United States
Environmental
Protection Agency
Research and Development
Washington, D.C.
20460
EPA
600/9-78-040
December 1978
I
RESEARCH
HIGHLIGHTS
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foreword
Scientists have certain natural enemies.
Ignorance is one. Prejudice and mytholo-
gy are others. Where there is a gap in our
knowledge, unfortunately, there is all too
often someone ready to fill it with half-
truths and myths. Thus filled, the gap is no
longer the unknown waiting to be explored
—it has become a prejudice which is often
hotly defended in the face of contrary
truths.
During 1978, we in EPA's Office of Re-
search and Development challenged sev-
eral popular myths head-on. For example,
it has become popular of late to look upon
environmental pollution controls as a ma-
jor cause of inflation. Armed with half-
truths concerning the potential costs of
assuring that our citizens are protected
against unacceptable doses of various poi-
sons, a small band of 'true believers' is at-
tacking many of our environment quality
standards. What such attacks fail to recog-
nize, however, is the immense potential
benefit, savings, and deflationary impact
which can be realized from a cleaner envi-
ronment. Our study of the health care and
property value costs of air pollution in the
Los Angeles area (p.67), for example,
quantifies some of the costs of air pollu-
tion and shows how these costs may be far
greater than the costs of cleaning up that
pollution.
Another of our 1978 accomplishments
was the testing of alternative methods of
treating wastewater (p.20) which are not
only effective, but also less expensive and
less energy-intensive. In our efforts to re-
duce air pollution, we have designed an oil
furnace for homes (p.45) which will not
only meet or exceed our emissions goals,
but will do so at an 18 percent savings in
fuel use!
Another myth challenged by our re-
search efforts in 1978 is the feeling that
"everything is poisonous or causes cancer
anyway, so why care?" This is a very pow-
erful myth that spawns a sense of helpless-
ness and inaction. It is also dead wrong.
One series of tests sponsored by the Na-
tional Cancer Institute, for example,
showed that only 11 out of 120 industrial
chemicals tested caused cancer when ad-
ministered to test animals in large doses. In
1978, we took significant strides toward
improving, and making less expensive,
methods to determine whether or not a
substance is safe. Our 'bugwatcher' (p.2)
techniques proved able to detect, in a very
short time, behavioral changes in test ani-
mals exposed to various substances. Such
changes are often early warnings of toxici-
ty. Another experiment (p.4) provided a
rapid means of determining how much a
substance might bioaccumulate (concen-
trate) as it is passed up the food chain even-
tually to become food for humans. Yet
another of our studies (p.21) indicates that
wastewater treatment plants are not haz-
ardous to the health of nearby residents.
While such research may help to im-
prove the healthfulness of the environ-
ment, other projects save lives in a far
more direct fashion. The 'rumble reader'
(p.25) for example, was developed by ORD
to test the stability of hazardous materials
storage ponds. It is now receiving far more
widespread use in testing the stability of
some of the nation's earth dams to help
avoid the kinds of tragedies caused by dam
failures in the past.
At the same time as we seek knowledge
in these and many other areas, we provide
direct support to the regulatory offices of
the EPA. For example, in a massive effort
which involved four of our laboratories
during much of the year, ORD provided
guidelines for water quality criteria to pro-
tect aquatic life for 65 different chemicals.
In addition, one of our health laboratories
developed, under a crash effort, health
assessments for 20 of the 65 chemicals.
We are proud of our research program,
and of the benefits that it provides. As you
read through this, the second of our Re-
search Highlights reports, I think you'll
see why.
Stephen J. Gage
Assistant Administrator
Research and Development
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contents
introduction
toxics 1
drinking water 7
ground water 12
measuring the minuscule 15
simulating the environment 18
municipal wastewater 20
rumble reader 25
assistance/emergencies 29
pollutant transport 36
nitrogen oxides 43
sulfur sludge 48
oil shale 52
diesels 54
monitoring air quality 58
air pollution index 63
ORD resources 68
in conclusion 70
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office
Washington, D.C. 20402
Stock Number 055-000-00174-0
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introduction
1978 research highlights
This collection of research project
highlights describes some of the most in-
teresting, fruitful, and far-reaching results
produced by EPA's Office of Research and
Development (ORD) during 1978. In some
cases the highlighted projects are culmina-
tions of either many years of research or
the integration of separate but related
studies; in other cases the projects were
initiated, conducted and completed in one
year. These latter projects are generally
representative of ORD's ability to react to
emergencies, to meet requests for assist-
ance, and to handle other situations that
demand a rapid, intensive response.
Our main funcion at ORD is to provide
EPA with a sound scientific base for the
promulgation, enforcement, and review of
environmental standards and regulations.
The primary research results consist of in-
formation to characterize pollution
threats, define the health and ecological
dangers from polluting sources, and when
possible to develop, test, and evaluate ap-
propriate means to control pollution.
Inherent in our research is an apprecia-
tion and careful consideration of the costs,
in terms of capital outlay or of quality of
life degradation, which may result from
controlling or not controlling identified
harmful pollution. A specific example of
this perspective is in the chapter entitled
"Air Pollution Index" that documents re-
sults of a study on the balance of risks and
benefits of air pollution control.
Part of our research program is also the
anticipation of potential pollution threats,
particularly new types of pollution that
may result from our nation's shifting ener-
gy posture to meet the looming energy cri-
sis. Diesel cars with their high fuel econ-
omy may capture significant shares of the
American automobile market but may, at
the same time, contribute substantial
amounts of hazardous pollutants to urban
air. Our chapter on "Diesels" discusses our
efforts to determine the hazards. Similarly,
oil shale may become a key domestic ener-
gy supply, but it too may produce new
types and concentrations of pollution. Our
"Oil Shale" chapter describes how EPA is
helping the oil shale industry to "design-
in" technology and management practices
adequate to meet future regulations. The
philosophy applied in both of these cases is
representative of many of our other pro-
jects, that is, that scientific knowledge
about a pollution source before it becomes
a problem will enable costly control retro-
fits to be avoided. Hence, we work to keep
the environment clean at the lowest cost.
Our research is carried out by EPA
scientists in ORD laboratories, by re-
searchers employed by other federal agen-
cies and funded by EPA, or by grantees
and contractors supervised by ORD scien-
tific management personnel. All of GUI
research seeks to apply the most advanced
scientific techniques and, where relevant,
sensitive and humane treatment of test
animals. The studies are in all parts of the
nation, from an air pollution monitoring
project in St. Louis, to collection of pollu-
tion-ingesting mollusks along the New
England coast to samples of drinking
water supplies from Seattle and other ma-
jor cities. In many of these projects we
have collaborated with local research in-
stitutions and, in some instances, have
coordinated with interested individuals.
We intend to continue those associations
and to forge new ones. Inside of the back
cover of this report is a list of names of
ORD people knowledgeable about specific
topics. If you are interested in a particular
topic or need any of the background infor-
mation not contained in these brief sum-
maries we urge you to contact us. Through
such contacts you will get an even better
picture of our programs and ORD may
learn how research can be better used. In
addition, we will learn of your concerns
and be better able to assure that our re-
search program responds to the major en-
vironmental concerns of our nation.
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toxics
The effects of
toxic substances are
determined by ORD tests
The chemical industry is a constant con-
tributor to contemporary American life,
Synthetic fibers arc now used extensively
in the manufacture of clothing as well as
for human body tissue replacement. Pesti-
cides and fertilizers are important agri-
cultural tools, Drugs save lives; plastics
save money and weight. Millions of jobs
are generated, billions of dollars ex-
changed.
However, the manufacture, use, and
disposal of the everyday products that eon-
tain some of the more than two million re-
cognized chemical compounds can present
significant dangers, dangers that are often
difficult to anticipate. Not until the re-
lease, for example, of tens of millions of
pounds of polychlorinated biphenyls
(PCBs) into the environment did scientists
realize how toxic and persistent these com-
pounds were. These PCBs, used in the
manufacture of plastics, electrical trans-
formers, and capacitors, have been found
to collect in human tissue and even in the
milk of nursing mothers. They have caused
tumors, birth defects, and various liver
anomalies in laboratory animals and are a
suspected cause of some cancers. Al-
though severely regulated since 1970, high
levels of the chemical still exist in the Great
Lakes and other major water bodies across
the country.
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Toxic Substances
Control
In 1976, Congress enacted the Toxic
Substances Control Act in recognition of
the possible ha/ards posed by chemicals
whose effects were yet unknown. The law
charged h'PA with the responsibility of an-
ticipating potential chemical dangers, and
authorized the agency to obtain available
indrstiy data on the production, use, and
health effects of chemical subsian<-<-s and
mixtures. Today, ITA reviews the1- ilata,
evaluates chemicals for theii carcinogenic,
nuiiagenie, behavioral, and synergistic et-
fects and determines whether they arc free
of unreasonable risk to health and
environment.
The si/e of the chemical industry, the
number of compounds that exist, and their
pervasiveness, all serve to make Fl'A's
task particularly challenging. One basic
approach being followed by OR!) to meet
this challenge is the development of an ear-
ly warning system to anticipate potential
environmental hazards. The system in-
volves a series of rapid testing approaches
to determine first, what chemicals are en-
tering today's waterways, and second,
what the effects of these new chemicals
might be on tomorrow's environment.
Rapid Testing:
The Survey Technique
A program to analy/e thousands of in-
dustrial effluents or wastes for organic
compounds thought to pose health haz-
ards was begun in 1978. The analysis tool
used in this program is a gas-chromato-
graphy-mass spectromelry system (see
"Measuring the Minuscule").
This system, a single, comprehensive an-
alytical procedure, is capable of identify-
ing many organic substances in concentra-
tions as low as 0.5 parts per billion. Once
identified, the toxicity of a substance can
then be determined using computerized ac
cess to an organic substance data base.
Ac! ual Bm.'\vuK'lK'i nun emeu! hnni' ohserv eJ on video screen
Test animals under video camera
Currently, OR I) chemists ate developing
a protocol for the standardi/ed analysis (•
114 key industrial pollutants, a procedure
complicated by the presence of do/ens or
hundreds of compounds in a typical
waste-water sample. Information devel-
oped in these analyses and through addi-
tional surveys, along with health effects
dala already determined, will establish
whether or not given chemical discharges
should be limited or prohibited.
Rapid Testing:
Bugwatcher
Changes in the behavioral characiei
istics of animals can be used as early in-
dicators of physiological problems caused
by toxics. Such behavioral changes may in-
clude shifts in an animal's response to
light, the loss of the ability to sense the
presence of food, and, in aquatic animals,
a sharp increase in swimming speed which
can lead to retarded growth.
In the past, short-term toxieily assays,
taking as long as 96 hours to complete,
have only provided researchers with the le-
thal levels of given test chemicals. Ecologi-
cally protective levels cannot, however, be
determined from such assays since they are
not capable of evaluating adverse non-
lethal, but nonetheless harmful effects.
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In (he search Tor a better rapid assay
method, Bugwatcher, a system capable of
measuring the ability of small animals to
respond physically to the presence of tox-
ics, was developed in 1978. The Bug-
watcher is actually a closed-circuit TV sys-
tem that monitors and records a test ani-
mal's movement. The TV recordings are
then analy/ed by a minicomputer, which
provides a numerical description of the
rates and patterns of the movement.
In a typical experiment, the swimming
behavior of 20 control and 20 toxicant-
exposed animals is video-taped, then
analyzed by computer. The computer
draws the path traveled by each animal and
calculates the various characteristics of
their movement. The entire process takes
only a few hours. With the statistical sum-
maries derived from a series of such tests,
it is possible to analyze a relatively large
number of animals and their response to a
toxic substance in a short period of time.
The system is now being evaluated to de-
termine how broadly it can be applied to
BUGWATCHER PATTERNS
toxicity testing. From the results to date,
the indication is that Bugwatcher is a pow-
erful tool for the ecological assessment of
chemicals, with significant potential for
rapidly providing the information necessa-
ry for rule making, decision making, and
the arbitration of disputes.
Rapid Testing:
Evaluative Models
With the large number of new chemicals
produced each year, I-FA found it neces-
sary to develop an economical, effective,
and rapid means of forecasting the po-
tential toxic effect in natural waterways as
a result of their manufacture, use, and
disposal. Field studies were considered to
be too costly and too time-consuming,
and, more important, such studies could
provide information only after the fact.
Consequently, research attention centered
on developing laboratory techniques to
forecast the length of time a given chemical
remains toxic and where it collects in the
aquatic system.
In 1978, OKI.) developed a computer
model capable of delineating the environ-
mental pathways followed by potentially
harmful chemicals in freshwater systems
such as ponds, lakes, and streams. Using
this model, L-PA researchers were able to
evaluate the effects of nine chemicals that
might be found in the effluents of fossil
fuel production plants. Two pesticides
were also modeled. One, Mirex, used to
control fire ants in the Southeast, was
banned because of its severe adverse envi-
ronmental effects.
Computer display of movement patterns
------- An error occurred while trying to OCR this image.
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Further ORD research in 1978 was fo-
cused on developing a rapid and inexpen-
sive method of measuring the bioconcen-
tration factor of chemicals. This research
showed that a bioconcentration factor can
be accurately estimated from the fat solu-
bility of a chemical. Experience has shown
that fat solubility below a certain level
means that a chemical will not bioaccumu-
late significantly. Consequently, new
chemicals subjected to the quick test of sol-
ubility and found to fall below the critical
level may not need to be tested. On the
other hand, those chemicals above the
level can be targeted for more extensive
and expensive testing to see if indeed a
hazard exists. Since approximately 70% of
existing chemicals have fat solubilities that
fall below the critical level, the cost and
time of determining the bioaccumulate
hazard have been substantially reduced by
this ORD research.
Dimilin
In 1978, ORD performed a study on
Dimilin, one of a new generation of insec-
ticides designed to act in a specific toxic
mode. In the case of Dimilin and the other
"chitin inhibitors," death ensues through
interfering with the formation of an in-
sect's chitin, the hard outer-covering or ex-
oskeleton.
Although much was known of Dimilin's
effect on insect target species, little infor-
mation existed on the insecticide's effect
on nontarget species that might come in
contact with Dimilin. EPA scientists
wanted to find out, for example, the po-
tential effect of Dimilin on marine and es-
tuarine species that also formed chitinous
exoskeletons.
Preliminary tests performed on a species
of commercial shrimp showed they were
susceptible to Dimilin. However, due to
the high cost of laboratory monitoring
during a shrimp's entire life-cycle (one
year) and their general unavailability at
proper stages of development, ORD chose
a small mysid shrimp (14-16 day life-cycle)
for an in-depth study of the effects of Dim-
ilin on small marine crustaceans.
juveniles per female
CONTROL
GROUP
21.4
NOMINAL TEST CONCENTRATIONS (ug/li)
.075
13.5
.25
10.2
.5
7.2
1.0
2.4
92.5
75.5
81.5
71.0
62.0
% survival of adults
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Toxic Effects
of Dimilin
Test results from exposing niysid shrimp
to Dimilin indica d the following:
• a toxic level uf 2.0 parts of Dimilin per
billion parts of water
• a lack of normal exoskeleton at the
toxic level
• a diminished reproduction rate pro-
portionate to increases in Dimilin con-
centration
• a reproduction rate correlating to the
length of time of exposure
• younger shrimp were more susceptible
to Dimilin than mature shrimp.
Dimilin was also found to affect succes-
sive generations of shrimp. If the shrimp
matured in sublethal concentrations of the
insecticide and produced another genera-
tion, this latter generation produced fewer
juveniles, which died sooner than unex-
posed shrimp, a pattern observed even
when this second generation was not ex-
posed to Dimilin. It was assumed that this
phenomenon could be attributed to the
Dimilin being carried over in eggs. The
third generation, however, was not found
to be severely affected.
6
Implications
It is felt that if Dimilin in even sublethal
levels were to be released in a marine envi-
ronment that the crustacean assemblage
may suffer severely. The disappearance or
significant reduction of such small crusta-
ceans could result in a diminished food
source for both fish and the larger, com-
mercially important crustaceans. Also, if
these larger crustaceans—lobster, crabs,
crawfish—were affected in a manner simi-
lar to their smaller mysid shrimp cousins,
normal development and molting larval
stages would certainly be altered, affecting
subsequent availability, and possible suit-
ability for human consumption.
Prediction of
Dimilin Concentrations
As part of the evaluation of Dimilin in
1978, ORD used a prototype mathematical
assessment mod ;1 to estimate the potential
impact on the estuarine environment re-
sulting from Dimilin's application at re-
commended rates on upstream croplands.
The study developed a mathematical re-
presentation of pesticide concentrations
that might be expected if rain were to wash
(he compound into river tributaries that
feed into nine river basins downstream
from major U.S. cotton and soybean
growing areas. An analysis of the pollution
potential of the compound will aid deci-
sion makers in determining whether the
use of Dimilin is a viable substitute for
DDT.
Dimilin in the Future
In 1978, EPA granted a registration
label for the use of Dimilin to control the
gypsy moth, a pest destructive to hard-
wood forests on the eastern seaboard.
Registration requests lor other uses of
Dimilin are pending. The decision for the
extended use of Dimilin, proven extremely
valuable in insect control, must be meas-
ured against the potential hazards it may
pose. In 1979, EPA will continue to study
the toxieity of Oimilin in nontarget spe-
cies, its longevity in the environment, its
ultimate fate, and the nature of chemical
compounds formed by the decomposition
of Dimilin.
The following ORD components contributed
to the research described above:
• Office of Air, Land, & Water Use
Environmental Research Laboratory, Athens
• Office of Health & theological Effects—
Environmental Research Laboratory—-dull
Bree/e; Environmental Research Laboratory.
Narragansett
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drinking water
The role of drinking water in
cancer and heart disease is
intensively studied
byORD
-
The fact that the quality of the water we
drink may contribute to the incidence of
the chronic diseases we suffer is yet to be
firmly established. But several studies have
shown that more than a casual relationship
exists between the chemicals dissolved in
our drinking water and mortality from
heart disease and cancer, the two leadiiv
causes of death in the country today. EPA
is investigating these relationships through
its health effects laboratory in Cincinnati,
Ohio.
\ wVfi
Drinking Water and Cancer:
Health Effects
In 1974, it was discovered that chlorine
used to disinfect drinking water by killing
pathogenic microorganisms also reacted
with organic compounds in the water and
produced chloroform. Chloroform was
found by the National Cancer Institute's
bioassay program to cause cancer in rats
and mice. Epidemiological studies follow-
ed that compared chlorinated and unchlo-
rinated water supplies, and although the
results of the studies were mixed due to the
number of confounding demographic and
environmental variables, a definite corre-
lation was indicated between increased
rates of cancer mortality, (usually bladder
cancer) and chlorinalion.
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pathogens in
untreated water
tumors in test animals
chlorine added
In 1975, EPA conducted the National
Organics Reconnaissance Survey, the first
comprehensive evaluation of the potential
cancer hazard presented by drinking water.
