Some considerations for \electing
the location of monitoring prob,:-s are riiscussed, and examples of design
development are listed.
-------
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR INVESTIGATING BUILDING-ASSOCIATED PROBLEMS
The investigation of building-associated problems often begins as a
result of reported illnesses, symptoms, or complaints about air quality.
In such cases, the ii^ediate reaction is to conduct monitoring to identify the
causes or the contaminan+s responsible for health-related or air quality
problems. Ye- experience shows that such a monitoring approach is seldom
useful. The following points contribute io inconclusive investigations:
t Complaints by nature are subjective; hence, to sort
out the useful informt'tion from possibly emotionally
charged reports demands a systematic approach.
« Multiple etiologic factors, environmental factors, and
even psychological factors may be responsible for complaints.
Contaminants, if present, may be low-level and difficult to
identify and to relate to health effects.
Thus, seemingly straightforward investigations of building-associated problems
become complex problems involving both people and their indoor environments.
An emphasis on either problem area will likely prove less than productive.
The best approach in addressing such problen.s is to keenly observe
and gather facts related to both the physical environment and people. In a
practical sense, this is the approach used by detectives who carefully
evaluate all factors that can provide a solution to the problem. The relevant
factors to be examined may include the following:
e Building ventilation and air exchange
• Indoor sources and other physical factors
o Complaints
• Complainants.
M systematic evaluation of observations and facts will narrow the many potential
causes and help to pinpoint the problem.
The first stage of the evaluation should include these steps:
o Examine complaints for validity, consistency, and diagnosis
a Evaluate the location of complaints to help determine the
origin and source
9 Collect information from persons with health complaints and
compare descriptions with those who are unaffected
39
-------
e Survey and evaluate ventilaVion systems including the
location of exhausts with respect to intakes
o Survey unusual indoor sources or other physical factors
and immediate outdoor environment that may cause the
injection of contaminants into the indoor environment.
In general, no extensive measurements should be conducted, although
measurements of ventilation rates and v^nti^tion-related parameters such as
carbon dioxide may be appropriate in evaluating the ventilation systein.
The results of these steps will narrow the scope of the investigation.
Once the possibilities are narrowed, the investigator can proceed in one of
two ways: (1) use the collected information to alter possible conditions
related to the problem through a trial-and-error approach or (?) continue the
investigation and include the use of monitoring programs to pinpoint the
causes. No further definitive guidelines can' be given, as the state of the
art in bui1 ding-associated problems is not fully developed. For more informa-
tion, however, investigators are encouraged to review a paper by Kreiss (1933)
METHODOLOGY FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF MONITORING
Figure 2 depicts the conceptual approach to developing a monitoring
design. Although the figure shows nine steps, users may vary the order of
consideration or otherwise adapt the important design elements and their
relationships to their needs.
Steps 1 through 4 in Figure 2 represent the design preparation stage.
Step 1 consists of selecting a preliminary list of pollutants to be measured.
Steps 2 and 3 are exploratory steps for reviewing available instrumentation
and developing broad options for1 sample sizes and location(s). Various
factors that can influence the parameters used in equation (3) (Section 3) are
examined in Step 4, so that an initial design can be developed. This design,
as well as information from any previous studies, can assist in establishing
the sample size in Step 5. Based on the results of previous steps, a prelim-
inary decision can be made on selecting typ^s of instrumentation in Step 6.
In Step 7, cost estimates should be prepared and compared with potential or
available resources.
Often preliminary estimates will exceed available resources; in such
cases, selection of pollutants, type and sophistication of instrumentation,
and sample size should be reconsidered. This feedback loop, shown in Step 8,
can be repeated to align more closely the cost estimates and the available
resources.
40
-------
|8
Review
Instrumentation
Select Types of
Instrumentation
Develop Monitoring
Objectives and
Select Pollutants
Develop
Initial Design
Determine
Sample Size
Define Sange of
Sample Sizes and
Location(s) of Study
Develop
Cost Estimates
Develop
Detailed Design
Detailed
Design and Cost
Estimates
Figure 2. Schematic flow chart 'or develon-ent of desiqn.
-------
It should be re-emphasized that Figure 2 presents only a conceptual
approach, and some steps may be unnecessary in some applications. In certain
situations, some steps may require little effort, while others may require
significant effort beyond that described through page 54. Following are
examples of steps that may require varying amounts of effort:
• Steps involving a range of sample sizes and locations may
be based, at one extreme, on predefined objectives. M
the opposite extreme, these steps may require considerable
effort.
• Although the figure shows only one feedback loop, feedback
for both technical and cost considerations may be needed
at many points in development of the design.
• For a study with limited scope and resources, steps such
as those to update the review of available instrumentation
and methods may not be undertaken.
A brief discussion of each step depicted in Figure 2 follows.
Develop Monitoring Objectives and Select Pollutants
The objectives of a study generally help define the pollutants to be
monitored. Developing a clear statement of monitoring objectives is a
critical step in the design process because the objectives define both the
motivation and the goals of subsequent monitoring activities. At first
glance, this step seems trivial because most study problems can be considered
synonymous with objectives. However, the operative term here is the word
develop. This involves a systematic interrogation or the problem setting,
the problem background, and the knowledge base needed to form both qualitative
and quantitative goals that are as specific as possible.
Some typical objectives are as follows:
1. To quantify relationships between indoor and outdoor
air quality
2. To determine .he proportion of total exposure that is
attributable to indoor exposure
3. To assess the effect of weatherization on indoor air
quality
4. To determine the causes of indoor air quality problems
in residences or other buildings.
-------
For objectives 1 and 2, the study usually specifies the pollutants to be
monitored. For example, a study with the first objective could consist of
quantifying the relationship between indoor and outdoor levels of particulates.
An example of objective 2 might be determining the extent of the nitrogen
oxide total exposure that is attributable to ir.door residential exposure.
The long list of pollutants for study objective 3 includes radon and
formaldehyde, which have predominantly indoor sources and rate high on a list
of pollutants considered for monitoring. Similarly, pollutants such as carbon
monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and particulates are present outdoors; but they can
also have significant indoor sources. Therefore, these two should also be
considered. Volatile organics generated by the use of consumer products,
along with many other pollutants or pollutant groups, could also be included.
Pollutants relating to objective 4 are not as obvious as those in the
three previous cases. As described earlier, this type of study is aimed at
isolating causes and controlling indoor air quality problems in residences or
in other buildings, and a systematic approach outlined under "Design Considera-
tions for Investigating Building-Associated Problems" should be used before
the pollutants can be selected for monitoring.
Review Instrumentation
For each pollutant under consideration, various aspects of available
measurement systems need to be reviewed. A wide variety of available instru-
ments and methods with varying degrees of sophistication and associated costs
are reviewed in Section 4 and in Appendixes A and B.
New instrumentation—especial ly personal and portable devices--ij
constantly being developed, tested, and marketed. Thus, the summary of
available instrumentation and methods contained in this document, which was
prepared in late 1982, must be updated before users begin any major design
effort. Reference sources for an expanded search are listed in Section 4.
Define Range of Sample Size and Geographic Locations
An evaluation of the approximate range of sample sizes early in the
design plan can be useful in selecting instrumentation and in determining the
approximate extent of monitoring required. Note that the emphasis here is on
range of sample sizes, not the actual sample size.
The range is dependent on objectives. For example, if the user envisions
a study to develop models for seasonal, time-varying concentrations of various
pollutants and energy-use patterns, then the number of houses can be very
1imited--even as few as one or two. This approach will permit extensive
measurements of various pollutant concentrations and air exchange rates as
inputs to model formulation and testing. For this type of study, fixed
instruments with active analytical devices are the most suitable.
43
-------
The opposite extreme is a study that investigates the effects of weather-
ization in a large number of houses. For a representative sample of several
hundred houses, less expensive passive instruments might be used if the
monitoring period is sufficiently long (e.g., 1 week or more). However, tho
concentrations obtained with passivemonitoring will be averaged over the
duration of the monitoring period, with no identification of short-term peaks.
Also to be considered under the range of sample sizes are the location(s)
of the study and the type(s) of indoor environments addressed. Often the
location may be stated in the objectives (e.g., assessment of the impact
of weatherization on indoor air quality in residences in the Pacific Northwest)
But in some cases, the study allows flexibility in the selection of appropriate
locationts). Heating and cooling degree days, outdoor pollution levels, and
urban-versus-rural settings are among the factors that must be considered
in selecting geographic locations.
Develop Initial Design
The output from Steps 1, 2, and 3 will produce a list of probable pollu-
tants to be monitored, the available instrumentation, and the approximate num-
ber and location(s) of structures to be considered. This list will serve as a
starting point for developing an initial design, which requires consideration
of three major areas: (1) selection of monitoring parameters, (2) frequency
and duration of monitoring, and (3) monitoring location and probe placement.
Examples of questions relating to design development in these three areas are
as follows:
• What other parameters (in addition to selected pollutants)
should be selected for monitoring?
• Over wl'.at period of time is the measurement for each
parameter to be taken?
• Will monitoring take place throughout the year or
only during selected seasons?
a Will monitoring occur on all days of the week or only on
selected days?
e Ca" average exposure be monitored through passive techniques
or must peak exposures be measured?
e If passive monitoring is inadequate, will intermittent
monitoring be sufficient, or is continuous monitoring
required for meeting objectives?
e How many monitoring locations per parameter and per
structure are required?
44
-------
i « Uhere should the probes be placed?
e Will measurements for different parameters be completely
1 "independent, or will they parallel one another in some
systematic way?
/
In selecting other parameters for measurement, users should examine the
mass balance equation in Section 3 for each pollutant under consideration.
The parameters that determine indoor concentrations of pollutants are Cout
(i.e., outdoor concentration), v (air exchange rate), and V (volume of the
structure). These parameters, in addition to indoor concentrations, can be
> measured directly. The S (source generation rate), the X (removal and decay
rate), the f (filtration factor), and the in (mixing factors) either cannot be
measured directly or require special experimental provisions, such as chamber
studies for S and X . These four can be quantified through modeling if
sufficient data exist on parameters that can be monitored directly.
Monitoring frequency, duration, and location are partially dictated by
study objectives and instrumentation preferences. For example, a study of the
effects of weatherization on participate levels during wood stove operation
will focus on th: winter season. Passive monitoring studies will require a
sufficient monitoring time to ensure that minimum detection levels are exceeded
Studies of the effect of traffic patterns on residential CO levels might be
restricted to selected hours of the day. A comparison of concentrations from
two experimental homes—one tightened and the other not tiahtened--wi11
v ; benefit from parallel measurements.
, , . An additional consideration is the manner in which the initial design
^S Tieets the sample size requirement. The requirements may be met in two ways.
'"i. One is by selecting many units (e.g., house?) and sampling each one for short
t: pericds of time (e.g., 1 day or 1 week), ana the other is by selecting only a
K few units and sampling each for longer periods (e.g., i season or 1 year).
' »•' These two approaches are not usually equivalent. In experimental situations,
.', the latter option often must be pursued. Otherwise, some compromise between
/ \ the two extremes may be preferred. As logistic considerations impact upon
•' ( this decision, sample size may not be finalized until the detailed design is
\ developed.
i-
. r Determine Sanple Size
In making the final determination of sample size, the preliminary
selection of equipment and previously estimated range of sample size will
serve as useful starting points. In addition to specific objectives of the
monitoring design, the sample size (i.e., the total number of air samples)
will depend on the following types of factors:
- 9 Pollutant(s) to be moritored
9 Nature of structure(s) to be monitored
45
-------
0 Area(s) of the country where monitoring is to take place
o Season(s) of the year during which monitoring is to take
place
e Day(s) of the week on which monitoring is to take place
o Length of the time interval during which each sample is
taken (e.g., grab sample, 1-hour Sample, 24-hour sample).
Estimates from previous studies of the average pollution 'levels and
variation around this average will be helpful in making sample size estimates.
For the formulas presented below, preliminary estimates of the arithmetic
mean, "5T, and standard deviation, S, are required. The sampling conditions
such as pollutant, structure type, and measurement interval for previous
studies on which preliminary estimates are based should parallel as closely
as possible the conditions surrounding the contemplated monitoring program.
Unfortunately, in many instances there will be little or no information from
previous studies. In these cases, one will have to make some assumptions or
use best judgment as to expected levels and their variation. If logistic
considerations permit, it may be prudent to apply a sequential sampling
approach. Under this scheme, estimates obtained from the early portion of
the study are used to refine the sample size for the latter part.
Once preliminary estimates of 3T and S have been made, the required
sample size, N, can be approximated. The formula for sample size will depend
on whether the study has estimation or hypothesis-testing goals. A typical
estimation goal is to estimate the average pollutant levels under prescribed
condition;, with a stated degree of precision. A typical hypothesis-testing
goal is to compare pollutant levels from two differing sets of sampling
conditions (e.g., two different types of structures) in order to test whether
one of the conditions is associated with higher levels. The chances of
arriving at incorrect conclusions on the basis of a statistical test are
related to the chosen sample size.
In the case of estimation goals, a common statement of desired precision
is as follows: "We wish to have a 95 percent confidence that the average
level for the pollutant under consideration can be estimated within +10 per-
cent of its true value for the chosen sampling conditions." The formula
for the sample size necessary to meet this objective is as follows:
N =
where t rep.-esents the number of standard deviations (approxi-
mately two) that account for the central 95 percent of
the area under a normal curve
46
-------
S is the standard deviation for the variable to be estimated
d is the margin of error (i.e., 10 percent of the true value).
The value for t in the above expression will vary with the confidence
level of choice. Given a confidence level, the approximate value for t
can he found in an appendix of most statistical texts. As stated previously,
best estimates of S ^nd Y are also required. The ratio S/T varies with
sampling conditions but usually lies between 0.25 and 1.0 for CO, N02, and
TSP. The ratio could be considerably larger for organic pollutants.
If, for example, best estimates indicate that S/X" 0.5, then 0.5X can be
substituted for S in the above expression. Because t = 2 and d O.IT (i.e.,
10 percent of the mean value), the required sample size is estimated as
follows:
N = (2)2(0. 5^)2 = 4 x 0.25X?
(0.11)2 O.ODT2
Thus, for this hypothetical example, 100 air samples would be required in
order to achieve the desired precision.
When two sets of sampling conditions are to be statistically con-
trasted, a t-test is commonly used to test the null hypothesis that their
concentration distributions arise from the same underlying distribution.
Sample size estimates can often be obtained from the t-test specification,
which has the following general form:
(13)
where YI and Xj are the mean concentrations for the two
sets of sampling conditions
S is the standard deviation for the two sampling conditions
n\ and r\2 are sample sizes for the two sampling
conditions.
47
-------
One important property of a statistical test is its power. Th? power is
the probability that a statistical test will detect a true difference in
pollution levels for the two differing sampling conditions. One minus the
power is the probability (p) of making a Type II error, i.e., concHding that
two different sampling conditions have the same underlying concentration
distributions, when in fact they do not. The power of a statistical test
increases as the size of the true, but unknown, difference between two sampl-
ing conditions increases. The other type of error is a Type I error, i.e.,
concluding that two sampling conditions have different underlying distribu-
tions, when in fact they do not.
Type I and II errors cannot be totally suppressed. For a fixed sample
size, as u (probability of a Type I error) decreases, 6 (probability of a
Type II error) increases, and vice versa. Thus, the sample size of choice
and the a and /3 levels at which a statistical test is conducted are closely
intertwined. Once two of these parameters are specified, the third is
automatically determined. When providing study results, it is custCT.ary to
report the level of significance (a level) at which the statistical test was
conducted.
The a level for a statistical test should be specified before sampling is
initiated. In choosing this level, one must carefully consider the anticipated
error associated with the a level and the sample size of choice. Depending
on the situation, the consequences of Type I errors, Type II errors, or both,
many be of genuine concern. In the above formula, both ^ and S can be
expressed in relation to Y}. Power curves found in statistical tests (e.g.,
Dixon and Massey 1969, p. 14) can be used to relate the Type I and Type II
errors associated with various sample sizes and assumed percentage differences
between ^2 and Y^. The consequences of each type of error must be considered
in choosing a sample size that will yield tolerable error levels.
The two cases provided in Table 5 as examples illustrate the considerations
involved in choosing the appropriate sample size and level of significance for
statistical testing. For both cases, it is assumed that 7Ti/S = 0.5. In the
first case, a test is required to assess whether the two sets of sampling
conditions yield average pollution levels that differ by 25 percent or more.
If 100 measurements are taken under each condition, then both a (0.05) and 0
(0.06) levels can be kept low. In the second case, a test to detect a smaller
difference (10 percent or more) is required. In this case, 100 measurements
for each condition do not appear to yield acceptable error probabilities.
If 400 measurements for each condition are taken, then u and /3 can be equalized
H reasonably low levels (0.10 and 0.11, respectively). If the test is performed
at the 5 percent level of significance (i.e., a = 0.05), then a /3 level of
0.19 can be anticipated.
Select Tynes of Instrumentation
Based on the review of instrumentation (Step 2), sample si^e (Step 5),
and initial design (Step 4), users can begin t< select monitoring instruments
methods, and equipment. This preliminary selection can yield a variety of
48
-------
Table 5. ESTIMATED a AMD 6 LEVELS ASSOCIATED WITH SELECTED SAMPLE SIZES
AND ASSUMED DIFFERENCES BETUEEN T AMD Y"
Case 1. Test to Detect Whether Y\ and X2 Differ by 25 Percent
Sample Size
Error Probabilities
50
50
50
100
100
100
50
50
50
100
100
100
0.05
0.10
0.20
0.05
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.19
0.11
0.06
0.03
0.01
Case 2. Test to Detect Whether
Sample Size
100
100
100
400
400
400
Hi
100
100
100
400
400
400
and X2 Differ by 10 Percent
Error Probabilities
0.05
0.10
0.20
0.05
0.10
0.20
0.70
0.59
0.44
0.19
0.11
0.07
49
-------
equipment and methods for measuring air exchange and certain pollutants such
as carbon monoxide. Therefore, users should consider the entire range of
personal, portable, and fixed monitors, as well as active versus passive
instrumentation, and all the associated cost advantages and disadvantages.
A two-stage screening approach can streamline the selection process.
The first screening should concentrate on identifying measurement system^
that are compatible with the needs of the ;tudy. The second screening
should concentrate on developing the cost of acquisition and operational
support.
Figure 3 presents the minimum factors that should be included at the
first level of screening. Minimum technical requirements include the
following:
e Instrument Mobility—With the use of the classification
system introduced earlier, is the monitoring approach
strictly limited to only one class of mobility (i.e.,
personal, portable, stationary), or can two or even all
three classes work as well?
• Lower seiectior. limit—Is the system sensitive enough to
consistently measure the lowest levels potentially required
by the problem?
r Range—Is response flexible enough to consistently
measure concentrations above levels of concern?
• Reporting frequency — Is the output consistent with data
needs (i.e., peaks versus time-weighted averages versus
time series)?
e Unattended monitoring period—Does the instrument sample
for sufficiently long tine intervals?
The first screening level pres.ents an important opportunity to adjust
the study design if problem parameters cannot be measured by available
technologies.
Summaries of commercially available instruments and user-configured
methods are presented in Appendixes A and B to aid in the first level of
screening. Instruments or methods, that meet or exceed criteria established
by the first screening level can J:hen be reviewed for compatibility with
technical resources.
50
-------
Instrument/Method (reference from
Appendixes A and B)
1.1 Instrument Mobility
Personal
Portaole
Stationary
1.2 Lower Limit of Detection
Meets Requirements
Exceeds Reaui rements
Unacceptable
1.3 Range
Meets Requirements
Exceeds Requirements
Unacceptable
1.4 Reporting Frequency
Meets Requirements
Exceeds Requirements
Unacceptable
1.5 Monitoring Period
Meets Requirements
Exceeds Requirements
Unacceptable
Commercial ly
Avai lahle
Instruments
User-Configured
Methods
-
Figure 3. Worksheet for first-level screening of instrument selection.
-------
As sMwn in Figure 4, the minimum factors that should be considered at
the second screening level include the following:
a Acquisition costs—Are they acceptable?
a Staff resources—Are the currently available staff capable
cf operating the equipment? Is training feasible, or
should the staff be augmented?
• Fccilities--Are the facilities adequate to operate,
repair, and calibrate the system, or is augmentation
indicated?
e Permanence--Is it desirable that equipment have reliable
service life after monitoring is complete?
If two or more 'instruments emerge from the screening with equal scores,
additional factors of performance (i.e., rise fime, zero and span drift), ease
of maintenance, and options can guide selection.
Develop Initial Cost Estimates
Early in tlT3 design process, users will find it helpful to develop
initial estimates of costs and other resource requirements. The estimates
can be based on the total number of samples, the duration of each measured
parameter, costs of instrumentation and analysis, study duration, costs of
labor, and other costs. Users can later develop more detailed^ precise
estimates in Step 9.
Feedback
Cased on initial projections of total costs, the scope of design can be
expanded or reduced to match available resources. Often users will need
to reduce the costs and, in turn, reduce the scope. Some reduction may be
achieved with a reexamination of assumptions and needs for each of the nine
steps. Alternatively, the feedback process can be restricted to reevaluating
types of instruments (Step 6) and selecting less expensive types and numbers
of instruments. If no changes to the preferred instrumentation package are
desired, the only way to reduce costs may be to accept a smaller sample size.
In some cases, it may be possible to expand available resources to match the
desired scope.
Finally, another type of feedback should be an intagral par1: of the
design. This feedback relates to prompt analysis of data collected early in
a monitoring pragram. The promptness of the analysis will substantially
improve the chances of achieving the study objectives in a cost-effective
manner.
52
-------
Instrument/Method
2.1 Acqui sition Costs
2.2 Staff Resources
» Technical expertise
acceptable
e Training indicated
e Staff preparation
indicated
2.3 Facilities
e Support equipment
adequate
9 Expansion indicated
2.4 Permanence
o Additional technical
inventory desirable
o Addi tional Lechnical
inventory undesirable
Coinmerci al ly
Avfli Table
Instruments
User-Configured
Methods
Figure 4. Worksheet for second-level screening of instrument selection.
-------
Develop Detailed Design and Cost Estimates
The detailed design for monitoring in Step 9 is the culmination of all
the preceding steps discussed in this section. This step ties together the
instrumentation preferences and the sample size requirements. The details
concerning the selection and enrollment of sampling units must be specified.
These details include the duration of monitoring for each sampling unit and,
by extension, the overall monitoring schedule. These details will assist
users in assessing the logistics needed to accommodate the monitoring strategy,
Cost estimates for personnel will also be needed. The following types of
personnel may be required to implement the monitoring design and analyze the
resultant data:
o Field Staff
Coord1' nators/managers
Technicians/interviewers
e Laboratory Staff
Laboratory scientists
Laboratory technicians
e Office Staff
Manager
Environmental scientists
Statisticians
Computer programmers
Scientific support personnel.
Other potential cost elements for the design are as follows:
e Instrumentation
o Laboratory analysis
a Quality control and quality assurance
o Field travel
9 Incentives for monitoring participants
e Data processing
e Forms and reports.
Uhcn sufficient design details (e.g., number and locations of sampling
units, duration of sampling interval, and enrollment rates) are specified, the
user can estimate cost elements with reasonable precision.
54
-------
PROBE PLACEMENT
The selection of a location for a prcie, i.e. the point in the indoor
space where the sample is taken, is extre^ly important in obtaining measure-
ments that will meet desired design objectives previously discussed. The
design objectives can be viewed from three general perspectives:
1. To characterize levels of indoor pollutants and to examine
responsible factors
2. To quantitate exposure levels
3. To determine causes of indoo" air quality problems.
The first two are somewhat similar: Pollutant characterization relates to
determining "average" concentration for the air space under consideration, and
exposure quantitation involves determining average concentration experienced
by an individual occupying the air space. The third is oriented toward
identifying or assessing the causes of indoor air problems, and thus average
concentration or average exposure is less important. While probe placement
considerations can be discussed for objectives based on characterization or
exposure, the current state of knowledge limits similar considerations for
determining causes of indoor air quality problems.
Selecting the probe location is a two-step procedure. The first step is
to select a zone for monitoring, i.e., eilrer a general area such as an upper
floor or rooms such as the kitchen or a becVoon. The second step is to
select a specific location within that zone.
In characterization studies, the selertion of zones may be implicitly
specified in a study objective. Even if zones are not specified, identifying
candidate zones is a fairly straightforward process. It involves inspecting
each area for indoor sources associated with the study objectives. Concentra-
tions within a zone are dependent on sources pres°nt in that zone. Thus, if
the objectives include examining the impact of specific indoor sources,
then a zone that includes such sources will be important.
In studies involving occupied structures, a parallel interview or
questionnaire greatly aids in identifying a^ded factors that influence
concentration levels. These factors may include potential interferents
and habit patterns. For exposure-based studies, the selection of indoor
monitoring zones is strictly tied to occupancy patterns. However, if the
monitoring strategy entails personal monitonng, probe placement considera-
tions may not be necessary.
A preferred but more resource-intensive approach for zone selection
is to conduct premonitoring surveys (Nagda ?nd Koontz 1983). In these
surveys, simultaneous measurements of tracer gas decay at a number of indoor
locations are employed to examine zone-to-zcne differences in air exchange
55
-------
rates. As summarized in Woods and Mai don:, do (1982) probe placement can be
guided by ranking indoor zones in terms of air exchange characteristics and
indoor sources. One of the following cases will often be encountered:
e Indoor zones that exhibit relatively lower air exchange
rates and that also contain indoor sources or communicate
with zones that contain sources. Such zones will tend to
have relatively higher concentrations than other zones
when indoor sources are active.
t Indoor zones that exhibit relatively lower air exchange
rates and that are generally isolated from indoor sources.
Such zones are least influenced by indoor sources and
would also have a time lag under Lhe influence of outdoor
concentrations.
• Indoor zones that exhibit relatively higher air exchange
rates that are also free of indoor sources. Such zones
will be principally influenced by outdoor concentrations.
e Indoor zones that exhibit relatively higher air exchange
rates and that also contain (or communicate with) indoor
sources. Such zones will be influenced by both indoor and
outdoor sources, though concentrations attributable to
indoor sources would be lower than in the first case
above.
Based on specific objectives one or more such zones can be selected. For
example, assessing influence of indoor source Case 1 above may be more
useful than Case 4. On the other hand, influence of outdoor sources can be
easily quantified for Case 3.
Once indoor zones have been identified, probe locations may be selected,
Some guidelines for selecting probe locations include the following:
o Avoid exterior walls and corners
e Avoid areas that receive direct sunlight
9 Avoid palpable drafts
a Avoid direct influence of supply or return ducts
e Avoid mounting heights below 3 feet or above 5 feet
« Avoid well-trafficked spots
© Avoid direct impact from sources.
56
-------
To determine the causes of indoor air quality problems where average
concentretion or average exposure are generally not important, some of the
above guidelines for selecting probe location may need to be revised or even
reversed. For example, if the indoor air quality problem is known to exist
in one area served by an ?ir handling syjtem, a sample may need to be taken
in that area at a point directly influenced by the vents rather than at a
location not directly influenced by the vents.
Finally, many indoor air quality studies require simultaneous measure-
ments of outdoor concentrations. Probe siting criteria have been established
in this respect (EPA 1979). However, such criteria may need to be selectively
compromised because indoor air quality studies focus on the nearby outdoor
air that infiltrates into the structure, while most ambient outdoor monitoring
is concerned with the representation of a larger region.
ADDITIONAL READING
A number of documents describe the design of various indoor monitoring
programs. To more fully understand the discussion presented in this section,
users may refer to the documents listed below. Because design documents are
not published as final reports, these may have to be obtained from the
respective organizations.
e CPSC Protocol for Indoor Air Monitoring Project at Oak
Ridge National Laboratory. 1982. Consumer Products
Safety Council (Dr. K. Gupta), Bethesda, Md.
9 Research Triangle Institute. 1982. "Workplan for the EPA
FY82 Indoor Air Quality Research Program." U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development,
Washington, D.C.
e GEOMET Technologies, Inc. 1981. Field Measurements
Program for Residential Indoor Air Quality Impact of
Bonneville Power Administration Regionwide Weatherization
Program, Report ES-922, Rockville, Md.
t Nagda, N.L., M.D. Koontz, and H.E. Rector. 1982. Uorkplan
for Energy Use, Infiltration, and Indoor Air Quality7
in Tight, Well-Insulated Residences. Electric Power
Research InstiiuteiFrepared by GFOMET Technologies,
Inc., Rockville, Md.
REFERENCES
Dixon, W.J., and Massey, J.J., Jr. 1969. Introduction to Statistical Analysis
McGraw-Hill Book Company. Mew York, HIT.
57
-------
Kreiss, K. "Building-Associated Epidemics," Chapter in Indoor Air Quality.
Editors P.J. Walsh, C.S. Dudney, and E.B. Copenhaver. CRC Press. Boca
Raton, Fla., in press.
Nagda, N.L., and M.D. Koontz. 1983. Energy Use, Infiltration, and Indoor Air
Qual i ty_ ^ n Tight Wei 1 -Insulated Residences--Some RTsul ts~o~f Prebaseline
Mom'ton.1 j. Prepared for Electric Power Research Institute. Prepared by
GEOMET Technologies, Inc., Rockville, Md.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1979. Ambient Air Quality Monitoring,
Data Reporting and Surveillance Provision. Appendix E: Probe Siting
Criteria for Ambient Air Quality. Federal Register (44)92:27592-97.
