EPA
Series
United States
Environmental
Protection Agency
Office of
Research and
Development
Energy,
Minerals and
Industry
EPA-600/9-77-012
November 1977
energy
enviro
entll
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the energy/environment
R&D decision series
This volume is part of the Energy/Environment R&D Decision Series.
The series presents the key issues and findings of the Federal Interagency
Energy/Environment Research and Development Program in a format
conducive to efficient information transfer. The Interagency Program was
inaugurated in fiscal year 1975. Planned and coordinated by the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), research projects supported by
the program range from the analysis of health and environmental effects of
energy systems to the development of environmental control technologies.
The works in this series reflect the full range of program concerns.
The Decision Series is produced for both energy/environment
decision-makers and the interested public. If you have any comments or
questions, please write to Series Editor Richard Laska, Office of Energy,
Minerals and Industry, RD-681, U.S. EPA, Washington, D.C. 20460 or call
(202) 755-4857. This document is available either from the Series Editor
or through the National Technical Information Service, Springfield, Virginia
22161. Mention of trade names or commercial products herein does not
constitute EPA endorsement or recommendation for use.
R&D Decision Series
Credits:
Technical Editor: Elinor Jane Voris
Kathleen Dixon, Karen Houston
Jack Ballestero
Assistant Editors:
Art and Design:
Graphic Support:
Photography:
Margo French, Donald Y. Hsia,
Juan Medrano
Jack Meyer, Peter Mavraganis, and
selected photographs from
the EPA Documerica Program
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Dr. Stephen J. Gage Kathleen £ Dixon Dr. Steven R. Reznek
EPA Symposium Management: Stephen J. Gage, Ph.D.
Acting Assistant Administrator
Office of Research and Development
Dr. Steven R. Reznek
Acting Deputy Assistant Administrator
Energy, Minerals and Industry
Mr. Richard M. Laska
Special Assistant
Energy, Minerals and Industry
Richard M. Laska
Symposium Coordinator:
Kathleen E. Dixon
Automation Industries, Inc.
Vitro Laboratories Division
Assistant Coordinator:
Karen L. Houston
Automation Industries, Inc.
Vitro Laboratories Division
Al/Vitro Symposium Support:
Jaye Epstein, Ann Gerard
Hartley Holte, Pat Selk
Donna Stewart
EPA/OEM I Symposium Committee: Gregory D'Alessio, David Graham
Clint Hall, Frank Princiotta
Gerald Rausa, Nina Rowe
Shirley Thomas
Display and Graphics Support:
Howard Berry and Tom Jones
Automation Industries, Inc.
Vitro Laboratories Division
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TOPICS
555
321
foreword
overview
49 fuel processing
93 utility and industrial
153 extraction
integrated
assessment
287 " - health effects
383 CHAPTER
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FOREWORD
The Interagency Program links more than a dozen Federal agencies
whose shared goal is to assure that our energy development efforts are
supported by an effective environmental R&D program. In pursuit of this
goal, the coordinator of the Interagency Program, the Office of Energy,
Minerals and Industry within EPA's ORD, has invested $430 million since
fiscal year 1975. For this $430 million, significant accomplishments have
been achieved, and significant progress made. To review this progress, the
Second National Conference on the Interagency Energy/Environment R&D
Program was held in Washington, D.C. on June 6 and 7, 1977. This report
is based upon that conference.
Energy/Environment II provides a current update of Interagency
research and shows the direction we are taking to help solve the
energy/environment dilemma. Included are the addresses and papers
delivered at the conference, as well as the discussion periods which
followed each session.
Our gratitude goes out to all those who, through their effort and
participation, made the conference such a success. The greatest challenge
we face today is twofold: we must have enough energy to maintain our
way of life, and we must ensure that our energy is used in
environmentally sound ways. With the combined efforts of all involved, the
Interagency Program is working to ensure that these two goals are
compatible, and that they are being achieved.
Steven R. Reznek
Acting Deputy Assistant Administrator
Energy, Minerals and Industry
NOTE: This text was prepared using the titles and descriptions of
individuals participating as of the date of the conference and consequently
does not reflect recent changes due to the creation of the Department of
Energy.
V
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CHAPTER 1
overview
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CHAPTER CONTENTS
overview
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS
The Honorable John F O'Leary
Deputy Secretary
Department of Energy j»
QUESTIONS & ANSWERS
9
CONTROL TECHNOLOGY OVERVIEW: BRIDGES TO THE FUTURE
Stephen J. Gage, Ph.D
Acting Assistant Administrator
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 15
ACHIEVING COMPATIBILITY BETWEEN ENERGY AND
ENVIRONMENTAL GOALS: PROGRAM PERSPECTIVES
Delbert S. Barth, Ph.D.
Deputy Assistant Administrator
Office of Health and Ecological Effects
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 27
RISK ASSESSMENT METHODOLOGY AND
EPIDEMIOLOGICAL EVIDENCE
Lars Friberg, M.D., Ph.D.
Director, Environmental Health Department
Karolinski Institute
Stockholm, Sweden 33
KEYNOTE ADDRESS
The Honorable Douglas M. Costle
Administrator
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 37
QUESTIONS & ANSWERS 41
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OVERVIEW
introductory remarks
The Honorable John F. O'Leary
Deputy Secretary
Department of Energy
EITHER OR SITUATION
LACK OF FORESIGHT
WORK UNDER SYNTHETIC
LIQUID FUELS ACT
TERMINATED
part I
Up until now there was the general conviction that we had to be in a position to
exploit our mineral resources at some unavoidable cost to the environment or we had
to be in a position to protect the environment at some unavoidable cost to mineral
and energy resource exploitation.
That may be true in the short run because we have been foolish in our attitude
with regard to basic energy resources; but I am convinced, and really this is the
operating assumption that I have brought to the FEA, that in the intermediate term
and certainly in the long term, we do not have to make that choice. We can indeed
have' the careful attention to environmental concerns that I think is essential for the
future of this country, and we can have adequate energy to fuel the things that we
want to do. I do not think that we have to regard this as an either/or situation. If I
really believed that essentially we had to make a choice between energy on the one
hand and the environment on the other, I would opt for the environment, largely
because the crucial element in this entire equation of human living is not so much the
material things of life but rather the aesthetic, the spiritual. If we trample on those in
the enormous onrushing charge for material progress, I think that we may benefit for
a short period of time, but certainly the counter-pressures on society that will flow
from a badly abused environment will make that choice not worth a candle.
Now, let me tell you fundamentally how I look at this conflict. We are in an
energy crisis largely because we have been stupid in the handling of our
resource-related activities. The inherent problem is that we did not take advantage of
signals that were available to us a long time back and we did not begin to work for
an orderly transition from the day of fossil fuel dependence, particularly oil and gas
dependence, to its successor technologies.
Today after only 3 years of serious attention to solar energy, for example, we
have brought the prospective price of solar electric energy down by almost two orders
of magnitude. We have had a very short-lived research activity and few people have
been involved in it. Think of where we will be in another 5 or 6 years with regard to
solar electric energy. Where would we be today if we had begun that effort in 1950
rather than in 1972 or 1973. It is clear that we would have had an orderly transit
from the hard fuels to soft energy resources during the 1970 to 1980 time-frame
without the severe disruption that has come to us.
Let me give you another example. I was involved early in the exploratory work
on new frontier technologies for the conversion of oil and gas. I can well recall the
perturbation of those of us who were in or close to the Bureau of Mines when in
1954 all of the work that was then being conducted by the Department of the
Interior under the Synthetic Liquid Fuels Act of 1947 was abruptly terminated.
In 1947 we began two serious R&D efforts aimed at future energy technology.
One, of course, was the light water reactor work that later brought us to the full
commercial exploitation and deployment of the current generation of both boiling
water and pressurized water reactors. The other R&D effort, which began about the
same time, was to determine what to do with fossil fuels to turn our oil shale and
coal into more useful forms. As I have said, that work was begun in 1947 under the
Synthetic Liquid Fuels Act by the Department of Interior, principally by the Bureau
of Mines. Most of the work that we will be drawing on in the years to come for coal
and shale conversion was conducted under that program. Between 1947 and 1957 the
Bureau spent almost $100 million. It developed the onground retort at Rifle; did the
work at Louisiana-Missouri, bringing German technology for coal synthesis to the
United States and somewhat updating it; and it did work in In situ gasification of
coal.
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To repeat, suddenly in 1954 with the advent of the Eisenhower administration,
that work was abruptly chopped off. The reason for it was straightforward. The oil
industry did not like the work that was being done by the Department of Interior
because it took the view, and only recently has the oil industry softened on this view,
that the government should not indulge in research that influenced inter-fuel
competition. And they very rightly recognized that if the government launched a
substantial program towards coal synthesis, solar or wind power, or geothermal, that to
the degree that the government could improve the economics thereby, they would in
fact influence inter-fuel competition. The oil industry thought that was an improper
function for government. During the discussions of the fifties and sixties, the oil
industry said the appropriate R&D role for government should be confined to basic
research, by which they meant understanding the basic nature, for example, of the
hydrocarbon molecule and not do anything at all in the applied side of the equation
that bears upon the marketplace.
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NEED FOR
SYNTHETIC GAS & OIL
1977 NARROWING
ENERGY OPTIONS
EXPANSION OF
ENERGY OPTIONS
During that time, we who were close to the business warned that it would not be
very long before we were going to need synthetic gas and maybe synthetic oil, but the
oil industry contended that when that time came we would do it. I want you to
remember that as we have these debates on R&D policy over the next few years. In
fact, when that time came, it was not done. The government had been taken out of
the track. The industry had not done it for a variety of reasons. When we got to the
point where we needed advanced technology for coal synthesis, we had essentially two
choices. We could go back to 1926 lurgi technology-1926 in the sense that that was
the year in which it was intially piloted for coal gasification—or to Fisher-Troche
synthesis technology for the production of liquids that again had been piloted in
Germany during the 1930's. We do not have a successor technology in this country in
either case, and certainly in the case of gas, we will not have a successor technology
for another 10 years.
Does that mean that it cannot be done? No, not at all. It means that we have
been stupid and have gotten ourselves to the point where the lead times have so
contracted on us that we do not have the time to get it done.
If in fact you were to go back and take a look at the energy history of this
country over the last 10 years, you would find that it has been characterized by
narrowing options. For example, put yourself in the position of a 1965 or 1967 utility
executive who is about to build a new 1,000 megawatt plant for the generation of
electricity. Depending on the part of the country in which he found himself, he could
say, shall I use gas? There is an assured supply. I am told by the government and by
industry that we will have gas for another 100 years. It will be cheap. It is certainly
environmentally benevolent, although in 1967 that was not a concern of the utility
industry, but to the degree that he thought about that at all, he would say yes, that
is a good one. Or he would say how about oil? And he would say that right now we
have almost 3 million barrels a day of shut-in capacity for oil in this country. The
price is low. Supplies are pressing on the market from abroad. We have an oil import
control program as evidence that supplies are pressing on the market. And it seems to
me that that is a good, solid choice for my generating plant. Or he would consider a
coal-fired plant. Here again, there are no particular problems. You can mine the coal,
you can burn it. The transportation system is intact, and certainly there are no
problems there. Then he would consider nuclear energy? Here is a new source coming
down the way, not fully proven yet but certainly a lot of my colleagues in the utility
industry have bought these plants. It takes only 5 or 6 years to run them through the
cycle and get them up and running. Maybe I will build a nuclear plant.
Now, contrast the above example to the situation today. If the 1977 executive
looks at gas, he realizes that the supply is not there. We have not had new gas orders
for the last 2 years. If it were to be available in the interstate market, it would only
be availble for a short period of time and at a very high cost, a cost that cleared with
oil in all likelihood. The oil supply position is very iffy. He has found that the
enormous surplus of 1967 has disappeared entirely. Those supplies pressing on the
market that necessitated an oil import control program, which I will remind you ran
until just 4 years ago, have disappeared and the price has gone up in world markets
by a factor of five over that short period of time. If he looks at the coal-fire plant,
he finds that there is an enormous confusion. Is he going to be building a white
elephant? Will he, with the insulation of the technology available to him today, be
able to run that plant without interruptions 5 years from now? What are the air
quality constraints that will be operative there? And furthermore, can the coal be
mined and transported in the necessary time frame for the operation of the plant? As
for considering a nuclear plant, the 6-year promise of 1967 is now a 13-year promise
and the price has gone from $200 per installed kilowatt to $1,100 per installed
kilowatt. All in all, the position of that utility executive, as simply a surrogate in
these remarks for anyone who is making energy choices, has gotten to the point where
we have seen a great convergence of options over this relatively short period of time.
We have to recognize that the principal function of government in this R&D area
is to expand those options, and it is important that that expansion be undertaken with
an absolute ironclad assurance that it will not be done at the expense of the
environment. The fundamental reason for that is fairly straightforward. I have used the
words foolish and stupid to characterize how we got into our situation on energy. We
got into the situation not because of resource constraints but because of constraints on
particular kinds of resources. If we look at the ways of making adequate supplies of
energy from solar on down to geothermal to wind power to exotic forms of
production of hydrogen fuels and from them hydrogen and carbon combinations into
methane type equivalents, there simply is no conceivable resource constraint as far out
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UNLIMITED
ENVIRONMENTAL INSULT
LAND USE
ahead as we can see. The world from the standpoint of our resource position is simply
unlimited in its offering of energy choices.
The capacity of the world to accept environmental insult, however, is not
unlimited. Consequently, when we make these choices, we are going to have to spend
that extra 10 to 12 percent, for example, in order to get best available control
technology so that we can burn coal and at the same time not add to the
environmental insult. In conjunction with that, as we increase coal burning, we are
going to have to back off the environmental degradation from other burning sources,
so as not to aggravate the air quality. We are going to have to find ways in which we
can handle this without further degradation of water quality in this country. There is,
for example, now enormous concentration on the impact of the drought in the
western part of the United States and a growing realization that we are beginning to
get to the limits of our capability to continue growth where water is regarded as a
zero cost kind of commodity. All of the principal interests in water are governed by
tradition and not by any economic or environmental concerns. Out of that lesson over
the next 4 or 5 years we will begin to move in the direction of finding very
fundamental ways in which we can begin to do even better environmentally than has
been the case in the recent past. We can bring a better understanding of a problem
and, if you will pardon this from an economist, an understanding of the economics
that are involved in a more efficient regime of water use in the water-short areas of
the west.
With regard to land use, the hidden war between the environmentalists and the
developers over the last 10 years has been staged on the question of what are we
going to do with the land. We are finding this in the Congressional discussion of the
strip mining bill that is now, happily, coming to an end of a 4-year fight through the
Congress and hopefully within the next couple of months will go to the President to
be signed. In that discussion we did not just talk about mining. We talked about water
use, agricultural use, aesthetics, and, in a small way, the great debate over strip mine
restoration really ran to the question of land use in this country. I think that you
have found that FEA has been very sympathetic to the objectives of those who
reasonably wanted to constrain mining when it threatened the good, sound use of the
land.
Some of the things that I am sure you will be concentrating on as you go along
are how does research run into this? What sort of a world do we want in the future?
What is the tradeoff between energy on the one hand and the environmental concerns
on the other? The thing that I want to restate that should be the guiding light for
you and certainly has been for me at least in looking at the energy situation is that
from the standpoint of the long term—that is to say, when we finally recognize this
problem and begin to deal with it—we can have any sort of an energy economy we
want. If, however, we do not begin today to spend a renewed effort on the
environmental side of this equation, we will not care about the energy economy
because there will not be anything here much to preserve.
JOHN F. O'LEARY
B.A., Economics, George Washington University. Twenty-two years energy related
service including commodity specialist, economist, and energy consultant. Served as
Deputy Assistant Secretary of Interior for Mineral Resources, Chief of Bureau of
Natural Gas at Federal Power Commission, and Director of Bureau of Mines. Was
Technical Director of Energy and Environmental Programs for a large private firm. Was
then appointed Director of Licensing for Atomic Energy Commission responsible for
licensing nuclear power plants and conducting comprehensive safety, environmental, and
antitrust reviews of these plants. While Director of New Mexico's Energy Resources,
helped establish state energy policy and plans for energy development. Served as
Administrator of the Federal Energy Administration. Currently, Deputy Secretary,
Department of Energy, Washington, DC.
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questions
oc answers
QUESTION:
Mr. Frank L. Parker
Vanderbilt University
Mr. George Scudella
New Mexico Environmental Improvement Agency
Mr. Robert E. Uhrig
Florida Power and Light
Mr. Francis R. Hull
Consulting Engineer
The Wall Street Journal said that there is a thousand
years of natural gas available, and it is only the federal
policies that are preventing it from coming to the market.
Would you like to comment on that?
RESPONSE: Mr. John F. O'Leary (FEA)
I personally disagree with that statement. It is,
however, something that we should be very careful about.
There are two schools of thought about today's energy
crisis. Credible and respectable people; not parties to
self-interest themselves, for example, the U.S. Geological
Survey, take the view that, indeed, we do have a serious
gas resource problem.
The other school takes the view that we are the
victims of a conspiracy, that the oil and gas interests in
the country have determined that they are going to sit on
their reserves, that they simply do not like regulation,
and that over the last few years they have systematically
understated reserves, quite deliberately avoided additional
drilling, and created from a bountiful resource position an
apparent shortage. And there are, of course, many views
between these schools of thought.
I belong to the first school. I think that we have a
genuine resource problem. On the basis of all of the
measures that I can assimilate, this view is borne out.
First, as a result of the price increases, particularly
the price increases in Texas in the last 5 years, we find
that there has been a substantial increase in all of the
conventional indicators of petroleum drilling activity.
(Beginning in about 1971, Texas departed from the
interstate market and began to go into a more or less
free market. So that gives us a fairly good run of
history.) The rig rate use in Texas is double what it was
6 years ago. The number of feet drilled has doubled. The
number of wells completed has doubled, and production
of both gas and oil is off; production of gas is off about
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20 percent and continues to decline each year. Those
nationwide indicators suggest that the thesis presented
by the Wall Street Journal article is not correct. As I
recall, the Journal said that, at about $1, there are
ample supplies to meet all of our requirements for as
long as we are going to be interested in natural gas. That
may be when we begin to move from today's
conventional gas resources into the geopressurized
resources that are around the Gulf of Mexico. These
involve the production of about 5 tons of water that is
heavily mineralized and heavily corrosive for the
production of every MCF of gas. If it were done in large
volumes and simply dumped into the sea, it would in
time significantly influence salinity and other mineral
content of the Gulf and have undesirable changes in the
ecology. Consequently, it is ruled out on that account.
However, if we can find ways to avoid violence to the
environment while producing those resources, I think that
we have another 50 years or maybe even longer to go.
Let me give you some fundamental arithmetic that
we ought to bear in mind as we hear the conspiracy
theory. We hear, for example, that we have from 500 to
3,000 years of coal reserves, and then we hear in a small
whisper (at present rates of use). Taken from the
American Gas Association numbers, we had at the
beginning of the oil and gas activity in this country about
1,700 trillion cubic feet of gas as a resource, not as a
reserve. That is the ultimate finding. By 1930 we were
using 1 trillion cubic feet. If that first number was right,
by the same sort of logic we had thousands of years of
coal supplies, in fact, a 1700-year supply of gas.
We began to chew into that resource at a fairly
modest 7 percent per year rate of compounding, doubling
every decade. By the year 1970, the 1 trillion had
become 22 or 23 trillion and the 1700-year supply at
present rates of use had become 50 years. We had used
some, and of course the base was much higher, and we
simply had reduced that arithmetic to the point where it
was much less pleasant to look at.
Now, if we had continued that rate of compounding,
as seen from the perspective of 1930, we would have
exhausted the entire 1700-year supply by the year 1985.
If we had taken the larger number that up until 2 years
ago was used by the U.S. Geological Survey as their
extrapolation of what was there, about double AGA
number, it would have given us another 10 years of
compounding. As those of you in the physical sciences
know, in the last doubling period of exponential growth,
we use a volume. In this case of gas and in the case of
many biological phenomena, it would be growth
equivalent to all of previous history.
When somebody blithely says, as the Federal Energy
Agency did say in 1974 in conjunction with Project
Independence blueprint, that we can in effect double the
supply of gas in 15 years, my answer is that, that is not
credible because it takes too much energy. And similarly,
when I hear that there is a 1000-year supply of gas, I
have to tell you that, that particular calculation is not a
public one; it is a black box calculation. If you want the
public calculations, you would have to go to the
Geological Survey and FEA work that has been done in
the last few years. You cannot make national policy
based upon that set of assumptions, but upon more
ascertainable assumptions, because if you are wrong and if
it turns out that instead of a 1,000-year supply, there is
IEASUREMENT
AND
MONITORING
10
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a 3-year supply, you run the risk of wrecking the
country. We have to put a stern test against these
assertions that there is a conspiracy and that through
maladministration we are being denied access to an
enormous reserve.
COMMENT:
I guess it would seem peculiar to think that the Wall
Street Journal would be the place to look for an
indictment of industry.
RESPONSE: Mr. O'Leary
The Wall Street Journal believes in a market-oriented
mechanism to cure the energy problem and sees that
evidence as fortifying their belief. I for one wish it were
so, but I spend 80 percent of my time in regulatory
activities that would not be necessary if we had an
orderly market in the oil and gas industry. I would much
prefer to see market forces do this job for us. However,
the way the world is constituted today, I do not see any
immediate prospect of that.
QUESTION:
RESPONSE: Mr. O'Leary
You mentioned that you are seeing a re-evaluation of
water use coming about in 4 of 5 years. I would like to
know when you would see the technologies being
developed and how you see them relating to corporate
resource development time lines?
In the solar cell pumping activity in central New
Mexico, we had to join the solar pumping, solar irrigation
activity with a very well thought out conservation effort.
If we did everything the way we had been doing it,
clearly we could not make it on solar. Just the price of
the crop would rule it out. By way of background, this
part of New Mexico and adjacent Texas has historically
depended upon gas for pumping, and their gas bills, of
course, are going through the roof. In the Pecos Valley in
Texas they have gotten so high that the farmers have
simply abandoned irrigated agriculture, and the land is
literally blowing away. In New Mexico we have been able
to forestall that for a while, but we thought we needed a
successor technology and have been working with ERDA
in the development of a pilot program that would
substitute solar energy for the pumping function of gas
energy. Unless we were able to save about half of the
water, we could not make a go of it because of
prospective crop price restraint and not because of the
opportunity costs with other energy sources.
Consequently, those at the state agricultural school
brought their water conservation technology, together
with the ERDA solar technology, and I think we are
going to find that water economics will play a major role
in bringing about conservation. This will probably be
replicated in hundreds of settings, maybe thousands,
during the next couple of years as a result of the
fundamental climate change that has occurred on the
West Coast.
Awareness is the first tool in this: that we do not
have an infinite amount of water and cannot continue to
price it at a penny per ton. The limited supplies of water
bear very heavily upon the future economic prospects of
that part of the world, and unless we begin to use them
conservatively in the same way that energy is being used
11
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conservatively, we are going to have serious trouble.
I think the whole debate over Carter's decision on
plans for water development will be seriously addressed
over this next 3 to 4 years and bring the argument to a
head.
QUESTION:
In contrast with the philosophy you just expressed
regarding availability of resources, the recent Ford
Foundation-Mitre study indicated that the United States
had very large quantities of uranium, sufficient, in fact,
to abandon reprocessing and the breeder reactor. This has,
of course, become the administration policy. Could you
comment on the contrast in the two situations?
RESPONSE: Mr. O'Leary
Yes. Relative to uranium resources, I would say that
oil and gas are a well-explored proposition. It has better
than a 100 years of history now. Last year we completed
36,000 wells as one measure. There are all together some
600,000 producing wells in this country. And when we
take a look at a leasing map of the principal oil-prone
and gas-prone areas of the country, we find, as we have
found with our 2 1/2 mile rule on the map that the area
has been pin cushioned down to a depth of 6,000 feet.
You cannot say this about deep oil and gas resources
because there has not been that level of activity.
Now, contrast that with uranium. We had a brief
flurry of very high activity in the late forties with regard
to uranium finding. Then, uranium went into a recession
and people were in a holding mode. Only in the last 3
years has there been a very substantial runup in activity.
First, in 1974 and 1975 we really did not know very
much about the resource. Second, our projections with
regard to deployment of light water reactors were very
optimistic in the early 1970's, and they have since gone.
We looked at 285,000 megawatts in 1985 from the
perspective of 1972. We are now looking at 121,000
megawatts of installed nuclear capacity. In the halcyon
days of 1977, we were looking at 2,000 megawatts in the
year 2000, and now we are looking at perhaps 350 to
550.
First, we do not know very much about this
resource and, second, the demand is moving so slowly
that we have time to first assess the resource and then
assess alternative technologies. The President's program
simply is not going to put us into a tight box. He is not
saying we have infinite resources of uranium, but that we
have enough to have time to contemplate more
thoroughly the movement of this economy into the
mixed oxide world.
QUESTION:
But don't you run the same basic risk? If you are
wrong about resources, then you have a large number of
plants without any resources?
RESPONSE: Mr. O'Leary
I think that risk is a real one, but in terms of the
conventional appreciation of the uranium resource over
the conventional appreciation of the number of reactors
that are going to be deployed over the next 25 years, it
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is not much of a risk. Any time we get beyond our
measured reserve, we have a risk, and the measured
reserve of uranium in this country is now maybe 12
years. Any time we get beyond that in oil, or gas, or
copper, or aluminum, we have a risk. The probability of
that risk coming in uranium I think, given all the
backups, is not too great. We could go to reprocessing on
relatively short notice if we had to.
COMMENT:
If there is a natural gas shortage, it would appear
wasteful to consume most of our natural gas for space
heating or for boiler fuel. It would appear that industrial
processes and agricultural uses should have priority for
the future and that we should make strong efforts to
discourage the use of any natural gas for either space
heating or boiler fuel.
RESPONSE: Mr. O'Leary
I would agree with you on boiler fuel, and indeed,
the President's program does call for a phaseout of boiler
fuel use in large installations of gas by 1990. Space
heating, however, is a matter of economics, If you look
at the choices available to a householder, the gas priority
that is now assigned him is appropriate. This is the first
priority, in advance really of process use of the gas. I will
refer you to an A. D. Little report that was done in 1972
in support of General Motors in one of the early
curtailment cases to show the schemata for coming to
that conclusion. Actually, the cost for many converters
away from natural gas to something else are far, far
lower, one to two orders of magnitude lower, than the
cost of taking household space heating off of natural gas.
That is from my perspective the economic drive of the
problem.
QUESTION:
I suggest that the economics of not having enough
fuel to maintain healthy economy might be much more
severe if we should continue to consume this fuel for
space heating in either private homes or businesses,
factories, anywhere where it is avoidable.
RESPONSE: Mr. O'Leary
I think that that is a very real point. If you look,
however, at the enormous concentration of natural gas
usage under boilers and begin to phase that out, you get
into a problem, and we have encountered this problem in
a statistical sense over the last 2 months in trying to
arrive at the policy that I have just touched upon briefly.
You arrive at the problem not of shortages of natural gas
for process use but of surpluses.
13
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control technology
bridges to the future
Stephen J. Gage, Ph.D.
Acting Assistant Administrator
Research and Development
U.S. Environment Protection Agency
LEAPFROGGING FROM
ONE ENERGY SOURCE TO
ANOTHER
CONTROL TECHNOLOGY
BRIDGE
OVERVIEW part II
I would like to thank John O'Leary for sharing with us today his well-balanced
perspective. If there is one thing that we can conclude from what he, Secretary
Schlesinger, and President Carter have been telling us for the past 5 weeks, it is that
we live in a time that is fraught with risk, but also with challenge. Some among us are
the pioneers. They have been to the edge of the chasm and have come back to tell us
how steep the sides are and how to avoid falling down them and drowning in a river
of foreign oil.
Our challenge at this critical time is to help to build the bridges that will carry
us beyond the energy shortages which appear inevitable within the next two decades,
and will deliver our nation and its economy safely into a future age in which changes
in our economic structure, along with as yet untapped forms of energy, will sustain us.
The reason we need these bridges today is quite simple. It is because the past
history of energy use in this nation has been characterized by leapfrogging from one
major source of energy to the next. In the early days of our nation, we depended
upon winds, falling water, animal power, and wood. Then came the age of steam and
its more concentrated energy source, coal. Two generations later, we shifted our
economic base to an even more convenient form of energy, oil, and shortly thereafter
began using enormous quantities of natural gas. Thus, for the past century and a half,
every other generation has brought with it a whole new, and far cleaner, source of
energy. Yet, as we jumped from one energy source to the next, we either failed to
build usable bridges or else burned them once we were safely across. Now it is time
for us to leapfrog to other sources of energy. For a long time, we assumed that our
next landing point would be even cleaner and more convenient than the last. Nuclear
power was to be our next great source of energy, and perhaps the last we would ever
need. So, like a frog in a lily pond, we got ready to jump. But we hesitated. The next
lily pad suddenly looked smaller and much farther away, and our own pad began to
shrink. That is why we need bridges firmly anchored on both shores.
As stated in the National Energy Plan, "The U.S. and the world are at the early
stage of an energy transition. Previous energy transitions in the U.S. were stimulated
by new technologies, such as the development of the railroad and the mass production
of automobiles, which fostered the use of coal and oil, respectively. The latest
transition springs from the need to adjust to scarcity and higher prices."
The role of the control technology we will discuss here today is to give us
breathing room to make the transition to other forms of energy without disrupting our
nation and our society. Control technology forms the bridge that will support us while
we make the necessary economic and technological shifts.
Our view of the nation's energy problems has certainly matured over the past 4
years. We have begun to realize that major economic and technological shifts take
time, and that the economy and technology of a decade from now will look very
much as it does today. Unfortunately, our energy supplies will not. We need the
control technology bridge to give us time to develop the miracle technologies that we
continue to read about almost daily—technologies such as fluidized-bed combustion in
the mid-term and coal gasification, oil shale, solar, and nuclear fusion over a longer
term. While these technologies are all very promising and worthy of our investment,
none of them, with the possible exception of fluidized-bed combustion, will have
impact of any consequence before the mid to late 1980's. That is simply the nature of
technology and the time it takes to achieve significant commercial application. Until
that time, we will rapidly shift to burning coal in the familiar, conventional industrial
15
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A "TECHNOLOGICAL FIX'
and utility boilers, and will apply the best available control technologies to avoid
serious environmental problems.
A power plant is a very expensive piece of capital equipment. It is expected to
last 30, 40, 50 years, or more, and to give reliable service for that period. Hence, even
if a totally new technology were developed and available for commercial application
within a decade, we would continue well beyond the turn of the century to generate
most of our utility and industrial power through conventional means. And, from an
environmental perspective, we cannot last that long without the kinds of pollution
control technologies that we will discuss today. •
The role of our control technologies as a bridge to the future of our energy
supply is now becoming clear. Environmental control technology-known to science
policy buffs as a "technological fix"-will, combined with energy conservation, assure
us safe passage from today to 1985 and beyond.
The American people are gradually becoming aware of the scope and uses of
environmental control technology. To most people it means a piece of equipment or
an installation added to a system to decrease the system's pollution emissions. Most
motorists are aware that new cars are equipped with catalytic converters to cut down
automobile exhausts and thus reduce urban smog. City and townspeople are aware of
the problems their communities are having in handling sewage and refuse. They know
that their communities are building or improving sewage treatment plants or are trying
to locate new land disposal sites for solid wastes. Many people know that their local
utilities and industries have had to put cleanup devices on their stacks and discharge
pipes and that the air and water in their area is cleaner than it was a short time ago.
BEST AVAILABLE
TECHNOLOGY
National opinion polls show a high degree of awareness and approval of measures
to protect public health and safety. These same polls also indicate a strong willingness
to accept personal sacrifices in order to continue these improvements. Recent surveys
have even shown an increase in the level of public support for these measures despite
nagging energy problems, industrial siting difficulties, and a general concern about
excessive government regulation.
During the past decade, there has been a subtle but definite shift in our approach
to environmental protection. We have moved steadily away from doing barely enough
to protect public health and safety and toward doing as much as is practicable. In
other words, we are beginning to use as much control technology as we can
economically tolerate in order to have some margin of safety and flexibility for the
future. In 1970, the modified Clean Air Act established the requirement for New
Source Performance Standards, necessitating the best commercially demonstrated
pollution control equipment for certain air pollutants on all major new industrial
II
-------
OOOMSAYERS' PREDICTIONS
CONTRADICTED
OUR ONLY BRIDGE TO
AN UNCERTAIN FUTURE
facilities. In 1972, Amendments to the Federal Water Pollution Control Act established
a system of effluent guidelines for the Best Practical Technology (BPT) and Best
Available Technology (BAT) for control of the most common water pollutants for
each major industrial category. Last year the Environmental Protection Agency was
ordered by a U.S. district court to apply, on an accelerated schedule, Best Available
Technology standards to the control of 65 toxic materials in the wastewaters from 21
priority industries. Finally, just over a week ago the House of Representatives voted to
require best available control technology on all new utility boilers in order to minimize
the atmospheric loading of sulfur oxides and their by-products, to increase the use of
locally available coals, and to give some room for industrial growth in most parts of
the country.
In short, we are beginning to control air and water pollution wherever and
whenever it can be controlled. And the scientific information on health and ecological
effects of such pollution has consistently supported the wisdom of this trend.
Where, then, will this lead the economy? Contrary to the doomsayers' predictions,
we will be in pretty good shape. Not even the BAT provision of the House
amendments to the Clean Air Act will represent an extreme economic burden. Under
the worst-case assumption that each new coal-fired power plant will need to scrub all
of its stack gases, the increased cost to utilities between now and 1985 is estimated to
be $19.3 billion more than the $155 billion the utilities will need for plant
construction without pollution control equipment. Thus, air pollution controls will cost
slightly more than 12 percent of the capital investment that the utilities will be
making in coal-fired boilers over that time period. The direct increase in an average
residential electric bill as a result of Federal pollution control regulations will be
approximately $1.80 per month in 1980 and $2.80 per month in 1985. These impacts
represent 5.3 and 6.6 percent increases, respectively.
Macro-economic projections indicate that in 1977 all of industry will be investing
a maximum of 31/2 percent of total private plant and equipment expenditures in
pollution control equipment. After 1977 the percentage of total investment allocated
to pollution control equipment is projected to decline. The gross investment for all
industry for stationary-source air pollution control during the period of 1976 through
1983 will be approximately $21.6 billion; for water pollution control it will be $30.7
billion. Again, a significant, but not overwhelming, proportion of total capital
investment.
From the point of view of our national economy, the GNP will be only 1/2 of 1
percent less in 1985 with these pollution control investments than it would have been
without them. And think of how much the quality of our lives, indeed our very
health, would have deteriorated over the coming decade without these investments. It
is a small price to pay.
Although we recognize the importance of the environmental protection afforded
by these investments in control technology, there still linger ambivalent feelings about
environmental control technologies. Do we really need them? Aren't there other ways
of achieving the same objectives? Aren't there breakthroughs waiting just around the
corner which will obviate the need for our control technologies? Or, if we shut our
eyes tight and wish very hard, won't the problems go away? My answer is that control
technologies are our bridge, and our only bridge, into an uncertain future.
As the President's National Energy Plan points out, the main components of our
energy supply over the next several decades are coal, light water nuclear reactors, and
dwindling supplies of oil and natural gas. These, taken with strong doses of
conservation, may get us to 1985 or 1990 without our becoming intolerably dependent
on imported oil.
Those of you who are familiar with nuclear power reactors will appreciate the use
of light-water reactors as an example of exhaustive control technology efforts. Well
before safety-oriented thinking had begun to infiltrate into regulation of other
industrial activities, the old Atomic Energy Commission required radioactive emissions
from operating reactors to be kept "as low as practicable." This translated into
emissions control 100 to 1,000 times more stringent than necessitated by the
then-applicable health standards. While adequate attention was probably not focused on
the entire fuel reprocessing and waste disposal portion of the nuclear fuel cycle,
control requirements for power reactors set some important, and largely unmatched,
precedents for regulation of energy facilities. Without the public confidence that doing
the very best inspires, the role of light-water reactors in carrying part of the energy
load over the next decade would be highly questionable.
17
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COAL AS AN ENERGY SOURCE
QUESTIONED
NO COMPROMISE ON
ENVIRONMENTAL GOALS
But what of coal and its role as the fuel to take up some of the slack between
even a dampened demand and limited domestic supplies? Doesn't the expansion of coal
production and use from 0.7 billion tons in 1977 to 1.1 billion tons in 1985-as called
for in the Energy Plan-mean a significant degradation of our environment? Can we
dramatically expand our mining of coal without devastating environmental
repercussions? And, once mined, can we burn it at an acceptable environmental price)
The answers to these key questions would be a resounding no if it were not for
the control technologies developed over the past decade and, in some cases, still being
developed. Without proven techniques to control the air pollutants and the mining
damages, we would have used up our options. The work that many of you have done,
and continue to do, in these areas has, in the nick of time, provided this country with
an escape route over some very dangerous, oil-slicked water.
The key technologies that will allow us to expand dramatically our domestic use
of coal are those which control sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, fine particles, and
mining-related pollution. Those problems related to sulfur pollution control and
mining-related controls have been most rigorously addressed, and we are within sight of
having solved most of the major aspects of both these problems. This is one of the
proudest achievements of the Interagency Program to date.
The other two pollution types—nitrogen oxides and fine particles—are now being
rigorously investigated, and some truly promising potential solutions are being
developed. The priority of these efforts is clearly asserted by the National Energy Plan,
which states, "Coal will meet the greatest portion of increased U.S. energy needs. A
comprehensive coal research and development program is high priority. The program
should focus on meeting environmental requirements more effectively and
economically, and should seek to expand the substitution of coal for natural gas and
petroleum products. In the short term," the Plan continues, "most coal will continue
to be burned directly. Hence, the highest immediate priority (I repeat, the highest
immediate priority) is the development of more effective, economical methods to meet
air pollution control standards."
Hence, there is no longer any question whether, or how far, we will compromise
our environmental goals to achieve expanded energy resources. There will be no
compromise. There will be no artificial dichotomy of energy needs versus environment.
We will have the energy we need, and it will not be at the cost of our property, our
health, or our sense of aesthetics. This is our national energy plan.
Since late in 1974, the Interagency Energy/Environment R&D Program has been
building the foundation upon which such a national energy plan could be built. Using
the leverage which a $100 million per year budget gave us, we began perfecting the
control technologies necessary to meet our dual goals of increased coal use and
environmental protection. Since the energy crisis was an immediate one, our focus in
the control technology portion of the program was on the near and mid-term.
With this near and mid-term focus in mind, we went about identifying and
developing controls for the four major problem areas mentioned earlier-sulfur oxides,
nitrogen oxides, fine particles, and mining disruption. While our technology bridge to
the future over each of these problems is far from perfect, at least we can now see
the other shore.
18
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POSSIBLE LONG-TERM
TECHNOLOGIES
COAL MINING PROBLEMS IN
THE EAST AND THE WEST
Before I become too involved in describing out Interagency Program as it relates
to today's energy-related pollution controls, I would like to make note that we are
also looking into the future to assure that advanced technologies, when they do
become commercially applied, do not pose their own set of environmental hazards. It
would be a distorted perspective to limit our attention to solving today's problems
while allowing tomorrow's to grow unchecked. For example, in parallel with efforts by
ERDA to develop coal-fired fluidized-bed combustors for heat, steam, and power
generation, EPA is conducting a complete environmental characterization of the
process. Our goal is to identify early, and help to avoid, any potential environmental
problems that may be associated with this very promising technology. Later today you
will be given a description of the scope and preliminary findings of this environmental
assessment.
Other possibly longer-term technologies offering significant promise are those
known collectively as synthetic fuels. These fuels, while offering solutions to problems
associated with the use of coal, present some new, and potentially serious,
environmental problems. Working with ERDA, we are developing a coordinated effort
to assure the exhaustive monitoring of this country's early synthetic fuels plants. These
plants are scheduled to become operational within the next few years. Such
multi-agency data acquisition and analysis coordination will help assure that the best
controls are available at the lowest costs and with the greatest speed to meet our
Nation's need for alternative supplies of liquid and gaseous fuels. The details on these
efforts will be presented at a later session today.
Nor does the Interagency Program ignore potential new sources of energy. We
have played a key role in sponsoring the development, to commercial scale, of systems
to extract useful energy from urban and industrial wastes. Co-firing of wastes with coal
has been supported at both Ames, Iowa, and St. Louis, Missouri. Sampling of the
pollutant streams from these demonstrations indicates that particulate emissions
increase while SOx and NOx emissions decrease. You will hear more on this during a
later session. We are now testing a densified fuel produced from solid waste in a small
coal-fired stoker boiler near Hagerstown, Maryland. If successful, this approach could
extend to many more American cities the applicability of co-firing wastes.
Finally, we are also conducting important activities in such areas as geothermal
power and oil-shale extraction and processing. We have, for example, recently published
a report of investigations on the state of knowledge with regard to oil-shale
developments and their associated environmental implications. We will soon publish a
report providing guidance to the emerging geothermal industry by specifiying design
targets for pollution control equipment.
The problems of coal mining, on the other hand, have been with us for a long
time and are still here today. For purposes of simplicity, these problems can be
summarized as falling into two types. The first type, characterized by too much water,
is located in the East. The second, characterized by too little water, is located in the
West.
More than 85 percent of the Nation's coal is mined in the eastern part of the
country, and more than half of that comes from underground mines. The control of
water pollution from underground mines continues to be one of our most difficult
problems. Although mine drainage can be treated while the mine is active, treatment
becomes uneconomical upon shutdown. Emphasis here is on careful premining planning
and postmining sealing.
Great strides have been made in the past 10 years to reduce the environmental
impacts of surface mining in the East. Several new mining and reclamation methods,
with picturesque names such as head-of-hollow fill, mountain-top removal, and haul
back, have been developed in the past few years. We are examining the environmental
advantages of these second-generation techniques which we feel will minimize the
environmental problems associated with surface mining.
Participating in the Interagency Program's mining research activities are five other
agencies. For example, later in today's conference you will hear of the efforts we are
cosponsoring with the Department of Agriculture's Agricultural Research Service to
determine the adaptability of various plant species to different types of mining spoils
and climates.
In response to accelerated coal development, we have placed more emphasis on
coal mining pollution control, especially in the West, where we have the farthest to go.
We have both short- and long-term projects, ranging from assessing the probable impact
19
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-V--^»"
..--
*.*-'•»
i'
«*
WESTERN COAL DEVELOPMENT
LACK OF WATER
REVEGETATION
of mining to determining the effectiveness of various reclamation practices. Information
from our control technology program for mining in the East is well enough along to
be compiled into a pollution planning mining manual which will be published within a
month. This document stresses premining planning so that controls can be designed
into the mining operation from the outset. Later today you will also be hearing about
the U.S. Forest Service's efforts to predict, and therefore help control, the impacts of
mine support facilities, including access and haul roads. In some instances, these
support roads can have a more destructive and more lasting impact than does the mine
itself.
Coal areas of the arid and semiarid West pose a different set of problems which
have not yet been as fully investigated as have the problems of eastern coal. Western
coal fields contain more than 60 percent of the strippable coal reserves in the U.S..
Much of it is low-sulfur. If we are to achieve our goal of nearly doubling our coal
production by 1985, at least 350 million of our projected 1.2 billion tons of coal
produced will probably come from western coal fields. Western production will increase
by a factor of four during that period.
Many of the difficulties in developing western coal reserves are related to
water—its absence or location. For example, coal seams are generally
aquifers—underground storage and transportation zones for fresh water. Mining may
change the distribution of ground water and disrupt the aquifer. In an area as
dependent on a reliable supply of fresh water as is the West, you can imagine the
magnitude of this problem.
An associated difficulty in reclaiming strip-mined western lands is revegetation.
Climatic conditions are extreme. About 75 percent of the western coal fields receive
less than 20 inches of precipitation annually. In addition, seasonal temperatures may
vary from 50 degrees below zero to 120 degrees above zero. There are only short
frost-free periods, and topsoil is inadequate. Western coal lies beneath a layer of
geologically young material which is subject to excessive erosion. Flash flooding and
wind erosion result not only in loss of valuable soil but also in air pollution problems
for vast areas. Last summer's drought, for example, resulted in a dust cloud which
crossed the Nation and was last seen out over the Atlantic Ocean on its way to
Europe.
20
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TRIAD AIR POLLUTANTS-
SOX, NOX, PARTICULATES
FIRST SCRUBBERS
NOT PROMISING
TWO BASIC TYPES OF
SCRUBBERS
Many of the most promising solutions to our coal-mining environmental
constraints are not technological, per se, but are rather in the application of existing
technology in a more careful and sensitive manner. Only by careful premining planning
is it possible to avoid irreversible mistakes. Planning investigations include range
inventories, soil surveys, grazing pattern definition, archeological review, and
groundwater and overburden analysis. Such studies serve as a basis for erosion control
and rehabilitation design and directly influence the choice of mining techniques and
equipment. Diligent use of these evolving methods will allow the prediction and
control of most extraction and rehabilitation problems.
In addition to a judicious approach to mine planning, several Interagency Program
projects are investigating novel and promising methods of rehabilitating mined lands.
Perhaps the most intriguing of these methods has the potential for solving two
problems at once—rehabilitating mined lands and disposing of urban sewage sludge.
Such projects involve close cooperation between Federal, State, and local officials,
along with support from USDA's Soil Conservation Service. Though we make no claims
to having proved that all of our mined areas can be revived while solving all of our
sludge disposal problems, it is clear that this procedure can and does work for specific,
suitable applications.
Now that we have discussed the bridges for those environmental problems caused
by coal mining, let us look at our three major remaining problem areas—the triad of
air pollutants known as SOx, NOX, and particulates. Coal combustion produces a very
large portion of these air pollutants. And all of these pollutants are, to a greater or
lesser degree, hazards to both human health and agricultural crops. During fiscal years
1975 and 1976, the Interagency Program concentrated much of its resources and
attention on developing control technology for one of these pollutants, sulfur oxide.
Out of a program of close cooperation with Tennessee Valley Authority and private
utilities have come many important developments for the flue gas desulfurization
systems or "scrubbers" that are commercially available today. I will discuss this process
in a minute, but let me give you first a few statistics on its growing acceptance.
In the early days of flue gas desulfurization technology, EPA and the utilities did
not always see eye-to-eye. But times have changed dramatically. Our latest figures show
that 51 electric power companies have installed, are installing, or are planning to install
some 122 scrubber systems. When completed, these 122 scrubbers will control the S02
emissions from a power-generating capacity of nearly 50,000 megawatts. Such an
achievement will take us more than half-way towards meeting the goal of 90,000
megawatts of scrubber-controlled generation that EPA estimates will be needed to meet
S02 emission standards by late 1980. From Alabama to Arizona and from New
England to Nevada the flue gas scrubber has come of age. And not a moment too
soon.
There are now more than a dozen reputable firms selling various types of
scrubbers, and most of these units can remove 80 percent or more of the sulfur oxides
from power plant emissions. But it wasn't always that way. The history of the flue gas
desulfurization scrubber is a long and colorful one. The first scrubber was installed on
an electric generating plant in the mid-1930's in London. This Fullam unit used both
lime and limestone. It successfully met and solved many of the same problems that we
encountered 35 years later when the effort was interrupted by World War II. It was
shut down not because it didn't work or because it caused too much waste or used up
essential war material. It was closed because the steam plume from the scrubber made
a perfect target for the German bombers.
Our first experiences in this country were not as promising. The first two of our
units were the victims of haste. The pilot units were not tested long enough to solve
all of the problems, and upon going to full scale, we encountered some novel
problems. The most picturesque of these was during an early test of a unit having a
marble bed. When turned on, the unit proved to be more effective at producing
concrete than at reducing sulfur oxides. By the time the problem was discovered, we
had replaced the marble bed with a concrete one, and it took an army of picks and
hammers to clean out the unit's interior. But we persisted, driven by the knowledge
that sulfur oxides are among the most ubiquitous and harmful air pollutants in this
country, and that they cause untold damage to human health, vegetation, buildings,
and materials.
There are two basic types of scrubbers available today. The first produces a
sludge which must be disposed of; the second produces a by-product which can be
sold. Among the sludge-producing systems, the lime and limestone scrubbers are by far
21
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SLUDGE-PRODUCING
SCRUBBERS
NONSLUDGE PRODUCING
SYSTEM
COAL CLEANING
the most common. These units make up approximately 75 percent of the 122
scrubbers installed or scheduled for installation. The other major sludge-producing
system is the dual alkali system. Just one month ago we completed the first phase of
a demonstration of this technology in Louisville, Kentucky. Based upon testing of,
prototype unit installed in 1975 at the 20-megawatt test facility belonging to Gulf
Power Company, the Louisville system is scheduled to start operation during 1973,
The system is being installed on an existing 280-megawatt coal-fired power plant. The
testing of the prototype was extremely successful, showing sulfur dioxide removal rates
as high as 99 percent. Perhaps the greatest advantage of this technology, however, is
its low power needs. The dual alkali process is expected to consume less than 1.2
percent of the energy generated by the power plant. This is less than half of the
energy required by other flue gas desulfurization processes now being installed.
In addition to perfecting existing systems and investigating new ones, the
Interagency Program is also conducting extensive investigations into the most effective
means of disposing of the wastes from sludge-producing scrubbers. Working, again, in
cooperation with the Tennessee Valley Authority, we have characterized and quantified
many aspects of scrubber sludge. The sludge itself, contrary to popular belief, is
comparable to the other wastes from the ash- and particle-collection units which are
totally independent of the scrubbers.
However, scrubber sludge does pose some knotty problems. Disposal costs can
reach 20 percent of the cost of the operating system itself. The sludge is wet with a
consistency half-way between toothpaste and blue cheese, and its color is dirty grey.
Prolonged storage of sludge in ponds poses potential water pollution hazards. These
hazards can be reduced by various stabilization processes which reduce the permeability
and solubility of the sludge. In addition, again with TVA's involvement, we are
investigating more efficient and economical equipment for removing the water from the
sludge and for reducing the volume of water by oxidation of wastes into gypsum.
Another solution to the problem of disposing of sludge from scrubber systems is
to provide systems that produce a by-product which can be sold instead of dumped,
We are presently in the start-up phase of a demonstration of a sulfur-producing system.
Constructed at a 115-megawatt facility owned by the Northern Indiana Public Service
Company, this system will produce sulfur acid or, given the proper reactant, elemental
sulfur. At the Indiana site we are testing the process on coal since it has already been
proven on a commercial scale in Japan for use with oil-fired boilers.
A little farther down the road is another nonsludge-producing system—the aqueous
carbonate process. This process has been proven in limited pilot scale testing and is
currently in the design phase for a demonstration to be conducted on a 100-megawatt
facility at a Niagara Mohawk Plant in New York. The process has great potential
payout. It is an inherently simple process which produces elemental sulfur as a
by-product at costs which may be comparable to limestone scrubbing.
A nontechnological alternative to scrubbers for controlling the sulfur emissions
from coal-fired power plants is to burn low-sulfur coal in the first place. Nearly 90
percent of the low-sulfur coal reserves are located in the western coal fields. These are,
unfortunately, far removed from where the coal is most needed; east of the Mississippi,
The energy and economic costs of transporting the coal from the fields to plants in
the East are comparable to the costs of using scrubbers with local eastern high-sulfur
coals. Also, any tightening of the present sulfur regulations would severely restrict the
number of different coals which could be directly burned without controls. As if these
were not significant problems, the burning of low-sulfur western coals creates
difficulties in another area—that of fly ash and particulate control.
If we cannot dig up enough low-sulfur coal to meet our needs, why can't we
remove the sulfur from higher-sulfur coal before we burn it? The answer is, we can,
within certain limits. Coal cleaning is a rather straightforward process. It involves
crushing the coal and using the differences in density between coal and its
contaminants to separate the two. The process has been in use for years to supply
high-quality, low-ash coal to the metallurgical industry, but it has yet to be applied to
meeting coal pollution standards.
From its inauguration in late 1974, the Interagency Program has been
instrumental in keeping the coal-cleaning option open. Working with the Bureau of
Mines, we supported authoritative studies which have characterized the cleanability of
nearly 500 different types of domestically mined coal. We have determined that
physical coal cleaning is limited in its applicability to certain highly cleanable coals,
However, it does have one major advantage—it is the least expensive way of removing
22
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POTENTIAL BENEFIT OF
COAL CLEANING
CHEMICAL COAL CLEANING
PARTICULATE
CONTROL PROBLEMS
energy
environment II
a given portion of sulfur from coal. I am aware of no other technology—neither
present-generation such as flue gas desulfurization nor emerging-process such as
fluidized-bed combustion-which can remove a significant amount of sulfur as
economically.
We are currently involved in a pioneering effort with the GPU/PENNELEC effort
in Homer City, Pennsylvania, which will be the first full-scale application of coal
cleaning to meet air pollution standards. The EPA, along with the Bureau of Mines,
will be conducting the environmental monitoring and assessment of this $50 million
private installation.
One important potential benefit of coal cleaning is to provide an optional way of
controlling sulfur oxide emissions from small boilers, in the size range of 25 megawatts
or less. Presently such boilers, if shifted to coal combustion, have very few options
with regard to sulfur emissions control. Another scheme for utilizing low-cost coal
cleaning would be to clean the coal as well as possible for the given coal and then
burn the coal and subject only a portion of the flue gas to scrubbing. The portion of
flue gas not scrubbed can then be used to reheat the cooled, scrubbed gases by
blending the two gas streams together downstream of the scrubber. This combination
of technologies can lead to substantial cost and energy savings in these and other
applications.
In addition to physical coal cleaning, which removes only a limited portion of the
sulfur in the coal, we are also investigating alternative processes that promise advances
in either efficiency or economics. Chemical coal cleaning processes, for example, are in
the development stages. We have investigated or are investigating various processes such
as froth flotation, microwave treatment, high-intensity magnetic separation, and various
leaching processes. Major projects are in progress to develop performance and cost data
on commercially available coal and mineral-cleaning equipment which can be used for
desulfurization. The results of these and related studies will prove an extremely
valuable counterpoint to the developing flue gas cleaning technologies. Both of these
are key supports to our bridge to a cleaner, more energy-independent future.
Turning now to the second of our three coal-related air pollution problems,
particulate matter, it is useful to recall that the particulate control problem has been
solved several times before. In controlling particles from power plants burning most
Appalachian or Midwestern coals, the modern, high-efficiency electrostatic precipitators
(ESP's) have provided a fully adequate solution for several decades. However, new
problems have emerged, requiring new solutions.
First, the increased use of lower-cost, lower-sulfur and higher-ash-containing
Western coals has revealed a serious shortcoming in electrostatic precipitators as they
are now designed. Their effectiveness drops if the ash has a high resistivity, which is
typical of the ash from most western coals. Furthermore, with lower sulfur content in
these coals, less sulfur trioxide is produced in the boiler, also leading to degraded
performance by the precipitator. And a few years down the road are the low-sulfur,
low-ash coal-derived fuels which, it appears, may cause the precipitators to behave
similarly.
Second, health-effects research has shown that the fine particles (smaller than 3
microns) present a more serious health threat because these smaller particles can
penetrate deep into the lungs. While the role of fine particles emitted from power
plants in atmospheric pollution chemistry is not completely understood, there is
increasing concern about the hazards presented by directly emitted fine particles as
well as those in the atmosphere. Since most of the heavier particles are already
removed by conventional electrostatic percipitators, there is considerable pressure to
improve the efficiency of cleanup devices to capture more of the fine particles.
Third, the President's Energy Plan places strong emphasis on increased coal
combustion, especially in the industrial and utility sectors. Since most industrial boilers
are, and will continue to be, located in or near urban, industrialized areas, it is crucial
that particle control in these generally polluted areas be given top priority. Without
stringent control of these sources, many Americans would be exposed to higher levels
of atmospheric particulates.
Fourth, and finally, the contribution of fine particulates to the creation of hazy
conditions, especially in the West, is becoming more recognized. To protect visibility, a
number of Western States have imposed or are considering tougher particulate control
standards. This is an important driving force for improved control, again for Western
coals.
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NOX POLLUTION
METHOD FOR NOX CONTROL
JAPANESE DEVELOPMENTS
ADVANCED BURNER DESIGNS
In the following session, you will hear about the efforts to understand more
completely and to improve the performance of ESP's, wet scrubbers, and fabric filters
(baghouses) in capturing fine particles. Our efforts to restore the high-efficiency
performance of electrostatic precipitators when used to capture high-resistivity fly ash
through various conditioning techniques will be described. These techniques include
ionization of the flue gases before they go into the ESP and injection of various
chemical conditioning agents into the gases.
Baghouses and wet scrubbers appear to be attractive alternatives to ESP's in some
applications. Because of their uniformly high efficiency in removing fine particles and
their insensitivity to ash resistivity, baghouses appear to have potentially widespread
application in the West. It also appears that some of the sulfur dioxide can be
captured by injecting powered absorbent into the baghouse along with the stack gases.
We hope this approach can be tested on a full-scale utility boiler in the West.
You will also hear about our work on improving the capability of wet scrubbers
to capture fine particles. The use of condensing water vapor within the scrubbers to
help to capture the fine ash particles will be discussed. These improved particle
cleanup systems will receive an important boost in the next fiscal year through
increased R&D funding. They represent another important section of the technological
bridge to allow the burning of more coal while minimizing air pollution.
The third of our troublesome trio of pollutants-nitrogen oxides-may present the
most serious air pollution control challenge during the next several decades.
Approximately half of the NOX emissions in the United States comes from stationary
combustion sources, and most of the rest comes from automobiles. Increased coal
combustion will significantly increase NOX emissions at the same time that we are
encountering difficulty in controlling these emissions from cars. This is a frightening
development. Health-effects research is now showing a more pronounced effect than
was expected in humans exposed even for short periods to high NOX concentrations.
This so-called dose-rate effect was not previously appreciated. The role of NOX in
photochemical smog has been known for years. Hence, the prospect of significant to
massive increases in NOX emissions is extremely disturbing.
With the delay in implementing NOX controls for automobiles recently voted in the
House of Representatives, there is increased pressure for NOX control in power plants and
industrial boilers. But it won't be easy. (With the best available control practices,
coal-fired boilers emit three to four times as much NOX as does a comparable gas or
oil-fired boiler, and NOX control in coal-fired boilers lags considerably behind that for
boilers burning other fossil fuels.)
But the horizon is not totally bleak. The only method we can now count on for
NOX control is combustion modification, which uses changes in the combustion
conditions within the boiler to minimize high-temperature fixation of atmospheric
nitrogen with oxygen. In current coal-fired power plants, combustion modification can
reduce the NOX emissions by only 40 to 50 percent. In addition, there are serious
questions about the effect of these modifications on the long-term operation of the
boiler. You will hear about our efforts to see if the combustion changes lead to
corrosion effects within the boiler. If operational methods are successful in minimizing
the corrosion in the boiler, then at least we can count on restricting the increases in
NOX emissions as we convert much of our industrial heat capacity to coal.
Much more promising, though, is the possibility that really significant
breakthroughs in NOX control may be possible. In Japan, for example, success with
NOX scrubbers on oil-fired boilers has suggested that such devices could be adapted to
coal-fired boilers. Though we are closely examining the Japanese developments, it
appears to be both expensive and technologically difficult to use such a scrubbing
system on coal plants in the United States. Technology and cost aside, there is
something quite unaesthetic about having a NOX scrubber stuck onto the end of a
SOX scrubber, which is in turn attached to an electrostatic precipitator, which is
connected to the boiler. So we are continuing to concentrate on modifications to the
combustion process.
You will also hear about our efforts to develop advanced burner designs which
may reduce NOX emissions by another two-thirds, yielding a total NOX control of 80
to 90 percent. Advanced burners, along with the staged combustion approach now
being investigated by the Electric Power Research Institute, may represent the
breakthroughs required to check the otherwise burgeoning NOX emissions. We are also
requesting additional R&D resources in order to accelerate and expand this important
24
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PROSPECTS FOR
CONTROLLING NOX
work during the next fiscal year. This work is the most exciting I have seen in my 4
years of close association with the air pollution control programs — posing the grestest
challenges and promising the greatest payoff.
To put this potential in perspective, such control levels would reduce NOx
emissions from pulverized coal burners to levels at or below those expected from
fluidized-bed combustors. These combustors have long been held out as the only hope
for reducing NOX emissions. Since many of the industry experts with whom I have
talked feel that pulverized coal boilers will be around through the end of this century
and well into the next, I am exceedingly pleased that there are at least prospects for
controlling the nitrogen oxides from these boilers. Through R&D efforts such as these,
we are building new bridges to the future, not just shoring up old spans.
STEPHEN J. GAGE
B.S., Mechanical Engineering, University of Nebraska; M.S. and Ph.D., Purdue
University, specializing in nuclear engineering, energy conservation, and nuclear reactor
dynamics. Was Associate Professor, Mechanical and Nuclear Engineering, University of
Texas. Served as White House fellow with Office of Science and Technology. Senior
staff member for Energy Programs with Council on Environmental Quality. Previously,
Deputy Assistant Administrator, Office of Energy, Minerals and Industry, Office of
Research and Development, EPA; responsible for $110 million per year for research
and development program, identifying pollutants from industrial and energy sources to
develop suitable controls. Also, coordinated federal interagency R&D program on
health and environmental effects of energy production and use and control technology
for energy systems. Currently, Acting Assistant Administrator, Office of Research and
Development, EPA, Washington, DC.
25
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achieving compatibility
between energy and environmental goals:
program perspectives
Delbert S. Barth, Ph.D.
Deputy Assistant Administrator
Office of Health and Ecological Effects
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
NATIONAL ENERGY POLICY
COAL-ORIENTED ENERGY
POLICY
energy
environment II
OVERVIEW part III
It is becoming increasingly evident that this is the year the Federal Government
must pull together a coherent national policy on energy, the environment, and the
relationship between the two. The fact that the Interagency Energy/Environment R&D
Program has been in existence since 1975 has not meant, despite a lot of successful
projects, that we as a nation have had a clear, comprehensive energy/environment
policy.
Somehow our nation has managed to limp along for years as the only major
industrialized country in the world without such a national policy on energy, let alone
one which spells out the proper relationship between energy and environmental needs.
One predictable result of this failing came this past winter when the country found
itself running short of fuel and forced to close schools and factories and to lower
thermostats to 65° F. That experience seemed to provide the incentive needed to wake
us up so we could finally start working toward a consensus for national action.
That consensus for action is now taking shape as the complete, comprehensive
national energy policy that President Carter outlined before a joint session of Congress.
While the working details remain to be established and refined by Congress and the
Administration, the main thrust is clear: To reduce our dependence on foreign oil and
diminishing gas supplies, accelerated production of domestic energy resources will be
strongly encouraged. While the President also stressed conservation and future
application and expansion of solar and geothermal technology, increased production of
fossil fuels will clearly be the core of our energy policy in the near term.
What increased production of fossil fuels really means, to a large extent, is mining
and using more of our abundant coal supplies. The coal will be burned in many utility
and industrial boilers which now burn oil and gas, and it will also be processed into
clean-burning synthetic liquids and gases. Since coal accounts for something like 90
percent of our fossil fuel reserves but at present provides only 18 percent of our
energy, a coal-oriented energy policy makes good sense.
The good news is, we are getting a national energy policy. But there could also
be some bad news. Since the energy policy means expanded coal use, some severe
health and environmental impacts could result from that expanded use. Because coal
contains impurities, it emits pollutants to the air, water, and land when it is mined,
when it is stored, when it is cleaned, when it is processed for conversion to liquids or
gas, and when it is burned directly to produce energy. The potential pollutants from
coal processes include virtually every one for which we have set health and
environmental standards, and probably hundreds for which we will need to set
standards.
President Carter and his energy advisers are aware of the tremendous potential for
environmental damage inherent in a large scale coal development program. They also
know what has been achieved and needs to be achieved on the side of environmental
protection. And they know that a clear majority of the American people approve of
measures taken to protect their environment and to keep their air and water safe and
clean.
Yesterday, in the first half of this 2-day conference, you heard and discussed a
number of presentations on the control technologies being developed for all energy
processes and uses. The main emphasis, not surprisingly, was on controls that would
allow increased use of coal in ways which will meet established or anticipated
environmental standards. The control technologies ranged from improved mining and
27
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HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL
EFFECTS R&D
A PRECONDITION FOR
ENERGY DEVELOPMENT
reclamation, through coal cleaning and waste disposal, advanced systems (Or
combustion modification and conversion, pollution-free synthetic fuels, and finally (0
the latest schemes for cleaning stack gases when coal is burned directly as boiler fuel,
This control technology R&D part of the Interagency Energy/Environment Program is
substantial. Besides taking up half of this conference, it involves more than half
(actually about 57 percent) of the Program's annual R&D funding.
This naturally gives rise to the question, what is the other half of the Program
concerned with? My job this morning is to answer this question.
We know what the energy problems are, and we have a good indication, in the
national energy policy, of how we are going to solve those problems. We need to and
will produce and use more domestic resources, mainly coal. We also know, at least in
broad terms, what our environmental problems are and how to solve them. Energy
production and use, especially wilh coal, causes environmental disruption and pollutant
emissions, and technologies will have to be found to control them.
So where does the other half of the R&D budget go? The answer, of course, is
R&D into the health and environmental effects of energy development. This health and
environmental effects research is, as it should be, an equal partner to the control
technology program in making sure that we can have our energy and an acceptable
environment too. We have to measure pollutants and understand something of their
transport before we can design control systems to eliminate their threat. And even
before that, it is essential to know whether, how, and to what degree a substance is a
threat to health or ecological systems. Finally, all of the potential health and
environmental effects need to be understood in an integrated perspective. As Russell
Peterson, Chairman of the Council on Environmental Quality, pointed out at last year's
conference, ecosystems are not affected by one disruption or one pollutant at a time
or in a vacuum. Effects have to be understood in terms of cumulative impact on all
areas of the environment.
Before going any further with what constitutes health and environmental effects
research, and what the role of that research is in relation to energy and control
technology development, I want to make very clear that health and environmental
effects research is not. First of all, environmental researchers are protagonists for
environmental protection, but that must not mean that we are antagonistic to energy
development, in some sort of battle in which either energy or the environment has to
lose. The title Environmental Protection Agency suggests that environmental concerns
are more important than energy concerns in our outlook, but this does not mean
environmental concern to the exclusion of energy development, any more than ERDA
28
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ENVIRONMENTALLY SAFE
ENERGY
NATIONAL CONSCIOUSNESS
FOR ENVIRONMENTAL
PROTECTION
stands for the full speed ahead development of energy, and the environment be
damned. Energy needs and environmental needs don't have to be incompatible. Our
new Administrator at EPA, Douglas Costle, stated the position clearly in his
confirmation hearings before the Senate when he said: "For too long, environmental
concern has been portrayed as an obstacle to energy development. This Administration,
in contrast, believes that environmental protection is not an obstacle but merely a
necessary pre-condition for energy development."*
A quote from him after he became Administrator puts it even more plainly: "The
truth is, we can have both (energy development and environmental protection). People
want to make sure that when you go to coal you protect the public health."t
To be fair about the whole thing, we probably should hear something from the
other side. We at EPA have not always agreed with the American Electric Power
Association, but we cannot quarrel with this statement from one of their recent
full-page newspaper ads: "If we are to live in a better America, we must recognize
that the carefully planned construction of environmentally sound power units which
will insure an adequate supply of energy in the years ahead is crucial to the solution
of our energy peril."§
Our emphasis in the health and environmental effects half of the program is on
making sure that energy development proceeds in environmentally safe and sound
ways, but at the same time we do concur in the critical need for increasing domestic
energy development. That is how I see the evolving consensus of the American people,
the Congress, the Administration, and the courts. Health and environmental effects
R&D has to proceed with each phase of energy development so that need for controls
can be identified and included as the energy development proceeds. This wary kind of
partnership is the way to ensure that energy resources can be developed as rapidly as
possible, unhindered by lawsuits and costly delays, and that human health and
environmental values will be protected.
Having stated what the role of health and environmental effects research is not, I
will now tell you briefly what it is. I touched on some of the things we do to allow
energy development to proceed as rapidly as possible. We identify and monitor
pollutants that are a threat to health and the environment, determine the physical and
chemical changes that occur as pollutants are transported throughout the environment,
and document, with scientifically defensible data, the real threat to human health or
to ecological systems.
This research leads to establishment of environmental standards wherever they are
needed, and it also points out the need for application or development of the most
effective control technology to take care of any problem. Environmental research, of
course, does not end with the promulgation of a standard and installation of a
pollution control device. It must be continuous because there is a lot we don't yet
know about the threats to human health and the environment from energy
development processes. We are not talking about snapdragons and snail darters: we are
talking about contamination of aquifers in states where water is dearer than oil, and in
the longer term we are talking about carcinogens that, if we don't detect and control
them now, will be crippling and killing human beings in 10 to 20 years. Human life,
as well as billions of dollars in control technology, is in the balance. With those stakes,
we in health and environmental effects research have to do the best we can to provide
the best obtainable information on the threats that exist and how they can best be
minimized or eradicated.
President Carter has gone to great lengths, both in the campaign and in his first
100-plus days on the job, to stress the importance of openness and honesty in
government actions. In all openness and honesty, environmental actions in the past
have not always been based on hard scientific evidence. Some actions have been taken
because the need to act, both because of the potential threat and because of Federal
law, has been imperative. Research on health and environmental effects has often
lagged behind a perceived awareness of the imminent threat from pollution and a
collective determination to do something about it. If we haven't quite arrived yet, we
* Statement to the Senate Environment and Public Works Committee, March 2, 1977.
t Interview published in the Washington Post, April 12, 1977.
§American Electric Power advertisement appearing in the Washington Post, April 12
1977.
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HUMAN HEALTH EFFECTS
TRANSPORT AND FATE
are at least well on our way to developing a national consciousness of what we need
in the way of environmental protection, and how it has to be balanced against the
need for energy. That consciousness makes the job a little easier.
If public awareness of environmental threats makes environmental protection a
little easier, it also places on us a heavy burden of responsibility. We have to be sure
we are doing the best job we can to find out, as precisely as we can: what substances
are hazardous; how we can detect and measure them; at what levels they are a
biological threat; how they act in the environment; and in what manner they can best
be controlled or eliminated. We do these things well, not just for the unassailable
purpose of saving lives and the environment, but also for good economic and practical
reasons. Domestic energy development can proceed only as fast as we can either
certify that it's safe, or provide the knowledge for development of environmental
safeguards. That is the role of health and environmental effects research in the
Interagency Energy/Environment R&D Program.
At last year's conference, we told you what was planned or what was just getting
started in the Interagency Program. Today we are able to tell you the results of health
and environmental effects research projects. I want to give you a few headlines on
what we have been doing and what you will hear about in more detail later.
The most critical concern in the energy/environment area is human health effects
caused by pollution. Scientists from the National Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health, ERDA, EPA, and the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences will
be presenting papers for discussion in these areas:
• Development and use of biological screening systems
• New methods for evaluating hazards to population groups
• What we have learned about the interactions of energy-related pollutants with
the mechanisms of biological systems.
We will have a discussion of transport and fate: what happens to the pollutants
after they are emitted, how they react and interact in the environment, and where
they end up. Speakers from TVA, ERDA, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, EPA, and the Electric Power Research Institute will talk on:
• The Midwest Interstate Sulfur Transformation and Transport Study
• Emission transport from TVA power plants
• The Multi-State Atmospheric Power Plant Study
• Transport from Western Power Plants and Effects on Cloud Precipitation
• The Sulfur Regional Experiment.
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MONITORING AND CONTROL
ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS
We will discuss the latest developments in monitoring and measuring
environmental pollutants. The experts here include the National Bureau of Standards,
the Coast Guard, NOAA, NASA, EPA, and ERDA. The topics include:
• New methods for measuring new pollutants from energy technology
• Latest remote monitoring instrument developments
• Special instrumental methods for measuring energy pollutants in western
environments.
Finally we will focus on the ecological effects of energy development. The
speakers are from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, the Fish
and Wildlife Service, NOAA, EPA, TV A, and ERDA. The subjects will cover virtually
all areas of ecological impact, including:
• Effects on marine life of offshore oil and gas development
• Coastal, estuarine, and riverine ecosystem impact from coal, oil, and oil shale
development, and effects from cooling systems
• Terrestrial ecosystem impacts of energy development and use, especially in the
West.
By the end of this conference several things about the health and environmental
effects research program should be clear. First, we are serious about doing the best we
can to provide accurate information on threats posed by energy development. Second,
and most important, is that we are not simply doing research by ourselves. We are
vitally involved with seeing that our energy and environmental goals are compatible
and that domestic energy resources are developed as rapidly as possible and are
consistent with the protection of human health and the environment.
energy
environment II
DELBERT S. BARTH
B.S., Military Engineering, M.S., Solid State Physics, Stevens Institute of
Technology; M.S., Nuclear Physics, Ph.D., Biophysics, Ohio State University. Served 14
years as officer in U.S. Army Chemical Corps. Held several positions in environmental
health and pollution control field, including EPA's Director of Environmental
Monitoring and Support Laboratory. While there, was responsible for development
methods for monitoring conditions of environment and effects of pollutants. Present
responsibilities are integrated assessment of pollutant effects on man and other life
forms, and characterization of pollutant transport and transformation as Deputy
Assistant Administrator, Health and Ecological Effects, EPA, Washington, DC.
31
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risk assessment
methodology and epidemiological evidence
Lars Friberg, M.D. Ph.D.
Director, Environmental Health Department
Karolinski Institute
Stockholm, Sweden
RISK ASSESSMENT
METHODOLOGY
DOSE RESPONSE RELATION
OVERVIEW part IV
A Swedish Parliamentary Committee on Energy and Environment will report late
this summer on a comprehensive, comparative evaluation of effects on health and
environment from different energy sources, including nuclear and fossil fuel power
plants. The National Swedish Institute for Radiation Protection will give background
data on effects of ionizing radiation, and the National Swedish Environment Protection
Board has reviewed effects from combustion products of fossil fuels, particularly oil
and coke.
During the review, several key questions did arise which were felt to be of
importance not only for Sweden but also more generally. The Committee on Energy
and Environment therefore asked the Karolinski Institute to organize an international
scientific symposium which was held in Stockholm March 8 through 11, 1977. About 30
experts from different countries, several from the United States, participated in the
meeting. The World Health Organization, including the International Agency for
Research on Cancer, was represented. The objective of the meeting was to consider
current scientific knowledge about carcinogenic substances in air in relation to
epidemiological data on lung cancer and available methods for assessing cancer risks
from experimental data. The specific questions addressed to the participants of the
symposium were the following.
• Can part of the increased incidence of lung cancer in urban communities be
related to exposure to air pollutants? If so, is it possible to quantify dose
response relationships after concern for smoking habits, occupational habits, and
other habitual or socioeconomic factors?
• Can the approach used for radiation protection standards—that is, to extrapolate
dose response relationships to low doses for which no epidemiological evidence
exists—be applied to combustion pollutants? If so, for which pollutants and
effects will such an approach appear justified?
• Do urban air pollutants contain substances that have proven carcinogenic or
mutagenic in animal models, and can such data be used for risk evaluations in
man?
The participants prepared working papers in advance of the meeting which formed
the basis for the discussion. A report, Air Pollution and Cancer: Risk Assessment
Methodology and Epidemiological Evidence, was prepared. This has been unanimously
approved by the participants and will be published, together with the working papers,
in the January 1978 issue of Environmental Health Perspectives.
If we first look at the risk assessment methodology, it can be said that for
purposes of radiological protection, the International Commission on Radiological
Protection (ICRP) considers that all doses are additive, no matter when or at what rate
they are received. It was realized by them that this assumption was valid only if an
arithmetic plot of response against dose yielded a straight line passing through the
origin.
This dose response relation was evident for the production of mutations and was
adopted for late effects of radiation. The reasons for its adoption by ICRP were its
practicality in managing radiological protection measures and the realization that in
most cases this was conservative; that is, it was likely to overestimate the effects of
low doses, possibly by a factor of two to four in the case of tumor induction.
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CARCINOGENIC CHEMICALS
As for chemical carcinogenesis, there has been a relatively small number of
experimental studies of chemicals over a wide range of exposure doses. It is
noteworthy, however, that for certain polycyclic organic compounds the relation
between doses and responses resembles that for radiation. Such evidence supports the
idea that for carcinogenic chemicals there is, for small doses from zero, a linear
relation between dose and response. Also, certain epidemiological data for human
exposures support such a hypothesis. This would also be in agreement with the
mutation hypothesis for chemically induced cancer. A number of factors can influence
the likelihood of a carcinogenic response to given chemical exposures. They include
factors which control transport and metabolic activation or inactivation of carcinogens
in the organism, effects of noncarcinogenic agents such as coal carcinogens, promoting
agents, and inhibitors.
For penetrating ionizing radiation it is relatively easy to protect the target dose,
meaning the concentration of ultimate carcinogens at the site of action in the tissues
or sets. Due to the factors just mentioned, the estimation of the target dose of
chemical carcinogens for a given tissue in relation to exposure becomes more complex.
The situation was, however, considered comparable with that for ionizing radiation in
the case of carcinogens which act on directly exposed tissues, for example, skin or
bronchial epithelium.
CONCLUSION REACHED
ABOUT DOSE RESPONSE
LINEAR ASSOCIATION OF
AIR POLLUTANTS &
LUNG CANCER
Taking all available data into consideration, including interaction of carcinogens
and modifying factors and individual variability, the symposium reached the conclusion
that in considering protection of human population and in the absence of firm
evidence to the contrary, it is not justified to assume that there is a dose below which
no response is obtained. Furthermore, it was said in the absence of relevant dose
response data, the most appropriate way to estimate the risk of lung cancer is to
assume that it will be directly proportional to the increase in dose. For small added
doses, a simple linear dose response curve as used in radiation carcinogenesis is
appropriate.
If it is assumed that there is a linear association between increase in exposure to
air pollutants and increase in risk for lung cancer, this is in principle equal with the
assumptions used in connection with radiation protection. For carcinogenic air
pollutants which are not degraded in the ambient air and are transported over long
distances, it will then also be meaningful to use the term collective exposure to
evaluate quantitatively the risk for an increased incidence of, for example, lung cancer
in a large population. The total number of cancers per year caused by a defined
substance would then be the same if one thousand persons are exposed to a certain
concentration as if one million persons are exposed to a concentration 1,000 times
lower.
In connection with risk assessment methodology, the symposium also discussed in
detail possibilities of extrapolation from experimental systems to man. I will not go
into any details here, but just mention conclusions reached. It was thus stated that if
a substance has been shown to be carcinogenic in an adequate animal test system, it
should normally be dealt with as if it had been shown to be carcinogenic in man,
unless adequate epidemiological evidence existed to the contrary.
Knowledge of the existence of possible interactions of different components of air
pollution which may result in marked synergistic effects implies that great caution
should be exerted in interpreting observations based on the effects of single factors of
partial mixtures such as condensates. Positive results with a substance in a combination
of appropriate short term bioassays should be taken as suggestive of possible
carcinogenicity.
LUNG CANCER & AIR
POLLUTION EPIDEMIOLOGICAL
EVIDENCE
I will now turn to the discussions and conclusions on epidemiological evidence for
a causal association between lung cancer and air pollution. The starting point for the
discussion was that chemical agents derived from the use of fossil fuels and known to
be carcinogenic or co-carcinogenic are present at higher levels in urban than in rural
atmospheres. Furthermore, it was obvious that lung cancer is in general more common
in urban than in rural areas. The single observation that the disease tends to be more
common in urban areas is not by itself sufficient evidence that the disease is
attributable to atmospheric pollution. It might be due to other features associated with
urban living, such as smoking, drinking, and eating habits, the higher risk of infection
or specific industrial hazards associated with employment.
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CIGARETTE SMOKING
The importance of such factors which may confound the possible effects of
ambient air pollution was discussed in detail. It was concluded that cigarette smoking
is the predominant cause of lung cancer and an important component of urban-rural
differences. Specific occupation and other aspects of urban life such as nutrition and
alcohol consumption were not, in general, considered to be important as causes of the
urban-rural differences in terms of absolute numbers, except perhaps in some special
locations.
UPPER LIMIT
OF ATMOSPHERIC
POLLUTION
Because of air pollution, the incidence of lung cancer in different urban areas, in
different states of the United States, and in different parts of several other countries
varied with the degree of urbanization and also in relation to recorded measurements
of the concentration of benzo-A-pyrene in the ambient air. This led some investigators
to conclude that the lung cancer death rate in man increases by approximately 5
percent for each increment of pollution as indicated by 1 nanogram of benzo-A-pyrene
per cubic meter. The symposium reached the conclusion that this estimate should be
regarded as an upper limit of the possible effects of atmospheric pollution. There were
several reasons, however, for questioning the quantitative value of such an estimate.
Nevertheless, the data for men working in industries where they were exposed to the
combustion products of coal confirm that these products could cause cancer of the
lung. Taking into consideration all available evidence, including epidemiological data,
experimental status, and the presence of carcinogenic substances in the ambient air, the
most reasonable conclusion in light of present knowledge was that combustion
products of fossil fuels in ambient air, probably acting together with cigarette smoke,
have been responsible for cases of lung cancer in large urban areas, the numbers
produced being in the order of 5 to 10 cases per 100,000 males per year. The actual
rate will vary from place to place and from time to time, depending on local
conditions over the previous few decades.
NEED FOR MORE RESEARCH
The symposium reached an agreement on several recommendations. They all
reflected our ignorance and need for more research in this important field, particularly
when compared with the much more exact knowledge in the field of ionizing
radiation.
energy
environment II
35
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As for the composition of urban air pollution, it was stressed that further
monitoring of potential carcinogens should be made and that there is a need to have
better indicators of the carcinogenicity of air pollutants than are now available.
As for risk assessment methodology, it was stressed that studies using a variety of
bioassays should be undertaken to define the carcinogenic activity of individual air
pollutants, with particular attention being paid to the relationship between target dose
and exposure dose.
Experimental status on exposure to natural and synthetic mixtures of air
pollutants should be undertaken in order to develop test procedures which can be used
to assess the total carcinogenic potential of atmospheric pollution. Further and more
detailed epidemiological studies were considered needed to take into account both host
characteristics and environmental factors. In addition to the outdoor air quality and
smoking history such factors as occupational exposure and indoor air pollution from
cooking, heating, aerosol sprays and other people's smoking are of paramount
importance.
The urban-rural differences for lung cancer are not consistent under all
circumstances, and situations where they are most typical should be studied to provide
clues to the further understanding of the etiology of the disease. The symposium also
noted that there was an urban-rural difference for other forms of cancer. Not enough
data came up with an evaluation of the reason for this urban-rural difference. It was
pointed out, however, that studies should also be carried out in order to elucidate the
reason for urban-rural differences in other forms of cancer than lung cancer.
DR. LARS FRIBERG
M.D. and Ph.D., medical sciences. Since 1957, Professor and Chairman of
Department of Environmental Hygiene, Karolinski Institute, Stockholm, Sweden.
Department Head of Environmental Hygiene of Swedish Environmental Protection
Board, member of World Health Organization Advisory Board, Chairman of the
Scientific Committee on the Toxicology of Metals under the permanent Commission
and International Association on Occupational Health.
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keynote address
The Honorable Douglas M. Costle
Administrator
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
FEDERAL-AGENCY
COOPERATION
OVERVIEW part V
I very much appreciate this opportunity to be with you today, and I am
delighted that you are here to learn more about our Interagency Program. I am
especially pleased to note that some 17 different Federal agencies and departments are
participating. Such cooperation is impressive. Rarely have we seen such coordination
among so many Federal agencies, and even more rarely has such cooperation been
accomplished with so little paperwork and so few Federal workers.
We can take pride in the accomplishments of this program in addressing the
crucial task of assuring an adequate energy supply with proper environmental
protection. When the Interagency Program was initiated in 1974, there were those who
gave the program little chance for survival, let alone success. Putting $100 million a
year into an interagency program was, in these critics' view, a somewhat doubtful
exercise. The doubters have been proven wrong.
Time does not allow my giving credit individually to each of those involved in
making this program a success. But I am proud of the work we have done in
cooperation with TVA to develop alternative flue gas desulfurization technologies and
to find better ways of using scrubber sludge. I am proud of the work we have done
with the Department of Interior and the Bureau of Mines to further research coal
cleaning technologies. I am proud of the work we have done with the U.S. Geological
Survey and the National Bureau of Standards to assure consistent and accurate
environmental data. And I am proud of the progress we are making with the Energy
Research and Development Administration in monitoring the pollutants from new coal
conversion technologies.
This work, and the work of other agencies involved in the Interagency Program,
makes feasible the Federal effort to increase coal use. The health and environmental
information and control technologies developed by the Interagency Program are those
most urgently needed to respond to the critical energy needs we face today.
EFFECTS OF
SULFUR COMPOUND EXPOSURE
And those needs are urgent. For example, the combustion of coal to supply
energy in this country today releases approximately 22 million tons of sulfur
compounds into the atmosphere each year. These sulfur compounds are harmful to
health, disrupt agricultural productivity, and cause untold property damage. If we were
to increase our use of domestic coal by two-thirds in the next 8 years without the
control technologies developed under the Interagency Program, we would be spewing
approximately 500 pounds of sulfur compounds per year into the atmosphere for
every American alive. That is more than a pound per day per person. The natural
dispersing capacity of the air is just not able to protect us from that type of abuse.
Fortunately, we will never have to discover what effect such a massive exposure
to sulfur compounds and other coal-related pollutants will have on our health and our
environment, because the Carter Administration is committed to using the best
available means to assure the environmental compatibility of new coal-burning facilities
and because the technologies and information produced by the Interagency Program
are helping to provide those means.
While we have made much progress and have produced useful information on the
entire range of energy/environmental issues, we cannot overlook the fact that many
issues remain highly controversial. Scientists are not in full agreement on the fine
points of a number of issues. But when the experts disagree and our best available
information is not definitive, we must proceed on the basis of assuring the protection
of the health and well-being of all our people. This is clearly the wisest course.
37
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CLEAN AIR -
A PUBLIC HEALTH NECESSITY
I am reminded of the story of the Roman bridge builders. The Romans built
bridges of great durability though they had very little understanding of the stresses
involved in such engineering design. The explanation is quite simple: The bridge
designer was expected to stand beneath his own bridge while the Roman legions
marched across above. In protecting the health and well-being of the American people,
we must remember that we all have to stand beneath that bridge together.
We can pour only so much of our wastes into the air and water before human
health and lives will be endangered. It is our job to ensure that we stay well under
the limit. New technology must be designed with the full knowledge that air and
water are finite and fragile resources. This is not to say that we should never use the
air or water to receive appropriate levels of emissions. But when we do use our air
and water resources in that manner, we must do so in a way that does not
unnecessarily jeopardize public health and the environment. That is why, for example,
we are committed to maintaining momentum in cleaning up pollution from
automobiles.
There can be no doubt that clean air is essential to the health and welfare of all
Americans. Scientific studies show a direct relationship between exposure to polluted
air and the incidence of heart disease, nervous system disorders, lung cancer,
emphysema, asthma, and other respiratory diseases, especially among infants and the
elderly. Air pollution is also costly in terms of property, materials, and vegetation. We
have made significant progress in cleaning up the air. Recent studies indicate that
emissions of several pollutants from power plants, factories, and automobiles have
begun to decline. The quality of our air has made a small but important reversal
toward healthfulness. Many millions of Americans, expecially in large metropolitan
areas, are beginning to see and feel the difference. There is still, however, much to be
done before we can say we have fully achieved our clean air goals.
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AUTOMOBILE-
GREATEST SINGLE SOURCE OF
POLLUTION
Clean air is not an aesthetic luxury; it is a public health necessity. Many regions
of the country have not yet met the health-based primary ambient air quality
standards. That is why the President and I have recommended tough but fair clean air
standards for automotive emissions. Opponents believe these standards are too stringent
and support alternative schemes allowing cars to remain up to five times as polluting.
But, if the auto companies are not required to clean up, more severe restrictions must
be placed on stationary sources if there is to be any hope of reaching our air quality
standards. As far as I am concerned, this makes very little sense.
In many areas where such pollutants exceed the Federal ambient air quality
standards, the automobile is by far the greatest single source of pollution, and some
96 million Americans now live in areas where concentrations of photochemical
oxidants exceed Federal standards. We don't want to badger any single industry. But it
makes far more sense to require four companies, headquartered in one city, to clean
up their act, than to take off after thousands of separate stationary sources scattered
across the land. That is why the Administration supports tough auto exhaust standards.