Under ORD auspices, data on the concen-
tration of chloroform and other organic
substances in drinking water samples was
assembled and used in epidemiological
studies which further supported the fin-
ding that increased concentration of these
substances was related to cancer mortality
rates.
Subsequent analyses of drinking water
samples have turned up over 700 organic
chemicals in the nation's drinking water
supplies. While toxicological studies were
conducted on a few of these individual
substances, more effort was devoted to
studying the cancer-causing potential of
the complex organic mixtures as they oc-
700 chemicals in water.
curred in the water samples. These organic
concentrates were subjected to bioassay
screening tests where they were shown to
be mutagenic in bacterial tests as well as to
produce transformations in mammalian
culture cell lines. When these transformed
cells were injected into mice, tumors were
produced. The organic substances were, in
other words, carcinogenic.
Based on these findings, EPA proposed
regulations to control the concentration of
chloroform and other organic chemical
contaminants in drinking water.
EPA in Water Treatment
Within EPA, research is also being con-
ducted to improve water treatment sys-
tems and to make them more economical.
Methods of disinfecting water to make it
... as mixtures
safe to drink without producing chloro-
form have been developed through re-
search done in the laboratory, in pilot
plants, and at many water utilities. Numer-
ous alternatives to chlorine are being stud-
ied, both for their effectiveness as disinfec-
tants and for any inherent health hazards
they may pose.
From this work, four general categories
of organic treatment processes have evol-
ved: precipitation, oxidation, aeration
and adsorption. For the purposes of their
treatment, organic contaminants were
divided into five classes:
• Class I: organic compounds that cause
foul taste and odor
• Class II: synthetic organic chemicals
that are present in source wastes from
upstream discharges or runoff
• Class III: organic compounds or
"precursors" that react with disinfec-
tants to produce "disinfection by-
products"
• Class IV: organic chemicals that are
disinfection by-products themselves
• Class V: naturally-occuring organic
compounds, most of which are as-
sumed to be relatively harmless.
Although all four treatment processes
are effective in removing one class or
another of organic contaminants to some
degree, only one treatment, adsorption us-
ing granular activated carbon (GAC), has
been demonstrated as an effective "broad
spectrum" process for controlling organic
contaminant concentrations.
... mutate cells
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water solution
carbon
molecules leave water
and attach to carbon
GRANULAR
ACTIVATED
CARBON FILTER
Granular Activated Carbon test facility
Granular Activated Carbon
Adsorption GAC works as follows:
Granular activated carbon acts essentially
as an adhesive for the molecules of organ-
ic substances dissolved in water. As wa-
ter is passed through a bed of GAC,
organic molecules leave the water solution
and attach themselves to the carbon by
means of a physical bond, much like the
glueing of one object to another. No
chemical reacaction takes place. The
molecules attached by this physical bond-
ing are then easily removed or desorbed,
by heating the GAC in a furnace which ox-
idizes the organic molecules causing them
to leave the carbon. The GAC can then be
reactivated for repeated reuse, an impor-
tant factor in the economics of commercial
GAC application.
GAC adsorption can effectively remove
Class I compounds. Class II compounds,
however, are variable in their adsorbabili-
ty. Certain of these compounds such as
pesticides or polychlorinated biphenyls
(PCBs) are very strongly adsorbed, while
other compounds such as carbon tetra-
are less strongly adsorbed. But by
frequent heating of the GAC to reactivate
it, in the presence of these less adsorbable
compounds, the process remains effective.
However, economic and energy costs of
this process are significant.
Because the problem of "precursors"
and "disinfection-by-products" is rela-
tively new and yet unexplored, little is
known about the adsorbability of the or-
ganic compounds in Classes III and IV. In
general, however, GAC is effective in the
removal of most toxic organic compounds,
and, if the carbon is kept "fresh," its effec-
tiveness would be maintained.
Many Class V compounds are not read-
ily adsorbed by GAC, but these com-
pounds, in contrast to the others, are con-
sidered to be relatively harmless.
Close-up of carbon granules
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Research Highlights
In 1°~S, additional research into the re-
lationship between drinking \\ater and
cancer included:
• studs of the use of asbestos cement
pipe lor a public water supply and the
incidence of gastrointestinal cancer ir
Connecticut (Results, showed no asso-
ciation between the two; fiber counts
were low, however. In an epidemiolo-
gical study in the San Francisco Bay
Area wheie fiber counts \\cre higher,
higher cancer indicence rates were
noted.)
• de\elopment and testing of a new,
more sensitive analytical technique for
monitoring polynuclear aromatic hy-
drocarbons in drinking water
• discovery that asbestos was found to
increase the binding of benzo(a)py-
rene to cellular DNA, indicating that
asbestos may serve as a promoter of
cancer
• obtaining and publishing data on the
health effects of chlorine clioxid and
its reaction products, chlorite and
chlorate
• Testing the effectiveness and safety of
six \\ater treatment plants using CiAC
no increase in endotoxin levels oc-
curred after passage through (he CiAC'
tillers.
Drinking Water
and Heart Disease
Studies performed in the 1960's to ex-
plore the relationship between drinking
water and heart disease found a correla-
tion between water hardness and the cardi-
ovascular death rate in the United States.
7ollow-up studies demonstrated the same
relationships for the metropolitan areas of
the country. Death rates, in each instance,
were lowest in areas that used hard water
for drinking. But it was not determined
\\hether there was something beneficial in
the hard water, or if the soft water con-
tained something detrimental. However, it
was known that soft water was more corro-
sive and therefore more apt to pick up con-
taminants as it passed through distribution
pipes and househo' i plumbing.
Today, the most rigorous research on
water hardness is taking place in Britain
where cardiovascular death rates for white
males are about 40% higher in extreme
soft water areas compared with those in ex-
treme hard water areas. In the United
States, studies showed only a 15% dif-
ference. But these figures are based upon
studies that compare an area's cardio-
vascular death rates with drinking water
quality in the area. Such studies do not
take into account all the disease risk fac-
tors that are necessary to provide solid
clinical statistics, and for that reason there
is currently not enough known by EPA
about the relationship between drinking
water and heart disease to consider regula-
tion of the chemical content of water.
10
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ORD is working to better these
relationships, A cooperative study by
EPA, the National Heart, Lung,
Institute and the National Center
for Health Statistics on the cardiac impli-
cations of drinking water constituents is
completion. In this study, approxi-
mately 120 persons between the of 25-
74 were randomly selected from of 35
to provide a representative
of the U.S. population.
Each participant was first interviewed
for (1) medical history, residence his-
tory, socioeconomic status, smoking
habits, etc., (2) water consumption,
(3) use of softeners condition-
ers. Participants then underwent a thor-
ough physical examination,
Monthly tap water samples were collec-
ted over a period of a year, and materials
used in the participants' home plumbing
were cataloged, On the basis of the results
of earlier studies, it was decided to charac-
terize the quality of the for some
28 trace other water-quality
that might be to cardio-
vascular disease. To perform these exten-
sive analyses, a simultaneous multi-
elemental technique called proton-induced
x-ray emissions was used as well as more
routine analytical procedures. Analysis of
the is in its stages.
Before completion of this study, it was
to determine whether the cardie-
calcium
sodium
zinc
LOW
mortality
HIGH
mortality
vascular mortality rate for the regions in
question, was consistent with previous epi-
demiological studies, A preliminary analy-
sis of the water quality on 3834 tap
water samples and the age-adjusted cardi-
ovascular mortality data by sex for 1968-72
was completed. While conclusions cannot
yet be drawn from the data, certain corre-
lations and trends have found. For
example, it appears that regions with high
pH, specific conductance and higher levels
of hardness, calcium, chromium, sodium,
potassium, and zinc in tap water have
lower cardiovascular mortality, while
higher cardiovascular mortality is found in
regions with higher levels of lead and cop-
per. These findings are in basic agreement
with past: epidemiological studies.
Two studies are also underway to
supplement these findings. A contract has
awarded to the University of Missis-
sippi Medical School to investigate the ef-
fects of calcium, magnesium, sodium,
lead, and cadmium for hypertensive dis-
ease in rats. And an interagency agreement
has been negotiated with the Oak Ridge
National Laboratory to investigate the ef-
fects of calcium, magnesium, lead, cad-
mium and dietary fats in hardening the
arteries of pigeons.
Technology research is also underway to
determine the effects of corrosion on home
and utility water pipes, If a relationship is
demonstrated between some trace contam-
inant in corroding pipes and heart disease,
such controls will be vita! in the maintain-
ing and safeguarding of the public health.
The following ORD components contributed
to the research described above;
» Office of Health & Ecological Effects-
Health Effects Research Laboratory,
Cincinnati
» Office of Air, Land, & Water Use—
Muncipal Environmental Research
Laboratory, Cincinnati
11
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groundwater
Methods to predict and
detect groundwater
contamination are developed
byORD
The 1974 passage of the Safe Drinking
Water Act gave EPA the responsibility of
protecting America's underground water
supply. One of the country's most valuable
natural resources, groundwater is avail-
able in greater quantity than surface water.
Generally, it is also of better quality. Over
half the population relies on underground
supplies for drinking water. Groundwater
supplies 20 large American cities and 96%
of rural America's water needs. In addi-
tion, it provides drinking water for mil-
lions more in industrial plants, office
buildings, restaurants, recreational areas,
schools and other facilities that avail
themselves of the resource.
12
-------
In 1977, Americans tapped their under-
ground reservoirs for a total of 70 million
gallons daily, consumption that is increas-
ing, by conservative estimates, at a rate of
25°7o per decade. The water exists to meet
this demand. However, water resource
planners are now realizing that while
groundwater is in plentiful supply, it is also
subject to contamination from a wide
variety of sources. And once a given
groundwater supply is contaminated, its
quality cannot be restored naturally for
decades or even centuries
While man-made art ricial methods of
ground-water restoration are technically
feasible, they are time-consuming and ex-
pensive. Rarely, in fact, can the cost of
such restoration be justified by the
resulting intrinsic value of the water.
Consequently, ORD research goals are di-
rected toward establishing the scientific
basis for the development of sensible waste
source control techniques to prevent
contamination and protect the good water
we still have.
To this end, an ORD-sponsored ground-
water information center was established
to provide computer search services for
specific topics of concern. In addition, the
center acts as a clearinghouse for ground-
water information gathered from around
the world.
Following a survey and an evaluation of
some 250 groundwater computer predic-
tion models from fourteen countries, a
centralized location for further model
studies w'as established at Butler Univer-
sity in Indianapolis, Indiana. Here, water
resource managers and others are provided
assistance in selecting the proper models
for their particular needs. Additionally,
the Butler University center conducts
workshops, bringing modelers and manag-
ers together to develop models that can be
used more effectively and with greater ef-
ficiency.
In addition, to make as much current in-
formation available to as many interested
parties as possible, the Fourth National
Groun /ater Quality Symposium wa
held in September 1978. A debate format
was li^ed to identify those issues that
promised to be of paramount concern in
the coming decade. Among the topics de-
bated were groundwater quality stan-
dards, land applications of waste, federal
and state protection and planning pro-
grams, and waterborne diseases.
Gas separation tube
Research Highlights
A major focus of recent groundwater re-
search has been on the development of
methods to identify possible contaminants
and to predict their tendency or ability to
contaminate. It was found, for example,
that the use of stable isotopes of nitrogen
was effective in identifying certain sources
of groundwater contamination. These iso-
topes were also helpful in differentiating
between certain types of waste. Develop-
ment of additional methods concentrated
on ways to determine gross biological ac-
tivity in the subsurface environment and to
predict whether mixtures of organic sol-
vents and water will migrate through clay
to contaminate groundwater.
Another major area of research focused
on how viruses and organic compounds
were transformed and transported in the
13
-------
earth's subsurface. 1978 laboratory and
field investigations provided much of the
information necessary to characterize
these phenomena. Specific studies in-
volved tracing the movement of viruses
from wastewater sprayed on land, through
the soil column, and into the groundwater
system. Attempts were made also to select
accurate indicators of viral contamina-
tion.
ORD technical assistance was provided
to a number of other EPA offices. These
efforts ranged from the identification of
trace organics in groundwater and the de-
velopment of analytical methods for
groundwater investigations to assistance in
the planning and training required for a
national study to evaluate the groundwater
pollution potential of pits, ponds, and la-
goons. Other technical assistance efforts
were directed toward the development of
information to support activities of the
Safe Drinking Water Act.
strip mining
exposes
overburden
new chemicals seep
into aquifer
Western Strip-Mining
Strip-mining for coal is a process in ex-
tensive use in the West. Layers of earth are
stripped away to provide access to coal as
much as 150 feet below the surface, thus
leaving tons of overburden exposed to the
elements. When the inevitable chemical,
physical, and biological erosion of the
newly exposed surface materials in this
overburden occurs, new chemicals are
placed into solution, presenting a possible
threat to groundwater systems. Such a
threat can be averted if these chemicals can
be attracted to other minerals in the over--
burden.
In 1978 ORD developed a technology
that enables forecasting the potential ef-
fects of a strip-mining operation on
groundwater quality, allowing for the
identification of areas where such mining
would not pose a threat to the groundwater
system.
This procedure has been tested and
demonstrated effective in numerous mines
in New Mexico, Colorado and Wyoming,
and will permit the accelerated extraction
of coal from the vast western reserves.
Future Research
A substantial expansion of ORD efforts
in groundwater quality protection is a key
goal of 1979 research. A research plan has
been developed based on suggestions from
representatives of universities, con-
sultants, state and other federal agencies,
EPA regions and operating programs and
other EPA research laboratories. Further
support for this plan has also been gained
from the EPA Science Advisory Board,
the Drinking Water Advisory Council,
and the Subcommittee on the Environ-
ment and Atmosphere of the House Com-
mittee on Science and Technology.
ACCESSIBLE WESTERN COAL DEPOSITS
The following ORD components contributed
to the research described above:
• Office of Air, Land & Water Use—Robert
S. Kerr Environmental Research Laboratory,
Ada
14
-------
measuring the minuscule
Water contaminants are
precisely measured by ORD
techrncmes
No more than ten years ago water qual-
ity was determined by the chemical analy-
ses of relatively few substances. High con-
centrations of magnesium carbonate and
calcium carbonate, for example, meant
that the water was "hard;" dissolved oxy-
gen content was an indication of its ability
to support fish life. As more and more new
chemicals were introduced to waterways,
however, EPA recognized the need for a
more sophisticated approach to the det> •
mination of water quality. It had gotten to
the point that it was clearly no longer
matter of answering the specific question
"How much magnesium carbonate is there
in this sample?" but far more inclusive
ones such as," What chemical compounds
are present in this sample and in what
quantity?"
To provide the answers, it became neces-
sary to be able to measure the minuscule.
But how minuscule? A typical glass of wa-
ter may contain more than a million dif-
ferent organic compounds, some of them
potentially toxic in certain concentrations.
At EPA, it is the chemist's job to identify
and measure those that are present in con-
centrations above one part per billion. Al-
though many of these compounds at such
low concentrations are harmless, it is
known that some toxic organic chemicals
even at such low levels can kill fish or accu-
mulate in the food chain in quantities suf-
ficient to cause foods to fail Food and
Drug Administration standards. Many of
these compounds have also been shown to
cause cancer in test animals when admin-
istered in larger doses than those to which
humans are usually exposed.
15
-------
water/solvent
gas chromatograph
f V.'ti
' ' O* o
• o
molecular fragments
The Art of Measurement
Today, EPA chemists are able to mea-
sure the minuscule. As a result of ORD re-
search, all of EPA's major research labo-
ratories and regional laboratories have the
capacity to identify and measure trace or-
ganic chemicals in water.
To make these measurements, organic
substances are first extracted from the wa-
ter into an organic solvent where they be-
come highly concentrated. Tin's mixture of
organics is then passed through a gas chro-
matograph. The chromatograph separates
the individual compounds in the mixture
based on the speed at which they pass
through a long narrow column packed
with a chemical "filter." From the chro-
matograph, they are pumped into a mass
spectrometer. Here, each compound is
bombarded by electrons causing the mole-
cules to break into fragments. These elec-
trically charged fragments are then further
separated according to their mass. The rel-
ative quantities of mass fragments are then
measured. These measurements comprise
a mass spectrum or "fingerprint" which is
unique for most compounds. The print is
then compared with those of tens of thou-
sands of known compound "fingerprints"
stored in a computer library, and the sub-
stance is thus identified. The amount of a
specific compound present in the sample is
computed from the total mass of frag-
ments associated with the compound.
"fingerprints"
Research Highlights
Recently, EPA chemists established a
procedure using the gas chromatograph/
mass spectrometer system to identify and
estimate waterborne concentrations of 114
organic compounds designated as priority
pollutants because of their potentially ad-
verse health and ecological effects. Using
this procedure, commercial laboratories
have analyzed several thousand samples of
industrial waste at an analysis cost per
compound of approximately $7.00, or
about the cost of a white cell count on hu-
man blood in a clinical laboratory. Anal-
ysis of a typical industrial waste sample
costs approximately $300 due to the num-
ber of compounds to be measured.
In 1978, the EPA-developed gas chro-
matograph/mass spectrometer techniques
were applied to the wastewaters of new
types of energy-producing processes such
as coal gasification, and to wastewaters
from organic phosphorus pesticide manu-
facturing plants, as well as to municipal
wastewaters. Hundreds of organic sub-
stances were identified and measured,
many of which were not even suspected of
16
-------
being present. By applying such identifica-
tion and measurement procedures to thest
wastewaters, it was possible to study those
compounds that actually existed, rather
than those that might have been present
based on theoretical considerations.
Other 1978 research saw the develop-
ment of an automatic sampler capable of
extracting organic chemicals from water at
the sampling site. The sampler can collect
the toxic organic chemicals from hundreds
of gallons of water onto a few grams of
resin for transport back to the chemical
laboratory.
Also developed during 1978 was a meth-
od of "cleaning" highly complex mixtures
of organic compounds by passing them
through a high-pressure liquid chromato
graph before subjecting the sample to the
gas chromatograph/mass spectrometer
system. This cleaning process separates
out two or three times more compounds in
a given sample than without cleaning, thus
allowing for the detection and recognition
of difficult-to-identify compounds in the
environment under requirements of the
Toxic Substances Control Act.
^^^^^^
^^HP^^^ «**M
Current research will extend EPA anal-
ysis capabilities to less volatile compounds
that cannot be analyzed by the current sys-
tem. Attention is also being given to re-
ducing the cost of identifying vuy rare or
new compounds whose "fingerprints" are
not on computer file.
Additionally, research underway will de-
velop and refine a Master Analytical
Scheme, which will allow the analyst to
look routinely for as many as 50,000 dif-
ferent compounds and simultaneously
provide automatic quantification of any
compound identified. To illustrate the val-
ue of such a system, had it been available
for application to a few appropriately se-
lected samples from the James River sev-
eral years ago, the ensuing kepone prob-
lem might have been detected early and the
resultant disaster averted. With continued
research into the ability to measure the
minuscule, EPA is looking to avoid the pit-
falls of the past and to ensure water quality
in the present and future.