Woods, J.E., and E.A.B. Maldonado. 1982. De"°iopmentj)f a Field Method_for
Assessing Indoor Air Quality in SingleT : 'y Resi dences~Engineering
Research Institute, Iowa" State Universify. .^mes, Iowa.
58
-------
SECTION 6
DATA REPORTING
Unfortunately, nm.h of the data collected in indoor air studies may not
have been preserved. The organizations that sponsor studies generally lack
either the mandate or the resources needed to continue data management
activities when a _tudy ends. Nor is there a central clearinghouse to store
and disseminate the generated data. As a result, the only enduring record
lies in the literature in which accounts of the studies are published. These
accounts may present only a part of the data base.
Viewed from the narrow perspective of meeting study goals, the practice
of not preserving the entire data base is probably satisfactory. But when
viewed from the broader perspective of risk assessment and oroblem definition,
any loss of data is regrettable.
This section provides general guidelines for two levels of data reporting:
e LEVEL I—Meeting Obj.ctives of Specific Studies
a LEVEL I I—Preserving Data for Use in Other Studies.
LEVEL I REPORTING: MEETING OBJECTIVES OF SPECIFIC STUDIES
Given the diversity of objectives and monitoring approaches for indoor
monitoring studies, it may be impossible to give a detailed guide for reporting
data. The difficulty is further compounded by continuing improvements in our
understanding of factors responsible for indoor air quality. The evolution
may require additional parameters to be included or different strategies to
be used for monitoring, and fixed data reporting formats may unnecessarily
hamper research progress.
Although it is impossible to report all collected data, investigators
can follow minimum reporting requirements that might prove helpful to others.
The minimum reporting requirements should address the tests applied to the
data as follows:
e Descriptive Statistics—Means, standard deviations, and
histograms or cumulative frequency plots are particularly
important if nonparametric tests are used. In all cases,
the number of data points involved in any descriptive
statistic should be clearly stated.
e Hypotheses to be Tested--Exact statements of the null and
alternative hypotheses will prove useful.
-------
0 Test Statistics--A listing of test vali^s for successful
as well as unsuccessful tests should be reported.
« Level of Significance—The probability that a rejected
null hypothesis is true should be included in the reported
data.
LEVEL II REPORTING: PRESERVING DATA FOR USE IN OTHER STUDIES
In the absence of a central repository lor indoor air quality data,
a cooperative approach is needed to ensure wider use of collected data.
Within this approach, investigators should identify the scope of collected
dsta in a common format. The intent here is to provide a means of rapidly
screening studies for useful content by other interested researchers.
Investigators can then obtain more detailed information on those data bases
of interest by contacting the principal investigator of a study. The investi
gatcrs wil.l, thus, maintain their own actual data sets, compensating for the
lack of a common repository.
A general descriptive format for reporting scope and content of data
bases, which will accommodate a wide variety of indoor air quality studies,
contains two separate information matrices. The first format, shown in
figure 5, offers a concise summary of key factors of the study and its
design. The format organizes the study information useful for screening so
th?t a user can easily identify the general study approach and the types of
data collected. Most important, the format indicates the availability of
those data.
The format of the data base content in Figure 6 enables a user to
further identify factors surrounding collection and storage of data for each
parameter. Thus, for each parameter, the following information is made
available:
e PIacement--Number of fixed indoor, outdoor, personal,
mobile, or portable devices
• Raw Data—Form of collection (i.e., strip chart, data
logger, worksheet), collection frequency (i.e., continuous,
hourly, etc.), duration (i.e., the number of hours of
sampling), and smallest time increment (i.e., duration of
individual noncontiguous samples)
» Data Reduction—Principal averaging period (i.e., hourly,
24-hour, etc; this may be the same as the "smallest time
increment" under raw data), and the number of data points
per average
e Data Storage—Raw field records, worksheets, tabular
summaries, computer tape, or active computer disk files.
60
-------
TITLE: .
PERFORMING ORGANIZATION: Principal Contact
SPONSORING ORGANIZATION: Principal Contact
PERIOD OF PERFORMANCE:
OBJECTIVES:
DATA RECORDS AVAILABLE UNTIL:
TYPE OF .STUDY: f_] Indoor Characterization fj Impact of Controls
Q Emission Characterization Q] Modeling
Q Exposure Characterization f_J Building Associated Problems
Q Impact of Weatherizatlon P] Other
LOCATION(S):
NUMBER OF STRUCTURES: Residences Offices Other buildings
NUMBER OF STUDY PARTICIPANTS: Individuals
AGE GROUP: __ Adults Children
SUMMARY OF APPROACH
DATA SUMMARY
1. INSTRUMENTED MEASUREMENTS
Q Indoor Pollutants:
Outdoor Pollutdnts:
Indoor Environment (Temperature, humidity, etc.)
fj Air Exchange: __ Mechanical Ventilation:
I i Energy Consumption: ^ _ ^ _ __
P~ Meteorology: __ _ _ __ __
2. ADDITIONAL DATA COLLECTED
rj Architectural/Structural :
f Individujls' Profile:
| I Activity Patterns:
Q Complaints:
|i Interviews:
STUDY PUBLICATIONS:
Figure 5. Format for rcport'ing key factors of an indoor air quality study
and i ts design.
61
-------
pj>~a^pter fi I nst rumen t
Designation
Placement
OJ
t. t. _a
0 O T3
O O +->
cr J-> o
-•- rj i — a.
-o c: OJ
-r- X 1- .0
4- T- O> O
O 0 0 0
0 0 O 0
•*• z ^
Raw data
o
u
OP
•o
QJ
i*-
>i
E
L
o_
u
c
QJ
CT
No.
Per
c
0
ro
No.
Time
GJ
E
-t-J C
QJ E
t— OJ
. — t,
nj (j
No.
Time
Reduced
data
c
01
13
Tl
C -r~
I- QJ
0. 0.
No.
Time
Storage and
retrieval
cu
en
i_
0.
to
c
0
OL
O
O
en
ro
0
to
>^
E
"£
•^
en
<:
Comnents
Nntes:
R = strip chart, L = data logger, W = worksheet.
C - continuous, S = second, H = hour, D = day.
I = i nactive/cnniputer compatible, A = active/computer compatible, T = tabular summaries, X = rsw data only.
P - proprietary, K = confidential, U = unrestricted.
M = paper copies only, 0 = computer compatible.
Figure 6. Format for reporting scope of data collectioi. and storage.
-------
Each format fits on a single page, so that it is easy to handle, store, and
disseminate.
The data base sumnary describing scope and content should becoine an
integral part of publications anil proceedings of symposia. This cooperative
system would assist other users of the data bcSi and help them recognize
available data.
63
-------
SECTION 7
QUALITY ASSURANCE AND QUALITY CONTROL
Quality assurance (QA) and quality control (QC) are measures used to
ensute that procedures, equipment, personnel, and all other components
of a monitoring program produce data of acceptable reliability. QC refers to
routine procedures that ensure a reliable measurement process, while QA
addresses the overall operations including planning, assessment, and corrective
actions.
Both QA and QC provisions are implemented through a QA plan. The
plan specifies in detail the manner in which a particular project or continu-
ing operation will achieve predetermined goals of data quality. Often, a
policy or regulation w' 11 require a QA plan. Even if a QA plan is not
formally required, however, the process of developing a nlan will force
an investigator to review every aspect of operations in an orderly manner,
thus strengthening the approach and resultant dat:,.
The EPA hat published a document to guide in preparing QA plans:
U.3. Environmental Protection Agency. 1980. Interim Guide-
lines and Specifications for Preparing Quality Assurance
Project Plans. ~~EPA QAMS-005/80, Office of Monitoring SyTtems
and Quality Assurance, Office cf Research and Development,
Washington, D.C.
This document presents the principal elements of QA plans for environmental
measurements and covers all aspects of indoor air quality monitoring. The
following description, c'rawn largely from the EPA document, sumnarizes the
elements of a QA plan. This section also presents examples of QA plans
prepared for two different EPA projects.
ELEMENTS OF A QUALITY ASSURANCE PLAN
A quality assurance 01 an is a document composed of 16 items, as follows:
1. Title page, which includes provision for signatures
indicating approval of the plan by the cognizant project
manager, QA officers, and sponsoring organization
2. Table of contents
3. Project description
4. Project organization and responsibility
5. QA objectives
G4
-------
6. Sampling procedures
7. Custody procedures
8. Calibration procedures
9. Analytical procedures
10. Data reduction and reporting
11. Internal QC checks
12. Performance and system audits
13. Preventative maintenance
14. Assessment of data quality
15. Corrective actions
16. Quality assurance reports to management.
Generally all these items apply to indoor air quality monitoring studies.
Many of the items are self-explanatory; other items—such as QA objectives,
custody procedures, internal QC checks, performance and system audits,
assessment of data quality, corrective actions, and OA reports—are discussed
briefly below.
Quality Assurance Objectives
For each measurement variable, QA objectives should be defined in terr,.s
of the following:
o Accuracy, i.e., the degree of agreement of a mea-
surement wi^h an accepted reference or true value
• Precision, i.e., a measure of mutual agreement among
individual measurements under prescribed conditions
* Completeness, i.e., a measure in percent of the amount of
valid data recovered, as compared with expectations
e Representativeness, i.e., an expression of the degree to
which data accurately and precisely represent key charac-
teristics or conditions
e Comparabil_i_ty_, i.e., an expression that defines the degree
oT c o n fTrfe no e" w i t h which one data set can be compared
with another.
-------
Custody Procedures
Custody procedures, primarily used when many samples are involved,
clearly document the paths taken by all relocatable elements. A relocatable
element is any item that affects the final data product, such as sample
media, primary data, and reduced data records. Where appropriate, each
relocatable element receives a unique identity, including serial number,
date, time, and location. A log documents the movement cf the element among
various points of custody--technical personnel, files, and storage. Such
tracking, which provides safeguards against data loss, is particul e.rly useful
in determining sources of contamination or other adverse factors that might
jeopardize the quality of data.
Internal QC Checks
Internal QC checks consist of periodic testing of equipment performance
and assessment of procedures. For approaches relying on sample collection
and laboratory analysis, the following types of checks should be considered:
(1) replicates, (2) spiked samples, (3) split samples, (4) blanks, and
(5) reagent checks. The QC checks should be applied to all procedures and
equipment for direct reading instruments and should include either use of a
standard reference for challenging the device or colocating a portable
reference analyzer for comparing the readings.
Performance and System Audits
Investigators should periodically conduct performance audits to determine
the accuracy of the total measurement system and its individual components.
Most aspects of a peformance audit are similar to those of the internal QC
checks except that performance is verified through standards, devices, and
personnel, which are independent of the routine project organization and
equipment.
Systems audits consist of a qualitative evaluation of the facilities, equip-
ment, training, procedures, recordkeeping, data validation, and reporting
aspects of the total monitoring approach. This evaluation provides a measure
of the capability to perform within QA objectives.
Both performance and systems audits should precede initial data collection.
Thereafter, the frequency of audits would be dictated by policy, objectives,
and resources.
Assessment of Pata Quality
For each major measurement parameter, the OA plan should address routine
procedures to assess precision, accuracy, and completeness of the accumulating
data. The results of the assessment must be continually tested against QA
objectives.
66
-------
Corrective Action
Corrective actions are the systematic response to errors, malfunctions,
and other deficiencies. Corrective actions may stem from the following:
» Excursions of data quality to unacceptable levels
• Results of internal QC checks
» Results of performance or systems audits.
The QA plan should stipulate procedures to be followed in correcting a
deficiency. Regardless of the size of the deficiency or actual need for
corrective action, three steps must be followed:
1. Analysis—To determine potential causes, extent of
negative impact on accumulated data, and reasonable
corrective actions.
2. Adjustment--To transmit corrective steps to cognizant
personnel, to adjust affected data, to label the data as
questionable, or to discard.
3. Report—To document the entire corrective operation
in the permanent records.
Qualify Assurance Reports
The QA plan should include provisions for periodic reports on systems and
data quality. Such reports should include the following:
• />sse.5sment of accuracy, precision, and completeness
e fe-ults of performance and systems audits
• Significant problems and solutions.
Such reports may be required on a predetermined schedule or solely in response
to problems or special events.
EXAMPLES OF QUALITY ASSURANCE PLANS
The investigator may find it useful to review QA plans prepared for
other studies. Below are two exemplary documents:
a Research Triang^ Institute. 1981. Total Exp_ps'j_re
Assessment Metnodology (TEAM) Study: PTTase 11/Fart'III:
67
-------
Qualjty Assurance Project Plan. Prepared under Contract
iJo. 68-02-3679, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Research Triangle Park, N.C.
This document is a model example of an operational QA plan. It follov/s
closely the EPA guidelines and specifications. The plan is directed toward
field sampling and laboratory analysis; but many, if not all, the items in the
QA plan apply to uirect field and/cr laboratory measurements as well.
9 Battelle Columbus Laboratories. 1982. Qual1ty Assurance
Plan for Control Technology Assessment and Exposure
Profile for Workers Exposed to Hazards in the Electronics
Component Industry.Prepared under Contract No. 68-03-3026,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Columbus, Ohio.
This is another model QA plan prepared for a study, jointly funded by
EPA and NIOSH, to assess human exposure to air pollutants on a 24-hour-a-day
basis. This study will be conducted in the electronic components industry.
The NIOSH portion of the study is concerned with assessing worker exposure
from job-related activities. The EPA portion is concerned with the more
•biquitous a^'r pollutants to which people--in this case, electronics industry
'"•.-rkers--are continually exposed. The document presents the QA plan for the
EPA 24-hour exposure study.
-------
Appendix A
SUMMARIES CF INSTRUMENTS
INTRODUCTION
This appendix reviews commercially available instrumentation suitable
for indoor air quality monitoring. As defined in Section 4, instruments are
as follows:
1. Mobil , v,y
- Personal
- Portable
- Stationary
2. Power Requirements
Active
- Passive
3. Output Characteristics
- Analyzer
Collector
These terms can be assembled to form 12 distinct instrument categories such
as PERSONAL/DASSIVE/COLLECTOR and STATIONARY/ACTIVE/ANALYZER. Key performance
characteristics of these instruments are summarized within a format derived
from an extensive survey of environmental monitoring instrumentation begun by
the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory in the 1970s. Where there was no information
available for certain characteristics such as "lagtime" as in case of ECOLYZER
Model 2000, the entry was left blank. A glossary defining key instrument
terms appears at the end of this appendix.
In offering this appendix, the intent is primarily to summarize alter-
natives among PERSONAL, PORTABLE, and STATIONARY instruments for each pollutant.
This was not possible for some pollutants (Table 4). Appendix B summarizes
approaches that can fill some of the voids.
In response to the National Ambient Air Quality Standards, a large
number of STATIONARY/ACTIVE/ANALYZERS are available for carbon monoxide, nitrogen
dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and ozone. Instruments for these pollutants that appear
on the EPA-designated list of reference and equivalent methods for these pollu-
tants are listed in a subsection of this appendix.
INSTRUMENTS
The following pages present sumnaries of 35 measuring instruments and
3 data logging devices. In the majority of the cases, individual summaries
have been reviewed by manufacturer representatives. price information cited
in this appendi < is current to late i?32 and subject to change.
£9
-------
ASBESTOS AND OTHER FIBROUS AEROSOLS
PORTABLE/ACTIVE/ANALYZER
1-1
GCA FAM-1
Fibrous Aerosol Monitor
1 of 3
Weight: 11.4 kg
Dimensions: 53 x 35 x 20 cm
Principle of
Operation:
Lower Detectable
Limit:
Range:
Interferences:
I1u1 ti parameter
Capabili.y:
Induced osc'"11 ;t;c'1/optical scattering. Sample air
passes th.'Oigh a lami^r flow chamber and enters a sensing
region where an oscillati;,? ^lectric field induces fiber
oscillations. The sensing region is illuminated by a
continuous wave He-lJe laser that is aligned with sample
flow. Scattering pulses from fiber oscillation are
detected by a photomultiplier positioned at right angles to
the laser. Electronic circuitry applies four separate
acceptance tests to discriminate fibers, producing fiber
counts per cubic centimeter.
0.001 fibers/cm3; minimum detectable fiber length:
minimum detectable fiber diameter: 0.2 urn
0.001 to 30 fibers/cm3
Large concentrations of elongated particles
Fiber counts only
2 urn;
70
-------
1-1
GCA FAM-1
Fibrous Aerosol Monitor
2 of 3
Performance:
Operation:
Sampling Rate: 2 1/min (adjustable 1.5 to 2.5 1/min),
continuous; fiber counting and selectable at
1, 10, 100, and 1,000 minutes
Accuracy: equal to reproducibility when calibrated for
specific fibers
Reproducibil ity: (one-sigrna) +(100/N)%, (where N is the
number of fiFers counted)
Linearity: +5% of count
Noise:
Lagtime: <0.5 seconds
Rise Time: 0
Retention Time: detection period - approx. 50 milliseconds
Fall Time: 0
Zero Drift:
Span Drift:
Temperature Range: 0° to 50° C
Temperature Compensation: none
Relative Humidity Range: 0^ to 95% for conductive fibers
303, to 95% for dielectric fibers
Calibration: factory set or field adjustable through
comparison against NIUSH asbestos fibers
method
Warm-Up Time: 5 minutes
Unattended Period: indefinite
Maintenance: occasional cleaning of optics
71
-------
Features:
Costs:
Manufacturer:
References:
1-1
GCA FAM-1
Fibrous Aerosol Monitor
3 of 3
Power: 115 or 220 V a.c., 50 or 6C Hz; or may be run off
battery power pack
Output: 6-digit LCD; recorder output
Training: 1 hours
Options: battery power pack; digital to analog interface
(recoroer output)
FAM-1: $10,850
Battery power pack: $720
Digital analog interface: $830
GCA Corporation, Technology Division, Environmental Instrument^
213 Burlington Road
Bedford, Massachusetts 01730
(617) 275-5444
Speci fications
1. Manufacturer's bulletin--9-30 cp 2.5M
2. L'ilienfeld, P. 1979. "Development of a Prototype
Fibrous Aerosol Monitor." Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J.
4:270. '"
Operations experience
1. Elias, J.D. 1981. "Dry Removal of Asbestos."
Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J.
2. Page, S.J. 1980. Correlation of the Fibrous Aerosol
Monitor with the Optical Membrane Filter Count
Techm'quFIU.S. Department of the InterTor, Bureau
of Mines Report,
Remarks:
A standard inline membrane filter permits concurrent
collection of fiber samples
72
-------
BiOLOGICAL AEROSOLS
STATIONARY/ACTIVE/COLLECTOR
2-1
AUDERSCN
#10-800 VIABLE
SAMPLE KIT
1 of 3
Weight.: 1.5kg
Dimensions: 20 x 11 cm
Principle of
Operati on:
Impaction. Upon entering the inlet, sample ai-" is acceler-
ated througn a series cf six impaction stages, each of which
holds a petri dish containing agar, which serves as trie col-
lection surface. Within each stage, jet velocity is uniform
but increases in each succeeding stage. Each successive
stage collects the larger particles remaining in the air
stream. Microbial colonies are incubated for 24 hours and
counted manual ly.
Lower Detectable
Limit:
Range:
Interferences:
Multi parameter
Capabi1ity:
73
-------
Performance:
Operati on:
2-1
ANDCRSEIj
y/10-8UO VIABLE
SAMPLE KIT
?. of 3
Sampling Rate: 28.3 1/min, continuous
Accuracy:
Reproducibility:
Li n;arity:
lloise:
Lagtime:
Ri se Time:
Retention Tine:
Fall Time:
Zero Drift:
Span Drift:
Temperature Range:
Temperature Compensation:
Relative Humidity Range:
Calibration:
Procedure:
Warm-Up lime:
Unattended Period: usually <60 minutes (see remark
Mai ntenance:
Power: 115 V a.c.
74
-------
2-1
ANDCRSEN
#10-80U VIABLE
SAI1PLE KIT
3 of 3
Features:
Costs:
Manufacturer:
Output:
Training: recommended
Options:
#10-800 Viable Sampler Kit (including pump and case): $2195
Andersen Samplers, Inc.
4215 Wendell Drive
Atlanta, Georgia 30336
Toll free: (800) 241-6808
In Georgia: (404) 691-1910
References:
Speci h'cations
1. Manufacturer's bulletin
Operations experience
1. None avai1able
Remarks:
Sample periods for biological aerosols are generally
less than 60 minutes to avoid dehydration of collected
microorganisms.
Available time did not permit review of this summary
by a manufacturer's representative. Pricing information
has been verified by telephone.
-------
BIOLOGICAL AEROSOLS
STATICNARY/ACTIVE/COLLECTOR
2-2
ANDERSEN
r?l 0-850 TWO-STAGE
M1CROBIAL SAMPLER
1 of 4
Wei gilt: 1.5 kg
Dimensions: 20 x 11 cm
Principle of
Operati on:
Impaction. Upon entering the inlet, sample air is acceler-
ated through a series of two inpaction stages, each of which
holds a disposable petri dish containing agar, which serves as
the collection surface. The first stage collects particles
larger than 7 urn. The second stage collects particles
between 1 and 7 urn. Microbial colonies are incubated for
24 hours and counted manually.
Lower Detectable
Limit:
Range:
Interferences:
Multiparameter
Capabi"! i ty:
76
-------
Performance:
Operati on:
nuous
2-2
ANDERSEN
#10-850 TWO-STAGE
MICROBIAL SAMPLER
2 of 4
Sampling Rate: 28.3 1/min, conti
Accuracy:
Reproducibi1ity:
Linearity:
Noise:
Lagtime:
Rise Tine:
Retention Tine:
Fall Tire:
Zero Drift:
Span Drift:
Temperature Range:
Temperature Compensation:
Relative Hunidity Range:
Calibration: none required in ordinary use (see remark
Procedure:
77
-------
Features:
Costs:
Manufacturer:
Refprences:
Remark?:
2-2
AUDEKSEN
#10-850 TWO-STAGE
MICROS IAL SAMPLER
3 of 4
Warm-Up Time:
Unattended Period: usually <60 minutes (see remark #2!
Maintenance:
Power: defined by user-supplied vacuum source
Output:
Traininq: recommended
Options:
nO-850: $850
Andersen Samplers, Inc.
4215 U'endell Drive
Atlanta, Georgia 30336
Toll Free: (800) 241-6898
In Georgia: (AQ4) 691-1910
Specifications
1. Manufacturer's bulletin
Operations experience
1. Mono available
A critical orifice situated in the base of the sampler
provides constant flow of 1 CFM as long as vacuum is
10 inches of Hg.
Sample periods for biological aerosols are generally
less than 60 minutes to preclude dehydration of col-
lected microorganisms.
78
-------
2-2
ANDERSEN
#10-850 TWO-STAGE
MICROBIAL SAMPLER
4 of 4
The sampler uses disposable 100-mm petri dishes and is
reusable and sterilizable.
Available time did not permit review of this summary
by a manufacturer's representative. Pricing information
was verified by telephone.
/9
-------
CARBON MONOXIDE
PORTABLL/ACTIVE/AIJALYZER
3-1
COOLYZER
Me del 2000
CO Monitor
1 of 4
Weight: 4.5 kg
Dimensions: 17.8 x 17.8 x 33 cm
Principle of
Operati on:
Electrochemical oxidation. Ambient air is drawn past a
catalytic-lily active electrode where CO is oxidized,
producing a signal proportional to the CO concentration
in the sample air stream. Potential interferents can be
removed by an inlet scrubber.
Lower Detectable
Li flirt:
<0.5 ppm
Range:
0 to 100 ppm, 0 to 600 ppm
80
-------
3-1
ECOLYZER
Model 2000
CO Monitor
2 of 4
Interferences:
ECOLYZER
Carbon Monoxide Specificity*
Concentration
Interfering Gas Tested (ppm)
CH4 (Methane)
COj (Carbon Monoxide)
Nil] (Ammonia)
NO (Nitric Oxide)
NOp (Nitrogen Dioxide)
(120 (Citrous Oxide)
C?H2 (Acetylene)
C?H4 ( Ethyl ene)
C2H6 (Ethane)
C3H8 (Propane)
H2 (Hydrogen)
HpS (Hydrogen Sulfide)
S0~2 (Sulfur Dioxide)
50,000
10,000
500
50
25
100
5
10
10
100
LO
50
100
Reading on Scale
(ppm)
fJo
No
No
No
No
No
interference
interference
interference
i nterference
interference
interference
15
10
0.10
1.0
0.5
0.5
1.0
Tested with interference filters
Mill tiparameter
Capability:
The model 7000 version of the instrument allows anv two
of the following to be paired in the same chassis: CO,
N02, NO, and H2$. While it would be attractive to
pair CO and NO^ for indoor air quality monitoring, the
N02 monitor of the 200 series nay be of limited use
under current specifications because the most sensitive
range is 0 to 2 ppm.
81
-------
performance:
Operation:
3-1
LCOLYZER
Model 2000
CO Monitor
3 of 4
Sampling Rate: 700 nil/min, continuous
Accuracy: +_!£
Reproducibility: +1%
Linearity: 1%
Noise: +0.2%
Laqtime:
Rise Tine: approximately 2o seconds
Retention Time:
Fall Time: approximately 25 seconds
Zero Drift:
-------
3-1
ECOLYZER
Model 2000
CO Monitor
4 cf 4
Features:
Output: 0 to 100 ppm CO, 0 to 600 ppm CO panel
meter with paralax mirror; 0- to 1-volt
d.c. recorder output
Training: none required for sampling
Options: d.c.-powered recorder
a.c.-powered recorder
Costs:
Model 2000 CO monitor: $1,900
DC recorder: S550
AC recorder: S450
Manufacturer:
Energetics Science, Inc.
6 Sky!ine Drive
Hawt'iorne, New York 10532
(914) 592-3010
References:
Specifications
1. Manufacturer's bulletin
Operations experience
1. Cortese, A.D., and J.D. Spengler. 1976. "Ability
of Fixed Monitoring Station to Represent Personal
Carbon Monoxide Exposures." J. Air Pollut. Control
Assoc. 26:1144-50.
Remarks:
Low temperature (0-10° C) zero dr-'ft was round to be
+lto-27 of scale over 30 minutes; calibration drift was
<1 ppm (Cortese and Spenger 1976).
83
-------
CARBON MONOXIDE
PERSONAL/PASS IVE/ANALYZER
3-2
ESI 210
Personal CO Monitor
1 of 3
Principle of
Operation:
Lower Detectable
Li nit:
Range:
Interferences:
Weight: 0.3 kg
Dimensions: 14 x 8.5 x 3.8 cm
Electrochemical. Ambient air diffuses into a
patented, three-electrode electrochemical cell
1 ppm
0 to 1999 ppn
Concentration
Necessary to Yield
Interferent Tested
Methane
Carbon Dioxide
Ammonia
Nitric Oxide
Nitrogen Dioxide
Sulfur Dioxide
Hydroqen S'll fide
Acetyl ene
Ethyl ene
Ethane
Propane
Methanol
Ethanol
Propanol
Concentration
Tested
99%
99.8%
29 A ppm
48.2 ppin
387 ppm
21.2 ppm
27.2 ppm
100 ppri
19.4 ppm
50 ppm, 500 ppm
105 ppm
500 ppm
500 ppm
500 ppm
1 ppm Equivalent
CO (ppm)
No interference
No interference
135
No response
270
145
130
170
135
1200 (no response
at 50 ppm)
425
No response
140
750
84
-------
Multiparameter
Capability:
Perfornance:
Operati on:
3-2
ESI 210
Personal CO Monitor
2 of 3
CO only
Sampling Rate: diffusion, continuous
Accuracy: +5% or +_! ppm (whichever is greater)
Reproducibil ity: +2°; or +1 ppm (whichever is greater)
Linearity:
Noise:
Laqtime:
Rise Time: 16 seconds to 50 ppm, with a 200 ppm exposure
Retention Time:
Fall Time:
Zero Drift: <5 ppm/24 hr
Span Drift: +2%/24 hr or 2 ppm/24 hr (whichever is greater)
Temperature Range: 0° to 40° C
Temperature Compensation:
Re'ative Humidity Range: 5% to 90%
Calibration: standard gas mixture
Warm-Up Time:
Unattended Period:
Maintenance: batteries field replaceable;
6-rnonth sensor warranty
-------
Features:
Costs:
Manufacturer:
References:
Remarks:
3-2
ESi 21U
Personal CO Monitoi
3 of 3
Power: standard lj-vol t transistor battery
Output: LCD pi'str button-activated or continuous display
Training: none req"ired for sampling
Options: lapel ciip-on alarm norr, for high noise areas
Model 210: $695
Energetics Science Division of De:;ton
Dickinson and Company
Six Sky!ine Drive
Hawthorne, NCJW York 10532
(914) 592-3010
Specifications
1. Manufacturer's brochure 2C-10-1-82
Operations experience
1. None available
A similar version is available for
36
-------
CARBON MOiJOXIDE
PERSONAL/ACTIVE/ARALYZER
3-?
l-t!OAL ELECTRIC
CO DETECTOR
1 of 5
Weight: 290 g
Dimensions: 7.5 x 13.5 x 3.6 cm
Principle of
Operation:
Electrochemical oxidation. Air is drawn through a filter
and into an electrochemical cell in which oxidation of
CO produces an electrical signal proportional to CO
concentration in the ai*1 stream.