Critics charge that the added cost of the tougher standards included in the price
of the automobile will place a serious burden on the consumer. To my mind, that is a
phony argument. The added cost of the tough Administration proposal, over and above
the cost of the auto industry-backed proposal, comes to only $70 by 1980. Even if
health considerations required us to exercise a tougher optional standard by 1980, the
total added cost would be only about $150.
I don't know how many of you have recently run your finger down the price list
of options stuck to the window of a new car, but compared to chrome strips, vinyl
tops, tinted glass, special wheel covers, radial tires,—not to mention air-conditioner, CB
radios, and electric door locks—$70, even $150, is a real bargain. And remember, we
are all under that bridge together. The little added investment in making our standards
tough will be more than made up in added protection for all of us.
Finally, there are some remaining myths about the relationship between auto
emission standards and fuel economy. Somehow the belief seems to persist that higher
standards mean lower fuel economy. In the face of the growing scarcity of energy, this
could be a sobering fact—if it were true. But here are the facts: Long before emissions
controls and standards were imposed, fuel economy was on a steady decline. That
decline continued briefly when the earliest and less sophisticated control technology
was introduced. However, in 1975, when standards were significantly strengthened and
cars sported more advanced smog control devices, fuel economy improved 13.5 percent
over the year before. In 1976, there was an additional 10 percent improvement.
Another 3.3 percent improvement was registered this year—bringing the total fuel
economy improvement to 26.8 percent over 1974 cars. We expect the trend to
continue, serving the interests of both environmental protection and energy
conservation at the same time.
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ENERGY AND
ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
RELATED
As President Carter noted in his energy message, "Our energy problems have the
same cause as our environmental problems-wasteful use of resources. Conservation
helps us solve both at once." And, clearly, our proposed tough emission standards do
both.
In conclusion, I want to add a word about the President's energy program, which
deserves our strong support. The program clearly gives to conservation the priority
which environmentalists have long desired. To the extent that we reduce our demand
for energy, we reduce the burden that energy production places on the environment.
But, to me, the most important element of the energy program is that it was planned
with environmental concerns central to its consideration from start to finish. Energy
issues do not exist in a vacuum. Neither do environmental issues. Environmental
requirements were carefully examined and related to our economic and energy goals
throughout the development of the energy program.
The President is fully committed to the principle that our nation must have a
strong environmental program as a necessary prerequisite to future progress in solving
our energy and economic problems. Those of you here today, involved in the solution
to our environmental and energy problems, are playing a vital role in the future health
and well-being of all Americans. We face a great challenge. Together we can help our
nation move forward toward a healthy, pollution-free environment for all Americans,
while at the same time assuring sufficient energy sources to keep our nation strong
and vital.
DOUGLAS M. COSTLE
A.B., Harvard University; J.D. University of Chicago Law School. Attended
Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars; involved in independent research
and writing on environmental programs and government organization, including meeting
with cabinet ministers, journalists, and private groups in Western Europe. Diversified
background-trial attorney, U.S. Department of Justice, investigating civil and criminal
cases of federal civil rights in Mississippi; Attorney and Deputy Director of U.S.
Department of Commerce on project designed to reduce unemployment in Oakland,
CA.; headed study for recommendation on creation of EPA; helped prepare
implementation plans and set up agency while on President's Advisory Council on
Executive Organization; was Deputy Commissioner and Commissioner for Connecticut's
Department of Environmental Protection; was Assistant Director for Natural Resources
and Commerce, Congressional Budget Office; and member of Transition Team on
Government Organization for President Carter. Member of the Bar in California and
District of Columbia. Currently, Administrator, Environmental Protection Agency,
Washington, DC.
40
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questions
CK answers
QUESTION:
The Honorable Douglas M. Costle •
Administrator, EPA
You previously indicated that a large number of
American citizens are in areas that presently exceed the
national ambient air quality standard for oxidants. Would
the Carter administration veto a new Clean Air Act if it
contained the automobile industry-backed new car
standard, as opposed to the one which will accelerate
achieving the standard?
RESPONSE: The Honorable Douglas M. Costle (EPA)
It is really too early to answer what standards, if
passed by Congress, the President would veto.
We were very disappointed in the House action, and
I have said so publicly. I believe the President will speak
on this issue as well. I think we will get a stronger bill
on auto emissions from the Senate. So I believe it is
premature to talk about a veto. It is, however, not too
early to indicate that we were quite concerned about the
bill as it came out of the House.
QUESTION:
If the mandate is conversion from oil and gas to
coal, I understand that a plant would have 2 or 3 years
to put on the best available control technology. Can you
comment on that and on EPA's possible move to change
so that, with conversion, Best Available Control
Technology (BACT) would be utilized at that time?
RESPONSE: Mr. Costle
It is hard to give a definite answer because the
situation is floating. That specific question is addressed in
the Clean Air Act Amendments that are now before the
Congress. Depending on where we convert, it would be
desirable to have the controls on before the switch is
turned. In any event, there should be a certain date and
a definite, enforceable schedule that gives us an element
of predictability about when those controls are on. I feel
this will be debated in the Senate, and I am not sure of
the outcome when the legislation is finalized before both
houses.
The President has acknowledged that there may be
areas in the country where for public health reasons we
will not be able to burn coal, even with the best of
controls. There will not be very many of these places,
but there are a number of assumptions necessary for this
41
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prophecy to come true. We must enforce vigorously
against existing sources to get maximum controls. We
must pursue policies that will allow us to turn over an
old plant in favor of a new, better-controlled plant and
equipment. Finally, we must ensure that, as we get into
individual site situations in terms of cost, technology, and
environmental impact, we come down to a bottom line
that can be defended as a common sense solution in that
particular site specific situation. It is very hard to
generalize beyond that because we then get into aggregate
statistics and they are too general. I am personally
familiar with too many situations that are site specific, so
it is very hard to use generalized figures without adding
that very important caveat.
Without question, in some areas of the country
where we now burn a lot of coal, much can be done to
clean up existing sources. The plain fact is that in heavily
industrialized parts of our country, air is no longer a free
good but a commodity that is increasingly having a very
positive economic value. To put it very simply, in any
column of air in the country, there is only so much that
you can put into it, so much capacity for that column of
air to absorb waste before it gets unhealthy. In addition
to getting it down to the point where it is healthy to
breathe, we must continue to manage what is in that air
in order to give ourselves the margin for growth for new
industries, and that means that we are in the business of
managing what goes into the air. That is an entirely new
issue for state and local government to deal with, and it
is no wonder that it goes down hard. It is a very
sophisticated issue, and is a technologically and
scientifically complex one.
We are also past the point where we can allow any
single industry to preempt that management decision.
Frankly, that is what the automobile industry is now
doing, and I think that is the effect of the House bill.
QUESTION:
Why not develop an automobile that pollutes the
same no matter what the climatic factor? One of the
problems is that at low temperatures it emits three to
five times as much CO.
RESPONSE: Mr. Costle
One of the areas of real disagreement between
ourselves and the auto companies is what should the
standards ultimately be for carbon monoxide. We
recommended the statutory standard, and they
recommended a somewhat more relaxed standard.
There are several reasons for our endorsement of
that tougher standard. One is that we think we are
probably underestimating the size of the problem. In
many instances our monitoring networks have not been
placed at ground level where the concentrations occur.
There has also been an assumption in the past that there
is a dose response relationship on CO. In fact, in most of
the calculations that I have seen, there is assumed to be a
dose response relationship that may not establish a
threshold at which a person is directly affected. We have
only monitored in a few areas, and we make the
assumption under existing health projections, for example,
that small towns do not have the problem, and I do not
think that is a valid presumption. Moreover, the
projections do not take into account the unhappy
incidence of the person who both smokes and travels in
42
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QUESTION:
heavy traffic congestion. There seems to be very little
doubt that he is getting an exposure that is far more
serious that we have provided in previous calculations.
Sir, are there circumstances under which you would
support legislation to pay plants to retrofit their cleanup
devices on existing stationary sources?
RESPONSE: Mr. Costle
QUESTION
In effect the Clean Air Act does that now. When
you have to go back on existing sources and roll back
the emissions in order to meet a prescribed ambient level,
that is effectively what you are doing. In older urban
areas of the country where there is dense concentrations
of industry, as technology is available and you can
retrofit at an acceptable economic cost, that will be one
of the ways you go about the job of managing the air
resource that you have always left for yourself as a
margin for continued growth and new industry. So the
answer is yes, the policy does encourage retrofit on older
plants.
What is our policy on increasing concentrations of
carbon dioxide and the possible greenhouse effect?
RESPONSE: Mr. Costle
I am not a scientist and I have not reviewed that
evidence or data. I have read what I suspect most of you
have read in the newspapers only; so I do not know what
our policy will be. That is one of the questions that
obviously we need to be looking at, but I have not had
an opportunity to get into it. In fact, I have spent
probably 50 percent of my time in the first 3 months
doing something different than I expected: I have been
testifying before the Congress. At the last session of
Congress, EPA testified 137 times before 55 different
committees and subcommittees, and not one of them did
not appear to have a very legitimate interest in something
that we were doing.
Now, when that record was set, and it was a record
for EPA, at this point in time in the last session we had
appeared 26 times. So far at this session of Congress we
have appeared 55 times. There are, therefore, questions
that I have not had a chance to get into yet.
43
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CHAPTER 2
fuel processing
tt ^r
W^\
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CHAPTER CONTENTS
fue! processing
SUMMARY
Marvin I. Singer, ERDA
QUESTIONS & ANSWERS 59
TECHNICAL DISCUSSION £ J_
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT OF
THE FLUIDIZED-BED COMBUSTION PROCESS
D. Bruce Henschel, EPA
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMS FOR
POLLUTION CONTROL FROM OIL SHALE EXPLOITATION
Eugene F Harris, EPA
Thomas J. Powers, EPA 73
ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS OF SYNTHETIC FUELS
William J. Rhodes, EPA
POLLUTION ABATEMENT FOR WASTES-AS-FUEL PROCESSES
Robert A. Olexsey, EPA
George L. Huffman, EPA §3
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FUEL PROCESSING
Marvin I. Singer
Director,
Division of Environmental and Socioeconomic Programs
Energy Research and Development Administration
INTRODUCTION
energy
environment II
I am pleased to address this second National Conference on the Interagency
Energy/Environment Research and Development Program. It is especially fitting for me
to be here since ERDA's and EPA's programs—both in their objectives and, often, in
their execution—are closely intertwined.
The papers this morning all deal with the environmental effects of emerging
technologies for energy production. Mr. Bruce Henschel of EPA's Industrial
Environmental Research Laboratory at Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, assesses
the environmental impacts from a unique combustion method—fluidized-bed
combustion. Messrs. Eugene Harris and Thomas Powers of EPA's Industrial
Environmental Research Laboratory at Cincinnati, Ohio, discuss pollution control
programs for a new fuel source, oil shale. Mr. William Rhodes, also from EPA's
Research Triangle Park Laboratory, discusses environmental considerations of gaseous
and liquid synthetic fuels. And Messrs. Robert Olexsey and George Huffman, from
EPA's Cincinnati Laboratory, examine pollution abatement for wastes as fuel or, as
ERDA was calling it last year, biomass. One of the interesting things about all of these
processes for energy production is that each can be considered a form of pollution
control, as contrasted with the production of energy from a conventional coal- or
oil-fired power plant. I will present some comparisons along these lines as a concluding
thought.
As the rapporteur for this session on fuel processing, I should like to summarize
briefly the main points from each of the four papers and to emphasize the areas of
commonality in the presentations. Following my summary of the four papers, each
author will have the opportunity to add briefly any important or clarifying points that
I may have overlooked. Following the authors' brief comments, we will open the
discussion to questions from the floor. To give some additional perspective to the
topics of the four papers, I have prepared a few slides which represent some of the
issues, concerns, and coordinating activities between ERDA and EPA involving the
technologies we will be discussing. While this additional material may not be discussed
directly in the papers, it provides some interesting background orchestration to the
discussion.
The Federal Interagency Energy/Environment Research and Development Program
was inaugurated 2 years ago to assure that energy development, both from existing
supplies and from new energy sources, is accompanied by effective environmental
controls. ERDA is pleased to cooperate with EPA and other Federal agencies in
achieving this goal. Indeed, ERDA's enabling legislation, the Energy Reorganization Act
of 1974, and the Federal Nonnuclear Research and Development Act of 1974, both
mandate that environmental considerations be basic to ERDA's decisions on technology
research, development and demonstration. Since such technology development can lead
to new environmental problems, the pooling of expertise and resources from several
different Federal agencies will allow these problems to be addressed in the most
efficient and timely manner.
One of the common themes repeated in each of the four papers is a three-sided
approach to environmental problem solving. I would like to summarize this common
approach briefly before discussing the individual papers. First, the gaseous, liquid and
solid wastes emitted by the different processes are characterized, both quantitatively
and qualitatively; second, the ecological and health and safety impacts of these
pollutants are determined; and third, the design and development of alternative
methods of pollution control are assessed (Figure 1).
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Figure 1.
Strategy for environmental
research and development
• CHARACTERIZATION STUDIES
• EFFECTS STUDIES
• CONTROL TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT
The first element of this strategy-characterization-necessarily includes baseline
monitoring of ambient data and the study of process flow streams. This permits
emissions from different points in the energy processes to be measured against
background pollutant levels. Once emission sources and levels have been pinpointed,
their effects on the surrounding environment can be determined. Finally, after the
types, amounts, sources, and effects of pollutants from energy process streams have
been determined, methods of pollution control can be developed.
Figure 2.
Pollution abatement methods
PRETREATMENT OF INPUT STREAMS OR "PRE-COMBUSTION CLEANUP"
MODIFICATION OF TECHNOLOGY OR "CHANGE IN PROCESS VARIABLES" OR "CHANGE
IN COMBUSTION METHOD"
MECHANICAL OR CHEMICAL CONTROL DEVICES OR "POST COMBUSTION CLEANUP"
POLLUTION CONTROL
APPROACHES
The environmental problems caused by the production of fuels and energy can be
attacked at different points in the fuel production/combustion chain (Figure 2).
• Precombustion cleanup includes such techniques as coal beneficiation, or the
use of solvent-refined coal as a fuel.
• Postcombustion cleanup includes such techniques as flue gas desulfurization,
electrostatic precipitators, and cyclones.
• Cleanup by using innovative fuel combustion techniques includes fluidized-bed
combustion.
All of these are approaches to pollution control.
A fourth approach, the modification of process variables, can also lower the levels
of emitted pollutants. For example, in the Synthane process for high Btu gasification,
50
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ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT-
FLUIDIZED-BED COMBUSTION
RESEARCH BOUNDARIES
energy
environment II
adjusting fuel injection parameters, reaction temperatures, and product gas residence
times can significantly reduce tar, oil, and phenol levels in process waste waters.
A particular energy technology may use different combinations of these various
methods of controlling pollution, depending on the economics involved and the degree
of control required. The papers presented describe how environmental research
strategies and the different options for pollution control have been applied to four
specific energy technologies. I would now like to summarize the four papers.
Mr. Henschel finds that fluidized-bed combustion (FBC) of coal appears to be
environmentally favorable for heat, steam, and power generation. The current ERDA
program includes a number of projects: a 30 MW boiler at Rivesville, West Virginia;
cofunding of several planned industrial/commercial/institutional units, one of the first
of which is expected to be a 100,000 Ib/hr boiler (equivalent to about 10 MW) in the
Georgetown University physical plant; a 13 MWe combined cycle system using a
pressurized fluid bed to be built in Wood Ridge, New Jersey; and a Component Test
and Integration Unit (CTIU) at Morgantown, West Virginia, to test various elements of
atmospheric fluidized-bed combustion systems. The EPA efforts being coordinated with
ERDA's program will determine the environmental impacts of the fluidized-bed
technology and develop environmental control technology to reduce these impacts.
One of the first priorities of the EPA program is to identify emission levels of all
potential pollutants from fluidized-bed combustors and, where standards or guidelines
do not already exist, to try to define the degree of control required. Consequently,
studies have been conducted to project possible emissions of S02, NOX and other
compounds, based upon theoretical calculations and engineering considerations. The
results to date suggest no specific environmental problems, but additional emissions
data are required to enable firm conclusions.
Another key activity is an attempt to establish research boundaries by deriving a
list of the compounds to be considered. A list of 1,093 substances has been derived
by considering:
• Elements and compounds known to be present in coal and limestone/dolomite
« Substances known to be emitted from coal combustion/conversion processes
« Substances with a potential for formation during combustion and for which
Threshold Limit Value (TLV) and lethal dose (LD) data are available.
A separate list of 650 substances has been compiled using the following criteria:
• Substances known or suspected to be emissions from coal or oil processing
• All classes of substances represented
• Substances for which TLV or LD data are available, or for which environmental
standards/guidelines/criteria are proposed or promulgated, or which are on
certain other EPA listings.
An attempt is currently underway to integrate the two lists.
In order to determine emissions of up to 1,093 substances on a cost-effective
basis, a staged sampling/analysis approach has been proposed, consisting of three levels.
Level 1 involves comprehensive screening using analytical techniques which sacrifice
accuracy and compound specificity in order to identify possible problem areas in a
cost-effective manner. Level 2 uses more accurate, compound-specific techniques to
explore identified problem areas. Level 3 includes routine monitoring of those
pollutants identified as specific problems in Level 2. The Level 1/2/3 approach is being
refined as further experience is obtained.
A comprehensive source sampling program is being undertaken in order to develop
the emissions data base necessary to set environmental standards/guidelines and to
provide the emissions information necessary for comparison with environmental
objectives. In some cases, an ambient monitoring program may be warranted as well.
Mr. Henschel presents some analytical results that are available from the samples
already taken. In summary, he finds that fluidized-bed combustion may be expected to
control emissions of S02 and NOX below the levels now required by the EPA New
Source Performance Standards for large conventional coal-fired boilers. Paniculate
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Figure 3.
Direct combustion
control adequate to meet the EPA emission standard for conventional coal boilers has
not been demonstrated, either for atmospheric or pressurized fluidized-bed combustion.
In the case of atmospheric systems, particulate control will probably be similar to that
for a conventional boiler burning low-sulfur coal. Control at high temperature/pressure
to meet conventional boiler emission standards for a pressurized fluidized-bed
combustor will require control technology which has not yet been demonstrated. Data
on emissions and control of potential pollutants other than S02 and NOX, including
those in liquid and solid streams, are not adequate to allow firm conclusions regarding
their emission levels (Figure 3).
CONCERN
• ALTHOUGH I\IOX AND SOX EMISSIONS ARE BELOW NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS
FLUID BED COMBUSTION MAY EMIT MORE SMALL PARTICULATES THAN CONVENTIONAL BOILERS,
AND GENERATE A DIFFERENT TYPE OF WASTE MATERIAL
• DEVELOPING PARTICULATE CONTROLS FOR HIGH TEMPERATURES/PRESSURES AND EFFECTIVE
WASTE DISPOSAL METHODS IS IMPORTANT TO FBC USE.
COORDINATION
• EPA IS INVOLVED IN FBC EMISSIONS CHARACTERIZATION FOR ERDA PROJECTS AND HAS HELPED
WITH COAL/OIL SLURRY TEST PLAN.
ERDA ACTIVITIES
• ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENTS OF ALL COMBUSTION PROJECTS ARE EITHER COMPLETED
OR UNDER WAY.
« EXTENSIVE FBC AND COAL/OIL SLURRY CHARACTERIZATION STUDIES HAVE STARTED.
MULTIMEDIA
ENVIRONMENTAL GOALS
SO2 REMOVAL
Independently of the characterization studies,
Environmental Goals (MEGs). Based on health and
MEGs set targets for emission levels. Actual emission
combustion facilities will then be compared to the
environmental comparisons will assist in deciding
emphasis in the EPA program and in planning the
program for fluidized-bed combustion.
EPA is developing Multimedia
ecological considerations, these
measurements from fluidized-bed
MEG targets. These multimedia
what pollutants should receive
control technology development
In parallel with the fluidized-bed combustion environmental assessment effort,
EPA is conducting a significant program to develop suitable environmental control
technology. EPA is approaching the problem via three of the methods described
earlier:
• Modification of process operating design conditions
• Pretreatment of input streams
• Adding on control devices.
First, testing is underway on a 0.63 MW pressurized fluidized-bed combustor to
determine S02 removal in the pressurized bed as a function of sorbent feed rate.
Results show that the dolomite used in this study is more effective than limestone on
the basis of the sorbent Teed rate, expressed as the sorbent calcium-to-coal sulfur molar
ratio; also, limestone becomes more effective in a pressurized system when the bed
temperature is high enough to result in calcination of the calcium carbonate.
Second, precalcination of the limestone feed to pressurized fluidized-bed
combustors is being studied as a means for reducing sorbent requirements, thus
reducing the quantity of solid residue. Results show that precalcination can make the
limestone as effective as the dolomite on the basis of the calcium-to-sulfur molar ratio.
Third, among the particulate control devices to be tested in the near future are a
high temperature/pressure granular-bed filter, an Aerodyne cyclone to be tested on a
higher temperature/pressure control test stand, and conventional scrubbers, fabric
filters, and electrostatic precipitators. Another add-on option being studied is sorbent
regeneration, which should reduce fresh sorbent requirements and, hence, the quantity
of solid residue. Since it is technically feasible to regenerate the sorbent by means of
52
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SYNTHETIC FUELS PROGRAM
MINERAL MATTER IN COAL
reductive decomposition, fresh sorbent requirements with regeneration may be reduced
to only 15 to 20 percent of that which would be required to maintain the same
degree of sulfur control without regeneration.
Conversion of coal to synthetic fuels represents another option for controlling
pollution from coal utilization (Figures 4 and 5). However, while some synthetic fuels
are extremely clean-burning, their manufacture can create environmental problems.
Consequently, EPA's present synthetic fuels program, as described by Mr. Rhodes,
encompasses the broad scope of environmental assessment and control technology
development.
For several years, EPA has been conducting characterization tests on coal and coal
use. Feedstock analysis was emphasized early because it was considered essential for
the evaluation of environmental impacts. With EPA funding, such agencies as the U.S.
Bureau of Mines and the Illinois State Geological Survey produced very comprehensive
descriptions of U.S. coals, particularly with respect to their sulfur content, washability
characteristics, trace element makeup, and availability.
Characterization of the mineral matter in coal continues to be funded under a
current grant. A number of whole coals and wash residues have been analyzed to date.
A complementary study for the characterization of coal and coal residue has produced
analyses of both whole and demineralized coal samples. Investigation of the effects of
pyrolysis on the distribution of trace elements and collection of data on the
solubilities and toxicities of potential pollutants contained in solid coal waste have also
begun.
EPA has sponsored a number of reports that project the types, quantities, and
effects of potential pollutants associated with coal conversion. Results have included
chemical, physical, and toxicity characterizations of various elements and compounds.
Reports on potential emissions from coal and oil extraction processing, trace
constituents from gasification processes, and continuing evaluations of multimedia
environmental goals are examples of this type of work (Figure 4).
Figure 4.
Synthetic fuels
CONCERN
• INTERMEDIATE STREAMS AND PRODUCTS CONTAIN POTENTIALLY TOXIC/CARCINOGENIC
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS.
• COMMERCIAL PROJECTS. DUE TO THEIR SIZE, ARE THE FOSSIL TECHNOLOGIES MOST LIKELY
TO PRODUCE SIGNIFICANT SOCIOECONOMIC IMPACTS.
• IN-SITU GASIFICATION CAN DISRUPT AND CONTAMINATE GROUNDWATER AQUIFERS.
• SYNTHETIC FUELS PLANTS MAY GENERATE AIR, WATER, AND SOLID WASTE EFFLUENTS.
COORDINATION
• ERDA PARTICIPATES IN EPA'S SECTOR GROUP; EPA IN ERDA'S ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENTS.
• ERDA IS COORDINATING WITH EPA ON MONITORING STUDIES FOR UPCOMING LOW-BTU
PROJECTS.
• ERDA/EPA COOPERATIVELY ANALYZE IN-SITU GASIFICATION LIQUID EFFLUENTS.
• ERDA HAS REVIEWED THE EPA PROPOSED LURGI HIGH-BTU GASIFICATION PLANT'S NSPS
ERDA ACTIVITIES
• ENVIRONMENTAL REVIEWS ARE AMONG CRITERIA FOR CONTRACTOR SELECTION FOR INDUSTRIAL
GASIFIER PROJECTS.
• SIGNIFICANT EMISSION CHARACTERIZATION/ANALYSIS AND OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE STUDIES
ARE UNDER WAY AT PILOT PLANTS.
• ERDA DOES GROUNDWATER MONITORING AT IN-SITU RESEARCH SITES.
PROCESS-SPECIFIC LEVEL
Attempts have also been made to characterize the scope and complexity of the
synthetic fuels industry itself. For instance, a series of reports on 11 gasification and
liquefaction processes have discussed the potential pollutant problems associated with
each primary module and effluent stream, and a summary report has compared all
conclusions. Additional familiarity with environmental problems of synthetic fuel plants
was gained through a series of field trips to overseas industrial sites.
EPA is also studying the environmental impacts of synfuel production on a
process-specific level. For example, a series of environmental assessments of low Btu
53
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POLLUTANT CONTROL FROM
SYNTHETIC FUEL
R&D FOR CONTROL OF
POLLUTION FROM OIL SHALE
Figure 5.
Oil shale
gasification will be made during 1977 at four sites, both Federal and private. At one
of the sites, operations will be coordinated with an ERDA-funded program. General
and specific test manuals are being prepared. To assess analytical techniques,
grab-samples of ash, particulates, gases, liquids, and tar from several U.S. plants have
been analyzed in the laboratory. In addition, a technical information system for
project support has been established with over 9,500 citations.
The coal liquefaction environmental assessment program includes preparation of an
overview document; pilot plant site visits, including one to ERDA's Solvent Refined
Coal Pilot Plant at Fort Lewis, Washington; and combustion testing of both coal and
solvent-refined coal.
Several approaches to control pollutants from synthetic fuel processes are being
tried. Synthetic fuels research within EPA is being closely coordinated with related
programs in both physical and chemical coal cleaning. ERDA's Division of Coal
Conversion and Utilization has just sponsored a study by Carnegie-Mellon University*
which indicates that levels of tars, oils, and phenols in the waste water from certain
high Btu combustion processes can be lowered substantially by adjusting process
parameters. Additional control devices applicable to synthetic fuel processes are also
being researched. EPA recently awarded a contract for converter output control
technology development. Projected results will include a study of the deactivation
effect of trace compounds in coal-derived gases in a shift converter, and participation
in the establishment of an acid gas removal facility for pollutant studies under grant
funding. A recent award has also been made for pretreatment and waste control
technology development.
Three major institutional research grants have been awarded recently. Under the
first award, research will include screening of a large number of chemical species,
determination of the effects of coal conversion reaction parameters on production of
these species, and cataloging of kinetic data pertinent to the rates of formation of the
significant pollutants. The second grant is for testing and evaluating a gas cleaning
facility for gases from a bench reactor. A 5-year program has been initiated under the
third grant:
• To assess biological and chemical treatment for waste waters from fuel
conversion
« To determine environmental impact and health effects of treated waters
• To conduct bench-scale studies for developing water treatment design criteria.
Studies are also being initiated on selected "model" organic compounds and will
then move to tests of composite waste streams.
Messrs. Harris and Powers describe the application of the three-fold approach to
environmental R&D as applied to oil shale. Extraction process gaseous emissions,
wastewater effluents, and spent shale wastes will be identified and characterized. EPA
is studying the fate in fresh waters, ground waters, and air of specific pollutants
resulting from oil shale development. Studies are also underway to monitor surface and
ground water quality near oil shale facilities and to characterize emissions from the
gasoline derived from shale oil (Figure 5).
CONCERN
• SIGNIFICANT LAND AREAS WILL BE DISRUPTED DURING MINING AND WILL BE REQUIRED
TO DISPOSE OF SPENT SHALE.
• BOTH WATER USE AND CONTAMINATION MAY AFFECT DEVELOPMENT AND USE OF OIL
SHALE DEPOSITS.
• IN-SITU RETORTING CAN DISRUPT AND CONTAMINATE GROUNDWATER AQUIFERS.
COORDINATION
• ERDA IS PART OF THE INTERIOR OIL SHALE ENVIRONMENTAL ADVISORY PANEL AND
EPA'S SECTOR GROUP.
ERDA ACTIVITIES
« COMPREHENSIVE ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING IS PART OF ERDA'S IN-SITU OIL SHALE
PROJECTS.
• ERDA IS DOING THE ENVIRONMENTAL DEVELOPMENT PLAN FOR THIS PROGRAM.
54
"Environmental Assessment in the ERDA Coal Gasification Development Program CMU,
Pittsburgh, Pa. (March 1977)
-------
OIL SHALE POLLUTANT
EFFECTS STUDIED
WASTES-AS-FUEL PROCESSES
*===
energy
environment II
The effects of pollutants from oil shale activities are also being studied
extensively. Health effects of oil shale development are being investigated by ERDA,
the U.S. Navy, the National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), and
EPA. The Research Triangle Park Health Effects Research Laboratory of EPA is
assessing human exposure/effects relationships and evaluating hazards to man under
controlled experimental conditions. The NIOSH studies address the occupational health
of oil shale workers, and the Navy research concentrates on health effects associated
with the burning of fuel oil derived from shale. The work being done by ERDA and
EPA is in the general fields of toxicity and carcinogenicity.
By far the most widespread environmental research efforts are in the field of
ecological effects. Agencies involved in this field include ERDA, the U.S. Department
of Agriculture, the U.S. Bureau of Mines, the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), the U.S.
Navy, and EPA. Emphasis has been placed on revegetation and water and land use.
The acute and chronic toxicological effects on freshwater organisms and ecosystems of
pollutants released by oil shale processes will be determined.
Among the other agencies funding research in biological transport phenomena are
ERDA and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. ERDA areas of interest include repair of
damaged cells, cell regulatory systems, molecular damage of DNA, and proteins. The
Fish and Wildlife Service is investigating the impact of western energy development on
water sources and subsequent effects on fish and wildlife.
Extraction and process control technology methods applicable to oil shale also are
being researched. For example, test facilities are nearly completed to develop methods
for spent shale disposal and revegetation. Other activities are oriented toward defining
and/or developing timely, effective environmental control technology as needed for the
industry's growth.
Technology development in the wastes-as-fuel area has progressed to the point
that several full-scale systems are operational, under construction, or planned. Messrs.
Olexsey and Huffman state that as operational experience accumulates, the
environmental aspects of waste-to-energy processes are becoming more clearly defined.
Thermal processes for recovering energy from solid wastes are of three generic
types—mass burning, cofiring, and pyrolysis. Mass burners, or waterwall incinerators,
produce steam through direct combustion of solid waste. Cofiring produces steam
and/or electricity through combustion of processed solid waste and some fossil fuel,
such as coal or fuel oil, in a fossil-fuel fired boiler. Pyrolysis plants utilize some degree
of destructive distillation to convert waste material into gaseous, liquid, or solid fuel
products. All three types display unique emissions characteristics which call for
extensive environmental research.
Because of the relative infancy of U.S. waste-to-energy technology, operating
experience is not extensive. Although a comprehensive EPA-sponsored program to
characterize pollutants from waste-to-energy processes is just getting underway, some
air emissions data are available from operating plants. For example, Messrs. Olexsey
and Huffman report that cofiring refuse with high sulfur coal results in an increase of
some pollutants but a sharp decrease in SO2 emissions as the amount of refuse is
increased. Chloride emissions, however, appear to increase about 30 percent when
refuse is burned with coal. Particulate emissions also seem to increase when waste is
cofired with coal. However, insufficient data have been gathered to lead to any firm
conclusions.
Operating experience at pyrolysis plants is far less extensive than it is at cofiring
or waterwall incineration plants. Full-scale systems are often proprietary and are
generally just now starting up operation. Furthermore, comparisons between pyrolysis
plants must be approached with caution since pyrolysis processes vary in concept from
pure pyrolysis with no air addition to starved-air combustion operations.
Wastewater effluents from mass burning plants can be in the form of ash quench
water or, in some cases, scrubber water from participate control devices. Liquid
discharges from waste cofiring operations are limited to sluice waters from ash
rejection and scrubber waters from participate removal or flue gas desulfunzation
processes. Pyrolysis liquid effluents can result from several sources—gas scrubbing, water
and oil separation, char and ash sluicing, and discharge of intermediate process liquids.
No large base of data on waterborn pollutants discharged from \vaste-to-enerqy
plants yet exists. However, sampling of sluicewater effluents from one cofirinq plant
showed no significant differences between ccal-on!\ and cofiring operations in the yield
55
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R&D ON CONTROL DEVISES
of potentially hazardous pollutants such as cadmium, chromium, or mercury. However,
total dissolved solids (TDS), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), and chemical oxygen
demand (COD) were higher for sluicewater from the coal-plus-refuse-derived fuel
operation.
Extensive research is being carried out to develop control technologies for the
unique emissions characteristics demonstrated by wastes-as-fuel processes. Several types
of air pollution control devices have been employed on waste combustion, cofiring,
and pyrolysis processes. Air pollution control has, to this point, received particular
attention at waste-to-fuel plants, with most attention to particulate control. There is
very little operational experience relating to wastewater and residue pollution control.
Early-generation European waterwall incinerators employed mechanical collectors
or low-energy impingement wet scrubbers. Later-generation waterwalls use high-energy
venturi scrubbers and electrostatic precipitators to control particulate emissions. Most
new plants use, or plan to use, the more efficient electrostatic precipitators.
Furthermore, the need for more efficient particulate collection and also for effective
gaseous emission control has resulted in experimental development of hybrid systems
and completely new equipment such as "wet" electrostatic precipitators.
Early this year, EPA contracted for air pollution control research for
waste-to-energy processes. The goal of this effort is to develop environmentally
acceptable air pollution control processes that can be retrofitted onto existing plants or
installed in new facilities. EPA also plans to award, in the near future, a similar
contract to develop water pollution control technologies for waste-to-energy systems.
OBSERVATIONS ON
EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES
As a concluding thought, I would like to return to something I said at the
beginning of my talk-that some of these new technologies for energy production can
be thought of as methods for effecting pollution control. Based on estimates from
planning studies sponsored by ERDA and other agencies, such as the Council on
Environmental Quality, we have made the following preliminary observations regarding
the emerging technologies discussed here this morning:
• For producing electric power from high sulfur coal, fluidized-bed combustion or
solvent refined coal reduce air pollution. Both technologies appear more
desirable from the standpoint of air pollution than does the use of low sulfur
coal with no scrubber. Both compare favorably with the air pollution control
achieved using flue gas desulfurization and high sulfur coal.
• We talk about siting typical commercial size mine-mouth conversion facilities in
the West. If we consider choices for coal utilization and how these choices
56
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impact local communities, then a 250 million standard cubic feet per day high
Btu coal gasification plant would produce less air pollution and use less water
than a 1,000 MW coal-fired power plant. However, solid wastes would be
greater for the gasification plant.
• Siting a 50,000 barrel per day coal liquefaction plant at the mine mouth would
produce, except for hydrocarbons, less air pollution than a 1000 MW coal-fired
power plant. In all cases, however, the coal liquefaction plant would cause
more air pollution than a 250 million standard cubic feet per day coal
gasification plant. Water requirements for the liquefaction plant would be about
double those for the gasification plant.
• And, finally, a 50,000 barrel per day oil shale plant would produce, except for
sulfur oxides, less air pollution than the same size coal liquefaction plant. The
shale plant would require about half as much water, but solid wastes would be
about 27 times as great.
VALIDATION BY Again, these are some directional indications we now have from planning efforts
EXPERIMENTATION at ERDA. These directional indications must now be validated by experimental data.
MARVIN I. SINGER
B.S., Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology; M.S., Chemical
Engineering, Columbia University; M.S. Industrial Engineering, University of Pittsburgh.
Experience in minimizing environmental and socioeconomic impacts of fossil energy
actions, environmental assessment. Served as ERDA's Assistant Director for Environ-
mental and Socioeconomic Impact, and staff member on President's Council on
Environmental Quality. Prior to governmental service was on planning staff of large,
private corporation analyzing mergers, design engineering, and economic evaluations of
refinery and petrochemical processes. Currently, Director of Environmental and
Socioeconomic Programs, ERDA, Washington, DC.
57
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questions
-------
RESPONSE: Mr. D. Bruce Henschel (EPA)
QUESTION:
RESPONSE: Mr. Henschel
QUESTION:
RESPONSE: Mr. Henschel
First, I hope that commercial systems will not
frequently run calcium to sulfur ratios up to 4 to 5.
When grinding and reusing it, that certainly is a
possibility. However, it is not one that we have
experimentally investigated, and it certainly is something
we would be interested in studying further.
One application, incidentally, is to use this spent
material for scrubbers. If one has a fluidized-bed boiler
and a conventional boiler with an FGD onsite, the matter
used in the fluidized bed might still have enough
reactivity to be used in the scrubber.
Are there any research programs studying the
disposal alternatives for generated solid wastes from
fluidized beds?
There are basically two questions. One involves
disposal of the residue in an environmentally acceptable
manner. The other involves utilizing this residue to not
only minimize the environmental impact but also to give
some market potential.
We have several studies under way for studying
environmental impact of residue disposal, leaching
properties, and so forth. One is with Westinghouse
Research Laboratory, which at this point is basically a
laboratory program, including some lysimeter work. The
other study with Ralph Stone and Company involves
lysimeter testing.
We are developing a program to study not just
lysimeter testing but also field cell testing. The largest
field cell we envision would be a 100 feet long by 100
feet wide by 5 feet deep, using residue from the 30
megawatt Reevesville fluidized-bed boiler. We also have
solid residue characterization work being done for us by
TVA.
In using technology to obtain a marketable
by-product, in this case elemental sulfur, are there any
programs to study the markets for these by-products to
the extent that they will not become solid waste
problems?
EPA's program emphasizes the environmental impact
of material disposal. Most of the work involving
agricultural and nonagricultural uses is being sponsored by
ERDA. A couple of the major ERDA programs in that
area include the Department of Agriculture researching
the uses of the material. There are a variety of smaller
projects as well.
60
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technical
discussion
-------
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT OF THE FLUIDIZED-BED
COMBUSTION PROCESS
D. Bruce Henschel
Office of Research and Development
Office of Energy, Minerals, and Industry
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
INTRODUCTION
In parallel with efforts in the United
States to develop new energy technologies, the
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is
conducting a contract research and development
program aimed at environmental characterization
of the developing technologies. The objective
of the EPA program is to identify potential
environmental problem areas, and to develop any
necessary environmental control technology, while
the energy technology is still under development,
so that any necessary environmental controls can
be integrated into the energy technology on the
most timely and cost-effective basis.
One promising new energy technology that is
being developed is fluidized-bed combustion of
coal for heat, steam, and power generation. The
U.S. Energy Research and Development Administra-
tion (ERDA) is conducting a substantial program
to develop fluidized-bed coal combustion tech-
nology. The ERDA program currently includes a
number of fairly large fluidized-bed combustion
facilities, including: (1) a 30 MWe boiler at
Rivesville, West Virginia (currently in the
startup phase), to be operated with the bed at
essentially atmospheric pressure; (2) co-funding
of several planned atmospheric-pressure industrial/
commercial/institutional units, one of the first
of which is expected to be a 100,000 Ib steam/hr
(45,400 kg/hr) boiler in the Georgetown University
physical plant; (3) a 13 MWe elevated pressure
combined cycle system to be built in Wood-Ridge,
New Jersey; (4) co-funding of a 30 MWe pressurized
boiler to be installed in Great Britain under the
auspices of the International Energy Agency; (5) a
6 MWe atmospheric-pressure component test and
integration unit (CTIU); and (6) an analogous
3 MWe pressurized CTIU. The ERDA program also
includes a number of support projects and design
studies. Other organizations conducting efforts
to develop fluidized-bed combustion are: the
Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), which is design-
ing a full-scale fluidized combustion utility
plant; and the Electric Power Research Institute
(EPRI), representing the electric utility industry.
One component of the EPRI program is a 3 MWe
atmospheric-pressure unit being built in
Alliance, Ohio.
'The EPA program, being conducted in coordina-
tion with the development effort described above,
is funded at $4.0 million in fiscal year 1977.
This program has been discussed previously (Refer-
ences 1 and 2). The EPA program is divided into
two major subobjectives: (1) environmental assess-
ment, the purpose of which is to determine the
environmental impact of the energy technology,
and to design a program for the development of con-
trol technology as necessary to reduce this impact;
and (2) control technology development, in which
the program designed as part of the environmental
assessment activity is carried out.
In view of the significance of the environ-
mental assessment effort in defining control tech-
nology needs, this paper first addresses the
methodology of conducting environmental assess-
ments, and the status of the assessment of
fluidized-bed combustion. The paper then summar-
izes some of the recent results of the fluidized-
bed combustion control technology development effort,
In summary, it is apparent from available data
that fluidized-bed combustion may be expected to
control emissions of S02 and NOX to below the
levels required by the existing EPA New Source Per-
formance Standards for large conventional coal-fired
boilers. Particulate control adequate to meet the
EPA emission standard for conventional coal boilers
has not been demonstrated, either for atmospheric
or pressurized fluidized combustors. In the case
of atmospheric systems, particulate control will
likely be similar to that for a conventional boiler
burning low-sulfur coal; control at high tempera-
ture/pressure to meet conventional boiler emission
standards in pressurized fluidized combustors will
require control technology which has not yet been
demonstrated. Data on emissions and control of
potential pollutants other than S02 and NOX (includ-
ing those in liquid, solid, and air streams) are
not adequate to allow firm conclusions regarding
the emission levels of these potential pollutants.
One of the first priorities of this EPA program is
to identify emission levels for all potential pol-
lutants from fluidized-bed combustors and, where
standards or guidelines do not already exist, to try
to define the degree of control required.
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT
From a practical standpoint, the primary
objective of the environmental assessment activity
is to assure that an adequate research data base
is available to support the development of stan-
dards and guidelines by EPA's regulatory offices.
A related objective is to design EPA's control
technology R&D program. The development of an
adequate research data base to support standards/
guidelines will be accomplished through: (1) com-
prehensive analysis of emissions from existing
units; (2) engineering evaluation of available
data on emissions; and (3) evaluation of data on
the performance of available control devices/
options. Design of the control technology R&D
program will be accomplished by comparing the
results of the comprehensive analyses of emissions
with emission goals established based on health
and ecological effects, independent of the specific
energy technology.
63
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The environmental assessment strategy is
divided into six steps: (1) Identification of
current process and environmental background,
including a study of process flow sheets, status,
and schedules; identification of possible emission
sources throughout the process, considering all
media; projection of possible emissions by means
of theoretical calculations and engineering con-
siderations; listing of potential pollutants;
and collection of health/ecological effects,
transformation/transport, and related information
for potential pollutants. (2) Development of
environmental objectives based ultimately on health
and ecological effects of possible pollutants, with
the goals expressed in terms of acceptable emis-
sions. Based upon the effects, pollutants are
prioritized. The goals are independent of the
energy technology. (3) Acquisition of environ-
mental data, including comprehensive analysis
of emissions from existing fluidized-bed combus-
tion facilities. An analytical approach in stages
is employed to determine, in the most cost-
effective manner, which of the pollutants on the
listings of potential pollutants are being emitted
to all media from all process streams, and at
what levels. (4) Assessment of available control
technology, including identification of specific
control technologies, evaluation of the cost of
alternative degrees of control, and assessment of
the environmental impact of the control process
itself. (5) Analysis of environmental alterna-
tives, to identify the optimum combination of
control devices (for all pollutants and process
streams), considering the trade-offs between
cost and degree of control. (6) Identification
of further data and technology needs, including
recommendation of a. control technology develop-
ment program, and also indicating requirements
for further health/ecological effects data,
transport/transformation data, and emissions data.
Figure 1 indicates schematically the rela-
tionship between these steps.
The methodology that is being developed
for conducting some of these steps is discussed
below. The status of the fluidized-bed combus-
tion environmental assessment is also discussed.
Identification of Current Background
EPA's primary environmental assessment con-
tractor—Battelle-Columbus Laboratories—has
completed an initial compilation of engineering,
environmental, and cost data for the fluidized-
bed combustion process. Battelle, GCA/Technology
Division (Reference 3), and Westinghouse Research
Laboratories have conducted studies to project
possible emissions of compounds other than SO
and NOX, based upon theoretical calculations and
engineering considerations; the results suggest
no specific environmental problems, but addi-
tional actual emission data are required to
enable firm conclusions. Battelle and (in a
separate program) the Research Triangle Institute
(RTI) are compiling health and ecological data
for possible pollutants.
A key activity within this environmental
assessment step is an attempt to establish boun-
daries for the assessment by deriving a list of
the compounds to be considered. Battelle has
developed a list of 1093 substances, derived by
considering: (1) elements and compounds known
to be present in coal and limestone/dolomite;
(2) substances known to be emitted from coal com-
bustion/conve,rsion processes; and (3) substances
with a potential for formation during combustion
and for which Threshold Limit Value (TLV) and
Lethal Dose data are available. This list is
currently being refined by suitable grouping and
consolidation of the substances. In an indepen-
dent effort, RTI developed a list of 650 substances,
referred to as the Multimedia Environmental Goals
(MEG) pollutant list for fossil energy processes,
RTI used the following criteria in developing their
list: (1) substances known or suspected as emis-
sions from coal or oil processing; (2) all classes
of substances represented; and (3) substances for
which TLV or Lethal Dose data are available, or
for which environmental standards/guidelines/
criteria are proposed or promulgated, or which are
on certain other EPA listings. The RTI MEG pollu-
tant list is considered to represent the primary
substances of concern in the environmental assess-
ment effort. The need for any additions to the
RTI list, based upon the Battelle list, is currently
being evaluated.
Future efforts on this step will also include
preparation of a Technology Overview Report, which
will divide all variations of the fluidized combus-
tion process into generic unit operations, and
will include a technical and environmental evalua-
tion of each unit operation.
Development of Environmental Objectives
The primary vehicle being utilized to system-
atically develop environmental goals is the Multi-
media Environmental Goals (MEG) Chart (see Figure
2). Ambient-level goals are developed for each
pollutant based upon health/ecological considera-
tions, and are then converted to emission goals
for subsequent comparison with actual emission
measurements.
Basically, the MEG Chart is a format for
-presentation of the goals, and of the data nec-
essary to enable derivation of the goals. Columns
IA and IB in Figure 2 are process-specific emis-
sion goals based, respectively, on current and
revised emission standards, and on existing and
developing technology. Columns II, III and IV are
process-independent ambient-level goals, or esti-
mated permissible concentrations (EPC's), based
(respectively) on: current or proposed ambient
standards; toxicity considerations (where ambient
standards do not exist) ; and mutagenic/carcinogenic/
teratogenic considerations (in which case a
"permissible" concentration must be estimated on
the basis of acceptable risk rather than on the
basis of zero, or minimal, effect). In Columns Hi
III and IV, EPC's are presented both from the
standpoint of human health, and from the stand-
point of ecological effects (plants, other animals).
The types of models used to calculate EPC's for
Columns IIIA and IV, based on TLV, LD5Q, and other
64
-------
CURRENT
PROCESS
TECHNOLOGY
BACKGROUND
CURRENT
ENVIRONMENTAL
BACKGROUND
i
ENVIRONMENTAL
DATA
ACQUISITION
i
ENVIRO
DEVEL
NMENTAL
CTIVES
OPMENT
CONTROL
TECHNOLOGY
DEVELOPMENT
i
CONT
TECHN
ASSES!
1
ROL
OLOGY
;MENT
x
^YES
/ IS \
/ BETTER \ NO
\ CONTROL /
\ NEEDED?/
\T 1— »A OUTPUTS: /
1
ENVIRONMENTAL
ALTERNATIVES
ANALYSIS • QUANTIFIED CONTROL ALTERNATIVES
• QUANTIFIED MEDIA DEGRADATION ALTERNATIVES
• STANDARDS OF PRACTICE MANUALS
• DATA BASE TO SUPPORT ENVIRONMENTAL
STANDARDS AND GUIDELINES
Figure 1. Simplified block diagram showing relationship between steps of environmental assess-
ment and control technology development.
MEDIA
AIR, ug/m3
(ppm vol)
WATER, mg/1
(ppm wt)
LAND, yg/g
(ppm wt)
Emission-Level Goals
I
Best Technology
A
Existing Tech,
NSPS, BPT(b)
B
Developing
Tech, BAT(b)
Revised NSPS
Based on Ambient Factors
C
Derived from
Ambient -Level
Goals
(Cols 11,111,1V)
Based on
Health
Effects
(c)
3,900
41,400
80
Based on
Ecol.
Effects
(d)
12,400
500,000
1,000
D
Elimination of
Discharge (EOD)
Natural
Background (e)
Ambient-Level Goals
II
Current or Proposed
Ambient Standards
or Criteria
A
Based on
Health
Effects
B
Based on
Ecological
Effects
III
Toxicity-Based Est.
of Permissible
Concentration (EPC/g'
A
Based on
Health
Effects
7. 1
(0.004)
41.4
0.08
B
Based on
Ecological
Effects<£)
12.4
500
1.0
IV
Threshold Limit-
Based EPC (for ,
Carcinogen, etc)
Based on
Health
Effects
3.9
58.5
1.12
a) (h)
(a) The MEG Goals are intended for broad planning purposes only and are not rigorous, absolute indicators of acceptable pollutant levels.
(b) BPT Best Practical Control Technology; NSPS New Source Performance Standards; BAT Best Available Control Technology.
(c) Calculated by multip lying C olumn II A,or the lower value in III A and IV, by a selected dilution factor. The d ilution factor selected
for this example was 1000.
(d) Calculated by multiplying Column II B or Column III B by the assumed dilution factor.
(e) Calculated by rnultiplying natural background by assumed dilution factor,
(f) Where data are available on more than one plant or animal species, the data for the most sensitive species are used in Column III B.
(g) See Reference 9 for indication of type of models employed.
(h) Acceptable death rate should be defined and natural background levels should be considered; whereas TLV data usually consider physiological
or behavioral effects, threshold limit in this case refers to genetic (carcinogenic, teratogenic, mutagenic, etc.) effects.
Figure 2. Example Multimedia Environmental Goals (MEG) chart for formaldehyde.
(a)
65
-------
available data, are suggested by Handy and Schindler
(Reference 4); the EPC's in IIIB are based on the
most sensitive applicable non-human species for
which effects data are available. Further models
for the completion of Columns IIIA, IIIB, and IV
have recently been developed by RTI (Reference 5).
In column 1C, the estimated permissible ambient con-
centrations identified in Column II, III or IV are
converted to emission level goals by multiplying the
values in Column II, III or IV by the dilution fac-
tor assumed for converting source concentrations
to ambient concentrations. All media (air, water,
land) are represented on the Chart to assure that
attempts to control emissions to one medium do
not result in increased adverse impact on others.
The goals derived from the MEG Chart will
be used to assist in deciding what pollutants
should receive emphasis in the EPA program, and in
planning the control technology development pro-
gram for fluidized-bed combustion. It is empha-
sized that the MEG Chart is intended only for
broad planning purposes; the limitations in availa-
ble health/ecological effects data, and the sim-
plifications necessary in the models used for
calculating some of the EPC's, are such that the
entries in Columns III and IV cannot be taken as
rigorous absolute indicators of acceptable pollu-
tant levels.
RTI is currently completing the MEG Chart for
the 650 substances on the RTI list. The Chart
will be updated as the substance list is refined.
Among other future efforts required on the MEG
Chart are: collection and analysis of available
health/ecological effects data, and reconciliation
of any differences, if possible; and derivation of
improved models for calculating EPC's based upon
available health/ecological data. Modeling needs
include, for example: improved methods of employ-
ing TLV, LE> , or other data to give air- and water-
based EPC's; and definition and quantification of
the chains by which soil concentrations enter
human and ecological systems, so that land-based
EPC's can be calculated. Attention will be given
to estimating chronic pollutant effects, though
much of the available data are for acute effects.
Comprehensive Analysis of Emissions
A comprehensive source sampling program is
being undertaken in order to develop the emis-
sions data base necessary for supporting environ-
mental standards/guidelines, and'to provide the
actual emissions information necessary for compari-
son with the MEG Chart goals. In some cases, an
ambient monitoring program may also be warranted.
In order to determine emissions of up to
650 substances (or more) on a cost-effective
basis, a staged sampling/analysis approach has
been proposed, consisting of three levels.
Level 1 comprehensive analysis (Reference 6)
involves initial comprehensive screening, using
analytical techniques which sacrifice accuracy
and compound specificity in order to identify
possible problem areas in a cost-effective manner.
Level 2 is designed based upon Level 1; more
accurate, compound-specific techniques are used
to explore the identified problem areas (Refer-
ence 7). Level 3 includes routine monitoring of
those pollutants identified as specific problems
in Level 2. Biological testing, as well as
chemical analysis, is included. The Level I/
Level 2/Level 3 approach is being refined as
experience is obtained using it.
Figure 3 indicates a typical sampling/analyt-
ical matrix for Level 1 comprehensive analysis.
The analyses for organic reduced sulfur compounds,
POM's, and toxic elements are technically Level 2
analyses, but are conducted concurrent with Level
1 since they are of known interest in fluidized-
bed combustion.
To date, sampling of the type reflected by
Figure 3 has been completed on four fluidized-bed
units: a 6-inch (15 cm) i.d. atmospheric unit
at Battelle; an 18-inch (46 cm) i.d. atmospheric
unit at ERDA's Morgantown Energy Research Center,
burning anthracite culm; a 2-foot by 3-foot, or
61 cm by 91 cm (cross section) pressurized combus-
tor at the British Coal Utilization Research
Association; and the 12-inch (31 cm) i.d. pressur-
ized Miniplant combustor at Exxon Research and
Engineering Company. Sampling is planned on other
units as they become available, including the 30 MW
Rivesville boiler.
Some analytical results are available from
the samples taken from the Battelle and Morgantown
units; these results are being evaluated. Con-
siderable effort is being devoted to utilization of
the MEG Chart goals to aid in the evaluation of
the analytical results, and to help in the design
of the Level 2 analytical approach based upon the
Level 1 results.
Assessment of Available Control Technology
For the purposes of the EPA program, environ-
mental control technology options are divided into
four areas: (1) modification of process operating
and design conditions; (2) pretreatment of input
streams; (3) use of add-on control devices, such as
a particulate removal device or a sorbent regenera-
tor; and (4) minimization of the impact of solid
residue disposal.
An approach is being developed to enable an
orderly, reasonably uniform procedure for compre-
hensive assessment of available control alterna-
tives. The approach will take into consideration:
the degree of control possible for each important
pollutant for each medium, as a function of device
operating conditions and fluidized-bed combustion
process operating conditions; the dollar costs of
control (and the energy efficiency penalty of
control) as a function of the degree of control
for each device/option for each pollutant and
process stream; the reliability of the device/
option, taking into consideration the data and
operating experience available on the device/
option, and the theory/design principles behind it;
the possible environmental impact of the control
device/option itself; and any other factors that
may become apparent during the development of the
control technology evaluation approach.
As part of this task, Standards of Practice
66
-------
Species, Pollutants
On-Line Continuous Gas Measurements
C02
S02
NO
N02
CO
°2
Total Gaseous Hydrocarbon
Integrated Gas Phase Measurements
H2S
COS
Disulfides
S03/H2S04
NH3
Cyanides
HCI
Fluoride, volatile
ntegrated Specimens for Subsequent
Group Analysis
Trace metals
Major Elements |Fe, Al, Si, K, Ca)
Organic, by class
Organic-reduced, sulfur compounds
POM
Proximate
Radionuchdes
Ultimate
Sulfur forms
Biological
Integrated Specimens for Subsequent
Specific Analysis
Toxic Elements (Be, Cd, Hg. As,
Pb, Se, Sb, Tel
Cl
f
Na
Ca
Mg
C03
S04
S03
s
N02
N03
C Non Carbonate"
Heating value
Particle morphology
Particle size
Particle mass
Sample
Collection
Techniques'8'
Cw
Cw
Cw
Cw
Cw
Cw
Cw
19
ig
ig
St
St
St
St
St
SASS/Gs
SASS/Gs
SASS/Gs
SASS/Gs
SASS/Gs
Gs
SASS/Gs
SASS/Gs
l Gs
SASS/Gs
SASS/Gs
SASS/Gs
SASS/Gs
Gs
Gs
Gs
SASS/Gs
SASS/Gs
SASS/Gs
SASS/Gs
SASS/Gs
SASS/Gs
Gs
Gs
Gs/Ci
Gs/Ci
M5
Analysis Me thod(bl
NDIR
IR or UV
NDIR or CL
NDIR or CL
NDIR
PM or PE
FID
GC
GC
GC
GR/IC
KJ
CO
Tl
SIE
SSMS
OES
EX/LC/IR
GC
GC/MS
ASTM D3172-73
Gross a and /3 assay
ASTM 03176-74
ASTM D2492-68
In vitro
AA
CO
01 /CO
AA
AA/TI
AA
GE
TI/IC
S02 GE/CO
GEATI
CO/IC
CO/IC
C
ASTM D2015-66
SEM
Sieve - ASTM 410-38
Weight
System Stream or Material
Stack
Particulates
Mid
>3p
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X(c)
Fine
<3p
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Gas
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Waste
from cyclone
and bed
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
x
X
X
X
X
X
Coal
Feed
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Sorbent
Feed
X
X
X
X
X
x
X
X
X
x
X
X
X
x
x
x
Leach ate
from
Solid Waste
(cyclone anc
bed)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
(a) Cw - Continuous withdrawal through non-reactive line
with mechanical filtration
Ig - Integrated grab sample of gas in glass bulb
St - Separate wet chemical tram to collect gas (such
as Method 6).
SASS - Source Assessment Sampling System (tram used
for suspended particulates, organics, and
volatile trace elements)
- Grab multiple samples riffled to reduce to 100 g
representative sample.
- Cascade impactor in flowing stream.
- EPA Method 5.
Gs
Ci
M5
(c) Coarse
(b) NDIR Non-dispersive infrared. SSMS
IR - Infrared. OES
UV - Ultraviolet EX
CL - Chemilurnmescence. l_C
PM - Paramagnetic GC/MS
PE - Platinum Electrode.
FID - Flame lonization Detector AA
GC - Gas Chromatography Dl
GR - Goksoyr-Ross. GE
1C - Ion chromatography. c
KJ - Kjeldahl. ASTM
CO - Cotonmetric.
Tl - Titration. SEM
SIE - Selective-Ion Electrode.
- Spark Source Mass Spectroscopy.
- Optical Emission Spectroscopy.
- Extraction.
- Liquid Chromatography.
- Gas Chromatography with mass
spectrography.
- Atomic absorption
- Distillation.
- Gas Evolution
- Combustion.
- American Society for Testing
Materials Standard Method.
• Scanning Electron Microscope
and Filter
fractions included.
Figure 3. Example sampling/analytical matrix for Level 1 comprehensive analysis on flu-
idized-bed combustor.
67
-------
Manuals will be prepared in support of EPA's regula-
tory offices, and will be updated as necessary.
Environmental Alternatives Analysis
The primary purpose of environmental alterna-
tives analysis is to identify the optimum combina-
tion of control options for plants representing all
variations of the fluidized-bed combustion process.
This analysis will consider: (1) the "hazard" asso-
ciated with the levels of each pollutant in each
stream, calculated by comparing the health/
ecological effects goal for each pollutant (devel-
oped via the MEG Chart) with the actual emissions
observed from comprehensive analysis; and (2) the
cost of alternate degrees of control available with
alternate control options, as defined in the pre-
vious step. The analysis will further be employed
to identify problem pollutants and, based upon the
degree of "hazard," to: (1) rank effluent streams
within each fluidized combustion process variation;
and (2) compare the different variations.
The primary tool currently under development
to enable environmental alternatives analysis, is
the Source Analysis Model (SAM). SAM methodology
is being developed under EPA contract by Aerotherm
Division of Acurex Corp, Basically, the SAM
approach involves calculation of a normalized
degree of hazard for each pollutant in a selec-
ted stream by computing the ratio of the concen-
tration of the pollutant in the stream to the goal
concentration indicated in the MEG Chart; i.e.,
degree of hazard for pollutant i in
stream k =
Cik
(C.k)MEG
where C., is the observed concentration and
(C^JKEG is the emission goal read from Column 1C
or ID in the MEG Chart for pollutant i. The total
degree of hazard for a stream can then be calcu-
lated by summing over all pollutants in the
stream; the degree of hazard for a plant can be
calculated by summing all streams. If the per-
formance of alternative individual control
options for each stream is known, the SAM can be
used to find the control option, or combination
of options, which minimizes the degree of hazard
for any one stream or for the total plant.
Three versions of the SAM are under develop-
ment by EPA's Industrial Environmental Research
Laboratory/RTF, varying according to the level of
detail in the model. These versions are:
° SAM/IA, to be used for initial rapid
effluent concentration screening, using
MEG goals based upon more readily availa-
ble, acute toxicity data.
SAM/I, to be used for more rigorous
screening, using MEG goals based upon
estimated chronic effects.
° SAM/II, a general model to be used for
evaluating any U. S. regional site
alternative,
Design of R&D Program for Control Technology
Additional control technology required will
be identified based upon the results of the
environmental alternatives analysis. If—after
comparing the MEG health/ecological goals with
the actual observed emissions from fluidized com-
bustion units and with the capabilities of
currently envisioned control technology—the
alternatives analysis indicates an unacceptable
hazard for a specific pollutant/stream which can-
not be reduced at practical control cost, then
new control alternatives, or further development
of current alternatives, will be identified in
order to reduce the hazard to acceptable levels.
Control alternatives may fall into the four cate-
gories listed previously: (1) modification of
process operating and design conditions; (2) pre-
treatment of input streams; (3) use of add-on
devices; and (4) techniques for reducing the
impact of solid residue disposal.
Additional information needs may be identi-
fied in areas other than control technology; e.g.,
additional health effects data may be necessary,
or further effort may be required in the develop-
ment of environmental assessment methodology.
Development of Data Base for Standards/Guidelines
One major product of the environmental assess-
ment effort will be the development of a research
data base adequate for supporting environmental
standards and guidelines for all variations and
applications of the fluidized-bed combustion
process. Standards Support Plans and Standards
Development Research Data Base Reports will be
prepared and updated as warranted in support of
EPA's standards-setting offices.
CONTROL TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT
In parallel with the fluidized-bed combustion
environmental assessment effort, a significant
program is being conducted by EPA to develop
suitable environmental control technology (Refer-
ences 1 and 2). The control technology effort is
too broad to be described in detail here, but
some important recent results are listed.
Modification of Process Operating/Design Condition^
Testing is underway on the 0,63 MWe pressur-
ized fluidized-bed Miniplant combustor, built
under EPA sponsorship at Exxon Research and
Engineering Co. (Reference 8). Figure 4 shows some
recent results indicating S0_ removal in the pres-
surized (9 atm, or 910 kPa) Bed as a function of
sorbent feed rate. The figure shows that the
dolomite used in this study is a more effective
sulfur sorbent than is the limestone (on the basis
of the sorbent feed rate, expressed as the ratio
of moles of calcium in the sorbent feed to the
moles of sulfur in the coal feed). Also, in a
pressurized system, limestone becomes more effec-
tive when the bed temperature is high enough to
result in calcination of the calcium carbonate.
68
-------
Figure 4.
Sulfur capture
results from
the Miniplant
fluidized-bed
combustor at
9 atm (910 kPa) ,
LIMESTONE
(825-900°C)
Figure 6.
Limestone precal-
cination results
from the Mini-
plant fluidized-
bed combustor at
9 atm (910 kPa).
2 3
Ca/5 MOLAR RATIO
1 2 3
Ca/S MOLAR RATIO
The Miniplant combustor NOj; emissions at 910
kPa are shown in Figure 5 as a function of excess
air. As indicated, the emissions are consistently
well below the EPA New Source Performance Standard
of 0.7 lb/10 BTU (0.30 g/10 J) .
20
40
60 80 100
EXCESS AIR, %
120 140
Figure 5.
NOX emissions from the Miniplant
fluidized-bed combustor at 9 atm
(910 kPa) .
Pretreatment of Input Streams
Precalcination of the limestone feed to
pressurized fluidized combustors is being studied
as a means for reducing sorbent requirements, and
thus reducing the quantity of solid residue.
Figure 6 shows the results of a limestone precal-
cination study on the Miniplant at 9" atm (910
kPa). Figure 6 is similar to Figure 4, except
that three data points are included indicating the
performance of precalcined limestone. As shown,
precalcination can make the limestone as effec-
tive as the dolomite on the basis of the calcium-
to-sulfur molar ratio.
Add-on Control Devices
Among the particulate control devices to be
tested in the near future are: a 500 acfm (14 cu.
meters/min) Ducon high temperature/pressure granu-
lar bed filter, which has been installed on the
Miniplant and is currently undergoing shakedown;
an Aerodyne cyclone to be tested on a 500 acfm
(14 cu. meters/min) high temperature/pressure
particulate control test stand now being installed
by Westinghouse Reaearch Laboratories; and 25-
3000 acfm (0.7-85 cu. meters/min) conventional
scrubbers, fabric filters, and electrostatic
precipitators to be tested on the flue gas from
ERDA's Rivesville boiler using trailer-mounted,
mobile devices developed by EPA. Also, EPA is
interested in complete characterization of any
devices installed on large fluidized-bed combus-
tion facilities, for example, the in-system
electrostatic precipitator on the Rivesville
boiler, and the baghouse planned for the George-
town University boiler. Future plans include the
possibility of modifying existing control devices,
or installing new devices, on large fluidized
boiler installations.
Another add-on option being studied is
sorbent regeneration, which should reduce fresh
sorbent requirements and hence the quantity of
solid residue. The Miniplant combustor/regenera-
tor system has been successfully operated for a
sustained shakedown run of 100 hours at 9 atm
(910 kPa), with continuous regeneration of the
sorbent. The run demonstrated that it is techni-
cally feasible to regenerate the sorbent by means
of reductive decomposition, and that regeneration
can reduce fresh sorbent requirements to only 15
to 20 percent of that which would be required
69
-------
to maintain the same degree of sulfur control
without regeneration. In a project co-funded by
ERDA and EPA, a semi-continuous 10-cycle combus-
tion/regeneration run was also conducted by
Argonne National Laboratory using a 6-inch
(15.2 cm) i.d., 8 atm (810 kPa) fluidized com-
bustor and a 4.25-inch (10.8 cm) i.d., 1.5 atm
(153 kPa) regenerator. The initial portion of
this test is described in Reference 9. Based
upon their results, Argonne calculated that, with
regeneration, fresh sorbent requirements could be
reduced to only about 20 percent of that nec-
essary without regeneration. This conclusion is
consistent with the Exxon results. Although regen-
eration is technically feasible, further work is
necessary to optimize the regeneration step, and
to define its range of economic feasibility.
Solid Residue Disposal
Westinghouse Research Laboratories has been
conducting laboratory "shake" tests—in which small
quantities of fluidized-bed combustion solid
residue are shaken in a flask containing water—
in order to obtain preliminary information on
leachate characteristics. Ralph Stone and Co, is
conducting laboratory lysimeter column tests.
Further shake testing, lysimeter testing, and field
cell testing are necessary before firm conclusions
can be drawn regarding the environmental impact of
the residue, and such testing is planned. Figure 7
summarizes some of the results of the Westinghouse
shake testing. Prior to the availability of MEG
goals, Westinghouse employed two other "goals"
against which to compare their leachate data:
(1) drinking water standards; and (2) the leaching
properties of natural gypsum. It should be empha-
sized that these "goals" were selected only in an
effort to put the data into perspective; they are
not absolute indicators of whether the fluidized
combustion residue leachate is environmentally
acceptable or unacceptable.
CONCLUSIONS
An effort is underway to develop the method-
ology for environmental assessment of fluidized-
bed combustion (and of other developing energy
technologies). The results of the environmental
assessment will be used in two ways: (1) from the
regulatory standpoint, the results will be used
to support environmental standards and guidelines;
and (2) from the R&D standpoint, the results will
be used to design a control technology research
and development program, in order to enable future
standards to be set in accordance with any more
stringent objectives that may be established by
EPA's standards-setting offices. Results from the
fluidized combustion environmental assessment are
only starting to become available. Some control
technology data are available, largely for the
current criteria pollutants.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The environmental assessment methodology
described in this paper is being developed under
the guidance of Mr. R. P. Hangebrauck, Director,
Energy Assessment and Control Division, Industrial
Environmental Research Laboratory/RTP.
Sample
Process
Sorbent
Environmental Parameters
Heal
Release
Trace
Metal
Total
Dissolved
Solids
Sulfide
pH
Sulfate
Calcium
Spent Sorbent
(bed material )
Pressurized System
once - through
Limeslone
NO <0. 2°C*
VXX
PH= 12.
xxxv
Pressurized Syslem
once -through
Dolomite
ND <0. 2°C
XXX x A
XPH = H. »<
x>vy
Atmospheric System
on« -through
Limeslone
NO <0. Z°C
Flyash
Kines o( sorbent/ash )
Pressurized Syslem
once - through
Limeslone
ND <0. 2°C
. .
XbH 8 to I
Mixture of Spent I Pressurized Syslem
Bed Sorbent and Flyash once-through
Limeslone
ND<0.2°C
XpH 8 to 10-
X \X X'x
Gypsum
Natural
ND <0. 2°C
pH = 7. 4
S Do Not Meet Either The Drinking Water or Gypsum Leachate Criteria
0 Pass Gypsum Leachate Criteria But Not Drinking Water Standards
D Pass Both Drinking Water and Gypsum Leachate Criteria
* ND <0.2 C indicates not detected with 0.2 C being the minimum
detection limit.
Source: Westinghouse Research Laboratory
Figure 7. Summary of some results from Westinghouse shake tests on fluidized-bed combus
tion solid residue.
70
-------
REFERENCES
Henschel, D. B., "The U. S. Environmental
Protection Agency Program for Environmental
Characterization of Fluidized-Bed Combustion
Systems," in the Proceedings of the National
Conference on Health, Environmental Effects,
and Control Technology of Energy Use, spon-
sored by EPA, Washington D. C. (February
9-11, 1976), Report No. EPA-600/7-76-002
"The U. S. Environmental Protection Agency's
Fluidized-Bed Combustion Program, FY 1976,"
prepared for EPA by Battelle-Columbus
Laboratories, Report No. EPA-600/7-77-012
(February 1977) (NTIS No. PB 265-354/AS)
Fennelly, P. F., D. F. Durocher, H. Klemm
and R. R. Hall, "Preliminary Environmental
Assessment of Coal-Fired Fluidized-Bed
Combustion Systems," prepared for EPA by
GCA/Technology Division, Report No. EPA-600/
7-77-054 (May 1977) (in Press)
Handy, R. W., and A. Schindler, "Estimation
of permissible Concentrations of Pollutants
for Continuous Exposure," prepared for EPA
by the Research Triangle Institute, Report
No. EPA-600/2-76-155 (June 1976) (NTIS No.
PB 253-959)
Cleland, J. G., and G. L. Kingsbury,
Research Triangle Institute, Research
Triangle Park, N. C., personal communication
Hamersma, J. W., et al., "IERL-RTP Procedures
Manual: Level 1 Environmental Assessment,"
prepared for EPA by TRW Systems Group,
Report No. EPA-600/2-76-160a (June 1976
(NTIS No. PB 257-850/AS)
Abelson, H. I., and W. A. Lowenbach,
"Procedures Manual for Environmental Assess-
ment of Fluidized-Bed Combustion Processes,"
prepared for EPA by the Mitre Corp./Metrek
Division, Report No. EPA-600/7-77-009
(January 1977)
Hoke, R. C., et al., "Studies of the Press-
urized Fluidized-Bed Coal Combustion Process,"
prepared for EPA by Exxon Research and Engi-
neering Co., Report No. EPA-600/7-76-011
(September 1976) (NTIS No. PB 260-478/AS)
Vogel, G. J., et al., "A Development Program
on Pressurized Fluidized-Bed Combustion,"
prepared for ERDA and EPA by Argonne National
Laboratory, Report No. EPA-600/7-76-019
(October 1976) (NTIS No. ANL/ES-CEN-1016)
71
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ESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMS FOR POLLUTION
CONTROL FROM OIL SHALE EXPLOITATION
Eugene F. Harris and Thomas J. Powers
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Cincinnati, Ohio
[INTRODUCTION
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
Is interested both in oil shale research and de-
velopment projects for which it provides funds and
in projects funded by other governmental and in-
dustrial sources. Many EPA projects themselves
involve interaction between EPA and other agencies,
and it is anticipated that future EPA projects will
also involve industry. Research provides data for
defining ecological and health effects and for de-
veloping cost-effective control technology that can
be used by government and industry to minimize the
degradation of the environment.
The five major projected areas of in situ oil
shale research and development are as shown in
Table 1.
TABLE 1. IN-SITU OIL SHALE RESEARCH
AND DEVELOPMENT
In-Situ Major
Proj ects
Antrim Shale
True In-Situ
Solution Mining
Vertical Modified
In-Situ
Vertical Modified
In-Situ
Involved
Performer
Dow
Talley-Frac
Equity
Occidental
Geokinetics
Location
Midland, MI
Rock Springs, WY
Rio Blanco
County, CO
Debeque, CO
Unitah County,
UT
The tempo of oil shale development has picked
up with Occidental Oil Shale, Inc.'s assumption of
the role of project operator for the federal tract
C-b lease. Occidental and its partner, Ashlafid
Oil, have released a development schedule which
involves construction resumption on the tract as
soon as the current lease suspension expires in
September 1977. The upsurge in activity is a re-
sult of Occidental's modified in situ production
technology that shows improved economics and re-
duced environmental problems when compared with
surface retorting. Due to the greatly reduced
capital requirements of the in situ project, no
governmental assistance in the form of loan
guarantees or price stabilization is required.
For the plant coming on-stream in 1983, oil pro-
duction rates are projected to be 57,000 BPD at
an estimated cost of $8 to $ll/barrel.
As a result of research and development by
government and industry, primarily during the past
three decades, a processing sequence of under-
ground room and pillar mining and surface retort-
ing has evolved for production of shale oil. The
surface retorting methods that have reached the
point of potential industrial scale-up in the U.S.
include: (a) the TOSCO II and Lurgi-Ruhrgas pro-
cesses that employ recycled hot solids for heat-
ing, (b) the Paraho Direct Mode process that has
an internal combustion zone within the retort,
and (c) the Union Retort B, Superior Oil, and
Paraho Indirect Mode processes that have external,
fuel-fired furnaces as heat sources.
The TOSCO II and Paraho Direct Mode processes
have attained production capacities in the range
500 to 1000 tons/day and could, therefore, be con-
sidered amenable to early scale-up to a 10,000-
ton/day commercial module. This is probably also
true for the Union Retort B, based upon the Re-
tort A design that operated successfully 20 years
ago at 1200 tons/day.
A Lurgi-Ruhrgas pilot plant (West Germany) with
16 to 25 tons/day as the nominal capacity has been
used to process Colorado shale, and a 4000-ton/day
demonstration unit has been designed. A Superior
Oil pilot plant (Cleveland, Ohio) nominally pro-
ducing 240 tons/day is currently being tested and a
24,000-ton/day commercial plant has been proposed.
A 1-ton/day hydrogasification unit producing pipe-
line quality gas from oil shale has also been con-
structed and operated for several years by the
Institute of Gas Technology (IGT) in Chicago.
All of the other oil shale projects develop-
ed to varying stages within the last few years
continue only at maintenance levels. Some of the
problems hindering development have been resolved,
and positive government action on financial
assistance, environmental problems, and energy
policy may be required. Within the federal govern-
ment, the creating of a new Department of Energy
and formulation of a national energy policy is
taking precedence over specific energy projects.
At this time, it is not known how much importance
the present Administration gives to the develop-
ment of an oil shale industry.
Table 2 lists some of the areas that have
been funded all or in part by EPA. Groundwater,
surface water, air emissions, and solid wastes
have all received environmental and health con-
sideration to varying degrees.
TABLE 2. EPA OIL SHALE RESEARCH AREAS
Air Studies
Emissions from gasoline derived from coal and
shale oil
Impact on ambient air quality
Measurement of particulates, S02, and NOX
Emission from conversion facilities
Pilot balloon observations
Smog chamber studies of atmospheric chemistry of
organic- and nitrogen-containing emissions
Inorganic compounds in particulates
(continued)
73
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TABLE 2 (continued)
Quality assurance program for air-monitoring
laboratories
Air quality monitoring
Meteorological data
Health effects of combustion products
Water Studies
Aquatic terrestrial ecosystem study on the White
River (with Bureau of Reclamation)
Surface water quality monitoring (with USGS)
Impact on western Colorado water resources
Water quality hydrology affected by oil shale
development
Toxic effects on the aquatic biota
Design groundwater monitoring system
Water quality monitoring (surface)
Groundwater monitoring
Solid Waste Studies
Vegetative stabilization of spent oil shales
Components of final aqueous effluents and solid
wastes
Productive uses of wastes from mining and
processing
Vegetative stabilization of spent Paraho oil shale
Assessments
Evaluation and development of an environmentally
acceptable shale oil industry
Environmental assessment and data acquisition
Program support for synfuels
Technology assessment of western energy resource
development
Overhead remote sensing
Water management alternatives
Monitoring quality assurance
PRESENT RESEARCH—ACCOMPLISHMENTS AND IMPACT
Interagency participation in and funding of
contract research and development is an indication
of the wide spectrum of interests government
agencies have in oil shale programs. As increas-
ing attention is given to energy development and
environmental control technology, EPA, in coopera-
tion with other agencies, will keep pace with ex-
panding programs in grant and contract research
applied to oil shale.
The Industrial Environmental Research Labora-
tory-Cincinnati supports coordinated, interagency
oil efforts by administering an R&D program cover-
ing environmental assessment and development of
extraction and process control technology. Reports
on recent activities are forthcoming which cover
preliminary assessment of impacts from oil shale
development, overview descriptions of each of
the eight leading processes under development, and
results of a sampling program conducted during
recent Paraho retorting operations. A major pro-
ject to develop spent shale disposal and revegeta-
tion technology is progressing with construction
of test facilities nearing completion. All these
activities are oriented toward defining and/or de-
veloping timely, effective environmental control
technology as needed for the industry's growth.
74
Much of the EPA monitoring research is done
at its Environmental Monitoring and Support Labora-
tories (EMSL) at Las Vegas, Nevada; Cincinnati,
Ohio; and Research Triangle Park, North Carolina,
Las Vegas activities include western regional air
monitoring, groundwater monitoring and techniques
development, and overhead monitoring. Cincinnati
EMSL stresses water techniques development and
quality assurance. Research Triangle Park is de-
veloping energy-related air monitoring quality
assurance support and air pollutant measurement
and instrumentation research.
EPA participates in interagency funding in
several programs. For example, a surface water
quality monitoring program in western Colorado has
been in progress since 1975 and is being done by
the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) with EPA pass-
through money. Another USGS project includes
EPA's Las Vegas Environmental Research Center
work on nonpoint-source water pollution monitor-
ing approaches and techniques. The objective is
to develop and assess ground and aerial monitoring
of extractive mining nonpoint-source pollution.
Other examples of cooperative programs include
the Energy Research and Development Administra-
tion's (ERDA) development of aqueous effluent in-
strumentation and methods for energy-related
sources, National Aeronautics and Space Adminis-
tration's (NASA) technical support for western
energy-related environmental assessment/overhead
monitoring method development, and National
Bureau of Standards' (NBS) water pollutant
analyses instrumentation.
EPA is studying the fate in fresh waters,
groundwaters, and air of specific pollutants re-
sulting from oil shale development. The Athens
Laboratory is studying the fate of specific pol-
lutants in fresh waters. The R. S. Kerr Environ-
mental Research Laboratory (ERL) is identifying
the transport and fate of oil shale-related pol-
lutants in groundwaters. EPA Region VIII is pro-
viding for the maintenance of an air quality
monitoring network to continue to define long
(5-year) baseline data information.
Health effects of oil shale development are
being investigated by the U.S. Navy, National
Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
(NIOSH), ERDA, and EPA. The Research Triangle
Park Health Effects Research Laboratory of EPA is
assessing human exposure-effects relationships
and evaluating hazards to man under controlled ex-
perimental conditions.
The NIOSH studies address the occupational
health of oil shale workers, and the Navy research
concentrates on health effects associated with the
burning of fuel oil derived from shale. The work
being done by ERDA and EPA is in the general
fields of toxicity and carcinogenicity.
By far the most widespread environmental re-
search efforts are in the field of ecological
effects. Agencies involved in this field include
ERDA, the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA),
the U.S. Bureau of Mines, USGS, the U.S. Navy, and
EPA. Emphasis has been placed on revegetation,
-------
•later, and, to a lesser extent, on land use.
Atmospheric research has been conducted in the
general fields of measurement and monitoring.
j Current activity by the EPA Duluth Laboratory
-.includes oil shale-related fresh water ecosystem
;,affects. The acute and chronic toxicological
• effects on fresh water organisms and ecosystem
impacts of pollutants and complex effluents re-
leased by oil shale processes will be determined.
Region VIII of EPA will develop a comprehensive
..information profile for major fresh water aquatic
^environments that could be affected by oil shale
development. This will be accomplished through
a number of biological studies.
Among the other agencies funding research in
"biological transport phenomena are ERDA and the
'U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. ERDA areas of
interest include repair of damaged cells, cell
"regulatory systems, molecular damage of DNA, and
proteins. The Fish and Wildlife Service is in-
"vestigating the impact of western energy develop-
ment of water sources and subsequent effects on
"fish and wildlife.
EPA is also interested in work being done
by the American Petroleum Institute. Research
in both biological and medical science related
to shale oil processes is in progress.
Interagency participation is exemplified by
the cooperation between EPA and USDA in assessing
impacts of mining and controlling adverse effects
on forest, range, and related fresh water ecosys-
tems.
PLANNED RESEARCH
Extraction process gaseous emissions, waste-
water effluents, and spent-shale wastes will be
identified and characterized. The availability
of technologies to effectively control pollution
from resource extraction will be assessed. Oil
shale in situ and surface processing and com-
bustion will be evaluated through continuation
of environmental characterization of emissions,
effluents, and solid wastes. The multimedia
pollution from oil shale mining, processing, and
combustion will be studied to assess control pro-
cesses available and under development. The
identification of environmental impacts of oil
shale development will augment development by
ERDA, the Navy, the Department of the Interior,
and industry. Various related studies—such as
characterization, monitoring, pollutant trans-
port, health effects, and ecological effects—
will be conducted.
EXPECTED OUTPUTS
The environmental research and development
results for the near term are expected to be
characterization, control technology, and measure-
ment and monitoring protocols for oil shale de-
velopment. In situ processing, extraction,
surface retorting, refining, and combustion are
included in current oil shale research activities.
The Navy, ERDA, and industry are conducting the
major process developments, and it is anticipated
that major environmental activities will be
associated with process development. Medium
term environmental research between 1980 and 1985
is expected to include continued emphasis on con-
trol technology, transport processes, health
effects, and ecological effects. Long-range re-
search and development beyond 1985 will be re-
quired for updating health and ecological effects
and control technology requirements.
CONCLUSIONS
EPA has an active role in many areas of oil
shale research and development. Project funding
responsibilities are shared with other agencies,
a few of which are highlighted here. Oil shale
research and developments by others are of
interest to EPA so that duplication can be avoided
and active project results can be applied to en-
vironmental assessment and control technology
development. The interagency approach to the
development of the oil shale resource allows a
multi-faceted approach and assessment, providing
for less expenditure by the Nation.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Geological Survey, United States Department of
the Interior, Survey of Geologic Research on Green
Oil Shale, Open-File Report 77-176, Denver Federal
Center, Denver, Colorado, 1977.
Office of Energy, Minerals, and Industry, Office
of Research and Development, U.S. EPA, Fiscal Year
1976/Control Technology Research Program Abstracts,
EPA-600/7-77-003, January 1977.
Office of Energy, Minerals, and Industry, Office
of Research and Development, U.S. EPA, Fiscal Year
1976/Health and Environmental Effects Research
Program Abstracts, EPA-600/7-77-004, January 1977.
Prien, C. H., "Current Developments in Oil Shale
Processing," Topical Meeting on Energy and Mineral
Recovery Research, American Nuclear Society,
Colorado School of Mines, Golden, Colorado,
April 12-14, 1977.
TRW Environmental Engineering Division and
Denver Research Institute, A Preliminary Assess-
ment of Environmental Impacts from Oil Shale De-
velopments, EPA Contract No. 68-02-1881,
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory,
Cincinnati, Ohio, 1976.
TRW Environmental Engineering Division and Denver
Research Institute, Technological Overview Reports
for Eight Oil Shale Recovery Processes, EPA Con-
tract No. 68-02-1881, Industrial Environmental
Research Laboratory, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1976.
75
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ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS OF SYNTHETIC FUELS
William J. Rhodes
Office of Research and Development
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
INTRODUCTION
With a new and vigorous energy policy, it is
apparent that our nation's vast coal reserves
will not be neglected. Synthetic fuels represent
one option offering solutions to problems associ-
ated with coal utilization. However, while
promising an environmentally clean fuel, solu-
tions in transportation, and improved economics
(especially in allowing use of present oil/gas-
based energy conversion systems), synthetic fuel
production creates new environmental problems.
Since energy is desirable only as it maintains
and improves the quality of life, consequential
deleterious environmental effects must be less-
ened, removed, or avoided.
Within the Federal government, the Environ-
mental Protection Agency has the primary respon-
sibility to assess the environmental factors of
energy technologies and to develop and/or aid the
development of controls to protect the environ-
ment from adverse effects. Development of energy
systems without early consideration of the en-
vironmental factors may result in last-minute
and, therefore, costly and inefficient add-on
controls. A more rational approach is to begin
with a lower level of environmental concern
during initial bench-scale process development
and continually increase environmental awareness
until a comprehensive program is realized during
pilot and larger operations.
HOW THE SYNTHETIC FUELS ENVIRONMENTAL
PROGRAM WAS DEVELOPED
The environmental factors in the production
and utilization of synthetic fuels from coal are
an important responsibility of the Fuel Process
Branch of EPA's Industrial Environmental Research
Laboratory (IERL-RTP). This branch (including
its predecessor names) has had a significant
role in evaluating the environmental aspects of
synthetic fuels for more than a decade. Earlier
programs were concerned primarily with historical
surveys, pollution control problem definitions,
isolated research studies, and pioneering efforts.
EPA has attempted to project the future course of
the industry and plan environmental programs on a
technical evaluation basis. This has been accom-
plished in earlier contractual arrangements that:
(1) sponsored the most progressive synthetic
fuels environmental research in this country in
an attempt to add direction toward environmental
integrity in these efforts, and (2) utilized the
available data base to characterize aspects of
the synthetic fuels industry that had to be
studied regardless of the direction the industry
might take. An example is the characterization of
the primary feedstock, coal.
One objective was to do as broad a survey as
possible of all avenues of application, looking at
proposed research and ongoing projects to ensure
that: (1) all predictable environmental impacts
had been considered and (2) most areas of environ-
mental importance common to a number of processes
were grouped together to insure greater efficiency
in the environmental approach.
Following problem definitions, the next step
involved structuring a coherent, comprehensive,
and goal-oriented program. EPA's present synthetic
fuels program currently comprises a much more
comprehensive approach addressing the broad scope
of environmental assessment and control technology
development for high- and low-Btu gasification and
liquefaction. Associated, longer-term contractual
arrangements emphasize data acquisition and are
supported by research grants to do fundamental
studies.
Synthetic fuels research is being coordinated
within the Fuel Process Branch with closely re-
lated programs in both physical and chemical coal
cleaning. Studies of fuel contaminants also
provide close parallels; for example, the deni-
trogenation and desulfurization of petroleum
products. At the next level, within the Energy
Assessment and Control Division, there is co-
ordination with conventional coal combustion and
more advanced systems such as fluidized bed com-
bustion.
With some modifications to internal struc-
ture, and increased emphasis on data accumulation,
the major thrust of the EPA Synfuels program still
follows a formulation derived well before this
fiscal year.l Environmental assessment activities
still include high-Btu gasification, low-Btu
gasification, liquefaction, and general support
with continuing characterization of input mate-
rial. In control technology development, the
major contract areas are divided to cut across
process technology lines; thus, each prime con-
tractor is responsible for low- and high-Btu
gasification and liquefaction for his respective
work area. The major work areas divide a given
technology roughly along the following lines:
converter output streams, products and byproducts,
and pretreatment and waste. These categorizations
should also improve parallelism with the direc-
tions being taken by others (such as the Energy
Research and Development Administration) doing
primary energy research.