The following ORD components contributed
lo the research described above:
• Office of Air, Land & Water Use-
Environmental Research Laboratory, Athens
17
-------
simulating the environment
Enclosed ecosystems
accurately represent pollutior
pathways
1 he challenge of successfully simulating
a natural marine ecosysiem \\as undertak
en In OK Din 1977 to assist I I'A in I he last
of setting standards lor llic protection o!
our coastal /ones. While a great deal was
known aboul the toxicity of various pol-
lutants and other stresses on individual
organisms live g in marine waters, far less
was known a' nt the effects on whole eco-
systems. Particularly, little was under-
stood about the pathways, fluxes, and
Isolated terrestrial ecosystems
transformations of natural chemicals and
introduced pollutants through such sys-
tems. It was thus impossible to accurately
predict the fate and impact of these sub-
stances on the ecosystem. Moreover, it was
difficult to set optimal standards without a
further look at the ecosystems. Because of
the logistical complexities involved in stud-
ying a total natural system, it was decided
to try to develop a small scale marine eco-
system model to mirror the natural system.
While it was difficult to know whether
such a model actually would behave like its
natural counterpart, every attempt was
made in simulating the environment to du-
plicate the reference natural system. The
same metabolic rate was maintained, and
species diversity and composition were
replicated so that major biological activi-
ties could be carried on in like ways. It was
determined that if the statistical behavior
of these species was similar to that of the
natural system, then the model would be,
in fact, a useful experimental tool, and
perturbing effects and the rales and path-
ways by which various substances moved
through the enclosed system might reason-
ably be extrapolated to the natural system.
18
-------
A Major Initiative
In 1976 ORD initiated efforts to si-
mulate such an environment. Specifically:
• to design, develop, and operate exper-
imental marine ecosystems
• to investigate the behavior of these
systems and the organisms that live in
them
• to study various perturbing effects on
individual species, species-species in-
teraction, and on the properties of the
whole system
• to investigate the geochemical and
biochemical behavior of various ele-
ments and organic compounds in
these complex enclosed ecosystems.
Outdoor environmental simulators
Enclosed aquatic ecosystems
Research Results
By 1978, these ORD research objectives
were largely met, with some of the results
considered a major breakthrough in re-
search using simulated environments. Par-
ticularly gratifying was the fact that it was
proven feasible to operate such enclosed
ecosystems. The research showed that, in
many aspects, the chemical and biological
behavior of the microorganisms was sur-
prisingly close to the reference regions in
nearby Narragansett Bay on the Rhode
Island coast. Where the systems diverged
from those in the bay, operations were
modified to overcome some anomalies.
Where divergences persisted, a clear des-
cription of how the microcosms differed
from the natural system was developed.
Today, difficult questions concerning
the stability and resilience of coastal
marine ecosystems are being viewed in a
fresh light as a result of the work at Nar-
ragansett.
This successful simulation of a natural
marine environment provides EPA with a
dependable experimental tool with which
to study the various effects of long-term,
low-level exposures to the broadest var-
iety of natural chemicals and human-made
pollution.
The following ORD components contributed
to the research described above:
• Office of Health & Ecological Effects-
Environmental Research Laboratory,
Narragansett
19
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municipal wastewater
OKD evaluates effectiveness
of alternative waste water
treatment technologies
Wastewater is a problem that has
plagued civilization lor centuries. It pro-
duces a ha/.ard to health and a blight on the
environment, both aesthetic and ecologi-
cal. In response to these concerns and the
1977 Clean Water Act Amendments, a
broad range of wastewater treatment tech-
nology has been investigated byORD. One
technique, land treatment of municipal
wastewater, shows the potential of being
effective as a treatment process as well as
allowing for the recycling and reclama-
tion of valuable nutrients such as phos-
phorous, nitrogen and potassium.
Health Effects
of Land Treatment
Slow-rate land treatment involves the
application of wastewater to the soil for
the purposes of crop irrigation and fertili-
zation, as well as for the removal of nu-
trients and other wastewater pollutants.
By using wastewater to productively grow
cash crops and, in turn, by using soil action
and crop growth to partially purify the wa-
ter, the land treatment process provides a
potentially greater set of benefits than
most other wastewater treatment tech-
niques.
At the same time, this practice raises a
number of health-related questions in-
cluding:
• the fate and effect of waterborne path-
ogens such as bacteria, parasites, or
viruses applied to the soil
• the risk to public health from these
pathogens associated with spray appli-
cation
• the fate and effect of hazardous or-
ganic materials and toxic substances
applied to agricultural land
• the accumulation of heavy metals in
foods grown on wastewater-irrigated
land
• contamination of groundwater or sur-
face water
• the spread of disease from carrier or-
ganisms living in the area.
Results of ORD research into these
problems will assist EPA in developing
criteria for land treatment systems.
20
-------
••V.Vv ,-v>^p.» , ; \^ -' :;—;
&&:£&. ..,-?.it$&v?Z'.'*:.. >-„*;•>„• -
_-':>^ - • -;. ••?-.•*?(
rttli&tkt.*
Irrigation boom discharging municipal wastewater
Recent ORD Research
Aerosol sampling in one investigation
revealed levels of microorganisms as far as
600 meters downwind of a wastewater
spray application site. Observed microbial
densities were twice as high at night than
during the day and viruses were shown to
be relatively hardy in the aerosol state. To
estimate the microbial density at any
downwind location from sprayed waste-
water, a prediction model was then devel-
oped and calibrated.
A second study of aerosols generated by
a wastewater treatment system included an
epidemiological evaluation of persons liv-
ing near the treatment plant as well as a
study of the wastewater itself. While the
wastewater in the plant contained microor-
ganisms, they were not detected in a
residential area 400 meters away. Further
clinical examinations of nearby residents
indicated no public health hazard.
Soils
While most soils are generally effective
in removing microorganisms from waste-
water, 1978 research indicated that sandy
soils are not, and are easily penetrated by
Heavy Metals
viruses. These soils are especially vulner-
able to penetration when they are stressed
and saturated, and a heavy rainfall, it was
found, may cause viruses previously ad-
sorbed by clay and loam particles in the
sandy soils to be released altogether, al-
lowing them to sink deeper into the soils,
thereby presenting a threat to groundwa-
ter aquifers.
ORD also conducted research into the
uptake of heavy metals by various crops
and the relative health hazards posed to
persons consuming these crops. Since
wastewater generally contains trace
amounts of these heavy metals, care must
be taken in using wastewater for irrigation.
Certain crops such as leafy vegetal 'es tend
LAND TREATMENT IRRIGATION
crops
.
irrigation boom
21
-------
to accumulate metals in the edible portions
of the plant. Most problems, however, can
be minimized by not using wastewater to
irrigate such accumulative crops on al-
ready acid soils.
Also, since heavy metals do not ac-
cumulate well in muscle tissue, an effective
barrier in the food chain can be created by
using the treated land to graze cattle.
In general, it was concluded that the
heavy metals in wastewater should not
pose significant problems in the land treat
mem process.
Soil Treatment
In 1978, studies were conducted of ten
•xisting land application systems treating
municipal wastewater. Each system had
been in operation for at least ten years.
Four were rapid infiltration systems in
which wastewater is applied on unvege-
ated coarse soil and contaminants re-
.novec! as the water percolates through the
soil. Six were irrigation systems that had a
ground cover of crops. The study com-
pared soil characteristics, vegetative re-
sponse, and treatment effectiveness of the
ten systems with controlled sites similar in
operation and character. Detailed results
of the study will be reported in 1979 but
preliminary findings support the effective-
ness of land treatment for municipal
wastewater.
Small Flows
The small flows program provides EPA
and other agencies with technological in-
formation about small community waste-
Wastewater treatment plant
unvegetated
vegetated
TESTS PROVE VEGETATED SOIL
IS MORE EFFECTIVE FOR
WASTEWATER TREATMENT
water alternatives. Public interest in this
program increased dramatically in 1978 as
a result of the 1977 Clean Wate: Act
Amendments. This year the ORD-spon-
sored program conducted 15 regional sem-
inars on options available to individual
communities. In addition, two one-week
intensive training seminars attended by 100
state and EPA regional staff were held to
review plans for small community waste-
water system alternatives.
Several analytical projects were com-
pleted and reported, including:
• septic tank pumping residuals treat-
ment and disposal
• pressure and vacuum sewage costs and
operational requirements
• systems for individual home waste-
water disposal.
A comprehensive study on the tech-
nology of on-site wastewater treatment
was also completed. It included research
into wastewater characterization, alter-
native treatment systems, soil physics, soil
clogging and unclogging, bacteriological
and virological removal in unsaturated
soils, and institutional alternatives fo
community-wide management of on-sit
systems. The study thus serves as a basic
reference source for information about
on-site systems.
Composting Sludge
The composting of municipal waste-
water solids or sludge for land reclamation
or agriculture is thought to be a desirable
disposal alternative. Previous attempts at
composting—a natural,biological decom-
position process—were considered unsat-
isfactory because of problems created by
compost pile odors.
In 1974 ORD initiated a research pro-
gram in concert with the Agricultural Re-
22
-------
search Station in Beltsville, Maryland to
look into composting alternatives for ra\v
wastewater sludges. The process that was
refined in 1978 utilizes wood chips in com-
bination with the raw sludge to form the
compost pile. Forced mechanical aeration
allows some operator control of the pro-
cess rate. The resulting compost is a dry,
relatively easy-to-use organic soil condi-
tioner that is essentially free of odors or
pathogenic organisms.
The Maryland Department of Health
has approved the use of this Beltsville com-
post for turf farms, nurseries, golf cours-
es, public works projects, reclamation pro-
jects, park lands and the establishment of
new lawns. A number of 'her U.S. cities
are also looking into the ORD wastewater
sludge composting process.
Lagoon Performance
Oxidation ponds or lagoons where
wastewater can be treated by natural bio-
logical processes have come into wider use
over the last three decades. In 1945 there
were 45 such impoundments in but a hand-
ful of states. Today there are over 4000
such lagoons in all 50 states. Ninety-three
percent of these lagoons process less than
one-half million gallons a day, indicating
that their primary use is by small munici-
palities.
Lagoon systems are easy and inexpen-
sive to design, construct, and maintain.
This basic simplicity, however, often re-
sults in a lack of control over microbial
and chemical reactions within these ponds.
Until recently, in fact, little data even exist-
ed on the environmental effectiveness of
these lagoons. For example, nothing was
known that could be used to relate effluent
characteristics to lagoon design or actual
amounts the lagoon could effectively pro-
cess, to variations in effluent load, or to
climatic conditions.
A past report, however, based on the
sketchy data available and a survey of state
pollution control organizations, suggested
that lagoon systems would not be able to
consistently meet EPA suspended solids
limits. Also, the report pointed to the ob-
noxious hydrogen sulfide odors, malodor-
ous algae blooms, noxious vegetative-
growth, mosquito breeding and highly col-
ored effluents emanating from the oxida-
tion ponds. The report thus concluded that
lagoons could probably no longer be used
for wastewater treatment.
surface aerators
FACULTATIVE LAGOON
aerobic process
AERATED LAGOON
23
-------
Slow sand filters
A design manual incorporating EPA
studies and other work on lagoon design is
in preparation to aid in the planning, con-
struction, and operation of lagoon sys-
tems.
With proper design and operation, ORD
research indicates that such wastewater
treatment systems can be effective for
treatment of municipal sewage. Their low
initial cost of construction, ease of opera-
tion, reliability, and low energy require-
ment all serve to make lagoon systems suf-
ficiently feasible and cost-effective for
small communities.
EPA and Lagoon Systems Algae Removal
Over the past five years ORD has taken
lagoon systems treatment under careful
study. Factors affecting the treatment were
examined, as well as the possibility of well-
designed and well-managed lagoons being
able to meet secondary effluent standards.
Four facultative and five aerated lagoon
systems were intensively studied for a one-
year performance evaluation. Aerated la-
goons are basins with a constant flow-
through of wastewater and a system of
aerators to keep oxygen content high. The
wastewater is treated by the action of
aerobic processes. In a facultative lagoon,
growth of algae near the surface provides
oxygen allowing this upper layer to remain
aerobic. Solid waste and some algae settle
to the bottom. Treatment of the settled
substance is by anaerobic processes.
The results of this research indicate that
the lagoons could, in the main, meet EPA
oxygen content standards required for sec-
ondary effluents. Only two of the nine la-
goons tested failed to meet this standard;
one, owing to excessive ice cover, the
other with too few holding ponds or cells.
Suspended solids levels, however, con-
sistently exceeded EPA effluent standards,
especially in facultative systems. It was
thought that this was primarily the result
of algae growth, which is at its highest in
the spring and summer months.
Fecal bacterial reductions, it was tound,
were a function of time spent by the
effluent in the lagoons, and such com-
pounds could be satisfactorily treated by
chlorination.
With algae growth primarily responsible
for high levels of suspended solids in la-
goon systems, ORD initiated a program in
1975 to examine economical methods of al-
gae removal. A pilot-scale slow rock filter
in which effluents were pumped through a
bed of rocks before discharge was studied
at the University of Kansas.
A full-scale slow rock filter was built in
Venata, Oregon, and evaluated at Oregon
State University. Suspended solids were ef-
fectively removed by the system indicating
successful algae treatment.
A pilot-scale intermittent slow-sand fil-
ter was also developed, and three full-scale
intermittent slow-sand filters were built
and studied. In these systems, a series of
sand filters rather than a single rock filter
acted as collectors in the removal of sus-
pended solids. Design considerations in-
cluded flow rate, hydraulic loading rate,
filter area, filter number, and effective
sand size. Besides removing most of the
suspended solids from the effluent, the in-
termittent slow-sand filter allowed for the
beneficial growth and activity of nitrifying
bacteria, which served to make the treat-
ment even more efficient.
Other work included further studies of
lagoon effluent disinfection, nutrient re-
moval from lagoon effluents, and phased
isolation of lagoon effluents for removal
of algae.
Algae bloom on wastewater
The following ORD components contributed
to the research described above:
• Office of Air, Land & Water—Robert S.
Kerr Environmental Research Laboratory,
Ada; Muncipal Environmental Research
Laboratory, Cincinnati
• Office of Health & Ecological Effects-
Health Effects Research Laboratory,
Cincinnati
-------
rumble reader
ORD develops technology to
warn of dam failures
A significant number of the hazardous
materials impoundments in the United
States are only marginally safe. Some, in
fact, are ready to spill their contents into
the nation's watercourses with as little pro-
vocation as a heavy rain, releasing conta-
minants that could pollute waterways, kill
aquatic species, degrade drinking water,
and despoil scenic areas. Even small spill-
ages from these dikes can have potentially
far-reaching environmental impacts.
With the existence of over 500,000 of
these impoundments, ranging in type from
small wasteponds to mile-square tailings
lagoons, ORD is confronted with the pro-
blem of developing an assessment techno-
logy that can evaluate the stability of these
storage areas on a regular and cost-
effective basis. In response to this chal-
lenge, EPA fostered the development of
the "rumble reader." This device, devel-
oped by Drexel University under a grant
from ORD, uses acoustic emissions to
sense the stability of impoundments.
25
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rumble reader
The Technology
sound waves
weakness in dam
CRITICAL MURMURS
Acoustic Emissions
When wood is overstressed it cracks. Tin
"cries" when it is bent. Ice cracks. Snow
crunches. In each instance, energy in the
form of sound is emitted when stress is ap-
plied. In an earthen environment soil
grains move against one another, clay stra-
ta slip and shear, particles shift as water
seeps through porous earth. Here, too,
noise is created, generally of low intensity,
but varied in pitch.
Was it possible then to apply this same
principle of acoustic emissions to the
earthen dike walls that contained hazard-
ous wastes? Did these walls, in other
words, signal a weakening trend or a po-
tential failure in the making? Exploratory
research performed by ORD indicated
that, indeed, they did. And that the sounds
or "rumbles" in these dike walls could be
read by instruments.
The principle of acoustic emissions is far
from new. Early Westerners drove knives
into the ground to pick up the sounds of
herds of buffalo. Bandits put their ears to
railroad tracks to gauge the approach of
trains. In each instance, since the soil itself
was a poor conductor of sound, they de-
pended on a more effective "ear"—the
knife or the railroad track.
In measuring the rumbles emitted by
earthen dikes, this same problem was en-
countered. Additionally, since early warn-
ing rumbles are feeble and occur deep
within the soil mass, it was also necessary
to develop a device capable of drawing
these sounds to the surface where they
could then be accurately measured.
A quiet structure is safe and stable. A
noisy one is in need of repair. Specifically:
• Soil masses that do not generate acou-
stic emissions are not deforming and
need not be inspected for a consider-
able time or until a new stress condi-
tion is encountered.
• Soil masses that generate moderate
acoustic emissions are deforming
slightly and must be monitored.
• Soil masses that generate significant
acoustic emissions are deforming sub-
stantially and immediate remedial ac-
tion is required—decreasing the stress
on a dam or adding downstream
berms, for example.
• Soil masses that generate high acoustic
emissions are undergoing large defor-
mations and are considered in a state
of failure. Emergency precautions
must be taken to assure the safety of
downstream residents and property.
26
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The Rumble Reader in portable form
accelerometer
The device that counts these emissions is
basically a simple one. To sense the "rum-
bles," one-half inch diameter rods or
"wave guides" of suitable lengths are
placed in the dike being monitored for sta-
bility. A microphone-like device called an
accelerometer is clamped to the end of the
rod and connected to an electrical amplifi-
er. The accelerometer converts the strength
and pitch of the soil noise into electrical
pulses which are amplified. These pulses
are then processed by a portable counting
and summing device to provide a "counl-
per-minute" readout.
The rumble reader system is portable
and operates from self-contained light-
weight batteries. At an equipment cost of
$2000 to $5000, it is relatively economical,
and data acquisition requires only 5 or 10
minutes per location and is easy to inter-
pret. Furthermore, once a rod has been in-
stalled, the remaining equipment can be re-
moved and reinstalled at will.
counter
RUMBLE READER
-------
Overview of sites
Location
Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania
Nebraska
Maryland
Pennsylvania
Nebraska
Quebec
Delaware
Pennsylvania
New Jersey
Virginia
New York
Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania
Kentucky
Texas
being monitored using
Purpose
Flood Control
Recreation
Flood Control
Ore Stockpile
Surcharge Load
Flood Control
Tailings Dam
Dredging Spoil
Water Supply
Chemical Wastes
Chemical Wastes
Petroleum Wastes
Highway Fill
Highway Fill
Seepage Beneath
Earth Dam
Water Supply
Chemical Wastes
the acoustic
Height
(feet)
30
66
67
40
6
68
95
15-40
120
8-20
4-15
8-20
15
15
12
30
100
emission method
Length
(feet)
2600
2500
900
300
120
600
900
6 mi
600
4 mi
500
450
20
60
1200
200
3 mi
Relative
Embankment
Design & Const.