Lower Detectable
Limit: 1 ppm
Range:
Interferences:
0 to 1COO pprn
(with Purafil filter installed!
Interferent
Gas
Uater Vapor
02
CH4
C02
UG
N02
S02
HZ
C2H2
H2S
C2H4
Electromagnetic
(0-80 MHz)
Concentration
In Air
50% to 100;,
L6% to 20C:
i?
^ j
1%
50 ppm
10 ppm
25 ppm
100 ppm
100 ppm
10 ppm
100 ppni
3 volts/neter
Equivalent
CO Reading (ppm)
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
16
0
18
;!o effect
87
-------
3-3
GENERAL ELECTRIC
CO DETECTOR
2 of 5
Multiparameter
Capability:
Performance:
CO on I;,
Sampling Rate: 60 ml/min, continuous
Accuracy: direct LCD readout, 0 to 500 ppm
500 to 1000 ppm + 1K
accumulator, 0 to 10 ppm/hr +2 ppm hr
10 to 500 ppm/h? +10% 8 hr TWA
500 to 1000 ppm/hr +15% 8 hr TWA
Reproducibi 1 ity: _+5"
Repeatibil ity: +J>%
Linearity: 0 to 500 ppm +10%
500 to 1000 ppm +15%
Noise: <0.c> ppm
Lag Time: 6 seconds
Rise Time: <45 seconds
Response Time: within 2 minutes to 90%
Retention Time: 6 seconds
Fall Time: <40 seconds
Zero Drift: very little, if any (usually +1 pprn over
several days) ~
Span Drift: generally ^5 ppm at 60 ppm span gas if
several da7s elapse
Operation:
Temperature Range: 1° to 40° C (freezing conditions
should be avoided)
88
-------
3-3
GENERAL ELECTRIC
CO DETECTOR
3 of 5
Temperature Compensation: fully compensated over the
range 1° to 40° C
Relative Humidity Range:
to 95% RH
Calibration: standard gas mixture
Unattended Period: 10 hours (4 hours with light and alarm
on; starting with a fully charged bat-
tery). Unattended sampling may be
greatly extended by running off battery
charger if normal a.c. power is avail-
able (Model CO-3 only). See remarks
below to extend unattended period of
operation.
Warm-Up Time: 3 minutes (after 14-hour charge cycle)
Maintenance: purafil filter: renew upon color change
cell assembly: replenish distilled or
de-ionized water periodically
storage conditions: 1° to 50° C
Power: 5.2 V d.c., 250 ma-hr, rechargeable Ni-Cd
Features:
Output: LCD p-?ne1 readout (instantaneous levels)
recorder output 0 to 1 '/ d.c.
internal accumulator (requires external console to
read out; see options)
Training: none required for sampling
Options: support console (to read/reset accumulator)
gas calibration kit
charger
Costs:
Direct indicating detector: 31,195
Support console: S7",E (single charge); S935 (mul ticharge)
Gas calioration kit: S245
Charger: S29
89
-------
3-3
GENERAL ELECTRIC
CO DETECTOR
4 of 5
Manufacturer: General Electric Company
333 West Seymour Avenue
Cincinnati, Ohio 45216
(513) 948-5050
References: Specifications
1. "Operation and Maintenance Instructions, Direct
Indicating SPE Carbon Monoxide Detector." GE
Aircraft Equipment Devices, 1980.
2. "Model 15ECS1C02 Carbon Monoxide Dosimeter
and Model 15ECS3C03 Direct Indicating Carbon
Monoxide Detector for Performance and Instrinsically
Safe for Classss I and II, Divisions 1 and 2, Groups
A, B, C, D, E, F, and G Hazardous Locations."
J.I. 1A7AO. Ax (6340/3610) Factory Mutual
Research,, 1151 Boston, Providence Turnpike,
Norwood, Massachusetts 02062. November 1979.
Operations experience
1, Flachsbart, P.G., and W.R. Ott. (In preparation).
Field Surveys of Carbon Monox.ue in Commercial
Setting^ Using Personal Exposure Monitors.
For U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
2. Nagda, U.I. , and M.D. Koontz. 1983. Exposures to
Carbon Monoxide. Final Report No. EHF-1200, for
"Electric Power Research Institute. GEOMET
Technologies, Inc., Rockville, Md.
Remarks: These units may be leased from the manufacturer.
Alternative support consoles are available from
additional sources; see entries under Data Logging.
The unattended period has been extended to well over
35 hours by substituting a larger capacity battery
(see reference 2 listed under operations experience).
90
-------
3-3
GENERAL ELECTRIC
CO DETECTOR
5 of 5
Tiiese units have been approved by the follov/ing
organizations:
Mine Safety and Health Administration, U.S. Department
of Labor- Pen.iissible Carbon Monoxide Detector,
Tested in Methane—Air Mixtures Only, 'Approval
2G-3152-1.
Factory Mutual System. Approved for Performance and
Intrinsically Safe for Classes I and II, Divisions 1 and 2,
Groups A, B, C, D, E, r, and G.
91
-------
CARBON MOI.'OXIDE
POKTA3LE/ACTIVE/ANALYZER
3-4
INTERSCAN
CO 1140 and 4140
1 of 3
Weight: 3.6 kg (Model 1140)
2.0 kg vModel 4140)
Dimensions:
18.4 cm x 1.5.2 cm x
29.2 mrn (Model 1140)
17.8 x 10.2 x
22.5 cm (Mode' 4140)
Principle of
Operation:
Electrochemical. Gas molecules from the moving sample
Hi r stream pass through a diffusion medium and are
adsorbed onto an electrocatalytic sensing electrode where
subsequent reactions generate an electric current. The
diffusion limited current is linearly proportional to CO
concentration.
Lower Detectable
Limit:
Range:
I'-', of fu i 1 scale
0 to 100 pprri, 0 to 250 ppn, 0 to 500 ppm (other ranges
available)
Interferences:
Expressed as ppm ~>f interferent needed to give 1 ppn
def1ection:
H2S: >500
NO: >500
H2: 125
MeSH (Methyl rcercaptan): 100
EtSI, (Ethyl mercaptcn): 100
92
-------
Multi parameter
Capability:
Performance:
Operation:
3-4
INTERSCAN
CO 1140 and 4140
2 of 3
S03) NO, N20, flH3, Me^S, C02, and saturated
hydrocarbons show no interference. Unsaturated hydro-
carbons require a special filter when present in concen-
trations equivalent to CO.
CO only
Sampling Rate: 1.2 1/min, continuous
Accuracy: +2% of fu'll scale
Reproducibility: _+0.5%
Linearity: +1% of full scale
Noise:
Lagtime: <1 second
Rise Time: 20 seconds
Retention Time:
Fall Time: 20 seconds
Zero Drift: +1% full scale in 24 hours
Span Drift: <+2% full scale in 24 hojrs
Temperature Range: 10° to 120° F
Temperature Compensation: integral
Relative Humidity Range: l°L to 100/1
Calibration: si ndard gas mixture
Warn-Up Time: <5 minutes
-------
Reworks:
3-4
INTERSCAN
CO 1140 and 4140
3 of 3
Unattended ?eriod: 10 hours on battery power
Maintenance: calibration, battery replacement, biannual
sensor replacement
Power: 1140: 4 Alkaline Mn02 batteries for amplifier,
2 iH-Cd for pun., s and pov/er-on LED, 1 HgO
battery for bias amplifier reference
4140: No HgO batter^ is used; four "1/2C" IM-Cd
used
Features:
Output: 0-100 mV full scale
Training: none required for sampling
Options: alarms, special ranges
Costs:
Manufacturer:
Model 1140: SI,675
Model 4140: 51,895
InterScan Corporation
P.O. Box 2496
21700 Nordhoff Street
Chatsworth, California 91311
(213) 882-2331
TEIEX: 67-4897
References:
Speci fications
1. Manufacturer's bulletin
Operations experience
1. Ziski'nd, R.A., et al . 1981. "Carbon Monoxide
Intrusion into Sustained-Use Vehicles." Envi ron.
Int. 5:109-23. ——
94
-------
CARBON MONOXIDE
PERSONAL/PASS I VE/Al.'UYZER
3-5
INTERSCAN
5140
1 or 3
Weight: 680 g
Dimensions: 15'c x 76 x 51 mm
Principl e of
Operati on:
Diffusion/Electrochemical. Carbon monoxide diffuses
into an electrochemical cell, producing a signal pro-
portional to CO concentrations. The signal is digitized,
incorporated into 1-ninute averages, and stored. Nonde-
structive recovery of each 1-minute average is accomplished
through a separate data reader. Data storage capacity
is 2,048 1-minute averages.
Lower Detectable
Limit: 2.5 ppm
Range:
Interferences:
0 to 1,000 ppm
Expressed as ppm of interferant needed to give 1 ppm
deflection:
H2S: >5UO
NO: >500
Ho: 125
tleSH: 100
EtSH: 100
S03, NO, MpO, IIH;, HepS, COe, and saturated
hydrocarbons show no interference. Unsaturated hydro-
carbons require a special filter when present in concen-
trations equivalent to trose of CO.
95
-------
Multi parameter
Capability:
Performance:
Operation:
3-5
INTERSCAN
5140
2 of 3
CO only
Sampling Rate: diffusion, continuous
Accuracy: +_2^ of reading, _+! least significant digit (LSD!
+0.5% of full scale
Reproducibil ity: _+!" reading, +1 LSD
Linearity: 0.5* reading, + 1 LSD
tioise:
Lagtime:
Rise Time: 20 seconds
Retention Time:
Fall Time: 20 seconds
Zero Drift: +1% reading, _+! LSD in 24 hours
Span Drift + 1% reading, +1 LSD in 24 hours
Temperature Range: 30° tc 120° F
Temperature Compensation:
Relative Humidity Range: 1% to 100?:
Calibration: standard gas mixture
Warm-Up Time: <5 minutes
Unattended Period: up to 34 hours
Maintenance: calibration, battery replacement, sensor
renlacement
-------
3-5
INTERSCAN
5140
3 of 5
Power: long-life 9-volt battery (alkaline
NEDA type 1604A); battery life is 125 hours
continuous operation
Features:
Output: printout from data reader (see remark ?1!
Training: none required for sampling
Costs:
Manufacturer:
$1,145; $275 for calibration meter
InterScan Corporation
P.O. Box 2496
21700 Uordhoff Street
Chatsworth, California 91311
(213) 882-2331
TELEX 67-4897
References:
Specifications
1. Manufacturer's bulletin
Operations experience
1. None available
Remarks:
Data readout is accomplished by a device available from:
Metrosonics, Inc.
P.O. Box 23075
Rochester, New York 14692
(716) 334-7300
InterScan has also recently introduced the
Kodel 2140 CO persona! monitor that offers
an LCD display of concentration instead of
data logging.
97
-------
FORMALDEHYDE
PERSONAL/PASS IVE/COLLECTOR
n-^TS^Tf^s^sas^^l r
4-1
Ai r Qua! ity Researcii
PF-1
HCHO passive monitor
1 of 4
Weight: negligible
Dimensions: 90 x 25 mm (diameter)
Principle of
Operation:
Lower Detectabl e
Limit:
Sorption/colorimetry. The sampler consists of a glass-fiber
filter treated with sodium bisulfite, housed in" a glass
vial that is capped when not in use. Formaldehyde
diffuses through the tube at a rate dependent upon Pick's
First Lav/ of Diffusion. The treated filter at the bottom
end of the tube maintains a near-zero formaldehyde
concentration at the base; therefore, the quantity of
formaldehyde transferred through tne diffusion path is
related to the ambient concentration and the length of
time exposed. Collected formaldehyde is quantified in
the laboratory using the chronotropic acid procedure.
1.68 ppm-hr (0.010 ppri for 1-week exposure)
Ranne:
Validated over the range of 0 to 150 ppm-hr. Capacity
established to be in excess of 1,000 ppn-hr.
-------
Interferences:
Multiparameter
Capability:
Pe~formance:
Operation:
4-1
Air Quality Research
PF-1
HCHO passive monitor
2 of 4
None known at this time. The analytical procedure
(chroniotropic acid) is subject to interference by
several compounds, but they are seldom encountered in
indoor air quality sampling applications. In any event
the compounds are not expected to b^ collected by the
bisulfite-treated filter collection element.
HCHO only
Sampling Rate: 4.1 ml/min, continuous
Accuracy:
Linearity:
Noise:
Reproducibility: +_25%
Rise Time: on the order of seconds
Retention Time:
Fall Time:
Zero Drift:
Span Drift:
Temperature Range:
Temperature Compensation: none required for 15° to 35° C
Relative Humidity Range: noncondensing
Calibration: static laboratory standards (see third
reference under specifications)
99
-------
4-1
Air Quality Research
PF-1
HCHO passive monitor
3 of 4
Features:
Unattended Period: 1 week (recorrmended minimum exposure
for indoor studies)
Power: none
Output: laboratory report
Training: none required for sampling
Options:
Costs:
Sampler only: S15 for box of 2
Sampler plus analysis: $30 for box of 2
NOTE: These are nominal prices; actual costs
depend upon lot sizes.
Manufacturer:
Air Quality Research, Inc.
901 Grayson Street
Berkeley, California 94710
(415) 644-2097
References:
Specifications
1. Manufacturer's bulletin
2. Geisling, K.L., et al . 1981. "A M:*/ Passive
Monitor for Determining Formaldehyde in Indoor
Air." Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory Report No.
LBL-12560. Presented at the International
Symposium on Indoor Air Pollution, Health and
Energy Conservation, Amherst, Massachusetts,
October 13-16, 1981.
3. National Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health. _M_enual of Analytical Methods. 2d ed.
1:125-1 to 125-9"
100
-------
4-1
Air Quality Resources
PF-1
HCHO passive monitor
4 of 4
Operations experience
1. None available
Remarks: These devices do not require specialized training
for use. However, extreme care must be exercised in
proper placement in the field and recordation of the
exposure interval. The units should be exposed at
least in immediate pairs at each sampling point.
Therefore, a simple indoor/outdoor comparison, for
instance, would require four samplers.
Though not yet formally validated under field
conditions, trie sampler is coming into extensive
use. The Canadian government is using the
device in an extensive ongoing study examining
formaldehyde levels in several tens of thousands of
homes with urea formaldehyde foam insul at.-'on.
Published results were unavailable at press time.
Shelf life of the PF-1 has been validated for at least
2 months.
101
-------
FORMALDEHYDE
PERSONAL/PASSIVE/COLLECTOR
4-2
0(1 POUT
PRO-TEK
HCHO passive
dosimeter
Type C60
1 of 4
Weight: 17.8 g
Dimensions: 7.6 x 7.1 x 0.89 cm
Principle of
Operation:
Sorption/col >_rimetry. Collection relies on molecular
diffusion to deliver sample air to a liquid sorbent
solution at a constant rate. After exposura, the
sorbent is analyzed in a laboratory spectrophotometer
for formaldehyde content and the time-weighted average
concentration. A maximum exposure time has not been
defined, although laboratory validation exposure times
varied from 2 to 18 hours. The shelf life of exposed
badges is 2 weeks, suggesting this to be a maximum
exposure time.
Lower Detectable
Limit:
l 6 ppm-hr (0.010 ppm for 1-week exposure'/.
Range:
Interferences:
1.6 to 54 ppm-hr.
Free of interferences from n-butanol , ethanol, toluene,
and phenol.
102
-------
Multiparameter
Capability:
Performance:
Operati on:
4-2
DU PONT
PRO-TEK
HCHO passive dosimeter
Type C60
2 of 4
HCHO only
Sampling Rate: diffusion, continuous
Accuracy: +13.1% (overall system accuracy) over the
range of 1.6 to 54 ppm hrs.
Precision: 5.9%
Reproducibility:
Li nearit":
Noise:
Lagtime:
Rise Time: 2.6 seconds (calculated)
Retention Time:
Fall Time:
Zero Drift:
Span Drift:
Temperature Range: 4° to 49° C
Temperature Compensation:
Relative Humidity Range:
Calibration: laboratory standards
Unattended Period: 2 to 18 hours
Maintenance:
103
-------
4-2
DU PONT
PRO-TEK
HCHO passive dosimeter
Type C60
3 of 4
Features:
Power: none required for
Output:
Training: see remark #2
Options:
Costs:
Type C60, .10 per box:
1-10 boxes: $222 (Order Code 5147)
11-25 boxes: S201 (Order Code 5148)
26+ boxes: $160 (Order Code 5149)
Manufacturer:
E.I. Du Pont de Nemours & Co. (Inc.)
Finishes and Fabricated Products Department
Applied Technology Division
Bailey Mill Plaza, Marshall Mill Building
Wilmington, Delaware 19898
(302) 772-5989
References:
Specifications
1. Manufacturer's sampling and analytical procedure.
2. Kring, E.V., et al. "A New Passive Colorimetric
Air Monitoring Badge for Sampling Fonialdehyde in
Air." Submitted to Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J. for
puM ication.
Operations experience
1. None available
-------
4-2
DU PONT
PRO-TEK
HCHC passive dosimeter
Type C60
4 of 4
Remarks: Each badge carries two compartments of sorbant solution--
one for sampling, the other (thoroughly r.ealed until
analysis) acts as a blank.
Du Pont does not plan to market this device directly
to homeowners because of the absence of professional
supervision to ensure accuracy for sampling results.
An analytical service for exposed badges is availablf
from a number of AIHA-accredited laboratories.
Shelf life of the dosimeter is as follows:
Unevoosed: 6 months refrigerated (40° to 45° Fy,
3 months unrefrigerated (up to 78° r)
Exposed: 2 weeks refrigerated, 2 weeks unrafrigerated.
105
-------
FORMALDEHYDE
PERSONAL/PASSIVE/COLLECTOR
4-3
3M
Formaldehyde Monitor 3750
1 of 3
\
Weight:
Dimensions:
Principle of
Operation:
Sorption/spectrophotometry. Formaldehyde, diffuses into the
monitor and is collected by a chemisorption process onto
an impregnated media. At a constant sampling rate, the
amount of formaldehyde adsorbed is
tration and exposure time. At the
monitor is sealed and taken to the
collected formaldehyde is desorbed
quantitated spectrophotonetrically
received formaIdehyde is linearly
weighted-average exposure.
controlled by concen-
end of sampling, the
l?ooratory where
using water and
The weight of
related to the time-
Lower Detectable
Limit:
0.8 ppm-hr (0.005 ppm for 1-week exposure)
Range:
Up to 72 ppm-hr
Interferences:
Phenol, a^ohols, and unsaturated compounds at 10 to 20 times
the formaldehyde concentration
106
-------
Multiparameter
Capability:
Performance:
Operation:
4-3
3M
Formaldehyde Monitor 3750
2 of 3
HCHO only
Collection Efficiency: 1.00+0.04
Sampling Rate: 65.9 +2.1 ml/min or 4.88 ug/ppm-hr, continuous
Accuracy: <+25%; exceeds OSHA accuracy requirements
Reproducibility:
Li nearity:
Noise:
Lagtime:
Rise Time:
Retention Time:
Fall Time:
Zero Drift:
Span Drift:
Temperature Range: -20° to 130° F
Temperature Compensation: none required
Relative Humility Range: 15% to 95%
Calibration: laboratory standards
Unattended Period: up to 1 week
Pow^r: none required for sampling
107
-------
4-3
3M
Formaldenyde Monitor 3750
3 of 3
Features:
Output: laboratory report
Training: none required for sampling
Options:
Costs:
3750 (sampler plus analysis at 3M): $35
3751 (sampler only): S21
Manufacturer:
Occupational Health and Safety Products Division/3M
220-7W, 3h Center
St. Paul , Minnesota 5*5144
(612) 733-6234
References:
Remarks:
Specifications
1. Manufacturer's brochure
2. Rodriguez, S.T., P.B. Olsen, and V.R. Lund.
"Colorimetric Analysis of formaldehyde
Collected on a Diffusion^! Monitor-"
Technical bulletin R-AIHA5(71.1)R, 3M Company,
St. Paul, Minnesota.
Operations experience
1. None available
Shelf life for the Formaldehyde Monitor is as follows:
Unexposed: 1 year at room temperature
Exposed: 4 weeks at room temperature
108
-------
FORMALDEHYDE
PORTABLE/ACTIVE/ANALYZER
4-4
TGM 555
FORMALDEHYDE ANALYZER
1 of 3
Weight: 14 kg
Dinensions: 51 x 41 x 18 cm
Principl e of
Operation:
Automated wet chemistry/colorimetry. Sample air is drawn
through a sodium tetrachloronercurate solution that
contains a fixed quantity of sodium sulfite. Acid bleached
pararosaniline is added, and the intensity of the resultant
color is measured at 550 nn. Reagent handling and processing
Is automatic.
Lower Detectable
Limit:
0.002 ppm
Range:
Interferences:
0 to 5 ppm (with optional
multiplied by a factor of
0 to 0.15 ppm full scale
None
stream splitter range can be
10 or 100); adjustable from
109
-------
Hultiparaneter
Capabi1ity:
Performance:
Operation:
4-4
TGM 555
FORMALDEHYDE ANALYZER
2 of 3
Collection Efficiency: 98*
Sampling Rate: 500 ml/min, continuous
Accuracy: +_3% (referenced to Chroraotropic Acid Procedure)
Reproducibility: 1%
Linearity: <2\ up to 3 ppn
Noise: +0.2" (zero noise)
Lagtime: 4.5 minutes
Rise Time: 4 minu+es to 90%
Retention Time:
Fall Time: 4 minutes to 90%
Zero Drift: <2% in 24 hours
Span Drift: <2% in 24 hours
Air Flew Drift: <1% in 24 hours
Temperature Range: 60° to 80° F optimum; 40° to 120° F usaole
Relative Humidity Range: 5% to 95%
Calibration: with liquid standards or HCIIO permeation tubes
Warm-Up Time: 20 minutes
110
-------
4-4
TGM 555
FORMALDEHYDE ANALYZER
3 of 3
Features:
Unattended Period: 18 hours on fully charged batteries
Maintenance: pump tubes changed once a month
Power: 12 V d.c. unregulated, 4 watts
115/230 V a.c., 50/60 Hz
Output: digital panel meter
0 to 1 V at 0 to 2.0 ma recorder output
Training: none required for sampling
Options: stream splitter (to multiply range)
Costs:
TGM 555: $5,410
Stream Splitte~: $295
Manufacturer:
CEA Instruments, Inc.
15 Charles Street
Wes',wood, New Jersey 07675
(201) 664-2300
References:
Specifications
1. Manufacturer's bulletin
Operations experience
1. Matthews, T.E., and T.C. Howe!i. 1981. "Visual
Colcrimetric Formaldehyde Screening Analysis for
Indoor Air." J. Air Pollut. Control Assoc.
31:1181-84. ' ~~ '
Remarks:
A new calibration gas generator, the SC-100 which
operates at 100° C using HCHO permeation tubes, is now
available for dynamic gaseous calibration of the
TGM 555.
131
-------
INHALARLE PARTICULATE MATTER
PERSONAL/PASSIVE/ANALYZER
5-1
CCA MINI RAM
Aeroscl Monitor
1 of 4
Weight: 0.4 ky
Dimensions: 10 x 10 x 4 cm
Principle of
Operation:
Optical Scattering. Sample air passes through the
open serving volume by free convection. A pulsed
neer-infrared emitting diode, in combination with a
silicon detector with an interference filter, senses
for'v/srd light scattering (centered at 70° +25°).
Lower Detectable
Limit:
Scattering coefficient of approximately lO'^
(mass equivalence is tied to reference dust)
Range:
Interferences:
0.01 to 100 mg/m3 (auto-ranging 0-10, 0-100)
Extreme ambient light fluctuations
Multiparameter
Capability:
Particulate matter, liquid or solid readings only
112
-------
5-1
GCA MINI RAM
Aerosol Monitor
2 -f 4
Performance:
Operation:
Sampling Rate: open convection, continuous
Accuracy: if calibrated for specific aerosol, equal to
reproducibility
Reproducibility:
+0.05 mg/m^ for 10-second measurement
+0.02 mg/m^ for 1-minute average
+0.006 rng/m^ for 10-niinutes average
+0.003 mg/m^ for 1-hour average
Linearity
Noise: _+0.05 mg/rn^ for 10 second measurement
Lagtine: digital readout, 10 seconds
analog output, 0.5 seconds
Rise tine: digital readout, 10 seconds
analog output time constant, 0.2 seconds
Retention Time:
Fall Time:
Zero Drift:
Span Drift:
Temperature nange: 0° to 50° C
Temperature Compensation: electronic
Relative Humidity Range: 0\- to 95%
Calibration: automatic zero reference in clean environment,
optional reference scatterer, or gravimetric
reference calibration
113
-------
5-1
GCA MINIRAM
Aerosol Monitor
3 of 4
Warm-Up Time: 1 minute
Unattended Period: at least 3.5 hours with battery
Maintenance: occasional cleaning or replacement of
slide-in sensing chamber
Power: internal rechargeable 7.5-volt battery; charger
operates from a.c. line
Features:
Output: 3-digit LCD (updated every 10 seconds)
0- to 2-volt analog recorder output; digital
Training: none required for sampling
Options: Miniature strip chart recorder, zero check
filter air unit, personal filter sample adaptor,
respirator/face mask monitoring adaptor,
shoulder strap, table stand, extra battery pack
Costs:
MINIRAM: 51,445 (includes charger/a.c. line adaptor,
instrument/accessory case, manual)
Recorder: SI,170
Personal sampler adaptor: $250
Respirator adaptor: S150
Zero check unit: $260
Shoulder strap: $25
Table stand: $25
Manufacturer:
GCA Corporation
Technology Division, Environmental Instruments
213 Burlington Road
Bedford Massachusetts 01730
(617) r>it :vi-4
114
-------
5-1
GCA MINI RAM
Aerosol Monitor
4 of 4
References:
Specifications
1. Manufacturer's bulletin
2. P. Lilienfeld. 1982. Fina". Report, to the Bureau
of Mines on Contract No. H0308132.
3. P. Li 11'enfeld. "Current Mine Oust Monitoring
Instrumentation Developments." Proceedings of the
1981 International Symposium on Aerosols in the
Mining and Industrial Work Environment. .To be
published in 1983.
Operations experience
1 None available
Remarks:
The unit comes with a factory calibration based on a
representative test dust. An internal control allows
adjustment of response to match any reference gravi-
metric calibration.
The GCA MINIRAM offers the following data handling
capabilities:
Readouts: selectable; 10-second meacurerients; time-
averaged measurements; shi:L-averaged
measurements; elapsed samp'; ing "i •>
Storage: 7 average concentrations, sampling times,
off-times, and sampler identification number
Memory playback: either through instrument's own LCD
or by 300-baud ASCII (20 mA
loop or RS232 may be connected with
proper interface)
115
-------
INHALABLE PARTICULATE MATTER
PORTABLE/ACTIVE/ANALYZER
5-2
GCA RAM-1
Aerosol Monitor
1 of 4
Weight: 4 kg
Dimensions: 20 x 20 x 20 cm
Principl e of
Operation:
Optical Scattering. As sample air, drawn b> pump,
passes through the sensing volume, a pulsed near-infrared
emitting diode in combination with a silicon detector
senses forward light scattering (centered at 70° +25°).
The upper limit of the particle size range is 20 urn; a
series of prerollectors offer cutpoints of 1, 2, 4, and
8 PH.
Lower Detectable
Limit:
Scattering coefficient of approximately 4 x 1Q-?
(mass equivalence is tied to reference dust)
Range:
0.001 to 200 mg/m3
0 to 200)
[selectable 0 to 2, 0 to 20, or
Interferences:
None
116
-------
5-2
GCA RAM-1
Aerusol Monitor
2 of 4
Multiparameter
Capability:
Participate (liquid or solid) matter readings only
Performance:
Sampling Rate: 2 1/nin (adjustable 1 to 3 1/min),
conti nuous
Accuracy: if calibrated for specific aerosol, equal to
precis ion
Reproducibil ity : +0.1% FS or_+0.005 mg/m^ (whichever is
Targer)
Linearity: 1% or better
Noise: +0.001 mg/ni at 32-secor1 time constant
+0.005 rcg/m^ at 2-second time con.v~ .t
Lagtime: <0.5%
F.ise Time: equal to time constant (selectable time
constants of 0.5, 2, 8, and 32 seconds)
Retention Time:
Fall Time: equal to time constant (selectable time
constants of 0.5, 2, 8, and 3?. seconds)
Zero Drift: +0.1% or +0.005 mg/m3
Span Drift determined by measurement and zero precision
stability over 24 hours (whichever is larger)
Operation:
Temperature Range: 0° to 50°C
Temperature Compensation: electronic
Relative Humidity Range: 0% to 95/"
117
-------
5-2
GCA RAM-1
Aerosol Monitor
3 of 4
Calibration: reference scatterer or gravimetric reference
cal ihrati on
Warm- Up Time: <1 second
Unattended Period: at least 6 hours on battery, unlimited
on charger
Maintenance: refillable diffusion-type drying cartridge
for use in condensing atmospheres; high
capacity filter cartridges externally
accessible
Requirements:
Power: Internal rechargeable 6-volt battery; charger
operates from a.c. line
Features:
Output: 4-diqit LCD (updated 3 times each second);
0- to 10-vrlt a.c. recorder output (minimum load
impedance: 1,000 ohms)
Training, none required for sampling
Options: miniature strip chart recorder; intrinsic
safety version available; averager/integrator
Costs:
RAM-1: $5,950 (includes charger/a.c. line adaptor, charger
cable, cyclone preselector, inlet flow restrictor,
two replacement filter cartridges, refill able
desiccator, carrying s^ap, instrument/accessory
case, manual)
Recorder: 51,170
Intrinsic safety version: 56,550
Averager/integrator: 51,490
Manufacturer:
GCA Corporation, Technology Division,
Environmental Instruments
213 Burlington Road
Bedford, Massachusetts 01730
(617) 275-5444
118
-------
5-2
GCA RAM-1
Aerosol Monitor
4 of 4
References: Specifications
1. Manufacturer's bulletin, #2-80 CP/5M
2. Tomb, T.F., H.N. Treaftis, and A.J. Gero. 1981.
"Instantaneous Dust Exposure Monitors." Environ.