Table 1 sketches the EPA programs and con-
tractors committed to date. These contracts will
be carried to a state of completion to include:
(1) plans for full-scale industry data acquisi-
tion, (2) background data for the establishment of
Federal standards, (3) investigation of existing
and proposed control technology including equip-
ment operation, and (4) evaluation of the impact
77
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of both data and recommendations on the industry's
establishment. The program attacks environmental
problems at every level: laboratory, pilot testing,
and full-scale field testing.
TABLE 1. IERL-RTP SYNTHETIC FUELS
ENVIRONMENTAL PROGRAM
Environmental Contract Area
Prime Contracts
Environmental Assessment
High-Btu Gasification
Environmental Assessment
Low-Btu Gasification
Environmental Assessment
Liquefaction
Control Technology Develop-
ment—Converter Outputs
Control Technology Develop-
ment—Products/Byproducts
Control Technology Develop-
ment—Pretreatment,
Water, and Wastes
General Support
Research Grants
Pollutants from Synthetic
Fuels Production
Raw and Acid Gas Cleanup
Water Treatment for
Synfuels Processes
International Agreements
Environmental and Engineering
Evaluation of the Kosovo
Coal Gasification Plant
Parallel Support Research
Fuel Contaminants Removal
Characterization of Coal
and Coal Residue
Technical/Economic Study of
Gas Cleanup Systems for
Combined Cycles
Wastewater Control
Alternatives
Organization
TRW Systems
Radian Corpo-
ration
Hittman Asso-
ciates, Inc.
Hydrocarbon
Research,
Incorporated
Catalytic,
Incorporated
Pullman-
Kellogg
Cameron
Engineers
Research Tri-
angle Insti-
tute
North Carolina
State Univer-
sity
University of
North Carolina
Rudarski Insti-
tute, Belgrade
& REMHK Kosovc
Yugoslavia
Battelle
Columbus Lab-
oratories
Illinois State
Geological
Survey
United Tech-
nologies Re-
search Center
Water Purifica-
tion Associates
COOPERATIVE EFFORTS PROMISE COMPREHENSIVE
ENVIRONMENTAL RESULTS
An important step in coordinating the knowl-
edge and expertise of those associated nationwide,
and globally, with the problems of synthetic fuels
is the initiation of interagency agreements. Jhis
type of cooperation, for example, with the ERDA
and the National Institute of Occupational Safety
and Health (NIOSH), allows a more complementary
mesh of environmental and energy concerns. Multi-
agency data acquisition and analysis will greatly
enhance optimization: selection of the best con-
trols at the lowest cost and with the greatest
expediency to meet our energy and environmental
requirements. EPA's cooperation with those in the
forefront of developing technology offers the best
chance for the industry to emerge with minimal
necessary constraints.
Mutual participation has already begun under
an Interagency Energy Accomplishment Plan.2
Control problem definition studies for in situ
gasification were successfully initiated jointly
by IERL-RTP and ERDA and have since been trans-
ferred to EPA-IERL-Cincinnati. An environmental
and technology status report for this effort has
been published.-^ IERL-RTP also participates in an
ongoing study for water treatment at demonstration
plants and in the environmental test programs and
plans at such facilities as the ERDA Morgantown
and Grand Forks research centers. The lique-
faction demonstration plant at Fort Lewis has been
visited, and environmental test plan recommenda-
tions by EPA are near completion. Agreements are
also evolving for EPA involvement at industrial
sites, especially those with ERDA program involve-
ment, where full-scale coal conversion is either
in operation or soon to be operational.
EPA has assisted by reviewing documents
written for or by other agencies—e.g., the Coal-
con draft environmental analysis report for that
demonstration plant and the NIOSH draft guidelines
for coal gasification pilot plants.5
Another agreement has been signed for work in
Yugoslavia on a Lurgi coal gasification plant.
Several meetings have been held with the Yugosla-
vian participants to discuss the EPA data acquisi-
tion program. The latest meeting was in April and
several other agencies and private organizations
attended the discussions (e.g., ERDA, the Insti-
tute of Gas Technology, Radian, U.S. Bureau of
Mines, Peabody Coal Co., Catalytic, and Hydro-
carbon Research, Inc.).
EARLY EPA RESEARCH ACCOMPLISHMENTS FOCUS
ON PROBLEMS AND SOLUTION POTENTIALS
The involvement of the present EPA staff with
coal conversion and utilization programs can be
traced back at least to publication of a study in
1965 on the feasibility of coal desulfurization
under the old Division of Air Pollution.6 Some
interim studies are interesting in their multi-
formity, such as: (1) an extensive 1970 report on
the technological and economic advantages of
advanced power cycles,7 especially for nonpollut-
ing fuel production (combined cycle work is being
continued in conjunction with an overall impact
study for fuel gases from advanced gasification
systems), and (2) a series of experimental under-
takings completed in 1973 investigating the re-
action mechanisms of coal pyrolysis through the
78
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of nonisothermal reaction kinetics. (A
,,!:inal report in 1973 was produced on the gasifi-
^'iation of fossil fuels under oxidative, reductive,
^ind pyrolytic conditions.)
•; Early emphasis was also placed on coal charac-
terization, since there was a good foundation of
Soth expertise and data in this area and because
feedstock analysis is absolutely necessary for the
"evaluation of environmental impact. With EPA
iunding, such agencies as the U.S. Bureau of Mines
^nd the Illinois State Geological Survey produced
a very comprehensive description of U.S. coals,
particularly with respect to the sulfur content,
>washability characteristics, trace element makeup,
'and availability.
Also, a significant number of reports have
;been concerned with the projections of types and
^quantities of potential pollutants which could be
associated with coal conversion. Results have
:included tabulations, prioritizations, and chemi-
:cal/physical/toxicity characterizations of various
:elements and compounds. Reports on potential
emissions from coal and oil extraction processing,
on trace constituents from gasification processes,
and the continuing multimedia environmental goals
evaluations are good examples.
Attempts have also been made to characterize
the scope and complexity of the industry itself;
e.g., a series of reports on eleven gasification
and liquefaction processes, the potential pollut-
ant problems associated with each primary module
and effluent stream, and a summary report compar-
ing all conclusions. Additional familiarization
with environmental problems of synthetic fuels
plants was gained though a series of field trips
to overseas industrial sites including the South
African SASOL plant, the Scottish Westfield Re-
search Center, and the Koppers-Totzek and Winkler
gasification processes in Turkey.
One highly productive mechanism for a variety
of projects has been the award of tasks under
multioptional contracts. Some typical tasks
obtained in this manner include: (1) a state-of-
the-art review of fuel contaminants concerned
primarily with factors of environmental impor-
tance; (2) environmental test units designed for
studying gasification and liquefaction problems;
(3) discussion of a SASOL-type process for gaso-
line, methanol, SNG, and low-Btu gas from coal;
and (4) a compilation of Federal regulations,
both source and ambient, for all media, and rela-
tion of regulations to the coal conversion in-
dustry.
The IERL-RTP has sponsored,for the past few
years,symposia on the Environmental Aspects of
Synthetic Fuels Technology. The proceedings of
these symposia have been published and contain
discussions of the state-of-the-art propositions
for solutions to synfuels environmental problems.
EPA coal conversion program personnel and con-
tractors have also sponsored and closely partici-
pated in the Advanced Fossil Fuel Sector group
meetings which include participation by a number
of Federal agencies.
ACHIEVEMENT OF PROGRAM GOALS
BEGINS WITH NEW ACCOMPLISHMENTS
The most obvious accomplishment of EPA's
coal conversion efforts is the increased environ-
mental awareness of both process developers and
the public of the potential problems and initia-
tion of efforts to mitigate future problems. To
extend the accomplishments discussed above to
specific situations and more direct utilization,
an overall program plan has been established,
contracts awarded, and work initiated which will
fill out the research data base and assessments
for environmental control.
A summary of performance to date begins with
actions taken by the primary environmental assess-
ment and control technology development con-
tractors.
Environmental assessment of low-Btu gasifi-
cation has begun with (1) a work plan and tech-
nology overview, (2) preparation for data acquisi-
tion at coal conversion plants including Kosovo,
Yugoslavia, (3) a review on the use of computer
process simulation to predict performance of acid
gas removal and its associated environmental
problems, and (4) the design of a sampling train
for use at proposed test sites.
Low-Btu gasification sites in the United
States have been located and their operators
contacted. A series of tests is to be run during
1977 at four sites, both Federal and private. At
one of the sites, operations will be coordinated
with an ERDA-funded program. General and spec-
ific test manuals are being prepared. To assess
analytical techniques, grab samples of ash,
particulates, gases, liquors, and tar from
several U.S. plants have been analyzed in the
laboratory. In addition, a technical information
system for project support has been established
with over 9,500 citations.
The coal liquefaction environmental assess-
ment progress includes preparation of an overview
document, pilot plant site visits including the
Solvent Refined Coal pilot plant at Fort Lewis,
combustion testing of both coal and solvent-
refined coal (in Plant Mitchell, Georgia), and
ASTM petroleum tests and gas chromatographic
studies on synthetically produced liquid fuel
sampl.es for potential gas turbine fuels evalua-
tions by the National Aeronautics and Space
Administration.
Control technology development for fuel con-
version/utilization systems has progressed through
the normal stages of work plan and establishment
of a technical literature file to enumeration of
some process steps of specific concern. Such
process steps are: (1) methanation, (2) product
gas compression, (3) gas liquor separation, (4)
phenol extraction, (5) gas liquor stripping, (6)
sulfur recovery, and (7) storage of byproducts.
Two cases were studied using low-sulfur Western
coal as feed to gasification: (1) Rectisol I for
acid gas treatment plus Stretford units for sulfur
recovery, and (2) Rectisol II plus Stretford/Claus
79
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and tail gas treatment for sulfur recovery.
Currently underway is the development of a sam-
pling and analysis program suitable for obtaining
IERL-RTP Level I assessment data for control
technology evaluations. A Stretford process data
report will be utilized to illustrate the factors
connected with preparing such a program.
The contract for converter output control
technology development has been recently awarded.
As the developer of a patented coal conversion
process, this contractor has the background and
experience to follow pathways for major as well as
minor contaminants flowing through coal conversion
systems. Projected contributions include a study
of the deactivation effect of trace compounds in
coal-derived gases in a shift converter and par-
ticipation in the establishment of an acid gas
removal facility for pollutant studies under grant
funding.
An award has been made for pretreatment and
waste control technology development just prior
to the submission of this paper, and the award
for high-Btu gasification environmental assess-
ment has also just been made.
Three institutions have been awarded major
research grants. Research under the first award
is aimed toward study of potential pollutant pro-
duction from experimental synthetic fuels oper-
ations. Research will include screening of a
large number of chemical species, determination of
the effects of coal conversion reaction parameters
on production of these species, and cataloging of
kinetic data pertinent to the rates of formation
of the significant pollutants. Construction of
the reactor facility is almost complete, and
preliminary system checkout has begun.
The second grant is for test and evaluation
of a gas cleaning facility for gases from a bench
reactor. Building modifications to the existing
plant have been made, the overall system design is
finalized, all major analytical equipment is on
order, and fabrication is underway.
Thirdly, work under an IERL-RTP 5-year grant
has been initiated (1) to assess biological and
chemical treatment of wastewaters from fuel
conversion, (2) to determine environmental impact
and health effects of treated waters, and (3) to
conduct bench-scale studies for developing water
treatment design criteria. Studies are being
initiated on selected "model" organic compounds
and will then move to tests of composite waste
streams.
General support to date has covered the
preparation of the status report of Fuel Process
Branch programs, preliminary compilation of the
agenda for the September 1977 fuel conversion
symposium, recommendations on data storage and
retrieval requirements, and coordination and
participation in the preparation of a control
practice document for Lurgi coal gasification
plants.
The efforts described above, although greatly
expanded in magnitude from most previous programs
under EPA fuel conversion technology, still re-
flect previous results and continuity of approach.
More specific examples of this are present sup-
porting programs which are essentially direct
add-ons to the early accomplishments previously
described. The objective of one study is to
evaluate the technical, economic, and environ-
mental intrusion characteristics of the inte-
grated coal gasification/sulfur removal/combined
cycle power systems for different gasifier types.
Some of the work has been incorporated as a
subtopic in the US/USSR working group in station-
ary source pollution.
Continued characterization of mineral
matter in coal is being funded under a grant. A
number of whole coals and wash residues have been
analyzed to date. A complementary contract for
the characterization of coal and coal residue has
produced analyses of both whole and demineralized
coal samples. An investigation of the effects of
pyrolysis on the distribution of trace elements
and collection of data on the solubilities and
toxicities of potential pollutants contained in
solid coal waste has begun.
More peripheral studies continue in the area
of catalytic desulfurization, denitrogenation,
and demetalization of liquid fuels. A low cost
demetallization catalyst has been developed and
promoter metal levels have been optimized. Ex-
perimental investigations of quinoline as a model
nitrogen compound for denitrogenation under
industrial reaction conditions have been initiated
for applicability to synthetic liquids.
Research which preceded the ERDA interagency
agreement, as described above, is concerned with
water conservation and pollution control alterna-
tives in coal gasification and liquefaction proc-
esses. Complete but not fully detailed designs
of water treatment for conversion plants at con-
version sites in North Dakota, New Mexico, and
Wyoming have been made, and extended studies of
water requirements are planned for 50 western
plant site combinations.
Again, task orders under multioption contracts
are providing the opportunity for additional
support research; e.g., the continuation of the
Multimedia Environmental Goals (MEG's) work whose
initial efforts produced a recent draft report.
The MEG's are an example of the environmental
assessment methodologies being developed for fossil
fuel energy processes.
These methodologies are needed on a near term
basis to eliminate inefficiencies, inconsistencies,
and proliferation of techniques for evaluating and
comparing environmental effectiveness. Methodo-
logies specifically or generally associated with
synthetic fuels include (1) technology overview
report outline, (7) process assessment criteria,
(3) source unit operations, (4) control assay
development concerned with environmental data
acquisition, (5) compilation of regulations and
standards, (Jo) multimedia environmental goals, (?)
control approach category development, and (8)
80
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standards of practice manual outline for control
technology for synthetic fuels. An Environmental
Assessment Steering Committee is in operation to
direct and support some of the above methodology
tasks. Present levels of completion vary from
approximately 10 to 90 percent on various tasks.
The multimedia environmental goals development
represents the most ambitious effort to date among
these categories. Ambient control levels for
insuring no ill effects on the health of man or
hazards to the environment have been estimated for
more than 200 compounds and elements. The sug-
gested levels were derived from toxicity data,
workroom standards, and elementary models for
assimilation of substances by man, animals, and
plants. A final report should be issued within
the next month, and expansion to include an
additional 400 compounds has begun.
Development of methodologies in support of
synthetic fuels environmental control is closely
associated with the current sampling and analyti-
cal methodologies being promulgated by the IERL-
RTP under the designations Level I, Level II, and
Level III. These analytical schemes will be in-
corporated in the sampling and analytical test
plans for the coal conversion environmental con-
tractors. In fact, coal conversion and advanced
combustion will be included as important sample
cases for the approach itself. An important facet
of the approach is bioassay determination of
toxicity level effects. This too has been dis-
cussed among the participants in the EPA synfuels
program and will be incorporated into these sample
efforts. The possible mutagenic or other health
effects activities of some pollutants associated
with synthetic fuels make this approach appro-
priate. Certainly the bioassay technique is an
excellent tool for highlighting problem pollutants
and eliminating others from the arena of concern.
All accomplishments in the above areas are
being disseminated regularly through quarterly
and annual reports, regular and frequent meetings
of the primary contractors (where presentations
by supporting researchers are also given), and by
the encouragement of publications within the
Agency and also in the open literature. The
third symposium on the Environmental Aspects of
Fuel Conversion Technology will be held in
September of 1977.
The technical directive/level of effort type
contract has allowed real-time direction enabling
contractors to efficiently address the changing
research needs and gain an early familiarization
with the technology and procedures.
Future Plans Toward an Environmentally Sound
Industry
The first steps beyond the present program
will hopefully be the initiation of environmental
testing at such facilities as the ERDA demonstra-
tion plants under interagency agreements. The
expansion and solidification of EPA agreements
with those engaged in energy research and also,
very importantly, in toxicity and health effects
testing, should be the best insurance for
optimized environmental assessment and control
technology development. Certainly agreements with
the private sector, industrial organizations in-
volved in coal conversion, must be encouraged as
the industry develops. An example is the planned
Commonwealth Edison plant which includes Lurgi
gasification and combined cycle systems.
The EPA synthetic fuels program for environ-
mental research and development has laid the foun-
dations necessary to determine both the problems
to be addressed and the areas where data acquisi-
tion can be most profitable. IERL-RTP is now
moving into a phase which should include an order
of magnitude increase in real data produced and
in progress evidenced by major achievements and
program milestones. The obvious result of the
satisfactory continuation of this effort is the
generation of information needed for evaluation
and development of control technology and setting
of standards and regulations. The intention is
that complete background data for environmental
evaluations and impact statement preparations will
be ready when significant commercialized plants
are ready for construction planning. Realization
of this goal, the assurance of an environmentally
sound synthetic fuels industry, is an important
incentive to the development of this industry.
REFERENCES
1. W. J. Rhodes. Program for Environmental
Aspects of Synthetic Fuels. Presented at
National Conference on Health, Environ-
mental Effects, and Control Technology of
Energy Use, February 9-11, 1976, EPA
600/7-76-002 (NTIS No. PB 242291).
2. Interagency Agreement. Environmental Con-
trol Problem Definition Studies in Coal
Conversion Processes. EPA/ERDA No. E681.
3. N. P. Philips and C. A. Muela. In situ
Coal Gasification: Status of Technology
and Environmental Impact. EPA 600/7-77-
045, May 1977.
4. Coalcon Draft Environmental Analysis Re-
port for Clean Boiler Fuel Demonstration
Plant. ERDA. July and November 1976.
5. M. L. Cohen (manager). Preliminary Recom-
mended Guidelines for Coal Gasification
Pilot Plants. February 1977, NIOSH. Draft.
6. Paul Weir Co., Inc. An Economic Feasibil-
ity Study of Coal Desulfurization, Vols.
I & II. October 1965, EPA reports No. APTD
1245 (NTIS Nos. PB 176845 and 176846).
7. F. L. Robson et al. Technological and
Economic Feasibility of Advanced Power
Cycles and Methods of Producing Non-
polluting Fuels for Utility Power Sta-
tions (Final Report). United Aircraft
Research Laboratories, December 1970,
EPA report No. APTD 0661 (NTIS No.
PB 198392).
8. A. L. Yergey, F. W. Lampe, M. L. Vestal,
E. J. Gilbert, G. J. Fergusson. Gasifi-
cation of Fossil Fuels under Oxidative,
Reductive and Pyrolytic Conditions.
Scientific Research Instruments, December
1973, EPA-650/2-73-042 (NTIS No. PB 228-668).
81
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POLLUTION ABATEMENT FOR WASTES-AS-FUEL PROCESSES
Robert A. Olexsey and George L. Huffman
Industrial Environmental Protection Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Cincinnati, Ohio
INTRODUCTION
Under several legislative mandates, EPA is
charged with developing processes to recover
energy and materials from solid waste. EPA is
also responsible for research into the characteri-
zation and control of the discharge of materials
into the environment from conversion-to-energy
processes.
Thermal processes for recovering energy from
solid wastes are of three generic types mass
burning, co-firing, and pyrolysis. Mass burners,
or waterwall incinerators, produce steam through
the direct combustion of solid waste. Mass burn-
ers have operated with varying degrees of success
at such locations as Chicago, Saugus, Mass., and
Nashville.
Co-firing produces steam and/or electricity
through the combustion of processed solid waste
and some fossil fuel, such as coal or fuel oil,
in a fossil-fuel-fired boiler. Successful co-
firing plants have operated at St. Louis, Ames,
Iowa, and Columbus. Plants are planned or starting
up in Chicago, Milwaukee, and several other cities.
Pyrolysis plants utilize some degree of des-
tructive distillation to convert the waste materi-
al into a gaseous, liquid, or solid fuel product.
Large-scale pyrolysis plants are in existence at
San Diego, Baltimore, and S,outh Charleston, West
Virginia. Several other waste pyrolysis processes
are being operated at generally lesser scales.
A mass and energy balance around any waste
conversion operation will show that the input
material is converted into end products such as
fuel or ash, and into smaller quantities of by-
product materials, or pollutants. These pollutants
are rejected from the conversion operations and
may be in the form of gaseous, liquid, or solid
discharges to the environment. If these dischar-
ges are harmful to the environment they should be
minimized and controlled.
AIR POLLUTANTS FROM EXISTING PLANTS
Due to the relative infancy of U. S. waste-
to-energy technology, operating experience is not
extensive. While a comprehensive EPA-sponsored
characterization of pollutants from waste-to-
energy processes is just getting underway (Ref.l),
some air emissions data are available from opera-
ting plants.
Table 1 is a compilation of flue gas consti-
tuents from the 720 TPD (ton per day) Nashville
steam-generating waterwall incinerator (Refs. 2
& 3). Data on gaseous emissions were obtained
from a series of six test runs while the particu-
late data was collected over three runs. Particu-
late data has been corrected to 12% C02 dilution.
The inlet and outlet particulate data represent
measurements into and out of the electrostatic pre-
cipitator, which is the primary air pollution con-
trol device employed at Nashville. The only cur-
rent Federal standard for refuse incinerators is
the particulate standard of 0.08 grains/dscf
(0.18 grams/m3).
TABLE 1.
ITEM
AIR EMISSIONS FROM NASHVILLE
INCINERATORS (REFS. 2 & 3)
UNITS
MIN.
MAX.
AVG.
Inlet
Particulates
Outlet
Particulates
NOX
S02
CO
Chloride
grains/dscf
grains/dscf
ppm
ppm
ppm
ppm
0.941
0.018
107
22
100
63
1.677
0.028
177
51
179
177
1.200
0.024
146
38
153
110
Table 2 is a comparison of emissions from the
combustion of high-sulfur coal alone and coal co-
fired with refuse at the Columbus, Ohio, Municipal
Light Plant (Ref. 4). The boiler is a 21 Mw
stoker grate boiler. The refuse feed is a coarse
shredded (4X4 in.) material. The tabulated re-
fuse feed rates are 36 wt. % (20% fuel value) and
50 wt. % (28% fuel value). The Columbus plant has
only a mechanical particulate control device.
Only outlet concentrations of pollutants from this
relatively inefficient device are recorded. Note
that while some pollutants increase with refuse
addition, SO- emissions decrease dramatically with
increased refuse additions.
TABLE 2.
ITEM
AIR EMISSIONS FROM COLUMBUS
COFIRING PLANT (REF. 4)
UNITS
COAL + 20% COAL + 28%
COAL ALONE REFUSE REFUSE
Parti-
culates
NOX
S02
CO
CH4
HC1
grains/ , ,
dscf 1.2CT
ppm 210
ppm 2340
percent 0.1
ppm N.D.
ppm 14
0.45
127
1190
0.022
2
36
N.D.(b)
180
400
0. 20
19(c)
N.D. ^ '
N.D. = Not determined
(a) Cyclone separators
defective
(b) 0.52 for 23% refuse
(c) 45 for 23% refuse
Table 3 is a comparison of air emissions for
coal plus refuse vs. coal alone firing at the St.
Louis Union Electric Meramec Plant (Ref. 5). The
83
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boiler is a 125 Mw pulverized coal tangentially-
fired unit. The refuse firing rate for coal plus
refuse derived duel (RDF) co-firing ranged from 5
to 20 percent by fuel value. As can be seen from
the data in Table 3, the trend most evident is that
there is no trend. In fact, scatter was prevalent
in most all aspects of data acquisition at St.
Louis. In general, emissions were independent of
either refuse firing rate or even boiler steam
load. The exception was chloride emissions, which
appeared to increase about 30% for coal'+ RDF in
comparison to concentrations noted for coal alone.
The St. Louis plant has an electrostatic precipita-
tor. However, testing showed that compliance with
the New Source Performance Standards for particu-
late emissions (0.1 lb/106 Btu) would not be
achieved above 100 Mw regardless of the fuel mix.
Nonetheless, particulate emissions did generally
increase when waste was being co-fired.
TABLE 3.
ITEM
RANGES OF AIR EMISSIONS FROM
ST. LOUIS POWER PLANT (REF. 5)
UNITS
COAL ALONE COAL + RDF
Particulates
(Outlet)
CO
NOX
SOX
lb/106
ppm
lb/106
lb/106
Btu
Btu
Btu
0.
0.
1.
06
10 -
,13 -
2 __
0.
,25
0
170
0.
4.
.66
,40
0
2
.02
45
.12
.0
- 0.
,50
- 220
- 0.
- 4.
.73
,2
Operating experience at pyrolysis plants is
far less extensive than it is at co-firing or water-
wall incineration plants. Full-scale systems are
often proprietary and are generally just now start-
ing up operation. Comparisons between pyrolysis
plants must be approached with caution since pyroly-
sis processes vary in concept from "pure" pyrolysis
with no air addition to starved-air combustion
operations. Table 4 is a listing of emission deter-
minations from the City of Baltimore pyrolysis plant
(Ref. 6). The pyrolysis plant is an 1000 TPD
direct-fired rotating kiln starved-air combustion
unit. Gas is produced in the kiln and combusted
in a boiler to produce steam. The data presented
in Table 4 are a compilation of emissions data be-
fore and after the scrubber located downstream of
the boiler.
TABLE 4.
ITEM
RANGES OF AIR EMISSIONS FROM THE
CITY OF BALTIMORE PYROLYSIS PLANT (REF. 6)
UNITS
SCRUBBER
INLET
SCRUBBER
OUTLET
Particu-
lates grains/dscf
SOo ppm
NOX ppm
Cl~ ppm
0.206 0.269
120 - 171 7 - 15
0.3-18.9 1.4 10.8
445 1250 32 140
WATER POLLUTANTS FROM EXISTING PLANTS
There does not exist a large base of data on
waterborne pollutants discharged from waste-to-
energy plants. Wastewater effluents from mass burn-
ing plants can be in the fore of ash quenchwater
or, in some cases, scrubber water from particulate
control devices. Liquid discharges from waste co-
firing operations are limited to sluice waters
from ash rejection and to scrubber waters from
particulate removal or flue gas desulfurization
processes. Pyrolysis liquid effluents can result
from several sources: gas scrubbing, water and
oil separation, char and ash sluicing, and dis-
charge of intermediate process liquids.
While no data are available on the quality of
the liquid effluent from the Saugus, Massachusetts
mass burner, the average wastewater discharge
from that plant is estimated to be 12 gallons per
minute (Ref. 7). This is not a large flow rate
but treatment of this effluent may nonetheless be
necessary.
Sampling of sluicewater effluents from the
St. Louis co-firing plant yielded no significant
differences in potentially hazardous pollutants
(such as cadmium, chromium, or mercury) between
coal-only and co-firing operations. However,
total dissolved solids (TDS), biochemical oxygen
demand (BOD), and chemical oxygen demand (COD)
were higher for sluicewater from the coal + RDF
operation (Ref. 5).
Wastewater effluents from pyrolysis processes
may contain concentrated amounts of soluble or-
ganic and inorganic compounds. In addition, trace
elements contained in RDF may be entrained in
liquid discharges in higher concentrations than
in the waste material itself. Union Carbide,
which markets the Purox waste pyrolysis system,
recommends treatment of liquid discharges from
the Purox process with their Unox water treatment
system.
POTENTIAL POLLUTION PROBLEMS FROM WASTE-AS-FUEL
PROCESSES
The significant numbers to look at in evalua-
ting pollution aspects of waste-to-energy process-
ing are the differences in pollutant emissions
between waste-to-energy operations and (1) compe-
ting waste disposal methods and (2) production of
energy from competing fuels. Waste disposal
through energy conversion is, first and foremost,
a waste disposal operation; disposal via energy
recovery must dispose of the waste material in a
manner not detrimental to the environment.
The sanitary landfill remains the primary
mode of disposal of solid waste. Generally, given
adequate available land area, landfilling is the
most economical waste disposal method. In many
large metropolitan areas, such space is often not
available in close proximity to the sources of
waste generation. Primary sources of pollution in
landfill operations are liquid effluents in the
form of leachate and gaseous emissions from the de-
composition of organic materials. Secondary poll"'
tants are emitted from transport vehicles negotia-
ting haul distances to remote land disposal sites.
Most often, the decision to seek alternatives to
land disposal is a function of economic, political'
and social concerns.
84
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For waste-to-energy installations, the data
on pollutant emissions are sparse and inconclusive.
However, some trends are evident. In co-firing
operations, particulate emissions exhibit a slight
upward tendency (compared to conventional coal bur-
ning). However, the data also show that fossil
fuel-fired facilities have yet to completely solve
their own particulate problems.
Refuse is a low sulfur fuel. While some data,
notably the St. Louis data, do not indicate a
definite reduction in sulfur emissions, there is
substantial operating experience to support the
contention that refuse firing should result in de-
creased sulfur oxide emissions. Oxides of nitrogen
and carbon monoxide emissions are also not major
concerns from waste-to—energy facilities.
Pollution control problems from waste-to-
energy processes are not so much a function of
quantities of emissions as a function of the
characteristics of the pollutant emissions. Sever-
al potential areas of concern can be identified.
The fly ash from waterwall incinerators is
extremely fine in comparison with that emanating
from refractory wall incineration (Ref. 8). Stud-
ies from Harrisburg and Nashville indicate that
21 to 30 percent by weight of the fly ash emitted
from these waterwall plants is less than 1 micron
in diameter. For refractory-wall incinerators,
perhaps only 10% is less than 1 micron (Ref. 8).
Figure 1 illustrates observed deterioration
of electrostatic precipitator (ESP) performance
with increasing RDF and boiler load at the St.
Louis plant (Ref. 5). As can be seen from Figure
1, ESP efficiency undergoes a fairly substantial
reduction at higher boiler loadings when refuse
is being fired in the boiler.
100 r
99 -
98
97
96
95
94
93
92
91
90
89
88
87
—•*-..
• Coal—Only
« Coal + RDF
100 110
Boiler Load IMwl
Data from St. Louis also reveal an average
increase of 30 percent in chloride emissions when
refuse is burned over such emissions when coal
alone is fired (Ref. 5). Chloride, in the form of
HC1, can be corrosive to boiler components in ad-
dition to representing an environmental concern.
Table 5 is a comparison between coal and coal
+ RDF of some trace element pollutant concentra-
tions at St. Louis (Ref. 5). Potentially hazar-
dous trace elements are present in coal as well as
in solid waste. At present, no standards exist
for metallic trace element emissions and such pol-
lutants as possibly carcinogenic polycyclic organic
materials (POM's). However, as more becomes known
about the effects of emission of these trace ma-
terials, impetus for standard-setting and control
will become more pronounced.
TABLE 5.
CONCENTKATIONS OF SPECIFIC
POLLUTANTS AT ST. LOUIS (REF. 5)
AVERAGE
CONCENTRATION
IN COAL AND
RDF (ug/g)
AVERAGE CONCENTRATION
IN EMITTED FLY ASH
PARTICLES
(yg/g)
Element
Sb
As
Be
Cd
Cr
Pb
Hg
Coal
0.28
32
64
<0.3
RDF
<3
<1.2
13.8
283
466
4.0
Coal + <20%
Coal Only
1.46
162
10.3
29.6
624
583
<7.9
RDF
10.0
36.0
12.7
25
293
982
7.5
Figure 1. ESP efficiency as a function
of boiler load.
Pyrolysis results in the concentration of
trace organics and inorganics in the gaseous,
liquid or solid products. The forms of the trace
materials can be substantially different from the
forms of these materials produced under the oxi-
dizing conditions of combustion.
POLLUTION CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES AT EXISTING PLANTS
Pollution control equipment in use at exist-
ing plants vary in effectiveness. Several types
of air pollution control devices have been employ-
ed on waste combustion, co-firing, and pyrolysis
processes. There is very little operational ex-
perience relating to wastewater and residue pollu-
tion control. Air pollution control has, to this
point, received the most attention at waste-to-
fuel plants and particulate control has been the
subject of most interest.
Table 6 is a description of particulate
removal efficiencies for several generic types of
air pollution control devices. Most electrosta-
tic precipitators (ESP's) sold today are designed
for 98 to 99.5% collection efficiency (Ref. 9).
85
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TABLE 6. AIR POLLUTION CONTROL EQUIPMENT
COLLECTION EFFICIENCIES (REF. 9)
EQUIPMENT TYPE
Electrostatic Precipitators
Fabric Filters
Mechanical Collectors
Wet Scrubbers
TOTAL
EFFICIENCY RANGES
(Total Wt. Basis, %'s)
80 to 99.5+
95 to 99.9
50 to 95
75 to 99+
Early-generation European waterwall incinera-
tors employed mechanical collectors or low-energy
impingement wet scrubbers. Later-generation water-
walls use high-energy venturi scrubbers and elec-
trostatic precipitators to control particulate
emissions. The Nashville plant has utilized both
wet scrubbers and an electrostatic precipitator.
The Saugus steam-generating plant uses two electro-
static precipitators. Most new plants employ or
plan to use the more efficient ESP's.
The trend at fossil-fueled power plants has
likewise been toward more efficient particulate
collection devices. Older power plants operated
with mechanical collectors. Newer plants gener-
ally employ ESP's. In the future, high-energy
scrubbers may be installed for the purpose of com-
bined flue gas desulfurization and particulate
collection. The need for more efficient particu-
late collection, and also for effective gaseous
emission control, has resulted in experimental
development of hybrid systems and completely new
equipment such as "wet" ESP's.
Fuel-gas producing pyrolysis operations gen-
erally require some cleaning of the fuel gas at
the point of gas production. Gas produced from
the Purox system is scrubbed of particulates and
C02- Gas produced at the Baltimore pyrolysis
plant is combusted on-site and spent combustion
gases are subjected to wet scrubbing.
In summary, technology for control of air
pollutants from energy-producing plants is in a
state of flux. Fossil-fuel-fired power plants
face a formidable task in meeting New Source Per-
formance Standards for particulate and gaseous
emission control. The ability of waste-to-energy
operations to conform to environmental standards
will, to a large extent, depend on the improvement
of existing technologies and the development of
new techniques to control environmental discharges
from both fossil-fuel-fired plants and waste-to-
energy plants.
EPA's APPROACH TO POLLUTION ABATEMENT FOR WASTES-
AS-FUEL PROCESSES
EPA's approach to control of pollutants emana-
ting from wastes-to-energy processes consists of
parallel efforts in three areas:
1. Pollutant Identification and
Characterization
2. Air Pollution Control Technology
Development
3. Water Pollution Control Technology
Development
Each program consists of extramural research
activities administered and technically directed
by OEMI's Fuels Technology Branch (FTB) of IEKL-
Cincinnati. Specific programs are synopsized belo(
Pollutant Identification and Characterization
Pollutant characterization is an ongoing coni-
ponent of the FTB's Wastes-as-Fuel program. Assess-
ment of the environmental characteristics of waste-
to-energy processing is routinely included in re-
search and development projects supported by the
Branch. Such projects include experimental test-
ing of combustion, co-firing, and pyrolytic ap-
proaches with a variety of wastes under varying
conditions.
In addition, the FTB has recently initiated a
comprehensive contract effort with the Midwest
Research Institute (MRI) to assess the environmen-
tal impact of waste-to-energy processes (Ref. 1).
Under the terms of the contract, MRI will perform
on-site measurements of discharges to the air,
water, and land from operating waste-to-energy
plants. The contractor will assess the impacts of
these discharges on the environment and identify
specific pollutants requiring control.
As part of the assessment effort, MRI will
assess waste and pollutant sampling methods. The
sampling methods recommended by MRI will, quite
likely, serve as standardized sampling techniques
for all waste-to-energy plants.
MRI will perform pollutant characterization
for all of the generic types of waste-to-energy
processes: waterwall incineration, co-firing,
pyrolytic conversion and biological conversion.
Promising developing technologies will also be
evaluated.
In addition to on-site pollutant characteriza-
tion, MRI will also perform pollution control trade-
off studies. These studies will serve to establish
cost and process configurations which provide sys-
tems for maximum energy recovery with minimal en-
vironmental impact and cost.
While the MRI study will concentrate on dis-
charges of regulated criteria pollutants, poten-
tially hazardous trace pollutants will also be
monitored and assessed. In this manner, specific
problem areas, not currently impacted by regula-
tions, can be anticipated.
Air Pollution Control Technology Development
In early 1977, EPA entered into a contract
with PEDCO Environmental, to conduct research in
the area of air pollution control for waste-to-
energy processes (Ref. 10). The goal of this ef-
fort is to develop environmentally acceptable air
pollution control processes that can be used in
conjunction with waste-to-energy processes. The
method to be employed in the PEDCO study will be
a five-phased approach ranging from data collet'
tion to field-testing of pilot-scale air pollu-
tion control systems at operating waste-to-energy
plants.
86
-------
The first phase will consist of collection of
data on known and potential air pollutants from
waste-to-energy processes. Data input to this
phase will come from operating experience at exis-
ting plants and from the previously described MRI
environmental assessment study.
In the second phase, the contractor will
assess the ability of existing air pollution con-
trol technologies to control emissions from waste-
to-energy facilities. Operating experience and
the contractor's knowledge of air pollution and
its control will be brought to bear in this phase
of the effort.
Upon completion of the first two phases, the
contractor and EPA will be in a better position to
determine the need for development of air pollu-
tion control technologies specific to waste-as-
fuel processes. If a determination is made that
existing pollution control technologies are not
adequate, PEDCO will design pilot-scale air pollu-
tion control systems to be installed at operating
waste-to-energy plants. Of course, if it is
found that conventional air pollution control tech-
nologies are adequate, no further development will
be pursued.
Phases four and five will consist of construc-
tion and testing of the pilot-scale air pollution
control systems at operating plants. It is expec-
ted that several sites will be visited by the air
pollution control pilot plants.
Under the PEDCO contract, development will
simulate two situations:
1. Development of control systems to be
retrofitted into existing plants
2. Development of control systems to be
installed at new plants.
Water Pollution Control Technology Development
In an effort parallel to the air pollution
control study, EPA will soon award a contract to
develop water pollution control technologies for
waste-to-energy processes (Ref. 11). The approach
will consist of a similar five-phased study
culminating in pilot plant testing of water pollu-
tion control technologies developed through the
course of the contract endeavor.
CONCLUSION
Conversion of waste-to-energy is a developing
industry in the U. S. With each succeeding genera-
tion of waste-to-energy processes, more is learned
about the environmental impact of such processing.
This paper outlines what is known today about the
environmental benefits of waste-as-fuel systems
(e.g. the reduction in S02 emissions and the near
elimination of landfill gas and leachate problems)
and discusses some of pollution problems associated
with these technologies. It also describes EPA's
R&D program aimed at more fully characterizing
these pollution problems and their efforts at devel-
oping control technologies to solve them.
NOTES AND REFERENCES
1. EPA Contract No. 68-02-2166, "Environmental
Assessment of Waste-to-Energy Processes,"
Midwest Research Institute.
2. Bozeka, C. G., "Nashville Incinerator Perfor-
mance Tests," in Proceedings of the National
Waste Processing Conference, Boston, Massachu-
setts, May 23-26, 1976, pp. 215-227.
3. Ananth, K. P., Shannon, L. J. , and Schrag, M.P.,
"Environmental Assessment of Waste-to-Energy
Processes Source Assessment Document," Draft
Report for EPA Contract 68-02-2166, February 2,
1977.
4. Vaughan, D. A., Krause, H. H., Cover, P. W.,
Dickson, J. D., and Boyd, W. K., "Environmental
Effects of Utilizing Solid Waste as a Supple-
mentary Power Plant Fuel," Draft Second Year
Report for EPA Research Grant No. R804008,
June, 1976.
5. Gorman, P. G., Shannon, L. J., Schrag, M.P. ,
and Fiscus, D. E., "St. Louis Demonstration
Project Final Report: Power Plant Equipment
Facilities and Environmental Evaluations,"
Draft Final Report for EPA Contract 68-02-1871,
July, 1976.
6. TRW Environmental Engineering Division, "Source
Emission Tests Conducted at Solid Waste Pyroly-
sis Plant — Baltimore, Maryland," Draft Report
to EPA, February, 1977.
7. MacAdam, W. K., and Standrod, S. E., "Design
and Operational Considerations of a Plant Ex-
tracting Energy from Solid Waste for Industrial
Uses," presented at ASME Industrial Power Con-
ference, May 19-20, 1975.
8. Galeski, J. B., and Schrag, M. P., "Performance
of Emission Control Devices on Boilers Firing
Municipal Solid Waste and Oil," EPA Report
No. EPA-600/2-76-209, July, 1976.
9. Wilson, E. M., et al, "Engineering and Eco-
nomic Analysis of Waste-to-Energy Systems,"
Draft Final Report for EPA Contract No.
68-02-2101, January, 1977.
10. EPA Contract No. 68-03-2509, "Air Pollution
Control Technology Development for Waste-as-
Fuel Processes," PEDCO Environmental, Inc.
11, EPA Contract Solicitation No. RFP-CI-77-0096,
"Water Pollution Control Technology Develop-
ment for Waste-as-Fuel Processes," April, 1977.
87
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utility and
industrial power
CHAPTER
-------
CHAPTER CONTENTS
utility and industrial power
SUMMARY
Frank T. Princiotta, EPA
QUESTIONS & ANSWERS
TECHNICAL DISCUSSION
105
111
THE FEDERAL INTERAGENCY FLUE GAS
DESULFURI2ATION PROGRAM
Gerald G. McGlamery, TVA
Richard D. Stern, EPA
Michael A. Maxwell, EPA 113
FINE PARTICULATE EMISSIONS CONTROL FROM
STATIONARY SOURCES
James H. Abbott, EPA
Dale L. Harmon, EPA 123
STATIONARY SOURCE CONTROL TECHNOLOGY FOR NOx
Joshua S. Bowen, Jr., EPA
George Blair Martin, EPA
Richard D. Stern, EPA
J. David Mobley, EPA 129
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT OF EFFLUENTS AND SOLID WASTES
FROM STEAM ELECTRIC GENERATING PLANTS
Julian W. Jones, EPA
Theodore G. Brna, EPA
James L. Crowe, TVA
Hollis B. Flora, II, TVA
Shirley S. Ray, TVA 137
-------
UTILITY AND
INDUSTRIAL POWER
Frank T. Princiotta
Director, Energy Processes Division
Office of Energy, Minerals and Industry
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
INTRODUCTION
Figure 1.
Utility and industrial power
CLEAN AIR ACT AMENDMENTS
I welcome the opportunity to summarize the utility and industrial power portion
of the energy/environ mental program. Since this subject encompasses several important
control technologies and represents a major fraction of the total interagency program,
with annual funding at about $30 million, my talk will be somewhat long.
• FLUE GAS DESULFURIZAT10N (FGD)
- NON-REGENERABLE ITHBOWAWAY!
- REGENERABLE (SALEABLE PRODUCT!
• NITROGEN OXIDE CONTROL
- COMBUSTION MODIFICATION
• FLUE GAS CLEANING (FGC)
PARTICULATE CONTROL
WASTE AND WATER
- EFFLUENT SOLID WASTES CHARACTERIZATION/CONTROL
- COOLING TOWER TECHNOLOGY
- WASTE HEAT UTILIZATION
Let me begin by mentioning the subject areas covered {Figure 1) and the authors
of the specific papers who act as panelists.
Utility and Industrial Power encompasses, first, flue gas desulfurization technology,
both nonregenerable and regenerable processes. Our panelists in this area are Michael
Maxwell and Richard Stern of our Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory at
Research Triangle Park (IERL/RTP), North Carolina, and co-author Gerald McGlamery,
Chemical Development, Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA). Panelist George Blair
Martin (IERL/RTP) will discuss nitrogen oxide control. Dale Harmon (IERL/RTP) will
then discuss particulate control, and Julian Jones (IERL/RTP) and Dr. Hollis Flora
(TVA) will discuss the cleanup position of our waste and water program.
The Clean Air Act Amendments of 1970 are the major driving force for control
of air pollution from both new and existing combustion sources. The Act has a
statutory requirement to achieve acceptable ambient air quality for the so-called
criteria pollutants (Figure 2). Among these pollutants are sulfur dioxide and total
suspended particulates, which are essentially stationary source pollutants, and nitrogen
oxides, which are generated by both stationary and mobile sources in roughly equal
quantities. In addition, the Clean Air Act calls for the promulgation of New Source
Performance Standards (NSPS) for a variety of polluting industries, including coal-fired
steam generators. Presently, standards are on the books for control of sulfur dioxide,
total suspended particulates, and nitrogen oxides from coal-fired, oil-fired, and gas-fired
steam generators. The present NSPS for coal units, as well as for typical uncontrolled
emissions, are included in Figure 2. The present NSPS for coal-fired steam generators
calls for approximately 70-80 percent control of sulfur oxide, approximately 98
percent control of high particulates, and roughly a moderate 30 percent control of
nitrogen dioxide.
93
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Figure 2.
Clean Air Act—driving force
for flue gas cleaning
BEST-AVAILABLE
CONTROL TECHNOLOGY
• STATUTORY REQUIREMENT TO ACHIEVE ACCEPTABLE AMBIENT AIR QUALITY FOR:
S02
TSP
NOX
HYDROCARBONS
CARBON MONOXIDE
PHOTOCHEMICAL OXIDANTS
t
STATIONARY SOURCES
MOBILE SOURCES
• STATUTORY REQUIREMENT TO MEET NSPS FOR COAL-FIRED STEAM GENERATORS
STANDARD UNCONTROLLED
S02: 1.2 LB/106 BTU 5 LB/106 BTU
TSP: 0.1 LB/106 BTU 6-10 LB/106 BTU
N02: 0.7 LB/106 BTU 1 LB/106 BTU
I must point out that certain changes may occur, both in terms of the Clean Air
Act and some revised standards under the present Act, that could have important
impact on control technology requirements for fossil-fuel combustion units. Figure 3
lists three of these possible changes. First, the House and Senate have recently passed
legislation, which has gone to joint committee, calling for a best-available control
technology (BACT) approach for new coal-fired power plants, insofar as sulfur dioxide
and particulate pollution are concerned. Although the implementation details of BACT
have not been worked out and the final version of the Act has not yet passed both
Houses, the change would require BACT for all new sources on both low- and
high-sulfur coal applications, eliminating the low-sulfur control option to meet sulfur
oxide standards.
Figure 3.
Important ACT/STD possible changes
PRESIDENT'S ENERGY
MESSAGE
BACT FOR COAL-FIRED POWER PLANTS
IVIORE STRINGENT NSPS FOR COAL-FIRED POWER PLANTS:
SOX( NOX/ TSP
NSPS FOR INDUSTRIAL BOILERS (< 25 MWE): NOX TSP
A/
The second change might involve more stringent NSPS than the existing standards
for coal-fired power plants. Under consideration are revised standards which could lead
to more stringent control for sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and total suspended
particulates (TSP).
Third, for industrial boilers the Agency is considering NSPS of less than about 25
MWe (equivalent) for nitrogen oxide, TSP and possibly sulfur oxides.
The President's recent energy message highlights the need for effective control
technology for coal combustors. The message calls for expansion of the annual coal
production rate from the 700 million tons presently produced to over I billion tons by
I985. His policy also calls for massive conversion of existing utility and industrial
power facilities from oil and gas to coal, and for essentially no new oil or gas
industrial or utility boilers. Future options for these applications would generally be
coal, nuclear, or one of the emerging energy technologies. Although the conservation
aspects of the President's plan and the assumption of strict environmental control
94
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Figure 4.
.Summary of critical problems-
utility and industrial
conventional combustion
FLUE GAS DESULFURIZATION
minimize environmental degradation, total emissions of nitrogen oxides and sulfur
oxides are projected to rise above present levels by 1985. The President's energy
message also calls for accelerated research, development, and demonstration for the
so-called clean coal technologies: coal cleaning, flue gas desulfurization, particulate
control, fluidized-bed combustion, gasification, liquefaction, and coal mining. In fact,
we in the energy/environmental program are planning, with the Office of Management
and Budget an accelerated program for certain coal combustion control technologies.
We hope to get a relatively large funding spike in fiscal year 1978 to accelerate our
present development/demonstration efforts in the technology areas of flue gas
desulfurization, nitrogen oxide control, particulate control, coal cleaning, and coal
processing.
We have then the possibility of more stringent emission regulations because of
possible Clean Air Act revisions and the upgrading of present NSPS, superimposed on
an energy plan for increased burning of coal. Clearly, effective and low-cost control
technology for utility and industrial sources is needed in the near term.
Figure 4 summarizes the critical problems associated with utility and industrial
conventional combustion. This figure shows briefly the primary problems associated
with such combustion, whether or not there are existing standards, major near-term
control technologies available, the present status of these technologies, the secondary
residuals produced by these technologies, and finally, the control technology R&D
needed to resolve some of the remaining problems. The primary problems associated
with industrial conventional combustion include the primary air pollutants—sulfur
oxide, nitrogen oxide, particulates, and potentially hazardous materials—as well as some
of the waste and water effluents associated with the control technology and the power
plant itself.
DESCRIPTION OF
PROBLEM
PRIMARY
POLLUTANTS
soz
NOX
PARTICULATES
POTENTIALLY
HAZARDOUS
MATERIALS
STANDARD
PRESENTLY
ESTABLISHED
YES
AAQS
NSPS AND
AAQS
YES
MSPS AND
AAQS
NO
TYPE OF FGC
CONTROL
TECHNOLOGY
COAL CLEANING
FGD
COMBUSTION
MODIFICATION
FLUE GAS TREATMENT
ELECTROSTATIC
PRECIP1TATORS
BAG HOUSES
WET SCRUBBERS
NOVEL DEVICES
UNDEFINED
PRESENT STATUS
1ST GENERATION DEMO
PLANNED
1ST GENERATION IN
FULL SCALE DEMO
2ND GENERATION IN
BENCH AND/OR
PILOT SCALE
COMMERCIAL FOR SOME
NEW UNITS
PILOT SCALE AND
DEMO IN JAPAN
COMMERCIAL
1ST GENERATION DEMO
1ST GEN COMMERCIAL
2ND GEN. FULL SCALE
DEMO
BENCH OR PILOT SCALE
UNDEFINED
SECONDARY
RESIDUALS
HIGH-S REFUSE
SLUDGE,
PURGE STREAMS
POSSIBLY INCREASED
PARTIC. AND CO
VARIES WITH
PROCESS
FLY ASH
UNDEFINED
NEEDED CONTROL
TECHNOLOGY R&D
(INCLUDING ASSESSMENTS)
A) ELIMINATION OF SECONDARY
POLLUTANTS
B) DEMONSTRATE PRACTICABILITY
C) BROADEN APPLICABILITY
A) ELIMINATION OF SECONDARY
POLLUTANTS
B) IMPROVE RELIABILITY
C) BROADEN APPLICABILITY
D) IMPROVE ENERGY EFFICIENCY
A) BROADEN SOURCE
APPLICABILITY
EFFICIENCY
C) IMPROVE NOX CONTROL
EFFICIENCY
D) MINIMIZE IMPACT OF
RESIDUAL POLLUTION
Al IMPROVE COST
PARTICULATE CONTROL
C| DEVELOP NOVEL DEVICES
WITH IMPROVED CAPABILITY
PROBLEM REQUIRES
DEFINITION
With this background information, I will now discuss some of the highlights of
our ongoing reasearch, development, and demonstration program.
I, first, would like to discuss our flue gas desulfurization (FGD) program (Figure
5). The systems produce either throwaway (disposable) or saleable products. In the
throwaway FGD area, one of the most important single projects is the Shawnee
lime/limestone prototype program which we have conducted with the aim of improving
lime and limestone scrubbing processes. Such processes have been selected for many
utility applications; approximately 40,000 MWe or $3 billion worth of these systems
are presently in operation or on order at this time.
95
-------
Figure 5.
EPA-sponsored stack gas
desulfurization demonstration
systems
SCRUBBING PROCESSES
LIME SCRUBBING PROCESSES
DOUBLE ALKALI
SCRUBBING PROCESSES
EPA-SPONSORED PROCESS
(BY PRODUCT)
NON-REGENERABLE
LIMESTONE SLURRY SCRUBBING
(SLUDGE)
LIME SLURRY SCRUBBING
(SLUDGE)
DOUBLE ALKALI SCRUBBING
REGENERABLE
MAGNESIA SLURRY
SCRUBBING - REGENERATION
(98% SULFURIC ACID)
SODIUM SCRUBBING
REGENERATION (SULFUR)
AQUEOUS CARBONATE
PARTICIPATING
UTILITY
TVA
TVA
LOUISVILLE
G&E
BOSTON EDISON
PROCESS
DEVELOPER
BECHTEL AND
OTHERS
CHEMICO,
BECHTEL,
AND OTHERS
CEA/ADL
CHEMICO-BASIC
LOCATION
SHAWNEE
UNIT 10
PADUCAH. KY
SHAWNEE
UNIT 10
PADUCAH, KY
CANE RUN 6
MYSTIC
STATION 6
UNIT SIZE
AND TYPE
10 MW
COAL
10 MW
COAL
270 MW
150 MW
OIL
EXPECTED
START-UP
UNDER WAY
UNDER WAY
EARLY - 19)9
COMPLETED
BOSTON, MASS
NORTHERN INDIANA
PUBLIC SERVICE CO
NIAGARA MOHAWK
DAVY
POWERGAS
ALLIED CHEMICAL
ATOMICS
INTERNATIONAL
D. H. MITCHELL
STATION 11
GARY, IND
HUNTLEY
STATION
115 MW
COAL
100 M
COAL
LATE - 1975
EARLY - 1979
The Shawnee program has been a cooperative effort of the EPA, the TVA, and
the Bechtel Corporation. Two 10 MWe scrubbers have been operated since 1972, and a
0.1 MWe pilot scrubber has been operated in support of the two larger facilities since
about 1973. This program has demonstrated long-term reliable operation of both lime
and limestone processes. The particularly troublesome mist-eliminator plugging problem
has been solved by a combination of careful operating conditions and carefully selected
mist-eliminator washing configurations. During the course of our program, we
discovered the potential of unsaturated operation to avoid the gypsum scaling that had
plagued earlier commercial systems. This approach involves selecting operating
parameters so that scrubbing liquors never get saturated or super-saturated in calcium
sulfate, thereby avoiding potential scaling problems. Also, during the course of the
program, we learned how to achieve high-alkali utilizations. For example, limestone
utilizations of over 90 percent have been achieved. This leads to lower alkali
requirements and lower sludge production rates, both of which yield lower operating
costs. We have also achieved high sulfur oxide removal efficiencies. Typically,
efficiencies for both lime and limestone systems in excess of 95 percent can be
achieved without an excessive economic penalty. One of our most recent findings is
that minor process modification can allow for sludge oxidation to gypsum, producing a
material capable of 90 percent dewatering by filtration. Since last year, we have
developed a design/cost computer model which acts as a data base for all the
information the EPA, TVA, and Bechtel team knows about lime/limestone scrubbing
and allows a given utility or other FGD user to input application parameters and
output a conceptual design along with some good cost estimates.
The Louisville Gas and Electric (LG&E) Lime Study Program has generated useful
information since our last conference. The purpose of this program is to study
unsaturated operation (which had been occurring at Louisville at Paddy's Run No. 6
unit) and to look at some alternative sludge disposal techniques. Results to date
indicate that carbide lime, which is the normal Paddy's Run reactant, has an oxidation
inhibitor that lowers the oxidation rate, with subsequent lower saturation and scaling
potential. These tests are being continued in an attempt to understand and apply this
mechanism to other systems.
Also in the lime scrubbing area, the TVA has operated a high-velocity scrubber at
the Colbert Power Station. This 1 MWe-size scrubber has demonstrated reliable
operation using lime as the reactant. Mist eliminator problems which had been
troublesome in the past have been resolved. High-velocity scrubbing has the advantage
of a smaller scrubbing system with corresponding lower costs relative to existing
scrubber technology.
We have been working with the Air Force in operating and testing a lime
scrubber system on a 21 MWe coal-fired industrial boiler at the Rickenbacker Air Force
Base. This unit started up in March 1976, and although there were some boiler control
and fan problems, the efficiency and reliability of the scrubber have been good. Also,
the economics of such scrubbing systems on industrial boilers of this size does not
appear prohibitive.
As an alternative to lime and limestone nonregenerable FGD systems, our program
has been actively developing the double alkali scrubbing process. Although the double
alkali system has basically the same chemicals entering and leaving the process, it has
96
-------
;REGENERABLE PRODUCT
FGD SYSTEMS
BY-PRODUCT MARKETABILITY
STUDIES
several potential advantages over lime/limestone scrubbing processes, such as less energy
consumption, higher sulfur oxide removal efficiency, lower maintenance, and lower
capital and operating costs. The EPA program has actively developed double alkali
technology at the bench and pilot levels. We have worked with Southern Services at
the 20 MWe electric prototype system, and most recently we have worked with the
General Motors Company for applying a double alkali process variation to one of the
GM industrial boilers. In the past, this double alkali scrubber had generally good
operability on the 32 MWe industrial boiler, although some problems were
encountered. It should be noted that for the previously mentioned Rickenbacker lime
unit, the approximate capital costs of $100 per KWe on this size of industrial boiler
do not appear excessive.
Recently, the EPA announced plans to demonstrate the double alkali process on a
high-sulfur coal utility boiler. The Louisville Gas and Electric Company and its 270
MWe electric Cane Run No. 6 unit were selected for this demonstration. Combustion
Equipment Associated/Arthur D. Little comprise the process supplier team. It is
noteworthy that the cost of this unit—and these costs are fairly firm—is estimated to
be only $55 per KWe capital costs; and $2.5-2.9 mills per KWe hour of total annual
revenue requirements. Also, only 1.1 percent of the power plant's energy output is
required to run the fans and pumps for this process. This is roughly one-third to
one-half the energy requirement of similar lime or limestone systems.
As an alternative to lime and limestone systems with their inherent sludge
production, we have been developing and demonstrating regenerable (or saleable)
product FGD systems. For example, we have demonstrated the promising magnesium
oxide scrubbing process at Boston Edison's Mystic Station. This scrubbing facility was
tested on a 155 MWe oil-fired boiler and produced saleable sulfuric acid. The test
program was initiated in April 1972 and completed in June 1974. Although many
early problems were identified, particularly those associated with the various solid
handling operations, operability improved substantially toward the end of the test
program. Unfortunately no meaningful demonstration of this process has been
performed on the critical coal-fired combustion units.
Since the last conference, we have started up our Wellman Lord demonstration
test program. Wellman Lord technology involves scrubbing with a soluble reactant
followed by thermal regeneration, producing concentrated sulfur dioxide which can
yield either sulfuric acid or elemental sulfur. This process has been successfully
demonstrated in Japan on a variety of oil-fired facilities. The EPA demonstration
program is on a 115 MWe electric coal-fired facility at the Northern Indiana Public
Service Company and produces elemental sulfur. The facility started up in April 1976
but, due to a boiler explosion, is now in a restart-up mode. Hopefully, some definitive
findings on this process will be available at our next conference.
We have selected Atomic International's Aqueous Carbonate Process for the
regenerable FGD process demonstration mentioned at last year's conference. The
process will be demonstrated at Niagara Mohawk's Huntley Station and we are hoping
that the system will start up in early 1979. It offers cost and other advantages over
alternative regenerable processes, but because of the relatively small scale of previous
test experience, it must be considered a relatively high risk venture.
I should also mention that since our last conference we have terminated our
Catalytic Oxidation FGD demonstration program. This process, which produces a dilute
sulfuric acid for sale, had been plagued with operating problems, and the utility had
decided to burn low-sulfur coal in our test boiler. Therefore, it was decided that it
would not be appropriate to invest additional monies toward demonstration of this
process and our program was terminated. The EPA is also working with the U.S.
Bureau of Mines in applying the regenerable Citrate Process to a large industrial
facility. Figure 5 summarizes only the major EPA-sponsored demonstration programs
for both throwaway and saleable product FGD processes.
In addition to our demonstration activities, TVA working for the EPA has
conducted a series of very relevant by-product marketability studies which help put the
sulfur, sulfur acid, and other sulfur by-product sale situations in perspective. Also,
studies have been made to evaluate alternatives to scarce natural gas as reductant
materials to produce elemental sulfur from the concentrated sulfur dioxide associated
with many regenerable FGD processes.
97
-------
OTHER FGD PROGRAMS
NITROGEN OXIDE CONTROL
Let me conclude my discussion of our FGD program by briefly mentioning three
other important programs. First, the TVA has prepared a number of FGD proces
economic studies which in my mind are the most reliable cost estimates for both
throwaway and saleable FGD processes. Secondly, the EPA in conjunction with the
Council on Environmental Quality is working on a study comparing scrubber
availability with that of other power plant components. Preliminarily, it appears that
there is insufficient information to do a statistically convincing comparative study
However, several major power plant components appear to have reliabilities lower than
some of the more recent FGD systems.
Finally, I would like to mention the very active technology transfer program in
the FGD area. Some of the outputs of this program include the PEDCo Status Report
(published every other month) which summarizes what is going on in the scrubber
field, in terms of both operating and planned systems. Also, we now publish quarterly
RD&D status reports summarizing the results of our ongoing research program. We are
preparing lime and limestone data books and cost and reliability handbooks which
provide potential users important information on commercial or noncommercial
technologies.
Now, let us discuss our NOX control program. A little background might be in
order. Figure 6 outlines some relevant history. In 1972 an unreliability problem was
discovered in the ambient air quality measurement technique for N02.
Figure 6.
NOX control requirements
UNRELIABILITY OF NO 2 MEAS. METHOD DISCOVERED IN 1972, LED TO 43
OF 47 AQCRS RECLASSIFIED FROM HIGH TO LOW POLLUTION; ONLY
FOUR PROBLEM AREAS
HOWEVER, NO MAJOR PROGRESS MADE IN OBTAINING AAQS FOR N02;
PROBLEM GROWING
PRESENT CONTROL STRATEGY: MODERATE AUTO CONTROL
NSPS FOR UTILITIES
NSPS FOR NITRIC ACID PLANTS
SEEMS INSUFFICIENT TO MEET AAQS
BY 1985 16 MILLION TONS NOx/YR FROM INDUSTRY AND UTILITIES;
INCREASE OF 25% OVER PRESENT LEVELS
IT APPEARS CONTROL OF STATIONARY SOURCES BEYOND PRESENT
LEVELS WILL BE NECESSARY
MAJOR TECHNIQUES FOR NOX CONTROL
COMBUSTION MODIFICATION
FLUE GAS CLEANING
FLUIDIZED BED COMBUSTION
Prior to discovery of the problem, it was believed that 47 of the total 247 Air
Quality Control Regions (AQCRs) for the country had an NO2 ambient air problem,
We have found that, due to an inherent measurement error, ambient levels of NO?
were measured too high. Using more accurate techniques, we found that only four
AQCRs really seemed to have an NO2 problem.
However, since 1972, there has been little progress in N02 control from either
stationary or mobile sources. As a result, new AQCRs that exceed the N02 standard
are being found, and the trend seems to be toward further N02 ambient quality
problems. Therefore, our present N02 control strategy, which includes control of both
mobile (automobile) and stationary sources, does not appear very effective.
I should point out that almost one-half of the NOX emissions are from mobile
sources; a little more than one-half are associated with stationary sources. So both are
of interest if we are to achieve NOX air quality goals.
We have set interim standards for automobiles. They are not very stringent
standards, in fact, substantially less stringent than the Clean Air Act goal. Due to
economic, technological, and political considerations, relatively moderate NOX emission
standards will prevail for autos in the near term.
Also, the NSPS philosophy is based on best-available control technology. Since
technology for stringent control is not available, the NSPS for utility boilers is not
very restrictive and requires, as I indicated earlier, only 30 or 35 percent control,
There is also an NSPS for nitric acid plants, which contribute significantly to the NOX
problem.
98
-------
•AlOv CONTROL TECHNIQUES
X
Figure 7.
NOX combustion modification
So, our present strategy does not seem to be sufficient to get these AQCRs back
into line or, for that matter, to turn around the trend toward additional AQCRs
getting out of standard. Therefore, additional control of stationary sources beyond the
present level may be necessary. Of course the NOx problem is more complex than just
N02; NOX is a major precursor for photochemical oxidant and nitrate production.
There are three major categories of I\IOX control for stationary sources. The only
near-term technology is combustion modification, on which the present EPA program
is primarily focusing. This technology is the basis for the present NSPS on large fossil
fuel generators. Flue gas cleaning is the second technology. It is similar to flue gas
desulfurization and should probably be called flue gas denitrification. We have several
embryonic programs in that area which I will describe briefly. And finally, a very
promising technology for NOX control is fluidized bed combustion, which Mr. Singer
discussed earlier. It is probably 10 years away from making a commercial impact but
is a very promising technology nevertheless.
The combustion modification program aims to develop technology capable of
controlling emissions from the two major stationary sources of NOX; namely, thermal
NOX and fuel NOX (Figure 7). We hope to control thermal NOX by lowering the
combustion temperature, since lower temperatures retard NOX formulation; i.e., higher
temperatures favor the oxidation of nitrogen. And one can control fuel NOX problems
by lowering oxygen concentration. The control approaches to both thermal and fuel
NOX are generally common, with the exception of fluidized bed combustion, which is
oriented primarily toward minimizing thermal NOX.
INVOLVES CONTROL OF THERMAL NOX BY LOWERING COMBUSTION
TEMP BY:
STAGED COMBUSTION
LOW EXCESS AIR
FLUE GAS RECIRCULATION
BURNER DESIGN MODS
INVOLVES CONTROL OF FUEL NOX BY LOWERING OXYGEN CONC. IN
COMBUSTION ZONE BY:
LOW EXCESS AIR
STAGED COMBUSTION
BURNER DESIGN MODS
TECHNIQUES INVOLVE TRADE-OFFS SINCE ADVERSE EFFECTS
INCLUDE:
INCREASES OF OTHER POLLUTANTS
LOWERING THERMAL EFFICIENCY
OPERATING PROBLEMS
NO COMBUSTION MODIFICATION
PROGRAM
We have to be careful in implementing these techniques since it is possilble to
aggravate other pollutant emission problems. We could, for example, increase emissions
of carbon monoxide or particulate matter if we drastically lower excess air. Or we
could lower thermal efficiency with approaches such as flue gas recirculation. These
techniques can also lead to operating problems, since in some cases boilers will not be
operated under the conditions that they are designed for.
However, the results of our program to date indicate that if one is careful about
the particular control technology and the design parameters utilized, each of these
potential problems is controllable.
Let us now discuss the ongoing nitrogen oxide combustion modification program.
I will discuss this program by source area. Figure 8 illustrates some of our efforts and
outputs for the following combustion sources: utility and large industrial boilers; small
industrial, commercial, and residual systems; stationary engines; and industrial processes
and after-burner equipment.
In the utility and large industrial boiler area, the program's major effort has
focused on staged combustion approaches. By utilization of this combustion
modification technology, which involves adding combustion air sequentially in more
than one location to minimize total oxygen requirements and combustion temperature,
control levels of 0.45 lbs/106 Btu appear achievable. We are presently planning
corrosion tests to ascertain whether boiler tube corrosion is an inherent problem. It
has been postulated by some that the reducing environment associated with staged
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Figure 8.
NOX combustion modification
program status
LOW NOX BURNER WORK
• UTILITY AND LARGE INDUSTRIAL BOILERS
• MAJOR EFFORT: STAGED COMBUSTION; LEVELS OF 0.45 LBS/IO^BTU
ACHIEVABLE; CORROSION STUDIES PLANNED
• LOW NOX BURNERS; POTENTIAL FOR CONTROL TO 0.2-1.3 LBS/106BTU
FOR PULVERRED BOILERS
• SMALL INDUSTRIAL, COMMERCIAL AND RESIDUAL SYSTEMS
• EMPHASIS ON RESID. OIL PACKAGE BOILERS, RESIDENTIAL FURNACES AND
STOKER BOILERS
• STAGED COMBUSTION EFFECTIVE ON OIL PACKAGE BOILERS
• OPTIMUM BURNERS CAN ACHIEVE 70% NOX CONTROL OVER CONVENTIONAL
RESIDENTIAL OIL FURNACES
• STOKER EMISSION FACTORS GENERATED; CM TECH UNDER DEVELOPMENT
• STATIONARY ENGINES
• PRELIMINARY WORK INDICATES 50-100 PPM NOX GOAL ACHIEVABLE
175% CONTROL)
• INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES AND AFTER-BURNER EQUIPMENT
• LOW LEVEL OF ACTIVITY; EMISSION CHARACTERIZATION NEAR-TERM GOAL
• ADVANCED PROCESSES/FUNDAMENTAL RESEARCH
LOW-NOX BURNER
IMPROVED STAGED COMBUSTION
CATALYTIC COMBUSTION
NON-CRITERIA POLLUTANT ASSESSMENT
ADVANCED PROCESSES
FUNDAMENTAL RESEARCH
combustion can remove the protective oxidative coatings from the tubes, thereby
accelerating corrosion. Therefore, corrosion tests are considered important.
Perhaps our most encouraging activity in the NOX program is our work in the
low-NOx burner area, redesigning pulverized coal burners to more carefully combust
coal. Experimental results have indicated that NOX levels of 0.2 to 0.3 lbs/106 Btu are
achievable. This represents over 70-percent control of an uncontrolled coal-fired boiler.
Since such burner technology appears inherently inexpensive, this could be the answer
to low-cost nitrogen oxide control from both industrial and utility pulverized-coal
boilers. If we receive the increased fiscal year 1978 funding that I mentioned earlier,
we will be able to proceed on an orderly demonstration program to evaluate this
approach at sizes culminating in an integrated full-scale demonstration program.
In the small industrial, commercial, and residual system area, our program
emphasis has focused on residual oil-package boilers, residential furnaces, and
coal-stoker boilers. We have demonstrated that staged combustion is an effective
control approach on oil-package boilers. Preliminary information indicates that
optimum burners can achieve 70 percent NOX control over conventional burners for
residential distillation oil furnaces. Our work in the coal-stoker area has been limited
to development of emission factors for existing designs. A combustion modification
technology program is presently under development for this increasingly important class
of coal boilers.
Stationary internal combustion engines are a major source of nitrogen oxide
emissions, mainly because of their widespread use as the prime mover for pipelines and
gaslines around the country. Preliminary work by IERL/RTP indicates that it may be
possible to lower nitrogen oxide concentrations in combustion gases to 50-100 ppm.
This would represent an overall NOX control of 75 percent and a substantial
improvement in both NOX efficiency and overall energy conversion efficiency to the
presently available control technology, which involves introduction of water to the
combustion zone.
In the industrial processes and after-burner equipment area, we have a relatively
low level of activity due primarily to limitations in funds. Our near-term goal in this
area is to characterize NOX and other emissions for these facilities.
I would also like to mention briefly some of the activities in the advanced
processes fundamental research portion of the combustion modification program. This
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is the part of the program where the Iow-N0x burner was originally conceived and will
now be tested under the utility and industrial boiler portion of the program. Presently,
activity is focused on improved staged combustion control technologies and catalytic
combustion approaches which promise enhanced NOx removal efficiencies. Also, within
this program area is our non-criteria pollutant assessment activity, which aims at
determining the magnitude of emissions and effluents other than those of the regulated
pollutants from various combustion sources.
Now let me briefly describe the NOX flue gas treatment research and development
program (Figure 9). One might ask, in light of the comprehensive combustion
modification program I have just described, "Who needs flue gas treatment?" and
"What is the advantage of this technology over combustion modification?" The only
identifiable advantage in my mind is that this approach has the potential for very high
NOX removal efficiencies, which could conceivably be required if standards tighten in
the years ahead.
Figure 9.
NOX flue 9as treatment program
DRY AND WET PROCESSES
FINE PARTICULATE CONTROL
CAPABLE OF HIGH NOX REMOVAL AT HIGH COSTS
UNDER ACTIVE DEVELOPMENT IN JAPAN DUE TO STRINGENT STANDARDS
TWO BASIC APPROACHES ARE BEING DEVELOPED: DRV AND WET PROCESSES
DRY PROCESSES (REDUCTIVE)
REACTION: 2ND + 2NH3 + 1/202 - 2N2 + 3H20
SELECTIVE CATALYST NEEDED
PROBLEMS INCLUDE' UNCERTAINTY OF VIABILITY WITH COAL-FLUE GAS
SECONDARY EMISSIONS, COSTS, AMMONIA NEEDS
WET PROCESSES IOXIDATIVE/REDUCTIVE AND REDUCTIVE]
SOME INVOLVE OXIDATION TO N02 FOLLOWED BY SCRUBBING, OTHERS REDUCE IN SOLUTION
OZONE TYPICAL OXIDANT
POTENTIAL FOR SOx/NOx REMOVAL
PROBLEMS INCLUDE LARGE OZONE/ENERGY NEEDS, SECONDARY WASTES, COSTS
EPA PROGRAM
DETERMINE NEED FOR NOx FGT
INITIATE PILOT SCALE PROJECTS, BORROW FROM JAPANESE TECHNOLOGY
TWO PILOT PLANTS PLANNED
-NOX
-NOx/SOx
However, we pay the price for this high removal efficiency in terms of high
capital and operating costs and system complexity relative to combustion modification
technology. These approaches are under active development in Japan due to the
stringent ambient and emission standards for nitrogen oxides there. Two basic
approaches, dry and wet processes, are being developed. The dry processes are the
simpler of the two and generally involve a chemical reduction reaction. Typically,
ammonia is used as the reductant and a selective catalyst is needed to reduce nitrogen
oxide to elemental nitrogen and oxygen. Problems with this approach include
uncertainty regarding the viability of this process for coal flue gas, the possibility of
secondary emissions (such as ammonium sulfate), and potentially high costs associated
with capital expenses and reagent needs.
Wet processes are generally more complex and can involve either oxidative/
reductive or reductive chemistry. Some of the processes involve oxidation to nitrogen
oxide followed by a scrubbing step; others reduce the nitrogen oxides in solution. For
the oxidative/reductive approach, ozone is a typical oxidant. The main advantage of
this class of processes is the potential for combined sulfur oxide and nitrogen oxide
removal. Problems include large ozone and energy needs for the oxidative/reductive
process and the production of secondary wastes and high costs for all versions of the
wet processes.
The EPA program in this area involves piloting promising processes for treating
flue gas from coal combustors, borrowing heavily from Japanese technology on oil-fired
boilers. Two pilot programs are in the final contractor selection phase at this time.
One will involve nitrogen oxide removal only; the other will investigate concurrent
removal of nitrogen oxide and sulfur oxide.
I would now like to summarize the status of our fine-particulate control
technology program. First a little background information. Fine particulates are health
hazards because they are airborne for extended time periods, can penetrate deeply into
the lung, and can act as transport agents for other pollutants. Our research,
development, and demonstration program includes the following major areas:
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ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATOR
EVALUATION
SCRUBBER EVALUATION
FABRIC FILTRATION
EVALUATION
• Improvement of characterization of present technology, e.g., electrostatic
precipitators, scrubbers, fabric filters
• New ideas/novel devices
• High temperature/high pressure control technology
• Collectability of dust
• Control from low-sulfur coal combustors
Our program is actively evaluating the potential for electrostatic precipitators as
high-efficiency fine-particulate control devices. We have characterized precipitators for
seven particulate sources and developed a math model which characterizes precipitator
performance as a function of particulate characteristics. We have concluded that
precipitators offer the possibility of high fine-particulate control when there is no ash
resistivity problem. Precipitators are very sensitive to the chemistry of the ash they
must collect. For example, for low-sulfur coal combustion facilities, the ash generally is
of a low resistivity; there is not sufficient trioxide to raise the ash conductivity,
thereby leading to collectability problems. Our program is actively considering ways of
upgrading precipitator performance when the ash has less than optimum resistivity. We
are actively evaluating fly-ash conditioning agents such as sulfur trioxide and ammonia.
We are also evaluating the possibility of precharging the flue gas upstream of the
precipitator in order to improve the collectability of the ash. We are presently planning
a pilot demonstration of an attractive precharging approach. We are carefully
coordinating our program with the Electric Power Research Institute, which is also
active in this area.
We are also evaluating and developing various scrubber devices for removal of fine
particulates from combustion facilities. We have evaluated 10 devices on a variety of
particulate sources and currently find a consistent pattern where fine-particulate
removal efficiency is highly dependent on pressure drop (and therefore energy
requirements) of the scrubber device. Generally, the higher the pressure drop the better
the fine-particulate removal efficiency. However, at least one scrubber type; namely, the
turbulent contact absorber (TCA), has appeared uncharacteristically efficient in
fine-particulate removal. Our studies have indicated that a condensation mechanism is
responsible for this good performance. We are evaluating this mechanism more carefully
and hope to be able to apply it to other scrubbers in other facilities. We are also
piloting a flux force/condensation scrubber which uses a condensation mechanism for
efficient fine-particulate removal. Recent data indicate that scrubbers may be limited in
their fine-particulate performance by mist eliminators. Mist eliminators are designed to
avoid the entrainment and carryover of scrubbing liquors from the scrubber into the
existing flue gas. It appears that inefficient mist eliminators on commercial units have
allowed such entrainment, thereby leading to carryover of particulates with subsequent
degradation of fine particulate removal performance. Studies continue in this area.
Fabric filtration is being evaluated as a fine-particulate control scheme. We have
tested filters applied commercially to three sources and find that fabric filtration is
quite efficient down to 0.3 micron. These filters have similar energy requirements
between the low-energy usage precipitators and the high-energy usage scrubbers. Our
present program is aimed at increasing the applicability, operability, and economic
desirability of these very promising devices. We are presently planning to be involved
in a 350 megawatt demonstration program applying fabric filtration to a low-sulfur
coal utility boiler. This will be the first commercial operation of a low-sulfur coal
fabric filtration combination. Our program has also been evaluating new ideas and
novel devices for the removal of fine particulates from various sources. Many of these
devices have been tested at bench scale, and the most attractive devices are scheduled
for pilot scale testing, pending availability of funds.
As we mentioned at last year's conference, we are developing particulate control
technology capable of operating in high temperature and high pressure regimes.
Pressurized fluidized bed combustion and low Btu gasification technologies require
particulate control under these difficult conditions for both environmental and turbine
protection. We have defined performance requirements and are evaluating various
concepts and devices. Our present emphasis is on high temperature precipitators, bag
houses, and granular bed filters. It is too soon to tell whether any of these devices
will economically remove particulates at sufficiently high efficiency.
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MOBILE TEST UNITS
WASTE AND WATER
We have also actively pursued the development and construction of paniculate
control device test units mounted on trailers, enabling us to collect and evaluate
particulate control data from a variety of sources. We have constructed mobile test
units of electrostatic precipitators, scrubbers, and fabric filters which allow us to
determine the best control device for a given application and its associated dust
problem.
Over the past year we have initiated a program to evaluate and control fugitive
dust problems. Fugitive dust emissions from many energy and industrial sources can be
very serious. Our present program is aimed at defining the magnitude of the problem
and the alternative control technologies that may be applied.
A final element of our program is the control of particulates from low-sulfur coal
combustors. This is not a new or separate part of our program, but actually
incorporates our ongoing work in other areas. However, we find it helpful to focus on
this major problem afflicting those utility and industrial sources that must meet
particulate standards and burn low-sulfur coal. Our emphasis at this time is on the
development of fabric filtration and modified electrostatic precipitators for cost
effective particulate control from these sources.
The final technology area I will discuss is the waste and water program. This
program includes the development of control technology for solid and liquid effluents
from conventional energy systems and their associated control devices. It includes
disposal of flue gas cleaning wastes, water recycled/treatment of the various power
plant effluents, development of improved cooling tower technology, and evaluation and
development of waste-heat utilization approaches. In the flue gas cleaning waste area
we have a very active and comprehensive program in characterizing environmental
problems associated with flue gas desulfurization sludge disposal. The program is also
actively evaluating various control approaches to minimize potential impact as well as
to investigate possible utilization approaches, such as the production and sale of
gypsum from the sludge end product. We are evaluating problems associated with fly
ash disposal. In the water recycled/treatment area we are presently completing a study
of the overall material balance of the various water streams in a power plant with the
aim of minimizing makeup water requirements and subsequent water pollution. We are
investigating alternatives to chlorination for condenser fouling control and are
evaluating the problems associated with coal pile drainage. We are also assisting the
EPA Effluent Guidelines Division in identifying reasonable control technology for toxic
effluents from steam electric plants.
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In the cooling tower technology program we have an ongoing program eva
wet/dry and dry cooling towers, aimed at minimizing water consumption and some of
the drift and blowdown problems of wet towers. We are also planning a program to
evaluate the impact of saltwater drift from wet towers and appropriate control
technology to ameliorate such problems. Finally, we have a limited program in ttie
waste-heat utilization area, aimed at finding cost effective and reasonable uses of the
large quantity of waste heat associated with power plants. We have ongoing activities
in the agricultural and aquacultural areas.
In conclusion, I believe the results of the conventional fossil fuel control
technology program we have discussed this afternoon will go a long way to help our
nation compatibly achieve two of its most important goals: energy availability and
environmental protection. This session is now open to questions from the audience. I
will ask our distinguished panelists to respond.
FRANK T. PRINCIOTTA
B.S., Chemical Engineering, New York City College; certificate in Nuclear
Engineering Graduate Studies, Oak Ridge School of Reactor Technology. Project
Engineer and Reactor Engineer for U.S. Atomic Energy Commission. In private
industry directed government sponsored research and development programs in nuclear
power supplies and biomedical devices. While Chief of Engineering Test Section,
Control Systems Division, EPA, directed programs to develop processes for control of
sulfur oxide and particulate air pollution. Currently, Director, Energy Processes
Division, Office of Energy, Minerals and Industry, Office of Research and
Development, EPA, Washington, DC; responsible for planning and coordinating
programs to develop and improve technology on control and abatement of adverse
impacts from energy production and utilization systems.
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questions
CK answers
Ms. Patricia Smith
Northern Ohio Lung Association
QUESTION:
Mr. Ken Wilzbach
Argonne National Laboratory
Mr. Steven Slater
Tufts University
Dr. Edward S. Rubin
Carnegie-Mellon University
Mr. Joe Selmiczi
Dravo Corporation
For utility-size boilers, would you consider FGD as
an intermediary solution to be supplanted by fluidized
bed combustion? Will fluidized bed combustion take the
place of scrubbers?
RESPONSE: Mr. Frank T. Princiotta, (EPA)
Fluidized bed combustion appears to be competitive
with flue gas desulfurization as far as cost is concerned.
This is unusual. Most of the competition such as low Btu
gasification and unrefined coal for baseload utility systems
is unattractive relative to flue gas desulfurization.
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Fluidized bed combustion units will not make any
commercial impact in the utility field before 1990. Just
go through the ERDA and industrial timeliness, and you
will find that there will not be a commercial facility
on-line until 1990. At that time my personal assessment
is that pulverized coal with scrubbers will be very
competitive with fluidized bed combustion, and it is very
unclear to me which of these technologies will prevail. It
is too soon to tell.
Does anyone want to comment on that?
RESPONSE: Mr. Gerald G. McGlamery, (TVA)
QUESTION:
Again, from a utility standpoint, you are pretty close
to being right. We do not see any fluidized bed
combustion boilers within the near term, but of course,
TVA is actively pursuing FBC technology by a separate
plan of its own. I think in the last 6 months we have
announced about a $4 million effort to look at a
full-scale, 200 megawatt fluidized combustion boiler in
the TVA system. We just cannot really be sure if that is
going to take the place of scrubbers or just going to be a
parallel effort. Scrubbers are cost competitive, and they
are not just going to go out the window.
By the same token, what is the time frame for
commercialization of regenerable flue gas desulfurization?
RESPONSE: Mr. Richard D. Stem, (EPA)
QUESTION:
How about as soon as possible? The ACP process,
which should be demonstrated by 1981, is a very
significant process which we want to accelerate.
This is aqueous carbonate?
RESPONSE: Mr. Stern
Yes. The Wellman-Lord process is very close to
commercialization now. However, we do need to
demonstrate it conclusively on the first coal-fired utility,
and we hope to get that test program started within 1
month. In that area, Public Service of New Mexico has
already initiated orders; in fact, they have approximately
700 megawatts of Wellman-Lord capacity presently under
construction with another 1000 megawatts ordered.
There has been a great deal of progress in the area
of magnesium oxide. There is one commercial unit that is
expected to start up any time at Philadelphia Electric.
One of the things we would like to do with this initiative
money is to accelerate magnesium oxide scrubbing
technology even more so with another demonstration.
Depending on the results of this 120 megawatt
magnesium oxide scrubbing facility at Philadelphia
Electric, there is another approximately 700 megawatts of
magnesium oxide technology that may be in the offing. I
feel we are very close to commercializing regenerable
FGD.
QUESTION:
Utilities in Japan are injecting ozone into flue gas to
oxidize NO to N02 as part of a control strategy for
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dealing with NOx- We have some evidence that ozone also
oxides S02 to 80s at temperatures in the range of about
400 degrees Fahrenheit.
Considering the recovery of waste heat, would ozone
generation be an attractive technology for controlling
NOx and SOx simultaneously? And if not for waste heat,
consider a portion of the flue gas being exposed to ozone
in order to produce some SOs; would the reduction of
resistivity of the fly ash make this attractive?
RESPONSE: Mr. Stern
QUESTION:
The cost of ozone is extremely high, and for NOX
control alone you would have a stoichiometry of one. It
would not only use a great deal of energy, but would
also cost a great deal of money. So for NOX control
alone, we do not see ozone as being a strong contender.
However, for the simultaneous processes, the energy and
cost penalty of ozone may perhaps be compensated for
by the fact that you may be able to control both SOX,
SO2, and NO at a relatively lower cost in energy that
you could individually.
As to oxidizing S02 to 803 with the ozone, which
you would certainly do, that would be recovered
primarily as sulfuric acid; whether or not you could have
a wet process that would recover the sulfuric acid as well
as the nitric acid or the nitrates, could be a real
complication.
Our proposals do not include this option; however,
the Japanese people are looking at it right now.
This morning Dr. Stephen Gage alluded to something
I would like someone in the FGD group to pick up. That
is the possibility of partially bypassing an FGD system
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RESPONSE: Mr. Princiotta
QUESTION:
RESPONSE:
Mr. Princiotta
QUESTION:
RESPONSE:
using a precipitator for participate control and using the
hot flue gases to reduce the energy requirement for
reheat.
Some utilities are already doing this. One of the
benefits seems to be that if you view emissions on the
basis of megawatt of useful electricity produced for sale
rather than coal coming in the front of the boiler, you
are better off on that sort of normalization basis.
Is it your view that this sort of an option would be
precluded by the sorts of deliberations currently in
Congress? Does best available technology mean 100
percent of all flue gas to the "best" you could do?
Let me first clarify what Dr. Gage said. He was
referring to the combination of coal cleaning and flue gas
desulfurization. I think he was suggesting that if you can
clean the coal relatively inexpensively and then treat a
portion of the resulting flue gases with a scrubber, the
remaining untreated portion would still be hot and could
be used for reheat.
Would the result be the same?
Yes, it would. I commented earlier that the
possibility of revised new source performance standards
for coal generators would obviously tighten the
requirement. If such a standard is implemented, we are
talking on the order of 85 to 90 percent control. This of
course, makes it more difficult to have any flue gas
stream that is untreated. In other words, even if you
threat part of the flue gas with 100 percent S02 removal
efficiency, you are limited in this case to only a
maximum of 10 percent, and that is nominal for reheat
purposes. So I think the tendency would be to make that
approach a little more difficult.
Do any of the panelists have any comments on that?
Mr. Julian W. Jones, (EPA)
RESPONSE: Mr. Princiotta
I did have one comment. I think that coal cleaning,
in combination with flue gas desulfurization, depending
on the outcome of the regulatory dilemma, could be a
viable approach. You could use the flue gas bypass, the
partial scrubbing, and then use the remainder for reheat.
If you have to go to a 90 percent removal based either
on incoming or total gas being generated by the plant,
then it really becomes impractical.
Let me just mention that although the reheat aspect
of the concept may be hurt by any tightened standards,
in my view at least, the combination of coal cleaning and
FGD still looks favorable. As Dr. Gage pointed out, there
is no more inexpensive way of removing a given amount
of sulfur from coal as physical coal cleaning; so the
combination would still make a lot of sense on a
case-by-case basis.
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QUESTION:
I would like to comment on the unsaturated mode
of scrubbers operating on lime with magnesium oxide. I
think this mode is further ahead than Mr. Princiotta
implied. Several demonstrations — including the
Bruce-Mansfield Power Plant, which has been operating
in an unsaturated mode for over a year, and the
Conesville Power Plant of Columbus in Southern Ohio in
operation for several months — have proved that when
common water chemistry is considered, the unsaturated
mode can be maintained. What do you think?