Excellent
Excellent
Excellent
Good
Good
Excellent
Good
Poor
Excellent
Poor
Poor
Poor
Poor
Poor
Good
Marginal
Good
Relative
Foundation
Stability
Excellent
Excellent
Compressible
Very Poor
Very Poor
Compressible
Good
Very Good
Excellent
Very Poor
Unknown
Unknown
Good
Good
Poor
Unknown
Satisfactory
Research Highlights
Late in 1977, the rumble reader was a re-
cipient of Industrial Research Magazine's
IR100 award given to the 100 most signifi-
cant new technical products of the year. By
1978 the rumble reader had been installed
at 17 sites with locations as far west as Ne-
braska, north to upper Quebec Province,
and south to Texas. The size of the em-
bankments varies from heights of 6 feet to
120 feet and lengths from 20 feet to 6 miles.
Its effectiveness was shown in a number
of instances. Failure of a suspected reser-
voir wall was easily predicted before col-
lapse during drawdown of the impounded
water. The sliding of an embankment was
predicted hours before its actual collapse.
A dangerously unstable industrial dike
containing a sludge of dissolved toxic
heavy metals was reinforced in time to pre-
vent breaching. An abandoned lagoon at a
chemical waste disposal facility was shown
to be in danger of failure as it filled with
water during a rainstorm; immediate ac-
tion was taken and collapse was prevented.
Rumble Reading the Future
Several U.S. corporations have already
installed the rumble reader at waste chemi-
cal lagoons, with hundreds of additional
inquiries from private industry received by
ORD. A large chemical manufacturer in
England is in the process of procuring the
rumble reader components, and at least
two American companies are now supply-
ing ready-to-use systems. Five U.S. De-
partment of Agriculture dams have al-
ready been instrumented.
The ORD system need not, of course, be
limited to measuring the stability of im-
poundments containing hazardous materi-
als. All earthen dikes could be monitored,
and tragedies such as those that occurred
at Buffalo Creek, West Virginia (2/26/72),
Grand Teton, Idaho (6/5/76), Laurel Run
at Johnstown, Pennsylvania (7/20/77),
and Taccoa, Georgia (11/4/77) could be
averted.
The following ORD components contributed
to the research described above:
• Office of Energy, Minerals, and Industry-
Industrial Environmental Research
Laboratory, Cincinnati (Edison, New Jersey)
28
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assistance/emergencies
Oil slick at EPA test facility
OKD can provide rapid and
intensive technical assistance
ORD constitutes a reservoir of talent in
scientific and technical fields that serves
EPA as an immediate response force for
special action and emergent,, Mtuations.
These special responses are in addition to
more conventional activities carried out by
ORD, yet the aid provided in these in-
stances can lead to future, longer-term re-
search projects. During 1978, some of the
assistance/emergency work undertaken
by ORD included technical support for a
consent decree concerning water regula-
tions, special studies for air emissions
from coke ovens and steel plants, reactions
to natural disasters such as floods, and
clean-up of hazardous and toxic chemical
spills.
Consent Decree-
Water Quality
A major ORD function is to assist other
EPA branches and offices in fulfilling their
various regulatory responsibilities. One
such responsibility is the establishment of
viable and enforceable effluent guidelines
necessary to control point sources of water
pollution.
To provide the regulatory support re-
quired by various EPA branches in the ful-
fillment of these responsibilities, ORD
conducts programs in the following areas:
• determination of the physical, chem-
ical and biological characteristics of
industrial discharges
• technical and economic assessment of
existing and emerging control alterna-
tives
• development of human health and en-
vironment assessments to estimate the
threat presented from exposure to am-
bient water pollutants
• determination of the "treatability" of
specific pollutants or pollutant
classes
• exploration, evaluation, develop-
ment, and demonstration of new or
improved treatment and control
methods and concepts
• development and validation of analyt-
ical methods and monitoring systems
for physical and chemical pollutants
• quality assurance services related to all
programs as well as to the sampling
and analysis activities of the Effluent
Guidelines Division (EGD)
• determination of best management
practices which may be applied to
nonprocess operations of a point
sourre—e.g . spills, runoffs, etc.
29
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In hi IK- l:)~r>, L.I-'A signed a consent d<
V-K'C .< re'. KV, cM'-uni: effluent guide1'
regulations for controlling 65 pollutants in
« asiewater effluents from 21 major indus-
trial categories. The technology based ef-
fluenl guideline regulations include:
• i lie best available technology econom-
ically achievable for existing sources
(BAIL: A)
» the best demonstrated technology
available for new source performance
standards (NSPS)
• pretreatment requirements prior to
discharge to publically-owned treat-
ment systems for both existing sources
and new sources.
One of the most significant consent de-
cree support activities provided by ORD in
1978 was performed by ORD's four ecol-
ogy laboratories. Here, guidelines for the
development of water quality criteria ne-
cessary to protect aquatic life were devel-
oped, as a basis for the preparation of cri-
teria for each of the 65 consent decree
chemicals from the existing toxicology
data base. These guidelines were published
in the Federal Register for public com-
ment, and it is anticipated that they will
become EPA policy.
During the third and fourth quarters of
1978, using the guidelines, the ecology lab-
oratories went on to develop the actual
aquatic criteria documents. In companion
fashion, the ORD health effects labora-
tory in Cincinnati initiated a crash pro-
gram to develop health assessments for 20
of the 65 consent decree chemicals. This in-
itial phase was completed in 1978 with con-
tinuing work on the initial 20 and the re-
maining 45 chemicals undertaken by a new
environmental criteria and assessment of-
fice in Cincinnati.
Beginning in March 1979, both the
aquatic and health based criteria will ap-
pear in the Federal Register for public
review.
With the preparation of the guidelines
and criteria documents, numerous infor-
mation gaps and data deficiencies for the
consent decree chemicals were identified.
It was thus possible to establish priorities
for further research.
In support of consent decree effluent
guideline requirements, ORD is active in a
number of specific research areas. In the
pesticide and textile industry, a large num-
ber of plant sites were sampled in 1978 to
measure the effectiveness of advanced
technologies (such as carbon adsorption)
in their control of the priority toxic
pollutants.
ORD, at the request of EGD, also per-
formed a study of 11 industrial treatment
systems to determine the fate of a number
of the priority pollutants in water and the
air and to determine in what form the pol-
lutants would tend to concentrate (e.g.,
oily sludge). The industries included:
wood-preserving, chemicals, pesticides,
Pharmaceuticals, rubber, and plastics.
Results of this study will be available early
in 1979.
Twelve refineries were sampled for EGD
in 1978 to characterize and to some extent
measure the priority pollutants entering
and leaving treatment systems. Refineries
were also studied to determine how acti-
vated sludge systems worked to remove hy-
drocarbon pollutants.
An additional project carried out for
EGD involved pollution evaluation of the
petrochemicals/organic chemicals in-
dustry. Here, wastewater treatment facil-
ities were sampled to indicate the fate of
priority pollutants entering the system.
Additional evaluations were made to de-
termine whether less costly effluent treat-
ment procedures might be applied with
positive effects. (See "Measuring the
Minuscule" section)
30
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Coke Emissions
and Air Quality
At the request of the EPA Office of
Air Quality, Planning and Standards
(OAQPS), ORD undertook three projects
in 1978 in support of the development of a
national emissions standard f coke
plants. The first project involved the meas-
urement and analysis of emissions from
coal preheaters, devices that dry coal and
raise its temperature to approximately
550°F before its introduction into a coke
wen. The study is not yet complete, but
preliminary results indicate that these
emissions contain some benzene-soluble
organic compounds, many of which are
known to be carcinogenic.
A second project assessed coke quench-
ing operations. Here, coke is cooled by the
application of water after it exits the coke
oven. The study was designed to determine
whether or not hazardous air pollutants,
principally carcinogenic organics, were re-
leased when the water came in contact with
the hot coke. Since the coke is quenched
with clean water in some plants and with
contaminated process water in others, tests
were made under both conditions. Prelimi-
nary results indicate the presence <>!' poly-
nuclear hydrocarbons, an organic class of
compounds which includes many carcin-
ogens. The amount of these material-
increased (enfold when contaminated
quench water is used.
The third ORD coke emissions project
evaluated seven separate sources of air
emissions in coke by-product plants. Ben-
zene, a known carcinogen, and small
amounts of an organic substance contain-
ing carcinogenic compounds were identi-
fied from a number of these sources.
The results of these three projects pro-
vide OAQPS with the only data available
on hazardous emissions from these parti-
cular coke plant sources. In addition to be-
coming part of the extensive fund of data
on which to base the eventual setting of
specific standards for the cokemaking in-
dustry, ORD test data will assist OAQPS in
making the effective long-range planning
decisions for future research to support
final regulation
Quality Assurance
Measurements of environmental
samples are made daily by federal, state,
local and private agencies. These data are
then used in the a.v ":sment of health ef-
fects, the establishn .nt of environmental
standards and guidelines, and the enforce-
ment of environmental regulations. To
help assure that such measurements are
precise and reliable, EPA established a
quality assurance program to aid in the
development and implementation of wide-
scale quality control procedures. ORD's
environmental monitoring laboratories in
Cincinnati, Las Vegas, and at Research
Triangle Park, North Carolina, bear the
responsibility for the successful develop-
ment of this program. 19"- research
highlights include:
• initiating a program to check lab-
oratory performance in those agencies
charged with measuring air pollution,
to include a set of minimum quality
assurance standards to be observed
• providing a ide range of reference
water samples for use in maintaining
day-to-day iboratory accuracy
• providing audit water samples to eval-
uate laboratory data qualilty and an-
alysis capabilities
• providing radioactive environmental
samples to laboratories to evaluate
their data analysis capabilities
• assisting laboratories by providing ac-
curately calibrated radioactive sam-
ples for use in new instrument calibra-
tion and other analytical procedures.
31
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Thunder Bay
Duluth
Buffalo
Milwaukee •
Chicago ^
GREAT LAKES REGION
Pssticides Plant Explosion
A rapid, considered response to envi-
ronmental emergencies is one hallmark of
ORD's overall responsibility. When a pes-
ticide plant in Vicksburg, Mississippi, ex-
ploded in March 1978, releasing a pesti-
cide cloud, ORD took quick action. There
was the clear possibility of danger to the
exposed population from either inhalation
or other longer-term contact with the pesti-
cide. ORD needed to locate concentrations
of deposits from the cloud, measure the
content of those concentrations to deter-
mine the health risk, and determine appro-
priate action to protect the Vicksburg pop-
ulace. Analytical samples taken of the im-
mediate environment fortunately revealed
no substantial contamination of air, water,
or soil. Continued ORD monitoring for
environmental dangers determined that
the pesticides released during the accident
did not contribute to the existing burden of
chemicals in the area and that exposures
from the explosion were transient.
International
Support/Coopert
The Great Lakes comprise 95% of
America's surface waters, and their
welfare is a major EPA concern. The fact
that they are part of our northern bound-
ary and are of international importance
compounds the complexity of efficient
pollution control in this region. In 1978, a
U.S./Canadian Water Quality Agreement
was signed. This revision of a previous
five-year document gives new emphasis to
control of chemicals in the Great Lakes
and continued emphasis to nutrient con-
trol and nondcgradation. Additionally,
emphasis is given to an ecosystem ap-
proach for the exploration and solution to
uater quality problems.
Two problems are currently of para-
mount concern:
• eutrophication or overabundance of
nutrients, which results in diminished
levels of oxygen in shallow areas
• transport, fate, and effects of toxic
substances.
"ecent joint efforts between ORD and
Canadian researchers directed at the pro-
blem ol cuirophication have resulted in the
development of a document outlining
parameters of concern, present input
levels, and projected effects of remedial ef-
forts. Specifically, the research explored
the use of simulation tools and
mathematical models, established loading
values, and estimated the extent of phos-
phorus reduction necessary to achieve
desired water quality objectives.
As part of the attempt to define the total
scope of the problem of toxic substances in
the Great Lakes, a series of research ob-
jective strategy meetings, as well as a series
of research needs exercises, have been
scheduled jointly by American and Cana-
dian environmental agencies. These coor-
dinated activities are intended to set the
stage for a concerted drive to control haz-
ardous materials and toxic substances in
the region.
In 1978, a major joint effort involved re-
search into the atmospheric transport of
both nutrients and toxic substances, pro-
viding the Great Lakes research commu
nity with data linking atmospheric condi-
tions to water contamination. To date, the
research has demonstrated that atmo-
spheric transport of certain compounds
can account for as much as one half of the
total input of toxic substances to the Great
Lakes svstem.
On-site testing of film-forming agents
32
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Oil Spills
Such emergency support extends as well
to clean-up guidance, and equipment and
manpower assistance in the event of oil
spills. There are approximately 10,000
spills per year (1970-76) accounting for a
total annual spillage of over 15.6 million
gallons. ORD has evolved a comprehen-
sive oil spill control program. The Na-
tional Oil and Hazardous Substances
Pollution Contingency Plan, calling chief-
ly for the physical removal of the oil from
the water, has provided the primary direc-
tion for this oil spill control research over
the last decade.
However, in recent years ORD attention
has also been focused on research into
chemical agents and techniques for the
control of oil spills. The program has been
directed toward the development of stan-
dardized laboratory tests for evaluating
the effectiveness and toxicity of commer-
cially available products, particularly oil
spill dispersants. As a result of this work, a
number of new products have been iden-
tified by EPA and their low toxicity and
high efficiency confirmed.
Dispersants
The oil and hazardous materials simu-
lated environmental test tank is ORD's
unique facility for the testing and devel-
opment of devices and techniques for the
control of oil and other hazardous spills.
It was here that ORD evaluated a variety
of dispersant application and mixing
techniques.
A spray boom system for the application
of dispersants was built, then tested, as
were three separate field mixing techniques
—methods by which the dispersant is
blended into the spill to facilitate the dis-
persing action. The three mixing tech-
niques tested were mixing boards, fire
hoses, and boat bow and prop wash.
The Rockaway Spill
On July 31, 1978, a dredge sank off of
Rockaway Inlet, New York, releasing
thousands of gallons of fuel oil that resul-
ted in the closure of five New York City
beaches. On August 3, although the spill
was considered a nonemergency (in that it
presented neither threat of explosion nor
fire), EPA approved the use of dispersants
to protect the shoreline from further oil
contamination. That same day ORD was
called in to provide the technical expertise
an<^ tne e9uipment necessary to disperse
the oil.
A 32-foot Ports and Waterways vessel
was selected as the platform for the disper-
sant application. Fire-fighting equipment
on the vessel was modified to permit first
the mixing of the dispersant with water,
and then to permit it to be pumped onto
the oil spill through either hand-held fire
nozzles or a remotely controlled monitor.
The operation began on August 4 and con-
tinued until August 8, at which time all
New York City beaches were reopened.
EPA environmental test tank
33
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Dispersant application at oil slick site
Current
Dispersant Research
An ORD-supported industry project to
evaluate the effectiveness of dispersants in
mitigating shoreline impacts from off-
shore spills was begun in October 1978,
and will continue into 1979. The study in-
volves the planned dumping of oil into the
Atlantic Ocean, 30 miles off the coast of
New Jersey. Each "spill" will be of ap-
proximately 400 gallons. Control spills,
those not initially dispersed, and spills to
which dispersanls have been applied, will
be evaluated and compared. Samples will
be collected to measure the concentration
ol oil and dispersants in the water column,
as well as to determine their biological
impacts. The National Oceanic and At-
mospheric Administration (NOAA) will
assist with the assessment of the envi-
ronmental effects of the dispersant on fish
eggs, larvae, and plankton. NASA will
perform remote sensing by aircraft, and
the U.S. Coast Guard will furnish lo-
gistical support.
Film-Forming
Chemical Agents
Traditionally, the action taken to protect
the shoreline from offshore oil spills in-
volves the placement of floating barriers or
booms to direct the oil away from a spe-
cific area. Winds, currents, and waves,
however, often wreak havoc with this
booming effort and the result is shoreline
contamination. Over the past few years,
ORD has been studying film-forming
chemical agents for use when these off-
shore methods fail.
A film-forming agent is sprayed on mar-
shy, sandy, or rocky surfaces just before
the oil slick arrives. The agent creates a
chemical barrier or film, thereby prevent-
ing the oil from sticking to plants anci
rocks or penetrating the mud and sand.
Then, by basically reversing the process
that carried the oil onto the shore in the
first place, low pressure water flushing
washes the oil back into more open waters
where it can be more readily collected and
removed.
In 1978, ORD field-tested three natural
and synthetic film-forming agents that
previously performed well in the labora-
tory. Polyvinyl acetate \PVA), xanthan
gum, and a flowing water film were evalu-
ated under simulated spill conditions at
Sewaren Beach, New Jersey. Both the PVA
and the xanthan gum were chosen for their
demonstrated staying power on plants and
sand. The flowing water film, a thin sheet
of water sprayed along the beach from a
long, perforated pipe, was chosen because
it was observed that oil appeared to adhere
less free1' to wetter surfaces than to drier
ones. A light fuel oil, a waxy crude oil, and
a tarry bunker oil were used for the spills.
Results of this research indicated the
following:
• On the beach, PVA was the most dura-
ble and effective in preventing oil pen-
etration.
• The flowing water film was also suc-
cessfi n the beach except where the
water roded channels into the sand
and silt.
• On the beach, fuel oil most often
penetrated the protective films.
• On the marsh, both PVA and xanthan
gum prevented short-term oiling,
especially of the fuel and crude oils.
• The flowing water film on the marsh
proved less effective because a contin-
uous film could not be maintained
along marsh plants.
• On the marsh, bunker oil most often
penetrated the protective films.
In the fall of 1978, polyvinyl alcohol—a
film-forming agent—and a water-based oil
spill dispersant were tested. Results of this
study indicated that both agents applied to
the beach ahead of the incoming oil slick
effectively prevented oil penetration of the
beach substrate when compared to an oil-
d, but chemically untreated, beach area.
34
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Surface Collection
Surface collection agents work by fore
ing an incoming oil slick back on itself, ul-
timately to contract the spill into an area a
fraction of its original size. In 1978 tests,
such an agent worked effectively in calm
seas, but in rougher seas it lost much of its
ability to prevent oil from reaching (he
shoreline. When the turbulence was suffi-
cient to break up the oil and mix it with the
collecting agent, the mixture was neverthe-
less easily washed off of marsh plants.
Burning Agents
ORD research indicates that the intro-
duction of chemical agents ^/urn away
oil spills is not technically feasible except in
a very few instances. In addition to the ob-
vious air pollution problems created by
such a technique, it is also difficult to initi-
ate the burning of oil on water owing to the
spreading and thinning of the slick, and to
maintain the temperature necessary to sus-
tain ignition.
Sinking Agents
The sinking of oil is not considered envi-
ronmentally acceptable, although the pro-
cess occurs naturally under certain condi-
tions. Sinking agents that facilitate this
process are, however, prohibited by the
National Oil and Hazardous Substances
Pollution Contingency Plan; consequently
they are not part of ORD's research.
Gelling Agents
Gelling of oil from a spill . ito a semi-
rigid material to prevent spreading as well
as to facilitate collection has the potential
of being an attractive and environmentally
sound process. No such gelling agent,
however, is currently available in the U.S.