Int. 5:85-96.
Operations experience
1. Chansky, S.H., P. Lilienfeld, and K. Wiltsee. 1979.
Evaluation of GCA Corporation's Model RAM-S as
'an Equivalent Alternative to the Vertical Elutriator
for Cotton Dust Measurement, ilatural Fibers
Textile Conference, Charlotte, North Carolina.
2. Konishi, Y. , An Evaluation of RAM-1 (GCA)
Working Environment Research Division of Kitasato
Health Science Center, Japan.
3. Rubow, K.L., and V.A. Marple. 1981. An Instrument
Evaluation Chamber. C Liberation of CommerciTI
Photometers, Extended Abstracts and Final Program.
International Symposium on Aerosols in the Mining
?nd Industrial Work Environment, November 1-6, 1979,
Minneapolis, Minnesota.
4. Taylor, C.D., and R.A. Jankowski. 1981. The^Use of
Instantaneous Samplers to Evaluate the Effectiveness
of Respirable Dust Contro1 "ReThods in Underground
Mines.Fxiended Abstracts and Final Program,
International Symposium on Aerosols in the Mining
and Industrial Work Environment, November 1-6, 1981,
Minneapolis, Minnesota.
Remarks: The unit comes with a factory calibration attuned to a
representative respirable test dust. A panel-mounted
control allows precise adjustment of response to
match any reference gravimetric calibration.
The unit can be incorporated into a multipoint
sensing approach with central data acquisition.
Model RAM-S is specifically designed for such
applications.
119
-------
INHALABLE PARTICULATE MATTER
STATIONARY/ACTIVE/COLLECTOR
SIERRA-ANDERSEN
Dichotomous Sampler
Series 241
1 of 4
Net
Weight: Control Module, 25 kg
Samplino Module, 7 kg
Total Shipping Weight: 39 kg
Dimensions:
Control Module, 41 x 56 x 28 cm
Sampling Module, 162 en height,
76.2 cm diameter tripod base
bolt circle; interconnecting
tubing, 10 m long
Princif1e of
Operation:
Size-selective inlet followed by virtual impactor. Ambient
air first is accelerated through a nozzle/target impactor
to remove particles larger than 10 ym aerodynamic diameter.
The sample air (containing particles <10 urn)) then passes
through a virtual impactor that has a cut point of 2.5 m.
Fine (<2.5 urn) and coarse (>_2.5 urn) fractions are collected,
on separate 37-mm TEF-DISC™ Teflon filteis. Mass con-
centration is quantitated gravimetrically.
Lower Detectable
Limit:
Range:
Any ambient particulate concentration
Interferences:
The Teflon filters have zero artifact formation.
120
-------
5-3
SIERRA-ANDERSEN
Dichotomous Sampler
Series 241
2 of 4
Multiparameter
Capability:
Fine (<2.5 urn) and coarse (2.5-10 pm) fractions and
inhalable particulate matter (vine + coarse)
Performance:
Sampling Rate: total sample flow: 16.7 1/rnin
fine fraction: 15 1/min
coarse fraction: 1.67 1/min
Accuracy: constant flow controller: +5% at 16.7 1/min
over pressure drop range: 7J-35 cm Hg
standard timer: _+30 minutes per 7 days
optional timer: ~+2 minutes per week
flow meters: +3°'~at set flows
Reproducibil ity:
Li nearity:
Noise:
Lagtime:
Ri se Ti me :
Retention Time:
Fall Time:
Zero Drift:
Span Drift:
Operation:
Temperature Range: -20° to 40° C
Temperature Compensation:
Relative Humidity Range: 0% to 100%
Calibration: only flow calibration required
121
-------
5-3
SIERRA-ANDERSEN
Dichotomous Sampler
Series 241
3 of 4
Features:
Procedure:
Warm-Up Time:
Unattended Period: defined by sampling schedule
Maintenance: routine
Power: 110/115 V a.c. +10::, 50 to 60 Hz, 6 amp max;
230 V a.c. + 10^, 50 Hz, 4 amp max (optional)
Output: elapsed timer: 0 tc 10,000 minutes in tenths
f1ow event circular chart: 24 hours,
10 cm diameter
vacuum gages: 0 to 30 inches of Hg
Training: recommended
Options: digital timer/programmer
Costs:
Series 241 dichotomous sampler: $4,675
Digital timer/programmer: $300
Model 246-10 field modi Ti cat ion;; kit (to retrofit
15 urn dichotomcus samplers): $875
Manufacturer:
Uest Coast
Sierra-Andersen
P.O. Box 909
Carmel Valley, California 93924
Toll-free: '800) 538-9520
In Cali forn ia:
(408) 659-3177
East Coast
Si erra-Andersen
4215 Wendell Drive
Atlanta, Georgia 30336
Toll-free: (800) 241-6898
In Georgia:--
(404) 691-1910
122
-------
V. i
5-3
SIERRA-ANDERSEN •
Dichotomous Sampler ,. ' ,
Series 241
4 of 4
References: Specifications
1, Manufacturer's bulletin, No. SA-PM10-682
Openticns experience
1. None available
Remarks: The size selective inlet has a cut point at 10 _+! um
over wind 2-2:4 KPH; the virtual impactor has a ~~
cut-point at 2.5 um; internal losses of the virtual
impactor are less than 2% of 0 to 10 \
-------
INHALABLE PARTICULATE MATTER
STATIONARY/APT!VE/CQLL:CTOR
5-4
SIERRA-AtJDERSEN
Medium Flo-.' Samplers
Series 254
1 of 4
1 Net
Weight:
Control Module, 27 kg
Sampling Module, 11 kg
Total Shipping l-'eight: 43 kg
Dimensions:
Control Module, 41 x 50 x 28 cm;
Sampling Module, 134 cm Height;
Aerosol Inlet, 1.3 m height;
six 1/4 in-20 mounting bolts on
91.4 and 101.6 cm diameter bolt
circles; interconnecting tubing,
5 m long
Princ pie of
Operation •
Suspended particles in r.mbient air enter the 10 urn
Med-Flo™ inlet at a flow rate of 6.8 m3/hr- The
particles are then accelerated through multiple impactor
nozzles. By virtue of their larger momentum, particles
greater than the 10 urn cut point impact out and are
retained in the impaction chamber- The particle fraction
smaller then 10 urn is carried vertically upward by the air
flow and down the vent tube to the 1-2 nm Sierra-Andersen
TCP-DISC™ Teflon filter where it is 'jniformly collected.
124
-------
5-4
SIERRA-ANDERSEN
Medium Flow Samplers
Series 254
2 ot 4
Lower Delertable
Range:
Range:
Interferences:
Any ambient participate concentration
Teflon filters have zero artifact formation
Multiparameter
Capability:
Performance:
In^alable participate matter <10 urn only
Sampling Rate: 6.8 n-Vhr
Accuracy: Pneum3tic flow controller, +5% accuracy of
6.8 m-Vhr over an inlet pressure droo of
0 to 25 cm Hg; + 10X over an inlet pressure
drop of 0 to 30~cm Hg
Repruducibility: +2%
Linearity:
Noise:
Lagtime:
Rise Time:
Retention Time:
Fall Time:
Zero Drift:
Span Drift:
125
-------
5-4
SIERRA-AIiLERSEN
Medium Flow Samplers
Series 254
3 of 4
'I
Operation:
Temperature Range: -20° to 40° C, 600 to 300 mm Hg
Temperature Compensation:
Relative Humidity Range: 0% to 100%
Calibration: only flew calibration required
Warm-Up Time: N/A
Unattended Period: defined by sampling schedule
Maintenance: routine
Power: 254, 254M: 11Q/U5 V a.c., 50 to 60 Hz, 7 amp max;
254X, 254MX: 220 V a.c., 50 Hz, 4 amp max
Features:
Costs:
Output: flow event circular chart, 24 hours
magnehelic gauge flow indicator
Training: recommended
Options: digital timer/programmer (optional), all
functions digital and quartz crystal controlled;
has digital deck with l/2--;nch LED
Series 254 Medium Flov/ Sampler: $3,475
Series 302 Digital Timer/Programmer: S300
Manufacturer:
West Coast
Sierra-Andersen
P.O. Box 909
Camel Valley, Ca'-'fornia 93924
Toll-free: (800) 538-9520
In California:
(408) 659-3177
East Coa^t
S'erra-Andersen
4215 Wendel1 Drive
Atlanta, Georgia 30336
Toll-free: (800) 241-6898
In Georgia:
(404) 691-1910
126
-------
5-4
SIERRA-ANDERSEN
Medium Flow Samplers
Series 254
4 of 4
References: Specifications
1. Manufacturer's bulletin, No. SA-PM10-682
Operations experience
1. None available
Remarks: The size-selective inlet has a cut point at 10 +1 urn
over wind speed of 2 to 24 KPH; it neets EPA's Expected
Ktderal Reference Method.
If EPA promulgates a 10 urn particulate matter
standard, the manufacturer guarantees to obtain
EPA Reference Method approval for this instrument.
127
-------
INHALABLE PARTICULATE MATTER
PERSONAL/ACTIVE/COLLECTOR
C-5
SIERRA INSTRUMENTS
MARPLE PERSONAL
CASCADE IMPACTOR
1 of 4
Model : 294 296 298
Weight: 170 185 200 g
Dimensions: 7.2 8.0 8.6 height
5.7 5.7 5.7 width
4.0 4.0 4.0 depth
Principl e of
Operati on:
Impaction. Upon entering the inlet, sample air is acceler-
ated through radial slots in the first impaction stage.
Particles larger than the cut point impact on the perforated
collection substrate. The sample air stream then passes to
the next inpactor stage, which exhibits a smaller cut point for
impaction, and so on through successively smaller cut points;
remaining fine particles are collected on a backup filter.
The model 294 has four stages, the model 296 has six stages,
and the model 298 has eight stages.
Lower Detectable
Limit:
128
-------
Interferences:
Multiparameter
Capability:
5-5
SIERRA INSTRUMENTS
MARPLE PERSONAL
CASCADE IMPACTOR
2 of 4
Range:
Model 294 (4 stages)--cut points at 21, 15, 10, and
3.5 urn
Model 286 (6 stages)--cut points at 10, 6, 3.5, 1.6, 0.9,
and 0.5pm
Model 296 (8 stages)--cut points at 21, 15, 10, 6, 3.5,
1.6, 0.9, and 0.5 urn
Performance:
Sampling Rate: 2 1/min
Accuracy:
Reprcducibility:
Li nearity:
Noise:
I agtime:
Ri se Tine:
Retention Time:
Fall Time:
Zero Drift:
Span Drift:
129
-------
Operati on:
Temperature Range:
Temperature Compensation:
Relative Humidity Range:
Calibration:
Procedure:
Warm-Up Time:
Unattended Period:
Maintenance:
Power:
5-5
SIERRA INSTRUMENTS
MARPLE PERSONAL
CASCADE IMPACTOR
3 of 4
Features:
Costs:
Manufacturer:
Output:
Trai ning:
Options:
Model 294: $775
Model 296: $975
Model 298: $1,175
Sierra Instruments Inc.
P.O. Box 909
Carmel Valley, California 93924
Toll free: (800) 538-9520
In California: (408) G59-3177
130
-------
5-5
SIERRA INSTRUMENTS
MARPLE PERSONAL
CASCADE IMPACTOR
4 of 4
References: . Specifications
1. Manufacturer's bulletin
Operations experience
1. None available
Renarks: Available time did not permit review of this summary
by a manufacturer's representative. Pricing information
was verified by telephone.
131
-------
INHALABLE PARTICULATE MATTER
PORTABLE/ACTIVE/ANALYZER
STATIONARY/ACTIVE/ANALYZER
5-6
TSI Piezo Balance
Model 3500 and
Model 5000
1 of 5
Weight: 4.5 kg (Modol 3500); 48 kg (Model 5000)
Dimensions: 31 x 13 x 17 crn, Model 3500
38 x 43 x 18 cm, sensor module )Model
38 x 43 x 18 cm, control module /5000
38 x 43 x 42 cm, reservoir module/
Principle of
Operation:
Electrostatic precipitation/piezoelectric resonance. The
sample air stream is passed through a cyclone or an impactor
to remove nonrespirable particles (aerodynamic diameter
>3.5 Mm). RSP aerosol exiting the impactcr is electrostati-
cally precipitated onto a quartz crystal sensor. The change
in oscillating frequency of the sensing crystal during the
measurement period is proportional to collected mass. The
Model 3500 is battery-powered and portable with manually
initiated sampling periods. The Model 5000 is not battery-
powered, but has programmable automatic sampling cycles
for 24-hr/day monitoring.
Lower Detectable
Limit:
Approximately 5 ug/rn3 over a 10-minute averaging time
Range:
Model 3500
Mass: 0.01 to 10 mg/m3
Size: 0.01 to 10 urn
(502 cut off)
Model EOOO
0.0u5 to 9.999 mg/m3
0.01 to 10 urn
(50« cut off)
132
-------
5-5
TSI Piezo Balance
Model 3500 and
Model 5000
2 of 5
Interferences:
Changes in relative humidity during a single measurement
period can cause error. Dry, submic.'ometer, long-chain
agglomerated particles with no condensed water and no
other particles present (e.g., pure, dry diesel exhaust
particles) are not sensed accurately.
Multiparameter
Capability:
RSP mass only
Performance:
Collection Periods: 24 to ]20 seconds measurement
period (Model 3500); 10 seconds to
2 hours measurement period (Model 5000)
Collection Efficiency: for respirable particles that
have passed through the respirable
cyclone or impactor, >95* of the
particles between 0.05 and 5 urn
deposit on the sensor
Sampling Rate: 1 1/m'n
Accuracy: +10% +0.01 mg/m3
Reproducibility: +5%
Linearity: +IQ% for concentrations below 10 mg/m3
Noise: +1 ug/m3 in most indoor environments
Laotime: 1 to 2 seconds
Rise Time:
Retention Time:
Fall Time:
Zero Drift: automatic rezero at the beginning of over/
measurement
Span Drift: crystal sensitivity is an inherent property
of the unbroken piezoelectric quartz crystal;
span does not drift
133
-------
5-6
TSI Piezo Balance
Model 3500 and
Model 5000
3 of 5
Operation:
Temperature Range: 5° to 40° C
Temperature Compensation: none required if temperature
remains constant within +2° C
during a single measurement
period
Relative Humidity Range: 10% to 90%
CT! ib-ation: internal reference for both collection
efficiency and crystal sensitivity
Procedure: portable, manual, panel control (Model 3500);
programmable automatic control (Model 5000)
Warm-Up Time: in a normal room, 5 minutes or less (the
instrument components in contact with ihe
sample stream must be equilibrated within
+1° C of the sample stream temperature)
Unattended Period: 4 weeks (Model 5000)
Maintenance: clean sensor crystal after 5 ug accumula-
tion, as indicated by display (Mr* del 3500);
check and refill liquid levels at 1- to 4-week
intervals, refill paper tape (Model 5000);
annual laboratory calibration recommended
Power: rechargable Ui-Cd, 8-hour operation at 50% duty
cycle, 15 hours recharge needed (Model 3500)
single phase a.c. at 500 watts total (Model 5000)
Features:
Output: 4-digit LED (both); 40-column dotmatrix on roll
paper (Model 5000(; both analog and digital out-
puts compatible with most data systems (Model 5000)
Training: none required for sampling
Options: variety of alternative upper size cut offs
(impactors) ranging from 0.5-10 urn or respirable
cyclone with 3.5 urn cutoff
Costs:
Model 3500:
Model 5UOO:
34,990
316,450
134
-------
Manufacturer:
TSI, Incorporated
P.O. Box 43394
St. Paul , Minnesota 55164
(612) 483-0900
TELEX: 297-482
5-6
TSI Piezo Balance
Model 3500 and
Model 5000
4 of 5
References:
Specifications
1. Manufacturer's bulKlin, No. TSI 3500/5COO-10/80-10M.
2. Sem, G., K. Tsurubayashi , and K. Homma. 1977.
Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J. 38:580-8.
3. Sem, G., and K. Tsurubayashi. 1975. Am. Ind. Hyg.
Assoc. J. 36:791-800.
4. Sen, G., and P. Daley. 1979. Aerosol Measurement.
D. Lundgren et al ., ed. University Presses of Florida,
Gainesville, Florida, pp. 672-85.
5. Sem, G., and F. Quant. 1982. J. Aerosol Sci. 13:227.
6. zen, G., and F. Quant. 1982. Aerosols in the Mining
and Industrial Work Environment. Vol. 3, Instrumentation
V. Parple and 8. Liu, e"cT Ann Arbor Sciences, Ann
Arbor, Michigan.
Operations experience
1. Repace, J., and A. Lowrey. 1980. Science, 208:464.
2. Linen., A.L. 19ul. Evaluation of Ambient'Air
Quality by Personal Horn'toring~Vo'ltime II
Aerosols, Monitor Pumps, Calibration, aTTd
Quality ControlT (JRC Press, Inc., 2000 Nw.
24th Street, Boca Raton, Florida.
3. Sen., G. 1977. National Bureau of Standards,
Special Publication 464, pp. 191-7.
135
-------
5-6
TSI Piezo Bal artce
Model 3r'00 and
Model 5000
5 of 5
4. Fair-child, C., M. Tillery, and M. Ettinger. 1980.
"An Evaluation cf Fast Response Aerosol Mass
Monitors." Report LA-S220. Los Alamos Scientific
Laboratory, P.O. Box i663, Los Alamos, Uew Mexico.
5. Repace, J., and A. Lowery. 1982. Aiierico'i Society
of Heating, Refrigerating and A i r - Condi ticming
Engineers Transactions.Vol. 88, part 1~
6. Quant, F., P. Nelson, =ind G. Sen. 1982. "Experi-
ental Measurements of Aerosol Concentrations in
Offices." Environ. Int. 8:223-7.
7. Hersh, S., R. Fornes, and M. Anand. 1978.
Proceedings, 1978 Beltwide Cotton Production-
Mechanization Conference and Special Sessions.
pp. 129-35.National Cotton Council of America,
Memphis, Tennessee.
8. Hersh, S., R. Fornes, and 11. Anand. 1979. '.-,.
Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J. 40:578 -87.
136
-------
NITROGEN DIOXIDE
PORTABLE/ACT1VE/ANALYZER
6-1
CSI 2200
Portable NOX
Analyzer
1 of 4
Weight: 8.7 kg
Dimensions: 20 x 1 x 46 cm
Principle of
Operation:
Chemiluminescence. Sample air is initially routed to a
reaction chamuer where chemil uminescent. reaction with
ozone is detected and quantified by a photomultip!ier
tube, producing the NO signal, which is stored electroni-
cally. A second air sample is routed through an NOg-to-
NO converter and then to the ozone reaction chamber.
producing the NOX signal. The N02 value
cally ralculated'by subtracting NO from I
is electroni-
Lower Detectable
Limit:
0.020 ppm (5-second time constant setting)
0.010 ppm (60-second time constant setting)
Range:
Interferences:
0.5, 1.0, 2.0, or 5.0 ppm
Total interference equivalent for HjO, S02, NO, and NIH3
is 0.10 pom on the NOX channel.
137
-------
6-1
CSI 2200
Portable NOX
Analyzer
2 of 4
Mul ti
Capability:
NOX, K'O, N02
Performance:
Sampling Rate: 700 ml/min, continuous
Accuracy: depends on calibration source accuracy
Reproducibility: 2% of full scale
Linearity: 1% for NO, N'0X; 1.5% for N02
Noise: 0.10 ppm at 5-secorvi time constant, 0.005 ppm at
60-second time constant
Lag Time: 5 seconds at 5-second time constant and
at 60-second time constant
Rise Time: 22 seconds at 5-second time constant;
3 minutes at 60-socond time constant
Retention Time:
Fall Time: 20 seconds at 5-second time constant;
3 minutes at 60-second time constant
Zero Drift: +0.005 ppm +0.0005 ppm/° C at 15° to 35° C
Tor 12 hours
Span Drift: +2% +0,3%/° C at 15 to 35° C for 12 hours
Operation:
Temperature Range: 10° to 40°C
Temperature Compensation: reactor and photomultiplier
tube temperature controlled
138
-------
e-1
CSI 2200
Portable
Analyzer
3 of 4
Relative Humidity Range: 5% to 95%
Calibration: gas phase titration
Warm-Up Time: 30 minutes
Unattended Period: 2 hours on internal battery, 5 hours
with external battery pack, 7 or more
dcys with a.c. adapter/charger
Maintenance: converter life is normally 1 year;
operating manual describes routine maintenance
Power: 12 V d.c.
Features:
Output: 0 to 1 V d.c. for NO, NOX, fJOg; 12 V d.c. for
optional battery-operated chart recorder, 10 V d.c.,
1 mA-fault output, 10 V d.c., 1 mA-alarm output
plus analog panel meter
Training: recommended
Options: portable recorder, 1-inch/hr chart speed
12-volt auto lighter cable assembly; auxiliary
battery pack (provides up to 8 hours of additional
battery operation)
Costs:
Model 2200: $7,350
Recorder: $725
12-volt auto lighter cable: $98
Auxiliary battery pack: $575
139
-------
6-1
CSI 2200
Portable NOX
Analyzer
4 of 4
-3
Manufacturer:
Columbia Scientific Industries Corpor.
P.O. Box 9908
Austin, Texas 78766
Toll-free: 800-531-5003
In Texas (512) 258-5191
TWX: 910-374-1364
-ii
^
\
References:
Specifications
1. Mannfacturer'5 bulletin
Operations experience
i. None available
Remarks:
Unit offers automatic failure diagnosis and display
system,
Photomultiplier tube temperature is maintained at
20° C by a thermoelectric cooling system to minimize
noise and zero drift.
Gas reaction chamber is regulated at 42° C to minimize
span errors.
CSI offers training sessions in Austin, Texas, on a
monthly basis.
140
-------
NITROGEN DIOXIDE
PERSONAL/PASSIVE/COLLECTOR
6-2
DU PONT
PRO-TEKR
N02 Passive Dosimeter
Type C30
] of 3
Weight: 16 g
Dimensions: 7.6 x 7.1 x 0.89 cm
Principl e of
Operation:
Diffusion/sorption. Collection Belies upon molecular
diffusion to deliver sample air to a liquid sorbent
solution at a constant rate. After exposure, the
sorbent is analyzed in a laboratory spertrophotonieter or
Pro-TekR DT-3 Readout for K'Oj content and subsequently
the tine-weighted average concentration. Laboratory validation
has been conducted only for up to b-hcur exporures, although it
is very likely that lonyer exposure times are possible.
Lower Detectable
Limit:
Range:
10 ppm-hr, when analvzed in a PT-3 Readout; 1.5 ppm-hr,
when analyzed in a laooratory spectrophotorieter
10 to 100 ppm-hr (PT-3 Readout)
1.5 to 200 ppm-hr (laboratory spectrophotometer)
Interferences:
The major known interferences are SOj, nitrates, ozone,
and strong oxidizing agents. These interferences wi1" not
affect the Pro-Tek^ Sulfur Dioxide Colorinetric Cadge for
N'Og because they have little or no affinity tor the absorb-
ing solution.
-------
Multiparameter
Capability:
Performance:
Operation:
Features:
6-2
DU PONT
PRO-TEKR
M0£ Passive Dosimeter
Type C30
2 of 3
UO2 only
Sampling Rate: diffusion, continuous
Accuracy: +18.2% (overall system accuracy)
Precision: 7.5%
Sensitivity: 1.5 ppm-hr
Response Time: 1.3 seconds (calculated)
Temperature Range: 4° to 49° C
Temperature Compensation:
Relative Humidity Range:
Calibration: laboratory standards
Warm-Up Time:
Unattended Period: 8 hours
Maintenance: none
Power: none required for sampling
Output:
Training: none required for sampling
Options:
142
-------
6-2
DU PONT
PRO~TEKR
N02 Passive Dosimeter
Type C30
3 of 3
Costs: Type C30, 10 per box:
1-10 boxes: § $259 (Order Code 5115)
11-25 boxes: 0 $233 (Order Code 511M
26+ boxes: 0 $207 (Order Code 5117)
Manufacturer: E.I. du Pont de Nemours & Co. (Inc.)
Finishes and Fabricated Products Department
Applied Technology Division
BRML-9
Wilmington, Delaware 19898
(302) 772-5989
References: Specifications
1. Manufacturer's analysis instructions.
2. K'-ing, E.V., et al. 1981. "A New Passive
Colorimetric Air Monitoring Bodge System for
Ammonia., Sulfur Dioxide, and Nitrogen Dioxide."
Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J. 42:373-81.
Operations experience
1. Woebkenberg, M.L. 1982. "A Comparison of Three
Passive Personal Sampling Methods for N02-"
Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J. 43:553-61.
2. Laboratory Validation Report, Pro-Tek^ Nitrogen
Dioxide Badge, Type C30, Du Pont (2/2/81).
Remarks: Immediate readout is possible using PT-3 Colorimeter
because chemical reagents are stored inside the
badge. However, greater sensitivity is possible
from a laboratory spectrophotometer.
Shelf life for the N02 Passive Dosimeter is
defined as follows:
Unexposed - 6 months refrigerated (40° to 45° F)
Exposed 3 weeks refrigerateu (40° to 45° F)
2 weeks unrefigeruted (up to 78° F)
143
-------
NITROGEN DIOXIDE
PERSONAL/PASSIVE/COLLECTOR
6-3
MDA
Palmes Tube
1 of 3
Principle of
Operation:
Weight: 14 g
Dimensions: 8.9 cm length
1.3 cm diameter
Diffusion/sorption. The sampler consists of a hollow tube
with a permanently sealed base containing triethanolamine
(TEA), an efficient collector for IJ02- The opposite
end is fitted with a removable cap. During sampling,
the cap is removed, and M02 diffuses to the collector
at a rate determined primarily by the tube geometry and
ambient fJOj concentration. At the end of sampling,
the cap is replaced. The TEA substrate is subse-
quently analyzed in the laboratory to quantitate the
time weighted average concentration. Exposure periods
in indoor air quality settings are ordinarily for 1 week
or longer, while exposure periods in industrial hygiene
applications are typically 8 hours.
Lower Detectable
Limit:
1 ppm-hr
Kange:
1 ppm-hr to 20 ppm-hr (ultimate sorbant capacity exceeds
1,000 ppm-hr)
Interferences:
Mone
144
-------
6-3
MDA
Palmes Tube
2 of 3
Multiparameter
Capability:
May be user-converted to collect NOX (see remark #2]
Performance:
Sampling Rate: .approximately 1 nl/min at 1 ppm N02,
continuous
Accuracy: +_2Q% at TLV
Reproducibil ity :
Operation:
Ambient Temperature Range: essentially unrestricted
Temperature Compensation: none required
Relative Humidity Range: 10% to 95%
Calibration: standard curve for laboratory analysis
constructed by user from known standards
Unattended Period: 5 hours to 1 week
Power: none required for sampling
Features:
Costs:
Output: laboratory report
Training: none required for sampling
Options:
S8.00 to S10.00 per tube (includes all necessary components
except chemical reagents); detailed instruction manual
accompanies package of 10 tubes describing all reagent
preparation and analytical procedures
-------
6-3
MDA
Fairies Tube
3 of 3
Manufacturer:
References:
MDA Scientific, Inc.
1815 Elmdale Avenue
Glenview, Illinois 60025
(312) 998-1600
TELEX: 72-6399 MDA-GLVU
Specifications
1. Manufacturer's bulletin
2. McMahon, R., Chemist, MDA Scientific, Inc.
Personal communication, 1982.
3. Palmes, E.D. 1979. "Personal Sampler for
Measurement of Anbient Levels of NOg."
Proceedings of the Symposium on the Development
and Usage of Personal Monitors for Exposure
and Health Effects Studies. U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency Report !!o. EPA-600/9-79-032.
4. Palmes, E.G., and C. Tomczyk. 1979. "Personal
Sampler for NOX." Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J. 40:588-59,
Operations experience
1. Palmes, E.D. 1981. " Development ai.d Applica-
tion of a Diffusional Sampler for NO^."
Environ. Int. 6:97-100.
Remarks:
Sampling range can be greatly extended by
carefully diluting the desorbed sample.