RESPONSE: Mr. Michael A. Maxwell, (EPA)
I think it is undeniably a fact that those systems
have operated well. We have been getting anomalous data
at Shawnee which indicates that some of the earlier
concepts we had of the unsaturated operation perhaps
were not fully founded. So even though those systems are
operating well, we still feel that there are some gaps in
the information that we would like to see answered.
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technical
discussion
-------
THE FEDERAL INTERAGENCY FLUE GAS
OESULFURIZATION PROGRAM
Gerald G. McGlamery
Office of Agricultural and Chemical Development
Tennessee Valley Authority
Muscle Shoals, Alabama
Richard D. Stern and Michael A. Maxwell
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
INTRODUCTION
Flue gas desulfurization (FGD) is the term
used to denote processes for removal of sulfur
dioxide (802) from flue gas, usually by means of a
gas scrubbing operation. FGD is the major near-
term technological approach to meeting new source
performance standards when utilizing high-sulfur
coal supplies. If a policy of rapid expansion in
the use of coal is to be successfully implemented,
it is essential that FGD technology be fully
developed for application in the utility and in-
dustrial sectors.
In the Federal energy/environment research
and development program, FGD technology development
has been given a high priority. Studies by EPA
indicate that FGD is competitive in cost with
advanced control methods, such as chemical coal
cleaning and fluidized bed combustion; therefore,
FGD should play an important role in controlling
emissions even in the 1990's.
This technology has progressed rapidly by tak-
ing advantage of financial aid passing through the
Federal interagency program. Several FGD studies,
pilot plants, prototypes, and demonstration-scale
facilities have been funded by the Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA). Although progress had
been achieved in FGD development prior to 1975, the
overall pace of development was increased by the
initiation of the Federal interagency effort.
The Federal program through EPA's Industrial
Environmental Research Laboratory in Research
Triangle Park, North Carolina (IERL-RTP), has aimed
at demonstrating reliable and cost-effective FGD
processes, including both nonregenerable (throw-
away) and regenerable (saleable byproducts) systems.
EPA has been aided in this effort by at least two
other Federal organizations, the Tennessee Valley
Authority (TVA) and the U.S. Bureau of Mines (BOM).
For example, EPA's key program in the nonregenerable
area is the lime-limestone prototype test program
at TVA's Shawnee Steam Plant (near Paducah, Kentucky),
and a major regenerable (citrate) process demonstra-
tion unit is to be built based on pilot-plant work
by BOM.
Other major activities in the area of nonre-
generable technology include full-scale demonstra-
tions of double-alkali scrubbing systems, and a
comprehensive program in scrubber sludge disposal.
In the regenerable FGD area, an aggressive program
has been pursued toward development of processes
capable of producing saleable sulfur products. In
addition to the work of BOM on sodium citrate scrub-
bing, full-scale demonstrations of the Cat-Ox (pro-
ducing 80% sulfuric acid), Wellman-Lord (W-L)/Allied
Chemical (producing sulfur), magnesium oxide (pro-
ducing sulfuric acid), and the aqueous carbonate
(producing sulfur) processes have been undertaken.
A number of supporting studies have also been
initiated through the interagency program for both
nonregenerable and regenerable processes. Included
are design and cost evaluations for sludge disposal
and advanced S02 removal technologies, byproduct
marketing studies, bench-scale research on key
processing steps, investigation of reductants for
S02 to sulfur, energy optimization studies, and a
comparison of utility/industry equipment reli-
ability/availability.
In addition to these efforts to develop tech-
nology, a companion technology transfer effort is
also underway. Through a series of briefings,
symposiums, capsule reports, summary reports, and
a survey of FGD installations, the industry is
being aided in its efforts to stay abreast of the
rapidly advancing FGD technology.
TECHNICAL DISCUSSION
Lime-Limestone Activities
Lime-limestone processes are particularly
important in the overall FGD story. Over 60% of
the FGD systems, which have been built, are under
construction, or are being planned for service by
the early 1980's, are lime-limestone processes.
The Shawnee Program. An important part of the
lime-limestone effort involves the operation of a
prototype scrubbing test facility at Shawnee Steam
Plant. This versatile facility allows comprehen-
sive testing of up to three 10-MW scrubber types
under a variety of operating conditions. Bechtel
Corporation of San Francisco designed the test
facility and directs the test program, and TVA con-
structed and operates the facility.
The major concerns of the utility industry to
date regarding lime-limestone scrubbing have
centered around scaling and plugging potential, the
large quantities of waste sludge generated, and the
high costs (capital and operating) of scrubbing.
It is toward these areas of concern that the
Shawnee program has been directed.
The major objectives of the original 2-year
test program were: (1) to characterize fully the
effect of important process variables on S02 and
particulate removal; (2) to develop and verify
mathematical models to allow scaleup to full-scale
scrubber facilities; (3) to study the technical and
economic feasibility of lime-limestone scrubbing;
and (4) to demonstrate long-term reliability.
Based on the initial test results, comments from
utilities and FGD system vendors, and particularly
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on results from EPA pilot-plant support studies,
it became apparent that additional information was
needed to optimize lime and limestone systems in
the areas of: sludge disposal, improved reli-
ability, variable-load operation, and improved
economics. Therefore, in 1974 the Shawnee program
was extended and the scope was expanded to investi-
gate promising equipment and process variations to:
(1) minimize costs, energy requirements, and quan-
tity (and improve the quality) of the sludge pro-
duced; (2) maximize S02 removal efficiency; (3)
develop a design/economic study computer program;
and (4) improve system control and operating reli-
ability, especially in the mist eliminator area.
Of particular interest were studies of forced
oxidation, increased alkali utilization, and MgO
or other additives to increase S02 removal effi-
ciency and to force subsaturated gypsum operation.
A study of the formation of solid solutions
in lime-limestone scrubbers was completed which
verified earlier findings made at IERL-RTP that
sulfate can be purged with the solids at low oxi-
dation levels while maintaining subsaturated liquori
Attempts to apply this "subsaturated operating mode"
to large-scale scrubbers are being made at Shawnee
and Louisville Gas and Electric's (LG&E) Paddy's
Run lime scrubber.
The data obtained from the IERL-RTP scrubber
have been analyzed, together with the Shawnee data,
to develop comprehensive mathematical models for
predicting SC>2 removal efficiency in lime and lime-
stone scrubbers as a function of basic process
variables, such as liquid to gas ratio, S02 concen-
tration, pH, magnesium concentration, and pressure
drop.
The Shawnee program has made major contribu-
tions toward improvement of lime and limestone
scrubbing technology. The most significant results
to date include: (1) demonstration that conven-
tional lime-limestone systems can be operated
reliably on a 10-MW level (two separate reliability
problems have been identified—scaling and accumu-
lation of soft mud-type solids—and methods to
control each have been demonstrated); (2) mud-type
solids deposition was shown to be a strong function
of alkali utilization and at high utilization
(greater than about 85%) these solids are much more
easily removed; (3) equipment or process variations
were demonstrated which individually improved
alkali utilization, improved SC>2 removal efficiency,
and favorably influenced the system chemistry; and
(4) development of useful industrial tools, such
as the design/economic study computer program apH
the computerized Shawnee data base.
The EPA Pilot FGD Scrubber Program. The FGU
pilot plant operated by IERL-RTP consists of two
scrubbers having a flue gas capacity of about 0.1
MW. They have been in operation since 1972 for the
principal purpose of providing in-house experimental
support for EPA's larger, prototype scrubber test
facility at Shawnee Steam Plant. The IERL-RTP
scrubbers have 1% of the capacity of the Shawnee
prototypes and are 1/1000 scale. In addition to
supporting Shawnee, the pilot plant also provides
IERL-RTP with the capability to independently
evaluate new concepts in lime-limestone scrubbing
technology.
Results from this pilot unit indicate that
forced oxidation limestone scrubbing can be
achieved in a two-stage scrubbing system promoting
formation of gypsum, a more desirable form of
calcium solids, and improving limestone utiliza-
tion. An extension of this work has recently been
undertaken at the Shawnee test facility. Further
tests at IERL-RTP have been directed toward
achieving the oxidation step in a single-stage
scrubber, and information has been developed
toward application in larger commercial scrubbing
systems. Thus far, it has been demonstrated in the
IERL-RTP scrubber that single-stage forced oxida-
tion can be achieved with no loss of S02 removal
efficiency.
Bahco Program. The AB Bahco Ventilation
(Sweden) lime scrubbing process has been installed
on about 20 small industrial-size oil-fired
boilers outside of the United States. Research-
Cottrell is the licensee in the United States for
this process. The Bahco system appears particular-
ly suited for small industrial applications and,
in fact, is manufactured in standard sizes of about
5-50 MW equivalent. The system is readily adapt-
able to a high degree of automation. Although
automation results in a somewhat higher capital
investment cost initially, labor costs are low in
that the same personnel operating the boiler can
also handle operation of the FGD system.
The Air Force contracted with Research-
Cottrell to install a Bahco system for S02 and
particulate control on up to seven small coal-fired
heating boilers (approximately 21 MW equivalent
total) at Rickenbacker Air Force Base near Columbus,
Ohio. EPA is sponsoring a 2-year test program on
this system. .Although numerous mechanical problems
have been encountered since startup in March 1976,
results generally have been promising. Acceptance
tests have not been run yet but they are planned
shortly, after boiler control problems are resolved.
Results to date indicate that despite the high
particulate loading, which at times has been pre-
dominately very small sooty particles, design
specifications for both the particulate and S02
removal efficiency have been exceeded consistently.
LG&E Scrubber Test Program. In November 1974,
results from the IERL-RTP pilot-plant testing were
reported which showed that lime and limestone S02
scrubbers could be operated subsaturated with
respect to dissolved CaSOZh-2H20 (gypsum). This
mode of operation avoids the problem of gypsum
scaling on the scrubber internals. Subsequent
investigation indicated that at least two commer-
cial scrubber systems were operating subsaturated
with respect to gypsum, one at the Mitsui Aluminum
Plant in Omuta, Japan, and the other at Paddy's
Run Station of LG&E.
Because of the success at LG&E and because of
EPA's interest in studying the subsaturated mode
of operation, a program was undertaken at LG&E in
the spring of 1976 to evaluate operational and
chemical factors identified by scrubber testing
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at IERL-RTP and Shawnee which appear to have an
effect on subsaturated operation. The test program
at LG&E consists of four phases of testing: (1)
carbide lime testing (to establish baseline con-
ditions); (2) commercial lime testing (to compare
with carbide lime and to establish more widely
applicable baseline operating conditions); (3)
reaction tank modification testing (to examine the
effects of residence time); and (4) MgO/Cl addition
testing (to examine the effects of magnesium
addition and increased chloride levels) .
The carbide lime phase of the test program
was initiated in October 1976 and was concluded in
December 1976. No major scrubber operational
problems occurred during these tests. However,
there was a problem with the liquid analysis for
sulfite because of an interference caused by im-
purities in the carbide lime. Waste sludge from
the system was collected for sludge treatment/dis-
.posal tests which are being conducted in conjunction
with the scrubber test program.
The commercial lime phase of the test program
was initiated in March 1977. Shortly after startup,
two problems were evident: (1) the interference
which had occurred in the sulfite analyses during
carbide lime testing was still present,and (2)
scaling in the scrubber. The scaling problem is
thought to be a result of high oxidation causing
an excessive gypsum saturation level. It has been
concluded that the carbide lime contains an oxida-
tion inhibitor in trace quantities.
Because of the difficulties described above,
the testing under the reaction tank modification
and MgO/Cl addition phases is not expected to be
as extensive as originally planned. However, the
overall objectives of the program should be met.
High-Velocity Scrubbing and Vertical Duct Mist
Elimination Pilot-Plant Program. As part of the
EPA lime-limestone scrubbing efforts, TVA investi-
gated during 1975-76 a number of washing techniques
for vertical duct mist eliminators on a 1-MW pilot
plant at TVA's Colbert Steam Plant near Muscle
Shoals, Alabama. High-velocity scrubbing tests
were also performed in conjunction with the mist
eliminator test. In the program, TVA demonstrated
washing techniques that permitted continuous mist
eliminator performance for closed-loop lime-
limestone systems running at 12.6 ft/sec (3.8 m/sec)
gas velocity. Intermittent washing with fresh
makeup water was successful in the lime mode; how-
ever, difficulties were encountered with this pro-
cedure when running with limestone. An alternate
procedure was developed for limestone using both
clarified liquor and fresh makeup water. Con-
tinuous mist eliminator performance was maintained
by washing the bottom of the mist eliminator inter-
mittently with all available clarified liquor,
immediately followed by an allocated amount of
allowable makeup water. The top of the mist elimi-
nator was washed intermittently with the remaining
allocation of allowable fresh water.
In general, the scrubber operated more effi-
ciently and mist eliminator performance was improved
at a higher velocity (16 ft/sec or 4.9 m/sec); how-
ever, long-term testing was conclusive only with
lime scrubbing. Additional washing may be required
for limestone at higher gas velocities.
Double-Alkali Activities
The double-alkali process provides an alternate
wet scrubbing "throwaway" system to the more preva-
lent lime-limestone slurry scrubbing processes.
Such systems employ a clear liquid absorbent rather
than the slurry which is used in lime-limestone
processes. As a result, the scrubber in a double-
alkali unit is expected to be less prone to fouling
and plugging problems.
The double-alkali process is now offered
commercially by several companies for control of
industrial and utility boilers. Process capa-
bilities include 90% or more SC>2 removal, less than
2% energy consumption exclusive of reheat energy,
close to 100% lime-S02 stoichiometry, and soda ash
consumption in the range of 5% of the lime on a
molecular basis. However, these processes may in
certain instances be more costly than lime-limestone
systems.
Combustion Equipment Associates (CEA) -
A. D. Little (ADL) Program. The development of
double-alkali technology by EPA has followed an
orderly progressive pattern. After initial in-
house engineering feasibility studies and labora-
tory experiments in 1971 and 1972, EPA contracted
with ADL in May 1973 to conduct a laboratory and
pilot-plant study of various double-alkali modes
of operation. In early 1975 the project was ex-
panded to include a prototype test at the 20-MW
facility installed at the Scholz Steam Plant of
Gulf Power Company by The Southern Company and
constructed by CEA. In late 1976, agreement was
reached for a full-scale utility demonstration of
the process which hopefully will be started up in
1979.
Work in the laboratory and pilot plant in-
cluded the study of "dilute" and "concentrated"
systems, lime and limestone regeneration, sulfuric
acid addition for sulfate removal, and solids
characterization. Prototype testing at the Scholz
Steam Plant lasted from February 1975 to July 1976,
with the EPA-sponsored portion of the testing be-
ginning in May 1975. As a whole, the prototype
system performed very well and indicated that a
double-alkali system could be a viable FGD system
for coal-burning utilities. SC>2 removal was
generally in the range of 90 to 99%.
LG&E Double-Alkali Demonstration Program.
In September 1976, EPA contracted with LG&E for a
cost-shared, full-scale coal-fired utility demon-
stration of the double-alkali process at the 280-MW
Cane Run No. 6 boiler. The demonstration project
consists of four phases: (1) design and cost esti-
mation; (2) engineering design, construction, and
mechanical testing; (3) startup and performance
testing; and (4) 1 year of operation and long-term
testing. Construction is expected to be complete
by the end of 1978, and testing will begin in
early 1979. A contract funded by EPA with an
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independent company will soon be established to
design and conduct a test program at the LG&E
facility to evaluate the process technically and
economically.
General Motors (GM) Industrial Boiler
Demonstration. GM and EPA have participated in a
cooperative program to demonstrate, test, charac-
terize, and evaluate GM's "dilute" mode double-
alkali system for control of S02 emissions from
coal-fired industrial boilers. The program was
conducted at GM's industrial boiler complex in
Parma, Ohio. The system, consisting of four coal-
fired boilers having a steaming capacity of
320,000 Ib/hr (equivalent to 32 MW electric gener-
ating capacity), was constructed and operated by
GM. ADL designed and conducted the test program
to evaluate the system with funding from EPA.
The test program consisted of three 1-month in-
tensive test periods and longer term nonintensive
testing. Each of the intensive tests evaluated a
slightly different flow scheme.
Regenerable Process Activities
Since its inception in 1970 EPA has assisted
in the development of several recovery processes
capable of producing sulfuric acid, elemental sulfur,
or liquefied SC>2. These processes have been pursued
in hopes of conserving a valuable natural resource
and reducing overall SC>2 control costs. Most of
the EPA efforts have been directed toward full-scale
demonstrations of a number of leading processes;
however, support has also been given to bench-scale
and pilot-plant efforts.
Magnesium Oxide Scrubbing Program. The Mag-Ox
scrubbing process—developed by Chemical Construction
Company (Chemico) and Basic Chemicals, and currently
offered commercially by Chemico—is one of the more
promising regenerable FGD approaches. The process,
which produces sulfuric acid, is widely applicable
to both existing and new power plants. It is also
amenable to the centralized processing concept; i.e.,
spent sorbent can be regenerated at a central plant
capable of servicing a number of power or industrial
plants.
In 1974, EPA and Boston Edison completed a co-
funded demonstration program of a 155-MW-capacity
scrubbing-regeneration system. Results obtained
during 2 years of operation indicated: (1) S02 re-
moval efficiencies in excess of 90% were obtained
consistently,and (2) more than 5,000 tons of sale-
able sulfuric acid of high quality were recovered
from the stack gas and sold commercially. A number
of problems were encountered that were primarily
equipment, rather than process related; however,
continuous, long-term, reliable operation was not
achieved.
In 1973, Potomac Electric Power Company in-
stalled a 100-MW Mag-Ox scrubbing system at its
coal-fired Dickerson Station. EPA provided the
Mag-Ox regeneration system for Potomac Electric's
use in processing spent scrubber sorbent. Results
indicate S02 removal efficiencies greater than 90%
are possible and particulate removal of 99.6% was
attained. Over 2000 tons of sulfuric acid were
produced and marketed. Unfortunately due to a
shortage of funds this demonstration did not run
long enough to completely answer all questions re-
garding absorbent recycle, absorbent losses, and
process reliability.
Philadelphia Electric will soon begin operating
a 120-MW MgO scrubbing facility at the Eddystone
unit 1. After initial startup in September 1975,
this unit was shut down when the regeneration-
sulfuric acid system at Olin Chemicals, Paulsboro,
New Jersey, plant was permanently closed. Regenera-
tion will now take place at an Essex Chemical's acid
plant in Newark, New Jersey. EPA plans to supply
consulting for startup, operation, and test prograa
formulation.
W-L/Allied Chemical Demonstration Program.
EPA and Northern Indiana Public Service Company
(NIPSCO) have jointly funded the design and
construction of a flue gas cleaning demonstration
plant utilizing the W-L S02 recovery process and
the Allied Chemical S02 reduction process to con-
vert recovered S02 to elemental sulfur. The
operational costs for the system will be paid by
NIPSCO, and a comprehensive test and evaluation
program will be funded by EPA. The demonstration
system has been retrofitted to the 115-MW, coal-
fired unit 11 at the D. H. Mitchell Station in
Gary, Indiana.
The demonstration program consists of three
phases: Phase I—the development of a process
design, major equipment specification, and a de-
tailed cost estimate—was completed in December
1972. Phase II—the final design and construction-
was completed by Davy Powergas, Inc. (owner of the
W-L process) in August 1976. Startup activities
and acceptance testing were delayed by boiler
problems which developed when unit 11 was shut
down for annual maintenance. The boiler and the
FGD plant are scheduled to restart in June, and
integrated operation and acceptance testing will
follow shortly thereafter. Phase III—long-term
duration testing—will begin after acceptance.
Aqueous Carbonate Demonstration Program.
EPA and Empire State Electric Energy Research
Corporation (ESEERCO), a research organization
sponsored by New York's eight major power suppliers,
have recently contracted to fund jointly the de-
sign and construction of a demonstration of
Atomics International's sulfur-producing aqueous
carbonate process. The demonstration is being
retrofitted to Niagara Mohawk Power Company's
100-MW coal-fired Huntley Station in Tonawanda,
New York.
The demonstration will be in four phases.
Phase I, the design and cost estimate, is expected
to be completed by mid-1977, and Phase II, con-
struction, by mid-1979. Acceptance, Phase III,
should be accomplished by the end of 1979, at
which time a 1-year test and evaluation program,
Phase IV, will be initiated.
BOM Citrate Demonstration Program. EPA and
BOM have entered into a cooperative agreement to
pool funds and technical talents to demonstrate
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the citrate process which has been developed
through pilot scale by BOM. A concurrent develop-
ment program, carried out by an industrial con-
sortium headed by Pfizer Chemical Company, also
led to a pilot operation of the process. Based on
the results of these two pilot programs, EPA and
BOM have initiated the demonstration of this
technology on a 53-MW coal-fired boiler at St. Joe
Minerals Corporation in Monaca, Pennsylvania.
The demonstration will be in four phases.
Phase I, the design and cost estimate, was com-
pleted in November 1976. Phase II, detailed
design, procurement, and construction, began in
March 1977 and is scheduled to be completed in
mid-1978. Acceptance, Phase III, should be
accomplished by the end of 1978 at which time a
1-year test and evaluation program, Phase IV, will
be initiated.
Catalytic Oxidation (Cat-Ox) Demonstration
Program. The Cat-Ox process is Monsanto Enviro-
Chem Systems' adaptation of the contact sulfuric
acid process. EPA and Illinois Power Company have
been attempting to demonstrate the process on a
103-MW coal-fired boiler at Illinois Power's Wood
River Station since 1970.
Detailed design, construction, shakedown
testing, and performance guarantee testing were
completed in July 1973. The unit met all guarantees
and was subsequently accepted. Because of the
shortage of natural gas, the burners were modified
to allow either oil— or gas-firing, as conditions
permit; however, design and startup problems have
precluded successful operation and initiation of
the comprehensive 1-year test program.
In view of the problems and long delays en-
countered, a thorough technical and economic study
was made of the costs and benefits of continuing
the Cat-Ox demonstration at the Wood River Station.
Results of this study led to the decision to end
the project in December 1976.
Ammonia Scrubbing with Bisulfate Regeneration
Pilot-PlantProgram. In 1970, EPA and TVA jointly
undertook the development of a completely cyclic
ammonia scrubbing - ammonium bisulfate regeneration
process which has as its major product a concentrated
stream of S02 which can then be used to produce sul-
furic acid or elemental sulfur. This process was
evaluated at a 3,000 ft3/min (5,100 m3/hr) pilot
plant located at Colbert Steam Plant. While initial
developmental efforts at the pilot unit were con-
centrated on the absorber, later work included in-
vestigation of all subunits of the system except
the electrical decomposer. It became apparent that
the process had two major problems: (1) the forma-
tion of a persistent fume which could not be con-
sistently controlled or eliminated by reasonable
control efforts, and (2) unfavorable economic pro-
jections due primarily to energy consumption by the
decomposer. As a result of these problems, the
development project was terminated during the summer
of 1976.
Support Studies for FGD Systems
Key supporting studies in several problem areas
of FGD technology have been sponsored by EPA to
further the advancement and application of commer-
cial systems. In many cases, the studies undertaken
are broad general assessments which are directed
toward a wide variety of potential users.
Reductant Gases. Elemental sulfur is a de-
sirable form for recovery of SOX because it is the
minimum quantity of any FGD waste or byproduct and
because of its saleability, ease of transport, and
suitability for long-term storage. Production of
sulfur from SOX requires the use of a reductant for
conversion of the SOX to sulfur; to date, major
emphasis has been on the use of natural gas for
this purpose. In view of the current and continu-
ing shortage of natural gas, it is imperative that
other sources of reductant gas be utilized in the
future. Toward this end EPA retained Battelle
Columbus Laboratories to conduct process evalua-
tion and cost estimates of gasification processes
that are suited for application to FGD require-
ments, and to recommend avenues of continuing
development and demonstration.
The project report concludes that a gasifier-
based reduction system would increase significantly
the complexity of the overall FGD system. However,
the gasifier could be used to supply some of the
energy requirements of the FGD process, such as for
stack gas reheating. The report also concluded
that purchased H2S will play only a minor role as
a reductant for S02 from power plant FGD systems.
The use of H2S will involve almost entirely by-
product streams obtained "across the fence" from a
source such as an oil refinery or a natural gas
processing plant, and geographical considerations
will restrict this usage.
Byproduct Marketing Studies. Regenerable FGD
systems produce such byproducts as sulfuric acid,
sulfur and, to a lesser extent, gypsum. The purpose
of this program is to develop a computer model to
determine the quantities of byproduct acid, sulfur,
and gypsum that would be produced at power plant
sources and to analyze the markets for these by-
products.
Under interagency agreement with EPA, TVA has
studied the economics of marketing sulfuric acid
that could theoretically be produced from its coal-
fired plants. Preliminary results in 1973 indi-
cated that the net sales revenue of abatement acid
would range from $6 to $9/ton of 98% sulfuric acid,
and might reduce the cost of operating a power plant
sulfur oxide recovery system by 10 to 20%.
Since the first report, however, the market
for abatement acid has improved and a second phase
of the marketing study is now underway. In this
phase, TVA is considering all potential abatement
acid or elemental sulfur from power plants located
in the United States. Unlike the first phase,
however, this is not a hypothetical model, but is
based on the actual utility and sulfuric acid plant
population of the region in question. Moreover,
TVA's computer program considers compliance with
S02 emission standards and identifies optimum pro-
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duction and distribution patterns based on freight
costs and market demand. As in the first phase,
the net sales revenue is to be estimated. The
project was also expanded to include marketing of
calcium sulfate (gypsum) in addition to sulfur and
sulfuric acid. Final reports covering the market-
ing of abatement sulfur, sulfuric acid, and calcium
sulfate should be available by the fall of 1977.
Comparative Economics of SO? Control Processes.
The purpose of this continuing EPA-TVA project is
to study the most promising S0£ removal processes
advancing toward commercialization. It includes
selection of those processes which have the greatest
degree of development and which are potentially
attractive both technically and economically. These
evaluations include preparation of flow sheets,
material balances, and layouts; definition of
process equipment; preparation of capital invest-
ments and operating costs; and analysis of design
and economic variables for cost sensitivity
analysis. Currently, this is being done for the
citrate and double-alkali processes using the lime-
stone system for comparison.
Other facets of the project address sludge
disposal alternatives, evaluation of an alumina
extraction process, critique of published FGD cost
estimates, and studies of promising front-end fuel
processing alternatives. At the present time TVA
has completed information gathering, design, and
costing for the citrate and double-alkali processes.
Results of these studies should be available by
late summer. Four sludge disposal alternatives
have been evaluated, and a report of this work is
almost complete. Work on the fuel processing
alternatives has not yet begun.
Supporting Studies for the Magnesium Oxide
Scrubbing Program. Two studies in support of mag-
nesium oxide scrubbing have been conducted by the
Radian Corporation. In the first study, Radian
evaluated the feasibility of producing elemental
sulfur directly from magnesium sulfite. This
would expand the applicability of current magnesium
oxide processes which only produce sulfuric acid.
The second study is concerned with the mechanism of
formation of tri- and hexa-hydrate forms of magne-
sium sulfite (MgS03'3H20, MgS03-6H20). The hexa-
hydrate crystals separate and handle easily; the
tri-hydrate crystals require less drying energy but
are more difficult to separate and handle. This
study has attempted to generate information on
formation mechanisms and operating conditions that
can be used to control the type of crystal formed.
Advanced Concepts Bench-Scale Studies. In
support of FGD systems development, TVA is perform-
ing for EPA a series of bench-scale tests on in-
dividual S02 process steps, such as absorption,
oxidation, reduction, and decomposition. In
addition, research work is being performed on prom-
ising potassium and melamine scrubbing systems.
Progress was achieved in developing an improved
sulfite oxidizer which reduces energy consumption
and improves oxygen utilization over an available
Japanese device. The key steps in the cyclic
potassium scrubbing-decomposition system were test-
ed and data gathered for potential scale-up to
larger pilot-plant facilities. One promising method
studied for accommodating unwanted oxidation in
soluble alkali scrubbing systems was to precipitate
selectively barium sulfate from sulfite scrubber
solutions with barium carbonate. The barium sulfate
could be reduced to sulf ide and this converted to
barium carbonate (for recycle) and hydrogen sulfidj
by treatment with carbon dioxide and water; the
hydrogen sulfide could be converted to elemental
sulfur by the Glaus process. Studies were made
also on use of dilute sulfuric acid, as might be
produced from power plant stack gas, in production
of dilute phosphoric acid, and on some energy-
efficient methods for converting dilute phosphoric
acid into useful fertilizer products.
Comparison of Availability and Reliability of
Equipment Utilized in the Electric Utility Industry.
For the past several years one of the major objec-
tions of the utility industry to installing FGD
systems has been that reliability/availability of
FGD systems is much lower than for other major
utility equipment items, such as boilers, turbines,
generators, electrostatic precipitators, and gas
turbines. It is desirable that good information
and data on this question be gathered so that a
valid comparison of performance can be made.
To meet this need and to provide information
as input for a current National Academy of Sciences
study of SOX control technology, a study by Radian
was initiated as a jointly sponsored project of EPA
and the Council on Environmental Quality. The ob-
jectives of the study are to: draw together all
available information on the reliability/
availability of both FGD systems and other equip-
ment components used in the electric utility
industry; and to develop a basis and model and to
make the performance comparison.
The desired information was assembled and a
model for comparing these dissimilar types of
equipment was developed. The Figure of Merit,
selected as a basis for the comparison, incorpo-
rates such factors as reliability, development
status, and repair effort. The major conclusions
of the Radian study Include: a statistically
meaningful comparison of reliability/availability
of these components cannot now be made, primarily
because of the small number and short service time
of FGD system data (a meaningful comparison can
probably be made in 1979); the comparison model
or Figure of Merit provides a better basis of
comparing or ranking dissimilar types of equipment
or systems than any single parameter now being
recorded; and the mechanical reliability of some
types of conventional equipment now being used by
the electric utility industry is not much different
from similar items used in FGD systems.
Technology Transfer
Engineering Applications/Information Transfer
(EA/IT) . EPA has initiated a program to disseminate
effectively FGD technology data and information to
meet the needs of the user community. In the past
EPA has attempted to meet its technology/information
dissemination responsibility primarily through
periodic symposiums, reports, and personal communi
cations. These activities will be continued, but
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they will be augmented by a comprehensive EA/IT
program now being carried out jointly by EPA and
contractor personnel to assure the efficient and
effective dissemination of information on pollution
control technology to all concerned sectors of the
Nation.
Materials being prepared under the expanded
EA/IT program include (1) a Summary Report on the
Wellman-Lord FGD process, (2) a series of quarterly
reports of FGD research, development and demonstra-
tion sponsored by EPA, (3) a Lime Scrubbing FGD Data
Book, and (4) a Limestone Scrubbing FGD Data Book.
These last two are being prepared as a cooperative
effort between EPA and the Electric Power Research
Institute (EPRI).
One specific facet of the comprehensive EA/IT
program is the design, development, and implementa-
tion of a series of three Cost/Reliability Handbooks.
This series of handbooks will provide one-source
availability of pertinent FGD data and information
gathered from past and present FGD efforts within
EPA, TVA, EPRI, the utility industry, FGD vendors,
and other foreign and domestic organizations. The
objective of the handbooks is to assist potential
users in choosing an FGD system for a specific
location with specific requirements/restrictions.
The first handbook will cover strategies in choos-
ing among the methods of meeting emission standards,
such as clean coal, FGD, or coal cleaning. The
second handbook will aid in choosing among the
available FGD systems. The third handbook will
serve as a guide for optimizing equipment selection
within an FGD system.
In another effort of the EA/IT program, non-
utility combustion sources that are applying or
considering the application of various strategies
for control of SOX emissions have been surveyed.
Meetings were held with regulatory agencies and
industrial representatives in the selected study
areas to determine the various strategies/technolo-
gies in use and to conduct surveys of selected
plants. The overall applicability of each control
technology to each study area has been assessed and
the information gathered has been brought together
into a nonutility survey report.
Survey of Utility FGD Installations. To meet
the continuing demand for technical and economic
data on operational, under construction, and planned
future units, EPA has employed PEDCo-Environmental
to monitor this field of technology and prepare
periodic reports for use by utilities, system
vendors and designers, and regulatory authorities.
In addition to detailed technical reports, PEDCo is
providing bimonthly status reports indicating the
number of each type of SC>2 control system in opera-
tion, under construction, or planned in the United
States, and the megawatt capacity controlled or to
be controlled. The bimonthly status report gives
technical and economic information on all known
U.S. utility FGD systems categorized in 15 tables
and 4 appendices to promote ease of use.
Symposiums, Industry Briefings, Capsule Reports,
and Summary Reports. EPA continues to disseminate
information through its traditional outlets, such
as the periodic FGD symposiums, industry briefings,
capsule reports, and project summary reports. Six
symposiums have now been held, the last one in
March 1976. The next symposium is scheduled for
November 8-10, 1977, in Hollywood, Florida.
Progress on lime-limestone technology has been re-
ported through industry briefings, the last one in
October 1976. Thus far, three capsule reports have
been issued on the EPA-TVA-Bechtel Shawnee program.
Numerous project reports and papers covering com-
pleted work on FGD sponsored under the Federal
interagency energy/environment program are listed
in the bibliography.
PROGRAM DISCUSSION
There is a considerable amount of work yet to
be done in the Federal interagency FGD program; how-
ever, a number of significant results already have
been derived.
In the area of lime-limestone slurry scrubbing,
the Shawnee program has provided considerable ex-
perience and data which can be used to advance the
technology. Significant progress has been achieved
on workable materials of construction, pump selec-
tion, mist eliminator design and washing tech-
niques to avoid equipment scaling and plugging,
alkali utilization, variable-load operation, flue
gas characterization, flyash-free operation, and
overall process reliability. Data from this
program have been reported extensively to the
industry and are available for use in designing
the new lime-limestone systems to be installed
around the country. If the results from Shawnee
can be translated to larger, full-scale systems,
the program will have served the industry well.
The results of the IERL-RTP pilot-plant test
scrubber are also significant. Often, findings
in this program (such as subsaturated mode of
operation, effects of chloride content of coal,
oxidation, and alkali utilization studies) have
been the first step toward improving lime-limestone
systems. Much of the present and future Shawnee
test program activities are spin-offs from these
smaller pilot-plant studies. The IERL-RTP pilot
plant is a cost-effective route to process im-
provements in scrubbing technology.
The workable mist eliminator washing tech-
niques developed under the 1-MW TVA pilot-plant
study are of considerable importance to the in-
dustry toward increasing the reliability of
slurry scrubbing systems. The results have been
confirmed at the larger Shawnee test facility,
and mist eliminator performance should be less of
a barrier to reliable operation than before.
Although complete results from the Bahco
and LG&E lime-limestone programs are still forth-
coming, both these activities have considerable
potential for contributing to the overall FGD
effort. The Bahco technology is directly appli-
cable to smaller size (5-50 MW) industrial
boilers, and the LG&E program should be used to
improve performance of large systems through
application of unsaturated mode operation.
119
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Advancement of double-alkali technology is
moving at an accelerated pace using results of
the interagency program. The number of double-
alkali process applications has begun to increase
now that data from the CEA-ADL development work
at the Scholz Steam Plant is becoming available.
This technology, which offers potential for in-
creasing the reliability of FGD, has been chosen
by several utilities. If the results from Scholz
can be translated into long-term runs at the LG&E
installation, additional impetus will be given to
the use of double-alkali scrubbing by utilities.
Unlike lime-limestone and double-alkali tech-
nologies, which have received considerable advance-
ment from both EPA- and industry-funded applica-
tions, the state of development of regenerable
process technology has been largely dependent on
efforts supported by EPA. Thus far, regenerable
process achievements generally have been more
difficult to come by. As can be discerned from
the ammonium bisulfate and Cat-Ox programs, the
development of this technology has encountered
difficulties; however, the long-term potential of
producing useful byproducts justifies considerable
development efforts in this area. Successful long-
term demonstrations of the magnesium oxide, W-L,
aqueous carbonate, and citrate processes are im-
portant to the acceptance of regenerable FGD tech-
nology. The magnesium oxide process is an ex-
cellent system for sulfuric acid production and
the W-L system can be designed for acid production
as well as elemental sulfur. Both of these are
first-generation processes. The aqueous carbonate
and citrate processes are second-generation processes
and their development could open the way to cost-
effective elemental sulfur production from power
plant stack gases.
Assuming successful completion of the citrate,
aqueous carbonate, double-alkali, and W-L/demonstra-
tions now underway, these processes, along with
lime, limestone, and MgO, will offer industry at
least seven key process alternatives to utilize for
S02 control. The addition of a gypsum-producing
system would also complement the options available.
The support studies funded under the Federal
Interagency Program have contributed to the knowl-
edge in some important areas of FGD technology.
With many of the new processes requiring reductants
for conversion of S02 to sulfur and with available
supplies of natural gas quite limited, the Battelle
study on reductants comes at an important time.
The TVA detailed process cost studies have also
had an impact on the industry serving as a means to
compare process alternatives economically and to
supply sufficient generalized equipment and in-
stallation costs so that utilities can more accu-
rately estimate their own costs for prospective
scrubber systems. The TVA by-product marketing
studies should go a long way in helping to inform
the industry on the sales approaches that can be
used, the most desirable sales outlets, the costs
of transportation, and the most promising candidate
power plants for FGD byproducts.
The effective transfer of technology from the
pilot plants, prototypes, and demonstration projects
is essential for widespread successful application
of FGD. Thus far, the utilization of some develop,
ments has been sluggish; but in time, through a
variety of mechanisms, such as reports, industry
briefings, and symposiums, the use of developed
information should escalate. As a means of ex-
pediting the use of developed technology, plans are
now under consideration to pursue a more positive
applications-oriented technology transfer program
involving a higher degree of participation and
coordination by EPRI, the utility industry, and FGD
system vendors.
CONCLUSIONS
For sulfur oxides control of medium- and high-
sulfur fossil fuels, the state of FGD technology is
well advanced over competing technologies. With
about 120 units of approximately 50,000 MW either
operational, under construction, or planned as of
March 1977, the experience level of this tech-
nology is escalating rapidly.
The development of lime-limestone scrubbing
is far ahead of other FGD systems primarily be-
cause of information gathered from operational
systems and through development sponsored by the
Federal interagency program. The Shawnee proto-
type and the EPA-IERL pilot plant have been
effective efforts. The TVA 1-MW pilot plant has
also contributed to advancement of technology.
If future power plant scrubber systems are de-
signed to take advantage of data already avail-
able, improvement in overall reliability, cost,
and effectiveness should transpire. Additional
work is needed in this area of technology, how-
ever, to improve performance, reduce costs, and
increase reliability. Better solutions to the
problems of sludge disposal are needed, raw
material utilization needs improvement, and the
initial cost of systems should be reduced.
Double-alkali technology is rapidly coming
into its own as a viable means of S02 control.
The potential advantages of such systems to im-
prove S02 removal, sludge characteristics, and
operating reliability first need to be confirmed
through the full-scale LG&E demonstration, then
applied as an alternate to lime-limestone tech-
nology. The work thus far has been promising
toward confirming these advantages.
The area in which the most work remains to
be done is in regenerable process technology.
The presently planned demonstrations need to be
completed as soon as possible. In addition,
further work is needed to confirm the long-term
effectiveness and economics of magnesium oxide
scrubbing. This technology has already shown
promise and the remaining questions revolve pri-
marily around process reliability and cost,
marketability of byproducts, and absorbent re-
cycle and losses.
It can be concluded that the support programs
under the interagency umbrella have extended the
knowledge of the industry by shedding light on a
number of problem areas. Studies should be con-
tinued in special problem areas, such as byproduct
marketing, sodium sulfate disposal, comparative
120
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process economics, sludge disposal, and reductants
for S02 to sulfur.
The technology transfer program has been effec-
tive in most areas, but there remains a certain re-
sistance to full utilization of reported technology.
Perhaps the deeper involvement of process vendors
in such efforts could increase the applications of
research results. Efforts in technology transfer
need to be continued and, if anything, intensified
to make the best use of available information.
In summary, the Federal interagency FGD program
is quite broad, has been successful in several areas,
but still needs additional work in a number of ac-
tivities. With many important projects in their
earliest stages, FGD developments of considerable
interest to the utility and industrial sectors will
be forthcoming for quite a while.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ando, J. "Status of Flue Gas Desulfurization and
Simultaneous Removal of S02 and NOX in Japan."
In Proceedings: Symposium on Flue Gas De-
sulfurization, New Orleans, March 1976, Vol
I. EPA-600/2-76-136a (NTIS PB 255 317), May
1976, pp. 53-78.
Ando, J., and G. A. Isaacs. S02 Abatement for
Stationary Sources in Japan. EPA-600/2-76-
013a (NTIS PB 250 585), January 1976.
Borgwardt, R. H. "EPA/RTP Pilot Studies Related
to Unsaturated Operation of Lime and Lime-
stone Scrubbers." In Proceedings: Symposium
on Flue Gas Desulfurization, Atlanta, November
1974, Vol I. EPA-650/2-74-126a (NTIS PB
242 572), December 1974.
Borgwardt, R. H. "IERL-RTP Scrubber Studies Re-
lated to Forced Oxidation." In Proceedings:
Symposium on Flue Gas Desulfurization, New
Orleans, March 1976, Vol I. EPA-600/2-76-
136a (NTIS PB 255 317), May 1976, pp. 117-143.
Borgwardt, R. H. "Improving Limestone Utilization
in FGD Scrubbers." AIChE Symposium Series,
"Air-1976," in press.
: Borgwardt, R. H. Sludge Oxidation in Limestone
FGD Scrubbers. EPA-600/7-77-061, June 1977.
Bucy, J. I., J. L. Kevins, P. A. Corrigan, and
A. G. Meli=ks. "Potential Utilization of
Controlled SOX Emissions from Power Plants in
Eastern United States." In Proceedings
Symposium onFlue Gas Desulfurization, New
Orleans, March 1976, Vol II. EPA-600/2-76-
136b (NTIS PB 262 722), May 1976, pp. 647-700.
Crowe, J. L., and H. W. Elder. "Status and Plans
for Waste Disposal from Utility Applications
of Flue Gas Desulfurization Systems." In
Proceedings! Symposium on Flue Gas Desulfu-
rization, New Orleans, March 1976, Vol II.
EPA-600/2-76-136b (NTIS PB 262 722), May 1976,
pp. 565-577.
Devitt, T. W., G. A. Isaacs, and B. A. Laseke.
"Status of Flue Gas Desulfurization Systems
in the United States." In Proceedings:
Symposium on Flue Gas Desulfurization, New
Orleans, March 1976, Vol I. EPA-600/2-76-
136a (NTIS PB 255 317), May 1976, pp. 13-51.
Epstein, M. EPA Alkali Scrubbing Test Facility:
Advanced Program - First Progress Report.
EPA-600/2-75-050 (NTIS PB 245 279), September
1975.
Epstein, M. EPA Alkali Scrubbing Test Facility:
Summary of Testing Through October 1974.
EPA-650/2-75-047 (NTIS PB 244 901), June 1975.
Epstein, M., H. N. Head, S. C. Wang, and D. A.
Burbank. "Results of Mist Elimination and
Alkali Utilization Testing at the EPA Alkali
Scrubbing Test Facility." In Proceedings:
Symposium on Flue Gas Desulfurization, New
Orleans, March 1976, Vol I. EPA-600/2-76-
136a (NTIS PB 255 317), May 1976, pp. 145-204.
Feasibility of Producing Elemental Sulfur from
Magnesium Sulfite. EPA-600/7-76-030 (NTIS
PB 262 857), October 1976.
Gerstle, R. W., and G. A. Isaacs.
Gas Desulfurization Systems:
Survey of Flue
Reid Gardner
Station, Nevada Power Company. EPA-650/2-
75-057J (NTIS PB 246 852), October 1975.
Head, H. N. EPA Alkali Scrubbing Test Facility:
Advanced Program - Second Progress Report.
EPA-600/7-76-008 (NTIS PB 258 783) , September
1976.
Hissong, D. W., K. S. Murthy, and A. W. Lemmon, Jr.
Reductant Gases for Flue Gas Desulfurization
Systems.
1976.
EPA-600/2-76-130 (PB 254 168), May
Hollinden, G. A., R. F. Robards, N. D. Moore,
T. M. Kelso, and R. M. Cole. TVA's 1-MW
Pilot Plant: Final Report on High Velocity
Scrubbingand Vertical Duct Mist Elimination.
EPA-600/7-77-019 (TVA PRS-19), March 1977.
Interess, E. Evaluation of the General Motors'
Double Alkali S02 Control System. EPA-600/
7-77-005 (NTIS PB 263 469), January 1977.
Isaacs, G. A. Survey of Flue Gas Pesulfurization
Systems: Dickerson Station, Potomac Electric
Power Company. EPA-650/2-75-057g (NTIS PB
246 850), September 1975.
Isaacs, G. A. Survey of Flue Gas Pesulfurization
Systems: Eddystone Station, Philadelphia
Electric Company. EPA-650/2-75-057f (NTIS
PB 247 085), September 1975.
Isaacs, G. A. Survey of Flue Gas Desulfurization
Systems: Paddy's Run Station, Louisville
Gas and Electric. EPA-650/2-75-057d (NTIS
PB 246 136), August 1975.
121
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Isaacs, G. A. Survey of Flue Gas Desulfurization
Systems: Phillips Power Station, Duquesne
Light Company. EPA-650/2-75-057c (NTIS
PB 246 285), July 1975.
Isaacs, G. A., and F. K. Zada. Survey of Flue
Gas Desulfurization Systems: Cholla Power
Generating Station, Arizona Public Service
Company. EPA-650/2-75-057a (NTIS PB 244 141),
June 1975.
Isaacs, G. A., and F. K. Zada. Survey of Flue
Gas Desulfurization Systems: Hawthorn
Station, Kansas City Power and Light Company.
EPA-650/2-75-057h (NTIS PB 246 629),
September 1975.
Isaacs, G. A., and F. K. Zada. Survey of Flue
Gas Desulfurization Systems: La Cygne Sta-
tion, Kansas City Power and Light Company
and Kansas Gas and Electric Company. EPA-
650/2-75-057b (NTIS PB 244 401), July 1975.
Isaacs, G. A., and F. K. Zada. Survey of Flue
Gas Desulfurization Systems: Lawrence Power
Station, Kansas Power and Light Company.
EPA-650/2-75-057e (NTIS PB 246 849),
September 1975.
Isaacs, G. A., and F. K. Zada. Survey of Flue
Gas Desulfurization Systems: Mohave Station,
Southern California Edison Company. EPA-
650/2-75-057k (NTIS PB 246 929), October 1975.
Isaacs, G. A., and F. K. Zada. Survey of Flue
Gas Desulfurization Systems: Will County
Station, Commonwealth Edison Company. EPA-
650/2-75-057i (NTIS PB 246 851), October 1975.
Jones, B. F., P. S. Lowell, and F. B. Messerole.
Experimental and Theoretical Studies of
Solid Solution Formation in Lime and Lime-
stone S02 Scrubbers, Vol I—Final report,
and Vol II—Appendices. EPA-600/2-76-273a
and -273b (NTIS PB 264 953 and 264 954),
October 1976.
Kaplan, N. "Introduction to Double Alkali Flue
Gas Desulfurization Technology." In
Proceedings: Symposium on Flue Gas Desul-
furization, New Orleans, March 1976, Vol I.
EPA-600/2-76-136a (NTIS PB 255 317), May 1976,
pp. 387-422.
Koehler, G., and J. A. Burns. Magnesia Scrubbing
Process as Applied to an Oil-Fired Power
Plant. EPA-600/2-75-057 (NTIS PB 247 201),
October 1975.
LaMantia, C. R., R. R. Lunt, R. E. Rush, T. M.
Frank, and N. Kaplan. "Operating Experience—
CEA/ADL Dual Alkali Prototype System at Gulf
Power/Southern Services, Inc. In Proceedings:
Symposium on Flue Gas Desulfurization, New
Orleans, March 1976, Vol I. EPA-600/2-76-136a
(NTIS PB 255 317), May 1976, pp. 423-471.
Lowell, P. S., F. B. Messerole, T. B. Parsons.
Precipitation Chemistry of Magnesium Sulfite
Hydrate in Magnesium Oxide Scrubbing. EPA
report in press.
Magnesia Scrubbing Applied to a Coal-Fired Power
Plant. EPA-600/7-77-018 (NTIS PB 266~228)7
March 1977.
McGlamery, G. G. , H. L. Faucett, R. L. Torstrick
and L. J. Henson, "Flue Gas Desulfurization
Economics." In Proceedings: Symposium on
j?lue Gas Desulfurization, New Orleans, March
1976, Vol I. EPA-600/2-76-136a (NTIS PB
255 317), May 1976, pp. 79-99.
McMichael, W. J., L. S. Fan, and C. Y. Wen.
"Analysis of Sulfur Dioxide Wet Limestone
Scrubbing Data from Pilot Plant Spray and TCA
Scrubbers." Ind. Eng. Chem. , Process Des,
Dev. L5 No. 3, pp. 459-468, 1976"]
PEDCo-Environmental, Inc. "Summary Report - Flue
Gas Desulfurization Systems." January-
February-March 1977.
Tennessee Valley Authority. Pilot-Plant Study of
an Ammonia Absorption - Ammonium Bisulfate
Regeneration Process, Topical Report Phases
T and II. EPA-650/2-74-049a (NTIS PB 237 171),
June 1974.
Uchida, S., C. S. Chang, and C. Y. Wen. "Mechanics
of a Turbulent Contact Absorber." Can. J. of
Chem. Eng., in press.
Uchida, S., C. Y. Wen, and W. J. McMichael. "Role
of Holding Tank in Lime and Limestone Slurry
Sulfur Dioxide Scrubbing." Ind. Eng. Chem.,
Process Des. Dev. L5 No. 1, pp. 88-95, 1976.
Waitzman, D. A., J. L. Nevins, and G. A. Slappey,
Marketing H?SO/t from SO^ Abatement Sources,
The TVA Hypothesis. EPA-650/2-73-051
(NTIS PB 231 671), December 1973.
Wen, C. Y., and C. S. Chang. "Absorption of S02
by Limestone and Lime Slurry: An Analysis
of the TCA Performance Below and Above the
Flooding Point." Environ. Sci. and Techno!.,
in press.
Wen, C. Y., and F. K. Fong. Analysis and
Simulation of Recycle S07—Lime Slurry in a
TCA Scrubber System. EPA-600/7-77-026
TNTIS PB 266 104), March 1977.
Williams, John E. "Summary of Operation and Test-
ing at the Shawnee Prototype Lime/Limestone
Test Facility." April 1977, IERL-RTP.
122
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FINE PARTICULATE EMISSIONS CONTROL
FROM STATIONARY SOURCES
James H. Abbott and Dale L. Harmon
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
3. New Particulate Control Technology
Development.
4. New Idea Identification, Evaluation,
and Technology Transfer.
5. High-Temperature and High-pressure
Particulate Control.
6. Accelerated Pilot Demonstrations.
Elaboration on each of these program areas will
follow in the succeeding discussion.
INTRODUCTION
Fine particulates are a health hazard
because, in contrast to coarse particles, they can
bypass the body's respiratory filters and pene-
trate deep into the lungs .1'2 Fine particles
released into the atmosphere remain airborne for
extended periods of time, obstruct light and
cause limited visibility typical of air pollution,
haze and smog. They have been identified as
transport vehicles for gaseous pollutants. The
health hazards of fine particulates are intensi-
fied by the tendency of metallic materials from
high-temperature processes, such as pyrometal-
lurgical and combustion processes, to condense
as chemically and catalytically active fine
particles. Many toxic and potentially hazardous
compounds are also emitted as fine particulate.
Particulate matter formed in the atmosphere from
chemical reaction and condensation is called
secondary. The phenomena associated with the
formation and transport of secondary particulate
make it difficult to relate atmospheric particu-
late pollution levels to specific sources. This
problem has hampered the development of effective,
fine particulate control strategies and the
establishment of meaningful fine particulate
emission standards. The control of these secon-
dary forms of particulate must be through control
of their precursors, and it is generally thought
that primary emitted particulate plays an
important role in the formation cycle.
Many years will be required to develop a
sound data base to quantify the health effects
problem of fine particulates. Sufficient infor-
mation does exist, however, to conclude that
fine particulates must be controlled if public
health is to be protected.
In order to pursue the goal of developing
control technology for fine particulate emissions,
the current basic EPA fine particulate program
has been divided into six main areas.
1. Characterization and Improvement of
Conventional Control Equipment and
Assessment of the Collectability of
Dusts.
2. Development of Technology for Control
of Particulate Emissions from the
Combustion of Low Sulfur Coal.
TECHNICAL AND PROGRAM DISCUSSION
1. Characterization and Improvement of
Conventional Control Equipment and
Assessment of the Collectability of Dusts
a. Electrostatic Precipitators (ESPs) -
The EPA has completed the total characterization
of seven ESPs operating on a number of sources
ranging from power plants to aluminum plants. >
Data from these tests have clearly shown that
ESPs can collect particles of all sizes with
high efficiency when dust resistivity is not a
problem. Data and theoretical predictions
indicate that high dust resistivity limits ESP
performance.
EPA has completed work to determine the
electrical conduction mechanisms in fly ash at
high temperatures (730°F/390°C).5>6 Work in
this area is being extended to low temperatures.
One outcome of this work has been the demonstration
of sodium as a potential conditioning agent to
reduce fly ash resistivity. EPA has evaluated
and published reports on conditioning agents
such as SO., and NH_. ' Conditioning appears to
be a possible solution to retrofit type problems
but not for new installations. Conditioning
will not be a solution if it causes adverse
environmental effects. EPA will conduct further
tests to assess the total impact of conditioning.
One test has already been completed and preparation
for others is currently in progress.
Specially designed charging or precharging
sections are a possible means of improving the
collection of fine high resistivity particles.
A fundamental study and limited pilot plant work
on particle charging was begun in FY-74. This
work was continued through FY-76 and resulted in
a laboratory demonstration of the feasibility of
this concept. A pilot scale demonstration will
be funded in FY-77.
b- Scrubbers - The Environmental
Protection Agency, as a part of this R&D program,
has tested approximately ten scrubbers of conven-
tional design on a variety of particulate sources.
In general, it can be said that the performance or
efficiency of a scrubber drops off rather rapidly
as the particle size decreases. It can be said
that the efficiency is directly related to the
energy consumed by the scrubber.
123
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The broad objective of the fine particle
scrubber program is to develop low pressure drop
(30-50 cm water pressure drop) scrubber systems
capable of collecting at least 90% by mass of
particles smaller than 3 microns in diameter.
With the exception of two TCA scrubbers, the
performance of all conventional and novel
scrubbers tested by EPA has been predictable.
The TCA scrubbers appear to perform better at
the same pressure drop than other scrubbers.
Some additional data taken during FY-76 and FY-
77 has indicated that the superior performance
previously measured on TCA scrubbers is very
likely the result of condensation effects with
the scrubber system.
The major thrust of EPA's scrubber program
has been aimed at developing and demonstrating
In
Flux Force/Condensation (FF/C) scrubbers.
an FF/C scrubber, water vapor is condensed in
the scrubber. When the water vapor condenses,
additional forces and particle growth contribute
to the particle collection process. When the
water vapor or steam is "free", FF/C scrubbers
are low energy users. However, when water vapor
or steam has to be purchased, FF/C scrubbers
require additional energy inputs for efficient
particle collection. Answers to questions of
how much steam is needed and how much is free
are major unknowns at present. Answers to both
questions are likely to be source specific.
Thus, pilot demonstrations on a variety of
sources are necessary to provide required data.
One pilot demonstration on a secondary metal
recovery furnace has been completed. A second
pilot demonstration on an iron cupola is under-
way .
The overall efficiency of a scrubber system
is determined by the efficiency of the scrubber
and the efficiency of the entrainment separator.
Recent field data indicate that in some cases
inefficient entrainment separator operation is a
major cause of poor fine particle collection by
scrubbers. EPA has recently completed a systems
study of entrainment separators. In FY-76 the
design of these separators for fine particle
control was optimized. This design is now ready
for demonstration.
c. Fabric Filters - The performance of
baghouses has been completely characterized on
three sources, two utility type boilers and one
industrial boiler.12 > ^ >1Zf The data obtained
from these tests show that baghouses are
relatively good fine particle collectors and
their performance is not very sensitive to
particle sizes down to at least 0.3 microns. A
major advantage of fabric filters is that they
will not require increases in size or energy
usage for efficient collection of fine particles.
The objectives of the immediate work by EPA
in the fabric filtration area are:
(1) Understanding of the filtration process.
(2) Application to and demonstration on
priority sources.
(3) Achievement of cost/energy effectiveness,
(A) Development and testing of new filter
materials which can extend the applica-
bility of baghouses to a broad spectrum
of sources.
d. Assessment of the Collectability of
Dust - Actual data on fractional efficiency of
conventional particulate collectors is sparse.
Actual operating data for the optimization of
collection efficiency and cost is not readily
available. Design of control equipment is presently
based on projections from historical data which
has been developed by manufacturers for their
own devices and is proprietary. This information
is not standardized and cannot be extrapolated
to other devices. On-site testing prior to
selection is seldom attempted and the possibility
of alternative devices is poorly defined.
Several mobile collectors which can be
easily transported from source to source and
tested have been constructed. A mobile scrubber,
fabric filter and ESP are completed and are in
use. The ESP was completed in late 1976 and was
put into operation. The fabric filter and
scrubber have been in operation for several
years. These mobile units are highly versatile
and will be used to investigate the applicability
of these control methods to the control of fine
particulate emitted from a wide range of sources.
The relative capabilities and limitations of
these control devices will be evaluated and
documented. This information, supplemented by
data from other EPA particulate programs, will
permit selection by equipment users of collection
systems that are technically and economically
optimum for specific applications. Operation of
the mobile units will be coordinated with other
EPA laboratories and regions to provide, when
possible, field data on specific control sources.
The mobile fabric filter unit has been
operated on effluents from a brass and bronze
foundry, a hot mix asphalt plant, a coal-fired
boiler, a lime kiln and a pulp mill recovery
boiler. It has also been used to determine the
performance of a fabric filter on the air
emissions from a cyclone collector used on the
St. Louis Refuse Processing Plant. The filter
unit is now operating on site to obtain prelim-
inary data for an EPA funded demonstration of a
fabric filter on a 350 megawatt boiler burning
low sulfur coal. The mobile wet scrubber unit
has been operated on a coal fired power plant,
a lime kiln in a pulp and paper mill and on a
gray iron foundry. The mobile electrostatic
precipitator is operating in the field for the
first time on an industrial boiler burning a
mixture of coal and pelletized refuse. This
unit will be taken to a field site this month to
evaluate the effects of sodium conditioning on a
low sulfur western coal.
124
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2. Development: of Technology for Control
of Particulate Emissions from the
Combustion of Low Sulfur Coal
One method of reducing the sulfur emis-
iions from coal-fired power plants is to switch
,'rom high sulfur coal to low sulfur coal . Sev-
!ral utilities and EPA envision such fuel
switching as a means of achieving acceptable air
,|uality without the need for installing sulfur
Dioxide (SCO scrubbers. At first glance coal
switching appears to be a near optimum method of
ichieving acceptable air quality without the need
or installing SCU scrubbers. The need for
scrubbers and their associated potential water
>ollution problem is eliminated. As a result of
:he attractiveness of low sulfur coal, many
Utilities are considering either switching to low
sulfur coals or cleaning high sulfur coals to
aeet SO,, requirements. Such coal switching is
Likely to greatly increase the particulate
missions from coal-fired boilers since low
sulfur coal generally has high resistivity at
lormal ESP operating temperatures. This can
:ause serious problems in effective ESP operation.
The objective of the low sulfur coal part-
tculate emission control program is to develop
^articulate control technology to insure that use
}f low sulfur coal to meet SO., standards does not
result in violation of particulate standards.
ixisting options for control of particulate
from combustion of low sulfur coals will be
assessed. Development and demonstration of
improved electrostatic precipitators will be
accomplished as will demonstration of fabric
filters. The usefulness and environmental
impact of fuel and flue gas additives for
improving collectibility of particulate from
low sulfur fuels will be determined. Promising
conditioning agents will be demonstrated. The
impact of coal cleaning on particulate collect-
ibility will be determined and methods for
dealing with any problems due to coal cleaning
will be developed.
EPA in FY-77 is funding a demonstration
test of a baghouse installed on a 350 megawatt
boiler burning a low sulfur coal. An option is
included in this program to use the baghouse as a
dry collector of S0_. Demonstration of sodium
conditioning on a sfnall coal-fired boiler will
be funded in FY-77 Ongoing pilot plant work
on the EPA developed fine particle/high resist-
ivity ESP system will allow design of a
semi-commercial scale unit to begin in FY-77
3. New Particulate Control Technology
Development
This is the program area which has
become knot™ as "New Concepts." As the
requirement to collect finer and finer part-
iculate has developed, the cost of conventional
control (ESPs, fabric filters, scrubbers) has
risen. Since many important collection mech-
anisms become far less effective on particles
less than 1 micron in diameter, conventional
devices (except for fabric filters) have
become larger or require more energy and thus
are more expensive. The objective of new con-
cep'fs R&D is to develop new mechanisms or new
combinations of well studied mechanisms in order
to achieve cost effective control of fine part-
iculate. New concepts include any new technology
which has not been reduced to practice and may or
may not have been previously studied.
Mechanisms utilized by scrubbers and fabric
filters are impaction, interception, and diffusion
and by ESPs are field and diffusion charging.
This combination of mechanisms gives rise to a
minimum in efficiency at the 0.2 to 0.5 micron
range for conventional devices. Under optimum
conditions, this minimum may be greater than 90%
for scrubbers and ESPs and greater than 99% for
fabric filters. However, under other conditions
such as high temperature, high ash resistivity,
sticky particulate, and corrosive or explosive
flue gases, new concepts specific to a problem
will have an advantage.
Most work to date has been directed toward
combining electrostatic removal mechanisms with
scrubbing or filtration mechanisms. The first
area to be developed was charged droplet scrubbing,
with a feasibility study at M.I.T. and a pilot
demonstration at TRW on a Kaiser coke oven.
Electrostatics and filtration are being studied
at both Battelle Northwest and Carnegie-Mellon;
the former with bed filters, the latter with
baghouses. At least two new concepts, a ceramic
membrane filter and a magnetic fiber bed, are
oriented toward cleanup of high temperature gases
(1000-2000°F/500-1100°C). Other new concepts being
studied are foam scrubbing and pleated cartridge
filters of a novel material. Most new concept
work is in the early stages of development; how-
ever, the TRW charged droplet scrubber was
demonstrated successfully at pilot scale on a
coke oven and the magnetic separator is currently
undergoing laboratory pilot scale tests. EPA has
thus far evaluated about 40 new concepts. Of
these 10 have been selected for funding.
EPA has during the past year moved into the
area of developing device-oriented technology
which will have an impact on fugitive dust
emissions from stationary sources. This program
was initiated after an OAQPS report showed that in
the near future fugitive dust emissions from
stationary sources will be a major uncontrolled
source of suspended particulate which will impact
on the ability to meet ambient air quality
standards.
4. New Idea Identification, Evaluation,
and Technology Transfer
This area is called for convenience
the "Novel Devices" area. It includes, in addi-
tion to Novel Device evaluation and testing, a
program aimed at soliciting, stimulating, and
identifying new ideas for fine particulate
control.
125
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As a part of this last objective, EPA has planned
and sponsored to date six symposia and two
seminars aimed at fine particle control. In 1976,
two conferences were sponsored on particulate
collection problems in converting to low sulfur
coals. The Second Fine Particle Scrubber
Symposium was held in New Orleans in May 1977.
A Conference on Particulate Collection Problems
in the Use of Electrostatic Precipitators in the
Metallurgical Industry is scheduled to be held
in Denver in June 1977 and a Fabric Filter
Symposium is scheduled to be held in Tucson in
December 1977. A symposium jointly sponsored
by EPA and ERDA on High Temperature/High
Pressure Particulate Control is scheduled for
September 1977. EPA also has completed a
literature search aimed at identifying new
technology in foreign countries (Japan, Canada,
Russia, and Australia).
Devices or systems based on new collection
principles or on radical redesign of conven-
tional collectors are sometimes offered by
private developers. Under this program area
all such novel devices will be reviewed and
if promising will be evaluated for performance
and related cost. It is intended that those
showing promise of high efficiency fine particle
collection at reasonable cost, if necessary,
be further developed or demonstrated.
More than 40 novel particulate devices
have been identified. About half of these
have been of sufficient interest to justify
a technical evaluation. To date 11 devices
have been either field or laboratory tested:
Braxton-Sonic Agglomerator
Lone Star Steel - Steam Hydro Scrubber
R. P. Industries - Dynactor Scrubber
Aronetrics Two-Phase Wet Scrubber
Purity Corporation - Pentapure Impinger
Entoleter - Centrifield Scrubber
Johns-Manville - CHEAP
Rexnord - Granular Bed Filter
Air Pollution Systems Electrostatic
Scrubber
Air Pollution Systems Electrotube Scrubber
Century Industrial Products - FRP-100
Scrubber
Of the devices tested, the Lone Star Steel
Scrubber gave the highest efficiency on fine
particulate, but it is also a high energy user.
It can use waste energy, when available. The
Aronetics Scrubber is similar to the Lone Star,
but was not as efficient. In a field test the
CHEAP had an overall mass efficiency of 95%
but maintained the efficiency down to about
0.3 microns. The APS electrostatic scrubber
was equal in fractional collection efficiency
to a venturi scrubber using 2-1/2 times as
much power. The APS Electrotube, which is
similar to a wet-wall ESP, gave some very high
collection efficiencies on fine particles—as
high as 98.9% on 0.5 micron particles. This
performance is similar to that which can be
achieved in small wet ESPs with the same
ratio of plate area to volumetric flow rate
16
as the Electrotube unit tested. None of the
other devices tested showed significant improve-
ment in fine particle collection over a
conventional scrubber of equivalent power require-
ments. Proposals have been received and evaluated
for demonstration at full scale of a promising
novel device. A demonstration will be funded in
FY-77.
5. High-Temperature/High-Pressure Particular.
Control
This program area was added in FY-75 as
a result of the critical particulate and fine part-
iculate collection problems associated with the
advanced energy processes. The broad objective of
the high-temperature, high-pressure program is to
develop the particulate collection devices which
are needed to ensure the environmental accept-
ability of advanced energy processes. However,
because the requirements of such energy processes
are as yet unknown, EPA has established a near
term objective of developing the fundamental
information on the mechanics of aerosols at high
temperatures and pressures necessary to determine
the most logical path for high-temperature,
high-pressure particulate collection research
and development.
The state-of-the-art of high-temperature,
high-pressure particulate collection is very
unclear. There is no clear specification of the
degree of particulate collection needed by
advanced energy processes. Also, there are no
reliable data for the performance of the part-
iculate collection devices proposed by various
companies; e.g., granular bed filters and
high pressure-drop cyclones. There are few data,
correlations, or verified theories that can he
used to predict the performance of particulate
collection devices at elevated temperatures and
pressures
.17
The evaluation and development of particulate
control devices has been a strong EPA program and
includes the early stages of high-temperature,
high-pressure particulate control development.
In FY-74, funds were allocated to develop high-
temperature, high-pressure (10 atm and 1700°F)
ESPs. Conventional ESPs operate at 300-800°F.
This work is being carried out by Research Cottrell.
An advanced mechanisms study is being conducted by
Air Pollution Technology (APT). As a result, APT
will make recommendations as to which mechanisns
appear to be the most effective for high-temperature,
high-pressure particulate removal. APT, in
addition to the mechanisms study, has a dry scrubber
contract. This contract involves a device which
allows large spheres to go into the venturi section
of a scrubber where the spheres capture particles
as drops would in an ordinary scrubber. Aerothern
has a contract to test metallic and ceramic fabric
bag filters and Westinghouse has a contract to
look at ceramic membranes for particulate control.
A granular bed systems study also by APT includes
field tests of two working granular bed filters.
EPA, as part of the advanced energy processes
program, is looking at granular bed filters
126
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(Exxon miniplant) and high pressure-drop cyclones
(Consolidation Coal). As part of the novel
device program previously mentioned, EPA is
attempting to evaluate either or both the
Rexnord or Combustion Power granular bed filters.
Most of this work is still in progress and no
definitive results are expected before early
1978. However, the basic mechanisms study has
been completed.
6. Accelerated Pilot Demonstrations
Little attention will be given to this
program area since it was covered in each of the
preceding sections. Suffice it to say that EPA
has currently funded five pilot scale demonstra-
tions and should fund at least three demonstra-
tions in FY-77.
CONCLUSIONS
It can be concluded that adequate control
of emitted submicron particulate matter is
presently possible but not broadly applicable to
a wide variety of sources including utility
sources.
Highly efficient electrostatic precipitators,
installed on sources whose dust properties are
such that they lend themselves to electrostatic
collection, can currently he effective in control-
ling fine particles. Additional R&D is needed,
however, to improve the performance of precipita-
tors on particulate whose electrical resistivity
is too high and on particulate in the size range
of 0.1 to 1.0 microns. This size range is quite
important since it is the most optically active
and causes atmospheric haze and thus visibility
problems. Techniques which either enhance
charging or selectively charge fine particles
are currently being sought by R&D programs of
EPA's Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
in North Carolina (IERL-RTP).
Conventional scrubbers are not very efficient
collectors of fine particles. Current R&D efforts
to improve scrubbers are directed toward more
efficient utilization of the energy applied to a
scrubber system, and toward taking increased
advantage of condensation and other physical
phenomena which affect to some degree the per-
formance of all scrubbers. One successful
demonstration of a condensation scrubber was
completed in 1976 and a second demonstration is
underway.
Fabric filters are taking on increased
importance with respect to control of particulate
emissions from utility boilers burning low
sulfur coal. EPA will demonstrate a large
fabric filter on such a boiler in 1978.
The state-of-the-art and the requirements
of high-temperature and pressure particulate
collection associated with the advanced energy
processes is very unclear. Also, there are no
reliable data for the performance of the particu-
late collection devices proposed for the various
advanced processes, and there are few correlations
or verified theories which can be used to predict
performance at elevated temperatures and pressures.
Much research and development remains to be done
to ensure the environmental acceptability of
these new processes.
So far only five novel devices have been
tested and found to be good collectors of fine
particulate. Many more device tests are planned,
and a number of new and different concepts, such
as ceramic membrane filters, electrostatic
fabric filters, and foam scrubbers, are being
investigated on a laboratory scale. One new
concept, the charged droplet, has been demonstrated
to be a good collector of fine particles. It is
hoped that several of the devices and concepts
currently under consideration by EPA's IERL-RTP
will ultimately result in the demonstration of
new and economically attractive processes for
the control of all emitted particulate matter.
REFERENCES
1. Mahar, H. and Zimmerman, N., "Evaluation
of Selected Methods to Assess the Potential
Hazards Associated with Particulate Emissions,"
Mitre Corporation, Interim Report, EPA Contract
68-02-1859, September 1975.
2. Amdur, M. 0. and Corn, M., "The Irritant
Potency of Zinc Ammonium Sulfate of Different
Particle Sizes," Amer. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J. 24
326-333, July-August 1963.
3. Nichols, G. B. and McCain, J. D.,
"Particulate Collection Efficiency Measurements
on Three Electrostatic Precipitators," EPA-
600/2-75-056, (NTIS No. PB 248-220/AS), October
1975.
4. Gooch, J. P , McDonald, J. R. and
Oglesby, S., "A Mathematical Model of Electrostatic
Precipitation," EPA-650/2-75-037, (NTIS No. PB
246-188/AS), April 1975.
5. Bickelhaupt, R. E., "Influence of Fly
Ash Compositional Factors on Electrical Volume
Resistivity," EPA-650/2-74-074, (NTIS No. PB
237-b98/AS') , July 1974.
6. Bickelhaupt, R. E., "Effect of Chemical
Composition on Surface Resistivity of Fly Ash,"
EPA-600/2-75-017. INTIS No. PB 244-S85/AS),
August 1975.
7. Dismukes, E.B., "Conditioning of Fly Ash
with Sulfamic Acid, Ammonium Sulfate and Ammonium
Bisulfate," EPA-650/2-74-114, (.NTIS No. PB 23S-
922/AS1, October 1974.
8. Dismukes, E. B., "Conditioning of Fly
Ash with Sulfur Trioxide and Ammonia," EPA-
600/2-75-015, (NTIS No. PB 247-231/AS), August
1975.
9. Calvert, S., Jhaveri, N. C., and lung, S.,
"Fine Particle Scrubber Performance Tests,"
EPA-050 '2-74-043, (.NTIS No. PB 240-325/AS),
October 1°74.
127
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10. Calvert, S., Jhaveri, N. C., and
Huisking, T., "Study of Flux Force/ Condensation
Scrubbing of Fine Particles", EPA-600/2-75-018,
(NTIS No. PB 249-297/AS), August 1975.
11. Calvert, S., Jashnani, I. L., Yung,
S., and Stalberg, S., "Entrainment Separators
for Scrubbers - Final Report," EPA-650/2-74-
119b, (NTIS No. PB 248-050/AS), August 1975.
12. McKenna, J. D., "Applying Fabric
Filtration to Coal-Fired Industrial Boilers; A
Pilot Scale Investigation," EPA-650/2-74-058a
(NTIS No. PB 245-186/AS), August 1975.
13. Bradway, R. M. and Cass, R. W., "Frac-
tional Efficiency of a Utility Boiler Baghouse:
Nucla Generating Plant," EPA-600/2-75-013a,
(NTIS No. PB 246-641/AS), August 1975.
14. Bradway, R. M. and Cass, R. W., "Frac-
tional Efficiency of a Utility Boiler Baghouse:
Sunbury Steam-Electric Station," EPA-600/2-76-
077a, (NTIS No. PB 253-943/AS), March 1976.
15. Melcher, J. R. and Sachar, K. S.,
"Charged Droplet Scrubbing of Submicron Particu-
late," EPA-650/2-74-075, (NTIS No. PB 241-
262/AS), August 1974.
16. McCain, J. D. and Smith, W. B., "Lone
Star Steel Steam-Hydro Air Cleaning System
Evaluation," EPA-650/2-74-028, (NTIS No. PB
232-436/AS), April 1974.
17. Rao, A. K., Schrag, M. P., and Shannon,
L. J., "Particulate Removal from Gas Streams at
High Temperature/High Pressure," EPA-600/2-75-
020, (NTIS No. PB 245-858/AS), August 1975.
128
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STATIONARY SOURCE CONTROL TECHNOLOGY
FOR NOY
have shown the need for revised NO strategies
X
to assure achieving and maintaining NAAQS for
NO . Currently, emphasis is being placed on
more vigorous NO control for stationary sources;
a Maximum Stationary Source Technology (MSST)
program for NO control technology development
has been recommended.
Joshua S. Bowen Jr., George Blair Martin,
Richard D. Stern, and J. David Mobley
Office of Energy, Minerals and Industry
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
:NTRODUCTION
Nitrogen oxides (NO ), principally nitric
)xide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO ), have been
Ldentified among the atmospheric pollutants
laving the greatest potential for adverse
effects on human health and welfare. Man-made
emission contributions lead to NO concentrations
in urban atmospheres of 10 to 100 times higher
than those from natural sources in nonurban
areas. Fuel combustion in a wide variety of
equipment contributes about 99% of technology-
associated NO emissions. For most equipment
types about 95% of the NO is emitted as NO and
5%, as N0_. In the atmosphere, the NO enter
into complex photochemical reactions with
hydrocarbons and sulfur oxides and result in the
formation of undesirable secondary species, with
a shift of residual NO to NO,,
The adverse
effects of N0_ on humans, animals, vegetation,
and exposed materials, and similar adverse
effects of the other pollutants were among the
factors which led to passage of the Clean Air
Act of 1970. With respect to NO , this Act
empowered the EPA: (1) to establish primary and
secondary National Ambient Air Quality Standards
(NAAQS) for N02; (2) to require a 90% reduction
in NO emissions from light duty motor vehicles;
(3) to establish New Source Performance Standards
(NSPS) for stationary sources; (4) to set up
mechanisms to assure compliance and enforcement;
and (5) to provide research, development and
demonstrations of new and improved, commercially
viable methods for the prevention and control of
pollution from the combustion of fuels.
NO emissions in the U.S. in 1974 from an-
thropogenic sources were about 23 metric tons
per year. Of this amount 46.1% was estimated to
come from mobile sources, 50.4% from fuel combus-
tion in stationary sources, and the remainder
from miscellaneous sources. The major control
strategy at that time was based on the 90%
reduction of emissions from mobile sources to
0.4 grams of NO per mile (0.25 mg NO per
metre) and on the moderate reduction
of NO emissions from stationary sources by
application of the NSPS. During the ensuing
years, the development of cost-effective NO
control techniques to achieve the initial auto-
motive emission goals met with difficulties not
yet overcome. This factor along with the pro-
jected changes in energy and fuel utilization
Several approaches to the control of NO
emissions from stationary sources under con-
sideration in the Industrial Environmental
Research Laboratory-Research Triangle Park
(IERL-RTP) are:
(1) Combustion modification (CM), to
minimize NO formation, which has the potential
for achieving substantial NO control for a wide
variety of combustion sources using both conven-
tional and alternate fuels in a cost effective
manner.
(2) Flue gas treatment (FGT), or removal
of NO from combustion or process effluent
gases, which may be used singly or, more likely,
as a supplement to combustion modification where
very low NO levels are required.
Separate programs were initiated in IERL-
RTP predecessor organizations prior to 1970 to
investigate CMs for conventional and alternate
fuels, and FGT. This paper provides a two-part
report on the status of the CM and FGT elements
of the NO program.
PART I. COMBUSTION MODIFICATION (CM)
The need for better control technology for
NO from stationary combustion sources was iden-
tified as early as 1967 and led to a systems
study of NO control methods for stationary
sources. This study concluded in 1969 that CMs
would be the most cost-effective techniques for
reducing NO emissions from the sources in the
near-term.
Consequently, the CM Program was developed.
Because of limited funding and the large number
of combinations of combustion equipment/fuel
categories comprising the entire stationary
combustion source spectrum, the initial program
considered the highest priority sources from an
NO emissions point-of-view. Based on available
v
fuel utilization and NO emissions data, the
X
early program emphasis was placed on developing
controls for those utility boilers, industrial
boilers, and commercial heating systems which
burned the dirtier fuels (e.g., coal and residual
fuel oils) . The pre-1975 phase of the program
was based on: (1) field testing of boilers at
baseline and modified operating conditions; (2)
application of state-of-the-art technology with
minor hardware modification; and (3) fundamental
and small pilot scale experimental studies to
identify promising technology approaches.
More recently, based on improved understand-
ing of NO formation and of potential methods for
control, coupled with greater funding commitments,
a more comprehensive CM Program for NO control
X
129
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is in progress. Based on the EPA's present
strategy of providing MSST to assure maximum
achievement of NO environmental eoals, the
v ^
current CM Program is a broadly structured
program which provides both for the development
of CM technology for major stationary combustion
sources and for the environmental assessment of
the application of these technologies. The
program's technology development activities are
grouped according to emphasis as follows: (1)
utility and large industrial boilers, (2) small
industrial, commercial and residential systems,
(3) industrial process combustion and after-
burners, (4) stationary engines, (5) advanced
processes, and (6) fundamental combustion research.
Similarly, the environmental assessment activities
are sub-divided into: (7) environmental assess-
ment, and (8) applications testing.
Technical Discussion
NO Formation and Techniques for Its
Control. Two predominant mechanisms account for
the formation of NO during combustion, as
indicated by the widely used terminology,
thermal NO and fuel NO . Thermal NO is formed
by the fixation of molecular nitrogen present in
the combustion air though a series of reactions
which are exponentially dependent on temperature
and are slightly dependent on oxygen availability.
Fuel NO is formed by oxidation of the organic
nitrogen compounds contained in some fuels
through reactions which are relatively independent
of temperature and are strongly influenced by
oxygen availability. For any fuels containing
bound nitrogen both mechanisms contribute to the
total NO formation.
x
Working from this knowledge of the NO for-
mation chemistry, a number of control technology
approaches have been formulated. Techniques for
control of thermal NO are based on reducing the
peak temperatures in the combustion zone, and
include staged combustion, low excess air, flue
gas recirculation, and water injection. Techniques
for control of fuel NO are based on reduction
of oxygen availability in the combustion zone,
and include low excess air operation and staged
combustion. In addition, pilot scale combustion
studies have shown that changes in burner
design can also significantly reduce the forma-
tion of both thermal and fuel NO by aerodynam-
ically influencing local recircuTation rates
and/or oxygen availability in the flame. The
optimum level of control may require a combination
of these approaches. Although the control
techniques have good potential in experimental
systems and on some practical equipment, the
optimum levels achievable have yet to be estab-
lished and are the subject of this program.
Based on current information, emissions of other
pollutants (e.g., carbon monoxide and other
products of incomplete combustion) can be main-
tained at low levels while achieving significant
N0^_ reduction by proper system design. Many of
the NO control techniques, such as low excess
air operation, even offer potential for increases
of system efficiency. Based on limited experi-
ence with long term service it appears that
operability problems, including fireside
corrosion, can be avoided by proper design.
Status of Technology R&D and Environmental^
Assessment^. The above principles have formed
the basis "for the development of CM techniques,
to be applied to the wide variety of combustion
sources. The technical status of the overall
program, which is made up of approximately 30
separate projects, is discussed briefly below
to highlight progress of key portions of the
effort.
That part of the program aimed at CM tech-
nology development for utility and large indus-
trial boilers has its primary emphasis on the
development and demonstration of low-emission,
high-efficiency, cost-effective techniques for
NO control of coal-fired systems. Although the
mafor effort has continued on the investigation
of staged combustion technology for application
to several classes of utility boilers, work is
also underway on improved low-emission pulverized
coal burners which should be applicable to utility
boilers. In addition, investigations are evaluat-
ing combustor design concepts for advanced
systems firing low Btu gases with acceptable
levels of NO emissions.
x
Staged combustion technology has been tested
on several tangentially fired utility boilers
greater than 400 MW, burning western coals, to
determine if this approach would be as effective
for coal of this rank as for the eastern bituminous
coals. These tests have shown,NO emission
levels of about 0.45 Ib per 10 Btu* under
optimized conditions of overfire air operation.
There was no significant increase in waterwall
(fireside) corrosion rates during optimized
operation as determined by a 30-day corrosion
study utilizing corrosion probes.
Earlier results of staged combustion when
applied to wall-fired boilers showed the potential
for achieving NO levels in the range of 30750%
below the present NSPS of 0.7 Ib NO per 10
Btu. Limited test data showed that implementation
of these control techniques have the potential
for increased fireside tubewall corrosion.
Consequently, a program was planned to carefully
assess the long-term performance of this control
technique and to quantify in detail the tubewall
corrosion associated with optimum low-NO
operation, but because of limited availability
of funds, it has not been possible to implement
the entire effort at this time.
Improved low emission, high efficiency burn-
ers for application both to utility and industrial
boilers are under scale-up development. This
burner development effort, discussed to a
greater extent later, may have the potential for
reducing NOX emissions to the range of 0.2-0.3
Ib NO /106 BTU by 1985.
*This may be multiplied by 430 to convert to the
metric equivalent in ng/J.
130
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The portion of the program dealing with
small industrial, commercial and residential
systems provides for development and/or field
evaluation of emission control technology.
Emphasis is on: (1) residual oil fired package
boilers; (2) distillate oil fired residential
furnaces; and (3) stoker coal fired boilers.
The technical progress in each of these areas is
summarized below.
Laboratory and field studies have shown that
staged combustion is capable of reducing NO
emissions from residual oil fired package x
boilers by up to 50%; however, significant
modification is required. Therefore, studies of
residual oil burner design were conducted and
showed that similar emission levels could be
achieved by proper aerodynamic control of air
and fuel mixing. The limit of achievable NO
Tr
control is imposed by the onset of excessive
carbon particulate formation. A study is now in
progress to identify fuel and atomizer prop-
erties that are favorable for suppressing this
particulate formation, thereby allowing more
effective NO control.
x
The residential oil furnace program has pro-
gressed from a concept originated from EPA in-
house studies to an integrated design of a low
emission, high efficiency furnace. EPA in-house
testing of residential oil burners showed that
proper design of the burner could not only re-
duce NO j but also achieve low carbonaceous
emissions at low excess air. The development
contracts that followed identified an optimum
burner design and design criteria for burner and
firebox matching. These were developed and in-
corporated into a design of an integrated fur-
nace. The prototype furnace tests showed over
70% reduction of NO relative to conventional
furnaces and the potential for significant
energy savings. The pre-production furnace
design has been constructed and will be tested
in the field.
Stoker coal fired boiler studies have in-
cluded both laboratory and feild work. The emi-
sions from small underfeed stokers have been
measure for a. range of coals, including process-
ed smokeless ones. An experimental study is now
in progress to develop technology for large
spreader stokers. In a field study, EPA has
evaluated the use of low-sulfur western coal in
ten industrial boilers of which eight were stoker
fired. The study indicated that switching from
an eastern high sulfur bituminous to a western
low sulfur coal is feasible with a minimal
operational impact, although some problems are
documented. Emissions of SO and NO were
generally reduced. X X
In the stationary engines area, work is
underway to develop control technology for large
gas turbines and reciprocating internal combus-
tion engines. A major contractor is focusing on
dry CM approaches for gas turbines to achieve
R&D goals of 50 ppm NOX (at 15% 02) for clean
fuels and of 100 ppm, for fuel containing up to
0.5% bound nitrogen. These goals represent a
757, reduction from uncontrolled NO emissions.
The experimental effort under this contract has
proved encouraging in that limited testing of
several combustor configurations has yielded
emissions data meeting the goals. Another major
contract is under negotiation for the development
of control technology applicable to large-bore
reciprocating engines.
The part of the program aimed at technology
development for industrial process combustion
equipment and afterburners is one of the lower
priority areas, with emphasis placed on better
definition of the potential problems. The
activities include an environmental assessment
of afterburners and a survey of industrial
process combustion equipment.
The advanced processes part of the program
provides for the initial development of CM
technology with the potential for very low
emissions. The R&D areas include: (1) low
emission, high efficiency burners for fossil
fuel combustion; (2) improved concepts of staged
combustion; (3) use of low and high nitrogen
alternate fuels; and (4) catalytic combustion.
The technical progress in each of these areas is
summarized below.
Pilot scale studies have shown that burner
design modification affecting fuel/air mixing
history has the potential for reducing NO
emissions to below 0.2 Ib of NO (as NO )Xper
10 Btu while maintaining flame shape and high
carbon combustion efficiency. A study is in
progress to derive experimental scaling criteria
for practical size coal and oil burners. In
addition, a small multiple burner pilot scale
furnace is being used to determine criteria for
optimizing staged combustion for NO control
from pulverized coal. It has been shown that a
long residence time rich primary can reduce NO
levels to below 0.2 Ib NO per 10 Btu fired. X
x r
With combustion of alternate fuels free of
bound nitrogen, e.g., low Btu gas and methanol,
NO emissions are generally lower that for fossil
fuels and thermal NO control techniques are
effective. Fuels containing significant amounts
of nitrogen are currently being studied.
An initial assessment of catalytic combus-
tion indicated the potential for very low NO
emissions (i.e., below 10 ppm). Experimental
work is in progress to identify catalysts
capable of high temperature operation, i.e.,
2800°F (1810K), and to define combustion system
configurations capable of both low emissions and
high thermal efficiency. One catalyst system
capable of operating at 2700°F (1755K) with
emissions of CO, NO and HC below 10 ppm has
been identified.
Fundamental combustion research studies^ pro-
vide the basic understanding of the phenomena re-
sponsible for pollutant formation and destruction
in the combustion process. These studies empha-
size the chemistry and aerodynamic aspects of the
combustion processes, and are used to guide the
development and optimization of new technology.
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Special attention is being directed at fuel
nitrogen reactions and at the formation of
primary and secondary pollutants since these
species may be strongly affected by changes in
the combustion process.
Although in earlier years there were many
small fundamental studies, a newly developed
large contract has been awarded. It is aimed at
applying fundamental research results in the
definition of optimum combustion control for all
systems. Future fundamental studies will be
consolidated under this contract.
Results of major fundamental research efforts
are discussed below. Studies of fuel decom-
position have identified the principal nitrogen
species evolved during pyrolysis of a fuel and
have also shown that the fraction of nitrogen
evolved is strongly dependent on temperature.