To this end, ORD initiated research into
i he technical, economical, and environ-
mental aspects of a new gelling technique
involving the application of carbon diox-
ide and a gelling agent to renegade oil.
In 1978, laboratory and pilot testing
demonstrated the technical feasibility of
this method. Specifically, results of the
tests indicated that even low vicosity oils
such as Number 2 fuel oil could be gelled
into a rigid mass. The Celled oil was readily
removed from the water in the test tank by
using nets and skimmers. Work is currently
underway to develop a full-scale gelling
agent application system.
The following ORD components contributed
to the research described abo\c:
• Immediate Office of Assistant
Administrator; Office of Health & Ecological
Effects—Environmental Research
Laboratory, Duluth; Health Effects Research
Laboratory, Research Triangle Park; Office
of Energy, Minerals and Industry—Industrial
Environmental Research Laboratory,
Research Triangle Park; Industrial
Environmental Research Laboratory.
Cincinnati (Edison, New Jersey) Office of
Monitoring & Technical Support,
Environment!! Monitoring & Support
L aboratory. Research Triangle Park;
Environmental Monitoring and Support
1 aboratory, Las Vegas; Environmental
Monitoring & Support Laboratory.
Cincinnati
35
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pollutant transport
UKD monitoring and analysis
reveals fundamental
transport phenomena
In 1978, a number of air pollution trans-
port and monitoring studies were complet-
ed—some long-term, others short-term.
New studies were initiated—older ones
were continued. All serve to provide
valuable information for the cities and
regions involved. Additionally, much of
the data amassed are important in the
building of future studies and in EPA's
ability to forecast long-range pollution ef-
fects through computer modeling and
other sophisticated prediction techniques.
The Northeast
Oxidant Transport Study
The Northeast Oxidant Transport Study
was a 1978 EPA monitoring program to
test and evaluate approaches for measur-
ing ozone (and precursor) transport into
an urban area. The purpose of the study
was to aid states in their implementation
plans for oxidant control. Also, the pro-
gram represented the first phase of a multi-
year study to gather data for an air quality
computer model for use in the Philadel-
phia Air Quality Control Region.
Measurements of ozone, nitric oxide, ni-
trogen dioxide, total hydrocarbons, non-
metallic hydrocarbons, wind speed, wind
direction, solar radiation, temperature,
and vertical stability of the atmosphere
were recorded at five ground-level moni-
toring network sites along the periphery of
Philadelphia. In addition, ozone measure-
ments at six supplemental sites were re-
corded, and a helicopter was used to col-
lect airborne measurements of ozone, ni-
tric oxide, nitrogen dioxide, and hydrocar-
bons and to record temperature and parti-
culate light scattering in vertical and hori-
zontal flight patterns upwind of Philadel-
phia. Early morning soundings of wind
speed and wind direction were taken at
three additional locations in support of the
in-air operation.
36
-------
Wide-Area Monitoring
A major study of -.yional air quality in
1978 was the wide-;.rea monitoring pro-
gram initiated in the Western Energy
Resource Development Area (W RDA) to
measure present pollutant c- no ntrations
and to follow future concentration trends.
\VERDA consists of eight Intermountain
West and Northern Great Plains states
containing large reserves of oil shale and
coal to be developed in future s'ears for
power generation and other energy uses.
(See Baseline Monitoring in the West in the
'Monitoring Air Quality ..nun of this
report.)
Airborne sampling and neteorological
measurements and photographs were col-
lected to provide sulfur dioxide, ozone, ox-
ides of nitrogen, and paniculate matter
concentrations, as well as the temperature,
dew point, altitude, air transport speed
and location of these measured pollutants.
This information was correlated with data
from ground monitoring sites in the area,
then combined with meteorological data
for further analysis.
Twenty flights were made in southern
Utah and northern Arizona where two
general types of data were gathered. To es-
tablish a baseline of background pollutant
concentrations, one set of (lights was made
to areas where no energy resources had
been developed. The other flights were
made in the vicinity of the * avajo Gener-
ating Station in Arizona and the Hunting-
ton Canyon Power Plant in Utah to deter-
mine their impact on air quality as far Iron
the plant as measurable. Knowledg
gained from these prel minary flights will
be used to establish how far from a plani a
plume can be measured, how much samp-
ling ; necessary to accurately measure
trace elements and how feasible it is to dif-
ferentiate among plumes using such trace
element analysis. Future flights will at-
tempt to assess the impact of a number of
pollution sources over a large area.
Houston
Air Pollution Study
An extensive research effort was initiat-
ed in 1978 by ORD in the uston area to
investigate ambient ozone and haze prob-
lems. Using special Congressional appro-
priations, the study was in response to the
concern expressed by the state of Texas
that the EPA controls in that area might be
ineffective.
Most of the effort of the study was con-
centrated in field studies performed over
the summer. Significant assistance was
received from local agencies and institu-
tions. A report is expected by the middle of
1979.
37
-------
Lidar equipment installed in a helicopter
Project MISTT
The Midwest Interstate Sulfur Trans-
port and Transformation (MISTT) study,
a 1975-1977 effort, provided clear evidence
for the conversion in the atmosphere of
sulfur dioxide (SO2) from rural power
plants to (secondary) sulfate and subse-
quent transport of this sulfate for up to 18
hours and over a distance of 300 km. Simi-
lar results were found for sulfates and
ozone in urban plumes. Thus, this study
demonstrated that pollution in one urban
area may come from another urban area or
from a rural power plant miles away. Air
pollution control strategies must therefore
begin to consider the long range transport
of pollution across traditional political
boundaries.
Regional
Air Pollution Study
Toward the late 1960s EPA recognized
the need for a comprehensive urban area
study in which all processes affecting air
pollutant emissions, dispersion, and com-
position as well as the atmosphere itself
could be synergistically investigated. Spec-
ific focus for such a study was provided by
a 1971 White House initiative calling for
the development and validation of im-
proved air quality simulation models from
which least-cost pollution control strate-
gies could be evolved.
Thus, in 1972 the Regional Air Pollution
Study (RAPS) program was initiated, with
the St. Louis Air Quality Control Region
selected as the area for study. The major
field measurement programs began in 1974
and were concluded in 1977.
RAPS data, necessary for the establish-
ment of an extensive information base
from which to develop and validate
models, were collected in a number of
ways. The major routine data facility was
the Regional Air Monitoring System
(RAMS), 25 remotely operated stations re-
cording pollutant concentration, meteoro-
logical measurements, and other key data.
Routine upper air measurements were
made at up to four sites of the upper air
sounding network. Measured emissions
were inventoried and their sources iden-
tified. These sources included stationary
air pollution emitters (such as factories) as
well as mobile sources, primarily auto-
mobiles.
Additional non-routine measurements
were generally obtained during intensive
short-term field studies. Here, aircraft and
helicopters from ORD's monitoring lab-
oratory in Las Vegas, measured air struc-
ture and pollutant dispersion char-
acteristics as well as pollutants and their
precursors and other specialized
measurements.
1978 RAPS Research
Completion of the field portion of
RAPS provided EPA with the most com-
prehensive data base on emissions.meteor-
ological parameters, and air quality
measurements ever obtained for an Air
Quality Control Region. Work in 1978 cen-
tered on selecting limited portions of these
data for further analyses to determine rela-
tionships between emissions and ambient
air quality.
A number of qualitative conclusions
have already been reached. It has been
conversion from SO2
to sulfate
38
-------
scattered light
""'*/"*• "*"
cross-section of plume
_ a
established, for example, that while the St.
Louis Region is a major source of SCH,
local contributions to local sulfate levels
are not very great, and that elevated sulfate
values in the region are instead the result of
slow-moving air masses from the Ohio and
Tennessee River valleys. On the other
hand, the larger regional occurrences of
elevated ozone values appear to come from
the entire eastern portion of the country
although some measurable atTK ants can be
attributed to St. Louis air pollution
sources. In short, ozone is both a local and
a regional problem.
Additional 1978 RAPS research includ-
ed the evaluation of seven urban-scale air
quality simulation models using the data
gathered in the St. Louis study. Verifica-
tion of these models is to be completed ear-
ly in 1979.
In 1978, LPA continued work on (he
research and development of remote sens-
ing technology. Considerable time was also
given to the application of these technolo-
gies to the examination of specific environ-
mental problems, with projects ranging
from documenting the impact of forestry
practices on water quality to characteriz-
ing the airborne transport of sulfates of
power plant plumes.
Development of airborne lidar (light
detection and ranging) as a tool to monitor
the long-range transport of air pollutants
is being pursued by ORD. The instruments
probe the atmosphere much in the same
way a depth sounder probes water beneath
a boat. A light pulse is emitted by a laser
.united toward the earlh. Some light is
scjilered hack io the aircraft and its on-
l">oaid sensing and recording devices a.s the
pulse travels through the atmosphere,
sinking air molecules and aerosols. The
niea.surements provided by this technique,
aliing with aireTc. t navigational informa-
tion, can iheii indicate pollutant plume
dimensions and location. The lidar system
has a day/night capability.
I'Hii'ing iS'7
-------
«-
«:- -•
MAP OF APALACHICOLA BAY
ENVIRO-MAP OF APALACHICOLA BAY
Additional
Laser Technology
A second type of airborne laser remote
sensor currently under development is the
earth-reflected differential absorbtion
monitor. This device will be capable of ex-
tremely accurate measurement of the air
column content of ozone beneath an air-
craft. Prototype testing suggests a sensiti-
vity of 8 ppb ozone (if uniformly distribu-
ted) in a column 1-km thick, a sensitivity
sufficiently adequate to monitor ambient
o/one and track urban plumes to study o\-
idant transport. Other applications of the
system indicate potential usefulness in de-
tecting and monitoring both urban oxidant
plumes and regional ozone pollution.
An airborne laser fluorosensing device
to survey water pollution problems is also
under development in both field and labo-
ratory studies. This device will be able to
indicate nutrient pollution sources and
describe pollutant transport by mapping
the path of chlorophyll concentration pat-
terns in water. Additionally, the fluorosen-
sing system will be able to map fluorescent
dyes released into waterways for tracer
studies, and, with modification, be capa-
ble of monitoring total organic carbon in
surface waters.
Enviro-map
Enviro-map is an analytical aid to envi-
ronmental studies. The system is capable
of reading and processing a broad variety
of information fed to it from remote sens-
ing sources such as multispectral scanner
sensors or satellites as well as from ground
collection systems. Additionally, enviro-
map can process the remote sensory data in
conjunction with all manner of geographi-
cal data, demographical and environmen-
tal statistics and mathematical models. It
affords EPA the ability to conduct com-
plex environmental assessments and im-
pact studies, and to delineate and classify
environmental conditions.
The enviro-map system hardware con-
sists of a computer, a TV screen for infor-
mation and a two-dimensional image, and
corresponding video tape recording de-
vices. Enviro-map software, the computer
programs, were developed in 1978 to con-
vert existing pictorial, photographic, map,
and numerical information to digitized da-
ta on magnetic tapes. These data were then
processed to classify the information into a
universal reference system to facilitate
both storage and retrieval.
Actual use of this enviro-map data base
and system hardware allows an analyst to
produce, on the TV monitor, visual repre-
sentations of geographical and environ-
mental conditions in a given area at a given
40
-------
period of time. Of even greater value, any
changes in condition, either actual or hy-
pothetical, can also be visually represented
by summoning geographical overlays and
other pertinent information from the data
base.
In a basic application of the enviro-map
system, a computer-constructed picture of
the lower Apalachicola River Basin and
Apalachicola Bay, Florida, was used to an-
ticipate the effect of forestry practices on
bay fisheries and water quality. Different
colors obtained by processing satellite
multispectral scanner data indicate the
patterns of different forestry practices and
stages, while bay color patterns describe
water turbidity and acidity impacts from
erosion associated with these practices.
Similar pictures for the same area at dif-
feienl limes showed water conditions as
they were affected by tidal flows and
changes in the pattern of logging.
In 1979, enviro-map assessments will be
made for strip roal mining areas in the
West and in other regions of major envi-
ronmental concern.
Data processing in support
of ion chromatography
Ion Chromatography
Ion chromatography is a relatively new
analytical technique that allows the assay
of many pollutants that in the past have
been extremely difficult to analyze, such as
sulfale, nitrate, and ammonium ions. In
addition, certain gaseous pollutants such
as SO2, collected as sulfate, can now be
assayed with the ion chromatograph.
Ion chromatography is the successful
)mbination of two analytical techniques
nown as ion exchange chromatography
and conductivity detection. ' ion ex-
change chromatography a solution is
passed through a polymer containing acid-
: or basic groups that react with the ions
f the solution. Ions of specific com-
pounds are thus separated by th-3 reactions
.vith the pol 'men Then, measurements of
the resulting reaction products can be used
to determine the types and concentrations
of compounds in the original solution. But
this method, that evolved in the 1940's,
never reached its full potential as an ana-
lytical tool because of the lack of a univer-
sal detector to apply to the reaction pro-
ducts. That is, a detector was needed that
measures all ions. One method that was of-
ten applied was conductivity detection, a
measurement of ions by detecting the pre-
sence of their conduction properties. How-
ever, conductivity detection also met with
limited success " ecause of the high back-
ground interference produced b> a re-
quired working fluid, known as an eluent,
that washes the ionic reaction products
from the polymer.
In 1975, research by industry developed
a method to suppress the eluent thereby re-
ducing the background interference and
making the development of ion chroma-
tography a reality. The success of the
eluent suppression method now allows for
the effective use of ion chromatography
for the analysis of a vast number of in-
organic and organic compounds. Further-
more, ion chromatography provides the
scientific community with a single, sensi-
tive and selective tool, capable of the pre-
cise measurement of compounds formerly
analyzed by several different techniques
with relatively poor selectivity.
The widespread application of ion chro-
matography by both go- eminent agencies
and commercial laboratories was primari-
ly the result of research carried out by the
EPA's environmental science laboratory.
In 1978, ORD sponsored a national sym-
posium on the ion chromatography analy-
sis of environmental pollutants. Attend-
ance by more than 200 scientists from
around the world testifies to the signifi-
cance and rapid growth of ion chromato-
graphy as an analytical tool for environ-
mental pollutants.
41
-------
Manv of Che nollut
Initial results of the study showed that
there were no significant seasonal varia-
tions in the heavy metal contents in mus-
health
no
1 >:
pollutants to ea
its, and were theref<
is of a pilot ORD
1 watch, n studv th;
els of metals were found in any station
from the three coastal areas.
However, extremely high levels of lJl..)l)
and DDE residues were measured in mus-
sels collected in the San Pedro-Los Angeles
area, and elevated amounts were observed
in mussels collected between San Francisco
and San Dieso. Thf. Pacific Northwest and
dionucleides in U.S.
riiia! collections o' the niollu.
at 106 stations on the Allan
Psicific cocisis,, fv! on fitly SSTII
en on the Atlantic and Pac
evaluation of seasonal dill
participating laboratories w
lyze the samples.
Large diiioutiis of pQiyCiuorinateQ
biphviryls (FC'Bs) were mesured in animals
in stations from San Diego to San Fran-
cisco on the West. Coast, and on the East
Coast, elevated, amounts of PCB were
found in stations from Florida to Boston,
: ........ it'fiifck ' ' •
..... :;X
-c'
5a,tii0i€s taken in iv/c a.
eas'of the Northeast. Petroleum hydro- jng analyzed, Additi
rbons were observed in four sample:
ID IN MOLLUSKS
urrently be-
>nal studies are
underway to facilitate use of the data gath-
ered in the mussel watch program. The da-
ta are being readied for easi
clearly defining the pertii
chemical, and biological efl
lutant uptake by bivalve mollusks,
As an example, a 75% reduction in
growth potential of Myliius edulis, a blue-
black bivalve,, has been related to elevated
levels of pollutants present in the tissues ot
field-exposed Mytilus. With the use of
mussel watch data to relate such specific
physiological impacts to pollutant concen-
trations found in specimen tissues, the pro-
grain takes on yet greater dimension, serv-
ing as a tool, for resource evaluation and
in a. nag ernie nt, in addition to its primary
function as a measure of pollutant
transport.
>CB's MEASURED IN MOLLUSKS
"V
%ii
I
V
Laboratory, Las Vegas: Office of Air,
Waler Use—liiivtrOFH'nc'nial Sciences
Research Laboratory, Research Trhtn,
Park; Office of Health & Ecological '
Effects -Environmental Research
Laboratory, Narraganscli
-------
nitrogen oxides
Technology development by
OKD will help reduce future
NOx emissions
Damage to the ozone layer, photochemi-
cal smog, high nitrate rainfall. Today's
scientific data suggests that nitrogen ox-
ides (NOX), principally nitric oxide (NO)
and nitrogen dioxide (NO2), are among
the most significant contributors to such
degradation in air quality. This degrada-
tion is not only aesthetically offensive but
may be health- and even life-threatening.
The high concentrations 01 these NOX
emissions are the result of human acitivity.
In 1974 it was estimated that these techno-
logy-associated pollutants were produced
at a rate of 23 million tons annually.
Ninety-nine percent of these emissions
originated from fuel combustion, with ap-
proximately half coming from stationary
sources such as boilers and the other half
from mobile sources such as automobiles.
By 1985, however, with the continued
growth in energy use and increased reli-
ance on coal as fuel, [{PA anticipates a
70%/3()ir/o split of stationary to mobile
NOX polluters. By the year 20(M), in the
absence of stricter emissions standards,
this trend could mean a N()x output that is
200-3(X)% higher than present levels.
43
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NOx Control
The EPA NOX control program is aimed
primarily at developing combustion modi-
fication technology that would reduce
NOX emissions without increasing other
potentially harmful emissions, or reducing
energy systems operability and efficiency.
Initially such study involves understanding
the mechanisms by which NOX and other
pollutants are formed and destroyed
within a combustion area or flame zone.
Nitric oxide is formed in one of two
ways, depending on the fuel characteristics
and the chemical reactions in the combus-
tion. Thermal NO is formed by the oxida-
tion of nitrogen in the combustion air; its
formation strongly depends on the amount
of heat available and can be controlled by
reducing peak flame temperature. Fuel
NO and NO2, on the other hand, are
formed by the oxidation of nitrogen chem-
ically bound in the fuel. This reaction
weakly depends on temperature, but
strongly depends on the amount of oxygen
available and can, therefore, be controlled
by limiting the oxygen availability in the
flame zone.
THERMAL
NO
1974 NOX EMISSION BREAKDOWN
1985 ESTIMATED NOX EMISSION BREAKDOWN
Low NOx Burner Program
A variety of projects were undertaken
by ORD in 1978 to study and develop low
NOX burners for utility and industrial.
boilers. The low NOX burner program mir-
rors EPA's general NOX control goals
with the more specific aim of reducing
uncontrolled NOX emissions by 80%.
Under this program, an advanced low
NOX coal burner has been developed based
on the proven principle of staged combus-
tion techniques already in use for NOX
control. The burner design involves the use
of three concentric combustion zones. A
fuel-rich primary zone is both low in heat
and oxygen, thereby minimizing thermal
and fuel-generated NO. Additional oxygen
is then permitted in the secondary and ter-
tiary zones, allowing for high combustion
efficiency, equivalent to or better than that
in existing coal burners.