The sampler can be converted to collect NOX
(NO + M02) by inserting a user-supplied oxidizing
screen (see Palmes and Tomczyk 1979).
The sampler tubes are reusable.
146
-------
NITROGEN DIOXIDE
PORTABLE/ACTIVE/ANALYZER
6-4
TGM 555
N02 ANALYZER
1 of 3
Weight: 14 kg
Dimensions: 51 x 41 x 18 cm
Principl e of
Operation:
Automated wet chemistry/colorimetry. Sample air is con-
tinuously absorbed in an azo dye forming reagent. The
intensity of the azo dye formed is measured at 550 nm and
is directly proportional to the concentration of N02-
Reagent bundling and processing is automatic.
Lower Detectable
Limit:
0.005 ppm for 0 to 0.15 ppm full scale
Range:
Interferences:
0 to 0.15 ppm (adjustable to 10 ppm)
Uegligible
I^ul ti parameter
Capabi1ity:
147
-------
6-4
TGM 555
N02 ANALYZER
2 of 3
Performance:
Operation:
Sampling Rate: 250 ml/min, continuous
Accuracy:
Reproducibility: 1%
Linearity: <2% (up to 0 to 5 ppm range)
Noise:
Lagtime: 2 minutes
Rise Time: 3 minutes (to 90%)
Retention Time:
Fall Time: 3 minutes (to 90«)
Zero Drift: <2% (72 hours)
Span Drift: <2% (72 hours)
Temperature Range: "5° to 25° C
Temperature Compensation:
Relative Humidity Range: 5% to 95%
Calibration: with liquid standards, permeation tubes, or
gas-phase titration
Warm-Up Time: 20 minutes
Unattended Period: 18 hours on fully charged batteries
Maintenance:
148
-------
6-4
TGM 555
N02 ANALYZER
3 of 3
Power: 12 V d.c. unregulated, 4 watts 115/230 V a.c.,
50/60 Hz
Features:
Output: digital panel meter
0 to 1 V at 0 to 2.0 mi 11 lamps recorder output
Training: none required for sampling
Options: Reaction Chamber (for counting NO to t^}
Stream Splitter (to extend range by a factor
of 10 or 100)
Costs:
TGM 555: $5,340
Reactor Chamber: $150
Stream Splitter: $295
Manufacturer:
CEA Instruments, Inc.
15 Charles Street
Uestwood, New Jersey 07675
(201) 664-2300
TELEX: 64H28
References:
Specifications
1. Manufacturer's bulletin
Operations experience
1. None available
Remarks:
The unit can be fitted for monitoring IJOX by
installing a solid oxidant converter, which converts
tJO to N02-
149
-------
I-JITROGEN DIOXIDE
PERSONAL/PASS1VE/COLLKCTOR
6-5
TOYO ROSHI
MOg Badge
1 of 3
1
s 38 • >
5n
u
tf c
cs ^
I
\
I
) V
1-
[_
-^—
3
'T-T
5
. 2
/
1
1 Badge case 2 /absorbent sheet
3 Diffision controlling mat 4 Clasp
Weight: 15 g
Dv >nsions: 5 x 4 x 1 cm
Principle of
Operation:
Diffusion/adsorption. A filter treated with tn'pthanol-
anine (TEA) adsorbs IJOj that diffuses through a series
of hydrophobia fiber filters that suppress wind effects.
Sorbed NOg is quantitated spectrophotometrically.
Lower Detectable
Limit:
66 ppb-hr
Range:
Up to 1C)6 ppb-hr, theoretical
Interferences:
Adsorption rate for UOy may vary by as much as 20% under
wind velocities between 0.15 and 4.0 m/sec. The effect of
relative humidity (between 40* and 80% RH) is less than
that of wind velocity. Maximum adsorption rate occurs at
60% RH.
150
-------
Multi parameter
C? ability:
Performance:
Operati on:
Features:
Costs:
TOYO ROSHI
N02 Badge
2 of 3
N02 only; may be converted to NOX only (cee remark #2)
Sampling Rate: 1 ml/sec nominal, continuous
Accuracy: +20%
Reproducibility: <4.8%
Linearity:
-------
TOYO ROSHI
N02 Badge
3 of 3
Manufacturer: Micro Filtration Systems
6000 Sierra Court
Dublin, California 94566
(415) 828-6010
References: Specifications
1. Yanagicawa, v., and H. Nishimura. 1980. "A Badge
Type Personal Sampler for NO2 to be Used in the
Living Environment." Presented at the Fifth Clean
Air Congress, Buenos Aires, Argentina, October 1980.
2. Yanogisawa, Y., and H. Uishinura. 1981. "Badge-Type
Personal Sampler fcr Measuremont of Personal Expo-
sure to K!02 and NO in Ambient Air." Presented
at the International Symposium on Indoor Air
Pollution, Health and Energy Conservation, Amherst,
Massachusetts, October 1981.
Operations experience
1. Both references above summarize specifications as
well as field use.
Remarks: The ba'ige can be-converted for collecting NOX
(HO + rlOg) by treating intervening filters
with a 5% chromium trioxide solution to oxidize
rJO to N02 as it diffuses to the sorbant filter-
N02 diffuses through unaltered and is adsorbed.
Laboratory analysis is spectrophotonietric anu uses
easily obtained reagents.
152
-------
OZOtJE
PORTABLE/ACTIVE/ANALYZER
7-1
CSI 2000
PORTABLE OZONE METER
1 of 3
Weight: 1,1 kg (9.9 kg with
optional battery pack)
Dimensions: 20.3 x 17.8 x 45.7 cm
Principl e of
Operation:
Cheniluminescence. Photometric detection of the flame!ess
reaction of ethylene gas with ozone.
Lower Detectable 0.004 ppm (on 5-second filter setting)
Limit: 0.001 ppm (on 60-second filter setting)
Range:
Interferences:
0 to 0.10, 0 to 0.20, 0 to 0.50, and 0 to 1.00 ppm
<+9.995 ppm total for ^0, CO, and
Multiparameter
Capability:
Ozone only
153
-------
7-1
CSI 2000
PORTABLE OZONE METER
2 of 3
Performance:
Operation:
Sampling Rate: 700 ml/min, continuous
Accuracy:
Reproducebilivy: +1.0" of full scale
Linearity: 1% of ful 1 scale
Noise: 0.002 pptn on 5-second filter setting, -.0.005 ppm
on 60-secor,d filter setting ~
Lagtime: 3 minutes
Rise Time: 15 seconds on 5-second filter setting
180 seconds on 60-second filter setting
Retention Tine:
Fall Time: Same as rise time
Zoro Drift: +0.002 ppm +0.0002 ppm/°C for 12 hours at
TO0 to 35° T
Span Drift: +1% +2%/°C for 12 hours at 10° to 35° C
Temperature Range: 10° to 40° C
Temperature Compensation: none required, 10° to 40° C
Relative Humidity Range: 5% to 95%
Calibration: gas phase titration
4
154
-------
Features:
Costs:
Manufacturer-
References:
Remarks:
7-1
CSI 2000
PORTABLE 070UE METER
3 of 3
Warm-Up Time: 30 minutes
Unattended Period: 8 hours for battery operation
Maintenance:
Power: 14 V d.c. (also 120 or 230 V a.c. with charger/adapter)
Output: panel meter, 0 to 1.0 or 0.100 mV recorder output
Training: recommended
Options: battery pack
battery charger
Model 2000: $6,750 ('Includes battery and charger)
Columbia Scientific Industries Corp.
P.O. Box 9908
Austin, Texas
Toll free: (800) 531-5003
In Texas: (512) 258-5191
Spec ifications
1. Manufacturer's bulletin
Operations experience
1. None available
The Model 2000 is an EPA-Designated Reference Method
for Ozone.
Not reviewed by manufacturer's representative. Pricing
information has been verified by telephone.
155
-------
RADON
STATIONARY/PASSIVE/COLLECTOR
AEROVIRONMENT (AV)
PRM LR-5
1 of 4
/ ' '. ^^-f-T"V>TC««-^-w^(*?,pv ..^v.
»' -' '' -',-'- '•''. ^''''.-VC^SfJ,-1--^- '•-"
"'^':^-^:®l5-
Principle of
Operation:
Weight: 9 kg
Dinensions: 51 mm high x 23 cm diameter
Electrostatic collection/thermoluminescent dosimetry.
Ambient radon diffuses into a sensitive chamber where
subsequent disintegration of ions are electrostatically
focused onto a thermaluminescent dosimeter (TLD) chip
held at negative potential in a 900 to 1200-volt electrostatic
field. Each alpha particle striking the chip creates
metastable defects in the crystal, which can be read and
related to integrated radon concentration. A water-
impermeable membrane keeps the chamber dry while allowing
radon to diffuse in through the bottom. With the membrane,
a oesiccant material is not needed, greatly extending the
possible sampling tines in humid climates, and eliminating
deciccant drying. A second TLD chip is exposed away from
the electrostatic field (at the base of the housing)
to check background levels of gamma radiation.
Lower Detectable
Limit:
Ranges fron 0.03 pCi/1/week under laboratory conditions
within a limited rar.ge of raaon concentration to 0.2 pCi/1
under adverse field conditions. (CaF2:Dy TLD)
Range:
Interferences:
0.03 pCi/1 to 104 pCi/1
156
-------
Multiparameter
Capability:
Performance:
Operation:
8-1
AEROVIRONMENT (AVl
PRM
LR-5
2 of 4
Radon only
Sampling Rate: diffusion, continuous
Accuracy:
Reproducibility:
Li nearity:
No\se:
Response time: 8 hours with mylar membrane
Lagtime:
Rise Time:
Retention Time:
Fall Time:
Zero Drift:
Span Drift:
Detector Response (CaF2:Dy)--alpha 0.6 _+0.1 counts per
pCi hr/lT
--gamma 16.5 counts per mR/hr
Ambient Temperature Range: -45° to 65° C
Temperature Compensation: none
Relative Humidity Range: 0% to 100% for extended periods
Calibration: laboratory calibration available
157
-------
8-1
AEROVIROIJMENT (AV;
PRM
LR-5
3 of 4
Features:
Warn-Up Time: none
Unattended Period: <1 week to 12 months
Maintenance: check battery voltage
Power: 4 Everready Mini-max No. 493 batteries
Output: counts from TLD reade.-
Training: none required for sampling
Options and Accessories: spare TLD holders
replacement batteries
Costs:
Manufacturer:
LR-5: $595 each (complete with batteries, good for
1 year); 2 TLD chip holders (more available
on request); quantity discount available
AeroVironment, Inc.
5680 South Syracuse Circle #300
Englewood, Colorado 80111
(303) 771-3586
Head Office:
145 Vista Avenue
Pasadena, California 91107
References:
Specifications
1. Manufacturer's bulletin
2. George, A.C. 1977. "A Passive Environmental Radon
Monitor." In Radon Workshop. A.J. Breslin, ed.
U.S. Energy Research dnd Development Administra-
tion, Report HASL-325, Health and Safety Laboratory,
New York, New York, pp. 25-30.
158
-------
8-1
AEROVIROIJMENT (AV)
PRM
LR-5
4 of 4
3. Friedland, S.S., L. Rathbun, and A.M. Goldstein.
1980. "Radon Monitoring: Uranium Mill Field
Experience with a Passive Detector."
Operations experience
1. None available
Remarks: This instrument is based on the Passive Environmental
Radon Monitor (PERM) developed at the DOE Envi ronir?nta'1
Measurements Laboratory (George 1977) and modified bv
AeroVironment (Freidland, Rathbun, and Goldstein 1930).
Recommended monitoring time for this instrument is
1 week to 1 month. However, nondesiccant membrane
and spare battery voltage give exposure periods limited
only by battery life, whic' should extend for at least
1 year.
159
-------
RADON
STATIONARY/ACTIVE/COLLECTOR
8-2
EBERLIIJE
WORKING LEVEL MONITOR
1 of 3
Weight:
2.6 kg, ULM-1
6.8 kg, WLR-1
Dimensions:
14.6 x 11.7
35.6 \ 4C.7
x 20 cm, WLM-1
x 15.2 cm, WLR-1
Principle of
Operation:
Filtration with integrated gross alpha counting. Radon
progeny are collected on a filter and con.vquent alpha
activity is measured using a silicon-diffused jinction
detector. A microprocessor counts and stores detected
alpha pulses. The microprocessor also controls the
sampling pump and records decay (tail) measurements
after the sampling interval is terminated. Length of
sample interval and detail of tail data are operator-
selectable by key-pad entries on readout unit. Data are
retrieved through a separate readout unit that also
calculates working levels with percent thoron daughters.
Lower Detectable
Limit:
2 x 10~5 [n (99% confidence level based on background of
0.1 counts per minute and 168 hours sample tine)
Range:
Capable of measuring naturally occurring background
levels with an upper limit as indicated below:
Based on 200 1-minute intervals, 1.5 x 1C3 WL
Based on 168 1-hour intervals, 1 x 102 ML
Interferences:
Cosmic radiation, long-lived alpha emitters such as
uranium and thorium
160
-------
Multiparameter
Capability:
8-2
EBERLIX'E
WORKING LEVEL MONITOR
2 of 3
Working level plus percent thoron daughters; detail of
tail data
Performance:
Operation:
Sampling Rate: 0.12 to 0.18 1/min, continuous; intervals
are selectable
Accuracy: <5% maximum error under cases of extreme
disequilibrium, plus any error induced by
calibration. Typical accuracy is +5%
Reproducibility: unknown, but expected tc be very good
Linearity: +0.5%
Noise: none
Lagtime:
Rise Time:
Retention Time:
Fall Time:
Zero Drift: none
Span Drift: none
Ambient Temoerature Range: 30° to 120° F
Temperature Compensation: none
Relative Humidity Range: 0% to 90« noncondensing
Calibration: americium or thorium alpha source alonn with
flow rate calibration
Warm-Up Time: <1 nrin.
UnattendeJ Period: 168-hour data run plus 4-hour tail
acquisition with extended sto.'idby
161
-------
8-2
EBERLINE
WORKING LEVEL MONITOR
3 of 3
Features:
Costs:
Manufacturer:
Maintenance: Exchange sample filter; recharge battery
Power: 6-volt gel cell for sampler (6 amp-hour);
a.c. power for readout
Output: (Readout unit) electrosensitive printer,
21 characters per line, 2 lines/sec, operator
interactive alpha/numeric LCD display
Training: none required for sampling
Options: battery charging stations
Approx. 52,000 each, WLM-1; 53,000 each, WLR-1
Eberline Instrument Corporation
P.O. Box 2108
Santa Fe, New Mexico 87501
(505) 471-3232
TWX: (910) 985-0678
References:
Specifications
1. Beard, R., et al. 1981. "Eberline's New Micro-
computer Based Radon Daughter Instrument."
Presented at the International Symposium on Indoor
Air Pollution, Health and Energy Conservation,
Amherst, Massachusetts, October 1981.
2. Geiger, E-L. Eberline Instrument Corporation,
personal communication, 1982.
Operation experience
1. Prototypes have been tested at U.S. Bureau of
Mines, Denver, CO. Further testing is planned and
in progress.
Remarks:
The readout unit (Model WLR-1) is required to service the
monitor (Model WLM-1). One readout unit can service many
WLM-1s.
162
-------
RADON/RADON PROGENY
PORTABLE/ACTIVE/ANALYZER
8-3
EDA
RDA-200
Radon/Radon Daughter
Detector
1 of 4
Weight: console, 1.7 kg; system, 8.C kg
Dimensions: console, 12.7 x 16.5 x 20 cm
total system packaged, 61 x 61 x 35.5 cm
gas cell, 160 ml, 5.3 cm diameter x 7.3 cm
Principle of
Operation:
scintillation coupled to a high gain photonultip!ier and
sealer. A known volume of sample air is drawn through a
sampling train composed of a filter at the inlet followed by
a gas scintillation cell and a user-supplied pump. Radon
daughter products collect in the filter; the gas cell retains
a sample of radon in air- The filter is placed in a scintil-
lation tray for counting in the detector; the gas cell is
placed directly into the detector for counting. Details of
sampling (flow rate, duration) and subsequent alpha counting
(time factors) are determined by the operator and tne technique
employed.
Lower Detectable
Limit:
Dictated by background and technique
Uorking Level: 0.03 Kusnetz
0.01 Tsivolglou
0.01 Rolle
Radon: subpicocurie/1iter
163
-------
£ange:
Interferences:
Multiparameter
Capability:
Performance:
Operation:
8-3
EDA
RDA-200
Radon/Radon Daughter
Detector
2 of 4
0-99,999 counts (up to 15,000 cpm without loss of
sensitivity); counting periods of 1, 2, 5, 10, and
60 minutes selectable plus manual
Working level, radon-222, thoron, radium-226
Collection Efficiency:
Sampling Rate: specified by user and technique
Accuracy:
Reproducibility:
Li nearity:
Noise:
Lagtime:
Rise Time:
Retention Time:
Fall Time:
Zero Drift:
Span Drift
Temperature Range: -30° to 40° C
Temperature Compensation:
Relative Humidity Range:
164
-------
8-3
EDA
RDA -200
Radon/Radon Daughter
Detector
3 of 4
Features:
Calibration: radon-222 standard gas source ana
amer icium-241 disc
Warm-Up Time:
Unattended Period:
Maintenance:
Power: 8 C cells standard; external battery
pack or a.c. line source optional
Output: 5-digit LED
Training: recommended
Options: RDU-200—degassing systen for determinations
from water and sediments
-RDX-207--americium-241 calibration disc
RDX-261--battery charger
RDX-263--external a.c./d.c. converter
RDX-251—end of counting audio alarm
(Various air pumps, flow meters, a,id specialized detector
eel Is also available)
Costs:
RDA-200: $4,450 (includes detector console, radium test
cell, 5 double swagelock radon gas cells, 5 scintillator
trays, 2 filter holders, 100 0.8 m filters, 8 C cell
batteries and manual)
RDU-200:
RDX-207:
RDX-261:
RDX-2G3:
RDX-251:
$1,950
$650
$250
$185
$75
Manufacturer:
EDA Instruments, inc.
5151 Ward Road
Wheat Ridge, Colorado 80033
(303) 122-9122
TELEX: 450681
165
-------
Head Office:
1 Thorncliffe Park Drive
Toronto, Canada M4H1G9
(416) 425-7800
TELEX: 06 23222 EDA TOR
Cables: INSTRUMENTS TORONTO
8-3
EDA
RDA-200
Radon/Radon Daughter
Detector
4 of 4
References:
Specifications
1. Manufacturer's bulletin, RDA-200 0189
Operations experience
1. Moschandreas, D.O,. and H.':. Rector. 1981.
"Indoor Radon Concentrations." Inter-
national Symposium on Inooor Pollution,
Health, and Energy Conservation, Amherst,
Massachusetts .
Remarks:
Manufacturer states that >1,000 instruments of this
type are currently in use over 40 countries
(manufacturer's bulletin).
Scintillator efficiency is in excess of 35% or 3.3 cpm/pci
for the RDA-200.
166
-------
RADON
STATIONARY/ACTIVE/ANALYZER
8-4
EDA RGA-400
Radon Gas Monitor
1 of 4
Weight:
Dimensions:
Principl e of
Operation:
Filtration/alpha spectroscopy ai,d electrostatic precipita-
tion with apex focusing collectirn/alpha spectroscopy.
Anbient air is drawn through a profilter, which collects
daughter products of radon-222 and radon-220. Particle-
free air enters a coaxially oriented 3000 ml samp;2 chamber
where decay ions ere drawn by a strong electrostatic field
to be deposited on a solid state detector. Subsequent
alpha decay is spectrally analyzed to discriminate between
the two radon isotopes. Daughter products captured on
the prefilter are analyzed in a colinear detection system to
discriminate all alpha-emitting daughters. Gyration is
controlled by a programmable microprocessor; all information
is stored in a nonvolatile solid state memory for retrieval.
Lower Detectable
Limit:
0.05 pci/1 (gases'); 0.002 UL (progeny)
Range:
0.0001 to 9°.999 WL
0.01 to 99999 pci/1
0-99999 cpm
167
-------
Interferences:
Multiparameter
Capability:
Performance:
Operation:
8-4
EDA RGA-40Q
Radon Gas Monito"
2 of 4
RaJon-222, radon-J20, polonium-218, polonib .-214,
pclom'um-216, bismuth-212, and polom'urn-212, pljs working
level
CoViectiop r.fficiency:
Sampling Rate: 1 I/iron, contnjous; intervals are selectable
Accuracy: _+10%
Reproducibi 1 "ity: <5%
Linearity: >90°i
Noise: <0.1 MUL
Lagtin.e:
Rise Time:
Retention Time:
Fall Time:
Zero Drift: no inherent drift
Span Drift: no inherent drift
Temperature R:,ige: -10° to 50° C
Temperatute Compensation- none
Relative Humidity Rcnge: 0? TO 100%
Calibration: factory set, no field calibration required
168
-------
8-4
EDA RGA-400
Radon Gas Monitor
3 of 4
Procedure:
Warn-Up Tine:
Unattended Period: 2 weeks (498 data blocks at selected
time intervals)
Maintenance:
Power: 110 V a.c., 60 Hz, internal rechargable standby
batteries (up to 10 hours backup without data loss);
external d.c. for extended remote applications;
220 V a.c., 50 Hz optional
Features:
Costs:
Output: G4-character alpha-numeric LCD; cotional thermal
printer, magnetic cassette recorder or through
CCU 500 central cor. crol unit; output is
RS232 compatible
Training: none required for sampling
Opt'ions: DCU-400 thermal printer
DCU-2CO magnetic cassette tape recorder
CCU-500 central control unit
RGZ-401 major spare parts kit
WLX-341 filter cartridge (25 per pack)
RGA-400: $15, ^0 (includes console, 25 filter cartridges,
d.c. Twer cord, external d.c. power cord, minor
spar; parts kit, manual)
DCU-400: $2,750
DCU-200: $3,750
CCU-500: 12,500
RGZ-401: $35
ULX-341: $65
Manufacturer:
FDA Instruments, Inc.
5151 Ward Road
Wheat Ridge, Colorado 80033
(303) 422-9112
Tr.LEX: 560681
169
-------
8-4
EDA RG/,-400
Radon Gas Monitor
4 of 4
Head Office:
1 Thorncliffe Park Drive
Toronto, Canada M4H1G9
(416) 425-7800
TELFX: 06 23222 EDA TOR
Cables: INSTRUMENTS TORONTO
References:
Specifications
1. Manufacturer's bulletin
Operations experience
1. None available
Remarks:
Ine unit nay be operated as a stand-alone monitor;
or by using the CCU-5QO central control unit. Distri-
buted sampling networks can be formed with central
data collection.
A high-quality humdity sensor has been incorporated
to monitor the relative humidity level of the pre-
filtered ambient air. The data om the relative
hunidity sensor are used to compensate for variances
in radon and thoron gas concentrations due to detector
efficiency changes. The teinperat'^e of the prefiltered
ambient air is measured, as well.
The following functien/parameters c ~e available:
Rn/Tn gas
Rn/TN ambient
PCL
Rn/Tn WL
INTGRWL
Alarm level max
Sample interval
Date time
Spectrum
Start data dump
Store data dump
Data recall
170
-------
RADON
STATIOtnRY/ACTIVE/ANALYZER
8-5
EDA
WLM-300
1 of 4
Weight: 6.8 kg
Dimensions: 342 x 304 x 350 mm
Principl e of
Operation:
Filtration/alpha detection. Radon daughter products
are collected on a filter. Alpha activity is detected,
averaged, and recorded. Working levels are recorded
over periods of 1 hour (or 0.1 hour, selectable) for up
to 41 days. Operation is controlled by an internal
microprocessor.
Lower Detectable
Limit:
0.0001 WL
Range:
0.0001 to 100 WL
Interferences:
171
-------
Multiparameter
Capability:
Performance:
Operation:
8-5
EDA
WLM-300
2 of 4
Sampling Rate: 1 1/min, continuous
Accuracy: +10% (maximum deviation)
Reproducibility: <5%
L-'nearity: >_90%
Moise: 0.0001 WL
Lagtii.ie:
Rise Time:
Retention Time:
Fall Time:
Zero Drift: no inherent drift
Span Drift: no inherent drift
Temperature Range: -10° to 50° C
Temperature Compensation: none
Relative Humidity Range: 0% to 100%
Calibration: factory set; no field calibration needed
Procedure:
Warm-Up Time:
172
-------
8-5
EDA
WLM-300
3 of 4
Unattended Period: 41 days
Maintenance: The unit is designed for field operation in
a typically hostile environment. Generally.
it needs very little maintenance under
nomal operating conditions.
Power: 110 a.c., 60 Hz, internal rechargable or
9.5 to 14.0 V d.c. external; 220 a.c., 50 Hz optional
Features:
Output:
Training:
Options:
5-digit LCD; thermal printer, magnetic cassette
recorder, and RS-232 I/O parts
none required for sampling
DCU-400 thermal printer, a.c. /d.c.
DCU-040 thermal printer
DCU-200 magnetic cassette tape recorder,
WLX-341 filter discs (25 per pack)
ULX-351 15 cm extension legs, set of 4
WLZ-301 major spare parts kit
a.c. /d.c
Costs:
WLM-300: $6,550 (consists of console, 25 filter discs,
a.c. powsr cord, minor spare parts kit, manual)
DCU-400: $2,750
DCU-040: $1,000
DCU-200: $3,750
WLX-341: $60 -
WLX-351: $45
WLX-301: $35
Manufacturer:
EDA Instruments, Inc.
5151 Ward Road
Wheat Ridge, Colorado 80033
(303) 422-9112
TELEX: 450681
17;
-------
Head Office:
1 Thorncliffe Park Drive
Toronto, Canada M4H169
TELEX: 06 23222 EDA TOR
Cables: INSTRUMENTS TORONTO
8-5
EDA
WLM-300
4 of 4
References:
Specifications
1. Manufacturer's bulletin, WLM-300-0291
Operations experience
1. None available
Remarks:
Mechanically, the WLM-300 is rugged and environmentally
protected to permit operation in hostile outside
environments. The unit is lightweight and is powered
by line supplies for use in residential or inside
industrial applications. For more remote sites, an
external 9.5 t~ 14.0 V d.c. power may be used or the
internal standby batteries may be used to fully
operate the unit for up to 10 hours.
The WLM-300 is simplified by the internal microprocessor,
and manual operations amount to replacing the prepackaged
filter disc when it becomes loaded, initiating a sampling
sequence, and extracting the data from memory. Calibration
is unnecesary4 The pump is feedback controlled to 1 1/m
over the entire operating temperature range for up to
152 cm H2>0 back pressures. The operator has full access to
the last recorded results through the key pad and a liquid
crystal display. Also a number of indicators act as a visual
verification of keyed entries and system operation.
174
-------
RADON
STATIONARY/PASSIVE/COLLECTOR
8-6
EDA
PERM
RDT-310
1 of 4
Weight: 4.5 kg
Dimensions: 250 mm diameter x 250 mm
Principle of
Operation:
Electrostatic collection/thermoluminescent dosimetry.
Ambient radon diffuses into a chamber where subsequent
disintegration of ions are electrostatically focused onto a
therrnol uminescant dosimeter (TLD) chip held at negative
potential in a 900-volt electrostatic field. Each alpha
pa* tide striking the chip creates metastab'ie defects in the
crystal, which can be read and related to integrated radon
concentration. An intervening layer of indictor-quality
silica gel and a filter en;ure that the air within the sample
chamber is desiccated and parlicle free. A second TLD chip.
is exposed away from the electrostatic field (in the base of
the housing) to check background levels of gamna radiation.
Lower Detectable
Limit:
0.03 pci/1/week (LiF TLD)
Range:
Interferences:
175
-------
Multiparameter
Capability:
Performance:
Operation:
8-6
EDA
PERM
RDT-310
2 of 4
Radon only
Sampling Rate: diffusion, continuous
Accuracy:
Reproducibility:
Linearity:
Noise:
Lagtime:
Response Time: 5 hours with Whatman #41 filter
Rise Time:
Retention Time:
Fall Tine:
Zero Drift:
Span Drift
Detector Response (LiF)--alpha 7.8+0.3 counts per
pCi-hr/1
—gamma 0.036 counts per R/h per hour
Temperature Range: <10° to >30° C
Temperature Comppnsation:
Relative Humidity Range: 0% to 80% for extended periods
Calibration:
Procedure:
176
-------
8-6
EDA
PERM
RDT-310
3 of 4
Features:
Warm-Up Time: none
Unattended Period: >1 week (see remark #2)
Maintenance: replace desiccant as needed, check battery
supply voltage
Power: 3 Everready Mini-max No. 493 batteries
Output: nanocoulonbs from TLD reader
Training: none required for sampling
Options and Accessories: RDX-727, battery, set of 3
RDX-351, spare oesiccant chamber
RDX-458, replacement silica gel
20 cm Uhatman Ml filter
Costs:
Manufacturer:
RDT-310: S575 (complete with batteries, desiccant,
special shipping carton, and manual; TLD chips available
upon request)
RDX-727: $30 each
RDX-351: S225
RPX-458 silica gel (per kg): $10
F'lters: $10
EDA Instruments, Inc.