These two outputs have a direct relation to low
NO burner experiments for nitrogen containing
fuels. A study of the mechanism and kinetics of
NO formation under normal and modified combustion
conditions gave significant insight into the
kinetics responsible for thermal NO formation
under fuel rich and near stoichiometric conditions.
Aerodynamic phenomena in the control of pollutants
from gaseous and liquid fuel fired combustors
have been evaluated experimentally. Among the
more significant findings in this study was the
fact that the intensity of the turbulent fluctua-
tions in the early flow fields had a major
effect on the local fuel/air ratio.
Two theoretical studies have examined the
possibility of formation of (1) PCB's and (2)
primary nitrates, sulfates, and acid aerosols in
the combustion process. Fundamental study of
NO , nitrate, and sulfate in laboratory flames
is also in progress.
The program also includes development and use
of numerical analytical procedures to be used in
interpretation of experimental results. Recent
developments of codes capable of handling not
only complex chemical kinetics but also specie
diffusion offer strong potential for use in
analyzing flat flame burner data. Aerodynamic
models for describing the air/fuel mixing
processes of turbulent diffusion flames are also
under development; however, several problems
remain to be overcome.
A key part of the program is the environ-
mental assessment of the NO CM technologies.
This effort, being performed by a major contractor,
provides for assessment of the multimedia environ-
mental impact of the application of various
state-of-the-art (existing) and emerging combustion
control techniques to the major combustion
sources. The control technologies will be
evaluated and compared taking into account such
factors as pollutant reduction, process efficiency,
system operation, and costs. In addition,
systems analyses will be performed to provide
comparisons of the effect and adequacy of control
technologies or combinations of technologies
when applied under various scenarios repre-
senting alternate control options or strategies
for achieving acceptably low ambient pollutant
levels on a local, regional or national basis.
A draft report, covering a preliminary environ-
mental assessment of the application of CM
technology, lays the groundwork for the entire
environmental assessment contract.
Applications testing, usually performed as
characterization studies on combustion sources
under field operating conditions, is being per-
formed for stationary sources including boilers
and industrial combustion equipment. The
objectives are: (1) to accurately determine the
levels of emissions without controls (baseline)
and the levels achievable through the use of
optimized operating conditions, or the applica-
tion of state-of-the-art control technology
requiring relatively minor hardware changes;
and (2) to determine the effect of these CMs on
equipment performance.
Field tests of coal-fired utility boilers
have resulted in NO reductions of 30 to 50%
without apparent adverse side-effects. Tests
are being performed to determine the effect on
tubewall corrosion rates of the reducing atmos-
phere created in the lower furnance zone when
firing coal with staged combustion. A similar
field study of coal, oil, and gas-fired indus-
trial boilers characterized trace specie
emissions and showed that NO emissions were
V
reduced by up to 47%. Another field study is
being performed to determine the applicability
for industrial process equipment (kilns, pro-
cess heaters, etc.) of CMs that have been used
successfully for boilers. The degree of effec-
tiveness varies widely depending on the type of
equipment and the fuel used. The results of the
field test studies are used to prepare design and
operating guidelines for manufacturers and users.
Based on utility boiler data a model is being
developed to indicate design modifications to
minimize NO while maintaining low emissions of
other pollutants, high efficiency, and stable
combustion.
Program Discussion
Summary of Major Accomplishments. Signifi-
cant accomplishments during the past years have
resulted primarily from the technology development
and applications testing activities. Particularly,
progress in the efforts devoted to utility,
industrial and commercial boilers, and residential
heaters and those based on advanced processes
has been most encouraging. Selected accomplish-
ments can be summarized as follows:
(1) Utility boiler testing of new tangen-
tially coal-fired units designed with overfire
air systems for staged combustion has shown that
NO levels as low as 0.45 Ib per 10 Btu can he
achieved with no apparent adverse side effects.
Meanwhile, work is underway to assess in detail
the effect of CM techniques on fireside watertube
corrosion for two wall-coal-fired utility boilers.
Scale-up development of an optimum low-NO
pulverized coal burner for application to utility
and large industrial boilers is progressing on
132
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schedule and should lead to testing of .a 125 x
10 Btu/hr (36.6 MW ) burner in FY78. Based on
earlier pilot scale studies of a burner of 9 x
10 Btu/hr (2.635 MW ) capacity, it appears a
practical burner witfi a potential for reducigg
NO emissions to approximately 0.2 Ib per 10
Btu should be available for commercialization by
FY81.
(2) The residual oil burner concept for
packaged boilers has been developed and has
achieved NO reductions of 65 to 70% for three
fuel oils with fuel nitrogen ranging from 0.2 to
0.7%. The limit of NO control is imposed by
the onset of unacceptable levels of carbon
particulate formation. Both fuel properties and
atomizer design appear to play an important
role, and these factors are currently being
investigated further.
(3) A prototype oil-fired residential
furnace, based on experimentally defined burner-
firebox matching criteria, was successfully
tested. The system maintained outstanding
performance with low excess air operation and
achieved a 70% reduction in NO relative to
current practice with no increase in CO, HC, or
smoke.
(4) Recent tests of advanced staged combustion
practices, when applied to coal combustion under
carefully controlled conditions in a highly
versatile pilot scale experimental combustor,
have shown outstanding NO reductions. Under
conditions of fuel-rich first stage stoichiometry
(0.85) and long first stage residence time (4 to
5 seconds) NO levels as low as 79 ppm (corrected
to zero % 02) were measured. This corresponds
to a NO reduction of 90% from normal baseline
X
conditions.
(5) The catalytic combustion project
offers promise of clean fuel combustion with
very low emission levels (i.e., < 10 ppm) of
N0x, CO, HC, etc. One catalyst system, which
has undergone extensive performance testing in
the screening studies, has operated at 2700°F
(1755K) without degradation of catalyst per-
formance .
These and other results coming from the CM
program are encouraging since they provide a
basis for control technology which can lead to
significant reductions in combustion-generated
emissions from some sources over the long term
(1985-1990). Catalytic combustion of essentially
nitrogen-free fuels offers the potential for NO
to be controlled to levels of 10 ppm or less.
Direct combustion of clean fuels containing no
bound nitrogen (e.g., methanol), although less
effective, may reduce NO emissions to below 50
ppm. Refinements of CM techniques and improved
burner configurations, based on recent experimental
evidence, offer the potential for practical
attainment of emission levels of 100-150 ppm for
the direct firing of pulverized coal. These
promising results provide an impetus for conti-
nued development and practical demonstrations of
these combustion techniques to solve any remaining
associated problems and encourage their early
commercialization.
Technology Transfer. The information and
data produced in this program have sparked a
great amount of interest from a wide range of
users. These have included a number of other
groups within EPA, state and local regulatory
agencies, ERDA, FEA, the National Academy of
Science, NIOSH, various environmental groups,
many parts of the industrial sector (both equip-
ment manufacturers and potential users of the
technology), and the general public. Although
the information is thoroughly documented in
major project reports (see Bibliography), it has
become apparent that other means were necessary
to better transmit the highlights and key results
on a timely basis to a wider range of users.
During the past year, the "Proceedings of
the Stationary Source Combustion Symposium" was
published. This report contains more than 30
technical papers relating to NO control which
were presented at a meeting in September 1975.
Another similar symposium has been planned for
August 29 - September 2, 1977, at which the up-
dated status and results of IERL-RTP combustion
control projects will be presented.
A bulletin, "NO Control Review," is being
distributed on a quarterly schedule to about
2000 addressees. This provides current informa-
tion on advances in NO control strategies,
regulations, technology R&D, and applications.
It presents information concerning activities of
the private sector and of government and, when-
ever possible, includes news of significant
foreign efforts.
A pamphlet, "Get the Most from Your Heating
Oil Dollars - Servicing Cuts Costs and Pollution,"
has been distributed to homeowners across the
U.S. It is designed to pass along important
practical information, based on earlier field
tests of residential heating systems, which
should lead to improved energy conservation and
emissions reduction for homeowners heating with
oil. Pamphlets or guideline manuals are planned
for: (1) gas-fired residential furnaces, (2)
residential and commercial space heating, (3)
industrial boilers, and (4) utility boilers.
PART II. FLUE GAS TREATMENT (FGT)
A second major element of EPA's activities
to develop NO control technology is the FGT
program. This program has received a relatively
low level of funding since it has not conclusively
been determined that higher NO removal efficiencies
than those achievable by CM techniques will be
required in order to achieve and maintain the
current and projected NAAQS. However, due to
uncertainties surrounding the overall NO
-v
problem, the program is proceeding with a small
scale experimental program in parallel with
control strategy and technology assessment work.
Thus, the basic foundation will be in place if
the technology is required and acceleration of
133
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the development program is necessary.
The EPA FGT program has been directed to-
ward enhancing development of the technology and
toward determining if and when the technology
will be needed in the U.S. The Japanese, due to
their very stringent NO regulations, have
progressed to the point of commercial application
of FGT technology on gas- and oil-fired sources.
In addition, activities are underway to evaluate
the technology for application to flue gas from
coal-fired sources. EPA is investigating the
Japanese technology for potential application to
the U.S. coal-fired situation to save both
development time and money.
Technical Discussion
The objective of the FGT program is to pro-
vide highly efficient NO and NO /SO control
technology for application to utility and large
industrial combustion sources in an environment-
ally sound, energy efficient, and economical
manner. FGT processes can generally be classi-
fied in two categories: dry processes and wet
processes. The developmental progress in these
categories is discussed below.
Dry Processes. Selective catalytic
reduction (SCR) using ammonia is the most
developed and most promising FGT process. Two
EPA sponsored projects investigating SCR have
recently been completed. The performance,
reliability, and practicability of a SCR
system was demonstrated on a 1.5 MW pilot
plant using a platinum catalyst. The results
indicated satisfactory operation on gas-firing
with NO removal efficiencies of 85-90%.
X
Operation on oil-firing indicated that platinum
and other noble metal catalysts were not
suitable for flue gas containing SO,,. In
another project, various non-noble metal
catalysts were laboratory-tested to determine
the optimum catalyst composition for reducing
NOx concentrations in flue gas containing SO ;
NO removal efficiencies up to 99% were
x
measured.
The most promising wet processes can be
classified in two types: oxidation-reduction
processes and reduction processes. Oxidation-
reduction processes utilize a gas phase oxidant to
convert NO to N02. The N02 is then reduced to
nitrogen by reaction with sulfite ions formed from
the SO absorption step. In the reduction process,
NO is absorbed with S0_ in a liquid containing a
ferrous ion. Usually a chelating compound is
added to promote the reduction of NO to nitrogen.
In a recently completed study, sponsored by
EPA, the contractor investigated the energy and
economic requirements for the oxidation of NO to
N0? using ozone as the oxidant. The results
indicated that wet processes utilizing ozone
will be very expensive for NO removal only,
unless there is significant improvement in ozone
generation technology. However, the energy and
economic impact may be more acceptable for
simultaneous removal of NO and SO than the
sequential installation ofXS02 andXNO FGT
control equipment.
In Japan, the wet processes are generally
being evaluated on the pilot plant scale. SO.
and NO removal efficiencies in excess of 95% and
80%, respectively, are typical. Some processes
are sufficiently developed to be offered for
commercial scale application.
Control Strategy/Technology Assessments.
EPA is sponsoring the publication of a series of
reports on the status of NO and NO /SO
abatement technologies in Japan. In addition,
TVA will perform economic assessments of the
most promising FGT processes in a project
sponsored by EPA and EPRI.
Other control strategy and technology assess-
ment work is focused on determining if and when
FGT technology will be needed. Preliminary re-
sults of a dispersion modeling study of Chicago
indicate that large combustion sources do not
make a significant contribution to annual NO
concentrations, but can cause high short term
concentrations.
In Japan, numerous SCR commercial scale
plants are being operated to remove NO from gas-
and oil-fired flue gas. In addition, a commercial
scale application is being planned for startup
in 1980 on a coal-fired facility. NO
X
removal efficiencies in excess of 90% are
typical. Through improvements in reactor
design, catalysts, and process control, substantial
progress has been made in avoiding the early
problems with SCR systems such as catalyst
plugging, catalyst poisoning, and corrosion.
Wet Processes. The chemistry for wet
processes is complex and undesirable by-products
are often generated. The wet processes are less
developed than dry processes and show higher
projected capital and operating costs. However,
many wet processes have the capability for
simultaneous removal of SO. and NO ; therefore,
they are receiving considerable developmental
attention.
Studies are also being planned to determine
the optimum process types and control equipment
sequence to remove SO. and NO considering
Z. y:
.nergy, environmental, and economic factors.
[n parallel with these studies, the NO FGT
program is directed toward full scale demonstration
of the technology by the early to mid-1980's.
The first phase in this program will be demonstration
of FGT processes at the pilot plant scale. Two
pilot plant projects are currently planned: one
project will be for removal of 90% of the N0x
in the presence of high or low concentrations of
SO^, and the other project will be for simultaneous
removal of 90% of both NO and SO .
x x
Program Discussion
An alarming increase in NO emissions from
T£
stationary sources is projected to occur in
the next decade. It is uncertain what level
of NO control will be necessary to prevent
134
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an adverse environmental Impact of these
emissions. Since the N0x FGT program has the
capability for high NO removal efficiencies, it
is an integral portion of EPA's plan to ensure
that technology is available to achieve and
maintain the NAAQS for future generations. The
major findings to date are:
(1) In the event environmental problems
and control strategies require high NO removal
efficiencies from combustion sources, FGT pro-
cesses have the capability to meet these require-
ment s.
(2) Selective catalytic reduction processes
for removal of more than 90% of the NO are
commercially available for gas- and oil-fired
sources and soon will be commercially available
for coal-fired sources in Japan.
(3) Wet processes have the potential for
achieving high removal efficiencies of both S0_
and NO more economically than the sequential
installation of S0_ and NO FGT control equipment.
(4) The EPA R&D program for NO FGT has
been formulated to provide assessments of the
technology for input into control strategy/tech-
nology development and to provide demonstrated
technology by the mid-1980's for coal-fired
sources.
CONCLUSIONS
The NO control technology R&D program con-
tinues to show considerable advances in emissions
control techniques which should prove applicable
to a broad range of combustion sources. These
techniques offer the potential both for lower
pollutant emissions and improved efficiency and
conservation of energy. The greater emphasis on
utilization of coal to meet the nation's future
energy requirements places much added importance
on the requirement for combustion controls to
effectively reduce the emissions related to
fuel-bound nitrogen. Especially, meaningful
demonstrations of sufficient duration are needed
to determine in detail the performance of (1)
optimum CMs for all major classes of utility
boilers, (2) the application of similar CMs to
industrial boilers, and (3) improved low NO
burners for both utility and industrial boilers.
At the same time, to support the strategy of
maximum stationary source technology, it is
essential to continue program emphasis on (1)
the development of effective controls for other
major stationary point and area combustion
sources, and (2) the development and assessment
of FGT technology for NO control. Therefore,
the IERL-RTP NO controlXprogram is dedicated to
the goal of continuing an effective R&D effort:
(1) to advance the technology for NO
control from stationary sources,x
(2) to involve and encourage the participation
of key segments of the private sector
(e.g., equipment manufacturers,
utility and industrial users, research
organizations, and universities), and
(3) to promote the transfer and exchange
of data and information leading to the
effective improvement in design and
operation of processes and equipment
for improved performance (both from
an environmental and energy viewpoint),
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Ando, J., and Tohata, H. (Chuo University,
Tokyo), and Isaacs, G.A., "NO Abatement for
Stationary Sources in Japan," PEDCo-Environmental
Specialists, Inc., EPA-600/2-76-013b, (NTIS No.
PB 250-586/AS) January 1976.
2. Axworthy, A.E., Schneider, G.R.,
Shuman, M.D., and Dayan, V.H., "Chemistry of
Fuel Nitrogen Conversion to Nitrogen Oxides in
Combustion," Rocketdyne Division, Rockwell
International, EPA-600/2 -76-039, (NTIS No. PB
250-373/AS) February 1976.
3. Bowen, J.S., and Hall, R.E., "Proceedings
of the Stationary Source Combustion Symposium,
Volume I-Fundamental Research, Volume II-Fuels
and Process Research and Development, Volume
Ill-Field Testing and Surveys," Industrial
Environmental Research Laboratory-RTF, EPA-
600/2-76-152a, -152b, -152c, (NTIS Nos. PB 256-
320/AS, PB 256-321/AS, PB 257-146/AS) June 1976.
4. Cato, G.A., Muzio, L.J., and Shore,
D.E., "Field Testing: Application of Combustion
Modifications to Control Pollutant Emissions
from Industrial Boilers Phase II," KVB, Inc.,
EPA-600/2-76-086a, (NTIS No. PB 253-500/AS)
April 1976.
5. Cato, G.A., "Field Testing: Trace
Element and Organic Emissions from Industrial
Boilers," KVB, Inc., EPA-600/2-76-086b, (NTIS
No. PB 261-263/AS) October 1976.
6. Combs, L.P., and Okuda, A.S., "Residential
Oil Furnace System Optimization—Phase I,"
Rocketdyne Division, Rockwell International,
EPA-600/2-76-038, (NTIS No. PB 250-878/AS)
February 1976.
7. Combs, L.P., and Okuda, A.S., "Commercial
Feasibility of an Optimum Residential Oil
Burner Head," Rocketdyne Division, Rockwell
International, EPA-600/2-76-256, (NTIS No. PB
259-912/AS) September 1976.
8. Combs, L.P., and Okuda, A.S., "Residential
Oil Furnace System Optimization—Phase II,"
Rocketdyne Division, Rockwell International,
EPA-600/2-77-028, (NTIS No. PB 264-202/AS)
January 1977.
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"Applicability of NO Combustion Modifications
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960/AS) January 1977.
10. Dykema, O.W., "Analysis of Test Data
for NO Control in Coal-Fired Utility Boilers,"
The Aerospace Corporation, EPA-600/2-76-274,
(NTIS No. PB 261-066/AS) October 1976.
11. Dykema, O.W. and Kemp, V.E., "Inventory
of Combustion-Related Emissions from Stationary
Sources (First Update)," The Aerospace Corporation,
EPA-600/-77-066a, March 1977.
12. Engleman, V.S., "Survey and Evaluation
of Kinetic Data on Reactions in Methane/Air
Combustion," Exxon Research and Engineering
Company, EPA-600/2-76-003, (NTIS No. PB 248-
139/AS) January 1976.
13. Engleman, V.S., and Bartok, W.,
"Mechanism and Kinetics of the Formation of NO
and Other Combustion Pollutants—Phase I.
Unmodified Combustion," Exxon Research and
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No. PB 258-874/AS) August 1976.
14. Engleman, V.S., Siminski, V.J., and
Bartok, W., "Mechanism and Kinetics of the
Formation of NO and Other Combustion Pollutants—
Phase II. Modified Combustion," Exxon Research
and Engineering Company, EPA-600/7-76-009b,
(NTIS No. PB 258-875/AS) August 1976.
15. Giammar, R.D., Engdahl, R.D., and
Barrett, R.E., "Emissions from Residential and
Small Commercial Stoker-Coal-Fired Boilers
under Smokeless Operation," Battelle-Columbus
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263-891/AS) October 1976.
16. Giammar, R.D., Waller, A.E., Locklin,,
D.W., and Krause, H.H., "Experimental Evaluation
of Fuel Oil Additives for Reducing Emissions
and Increasing Efficiency of Boilers," Battelle-
Columbus Laboratories, EPA-600/2-77-008b, (NTIS
No. PB 264-065/AS) January 1977.
17. Harrison, J.W., "Technology and
Economics of Flue Gas NO Oxidation by Ozone,"
Research Triangle Institute, EPA-600/7-76-033,
(NTIS No. PB 261-917/AS) December 1976.
18. Heap, M.P., et al., "Reduction of Nitrogen
Oxide Emissions from Field Operating Package
Boilers—Phase III of III," Ultrasystems,
Inc., EPA-600/2-77-025, January 1977.
19. Heap, M.P., Lowes, T.M., Walmsley,
R., Bartelds, H., and LeVaguerese, P., "Burner
Criteria for NO Control—Volume I. Influence
of Burner Variables on NO in Pulverized Coal
Flames," International Flame Research Foundation,
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21. Ketels, P.A., Nesbitt, J.D., and
Oberle, R.D., "Survey of Emissions Control and
Combustion Equipment Data in Industrial Process
Heating," Institute of Gas Technology, EPA-
600/7-76-022, (NTIS No. PB 263-453/AS) October
1976.
22. Kline, J.M., Owen, P.H., and Lee,
Y.C., "Catalytic Reduction of Nitrogen Oxides
with Ammonia: Utility Pilot Plant Operation,"
Environics, Inc., EPA-600/7-76-031, (NTIS No.
PB 261-265/AS) October 1976.
23. Knieriem, H., Jr., ''PCB Emissions
from Stationary Sources: A Theoretical Study,"
Monsanto Research Corporation, EPA-600/7-76-
028, (NTIS No. PB 262-850/AS) October 1976.
24. Krause, H.H., Hillenbrand, L.J.,
Weller, A.E., and Locklin, D.W., "Combustion
Additives for Pollution Control—A State-of-
the-Art Review," Battelle-Columbus Laboratories,
EPA-600/2-77-008a, (NTIS No. PB 264-068/AS)
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25. Locklin, D.W., and Barrett, R.E.,
"Guidelines for Burner Adjustments of Commercial
Oil-Fired Boilers," Battelle-Columbus Laboratories,
EPA-600/2-76-088, (NTIS No. PB 251-919/AS)
March 1976.
26. Merryman, E.L., and Levy, A., "NO
Formation in CO Flames," Battelle-Columbus
Laboratories, EPA-600/2-77-008c, (NTIS No. PB
264-066/AS) January 1977.
27 Nobe, K., Bauerle, G.L., and Wu,
S.C., "Parametric Studies of Catalysts for NO
Control from Stationary Power Plants," University
of California, Los Angeles, EPA-600/7-76-026,
(NTIS No. PB 261-289/AS) October 1976.
28. Shoffstall, D.R., "Burner Design
Criteria for Control of NO from Natural Gas
Combustion—Volume I. Data Analysis and Summary
of Conclusions," Institute of Gas Technology,
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29. Shore, D.E., and McElroy, M.W. ,
"Guidelines for Industrial Boiler Performance
Improvement—Boiler Adjustment Procedures to
Minimize Air Pollution and to Achieve Efficient
Use of Fuel," KVB, Inc., EPA-600/8-77-003a,
(NTIS No. PB 264-543/AS) January 1977.
30. Spadaccini, L.J., Owen, F.K., and
Bowman, C.T., "Influence of Aerodynamic Phenomena
on Pollutant Formation in Combustion—Phase I.
Gaseous Fuels," United Technology Research
Center, EPA-600/2-76-247a, (NTIS No. PB 258-
904/AS) September 1976.
20. Kesselring, J.P., Brown, R.A., Schreiber,
R.J., and Moyer, C.B., "Catalytic Oxidation of
Fuels for N0x Control from Area Sources,"
Aerotherm Division, Acurex Corporation, EPA-
600/2-76-037, (NTIS No. PB 252-195/AS) February 1976.
136
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ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT OF EFFLUENTS AND
SOLID WASTES FROM STEAM ELECTRIC
GENERATING PLANTS
Julian W. Jones and Theodore G. Brna
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
James L. Crowe, Hollis B. Flora, II, and Shirley S. Ray
Power Research Branch
Tennessee Valley Authority
Chattanooga, Tennessee
INTRODUCTION
Modern fossil-fueled, steam-electric generating
plants present the full spectrum of potential
environmental problems—air, water, and solid
waste. Control of power plant air pollution is
being extensively discussed in other papers at
this Conference. This paper is primarily concerned
-with the water and solid waste areas. Essentially
all of the solid wastes, excluding bottom ash, are
generated as a result of air pollution control
devices (e.g., mechanical ash collectors, electro-
static precipitators, baghouses, scrubbers) to
;control emissions of fly ash and sulfur dioxide.
These solid wastes, in turn, present their own
potential water pollution problems once they are
removed from the control devices for disposal.
There are other potential water pollution problems,
such as coal pile drainage, boiler cleaning wastes,
chlorinated cooling system discharges, and cooling
tower blowdown. In addition, the cooling systems
present other potential environmental problems
such as damage to aquatic life through intake
structures, consumption of large quantities of
water (lost through evaporation), and cooling
tower emissions (plume drift, fogging).
The environmental legislation of the past
several years provides the framework for regulation
of these effluents and solid wastes. However,
characterization of these effluents and wastes, and
the development of technology to minimize their
adverse environmental impacts have, in a number of
cases, required significant research and develop-
ment efforts. The need for these efforts was the
basis for the formulation of the program described
herein.
The program for environmental management of
effluents and solid wastes from steam-electric
generating plants, hereinafter referred to as the
"Waste and Water Program," is divided into five
areas:
(1) Flue Gas Cleaning (FGC) Waste Disposal
(2) FGC Waste Utilization
(3) Water Recycle/Treatment/Reuse
(4) Cooling Technology
(5) Waste Heat Utilization
Each of these program areas includes a number of
projects; these are listed in Table 1. The dis-
cussion which follows will address results from
the five program areas in the order listed above.
TABLE 1. PROJECTS IN THE WASTE AND WATER PROGRAM
Project Title
FGC WASTE DISPOSAL
FGC Waste Characterization,
Disposal Evaluation, and Transfer
of FGC Waste Disposal Technology
Lab and Field Evaluation of 1st
and 2nd Generation FGC Waste
Treatment Processes
Ash Characterization and Disposal
Studies of Attenuation of FGC
Waste Leachate by Soils
Establishment of Data Base for FGC
Waste Disposal Standards Development
Shawnee FGD Waste Disposal Field
Evaluation
Louisville Gas and Electric Evaluation
of FGD Waste Disposal Options
Contractor/Agency
The Aerospace Corporation
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
Waterways Experiment Station
Tennessee Valley Authority
U.S. Army Materiel Command
Dugway Proving Ground
Stearns, Conrad and Schmidt
Consulting Engineers, Inc.
(SCS Engineers)
Tennessee Valley Authority
The Aerospace Corporation
Louisville Gas & Electric Company
(Subcontractor: Combustion Engineering)
(continued)
137
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TABLE 1 (continued)
FGD Waste Leachate-Liner Compatibility
Studies
Lime/Limestone Wet Scrubbing Waste
Characterization
Dewatering Principles and Equipment
Design Studies
Conceptual Design/Cost Study of
Alternative Methods for Lime/Lime-
stone Scrubbing Waste Disposal
Evaluation of Alternative FGD Waste
Disposal Sites
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
Waterways Experiment Station
Tennessee Valley Authority
Auburn University
Tennessee Valley Authority
Arthur D. Little, Inc.
FGC WASTE UTILIZATION
Gypsum By-Product Marketing Studies
Lime/Limestone Scrubbing Waste
Conversion Pilot Studies
Fertilizer Production Using
Lime/Limestone Scrubbing Wastes
Use of FGD Gypsum in Portland Cement
Manufacture
FGD Waste/Fly Ash Beneficiation
Studies
Tennessee Valley Authority
Pullman-Kellogg
Tennessee Valley Authority
Babcock & Wilcox & others
TRW, Inc.
WATER RECYCLE/TREATMENT/REUSE
Assess/Demonstrate Power Plant
Reuse/Recycle
Characterization of Effluents from
Coal-Fired Power Plants (Waste and
Water Only)
Treatment of Power Plant Wastes with
Membrane Technology
Power Plant Cooling Tower Slowdown
Recycle by Vertical Tube Evaporator
with Interface Enhancement
Treatment of Flue Gas Scrubber Waste
Streams with Vapor Compression Cycle
Evaporation
Radian Corporation
Tennessee Valley Authority
Tennessee Valley Authority
University of California-Berkeley
Resources Conservation Company
138
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TABLE 1 (continued)
Project Title
COOLING TECHNOLOGY
Optimizing Design Specifications
for Large Dry Cooling Systems
Feasibility Study for a Direct,
Air-Cooled Condensation System
Dry Cooling Tower Demonstration
and Performance Study
Wet/Dry Cooling Tower Study
Demonstrate Wet/Dry Cooling
Tower Technology
Wet/Dry Cooling Tower Test
Module Program
Economic Assessment of Backfitting
Power Plants with Closed Cycle
Cooling Systems
Mechanisms to Reduce Intake Structure
Effects at Power Plants
Alternatives to Chlorination for
Control of Condenser Tube Biofouling
Bromine Chloride - An Alternative to
Chlorine for Fouling Control in Con-
denser Cooling Systems
Contractor/Agency
PFR Engineering Systems, Inc.
R.W. Beck and Associates
Town of Braintree, Massachusetts
United Engineers & Constructors, Inc.
Tennessee Valley Authority
Southern California Edison Company
University of Iowa
Tennessee Valley Authority
Monsanto Research Corporation
Martin Marietta Corporation
WASTE HEAT UTILIZATION
Beneficial Uses of Warm Water from
Condensers of Electric Generating
Plants
Soil Heating to Extend Crop
Growing Season
Optimization of Biological Recycling
of Nutrients in Livestock Wastes
for Utilizing Waste Heat
Horticulture Economic Quality
Control Study
Potential Beneficial Use of Indus-
trial Waste Heat for Greenhouse
Production of Bedding Plants, Cut
Flowers, and Foliage Plants
Northern States Power Company
Tennessee Valley Authority
Tennessee Valley Authority
Vermont Yankee Nuclear
Power Corporation
Fort Valley State College
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TECHNICAL DISCUSSION
FGC Waste Disposal
Coal-burning power plants in the U.S. produce
large quantities of wastes that accumulate in ash-
collection devices or flue gas desulfurization
(FGD) systems. Since coal use is being encouraged
and since FGD systems are often necessary to
reduce sulfur oxide emissions, the rate of ash and
FGD sludge production is expected to grow rapidly.
Most of the U.S. utility installations of nonre-
generable (e.g., lime/limestone) scrubbing systems
have used disposal methods similar to those for
ash disposal; i.e., ponding and landfill. Two
major environmental considerations are inherent in
disposal of FGD sludge: (1) the water pollution
potential of soluble materials, and (2) the land
degradation potential of physically unstable
wastes.
FGD sludge chemical characteristics, to a
large degree, have been quantified. Sludge li-
quors exceed drinking water standards for total
dissolved solids (TDS), with high concentrations
of calcium, sulfate, and chloride (and in some
cases, magnesium and sodium). In addition, exces-
sive concentrations of several trace metals have
been noted. The chemical composition of FGD
sludge solids consists of calcium sulfite hemihy-
drate, calcium sulfate dihydrate (gypsum) and/or
hemihydrate, and calcium carbonate, plus any fly
ash collected in the scrubber. The percentage of
each solid constituent is primarily a function of
the alkaline additive (e.g., lime, limestone), the
percent sulfur in the coal, and the manner in
which the scrubber system is operated (e.g.,
whether forced oxidation is applied, whether fly
ash is collected separately). Although the fly
ash hac been shown to be a major contributor of
trace elements to the sludge solids and liquor,
separate collection of fly ash does not neces-
sarily mean that concentrations of all these
elements in the sludge liquor will be insignifi-
cant. 1
The physical properties of FGD sludge vary
considerably from system to system; chemical
composition is related to, but does not adequately
define, the size and type of the sludge solid
crystals. For example, in comparing the lime and
limestone scrubber solids from the EPA/TVA Shawnee
test facility, the limestone scrubber solids were
found to be primarily individual platelets or
"rosette11 aggregates, while the lime scrubber
solids were primarily spherical aggregates with
somewhat better settling and dewatering properties.
The relationship between scrubber operating
parameters and the characteristics of the calcium
sulfite crystals has not yet been adequately
defined. Hopefully, a procedure will be developed
to obtain consistent, easily dewatered sulfite
solids. An alternative approach would be to use
forced oxidation to produce only gypsum crystals,
which are normally much larger than calcium sul-
fite crystals. A complementary approach is to
improve the performance of dewatering equipment.
Separation of the clarification and thickening
steps can result in improved performance of gra-
vity settlers, with a substantial reduction in the
equipment size.
Many FGD sludges tend to liquefy easily, even
after substantial dewatering. Several approaches
to improving physical stability continue to be
studied, including stabilization using underdrain-
age and compaction, production of gypsum, and
chemical treatment ("fixation") for landfill.
Chemical treatment of FGD sludge has been shown to
result in significant structural improvement, a
50-75 percent reduction in major solubles (e.g.,
chloride) in the leachate and an order of magni-
tude (or more) reduction in permeability. Further
testing of these disposal methods, including
revegetation (reclamation) of disposal sites, is
planned.
The costs of FGD sludge disposal vary con-
siderably, depending on the disposal system design,
and site-specific factors such as labor costs or
the cost of a pond liner (if one is installed),
Preliminary cost estimates for a typical high-
sulfur coal-burning plant are about $4-$9 per
metric ton (dry basis, including ash) for ponding,
and about $8-$12.50 per metric ton (same basis)
for chemical treatment and landfill. 2 The ponding
costs do not include reclamation costs. More
detailed economics for these disposal methods are
being defined.
Coal-mine disposal of FGD sludge has greatly
interested engineers in the flue gas desulfuriza-
tion industry for many years, because of estab-
lished means of transportation between the coal
mine and the power plant, and the need for material
to fill the void left by mining of the coal. In
addition, many plants may not have sufficient land
area for on-site disposal. Recent technical/eco-
nomic assessments indicate that active Midwestern
surface mines and Eastern/Midwestern room-and-
pillar underground mines are the most promising
candidates for this disposal approach.3 Field
tests of this approach are required to bring it
to commercialization.
Ocean disposal of FGD sludge is also being
assessed because many plants in the Northeast may
have difficulty switching to coal for lack of
disposal sites; however, many of these plants do
have access to the ocean. It was also recognized
that the major soluble chemical constituents in
FGD sludge are found in relatively high concentra-
tions in seawater. Further environmental/economic
studies of this option are needed to establish its
viability.
Currently there are no Federal regulations
which specifically address the disposal of FGD
sludge. However, the Resource Conservation and
Recovery Act (RCRA) of 1976 calls for the eventual
Federal regulation of disposal of hazardous solid
wastes and the issuance of guidelines (to be used
by the states) for disposal of non-hazardous solid
wastes. The RCRA specifically identifies solid
wastes and sludges, including those generated by
air pollution control devices, as being covered by
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the Act. Although no official designation (hazard-
ous or non-hazardous) has been placed on FGD
sludges, it is currently assumed that they will be
considered non-hazardous, with disposal guidelines
to be issued in the next 2-3 years. Technical
support for this effort is underway.
Studies of the characteristics of coal ash
and the effects of coal ash disposal have been
underway and are continuing. Although these
efforts are not as extensive as those for FGD
sludge, they are no less significant because of
the increasing generation of coal ash. A report
has been issued which summarizes and evaluates
.existing data on the characteristics of coal ash
from studies made by TVA and others.
FGC Waste Utilization
4
Although extensive utilization of coal ash
and FGD sludge is practiced elsewhere^, less than
20 percent of the coal ash produced in the United
States is currently used^, and there have been no
full-scale commitments by American utilities to
produce FGD gypsum for sale. This situation may
change as the utilization of coal for electric
power expands and an energy and resource conserva-
tion ethic begins to take shape. The utilization
of coal ash is being promoted by many commercial
organizations, spearheaded by the National Ash
Association, which was formed in the late 1960's.
The utilization of FGD sludge is expected to
progress more slowly because of the need to demon-
strate commercial viability, but this need should
be filled in the near future.
A preliminary study conducted by TVA in early
1974 indicated the possibility that production of
FGD gypsum might offer a substantial economic
advantage over FGD sludge disposal. The produc-
tion of FGD gypsum is practiced extensively in
Japan; in 1975, over 1 million metric tons of
gypsum was produced, primarily for use in wallboard
and portland cement.6 However, prior to the use
of FGD in Japan, gypsum was imported at consider-
able expense; therefore, there was a substantial
market opportunity. The lack of disposal sites
for FGD sludge was another major incentive.
To determine the marketability of FGD gypsum
• in the United States, a thorough economic evalua-
tion of gypsum-producing FGD systems and detailed
'• marketing studies were undertaken. Indications
are that processes less complex than the majority
of those used in Japan will be necessary for a
profitable situation to occur.
The use of FGD sludge as a filler material
and source of sulfur for fertilizer is another
potential utilization scheme. Further development
of the fertilizer production process is needed to
establish its viability, as are plant toxicity
studies.
Conversion of FGD sludge to elemental sulfur
with recovery of calcium carbonate for recycle to
the scrubber has been studied on a pilot level by
Pullman-Kellogg and Ontario Hydro.
Water Recycle/Treatment/Reuse
Minimization of water consumption and dis-
charges in the electric utility industry are the
current regulatory trend. The ultimate goal is
"zero discharge". Complete recycle and reuse
with side-stream treatment is the only way to
achieve zero discharge. However, in some cases,
particularly those involving existing plants,
total elimination of discharges is not feasible,
so treatment prior to discharge is required for
some plant streams. Nevertheless, in almost all
cases, significant improvements in water utiliza-
tion can be made, often without major expense.
The major limitation in the recycle and reuse
of major plant streams (e.g., cooling tower blow-
down, ash sluice water) is the buildup of dis-
solved salts. Chemical treatment to precipitate
compounds (e.g., calcium sulfate) can increase the
number of cycles in the major systems, but even-
tually the more soluble salts build up and have to
be purged. Treatment of the purge streams requires
more expensive techniques such as evaporative or
membrane processes. Improvement of the perfor-
mance of these techniques is needed to lower the
costs of "zero discharge." Although more energy-
intensive, the evaporative processes seem to be
the most widely applicable.
Waste streams which may require treatment
prior to discharge include boiler cleaning wastes
and coal pile drainage. Metals in these wastes are
of particular concern. Membrane processes appear
to be promising for treatment of alkaline boiler
cleaning wastes. Routing coal pile drainage into
alkaline ash ponds appears feasible for control of
metals in the acidic drainage. At plants where
ash is collected dry, treatment of the drainage
(e.g., with lime), would be necessary. Treatment
methods for toxic effluents not currently covered
by the effluent guidelines have not yet been
specified by EPA.
Cooling Technology
The technological basis for no thermal dis-
charges to natural receiving waters is the closed
cycle evaporative system; e.g., wet cooling
tower, cooling pond or lake, and spray cooling
system. In water-scarce areas or locations where
water acquisition and treatment costs are high, a
dry cooling system may be advantageous for a power
plant. A hybrid cooling system, consisting of
both wet and dry components, may offer economic
advantages over a dry system while meeting water
supply constraints. However, experience with both
dry and wet/dry cooling systems for power plants
in the U.S. is lacking. Although dry cooling
systems for plants rated at 200 MWe or less are
operative abroad, two 20 MWe units (at Wyodak,
Wyoming, and Braintree, Massachusetts) represent
dry cooling system applications in the U.S. A
330 MWe unit at Wyodak, which is scheduled for
commercial operation in 1978, will also use dry
cooling. The first wet/dry cooling system (for a
500 MWe unit at Fruitland, New Mexico) is expected
to save 60 percent of the water that would be
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needed by an all-wet cooling tower when it
becomes operational in 1979.
When compared to the once-through cooling
system, all evaporative systems consume more water
and are generally less efficient because of higher
turbine exhaust pressures. These factors lead to
higher total annual costs for evaporative systems.
The large evaporation rates of water, since about
80 percent of the total cooling is effected by
evaporation, can also lead to potential fogging,
deposition of liquid droplets at undesired loca-
tions, and disposal problems for concentrated
cooling tower blowdown.
A dry cooling tower may cost up to an order
of magnitude more and operates with larger energy
and capacity penalties than a wet tower. The
greater cost and reduced performance are related
to a significant difference in operating principle.
The performance and size of a dry tower depend on
the ambient dry bulb temperature, which is never
less than and infrequently equals the wet bulb
temperature, and involves only sensible heat
transfer; the wet bulb temperature and eva-
porative heat transfer characterize wet tower
operation. A dry tower is thus larger than a wet
tower, for a given heating load, but consumes no
cooling water except for the make-up required to
replace small losses, such as those through pump
seals.
Important considerations in power plant
siting and closed cycle cooling system selection
are consumptive water use, vapor plume emissions,
and cost. Optimizations based on lowest total
annual cost are often the criteria for selecting
cooling systems. Using these evaluation factors,
dry cooling systems minimize water consumption and
permit minimum siting constraints but are usually
several times more expensive than wet cooling
systems. Wet/dry cooling systems are intermediate
to separate wet and dry cooling systems in both
cost and water consumption and are suitable for
operation in many water-limited regions. They can
also offer significantly lower cost than dry
systems while providing effective means to mini-
mize fogging and drift.
Adverse environmental impacts, such as damage
or destruction of benthic, planktonic, and nek-
tonic organisms, may be related to intakes of
cooling systems. Current guidelines for intake
structures recognize the best technology to be
dependent on site-specific factors which require
case by case decisions . Thus, the intake volume
of water, number and types of organisms entrained
or entrapped, intake geometry, thermal character-
istics, chemicals added to water for biological
control and other factors are pertinent to assess-
ing environmental impacts of an intake and the
related flow system. Although numerous intake
concepts have been tested, most have had limited
applicability to power plant intakes and were
designed primarily to reduce fish losses.
Most power plants in the U.S. use chlorine
for the control of biological fouling in their
cooling systems, especially in the condenser tubes
for both open and closed cycle cooling. The use
of chlorine is believed to have toxic effects on
aquatic organisms in receiving waters , and free
chlorine is said to react with some organic com-
pounds to form carcinogens, which are of great
concern if they enter public drinking water sources '
EPA has established allowable concentrations of
free chlorine in new plant effluents, and some
states have established their own limits on chlorine
discharge while others have none. Alternatives to
current chlorination practices, such as use of
other chemicals, physical/chemical treatment, and
mechanical cleaning, exist but are less economical,'
Waste Heat Utilization
The beneficial use of rejected heat from a
power plant cooling system can (1) reduce air and
water pollution, (2) conserve energy through fuel
conservation, (3) reduce the cost of pollution
control equipment, (4) provide additional revenue
from the sale of this form of energy, and (5) ellu-
inate the adverse environmental and economic
impacts associated with the fuel required if
waste, or rejected, heat was not used beneficially.
Since the discharge temperature' of power
plant condenser cooling water is low (about 5 to
20°C above intake water temperature), the corres-
ponding heat is of low quality, and its applica-
tion has usually been for agricultural (green-
house) and aquacultural purposes. Greenhouse
applications, involving high value crops such as
selected flowers and vegetables, appear to be the
most economical uses of waste heat. Aquacultural
applications, unless the waste heat is supplied to
other than natural receiving waters, do not reduce
thermal pollution as do agricultural uses:
the waste heat primarily regulates water tempera-
ture to promote more rapid growth of the fish or
shellfish of interest.
PROGRAM DISCUSSION
FGC Waste Disposal
This portion of the Waste and Water Program
is designed to evaluate, develop, demonstrate, and
recommend environmentally acceptable, cost-effec-
tive techniques for disposal of FGC wastes, with
emphasis on flue gas desulfurization (FGD) sludge.
This program area includes twelve projects, four
of which are being conducted by TVA under an
Interagency Agreement with EPA (see Table 1).
Contracted efforts in this area were initiated in
late 1972.
Results in this program area have been sub-
stantial. Chemical characterization of FGD sludge
has shown the need for protection of drinking
water supplies from intrusion by sludge leachates;
physical characterization has shown the need for
stabilization to reclaim the disposal site.
Chemical treatment appears to offer the best
overall approach for fulfilling these needs, but a
variety of approaches will probably be applied,
depending on the nature of the sludge and the
disposal site. Costs of disposal are a major
factor in determining the approach, and they
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represent a major part (up to 20 percent) of the
Capital and operating costs of an FGD system.
These costs can be drastically reduced by improved
'absorbent (e.g., limestone) utilization, controlled
solids quality, and by improved sludge dewatering
equipment. All of these improvements have been
shown to be feasible and are currently making
their way into the process supply market. How-
ever, further development/refinement of these
"techniques is continuing; their full commercial
;use is expected in the next 2-3 years.
Because of the substantial land requirements
for on-site disposal of ash and FGD sludge, there
is much electric utility interest in off-site
disposal, particularly disposal in coal mines.
"Assessments of this alternative have shown area
•surface mines to be most attractive. One utility
.plans to begin disposal of FGD sludge and ash in a
-surface mine this summer. Plans under the Waste
.and Water Program are to conduct a 2-year moni-
toring/assessment effort at this utility site.
.-.Successful demonstration of this disposal approach
could make conversion to coal quite feasible even
:_in areas where land for disposal is limited.
Field tests of various FGD sludge disposal
options, including ponding of untreated sludge,
physical stabilization using underdrainage, and
landfill of chemically treated sludge, continue.
.Revegetation of FGD sludge disposal sites is also
under study. Detailed economics of several dis-
posal options are being defined; the initial phase
of this effort, which includes ponding and chemi-
cal treatment/landfill, has recently been com-
. pleted. The next phase will probably include on-
site gypsum disposal and disposal of FGD sludge in
coal mines.
Guidelines for disposal of FGD sludge and
coal ash are expected to be issued within the
next 2-3 years. An effort has been underway since
mid-1975 to prepare a preliminary technical sup-
port document which could be potentially useful in
setting FGD waste disposal guidelines. A draft of
the document is currently under review and is
expected to be issued in mid-1977.
area consists of five projects, two of which are
being conducted by TVA (see Table 1).
Since FGD sludge is a relatively new by-
product, utilization in the United States is not
yet a commercial reality. However, conversion of
FGD sludge to gypsum (or direct production of
gypsum) for use in wallboard and portland cement
manufacture is practiced extensively in Japan.
Although the Japanese experience has primarily
been with oil, gypsum-producing FGD experience
with coal is increasing in Japan and the United
States. Studies under this program and the FGD
program show FGD gypsum production to offer major
operational, economic, and in some cases environ-
mental advantages.
Tools for the development of market strate-
gies have been developed. Studies currently
underway include a thorough economic evaluation of
several gypsum-producing FGD processes--!.e.,
limestone/gypsum, Chiyoda (H SO./gypsum), and
Dowa (aluminum-based double alkali/gypsum)—and a
detailed li.S marketing study of FGD gypsum for
wallboard. A report on this study is expected in
mid-1977. Wallboard production using FGD gypsum
from a Southeastern utility has been successfully
demonstrated. Feasibility demonstration of FGD
gypsum use in portland cement manufacture in
cooperation with trade associations is planned.
Development of FGD sludge utilization in
fertilizer is continuing at the pilot level.
Spreading the material over a relatively large
land area in this manner would not only alleviate
the disposal problem, but would also minimize the
potential localized environmental impact of a
highly concentrated waste; i.e., the leachate's
chemical constituents would be highly diluted by
rainfall and interaction with the soil.
Current plans call for pilot scale develop-
ment of a sulfur-producing limestone scrubbing
system which uses coal as the reductant. The
process also regenerates the calcium carbonate for
recycle to the scrubber. This effort should be
underway by mid-1977.
Studies of ocean disposal of FGD sludge have
identified several potential environmental prob-
lems. It appears that these problems could be
alleviated by either chemical treatment to a
"brick-like" form (possibly creating an artificial
reef) or oxidation to gypsum (followed by a widely
dispersed disposal operation). The costs of these
approaches are being defined and are expected to
be somewhat higher than for chemical treatment/land-
fill near the plant. Pilot disposal simulation
studies are underway to define the environmental
effects of both untreated and treated FGD sludge
disposal in the ocean.
FGC Waste Utilization
This portion of the Waste and Water Program
is designed to evaluate, develop, and demonstrate
cost-effective techniques for utilization of FGC
wastes, with emphasis on FGD sludge. This program
The use of coal ash, particularly in the
construction industry, is practiced worldwide;
however, a considerably greater amount could be
used in the United States than is currently con-
sumed. Coal ash is also a potential source of
metals, particularly iron and aluminum. However,
studies under this program show that coal ash
still does not appear to be competitive with
bauxite as a source of aluminum, even though the
price of alumina has more than doubled in the last
few years.
Water Recycle/Treatment/Reuse
This portion of the Waste and Water Program
is designed to evaluate, develop, and demonstrate
cost-effective techniques for minimizing water
consumption and discharges through recycle/reuse
as xjell as techniques for treatment of in-plant
streams for reuse or discharge within effluent
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guidelines. This program area consists of five
projects, two of which are being conducted by TVA
(see Table 1). Demonstration of the technology to
achieve zero discharge would be a significant step
toward meeting current and future effluent guide-
lines . The waste and water program has undertaken
a variety of activities toward that goal. The
design tools to provide for broad-scale applica-
tion of the technology necessary for minimization
or elimination of effluents will ultimately be
provided by this program.
Five power plants have been studied to exam-
ine the alternatives for minimizing water use (and
discharges) in the major plant systems; e.g.,
cooling towers, ash sluice systems, and wet
scrubbers. Results have shown that much more
efficient water use can be obtained, in many cases
without significant expense. Evaluation of system
designs are being completed; planning for large-
scale demonstration of water recycle/treatment/re-
use at a utility is in the final stage
Several water treatment systems are being
examined to address the problem of dissolved
salts in recycle streams, including vapor-com-
pression cycle evaporation, vertical tube evapora-
tion with interface enhancement (for better heat
transfer), and reverse osmosis (RO) . Results, so
far, show evaporation systems to be more gener-
ally applicable to major streams.
Treatment of other streams to meet effluent
guidelines is also underway. Hollow-fiber reverse-
osmosis membranes appear promising in the treat-
ment of alkaline boiler cleaning wastes, a minor
(in terms of volume), but not insignificant, waste
stream. Ultrafiltration membrane processess are
being tested for oil removal from waste streams.
In addition, coal pile drainage is being character-
ized at two plants to correlate drainage with
rainfall and determine treatment requirements.
Sampling frequency requirements are being defined
for ash pond overlow at two plants; so far,
quarterly sampling appears adequate for most
chemical parameters. Finally, an assessment of
technology for control of toxic effluents, includ-
ing technology from other industries, is currently
underway.
Cooling Technology
Cooling technology projects concern studies
of cooling system economics and advanced heat
rejection techniques, development of control
technology for the treatment and reuse of cooling
effluent streams, and demonstration of new cooling
technology. A brief summary of projects under
this aspect of thermal pollution control follows.
Several studies of dry cooling systems have
been or are being supported by EPA. One study
involved optimizing the design of large dry cool-
ing systems.^ Computer program variables included:
heat exchanger design parameters (tube length,
bundle width, number of tubes and passes), turbine
type (conventional or modified back pressure),
type of condenser (jet or surface), climatic
factors (ambient dry bulb temperature and its
duration), temperature differences (initial
temperature difference in the dry tower, cooling
water range, terminal temperature difference in
the condenser), and cost factors (auxiliary fan
power, cooling system capital, penalty and operat-
ing costs, fixed charge rate). The analysis
showed that there are many combinations of design
variables which result in the. same total annual
cooling system cost. Consequently, the cost,
being a function of six variables, cannot be
simply illustrated on a two-dimensional plot as
has often been done, and no single point repre-
senting the absolute minimum cost exists because
of compensating effects among the variables.
Thus, no single variable dominates the cost, and
fixing some design variables at constant values
can produce non-optimum results. Plant site,
turbine and condenser types, and tube configura-
tion and length can also significantly affect
total annual cost.
Another dry cooling study with EPA support
is a demonstration of a 20 MWe system which is
part of an 85 MWe combined cycle plant. After a
favorable feasibility study for the projectlO,
a 4-year test program was developed. Specific
objectives of this dry cooling system demonstra-
tion are to monitor and evaluate: (1) steam flow
and temperature in the dry tower to better define
optimum design characteristics, (2) the meteorolo-
gical effects from the plant and the meteorological
impacts on plant operation and performance,
(3) noise generation and its control, (4) air
quality factors related to plant operation, and
(5) economic effects of the design and operational
factors. Data collection is expected to begin in
July 1977, and a final report on the project is
slated for early 1980.
A project for evaluting the technical and
economic feasibility of wet/dry cooling towers
for water conservation and vapor plume abatement
has been completed, and the final report is being
prepared. Cost optimization studies for 1000 MWe
fossil-fueled power plants at 10 sites were
made. Six sites (five mine-mouth sites in the
semi-arid but coal-rich Western U.S. and one in
New York State which will require coal shipments)
were evaluated for water conservation while four
urban sites (Charlotte, Cleveland, Newark and
Seattle) were used in the plume abatement analy-
ses. Site-specific information included eleva-
tion, make-up, water quality, ambient wet and dry
bulb temperature, and other pertinent meteorolo-
gical data. Using the total evaluated cost of
the cooling system (defined as the sum of capital
and penalty costs) and optimized separate state-
of-the-art wet and dry towers as reference systems,
costs as a function of water consumption, or the
make-up required, for the wet/dry system were
related to the percentage of water required by
the separate all-wet system. For the sites
studied the wet/dry system met water consumption
constraints at costs slightly above the all-
wet system and significantly below those for the
all-dry system. Wet/dry systems which save as
much as 98% of the make-up required by an all-
wet tower can still have an economic advantage
over an all-dry system, but where water is avail"
144
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able the all-wet cooling tower will be the eco-
nomic choice in most cases.
Low profile wet cooling towers can signifi-
cantly reduce ground fogging by employing
more cells to reduce the liquid concentration in
the plume. This change can be made without a
significant increase in total evaluated cost for
the wet cooling tower. Wet/dry towers were used
to meet restrictive site conditions or fogging
limitations at a cost of 2 to 3 percent more than
for all-wet systems at the sites studied.
A joint EPA/TVA project also involves wet/dry
cooling. This program recently resumed after a
decision by the Government Accounting Office
approved the acquisition of the tower which is
located on non-government-owned land. This study
concerns a wet/dry system that can operate in a
series or parallel air flow arrangement. Thermal
performance, wet/dry plume characteristics, and
noise characteristics will be evaluated in this
Interagency Energy project. The test data will
be used to verify and revise the cooling tower
design, the tower performance computer model, the
computer model for predicting visible vapor plume
behavior, and the computer model for estimating
noise levels associated with both the wet and dry
tower operation.
Since experimental data on wet/dry cooling
are lacking, EPA has joined with nine other spon-
sors to field test a wet/dry cooling tower at a
power plant in California. Using a tower designed
and now being erected by a cooling tower manufac-
turer, the testing will provide data on water con-
servation and plume characteristics as well as a
test of the tower design and operation.
The effluent guidelines for the steam electric
generating industry-'-!, which were published in
October 1974 and remanded by an appeals court in
: July 1976, required closed cycle cooling systems
; for power plants according to their age and size.
j An economic assessment of backfitting closed
cycle cooling systems^ to affected plants (com-
pleted in March 1976) considered both mechanical
and natural draft wet cooling towers, cooling
ponds, and spray canals. Results of the study
revealed that the total cost of backf itting
depended mainly on the capital cost of the cool-
ing system; but the capital cost of replacing lost
capacity, operating cost of peaking plants, and
added fuel costs stemming from the use of closed
cycle in lieu of once-through cooling were also
significant costs. The mechanical draft tower
was the least expensive backfitted cooling system
for the sites considered; however, great care in
assessing the costs cited and the fixed charge
rate for each application was suggested by a
sensitivity analysis of the total cost.
An extensive review of intake structures^
was made in another EPA/TVA project under an
Interagency Energy Agreement. This state-of-the-
art evaluation of mechanisms and intake designs
concerned intake configurations, behavioral
barriers to fish, screening devices, and fish
removal systems. Evaluations of available intake
technologies were summarized, results of recent
tests and studies were presented, and recommenda-
tions for tests needed to demonstrate a fish
protection mechanism at a given site were made.
In a related effort under the Agreement, TVA is
designing a dual flow, vertically traveling
intake screen with the objective of reducing fish
impingement and entrapment.
Alternatives to chlorination for control of
biological fouling in condenser tubes were assessed
in a recent report.8 The results of this study
indicated that: (1) mechanical cleaning systems
are relatively expensive, difficult to retrofit
in some instances and may also be inadequate
without some chlorination; (2) ozonation is
unproven for power plant water treatment and is
high in both capital and operating costs; (3) de-
chlorination with sulfur dioxide requires an
additional chemical feed system and possible
deoxygenation of receiving waters; (A) bromine
chloride may be a viable alternative to chlorine
but further study of its use is needed; (5) cur-
rently available techniques permit attaining
newly established free chlorine limits in new
plant effluents; and (6) several methods for
biofouling control which use chlorine are more
efficient and cause fewer problems than contin-
uous chlorination. In a follow-up study, bromine
chloride is being evaluated as it appears to have
fewer adverse environmental effects although it
is more costly than chlorine.
Waste Heat Utilization
Current waste heat utilization projects
being supported by IERL-RTP are mainly concerned
with greenhouse applications, although promising
residential/industrial (such as cogeneration) and
aquacultural uses of waste heat are also of in-
terest. The greenhouse applications have focused
on flower, vegetable, and tree seedling production
when heating was supplied by soil and air warming
or air warming alone.
In a greenhouse demonstration, partially
funded by EPA, warm water from the condenser
cooling loop provides both soil and air heating
for a 0.2 hectare greenhouse.11* The warm water
system, using water generally at 29.5°C,
supplied all the greenhouse heating while main-
taining suitable greenhouse temperatures for the
production of roses, snapdragons, tree seedlings,
tomatoes, and lettuce during Minnesota's coldest
winter in 100 years. Warm water heating costs
were estimated to save $25,362/hectare year over
fuel oil in the Minneapolis area. With the technical
and economic feasibility of using power plant
waste heat for greenhouse heating having been
demonstrated, commercialized greenhouses with
warm water heating at this site appear likely
within the next few years. Serious discussions
between interested commercial growers and Northern
States Power Company have indicated that present
plant capabilities can support about 5.7 hectares
of greenhouses and stimulated some consideration
to supporting 40.5 hectares of greenhouses after
the initial development.
A cooperative effort between EPA and TVA has
145
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involved both agricultural and aquacultural uses
of waste heat. The agricultural application
concerned soil warming studies in a program aimed
at extending the crop growing season. Prelimi-
nary results have permitted selection of warm
water piping material and spacing arrangement.
Crop growth data will be obtained in follow-up
studies. The aquacultural application studied
the feasibility of using waste heat for optimizing
the recycling of nutrients from swine manure
for the production of algae. The algae were then
fed to amur fish which were in turn used for
livestock feed supplements. This study is con-
tinuing.
Warm water at 18-22°C from the cooling system
of a New England nuclear plant will also be used
for greenhouse heating. Scheduled for completion
in late 1977, this application will determine the
feasibility of using relatively low temperature
warm water for commercial horticulture.
Another project, a 2-year one to be com-
pleted in 1978, uses warm water for both soil and
air heating at a Southeastern site. This green-
house use of waste heat will be evaluated as a
means of enhancing the growth of bedding and
foliage plants and selected flowers.
CONCLUSIONS
The Waste and Water Program is designed to
characterize effluents and solid wastes from power
plants and to develop technology to minimize the
potential adverse environmental impacts of these
effluents and wastes. The program has achieved
significant results in a number of areas.
Flue gas cleaning (FGC) wastes have been
characterized physically and chemically; a variety
of disposal options have been identified. Dis-
posal of these wastes in coal mines is economically
attractive and, therefore, is being investigated
through lab and field tests. Methods for achiev-
ing major cost reductions in FGC waste disposal
have also been identified and are making their way
into the process supply market. These include
oxidation to gypsum and improved dewatering equip-
ment .
Production of saleable FGD gypsum is tech-
nically and economically feasible, given a proper
match of power plant and manufacturing plant (e.g.,
for wallboard, cement). Domestic markets cur-
rently need better definition. The use of coal
ash is current commercial practice although much
greater utilization is feasible.
Overall power plant water recycle/reuse
studies have shown that much more efficient water
use can be obtained, in many cases without signi-
ficant expense. Treatment systems to maximize
water reuse are being evaluated in EPA and private-
ly funded studies and the improved evaporative systems
appear promising. Studies of effluent treatment
prior to discharge are also underway.
The cooling system studies have shown that:
1. various combinations of dry cooling
system variables can produce the same total annual
cooling system cost and no single combination of
design variables represents the absolute minimum
because of compensating effects among the vari-
ables,
2. wet/dry cooling towers can operate with
water savings up to 98% of the make-up required
by an all-wet tower and still have an economic
edge over an all-dry system,
3. wet/dry cooling towers may be operated
to effectively limit ground fogging and to reduce
plume emissions, and
4. alternatives to chlorination for bio-
fouling control in power plant cooling systems
while effective are generally more costly.
Waste heat is effective for greenhouse soil
and air heating. The technical and economic
feasibility of using warm condenser cooling water
from a power plant for soil and air heating in a
Minnesota greenhouse to produce high-value vege-
tables and flowers has been demonstrated. Commer-
cial greenhouses heated by power plant waste heat
at this site are likely within the next year or so,
REFERENCES
1. Leo, P.P. and J. Rossoff, Control of Waste
and Water Pollution from Power Plant Flue Gas
Cleaning Systems: Second Annual R and D
Report. (To be published for EPA).
2. Rossoff, J. et al., Disposal of By-Products
from Nonregenerable Flue Gas Desulfurization
Systems: Second Progress Report, EPA-600/7-
77-052, May 1977. (In press).
3. Jones, J.W. , "Disposal of Flue Gas Cleaning
Wastes," CHEMICAL ENGINEERING, Vol. 84, No.
4, pp. 79-85, February 14, 1977.
4. Ray, S.S. and F.G. Parker, Characterization
of Ash from Coal-Fired Power Plants, EPA-600/
7-77-010 (NTIS No. PB 265374/AS or TVA No.
PRS-18), January 1977.
5. Faber, J.H., "U.S. Overview of Ash Production
and Utilization," in Proceedings: Fourth
Annual Ash Utilization Symposium, St. Louis,
MO, MERC/SP-76/4, pp. 5-13.
6. Ando, J., "Status of Flue Gas Desulfurization
and Simultaneous Removal of SO. and NO in
Japan," in Proceedings: Symposium on Flue Gas
Desulfurization, New Orleans, March 1976,
Volume I, EPA-600/2-76-136a (NTIS No. PB 255-
317/AS), May 1976, pp. 53-78.
7. Development Document for Best Technology
Available for the Location, Design, Construc-
tion, and Capability of Cooling Water Intake
Structures for Minimizing Adverse Environ-
mental Impact, EPA-440/l-76/015-a, April
1976.
8. Yu, H.H.S., G.A. Richardson, and W.H. Hedley,
146
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Alternatives to Chlorination for Control of
Condenser Tube Bio-Fouling, EPA-600/7-77-030
(NTIS No. PB 266269/AS), March 1977.
9. Fake, J. and T. Rozenman, "Optimization
of Dry Cooling Systems for 1000 MW Fossil
Fuel Power Plants," in Proceedings of the
Conference on Waste Heat Management and
Utilization, Miami Beach, Florida, May 9-11,
1977, Volume I, pp. III-C-193-224.
10. Henderson, Michael D., Feasibility Study for
a Direct, Air-Cooled Condensation System,
EPA-600/2-76-178 (NTIS No. PB 256403/AS),
July 1976.
11. Development Document for Effluent Limitations
Guidelines and New Source Performance Stan-
dards for the Steam Electric Power Generating
Plant Source Category, EPA-400/l-74-029a,
October 1974.
12. Giaquinta, A.R., et al., Economic Assessment
of Backfitting Power Plants with Closed-
Cycle Cooling Systems, EPA-600/2-76-050
(NTIS No. PB 251189/AS), March 1976.
13. Ray, S.S. and R.L. Snipes, A State-of-the-
Art Report on Intake Technologies, EPA-600/
7-76-020 (NTIS No. PB 264874/AS or TVA No.
PRS-16), October 1976.
14. Ashley, G.C. and J.S. Hietala, "The Sherco
Greenhouse: A Demonstration of the Beneficial
Use of Waste Heat," in Proceedings of the
Conference on Waste Heat Management and
Utilization, Miami Beach, Florida, May 9-11,
1977, Volume III, pp. IX-A-3-15.
147
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extraction
and beneficiation
CHAPTER 4
^ v
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CHAPTER CONTENTS
extraction and beneficiation
SUMMARY
David G. Stephan, Ph.D., EPA 153
QUESTIONS & ANSWERS
TECHNICAL DISCUSSION
163
171
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMS FOR
POLLUTION CONTROL IN MINING AND TRANSPORT OF
SOLID FUELS
John F Martin, EPA
Eugene F Harris, EPA 173
DEVELOPMENT PROGRESS IN COAL CLEANING FOR
DESULFURIZATION
James D. Kilgroe, EPA 177
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
SPONSORED RESEARCH AT U.S. BUREAU OF MINES
Richard E. Hucko, DOI 183
FOREST SERVICE MINING RECLAMATION RESEARCH
Grant Davis, USDA
PROTECTION OF SOIL AND WATER RESOURCES ON
LAND DISTURBED BY MINING
James F Power, USDA
Orus L. Bennett, USDA 195
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EXTRACTION AND
BENEFIC1AT1ON
David G. Stephan, Ph.D.
Director
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
AJOR RELIANCE ON COAL
ASTERN SURFACE MINING
<\STERN UNDERGROUND
1INIIMG
Without question, major reliance will be placed on coal as the short- to
intermediate-term answer to much of this nation's energy problem. Coal will be used
directly as fuel for conventional steam generation and will eventually be used as the
energy source for higher-efficiency energy conversion processes such as MHD. Coal will
also become the essential raw material for the emerging synthetic fuel industry.
Inevitably, therefore, coal will be mined, cleaned, and transported in ever-increasing
amounts. This step in solving the energy crisis has already begun.
How can this use of coal be accomplished in acceptable environmental fashion?
Today's papers, which I will summarize, provide an overview of the current interagency
research and development efforts to meet this need.
Work on fuel extraction under the immediate direction of EPA has been described
by John Martin and Eugene Harris in their paper, "Research and Development
Programs for Pollution Control in Mining and Transport of Solid Fuels." Objectives are
to (1) assess the potential environmental damages from active and abandoned mining,
transporting, and beneficiation processes; (2) develop methods to control, treat, and
abate environmental pollutants from these operations; (3) demonstrate the technical/
operational feasibility and cost effectiveness of environmental control options; (4)
provide environmental control criteria; and (5) prepare user manuals for all pollution
control aspects of the mining industry.
With regard to problems of eastern surface coal mines, newly developed mining
techniques—block cutting, haulback of spoils, mountaintop removal, hollow fills,
etc.—have appeared within the last few years. These techniques greatly reduce the
hazards of massive landslides, erosion, and stream siltation by containing spoils in
specifically engineered sites. Recently initiated projects involve development of proper
premining planning practices, assessment of the environmental impact of newly
emerging extraction technologies, and demonstration of controls for minimizing off-site
damage. A minor effort is continuing in reclamation research to keep abreast of
current practice. Example projects in these areas include preparation of a manual for
premining planning; projects to evaluate control of pollution through use of block-cut
mining, mountaintop removal, and head-of-hollow fill mining techniques; and a project
on control of sediment from haul roads.
As for eastern underground mines, mine drainage treatment and mine sealing have
long been the accepted methods of abatement of pollution. Each, however, has its
disadvantages. The treatment process is acceptable for active operations but is
expensive and at best a short-term cure. After a mine is closed, treatment must
continue for years. Mine sealing is not a miracle cure for mine drainage in that it is
successful only in special cases with ideal conditions. Air sealing to prevent oxidation
of acid-forming materials has proved to be nearly impossible.
The Deer Park Daylighting Project, currently in the demonstration phase, is an
attempt to surface-mine and then reclaim a previously mined area in northwestern
Maryland. The project is intended to show that it is feasible, from both energy and
environmental standpoints, to strip out an abandoned underground mine, recover the
unmined coal pillars, and restore the area to a state of productivity.
Another approach is aquifer dewatering. This project is to show that mine
drainage can be reduced by artificially removing or intercepting the ground water in
the vicinity of the mine, thus reducing infiltration to the mine void. Other projects are
proceeding to investigate the effectiveness of backfilling mine voids with waste
materials, to reduce water infiltration to the mine workings, and to develop more
effective mine sealing techniques.
153
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WESTERN MINING
In the mine drainage treatment area, recent work has shown that combinations of
neutralizing agents are usually more effective than the same agents used separately. 4,
an example, recent studies involving the use of limestone/lime neutralization technique,
have found them to be efficient, less expensive from an operating standpoint and
capable of producing denser floe material for the settling stage than is possible bv
using lime alone.
Efforts are presently aimed at redefining the applicability of current treatment
technology to mining situations other than the eastern coal fields. In addition, work is
continuing to develop and demonstrate more advanced treatment techniques, such as
ion exchange, reverse osmosis, and neutralosis. To illustrate the current research trends
one active project has as its objective the development of a refined and more efficient
system for reverse osmosis treatment of acid drainage using lime neutralization of the
resultant brines. Coupled with the treatment projects are efforts for safe disposal of
the sludges and brines that are the by-products of neutralization. Studies involving
sludge dewatering, lagooning, and spray irrigation are underway.
Mining of western coals presents a slate of new problems. In addition to grading
surface water control, erosion protection, and revegetation work—as required for
eastern surface coal mines—western mining must make provision for severe drought
conditions, wind erosion, and high-intensity rain storms. Many of the active western
mines are open-pit operations that have the potential for major aquifer disruption and
extremely difficult reclamation. At present, a large portion of the research deals with
definition and assessment of potential environmental impacts. To this end, for example
one project is defining the impacts that mine development would have on ground
water, surface water, land use, and socioeconomic structures. Work on revegetation
surface water quality, ground water quality and quantity, and irrigation potentials is
also progressing at active mine sites. Simultaneously on this project, the Bureau of
Mines and ERDA are collecting data regarding reclamation practices and water-
harvesting techniques.
URANIUM MINING
As complementary work, studies of the ground water formations in the
coal-producing areas of the West and development of seed sources and planting
techniques are being conducted by the U.S. Geological Survey and USDA.
Uranium mining is also encompassed within this general area. The mining of
uranium entails a variety of environmental hazards, including surface and ground water
contamination, fugitive dust emissions, and solid waste disposal problems created by
onsite beneficiation processes. The existing state-of-the-art for mining control
technology needs to be assessed, as does the possibility of transfer of technology from
similar extractive industries.
In addition to being extracted by conventional mining techniques, uranium is d®
mined by in situ leaching. The environmental impact of solvents utilized in the
leaching process is not well known. Currently under consideration are three projects to
evaluate the in situ extractive process.
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iJOLID-FUEL TRANSPORTATION
PUBLISHED REPORTS
Transportation of solid fuels from mines to points of use can also involve
environmental disruption. Work is underway, therefore, to produce a multimedia
assessment of such environmental problems and to specify technology needed to
minimize the pollutional aspects of solid fuel transport. A user manual comparing
various control techniques will be made available. In this the economics and
effectiveness of the various control options for each mode of transport will be
discussed to provide a basis for selecting or evaluating transport systems. It will deal
with the five basic modes of transport—truck, rail, barge, pipeline, and conveyor.
During the past year, a number of reports have been published on completed
efforts. In many cases, the results will be referenced and incorporated in future
manuals that will summarize all work undertaken in a given subject area (e.g., eastern
surface coal mines). Reports have received wide distribution throughout industry and
government and are already being used to design control systems or provide
information regarding specific problem areas or designs. The manual entitled "Erosion
and Sediment Control" has had wide distribution (over 15,000 copies) and is being
used by many engineers, mining companies, and State and Federal agencies for design
and evaluation of sediment control structures.
FACTORS RESTRICTING
PLANT GROWTH
REVEGETATION OF MINE SPOILS
Other completed reports cover use of porous limestone barriers to neutralize acid
streams, use of overburden sampling as an aid to premine planning, demonstration of
reclamation methods to reduce infiltration to underground workings, effectiveness of
various types of sedimentation ponds, treatment of AMD by the alumina-lime-soda
process, a model to predict pollution loads and select most cost-effective abatement
methods, and a preliminary assessment of the environmental impact of uranium mining
and milling.
Feasibility studies or interim reports were published for projects involving
underground mine daylighting, debris basin effectiveness for sediment control, surface
and underground mine sealing, coal mine haul road sediment control, and use of fly
ash for surface mine reclamation. In addition to these, two draft reports are now being
reviewed for the major efforts dealing with assessment of coal transport, head-of-hollow
fill, and mountaintop removal mining.
Work by the Agricultural Research Service of USDA is described in the paper by
J.F Power and O.L. Bennett. They point out that practically all land disturbed by
mining is eventually returned to some type of vegetative cover. Since vegetative cover
affects soil/water relations and erosion, soil and water resources on mined land can be
protected by controlling the type and amount of vegetation present. Land reclaimed
for crop production or grazing can also produce economic benefit. Considerable effort
has been expended to identify the physical and chemical properties of mine spoils that
could restrict plant growth. This requires appropriate methodology for sampling and
analysis. Fortunately, most procedures normally used for agronomic work apply also to
mine spoils, and procedures suitable for western United States are being published in a
USDA handbook.
Factors most restrictive to plant growth are often different in eastern than in
western mine spoils. In the East, problems result predominantly from the actual or
potential acidity of spoils. Also, the amount of magnesium, calcium, and phosphorus is
sometimes insufficient to support growth, and many eastern spoils contain a high sand
percentage, which tend to make them droughty. Furthermore, much of the eastern
mining results in steep outer slopes which are erosive and difficult to stabilize. In
western United States, however, the primary problems in revegetation of mine spoils
are related to efficient conservation and use of the limited quantity of precipitation
received. These include such factors as high salinity levels, high exchangeable sodium
content, nutrient deficiences, toxicities, compaction, and steep slopes.
The acidity problems encountered in the East are usually correctable by the
application of dolomitic limestone, which also corrects the calcium and magnesium
deficiencies. Nitrogen deficiences are corrected by either nitrogen fertilization, growth
of legumes, or addition of nitrogen-containing organic residues such as manure or
sewage sludge.
Selection of appropriate plant species is very important in developing a
reclamation plan. Almost all plant species commonly produced in the East can be
grown on mine spoils, but on mined areas with steep slopes, perennial vegetation is
generally most effective. Although commercial forestry is possible, results indicate that
mined land should first be seeded to perennial grasses and legumes and later converted
to forestry.
155
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COAL CLEANING
Considerable knowledge has now been developed on the selection of
species for revegetation of spoils of various pH's and for revegetation of both moderate
and steeply sloped areas. Likewise, much information is now available on enhancinq
organic content and conditioning soil with organic mulches of various types. %
techniques have been developed for vegetating quite steep slopes (60 percent or more]!
for example, by creating miniature contour terraces every few feet down the slope. '
In western United States, lack of plant-available water ultimately limits p|8ril
growth on reclaimed land, as it does on unmined land. Therefore, any spoil property
or reclamation practice that increases infiltration or potential plant growth or reduces
evaporation generally improves the efficiency of water conservation and use. Marv
western spoils are high in exchangeable sodium content. Results have shown that about
3 years following treatment with gypsum, up to about 50 percent of the exchangeable
sodium can be displaced and leached out. Exchangeable sodium can be almost
completely removed in just a few days by treatment with calcium chloride, but this
treatment is expensive.
Plant-nutrient deficiences are also common in western spoils. Phosphorus is almost
always deficient; however, this can be readily corrected with triple superphosphate.
Biologically active organic nitrogen is often absent and must be restored through a
buildup in soil organic matter. At many western mine sites, appreciable quantities ol
soil material are available for spreading over spoils. Results from North Dakota have
shown that about 30 inches of soil material must be returned to highly sodic spoils to
restore full productivity potential for commonly grown crops. However, as little as 2
inches of soil material produced yields of crested wheatgrass and native grasses equal
to 50 to 70 percent of the yields obtained with 30 inches or more of soil material.
Hydrological data being accumulated indicate that the runoff and erosion potential
is severe on long slopes of 9 percent or steeper. Also, preliminary data indicate that
both wind and water erodibility of freshly spread soil material may be several-fold
greater than that of unmined soil. Thus it appears that soil and water protection or
freshly mined land is best achieved by eliminating slopes of 9 percent or steeper.
The more arid climate of the West makes the establishment of good vegetative
cover more difficult than in the East. Data indicate that seedling establishment can be
improved by use of various types of mulches, standing stubble, or a thin covering of
soil material, gravel, or even oxidized coal if it is not too high in soluble salt content,
Other research indicates that by adding small quantities of water during critical
drought periods, a great deal of control can be achieved over the kinds of species
established and their density. For this purpose only a few inches of water are
required—a quantity often available as pit water.
The research being conducted by ARS is resulting in a technology that will
protect the soil and water resources of mined areas as well as provide an economic
return to the landowner. It is becoming well established that the best way to achieve
these dual objectives is to establish good productive vegetative cover. Once established,
this vegetation not only restricts surface water movement and erosion but, possibly of
more importance, it also dries out the soil, enabling more of the precipitation received
to infiltrate into the soil at the point of impact. Also, drying the soil reduces the
quantity of water and the quantity of dissolved solids passing below the root zone to
a water table. This, in turn, aids in controlling ground water pollution from mined
areas. By revegetating, organic matter and the plant nutrients contained therein are also
added to the upper surfaces of mined land, aiding in the buildup of a new soil after
mining. It is apparent, then, that rapid establishment and efficient production of
vegetation is one of the best defenses possible against soil and water degradation on
land disturbed by mining.
Once out of the ground, much coal needs to be "cleaned," either physically or
chemically, to upgrade the quality of the coal for use and, more importantly from an
environmental protection standpoint, to reduce the sulfur content so that SOx
emissions to the air are reduced during combustion. Major strategies for the control of
502 emissions include coal cleaning, combustion in chemically active fluidized beds,
removal by flue gas scrubbing, and generation of clean synthetic fuels.
The sulfur content of coal normally ranges from less than 1 percent to more than
7 percent. Sulfur appears in coal in three forms: mineral sulfur (pyrite), organically
bound sulfur, and trace quantities of "sulfate" sulfur. Sulfate sulfur is soluble in water
and can be removed in wet (physical) coal preparation plants. Organic sulfur cannot be
removed by physical coal preparation techniques. Pyrite occurs in sizes ranging »<""
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02 EMISSION CONTROL
small discrete particles to large lumps. It can be found intimately dispersed in the coal,
in bands, or in large pieces. Physical cleaning techniques are capable of removing
varying fractions of the pyritic sulfur as determined by the properties of each coal.
Chemical cleaning is capable of removing over 95 percent of the pyritic sulfur and up
to about 70 percent of the organic sulfur as well.
Research results from EPA's R&D program on coal cleaning are described by
James Kilgroe in his paper "Coal Cleaning for S02 Emission Control." Results indicate
that, in general, pyrite removal increases with reduced particle size. This implies that
to enhance pyritic sulfur removal, coal must be crushed and processed at finer particle
sizes than has been the practice historically. A second finding is that the final sulfur
levels to which coals can be cleaned vary across coal regions and across coal beds
within the same region. Sulfur removal by chemical methods depends on coal
properties and process conditions—time, pressure, temperature, and chemical reagents.
Process costs will probably limit the amount of sulfur that can practicably be removed
to about 95 percent of pyritic sulfur and 40 percent of organic sulfur.
'HYSICAL CLEANING
'ROCESSES
COAL CONTAMINANTS
The costs of physical and chemical coal cleaning for sulfur removal are uncertain.
However, from correlations between ash and sulfur removal in commercial equipment,
one can deduce the probable costs of sulfur removal in physical cleaning. These
tentative correlations indicate that, in some cases, physical coal cleaning may be a
more cost-effective emission control technique than flue gas desulfurization (FGD).
However, physical cleaning is not a panacea since it cannot remove organic sulfur from
coal or, in some cases, even sufficient pyritic sulfur.
Chemical cleaning costs may range from the costs of FGD to the costs of
producing synthetic fuels from coal. Cost estimates for chemical coal cleaning are,
however, substantially less certain than those for physical cleaning.
Removal of pyritic sulfur from steam coal by physical cleaning has not been
commercially used as a method of S02 control. Separation at the fine-particle sizes
involved, while not impossible, represents a shift to a mix of equipment and operating
conditions different from those traditionally used for steam coal preparation.
Dewatering and drying of larger quantities of fine coal may also be required.
Chemical coal cleaning is in the early stages of development, and it is estimated
that a commercial plant could not be put into operation for at least 5 to 10 years. A
number of chemical cleaning processes have been identified. However, many are only
conceptual, are not presently active, have never been tested on coal, or do not result
in coal-like products. Only seven or eight processes appear to merit serious
consideration at this time. A report on the status of each of these processes will soon
be published.
Physical cleaning can be used on a limited number of U.S. coals to meet Federal
New Source Performance Standards (NSPS) for steam generators. Moreover, a larger
number of coals can be physically cleaned (1) to meet less stringent State SO2
emission standards or (2) in conjunction with flue gas desulfurization (FGD) to lower
emission control costs. The number of coals that could be cleaned to NSPS levels
could be increased by either a reduction in the coal particle size or a reduction in the
Btu recovery value of the cleaned product. In the latter case, the reject coal could
probably be used in a boiler with FGD.
Mr. Kilgroe also describes how by combining physical coal cleaning and flue gas
desulfurization, the advantages of each technique can be used to minimize emission
control costs. One recent study has shown significant economic advantages to this
combined pollution control method. In 36 case studies where allowable S02 emissions
varied from 1.2 to 1.6 pounds S02/106 Btu, the cost of using a combination of
conventional coal cleaning and flue gas desulfurization was 2 percent to 55 percent
lower than flue gas desulfurization alone for new plants and 10 percent to 60 percent
lower for existing plants. The arithmetic average for the cases cited showed costs about
30 percent lower for new plants and 40 percent lower for existing plants.
The overall objectives of EPA's work on environmental assessment have been to
characterize coal contaminants and to identify the fate of these contaminants during
coal processing and coal use. Research on the occurrence and distribution of trace
elements in coal has yielded the following conclusions.
® Elemental concentrations tend to be highest in coals from the Appalachians,
lowest in coals from the western United States, and intermediate in coals from
the Illinois Basin.
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COAL WASTES FROM PLANTS
• Elements with the largest ranges in concentration are found in distinct mineral
phases in coal; elements with narrow ranges are found in organic combination
in coal.
• Only four elements (boron, chlorine, selenium, and arsenic) are, on the average
present in coals in concentrations significantly greater than the average
concentrations in the earth's crust.
o Benches of a single coal seam often exhibit wide variations in concentrations of
elements. High concentrations are most commonly observed at the top and/or
bottom of the coal seam.
• Major quantities of elements with high inorganic affinities may be removed
from coals by specific-gravity cleaning techniques. Disposal of these residue
materials may, in turn, pose a significant environmental problem.
Other studies have concentrated on coal wastes from four preparation plants,
Trace elements and minerals in these wastes were identified. Associations were
established between the trace elements and the major minerals present. Laboratory
leaching studies simulating environmental weathering have shown that leaching increased
with decreased pH and with increased availability of air, increased surface area, and
increased time. The highly leachable elements were determined.
Experiments have been conducted to evaluate sulfur and trace element emissions
from the combustion of coals treated by the Battelle Hydrothermal Process. During
combustion, from 25 percent to 75 percent of the fuel sulfur was retained in the
combustor ash and fly ash. Generally, ash sulfur retention in coals leached with both
NaOH and Ca(OH)2 was superior to that in the NaOH-treated coals. For untreated
coals, sulfur retention ranged from 3 percent to 30 percent. Emission of trace elements
from combustion of treated coals was also substantially reduced as compared with
corresponding combustion projects from the raw coals.
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^VARIABILITY OF
;ONTAMINANTS WITH
;OAL SEAMS
DBJECTIVES OF MAJOR
DEMONSTRATION PROGRAM
energy
environment II
A USGS project on variability of contaminants with coal seams has the following
objectives:
• To determine the geologic factors controlling lateral and vertical variations,
crystal form, and size of pyrite inclusions
• To determine the geologic factors controlling mineral and elemental variations
in coal
• To evaluate various methods for correlating cleanability with coal petrologic
characteristics
• To develop methodology for determining the cleanability of various seams of
coal.
In the development of coal-cleaning technology, a major 3-year project to assess
technology for the physical and chemical desulfurization of coal was begun in January
1977. Its objective is to determine the performance and cost of commercial
coal-cleaning equipment in separating fine coal and pyrite. Similar cost and
performance evaluations will be made on equipment for dewatering and drying fine
coal. Other project activities include evaluation of chemical coal cleaning processes,
evaluation of coal preparation requirements for synthetic fuel conversion processes,
evaluation of pollution control technology for coal cleaning, and engineering trade-off
studies to establish the performance and costs of coal preparation plants designed for
improved pyrite removal and Btu recovery.
The objectives of a major demonstration program are to:
• Determine the variability of sulfur and other pollutants in the feed coal
• Determine the performance of separation equipment
• Determine the capability of process controls to maintain product specifications
• Characterize pollutant streams
• Evaluate the effects of cleaned coal on power plant performance
• Evaluate the effectiveness of residue disposal techniques
• Determine the fate of various minor and trace pollutants
• Determine capital and operating costs of coal preparation and power plants
• Evaluate other equipment or coal-cleaning circuits, as needed, to demonstrate
the viability of cleaning coal to meet SO2 emission regulations.
The preparation plant is scheduled to begin start-up tests late this spring. Pilot plant
tests are already underway.
Coal desulfurization by aqueous ferric salt leaching is capable of removing from
90 to 95 percent of the sulfur in a variety of U.S. coals. Construction of a
1/3-ton-per-hour reactor test unit has been completed. Initial test runs are planned for
August. An initial 9-month test program is planned to verify major process variables.
A thermochemical process for coal desulfurization is capable of removing both
organic and pyritic sulfur from coal. The principal achievement to date has been the
validation of the process concept. Operating conditions have been determined, with
both laboratory- and bench-scale equipment. Tests showing satisfactory desulfurization
of four coals have been completed. In each case the treated product could be burned
without exceeding present NSPS for S02 emissions. Achievement of satisfactory
desulfurization was the result of a research breakthrough in coal treatment. It was
discovered that mild, oxidative pretreatment of the coal rendered the organic sulfur
more amenable to removal; until this discovery, sulfur removal had been unsatisfactory.
It now appears that this system may be a viable alternative for making a low-sulfur,
solid fossil fuel from those U.S. coals that cannot now be directly consumed without
severe environmental impact.
Laboratory experiments have demonstrated the technical feasibility of coal
desulfurization by microwave energy. Both pyritic and organic sulfur appear to be
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SULFUR REDUCTION
POTENTIAL
removed. Pyrite is preferentially excited by the microwave energy, producing volatile or
water-soluble compounds that may be washed from the coal. Laboratory work
continues to evaluate the mechanisms of desulfurization and to identify the process
variables that affect sulfur removal.
The U.S. Bureau of Mines program has been described in a paper by Richard
Hucko and Albert Deurbrouck. Both in-house and contract projects are included within
the USBM program. One long-term in-house project is aimed at determining the forms of
sulfur in the major sources of utility steam coals and the washabilities of these coals
This information is necessary to assess the impact that physical coal cleaning will have
on the level of sulfur oxide emissions from stationary combustion sources. The latest
publication, "Sulfur Reduction Potential of U.S. Coals," covers work performed from
1965 to mid-1974 and presents the results of washability studies of 455 raw coal
channel samples collected from 6 coal-producing regions of the U.S. Only 14 percent
of raw coal samples could meet the new source S02 emission standard of 1.2 pounds
SO2/106 Btu. Twenty-four percent of the samples would meet the standard at a 90
percent Btu recovery when crushed to 11/2 inches top size, while 32 percent would
meet the standard at a Btu recovery of 50 percent when crushed to 14-mesh top size.
COAL-PYRITE FLOTATION
A central coal preparation process development facility is to be constructed in the
near future at Bruceton, Pennsylvania. Engineering data for scale-up to full-size
commercial coal preparation plant operation will be developed. The pilot plant section
of the proposed facility will have a nominal capacity of 10 to 25 tons per hour of
raw coal, depending on the flow scheme used; process flexibility was a prime design
requisite. The facility will also contain an area for bench-scale work. Construction of
the facility should begin before the end of calendar year 1977.
A test program to demonstrate the commercial feasibility of the Coal-Pydte
Flotation Process is about to begin. The process involves the depression of coal with a
hydrophilic colloidal substance while the coal-pyrite is floated with a sulfhydryl
collector. The process has been tested and proved effective at pilot plant scale.
Construction of the full-scale facility should be finished by August 1977. Flotation
tests will then be run for about 1 year, after which test results will be evaluated.