Suchi a design would be compatible with
new coal-fired utility and industrial
boilers, boilers converting from gas and oil
to coal for fuel, and can also be retrofitted
to existing boilers.
In 1978, the advanced low NOX burner
was tested on an experimental scale of 15 to
20 MW and consistently produced NOX
emissions below 150 ppm, a decrease in
emissions of as much as 85% over conven-
44
-------
tional burners of this size. Also, as the
burner size was increased, the NOX emis-
sions decreased. These results set an en-
couraging trend toward the eommercia
application of the technology.
Two projects have also been initiated for
field evaluation of low NOX burners:
test using two industrial boilers in the
range of 30 to 150 thermal MW, and a te.
involving two utility boilers in the range o
100 to 300 electric MW. The projects wen.
begun in late 1978 and are to be completed
in 1982. Project goals are to demonstrate
that:
• NO\ emissions below 150 ppm UK
possible in practical boilers.
• Low NOX emissions can be achieved
without increased soot emissions.
• Thermal efficiency of the boiler is
equal to or better than that of the base-
line boiler.
• Burner design with low NOX modifi-
cations does not increase corrosion in
the boilers.
A unique feature of this program is tha
these development and demonstratiot
studies, while managed by ORD, are coor
dinated by two panels of experts drawn
Utility boiler at test facility
from the business world, research institu-
tions, and government. A technical review
panel composed of representatives of
boiler manufacturers, utilities, and re-
search organizations provides a continuing
evaluation of the program as it relates to
practical systems. A technology transfer
panel composed of governmental agencies
and trade association members reviews the
program's objectives with respect to
national, state, and industry goals.
Residential Furnaces
Residential furnaces emit pollutants
near ground level in populated areas dur-
ing a limited period of the year. In doing
so, a significant amount of energy is con-
sumed, almost exclusively through the use
of clean fuels such as gas or light oils. Ow-
ing to the large number of these furnaces
and the fixed flow of fuel and air in them,
controls are difficult to evolve.
In 1977-78, however, EPA developed an
integrated residential oil furnace. This fur-
nace, designed "from scratch," to mini-
mize both pollution and fuel consump-
tion,was tested in six residences over one
complete heating cycle. Its performance
met or exceeded EPA emissions goals for
the study and its operation consumed an
average of 18.5% less fuel than the existing
furnaces.
45
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Gas Turbines
Current gas turbines use a combustion
mode similar in principle to that found in
boilers but different in practice because of
very high temperatures and pressures.
These turbines use natural gas and light
oils for fuels, and although NOX emissions
are high, they can be controlled using a
water injection technique. However, in the
future, there appears to be a trend toward
the use of heavier liquid fuels, with signifi-
cant concentrations of fuel nitrogen,
which are expected to be resistant to con-
trol by water injection.
Anticipating the need for a new control
technology, a program was initiated by
ORD to develop a dry control technique
that is expected to be effective in the reduc-
tion of both thermal and fuel NO from sta-
tionary gas turbines using heavy liquid
fuels. In 1978, evaluation of a number of
combustion concepts was completed and a
combustion design was developed that was
capable of exceeding program goals. Cur
renlly, the successful concept is being scal-
ed up to the size appropriate for laboratory-
evaluation. Following completion of tests,
the combustion technology will be incor-
porated into a practical gas turbine engine
for evaluation on a test stand.
Advanced Processes
ORD's advanced process program is di-
rected toward developing advanced tech-
nology capat:e of significant emission
reductions over existing state-of-the-art
control technologies. Both the low NOX
coal burner and the integrated residential
furnace concepts originated in this
research area. The genei•••'•. approach used
in this program is one of experimenting
vith a number of different systems to
develop a technology for low emissions
combustion of a specific fuel.
One advanced concept that appears cap-
able of achieving very low pollutant levels
in clean gaseous and vaporizable liquid
fuels is catalytic combustion. Here, a cata-
lyst is used in place of a burner to initiate
Gas turbine being tested
46
-------
the major energy release. The fuel is ox-
idized and releases its heal within the chan-
nels of the catalyst bed. Only very short
residence times are needed for complete
combustion and there can be very high vol-
umetric heat release rates.
The process, developed in 1978, is cur-
rently limited by the temperature at which
the catalyst itself degrades, and the "kine-
tic threshold" temperature above which
the rate of NOX production becomes signi -
t'icant. Thus, new system designs must be
evolved to achieve longer catalyst life and
higher thermal efficiency.
Three such systems concepts are cu:
rently being tested on a laboratory scale.
The first is an ultra-lean fuel to air ratio
combustion mode similar to that used in
gas turbines. At combustion conditions
typical of gas turbines, very low NOX levels
(below 10 ppm) have been observed, along
with low emissions of carbon monoxide
and hydrocarbons.
A second concept with potential appli-
cation to boilers has produced similarly
low emissions levels, while operating on
natural gas. The third concept is a catalytic
staged combustion which controls fuel
nitrogen conversion to low levels (for
NH3-containing gaseous fuels).
While all ihrcc concepts require further
development and evaluation before practi-
cal systems can be designed, catalytic com-
bustion appears, at least, to have the po-
tential to serve as the basis for second gen-
eration combustion systems with near-/ero
pollutant emissions.
Commercial boiler undergoing testing
I he follow ing OKI) components conn ibuled
to the research described ahoxe:
• Office ol 1-nergy, Minerals, & Industry
Industrial Environmental Research
Laboratory, Research Triangle 1'ar^
47
-------
sulfur sludge
ORD tests and evaluations
help reduce by-products of
sulfur control technology
Today, sulfur dioxide (SO2) emissions
from new coal-fired utility boilers are
generally controlled by exposing the boiler
exhaust to a lime or limestone slurry which,
by chemical reaction, absorbs the sulfur
from the gas. This chemical reaction pro-
cess, known as "scrubbing", creates a
calcium sulfite sludge that is the product of
the chemically transformed lime and sul-
fur. The remaining scrubbed exhaust, in
the meanwhile, travels up a flue and is
released into the atmosphere. This flue gas
desulfuri/ation (FGD) process using either
lime or limestone as the scrubbing agent is
the method being used by over 90"/o of
U.S. utilities to meet SO2 emissions stan-
dards for new coal-burning plants.
It is expected that such lime/limestone
systems will be a part of most projected
boiler construction over the next 10-15
years, ultimately representing an overall
investment of several billion dollars in SC>2
control technology. It is a major ORD con
cern then that such monies be spent a
wisely as possible and with the greate
benefit to the environment.
48
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Forced Oxidation
A key problem posed by the lime/lime-
stone FGD process is the disposal of the
quicksand-like waste solid or calcium sul-
fite sludge that remains following the SO2
lime/limestone reaction. Currently, the
sludge is disposed of in ponds that are lined
to prevent seepage into the water table, a
process that can account for up to 25% r>f
the overall scrubbing cost. These ponds
also require large areas of not readily re-
claimable land, a major concern in areas
where such acreage is simply not available.
In Japan, where land availability is a ma-
jor problem, the sludge is modified during
the scrubbing by exposing it to air forced in
under high pressure. This forced oxidation
technique converts the calcium sulfite
sludge to calcium sulfate or high purity
gypsum, to be used in various manufactur-
ing processes. Unlike Japan, however, the
U.S. suffers no shortage of gypsum, and
thus the high equipment and operating
costs of forced oxidation cannot be justi-
fied.
Still, both environmental and economic
factors point to the need to somehow re-
duce the quantity of sludge produced while
also improving its quality and its potential
for positive use. To this end, current ORL
sponsored studies at the Tennessee Valle
Authority (TVA) Shawnee Steam Plant art
examining the use of far lesi: ostly forced
oxidation processes that create a low purity
gypsum ideal for use as landfill. Here, the
calcium sulfite sludge is exposed to air at
normal atmospheric pressure to facilitate
the chemic.V eaction necessary to produce
the low purity gypsum. The resulting prod-
uct occupies 30%-50% less volume than
sulfite sludge, is more soil-like, ami is more
readily dewatered. Compared v 'h other
recent methods of improved slur dispos-
al studied, the forced oxidatio 'hnique
appears to be only one-third as i stly, as
well as allowing land being used for fill to
eventually be reclaimed for other uses.
There is also the indication that future test-
ing could reduce these costs to below those
of the currently popular ponding method.
stack gas out
Over the past two years ORD research
has demonstrated that simple forced oxi-
dation can be easily incorporated into a
variety of new or existing commercial lime
or limestone scrubbing systems. Three
such systems successfully tested were one-
and two-scrubber loop systems and forced
oxidation of the bleed system.
scrubber
boiler stack
gas in
LIME/LIMESTONE
CONTROL PROCESS
FORSULFUR
DIOXIDE
lime/limestone slurry
49
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boiler stack gas in
SO£ absorber
stack gas out
/- SO2 absorber
holding
tank I
stack gas out
SC>2 absorber
boiler stack gas in
air blower
DOUBLE LOOP SCRUBBER
SINGLE LOOP SCRUBBER
The two scrubber loop system — the
most complex tested—involves two sepa-
rate exposures of the exhaust gases to sul-
fur absorbing liquids: one loop is for
sulfur dioxide removal, the other is for
maximum oxidation efficiency. Tests of
this system indicated that SO2 removal ef-
ficiency is increased and utilization of the
lime or limestone is maximized, which in
turn decreases sludge volume. Also, forced
oxidation using the double loop systei
allows for the highly efficient use of les?
expensive, less energy intensive limestone
rather than lime as a scrubbing agent. This
savings is expected to outweigh the higher
costs of the construction and operation of
the double loop system.
The single loop system tests also indica-
ted a more efficient removal of sulfur di-
oxide when forced oxidation is used. How-
ever, this system, designed to work only
with limestone, does not provide for the
maximum use of this scrubbing agent,
and, therefore, while sludge quality is up-
graded, sludge volume remains roughly the
same as without forced oxidation. Never
theless, the majority of existing and plan-
ned commercial limestone FGD installa-
tions use the single loop system, one which
allows for easy modification to include
forced oxidation in o the total proce
50
Conceptually, the ideal system for com-
mercial installations would involve forcing
oxidation of the sludge in a small bleed
stream, (by tapping into the main slurry
flow), rather than having to circulate the
air through the entire sludge mass, as is
necessary in the double and single loop sys-
tems. Results of ORD testing of the forced
oxidation of the bleed stream, however,
have met with minimum success. Oxida-
tion rates were too low and the resulting
sludge did not dewater or handle appreci-
ably better than unoxidized sludge.
However, a 1978 study conducted at the
Shawnee test site indicated that the bleed
stream system could, in fact, be made to
work, and work as efficiently and less ex-
pensively than forced oxidation in either
the double or single loop systems. What
was necessary, according to preliminary
study findings, was the use of certain
chemicals added to the lime/limestone
slurry.
Boiler being tested
-------
Scrubber Additives
The use of additives to improve SO2 re-
moval efficiency has been a focus of ORD
research. Better SO2 removal would allow
implementation of the more stringent New
Source Performance Standards as well as
reduce the cost of FGD through:
• substitution of limestone slurry for
more expensive lime
• reduction of the amount of slurry re-
quired to react with the gas to form a
solution—e.g., smaller tanks
• reduction of limestone feed require-
ments
• reduction of the amount of sludge
produced.
Experiments carried out at the Shawnee
test facility have demonstrated the effec-
tiveness of two chemical additives—mag-
nesium oxide and adipic acid—in SO2
removal efficiency.
Magnesium Oxide
When magnesium oxide (MgO), an inex-
pensive solid, is added to the slurry, the
rate of SO2 transfer from gas to liquid is
boosted considerably along with a marked
increase in SO2 removal efficiency.
Shawnee test results on double loop sys-
tems, for example, have indicated 90%
SO2 removal with MgO versus 80% re-
moval without. And a single loop system
with MgO can achieve 85% removal, twice
its efficiency without additives. The
amount of slurry necessary to produce ef-
ficient removal is also diminished with the
use of additives. Where formerly 65 gal-
lons of lime slurry per thousand cubic feet
of flue gas were needed to produce 90% re-
moval efficiency, with MgO the figure
drops to 37 gallons per thousand cubic
feet. Thus, the need for less slurry allows
the use of smaller tanks and less power for
pumping the slurry.
The principal difficulty with MgO has
been with the sulfite-magnesium sludge it
creates—it is slow to settle, difficult to de-
water. However, 1978 ORD tests indicated
that by using MgO in the commercially-
popular single loop scrubber system along
with forced oxidation of the bleed stream,
a calcium sulfate sludge is created that is
both fast settling and easily filtered.
clean stack gas
SO2 absorber
oxidized sludge
Adipic Acid
Although adipic acid, a water soluble,
nontoxic industrial chemical, is more ex-
pensive than MgO, its effectiveness in
smaller concentrations makes it less costly
as a scrubber additive. Additionally, ORD
test results show that it enhances the gas-
to-liquid transfer, improves SO2 removal
efficiency, and maximizes limestone utili-
zation—meaning less feed, less waste,
greater operating reliability.
Research done in 1978 shows adipic acid
also particularly adaptable to single loop
scrubbing where forced oxidation can take
place in a holding tank. This configuration
is the simplest of the various tested alterna-
tives for simultaneously improving SO2 re-
moval by the use of additives, and impro-
ving sludge quality through forced oxida-
tion. Furthermore, adipic acid, unlike
MgO, is also efficient in the scrubbing of
exhaust from boilers that use high chloride
coal.
Conclusions
Whichever additive is finally used, two
general conclusions can be drawn from
1978 ORE) FGD research. First, the use of
additives in scrubbing systems will signifi-
cantly lower the amount of energy re-
quired to bring about high efficiency SO2
removal. This stems from the ability of the
additive to help achieve a rapid gas-to-
liquid transfer, and from the effective use
of limestone rather than energy-intensive
lime as a scrubbing agent. Second, the use
of additives in conjunction with forced ox-
idation in scrubbing systems will greatly
enhance the efficiency of the total FGD
system; reducing the costs of materials,
reducing the costs of sludge removal, and
increasing the quality of the environment.
The following ORD components contributed
to the research described above:
• Office of Energy, Minerals & Industry-
Industrial Environmental Research
Laboratory, Research Triangle Park
air blower
BLEED STREAM FORCED OXIDATION
IN SINGLE LOOP SCRUBBER
51
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oil shale
ORD develops pollution
control guidance for an
emerging in^istry
Oil Shale a layeicd, brown sedinit
tary rock Found primarily iu Ulan, Colo
rado, and x /yoming, an contains men
potential ei ergy than U.h oil and natura
gas reserves combined. To get the oil out o
the shale, however, these rocks must b
heated in aboveground Facilities or in spi
daily prepared underground cavern
Both above ground and in situ techniques
For shale oil extraction involve mining,
crushing and combustion—all processes
that can generate a host of environmental
problems.
Today, with the need for greater energy
self-sufficiency and the high price of fuels,
industry interest in oil shale development is
at an all-time high. A number of devel-
opers are currently planning to achieve
commercial production of shale oil within
the next few years, and as many as a dozen
such facilities could be put in operation
during the 1980's.
The emergence of such an industry—one
capable of providing enormous amounts
of energy, yet also capable of causing
significant environmental damage—de-
serves the closest scrutiny by regulatory
agencies. It is just as important, however,
that the developers, who bring millions of
research, development, and construction
dollars to the task, know what will be ex-
pected of them in the way of environmental
regulations and control technologies. This
is necessary to avoid costly retooling after
start-up and time-consuming challenges in
the courtroom.
To meet the needs of this emerging in-
dustry, ORD oil shale research efforts in
recent years have been directed toward an-
52
-------
ticipating EPA regulations and standards
and the development of control technolo-
gies to meet these potential regulations and
standards. In total, ORD laboratory re-
search has involved: techniques of mea-
suring and monitoring air and water qual-
ity, instrumentation methods, quality as-
surance programs, the fate of pollutants,
the effects of pollutants on humans, the ef-
fects of pollutants on ecosystems, the envi-
ronmental assessment of regions of poten-
tial oil shale development, as well as the de-
velopment of control technologies for oil
shale extraction and processing.
Because of the number of ORD offices
involved in this effort, EPA researchers
formed an Oil Shale Working Group that
meets periodically to increase cooperation
on research projects and to improve inter-
laboratory communications.
Oil Shale Pollution Control
Guidance Document
The culmination of this extensive ORD
research effort came in 1978 with the draft-
ing of a comprehensive report entitled
"Pollution Control Guidance for Oil Shale
Development." This document, intended
for use by developers as well as regulators
of this emerging industry, presents pollu-
tion control guidance that anticipates, and
to some extent serves to set the stage for,
the EPA regulatory posture on oil shale de-
velopment. Coming on the heels of a simi-
lar document for geothermal energy devel-
opment, this publication is only the second
such effort that attempts to delineate so
clearly the environmental parameters of an
industry not yet fully in existence.
Specifically, the document presents nu-
merical estimates of EPA regulatory stan-
dards and required control measures that
may be expected for the oil shale industry,
as well as estimates of discharge and emis-
sions limitations. These estimates are
based on a thorough analysis of existing
technical data in conjunction with antici-
pated regulatory mechanisms. The docu-
ment is divided into five major sections to
include an extensive introduction, recom-
mendations for air emissions, water ef-
fluent and solid waste disposal- regula-
tions, a detailing of environmental impacts
expected as a result of oil shale develop-
ment processes, specific control technolo-
gy data, and methods for monitoring emis-
sions, effluents, and solid wastes.
To assure the utility of this document,
input, participation, review, and concur-
rence was sought throughout the EPA pro-
gram offices. In this manner, the regula-
tory mechanisms and discharge limitation
goals set forth in the document reflect the
thinking of the agency as a whole, rather
than that of a single office. The coordina-
tion of this effort is being carried out
through the Energy Technology Commit-
tee made up of ORD and program office
representatives.
After the guidance document has been
reviewed and approved by EPA, it will be
circulated to other governmental agencies
and to industrial groups for further review
and comment. Final publication is sched-
uled for December 1979.
The following ORD components contributed
to the research described above:
• Office of Energy, Minerals & Industry-
Industrial Environmental Research
Laboratory, Research Triangle Park;
Industrial Environmental Research
Laboratory, Cincinnati; Office of Health &
Ecological Effects—Environmental Research
Laboratory, Duluth; Health Effects Research
Laboratory, Research Triangle Park; Office
of Monitoring and Technical Support,
Environmental Monitoring and Support
Laboratory, Las Vegas; Office of Air, Land &
Water Use—Robert S. Kerr Environmental
Research Laboratory, Ada; Environmental
Research Laboratory, Athens
Shale retorted underground. Oil brought
to the surface and refined.
'IN SITU"
Shale mined, brought to the surface, crushed,
retorted, and refined.