')151 Ward Road
Wheat Ridge, Colorado 80033
(303) 422-9122
TELEX: 450681
Head Office:
1 Thorncliffe Park Drive
Toronto, Canada M4H.1G9
(416) 425-7800
TELEX: 06 23222 EDA TOR
Cables: INSTRUMENTS TORONTO
177
-------
8-6
EDA
PERM
RDT-310
4 of 4
References: Specifications
1. Manufacturer's bulletin
2. George, A.C. 1977. "A Passive Environmental Radon
Monitor." In Radon Workshop. A.J. Breslin, ed.
U.S. Energy Research and Development Administra-
tion, Report HASL-325, Health and Safety Laboratory,
New York, New York, pp. 25-30.
Operations experience
1. None available
Remarks: This instrument is based on the Passive Environmental
Radon Monitor (PERM) developed at the DOE Environmental
Measurements Laboratory (George 1977).
Ordinary unattended exposure periods for this instru-
ment exceed 1 week. The upper linit of exposure is
operationally limited by desiccant life, which is
determined by humidity. The dessicant can be baked
in a home or laboratory oven and reused.
178
-------
RADON
STATIONARY/ACTIVE/AHALYZER
8-7
Harshaw
Radon Daughters Analyzer
1 of 3
Weight: 32 kg
Dimensions:
detector,
computer,
50
12
x 35 x 40 cm
x 10 x 10 cm
Principle of
Operation:
Filtration/alpha and beta spectroscopy. Sample air is
drawn through a filter for 2 minutes. Simultaneously,
alpha and beta backgrounds are measured. The sample
deposit on the filter is transported to the detector
where alpha counts (entrance side of filter) and beta
counts (exit side of filter) are simultaneously registered
for 2 minutes. Radium A and radium C' are spectroscopically
separated by energy. Concentrations of radium A, radium B,
and radium C' plus working levels are computed automatic!!ly.
Lower Detectable
Limit:
<0.001 WL
Range:
Interferences:
<0.001 to 100 WL
At extremely high working levels (>100 WL), the resulting
gama background interferes with the performance of the
beta detector.
179
-------
Multiparameter
Capability:
Performance:
Operation:
8-7
Harshaw
Radon Daughters Analyzer
2 of 3
Radium A, radium B, radium C' and working levels
Sampling Rate: 30 to 60 1/trrin. continuous over 2-minute
intervals
Accuracy:
Reproducibility: 1% at 10"3 UL. 2% at 102 WL
Linearity: good
Uoise:
Lagtime:
Rise -Time:
Retention Time:
Fall Time:
Zero Drift;
Span Drift:
Temperature Range: -10° to 40°C
Temperature Compensation: none needed
Relative Humidity Range: no effect
Calibration: standard source for detectors; flow meter
for sample flow
Warm-Up Time: none
180
-------
8-7
Harshaw
Radon Daughters Analyze*
3 of 3
Unattended Period: 1000 samples dee remark #1)
Maintenance: exhaust filter should be changed periodically;
sample filters can be reused as long as clean
Power: 110 V a.c.
Features:
Output: 8-digit LCD; thermal printer
Training: none required for sampling
Options:
Costs:
Manufacturer:
$17,000
The Harshaw Chemical Company
Crystal and Electronics Department
6801 Cochran Road
Solon, Ohio 44139
(216) 248-7400
References:
Specifications
1. Manufacturer's I "Hetin, November 1980
2. M. Cox, Harshaw Chemical Company,
personal communication, 1982
Operations experience
1. Mone available
Remarks:
With proyrammed time delays between samples, unattended
operc ion is limited by data storage of 1,000 data
points.
Users include F!'A, DOE contractors, and a number of
state deoartments or health
181
-------
RADON
STATIONARY/PASSIVE/COLLECTOR
550007
TZk.^DEX TRACK ETCHR
PADON DETECTOR
1 of 4
»^?_--.
Weight: Negligible
Dimensions: Type B (total alpha): 6 en square card
Types F, M, and C: 9.5 cm high; 7.2 cm
widest diameter
Types SF and SM: 2,2 cm high; 3.7 C,T,
widest diameter
Principl e of
Operation:
Passive ir Cation v;f rddon exposure. Mpia particles
from radon air cr from radon progeny that have plated
out on adjacent surfaces penetrate the Detector and cause
carnage tracks. The damage tracks are chemically etch3d
at the end of the exposure interval and counted. Av'"age
ensure is proportional to the counted tracks per unit
area.
Lower Detectable
Limit:
0.16 (pCi/I)-months (standard). Lower detectable limits
are possible at an increased cost.
Range:
0.16 to 104 (pCi/I)-months; corresponds to 0.003 to
200 WL-,nonths at a WL ratio of 0.5'
Interferences:
None
182
-------
8-8
TERRADEX TRACK ETCHR
RADON DETECTOR
2 of 4
Multiparameter
Capability:
Type B measures total alpha activity (radon plus progeny!
Performance:
Sampling Rat-3: diffusion, continuous
Accurjcy: 1.8% to 2.8% (relative standard deviation of
calibration factor (liter and Fleisher 1981)
Reproducibility: no batch-to-batch differences outside
of normal counting statistics
Operati on:
Features:
Temperature Range- -50° to 70° C
Temperature Compensation: none required
Relative Humidity Range: 0% to 100%
Calibration: none required in use
Procedure: static device, requires o"1y placement and
retrieval of detector
Unattended Period: depending upon application, <1 month
to >1 year
Maintenance: none
Power: none required for sampling
Output: data report from manufacturer
Training: None is requir?d for sampling; simple deploy-
ment instructions are supplied by manufacturer.
Options: Orders ray specify "read as needed" to increase
sensitivity; see cost section.
183
-------
Costs:
8-8
TERRADL'X TRACK ETCHR
RADON DETECTOR
3 of 4
Prices are controlled by number of detectors and desired
sensitivity. For a minimum'order of 50 detectors, the
following schedule applies. Price includes readout and
report of results.
Sensitivity Level*
(p Ci/1)-months
4.0
1.0
0.2
Price per Detector
$16.50
33.00
66.00
(*Radon exposure for which the statistical uncertainty
is 50%.)
If fewer than 50 detectors are ordered in 1 year, the
service price is $50 per detector. At increased cost,
the manufacturer can reread the detectors to an increased
sensitivty 1evel.
Manufacturer:
Terredex Corporation
460 North Wiget Lane
Walnut Creek, California
(415) 938-2545
TELEX: 337-793
94598
References:
Specifications
1. Manufacturers bulletin
2. Alter, H.W., and R.L. Fleisher. 1981. "Passive
Integrating Radon Monitor ^or Environmental
Monitoring." Health Phys. 40:693.
184
-------
8-8
TERRADEX TRACK ETCHR
RADON DETECTOR
4 of 4
Operations experience
1. Alter, H.W. 1981. "Track Etch ™ Radon Detector
Calibrations and Field Results." Presented at the
U.S. Environnu .tal Protection Agency International
Meeting on Radon and Radon Progeny Measurement.
Montgomery, Alabama.
2. Alter, H.W. 1981. "Indoor Radon Levels. Field
Expedience using the Track Etch™ Method." Presented
at the International Symposium on Indoor Ail-
Pollution, Health, and Energy Conservation. Amherst,
Massachusetts.
3. Gingrioh, J.E., et dl. ;982. "Monitoring
Radon Around Uranium Mine and Mill Sites with
Passive Integrating Detectors." Presented at the
International Symposium on Management of Wastes
from Uranium Mining and Milling, Albuquerque,
New Mexico.
4. Altei, H.W., ;nd R.A. Oswald. 1983. "Results
of Indoor Radon Measurements Using the Track Etch
Method." Accepted for publication, Health Phys.
Remarks: After the detector has been processed, it is itself
a permanent record of the exposure and can be reread
at any time. The manufacturer stores the exposed
detector for future reference.
Shelf "life of Track Etch detectors is 1 year if
stored in packging provided by manufacturer.
185
-------
SULFUR DIOXIDE
PERSONAL/ACTIVE/ANALYZER
9-1
INTERSCAN
SCb 1240 and 424C
1 of 3
W?ight:
3.6 kg, Model 1240
2.0 kg, Model 4240
Dimensions:
18.4 cm x 1.5.2 cm x
29.2 mir, Model 1240
17.8 cm x 10.2 cm x
22.5 en, Model 4240
Principle of
Operation:
Electrochemical oxidation. Gas molecules from the moving
sample air stream pass through a diffusion medium and are
adsorbed onto an electrocatalytic sensing electrode where
subsequent reactions generate an electric current. The
diffusion limited current is linearly proportional to
concentration.
Lower Detectable \% of full scale
Limit:
Range:
0 to 1 ppm, 0 to 5 ppm, 0 to 10 ppm (other ranges available)
Interferences:
Expressed as parts per million of interferent needed to give
1 ppm deflection:
C12: >500 H2: >500 NH.3: 45
CO: >500 SAT. HC: >104 NO: >500
UNSAT. HC: >500 N02: 10 $03: >104
C2H5SH, H2S, and CH3$H require a special filter.
186
-------
Multiparameter
Capabi1ity:
Performance:
Operation:
9-1
1240 and 4240
2 of 3
Sf)2 only
Sampling Rate: continuous
Accuracy: +2% of full scale
Reproducibility: +0.5%
Linearity: +1% of full scale
Noi se:
Lagtime: <1 second
Rise Time: 20 seconds
Retention Time:
Fall Time: 20 seconds
Zero Drift: +1% full scale in 24 hours
Span Drift: <+2% ful" scale in 24 hours
Temperature Range: 10° to 120° F
Temperature Compensation:
Relative Hu^'dity Range:
Calibration: Standard gas mixture
Warm-Up Time:
187
-------
9-1
INTERSCAN
S02 1240 and 4240
3 of 3
Unattended Period: 10 hours on battery power
Maintenance:
Power: 4 Alkaline f'n02 batteries for amplifier,
2 Ni -Cd for punps LCD; 1 HgO battery for bias
amplifier reference
Features:
Costs:
Output: 0 to 100 nV full scale
Training: none required for sampling
Options: 1240, audible and visual alarm;
4240, audible alarr.i
Model 1240: $1,675
Model 4240: 31,895
Manufacturer:
InterScan Corporation
P.O. Box 2496
21700 liordhof^ Street
Chatsworth, California 91311
(213) 882-2331
TELEX: 67-4897
References:
Remarks:
Specifications
1. Manufacturer's bulletin
Operations experience
1. Hone avjilahle
188
-------
S'JLFUR DIOXIDE
PERSONAL/PASSIVE/ANALYZER
9-2
INTERSCAN
1 of 3
Principle of
Operation:
i
\ Weight: 680 g (including leather
J case)
Dimensions: 152 x 76 x 51 mm
Diffusion/electrochemistry. Sulfur dioxide diffuses
into an electrochemical cell, producing a signal pro-
portional to SO;? concentrations. The signal is digitized,
incorporated into 1-minute averages, and stored. Nondes-
tructive recovery of each 1-minute average is accomplished
through a separate data reader. Data storage capacity
is 2,048 1-minute averages.
Lower Detectable
Limit:
0.5% of full scale
Range:
10 x TLV (TLV 2 pprn)
Interferences:
Expressed as parts per million of interferent needed to
give 1 ppm deflection:
C12: >500
CO: >500
UNSAT. HC: >500
H2: >500
SAT. HC: >104
N02: 10
NK3: 45
NO: >500
S03:
, H2$, and Q^SH require a specidl filter.
189
-------
9-2
INTERSCAN
5240
2 of 3
Multi p^rame ter
Capability:
Performance:
Operation:
S02 only
Sampling Rate: diffusion, continuous
Accuracy: +2% of reading. +1 least significant digit (LSD),
+0.5°; of FS (digital)
Reproducibility: +1* reading, +1 LSD
Linearity: 0.5" reading, + 1 LSD
(Joise:
Lagtime:
Rise Tine: 20 seconds
Retention Time:
Fall Time: 20 seconds
Zero Drift: +1% reading, _+! LSD in 24 hours
Span Drift +1% reading, +1 LSD in 24 hours
Temperature Range: 30° to 120° F
Temperature Compensation:
Relative l!u:,iidity Range: 1% to 100%
Calibration: standard gas mixture
Warm-Up Time: <5 r.mutes
Unattended Period: up to 34 hours
Maintenance: calibration, battery replacement, sensor
replacen?nt
190
-------
9-2
INTERSCAN
5240
3 of 3
Power: long life 9-volt battery (Alkaline manganese
dioxide, NEDA type 1604A); battery life is 125
hours continuous operation
Features:
Output: printout from data reader (see remark #
Training: none required for sampling
Costs:
Manufacturer:
Model 5240: $1,1^5
InterScan Corporation
P.O. Box 2496
21700 Nordhoff Street
Chatsworth, California 91311
References:
(213) 882-2331
TELEX: 67-4897
Specifications
1. Manufacturer's bulletin
Operations experience
1. None available
Data readout is accomplished by a device available
from:
Metrosonics, Inc.
P.O. Box 23075
Rochester, New York 14692
'716) 334-7300
InterScan has also recently introduced the
Model 2240 SOj personal monitor, which offers
an LCD display of concentration instead of
the data logging.
191
-------
SULFUR DIOXIDE
PORTABLE/ACT IVE/ANALYZER
9-3
TGM 555
SULFUR DIOXIDE ANALYZER
i of 3
Weight: 14 kg
Dimensions: 51 x 41 x 18 cm
Principle of
Operation:
Automated wet cnenvistry/colorimetry. Sample air is con-
tinuously drawn through distilled water. Absorbed sample
is reacted w'th pararosaniline and formaldehyde to form
intensely colored pararosaniline methyl sulfuric acid,
whose intensity is measured at 550 nm. Reagent handling
and processing is automatic.
Lower Detectable
Limit:
0.003 ppm (on 0 to 0.25 ppm full scale)
Range:
0 to 0.25 ppm (adjustable to 10 ppm)
Interferences:
192
-------
Multiparameter
Capnbi1 ity:
Performance:
Operation:
9-3
TGM 555
SULFUR PIOXIDF. AMALYZER
2 of 3
Sampling Rate: 250 ml/min, continuous
Accuracy:
Reproducibility: ]»
Linearity: <2^ (up to 1 ppn)
Noise:
Lagtime: 6 minutes
Rise Tine: 4 minutes to 95*
Retention Time:
Fall Tine: 4 minutes to 95"
Zero Drift: <2l for 24 hours
Span Drift: <2a. for 24 hours
Temperature Range: 5° to 43° C
Temperature Compensation:
Relative Humidity Range: 5C; to 95^
Calibration: liquid standards, permeation tubes, or
standard gas dilution
193
-------
Features:
Costs:
Manufacturer:
References:
9-3
TG/1 555
SULFUR DIOXID: ANALYZER
3 uf 3
Warm-Up Time: 20 minutes
Unattended Period: 18 hours on fully charged batteries
Maintenance: pump tubes changed once a month
Power: 12 V d.c. unregulated, 4 watts 115/230 V a.c., 50/CO Hz
Output: digital panel meter
Training: none reauired for sampling
Options: stream splitter (to extend range by a factor
of 10 or 100)
TGM 555: 5^,395
Stream Splitter: S295
CEA Instruments, Inc.
15 Char!es Street
Westwood, New Jersey 07675
*•
(201) 654-2300
TELEX: 642128
Specifications
1. Manufacturer's bulletin
Operations experience
1. None available
Remarks:
194
-------
iO-1
DATA LOGSING
DATA LOGGING HETROSONICS
PERSONAL/ACTIVE/COLLECTCR dl-331
1 of 4
Weight: 250 grams
Dimensions: 25.4 x 7.6 x 2.2 cni
Principle of Signal voltage is sampled and placed in temporary storage
Operation: four times each second. At the end of every program-
selected interval (10 seconds, 1 minute, 5 minutes, or
15 minutes), the average is calculated and stored time
sequentially along with maximum peak value. At the end of
the sampling period, the solid state memory is interrogated
by a data reader that carries out selected calculations and
prints out recorded data along with hourly and cumulaiive
summaries, the 5-, 10-, and 15-minute intervals exhibiting
highest values, and the peak value for the collection
period.
Lower Detectable
Limit:
Range: 0 to 100 mV, 500 mV, 1 V, 5 V (others available upon
request); two Significant digits, one multiplier digit
Interferences:
195
-------
Multiparameter
Capability:
Performance:
Operation:
10-1
DATA LOGGING
METROSONICS
dl-331
2 of 4
Single data channel plus time
Sampling Rate: 4 scans per second, continous
Accuracy: +0.5%
Reproducibility:
Linearity:
Noise:
Lagtime:
Rise Time:
Retention Time:
Fall Time:
Zero Drift:
Span Drift:
Temperature Range: -20° to 60° C
Temperature Compensation:
Relative Humidity Range: to 90%
Calibration:
Procedure:
Warm Up Time:
Unattended Period: Limited by total of 2,048 data values
(See remark #1)
Maintenance:
196
-------
Requi remonts:
Features:
10-1
DATA LOGGING
MCTROSONICS
dl-331
3 of 4
Power: 9-volt battery
Output: (See remark *2)
Training: none required for sampling
Options: (See remark £3)
db-651V10 Table top METROREADER
db-652V10 Portable METROREADER
uk-651/V10 Modification kit (to update
earlier readers for dl-331)
uk-652/V10 Modification kit (to update
earlier readers for dl-331)
dc-431 METROMODEi-1 to interface data
logger to reader by phone lines
cc-305 Environmental case for METROLOGGER
ps-331 External power supply for
extended operation
vr-331 Voltage reference source
Costs:
dl-331
db-651V10
db-652V10
uk-651/V10
uk-G52/V10
dc-431
cc-305
ps-331
vr-331
51,245
3,245
3,895
495
495
925
150
50
225
Manufacturer:
METROSONICS, Inc.
P.O. Box 23075
Rochester, New York 14692
(716) 334-7300
References:
Specifications
1. Manufacturer's bulletin
197
-------
10-1
DATA LOGGING
METROSONICS
dl-331
4 of 4
Operations experience
1. None available
Remarks: The data logger has a capacity of 2,048 incremented
data values. Thus, total sample period is ultimately
limited by selected program interval as follows:
Total
Interval Sampling Time
10 seconds 5.6 hours
1 minute 34 hours
5 minutes 170 hours
15 minutes 21 days
Battery life is in excess of 120 hours; operation
can be extended by addition of external battery or
external power supply.
The METROREADER (db-651/V10 or db 652/V10) offers
a direct printout onto 2-1/2 inch wide thermal
paper. Optional interfaces allow direct transfers
to xy plotters or to computer systems. The data
logger itself does not allow for intermittent
readings during sampling.
The options listed here have been selected from
a much longer list.
The db-651/V10 and db-652/V10 readers are also
used to output data collected by the InterScan 5140
CO monitor (summary fA3-5, this appendix).
METROSONICS has successfully interfaced the dl-331
data logging system to a number of industrial
monitoring situations.
198
-------
DATA LOGGING 10-2
PERSONAL/ACTIVE/ANAYZER MAGUS GROUP DL-1
1 of 3
PHOTOGRAPH UNAVAILABLE
Weight: 482 g
Dimensions: 7.6 x 15.2 x 5.1 crn
Principles of Signal voltage is read every second and incorporated into
Operation: a running average. At the end of the averaging period
(1-hour in automatic mode) tne average value along with
day and time information is stored, the average is reset
to zero, and a new average begins. Ea.:h logged average •
is retrievable.
Lower Detectable
Limit: 1 mV
Range: -199 mV to 199 mV
Interferences: None
Multiparameter
Capability: signal voltage, day, and time at each logging cycle
199
-------
Performance:
Operation:
10-2
MAGUS GROUP DL-i
2 of 3
Sampling Rate: 1 scan p-r se:ond, continous
Accuracy: 0.5%
Repeatibi1ity: 0.5%
Linearity: 0.5%
Noise:
Lag Time: <1 second
Ri se Time: <1 second
Retention Time:
Fall Time: <1 second
Zero Drift: <0.5 mV
Span Drift: 0.5%
Temperature Range: 0 to 40° C
Temperature Compensation: none
Relative Humidity Range: 0% to 99%
Calibration: factory procedure
Warm Up Time: None
Unattended Period: 113 hours (limited by storage capacity-
see remark #1}
Maintenance: >i year, except for periodic recharging of
Ni-Cd batteries
Power: Six AA Ni-Cd batteries; reference battery is
2 mercury hearing aid batteries
200
-------
10-2
MAGUS CROUP DL-1
3 of 3
Features:
Output: 4-digit LCD; 113 logged points
l^aining: none required for sampling
Options: See remark #2
Costs:
Manufacturer:
DL-1: $865 each; quantity discounts are available
MAGUS GROIP
2251 Grand Ro^d, Suite A
Los Altos, California 94022
(415) 964-3230
References:
Specifications
1. Manufacturer's bulletin
Operations experience
1. None available
Remarks:
Current data storage capacity is 113 data points.
Automatic mode increments storage function each
hour, thus limiting unattended manual operation to
113 hours.
The manufacturer is currently developing a number of
options and improvements to the DL-1. Direct dumping
of logged data to a general purpose computer should
be available by late 1982.
Available time did not permit review of this summary
by a manufacturer's representative.
201
-------
10-3
DATA LOGGING DATA LOGGING
PERSONAL/ACTIVE/ANALYZER CUSTOM INSTRUMENTS
1 of 3
PHOTOGRAPH UNAVAILABLE
Weight: 240 g
Dimensions: 11 x 7 x 4.8 cm
Principle of Signal voltage is quantitatively converted to frequency
Operation: and a counter stores a running time-voltage integral.
An independent LCD watch is mounted to display time.
Lower Detectable
Limit:
Range: 0-250 mV standard (other ranges available)
Interferences: none
Multiparameter
Capability: Integrated time-voltage, time
202
-------
Performance:
Operation:
F'eatures:
10-3
DATA LOGGING
CUSTOM INSTRUMENTS
2 of 3
Sampling Rate: continuous
Accuracy:
Repeatabil ity:
Linearity: 1% over 0 to 40° C
Noise:
Lag Time:
Rise Time:
Retention Time:
Fall Time:
Zero Drift:
Span Drift:
Temperature Range: 0 to 40° C
Temperature Compensation: None required at 0 to 40° C
Relative Humidity Range:
Calibration: External reference signal
Warm- Up Time: None
Unattended Period: 40 hours nominal
Maintenance:
Power: 9- volt battery
Output: 4-digit LED display for integrated time-voltage;
LCD for time
203
-------
10-3
DATA LOGGING
CUSTOM INSTRUMENTS
3 of 3
Training: none required for sampling
Options: See remark #2
Costs:
Each: S350
Lots of 10: $300 each
Manufacturer:
Custom Instrumentation
1027 Euclid Street
Santa Monica, California 90403
(213) 393-4760
References:
Speci fications
1. Manufacturer's bulletin
Operations experience ,
1. Nagda, M.L., and M.D. Koontz. 1983. Exposures to
Carbon Monoxide. GEOMET Report Ho.* EHF-1200.
GEOMET Technologies, Inc., Rockville, Maryland.
Remarks:
The CI Data Logger was originally designed for use
with the GE Carbon Monoxide Detector (see summary A3-3,
this appendix), but is compatible with any analog signal
source that meets input signal requirements.
The manufacturer will meet specific requirements for
modification or changes at additional cost.
Available time did not permit review of this summary
by a manufacturer's representative.
204
-------
EPA REFERENCE AND EQUIVALENT METHODS
. Continuous analyzers for CO, N02, SO?, and 03 that appear on EPA's
"List of Designated Reference and Equivalent Methods" are enumerated here.
Table A-2 displays the performance specifications fo«- S02, 03, CO, and
NO,?. Specific instruments that have been designated reference or equivalent
for each pollutant P.re iisted in Table A-3. Addresses and telephone numbers
of manufacturers are contained in Table A-4.
GLOSSARY OF INSTRUMENT TERMS
Principle of Operation: The chemical or physical basis for the measurement
technique.
Lower Detectable Limit: The smallest quantity or concentration that causes a
response equal to at least twice the noise level.
Range: The lower and upper detectable limits. Often, syncnymous with full
scale.
Interferences: Any substance or effect other than the measurement parameter
that causes a measurable response in the instrument output.
Multiparameter Capability: The ability to measure more than one pollutant
or parameter-
Collection Period: The amount of time specified to acquire sufficient
sample mass.
Accuracy: The percentage difference between measured values and true values
that have been established by acceptable reference methods.
Accuracy is generally referenced to full-scale reading of the
output.
Reproducibility: The degree of variation obtained when the same measurement
is made with similar instruments and different operators;
often expressed as a percentage of full scale.
Linearity: The maximum deviation between instrument response and the reading
predicted from linear interpolation between calibration points at
upper and lower scale values; often expressed as a percentage of
full scale.
Noise: Spontaneous deviation from a mean output ~ot attributable to input
changes; often expressed es a percentage -jf full scale.
Lagtime: The time interval that elapses between a stepwise increase of input
and the first corresponding change in output.
205
-------
Table A-2. PERFORMANCE: SPECIFICATIONS FOR AUTOMATED METHODS
Performance parameter Units*
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Source
Range
Noise
Lower detectable limit
Interference equivalent
Each interfprent
Total interferent
Zero drift, 12 and 24 hours
Span drift, 24 hours
20% of upper range limit
80% of upper range limit
Lag time mi
Rise time mi
Fall time mi
Precision
20% of upper range limit
80% of upper range limit
: L.J. Purdue, "EPA Reference
ppm
ppm
ppm
ppm
ppm
ppm
%
%
nutes
nutes
nutes
ppm
ppm
Sulfur Photochemical Carbon
dioxide oxitiants (ozone) monoxide
0-0. b
-0.005
0.01
+0.02
+0.06
+ 0.02
+20.0
+5.0
20
15
15
0.01
0.015
and Equivalent Methods
0-0.5
0.005
0.01
+0.02
+0.06
+0.02
+20.0
+5.0
20
15
15
0.01
0.01
,'• J. Air
0-50
0.50
1.0
+1.0
+ 1.5
+ 1.0
+10.0
+2.5
10
5
5
0.5
0.5
Pollut. Control
Nitrogen
dioxide
0-0.5
0.005
0.01
+0.02
-,•0.04
+_0.02
+20.0
+5.0
20
15
15
0.02
0.03
Assoc. (30)9:992-96, Sept. 1980.
206
-------
TABLE A-3. SUMMARY OF.COMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE INSTRUMENTS FOR U.S.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY DESIGNATED REFERENCE
AND EQUIVALENT METHODS FOR CO, N02, S02 AND 63.
(Parenthetical values indicate approved ranges.)
Pollutant
Methods
Carbon monoxide
Reference methodr.
Nondispersive infrared (NDIR)
- Bendix 8501-5CA (50)
Beckman 866 (50)
- Horiba AQM-10-11 & 12 (50)
- Horiba 300E/300SE (20, 50, 1001
- Monitor Labs 8310 (50)
MSA 202S (50)
Gas filter correlation (GFC)
- Dasibi 3003 (50)
- Thermo Electron 48 (50)
Nitrooen dioxide
Reference methods
Gas phase cheniluminescence
Bendix 8101-8SC (0.5)
CSI 1600 (0.5)
Me Toy NA530R (0.1, 0.25, 0.5, 1.0)
Monitor Labs 8440E (0.5)
Monitor Labs 8840 (0.5, 1.0)
Phillips PW 9762/02 (0.5)
Thermo Electron 14 B/E & D/E (0.5)
Ozone
Reference methods
Gas phase chemiluminescence
Beckman 950A (0.5)
Bendix 6002 (0.5)
- CSI 2000 (0.5)
- McMillan 1100-1, 2 & 3 (0.5)
- Meloy OA325-2R & OA350-2R (0.5!
- Monitor Labs 8410E (0,5)
[continued)
207
-------
TABLE A-3. (Concluded)
Pollutant
Methods
Ozone (continued)
Su"lfur dioxide
Equivalent methods
Ultraviolet abborption
Dasibi 1003-AH, -PC, -RS (0.5, 1.0)
Ho.iitor Labs 8810 (0.5, 1.0)
PCI Ozone Corp LC-12 (0.5)
- Thermo Electron 49 (0.5, 1.0)
Gas-solid phase cheniluminescence
- Phillips PW 9771 (0.5)
Equivalent rethods
Plane photometric detection (FPD)
- Bendix 8303 (0.5, 1.0)
MeIcy SA185-2A (0.5, 1.0)
Me Toy SA285E (0.05, 0.1, 0,5, 1.0)
- Monitor Labs 8450 (0.5, 1.0)
Pulsed ultraviolet fluorescence
- Beckman 953 (0.5, 1.0)
Lear Siepler AM2020 (0.5)
I'.elo/ SA700 (0.25, 0.5, 1.0)
Monitor Labs 8850 (0.5, 1.0)
- Therno Electron 43 (0.5, 1.0)
Second derivative spectroscopy
- Lear Siegler SM1000 (0.5)
Automated wet chemical
Phillips PW9755 & PW9700 (0.5)
208
-------
TABLE A-4. MANUFACTURERS OF S'lATIOUARY ANALYZERS THAT APPLAR IN TABLE A-3
Beckman Instruments
Process Instruments Division
2500 Harbor Boulevard
Fullerton, California 92634
(714) 871-4846
Bendix Corp.,
Environmental and Process
Instruments Division
Box 831
Lewisburg, Hest Virginia 24901
(304) 547-4358
Columbia Scientific Industries
Box 99u8
Austin, Texas 7876?