Research is being conducted on the depressant and collector adsorption reactions
which occur during coal desulfurization by the Coal-Pyrite Flotation Process. This
project will determine whether primary pyrite flotation followed by a second-stage coal
flotation is feasible. Such a process would produce a final clean coal product in
thickened form ready for dewatering. The effect of residual reagent in plant recyle
water will also be determined. Specific objectives are to:
• Identify and characterize the hydrophilic polymeric coal depressants
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• Determine the important operating variables that control
adsorption-desorption reactions
• Establish procedures to allow in-plant water recycle.
the
HIGH GRADIENT
MAGNETIC SEPARATION
BLACKWATER FLOCCULATION
COMPUTER SIMULATION PROGRAM
ECONOMIC EVALUATION
It has already been found that several reagents in excess of 1 mg/l of coal slurry
depress at least 80 percent of the coal. Desorption of the depressants from the coal
surface was found to be difficult, and the adsorption reaction appears to be irreversible.
However, the depressed coal can be reactivated and floated by the addition of neutral
molecular oil. Bench-scale coal flotation experiments are now being conducted to find
optimum conditions to depress coal particles and float pyrite. During these flotation
tests, the residual depressant concentration will be measured and water recycle
experiments will be done to determine the effect on subsequent coal flotation.
Another project is attempting to establish the technical feasibility of removing
inorganic sulfur from dry coal powders at commercially significant processing rates by
high gradient magnetic separation (HGMS). Reduction of sulfur by HGMS could permit
the direct combustion of large coal reserves east of the Mississippi River which have a
high percentage of pyritic sulfur but are low in organic sulfur. Initial testing with
slurries has shown significant reductions in both pyritic sulfur and ash. Dry separation
test results show some magnetic separation—although it is much smaller than that in
the case of water slurries—and no significant trend in sulfur or ash removal with
changes in applied magnetic field or in flow velocity or with change from an expanded
metal to a steel wool matrix.
During beneficiation, rotary vacuum filters are relatively economical and practical
devices for dewatering froth flotation concentrates and flocculated slurries, but the
product usually retains more than 20 percent moisture. As a result, thermal drying is
often required to reduce the moisture content to an acceptable level. To improve
mechanical methods for dewatering fine coal, work is also being conducted to
characterize the dewatering of fine-size coal, to determine the effect of an electric field
on the dewatering process, to determine the influence that slurry pH has on
dewatering, and to assess the influence of selected chemical additives on moisture
retained in filter cakes. To date, test data on the effects of various cationic, anionic,
and nonionic surfactants have been used to formulate a model for surfactant behavior
in a cake of fine-size coal and to determine its effect on the dewatering of coal.
Treatment of black waters from coal preparation plants is complicated by their
heterogeneous nature and by lack of information on the behavior of relatively simple
systems. Laboratory investigation of black water flocculation is being carried out. The
interrelation of flocculation rate, settling rate, and sludge volume is being evaluated to
establish a technique for producing as dense a sludge as possible in a thickener
operating at the highest possible rate. Further, the results of studies on the
flocculation of heterogeneous systems will be used to develop mathematical models
simulating the flocculation of particles in practical systems. The composition and
particle-size distribution have been determined on black water samples from a number
of preparation plants. The chemical and physical characteristics of samples from the
eastern and interior areas are essentially the same. Samples from western operations
appear to have somewhat different characteristics.
A computer simulation program for coal preparation is being developed. Included
in the program are performance data for each of the commonly used coal washing
devices. The program also includes mathematical modeling of crushers, screens,
dewatering equipment, dryers, and thickeners. It can be used to predict the
performance of a given plant configuration and set of operating conditions or to
determine the operating conditions which will give a specified ash and pyritic sulfur
reduction for a given plant configuration.
Next, dewatering devices, impurity liberation upon crushing, and an economic
subroutine will be simulated, thus making possible rational choices of alternate circuits
for ash and sulfur reduction based on reliable engineering data and overall capital and
operating economics.
The economic potential of coal preparation in combination with stack gas
scrubbing has been evaluated. Generally speaking, of the various methods for removing
sulfur, the physical removal of pyritic sulfur is the lowest-cost technology and the
most widely applied. However, a number of coals cannot meet new-source sulfur
emission standards in this way. In these studies, an economic evaluation has been made
of the cost of a new utility plant exclusively removing S02 by stack gas scrubbing.
This was followed by a similar evaluation of the use of physical coal cleaning and
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CHEMICAL CLEANING
TRACE ELEMENT CONTENT
stack gas scrubbing combined to attain the same sulfur emission level. The studv
concluded that, in general, the combination of coal preparation and stack gas scrubbing
was less expensive than scrubbing alone. "
In another study, six chemical cleaning processes were analyzed. Process f|ow
charts were drawn for each process and analyzed in terms of cost and sulfur removal
performance. While none of the processes is economically competitive with physical
cleaning, oxidative desulfurization shows the most promise from the viewpoint of
operability and cost.
A coal washability study has been completed, showing the trace element content
of various specific gravity fractions for coal samples from various coal producing
regions. Most of the trace elements of interest concentrate in the heavier specific
gravity fractions of the coal, indicating that they are associated with mineral matter
and that removal of this material would result in significant trace element reductions
ranging up to 88 percent.
This summary presents the highlights of the ongoing interagency R&D effort on
mining and beneficiation. Much more comprehensive information is presented in the
detailed papers prepared by the participating agencies.
DAVID G. STEPHAN
B.S., M.S., and Ph.D., Chemical Engineering, Ohio State Engineering. Experience
in research and development of problems of air and water pollution and in pollution
control methods in municipal and industrial wastes. Internationally known for work in
water pollution in areas of advanced waste treatment and water renovation. Held top
level posts with U.S. Public Health Service, i.e., Head of Air Pollution Control
Equipment Research Program; Deputy Chief, Advanced Waste Treatment Research
Program; Deputy Chief, Basic and Applied Sciences Branch of Division of Water
Supply and Pollution Control. Was Director of Research Federal Water Pollution
Control Administration. When EPA was formed, served as Assistant Commissioner for
Research and Development in Water Quality Office. Presently, Director, Industrial
Environmental Research Laboratory, EPA, Cincinnati, OH.
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questions
oc answers
extraction and beneficiation
Mr. Stewart Lyons
Michigan United Conservation Club
Dr. Edward S. Rubin
Carnegie-Mellon University
Mr. Marvin C. Gage
San Francisco, California
Mr. Nathan Sauberman
Retired Consulting Engineer
Mr. R. K. Bose
Association of American Railroads
QUESTION:
You alluded to using fly ash as part of the
reclamation process in strip mining. Other than bulk, is
there any use or any other positive effect that comes
from fly ash?
RESPONSE: Dr. James P. Power (USDA)
The fly ash is not just fly ash. First, we have to
know the chemical composition of the fly ash. Especially
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in the western coals, much of the fly ash is relatively
high in soluble salts, which almost precludes its use in
any reclamation scheme for revegetation. Fly ash of that
nature has to be buried beyond the root zone so it will
not interfere with vegetation or be disposed of.
In the East or in areas where the salinity problem is
not so severe, there are situations where the use of fly
ash may be beneficial in the revegetation process,
particularly in physical conditioning of the soil. In areas
with a high clay content, it may help to alleviate some of
the physical problems associated with that.
QUESTION:
I would like to direct two questions to Mr. Kilgroe.
The first regards nitrogen in coal. We heard here that the
future IMOx problem is the sleeper relative to S02 in
particulates. I am aware that, in processes like solvent
refining of coal, the coal nitrogen is concentrated in the
fuel. My first question is what happens to the nitrogen in
the chemical coal cleaning processes?
RESPONSE: Mr. James D. Kilgroe (EPA)
Most of the nitrogen is concentrated throughout the
organic fraction, and physical cleaning does not affect the
nitrogen level.
We are going to study about what happens to
nitrogen in the chemical coal cleaning processes because
in the past we have been myopic in studying only sulfur
dioxides. We are, however, starting to look at all the
other pollutants which are contained in coal.
QUESTION:
My second question regards using the waste coal in
low Btu recovery with fine crushing for boilers fired by
or equipped with FGD. I presume we would be talking
about waste coal with a relatively low heating value. Is
anyone implementing this concept?
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RESPONSE: Mr. Kilgroe
At Homer City, we are taking a coal preparation
plant and producing a multistream coal product in which
we have one product that will meet new source
performance standards, which are 1.2 pounds per million
Btu. In other instances, we are taking a product of coal
that will meet a state standard of 4 pounds per million
Btu. In the past we have looked at the strategy of using
some of the waste product for our high sulfur combustor. •
We have looked at various combustors that would use 40
percent ash and 10 percent sulfur. As yet, due to funding
limitations, we have not gotten into any pilot-type studies
or any laboratory studies. However, if coal prices
continue to increase, that process should become
economically viable.
QUESTION: About a year ago, I saw a film on strip mining
distribution by an anti-strip mining group in Montana,
indicating that as the shallow acquifers were disturbed in
strip mining operations, there was a homogeneous mixture
when soil was reapplied. In fact, permeability was so
great that native grasses could not maintain themselves
under normal rainfall. Is that a true statement and, if so,
is there a mitigating measure involved in revegetation?
RESPONSE: Mr. Grant Davis (USDA)
It would depend on the physical and chemical
characteristics of the spoil. However, in most recent
mining cases where careful practices have been followed,
vegetation has been easily established in most instances in
Montana and surrounding states.
Permeability is a problem especially where we have
high sodium spoils and need enough soil cover to
establish vegetation.
RESPONSE: Mr. John Martin (EPA)
We have heard the same comment from many people
concerning the revegetation of the western spoils,
especially in light of the new legislation and the question
about alluvial valleys, if we can ever define those. We are
also analyzing the characteristics of the soil to determine
consistency and reclamation possibilities. So, we are
addressing the idea of porosity and how much density
you can get in replaced spoils.
QUESTION: Can you give me further information about the
extent of our uranium resouces, as some of the leaching
problems of uranium that you touched on, and some of
the radiological problems of uranium and the tailings that
are the result of milling and mining?
RESPONSE: Mr. Martin
We have only had a very small amount of support in
uranium mining and milling in the past years. It has been
the smallest and the newest program from the extraction
technology branch of EPA. That is why there is very
little activity in that area to date.
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QUESTION:
I am disappointed because EPA is intimately involved
along with ERDA, not in a regulatory matter but as an
advisor to the program, and it seems to me that EPA is
hanging back on this. Is it, or am I mistaken?
COMMENT: Dr. David G. Stephan (EPA)
Perhaps I can comment on that in terms of the
overall program with regard to radiological wastes. EPA
shares responsibility with the Nuclear Regulatory
Commission in the radiological area. EPA has
responsibility dealing with the environmental ambient
standards for various radiological pollutants, and the
Nuclear Regulatory Commission has responsibility in the
emissions standards area.
We have begun work with regard to uranium mining,
but that work is very limited in scope at the present
time. I hope that, due to the enhanced concern for
nuclear power, which we heard discussed recently, our
work will be somewhat increased in the area. Obviously
there are going to be strong needs there, and we know
very little about the mining and milling operations and
the environmental impact, particularly this in situ leaching
operation. As far as I know, there is almost no
knowledge of what impact that can have, either on
ground waters or on surface waters near the site.
First, what is the impact of the boron and the
arsenic and other minerals that you said are going to be
liberated from the coal crushings on the environmental
impact of the water slurry that will be developed?
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RESPONSE: Mr. Kilgroe
I admit to a great deal of ignorance on the subject
of slurry pipelines. We have an environmental assessment
program which is just getting started and one of the areas
of study is the transportation of coal. We have had some
studies with the Los Alamos Scientific Laboratories in
which we have studied the leaching of various trace
elements from coal preparation plant wastes. As alluded
to earlier in the discussions of acid mine drainage, it is a
direct function of the acidity, the size of the material. So
our leaching studies indicated that if we have very high
pyrite coal and very finely divided coal and if we also
have the alternate cycling of, say, air and water through
the waste, we can then potentially leach out a lot of the
trace elements such as arsenic and cadmium in the waste.
This is about as far as we have come to date on the
studies. We are concerned about this type of problem.
Typically, however, the western coals have a smaller
fraction of pyritic sulfur; most of the sulfur in the
western coals is organic, so that problem is reduced
significantly just because of the form of the sulfur in the
coal itself. We speculate that the leaching out of trace
jlements may be somewhat reduced in the pipeline.
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QUESTION:
Second, was the energy that is involved in the
crushing of coal of a sufficiently finer mesh to have it
float on the water slurry pipelines? Could you give us an
idea as to what kind of energy requirements are required?
RESPONSE: Mr. Kilgroe
Well, certainly no higher energy requirements than a
pulverized coal-firing boiler, as I do not believe the size
distribution is as fine as pulverizing the coal for firing.
Probably as great a problem would be the energy
requirements for de-watering and drying the coal once we
get it to the use source. I suspect that de-watering and
drying rather than crushing is where our largest energy
demand will be.
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QUESTION:
RESPONSE: Mr. Martin
Mr. Martin, do you know the timing on the study
evaluating the five different transport concepts? Is that
just under way?
It is just finishing. We do have figures for the energy
requirements of the various modes of transportation, one
being the pipeline, and I believe incorporated in that
study are the requirements for crushing, pumping, and
de-watering. I cannot give you the figures right now, but
I know we do have the study just being completed.
QUESTION:
My question is directed to the gentlemen from
USDA. You have mentioned selenium as a trace
contaminant coming from coal. The toxicity of selenium
is due to its entry in the food chain as an analog of
sulfur and, in general, it is toxic at above 1 percent of
the sulfur concentration.
I was wondering the following: (1) what is the
proportion of selenium in the coal and (2) do the
desu If urization procedures effectively remove the
selenium?
RESPONSE: Dr. Power
There are many different trace elements we looked
at, and selenium is probably associated with the mineral
matter in the coal being removed during physical cleaning.
In that respect it may pose a problem in disposal of
residue, but I am not sure what the exact concentrations
would be. They would vary significantly with the
individual coals that you are concerned with.
QUESTION:
Reference has been made to planting strip mine
banks in the eastern United States. I have a potential
problem in West Virginia and would like to have a
reference on how to come out with the best solution
possible.
RESPONSE: Mr. Martin
COMMENT: Mr. Davis
I might give you a couple of ideas, at least where to
look for something in our shop. We have one manual,
which is now a couple years old, on environmental
protection in surface mining of coal by Elmore Grimm. It
is a general manual on surface mining, but it does touch
on revegetation. We have a couple of others dealing with
the revegetation aspects in Kentucky and in northern
West Virginia. We have those publications available at our
office. You may write and ask for them simply by
naming the subject of revegetation.
The Forest Service has an office in Princeton, West
Virginia, that can help you on specific questions. The Soil
Conversation Service also has a planting guide for strip
mine spoils for West Virginia; you may get information
from there. The Soil Conservation Districts in West
Virginia also help with the planting, and you can contact
your local district man for help.
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QUESTION:
One of the papers hinted at the potential fine coal
processing for releasing additional impurities, and I would
like to ask whether or not any programs exist in the area
of ultrafine coal grinding and the removal of the
impurities once they are released?
RESPONSE: Mr. Kilgroe
We are continuing our cleanability studies with the
U.S. Bureau of Mines, and we are looking at various trace
elements, fractions and the specific gravity fractions of
various size distributions of crushed coal. The U.S.
Geological Survey and the Illinois Geological Survey are
also continuing to look at the distribution of the trace
elements as a function of size distribution. But, we have
not really gotten down to the fine grinding of coal yet.
We are still talking in the range of 28 mesh, and I
assume by fine grinding you might be talking about a
minus 328 mesh similar to the pulverized coal or that for
a utility boiler.
RESPONSE: Mr. Richard Hucko (U.S. Bureau of Mines)
Yes, I might just add one other thing to that. In the
455 samples that were reported on as part of the U.S.
Bureau of Mines washability study, which of course is the
work funded by Mr. Kilgroe through EPA, the coals were
crushed to 1 1/2 inches, 3/8 inch, and 14 mesh top size.
There is a part of that sample for each single coal that
we did that still remains, and they are going to be
crushed to 100 and perhaps 200 mesh and evaluated
similarly to the way they were evaluated for the larger
sizes. So that may help answer some of the questions
that have been raised.
170
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technical
discussion
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RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMS FOR POLLUTION
CONTROL IN MINING AND TRANSPORT
OF SOLID FUELS
John F. Martin and Eugene F. Harris
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Cincinnati, Ohio
INTRODUCTION
Mining activities of one type or another have
an impact on every region of the United States .
The pollution problems associated with extraction
and transport of mineral resources are likewise of
national concern. The U. S. Environmental Pro-
tection Agency (EPA) is directing a significant
research and development program aimed at the
ultimate control and elimination of these pollu-
tion problems. At the same time, production
levels for raw materials and fuels must not drop
so that individual welfare and national security
are threatened.
As mandated under the water, air, and solid
waste acts, the Extraction Technology Branch
(ETB), Industrial Environmental Research Labora-
tory, EPA, is working to develop and prove new
pollution control technology for production of
both solid fossil fuels and some nonfuel minerals.
Work is progressing to: (1) assess the potential
environmental damages (air, water, noise levels,
etc.) from active and abandoned mining, transport-
ing, and beneficiation processes; (2) develop
methods to control, treat, and abate environmental
pollutants in these operations; (3) demonstrate
and document the technical/operational feasibility
and cost-effectiveness of environmental control
options; (4) provide, on a timely basis, environ-
mental control criteria; and (5) prepare
standardized user manuals that encompass all
environmental pollution control aspects to meet
the operational needs of regulatory and control
agencies and the mining industry.
The past emphasis of predecessors of ETB
was on large-scale demonstration of pollution
control for abandoned coal mines. The Elkins
Demonstration Project (currently being updated)
was the first of its type to document the effects
of surface mine reclamation and underground mine
sealing throughout an entire watershed. Although
the project was modified to accommodate continued
activity in the mines, it proved that properly
planned reclamation could be effective in reducing
the production of acid mine drainage (AMD).
Subsequent research efforts through the late
1960 s were oriented toward various aspects of
AMD treatment by neutralization techniques,
reverse osmosis, ion exchange, freezing, and foam
rractionation. Other programs were initiated to
develop control technology for eastern coal mines
to reduce water pollution and enhance the success
of reclamation efforts.
EPA's efforts to develop control technology
through research and demonstration projects shifted
slightly in 1975. Work statements and final reports
were to be oriented more toward production of user
manuals. In addition, studies were to be directed
toward assessment of all media pollution problems
associated with energy- and nonenergy-related
extraction.
Active work areas for ETB are presently divided
into two sections—energy production and materials
production. The following discussion will deal only
with energy-related research, including that for
surface and underground eastern coal mines, treat-
ment of mine drainage, oil shale mining, uranium
mining, and transport of solid fuels. Although the
intent of the program is development and demonstra-
tion of total pollution control technology,
individual projects may concentrate on one or more
aspects of pollution control such as abatement of
AMD, soil stabilization and revegetation, moisture
conservation, dust control, or solid waste disposal.
TECHNICAL PROGRAMS
Eastern Surface Coal Mines
In the past, surface mines often resulted in
barren, ungraded spoil piles surrounding abandoned
pits or produced long barren scars in the mountain-
ous regions where contour highwalls were left to
stand above loose and eroded spoil cast down the
mountainside. Growing environmental concern and
more stringent state mining regulations combined
to yield sites that were reclaimed, with varying
degrees of success, and returned to some useful,
or at least stable, form. Even considering the
newer theories of backfilling, highwall reduction,
etc., many of the steeper mountainous regions were
environmentally unsuited for conventional contour
mining technologies. Newly developed mining
techniques—involving block cutting, haulback of
spoils, mountaintop removal, and hollow fills—
have appeared within the past few years. These
techniques offer the advantage of containing spoils
in specifically engineered sites to reduce greatly
the hazards of massive landslides, erosion, and
stream siltation.
The most recently initiated programs of ETB
in this area involve development of proper pre-
mine planning practices, assessment of the environ-
mental impact of newly emerging extraction
technologies, and demonstration of controls for
minimizing off-site damages. A minor effort is
continuing in reclamation research to keep abreast
of current practice. The grant to Pennsylvania
State University to prepare a "Manual for Premining
Planning Eastern Surface Coal Mines" is a major
effort to define the role of proper planning in
reducing environmental damages. Two projects—
to study the control of surface mine sedimentation
through block-cut mining and to assess the
mountaintop removal and head of hollow fill mining
techniques—are characteristic of ETB efforts in
173
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developing more advanced pollution control technology.
An active project to demonstrate sediment control
techniques for haul roads is currently progress-
ing with equal funding from EPA and the Bureau of
Mines. Through this cooperative grant to the
Commonwealth of Kentucky, both agencies hope to
prove that current haul road construction
technology, properly applied, can effectively
reduce pollution contributions from a major source
of suspended solids in the mine area. Other
interagency projects relating to eastern surface
mines involve the Tennessee Valley Authority
(TVA)—"Strip Mine Drainage Water Quality" and
"Ecological Recovery after Reclamation of Toxic
Spoils"—and the U. S. Department of Agriculture
(USDA)—"Controlling Adverse Effects of Mining."
In addition, EPA is cooperating xcith the Energy
Research and Development Administration (ERDA) in
a study to characterize the wastes and waste
streams at 20 mine sites throughout the country.
The above projects illustrate the types of
effort involved in the EPA mining program. There
are numerous other research and development
projects that will supply information to the pre-
mining planning manual or subsequent user manuals
for environmental control of surface mines.
Eastern Underground Coal Mines
Underground coal operations are a major source
of mining pollution in the eastern United States
(east of the 100th meridian). During and follow-
ing mining, water drains or is pumped from the mine
complex. The quality of this effluent is highly
variable, depending on the seam mined, mining
method, type of mine, and water control techniques
applied. Surface disturbances associated with
underground mines contribute both to the sediment
load of surface runoff and to the load of wind-
blown particulate matter.
Mine drainage treatment and mine sealing have
long been the accepted methods for abatement of
this pollution. Each, however, has its
disadvantages. The treatment process is quite
acceptable for active operations, but is very
expensive and at best a short-term cure. After a
mine is closed, water treatment must continue for
years. Mine sealing is not a miracle cure for
mine drainage in that it is successful only in
special cases with ideal conditions. Air sealing
to prevent oxidation of acid-forming materials has
proved to be nearly impossible.
The emphasis that EPA has placed on control
of underground mine drainage, for the past several
years, is oriented toward at-source control. How
can mines be developed, operated, and closed with
a minimum of environmental damage or required
water treatment? The "Deer Park Daylighting
Project," currently in the demonstration phase, is
an attempt to surface mine and then reclaim a
previously mined area in northwestern Maryland.
The grant is intended to show that it is feasible,
from an energy and environmental standpoint, to
strip out an abandoned underground mine, recover
the unmined coal pillars, and restore the area
to a state of productivity.
A different type of project in Pennsylvania!
investigating the "Cost Effectiveness of Aquifer
Dewatering." The thrust of the work is to show that
mine drainage can be reduced by artificially remov-
ing or intercepting the groundwater in the vicinity
of the mine; thus reducing the infiltration to the
mine void. Other projects are proceeding to investi-
gate the effectiveness of backfilling mine voids
with waste materials, to define and reduce water
infiltration to the mine workings, to define the
mine's effect on surrounding groundwater resources
and to develop more effective mine sealing
techniques.
Treatment of Mine Drainage
For many years, treatment techniques for mine
drainage have involved a settling system coupled
with simple neutralization of acid waters.
Neutralizing agents such as limestone, lime, soda
ash, and caustic soda have been used extensively
in the acid-producing eastern coal fields. Processes
involving lime neutralization are probably the most
advanced and proven. Recent trends have also
shown that combinations of neutralizing agents
commonly have a more desirable treatment effect
than the same agents used separately. As an example,
recent EPA studies have involved the use of
limestone/lime neutralization techniques, finding
them to be efficient, less expensive from an oper-
ating standpoint, and capable of producing denser
floe material for the settling stage than the
technique of using lime alone.
The current role of ETB is to redefine the
applicability of current treatment technology to
mining situations other than the eastern coal fieldsr
In addition, work is continuing to develop and
demonstrate more advanced treatment techniques such
as ion exchange, reverse osmosis, neutrolosis, etc,
To illustrate the current research trends, one
active project entitled "Purification of Acid Mine
Drainage by Neutrolosis" has as its objective the
development of a refined and more efficient system
for reverse osmosis treatment of acid drainage using
lime neutralization of the resultant brines.
Coupled with the various projects involved in
removing acid, metal ions, sediment, and other
impurities, are efforts for safe disposal techniques
for the sludges and brines that are the by-products
of the neutralization process. Current studies have
just begun involving sludge dewatering, lagooning,
and spray irrigation.
Western Coal Mining
As a part of its mining research program, EP«
has the responsibility to minimize environmental
damages due to the rapid increase in the production
of western coal. In order to meet this responsi-
bility, the actual and/or potential pollutants must
be determined and control technology developed. 1&
addition to grading, surface water control, erosion
protection, and revegetation work—as required for
eastern surface coal mines—the western mines
personnel must make provision for severe drought
conditions, wind erosion and high-intensity rain
storms. Many of the active western mines are open
174
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& t operations that have the potential for major
:; Miifer disruption and extremely difficult
:; iclamation. Current technology for the prevention
>,d control of pollution involves revegetation and
:'•• introl of surface and subsurface waters where
•.:.- issible.
Because ETB programs in western coal mining
.. -e relatively new, it is vital that a large
. irtion of the programs deal with assessment of
' itential impacts and problem areas. To this end,
xie "Northern Cheyenne Tribal Council Project,"
>r example, involves the impacts that mine
jvelopment on the reservation would have on
roundwater, surface water, land use, and socio-
lonomic structures. EPA and the Tribal Council
7 >pe to develop a plan for the Reservation that
:'iuld delineate environmentally fragile areas and
'How for selective mining to benefit the Northern
leyenne people while not destroying their customs
'-id heritage.
Work is also progressing on active mine sites,
3 in the project in Arizona for "Environmental
-jnitoring in the Four Corners Area." Here,
•~:iformation on revegetation establishment, surface
- iter quality, groundwater quality and quantities,
:-nd irrigation potentials is being collected from
L---he spoil material of the mine site. In the same
~rea, the Bureau of Mines and ERDA are collecting
-omplementary data regarding reclamation practices
- .nd water harvesting techniques.
Studies of the groundwater formations in the
__oal producing area of the West and development
cf seed sources and planting techniques are not
_/pacifically functions of EPA. They are, however,
- eing conducted by the U. S. Geological Survey
;JUSGS) and USDA. These studies are vital in under-
.. tanding the total regional environment and are
Beneficial sources of information for EPA's site
- tudies.
'ransport of Solid Fuels
''.. The objective of this new work of ETB is to
>roduce a multimedia assessment of the current
environmental problems and of any technology
leeded to minimize the pollutional aspects of
"iolid fuel transport. After relevant research
md development work, a comparison and evaluation
" if various control techniques will be made avail-
" ible to government and industry in the form of a
- iser manual. Here the economics and effectiveness
)f the various control options of each mode of
:ransport will be thoroughly discussed to provide
:he user with a basis for selecting or evaluating
i sound system for moving energy-producing
•materials. The work area deals with the five
oaslc modes of transport in general use by the
-::oal industry: truck, rail, barge, pipeline, and
- :onveyor.
A current study relating to the above work
is entitled "The Environmental and Pollution
Aspects of Coal Slurry Pipelines." Here, the ETB
hopes to define various problem areas of the
pipeline approach so that future efforts can be
focused on solving them.
Uranium Extraction
The mining of uranium entails a sizeable
variety of environmental hazards including surface
and groundwater contamination, fugitive dust
emissions, and solid waste disposal problems created
by onsite beneficiation processes. To date, little
effective control technology is available. The
existing state-of-the-art for mining control tech-
nology needs to be assessed, as does the possibility
of transfer or adaptation of technology from similar
extractive industries.
In addition to being extracted by surface and
conventional underground mining techniques, uranium
is obtained by in situ underground processes. There
is at present little understanding of the geologic
and hydrologic setting in which this type of extrac-
tion can occur. The impact of solvents utilized in
the leaching process is not well known. A need
exists for the determination and translation of
this information for use in evaluating the environ-
mental impact of In situ uranium extraction.
Currently under consideration are three
projects for beginning the collection of data
necessary to evaluate the above mentioned extractive
techniques. This information, to be partially
assembled as a "User Manual," should provide a basis
for continuing and effective research and develop-
ment efforts to reduce or control environmental
damages resulting from uranium extraction.
PROGRAM ACCOMPLISHMENTS
During the past year, various final reports
have been released by ETB as products of the mining
research program. These publications, in the form
of research reports or user manuals, represent
completed efforts. In many cases these results
will be referenced and incorporated in future
manuals that will summarize all work undertaken
In a given subject area (i.e., Eastern Surface Coal
Mines, etc.). Present reports have received wide
distribution throughout industry and government,
and are being used to design control systems or
provide information regarding specific problem
areas or designs. The manual entitled "Erosion
and Sediment Control" has received extremely good
distribution (over 15,000 copies) and is being used
by many engineers, mining companies, and state and
federal agencies for design and evaluation of sedi-
ment control structures. Other final reports are
as follows:
1. "Trough Creek Limestone Barrier
Installation and Evaluation,"
EPA-600/2-76-114—a demonstration project
to neutralize an acid stream in place,
using porous limestone barriers.
2. "Extensive Overburden Potentials for
Soil and Water Quality," EPA-600/2-76-184—
a manual for the use of overburden sampling.
and analysis to aid in premining planning.
3. "Evaluation of Surface Mine Reclamation
Techniques - Campbell's Run Watershed,
Pennsylvania," EPA-600/2-76-111—a
175
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demonstration of reclamation of 21
hectares of strip mined land to reduce
infiltration to underground workings.
4. "Effectiveness of Surface Mine Sedimenta-
tion Ponds," EPA-600/2-76-117—a survey
of mine sediment structures to determine
efficiency of removal of suspended
solids.
5. "Treatment of Acid Mine Drainage by the
Alumina-Lime-Soda Process,"
EPA-600/2-76-206—a bench scale study
to produce potentially potable quality
water from AMD.
6. "Resources Allocation to Optimize Mining
Pollution Control," EPA-600/2-76-112—a
model developed to predict pollution
loads and direct efforts for the most
cost effective pollution abatement.
7. "Erosion and Sediment Control,"
EPA-625/3-76-006—a two-volume manual
for planning and design of sediment
control structures.
8. "Assessment of Environmental Aspects of
Uranium Mining and Milling,"
EPA-600/7-76-036—a preliminary assess-
ment of the environmental impact
associated with production of domestic
uranium ores.
Feasibility studies or interim reports were
published for the projects involving underground
mine daylighting, debris basin effectiveness for
sediment control, surface and underground mine
sealing in the Tioga River Watershed, coal mine
haul road sediment control, and the use of fly ash
for surface mine reclamation in Hillman State Park.
In addition to these, two draft reports are being
reviewed for the major efforts dealing with the
assessment of coal transport and the assessment
of head-of-hollow fill and mountaintop removal
mining.
CONCLUSIONS
The work of EPA and other agencies has led to
more effective pollution control technology for
mining and to more environmentally sound and
efficient mining methods. Recent publications of
ETB, concerning sediment pond construction and
control structures for sediment control, have had
a major positive impact on the industrial community.
The cooperative project of ETB and the Bureau of
Mines regarding coal haul roads, is not only a
major effort toward controlling the adverse effects
of one of industry's most troublesome pollution
sources, but also a demonstration that the interests
of two federal agencies can be combined in a single
effort too large for either to undertake alone.
Other coordinated contributions from various federal
agencies will be part of the total mining pollution
control picture in supplying assessment data,
biological recovery studies, seed sources,
revegetation techniques, groundwater information,
etc.
Health effects, water treatment schemes,
sludge disposal, revegetation, mine closure,
groundwater control, and formation of viable
regulations are all areas for continued research
The basic mechanisms in the formation and control
of mining pollution are well known. Active research
and demonstration projects are paving the way toward
greater understanding and more advanced and econoa-
ical mining and pollution control methods. The
small questions raised in present research and
development efforts are the research needs and
full-scale demonstration projects of the future,
By looking to what we have found, and what we are
finding today, we can project what will be necessary
tomorrow.
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DEVELOPMENT PROGRESS IN COAL CLEANING
FOR DESULFURIZATION
James D. Kilgroe
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
1TRODUCTION
Sulfur oxide air pollution emissions from
>al combustion exceeded 20.5 million tons in
)74. With the increasing use of coal as an
lergy source, improved methods are needed for
le control of this pollutant. Major strategies
jr the control of SO,, emissions include the use
E coal cleaning, the combustion of coal in
lemically active fluidized beds, the removal of
Dllutants by flue gas scrubbing and the generation
E clean synthetic fuels. An economically
ttractive control strategy is coal cleaning.
ne EPA Office of Energy, Minerals and Industry
upports a comprehensive program for the develop-
ent and demonstration of coal cleaning for SO,,
mission control. Major activities and signif-
cant results of this program, which is directed by
he Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory,
esearch Triangle Park (IERL-RTP), are described
n this paper.
ECHNICAL STATUS
oal Cleanability
The sulfur content of coal ranges from less
han 1 to more than 7 percent. Sulfur appears
n coal in three forms: mineral sulfur in the
orm of pyrite (FeS.), organically bound sulfur
nd trace quantities of "sulfate" sulfur.
•ulfate sulfur occurs in coal as a result of the
.ttack of oxygen on the mineral pyrite. It is
• oluble in water and can be removed in wet coal
'reparation plants. Organic sulfur occurs as
iart of the organic coal structure and cannot be
'emoved by physical coal preparation techniques.
'yrite occurs in coal seams in sizes ranging
"rom small discrete particles to large lumps.
-t can be found intimately dispersed in the coal
substance, in bands, in layers or in large
Jieces.
Physical preparation or cleaning techniques
ire capable of removing varying fractions of the
:oal pyritic sulfur as determined by the properties
31 each coal. Chemical processes are capable of
removing over 95 percent of the pyritic sulfur
and up to about 70 percent of the organic sulfur.
Laboratory float-sink studies have been
performed on over 455 U. S. coals to determine
their physical cleanability. C1) The samples
tested were from mines in the six major coal
producing regions of the U. S., the mines which
provide more than 70 percent of the coal used in
U. S. utility boilers.
The results of these float-sink tests
indicate that in general pyrite removal increased
with reduced particle size and lowered specific
gravity of separation. This fact is extremely
important. It implies that to enhance pyritic
sulfur removal more of the coal must be crushed
and processed at finer particle sizes than
historically practiced in coal preparation. A
second important fact determined by these studies
is that the final sulfur levels to which coals
can be cleaned vary from coal region to coal
region and from one coal bed to another within
the same region (coal cleanability also varies
to a significant extent from location to location
within the same mine).
Sulfur removal by chemical methods is
dependent upon coal properties and process
conditions—time, pressure, temperature, and
chemical reagents. A number of investigators have
studied these relationships . In some
instances the availability of information is
limited because it is considered to be proprietary.
Process costs will probably limit the amount of
sulfur which can be removed to about 95 percent
of the pyritic sulfur and 40 percent of the
organic sulfur.
Figure 1 presents parametric relationships
between the degree of cleaning (pyritic and
organic sulfur reduction), the sulfur level of
the cleaned coal and the percentage of utility
coals which can be cleaned to a specified sulfur
content.
FEDERAL EPA STANDARD M1.2 LB SO2/MM Btu)
60
ASSUMING 12,500 Btu/lb.
COAL MUST BE CLEANED TO
075% S TO MEET FEDERAL
NEW SOURCE STANDARDS FOR
STEAM GENERATORS.
DATA SOURCE: U. S. BUREAU OF MINES
(REPORT OF INVESTIGATION 7633)
Figure 1.
.75 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
SULFUR CONTENT, PERCENT
Potential levels of desulfurization
for U.S. utility coals.
5.0
(1) Superior numbers refer to similarly numbered
references at the end of this paper.
Coal Cleaning Costs
The costs of physical and chemical coal
cleaning for sulfur removal are to a large
extent undefined. Physical cleaning has tradi-
tionally been used to remove ash and mining
177
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residues from coals. There is virtually no data
correlating costs and sulfur removal in commercial
coal cleaning equipment. However, substantial
data exists on the costs of cleaning for ash
removal. Using this data one can deduce the
costs of sulfur removal from correlations
between ash and sulfur removal in commercial
equipment. While these correlations are few and
tenuous they do provide estimates which indicate
that in some cases physical coal cleaning will
be a more cost effective emission control technique
than flue gas desulfurization (FGD). However,
physical cleaning is not a panacea since it
cannot remove organic sulfur from coal or in
some cases sufficient pyritic sulfur, to meet a
specified emission level.
Chemical coal cleaning is capable of removing
nearly all the pyritic sulfur and a substantial
fraction of the organic sulfur. However, chemical
cleaning is more costly than physical cleaning.
Costs for its use may range from the costs of
FGD to the costs of producing synthetic fuels
from coal. Further, because of their early
state of development, the estimated costs for
chemical coal cleaning are less certain than
those for physical cleaning.
A major goal of the IERL-RTP coal cleaning
program is to develop data on the performance
and cost of equipment and processes for removing
sulfur from coal.
Status of Coal Cleaning Technology
Physical coal preparation processes for
steam coal are oriented toward the removal of
ash and mining residue. The physical removal of
pyritic sulfur from steam coal has not been
commercially used as a method of S0_ emission
control. The physical removal of pyrite will
require crushing to fine particle sizes prior to
separation. Separation at these fine sizes
while not impossible represents a shift to a mix
of equipment and operating conditions which is
different from those traditionally used for
steam coal preparation. Dewatering and drying
of a large percentage of fine coal may be required
for many of the new plants.
The variability of sulfur forms within a
coal bed or mine presents a special problem
which will require the development of improved
technology if coal cleaning is to be used for
SO,, emission control. Mining and blending
methods are needed to attenuate the sulfur
variations in the plant feed, and process instru-
mentation is needed for measurement and control
of the product sulfur level.
Chemical coal cleaning is in the early
stages of development and it is estimated that a
commercial plant could not be put into operation
for at least 5 to 10 years. At least 23 chemical
coal cleaning processes have been identified by EPA.
However, many of these processes are either
conceptual only, are not presently active, have
never been tested on coal, or do not result in
c^al-like products. Only seven or eight processes
appear to merit serious consideration at this
time. Factors which determine the potential use
of these processes include: the amounts and
types of sulfur removal, process costs, state-of-
development, and residue disposal problems. An
EPA report describing the development status of
each of these chemical coal cleaning processes is
to be published in the near future.
Options for Using Coal Cleaning
Physical coal cleaning can be used on a
limited number of U.S. coals to meet Federal New
Source Performance Standards (NSPS) for steam
generators. Moreover a large number of coals can
be physically cleaned and used (1) to meet less
stringent state SO "emission standards or (2) in
conjunction with flue gas desulf urization (FGD)
to lower emission control costs.
Only 14 percent of the 455 U.S. coals tested
by the Bureau of Mines are capable of meeting
NSPS without cleaning . Crushed to a top
size of 1-1/2 in. and cleaned to a Btu recovery
of 90 percent (10 percent of the heat from the
mined coal would be lost) , a total of 24 percent of
these coals could meet NSPS. The percentage of
coal which will be cleaned to NSPS levels could
be increased by either a reduction in the coal
particle size or a reduction in the Btu recovery
value of the cleaned product. In the latter
case a middling coal fraction could probably be
used in a boiler with FGD.
A much larger percentage of coals can be
cleaned to meet standards which,in some locations
are as high as 5 to 6 Ib SO./10 Btu. For
example, 36 percent of the 455 U.S. coal samples
tested by the Bureau of Mines would be able to
meet a standard of 2.0 Ib SO /10 Btu when
reduced to 1-1/2 in. top size and cleaned to a
Btu recovery level of 90 percent. For these
same cleaning conditions over 65 percent of the
samples would be,able to meet emission standards
of 4.0 Ib S02/10 Btu.
A note of caution is needed. The percentages
of coals which can be cleaned to specific sulfur
levels relate only to those mines tested. It
would be erroneous to conclude that these same
values apply to the percentage of U.S. coal
reserves which can be cleaned to specific sulfur
levels. An estimation of the cleanability of the
U.S. coal reserves will soon be available from
studies now in progress.
The use of physical coal cleaning in combination
with flue gas desulf urization (FGD) represents an
approach where the advantages of each technique
can be used to minimize emission control costs
while permitting the most effective use of U.S.
coal resources. A recent study on the use of a
combination of physical coal cleaning and flue
gas desulfurization shows significant economic
advantages to this combined pollution control
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(4)
nethod. v^' In 36 case studies in areas where
local regulations for SO -emissions vary from 1.2
:;o 1.6 lb SO^/IO Btu, the cost of using a combi-
lation of conventional coal cleaning and flue gas
lesulfurization was 2 to 55 percent lower than flue
' »as desulfurization alone for new plants and 10
'-o 60 percent lower for existing plants. The
irithmetic average for the cases cited showed
":osts which were about 30 percent lower for new
jlants and 40 percent lower for existing plants.
'ROGRAM DISCUSSION
The IERL-RTP coal cleaning program includes
i wide range of activities from research on the
-.haracteristics of coal to the demonstration of
'commercial coal preparation processes. The
"program is divided into subprograms for: (1)
:he assessment of pollution from coal cleaning,
' :oal transportation and coal storage, (2) the
: -development of physical and chemical processes
:-:or removing contaminants from coal and (3) the
-Development of pollution control technology for
:oal preparation processes. In addition to
:ontract R&D directed by IERL-RTP, cooperative
projects are conducted with (1) the U.S. Bureau
•jf Mines (USBM) , (2) the U.S. Geological Survey
[USGS) , and (3) the Energy Research and Development
.iLdministration (ERDA), and the Electric
_Jower Research Institute (EPRI). The following
- >aragraphs discuss the status of projects under
.-;ach of the three coal cleaning subprograms.
invironmental Assessment
The overall objectives of the environmental
issessment activities have been to characterize
:oal contaminants and identify the fate of these
:ontaminants during coal processing and coal
ise. Initial studies have focused on sulfur and
potentially hazardous accessory elements (minor
md trace elements) contained in coal. Future
studies will also evaluate potentially hazardous
irganics which may be leached from coal and coal
"'esidues.
Trace Elements in Coal. EPA has supported
•esearch at the Illinois Geological Survey (IGS)
:o evaluate the occurrence and distribution of
• :race elements in coal. This work has been
supported by the Synthetic Fuel and Coal Cleaning
irograms at IERL-RTP. Analyses have been completed
:m 172 whole coal samples. Of these, 114 samples
-?ere from the Illinois Basin, the remaining
: samples were from other coal-producing areas of
.•Ae U.S. Analyses have been made to determine
:he occurrence and distribution of trace elements
, is a function of the vertical segment of the
,:oal seam (bench) and the specific gravity of
>he crushed samples. Further, an index of
irganic affinity was calculated from the specific
;ravity fractions of these coals. This index
v'ermits one to estimate the manner in which
•. rarious elements will be distributed during coal
rashing.
Conclusions from these studies which provide
,,-nsight into potential environmental problems
j'ssociated with the preparation and use of coals
,-nclude:
(1) Elemental concentrations tend to be
highest in coals from the Appalachians, lowest
in coals of the Western United States, and
intermediate in coals from the Illinois Basin.
(2) Elements that have the largest ranges
in concentrations are those that are found in
distinct mineral phases in coal; elements with
narrow ranges are found in organic combination
in coal.
(3) On the average only four elements
(boron, chlorine, selenium and arsenic) are
present in coals at concentrations significantly
greater than the average concentrations in the
earth's crust.
(4) Benches of a single coal seam often
exhibit wide variations in elemental concentrations.
High concentrations are most commonly observed
at the top and/or bottom of the coal seam.
(5) Major quantities of elements with high
inorganic affinities may be removed from coals
by specific gravity cleaning techniques disposal
of these residue materials in turn may pose a
significant environmental problem.
Work at IGS will be continued to extend the
mineralogical and chemical characterization of
coals, especially as related to the distribution
of elements and minerals during specific gravity
separation.
Characterization of Coal Preparation Wastes.
EPA and ERDA are sponsoring research at the Los
Alamos Scientific Laboratory (LASL) to: (1)
characterize the trace elements and mineralogy
of coal preparation wastes, (2) evaluate the
leaching of trace elements under environmental
conditions (laboratory simulated), and (3)
evaluate technology applicable to the control of
environmental pollution from trace elements in
coal refuse.
Initial studies have concentrated on coal
wastes from four different preparation plants in
the Illinois Basin. Trace elements and minerals
in these wastes were identified. Associations
were established between the trace elements and
major minerals to evaluate the potential for
release of trace elements under environmental
weathering conditions. Laboratory leaching
studies were conducted to simulate environmental
weathering of these wastes. Variables included
surface area (size), time, temperature, pH,
access to air and oxidizing bacteria.
Leaching increased with decreasing pH,
increased availability of air, increased surface
area and increased leaching time. Experiments
using oxidizing bacteria are not complete.
Highly leachable elements of environmental
concern included: Be, Al, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu,
Zn, As, Se, Mo, Cd and Tl.
Continuing studies will focus on similar
evaluations of coal preparation wastes from
Appalachian and Western coals. Also, various
methods for controlling the leaching of these
179
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elements or the clean-up of leachant will be
investigated.
Environmental Assessment Project. A three
year project to assess the environmental impacts
of coal preparation, coal transportation and coal
storage is being conducted for IERL-RTP by the
Battelle Columbus Laboratories. Major project
activities include:
(1) The development of a technology overview
containing a description of all current coal
cleaning processes and their associated pollution
control problems.
(2) The development and performance of
an environmental test program to obtain improved
data on pollutants from commercial coal cleaning
plants.
(3) The performance of trade-off studies to
evaluate the relative cost effectiveness of coal
cleaning as compared to other SO emission control
strategies (primarily FGD).
(4) The performance of studies to determine
the relative environmental impacts of coal clean-
ing and FGD.
Progress during the first year of this
project has included the completion of a technology
overview study and the development of a plan for
environmental testing at commercial coal prepara-
tion plants in the U.S. The second year of the
program will include environmental testing at
four to five preparation plants and the initiation
of trade-off studies on alternative SO. emission
control strategies.
Combustion of Hydrothermally Treated Coals.
Laboratory experiments were run to evaluate
sulfur and trace element emissions which result
from the combustion of coals treated by the
Battelle Hydrothermal Process. These experiments
were conducted in a 1 Ib/hr laboratory combustor
at the Battelle Columbus Laboratories. Tests
were conducted using raw coal, coal leached with
sodium hydroxide, and coal leached with a mixture
of sodium hydroxide and calcium hydroxide.
Coals from the Martinka and Westland coal mines
were evaluated. Generally, the sulfur content
of the treated coals was reduced below 0.6 Ib
S/10 Btu on a moisture and ash free basis.
Corresponding values in the untreated coals
ranged from approximately 1.5 to 2.5 Ib S/10
Btu. During combustion from 25 to 75 percent of
the fuel sulfur was retained in the combustor
ash and fly ash. Generally, ash sulfur retention
in the mixed leachant coals was superior to that
in the coals treated with NaOH. During combustion
experiments with untreated coals, sulfur retention
in the ash ranged from 3 to 30 percent. The
emission of trace elements from combustion of
the treated coals was substantially reduced when
compared to corresponding combustion products
from the raw coals.
Combustion experiments in commercial sized
boilers will be required to confirm the results
of these laboratory experiments.
Geologic Variability of Coal Contaminanh
The USGS is studying the variability of contam-
inants within coal seams under an interagency
agreement with EPA. The objectives of this
project are to:
(1) Determine the geologic factors
the lateral variation, vertical variation
crystal form and size of pyrite in coal.
controlling
(2) Determine the geologic factors controlling
mineral and elemental variations in coal, especially
as related to the possible separation of the
organic and inorganic fractions of coal during
physical cleaning.
(3) Evaluate various methods for correlating
coal cleanability with its petrologic characteristics
(4) Develop methodology for determining
the cleanability of coal in the U.S. reserves.
Initial studies in satisfying these objectives
will focus on the Upper Freeport seam near Homer
City, PA. The USGS studies will complement other
EPA studies at the PENELEC Homer City coal
cleaning plant which are directed to the develop-
ment of mining schemes which will aid in the
removal of coal contaminants during preparation.
The USGS project began in October 1976.
Core hole and mine face samples are now being
evaluated. Several mines have been inspected
and field trips have been made to determine the
geological history of the area surrounding the
Homer City power complex.
Coal Cleaning Technology Development
Major projects under the coal cleaning
technology development subprogram include: (1)
a detailed assessment of existing equipment and
processes which can be used for coal desulfuriza-
tion; (2) the development of new desulfurization
processes and (3) the demonstration of physical
coal cleaning as an effective method for SO,
emission control for utility boilers.
Technology Assessment. A major three year
project to assess technology for the physical
and chemical desulfurization of coal was begun
in January 1977. This project is being conducted
by Versar, Inc., with the assistance of the Joy
Manufacturing Co., Denver Equipment Division.
The principal project activity will be to
develop data on the performance of commercial
coal cleaning equipment in separating fine coal
and pyrite. The capital and operating costs
associated with pyrite removal will also be
identified. Similar cost and performance evalua-
tions will be made on equipment for dewatering
and drying fine coal. Other project activities
will include: an evaluation of chemical coal
cleaning processes; an evaluation of coal prepara-
tion requirements for synthetic fuel conversion
processes; an evaluation of pollution control
technology used for coal cleaning; and the
conduct of engineering trade-off studies to
establish the performance and costs of coal
preparation plants designed for improved pyrite
180
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Removal and Btu recovery.
'•• Progress to date has included the collection
f existing data on coal cleaning for pyrite
emoval and the construction of a mobile laboratory
o facilitate equipment testing at commercial
' oal preparation plants.
Homer City Coal Cleaning Demonstration.
he Pennsylvania Electric Company (PENELEC) is
-Constructing a 1200 tph coal preparation plant at
-heir Homer City power complex. When completed
" he plant will provide physically cleaned coal
.0 two existing 600 MW units and one new 650 MW
nit. The cleaning plant is to be used in place
f scrubbers to meet Pennsylvania and Federal
0 emission regulations.
EPA, PENELEC, EPRI and ERDA are cooperatively
-upporting a demonstration program at the Homer
ity complex. EPA plans to provide approximately
wo-thirds of the funds in support of an estimated
...4 million test and evaluation program. The
.. bjectives of the demonstration program are to:
(1) Determine the variability of sulfur
nd other pollutants in coal fed to the cleaning
lant.
(2) Determine the performance of equipment
sed for the separation of coal and pyrite.
(3) Determine the capability of plant
" rocess controls to maintain the coal product
•"~treams within sulfur, ash and Btu specifications.
(4) Characterize pollutant streams emitted
rom the preparation and power plants.
(5) Determine if a need exists for the
-Development of improved pollution control technol-
-gy-
(6) Evaluate the effects of using clean
.J-oal on the performance of the boilers and
lectrostatic precipitators at the power plant.
(7) Evaluate the effectiveness of planned
esidue disposal techniques.
: (8) Determine the fate of potentially
. azardous minor and trace pollutants contained
--n the coal used at the preparation and power
'lants.
(9) Determine capital and operating costs
/f the preparation and power plants; i.e., the
.;;osts of using physical coal cleaning to meet
. iO^ emission regulations.
-; (10) Evaluate other equipment or coal
./leaning circuits as needed to demonstrate the
'lability of the Homer City plant for cleaning
./oal to meet SO emission regulations.
The preparation plant is scheduled to begin
itart-up tests late this spring. Pilot plant
' .ests are underway at the U.S. Bureau of Mines
";est facility in Bruceton, PA. Several baseline
' environmental tests have been completed and the
development of detailed test plans has been
started. Cooperative studies with the USGS to
evaluate the variability of sulfur in the Homer
City reserves are in progress.
Technology Development (USBM). EPA is
supporting a number of coal cleaning R&D projects
through an interagency agreement with the
Department of the Interior. Coal cleaning
technology development activities include research
performed by the USBM Coal Preparation and
Analysis Group at Bruceton, PA. and contract
work directed by them. Major active projects
during the past year included research or demon-
stration on the following:
(1) Studies on the cleanability of selected
U.S. coals (USBM project).
(2) Surface phenomena in the dewatering of
coal (Syracuse University research grant).
(3) Control of black water in coal preparation
plant recycle and discharge (Penn State University).
(4) High gradient magnetic separation
(General Electric Co. and Massachusetts Institute
of Technology).
(5) Absorption-desorption reactions in
desulfurization of coal by pyrite flotation
(University of Utah).
(6) Computer simulation of coal preparation
plants (University of Pittsburgh).
(7) Engineering and economic analysis of
coal preparation for SO- emission control
(Hoffman-Munter Corp.).
(8) Design of a coal preparation test
facility (Birtley Engineering).
(9) Evaluation of stabilization agents for
coal preparation plant sludges (Dravo Corp.).
A summary of these USBM coal cleaning R&D
activities is given in a separate paper included
in the proceedings of this conference.
TRW Chemical Coal Cleaning Process. In
previous years EPA supported bench and laboratory
scale development work on coal desulfurization
by aqueous ferric sulfate leaching. This process
developed by TRW is capable of removing from
90 to 95 percent of the pyritic sulfur in a variety
of U.S. coals. Construction of 1/3-ton per hour
reactor test unit (RTU) capable of pilot scale
testing has been completed at Capistrano, California.
The plant dedication took place on April
22, 1977. The safety review and system check-outs
were completed in early May and cold flow tests were
completed in mid-May. Hot flow tests with water
are scheduled for completion in early June.
Pulverized coal will be circulated through the
RTU in June to verify system functions. Initial
test runs are planned for August. An initial
nine month test program is planned to verify
major process variables.
181
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Thermochemical Desulfurization Process.
Institute of Gas Technology (IGT) under EPA
contract has been developing a thermalchemical
process for coal desulfurization. This process
is capable of removing both organic and pyritic
sulfur from coal. Products of the process are a
low sulfur coal char and a low Btu gas. The
principal achievement to date has been the
validation of the process concept. Operating
conditions have been determined with both laboratory
and bench scale equipment. Tests showing satis-
factory desulfurization of four coals representing
abundant, high sulfur, eastern coal reserves
have been completed. In each case the treated
product could be burned without exceeding present
Federal EPA SO emission standards for coal
r- • X
fired steam generators.
The achievement of satisfactory desulfurization
was the result of a discovery that mild, oxidative
pretreatment of the coal rendered the organic
sulfur more amenable to removal; until this
discovery sulfur removal had been unsatisfactory.
It now appears that the IGT system may be a
viable alternative for making a low sulfur,
solid, fossil fuel from high sulfur U.S. coals
which cannot be adequately desulfurized by
physical cleaning.
Microwave Desulfurization. Laboratory
experiments by the General Electric Company have
demonstrated the technical feasibility of coal
desulfurization by microwave energy. Both
pyritic and organic sulfur appear to be removed.
Pyrite is preferentially excited by the microwave
energy producing volatile or water soluble
sulfur compounds which may be easily removed
from the coal. Coal-NaOH mixtures exposed to
microwave energy show a reduction of organic
sulfur after washing. The coal organic structure
and NaOH absorb little microwave energy at the
treatment frequency (8.3 GEL). However, it is
postulated that sufficient energy is absorbed by
water in the coal to cause reactions between
NaOH and the coal organic sulfur.
Laboratory experiments are continuing to
evaluate the mechanisms of coal desulfurization
by microwave energy and identify those process
variables which will increase sulfur removal.
Pollution Control Technology Development
The subprogram to develop coal cleaning
pollution control technology is in its assessment
phase. Projects to develop improved pollution
control technology will be initiated as the need
for improved pollution control methods are
identified.
CONCLUSIONS
Physical and chemical coal cleaning can be
used to meet a variety of State and Federal SO
emission regulations, singly or in combination
with flue gas desulfurization. IERL-RTP projects
now in progress will:
(1) Provide needed data on the performance
and costs of coal preparation for coal desulfuri-
zation.
(2) Demonstrate the economic and technical
feasibility of using coal cleaning as an SO
control strategy.
2
(3) Characterize the cleanability of U.S.
coals by physical and chemical methods.
(4) Develop methodology to determine the
cleanability of U.S. coal reserves.
(5) Identify pollution emission and waste
disposal problems for coal cleaning, coal trans-
portation and coal storage which require the
development of improved pollution control
technology.
(6) Continue the development of promising
physical and chemical coal cleaning techniques.
REFERENCES
(1) Cavallaro, J.A., M. T. Johnston, and
A. W. Deurbrouck. Sulfur Reduction Potential of
U.S. Coals: A Revised Report of Investigations,
EPA-600/2-76-091 (NTIS No. PB 252-965/AS) or
Bureau of Mines RI 8118, Washington, D. C. ,
April 1976.
(2) Hamersma, J. W., and M. L. Kraft.
Applicability of the Meyers Process for Chemical
Desulfurization of Coal: Survey of Thirty-five
Coals, EPA-650/2-74-025-a, (NTIS No. PB 254-461/AS),
Washington, D. C., September 1975.
(3) Reggel, et al. Preparation of Ash-
free, Pyrite-free Coal by Mild Chemical Treatment,
presented at American Chemical Society (Division
of Fuel Chemistry) National Meeting, New York
City, August 27-September 1, 1972.
(4) Aresco, S. J., L. Hoffman, and E. C.
Holt, Jr. Engineering/Economic Analyses of Coal
Preparation with SO Cleanup Processes for
Keeping Higher Sulfur Coals in the Energy Market,
Preliminary Report on U.S. Bureau of Mines
contract J0155171, The Hoffman-Munter Corporation,
Silver Spring, Maryland, June 1976.
CONVERSION FACTORS
The following conversion factors may be used
to convert from the English units used in this
paper to metric units.
1 inch = 2.54 cm
1 tph = .907 metric tph
1 ^f, ^
TCT Btu = 2.326 10 Joule
182
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U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
SPONSORED RESEARCH
AT U.S. BUREAU OF MINES
Richard E. Hucko
Coal Preparation and Analysis Laboratory
Bureau of Mines
U.S. Department of the Interior
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
INTRODUCTION
Increased national attention is presently
being paid to coal and its preparation to meet
energy demands consistent with environmental
legislation. The Bureau of Mines has increased
its efforts in developing improved technology in
preparing coal and new methods for removing
sulfur and fugitive elements. EPA has provided
both funds and moral support for the Bureau's
research program at a time when both were badly
needed. This paper will describe in brief form,
.the substance of each project sponsored by the
:EPA, as well as to present the more recent
developments in each area of funding.
IN-HOUSE RESEARCH
-Characteristics and Removal of Pyritic Sulfur
Selected U.S. Coals
In 1965, the National Air Pollution Control
Administration (later EPA) funded a continuing
study by the Bureau of Mines to determine the
forms of sulfur in the major sources of utility
steam coals, and the washabilities of these coals.
The purpose of this investigation was to determine
the effects of crushing and gravimetric separation
on the liberation and removal of pyritic sulfur
and other impurities for coals collected from the
principal utility producing coalbeds of the United
States. Information generated from this study is
necessary to assess the impact physical coal
cleaning might have on the level of sulfur oxide
emissions from stationary combustion sources.
The latest publication reporting the results
3f this study is Report of Investigations 8118
entitled "Sulfur Reduction Potential of U.S.
"Oals. This publication covers work performed
from 1965 to mid-1974 and presents the results of
washability studies of 455 raw coal channel
'samples collected from six coal producing regions
3f the U.S.
Figure 1 shows that only 14 percent of raw
soal samples as mined could meet the new source
>02 emission standard of 1.2 pounds SO /MM Btu.
Twenty-four percent of the samples would meet the
standard at a 90 percent Btu recovery when
Crushed to 1-1/2 inches top size, while 32 percent
vould meet the standard at a Btu recovery of 50
'ercent when crushed to 14-mesh top size. This
figure has been frequently misinterpreted so an
explanation seems warranted. Actually, 40 percent
or 183 of the 455 samples tested can be upgraded
to meet sulfur dioxide emission standards with a
total Btu recovery of 86 percent. Some of the 183
samples were quite refractory and gave recoveries
ranging from 5 to 20 percent. On the other hand,
122 samples could be beneficiated with Btu
recoveries of 90 percent or more.
Since RI 8118 was published, 27 samples from
the Western Region States and about 100 samples
from the States of Pennsylvania, Ohio, West
Virginia, Maryland and Kentucky have been process-
ed. Because of the increasing interest in lig-
nites, 6 samples of Texas lignite 2 samples of
Arkansas lignite have been collected and are now
being analyzed.
In addition, a report compiling proximate and
ultimate analyses, Btu/lb., Free Swelling Index,
and Hardgrove Grindability Index for each of the
samples presented in RI 8118 is being prepared and
should be completed by the end of this year.
Coal Preparation Process Development Facility
In order to alleviate many of the past
problems of introducing new technology to the
industry, a central coal preparation process
development facility has been designed and speci-
fications prepared for construction. When com-
pleted and operational the test facility will
provide engineering data on a variety of coals
which can be scaled up to full-size commercial
coal preparation plant operation. Moreover, the
expense of evaluating processes that prove to be
of limited value to the industry will be greatly
reduced.
The pilot plant section of the proposed
facility will have a nominal capacity of 10 to 25
tons per hour of raw coal depending on the flow-
scheme used; process flexibility was a prime
design requisite of this pilot plant. The
facility will also contain an equipment area
smaller in scale than the pilot plant to initiate
work on research projects before they are taken
into the pilot plant section for scale-up.
The architects delivered site preparation bid
documents to the Bureau in May of this year. Con-
struction of the facility (raw coal handling,
equipment and process development, and the pilot
plant) could begin before the end of calendar year
1977.
CONTRACT RESEARCH
Commercial Installation of Coal-Pyrite Flotation
Process
The Bureau of Mines is cooperating with Barnes
and Tucker to demonstrate the commercial feasibil-
ity of the Bureau developed Coal-Pyrite Flotation
Process. The process involves the depression of
coal with a hydrophilic colloidal substance while
the coal-pyrite is floated with a sulfhydryl
collector. The Coal-Pyrite Flotation Process has
been tested and proved effective in a Bureau pilot
183
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100
90 -
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
Product
a Row cool
b l'/2 -inch
top size ,
90% Btu rec .
c 14 -mesh
top size ,
50% Btu rec
Samples meeting
EPA standard,%
14
24
32
J_
Figure 1.
Percent of 455
U.S. coal samples
meeting the EPA New
Source Performance
Standard of 1,2
pounds SO /MM Btu,
10 12 14
LB S02/MM Btu
16
18
20
22
24
plant study. If the process works successfully
in the Barnes and Tucker Plant, it will mean the
recovery of an additional 8 tons per hour of fine-
size coal which is now being discarded as waste
because of its high sulfur content.
This plant was designed to prepare coal for
the metallurgical market by incorporating heavy
media cyclones, hydrocyclones, and standard flota-
tion cells. A second flotation cell was also
included to permit an additional 10-12 ton-per-
hour yield from a classifying cyclone underflow if
seam sulfur content was low.
However, consistently high-sulfur-content
coals were encountered in the mining process mak-
ing it impossible to utilize the secondary flota-
tion cell product in producing a coal sufficient-
ly low in sulfur to satisfy the metallurgical
market .
Heyl and Patterson, Inc. (designer and
builder of the original plant) has completed the
engineering required and has begun purchasing the
equipment necessary to make the modifications to
the plant. Shown in Figure 2 is a schematic of
the changes incorporated into the circuitry; con-
struction work should be finished by August 1977.
Subsequently, flotation tests will be run for
about 1 year. The test results will then be
evaluated and a report written for publication and
information dissemination.
Adsorption-Desorption Reactions in the Desulfuri-
zation of Coal by a Pyrite Flotation Technique
Research is being conducted at the University
of Utah to investigate the depressant and collec-
tor adsorption reactions which occur during coal
desulfurization by the Bureau's Coal-Pyrite
Flotation Process. The project has the expressed
purpose of determining if a separation technique
can be developed whereby primary pyrite flotation
is followed by a second-stage coal flotation, the
purpose being to produce a final clean coal prod-
uct that is in thickened form ready for dewater-
ing. A second purpose is to investigate the
effect of residual reagent that might appear in
plant recycle water. Specific objectives of this
research program include:
1. Identify and characterize the
hydrophilic polymeric coal
depressants.
2. Determine the important operating
variables which control the
adsorption-desorption reactions and
relate these results to the flota-
tion response of the mineral
constituents.
3. Establish procedures, if necessary
to allow for subsequent coal flota-
tion and plant water recycle with-
out deleterious effects due to
residual reagent concentrations.
184
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From waste froth J
feed pump
I-H-P FC-2400 Cyclo-cell
± l-M-h
nr--v
From hydro
feed pump
95 TPH
12-14" 0 H-P
Hydrocyclones
r"T>-*,
3948 GPM
28 TPH
136 GPM
To refuse
vacuum filter
67 TPH
2812 GPM
Sulfuric acid
reagent feeder
Depressant
reagent feeder
10-14" 0 H-P
Classifying \ ;
cyclones \j
32 TPH
2392 GPM
476 GPM
. 4-H-P FC-2400 Cyclo-cell
f* 376 GPM
Middling product
sump
Xanthate
reagent feeder
12 TPH
704 GPM
rr,
Waste froth]
sump !
23 TPH
92 GPM
- -^> To waste froth cell
12 TPH
704 GPM
29 TPH
Cyclone feed
pump
,-^\ Waste froth
~Jf 1 feed pump
j 60 TPH
I 540 GPM
I
To clean coal filter
KEY
dashed line
solid line
GPM
existing pipe
lines & equip
new pipe
lines 8 equip
GPM M slurry
Figure 2. Flow scheme modifications for coal pyrite flotation process.
In research work done to date on this
project, dextrin, araylose, and Aero Depressant 633
were found to have a similar depressant effect on
coal flotation. Addition of any of these reagents
in excess of .02 pounds per ton of coal depresses
at least 80 percent of the coal. Desorption of
the depressants from the coal surface was found to
be difficult and the adsorption reaction appears
to be irreversible. However, the depressed coal
can be reactivated and floated by the addition of
neutral molecular oil. Also, as shown in Figure
3, even large additions of coal depressant do not
interfere with pyrite flotation.
The coal-pyrite materials used in this study
were found to contain significant amounts of mar-
casite. The material's flotation response to
xanthate collector is inferior to that of ore
pyrite. This is probably due to its porous, clay-
filled surface structure which tends to remain
hydrophilic. The flotation response of coal-
pyrite can be improved by using higher collector
concentrations, by performing the flotation at
lower pH values, and by using the longer hydrocar-
bon chain xanthates.
Prom the knowledge gained in the depressant
and collector studies, bench-scale coal flotation
experiments are now being conducted in an effort
to find optimum conditions to depress coal parti-
cles and float pyrite. During these flotation
tests the residual depressant concentration will
be measured and water recycle experiments will be
done to determine the effect on subsequent coal
flotation.
High-Gradient Magnetic Separation for Removal of
Inorganic Sulfur From Coal
General Electric Company is attempting to
establish the technical feasibility of removing a
substantial fraction of the inorganic sulfur from
dry coal powders at commercially significant
processing rates. Reduction of sulfur by HGMS
could permit the direct combustion of large coal
reserves east of the Mississippi River, which have
a high percentage of pyritic sulfur but are low in
organic sulfur.
Initial testing was done utilizing aqueous
slurries with modest results in removing pyritic
sulfur, as well as ash. Recently, dry separation
test runs were made. The results show:
(a) there is evidence of some magnetic
separation,
185
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CJ
cc
:BO
o
LLJ
cc
§40
en
:20
0.5
COAL PYRITE/MARCASITE
SIZE: 65 X 100 MESH
pH: 6.5
J I L
I I I
5 10
DEXTRIN ADDITION, MG/I
Figure 3,
Effect of dex-
trin addition on
coal pyrite flo-
tation with potas-
sium amyl xanthate
(KAX) as collector,
50
(b) the amount of sulfur and ash
removal is much smaller than that
in the case of water slurries, and
(c) no significant trend in sulfur or
ash removal emerges from changes in
applied magnetic field or in flow
velocity, or with changing from an
expanded metal to a steel wool
matrix.
The poor separations appear to be both a
result of agglomeration of particles and a result
of particles adhering to the filter fibers. Both
of these problems are likely induced by electro-
static charging of the particles and subsequent
agglomeration.
Because of the problem of poor performance
of the separator with dry coal, a two-month fund-
ed extension has been requested on this contract
to further pursue the origins of the poor perform-
ance with the hope of understanding and improving
the dry separations.
Surface Phenomena in the Dewatering of Coal
Rotary vacuum filters are relatively econom-
ical and practical devices for dewatering froth
flotation concentrates and flocculated slurries,
but the product usually retains over 20 percent
moisture. As a result, thermal drying, a com-
paratively expensive process, is often required
to reduce the moisture content of the filter con-
centrate to an acceptable level. An investigation
to improve mechanical methods for dewatering fine
coal so that the need for thermal drying will be
minimal, is being carried out under a grant with
Syracuse University.
In this investigation, experiments are being
conducted to characterize the dewatering of fine-
size coal, to estimate the effect of an electric
field on the dewatering process, to determine the
influence that slurry pH has on dewatering, and to
assess the influence of selected chemical addi-
tives on moisture retained in filter cakes.
Further, reagent adsorption tests are being
carried out to develop relationships between the
performance of a reagent as a dewatering aid and
its adsorption on the coal surface.
During the first year, a test system was
devised, constructed and tested. The system
appears to provide the critical parameters neces-
sary for the evaluation of reagents as a dewater-
ing aid in filtering fine coal. Recently, the
accumulated test data on the effects of various
cationic, anionic, and nonionic surfactants have
been used to formulate a model for surfactant
behavior in a cake of fine-size coal and its
effect on the dewatering of coal.
Control of Black Water in Coal Preparation Plant
Recycle and Discharge
Treatment of black waters from coal prepara-
tion plants is complicated by their heterogeneous
nature and by the lack of information on the
behavior of relatively simple systems. This water
consists of mixtures of fine coal, clay minerals,
quartz, calcite, pyrite and other mineral parti-
cles dispersed in water. Effective treatment of
the effluents must be carried out regardless of
whether the water is to be reused or discharged.
186
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Under a grant with the Pennsylvania State
University, a. laboratory investigation of the
flocculation process is being carried out in the
treatment of black water from coal preparation
plants. In this investigation, a quantitative
evaluation is being made of the interrelation of
of flocculation rate, settling rate, and sludge
volume to establish a technique for producing as
dense a sludge as possible in a thickener operat-
ing at the highest possible rate. Further, the
results of studies on the flocculation of hetero-
geneous systems will be used to develop mathemati-
cal models to simulate the flocculation of parti-
cles in practical systems.
Studies of the characteristics of actual
black water are nearing completion. The mineral-
ogical composition and particle size distribution
have been determined on samples collected from
preparation plants operating in most of the major
coal producing regions and coal seams in the
United States. The results show that the chemical
and physical characteristics of samples collected
from the eastern and interior provinces are essen-
tially the same. Although verifying data are not
yet available, samples collected from western
operations appear to be somewhat different.
Tests are currently proceeding on the speci-
fic interactions of polymeric flocculants with the
surfaces of coals and coal-related minerals.
1. To predict the performance of a
given plant configuration for a
specified set of operating condi-
tions.
2. To determine the operating condi-
tions resulting in a specified ash
and pyritic sulfur reduction for a
given plant configuration.
Engineering/Economic Analysis of Coal Preparation
With S02 Cleanup Processes for Keeping Higher
Sulfur Coals in the Energy MarkeF
In a study recently completed for the Bureau
of Mines by the Hoffman-Muntner Corporation, the
economic potential of coal preparation in combina-
tion with stack gas scrubbing was evaluated.
Generally speaking, of the various methods for
reducing the sulfur content of coals, the physical
removal of pyritic sulfur is the lowest cost and
most widely applied technology. However, a number
of those coals currently being mined and utilized
cannot, by physical upgrading alone, meet the new-
source sulfur emission standard of 1.2 pounds of
SO per million Btu. The concept of physical coal
cleaning combined with flue gas desulfurization is
not new. For some time, there have been discus-
sions, speculations, and some preliminary assess-
ments addressing the possible benefits of physical
coal desulfurization followed by flue gas
desulfurization.
Computer Simulation of Coal Preparation Plants
To assist in the prediction of full-scale
coal preparation plant operation, a computer simu-
lation program is being developed under contract
with the University of Pittsburgh. The first
phase of this work included the partial develop-
ment of an overall computer program that would
simulate the performance of a coal preparation
plant for a specified coal feed. Included within
the program is performance data for each of the
commonly used coal washing devices. Specifically,
the program simulates the operations of the follow
ing units:
1. Concentrating table.
2. Dense-medium cyclone.
3. Dense-medium vessel.
4. Hydrocyclone.
5. Dyna-whirlpool vessel.
6. Baum jig.
7. Froth flotation cell.
The program also includes mathematical model-
ing of the rotary breaker, other crushers, screens
(both wet and dry), centrifugal dewatering equip-
ment, thermal dryers, and thickeners. The program
is structured so that it can be used in either of
the following two ways:
The Hoffman-Muntner study is an in-depth
analytical assessment of a number of theoretical
case studies. In these studies, actual coal use
areas, coal source areas, and the most probable
coalbed source are defined. An economic evalua-
tion is then made of the cost of a new utility
plant exclusively removing SO by stack gas scrub-
bing down to the new source emission standard.
This is followed by a similar evaluation of the
combined use of physical coal cleaning plus stack
gas scrubbing to attain the same sulfur emission
level. The study concluded that, in general, the
combination of coal preparation and stack gas
scrubbing was less expensive than scrubbing alone.
Analysis of Chemical Coal Cleaning Process
Many coals, even after physical coal cleaning,
have sulfur levels too high to meet Federal air
quality standards when burned due to the organic
sulfur content which cannot be removed physically.
The Bechtel Corporation recently completed an
analysis of six chemical coal cleaning processes
in a study for the Bureau of Mines. Chemical coal
cleaning offers the advantage of, at least theo-
retically, removing all pyritic sulfur, some of
the ash, and up to 40 percent of the organic
sulfur.
The six processes studied were:
1. The Hazen Process.
2. The KVB Process.
3. The TRW - Meyers Process.
187
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4. The Battelle - Hydro-thermal Process,
5. The Ledgemont Oxygen Leaching
Process.
6. The ERDA Oxidative Desulfurization
Process.
Process flow charts were drawn for each proc-
ess and analyzed in terms of cost and sulfur
removal performance. While none of the processes
is economically competitive with physical clean-
ing, the Bechtel report concludes that the six
processes represent the starting point for engi-
neering improvement and for generating new con-
cepts .
Evaluation of the Effect of Coal Cleaning on Trace
Elements
There is an acute awareness that trace ele-
ments in coal might contribute substantial quanti-
ties of potentially hazardous materials to the
environment. Much of the 650 million tons of coal
mined annually in the United States goes to power
plants where it is burned. Thus, a coal contain-
ing concentrations of only one part per million
could emit hundreds of tons of a potentially
hazardous substance into the environment each year.
Certain trace elements may selectively con-
centrate in particular specific gravity fractions
of the raw coal and, if so, may be readily re-
moved by conventional coal washing processes prior
to combustion.
The Bureau of Mines recently completed a
washability study showing the trace element con-
tents of various specific gravity fractions for 10
coal samples collected from various coal producing
regions of the United States. Reliable analytical
methods were developed to determine cadmium,
chromium, copper, fluorine, mercury, manganese,
nickel, and lead in the whole coals and the vari-
ous specific gravity fractions of the coals.
As shown in Table 1, most of the trace ele-
ments of interest concentrated in the heavier
specific gravity fractions of the coal, indicating
that they are associated with mineral matter, and
removal of this material would result in signifi-
cant trace element reductions ranging up to 88
percent.
In a related, but greatly expanded effort,
the Bureau, through EPA, has just funded a three-
phase program with Bituminous Coal Research. The
objectives of this project are:
Cumulative analyses
Parts per million
Product
Yield,
percent
Cd
Cr
Cu
Hg
Mn
Northern Appalachian Region
Float 1.60
Composite raw coal
Reduction, percent
Float 1.60
Composite raw coal
Reduction, percent
100
0.08
.11
27
18
21
14
12
33
39
58
33
Southern Appalachian Region
77
100
0.12
.12
10
25
60
21
31
32
77
0.12
.23
33
7
12
48 42
26 0.06 68
110 .09 300
77
Ni
10
13
23
13
19
Pb
2.9
6.2
53
8
15
32 47
TABLE 1.
SUMMARY OF COMPOSITE
PRODUCT ANALYSES BY
REGION FOR COALS CRUSHED
TO 14 MESH TOP SIZE
AND CLEANED AT 1.60
SPECIFIC GRAVITY
SHOWING THE TRACE
ELEMENT REDUCTION
ATTAINABLE
Eastern Midwest Region
Float 1.60
Composite raw coal
Reduction, percent
91
100
0.03
.34
11
12
5
6.3
21
48
54
11
0.07
.09
22
13
47
72
9.6
9.8
3.7
5.6
34
Western Region
Float 1.60
Composite raw coal
Reduction, percent
91
100
0.07
.10
30
3.6
3.7
6.7
7.6
12
32
40
20
0.04
.06
16
45
33 64
4.0
4. 1
5.1
7.1
28
188
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1. To complete a comprehensive, state-
of-the-art study on the fate of
fugitive elements in coal mining,
preparation, transportation, and
utilization;
2. To determine the association and con-
centration of elements in the ash
minerals, sulfide minerals and clean
coal.
3. To develop and describe analytical
methods, including new methods for
determining fugitive elements in the
PPM and PPB range.
SUMMARY
This brief report of EPA sponsored research
at the U.S. Bureau of Mines shows the wide spec-
trum of interest in physical, as well as chemical
coal preparation.
189
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FOREST SERVICE MINING RECLAMATION RESEARCH
Grant Davis
Surface Environment and Mining Program
Forest Service
U.S. Department of Agriculture
Billings, Montana
INTRODUCTION
Successful reclamation depends on many
factors: effective planning, proper mining
techniques which maintain hydrologic integrity
and form stable spoils suitable for plant growth,
timely revegetation with adapted species, and
transportation systems which cause little
environmental damage.
Knowledge of the physical and chemical
characteristics of the soils and rock strata
that form the overburden above the coal is
essential for planning mining and reclamation.
If strata with undesirable characteristics can
be identified before mining, they can be placed
where least harm will result. On the other hand,
the materials more favorable to plant growth can
be placed on the surface. Condition of the
ground water must also be determined so that
its flow and quality can be reestablished after
mining. The best way to obtain data on over-
burden and ground water hydrology is through
core drilling. Although much drilling has been
done to obtain information on coal deposits, the
technology for drilling and analyzing overburden
is not well developed. Little is known about
the physical changes that take place after the
rock strata are mined and exposed to weathering.
In addition to the hydrologic impacts of
mining a specific area, the cumulative effects
of several mines on a large watershed are
difficult to predict. In the West where water
resources are so scarce, it would be desirable
to create ponds on mined areas. To date there
is no information on how to construct ponds
which provide suitable habitat for wildlife or
livestock use.
Revegetation of mined areas is necessary
to put the land back into productive use,
prevent erosion, and restore aesthetic values.
Successful establishment of plants depends upon
selection of species adaptable to the area,
seedbed preparation, and careful planting on
favorable spoil. In many cases spoils are
lacking in nutrients and need to be improved
for better plant growth. Some non-mine waste
products may be suitable as spoil amendments.
Use of such waste materials as sewage, processed
garbage, bark and other fiber by-products as
spoil amendments will also help solve serious
waste disposal problems. This is a comparatively
new field of research, and recent emphasis on
recycling has produced many by-products which
can be tested on spoils. However, it is important
to guard against the inherent danger of releasing
toxic substances into the environment.
Transportation systems associated with mining
can cause considerable environmental damage during
active operations. Roads are especially subject
to erosion from water and wind. Dust is a
nuisance, a safety hazard, and an air pollutant,
but little quantifiable data is available to
assess damage or to establish corrective measures.
During the mining and reclamation process,
a considerable amount of engineering, physical
and biological data are collected. Computer hard-
ware and software must be developed in order to
integrate environmental constraints with mining
operations.
It does little good to develop reclamation
technology unless the information is readily
available to potential users. Computer systems
are generally inadequate for storing and
retrieving data and information, especially in
the West.
TECHNICAL DISCUSSION
Revegetation technology must be developed
regionally because of the different climates and
species involved. In the relatively humid
Appalachia and Midwest regions many species can
survive and grow on spoils; so there are oppor-
tunities to select those which offer some
economic return. After a thorough literature
search on the subject, former researchers and
practitioners were contacted for their opinions.
This preliminary work was useful in developing a
rough outline of chapters for a technical hand-
book on revegetation in the East.
Initial field work consisted of remeasuring
some of the older Forest Service experimental
plantings in Missouri, Kansas, Oklahoma, Ohio,
Illinois, Indiana and western Kentucky. Soil
samples to help relate growth to spoil type were
also collected. As the survey of West Virginia,
Pennsylvania, Alabama and Tennessee is completed,
all the data will be compiled and analyzed for the
handbook. In addition to the spoil character-
istics, information on elements which are toxic
to plants is being compiled. An important
addition to the data on adaptation of species to
mine spoils will be the Soil Conservation Service
report based on 22 years of field plantings.
Non-mine waste products and other mulches
are being evaluated as spoil amendments in
Alabama, Tennessee, Kentucky and Pennsylvania.
Materials tested include leaves, wood chips, bark,
a soil stabilizer, composted trash and sewage,
and harbor silt. Data on runoff, spoil moisture,
sediment, vegetation and precipitation are being
collected. The largest study of non-mine waste
is on the Palzo strip mine in southern Illinois.
Sewage sludge has been applied at rates of 150
and 285 dry tons per acre on over 30 acres.
Twenty-four experimental plots have been estab-
lished to test 17 species of trees and shrubs
191
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and seven herbaceous species. Water quality at
four-foot depths was monitored during application.
In addition to the field tests, measurements of
nutrient and heavy metal content of plants grown
on sludge-amended spoils in the greenhouse were
also completed.
In the Southwest, germination and planting
techniques are being investigated for five
species. Field treatments designed to establish
vegetation on coal spoils involve contour
furrowing at 8 and 20-foot spacings and incorpor-
ation of six tons per acre of wood chips or straw.
Eight species of native shrubs and grasses grown
in containers were planted on the test plots.
As part of this study, three-element type
sensors were developed to measure spoil moisture,
salinity and temperature.
Experimental revegetation plots have been
established on coal spoils in Montana, Wyoming
and Utah. A study was installed to determine
appropriate rates and frequency of fertilizer
application for establishing various species of
grasses, forbs and shrubs. Direct seeding is
being compared to planting containerized seedlings
to find which is more effective for plant
establishment. The effects of four different
types of spoil on plant growth are being tested
in the field, as well as using bioassay
techniques in the greenhouse. Various treatments
of topsoil, bark-wood fiber compost and hay mulch
have been applied on plots in the Alton, Utah,
coal field. A university has been contracted to
study the microbiology of untreated and amended
spoils. In an attempt to provide plant materials
more suitable for hostile spoils of the semiarid
West, two universities were contracted to
develop superior shrubs and grasses.
Spent oil shales present a more difficult
challenge for revegetation than coal mine spoils.
A greenhouse bioassay study was completed using
five non-mine waste amendments on leached and
unleached TOSCO spent shale. Sewage sludge had
greater beneficial effects on plant growth than
wood fiber, straw, sugar beet pulp, or cow
manure. Sewage sludge apparently ties up the
sodium salts in spent shale. Field plots were
established in the oil shale areas of Colorado
and Utah. Different depths of topsoil were
applied to spent shale, and test species of
grasses and shrubs were grown under irrigated
and nonirrigated conditions. There was little
difference in growth on the topsoil treated
shale, but irrigation was beneficial on raw
shale. Soil covering over a depth of one foot
gave better plant growth than shallower soil
coverings. Other studies are designed to compare
fall seeding with spring-planted containerized
stock and to assess the significance of snow
accumulation behind standard snow fencing. One
study showed that plants grew better on shale
covered with topsoil or subsoil than when
mulched with rock or straw.
A study of ponds on surface mines in the
Northern Great Plains was initiated by a rather
extensive literature research on the subject.
Over 400 articles have been collected using six
retrieval systems. Besides gathering the infor-
mation in one place, the literature review helped
to define what characteristics make a pond
attractive to wildlife and what water quality
parameters are important for adequate growth of
aquatic food plants and invertebrates. With this
background, the ponds for lentic studies and
streams for lotic studies were selected. In the
East, a hydrologic study to assess the effects
of coal mining on three watersheds in each of
about 130 counties in Appalachia was started in
April, 1977.
Of the transportation systems related to
mining, the road networks cause the most environ-
mental damage. Much of sediment and dust
generated by mining activities comes from roads.
Mathematical models to predict runoff and sediment
yields from roads are being adapted to the surface
mine situation. Subroutines for snowmelt runoff
and chemical water quality impacts are also being
developed. Collection of data on runoff and
sediment yield from field plots in order to cali-
brate the models is underway. A detailed study
plan on fugitive dust has been prepared prior to
a field study to begin this summer.
A watershed on the Thunder Basin National
Grassland in Wyoming has been selected to demon-
strate efficient core drilling design and core
analysis techniques. Some of the holes will be
cased to serve as wells to determine quality and
flow characteristics of ground water. Guidelines
for drilling, sampling and core analysis are
being prepared which outline procedures to be
followed by land managers in obtaining data and
information necessary for leasing, mining and
reclamation.
Data are being collected from a series of
studies covering mass stability, physical trans-
formation of overburden materials by weathering,
and erodibility of spoils. A preliminary model
for the stratification of materials within spoil
piles has been assembled in Bozeman, Montana,
and is operational. Environmental constraints
are being programmed into the system in order to
determine their effects on mine productivity.
A computer system to store and retrieve
bibliographic references on mining and reclamation
has been established at the University of Arizona.
Before the contract was let to the University, a
survey of potential users was conducted to deter-
mine need for a technical information service and
to assure that duplication of current or planned
services would not occur. Documents related to
reclamation of surface mined lands have been
accumulated, and a mailing list of users has been
compiled. A computer-produced literature citation
bulletin, called SEAMALERT, is being published
periodically and circulated via the mailing list.
Agencies using this service are being contacted
in an attempt to secure funding for SEAMALERT on
a continuing basis.
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PROGRAM DISCUSSION
Environmental Impact Statements.
Revegetation technology is generally well
developed in the East and Midwest, and the results
are accepted and put into practice to a large
extent. However, the large number of small mines
operating over extensive areas makes it difficult
to get the latest research results to the many
practitioners on a timely basis. Another diffi-
culty in dealing with small operators is a lack
of trained reclamation staff that can readily
understand and apply new technology. Many
Forest Service and Soil Conservation Service
personnel work with mine operators, but the
task is too large for individual consultation
to be used efficiently. A handbook on revegeta-
tion will be an extremely valuable tool in
distributing revegetation knowledge on a large
scale. It will also be useful as a basic text
in training sessions and workshops on
revegetation.
The situation is entirely different in the
West. Since the mines in the West are large
operations and usually have trained reclamation
personnel, it is easier to get new technology
to the users quickly. As in the East, the
companies are eager to obtain and apply new
methods for revegetation. This is especially
true because the state-of-the-art is not as far
along as in the East. Forest Service scientists
have worked with company practitioners, and many
research results have been put into use even
before they have been published. However, there
will be less opportunity to work hand-in-hand
with the companies in the future because of the
rapid expansion of mining activity. By the time
the revegetation handbooks are published, they
will probably be the most efficient way to get
new technology to the new practitioners.
Interest in using non-mine wastes for
mulches and spoil amendments is increasing,
especially in the East where waste products
are generated closer to the areas being mined
and logistic problems are thus more easily
solved. Disposal of waste is also a more
serious problem in the East, and the waste
producers are more willing to participate in
the research and delivery problems. Although
sewage sludge has a good potential as a spoil
amendment, there is a reluctance to utilize
this waste product because of aesthetics and
a resistance of local residents and companies
to use their land as a "dumping ground" for
other people's wastes. There is also a fear of
introducing toxic elements into areas where the
livestock industry and wildlife resources are
so important to the economy.
Many of the larger companies are beginning
to use computers and mini-computers to handle
their engineering data related to mine develop-
ment and production. They have shown much
interest in the models being developed to
incorporate environmental constraints into their
computer programs. They also see the opportunity
to utilize these programs to help store and
manipulate data in the preparation of
Demonstration of core drilling design and
procedures to obtain information on overburden
and ground water would not have been possible
without funding from the Environmental Protection
Agency. Mining companies are generally interested
in the project, and personnel from four large
companies are participating in the study.
SEAMALERT has been well recieved by the users
that have been contacted. A true test of its
value will be their willingness to fund the
project on a permanent basis.