ABOVE GROUND
53
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diesels
ORD is studying potential
public health threats of diesel
exhaur^
The diesel powered passenger auto-
mobile is capable of approximately 25%
better fuel economy than its spark ignition
gasoline powered counterpart. Diesel en-
gines also are able to meet virtually all of
the 1980 EPA emissions standards for car-
bon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and hy-
drocarbons with a minimum of technolog-
ical m~ ii'ications. By 1985, the industry
estimates that 25% of new U.S. automo-
biles sold will be diesel powered.
In view ot me projected increase in die-
sels on American roadways, EPA em-
barked on a program in 1971 to evaluate
the potential public health problems posed
by diesel automobile exhaust products. Al-
ready known was that a single diesel pow-
ered automobile emitted 30 to 50 times
more particulates than a comparable gaso-
line powered vehicle equipped with a cata-
lytic converter, and that the composition
of these particulates differed.
Particulates emitted from a gasoline
powered vehicle are principally sulfuric
compounds and low molecular weight or-
ganic substances. Emissions from a diesel
powered vehicle, however, contain pri-
marily carbon particles with higher molec-
ular weight organics such as polycycli
aromatics that attach themselves to th
particles' surface; some of these aromatics
give the diesel exhaust its characteristic
smell. The actual percentage of these or-
ganics per particle depends on engine and
fuel type and driving cycle, and varies
from 10% to 50% with about 25% con-
sidered to be a reasonable average. Most of
the particles are less than one micron in
size and are therefore respirable. That is,
they are small enough to slip through the
lung's protective mechanisms and lodge
deeply in lung tissue where they can cause
various biological changes
54
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EF/\ Research Results
Late in 1977, EPA released preliminar
results of tests performed on diesel exhaus
organics emitted by medium and heavy
duty engines at ORD's laboratory in
Research Triangle Park, N.C. Samples of
the organic extracts from these par-
ticulates were introduced into an Ames
microbial mutagenicity bioassay tes
system, an in vitro (outside the living body)
system if measures mutagenicity of
chemicals jn colonies of bacteria. Results
of this research, although inconclusive, in-
dicated that the organic materials tested
were consistently mutagenic for this test
system. Many investigators believe that the
organics found in diesel exhaust might also
be carcinogenic.
It is important to note, however, that i\\
most ail combustion products generally d<
contain carcinogens, and that the results ot
in vitro screening systems such as the Ame.1
lesi are not conclusive, but merely aid re-
searchers in finding suspicious compounds
to concentrate on in animal and oihei
types of biologic -1 studies.
air in
fuel in
combustion
exhaust
In a conventional four-cycle engine, shown below, a compressed mix of gas and
air is ignited by a spark plug. In a diesel engine, shown above, a heavy fuel oil
is ignited when injected into very hot, highly compressed air.
fuel & air in spark combustion exhaust
WHAT IS THE DIESEL DIFFERENCE?
1978 Highlights
In 1978, more recent research findings
were presented at a symposium ot scien-
tists looking into means to measure bio-
logical effects of diesel exhausts. Here,
Ames system results and methods were
discussed along with additional diesel sam-
ple activity findings. Other in vitro tests
were presented. The results of these tests
showed that some diesel participates pro-
duce DNA damage in yeast and mutation
of mammalian gene-cells. It is not possi-
ble, however, to draw any harmful health
effect conclusions from 1978 diesel emis-
sions data.
Additional important research isolated
specific compound groups in which the
mutating agents were particularly potent.
This will enable further research to con-
centrate investigations on the offensive
compounds. Further findings show that
mntagens were not created as a result v
laboratory extraction, fractionali/ation o
storage, nor are they present in unconi
busted diesel fuel. Mutagenicity thus ap
pears to be a direct consequence of com
bustion,
50-Day Pilot Study
A 50-day pilot study exposing cats, rats,
mice and guinea pigs to diluted raw ex-
haust from a light duty six-cylinder diesel
engine was completed at ORD's Cincinnati
laboratory. The study was designed to
identify the acute effects that might result
from short-term, high-level exposure to
diesel exhaust. Unlike the in vitro screen-
ing studies, in which only the paniculate
55
-------
components of the diesel exhaust were in-
troduced into the research, whole animals
were exposed in this study to both the gas-
eous and paniculate portions—the total
exhaust—simultaneously. Such an exam-
ination is important in investigating the ef-
fect of diesel emissions since approximate-
ly 80% of the pollutants emitted from light
duty diesels remain in the gaseous phase.
The following biological effects were
measured:
• pulmonary functions
• increased susceptibility to respiratory
infection
•deposition nd clearance of par-
ticulates enter,ng the lungs
• lung and other pathology
• biochemical changes in the lung and
other tissues
• pulmonary tumor development
• lung changes for indications of fibro-
sis and emphysema
• changes in behavioral activity.
Initial study results indicate:
• little or no change in pulmonary func-
tion
• an increased susceptibility to res-
piratory infection (perhaps due to ele-
vated 'evels of NO2 present in the
partly diluted exhaust)
• particulates enter the deep regions of
the lungs; a slow rate of clearance per-
mits long residence times
• no significant pathological changes
occur either in the lung or other body
tissues (possibly due to shortness r>f
exposure)
• increased levels of arylhydrocarbon
hydroxylase (AHH) in the lungs,
testes, and prostates; may be cor-
related with the chemical induction of
tumors
• increased levels of total protein in the
lungs, suggesting longer exposure
might result in fibrosis and emphyse-
ma-like lung destruction
• no pulmonary or other organ tumors
• significant changes in spontaneous lo-
comotor and forced activity (may be
related to sensory perceptions of the
exposure conditions).
These results will be compared with sim-
ilar studies that have been conducted with
gasoline catalyst and noncatalyst engines.
It is important to note, however, that this
test was only a study of acute health ef-
fects, using one engine, one fuel, and one
driving cycle. And while these results fail
to confirm any significant acute effects,
any future deleterious findings will be
coupled with in vitro results to identify
areas of potential concern. As with the in
vitro testing, the scarcity of data precludes
conclusions about diesel emissions and
public health risks.
Future Research
The primary direction of future research
into diesel emissions will focus on their
specific carcinogenicity. While noncarci-
nogenic diseases such as fibrosis and em-
physema may also be induced by diesel
emissions, it is felt, nevertheless, that such
effects are not unique to diesel particu-
lates, and therefore do not require study in
this context. However, a special diesel ex-
haust inhalation study is now underway to
test the validity of this assumption.
The future carcinogenic studies will be
carried out using three major technique.'
in vitro screening, whole animal tests, and
epidemiology.
56
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In Vitro Screening
In vitro screening will involve the con-
tinued evaluation of the paniculate and
gaseous components of diesel exhaust us-
ing different fuels, engines, and driving
cycles. With this information, an attempt
will be made to determine those alterations
that can be made in engines, fuels and
emission controls to eliminate positive mu-
tagenic responses as determined by th
Ames system.
Additionally, the relative biological po-
tency of the particulates will be compared
with their actual quantity in the diesel ex-
ha . GRID will then be able to rank order
those substances that require future in vi-
tro studies and those to be introduced into
higher order biological tests.
To determine the comparative potency
of diesel particulates, samples will be ob-
tained from other sources such as gasoline
powered automobiles, coke ovens, ciga-
rette and roofing tar and ambient air, and
will then be subjected to similar in vitro
tests. Yet another in vitro study will deter-
mine whether diesel particulates are rnuta-
genic under physiological conditions simi-
lar to those found in the lung.
/hole Animal Studies
Two sets of anima studies will be per-
formed in further research. The first set of
experiments will introduce higher priority
particulate samples (determined by in vitro
testing) or individual compounds into ani-
mals, either by instillation (drop-by-drop
application), skin painting, implantation,
or injection. The animals will then be ex-
amined for increased evidence of tumr N.
Parallel studies will be performed with
coke oven paniculate emissions and ciga-
rette and roofing tar for which a data base
between dose response and human cancer
exists.
The second set of whole animal siudies
will involve exposing several species of ani-
mals via inhalation to total diesel exhaust.
^re, both carcinogenicity and a limited
examination of noncarcinogenic chronic
lung disease will be studied. Groups of
normal mice and rats will breathe the diesel
exhaust over their lifetimes. Although it is
not expected that tumors will be discov-
ered owing to the low concentration of
organics in the exhaust, the animals will be
closely examined for a1 ' unexpected re-
sults.
In some of the inhala > studies, strains
of animals particularly susceptible to tu-
mor growth will be to determine
whether tumors develop faster or more
readily in animals exposed to a diesel at-
mosphere than in control animals. Other
animals will be exposed to a known animal
carcinogen at a dose sufficiently low that it
should not produce tumors, and then will
je exposed to the diesel exhaust for the re-
mainder of their lives. This will be done to
further determine whether diesel exhaust
makes the development of tumors more
likely. Additionally, animals will also be
studied for evidence of emphysema-like
destruction of their lungs.
Epidemiological Studies
ORD will identify the geographic loca-
tions where epidemiological research will
be useful in the study of diesel exhausi
emissions. Studies will be initiated and ex-
panded as wan anted; however, owing lo
the long lead tunes necessary for such
study, heavy reliance on existing N1OS11
(National Institute for Occupational Safe-
ty and Health) and other epidemiological
research will be requited.
Conclusion
It is currently not possible to define the
potential public health effects of the ex-
panded use of diesel engines in automo-
biles. No one study is sulficienth defin*
live, and loo few studies have been coi
pleted. ll is assumed, however, that by Is
vein her 1979, when l-'PA obtains the icvi
from its current research, that a suffic: ;i
health effects data base \\ill exist from
which to establish a reasonable set <
ommeiulaiions concerning this sign
change in American automobile
generation. I hat research will be ic
in "Research Highlights-
I IK- lot lowing (>kl> compciticnis conn ihnlcil
lo I he rescai L h dcsci ibcil a box c:
• Ol'l ice of Hcallli & l-coloi;ic;ii
Health l;H'ects Research I aboialo'
Research Iiiaimlc I'aik
57
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monitoring air quality
Emissions are measured in
energy development areas
and from natural sources
I here i\ lilile doubt ilia! the accelerate
use ul our energy resources will signifi-
cantly impact air quality in those areas
where this activity will center. Today, I PA
is supporting a comprehensive program to
evaluate the real and potential air quality
impacts of these developments in the west-
ern I'micd Stales. Of particular interest
are proposed developments in the eight
state legion encompassing the Northern
Circa! Plains, the oil shale regions ol Col-
orado and I itah, and the lour c 'ornersaiea
wheie I'(all. New Mexico, Ari/ona, and
Colorado meet.
1 he primary objectives ot this program
arc lo establish an energy related air qual-
ity baseline and subsequent!) to evaluate
aii' qualii\ trends. In tin.-, manner, a quami-
iati\e measure of the regional air qnalit>
impacts of existing and currently planned
developments can be esiabhshed so the air
quality impacts of any proposed and fu-
ture energy-related activities can be pre-
dicted.
58
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Meeting the Objectives
To meet the objectives of this compre-
hensive study, it was essential first to in-
ventory existing air quality monitoring sta-
tions in the eight state Western Energy Re-
source Development Area (WERDA) and
the sources of potential energy-related air
pollution. The next step was to determine
if a sufficient number of stations existed
and whether or not they were properly lo-
cated for the study. Additionally, existing
operalions were examined to determine the
adequacy of (he stations in light of the an-
ticipated monitoring requirements.
It was discovered that the density of air
quality monitoring stations was particular-
ly low in most of the areas with anticipated
large-scale energy activities. !: was also
found that existing stations were not spe-
cifically designed to charac' e impacts
of energy developments, nor were their
measurements completely used on air
pollution stemming from power plan'
emissions, which are considered to repre-
sent the greatest near-term, energy-related
impact on air quality. While the presence
of sulfates and fine participates, which re-
NEW SULFATE-NITRATE MONITORING SITES
suit in degraded visibilily, ai c the most ob-
vious manifestation of such developments,
sulfates were being moniu,:o.l al only few
locations, and neither fine pail, tilates nor
visibility degradation were bei moni-
tored on a regular basis at any 1( ation.
Part of (he preliminary work also in-
volved a complete cataloging of existing
and proposed electric power generating fa-
cilities, proposed oil shale development
sites, and proposed coal conversion facili-
ties, along with schedules for their imple-
mentation. With electric power generation
in the WERDA region expected to triple
between 1975 and 1985, it was obvious that
coal-fired power plant development repre-
sented the most immediate and extensive
potential impact on the region; therefore,
a 10-year scenario outlining the problems
of maintaining good air quality from pres-
ent and proposed electric generating facili-
ties was prepared.
59
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Baseline Monitoring
in the West
Most recent highlights in this ORD base-
line study include the initiation of an air-
craft monitoring program to determine the
regional distribution and dynamics of pol-
lution, the operation of a Four Corners
paniculate characterization monitoring
network, the development of a visibility
monitoring capability, and the use of re-
gional scale air quality simulation model-
ing.
As part of an expanded sulfate monitor-
ing network, Montana, North Dakota,
South Dakota, and Colorado are now per-
forming sulfate analysis on paniculate
samples collected at 32 stations. This is be-
ing funded in part through ORD's 1 as
Vegas laboratory and through LPA's
Region VIII grant programs to these
states. The Lite Research Laboratories, un-
der contract to the 1 as Vegas laboratory, is
performing sulfale and nitrate analysis in
I he Four Corners network (28 stations)
and will expand the program in 1979 to in-
clude samples collected from 16 silos in
Utah and Wyoming. In total, these 76
additional stations, together with those
sites already performing sulfate analysis,
will comprise the ORD western energy sul-
fate monitoring network.
Additionally, the Las Vegas laboratory
is engaged in a program of field testing
several paniculate samplers to determine
those instruments that can be most effec-
tively used in a fine paniculate monitoring
capacity.
With the data being taken by these moni-
toring activities EPA will have a quantita-
tive baseline in WERDA for measuring air
quality impacts of a ;rgy-related activi-
.es. From this referc :e mark it will then
be possible to trace \- -llution trends from
planned major expansions of coal combus-
tion and conversion and oil shale develop
ment. Such information will be invaluable
in making future policy decisions concern-
ing air quality protection and energy devel
opment in this region.
Natural Air Pollution
To establish an air quality baseline for
developed areas, it is often necessary to de-
termine the type and concentration of pol-
lutants that exist naturally in the atmos-
phere. Natural hydrocarbons, for exam-
ple, are liberated from many types of vege-
tation. It is estimated, in fact, that ten bil-
lion tons of such hydrocarbons arc emitted
world-wide into the atmosphere each year.
While no apparent health problems are
posed, the hydrocarbons do produce aero-
sols that reduce visibility in certain moun-
tain areas.
In recent years, however, high ozone lev-
els often exceeding the air quality si.cidard
of 0.08 ppm have been measured in inany
rural areas far from any significant human-
made emissions sources. While ozone and
ozone-producing substances can be trans-
ported great distances, it is also possible
that this ozone is a result of the photooxi-
of naturally emitted hydrocarbons.
Pine forest undergoing testing for
hydrocarbon emissions
60
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Hydrocarbons from Pines
ORD's environmental sciences labora-
tory has been investigating the role of
natural hydrocarbons in the production of
ozone. Two recent complementary stud-
ies were performed. The first measured the
emissions levels of loblolly pines, the se-
cond examined the photochemical reac-
tivity of natural hydrocarbons.
The Emission Study
Previous estimates of vegetative emis-
sions were based on values obtained from a
single branch of sapling in an enclosure.
These figures were then extrapolated to the
whole mature plant. Inherent in this tech-
nique were two problems. First, the enclo-
sure itself often had an effect on the emis-
sion rate in that enclosing a plant could
raise its temperature or damage it, thus
causing higher than normal emissions. Se-
cond, even if the greatest care were taken
in simulating natural conditions in the
enclosure, the enclosed branch or sapling
was not necessarily representative of the
total vegetative surface.
To circumvent these shortcomings,
ORD developed a technique in 1978 to
measure the emissions from a loblolly pine
forest in North Carolina. The energy bal-
ance of the forest's entire tree canopy was
calculated by using measurements of net
radiation, water vapor, temperature, car-
bon dioxide, wind speed, and vertical gra-
dient of alpha-pinene, a hydrocarbon pro-
duced by conifers. From this information
it was possible to calculate the net loss of
incident radiation by various energy ab-
sorbing processes, and ultimately to pro-
vide ORD researchers with a measure of
the alpha-pinene emissions. It was found
that the higher the temperature, the greater
the amount of alpha-pinene produced.
Owing primarily to the effectiveness of
the energy-balance equation technique, it
was possible to conclude that the range of
alpha-pinene production values were in-
deed an accurate measure of total alpha-
pinene emissions from the forest, from all
living and dead vegetative surfaces includ-
ing foliage, bark, and litter.
A simple diffusion model calculation
was then made to test whether the alpha-
61
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pinene produced could impact a city's air
quality. Based on an alpha-pinene produc-
tion rate much higher than was observed in
the measurement study a conifer forest 100
km in depth should produce certain levels
of natural hydrocarbon within a city 1 km
downwind. Field studies performed in a
number of U.S. cities, however, show no
such concentrations of alpha-pinene.
Additionally, when measuring the po-
tential effects of these hydrocarbons, it is
important to note that the compound in-
evitably diminishes as it reacts with exist-
ing urban photochemical products and
ozone. Past photochemical modeling stud-
ies show that the resulting hydrocarbon
level is not sufficient evidence to blame a
large pine forest upwind of a city for that
city's poor air quality.
Emissions from hardwood vegetation
were not measured in this study. However,
past EPA field studies show that the day-
time isoprene—the principal hydrocarbon
emitted from hardwoods—concentration
is not significantly different from the day-
time alpha-pinene concentration found in
conifer forests. And, during nighttime,
any isoprene concentration is expected to
be much lower since the level of emission
depends on the amount of solar radiation.
Photochemical
Reactivity Measurement
Since even low concentrations of hydro-
carbons could, if they were extremely effi-
cient, produce high levels of ozone (and ac-
tually be partially responsible for the poor
air quality of a city downwind), it was
necessary to examine the photochemical
reactivity of these compounds. Eight
natural hydrocarbons were chosen for this
1978 ORD study, with propylene used as a
reference compound because a great deal
of empirical data existed on that sub-
stance.
The results of this study showed that
propylene gave rise to the most ozone
when it reacted with oxides of nitrogen.
Isoprene was second, and the remaining
seven natural hydrocarbons all produced
approximately 65% of the ozone produced
by the propylene. But since propylene is
only moderately efficient in producing
ozone, on the basis of this study it was con-
cluded that the eight natural hydrocarbons
were not efficient ozone producers.
In Conclusion
Results of these studies tend to support
,the conclusion that natural hydrocarbons
do not significantly affect the air quality in
urban areas since their concentration is
low and they are not efficient in produc-
ing ozone.
The following ORD components contributed
to the research described above:
• Office of Air, Land & Water Use-
Environmental Sciences Research
Laboratory, Research Triangle Park
62
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air pollution index
UrUJ develops a national
index and measures air
pollution costs
In August 1977, Congress passed the
Clean Air Act Amendments. This legisla-
tion, in part, mandated that a single, uni-
form national air quality index be estab-
lished. Having anticipated the need for an
index a number of years earlier, EPA had
by 1977 developed the Pollutant Standards
Index (PS1), a tool already in extensive use
at the time of the Amendment's passage.