(800) 531-5003
Dasibi Environmental Corp.
616 East Colorado Street
Glendaie, California 91205
(213) 247-7601
Horiba Instruments, Inc.
1021 Duryea Avenue
Irvine, California 92714
(714) 540-7874
Lear Siegler, Inc.
74 Inverness Drive E
Englewood, Colorado 80112
(303) 770-3300
MSA
600 Penn Center Boulevard
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvaniz 15235
(412) 273-5172
Monitor Labs, Inc.
10180 Srripps Range Boulevard
San Diego, California 92131
(619) 578-5060
PCI Ozone Corp.
One Fairfiold Crescent
West Caldwell, New Jersey 07006
1201} 575-7052
Phillips Electronic Instruments
85 McKee Dri ve
Mahwah, New Jersey 07430
(201) 529-3800
Thermo Electron Corp.
Environmental Instruments Division
108 South Street
Hopkinton, Massachusetts 01748
(617) 435-5421
209
-------
Rise Time: The time interval that elapses between a stepwise increase of
input and an output change equivalent to 90 percent of the input
increment.
Retention Time: The time interval that elapses between a stepwise decrease
of input and the first corresponding chenge of input.
Fall Time: The time interval that elapses between a stepwise decreace of
input and an output change corresponding to 90 percent of the
input change.
Zero Drift: The change of output over a stated time interval of unadjusted
operations when input level is zero.
Span Drift: The change of output over a stated time interval of unadjusted
operation when the input level is other than zero.
Temperature Range: The range of ambient temperatures over which the instru-
ment meets or exceeds performance specifications.
Temperature Conditions: Mechanisms for adjusting the performance or response
of temperature-sensitive components within the
specified ambient temperature range.
Relative Humidity Range: The range of ambient relative humidities over which
the instrument meets or exceeds performance
speci ficat ions.
Calibration: The manner in which instrument response is referenced to known
standards.
Warm Up Time: The amount of time required to achieve stable operation from
initial startup.
Unattended Period: Tne amount of time over which the instrument will meet or
exceed performance specifications. For many instruments
summarized here, the principal limitation is battery
life.
Maintenance: Highlights of service intervals recommended by the manufacturer,
Power: Specifications of alternating current and/or batteries required to
operate the instrument.
Output: Defines the available readouts for the instrument.
-------
Training: Defines the level of expertise required to operate (but not
necessarily calibrate or repair) the instrument. Two categories
of train-'ng are used: (1) "none required," implying that it can
be successfully operated by nontechnical personnel with minimum
instructions; (2) "recommended," implying that both a technical
background and training will be needed. Note that for use of
passive collectors, deployment can be carried out by nontechnical
personnel with suitable instruction, but laboratory analysis will
always require technical training.
Options: Additional features and accessories available from the manufacturer,
Costs: Manufacturer-supplied costs in U.S. dollars as of late 1982.
Manufacturer: Mailing address, telephone number, and (where available) Telex
or other special contact information.
References: Published and other sources of information that were used to
construct the summary. Separate listings are offered to denote
rpecifications (generally manufacturer-supplied material) versus
operations experience (user-suppled information).
Remarks: Additional comments that are beyond the scope of the format used.
211
-------
APPENDIX B
ALTERNATIVES TO COMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE INSTRUMENTATION:
STANDARD AND ACCEPTED METHODS
INTRODUCTION
Though a relatively wide range of commercially available instruments for
indoor air quality monitoring has been identified in Appendix A, the possi-
bilities of assembling measurement systems from simple components should not
be ignored. This approach is frequently the only alternative, expecially for
personal exposure monitoring, because suitable commercial instruments are not
yet available for some pollutants.
The Gage Research Institute Personal Sampler (Mintz et al. 1982), which
allows integrated personal sampling for S02, NOj, and particulate matter for
up to 10 hours, is an example of such approach. The device is built from
commercially available components, makes use of previously tested procedures,
and offers the advantages of size, portability, and multipollutant sampling
that that could not be met from any single commercial source.
In this appendix, a number of methods are presented for measuring the
following:
a Air exchange rates
• Inhalable particulate matter (including chemical
characterization)
e Organic pollutants
e Formaldehyde
9 Radon
o Fibrous aerosols.
The methods discussed here either represent standard practices endorsed by
an appropriate organization or accepted technique published in refereed
journals o:* are used by a number of researchers. Decisions to apply any of
these approaches through in-house fabrication should be made only after
careful review of the references listed at the end of each section.
Reference
Mintz, S., H.R. Hosein, B. Batten, and F. Silverman. 1982. "A Personal
Sampler for Three Respiratory Irritants." J. Air Pollut. Control
Assoc. 32(10):1068-69.
212
-------
AIR EXCHANGE
The continual transfer of air across the building envelope is an important
determinant for indoor pollutant levels. Depending upon the nature of indoor-
outdoor pollutant contrasts, air exchange can serve to deliver cleaner outdoor
air to reduce indoor levels; or, if outdoor levels exceed indoor levels, air
exchange may contribute to indoor levels provided the decay of pollutants is
not substantial. Additionally, because influx air matches outflux, both pro-
cesses may be occurring simultaneously if two or more pollutants are involved.
Air exchange is produced from a complex interplay of many factors such
as architecture, wind velocity, orientation of the structure, and indoor-
outdoor temperature differences. These and other factors are summarized in
Section 3 of this document.
Air exchange is commonly expressed in terms of the volume of air exiting
(or entering) the structure per unit time ('".e., CFM or m3/sec). To allow
direct comparisons among structures of difrering volumes, the air exchange rate
is often standardized against the structural volume and expressed as air changes
per hour (ACH). Thus, an air exchange rate of 1 ACH'l implies that the volume
of air entering (and consequently leaving) the structure in 1 hour is equivalent
to the internal structural volume.
Four approaches to monitoring air exchange rate will be discussed here.
Two of these—fan pressurization and tracer gas dilution--have been designated
as standard practice by the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
for evaluating infiltration rates on a single test basis. The third method,
developed at the Brookhaven National Laboratory, can estimate longer term
averages of total air exchanges, i.e., over sampling periods of several days
or weeks in duration. A fourth technique, the ASHRAE crack method, relies
upon measurement of the lengths of cracks such as those around windows and
doors for calculation of air exchange. The summaries described below are
included to introduce the methodology. Detailed information can be obtained -
from references indicated at the end of this section. ASTM (1980) is a
particularly useful introduction to the topic.
Fan Pressurization
In the fan pressurization method (ASTM E779-81), the leakage character-
istics of a structure are evaluated under controlled pressurization and
depressurization. A range of positive and negative indoor-outdoor pressure
differences is produced by using a variable-speed reversible fan, which is
temporarily installed in an entry doorway. The fan can move large volumes
of air into or out of the structure. At a constant indoor-outdoor pressure
difference, all air flowing through the fan is compensated by equal flow
through available openings in the building envelope. When all controllable
external openings such as windows and doors are closed, the resulting data
can be used to evaluate the leakage character of the building envelope and
213
-------
thus fo-m the basis for comparisons of relative tightness. It shoulo be
noted that this method does not measure infiltration rates directly. Rather,
it measures the effective leakage area through which infiltration occurs.
ASTM-spccified equipment includes the following major components:
9 Air-Moving Equipment—capable of sustained flows up to
5100 n3/hr (3,000 CFM) at a constant rate
e Pressure-Measuring Device—capable of measuring pres-
sure differentials with an accuracy of +2.5 Pa (+0.01
inches of water) ~ ~~
e Air Flow Measuring System—to measure flows to within
+5 percent over the operating range of the air mover
e Air Flow-Regulating System—to regulate and maintain
flows inc'jced by the air-moving equipment to within
20 percent or less.
These components may be integrated to form a blower door assembly (see
Figure B-l) to facilitate mounting the unit in the doorway and to offer
convenient nlarrr.ont of readouts. Other configurations are acceptable,
provided the test can proceed within the allowable tolerance limits. In
addition to the above components, onsite measurements of winds and indoor
and outdoor temoerature are required.
Complete blower door assemblies that meet the requirements of ASTM E779-81
can be obtained from the following sources:*
HARMAX Corporation
6224 Orange Street
Los Angeles, California 90048
(213) 936-2673
Retrotec Energy Innovations, Ltd.
176 Bronson Avenue
Ottawa, Ontario, Canada K1R6H4
(613) 234-3368
Tne Desired range of induced pressure differences is from 12.5 Pa to
75 Pa (0.05 to 0.3 inches of water), in increments of 12.5 Pa. In some
cases, leakage rate may exceed fan capacity; nonetheless, a minimum of five
data points on each side of ?ero is desired. Each data point consists of the
measured pressure difference (Pa) and the corresponding fan flow (m3/hr).
* The mentioning of trade names and connercial products does not constitute
an endorsement.
214
-------
Figure B-l. Blower door "asserr.bly.*
* Source: ASTM E779-81
215
-------
Preferred environmental conditions include winds of 5 mph or le;,s, and indoor-
cutduor temperature contrasts of 11° C or -less to stabilize the environmentally
induced pressure differential. Winds in exccess of 10 mph are U be avoided,
and data collection under winds between 4 and 10 mph should be approached
wi th caution.
All measured flows are converted to standard conditions (101..:! kPa pres-
sure, 21.2° C temperature, 1.202 kg/m^ dir density^ and plotted against cor-
responding pressure differences as shown in Figure B-2. In this particular
experiment, fan pressurization was applied with the home in normal operating
condition and with major vents sealed.
ASTM places an estimate of 10 percent or less on the uncertainty at a
given pressure difference for the measurements. An additional sidelight of
this method is the opportunity to identify •individual routes of leakage by
using visual tracers during any tightening procedures.
The fan pressurization data can be used to determine the effective leakage
area, which acts as a simple index value to facilitate comparisons among
experiments. Using the approach developed by Sherman and Grimsrud (1980), the
pressure differential and flow data are fitted to the equation
Q L (AP)n, (1)
where Q is the flow (m^/sec), and P is the pressure difference (Pa). The
constants L and "i are determined empirically to gain a best fit of the data.
This equation can then be used to calculate the flow at any convenient pressure
difference. The effective leakage area, Aeff (m2) can then be calculated from
the expression
Aeff = Q V (2;
Y 2 A p
where P is the density of air (1.2 kg/m3). If the selected pressure difference
is 4 Pa, this expression reduces to
A-ff = 0.387 0.4 (3)
where 0.4 indicates that the flow corresponds to a pressure of 4 Pa.
The effective leakage area should not be confused with the air exchange
rate. Rather, it is an estimate of the aggregate size of the openings through
which infiltration may occur at rates determined by a variety of influences.
216
-------
Pressure (inches H20)
-0.3 -0.2 -O.I 0 0.1 0.2 0.3
ro
O
-90 -60 -30 0 30 6Q__...90
Pressure (pascals)
XBL 78IO-6630
Figure B-2. Typical pressures differences measured by the fan pressurization method
Source: Grinibrud et al . 1979.
217
-------
Though not stipulated within the ASTM standard practice, the fan pressur-
ization data can be used to calculate infiltration rates, provided local weather
data are available. The basis for such calculations is discussed in Sherman
and Grinisruci (J980) and in Blomsterberg and Harrje (1979).
Tracer Gas Dilution
In this method (ASTM E741-80), a small amount of tracer gas is injected
into the indoor ai>' space and thoroughly mixed. Within the structure, the
concentration of tracer gas in air decreases over time because exfiltrating
air is removing tracer gas while infiltrating air is essentially free of
tracer gas. Thus, under ideal circumstances of perfect mixing and steady air
exchange, the decay of tracer gas concentrations will follow the form:
C = C
(41
where C is the tracer gas concentration at time t, C0 is the initial tracer
gas concentration, and i- is the air exchange rate (in air changes per hour,
ACH, units). The air exchange rate can be calculated directly by rearranging
equation (4) to form
[5)
when a succession of data points is obtained, the air exchange rate can be
estimated graphically from a log-linear plot of concentration versus time or
calculated through log-linear regression or finite difference methods to achieve
a best fit.
In general, a desirable tracer gas has the following characteristics:
t It i-3 easily and inexpensively measured at low concentra-
tions and over short sampling times.
• It is not a normal constituent of air, or normally persists
at concentrations many orders of magnitude below those to be
used.
a The measurement technique is interference-free with regard
tc normal atmospheric constituents and therniodynamic condi-
tions.
9 It is inert, nonpolar, and not absorbed.
c It presents no safety or health hazard to occupants or
operators.
218
-------
As summarized in ASTM E741, no single trac' r ga? satisfies all of these condi-
tions. However, as long as precautions are taken to ensure that initial concen-
trations are acceptably low, a number of gases become acceptable. Recommended
practice is to restrain maximum concentrations to at least a factor of 4 below
accepted limits. Under no circumstances should initial tracer gas concentra-
tions exceed the OSHA time-weighted average for substances included in the
latest OSHA-controlled list. This can be accomplished by relatively simple
calculations to guide tracer gas releases. Sulfur hexafluoride (SF5), nitrous
oxide (^0), carbon dioxide (CP2), and ethane (Col^) are among the most commonly
selected tracer gdses. Use of these and other tracer gases is discussed in
Grimsrud et al. (1980) and Harrje et al. (1982).
The general procedure involves releasing tracer gas at one or more points
in sufficient quantities to produce useful initial concentrations. The method
of release and quantities involved depend upon considerations of such things
as the internal volume of the structure, the configuration of the air handling
system, and estimates of allowable versus useful concentrations. In buildings
that have central air handling systems, releases may be introduced directly to
the intake. Otherwise, releases can be made from multiple points, and mixed
with fans brought in. Generally, up to 30 minutes should be allowed for
mi) ing prior to formal sanpl;r,g.
Tracer gas samples shoulo be taken every few minutes from two or more
widely spaced locations on eacii story. This can be accomplished by a variety
of methods as outlined in ASTM 1741-80 and in Harrje et al. (1962).
Additional measurements of winds, temperature and humidity (indoors ar.j
outdoors), and local barometric oressure are required. Because air excharge
rates attributable to infiltration can vary substantially due to changing
environmental conditions, tracer gas dilution tests should be performed under
a variety of environmental conditions (i.e., wind, temperature, humidity) and.
indoor-outdoor controls if average infiltration is desired.
Longer-Term Average Total Air Exchange (BNL/AIMS)
The previous methods represent viable approaches to evaluating the infil-
tration characteristics of a given structure. However, under realistic condi-
tions extending over periods of many hours or days, infiltration can vary
tremendously in response to a nur,ber of changing variables. Additionally, if
the air space is occupied, total air exchange is often dominated by periods of
natural ventilation and mechanical ventilation, and short-term measurements may
prove to be inadequate.
One solution to this problem lies in a rather simple device developed at
the Srookhaven National Laboratory (Dietz et ai. 1931, 1982). The Brcokhaven
air infiltration measurement system (BNL/AIMS) makes use of a constant source
of tracer gas ac:omnanied by integrated sampling of the tracer. T^e main
advantage that this approach offers over similar extended procedures (see
219
-------
Condon et al. 1978, for instance) i-s that both the tracer source and sampler
operate on diffusion principles. Thus, the advantage of compactnes': of
source and sampler at the measurement site is combined with the use of
sophisticated, expensive technology available in the laboratories.
The DNL/AIMS uses perfluorocarbon tracer (PFT) gases. These are chemi-
cally and biologically inert. Typical release rates are 12 to 14 nl/min
at 24° C. The sampler is a 4 mm i.d. capillary adsorption tube (CAT) that
samp'.js PFTs at a rate equivalent to 0.14 ml/min. The CAT and PFT diffusion
source are illustrated in Figure B-3. Sampling may proceed for periods as
short as 1 day, or may be extended over a nu; ,ber of weeks if necessary.
The upper limit has not been firmly established yet.
The average loss rate of air (i.e., the average outflux, assuming zero PFT
in incoming air) can be approximated by:
(6)
'SS
where Rv is the average loss rate (m-Vmin), Rq is the PFT source strength
(nl/min), and Css is the average concentration (nl/rn^). Given a reliable
estimate of the internal house volume, the average air exchange rate can be
calculated from
Rv
(71
where v is the average air exchange rate (ACH~1) and Vn is the house vol
ume
Sampling procedures are
be used for every 500 square
the floor plan to recognize
outside walls to take advant
at least 1.5 m from any PFT
is 8 hours. This delay coul
would require a return visit
at the proper time. However
small compared to the total
straightforward and simple. One PFT source should
feot of living space; attention should be paid to
a need for added sources. Sources should be near
age of mixing patterns. Samplers should be located
source.* Recommended mixing time prior tc sampling
d present a problem in logistics because procedure
or involvement of a resident to initiate sampling
, in situations where this delay period is very
sampling period (i.e., sample period >_1 week),
Special precautions must be taken tc avoid undue contamination of samples
from proximity to sources during storage, shipping, etc., as well.
220
-------
VsSS
Figure B-3.
Capillary adsorption tube sample
(CATS) on the 'eft PFT diffusion
source on the right.
221
-------
sources end sanplers can be activated simultaneously without significantly
affecting data. The samplers are activated by simply removing the cap;
replacing the cap stops sampling.
The average concentrations are determined in the laboratory by gas
chromatography. Source release rates are verified through periodic weighings.
ASHRAE Crack Method
The American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning
Engineers (ASHRAE) offers a method for estimating infiltration rates from
simple measurements that are compared to a series of leakage tables. The
method is summarized in the ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals (ASHRAE 1977).
Quantitative application is Timited because, among other tilings, it is
necessary to know the indoor/outdoor pressure difference. Additionally,
even though ASHRAE provides tables of leakage characteristics for an
extremely wide range of building components, they warn the user that
leakage characteristics for these components as installed or built can
be expected to differ from the as-tested condition. Hunt (1980) reported
that cverestimation of the pressure differences results in infiltration rates
that range from "plausible" to "too high."
References
ASHRAE. 1977. ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals. American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating and Ai r-Condi tioni nq ErTgineers, Inc., Mew York, tl.Y.
Chapter 21: "Infiltration and Ventilation."
ASTM. 1980. Building Air Change Rate and Infiltration Measurements, ASTH
Special Technical D'jb1ication iio. /19, C.'M. Hunt.'J.C. King, and.H.R.
frechsel , eds. American Societv for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia,
Pa.
ASTM E7A1-80. 1981. Standard Practice for Measuring Air Leakage by^the
Tracer Di'ution Method. American Society for Testing and Materials,
Phi lade I phi a," Pa.
ASTM E779-81. 1981. Standard Practice for Measuring Air Leakage by the
Fan Press'jrization Method. American Society for Testing and Materials,
PTfTladelphia, Pa.
Blomsterberg, A.K., and D.T. Harrje. 1979. "Approaches to Evaluation
of Air Infiltration Energy Losses in Buildings," ASHRAE Trans. 85(1):
797-815.
Condon, P.E., et al . 1978. An Automated Control led-FI ow fl'ir Infiltration
Measurement System. L B L'rS8T9, L aw r e n c e~~B e r k e 1 ey Lab or a t o ry, Berkeley",
Calif.
222
-------
Dietz, R.N., et al. 1981. "An Inexpensive Perfluorocarbon Tracer Technique
for Wide-Scale Infiltration Measurements in l-'omes." Presented at the
Symposium on Indoor Pollution, Health and Energy Conservation. Archerst,
Mass. , 1980.
Dietz, R.N., and E.A. Cote. 1982. Air Infiltration Measurements in a
Home Using a Convenient Perfluorocarbon Tracer Technique. B17UTOT97R,
Brookhaven National Laboratory, Uster, N.Y.
Grimsrud, D.T., et al . 1979. Infiltration and Air Leakage Comparisons:
Conventional and Energy-Efficient Housing Designs. LBL-9157, Lawrence
Berkeley Laboratory, Berkeley, Calif.
Grimsrud, D.T., il.H. Sherman, J.E. Hanssen, A.M. Pearman, and D.T. Harrje.
1980. "An Intercomparison of Tracer Gases Used for Air Infiltration
Measurements." Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory Report Number 8394, November
1978; ASHRAE Trans. 86(1):258-67. American Society of Heating, Refrig-
erating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc., Atlanta, Ga.
Harrje, D.T., K. .'iadsby, and G. Linteris. 1982. "Sampling for Air Exchange
Rates in a Variety of Buildings." ASHRAE Trans. 88:1. American Society
of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc., Atlanta, Ga
Hunt, C.M. 1980. Air Infiltration: A Review of Some Existing Measure-
ment Technique's and TJa~ta. ASTM Special Technical Publication No. 719,
American Society for TeTting and Materials, Philadelphia, Pa.
Sherman, M.N., and D.T. Grimsrud. 1980. Measurement of Infiltration Using
Fan Pressurization and Weather Data. LBL-10852, Lawrence Berkeley
Laboratory, Berkeley, Calif.
INHALABLE PARTICIPATE MATTER
A crucial need for indoor and personal monitoring is the ability to
measure not only the mass of inhalable particulate matter but also the size
distribution and chemical or elemental makeup. Sulfates, nitrates, and a
r.umber of metals such as lead need to be reliably determined using quiet,
rugged personal monitors. However, no commercial instruments are available
that meet all of these requirements.
Two recently developed sampling systems for size-selective collection
of particulatP matter have been used in personal monitoring and stationary
monitoring approaches. The first, designed and tested by the Harvard Univer-
sity School of Public Health under EPRI sponsorship, uses a miniature cyclone
to separate the respirable fraction for filter collection. The seconds devel-
oped by NBS under EPA sponsorship, collects two si^e fractions--fine (<2.5 pm)
and coarse (>2.5 urn); separate sampling heads allow an upper size limit of 7,
10, or 15 umT Though not commercially available at this tine, both systems
can be fabricated from readily available components and materials.
223
-------
Harvard/EPRI Personal RSP Sampler
Design and development of the Harvard/EPRI sampler is summarized in Turner
et al. (1979a and 1979b). Principal components of the sampler are displayed
in Figure B-4, and specifications are listed in Table B-l. Sample air is drawn
through a 10 mm cyclone whose size separation characteristics match criteria
suggested by the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists.
Respirable particles exiting the cyclone are collected on a 37 mm fluoropore
filter (1 urn pore size) housed in a plastic cassette. Constant flow rate is
achieved through a pump with variable voltage control. The Brailsford brush-
less pump, identified in the specifications, offj-red extended operating life
(10,000 hours before servicing) and quiet operation. The system was configured
to operate from self-contained batteries (14 to 20 hours) or from standard a.c.
line current. A recharger for the battery pack is included as well.
Earlier versions of this sampling system were a straightforward adaptation
cf personal samplers devised for workplace monitoring, consisting of a Bendix
BOX Super Sampler or a [line Safety Appliance Portable Pjmp, Model 6. Problems
with excessive noise and relatively short battery life, as these units wore
originally designed for 8-hour workshift applications, led to the current
approach.
At the standard flow rate of 1.7 1/min, aerodynamic size characteristics
of the aerosol passing through the cyclone are as follows: «
Aerodynamic Diameter (urn) 2.0 2.5 3.5 5.0 10
Percent Passable 90 75 50 25 0
Because size separation is inertia!, higher flow rates decrease the aero-
dynamic cutoff, lower flow rates allow larger particles to pass through.
The Harvard/EPRI sampler exercises +0.1 1/mir. control over a flow rate range
of 0.5 to 3.0 1/min. ~
Cyclone efficiency is also affected by pulsations induced by pump action.
A 3 cm diameter, 0.8 cm thick, rubber pulsation damper, installed between the
filter cassette and the pump, allows sampling efficiency to approach that of
a critical-orifice-control 1 ed system.
Because the nylon cyclone is an insulator, it can accumulate a static
charge that could significantly affect collection of charged aerosols.
Blackman and Lippman (1974) reported higher collection efficiencies of charged
aerosols below 4 urn compared with neutralized aerosols of the same aerodynamic
diameters.
-------
r"
\i
v,
Djmpe-
O
-Filler
- Cyclone
-Flow adi
(- Line volt?1)*
-Vo!ta9e remulating board
and cn^fgmg circuit
J — Baitery pack
Figure B-4. Schematic of flow system.
Source: Turner et al. 1979a and 1979b.
225
-------
TABLE B-l. SPECIFICATIONS OF HARVARD/EPRI SAMPLER
Size:
Weight:
Pump:
Battery pack:
Flow control:
Range of
operation:
Case metal :
Cyclonic
separator:
Features:
15.2 x 15.2 x 7.6 cm
1.8 kg
Brailsford Brushless TD-3LL or TD-3L
Gould 12 V/1.2 SC cells Ni-Cd
Variable constant voltage
0.5 to 3.0 1pm
Alumi num
10-mm nylon with filter
b Self-containea battery charger
• No warmup time required to reach stable flow
o 14- to 20-hour sample time on battery mode, indefinite
from line voltage
a Minimum maintenance brushless pump (10,000 hours before
service)
• Quiet operation
Source: Turner et al. 1979a and 1979b.
226
-------
NBS-EPA Portable Ambient Particulate Sampler
A size-selective portable participate monitor was developed by NIBS
under EPA sponsorship. Because the EPA was planning planning on changing its
participate standard to one involving two size fractions (fine and coarse) of
inhalable particulates, a sampler capable of collecting both size fractions
for later chemical analysis was required. The design and development of the
NBS-EPA Portable Ambient Particulate Sampler is summarized in HcKenzie et al.
(1981) and in Bright and Fletcher (1983). Principal components of the sampler
are shown in Figure B-5; specifications are listed in Table B-2. Sample air is
drawn through a specially designed inlet where particles greater than the desired
upper size limit (7, 10, or 15 urn) are removed. A Nucleopore filter (37 mm,
8 pm pore size), coated with Apiezon L grease to retard particle bounce, collects
the coarse fraction (>2.5 pm), passing the fine fraction (<2.5pm) for collection
lection onto a PFTE fTlter (37 mm, Turn pore size). Constant sample flow of
6 1/min is supplied by a commercially available pump (Bendix BOX series)
operating off batteries. The system fits into a 10 x 10 x 18 cm commercially
available case.
The only noncommercial item in the system is the size selective inlet.
However, the inlet can be easily fabricated on a standard lathe (Fletcher
1982). Figure B-6 indicates critical dimensions for the standard sleeve and
inserts for the three cut points. The original system used aluminum for the
inlet, though other materials are suitable.
Preliminary tests have shown no observed reductions in flow rate for fine
filter loadings up to 100 urn; flow decreased by 7 and 12 percent at loadings
of 220 and 400 ym, respectively (Fletcher and Bright 1982). These tests were
performed in a room laden with cigarette smoke and required several consecutive
days of sampling before flow reduction was observed.
Wind tunnel tests indicate that collection efficiency is independent
of wind direction and wind speed at wind velocities below 0.9 ni/sec. At
higher wind velocities, collection efficiency decreases for larger particles.
For exanple, less than 20 percent of 15 m particles were collected at
2.4 m/sec, regardless of orientation. For intermediate-sized particles,
collection efficiency was 75 to 100 percent with a slight orientation effect
(Fletcher and Bright 1982). The sampler should perform adequately in indoor
settings, provided it is located in a draft-free area. In personal monitor-
ing situations in/olving outdoor microenvironments and in fixed sampling
outdoors, adjustments for altered collection efficiency due to winds may be
warranted for the coarse fraction.
221
-------
Coarse
Filter
Fine
Filter
Impactcr
Air-Tight Case
J
Motor-Pump
Mufflers
Air F!ov,
Fi'oure B-5. Schonntij diapram of the sampler.
Exhaust
Source: Fletcher and Bright D82.
228
-------
TABLE B-2. SPECIFICATIONS OF NBS PORTABLE AMBIENT
PARTICIPATE SAMPLER
Size:
Wei ght:
Pump:
Battery pack:
Flow Control:
Range of
Operation:
Size
Separation:
Battery Life:
Features:
10 x 10 x 18 cm
1.6 kg
Bendix (BDX 35, BOX 55, or BOX 60), or GILIAN
Gould Ni-Cd
+10 percent
5.5 to 6.5 1/min
Fine fraction (<2.5um), coarse fraction (^_2.5uir
upper limit cut points available at 7, 10,"15 pin.
Up to 60 hours
Two cut points with a variable upper limit allow
matching with future EPA standard for inhalable
oarticulates
Source: Fletcher and Bright 1982.
229
-------
Inlet Slit
•Oil Soaked FRIT
Impaction Surface
0-Ring Fitting
to Filter Casette
Critical Dimensions for Funnel Inserts
Cut Point (um) A (cm) LJflil
15 3.696 2.372
10 3.863 2.568
7 3.871 2.G75
Figure [3-6. Cross-section of the inlet to scale
[full length = 9.5 cm, 15 gm inseri shown; critical diu^sions in cm)
:e: Fletcher and Bright 1982-
230
-------
Inorganic Analysis of Participate Matter Samples
The inorganic constituents of participate matter that are of interest
to indoor air quality studies incluJe sulfates and nitrates and a number of
meta"ls. Among the metals, principal interest has focused on lead, though all
metallic and semi metal lie elements may be of interest. As with organic
aerosols (see page 232 of this appendix), inorganic material is usually
collected in conjunction with standard gravimetric sampling for inhalable
participate matter. Constituents of interest may be extracted for quantita-
tion, or the sample matrix may be submitted directly to nondestructive
testing.