CONCLUSIONS
Although most of the reclamation research
tasks are not yet completed, some areas needing
additional work have been identified. The
problems of mined area stability are proving to
be difficult to solve in the West as well as in
Appalachia. Fugitive dust is not only difficult
to measure, but research on control technology
has not even been considered for the most part.
Development of reclamation models is in its
infancy, and adding subroutines of the various
environmental components will take a major
effort before the models will be used to any
great extent.
The interest in using revegetation technology
as soon as research results are available in the
West is very encouraging. It is also heartening
to realize that reclamation technology is being
developed and will be ready before much land is
disturbed in the western coal fields. It is good
to be ahead of the game for once.
193
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TECHNICAL DISCUSSION
PROTECTION OF SOIL AND WATER RESOURCES
ON LAND DISTURBED BY MINING
James F. Power and Orus L. Bennett
Agricultural Research Service
U.S. Department of Agriculture
Mandan, North Dakota and Morgantown, West Virginia
INTRODUCTION
Strip mining is commonly used to extract coal
— one of our many natural resources. However, in
this highly populated world, the principles of wise
conservation and utilization of natural resources
require that the technology used to extract the
coal results in as little damage as possible to our
soil and water resources associated with these de-
posits. Our soil and water resources are the
ultimate source of food and fiber, so they need
to be preserved in the mining process.
The Agricultural Research Service (ARS) of the
U.S. Department of Agriculture and the State
Agricultural Experiment Stations are the only
government agencies whose prime mission is to
conduct research related to agriculture. In keep-
ing with its mission, ARS has for the past decade
been involved In the development of technology to
restore agricultural productivity to land dis-
turbed by mining. Because sustained agricultural
production depends on the preservation and effi-
cient utilization of soil and water resources,
the ARS mission to restore agricultural pro-
ductivity coincides with that of the U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency (EPA) to maintain envi-
ronmental quality. Thus, since 1975, ARS recla-
mation research has been partially supported by
a grant from EPA. In this paper, a review is
presented of ARS reclamation research, particu-
larly those objectives being investigated under
the EPA contract.
ARS reclamation research is being conducted at
nine locations. Scientists at two major locations,
Morgantown, WV, and Mandan, ND, conduct research
primarily to characterize the nature of spoils and
overburden, to determine plant growth requirements,
and to develop agronomic and engineering practices
that will permit economic production of agricultur-
ally important plant species on mined land. A
similar approach is also used on a smaller scale at
Beltsville, MD, Blacksburg, VA, and Cheyenne, WY.
At Ft. Collins, CO, and University Park, PA, work is
directed toward hydrological and engineering studies
needed for developing technology to control water
quality and movement through and out of mine spoils.
Research at Peoria, IL, and Ithaca, NY, while limit-
ed in scope, is aimed primarily at investigating
quality of vegetation produced on mined land, with
particular emphasis on potential health hazards.
ARS is also conducting hydrological studies on mined
land at Coshocton, OH, financially supported, in
part, by the U.S. Bureau of Mines.
Essentially all land disturbed by mining will
eventually have some type of vegetative cover, re-
gardless of its post-mining use. Since vegetative
cover affects soil water relations and the extent of
erosion, soil and water resources on mined land can
be protected by controlling the type and amount of
vegetation present. In addition, agricultural bene-
fit can frequently be derived from revegetated land.
In keeping with this line of thought, much of the
ARS reclamation research is designed to restore and
enhance the potential for plant growth on disturbed
land.
The initial major research effort by ARS was
identifying those physical and chemical properties
of mine spoils that restrict the potential for plant
growth (3, 5, 6, 15, 21, 22). This required numerous
samplings and laboratory analyses of mine spoils.
Concomitantly, methodology for sampling and analyses
had to be determined to provide data that could be
best interpreted in terms of potential plant growth.
Fortunately, most procedures normally used to
develop agronomic recommendations for unmined land
were applicable to mine spoils.
Eastern U.S. Mine Spoils
Factors restricting plant growth on mined land
are often greatly different for humid and semiarid
regions of the United States. In the humid east,
problems resulting from actual or potential acidity
of spoils predominate (3, 6). In highly acid mate-
rials, the solubility of such elements as iron,
aluminum, manganese, and copper is frequently high
enough to be toxic to plants. On the other hand,
magnesium, calcium, and phosphorus availability to
plants is sometimes inadequate to support growth.
Many eastern spoils contain a high percentage of
sand, which tends to make them droughty. Also many
of the mining methods result in steep outer slopes,
which are erosive and difficult to stabilize.
The acidity problems encountered in the east
can be corrected by applying limestone, especially
dolomitic limestone (Table 1), which also corrects the
calcium and magnesium deficiencies (11). Rock phos-
phate contains calcium as well as phosphorus, and can
be used successfully when soil pH is below 4.5 (1).
Nitrogen deficiencies are corrected either by fertil-
izing with nitrogen, producing legumes, or by adding
nitrogen-containing organic residues like manure or
sewage sludge (3, 6). However, sewage sludge fre-
quently contains several toxic heavy metals; hence
rate of application must be controlled to avoid ex-
cessive uptake of heavy metals by plants.
Proper selection of plant species is a very
important part of reclamation. Research has shown
that with appropriate treatment, almost all plant
species commonly produced in the East can be grown
on mine spoils (3, 6, 13). However, where steep
slopes remain after mining, generally only perennial
grasses will provide the erosion protection needed.
Although commercial forestry is a possible post-
mining land use, research results presently avail-
able indicate that perennial grasses and legumes
195
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Dry Matter Yield
Treatmentsa 1970 1971
Ib/acre •
No lime, no phosphorus 1,390 2,854
3,750 Ib/a phosphate rock 4,381 5,157
7,500 Ib/a phosphate rock 4,162 4,510
750 Ib/a superphosphate 3,700 4,510
1,500 Ib/a superphosphate 3,629 4,630
16,000 Ib/a dolomite 822
16,000 Ib/a dolomite plus
7,500 Ib/a phosphate rock 956
16,000 Ib/a dolomite plus
7,500 Ib/a phosphate rock 822
16,000 Ib/a dolomite plus
750 Ib/a superphosphate 4,064 3,742
16,000 Ib/a dolomite plus
1,500 Ib/a superphosphate 3,358 2,423
125 Ib/a of nitrogen and 100 Ib/a of potassium applied to
area as uniform amendments.
Weeping lovegrass stand diminishing and crownvetch became
species.
pH
1972 1971
- -
2,950b 3.52
4,198 3.80
3,742 4.15
4,198 3.45
3,526 3.08
3,382 5.65
2,135 5.86
3,886 5.66
3,718 5.67
6,141 5.90
the experimental
the dominant plant
TABLE 1.
RESPONSE OF WEEPING LOVEGRASS
AND CROWN VETCH TO LIME AND
FERTILIZER AT WHITE OAK MOUNTAIN,
WEST VIRGINIA (3)
should initially be seeded on mined land to achieve
soil stabilization. Later the land may be converted
to forestry uses. Directly seeding or transplanting
forestry species into spoils on steep slopes usually
results in excessive erosion and runoff.
By proper selection of grasses and legumes, a
profitable grazing enterprise can be established on
reclaimed land. Thus economic benefit can be de-
rived from such land while at the same time provid-
ing environmental protection. If spoils are highly
acid (pH 4.5 or less), the best adapted grass spe-
cies are weeping-lovegrass, bermudagrass, tall fes-
cue, switchgrass, crown-vetch, and birdsfoot trefoil.
For higher pH material, species like orchardgrass,
bromegrass, ryegrass, alfalfa, and several of the
clovers (6) can be used (Table 2). On sites with
moderate slopes, it is feasible to produce annual
crops like corn, small grains, oil crops, and
vegetable crops. Recent advancements in the de-
velopment of "no-till" systems of production are
making it more feasible to produce some of these
crops on slopes greater than 10%.
Seedling establishment in spoils is frequently
difficult because the lack of active organic matter
results in crusting, rapid drying, and poor physical
conditions. These problems can be temporarily solved
by applying various types of organic mulches, such as
straw, wood chips, paper pulp, and others. Also, a
high degree of success in grass establishment can be
obtained by seeding grass directly into the stubble
of a small grain crop (12) . Once a grass stand has
been established, organic matter begins to accumulate
in the surface layers of the spoil. At one site in
West Virginia, within 2 years after grass establish-
ment, organic matter content of the upper 8-inch
depth increased from 0.2 to 2.0%, and pH increased
from 3.8 to 5.9 in 4 years (3) .
Problems related to the low organic matter con-
tent of spoils can often be partially or completely
overcome by returning soil material to graded spoils,
Most states now have laws making this a required
practice, if soil material is available. However,
frequently only a few inches are available to be
returned.
In Appalachia much of the mining is done on the
contour, often resulting in outer slopes of 60% or
more. However, even slopes this steep can be sta-
bilized and made productive by proper treatment
(Table 3) . A very promising technique is to create
miniature contour terraces (about 8 inches wide)
every few feet down the slope. After properly
liming and fertilizing these terraces and spreading
seed, excellent stands of weeping lovegrass and
crown vetch have been established, which provide
both adequate protection against runoff and erosion
and also vegetation useful for grazing by live-
stock and wildlife (2). Wheel-tracking (using the
cleats of a bulldozer to form miniature contour
196
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TABLE 2. ANNUAL DRY FORAGE YIELDS OF GRASSES GROWN ON THE SPOIL FERTILITY PLOTS AT WHITE OAK MOUNTAIN,
WEST VIRGINIA (3)
Dry Forage Yields
, , a Bromegrass Orchardgrass
Amendments 1971 1972 1973 1974 1971 1972 1973
-
Superphosphate 3.4 1.9 2.8 3.2 2.7 1.3 2.8
Superphosphate plus
potassium 1.8 1.6 2.5 3.2 2.5 1.5 3.3
Superphosphate plus
limestone 3.0 1.8 2.8 3.4 3.0 1.5 2.3
Phosphate rock plus
potassium 2.7 2.0 3.1 3.9 3.1 1.7 3.2
Phosphate rock 2.7 1.7 2.8 4.5 2.9 1.6 3.7
50 Ib/a of nitrogen applied before seeding, and 200 Ib/a topdressed
superphosphate 320 Ib/a P 0 ; rock phosphate = 2 t/a; potassium =
Ky 31 Tall Fescue Timothy
1974 1971 1972 1973 1974 1971 1972 1973 1974
t/a
3.3 3.6 2.7 3.3 3.4 2.8 3.8 4.2
2.8 2.9 2.5 3.2 3.3 2.2 3.8 3.8
3.0 3.7 2.6 3.2 3.7 2.2 3.3 4.1
3.7 3.9 2.7 4.0 3.9 2.6 4.2 4.7
3.7 3.8 2.8 4.0 4.6 - 2.6 4.7 4.9
in the springs of 1972-73-74. Other treatments were:
200 Ib/a; and limestone 2 t/a.
Phosphorus
treatment
Material Rate
Rock phosphate, 2 t/a
Rock phosphate, 3 t/a
Rock phosphate, 4 t/a
Superphosphate, 320 lb/
Uniform applications
phosphorus, 2 t/a of
Method of
Legume
Establishment
Seeded
Transplanted
Seeded
Transplanted
Seeded
Transplanted
a Seeded
Transplanted
Dry Matter
Yield
1971
- Ib/acre
3,445
3,398
5,677
2,311
3,446
4,518
3,094
5,853
of amendments included 50 Ib/a of nitrogen,
dolomite, and 1 Ib/a
molybdenum.
1972
-
5,333
7,964
7,156
6,428
7,020
5,477
7,020
7,020
150 Ib/a
TABLE 3.
YIELD OF WEEPING LOVE-
GRASS AND BIRDSFOOT
TREFOIL MIXTURE AS
AFFECTED BY PHOSPHATE
TREATMENTS ON OUTER SLOPES
AT WHITE OAK MOUNTAIN,
WEST VIRGINIA (3)
197
-------
furrows by driving up and down the slope) is com-
monly practiced by mining operators.
Western U.S. Mine Spoils
In western United States, on mined land as
well as on unmined land, lack of plant-available
water ultimately limits plant growth. Any reclama-
tion practice or alteration of spoil property that
increases water infiltration, reduces evaporation,
or increases potential plant growth generally im-
proves the efficiency of water conservation and
use (17).
Properties of soils and overburden of major
concern include salinity levels, exchangeable sodium
content, nutrient deficiences (especially nitrogen and
phosphorus), toxicities (magnesium, boron, molybdenum),
compaction, and steep slopes. To obtain valid data on
spoil and soil properties, it is important that meth-
ods used to collect and analyze, samples are reliable,
accurate, and capable of being interpreted. Accepta-
ble procedures are presently being published (16, 24).
Many spoils, especially in North Dakota and New
Mexico, are high in exchangeable sodium content, re-
sulting in deteriorated soil structure, reduced in-
filtration, and greater crusting (23). Research re-
sults have shown that in about 3 years after treat-
ment with gypsum, up to about 50% of the exchangeable
sodium can be displaced and leached out, resulting in
some improvement in water relations (15). Exchange-
able sodium can be almost completely removed in just
a few days by treating spoils with calcium chloride,
but this treatment is very expensive not only be-
cause of the cost of the chemical, but also because
the soluble salts that are formed by this reaction
must be leached out with several acre feet of irriga-
tion water before plant growth is possible (7).
Salinity (total dissolved salts) increases the
osmotic potential of soil water, thus reducing the
availability of water for plant growth. Salinity
levels commonly found in western mine spoils are
usually classified as moderate (EC x 10 = 8 mmhos/
cm). However, when higher salinity levels are en-
countered, very few plant species can be used.
The effect of salinity on many species often varies
with stage of growth (20) . Certain salts — such
as those of boron, magnesium, or molybdenum — may be
present at levels that are toxic to some species.
Phosphorus is almost universally deficient in
western spoils (4, 17). However, spoils are gener-
ally near neutral or alkaline (pH 6.5 to 9.0) and
contain free calcium carbonate, so fixation of added
phosphate fertilizers is somewhat reversible, and
deficiencies are readily corrected with phosphatic
fertilizers. Spoils may contain appreciable ex-
changeable ammonium, which is readily nitrified
upon exposure to the atmosphere (14). However,
biologically active organic nitrogen is absent and
must be restored by building up the level of soil
organic matter.
Appreciable quantities of soil material are
often available for spreading over spoils after
smoothing. Research in North Dakota (Table 4) has
shown that about 30 inches of suitable soil material
must be returned to highly sodic spoils (SAR> 15) to
restore them to their full productivity potential
for crops commonly grown (17). Presumably with
better quality spoils, less soil material would be
required. However, as little as 2 inches of soil
material, placed on sodic spoils, produced yields of
crested wheatgrass and native grasses (Table 5) equal
to 50 to 70% of those obtained with 30 inches or
more of soil material. Returning topsoil helps
alleviate the poor physical conditions caused by
high sodium content, as well as problems related to
nutrient deficiencies, toxicities, and soil water
relationships.
Topography of pre-mined western coal fields is
generally much smoother than that in the eastern
U.S., so slopes remaining after mining are gener-
ally less steep. However, in western mine spoils
slopes often exceed 9%, with slope length of several
hundred yards. Hydrological data indicated that the
potential for runoff and erosion on long slopes of
9% or greater is severe (9, 10). Also preliminary
data indicated that both wind and water erodibility
of freshly spread soil material may be several-fold
greater than that of unmined soil (Table 6). The
K factor, predicted from soil properties and used
in the Universal Loss Equation, usually under-
estimates erodibility of topsoil over mined land
(8). Consequently, soil and water conservation
on mined land is best achieved by reducing slopes
to less than 9%, and preferably to less than 5%,
to the extent possible.
The lower precipitation received in the west-
ern U.S. makes the establishment of a vegetative
cover more difficult than in eastern U.S. Because
vegetative cover is often more sparse in the West,
protection of soil and water resources is more
feasible by keeping slopes to a minimum. Data in-
dicate that seedling establishment can be improved
by use of various types of mulches, standing
stubble, or a thin layer of soil material, gravel,
or even oxidized coal — if not too high in soluble
salts (17, 25). Adding a few inches of water during
critical periods in the year of plant establishment
can affect the kinds of species established and
and their density (18, 19). This quantity of water
is often available as pit water. Even though pit
water is usually high in soluble salts, it appears
that it can be used beneficially on all but the most
arid sites.
Most mine spoils in the western U.S. are re-
turned to perennial grasslands for eventual use by
grazing livestock and wildlife. Considerable re-
search is in progress to determine soil and environ-
mental requirements for the various species and to
accelerate natural succession of native species.
In more favorable precipitation areas, annual small
grains (wheat) are produced on reclaimed mined lands.
Also it is desirable to establish woody plantings
in the drainageways to provide protection to live-
stock and wildlife during adverse weather and for
browse.
PROGRAM DISCUSSION
As a result of research conducted by ARS, tech-
nology is being developed that protects the soil and
198
-------
Topsoil
Thickness
inches
Subsoil thickness, inches
4
12
20
28
36
44
52
60
A. Spring wheat yields, bu/a
0
8
24
Mixed —
11.9
23.9
29.2
15.7
15.8
28.5
30.0
20.0
17.8
29.1
30.5
21.9
B. Alfalfa (first
0
8
24
Mixed*/
0.048
0.32
0.41
0.057
0.20
0.28
0.42
0.17
0.36
0.56
0.44
0.36
19.2
28.9
30.5
22.4
cut), t/a
0.43
0.51
0.47
0.43
18.8
29.5
28.8
23.2
0.37
0.60
0.41
0.55
18.6
29.0
29.9
22.0
0.31
0.57
0.59
0.47
19.6
30.2
30.9
22.5
0.37
0.52
0.54
0.51
18.6
28.6
31.7
21.6
0.39
0.54
0.48
0.54
C. Crested wheatgrass, t/a
0
8
24
V J1/
Mixed—
0.87
1.26
1.24
0.71
1.12
1.43
1.31
1.12
1.29
1.45
1.41
1.50
1.36
1.65
1.45
1.45
1.50
1.48
1.37
1.57
1.24
1.40
1.46
1.33
1.55
1.55
1.26
1.47
1.43
1.41
1.38
1.50
D. "Native'' grasses— , t/a
0
8
24
Mixed-/
— Topsoil and
2/
— Blue grama
0.008
0.21
0.15
0.00
subsoil
0.068
0.27
0.060
0.003
mixed in 1
0.053
0.39
0.22
0.038
3 ratio.
0.081
0.46
0.19
0.073
0.14
0.47
0.16
0.046
0.12
0.39
0.11
0.038
0.15
0.35
0.12
0.15
0.13
0.29
0.14
0.16
and sideoats grama.
TABLE 4.
YIELD OF FIRST HARVEST OF
SEVERAL CROPS AS AFFECTED
BY THICKNESS OF SUBSOIL
AND TOPSOIL SPREAD OVER
SODIC (SAR = 26)
MINE SPOILS
TABLE 5. DRY WEIGHT YIELD OF A NATIVE GRASS
MIXTURE SEEDED IN 1970 ON SPOILS WITH AND
WITHOUT 2 INCHES OF TOPSOIL (17)
Year
1973
1974
1975
1976
Without
Topsoil
t- /a
0.21
0.06
0.11
0.12
With
Topsoil
0.69
0.77
0.74
0.56
TABLE 6. SIMULATED RUNOFF AND SOIL LOSS FROM
UNDISTURBED RANGELAND AND MINE SPOILS (10)
Land
Use -/
Rangeland
Spoil
Spoil covered with
topsoil (25 cm)
- 9 to 10% slope
Raihulator in
Runoff
inches
0.04
2.0
1.6
with 4 inches water
4 hours to initially
Soil
t/a
0.2
7.2
32.6
added with
Loss
a Purdue
wet soil material.
199
-------
water resources of mined areas and also provides an
economic return to the landowner. It is apparent
that the best way to achieve these dual objectives
is to establish good productive vegetative cover.
Once established, this vegetation not only restricts
surface water movement and erosion, but possibly
more important, it also dries the soil, enabling
more of the precipitation received to infiltrate
into the soil at the point of impact. Also, by
drying the soil, the quantity of water and the
quantity of dissolved solids passing below the
root zone to the watertable is reduced. This, in
turn, aids in controlling groundwater pollution
from mined areas. Revegetation adds organic matter
and plant nutrients to the upper surfaces of mined
land. Rapid establishment and efficient production
of vegetation is one of the best defenses possible
to guard against soil and water degradation on land
disturbed by mining.
Although this research is clearly defining the
role of vegetation and slopes in controlling en-
vironmental quality of reclaimed land, much addi-
tional information is needed. Research has not
been conducted long enough to fully evaluate long-
term effects of reclamation practices. Questions
regarding various aspects of long-term stability —
stability of the vegetation, of the landscape, and
of the ability for sustained production — are larg-
ely unresolved. On many spoils, particularly those
high in sodium, mass instability is evident. In-
stability is expressed by settling over prolonged
time periods, differential rates of subsidence,
development of piping type of erosion, and slippage.
Additional research is needed in soil mechanics
and engineering to develop technology to provide
a stable surface after mining. Also available
technology will not recreate the native mixed
prairie vegetative communities within less than
40 or 50 years. A number of basic ecological
studies are needed to better understand the dy-
namics of establishment of these plant communities.
Quantitative descriptions of the parameters that
determine ecological niches for many of the shrub
and woody species needed in these plant communities
remain to be developed. In addition we do not know
if land reclaimed for grazing will stand up as
well as the native prairie vegetation on unmined
land under the abuse of over-grazing. Research
has been initiated to study the effects of abusive
grazing on vegetative and soil stability, but much
additional work remains to be done.
CONCLUSION
This paper reviews current ARS research to
develop technology to protect the soil and water
resources of mined land. Part of this research is
supported by an EPA grant to ARS. In the past
decade great advances have been made on the develop-
ment of the needed reclamation technology. Programs
and activities presently in progress are defining
many of the parameters involved and are providing
guidelines by which user groups can make decisions.
The information acquired is being used by industry
in reclamation practices, by regulatory agencies in
enforcing reclamation legislation, by advisory
groups serving industry and regulatory agencies, and
in extension and educational programs.
It is apparent from this discussion that much
has been accomplished. However, much remains to be
accomplished, particularly in developing management
methods to use after revegetating mined land that
will assure long-term sustained protection of the
soil and water resources.
REFERENCES
1. Armiger, W. H., J. N. Jones, Jr., and 0. L.
Bennett, 1975. Rock phosphate as an aid in
acid mine spoil revegetation. Proc. Southern
Assoc. of Agric. Sci. p. 79-84.
2. Armiger, W. H., J. N. Jones, Jr., and 0. L.
Bennett, 1975. Seed ledges improve stabiliza-
tion of outer slopes on mine spoil research.
Proc. Applied Tech. Symp on Mine Land Reclama-
tion, p. 250-258.
3. Armiger, W. H., J. N. Jones, Jr., and 0. L.
Bennett. 1976. Revegetation of land disturbed
by strip mining in Appalachia. ARS-NE-71.
4. Bauer, Armand, W. A. Berg, and W. C. Gould.
1977. Correction of nutrient deficiencies and
toxicities in strip-mined lands in semiarid
and arid regions. IN Reclamation of Drasti-
cally Disturbed Lands. F. W. Schaller (ed).
Amer. Soc. Agron., Madison, Wis. (in press).
5. Bennett, 0. L. 1971. Grasses and legumes for
revegetation of strip-mined areas. Proc. of
the Revegetation and Economic Use of Surface-
Mined Land and Mine Refuse Symposium, p. 23-
25.
6. Bennett, 0. L,, W. H. Armiger, and J. N.
Jones, Jr. 1976. Revegetation and use of
eastern surface mine spoils. In Land Applica-
tion of Waste Materials. Soil Cons. Soc.
Amer., Ankeny, Iowa. pp. 195-215.
7. Doering. E. J. and W. 0. Willis. 1975.
Chemical reclamation of sodic strip-mine
spoils. USDA-ARS-NC-20. 8 p.
8. Gee, G. W., J. E. Gilley, and Armand Bauer.
1976. Use of soil properties to estimate
soil loss by water erosion on surface-
mined lands of western North Dakota. N. Dak.
Agr. Exp. Sta. Farm Res. 34(2):40-43.
9. Gilley, J. E., G. W. Gee, A. Bauer, W. 0.
Willis, and R. A. Young. 1976. Water infiltra-
tion at surface-mined sites in western North
Dakota. N. Dak. Agr. Expt. Sta. Farm Res.
34(2):32-34.
10. Gilley, J. E., G. W. Gee, A. Bauer, W. 0.
Willis, and R. A. Young. 1976. Water infiltra-
erosion characteristics of surface-mined sites
in western North Dakota. ASAE (in press).
11. Jones, J. N., Jr., W. H. Armiger and 0. L.
Bennett. 1973. The use of soil amendments to
modify acidity on surface mine lands. Proc.
of Assoc. of Southern Agricultural Workers.
Vol. 70, p, 252-253.
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12. Jones, J. N. , Jr., W. H. Armiger, and 0. L. 24. Sandoval, F. M. and J. F. Power. 1977.
Bennett. 1975. A two-step system for rev- Laboratory methods recommended for chemical
egetation of surface mine spoil. J. Environ. analysis. USDA Bui. (in press)
Qual. 4:233-235
25. Schuman, G. E., W. A. Berg, and J. F. Power.
13. Jones, J. N., Jr., W. H. Armiger, and 0. L 1976. Management of mine wastes in the western
Bennett. 1975. Forage grasses aid the tran- United States, In Land Application of Waste
sition on spoil to soil. Proc. National Coal Materials, T. M. McCalla, (ed), Soil Cons. Soc.
Assoc., Bituminous Coal Research Conference Amer., Ankeny, Iowa, p. 180-194.
Expo. II, Louisville, Ky. p. 213-218.
14. Power, J. F., J. J. Bond, F. M. Sandoval, and
W. 0. Willis. 1974. Nitrification in Paleocene
shales. Sci. 183:1077-1079.
15. Power, J. F. , R. E. Ries, F. M. Sandoval, and
W. 0. Willis. 1975. Factors restricting re-
vegetation of strip-mine spoils. Proc. Fort
Union Coal Field Symp., W. F. Clark (ed,), Mont.
Acad. of Sci., Billings, MT. p. 336-346.
16. Power, J. F. and F. M. Sandoval. 1976. Effect
of sampling method on results of chemical anal-
ysis of overburden samples. Mining Cong. J. 62:
37-41.
17. Power, J. F., F, M. Sandoval, and R. E. Ries.
1977. Restoration of productivity of disturbed
land in the Northern Great Plains. In Symp. on
Reclamation of Disturbed Arid Lands. R. A.
Wright (ed). AAAS, Washington, DC (in press).
18. Ries, R. E. and A. D. Day. 1977. Use of
irrigation in reclamation. In Reclamation of
Drastically Disturbed Lands, F. W. Schaller
(ed) . Amer. Soc. Agron., Madison, Wis. (in
press)
19. Ries, R. E., J. F. Power, and F. M. Sandoval.
1976. Potential use of supplemental irriga-
tion for establishment of vegetation on sur-
face-mined lands. N. Dak, Ag. Expt. Sta.
Farm Res. 34(1):14-17.
20. Ries, R. E., F, M. Sandoval, J. F. Power, and
W. 0. Willis. 1976. Perennial forage species
response to sodium and magnesium sulfate in
mined spoils, In Proc. Fourth Symp, on Sur-
face Mining and Reclamation. National Coal
Assn., Washington, DC. p. 173-183.
21, Sandoval, F. M., J. J. Bond, J. F. Power, and
W. 0. Willis. 1973. Lignite mine spoils in
the Northern Great Plains-characteristics and
potential for reclamation. Symp. on Research
and Applied Tech. of Mine-land Reclamation,
Pittsburgh, Pa. p. 117-133.
22. Sandoval, F. M., J. J. Bond, J. F. Power, and
W, 0. Willis. 1973. Characterization of
lignite mine spoils in the Northern Great
Plains. N. Dak. Geol. Survey Educ. Ser, No. 5,
Grand Forks, N. Dak.
23. Sandoval, F. M. and W. C. Gould. 1977.
Improvement of saline and sodium-affected dis-
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Disturbed Lands. F. W. Schaller (ed), Amer.
Soc. Agron., Madison, Wis. (in press).
201
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integrated technology
assessment ^>
CHAPTER 5
-------
CHAPTER CONTENTS
integrated technology assessment
SUMMARY
Steven R. Reznek, Ph.D., EPA 207
QUESTIONS & ANSWERS 221
TECHNICAL DISCUSSION
INTEGRATED ASSESSMENT OF ENERGY DEVELOPMENT IN
THE WESTERN U.S.
Steven E. Plotkin, EPA 227
OHIO RIVER BASIN ENERGY STUDY
Lowell Smith, EPA 233
ELECTRIC UTILITY ENERGY SYSTEMS
INTEGRATED TECHNOLOGY ASSESSMENT
Lowell Smith, EPA 243
INTEGRATED ASSESSMENT
H. Russell Mickey, TVA
Malcolm C. Babb, TVA
Hubert Hinote, TVA
Douglas H. Walters, TVA 253
STATUS OF AN INTEGRATED ASSESSMENT OF
COAL DEVELOPMENT
Joseph R. Barse, USDA
John W. Green, USDA 263
INTEGRATED SYSTEMS SIMULATION OF LOCAL COMMUNITY IMPACTS IN
THE NORTHERN GREAT PLAINS
Lloyd D. Bender, USDA
George S. Temple, Montana State University 267
METHODOLOGY FOR THE ANALYSIS OF THE IMPACTS OF
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION IN THE WEST
Andrew Ford, ERDA
H. W. Lorber, ERDA 275
-------
INTEGRATED TECHNOLOGY
ASSESSMENT
Steven R. Reznek, Ph.D.
Acting Deputy Assistant Administrator
Office of Energy, Minerals and Industry
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
RESEARCH ON EVALUATING
THE SOCIAL, ECONOMIC, AND
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF
DEVELOPING ENERGY SYSTEMS
HOW ASSESSMENT
ESTABLISHES ITS
IMPLICATIONS
Since 1973, awareness of the close and complex relationship between the Nation's
future energy system and its economic, social, and environmental fabric has increased.
Although the nature, importance, and reality of the problem of changing our energy
system are now recognized, there has been no thorough commitment to the important
and expensive task of understanding the implications of alternative energy systems.
While no one can predict precisely the full spectrum of implications of energy system
choices, much can be done to improve the analysis of the economic and environmental
differences between energy system alternatives.
The participants in the CEQ/OMB task forces that created the Interagency
Energy/Environment Research and Development Program recognized, first, that the
relationship between our choice of energy system and our future economic and social
structure would have increasing political importance; second, that the Federal
Government should support detailed analysis of the implications of energy system
alternatives. Therefore the recommendations for the Interagency Program included, as
part of the research plan, a section on Integrated Technology Assessments (ITA). The
goal of these assessments is clearer definition of the economic, social, and
environmental consequences of developing the Nation's energy resources,.
Integrated Technology Assessments are not policy development studies but are an
appropriate part of the research program. As with other research endeavors, the
program products are concepts, methods, and analytical tools. The goal of the program
is to improve the procedures used in assessing the implications of alternative energy
technologies.
Technology assessment studies start with the specification of the configuration of
energy facilities. This configuration includes a detailed description of the energy
technology, for example a gasification complex, including mining and transport
facilities as well as possible associated electricity or energy generating capacity. Other
configurations could include several types of energy technologies or multiple units of
one technology in a single geographic location. Often, one of the initial problems for
an assessment is developing the precise specification of the technology configuration.
Once the configuration is established, the assessment attempts to establish its
implications by tracing a number of impacts along chains of cause and effect. As an
example, a specific technology implies a change in the inventory of air pollutant
emissions. Contributions to the inventory come from not only the energy technology
itself but the secondary development it fosters. Air pollutant emissions can change
ambient air quality; degraded air quality can, in turn, affect human health and welfare.
The impacts of air pollution on welfare may include reduction of productivity of
natural or agricultural lands or reduced visibility in scenic areas.
Another example is the impact of the technology on the local economy. This is
assessed by calculating the employment needs and the demand for local services
created by the facility. These demands are then analyzed in terms of the ability of the
local community to supply the needed labor and products or the need to import new
people or new skills. Demands for labor and services can alter local economic
conditions, such as average income level, type of employment, and residential land
values. Energy facilities may also attract manufacturing or other industries needing
cheap energy or transportation networks capable of moving nonenergy goods.
New energy facilities, such as mines or mine-mouth conversion plants, located in
sparsely populated areas, will increase economic activity, add to the labor force,
augment demand for public services, and provide a potential source of public revenues.
207
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GENERAL GOAL OF ITA
TERMS MUST BE
INTERDISCIPLINARY
METHODS MUST BE INNOVATIVE
Public or government activities associated with providing services for new development
constitute another aspect of the economic impact of energy development.
The general goal of Integrated Technology Assessments is to identify all the
economic, social, and environmental consequences of energy technologies and then find
a method of analysis that can reasonably describe the size of the impact. This is not
easy. Establishing what problems are important can lead to public and political
controversy. Questions about the theoretical basis for, or quality of, analytical
approaches can lead to erudite and academic squabbles.
Technology assessments, particularly research on improving the methods of policy
analysis, present three major difficulties.
1. Assessment teams must be interdisciplinary. Any particular issue, for example
availability of water resources, will have engineering, economic, institutional, and
political aspects—all equally important in assuring a credible analysis. Assessment
studies must find ways of using cooperatively the experience, knowledge, and expertise
from a wide range of disciplines. Multidisciplinary approaches are essential if impact
analysis is to reflect the complexity of real-world issues.
2. Methods used in issue analysis must be innovative. Because the assessment
program is a research activity, its important accomplishments will be improvements in
the way energy/environment issues are addressed, rather than the analysis results
energy
environment II
208
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ITA STUDIES MUST BE
RELEVANT
Figure 1.
Implications of energy technologies
A MOST IMPORTANT
ITA CONTRIBUTION
themselves. The program has, in fact, had its first successes. Models and methods used
in several studies are being adopted by others. Three particular studies are worthy of
note.
• The EPA-sponsored study of coal-fired electric generation, from the point of
view of the individual utility, is being used by the California Energy
Commission and the Federal Energy Agency.
• The TVA study of electricity-demand prediction will be used by them in
planning new capacity.
• The study of boom-town problems, performed at the Los Alamos Scientific
Laboratory/ERDA and partially funded by this program, is gaining wide
recognition for its treatment of the problems of small western communities
affected by energy development.
3. And finally, integrated assessment studies must be relevant. In addition to
combining the points of view from many disciplines and at the same time assuring
sophistication of approach, the studies must incorporate issues perceived as important
by the energy decision-makers and by the people affected by development. In short,
the issues considered to be the most important must determine the course of the
work. All too often, improvements in analysis methods or theoretical bases for impact
assessments tend to usurp the interest of the research team. If this occurs, the effect
of assessment studies on "the way things are done" is minimal or long delayed. To
assure that assessment studies are relevant, local interests must be specifically included
in steering the study. Only by including (through advisory committees, as paid
consultants, or by other arrangements) the people who are actually affected by energy
decisions can the study teams be sure that their results will not go unread. Actual
involvement of the study team in the political process, especially in public hearings, is
important and is perhaps essential to assuring the relevance of the study.
There are some very real problems in understanding the economic, social, and
environmental implications of alternative energy technologies. In addition to the esoteric
questions of socio-economic value, there are some relatively straightforward problems.
The amount of information on each energy technology is enormous (Figure 1).
For any specific technology, for example high Btu gasification, the facility can
have a large number of different configurations. Not only are alternative processes
possible, for example fluid-bed versus packed-bed reactors, but alternative pollutant
control strategies may be pursued. Alternatives for control include the choice of
pollutants and the level of emission limitation. Each configuration has implications for
the use of resources—water, fuel, labor, and financing—in meeting a level of energy
production. One very important contribution, perhaps the most important, that
integrated technology assessment can make is the systematic development and
presentation of the performance and requirements of technologies. Because the types
209
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ASSEMBLING AND
INTERPRETING A DATA SET
of data span a wide range, from engineering costs and employment histories through
chemical analysis of emission samples to clinical or bioassay results, integrated
assessment studies can provide a mechanism for evaluating comparable data %
technology alternatives.
The EPA-sponsored programs include several activities, in addition to the
integrated technology assessments, concerned with assembling and interpreting a
comprehensive and compatible data set. These activities are an atlas of all western
energy development sites and in-depth studies of each of several technologies. The
technology studies all devote a large fraction of their resources to pollutant emission
measurements at actual energy facilities. The specific aim of the studies is to develop
data on the environmental implications of unit process facilities and to document the
cost and capabilities of control options. The technology studies focus on the
incremental engineering costs for pollution abatement and only secondarily develop
information on the characteristics of the energy production facilities themselves. These
two study areas, summarized by integrated technology assessments, will start to provide
a systematic, consistent, and reasonably comprehensive comparison of alternatives.
Figure 2.
Integrated Technology Assessment Program
ASSESSMENTS
NATIONAL - UTILITIES & ADVANCED SYSTEMS
REGIONAL - WESTERN, OHIO, APPALACHIAN
CASE STUDIES
SUPPORT STUDIES
ECONOMIC PROJECTIONS
ENERGY PROJECTIONS
ENERGY DEVELOPMENT REQUIREMENTS
CASE STUDY METHODS
PROBLEMS OF REGIONAL
OR LOCAL IMPACT STUDY
The Integrated Technology Assessment area of the interagency program contains
two different types of projects. In addition to the assessments themselves, several
projects are designed to produce data or models. These studies play a supporting role
by providing information or analytical tools to be used by other assessment studies
(Figure 2).
The support studies include developing the framework for projecting (either by
postulate or by econometric prediction) future levels of national energy use. In
addition, support studies have included development of analysis method for defining
impacts on regional or local scales. The regional issues include (1) relationship of
employment, immigration, and wages, (2) effects of rural energy projects on state and
local revenues, and (3) exposition and analysis of boom-town problems. Another area
of support study has been a review of the natural resources, specifically land and
water, needed to site and operate energy facilities.
The study of regional or local impacts has several fundamental conceptual
problems. Most of these concern assessing the impact of changing the movement of
labor, capital, and facilities in or out of the region. For example, one impact of
western energy development will be increased employment in the Ohio River Basin, in
the industries manufacturing coal-mining and combustion equipment. Assessing the
correct national patterns of increased economic activity, supplying additional mining
equipment, and translating this into regional impacts are extremely difficult. In the
same vein, assessing any inter-regional transfers, for example out-migration of skilled
mining labor, is conceptually difficult. At best, treatment of these impacts requires
detailed knowledge of the national situation and knowledge of the relative attributes ot
different regions in supplying resources to meet a portion of the national demand.
Three studies have addressed local problems. The U.S. Department of Agriculture
has examined local impacts both in terms of the relationships between employment,
210
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wages, and western in-migration and in terms of the impact of energy development on
the structure of public sector financing. The public financing study includes an analysis
of changes in fund-raising mechanisms, for example severance and real property taxes,
as well as increased demand for public services. The new revenues and demands for
services are examined for the major organizations in state and local governments.
Two support studies treat the demand for land and water resources by energy
facilities. Competition for these resources, if determined by economic considerations
alone, will not lead to conservation. However, capital expenditures can be substituted
for both water and land required by energy facilities. EPA is supporting research on
water consumption by alternative energy technologies, and the U.S. Department of
Agriculture is questioning the utilization of agricultural lands.
Figure 3.
Comparison of actual and projected
employment in TVA power service
100,000
80,000
60,000
40,000
20,000
1 —
1 0
=- 19
£ 100,000
80,000
60,000
40,000
20,000
0
19
SIC 32 - STONE, CLAY, GLASS, AND /
CONCRETE PRODUCTS / -
S
S
s
X*
^—~-
60 1970 1980 1990 20
SIC 34 - FABRICATED METAL _ x"
PRODUCTS ^"'
f
xrr-'
'
60 1970 1980 1990 20
50,000
40,000
30,000
20,000
10,000
00 19
125,000
100,000
75,000
50,000
25,000
0
00 19
SIC 33 - PRIMARY METAL ,'"'
INDUSTRIES ,--'
s
1 \ '
60 1970 1980 1990 2000
SIC 35 - MACHINERY, EXCEPT
ELECTRICAL ,-'"
"
A"''
• i t
60 1970 1980 1990 2000
YEAR
ASSESSING FUTURE ENERGY
SUPPLY AND DEMAND
• FOCUS:
ENVIRONMENTAL
REGULATIONS ARE
COMPLIANCE OPTIONS
FOR THE UTILITY
INDUSTRY
• GOALS:
ASSESSING ALTERNATIVE
REGULATION
• CONTRACTOR:
TEKNEKRON ASSOC.
The support studies receiving the largest funding are concerned with assessing
future energy supply and demand. Both TVA and EPA have projects in this area
(Figure 3). The TVA model uses demographic and employment projections to predict
electricity consumption. The EPA program uses a large input/output model of the U.S.
economy. This model describes the activity of over 100 sectors and relates the
exchange of goods and services between these sectors in the production process. Part
of the model is a description of the energy demands of both final consumption and
industrial/manufacturing processes. The model describes consistently and in a
general-equilibrium sense both the demands for energy throughout the economy and
the demands of energy production for resources such as steel, labor, and concrete. The
model describes the energy supply and demand systems and computes both the costs
of energy supply and the pollution impact of the energy supply system (Figure 4).
The EPA portion of the ITA Program includes both regional and national
assessments. The projects at the Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory/ERDA are local or
small town assessments. Case studies of individual communities or geographic areas are
a part of the EPA regional assessments.
One of the two national studies is an assessment of the coal-fired steam electric
generating industry. This study examines the future of the industry between now and
1990, the period when generation capacity will be by conventional technology. The
period after 1990, when new technologies such as low Btu coal gasification will replace
conventional combustion, will be examined in a separate project.
Assessment of the steam electric industry is based on a utility-by-utility evaluation
of the options for meeting generating demands in compliance with environmental
regulations. The study has adopted the perspective of the utility in determining such
questions as where to site, when to construct new capacity, how to meet emission
limitations, and what types of energy/environment strategies to pursue. The
211
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Figure 4.
Technology assessment modeling (EPA)
NATIONAL INPUT/OUTPUT
MODEL
ENERGY
DEMAND
ENERGY
SUPPLY
POLLUTANT GENERATION
I. COAL FIRED ELECTRICITY
PRODUCTION LEVELS
II. NEW PLANT SITING
III. POWER SYSTEM OPERATION
IV. POLLUTANTS AND COSTS
V. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS
COST CONSEQUENCES OF
POLLUTION CONTROL
information base in support of defining the options available to utilities is very
extensive. The study has collected detailed data on (1) availability of power plant sites,
including Clean Air Act and water resource issues; (2) source, transportation, and cost
of presently developed or new coal mines; (3) interconnections and policies of power
grid use; and (4) cost of construction and operation, including pollution control costs,
of existing and new generating facilities.
This extensive data base and the analysis capability of the study make it possible
to address a variety of questions (Figures 5 and 6). (At present, the study results are
available for investor-owned utilities. Publicly-owned utilities, accounting for 15 to 20
percent of the Nation's fossil-fuel fired capacity, will be included in the future). The
study results include a county-by-county inventory of pollutant emissions.
The sensitivity of the future inventory to such variables as conservation initiatives
and economic growth can be compared with alternative control requirements and
strategies for their achievement. One interesting result has been the documentation that
electricity conservation strategies designed to flatten a utility's load-curve can affect
pollutant emissions. If the ratio of peak to off-peak load decreases, the utility restricts
the rate at which new generating plants are built. The result is greater utilization of
old plants. If utilization of plants now generating 30 percent of the time is doubled,
their contribution to emission inventories will double. Many of these older plants are
allowed much higher emissions under state implementation plans than those required of
new plants. The net effect of load-curve flattening is to reverse the trend toward more
tightly controlled generating plants and to allow increases in demand to be met by
plants with extremely lax emission standards.
The electric utility assessment also has generated information on the relative cost
consequences of pollution control strategies. The study permits comparison of
incremental costs for pollution control (under various levels of stringency in the
national standards) with various levels of future electricity demand (Figures 7 and 8).
For example, Clean Air Act requirements would add just under $20 per person per
year to the costs of generating electricity in 1990 (current dollars). A national coal
cleaning industry could reduce the costs by 15 to 20 percent. Strict new-source
controls requiring a scrubber on every new plant would increase the annual costs to
about $25 per person. A strict retrofit program could increase costs to $35 per person,
Assuming strict emission controls, a strict conservation program could reduce the
annual costs of electricity production by as much as $45 per person, and a program to
212
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90.0-
80.0-
70.0-
60.0-
55
o
z
1 50.0-
o
o>
I 40.0-
3
° 30.0-
20.0-
10.0-
CONTROL
... 1970 CAA
' BACT
STRICT PRESENT SOURCE CONTROL
0
1980 1985 1990 1995 2000
Figure 5.
How will progressive controls
affect nationwide S02 emissions?
1B.OH
16.0-
14.0-
12.0-
10.0-
B.O-
6.0-
4.0-
2.0-
0-
/ NO CONTROL
NEW SOURCES CONTROL
(WITH NO COAL CLEANING)
1970 CAA
(WITH/WITHOUT COAL CLEANING)
STRICT PRESENT SOURCES
1980 1985 1990 1995 2000
Figure 6.
How will progressive controls
under reference energy future
affect NOX emissions?
THREE REGIONAL
TECHNOLOGY ASSESSMENT
STUDIES
WESTERN ASSESSMENT
increase coal use and reduce petroleum fuels could increase annual costs by $12 per
person. Very much higher costs for electricity generation would result if electric-
powered transportation was substituted for the internal combustion engine.
The national assessment is also able to review the projections of alternative coal
resource use and the effect of pollution controls on coal transportation. The sulfur
dioxide control requirement can change the relative cost of Eastern, Central, and
Western coals. However, use of low sulfur Western coal will grow more rapidly than
that of either Eastern or Central reserves (Figures 9 and 10).
In addition to the national assessments, EPA is sponsoring three large regional
technology assessment studies (Figure 11). Each of these three studies is tied to coal
resources and each will be conducted in a manner which assures involvement of the
parties affected by and concerned about energy developments. The initial phases of
two of the regional studies—the Western and the Ohio River Valley assessments—have
been completed. The studies have defined the future technology configurations they
wish to study and have clarified the issues, problems, and questions most important to
the region. The depth of analysis given to the issues thus far varies, but in general the
Western assessment has progressed well on all issues except those concerning the
institutional or political consequences of energy development.
The Appalachian regional assessment has just been initiated.
The Western assessment concerns both the northern Great Plains and the Four
Corners fuel reserves (Figures 12 and 13). The study treats issues on at least two
geographic scales. Water supply, visibility, and financing public services exemplify issues
that must be studied on a state or regional basis. Air quality, reclamation, and
boom-town effects are studied in terms of six example locations.
Many specific issues are defined and analyzed, and this report cannot attempt to
summarize the technology assessment. However, certain selected results can be used to
indicate the nature of the studies.
213
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Figure 7.
Per capita costs in 1990
with related emission reductions under
progressively strict controls
60-
so-
0= Si
o
30-
20-
10-
S02
iffl
NOX
1970 CLEAN
AIR ACT
THE NATION
so,
NOX
SO,
1970 WITH
COAL CLEANING
STRICT NEW
SOURCE CONTROL
S02
M
NOX
-90
-75
-45
STRICT PRESENT
SOURCE CONTROL
Figure 8.
Per capita costs in 1990
with related emission reductions under
strict environmental controls
£
I
150T
125-
100-
75-
o gc =;
25-
S02
NOv
THE NATION
SO,
SO,
NOv
CONSERVATION
-21.24
REFERENCE
NOv
HIGH COAL USE
m
S02
NOX
^
ELECTRIFICATION
T90
•75
•45
-30 §
214
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Figure 9.
Percentage of U.S. Coal Production
by region and percentage distribution
of regional coal (1975)
Figure 10.
Percentage of U.S. coal production
by region and percentage distribution
of regional coal (1990)
Figure 11.
Regional integrated assessments
MAJOR
COALS:
LEGEND
BITUMINOUS COAL
LIGNITE
INTEGRATED
ASSESSMENTS:
215
-------
FOCUS:
COAL AND OIL SHALE
1975-2000
NORTHERN GREAT PLAINS, FOUR CORNERS
FUEL CYCLE FROM EXTRACTION TO
TRANSPORTATION
RESEARCH TEAM:
SCIENCE & PUBLIC POLICY PROGRAM
UNIVERSITY OF OKLAHOMA
RADIAN CORPORATION, AUSTIN, TEXAS
APPROACH:
CRITICAL FACTORS ANALYSIS
SIX SITE SPECIFIC SCENARIOS
REGIONAL SCENARIO, 3 DEVELOPMENT LEVELS
Figure 12.
Technology assessment
of western energy resource development
Figure 13.
Northern Great Plains
and Four Corners fuel reserves
Figure 14.
Manpower requirements
for energy facilities (per 1C)15 Btu/yr)
GASIFICATION
LIQUEFACTION
NATURAL GAS PRODUCTION
CRUDE OIL PRODUCTION
OIL SHALE RETORTING
POWER PLANT
THERMAL
ELECTRIC
TOTAL
RATIO:
CONSTRUCTION
MAN YEARS TO OPERATION
58,500
36,300
27,700
26,100
14,500
11,600
34,200
8.1
1.7
2.2
1.9
4.1
5.8
CONSUMPTIVE AND
EVAPORATIVE WATER USE
Alternative technology configurations will have differing implications with regard
to in-migration of labor and accommodation of transient labor (Figure 14). Data on
the employment necessary to construct and operate various energy technologies have
been analyzed. For each unit of energy production, coal gasification creates the largest
number of jobs. However, the number of temporary jobs created by the construction
of the gasification facility is 8.1 times as large as the permanent operating work force,
Oil shale retorting will employ one-fourth as many people as coal gasification for equal
levels of energy production. In terms of permanent employment, however, oil shale
will create half the number of jobs.
The consumptive or evaporative water use for energy depends upon many
factors—the energy technology, whether the technology is designed to conserve water,
and the local conditions (Figure 15).
Wet/dry combined cooling towers will always reduce water consumption as
compared with wet cooling towers—at a cost, however. Coal gasification, which uses
water as a chemical and for thermodynamic properties, requires less water than
216
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conventional combustion and steam-cycle electricity generation. In addition, the local
conditions, including climate and the moisture content of the coal, will affect water
consumption. Beulah, Montana, has cold weather much of the year, and the coal in
that region has a high moisture content. Gasification using wet/dry cooling will require
only one-tenth of the water necessary to produce an equivalent amount of electric
energy using conventional steam cycles and wet cooling towers.
COLORADO BASIN
WATER SUPPLY-COMPLEX ISSUE
MR QUALITY AND
PRESERVATION-
CRITICAL PROBLEM
Water resources, even with required measures to reduce consumptive use, will be a
problem for the Colorado River Basin (Figure 16). Realistic levels of energy
development in the Upper Colorado Basin can use all the available water resource by
the end of the century.
Water supply in the Colorado Basin is an extremely complex issue. Although
supplies have been allotted by Supreme Court ruling to the Upper Basin States, this
water is now being used in the Lower Basin. Energy development in Colorado will
mean less water in southern California. Water quality (that is salinity and hardness)
and Indian water consumption are other issues complicating the development of
water-using industry in a water-short region.
Air quality and its preservation are also extremely critical problems in the Western
States. Because of the concern over air quality, both federal and state air pollutant
emission controls can be more stringent here than elsewhere in the U.S. Some western
sites, such as Rifle, Colorado, and Escalante, Utah, will require extremely stringent
control practices to assure maintenance of air quality (Figure 17).
Because of the history of the area, its energy reserves, its present level of
industrialization, and its transportation corridors, the Ohio River Valley will experience
the politics of energy and environment trade-offs. Projections for the area include as
much as a four-fold increase in coal use for an area that already has severe air quality
problems (Figures 18 and 19). Power plants and industries will locate along the major
waterways. Unfortunately, these river corridors lie along the direction of stable
prevailing winds, and both local and area-wide pollutant concentrations will increase.
Figure 15.
i/Vater requirement differences
oy technology and location
150-
!= 100-
t 50-
Figure 16.
Water requirements
and water availability—A.D. 2000
NAVAJO/ BEULAH
FARMINGTON
ELECTRICAL POWER
NAVAJO; BEULAH
FARMINGTON
LURGI GASIFICATION
tt: 2-
1 -
~T- 133,01
MAX. WIN. MAX. Ml
AVAILABILITY REQUIREMENTS
UPPER COLORADO
217
-------
Figure 17.
3000 MW power plant:
controls to meet all standards
PERCENT REMOVAL EFFICIENCY
SITE
GILLETTE
KAIPAROWITS
FARMING™
COLSTRIP
BEULAH
RIFLE*
ESCALANTE
* 1000 MW
S02
58
61
70
79
83
92
93
PARTICULATES
96.6
98.3
99.5
98.3
98.8
99.0
99.7
Figure 18.
ORBES region—coal fields
NORTHERN \
BOUNDARY
OF ORBES
REGION
COAL
FIELDS
0 20 40 60 BO MILES
0 50 UIO KILOMETERS
A principal use of the Ohio River is transportation. Power plants consume water
and, by the end of the century, could reduce mainstem flows by more than 10
percent. Because of the complex flow regulation on the Ohio River, coal transport,
water quality, and cooling consumption will begin to compete for water supplies on
one of the Nation's largest rivers (Figures 20 and 21).
The Ohio River Basin study is examining a range of other issues, including labor
availability, transportation system capacity, and the impact of sulfur dioxide contra
programs. The analysis of many of these issues will be available after this conference.
218
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Figure 19.
High density corridors resulting
from siting along rivers
Coal
Nuclear
Other
Figure 20.
1990 Ohio River coal traffic
TONS
10
5
0
5
10
15
-
_
-
(MILLION)
n
~~L|
f
-
»
950
k •
\<
51
V-,
-*- SHIPMENT DIRECTION
MILES
1-^
^
TONS (MILLION)
-*— SHIPMENT DIRECTION ]
U
850 , 750 . 650 . 550 450 350
4g U N46C MC MA fLME GR~~
k. *
r \^H
CAIROX
-
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pflnnpAH
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GREEN \
RIVER
\
(
i
y CINCINNATI /
i nmcwii i c /
G
n
Vi
MILES
r^
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KANAWHA /
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ALIQUIPPA
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)E
-
-
_
T
-
"
-
'
PITTSBURGH
U
10
5
0
5
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219
-------
Figure 21.
Water consumption along
the Ohio River for high energy
use in 2000
o
o
OHIO-MISS. JUNCTION-
CUMBERLAND »•
SALINE & WABASH *-
GREEN •-
•SALT'
- KENTUCKY
GREAT MIAMI AND
•LITTLE MIAMI
•LICKING
•SCIOTO
•BIG SANDY-
•MUSKINGUM-
CO CNI *—
CONSUMPTION
RATIO
CONSUMPTION
RATIO
STEVEN R. REZNEK
B.S. and Ph.D., Physics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Upon completion
of Ph.D. requirements, was employed by MIT as a research associate. Also held staff
position and continued his research at the Technical University of Denmark in
Copenhagen. The following year, was appointed research fellow at the University of
Bristol in England. Experience in research and development for pollution control
technology and in planning and managing air and water pollution control. Participated
in creation and publication of major EPA regulations specifying ambient and stationary
source monitoring equipment, lead content in gasoline, and nondeterioration of air
quality. Currently, Acting Deputy Assistant Administrator for Energy, Minerals and
Industry, Office of Research and Development, EPA, Washington, DC.
220
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questions
CK answers
QUESTION:
Mr. Charles Getlig
Mechanical Engineer
Mr. Nathan Sauberman
Retired Consulting Engineer
Dr. Edward S. Rubin
Carnegie-Mellon University
On your two slides showing NOX emissions and
sulfur oxide emissions, despite the strict control, why do
you show an increasing trend after an initial decrease to a
low level? Also, why do you have an increasing trend
toward the end of the century?
RESPONSE: Dr. Steven R. Reznek (EPA)
QUESTION:
Those controls are based on best available
technology, and the first decrease is the strict current
source control retrofit program. Assuming that the status
of control technology remains constant, there is an
increase as the energy system grows and production of
electricity increases over a period of time.
The other slide indicates the time frame we have to
work with for managing and maintaining the national
inventory of emissions from this particular industry under
current technology.
Can you give me some more information on an
Advisory Commission with public participation?
RESPONSE: Mr. Lowell Smith (EPA)
On the Ohio River Basin (ORB) study, we have a
comprehensive advisory committee that includes
representation from the Governor's offices from the ORB
states and from the state legislatures involved, the Corps,
Ohio River Valley Water Sanitation Commission,
(ORSANCO), the River Basin Commission, coal
companies, utilities, and the public-at-large; such as, the
League of Women Voters and environmental groups. This
advisory committee has been instrumental in determining
the issues of interest to be studied during this first year
of the ORB study and has also been an effective
information transfer device between the different parties
of interest.
We have what we call a working group of electric
utility representatives who give us their advice and
thoughts on the need for different types of control
technology. This group advises the program that Frank
Princiotta presented this afternoon.
221
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RESPONSE: Mr. Steven Plotkin (EPA)
Both our western study and Appalachian study have
advisory committees. The Appalachian Committee is still
in the formulation process. However, both are similar in
composition to the one that was described in the ORB
study.
In addition, there are a number of other mechanisms
by which we try to elicit public comment. First, there is
an excellent newsletter published by the ORB study that
serves as an information tool to people in that region.
The western study prints and disseminates 500 to 1,000
copies of all draft reports. We have been very successful
in getting free consulting from people who have returned
from the field. For instance, out of 500 copies of our
draft progress report, we have had about 100 substantive
replies that we have used as input for our study and final
report. The whole program is very new, and we are trying
our best to involve the public in every possible-way.
COMMENT:
Dr. Reznek did mention the implications of the
social impact of'the program, and I think such an
advisory commission would be very worthwhile.
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RESPONSE: Dr. Reznek
We have a wide representation on these advisory
groups, including the native American issues in the West.
Questions of who gets employed and who loses land in
these developments are, as you know, very controversial
issues. Through our advisory committees, open discussions
and open reviews take place. Dr. Mickey, do you want
to talk about TVA's participation in predicting demand?
RESPONSE: Dr. Harrison R. Mickey (TVA)
QUESTION:
We have two projects in the socioeconomic category.
One is the predictive model designed to help predict
when, where, and how much power is going to be
needed. The other involves the development of computer
graphics applications to discern and analyze social
impacts; such as, the impacts on teachers' salaries on a
county-by-county basis. It is purely an experimental
project, but we have come up with unique ways of
representing these interactions for decision-making
purposes.
My question is three-fold: (1) Can methodologies be
generalized to accomplish results typically achieved
through the political mechanisms? (2) How do we make
tradeoffs? (3) How do we improve the ability to
integrate certain types of decisions and what activities are
contemplated?
RESPONSE: Mr. Joseph R. Barse (USDA)
I would like to respond to the question of
methodology integration for energy development impact.
Because there are so many potential impacts involving so
many variables, one has to use a mathematical modeling
approach, which of course will be applied by computer.
First, consider demand studies and electricity use. If with
electricity and electricity plant siting projections we work
backward to estimate the possible locational impacts of
coal mining and coal transportation in order to get
control of the socioeconomic impact, such as,
employment, and state taxation impact, we can then talk
intelligently about the quantities of pollutants involved in
streams and about whose land is going to be taken for
mining and for transport. Because there are so many
variables involved, we believe that the mathematical
modeling approach is the way to achieve this integration.
It is a longer way than the nonmathematical approaches
and it takes more time to develop it, but we believe that
ultimately that is the way to do the integrating.
RESPONSE: Dr. Thomas F. Hady (USDA)
I would like to comment on possible results of
ongoing projects in this area. We have made considerable
progress in directions that have not been heavily explored
before. On the one hand, looking at local employment
effects from energy development in the West and, on the
other hand, getting at local revenue effects involve
modeling the entire state revenue system. It is not enough
to find out what kind of taxes mining will pay; we have
to determine what is going to flow up to the state capital
and back again.
These factors eventually fit into an integrated picture
of what happens to the community. With these and the
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work that Barse and his associates are doing on predicting
what will happen to coal production in the region under
varying assumptions, we begin to move toward an overall
package that gives a good integrated assessment of what is
likely to happen. Put that together with the other work
that is being done, and we can get to the point of
beginning to predict environmental effects.
RESPONSE: Dr. Andrew Ford (ERDA)
We tried multianswer utility measurement in the
boom town area to secure people's value judgments in the
analysis. Our first attempt to integrate socioeconomic
effects with dollar measures was an utter failure, and so
we turned to this multianswer utility measurement
technique that allows each person's values to be
incorporated separately. The problem we face is that we
would have a particular impact in a small town; for
example, a housing shortage. One person would view that
as bad because of inadequate housing for his family, and
another person who may own a house would view the
shortage as a benefit because the resale value of his house
goes up. We had a workshop in Farmington, and nine
public and private officials went through a procedure
where they stated what is important to them about boom
towns. To one person, housing was the most important
issue; to another, increase in the property tax rated
number one. Each person has his own set of weights, his
own way to translate outcomes into common measures.
The end result was that these nine participants
disagreed totally on individual components of an overall
evaluation. One person felt that surpluses of public
facilities are bad. The person sitting right next to him
viewed them as good. And so, there is a tremendous
potential for conflict, and yet, in the overall evaluation,
this group of people in Farmington tend to agree more
often than they disagree. So perhaps this technique is one
method to promote an orderly resolution of very
emotional issues at the boom town level.
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technical
discussion
-------
INTEGRATED ASSESSMENT OF ENERGY
DEVELOPMENT IN THE WESTERN U.S.
Steven E. Plotkin
Office of Research and Development
Industrial and Extractive Processes Division
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D.C.
INTRODUCTION
Two important ideas about energy develop-
ment in the Western United States have become
firmly imbedded in the national consciousness.
The first is that the West has massive amounts
of energy resources, especially coal, and that
development of these resources is a critical
part of any hopes of alleviating this country's
growing dependence on foreign oil and is there-
fore inevitable. The second is that this same
area is "Big Sky" country, short of water and
fragile of soil, with an environment and a way
of life that may become permanently altered,
or even destroyed, by large scale energy develop-
ment .
In fact, considerable uncertainty sur-
rounds both of these ideas. Let's examine the
role that Western energy resources are likely
to play in the Nation's future. It is certainly
true that Western energy reserves are huge.
The combined Northern Great Plains and Four
Corners States have demonstrated coal reserves
of 234 billion tons or 39 percent of U.S.
reserves. In addition, these states contain the
following percentage of the Nation's reserves of
other energy sources: oil, 26 percent; natural
gas, 8 percent; oil shale, 100 percent*; and
uranium, 90 percent (Reference 1). However,
although this appears to be an energy treasure
trove, the extent to which these resources will
actually be exploited eludes the best fore-
casters. In recent years there have been
dozens of projections of Western energy develop-
ment, but they vary so wildly that they offer
little help. A quick examination of two
factors affecting future production illustrates
the dilemma:
o Environmental Controls - The major
advantage of Western coal is its low
cost and low sulfur content. If this
coal is shipped to the Midwest, its
cost rises because of the shipping
expense. However, it still remains
competitive if Midwestern power plants
can burn it without scrubbers. New
amendments to the Clean Air Act may
include a requirement for all new coal
plants to use scrubbers; if this
happens, a major market for Western
coal will disappear.
Of high quality reserves
o Costs - Synthetic natural gas and
petroleum from Western coal and oil
shale will have a certain market if
these fuels can be produced at com-
petitive prices. At present, the
estimated costs for such production
are so high that virtually all of
the large-scale synthetic fuel projects
have been abandoned. Congress has turned
back all attempts to subsidize synthetic
fuels production.
The uncertainty surrounding these and other
factors controlling the rate of Western energy
development substantially weakens the case for
the "inevitability" of development.
The assumption that the West is too fragile
to withstand energy development on any sig-
nificant scale is also subject to considerable
uncertainty. For instance, although Western
water is certainly scarce on the average, water
is actually plentiful in North Dakota, where
there are massive lignite reserves, and may
be available to support substantial develop-
ment in the Upper Missouri River Basin without
seriously constraining foreseeable alternative
uses, especially agriculture. Although boom-
towns are commonly thought of as inevitable in
developing the West, recent research by David
Myhra (Reference 2) suggests that the intensity
of adverse socioeconomic impacts is quite
variable and may be low depending upon character-
istics of the site and mitigating measures
adopted. Also, the impacts of energy development-
for instance, impacts caused by water require-
ments - are technology-dependent, which implies
that technological alternatives may have the
potential to be "fitted" to sites so as to
substantially reduce adverse impacts. There
is real reason to believe that policy initiatives
may be found that can substantially reduce the
impacts of development.
These two themes, that future energy
development in the West is subject to massive
uncertainties, and that potential may exist
to control many of the adverse impacts from
such development if it occurs - have played a
substantial role in shaping the thrust of the
Western energy research sponsored by the
Integrated Assessment Program. As a result of
the uncertainty regarding development rates,
the research deliberately sidesteps the
intractable problem of proj ecting development
and instead examines the implications of such
development if it occurs. The perceived
potential for discovering ways of controlling
adverse impacts has led to focusing on the
examination of policy alternatives rather than
concluding with problem identification, as
so many other studies have done (for example,
the Northern Great Plains Resources Program).
Another influence shaping the research
is the nature of the energy policy system.
The policy system that surrounds and controls
energy development in the West is characteristic
of the national energy policy system in that
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it consists of a great variety of separate
entities with overlapping and often conflicting
responsibilities and authority. The
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), although
it has significant regulatory authority over
certain factors affecting Western energy develop-
ment, is by no means the sole determinant of the
course of such development. For instance, in
protecting the air environment EPA:
o sets national ambient air quality
standards for a variety of
pollutants
o can set limitations on other
pollutants determined to be
"hazardous''
o establishes New Source Performance
Standards that determine allowable
levels of emissions from new facilities
o conducts extensive research on control
technology and pollutant impacts
o sets limitations on allowable
deterioration of air quality in
"clean air" areas
o reviews Environmental Impact
Statements for new facilities
and programs
o plays a key role in controlling
pollution from automobiles, which
play a critical role in pollution
problems from the "secondary"
development that accompanies energy
facilities
Although this is an impressive list of
functions, in fact the protection of the West's
air environment is simultaneously dependent on
factors outside of or peripheral to EPA's
control. For instance, the States control many
of these factors; they control key facility
siting decisions, set significant deterioration
classes, promulgate ambient air quality standards,
take crucial enforcement actions, and are
responsible for air quality planning through
their State Implementation Plans. Other actors,
such as private industry and the Department of
the Interior also play critical roles in
influencing development decisions affecting air
quality. Thus, if EPA is to fulfill its
mission, it must understand how the other
actors in the policy system will perceive and
react to problems and issues and how its own
actipns will affect these actors and their
constituents. In response to this requirement,
the research has focused on identifying and
evaluating a broad range of impacts and policies
going well beyond strictly environmental concerns
and incorporating socio-economic, political,
cultural and institutional concerns as well.
A brief statement of the objectives of
this research effort is as follows:
1. To identify and evaluate the
consequences likely to result
from energy development in the
West, including the distribution
of these consequences among the
affected parties
2. To identify, evaluate and compare
alternative policies and implement-
ation strategies for dealing with
these consequences
3. To identify research needs that
are not being adequately met
under the present government and
private energy and environmental
research efforts
PROJECT DESCRIPTION
This effort is entitled "A Technology Assess-
ment of Western Energy Resource Development." It
was begun in July, 1975, by an interdisciplinary
research team from the Science and Public Policy
Program of the University of Oklahoma under the
direction of Irvin L. (Jack) White. The study
will last about three and one half (3 k) years
at a cost of approximately two million dollars.
Subcontractors include the Radian Corporation
(Austin, Texas), Water Purification Associates
(Cambridge, Mass.) and the Center for Advanced
Computation, University of Illinois.
The study is examining the impacts of large
scale energy development from the present to the
year 2000 in the eight states in the Rocky
Mountain and Four Corners area: Arizona,
Colorado, Montana, New Mexico, North and South
Dakota, Utah and Wyoming. Six resources are
examined: coal, geothermal, natural gas, oil,
oil shale and uranium.
A number of development alternatives have
been considered in detail during the first phase
of the study. Coal development alternatives
include surface and underground mining, on-site
electrical power generation, gasification,
liquefaction, and the export of raw coal by unit
train and slurry pipeline. The electricity is
transmitted by extra high voltage lines, and
synthetic gases and liquids by pipeline. Oil
shale development consists of underground mining,
surface retorting, and transport by pipeline
(in situ retorting will be considered in the
future). Oil and natural gas development is
limited to conventional drilling and pipeline
transport, but enhanced oil recovery will be
added. Uranium development includes surface
mining, milling, and rail transport of yellow-
cake. Geothermal was not considered in the first
phase but will be added shortly.
Impact analyses have been conducted at six
locales and on a regional basis. The locales
examined are multicounty areas around:
o Gillette, Wyoming
o Colstrip, Montana
o Beulah, North Dakota
228
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o Kaiparowits/Escalante, Utah
o Navajo/Farmington, New Mexico
o Rifle, Colorado
The regional analysis examined three levels
of development based on a modeled (using the
SRI/Gulf model) response to three levels of
national energy demand:
o Base: 30 percent of the way
between the Ford Foundation's
Historical Growth and Technical
Fix scenarios (Reference 3)
o Ford Foundation's Technical Fix
Scenario
o Base with no new nuclear plants
SOME STUDY RESULTS
The study team has basically completed the
"impact assessment" portion of the study. The
purpose of this phase was to identify and
evaluate the environmental, social and economic
impacts of large scale energy development with-
in the present policy system, in other words,
without changing environmental standards,
introducing new taxes, or taking other new
measures to alter the impact of development.
A number of insights have been gained and
tentative conclusions drawn at this point in the
study. Because of the limitations of space here,
I will restrict the discussion to air and water
impacts, and substantially shortchange even these
subjects. I urge those interested in these and
other categories of impacts to read the project's
first phase report, Energy from the West
(Reference 1) .
Air - Although the attractiveness of Western
coal has been largely based on its low sulfur
content, mine-mouth power plants located in the
West will generally require scrubbers to satisfy
all ambient air quality and emission standards.
Present standards to prevent significant deterio-
ration of air quality ("PSD" standards) are often
the limiting factor; in the range of sites
examined in the study, 96.6 to 99.7 percent
removal of particulates and 58 to 92 percent
removal of sulfur dioxide is expected to be
required to meet Class II PSD standards (all
areas complying with national ambient standards
have been initially rated as Class II). Power
plants present a relatively difficult problem
with regard to air quality, since they emit more
S02, particulates, N02 and CO than any of the
other conversion technologies examined. How-
ever, oil shale retorting (hydrocarbons and
S02) and coal liquefaction and natural gas
production (hydrocarbons) are likely to have
difficulty in meeting Federal ambient short-
term standards at the sites examined. On the
other hand, coal gasification plants will pro-
bably have the least problem with air emissions.
Finally, the urban developments created by the
introduction of new energy facilities are
estimated to cause higher peak ground-level con-
centrations of particulates, N02 and hydrocarbons
than those produced by the facilities themselves -
a result that is startling when one compares
total emissions but plausible when the low
height of the urban sources are taken into
account. In any case, this problem would not
necessarily affect development because present
significant deterioration regulations ignore
"non-point" sources such as urban development.
Rewording of such regulations, which I should
stress is not in consideration, could create a
substantial roadblock to development.
The analysis indicates that the air pollution
problems associated with large coal conversion
facilities will be magnified considerably by any
reclassification of substantial land areas to a
"Class I" (strictest) PSD category. Such a
ruling may sharply limit the maximum size of
power plants and other facilities. The effect of
such limitations could well be perverse, with
declines in local air pollution and socioeconomic
impacts being somewhat offset by problems
associated with proliferation of transmission
lines, roads and pipelines, inefficiencies of
scale, greater region-wide habitat removal, etc.
Examination of the tradeoffs among policies which
directly or indirectly promote differing regional
development patterns will have to be an important
part of future work in the Western assessment.
Water - The idea that there is insufficient
water in the West to provide for large scale
energy development, especially if that develop-
ment is to include mine-mouth conversion, is
literally gospel in many quarters and has been a
concern in this study as well as in several
others (for instance, the Lake Powell Research
Project, Reference 4). Although considerable
attention was focused on accurately estimating
the amount of water actually available to energy
development, there is astonishing uncertainty
both in terms of its physical availability
(accounting for long-term trends) and legal
availability. The morass of legal compacts,
uncertain Indian and Federal water rights, and
appropriations (and over-appropriations) as well
as uncertainty about future agricultural
expansion probably insures that a generally
accepted estimate of water availability for energy
cannot be arrived at in the next few years. It is
probably safe to say, however, that availability
is likely to be a problem in the Colorado River
Basin, but will probably not be a major problem
in the Upper Missouri River Basin as a whole
(although demands on the Yellowstone River sub-
basin probably will be a problem).
Getting a fix on the other side of the
issue, that of water requirements for develop-
ment, is a far more tractable problem. A
detailed analysis of water needs (Reference 5)
for those fuel cycles examined in the first
phase indicated that substantial possibilities
exist for reducing water use far below the
figures generally cited by industry ....without
incurring additional costs. Table 1 shows
the water requirements for each conversion tech-
nology by site, assuming only that the plant
designer wishes to minimize his total cost while
reducing water consumption. Although one
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TABLE 1. WATER REQUIREMENTS FOR EACH TECHNOLOGY BY SITEa (REFERENCE 5)
Electric
Water Requirements3
(1,000 acre-ft/yr)
Power
Site Generation Lurqi Synthane Synthoil TOSCO II
Kaiparowits/Escalante 29.82
Navajo/Farmington 29.21
Rifle 28.47
Gillette 25.84
Colstrip 26.66
Beulah 23.88
Acre-ft/yr acre-feet per year
NC not considered
a For a 3,000 megawatt-electric
NC NC NC NC
5.64 8.67 11.75 NC
NC NC NC 12.92
4.21 7.78 9.23 NC
4.62 7.81 10.30 NC
3.31 7.67 10.09 NC
power plant at 70-percent load factor, for 250 mill
Slurry
Pipeline
NC
NC
NC
19.17
NC
NC
ion
cubic feet per day gasification facilities at 90-percent load factor, 100,000 barrels
per day coal liquefaction and
and a 25 million tons per year
oil shale processing facilities at 90-percent load
slurry pipeline at 100-percent load factor.
factor
would assume that industry would use the same
criteria, published estimates of water use
(especially for the synthetic fuel facilities)
have tended to be much higher than those shown.
Since most conversion plants are unlikely
to return effluent streams to surface waters,
much of the emphasis on water quality has focused
on the effects of depletion and aquifer dis-
ruption rather than on the impacts of plant-
generated pollutants. However, the residuals
generated by all of the energy conversion
facilities can represent a significant
pollution problem over the long-term unless
extreme care is taken in their disposal.
Generally residual waste waters will be routed
to onsite evaporation ponds. These ponds
present two potential problems. First,
leaching through the pond liner represents a
potential threat to groundwater. Second, a pond
failure - whether because of an event such as a
flash flood or deterioration after facility shut-
down - offers a potential threat to surface
water. This problem is particularly significant
because it tends to illustrate the one-
dimensional nature of much pollution control
legislation and regulations designed to deal with
a single problem or environmental medium. Onsite
ponding of residuals is the logical solution to
the requirements of the Federal Water Pollution
Control Act, which focuses on the protection of
surface waters. However, this solution may
trade a chronic problem - continual discharge of
small quantities of residuals - for a future acute
problem, or a surface water problem of possibly
small magnitude for a potentially dangerous
groundwater problem (since flushing of
aquifers is usually a very slow process).
SECOND PHASE WOPJC
As noted above, the main thrust of work in
the second phase of the Western assessment will
be to conduct policy analysis - to identify and
evaluate alternative policy measures and
implementation programs that will enhance the
benefits and minimize the adverse effects of
future energy development.
Since the term "policy analysis1' is one
upon which many interpretations can be placed,
I will "define" it in the context of the
Western Assessment by very briefly describing its
components as undertaken by the study team.
First, the analysis will link the results of
the impact assessment to the social,
economic and political context within which
development will take place, defining "how
costs, risks and benefits will be distributed,
which levels and specific agencies of government
either have regulatory authority and respons-
ibility and/or assistance programs, what laws,
regulations, and policies are applicable, who
the private participants are, and what interests
and values are at stake (Reference 6)".
Second, the impact assessments will be
subjected to sensitivity analysis, wherein
critical variables identified in the initial
assessment - such as pollution control efficiency,
water use technology, stack height, etc. - will
be altered to determine their effect on the
severity and distribution of impacts. The
purpose of this analysis is to identify those
variables which are controllable by policy makers
and which are critical determinants of impact.
Third, these key variables must be tied to
policy alternatives which can control them.
These alternatives include those available through
the present "policy system" as well as those
which require institutional, social or legal
changes in the system.
Fourth, the first kind of evaluative
assessment must be repeated with this expanded
list of policy alternatives, and the con-
sequences of the alternatives - their costs,
risks and benefits, their implementation
problems, and the distribution of the impacts
230
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are assessed. This assessment of policy
alternatives represents the major product of the
study.
Since the potential scope of the Western
Assessment is practically boundless and resources
are limited, the policy analysis described above
will focus on five substantive areas:
o Water Availability and Quality
o Air Quality
o Planning and Growth Management
o Facility Siting
o Interregional and National Economics
Further descriptions of the expected analysis in
each area are available in the second Work
Plan (Reference 6).
A small but significant effort will also go
into cleaning up some "loose ends" from the
first phase's impact assessment. For instance,
the regional analyses will be redone using
scaled down....and more realistic .... levels of
development, and additional technologies will
be included in the site specific analyses,
including enhanced oil recovery, in-situ oil
shale, and geothermal development.
PRODUCTS
The Western assessment has already produced
a number of reports and will, of course, produce
more in the future. The assessment's first
product was a First Year Work Plan (Reference 7)
a comprehensive plan-of-attack for the study that
has proven useful both to those interested in the
study as well as those interested in pursuing
similar large-scale assessments. The assessment's
phase I report, Energy From the West (Reference 1)
presents the results of the impact analysis phase
as well as of the preliminary policy analysis
already completed. Two technical reports on
water requirements for fossil development
(Reference 5) and transportation costs
(Reference 8) have been produced. Future reports
will include, besides a final technology assess-
ment report:
o a number of technical reports
on various topics, including
a volume describing the energy
technologies and their policy
systems
o a Research Adequacy report
describing research topics
critical to understanding
Western energy development
which are not being
appropriately addressed
o a report describing the impact
analyses completed by the
assessment
o a series of summary reports,
addressed to different categories
of policymakers, identifying and
assessing policy alternatives for
enhancing the benefits from and
mitigating the adverse impacts of
energy development in the West
Although a very considerable amount of time and
effort has gone into preparing the reports thus
far, and we expect to channel an equivalent or
greater amount into producing the remaining
reports, we also recognize that the benefits
of a complex study of this_nature are rarely
reaped by writing a terrific report that every-
body then reads. Instead, the groundwork for the
eventual success of a policy-informing research
project is laid early in the process of con-
ducting the study by involving the eventual
users in the process, getting them to feel that
they have a stake in the product, and main-
taining a relatively surprise-free environment.
The Western assessment has maintained a
commitment to this philosophy via:
o extensive dissemination of reports
in early draft through final form
o maintenance of an Advisory Committee
consisting of representatives of
Western communities, developers,
Federal government, environmental
groups, etc.
o continuing and extensive contacts
with state and local agencies, etc.
o conduct of extensive series of
briefings and interviews with
State legislatures, governors'
staff, Senate/Congressional
staff, and other potential users
o attendence and presentation of
papers at academic and other
forums (such as AAAS meeting,
etc) .
In most studies, the process of interacting
with the "user community" either ends or is
sharply curtailed upon publication of the final
report, because of funding cutoff and disband-
ment of the project team. Unfortunately, this
is precisely the moment when the interactive
process becomes most critical, when new
audiences and new critics gain access to the study
results. It is also a time when, with formal
contractual commitments complied with, the project
team is available as a formidable tool for
conducting short term policy analysis. In
recognition of this, EPA is considering moderate
funding of the University of Oklahoma team beyond
the formal study period. This funding will
allow the team to respond to requests by
interested parties for briefings, to answer
criticisms, and to respond to EPA's or others'
requirements for analysis of legislation and
other policy-oriented work. This "follow-on"
period is expected to last at least six months.
CONCLUSIONS
Results of the impact analyses conducted by
the Western assessment show that the impacts of
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large scale energy development exhibit strong
variations in kind and magnitude depending upon
location and technology. It may thus be possible
to reduce the adverse impacts of development by
tailoring site/technology combinations (for
instance by placing only low-water-use
technologies such as Lurgi gasification in water-
short areas) as well as by restricting develop-
ment in especially vulnerable areas. The
feasibility of such a program is enhanced by the
fact that, at least for the next few decades,
Western coal reserves far outweigh the coal
requirements. This provides at least a theoretical
abundance of potential sites for near term develop-
ment. Although this situation may be relatively
short-lived, the time "window" may be large enough
to allow for the development of superior mining
and conversion technologies, economic assistance
programs, etc. before locational flexibility dis-
appears with shrinking reserves and growing
demand.
However, the size of the "window" is clearly
dependent upon Federal, State and local con-
straints on development. The more land removed
from the development market, the less flex-
ibility is available to both industry and
government for selecting only the most desirable
sites. Although development constraints are a
critical part of a rational development process,
it is not clear that prohibitions or restrict-
ions on mining and conversion are being
established in any coordinated, comprehensive,
multi-media way. Prohibitions based on impacts
in a single medium (air, land, water) or impact
ares (social, economic, etc.) must be weighed
against the possibility of excluding from
development land which may be judged desirable
when total adverse impacts are taken into
account.
Locational flexibility should be viewed as
a positive value, and policies designed to
enhance this flexibility should be formulated
and pursued. For instance, any argument that
sufficient coal leases have been granted to
provide for satisfying demand, thus negating
any requirement for further leasing, must
be judged in the context of this flexibility.
If the lands already under the lease are not
those that are most socially, economically
and environmentally desirable to develop, then
the government should consider programs to
carefully increase leased area, or to "trade"
vulnerable land under lease for less fragile
unleased property. Similarly, governments
should not refuse rights of way for new
transportation facilities because suf-
ficient capacity exists to satisfy fore-
seeable demand, until the issue of the
desirability of the resources made available
by new facilities is factored into the
decision making process.
The analysis has tended to confirm much
that is "common knowledge" in the West, for
instance, the difficulties facing small
towns and the air pollution problems
associated with large power plants. That
many of these problems continue to be dealt
with inadequately is indicative of short-
comings in past research as well as in the
energy policy system itself. Many past
research programs have been less than
fully successful because they failed to
translate problem definitions into
information that was relevant to policy-
makers' interests and constituencies, and
problem solutions into programs that were
able to be implemented. This research
program will also fall short of its goals
if it cannot learn from this. However,
the translation process is made extremely
difficult because of shortcomings in the
policy system, including overlapping
responsibilities, lack of multi-media
perspective, artifical geographical bound-
aries, etc. The single greatest challenge
for the Western assessment in its second
phase of research will be to devise ways
to either accommodate the policy system's
shortcomings while achieving environmental
and socioeconomic goals, or else to change
the system in a politically acceptable
manner.
REFERENCES
1. Irvin L. White, et al, Energy from the West
(A Progress Report on a Technology Assess-
ment of Western Energy Resource Develop-
ment) , U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, EPA-600/7/77 , May, 1977)
2. David Myhra, "Why Socioeconomic Change
Varies by Energy Project Site," The MITRE
Corporation, McLean, Virginia
3. A Time To Choose: America's Energy Future,
Ford Foundation. Cambridge, Massachusetts:
Ballinger, 1974
4. Orson L. Anderson, Utah Coal for Southern
California Power: The General Issues, Lake
Powell Research Project Bulletin Number 13,
November, 1975
5. H. Gold, et al, Water Requirements for
Steam-Electric Power Generation and
Synthetic Fuel Plants in the Western
United States, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, EPA-600/7-77-037, March, 1977
6. Irvin L. White, et al, Draft Work Plan for
Completing a Technology Assessment of
Western Energy Resource Development,
University of Oklahoma Science and Public
Policy Program, February, 1977
7. Irvin L. White, et al, First Year Work Plan
for a Technology Assessment of Western
Energy Resource Development, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, EPA-600/5-
76-001, March, 1976
8. Michael Rieber and Shao Lee Soo, Route
Specific Cost Comparisons: Unit Trains,
Coal Slurry Pipelines and Extra High Voltag£
Transmission, Center for Advanced Computation
Document No. 190, University of Illinois
at Urbana-Champaign, 1976
232
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Citizen Concern
OHIO RIVER BASIN ENERGY STUDY
Lowell Smith
Office of Research and Development
Office of Energy, Minerals and Industry
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D.C.
INTRODUCTION
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has
responded to a Congressional mandate to conduct
"an assessment of the potential environmental,
social, and economic impacts of the proposed
concentration of power plants in the lower Ohio
River Basin. The study should be comprehensive in
scope, investigating the impacts from air, water,
and solid residues on the natural environment and
residents of the region."1
This directive represents a significant achieve-
ment for a community of environmentally aware
citizens who, in the early 1970s, became concerned
with accelerating plans for power plant development
along the main stem of the Ohio River between
Portsmouth, Ohio and Louisville, Kentucky.
Currently, nine power plant projects are either
under construction or in an active planning
phase along this 250-mile river reach (see Figure 1).
In excess of 12,000 megawatts of generating capa-
city, mostly coal-fired boilers, would be built
if announced construction plans were all
implemented.
Two factors which intensified citizen concern
over this development were quite apparent. The
first results from the relatively lax environmental
controls that apply to existing plants, for example,
the Clifty Creek plant just downriver from Madison,
Indiana. This coal-fired plant owned by the Ohio
Valley Electric Corporation (OVEC), a consortium
of fifteen investor-owned utilities in Indiana,
Ohio and Kentucky, operates in a base-load mode to
, WEST END
QCINCINNATI
EAST BEND
NO. 1 AND 2
OMAYSVILLE
GHENT 3 AND 4
GHENT 1 AND 2
WISES LANDING 1 AND 2
WATERSIDE
_CHOUISVILLE
^^ RUN
INDIANA
MIAMI FORT NOS. 1-7
MIAMI FORT NO. 8
TANNERS CREEK
MEXICO BOTTOM NO. 1,2, AND 3
MADISON
CLIFTY CREEK
MARBLE HILL
NO. 1 AND 2
F B. CULLEY
R. A. GALLAGHER
"CANE RUN
OHIO
BECKJORD
ZIMMER NO. 1 AND 2
. STUART
KILLEN NO. 1 AND 2
PORTSMOUTH
—SPURLOCK NO. 2
SPURLOCK NO. 1
ASHLAND
KENTUCKY
$ EXISTING POWER PLANTS
® PROPOSED OR PLANTS UNDER CONSTRUCTION
Figure 1. Power plants along the Ohio River: Existing and Planned.
*A substantial portion of the downtown section of
Madison is listed in the National Register of
Historic Landmarks.
233
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supply electrical energy to the ERDA-owned uranium
enrichment facility at Portsmouth, Ohio. Clifty
Creek, with a nameplate capacity of 1,304 megawatts,
was built in the mid-1950s with cyclone separators
and crude electrostatic precipitators for partic-
ulate control.2 The plant, with three stacks and
their dense plume of particulates, sulfur oxides
and nitrogen oxides, is an intrusion over much
of the adjacent landscape, including Indiana's
idyllic Clifty Falls State Park, situated above it
on high bluffs. Residents in the nearby historic"
town of Madison, Indiana, complain of the eyesore,
as well as question the effects that its pervasive,
prolific emissions have on their health and
welfare.
The second factor raising citizen concern is
the nationwide debate over the intrinsic safety of
nuclear power reactors and their supporting fuel
cycles. This national debate has been brought into
a regional focus by Public Service of Indiana's
(PSI) plans to build a 2,260 MWe reactor complex at
their Marble Hill site, a dozen river miles
downstream from Madison.1* In 1974, the announcement
of these plans triggered strenuous reaction in Save-
The-Valley (STV), a citizens' organization incorpor-
ated that year in Kentucky and now operating in
three states. STV questions the need for much of
the current power development activity within the
region and opposes most of the specific projects
under development.