63
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The Pollutant
Standards Index
PSI was derived from the widely-used
National Ambient Air Quality Standards
(NAAQS) episode, criteria and health-
related significant harm levels. The index
currently contains all pollutants or combi-
nations of pollutants for which national
standards exist, and is designed to accom-
modate any additional pollutants as they
come under regulation.
Basically, PSI works like this: Each pol-
lutant is assigned a numerical value based
on its concentration in the atmosphere. A
PSI value of 100 is equal to the NAAQS.
and a PSI value of 500 corresponds to the
significant harm level of a given pollutant.
Thus, a PSI value of over 100 indicates a
violation of a standard, while one
approaching a PSI of 500 indicates far
more severe danger. On any given day, the
value of all the pollutants measured that
day are assigned a value on this scale, and
the highest single value becomes the PSI
for that day.
PSI was also designed with simplicity of
communication to the general public in
mind. Either short or detailed reports
could be used. For example, on a "good"
day, a report might be, "Today the air pol-
lution index is 40; the air quality is good."
On days when air pollution yields a PSI of
over 100, the report could take on the fol-
lowing, successively more detailed forms:
"Today the air pollution index is 150; the
air is unhealthful. The pollutant respon-
sible is ozone." And, additionally, "Per-
sons with existing heart or respiratory ail-
ments should reduce physical exertion and
outdoor activity;" and/or "This air quali-
ty can cause mild aggravation of symp-
toms in the healthy population." Finally, a
PSI forecast: "We expect that the air quali-
ty will improve (stay the same, worsen) to-
morrow."
Genesis of PSI
The development of PSI began in May
1974, when ORD initiated a national
survey of air pollution indices used by air
pollution control agencies and those ap-
pearing in the scientific literature. The
study was jointly supported by EPA and
the Council on Environmental Quality
(CEQ). Survey findings indicated that of
the 33 cities using daily air pollution in-
dices, no two were exactly the same. Con-
sequently, a traveler leaving a Cincinnati
index of "25" and arriving to a New York
index of "25" might find that, in fact, the
air he was breathing had changed from
"excellent" to "unhealthy." The study also
revealed that cities were highly inconsis-
tent in the terms they used to define air
quality. A given pollution concentration
might thus be defined as "moderate,"
"fair," "normal," "good," or "satisfac-
tory." The upshot of this lack of standard-
ized reporting was that the public need for
air quality information was not being met,
particularly for the elderly or infirm
among the population, who were the most
in need of reliable and consistent data.
This same CEQ-ORD study also devel-
oped a system of classifying air pollution
indices and identified ten essential criteria
a nationally uniform air pollution index
should meet. Two such index structures
were recommended and a joint CEQ-EPA
task force was established to make the
selection. A second group within EPA was
formed to prepare technical guidelines that
would assist state and local agencies in im-
plementing the new index, once it was
decided which one to adopt. This group
also developed a special computer pro-
gram which enabled the index to be tested
on actual data, as well as standardizing
language that would describe the health ef-
fects of the different ranges of the index.
Ultimately, PSI was the outgrowth of
these efforts. In September 1976, it was
published in the Federal Register as a re-
commended air pollution index, and by
1977 it had been evaluated and proposed
by many air pollution control agencies.
1978 Research Highlights
In 1978, EPA chose PSI as the national
index, owing in part to its desirable charac-
teristics and also to its acceptance by local
and state air pollution control agencies. In
64
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August, PSI was again published in the
Federal Register, this time in the form of
regulations adopted pursuant to Section
319 of the Clean Air Act, as amended.
With PSI now becoming mandatory, it
was felt that state and local air pollution
control agencies would require effective
techniques to calculate PSI values ac-
curately and rapidly. To provide these tech-
niques ORD prepared a number of reports
containing tables, charts, and computer
programs and made them available to
agencies throughout the country.
In the Spring of 1978, the Office of Air
Quality Planning and Standards (OAQPS)
gathered information from the ten EPA
Regional Offices on the progress of
nationwide PSI adoption. It was found
that 14 state agencies had formally
adopted the index, and that the index was
being used in 24 states and approximately
100 urbanized areas. Full adoption by all
states is expected.
OAQPS continues to monitor the adop-
tion of PSI and assists state officials in sol-
ving problems they might encounter in its
use. While EPA has not yet selected a uni-
form procedure to report national trends
or to compare different urban areas,
OAQPS is currently looking at a variety of
graphical techniques that might be used to
incorporate PSI figures in its annual trend
reports.
Economic Benefits of
Air Pollution Control
Information from a major new study
suggests that the health benefits of con-
trolling air pollution from stationary
sources are more than double the costs of
control.
The new study, prepared for ORD by
three western universities, concludes that
the health benefits from air pollution con-
trol are much larger than previously
estimated. Computations using estimates
of the cost of control from the federal
Council on Environmental Quality and
data from EPA's air monitoring, show
that the current benefits of stationary
source control exceed the costs by a factor
of at least 2.
The calculation is based on an EPA-
calculated 12 percent reduction in particu-
late air pollution as of 1977, compared to
particulate levels before the Clean Air Act
was passed in 1970. The study data imply
that health benefits of more than $8 billion
STATE URBAN AREAS USING PSI
Connecticut Bridgeport3, Derby, Enfield, Greenwich, Groton, Hartforda, Middle-
town, New Britain, New Haven3, Waterbury
Massachusetts Bostonb, Springfieldb,c
New York All Major Urban Areas: Albany, Birmingham, Buffalo, Elmira, New
York City, Rochester, Syracuse, Utica, Troy
Maryland Baltimore
Pennsylvania Allentowna, Baden, Beaver Falls, Bethlehem, Bristol, Charleroi,
Chester, Harrisburga, Johnstown, Lancaster, New Castle, Morristown,
Reading, Pittsburghb, Scrantona, Wilkes-Barrea, York
Virginia Norfolk, Richmonda
West Virginia Charleston, Wheeling
Alabama Birminghama. Huntsville, Mobile3
Florida Jacksonville13, Miamib, Palm Beach, Sarasota, Tampa-St. Petersburgb
Georgia Atlanta
Kentucky Ashland, Henderson, Lexington, Louisville
Tennessee Chattanooga3, Memphis3, Nashville
Indiana Indianapolis*3
Michigan Detroit^
Ohio All Major Cities in Ohio Including, Akron, Ashtabula, Canton3, Cin-
cinnati, Cleveland, Columbus^, Dayton, Mansfield, Portsmouth
Wisconsin Milwaukeeb, Racine
Texas Fort Worthb
Iowa Cedar Rapids, Des Moines3
Kansas Wichita3
Colorado Denverb
California Southern California Air Pollution Control District—Reports fore-
casted air quality for four zones daily. Some urban areas covered in-
clude: Anaheim, Azusa, Burbank, Los Angelesb, Pasadena, Riverside
and San Bernardino. Fresno3, San Francisco, San Diego, Sacramento
Oregon Corvallis, Eugene, Medford, Portlandb, Salem
Washington Seattleb, Tacoma3
a) Urbanized areas greater than 200,000 but less than 500,000 population (1970 Census).
b) Urbanized areas greater than 500,000 population (1970 Census).
c) Underlined places means that the PSI will be implemented in the near future.
per year would correspond to that pollu-
tion reduction. Since total annual costs at-
tributable to federal pollution control
regulations for stationary source air pollu-
tion control were estimated by CEQ to be
$4 billion in 1976, the benefit-cost ratio is
thus at least 2 to 1.
For higher levels of control, the study
estimates commensurately greater
benefits. At 60 percent control, for exam-
ple , the value of improved health in urban
areas would be at least $5 billion per year
for reduced deaths and $36 billion for
reduced illness—a total of about $41 bil-
lion per year. That amount is equivalent to
about $190 per year per person.
Results are Conservative
The benefit-cost ratio may too low since
the costs have been purposely overesti-
mated and the benefits of control under-
estimated. The reduction in particulate
levels is underestimated as well, since the
levels would almost certainly have in-
creased without the Clean Air Act.
The costs are overestimated because all
expenditures for control of stationary
sources were included, even though those
expenditures also control pollutants other
than particulates and sulfur dioxide, the
only pollutants included in the estimate of
65
-------
benefits. C'osts for controlling mobile
sources (primarily automobiles) were ex-
cluded, however, since mobile sources do
not contribute substantially to levels of
parliculates or sulfur dioxide.
Similarly, the benefits are underesiim
led: The study dk not include any non-
heallh benefits such as decreased soiling i
exposed articles, reduced plant damage or
improved visibility; the estimates of health
damage ignore the benefits f reduced a
pollution-related illnesses < T than I ho
concerned with lost workdays; and the
S5 billion death estimate is based on an
estimate of the economic value of de
creased risk.
New Perspective
on Damages
Besides suggesting thai previous studies
may have substantially underestimate;
both the health and other economic dam
ages from air pollution, and thus the bene-
fits of control, the new study and cither
recent work suggest a new perspective on
air pollution damages and their meas-
urement.
cost of dirty air
cost of clean air
Unhealthful
Moderate
Very
Unhealthful
500
EXAMPLES OF T.V.
PS I REPORTS
The new work indicates iiial the major
air pollution damages arc from increased
chronic illness and from aesthetic effects
such as reduced visibility. This contrasts
with earlier views that increased deaths
were the major source of damage.
The economic damages attributable to
increased air pollution-related deaths are
roughly comparable to earlier studies, but
this is largely accidental: although the new
estimates of mortality effects are lower
than earlier studies have indicated, these
lower estimates are offset by higher esti-
mates of the value society places on in-
creased risk of death.
Derivation of New
Health Estimates
The researchers derived t .eir estimates
of damage to health through two indepen-
dent approaches. One approach examined
data on illnesses among a random selection
of the U.S. population. This information
was compared statistically with indicators
of biological and social situation, life-
styles, income levels, physical environ-
ment, and air pollution levels in the county
of residence. The analyses suggest the ex-
tent to which each indicator is associated
with time lost from work because of illness.
The studies found statistically signit
car associations between lost work tim
because of chronic illness and ambient lev-
els of both nitrogen dioxide and total sus-
pended participates. The researchers ar-
rived at the $36 billion estimate by project-
ing the relationship between lost lime and
participate levels in the sample to the na-
tional urban population, using the wage
rales of the sa-.iple population to put a
monetary val'ie on the time lost from
work. The y hors emphasi/ed, however,
hat their conclusions should be regarded
. preliminary because of the short time
they have worked with the data and the
many combinations of explanatory hypo-
theses they will need to test.
'he second approach, the researchers
concentrated on death rates in 60 cities
ac • ss the country, comparing the rates to
aii pollution levels and other factors that
might influence death such as smoking,
doctors per capita, and diet. They found
statistically significant associations be-
tween deaths from pneumonia and influ-
enza and the level of participates in the air,
and between early infant disease and the
level of sulfur dioxide.
66
-------
Los Angeles Benefits
Also Large
In addition to studying health damages
from air pollution, the same study also at-
tempts to quantify air pollution damages
in one air quality region—the Los Angeles
Basin. It found that a 30 percent improve-
ment in air quality would provide benefits
of $650 to $950 million per year (or $350 to
$500 per household) for this city alone.
This part of (he study used interview sur-
veys and analyses of property values to
support its conclusions. In the interview
survey, people were first given a subjective
understanding of the health effects and lo-
cation of Los Angeles smog using maps of
pollution levels (which varied from poor to
quite good) throughout the Basin and later
were shown photographs of a view ob-
scured by different levels of pollution.
They were then asked how nuch they
would be willing to pay for in proved air
quality. In the property value ar.alyses, the
researchers compared the selling prices of
houses which were similar but which were
located in areas experiencing different lev-
els of pollution. The houses in the clean air
areas had a substantially higher value than
those in more polluted areas. The fact that
the benefit estimates derived from the two
approaches are similar lends credence to
both.
In their interview survey, the researchers
found that people living in the Los
Angeles Basin believe aesthetic effects
such as impairment of visibility account
for from 22 to 55 percent of the damage;
associated with air pollution. These find-
ings are consistent with an earlier survey
which found that people living in the Four
Corners area of the Southwest would pay
an average of $90 a year to avoid having
visibility reduced by 50 miles, from 75 to
25 miles.
Locking Ahead
The benefits study is part of an overall
program of economic research. The pro-
gram, in existence since 1971, has recently
emphasized the development of improved
means for estimating the benefits of EPA
programs and the relative benefits and
costs of individual regulations. Further re-
search wil be carried out during 1979 on
both the benefits of air pollution control in
Los Angeles and from reduced illness na-
tionally; a report on this added research is
due in October.
Although some of the results ofthe new
study related to damages from illness are
still preliminary, and will be further re-
fined in the October report, they provide
an important new insight into the benefits
an air pollution control program can
achieve and into how these benefits can be
estimated. It concludes thai many bene-
fits, such as aesthetic ones, which are tradi-
tionally viewed as intangible and I hereby
non-measureablecan, in fact, be measured
and can be made comparable to economic
values expressed in the marketplace.
The following OKU components cc ribulcd
to lhe research described above:
• Office of Monitoring and Technical
Support—Headquarters
67
-------
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Air
Water Quality
Drinking Water
Pesticides
Radiation
Interdisciplinary
Toxic Substances
Energy
Program Support
"Includes 105 reimbursable positions
by
by
Health Effects
Ecological Processes & Effects
Transport & Fate of Pollutants
Mineral Processing & Mfg,
Renewable Resources
Waste Management
Drinking Water
Environmental Management
Measurement Techniques & Equipment
Characterization & Measurement Methods
Quality Assurance
Technical Support
Energy Extraction & Processing
Energy Conservation Use &
Energy Health & Ecological Effects
Anticipatory Research
Other
$M
29.6
19,9
12,1
12,3
5.5
28.0
16,3
1.4
3,3
8,7
8.2
10.6
29,1
62.8
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295.6
Positions $M
409 43,4
526 56.5
115 16.3
22 6,9
124 9.6
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148 129.7
105 6.9
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Abatement and Control
Positions $M
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69
-------
in conclusion
ORD research will continue to
supplement basic and applied
environmental science
The research results described in this re-
port have come from a cross-section of the
nearly 2,500 projects under the direction
of ORD. Some of the projects will contin-
ue next year, others have produced testing,
monitoring, or analytic techniques that
may find new applications in the future
and still others have raised questions which
may themselves become the subject of re-
search. In all, however, we have designed
the experiments, data collection, and pre-
sentation of results to serve specific mis-
sions ranging from direct Support of EPA
regulation and enforcement to basic
research about the fundamental science of
pollution processes.
Next year our research highlights are ex-
pected to cover a similar wide spectrum of
results. We anticipate more results on the
complex interrelationships of energy pro-
cesses and the environment; projects de-
signed to meet the mandates of the 1976
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
or the 1976 Toxic Substances Control Act
will also produce more tangible results
next year. Additionally, continuing analy-
sis of pollution transport and transforma-
tion experiments will result in refinements
in our understanding of population expo-
sures to hazardous pollution. There may
also be significant and interesting results
concerning human vulnerabilities to low
level, non-ionizing radiation from prolif-
erating electronic devices. Finally, our
water pollution research covering drinking
water, watershed management, muncipal
and industrial wastewaters will continue to
build the data base of knowledge necessary
for regulatory support.
Through this report and others like it,
through seminars and technical articles in
scientific journals, we will continue to dis-
seminate our research results to the rest of
EPA, other federal agencies, Congress,
business and industry, state and local gov-
ernments, the scientific community, and,
most importantly, to the informed public.
ir US. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1979 O—289-225
70
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the people
Subject
TOXICS
The Survey Technique
Bugwatcher
Evaluative Models
Bioaccumulation
Dimilin
DRINKING WATER
Health Effects
Water Treatment
GROUNDWATER
MEASURING THE MINUSCULE
SIMULATING THE ENVIRONMENT
MUNCIPAL WASTEWATER
RUMBLE READER
ASSISTANCE/EMERGENCIES
Consent Decree
Coke Emissions
Quality Assurance
International Support
Pesticides Plant Explosion
Oil Spills
POLLUTANT TRANSPORT
Northeast Oxidant Transport Study
Wide-Area Monitoring
Houston
Project MISTT
RAPS
Remote Sensing
Ion Chromatography
Mussel Watch
NITROGEN OXIDES
SULFUR SLUDGE
OIL SHALE
DIESELS
MONITORING AIR QUALITY
WERDA
Natural Air Pollution
AIR POLLUTION INDEX ,
Pollutant Standards Index
Economic Benefits
Contact
Robert Ryans
Don Miller
Ray Lassiter
Oilman Veith
Del Nimmo
Lee McCabe
Joe Symons
Jack Keeley
Robert Ryans
Eric Schneider
Ray Thacker
Ira Wilder
Charles Ris
Norman Plaks
Chuck Brunot
Don Mount
Carl Hayes
Ira Wilder
Paul Altshuller
Don Wruble
Basil Dimitriades
William Wilson
Francis Pooler
Dave McNelis
Jim Mulik
Eric Schneider
Bob Statnick
Kurt Jakobson
Alden Christensen
Jack Keeve
Don Wruble
Joe Bufalini
Wayne Ott
Alan Carlin
Organization Telephone
ERL—Athens 404/546-3306
ERL—Narragansett 401/789-1071
ERL—Athens 404/546-3162
ERL—Duluth 218/727-6692
ERL—Gulf Breeze 904/932-5311
HERL—Cincinnati 513/684-7211
MERL—Cincinnati 513 /6S4-7228
RSKERL—Ada 405/332-8800
ERL—Athens 404/546-3306
ERL—Narragansett 401/789-1071
OALWU 202/426-0288
IERL—Cincinnati (Edison, N. J.) 201/321-6635
AAORD 202/755-2532
IERL—Research Triangle Park 919/541-2733
OMTS 202/426-2026
ERL—Duluth 218/727-6692
HERL-Research Triangle Park 919/541-2242
IERL—Cincinnati (Edison, N.J.) 201/321-6635
ESRL—Research Triangle Park 919/541-2191
EMSL—Las Vegas 702/736-2969
ESRL—Research Triangle Park 919/541-2706
ESRL—Research Triangle Park 919/541-2706
ESRL—Research Triangle Park 919/541 -2181
EMSL—Las Vegas 702/736-2969
ESRL—Research Triangle Park 919/541-3064
ERL—Narragansett 401/789-1071
OEMI 202/755-0205
OEMI 202/755-0205
IERL—Cincinnati 513/684-4207
OHEE 202/426-2275
EMSL—Las Vegas 702/736-2969
EMSL—Research Triangle Park 919/541 -2422
OMTS 202/426-4153
OHEE 202/245-3018
Credits for this report; Richard Laska, Linda Smith, Dave Myers, Tom Parker,
Bill Wells, Ken Altshuler, Phyllis Dorset, Jean McLean.
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