For any given constituent, a wide variety of standard methods and tested
procedures are available. Extensive summaries are to be found in Katz (1980
and 1977). These range from relatively simple approaches involving
extraction and spectrophotometric determination (as for sulfates and nitrates)
to the more elaborate approaches of atomic absorption spectroscopy, neutron
activation analysis, proton-induced X-ray emission (PIXE), and X-ray fluores-
cence (as for metals).
It should be noted that in many cases, methods for inorganic constituents
were developed initially for source testing and for high-volume sampling.
Uith the smaller sample masses that are generally captured with size selection
and particularly with personal monitors for particulate matter, attention
should be given to the mariner in which analytical performance interacts with
sample mass. That is, detection limits of the analytical method rrust
correspond to acceptably low concentrations.
References
Blackman, M.W., and M. Lippman. 1974. "Performance Characteristics of the
Multicyclone Aerosol Sampler." Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J. 35:311-16.
Bright, D.S., and R.A. Fletcher. 1983. "New Portable Ambient Aerosol Sampler."
" Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc, J. 44(7):528-36.
Fletcher, R.A., and D.S. Bright. 1982. "NBS Portable Ambient Partiru'iate
Sampler." NBS Report under Interagency Agreement No. AD-13-F-0-034-0,
Office of Monitoring and Technical Support, Office of Research and
Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.
Fletcher, R.A. 1982. Center for Analytical Chemistry, National Bureau
of Standards, personal communications July 1982.
Katz, M. 1980. "Advances in the Analysis of Air Contaminants: A Critical
Review." J. Air Pollut. Control Assoc. 30:5:528-57.
Katz, M., ed. 1977- Methods of Air Sampling and Analysis. 2d ed. American
Public Health Association, Washington, D.C.
231
-------
McKenzie, R.L., U.S. Bright, B.C. Cadoff, R.A. Fletcher, and J.A. Hodgeson.
1981. "Development and Characterization of Personal Samplers for
Participate and Gases." Presented at the Symposium on Indoor Pollution,
Health and Energy Conservation, Amherst, Mass.
Turner, W.A. , J.O. Spengler, D.W. Dockery, and C..D. Colome. 1979a.
"Design and Performance of a Reliable Personal Monitoring System for
Respirable Particulates." J. /Mr Pollut. Control_ Ascoc. 29(7) :747-49.
Turner, W.A., J.D. Spengler, D.W. Dockery. and S.D. Colome. 197?b.
"Design and Performance of a Reliable Personal Monitoring System for
Respirable Particulates." Proceedings of the Workshop on the Development
and Usage of Personal Exposure Monitors for Exposure and Health Effects
Studies, Chapel Hill, H.C.
ORGANIC POLLUTANTS
Relatively limited work has been carried out to characterize organic
pollutants in the indcor environment. It is a highly complex topic and the
list of airborne organic compounds of interest is large. Their presence has
been attributed to combustion, to the use of solvents or solvent-containing
products, and to emanations from Pianufactured materials (see, for instance,
EPA 1981 and MAS 1981).
The majority of the monitoring approaches involve selectively concen-
trating target compounds on a collector, such as sorbent bed or filter, and
transferring the sample to the laboratory for analysis. Continuing advances
in analytical methods such as chrumatography and mass spectrometry permit
reliable detection and speciation from submicrugram quantities on a routine
basis.
Comprehensive reviews of methods that may be adapted to indoor settings
are to be found in Lamb et dl. (1980) and in Katz (1980). Organic pollutants
are classified into three broad classes as follows:
9 Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC)--relatively low molecular
weight species that exist in the vapor phase under ordinary
ambient conditions.
tetrachloride.
Examples include benzene and carbon
Semivolatile Organic Compounds (SVOC)—less volatile
species such as PCBs and pesticides.
Organic Aerosols — higher weight molecjlar species that
usually exist in the liquid or solid phase under ordinary
conditions. Examples include a wide range of polynuclear
aromatic hydrocarbons condensed onto particulate matter.
232
-------
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC)
VOCs are ordinarily collected by drawing sample air through a sorbent
bed that traps and retains target compounds. The VOCs of interest are later
desorbed in the laboratory and quantitated. Sampling trains can be configured
to meet the needs of monitoring strategies requiring personal monitoring,
indoor fixed monitoring, or outdoor fixed monitoring.
A number of solid sorbents are available; Table B-3 summarizes selected
sorbents and their properties. Use of Tcnax--CC and activated charcoal, with
gla^s or stainless steel tubes to house the sorbent material and constrain
sample flow through the bed, has been particularly widespread. Captured
material may be desorbed using solvent elution, end an aliquot may be injected
into a gas chromatograph for quantitation. Solvent eljtion, however, oartially
offsets the advantages of sorbent trapping by rediluting the sorbent-concentrated
sample.
In addition to its high collection efficiency, the particular advantage
that Tenax offers is the thermal stability to allow desorption at high tenper-
atui"es (up to 3&0° C). Charcoal has so far shown questionable utility in this
regard (see Table B-3).
Breakthrough and inherent limits of detection of the analytical system
(i.e., CC, GC/I1S, etc.) are of central importance in considering the use of
solid sorbants in sampling VOCs. Breakthrough refer; to saturation capacity
of the sorbent ^ed so that eluti&n occurs during sampling, and subsequent
quantitation could severely underestimate concentrations. Breakthrougn
volume (i.e., the volume of air sampled beyond which more than 50 percent of a
particular target compound entering the front of the sampling cartridge is lost
at the rear) is a useful concept in determining optimum sample volumes and the
size of a sorbent bed needed to meet the detection limit of the analytical
system. Table B-4 summarizes breakthrough volumes (liters) determined by
Fellizzari el al . (1981) to guide sampling procedures for VOCs in the Total
Exposure Assessment Methodology (TEAM) Study. In their approach a total sample
volume of 0.025 m^ (25 1) was selected to stay below the breakthrough volumes
of most target compounds.
Once sample volume and sorbant quantities have been determined, glass
or stainless steel collector tubes can be configured. The inlet and outlet
are usually plumed with glass wool to provide support. Extreme care must
be exercised in all handling of the sorbant to preclude contamination. 'Jsual
precautions include extended Soxhlet extraction of virgin and reused Tenax,
followed by vacuum drying at 100° C. Mesh sorting and tube packing are per-
formed under clean room conditions. Storage and handling when not actively
sampling should be through the use of clean, sealed containers.
A numbor cf vacuum sources exist to allow configurations for personal
and fixed sampling over desired time periods (see Wallace and Ott 1982).
233
-------
TABLE B-3. PROPERTIES OF SELECTED ADSORBENTS
Temp.
limit
Adsorbent (°C)
Tenax-GC 100
(.15/60 mesh)
Porapak R 250
(50/80 mesh)
Porapak N 190
(50/80 mesh)
AThersorb 400
XE-340
SK.C Acti- 400
va ted
Charcoal
'Pressure drop across
'Estimated.
Cond. Des.
temp. temp. Chemical
(°C) CC) composition
320 300 2,6-Diphenyl-
p-pheny 1 ene
oxide
235 150- n-Vlnyl
220 pyri-olldone
175 150 n-Ylnyl
pyrrol (done
320 300 Carbonized
styrene-
dl vi nyl
benzene
320 300 Carbonized
orgamcs
tapered tubes containing 1 .0 g of
Major thermal
dccornposi tlon
products
Alkyl benzene
St^rene
Benzene
Alkyl
phenol s
Vinyl pyr-
rol f done
Pyrrol 1 done
,'1yrr1H-
di ene
Vinyl pyr-
rol 1 done
Pyrrol Idone
Pyrrllidlene
None observed
(after condi-
tioning ,1 1
350" C and
observing on
GC/MS)
IJone
observed
adsorbent at a
Background Ap*
level (pslg)
Good 160
(none detected
above system
background)
After condition- — 1.1*
ino at 235° C,
background upon
desorblng Is
Poor at 220° C
(well above sys-
tem background) ;
Fair at 150" C
(slightly above
system oackground)
Poor 1.1
(well above
system back-
ground )
Good 0.6
(none detected
above system
background)
Good -0.6*
(none detected
above system
background)
3 1/min fl"w rate.
Capacity
Should efficiently
trap Intermediately
(and less) volatile
compounds with
slightly less affln-
1 ty for polar com-
pounds .
Should efficiently
trap Intermediately
(and less) volatile
compounds wi th
slightly great r
affinity for polar
compounds.
Should efficiently
trap Intermediately
(and less) volatile
compounds wi th
slightly greater
affinity for polar
compounds.
Should efficiently
trap highly (and
all less) volatile
compounds with
slightly greater
affinity for polar
compounds.
Should efficiently
trap hlqhly (and all
less) volatile com-
pounds with much
greater affinity
for polar compounds
Desurpti on
Very amenable to
thermal desorp-
tion for inter-
mediately (and all
higher) volatile
compounds .
Very amerable to
thermal desorption
for Intermediately
(and all hiqhcr)
volatile compounds.
Very amenable to
thermal desorption
for intermediately
(and al 1 higher)
volatile compounds.
Questionable
amenabi 1 1 ty to
thenn-il desorption
for al 1 but highly
volatile hydro-
carbons.
Questionable
amenabi 1 i ty to
thermal desorption
fr" ^11 but highly
volatile hydro-
caroons.
Pange of
uti 1 1 tv
Urn)
~95U->?POO
-750—1500
-750—1500
-450—750
-350— fTO
fource: Brooks et al. 1979.
-------
TABLE B-4. TENAX GC I3RFAKTHROUGH VOLUMES (LITERS) FOR TARGET COMPOUNDS*
Compound
Choi oroform
Carbon tetrachloride
1,2-Dichloroethane
1,1 ,1-Trichl o^oe thane
Tetrachl oroethyl ene
Tri chl oroethyl ene
Chlorobenzene
boil i ng
point (nC)
61
77
83
75
121
87
132
Temperature (°F)
50
56
45
71
31
481
120
1989
60
41
36
55
24
356
89
871
70
32
28
41
20
261
67
631
80
24
21
31
16
192
51
459
90
17
17
24
12
141
37
332
100
13
13
19
9
104
28
241
Source: Pellizzari et al. 1981.
*iror a Tenax GC bed of 1.5 cm i.d. x 8-0 cm.
235
-------
Semi volatile Organic Compounds (SVOC)
SVOCs--particularly pol «chl orinai.ed biphenyls and pesticides—are Generally
sampled by drawing sample air through polyurethane foam (called PUF or PRWI),
Target compounds are subsequently extracted in the laboratory and analysed.
Lewis and MacLeod (1982) have developed an approach that is adaptable
to personal monitoring as well as fixed sampling. Cylindrical PUF plugs
(22 mir, diameter x 7.6 cm) are cut from sheet stock open cell polyethe*" type
polyurethane foam (0.022 g/cm3) that is ordinarily used for upholstery.
Cylindrical cuts are facilitated by a stainless steel cutting dye. Prepara-
tion requires extended Soxhlet extraction. Plugs are inserted into a boro-
silicate glass tube (20 mm i.d. x 8 cN, one end of which is drawn down to a
7 mm o.d. open connection to allow attachment of a vacuum line.
Sample cartridges should be protected from contain nation by wrapping in
hexane-washed aluminum foil. Nominal sample volumes may be as high as 3 m^
(i.e., 4 1/min for 12 hours, for instance). PUF plugs are removed from the
cartridges in the laboratory, target compounds are extracted with a Soxhlet
extractor using diethylether in hexane, and quantisation may be carried out
using GC or higi performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Compounds of
interest can be measured at levels as low as 1 ng/m^.
Table B-5 indicates the range of compounds that can be sampled with
this system. Sampling can be extended to include VCCs as well as fortifying
collection efficiency for some SVOCs by inserting a Tenax sandwich between
two shortened DUF plugs in a single cartridge.
Organic Aerosols
In i.iany c&ses, sampling for organic aerosols is done in conjunction with
standard gravimetric sampling (i.e., as for inhalable particulate matter).
Attention in tnis area has focused largely on polynuclear aromatics (PNiA),
which represent ubiquitous combustion products that have demonstrated animal
carcinogenicity.
Once extracted from the filter by an appropriate solvent, PNAs may be
quantified (as a class or as individual compounds) by a variety of methods
including routine GC, HPLC, and thin layer chromatography (TLC) (see Katz 198C)
Spectroscopic techniques are also coming into use. In particular,
room-temperature phosphorescence (RTP) soectroscopy has overcome the need for
cryogenic treatment (Vo-Dinh et al. 1981). In this method, PNAs are isolated
by liquid chronatography and diluted in ethanol. A 3 ul aliquot is spotted
onto a filter previously treated with a solution of heavy metal salts,
and irradiated with ultraviolet light. Resulting phosphorescence is enhanced
by the heavy metals and can be compared to reference spectra levels to
identify and quantify PlIAs.
236
-------
TAKE R-5. COLLECTION EFFICIENCIES
Compound
Organochlorine pesticides
a-Hexachloracyclohexane
T-Hexachlorocyclohexane (li
Technical chlordane
p.p'-DDT
P,p'-DDE
Mi rex
2,4-0 Estors:
Isopropyl
Butyl
Isobutyl
Isooctyl
Semi volatile organochiorine
1 ,2 ,3-Trichl orobenzene
1 , 2, 3, 4-Te tree hi orobenzene
Pentachl orobenzene
Hexachl orobenzene
Hexachlorocyclopentadiene
2,4,5-Trichlorophenol
Pentachlorophenol
Aroclor 1242
Aroclor 1254
Aroclor 1260
Organophosphorus pesticides
Dichlorvos (DDVP)
Ronnel
Chlorpyri fos
Diazinon
Methyl parathior.
Ethyl parathion
Mai athion
Quantity
introduced,
M9
0.005
ndane) 0.05-1.0
0.2
0.6, 1.2
0.2, 0.4
0.6, 1.2
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
compounds and PCB
1.0
1.0
1.0
0.5, 1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.2
0.2
1.0
0.6
0.3
0.3
Air
vol ume
m3
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
3.6
3.6
3.6
3.6
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
Collection efficiency
x, %
115
91.5
84.0
97.5
102
85.9
92.0
82.0
79.0
>CC*
6.6*
62.3-
94.0
94.5
8.3*
108
107
96.0
95.0
109
72.0
106
108
84.0
80.0
75 9
100§
RSD, -.
3
8
11
21
11
22
5
10
20
20
22
33
12
8
12
3
16
15
7
j
13
8
9
18
19
15
'=, n
6
5
8
12
12
7
12
11
12
12
8
5
5
5
5
5
5
6
6
11
2
12
12
18
18
18
* Not vaporized. Value based on % retention efficiency of 81.0 (RSD 10%, n 6).
# % Collection efficiencies were 98%, 98%, and 97? (n = 2), respectively, for these
three compounds by the PUF/Tenax GC "sandwich" trap.
§ Decomposed in generator; value leased on I retention efficiency of 1C1"
(RSD 7%, n 4).
Sourre: Lewis and MacLeod 1982.
Legend:
x average collection efficiency, in percent
RSD = relative standard deviation, in percent
n = nuniber of trials
-------
It should be noted that in many cases analytical methods for PNAs
were initially developed for source testing and for high volume ambient
sampling. With the smaller sample masses that are generally captured with
size selection and particularly with personal monitors for particulate
matter, attention should be given to the manner in which analytical perfor-
mance interacts with sample mass. For example, detection of nanogram
quantities may well force collection volumes beyond the flow capacity of the
sampler. Or worse still, a short sampling period coupled to a large sample
volume could severely alter air flow patterns in some indoor settings. In
many cases, compensation can be forced by reducing the extraction volume,
or by pooling replicate samples for composite analysis.
References
Brooks, J.J., et al . 1979. "A Combination Sorbant System for Broe.d Range
Organic Sampling in Air." In Proceedings of the Symposium on the
Development and Usage of PersonTl Monitors for Exp'osure and Health
Studies. EPA-6Q019-79-032". OTSTTnv frorfmenteTT 'ProtectiorTAgency,
Research Triangle Park, N.C.
EPA. 1981. Workshop on Indoor Air Quality Research Needs. Interagency
Research Group on Indoor Air Quality, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Washington. D.C.
Lamb, S.I., et al . 1980. "Organic Coiipounds in Urban Atmospheres: A
Review of Distribution, Collection and Analysis." J. Air Pollut.
Control Assoc. 30(10):1098-1115. ~~
Lewis, R.G., and K.E. MacLeod. 1982. "Portable Sampler for Pesticides
and Semivolative Industrial Organic Chemicals in Air." Anal. Chem.
54-310-15.
National Research Council, Committee on Indoor Pollutrnt.s. 1981. Indoor
Pol 1utants. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.
Pellizzari, E.D., et al . 1981. "Total Exposure Assessment Methodology
(TEAM) Study: Phase II Work Plan.'1 RTI/2190/00-01S, Research Triangle
Institute, Research Triangle Park, N.C.
Vo-Dinh, T.. R.B. Gamaft, and P.R. Martinez. 1981. "Analysis of a Workplace
Air Particulate Sample by Synchronous Luminescence and Room-Temperature
Phosphorescence." Anal. Chem. 53:253-58.
Wallace, L.A. and H.R. Ott. 1982. "Personal Monitors: A State-of-the-
Art Survey." J. Air Pollut. Control Assoc. 32:601-10.
238
-------
FORMALDEHYDE
The most popular methods for measuring indoor formaldehyde concentra-
tions employ aqueo-is bubblers for air sampling followed by colorimetric
analysis. In applying these methods, two bubblers in series, operating under
vacuum, are recommended. The collection efficiency of one bubbler is approxi-
mately 80 percent; the second bjbbler boosts the total collection efficiency
to approximately 95 percent. The contents of each bubbler may be analyzed
separately or the contents may be pooled. Additionally, sampling frequently
takes place wi^h the bubblers chilled. Under these conditions, a vapor trap
(simply an empty bubbler) should be installed betweei, the second bubbler and
the pump.
Chromotropic Acid Method
Detailed procedures for the Chromotropic Acid Method may be found
in NIOSH PSCAI1 125 (NIOSH 1977). Sample air is bubbled through a 1 percent
sodium bisulfate solution. In the laboratory, Chromotropic acid reagent is
added to an aliquot of the absorbing solution. Concentrated sulfuric acid is
added slowly to the absorbing solution, to avoid spattering due to the
exotheTiic reaction. The treated aliquot is allowed to cool to room temper-
ature. Ahsorbance is read at 580 nn .in a spectrophotoneter. Formaldehyde
content is determined from a curve derived from fresh standard formaldehyde
solutions.
Concentrations as low as 0.1 ppm can be determined in a 25 liter air
sample (based on 20 ml of absorbing solution and a difference of 0.05 absor-
bance units above blank). Sensitivity can be boosted by increasing the
sample air volume (i.e. extending me samp'i o period or increasing the flow
rate) or by decreasing the amount of absorbing solution in the bubblers.
Godish (1981) recommends a sample flow rate of 1 liter per minute, a
90-minute sample period and 10 ml absorbing reagent in each impinger.
Modified Pararosaniline Method
Detailed procedures for the Modified Pararosaniline Method may be found
in Miksch et al . (1981). Sample air is oubbled througn deionized, distilled
water that is kept chilled (i.e., ice bath or refrigerator) djring sampling.
In t!ie laboratory, acidified pararosanil ine is added to an aliquot of the
sample solution, and thoroughly mixed. Then, sodium sulfite reagent added and
thorougly mixed. The treated aliouot is placed in a 25° C water bath and color
development is allowed 60 minutes. Absorbance is read at 570 nm in a spectro-
photometer. Formaldehyde content is determined from a curve derived from
fresh standard solutions.
Concentrations as low as 0.025 ppm can be determined in a 60-liter
air sarple (based on 20 ml of absorbing solution and a difference of
0.05 absorbance units above blank).
219
-------
Additional Formaldehyde Methods
A visual colorimetric screening method based on the methylbenzothiazolin
(HF5TH) technique has been reported by Matthews and Hovve'M (1981a). This
method is specific for all aliphatic aldehyoes, but in domestic indoor air
settings, formaldehyde is expected to be the principal contributor. Sampling
is carried out using a passive semi permeable; membrane device with water as an
absorbant. When the color change is fully developed, the solution is compared
to a reference color chart to determine concentration range.
Formal delude concentrations may also be determined by collection onto
various solid sorbants followed by laboratory analysis. Beasley et al. (1980)
suggest collection onto silica gel coated with 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine
(2,4-DNPH). During sampling, formaldehyde forms a specific hydrazone which
is extracted using acetonitrile and quantified by HPLC with UV detection.
Matthews et al. (1981b) have developed a simple approach using 13x
molecular sieve collection followed by water-rinse desorption and colorimetric
analysis based on the Modified Pararosaniline Method. This ppproach has been
tested for passive sampling as well as pumped sampling, and has shown high
collection efficiencies (>99.9 percent) and stability (shelf life of sealed
exposed media at <38° C is at least 1 week). Care nust be exercised in
applying this technioue, however, because the sorbant also has an affinity for
water; one study is limiting sampling to 2 liters per minute for 30 minutes
(Battelle 1982). nonetheless, a lower detection limit of 0-025 ppm is to
be expected.
References
Battelle. 1982. "Quality Assurance Project Plan for Control Technology
Assessment and Exposure Profile for Workers Exposed to Hazards in
the Electronic Components Industry." U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency Contract Number 6a-03-3026, Battelle Columbus Laboratories,
Columbus, Ohio.
Beasley, R.K., C.E. Hoffman, M.L. Rueppel , and J.W. Warley. 1980. "Sampling
Formaldehyde in Air With Coated Solid Sorbent and Determination by High
Performance Liquid Chromatography." Anal. Chem. 52(7):1110-14.
Godish, T. 1981. "Formaldehyde and Bull dingr,--Rel ated Illness." J. Environ.
Health 44(3):116-21.
Mdtthevs, T.G., and T.C. Howell. 1981a. "Visual Colorimetric Formaldehyde
Screenino Analysis for Indoor Air." J. Air Pollut. Control Assoc.
31(11) :1181-84.
-------
Matthews, T.G., T.C. Howell, and A.R. Hawthorne. 1981b. "Practical Measure-
ment Technology for Low Formaldehyde Concentration Levels: Applications
to Personnel Monitoring Needs." Presented at the National Symposium on
Monitoring Hazardous Organic Pollutants in Air, Raliegh, N.C., Hay 1981.
(Research was sponsored jointly by the Consumer Product Safety Commission
under Interagency Agreement 79-1558 and the Office of Health and Environ-
mental Research, U.S. Department of Energy, under Contract Number
W-7405-eng-26 with the Union Carbide Corporation.)
Miksch, R.R , D.W. Anthon, L.Z. Fanning, C.D. Hollowell, K. Revzan, and
J. Clanville. 1981. "Modified Pararosaniline Method for the Determination
of Formaldehyde in Air." Anal. Chem. 53:2118-23.
NIOSH. 1977. NIOSH Manual of Analytical Methods. 2d ed., Vol. 1. U.S.
Department~of Health, Education, and Uelfare, Cincinnati, Ohio.
RADOU
Using commercially available passive devices, average indoor radon
concentrations can be measured over periods of several months using the Track
Etch™ Method (Alter and Fleischer 1981) or over periods of a few weeks
using thermoluminescent dosimetry (George and Breslin 1977). For shorter
periods (i.e., on the order of a few days), no commercially available passive
devices were- identified. George (1982/, however, has recently reported a
passive method based on activated carbon adsorption and gamma ray detection
that is inexpensive, maintenance free, and can be easily fabricated from
commercially available components. Jhe activated carbon canister method
exhibits a lower limit of detection for radon of 0.2 nCiM~3 for an exposure
period of 72 hours.
The device, originally based on the Mil Canister developed by the
U.S. Army Chemical Corps in Uorld War II, is a cylindrical container 5 cm high
by 10 cm diameter, which 'is filled with 200 g of coconut shell carbon (i.e., to
a depth cf 4.5 cm). A metal screen and retainer a ring hold the activated
carbon in place. The canister is fitted with a removable metal cover taped
in place to provide an air-tight seal when not sampling.
To sample, the-metal cover ft; simply removed in the area to be monitored
and resealed at the end of the sampling period. The amount of sorbed radon
in the carbon bed is determined by measuring the gamma rays produced by the
decay of radon progeny. George used an 8 x 8 cm crystal coupled to e
compact pulse height analyzer and printer. Total gamma activity from the
radon prooeny decay is determined from the total absorption peaks of
214Pb(0.242, 0.294, and 0.352 MeV) and of 214Bi(p.609 MeV). Average
radon concentration may be calculated from the following equation:
net CPM
Rn
E x Ts x DF x CF
241
-------
Rn = Average radon concentration during exposure (nCii-1~3)
net CPM = Ganma counts per minute minus background
E = Calibration factor for gamma analyzer (CPM/nCi)
Ts = Exposure period in minutes, winch generally should not
exceed 5,500 minutes (3.82 days — the half life of radon)
DF = Decay factor for radon from midpoint of exposure until
time of counting
CF = Calibration factor for canister (nCi min~l/nCiM~3).
Calibration tests showed no discernible differences in response for tem-
peratures ranging from 18° C to 27° C. Response of the device does, however,
decrease with exposure time and h'imidity. Figure B-7 illustrates this effect.
The middle curve (RH = 40°i to 70%) rep. esents conditions most often encountered
indoors. Corrections for humidity can be made by determining the amount of
water sorbed during exposure gravimetrical ly and applying a second calibration
curve (See Figure B-8).
These devices ?re reuseoble. Before sampling, residual radon (a.id sorbed
water) can be purged with heated air (100° C for 5 minutes) or by baking in an
oven at 120° C for several hours. Exposed canisters can be counted up to
10 days after the end of exposure, thus allcwing the devices to be transferred
by mail. Exposure periods should not exceed 3 to 4 days.
References
Alter, H.W., and R. L. Fleischer. 1981. "Passive Integrating Radon Mor'tor
for Environmental Monitoring." Health Phys. 40:693.
George, A.C., and A.J. Breslin. 197;. "Measurement of Environmental Radon
with Integrating Instruments." Workshop on Methods for Measuring
Radiation in and Around Uranium Kills. 3(9). E.D. Howard, ed. Atomic
Industrial Forum, Inc., Washington, D.C.
George, A.C. 1982. "Passive, Integrated Measurement of Indoor Radon Using
Activated Carbon." Environmental Measurements Laboratory, U.S. Department
of Energy, New York, N.Y. (submitted to Health Phys. ).
-------
V
.12
.10
.08
-06
cS
85.02
0
0
Rl-l = 15-25%
RH =40-70%
O RH = 100%
20
00
40 60 80
EXPOSURE,MRS
Figure B-7. Variation of radon adsorption versus time at different humidities.
Source: George 1982.
20
-------
24
20
p l2
*JJ
8
4
0
0
\0
RELATIVE HUMIDITY, %
O = 100
X = 72
A = 50-55
D =' 40
20 30 40 50 GO
EXPOSURE, MRS
70
00
Source: George 1982.
Figure B-8. Water adsorption versus time at different humidities.
00
100
-------
FIBROUS AEROSOLS
Airborne fibers of interest in indoor air quality monitoring include all
var.eties. of asbestos; a number of manufactured fibers such ?s mineral wools,
fibrous glass wool, and some ceramics; and organic fibers such as animal, dander
and wood dusts (EPA 1981). Manual sampling for fibrous aerosols generally
consists of drawing sample air through a membrane filter and quantifying fiber-
concentrations through optical microscopy or, when resources permit, analyzing
the sample by sophisticated analytical procedures such as electron microscopy
and X-ray diffraction.
Optical Microscr>py
Detailed procedures for determining exposure to airborne asbestos fibers
though filter collection and optical sizing and counting are available in
NIOSH P&CAM 239 (NIOSH 1977). In this method, asbestos fibers are defined
as particles of physical dimension greater than 5 urn with a length to diameter
ratio of 3 to 1 or greater. It should be noted that the method is not asbestos-
specific. Rather, the method assesses all fibers that meet the dimensional-
requirements. Further, the resolution limits of optical microscopy along with
the assigned cutoff of 5 urn precludes assessing fibers that fall below this size
range. Thus, the method provides an index of asbestos exposure rather than a
true measure of asbestos fiber counts.
Sampling is usually carried out using a 34 mm membrane filter with 0.8 urn
pore size mounted in an open-faced cassette. Sample flow is selected upon
consideration of desired sampling period and minimum detection limits. For
personal monitoring applications, a number of battery-powered pumps with stable
flow rate control are available.
At the end of sampling, exposed filters are resealed in their cassettes
and tak^n to the laboratory. In the laboratory, the filters are sectioned,
mounted onto microscope slides, and chemically treated to make the membrane
filter transparent. The slides are then examined using phase contrast illu-
mination at a magnification of 400 X to 500 X to acquire a statistically valid
count of fibers that meet the sizing criteria.
Though NIOSH indicates chat the experience level of the analyst performing
the fiber count does not significantly contribute to variations. Novice or
untutored fiber counters who work only from published instructions often
obtain fiber counts that are as little as half of those obtained by experienced
fiber counters. Therefore, it is strongly recommended that formal training be
a pert of the operation. • Introductory and continuing training programs are
offered by a number of organizations; published notices frequently appear in
the professional literature (i.e., the Journal of the Air Pollution Control
Association and the American Industrial Hygiene Association Journal).
245
------- |