The PSI Marble Hill project has received an
especially large amount of STV attention as the first
nuclear units planned to be built in Southern Indiana 5
Prior to the initiation of the regional study
described in this paper, STV and other environmental
groups called for a moratorium on all new power
plant planning, permitting and construction activi-
ties for at least a three-year time period, until a
comprehensive study could be completed. Meanwhile
PSI states that initiating its Marble Hill project
now is important if power shortages in the mid-1980s
are to be avoided. It was in this context that
Congress requested a regional study on power plant
development.
The study, later designated the Ohio River
Basin Energy Study (ORBES), was assigned to the
Integrated Assessment Program, a component of the
Energy/Environment Interagency R&D Program managed
by EPA's Office of Energy, Minerals, and Industry.
A work plan for ORBES was prepared" which cast the
study in the general form of a technology assess-
ment. Several unique features were incorporated
into this work plan in order to accomodate the
special requirements of this study. These included
the use of three simultaneous preliminary assessment
teams located on seven separate campuses within the
four-state area, and the use of an "Experimental
Management Plan"H to provide day-to-day management
capability over the entire Phase I effort.
Study Structure
The organizational structure of ORBES Phase I
is depicted in Figure 2.
12
Regional Technology
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY,
OFFICE OF ENERGY, MINERALS, AND INDUSTRY
PROJECT OFFICER
MANAGEMENT TEAM
PROJECT OFFICER
EPA REGION IV REPRESENTATIVE
EPA REGION V REPRESENTATIVE
PROJECT OFFICE
TWO CO-PRINCIPAL 1
1
MVESTIGATORS T
'
TASK ?
(PRELIMINARY ASSESSMENTS)
ADVISORY COMMITTEE
LABOR DEMAND IMPACT AND LABOR SUPPLY
BENEFIT-COST ANALYSIS OF POWER SUPPLY
QUALITY OF LIFE AND ENERGY DEVELOPMENT
SOCIAL ASPECTS OF POWER PLANT SITING
INSTITUTIONAL ACCOUNTABILITY
1 ENERGY TRANSPORTATION/DISTRIBUTION
WATER RESOURCE ALLOCATION
POLLUTANT TRANSPORT MODELING
I METAL IONS AND RADIONUCLIDES IN OHIO RIVER SEDIMENTS
IMPACT OF SYNTHETIC FUEL PRODUCTION
Figure 2. ORBES Phase I structure.
234
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Configurations (RTCs) in the form of comprehensive
scenarios were developed for the four-state ORBES
region (see Figure 3). The preparation of these
RTCs was the responsibility of the Task I team,
composed of selected research specialists for the
Special Studies (Task 4) group and of the leaders
of the three Preliminary Assessment teams (Task 2).
The Task I report-^ describes the approach used to
build the electrical energy demand and the techno-
logical supply components of the four RTCs that
were developed. The three Preliminary Assessment
teams were composed of researchers from:
(1) Indiana University, Purdue University and The
Ohio State University, under the leadership of
Professor Robert Bailey; (2) University of Kentucky
and University of Louisville, under the leadership
of Professor Hugh Spencer; (3) University of
Illinois at Urbana and University of Illinois at
Chicago Circle, under the leadership of Professor
Ross Martin.
Several areas of particular interest, which
required more detailed exploration than was
possible in the Task 2 framework, were each assigned
a Special Study (Task 4). Some special study
results were available to the Task 2 teams, but the
majority of these results will receive more exten-
sive application in the Phase II analysis. These
several research products are being analyzed and
will form the primary basis for the preparation of
an integrated report (Task 3) which will be delivered
to Congress and be made available for public distri-
bution this fall.
The project officer was ably assisted in moni-
toring the direction of this research by EPA
colleagues from the Chicago and Atlanta EPA regional
offices. These offices are responsible for EPA
activities within the ORBES region north and south
of the Ohio River, respectively. Most importantly,
the co-principle investigators of the Experimental
Management Plan, Professors James Stukel and Boyd
Keenan, effectively operated the ORBES Project
Office, and undertook the many coordination and
representation activities associated with that
function, thereby ensuring a successful completion
to ORBES Phase I.
Finally, the accountability question associated
with most technology assessments assumed major
importance for the ORBES work. Both its genesis
and prevailing community attitudes dictated the
need for ORBES to give particular attention to the
several divergent mind sets toward power develop-
ment that characterize the various interest groups
in the study. In order to accommodate this need,
while also complying with the strict time schedule of
Phase I, an Interim Steering Committee was formed
shortly after the issuance of the funding grants to
the universities. This group and its successor, the
ORBES Advisory Committee, were invited to partici-
pate in all phases of the first three tasks. This
evolving committee is composed of representatives
of federal agencies, state administrative and
legislative branches, local utility firms, the coal
extractive industry, labor, agriculture, and the
general public. ^ In addition, communication
fc&l PORTION OUTSIDE
I I ORBES REGION
Figure 3. Ohio River Basin energy study region (Phase I)
235
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between ORBES researchers and the interested public
has been aided by a monthly newsletter, distrib-
uted to nearly three thousand recipients, and a
series of bimonthly progress reports by all three
Preliminary Assessment Teams, presented at public
meetings throughout the ORBES region. A great deal
was learned in these efforts about what is required
of academic researchers to effectively communicate
with various segments of the public about public
policy issues, yet additional efforts are needed
to increase the effectiveness of these communica-
tions as the study progresses.
DESCRIPTION OF THE ORBES PROJECT
The methodology utilized in ORBES relies on
the construction of possible future economic
activity and energy demand states for the region
through the year 2000. There was no attempt to
predict in Phase I what the actual future state of
energy demand and economic activity might be, but
rather to select a number of possible states for
analysis and an intercomparison of their regional
and local implications for the region's residents.
These hypothetical states were constructed by
selecting national energy forecasts produced by
other studies and disaggregating these to the ORBES
region.
Regional Technology Configuration
Two levels of growth rate for electrical energy
demand were chosen. One, a moderately high growth
rate, was adapted from Dupree's Bureau of Mines
study, "U.S. Energy Through the Year 2000";15 the
other was constructed from the Technical Fix Scenario
of the Ford Foundation's Energy Policy Projectl6 xhe
former, designated BOM, projects an annual growth
rate in electrical energy demand of 5.8%, while the
latter, designated FTF (Ford Technical Fix), projects
an average annual growth rate of 2.8%. Although
these growth rates do not represent the extremes of
what was considered at the time possible to sustain
over the remainder of the century, they do reflect
quite different schools of thought concerning what
is possible and necessary to maintain economic and
social viability within the region. The economic,
demographic, and technological changes which are
explicit in these scenarios are summarized in the
Task 2 assessment reports >' and in the original
9 n 9 ~i
sources.u>/1 The specific adaptation of these
national scenarios to the ORBES region is described
99
in a supplementary ORBES report. z
These varying demand growth scenarios were
overlaid by differing mixes of technological options
postulated for new generating plants to come on-line
after 1985. All plants whose sites and technologi-
cal types were announced by their utility owners on
Federal Power Commission Form 67 were incorporated
into the ORBES RTCs.23 It was necessary for the FTF
RTCs to delay the completion of announced plants in
order to accomodate the utilities' announced plans
to a lower growth rate.2/t For the BOM RTCs, two
mixes of coal-fired and nuclear-generating plants
were utilized, one 50% of each, the other 80% coal/
20% nuclear. For the FTF RTCs, few plants beyond
those already announced were required. These were
alternately chosen to be all nuclear or all coal-
fired .
These postulated new power plants were sited
that is, hypothetical locations selected, on a
county level according to a number of engineering
and locational requirements. Thus, a separate list
of counties, each with one or more power plants of
specified size and technological type to be opera-
ting by a specified year between 1975 and 2000, was
constructed for each of the four RTCs selected,2^
These lists, along with the background sociological
and economic conditions and assumed coal supply
sources, composed the four RTCs analyzed by the
three Task 2 Assessment Teams.
Assessment Studies
The Task 2 Assessment Teams functioned quasi-
independently throughout their seven months of
operation. They had complete freedom to choose
and utilize their own assessment approaches and
methodologies. While a moderate effort was made to
develop a joint data base with which to describe
the existing natural and developed status of the
region, the use to which this data base was put was
left to the discretion of the individual assessment
teams. This approach offers a high validity for the
findings and conclusions independently arrived at by
two or more of the teams. Moreover, it will give a
marked enrichment to the project's results, as more
opportunity to consider perspectives that are unique
to one or two states is provided.
The ten special studies26-35 fun(jeci within Task
4 are too numerous and detailed to describe here.
Each is available as a separate report from their
individual authors. One of these2' is the first
published attempt to operationalize a new paradigm
for social-environmental analysis developed by
Erik Cohen. ^° Others involved sophisticated computer
studies of energy transportation costs^l and skilled
labor demand and availability,2^ while another
provided a detailed analysis of the legal and
institutional framework which guides energy develop-
ment decision-making within the region. ^
SELECTED PRELIMINARY RESULTS
ORBES Phase I produced a rich array of findings
with respect to the possible future effects of
energy development in the region. In a few cases
there are differences in the conclusions drawn by
different researchers or research teams. These
differences require additional close analysis to
elucidate the influence differing input assumptions
or analysis techniques had in producing them. Other
results require further validation as research
approaches are refined. But a number of generalized
conclusions can be stated with a high degree of
confidence as Phase II is nearing completion. A
selection of these are outlined in the following
sections.
Effects on Natural Resources
The ORBES region is fortunate to have an
abundance of natural resources. Depending upon
location within the basin, surface resources range
from richly productive agricultural soils to hard-
wood forests of outstanding pastoral charm. Thirty
percent of the nation's bituminous coal resources
underlie the western portion of the region. This
236
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coal contains more chemical energy than is contained
in all the discovered petroleum reserves in Saudi
Arabia. As this coal is high in sulfur content, it
requires moderately expensive sulfur control devices
when burned in utility boilers in order to prevent
overloading the atmosphere with sulfur dioxide and
its oxidation products. The extensive Appalachian
coal province lies within and borders the region on
the east. Deposits within eastern Kentucky and sou-
thern West Virginia contain some of the nation's
highest quality coal reserves, substantial blocks of
which are held for metalurgical production.
Extracting this coal for utility use produces
a wide range of impacts upon existing surface
conditions and uses of the land. This damage, which
varies widely in degree and scope, can, in principle,
be prevented or mitigated so as to prevent serious
permanent impairment in land productivity, if
sufficient care is exercised before, during and
after the extraction activity. Underground mining,
with its potential problems of delayed but long-
term susceptability to subsidence, coal refuse piles
and acid mine drainage, would affect more land area
than would surface mining during the next two
decades. Under the BOM RTCs, about half as much
land would be committed to siting new conversion
facilities as to coal extraction, while for the FTF
RTCs, this ratio would drop to about one-fourth.
Furthermore, only about half as much land area
would be affected by extraction activities under
the FTF as under the BOM RTCs.
New requirements for transmission line
corridors would be approximately half of the FTF
and equal to the BOM RTCs' land-use requirements for
coal mining activities. These corridors are
capable of multipurpose use, although there would be
some impairment of value for other uses. The magni-
tude of effects expected from waste disposal from
coal burning and nuclear fissioning is difficult to
estimate, since the technologies which produce and
deal with these wastes are in a rapid state of flux,
as are the regulations that control these activities.
Imprudent choices with respect to the implementation
and control of technological alternatives could
create severe long-term hardships on affected locali-
ties within the region.
Possibly of equal importance in terms of
severity and extent of these enumerated changes in
land use due to energy development would be the
resulting land-use changes as this energy was utilized
to build, operate and maintain new homes, shops,
factories and transportation facilities throughout
the region. Again, current and future decisions
regarding the intensity and patterns of land-use
conversions to be made during the next two decades
will strongly affect the state of the region in the
year 2000.
Increasing conflict between energy and agricul-
tural interests is inevitable. Public policy
decisions will have to be made with respect to:
o regional vs. local controls over areas of
more than local significance;
o developing priorities for choosing among
alternative use activities;
o government involvement in encouraging new
industrial, commercial or residential
development of energy-impacted lands rather
than of prime agricultural or pastoral lands;
o public land-use planning vs. market
mechanisms to make land-use determinations;
Water withdrawal requirements within the ORBES
region for the high-growth-rate scenarios would
begin to significantly reduce tributary stream flows
during periods of low-flow. The principal water
consumption requirements come from the cooling needs
of power plant condensers. The current best
practice is to use closed cycle cooling, a process
which relies on evaporative cooling from either
cooling towers or cooling ponds. The analysis
which produced the above result ignores any future
requirement for agricultural irrigation, yet
consumptive water use for irrigation may increase
substantially during any sustained future drought
condition.
Equally important is the observation that a
significant amount of water flowing down the Ohio
River originates as rainfall outside the four-state
region. Thus, if large future increases in water
consumption in the upstream states of Pennsylvania
and West Virginia were to occur, this surplus water
would no longer be available for downstream uses
during periods of low-flow in the ORBES region.
Tracing this impact further downstream, navigation
on the Mississippi River could be significantly
constrained below its confluence with the Ohio at
Cairo under these conditions.
Effects on Developed Resources
Few constraints on energy development due to
the lack of or its effect upon developed resources
were found. High rates of growth for coal utiliza-
tion would require a rebuilding of rail lines
throughout the region to allow the movement of unit
trains; however, there would be no lack of workers
or material to accomplish this task.
Under the BOM RTCs a significant shift in the
utilities' share of regional and national capital
markets would have to occur. It is not clear whether
this shift would lead to an economically stable
condition, or whether other necessary segments of
the fuel cycle, such as coal extraction and trans-
portation, would be able to compete successfully in
the same capital markets with utilities. Failure to
do so would create coal shortages, even at escalated
prices.
Construction labor requirements under the BOM
RTCs are sufficiently high in some specialized
skills, such as boiler makers and pipefitters, that
workers indigenous to the region are not likely to
be found in sufficient numbers to meet the projected
demand. Under the 80% coal BOM RTC, the number of
new miners and related workers would have to expand
by more than seventy percent by the end of the
century in order to produce the required coal. Such
an increase would dramatically reverse historic
trends of population migration from coal production
areas. Labor supply for the FTF RTCs should be
237
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readily available within the region, with moderate
levels of recruitment and training.
Effects on Environmental Media
Water quality need not be impacted, even under
the BOM RTCs. Technology is available to control
discharges from all point sources, such as cooling
water blowdown, if there is a will to enforce
existing standards and to implement proposed future
standards. Control techniques for surface erosion
and deep mine drainage must rely on prevention
through careful planning, rather than on dedicating
perpetual treatment facilities. At low-flow, water
quality in water-short tributaries may be degraded
from existing levels because of the reduced dilution
factors that would result from increased consump-
tive uses. Existing industrial and municipal
dischargers would have to improve the quality of
their discharge effluent in order to compensate for
this effect in water quality-limited stream reaches.
The extent to which this mitigation measure would
have to be employed is subject to further analysis.
Waste disposal, particularly ash and scrubber
sludges, must be carefully engineered. These
materials contain the bulk of heavy metals and
other trace elements which naturally occur in coal
deposits, including several long-lived radionuclides.
These materials should be disposed of in such a way
that they and their leachates are permanently iso-
lated from ground and surface waters. Existing
regulations may not be adequate to promote or
guarantee the attainment of this objective.
The most significant adverse media effect would
be that predicted on air quality. The siting patterns
developed in ORBES and other studies predict that
most power plants would be sited along the main
stem of the Ohio and of its principal tribu-
taries. ' These lines of preferred power plant sites
are co-directional with the preferred movements of air
masses under persistent wind conditions.^8 Under these
conditions, power plant emissions are diluted with
previously emitted upwind power plant emissions , thus
producing a cascading effect on ambient
pollutant concentrations. Modeling of the combined
emissions from these line sources under worst case
conditions indicates that a violation of the primary
sulfur dioxide 24-hour ambient standard would likely
occur under the BOM 80% coal RTC. This violation
would occur if only the new plants to be operational
after 1985 were operating. Because the procedures
currently being utilized by the EPA regions in
reviewing new source applications are not designed
to capture this "corridor" effect, a review of these
procedures is in order, particularly for the deter-
mination of allowable increments under the Prevention
of Significant Deterioration of Air Quality (PSD)
requirements. Also indicated is the need to evaluate
this effect for regulatory efforts under EPA's air
quality maintenance program whose goal is to assure
that areas presently meeting ambient standards will
do so in the future.
Communities which allocate this allowable PSD
increment in air quality degredation to a new power
plant may not be able to absorb any increase in
economic activity from other PSD controlled point
sources. The equity in this situation becomes
clouded as a number of new upwind power plants
through their combined emissions, are allowed de
facto to capture all or a majority of the allowable
increment for a downwind community. Alternate pro-
cedural approaches to allowing this capturing of
pollution rights are to require more stringent emis-
sion controls, or to follow EPA's present policy
which is to not take full account of this cascade or
corridor effect. The result of continuing to follow
the latter alternative would be an increasing greying
of the region's air.
This situation becomes even more serious when
viewed in the perspective of atmospheric transfor-
mation of sulfur dioxide into acid sulfate aerosols
These aerosols cause more respiratory disorders
than either sulfur dioxide or particulates do
independently. Conservative rates for this
conversion process in plumes released into typical
Ohio Basin ambient air are sufficiently high that
more suspended particulate mass is produced by
this secondary process than is directly emitted in
the form of fly ash from a well-controlled plant.
The sulfate aerosol has a smaller average particle
size than primary particulate emissions. As a
result, it stays suspended in the atmosphere longer
and therefore travels farther; it is more readily
trapped in the human lung where it produces acute
and chronic effects; and it is more effective in
reducing visibility by creating atmospheric haze
or turbidity. Sulfate aerosols and nitrate
aerosols are the principal acid-forming agents in
acid precipitation, which has increased substan-
tially in the northeast over the past fifteen years.
Power plant nitrogen oxide emissions are implicated
in the formation of the nitrate aerosols that are
associated with acid rain. Although there is much
to learn concerning the role of power plant sulfur
and nitrogen oxide emissions in the formation of
undesirable secondary pollutants, and even more to
learn about the several possible effects these
secondary pollutants have on human health, material
corrosion and weathering, ecosystems' atmospheric
turbidity, agricultural production, forest growth
and geologic erosion, inferences from what is
presently known suggest that significant adverse
effects are currently being experienced from coal-
fired power plant operation in the ORBES area and
other adjacent regions. The findings of ongoing
research sponsored by EPA, ERDA, EPRI, NSF and other
funding sources should further our understanding of
these problems over the next several years.
Socioeconomic Effects
It was not possible during the first year of
ORBES to determine adequately what public and
occupational health effects might be experienced
under each RTC. Large uncertainties arise in areas
such as what the effect of currently required
control measures for coal mine dust will have on
the incidence of black lung disease cases, or what
the full effect of acid sulfate aerosols have on
the incidence or aggravation of human respiratory
and circulatory diseases. A substantial research
effort is required to remove these uncertainties,
but further efforts will be expended in the next
year of ORBES to apply our limited knowledge to
238
-------
bracketing the range of these several effects.
Policy options to deal with such uncertainties need
to be refined, and the effects of their implementa-
tion in the ORBES region require evaluation.
Some effort has been given to evaluating
possible local community reactions towards energy
development. There exist significant divergences
in individuals' perceptions about the local affects
of energy development. These differences in
perception about what a community would experience
must be overlaid with analyses of what basic
community attitudinal orientations towards change
may exist, and of what the current and recent
historical socioeconomic community needs are, in
order to predict community reactions confidently.
Only the attitudinal orientation study based on
Cohen's paradigm has been attempted. Inovative
approaches must be developed in order to forecast
local and regional community reactions to energy
development with reasonable certainty.
Regional economic activity by industrial sector
has been projected by the EPA Technology Assessment
Modeling Project (TAMP) for the ORBES region to the
year 2000. " These projections have yet to be
integrated with the other ORBES analyses. They form
the basis for predicting future air and water
pollutant release rates and for analyzing secondary
effects of constructing and operating energy conver-
sion facilities. Because of its detailed descrip-
tion of emissions from industrial sectors, TAMP is
a valuable tool for these purposes.
Most counties within the ORBES region which
possessed the engineering-related requirements for
new power plant development were judged not to be
susceptible to boom-town effects from power plant
construction. Relatively convenient access to
urban centers would allow construction workers to
commute to construction sites rather than
overcrowding local communities which may have
inadequate housing, schools, stores, entertainment,
sewage treatment, fire and police protection and
roads. For the few counties whose isolation from
urban centers may be sufficient to create a local
boom-town condition, the hardships created for
residents may be severe. Rising prices and taxes
added to local overcrowding would produce extreme
dissatisfaction among the resident population,
especially among those who depend upon fixed
incomes.
CONCLUSION
The ORBES project to date has primarily been
an issue-raising activity, an effort to broadly
scope out the possible questions and problems related
to an accelerating rate of power plant development in
the Ohio River basin. Principal among these problem
areas identified to date is that of air quality
degredation. Water availability for all projected
and anticipated uses may become a problem in the
future. Coal extraction activities could degrade
land quality and productivity for local areas, or
produce other land-use conflicts, especially with
agriculture in Illinois. Certain coal mining
practices could, if uncontrolled, continue to create
water quality problems for decades to come. Some
local discomfort from a rapid expansion of construc-
tion activities may be experienced in communities
remote from experienced labor pools.
All of these identified problems can be
reduced significantly or even eliminated. However,
most of the solutions appear to depend upon a level
of regional coordination which does not presently
exist. In this multi-state region in which the
desire for home rule is strong, development trends
have been identified which transcend the powers of
any locality, any county or any state to cope with
adequately. The many layers of planning, review
and control now operating in the region do not
individually possess sufficient authority or control
adequate resources to ensure that the public good
will be served and protected.
Ironically, the interest groups who are the
most active in their attempts to protect existing
resource values and life styles are also most
distrustful of higher levels of governments' ability
to protect the values they cherish. Yet, only
through developing and implementing a regional
strategy for guiding energy development can their
values be protected. The possible mechanisms
through which to accomplish this objective while
simultaneously meeting other local and regional
needs deserve thoughtful attention by all affected
parties.
Finally, the desire for and pursuit of the good
life on the part of many residents in the region is
in part responsible for creating the current power
plant development activity. It is this same
activity which has stimulated many citizens' concerns
about how permanent their good life is likely to
be. Understanding the dynamics which create these
paradoxes is a necessary step In bringing about
their resolution. ORBES' goal is to increase that
understanding among all affected parties.
REFERENCES
1. Report No. 94-326 of Senate Committee on
Appropriations, to accompany H.R. 8070 (July 24,
1975); p. 44.
2. See Cassidy, H. G., "A White Paper, IV; The
Clifty Creek Power Plant", (February, 1977), for a
fuller account of the history of this OVEC-owned
plant.
3. Lundstedt, S. B., H. H. Hunker, C. Leavitt,
"Subjective Quality of Life in the Ohio River
Basin as Related to Future Energy Development",
Ohio River Basin Energy Study, Vol. III-C, (The
Ohio State University, May, 1977).
4. U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Washington,
D. C., "Marble Hill Draft Environmental Impact
Statement", (March, 1976).
5. Hauck, F., "The Marble Hill Generation
Station, A Critique", (August 16, 1976),
Cassidy, H. G., "A White Paper, III; The Marble
Hill Charade", (August, 20, 1976), and "A White
Paper, V; the Marble Hill Hearings, A Tragic Farce
in Eight Acts", (June 15, 1977).
239
-------
6. Cassidy, H. G., "A White Paper, Being Concerns
of a Citizens Group about the Activities of the
United States Environmental Protection Agency and
the Behaviors of Managements of Certain Public
Utilities", (July 4, 1976).
7. Smith, L., R. H. Ball, S. Plotkin, and
F. Princiotta, "Integrated Assessment: Concept
and Limitations", Proceedings of the Conference on
Environmental Modeling and Simulation, (Environmen-
tal Protection Agency, April 19-22, 1976),
pp. 218-222.
8. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Washington, D. C., "Interagency Energy/Environment
R&D Program", (EPA-600/7-77-007, March, 1977).
9. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington
D. C., "Work Plan for an Impact Assessment of Energy
Conversion Facilities in the Ohio River Basin,
Phase I", draft, (March 30, 1976).
10. The literature on technology assessment method-
ology is extensive. See as examples, Coates, V. T.,
"Technology and Public Policy: The Process of Tech-
nology Assessment in the Federal Government",
(Washington, D. C.: Studies in Science and Technology,
2 vols., 1972); or Arnstein, S. R., and
A. N. Christakis, "Perspectives on Technology Assess-
ment", based on a workshop sponsored by the Academy
for Contemporary Problems and the National Science
Foundation, Columbus, Ohio: Academy for Contemporary
Problems; or numerous papers presented at the Second
International Congress on Technology Assessment;
Ann Arbor, Michigan, (October 25-28, 1976).
11. Stukel, J. J. and B. R. Keenan, "Experimental
Management Plan for an Impact Assessment of Energy
Conversion Facilities in the Ohio River Basin, Phase I",
(University of Illinois at Urbana and Chicago Circle,
May 19, 1976), Research proposal submitted to EPA,
Washington, D. C.
12. ORBES Newsletter No. 3, (ORBES Project Office;
Urbana, Illinois, December, 1976/January, 1977), p. 6.
13. "Ohio River Basin Energy Study; Task 1 Report:
Development of Plausible Future Regional Technology
Configurations", (ORBES Project Office, Urbana,
Illinois, October 18, 1976).
14. See ORBES Newsletters Nos. 1, 4, 5, 6, and 7,
op. cit.
15. Dupree, W. G., Jr., J. S. Corsentino, United
States Energy Through the Year 2000 (Revised),
Washington, D. C. (Bureau of Mines, Department of
the Interior, December, 1975).
16. Ford Foundation, A Time to Choose America's
Energy Future, Chapter 3, "The Technical Fix
Scenario", Final Report, The Energy Policy Project,
(Cambridge, Massachusettes, Ballinger, 1974).
17. Indiana University, The Ohio State University,
and Purdue University, "Ohio River Basin Energy Study",
Vol. II-A, Preliminary Technology Assessment Report,
(May 15, 1977).
18. University of Kentucky and University of
Louisville, "The Ohio River Basin Energy Study,
Vol. II-B, Preliminary Technology Assessment Report"
(May 15, 1977).
19. University of Illinois, "The Ohio River Basin
Energy Study, Vol. II-C, "Preliminary Technology
Assessment Report", (May 15, 1977).
20. ibid, 15
21. ibid, 16
22. Energy Resources Center, "Forecasts of Electri-
cal Power and Energy Requirements for the ORBES States
and ORBES Subregions Through the Year 2000", (Univer-
sity of Illinois at Chicago Circle, December 10, 1976).
23. Energy Resources Center, "Electrical Generation
Capability in Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, and Ohio,
and in the ORBES Region - 1975 and 1985" (University
of Illinois at Chicago Circle, October, 1976),
24. ibid, 19
25. Energy Resources Center, "Locations of Elec-
trical Generation Units Anticipated to be Constructed :
Within the Illinois Section of the ORBES Region -
1985-2000", (University of Illinois at Chicago
Circle, November, 1976).
26. Dauffenbach, R. C., T. Milkie, "Labor
Demand Impact and Labor Market Feasability of Energy
Conversion Facilities", Ohio River Basin Energy
Study, Vol. III-A, (University of Illinois, May,
1977).
27. Tybout, R., "A Benefit-Cost Analysis of Power
in the ORBES Region", Ohio River Basin Energy Study,
Vol. III-B, (The Ohio State University, May, 1977).
28. Lundstedt, S. B., H. H. Hunker, C. Leavitt,
"Subjective Quality of Life in the Ohio River Basin
as Related to Future Energy Development", Ohio River
Basin Energy Study, Vol. III-C, (The Ohio State
University, May, 1977).
29. Johnson, S., E. Weil, "Social Aspects of Power
Plant Siting", Ohio River Basin Energy Study,
Vol. III-D, (University of Kentucky, May, 1977).
30. White, N. L., J. F. Fitzgerald, "Legal
Analysis of Accountability for the Ohio River Basin",
Ohio River Basin Energy Study, Vol. III-E, (Indiana
University, May, 1977).
31 Rieber, M., "Energy Transportation/Distribu-
tion in the Ohio River Basin", Ohio River Basin
Energy Study, Vol. III-F, (University of Illinois
at Urbana/Champaign, May, 1977).
32. Brill, D. B., Jr., G. E. Stout, R. W. Fuessle,
R. M. Lyon, K. E. Wojnarowski, "Issues Related to
Water Allocation in the Lower Ohio River Basin",
Ohio River Basin Energy Study, Vol. III-G,
(University of Illinois at Urbana/Champaign, May,
1977).
240
-------
33. Bailey, R. E., R. G. Barille, D. D. Gray,
R. B. Jacko, P. 0. Leary, R. A. Rao, J. E. Reinhardt,
"Pollutant Transport Models for the ORBES Region",
Ohio River Basin Energy Study, Vol. III-H, (Purdue
University, May, 1977).
34. Leuthart, C. A., H. T. Spencer, "Radionuclide
and Metal Ion Content of Late Summer Ohio River
Sediments: McAlpine Pool", Ohio River Basin Energy
Study, Vol. III-I, (University of Louisville, May,
1977).
35. Blome, D. A., J. E. Jones, Jr., "Regional
Assessment of the Impact of Synthetic Fuel Produc-
tion", Ohio River Basin Energy Study, Vol. III-J,
(University of Kentucky, May, 1977) .
36. Cohen, Eric, "Environmental Orientationsi
A Multidimensional Approach to Social Ecology",
Current Anthropology, Vol. XIV, No. 1, (1976).
37. Teknekron, Inc., An Integrated Technology
Assessment of Electric Utility Energy Systems,
Vol. I, The Assessment, and Vol. II, Components
of the Impact Assessment Model, Draft First Year
Report. Prepared for the Office of Energy, Minerals
and Industry, Office of Research and Development,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, under Contract
No. 68-01-1921, Berkeley, California, (January, 1977).
38 . Niemann, B. L., An Integrated Technology
Assessment of Electric Utility Energy Systems,
Vol. Ill, Air Quality Impact Model and Results,
Part 1 Long-Range Transport, Draft First Year
Report, EPA Contract No. 68-01-1921, Teknekron, Inc.,
Berkeley, California, (March, 1977).
39. Meyer, R., J. Arnold, S. Kammann, M. Heller,
"Impacts of Energy Development on the Ohio River
Basin", International Research and Technology Corpo-
ration. Prepared for Office of Energy, Minerals and
Industry, Office of Research and Development, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, under Contract
No. 68-01-4309, McLean, Virginia, (May 12, 1977).
241
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ELECTRIC UTILITY ENERGY SYSTEMS
INTEGRATED TECHNOLOGY
ASSESSMENT
Lowell Smith
Office of Research and Development
Office of Energy, Minerals and Industry
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D.C.
to provide EPA with the capability to assess the
environmental, economic, institutional and social
effects of the generation of electricity and of
those activities which supply the fuels used to
produce electricity. The second goal was to assist
EPA in developing research and development programs
whose results are necessary to control the excessive
adverse side-effects of electricity production and
to more accurately determine the extent and inten-
sity of those effects. The time frame for the
assessment is the period 1975-2000.
Three policy issues were selected to guide the
development of analytical capability during the
initial phase of the ITA:
INTRODUCTION
Electricity has become a vital component of
twentieth century American life. No other energy
form in our industrialized society has achieved
such a multiplicity of uses. No other energy form
is as convenient to convert into mechnical motion,
light or heat at its point of end use. Electronic
:ommunications and information processing are
wholly dependent upon a reliable flow of electrical
energy. Industrialized society as we know it can-
30t function without copious quantities of this
vital form of energy. Yet the supply of this
essential commodity is bought at a price. This
price is not only paid in monetary terms, but
frequently is paid for in increased asthma, turbid
skies, dammed rivers, acid rain, and other myriad
side effects of electricity production.
Much attention has been given in the last
ten years to these and other problems related to
electricity production and distribution. Many
environmental effects which result from the opera-
tion of the electric utility industry have been
identified. Nonetheless, EPA's Office of Energy,
Minerals and Industry (OEMI) recognized that
comparatively little was understood about the
utility industry and its support industries as an
integrated system, a system which now pervades
nearly every niche of our manmade and natural
environments. In order to provide a clearer
understanding for those whose responsibility it
is to maintain, and in some cases, to restore the
environmental quality affected by utility opera-
tions, OEMI initiated a comprehensive study of the
electric utility system. -*•
A contract to perform this research effort,
entitled "An Integrated Technology Assessment of
Electric Utility Energy Systems (ITA), was awarded
June 30, 1975, to the Teknekron firm in Berkely,
California. It was funded as an element of the
Integrated Assessment Program-^ which is a component
of the Energy/Environment Interagency R&D Program.^
The ITA as originally conceived was to require
three years to complete. It was to be a compre-
hensive study on a national and regional level of
the air, water and solid waste pollutants associ-
ated with all aspects of electricity production
and of how these pollutants affect human health
and welfare and natural ecosystems.
The ITA had two primary goals. The first was
0 What interim sulfate strategy should EPA
adopt? The strategy should focus on con-
trolling emissions of sulfur dioxide and of
other possible precursors and catalysts
contributing to sulfate formation. Where
uncertainty exists on each factor's full
contribution, the strategy must incorporate
an acceptable level of risk aversion and
take into account the current state of know-
ledge about sulfate formation, transport
and effects.
0 What strategy should EPA adopt in response
to the continuing curtailments of natural
gas supplies to electric generating plants?
0 How appropriate is EPA's "significant risk"
criterion for judging the acceptability of
converting gas or oil-fired plants to coal?
The first of these issues was given primary atten-
tion, although the three are tightly interrelated.
Each emphasizes atmospheric rather than aquatic
emissions. Another dominant feature of all three
issues is their recognition of a trend towards
increased reliance upon coal-fired fossil fuel
plants in the near term.
Early in the assessment process it was decided
that the complex nature of electric utility energy
systems required a descriptive model that would
reflect their behavior under a variety of external
influences. Such a model, the Impact Assessment
Model (IAM), has been developed and exercised in
the first phase of the ITA. This paper describes
the principal features of the IAM, atmospheric
transport analysis and selected assessment
results. The IAM simulates pollution releases
associated with electrical generation and the
economic impacts of alternative policies for pol-
lution control on the utility industry and elec-
tricity consumers. The atmospheric transport
analysis focuses on regional atmospheric transport
processes which, under adverse meteorological con-
ditions, can significantly impact air quality hun-
dreds of kilometers from the area of emission
releases.
ITA DESCRIPTION
The underlying conceptual framework for the
ITA is shown in Figure 1, It embodies four key
elements:
243
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ECONOMIC
CONDITIONS
AND ENERGY
POLICY
ENVIRONMENTAL
POLICY
ISSUES
EPA AUTHORITY,
COURT
INTERPRETATION
IMPROVED
FORECASTS
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
FORECASTING
TECHNIQUES
ENERGY
TECHNOLOGY
CLEANER
FUELS,
NEW COMBUSTION
TECHNIQUES
POLLUTION CONTROL,
TRANSPORT, EFFECTS,
AND DAMAGE
BETTER
DATA,
MODELS,
MEASUREMENTS
IDENTIFY
RESEARCH
NEEDS
DECISION TO
ACT
NOW
'RESPONSIBILITIES
AND CONSTRAINTS
FORMULATE DIFFERENT
OR TIME-PHASED
ALTERNATIVES
WAIT:
REVIEW
ALTERNATIVES
Figure 1. Conceptual framework for the electric utility ITA
0 Selection of policy issues and development
of scenarios that illustrate alternative
EPA strategies for addressing the issues;
0 Use of models, data bases and analytical
techniques to estimate each scenario's
economic and environmental impacts over
time;
0 Analysis of the impact and estimates and,
where necessary, formulation of new strate-
gies to mitigate adverse impacts; and
0 Recommendations for research and development
where impacts cannot be predicted with
adequate confidence.
Impact Assessment Model
The IAM accepts as input a comprehensive
scenario which specifies the economic, environmental
and energy supply assumptions for the future. To
compress the size of the data bases required, the
IAM treats the individual utility firms in a given
state as though they were one of two firms; one
investor-owned, the other publicly-owned. The IAM
operates each such state "firm" over the required
time period under the selected scenario conditions
in order to identify its economic and environmental
behavior. The fundamental structure of the IAM is
shown in Figure 2. It consists of six principal
processing components:
The DEMAND component converts a scenario-
specific national demand for electricity
(specified by growth rates in both peak and
energy use) into demand for each state-firm,
considering specific state population growth
rates. Also, it projects peak and overall
energy demands that will have to be met
entirely by generation owned by the state-
firm as well as projecting the state-firm's
future levels of retail and wholesale sales
and purchases.
Figure 2. The impact assessment model
° The PLANNING component projects the techni-
cal characteristics that the state-firm must
have in future years to meet demands, begin-
ning the projection with existing systems
and current plans and considering energy
and environmental restrictions. In addi-
tion, it projects the state firm's fuel
choices and pollution-control strategy,
estimating their impacts on the firm's
generating capacity and on the need for new
construction to replace lost capacity.
244
-------
0 The DISPATCH component apportions energy
production among the state-firm's different
types of generating facilities on the basis
of least marginal operating cost, considering
the load patterns of typical days in dif-
ferent seasons as modified by the scenario's
specification of either future improvements
or future deterioration of system load
factors.
° The RESIDUALS component projects the state-
firm's actual usage of specific fuel, using
the technical characteristics projected by
PLANNING and the production allocations
assigned by DISPATCH; then it determines
the resulting releases of pollutants into
the environment. It also, projects the
firm's water consumption. In estimating
the release rates it considers an exten-
sive list of air pollutants and solid
wastes.
0 The FINANCIAL component projects production
expenses (from DISPATCH and RESIDUALS) with
construction expenditures both for new
productive facilities and for pollution
control (from PLANNING) and with projected
sales and power-purchase levels from DEMAND.
By using data on the state-firm's financial
status in the base year, it projects the
firm's balance sheet earnings statements,
sources and uses of funds and other finan-
cial statistics.
These computer models interact so as to give
economic impacts at the state and national level
.'"for:
0 capital requirements (new facilities,
pollution control)
0 electricity prices and utility revenues
° utility operating costs
capacity mix
0 other financial data.
and environmental impacts at the county, state and
national level for:
0 fuel consumption
0 rates of pollutant releases
population-at-risk distributions
consumption of process and cooling water at
critical points in fuel cycle
These results are made available for analysis by
the Air Quality Impact Assessment Model (AQM).
Air Quality Impact Assessment Model
The AQM, still under development, forms the
•analytical link between the pollutants emitted to
the atmosphere and populations exposed to primary
pollutants (those directly emitted) and secondary
'• pollutants (those formed in the atmosphere from
other pollutants). The first function of the
!AQM is to analyze the lAM's projected primary
pollutant releases according to:
unit age
probable release height
season
0 diurnal emission curve
° geographical distribution
The AQM then determines the volume of air
available for pollutant dilution and reaction,
the probable maximum impact sectors downwind, and
the resultant sulfur dioxide and sulfate concen-
trations for selected regions of interest because
of their current or projected high power plant
emissions.
Meteorological analysis techniques utilized
include:
° persistence analysis
0 trajectory analysis
0 synoptic air mass movement analysis
0 sector box modeling
0 multi-point source sector box modeling
Persistence analysis provides a relatively inexpen-
sive approach to identifying those source-receptor
situations which continue for ten to twenty hours.
Analysis of synoptic air mass movements (stagnating
anti-cyclones) identifies episodic conditions in
which long-range transport plays a significant
role. Trajectory analysis is applied to situations
intermediate between these two extremes and for
studying the movement of air parcels of particular
interest within a stagnating anti-cyclone.
Scenario Element Description
Scenario elements for the ITA fall into the
three general categories of environmental policy,
energy policy and economic conditions. Because
the energy policy element and the economic
conditions element must be consistently specified
for any scenario, it is possible to collapse these
two scenario dimensions into one. Scenarios selec-
ted for analysis during the first phase of the ITA
are shown in Figure 3.
ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY
• Control Policy
• Siting Constraints
• Control Technology
• Relaxed Controls (LAX)
• Business as Usual (BAU)
• Clean Air Act Revisions (CAR)
• Strict Precursor Controls (SPC)
• Availability of Cleaned Coals
ENERGY FUTURE
• Fuel Policy
• Generation Technology
• Reference (REF)
• Conservation (CON)
• Increased Oil Use (IOU)
• Electrification (ELC)
• High Coal Use (HCU)
Figure 3
Scenario elements
(continued)
245
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Figure 3 (continued)
ECONOMIC CONDITIONS
• Macroeconomic Conditions
• Electricity Demand
• Utility Financing
• Rate Regulation
• Moderate Growth (MGR)
• High Growth (HGR)
The four environmental policy elements
studied are:
Relaxed Controls (LAX)
0 Objective - To establish a financial base-
line with which to compare the economic
impacts of pollution-control alternatives.
It is assumed that no federal legislation
limiting air emissions has been enacted
and that particulate emissions are subject
only to moderate limitations under local
ordinances.
0 Policy Instrument - 90-percent removal of
particulates from coal-fired boilers
required by local ordinances.
Business as Usual (BAD)
0 Objective - To illustrate a scenario of
moderate control levels and costs. This
alternative approximates current regulations
for the control of pollution from steam
electric plants.
° Policy Instruments - Current State Implemen-
tation Plans (SIPs) - Current New Source
Performance Standards (NSPS)
- Siting prohibited in nonattainment areas
(areas in which there is presently an
officially recognized violation of primary
ambient air quality standards)
- No mandatory control technology required
for new sources other than what is required
to meet NSPS.
Clean Air Act Revisions (CAR)
Objective - To illustrate the impact of a
Non-Significant Deterioration (NSD) policy
reflecting proposed congressional amend-
ments to the Clean Air Act. This alternative
is characterized by a restrictive siting
policy and by one interpretation of what
constitutes Best Available Control Techno-
logy (BACT). Siting is prohibited in areas
where deterioration of air quality cannot
be tolerated (for example, national parks
and other federal lands) and in nonattain-
ment areas. Flue gas desulfurization is
required for all new sources on line after
1981 as an integral part of a strategy to
protect and enhance air quality.
° Policy Instruments - Current SIPs
- Current NSPS
- Siting is prohibited in Class I and non-
attainment areas. Because siting is not
allowed in any county that contains any
part of a Class I area, an overestimate of
land area proscribed from development is
obtained.
- For new sources on line after 1981, BACT
is required for S02. This is interpreted
to mean mandatory scrubbers having a 90
percent removal efficiency.
Strict Precursor Controls (SPC)
0 Objective - To illustrate the potential
impact of an air quality standard for
sulfates through the use of very stringent
controls on S02, particulates, and NO -
precursors for which standards already exist,
This policy alternative recognizes a regional
approach to coal utilization, the need to
better control existing sources in order to
obtain significant near-term air quality
improvement, and the desire to minimize
scrubber retrofit costs where possible. It
characterizes an interim sulfate strategy
aimed at reducing sulfates through near-
term reduction of S02 emissions without
imposing extreme economic penalties on the
utilities.
0 Policy Instruments
- SIPs are modified on a regional basis,
making them stricter in the eastern and
interior sections of the country. Emission
limits are used and utilities are allowed
some choice in meeting them, depending on
the relative costs of using low-sulfur coal,
cleaning coal or retrofitting scrubbers.
The eastern regional strategy requires that
S02 emissions be reduced to the minimum
level achievable by physical cleaning of
eastern coal. Utilities respond by clean-
ing local coal or retrofitting scrubbers.
The Western strategy requires that S02
emissions be reduced to the level specified
in current (already strict) SIPs. Naturally
for new sources, BACT supersedes NSPS as an
approach to the control of both S02 and NOX.
This means mandatory use of 90-percent effi-
cient scrubbers and the use of combustion
modifications to reduce uncontrolled NOX
emissions by approximately 60 percent.
National policy would also require that
NOX be controlled by retrofitting existing
sources with appropriate combustion modi-
fications by 1985, such that current NSPS
level of performance will be met. The
policy also prohibits siting in Class I areas
and nonattainment areas.
There are five energy policy elements studied;
The Reference element posits a baseline, with
moderate growth in peak demand exceeding growth
in energy demand by 0.5 percent. The future capa-
city mix reflects the utilities' forecasted capa-
city additions.
246
-------
The Conservation element is an alternative
similar to the Reference case in projected capa-
city mix but postulates an energy demand growth
rate of 4.9 percent. Two variations are specified
for peak demand: compared to the growth in energy
demand, growth in peak demand is either (a) 0.5
percent higher, or (b) 1.0 percent lower.
The Increased Oil Use (IOU) element is simi-
lar to the Reference case except that future capa-
city additions reflect an increased use of oil.
The Electrification (ELC) element is similar
to the Reference case but posits a higher growth
rate in energy demand (6.4 percent). Here peak
demand growth exceeds emergy demand growth by 0.5
percent annually.
The High Coal Use (HCU) element is similar
to the Reference case except that any capacity
additions beyond those presently announced reflect
an increased reliance on coal.
The two economic condition elements postu-
lated are a moderate growth rate and a high
growth rate of GNP. Under the moderate growth
rate of GNP, a rate of inflation characteris-
tic of current economic conditions, and a moderate
cost of debt are assumed. The high GNP growth
rate case postulates a higher rate of inflation
characteristic of a stimulated economy. It also
assumes a higher interest rate for cost of utility
debt.
For the analyses described in this paper
all energy scenario elements except ELC assume
a moderate economic growth rate, while the ELC
scenario assumes a higher economic growth rate.
These economic growth rate assumptions are
consistent with historical experience. It
should be kept in mind that this historical
experience was gained over a period of declining
real prices for electricity, and thus may not
be a reliable guide for the future. Nonetheless,
those factors which could be anticipated to drive
electricity demand up are likely to produce the
conditions contained in the high growth rate
scenario element.
PHASE I RESULTS
Selected combinations of these scenario
elements were fed into the IAM. The results of
these scenario runs were analyzed for their
regional implications, and appropriate use of the
AQM was made to suggest where major developing
problem areas for mid-range and long-range atmos-
pheric transport of power plant pollutants will
occur.
JAM Results
0 HOW WILL ALTERNATE ENVIRONMENTAL POLICIES
AFFECT REGIONAL COAL PRODUCTION?
Production of low-sulfur western coal will
remain near capacity if existing sulfur dioxide
limits stay in effect. Under current (1975)
relative costs, and in the absence of major trans-
portation constraints, the flow of coal into
the Midwest will be substantial and will continue
to grow. States east of the Mississippi that may
import low-sulfur western coal to meet current S02
emission limits include Illinois, Indiana, Michi-
gan, Wisconsin and Ohio. More stringent controls,
such as those found in the proposed amendments to
the Clean Air Act, may increase reliance on flue
gas desulfurization and thereby substantially re-
duce demand for western coal under that predicted
in this base case (REF/BAU). Nevertheless, the
demand for western coal in 1990 is likely to rise
to three or four times the quantity supplied in
1975, even under the strictest environmental
control scenario.
The demand for coals of very low sulfur con-
tent, regardless of region of origin, is extremely
sensitive to environmental policy. The current
New Source Performance Standards bring the
industry very close to the "breaking point," in
the sense that further tightening will force
widespread use of flue gas desulfurization for
new units, thereby dropping the demand for low-
sulfur coal significantly below the level other-
wise predicted for 1985-1990. This result supports
the coal industry's position that uncertainty
about future S02 limits is hampering the develop-
ment of new, capital-intensive, low sulfur-coal
mines.
° HOW WILL ALTERNATIVE ENERGY AND ENVIRON-
MENTAL POLICIES AFFECT EMISSIONS OF AIR
POLLUTANTS?
Existing S02 controls will not be sufficient
to keep sulfur emissions from increasing nationally
from 1980 to 2000. Tighter controls on new
sources could keep total emissions "flat"
nationally, even though there would be regional
increases, particularly in the West. Revision
of State Implementation Plans in the East and Mid-
west to force more extensive use of existing re-
serves of low-sulfur coals and coal washing tech-
nology could reduce total S02 emissions by 1985
to about one half of what they would otherwise
be assuming only moderate growth in energy demand
and without forcing widespread retrofitting of
flue gas desulfurization.
The natural gas curtailment region (defined
as Texas, Arkansas, Oklahoma, Louisiana, Kansas
and California) will become an increasingly impor-
tant source of S02 emissions. If current energy
and environmental policies continue, this region's
contribution to the nation's S02 burden will
increase from 10 percent in 1980 to 22 percent in
the year 2000.
Existing particulate controls are capable of
constraining total national power-plant particu-
late emissions to a very slight growth rate over
the 1980-2000 period, assuming only moderate growth
in energy demand. Retrofitting of nitrogen oxide
controls will be necessary to keep total
emissions from power generation from increasing
substantially between 1980 and 2000. Otherwise,
under current control requirements NOX emissions
from power plants will increase by a factor of
fifty percent during the 1980-2000 period.
247
-------
0 HOW WILL ALTERNATIVE ENVIRONMENTAL POLICIES
AFFECT ELECTRICITY COSTS? (See Figure 4)
Under current air-pollution control require-
ments, approximately 54 percent of S02 emissions
from power plants will be controlled by 1990. If
very stringent controls are required, approximately
86 percent of S02 emission and 40 percent of NOX
emissions can be controlled. But the increase in
per capita revenues required for power plant pollu-
tion control in 1990 for the more stringent con-
trols will be double that required for current
controls.
Assuming a relatively high rate of growth in
demand for electricity and application of best
available control technology for S02, per capita
expenditures for electricity in 1990 will be
approximately 20 percent higher than under current
energy policy and relaxed pollution control
requirements. Expenditures would be 25 percent
higher under this increased electricity demand
scenario combined with even more stringent environ-
mental control requirements. These greater expen-
ditures represent the combined effects of the
increased costs t6 electrify and the cost of pollu-
tion control.
The increased investment required by 1990 for
water-pollution control will be about the same as
that projected for the current program of air-
pollution control. Although unit costs of
control are lower for water pollution than for
air pollution, water-pollution control must be
applied to both nuclear and fossil units, including
some retrofit of existing plants. However, because
operating costs for water-pollution control are
small compared to those for air-pollution control
the increase in required revenues is considerably
lower.
Results similar to these are available on a
state and regional level, where special circum-
stances may produce variances from these national
trends.
0 WHAT ARE THE BENEFITS OF INCREASED USE OF
CLEANED COALS?
Mechanical coal cleaning (washing), with an
average energy recovery of 88 percent, can substan-
tially reduce the need for flue gas desulfurization
under current emission limits. For example, under
present energy and envionmental policies, coal
cleaning can reduce the fraction of coal-fired
capacity needing flue gas desulfurization in 1990
by more than half. This reduction would result in
a significant decrease in the amount of scrubber
sludge to be disposed of near power plants, but
would entail a substantial increase in the amount
of coal cleaning waste to be disposed of near mine
sites.
O
cc
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z
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z
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CL
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50 -
40 -
*~ o
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THE NATION
502
SO,
ttUM
NOx
NOx
- 90
- 75
- 60.
•o
m
31
o
m
H
O
m
m
o
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- 15
REF-BAU-U
REF-EAU-C
REF-CAR
REF-SPC
Figure 4. Per capita costs in 1990 with related emissions reductions under progressively strict controls
248
-------
:;.. National per capita expenditures for air-pollu-
!• ion control under both current energy policy
;;; which assumes a relatively high future depen-
dence on nuclear capacity) and a policy of high
:-.oal use will be less in 1990 if industry expands
•',ts use of cleaned coals. The cumulative revenues
.eeded from 1976 to 1990 to cover the costs of
ir-pollution control (on a national level) if
oal cleaning is expanded will be about $4.5
• illion less under a high coal use policy. The
savings are due to the difference between the
: .osts of using cleaned coals and the costs of
.sing uncleaned coals plus flue gas desulfuriza-
ion. Regionally, this use of cleaned coals will
-.ave its greatest impact on the eastern third of
he United States. Under current energy and
nvironmental policies, the clean coal demanded in
,990 will amount to 94 million tons, compared to
he 93 million tons, of run-of-mine coal that were
"lechanically cleaned in 1974.
Much of the currently cleaned coal is
: iroduced for the metallurgical coal market. None
-'if the existing steam coal cleaning facilities are
.esigned or operated to optimize sulfur removal.
-'hus, there exists a large potential for Appa-
.achian coal to meet moderate S02 emission
-''equirements if the required investments in
;lechanical coal cleaning facilities were made.
0 HOW WILL ALTERNATIVE ENERGY AND ENVIRON-
MENTAL POLICIES AFFECT THE GENERATING MIX?
Current utility plans for installing new base-
Load generating units by 1985 imply a growth in
ilectricity demand which exceeds that used in
ill the scenarios but the ELC. Consequently,
;here may be a considerable deferral of planned
mits beyond the dates announced by the affected
itilities, and this dampens the emphasis postulated
Ln the scenarios on either coal or nuclear capacity
:o come on line after 1985. Under current emission
Limitations, and with peak demand continuing to
>row more rapidly than average demand, a shift
:oward coal use at the expense of those nuclear
mits not already in the planning stage will
lot have a great impact on total controlled
Missions. For example, S02 emissions will be
ip 12 percent in 1990 and up by 20 percent in
'WOO.
Should the growth rate of peak demand continue
to exceed that for average energy demand for
;5lectricity, increased oil use combined with
current air-pollution controls will cut costs.
Compared with the current energy policy and
relaxed controls, this high-oil-use future will
require a smaller increase in analyzing per capita
revenues than will result from the current energy
'policy and existing controls. The greatest impact
3f these cost savings will be felt in the eastern
Jnited States and in the natural gas curtailment
region.
WHAT ARE THE FINANCIAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL
IMPLICATIONS OF DEMAND MANAGEMENT THROUGH
ELECTRICITY CONSERVATION AND LOAD
FLATTENING?
(See Figure 5)
With current pollution controls, energy con-
servation initiatives aimed at flattening load
peaks may actually increase S02 and particulate
emissions, assuming coal-fired units will
continue to supply a good share of baseload
capacity. This increase in emissions results
from the relative increase in use of existing
plants that have a higher emission rate per unit
electricity produced than new plants built to
meet increased peak loads would have.
Reducing the peak and average demand electri-
city and requiring stricter air-pollution
controls than those currently in effect in
order to curb increased emissions from load
flattening would result in a reduction of per
capita revenues required in 1990 by more than
$20, compared to what they would have been under
current energy policy and no increased stringency
of air-pollution control requirements. With no
increase in pollution control requirements, the
reduction in per capita revenues required in
1990 would be greater than $80 due to load
flattening.
Thus, the current interest in reversing the
present trend for peak demand to grow faster than
average electrical energy demand must be combined
with positive steps to reduce the rate of pollu-
tants released per unit of energy produced from
existing plants in order for this "conservation"
measure to have a favorable impact on air quality.
The potential revenue savings from load flatten-
ing is more than sufficient to pay the increased
environmental control costs if excessive load
management costs can be avoided in achieving
this goal. Yet, because the regulatory mechanism
for regulating pollutant emissions is entirely
different from that for initiating load flatten-
ing measures, there is no assurance that the
"saved" revenues would be available for increased
pollution control, or that the increased controls
would even be required of these plants. This
situation is further complicated by the fact that
these "saved" revenues will not actually be col-
lected under the load flattening scenario be-
cause the extra capacity would not be built and
put into the rate base. It may be easier in many
jurisdictions to raise rates for new capacity
additions than to clean up the emissions from
older generating plants.
These and other similar results obtainable
from scenario analysis by the IAM are useful for
detailing what regional and national problems may
emerge due to the operation of electric utility
energy systems over the remainder of the century.
But more analysis is required to outline their
full extent. The AQM plays an essential role in
the critical area of atmospheric conversion and
transport of power plant related emissions.
AQM Results:
The focus of this discussion will be on the
sulfate problem currently experienced in the
24-state EPA-designated sulfate region. More
249
-------
CO
UJ
o
2
60 -
50 -
LU CC
pf
cc z <
tf O -!
40 -
30 -
O -i in
I- O £
o. O
Q <
5*0
LLJ
EC
Q.
O
EC
LLJ
O.
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10 -
SO 2
SO 2
NOx
CON-BAU
SO 2
SO 2
NOx
CON*-BAU
-35.3
NOx
- 90
- 75
-60
-45
-30
-15
O
m
Q
m
m
D
n
H
O
M
m
2
O
M
REF-SPC
21.2
-82.7
Figure 5. Per capita costs in 1990 with related emission reductions under load flattening
research results on the formation and transport
of sulfates must be obtained before a definitive
policy for sulfate control can be developed.
However, the IAM and AQM are capable of providing
information to assist EPA in the formulation of
interim sulfate policies. The IAM and AQM can
help define those geographic areas where
presently acceptable sulfate levels may become
unacceptable and where presently unacceptable
levels may become intolerable.
It can help identify those areas which
contribute to the sulfate problem and those which
are recipients of the problem, and how this mix
might change in the future under alternative energy
and environmental scenarios. It can help rank
areas according to their need for regulation,
and can suggest which specific policies are most
appropriate for local, state and/or Federal
implementation. In summary, the IAM and AQM have
the capacity to analyze future trends in sulfate
concentration levels in order to identify the
location of future problems so that EPA can
develop priorities, policy options and implemen-
tation strategies most appropriate for each
problem area.
Analysis of emerging sulfate problems and
the development of EPA initiatives to deal with
these problems requires that the following
activities be undertaken:
First, it is necessary to identify those
areas which currently experience excessive sulfate
levels.
Then the future emission levels in each Air
Quality Control Region (AQCR) of interest for the
sulfate precursors, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen
oxides, and particulates, and the resultant ozone
concentration must be projected.
Next, those AQCRs should be identified where
future sulfate concentrations will be comparatively
high, given the present sulfate concentrations and
future projections for precursor emissions and
concentrations.
250
-------
Thus, it is possible to designate AQCR
"clusters" with future sulfate problems by taking
into account the nature and extent of sulfate
transport characteristics. This information
should be sufficient to develop control strategies
which are appropriate to the particular circum-
; stances identified.
0 WHICH AQCRs PRESENTLY HAVE HIGH LEVELS
OF ATMOSPHERIC SULFATES?
The AQCRs with the highest measured sulfate
concentrations in 1974 have been idenitified.
Sulfate concentrations were collected for the
thirty-four states comprising the expanded EPA
sulfate region and the natural gas and curtailment
region (California, Texas, Oklahoma plus the 31
easternmost states) . Over half of the AQCRs
in this study area either have no sulfate data or
their data are unreliable. (AQCR data had to be
available for six or more months of the reporting
year, including at least three of the four seasons,
before it was considered reliable.)
Those AQCRs where data on sulfate concentra-
tions are missing and those where reporting is
inadequate have been identified.* To permit more
accurate assessment of the extent of the current
sulfate problem and to accurately monitor sulfate
levels in the future, EPA and the states will
have to upgrade their measurement capabilities in
those AQCRs for which inadequate sulfate data are
available.
WHAT ARE THE PROJECTED FUTURE EMISSION
LEVELS OF SO£
POWER PLANTS?
N0x AND PARTICULATES FROM
AQCRs with high S02 concentrations reported
in 1974 have been compared with the geographical
distribution of those AQCRs with the greatest
projected increases of S02 emissions from power
plants between 1980 and 1995 as well as with
the highest projected increases in NOX particu-
late emissions for these years. While the
present sulfate problems are most severe in
the Ohio River Valley, the greatest increases in
future sulfate precursor emissions are concentrated
in the south central portion of the country.
:Analysis of these emission projections relying
; on existing sulfate regional problem areas for
insights suggests that the significant increase
in coal use anticipated in the south central
states may produce a new sulfate problem region.
° WHICH AQCRs ARE LIKELY TO EXPERIENCE OR
TO CONTRIBUTE TO HIGH REGIONAL CONCENTRA-
TIONS BY 1995?
The identification of future high sulfate
regions and the development of appropriate control
strategies can be analyzed more readily by
identifying those AQCRs that are likely major
donors and/or recipients of atmospheric sulfates.
This is not to say that locally generated precur-
sor emissions do not contribute to local sulfate
problems. It is clear, however, that some areas
which produce only modest amounts of precursor
emissions experience disproportionately high levels
of sulfates due to a downwind location from major
donor areas—the "long-range transport" problem.
Sulfate problem areas include AQCRs which emit
high levels of precursors as well as those which may
have low precursor emissions but high sulfate con-
centrations because of a downwind location with
respect to a donor AQCR. An effective strategy
must recognize that there are both villains and
victims with respect to atmospheric sulfates and
effective regulatory policies require that both be
identified and linked, one to the other. Sulfate
concentrations and precursor emissions data are
combined on an AQCR level with characteristics
regarding power plant stack height and the
existence of meterological conditions favorable to
long-range transport. An unambiguous designation
of "donor" or "receptor" is not possible in all
cases yet many such classifications of AQCRS can
be made for sulfate analysis purposes. The high-
est emission counties for precursor emissions (S02
and NOX) under a large number of alternate
scenario combinations have been identified. These
counties, which also tend to have higher ozone
concentrations, form the donor counties for
analysis purposes.
0 WHAT CLUSTERS OF CONTIGUOUS AQCRs CAN BE
IDENTIFIED WHICH MAY HAVE HIGH FUTURE
SULFATE CONCENTRATIONS?
Three major and two minor clusters have been
identified. The first major cluster, from Illi-
nois eastward to Pennsylvania and New York
suggests a reinforcement of the existing sulfate
problem. The second cluster appears in the
southeast where isolated sulfate problems at
present can be expected to spread, compounded by
the relatively frequent air stagnation due to anti-
cyclonic atmospheric conditions. The third cluster
suggests an emerging sulfate problem in the south
central states, forming from emissions generated
in Texas and Louisiana. The growing AQCR clusters
imply deteriorating sulfate conditions in the
future under a wide range of scenario assumptions,
unless corrective control measures are applied.
CONCLUSION
This selection of results are indicative
of the capabilities of these analytical tools.
They are especially adaptable to answering
questions such as: What are the expected changes
in sulfate levels in 1990 if the New Source Per-
formance Standard for coal-fired electric utility
boilers for S02 emissions is changed in 1978? or,
What are the economic effects on the industry of
changed S02 and particulate New Source Performance
Standards? Expansions and refinements now in
progress will allow even more complex assessments
to be accomplished in the near future.
*0klahoma, Iowa, Virginia, and West Virginia are
four states in the study area which contain no
AQCR with reliable data.
251
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REFERENCES
1. RFP No. WA 75x-127, Commerce Business Daily,
(March, 1975).
2. EPA Contract No. 68-01-1921.
3. Smith, L., R. H. Ball, S. Plotkin and
F. Princiotta, "Integrated Assessment: Concept
and Limitations," Proceedings of the Conference
on Environmental Modeling and Simulation, (Envi-
ronmental Protection Agency, April 19-22, 1976),
pp. 218-222.
4. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Washington, D. C., "Interagency Energy/Environment
R&D Program," (EPA-600/7-77-007, March, 1977).
5. Teknekron, Inc., "First Year Work Plan: An
Integrated Technology Assessment of Electric
Utility Energy Systems," Prepared for the Office
of Energy, Minerals and Industry, Office of
Research and Development, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Berkeley, California,
December 15, 1975).
6. Teknekron, Inc., An Integrated Technology
Assessment of Electric Utility Energy Systems,
Vol. I, The Assessment, and Vol. II, Components
of the Impact Assessment Model, Draft First Year
Report. Prepared for the Office of Energy,
Minerals and Industry, Office of Research and
Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Berkeley, California, (January, 1977).
7. Niemann, B. L., An Integrated Technology
Assessment of Electric Utility Energy Systems,
Vol. Ill, Air Quality Impact Model and Results,
Part 1 - Long-Range Transport, Draft First Year
Report, Teknekron, Inc., Berkeley, California,
(March, 1977).
252
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INTEGRATED ASSESSMENT
H. Russell Mickey, Malcolm C. Babb
Hubert Hinote, and Douglas H. Walters
Tennessee Valley Authority
Chattanooga, Tennessee
INTRODUCTION
The Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) is
responsible for many regional development programs.
Its fertilizer development program is national and
international in scope, and its electric power
system, which will have a generating capacity of 30
MWe by the end of 1977, is the largest in the
Nation.
A number of analysis processes are involved in
(1) forecasting energy needs in a large (207,200-
km2) region, (2) planning and designing systems,
(3) constructing power plants and transmission
lines, and (4) operating the complex system econo-
mically. Because all these tasks must be accom-
plished within a stringent legislative and
regulatory climate, there is a need for methodo-
logies that will improve and accelerate analysis
processes wherever possible to avoid the dis-
economies of delay. Developing such methodologies
is TVA's purpose in the three tasks selected under
the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) pass-
through Integrated Assessment program. The se-
quential objectives of the three projects, in
precis form, are as follows:
1. To improve methods of forecasting the amount
of electric power that will be needed and the
time and place at which that power must be
supplied.
2. Given the alternative systems implied by
task 1, to develop better models for expressing
the residuals from each alternative.
3. Given the residuals, to develop better methods
for reiterative impact and cost analysis—in
this case, to explore interactive computer
graphics as a means to expedite analysis work.
DEVELOPMENT OF A REGIONAL ECONOMIC MODEL
During the late 1960s, considerable emphasis
was placed on developing national and regional
economic models, but for various reasons, most of
the regional models did not prove useful as prac-
tical planning tools. Development of the TVA model
is based on experience gained in this earlier work.
Economic development and change in a region
depend on national, regional, and local forces, and
certain interactions of policies and programs
within the region can (1) change the set of
national-regional relationships or (2) cause the
total change in the region to differ for a given
set of national-regional relationships. Conse-
quently, an interrelated system for making long-
range forecasts of economic and demographic factors
(population, households, employment, and income) is
necessary to account for these interactions and to
give some dimension to the changes in results that
are expected from changes in the key variables.
The TVA economic simulation model was developed and
is being expanded to (1) account for the impact of
national and regional forces on the regional
economy and, subsequently, energy demand and (2)
determine the potential effects of policies and
programs on regional conditions. For example,
changes in population and employment are sensitive
to changes in national and regional conditions; but
the degree of sensitivity of those changes and the
effects they may have on energy demand are unknown.
How will an increase or decrease in family size or
a national increase or decrease in employment
impact an industry that is energy-intensive
(primary metals) as opposed to one that is
nonenergy-intensive (apparel)? What can be ex-
pected to happen to the region if better highway
linkage is provided to surrounding markets, rela-
tive wage costs change, or relative energy costs
change?
Answers to these and similar questions are
essential for planning energy (and environmental)
systems. Therefore, our specific objective is to
develop a model that will (1) provide a consistent
annual set of long-term economic and demographic
projections that reflect anticipated changes in the
business cycle; (2) assess regional sensitivity to
national economic variables such as growth or
decline in specific industries; (3) assess the
impact in small (multicounty) areas of a large
construction project (e.g., a large nuclear energy
generating plant); and (4) provide a macroeconomic
data base at a multicounty level for land-use
planning and site assessment.
Much of the conceptual work has been done, and
an operational model has been developed for the TVA
power service area (170 counties in parts of seven
states). The model has been designed for the area
as a whole or for homogeneous economic subregions
for which input data can be developed. At the
present stage of development, the operational model
consists of two principal components: (1) a sub-
model for population, labor force, and households
and (2) a submodel for employment. Output of the
current model consists of population by age (six
categories) and race (two categories), net migra-
tion, labor force, households, and employment in
six manufacturing and five nonmanufacturing
categories.
Operation of the model revealed that it did
not contain enough detail, especially in the
employment categories, to satisfy the needs of
energy system planning; projections for the energy
system depend on such factors as whether growth
will occur in aluminum plants (energy-intensive) or
metal fabrication or apparel plants (not as energy-
intensive) . Therefore, recent developmental work
has concentrated on improving and expanding the
manufacturing portion of the employment submodel.
The goal of the recent work was to expand the
253
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model to include the two-digit Standard Industrial
Classification (SIC) level of detail in the manu-
facturing sector. Equations have been formulated
by econometric techniques for the 20 two-digit SIC
manufacturing industries. Preliminary versions of
these equations have been inserted into the model.
Figures 1 and 2 compare actual employment growth in
the power service area with the growth predicted by
the model for some two-digit SICs for the period
1960-1974 and show the model's annual projections
to the year 2000 based on a certain set of assump-
tions about national and regional economic
conditions.
Work is also in progress to improve the formu-
lation of the migration equations used in the
submodel for population, labor force, and house-
holds. Because the South recently has experienced
significant immigration, which affects population
size and the number of households, improving that
portion of the model is important to provide better
estimates for energy system planning. Work is also
in progress to improve the trades and services
portion of the employment submodel.
At its present stage of development, the model
provides projections for the power service area and
allows assessment of the region's sensitivity to
national economic conditions. However, additional
research and development are necessary before the
model can provide the maximum potential input into
planning energy and environmental systems. Planned
research and development consists of (1) developing
a submodel for personal income; (2) adapting the
model to quantify, at a multicounty level, the
impacts of an incremental expansion to the energy
generating system on population, labor force, and
employment; (3) developing and adding to the model
an algorithm for allocating multicounty projections
to smaller areas (counties) to (a) ascertain energy
requirements related to land use and (b) determine
impacts of expansions in the energy generating
system; and (4) developing data and methodologies
to identify growth differentials between counties
or groups of counties because changes in growth
relate to local capacity for accommodating
socioeconomic impacts.
POWER SYSTEMS RESIDUALS SIMULATION MODEL
Long-range electric utility planning involves
a large number of interrelated activities based on
one or more economic scenarios: fuel cost forecast-
ing, plant capital cost forecasting, load forecast-
ing, system expansion planning, system operation
planning, financial planning, and environmental
planning. These are not isolated functions nor are
they meant to be all-inclusive, but they are the
principal tasks associated with long-range plan-
ning. The relationship between the functions is
illustrated in Figure 3.
These planning functions are generic in nature
and are performed by all electric utilities to some
degree. Most can be aided by mathematical modeling
techniques. TVA is developing the Power Program
Integrated Planning Model, which represents these
functions and the relationships between them in
detail.
The operation of an electric power system
produces a number of residuals such as ash, waste
heat, oxides of nitrogen (NO ), and sulfur dioxide
(S02). The Environmental Planning Model predicts
32,000
30,000 -
28,000 -
26,000 -
g 24,000
>
s; 40,000
100,000
80,000 -
60,000 -
40,000 -
20,000
SIC 25 FURNITURE AND FIXTURES
2000 1960
50,000
30,000 -
20,000 -
10,000
SIC 26 PAPER AND ALLIED PRODUCTS
40,000 -
30,000
20,000
10,000
1970
1980
1990
2000
SIC 27 PRINTING, PUBLISHING,
AND ALLIED PRODUCTS
1960 1970
1980 1990 2000 1960 1970 1980
YEAR
1990 2000
Figure 1.
Comparison of actual
employment in the TVA
power service area for
the period 1960-1974
with employment
generated by the
model for SICs 24,
25, 26, and 27.
Annual projections
by the model to year
2000 are also shown.
254
-------
80,000
60,000
40,000
20,000
0
19
100,000
80,000
60,000
40,000
20,000
0
1
I I
SIC 32 STONE, CLAY, GLASS, AND /
CONCRETE PRODUCTS /
X
/
s
r-~~^~'
\ i i
60 1970 1980 1990 20
I I I
SIC 34 FABRICATED METAL PRODUCTS ^''
s' ~
s- **
/
- /£^^
7 ~~
1 1 1
60 1970 1980 1990 2C
40,000
30,000
20,000
10,000
00 19
125,000
100,000
75,000
50,000
25,000
0
00 19
I ! I
SIC 33 PRIMARY METAL INDUSTRIES ^ x
^-
/
- ^^J
'
\ \ \
60 1970 1980 1990 20
i I
SIC 35 MACHINERY, EXCEPT ELECTRICAL
-
^s
_ s —
s
s
-
I I I
60 1970 1980 1990 20
YEAR
Figure 2.
Comparison of actual
employment in the
TVA power service
area for the period
1960-1974 with em-
ployment generated by
the model for SICs 32,
33, 34, and 35.
Annual projections
by the model to year
2000 are also shown.
FUEL COST FORECAST
ECONOMETRIC FORECAST
PLANT CAPITAL
COST FORECAST
SYSTEM EXPANSION PLANNING
SYSTEM OPERATION PLANNING
FINANCIAL PLANNING
LOAD FORECAST
ENVIRONMENTAL PLANNING
Figure 3.
Relationship between
elements of long-
range electric
utility planning.
255
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the residuals produced by a particular configura-
tion of the power system on a plant-by-plant basis
and provides inputs for detailed dispersion models
to assist environmental evaluation of expansion and
operating policies of an electric power system.
The main thrust of the design and development of
this model is to create a set of functional rela-
tionships that link expected energy (in British
thermal units) consumed by a power plant to the
expected amounts of residual emitted by that power
plant over a specified time.
This research has concentrated primarily on
formulating transformation relationships for S(>2
and gross particulates because of the ready avail-
ability of field data. Although other air-
contaminating residuals, such as NO , have been
investigated, no transformation equations have been
developed for them. The computer model has been
completed and is operating with test data on a
stand-alone basis. The file interface with the
rest of the Integrated Planning Model has not been
completed.
We had planned to (1) extensively investigate
water pollutants and NO , (2) incorporate load-
shaping techniques and the capability of modeling
the derating of plants, (3) expand the environ-
mental reporting model to include a more compre-
hensive list of residuals, and (4) conduct a
demonstration of the use of this model for power
systems planning. However, because of staffing
difficulties, this work has been postponed
indefinitely.
APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTER GRAPHICS TO
ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS
For more than a decade, architectural, aero-
nautical, civil, and mechanical engineers have
benefited from analytical applications of computer
graphics, or "computer-aided design." However, a
surprisingly small amount of program funding and
technical ingenuity has been applied over this same
period to nonstructural engineering applications.
The need for recasting many analyses that supply
input to the preparation of comprehensive environ-
mental impact statements (such as for nuclear power
plants) has provided a focus for developing envi-
ronmental science and engineering applications of
computer graphics. We found that most efforts to
apply computer graphics to environmental analysis
have been limited to geographic or mapping appli-
cations ; techniques of direct benefit to environ-
mental engineers or scientists have hardly been
exploited.
The intent of our research is to investigate
and develop applications for computer graphics that
can contribute directly to reducing delays in
assessing the environmental impacts of building and
operating power generating systems. This work is
being performed against the backdrop of practical
analysis applications experienced during the
course of energy system planning, design, and
operation by TVA, the Nation's largest producer of
electric power.
A truly integrated approach to assessing the
environmental impacts of power generating systems
requires the timely consideration of (1) alter-
native methods of pollutant control, (2) the
dispersal of pollutants in the environment, (3)
human health, (4) ecosystem impacts, and (5) the
attendant costs and benefits. Many analyses
involved in the assessment process can be performed
conveniently by using the computational and data
management capabilities of the computer. The full
potential of the computer has not been realized
because of a sizable delay between the time an
analysis is requested and the time the processed
information is presented in suitable form to the
engineer, scientist, or manager.
This delay has resulted from two causes.
First, computer job processing was commonly con-
ducted in a batch mode: Computer programs and data
were keypunched and submitted to the computer for
processing; the output was returned to the user at
some later time, completing only a single itera-
tion. A second cause for delay was that the re-
sults were commonly presented in tabular form or
in some form selected before the analysis was
begun. If the results of the analysis suggested
presentation of the data in some format (graphic
or tabular) other than the one selected, the
analysis had to be rerun or the data display had
to be completed manually.
Although time-sharing computer systems have
greatly reduced the time involved in running com-
puter programs, interactive graphics terminals have
opened up new possibilities for accessing the power
of the computer. Results of an analysis can be
viewed immediately as a graph, picture, or map on
a cathode ray tube (CRT). The type of display, its
orientation on the screen, and the particular data
to be shown can be readily selected. A hard copy
of the information on the screen can be obtained at
the touch of a button. Interactive computer graph-
ics allows the engineer or scientist to concentrate
more on the meaning of the analysis and less on the
tasks of data presentation and management.
During the first year's research, the state of
the art was reviewed to determine existing appli-
cations of computer graphics to environmental
assessment, graphics hardware and software capa-
bilities, and computer graphics techniques that may
be used in environmental analysis but have only
been applied to other types of engineering ana-
lysis. An inventory was compiled of 53 potential
demonstrations of computer graphics having direct
application to the needs of TVA. Direct-view
storage tube computer terminals used with con-
ventional time-sharing systems were selected for
the initial development of demonstrations because
of their moderate cost and the availability of
well-developed software packages.
One significant group of demonstrations using
computer graphics is oriented toward the visual
display of environmental data. Interactive multi-
purpose plotting routines have been developed for
conventional x-y plots, contour plotting, and
three-dimensional data presentation. These rou-
256
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tines allow the Investigator to readily tailor the
display to a particular need. Figure 4 shows a
typical plot of aquatic data from TVA's thermal
effects studies for the Federal Water Pollution
Control Act, Amendments of 1972, Section 316(a).
The total time to produce final plots over the life
of this project has been reduced from an estimated
176 man-days, when manual techniques are used, to 8
man-days, when interactive computer graphics are
used.
Figure 5 shows a form of data display that
could not be accomplished easily without the aid of
computer graphics. This figure is a
three-dimensional surface representing the dis-
tribution of dissolved oxygen in the vicinity of
the thermal discharge from a TVA coal-fired steam
plant. The investigator can rotate, tilt, and
rescale the figure to select the display that
communicates its features best (Figure 6). Exten-
sive use has been made of this technique for dis-
playing the physical, chemical, and biological
quality of water with respect to time and space,
distribution of air pollutants, and geologic and
topographic information that is important for some
environmental analyses.
A second group of demonstrations that have
been developed involves application of computer
graphics to analysis of socioeconomic impacts. The
development of a methodology for screening poten-
tial sites for power plants according to socio-
economic criteria has been underway for two years.
During the first year a review was conducted of the
state of the art of identifying and measuring
socioeconomic impacts of large-scale construction
of power plants. TVA's procedures for analyzing
socioeconomic impact and mitigation were also
reviewed. The capabilities of a computer graphics
analysis system that are needed to assist with
these analyses were identified.
Twenty-two counties in East Tennessee were
selected for testing a screening methodology. Data
were collected at the county level on 24 socio-
economic indicators. These data were then incor-
porated into a data base that could be manipulated
by interactive analysis and graphics display
routines.
Selected indicators were combined mathe-
matically to form capacity indexes, thus reducing
the number of indicators to manageable size and
providing a better measure of the potential for
each county to absorb or benefit from a particular
type of impact. Graphical and statistical methods
were used to evaluate the relative merits of each
new index formed. Resulting from this work were
six indexes for (1) public service, (2) planning
and public administration, (3) health, (4) edu-
cation, (5) growth absorption potential, and (6)
economic need. Finally, several forms of a com-
posite index composed of these six capacity indexes
were tested. Procedures were also developed to
weight various indicators and capacity indexes in
these analyses.
Three types of graphic displays were used in
this research. Figure 7 shows the results of a
program that draws any or all of the county bound-
aries being considered, identifies the county, and
places a value or representative symbol within the
STA
TOTAL NUMBER AND BIOMASS
BIOMASS MG./CU.M. SORT(X)
2 4
__i I 1—
10
20 30
NO./CU.M SORT(X)
40
40-,
T
E
M
P
D
E
G
20-
0
TEMPERATURE
DEC 345
DISCHARGE
INTAKE
2000^
FLOW INFORMATION
f
L
0
W
I
c
f
s
1000-
DEC
ROTIFERA CLADOCERA COPEPODA BIOMASS
CONDENSER
RIVER
Figure 4.
Typical display of aqua-
tic data used in reporting
the results of TVA's
thermal effects studies.
The time required for
manually preparing this
type of display over the
life of these studies is
estimated to be 176
man-days. Using computer
graphics has reduced
this time to S man-davs.
257
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106.7
105
Figure 5. Enlarged and annotated
three-dimensional view
of water quality along
a reach of river.
104
103 102
HOLSTON RIVER MILE
101
7
100
~7
99
DISSOLVED OXYGEN IN THE VICINITY OF JOHN SEVIER STEAM PLANT (OCTOBER 28, 1969)
Figure 6. Three-dimensional views of water quality along a reach of river. The figure
can be tilted and rotated by the person conducting the analysis until
a view that best illustrates significant features of the data is obtained.
258
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boundary. The map can be displayed at various
scales, permitting a small portion to be
selectively enlarged.
Figure 8 shows six socioeconomic indicators
displayed in the general form of a Kiviat diagram.
This graphical technique has been used for research
in medicine, computer systems, and water quality,
but has not been applied previously to socio-
economic analysis. The purpose of this display is
to show on a single figure the rank or data values
of a particular county with regard to several
indicators. In the example shown, only six of the
eight axes are used; the two vertical axes are not.
The distance along each radius of each circle
represents the relative rank of the indicator of
interest among the counties considered in this
analysis. For example, the county having the
highest population living in urban areas would have
a point on that axis plotted at a distance equal to
the radius of the circle. The value for the
middle-ranked county would be plotted halfway
between the center and the circle's circumference,
and the value for the lowest-ranked county would be
plotted at some arbitrarily small distance from the
center. When the resulting points are connected
(including dummy points on the two unused axes),
the resulting configuration takes the form of a
butterfly for those counties that rank high on all
indicators. Figure 8 shows the application of this
technique to several counties in the test area. It
is immediately clear that counties A and B rank
substantially higher for the indicators selected
than do, for example, C or E counties.
The value of this graphic technique depends on
the ingenuity of the investigator to interpret the
resultant configuration. If different numbers of
indicators are used, different characteristic
configurations are formed. Information about the
system as a whole can be inferred from the sym-
metry, center of gravity, area, and shape of the
configuration. The required flexibility for this
analysis was made possible through the development
of an interactive routine of graphics display.
Figure 9 shows one final type of useful
graphics display. A scatter plot was used to
display pairs of indicators whose correlation
coefficients were unexpected or otherwise of
interest. The entire set or a given subset of
county data for the selected indicators can be
readily plotted and the axes can be labeled
automatically.
Another group of demonstrations uses routines
of interactive analysis that interface directly
with computer models. Figures 10 and 11 show the
graphic results of two steps in an analysis of the
distribution of air pollutants from mobile point
sources. This simulation was needed to analyze
probable impacts during the construction of a power
generating facility. Various types of equipment
(vehicles and machinery) that generate air pol-
lutants can be distributed over the construction
site in different patterns. Previously, this
analysis was done by hand calculator; only a
limited number of source configurations could be
evaluated in a reasonable amount of time, and
results were plotted by hand. Interactive graphics
has made possible more rapid and accurate identi-
fication of potentially adverse situations and has
provided much better analysis results on a more
timely basis for court hearings involving potential
impacts.
WASHINGTON
Figure 7.
Computer generated graphics display of county
boundaries and names generated by the Socio-
economic Data Analysis and Display Package.
Selected counties can be drawn to any scale
and data values can be printed with each boundary.
259
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PERCENT POPULATION
URBAN
HOUSING VACANCY RATE
AVERAGE TEACHER'S
SALARY
PERCENT LIVING IN SAME HOUSE
LAST 5 YEARS
PERCENT HOUSING PRE-1950
POPULATION PER DOCTOR
COUNTY A
COUNTY B
COUNTY C
Figure 8.
Multivariate display of
six county-level socio-
economic indicators.
The results for six
actual counties are
given at the bottom,
Relative rankings among
a group of 22 counties
in eastern Tennessee were
computed for each indi-
cator. Indicator values
for each county were
plotted so that the
highest-ranked county
was plotted at a distance
from the circle's center
equal to the radius and
the lowest-ranked county
was plotted at the
circle's center. The
more desirable the over-
all situation in the
county with respect to
these indicators, the
more the configuration
will be shaped like a
butterfly.
COUNTY D
COUNTY E
COUNTY F
100
l\l
u
R 60-
B
A
40-
20 --
A A A
A
A
-r-Al
Figure 9. Scatter plot of two socioeconomic
indicators generated by the Socio-
economic Data Analysis and Display
Package.
7000
8000 9000
AV. TEACHER $
10000
11000
260
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EFFLUENT SOURCE LOCATIONS, POLLUTANT BEING EMITTED, AND METEOROLOGICAL ASSUMPTIONS
SOURCE
1
2
3
STRENGTH
(G/SEC)
1000.
1000.
1000.
WIND SPEED
(M/SEC)
1.
1.
1.
STACK HEIGHT
(METERS)
10.
10.
10.
STABILITY CLASS
(A-F)
F
F
F
SYMBOL
O
X
A
-X-
Figure 10.
Completed source grid with the
interactive placement of three
mobile point sources of air
pollutants. See Figure 11.
100 METERS
Figure 11.
Air pollutant dispersion downwind from the linear
array of the three point sources shown in Figure 10.
261
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Other interactive modeling routines developed
are (1) three-dimensional (3-D) display of depth to
bedrock in agricultural test plots, (2) 3-D display
of variations in light intensity in an agricultural
growth chamber, (3) 3-D displays of TVA reservoirs,
years, and average concentrations of dissolved
oxygen, (A) a system for reducing manual work in
preparing special maps for site analysis, and (5) a
general plotting routine to prepare graphs from
data files.
Future demonstrations are planned for use with
other types of computer graphics hardware. Re-
freshed graphics systems that permit dynamic
manipulation of a display on a CRT will be used.
Stand-alone graphics systems and intelligent gra-
phics terminals will be investigated. Software
development will stress demonstrating the prac-
ticality of interactive analysis that considers
cost, pollution control alternatives, and environ-
mental consequences. For example, a system is now
being evaluated that combines existing models of
air pollution control processes, transport of
atmospheric pollutants, ecosystem impacts, and
process design costs into an integrated analysis
format so that the implications of environmental
constraints or design control process decisions can
be readily explored.
262
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Planned Output
STATUS OF AN INTEGRATED ASSESSMENT
OF COAL DEVELOPMENT
Joseph R. Barse and John W. Green
Economic Research Service,
U.S. Department of Agriculture
Washington, D.C. and Fort Collins, Colorado
INTRODUCTION
This integrated assessment of coal develop-
ment is a key component of the project "Economic
and Social Consequences of Coal and Oil Shale
Development," which the Natural Resource Economics
Division (NRED) and the Economic Development Divi-
sion (EDD) of ERS are undertaking in cooperation
with EPA. (Ref. 3) This status report concerns
the major portion of NRED's work on the project.
An integrated technology assessment attempts
to unify as much existing information as possible
to determine major effects of applying a techno-
logy. (Ref. 5) Assessing coal development in-
volves mainly the application of a familiar techno-
logy on a larger scale in some new geographic
areas. Nevertheless, the potential for coal gas-
ification and liquefaction means that new techno-
logy may be involved as well.
In structuring our assessment, we faced four
general problems: 1) How comprehensive can we
afford to be? Which topics should be integrated
into the assessment, and which excluded? For any
given topic, how much data and previous research
are we able to collect and analyze given our pro-
ject budget? 2) How is the information to be
integrated? 3) How can we build into our inte-
grating techniques the analysis of public policy
options for coal development? 4) How can we
phrase these options so they will be realistic
and reasonable choices in the eyes of public
policymakers? The analytical system we are
constructing responds to these problems.
INTERREGIONAL COAL ANALYSIS
Coverage
We have drawn some clear boundary lines for
the scope of our work, since it is not possible
for us to assess every kind of effect of coal
development. For example, we do not attempt to
integrate information on human health, wildlife
habitats, or Indian culture, important though
these matters are. Instead, in the NRED portion
of the work, we are integrating economic infor-
mation on land and its use including agricultural
use, water, coal reserves, coal mining, transpor-
tation, coal conversion technology, and coal
demand.
Quantitative output from our analysis will be
nationwide locational patterns of coal mining,
transportation and processing, cost of coal pro-
duction, the physical resources used, and the
associated coal quantities and flows. As ana-
lytical inputs, alternative levels of total coal
demand and alternative sets of public policies
will be specified. Then a different locational,
quantitative pattern will be provided for each
actual or projected level of total demand for coal
and each set of policy alternatives. Evaluation
of the effects of the different coal demand levels
and alternative policies will begin by comparing
the different locational, quantitative patterns.
Projecting where and to what extent coal
activity takes place under alternative assumptions
is a prerequisite to analysis of further impacts on
rural people and communities, regional economies,
agriculture, land, or water. For example, given
any projected pattern of coal activity, the meth-
odologies being developed by EDD under this project
can be applied to estimate community impacts and
flows of State revenues from taxation of mining.
(Ref. 1)
Methodology
As an integrating mechanism we are using a
linear programming model. Although a linear pro-
gramming model calculates optimal or least-cost
solutions to resource allocation problems, we are
not in any way attempting to find the optimum
pattern of coal development. We want to compare
many alternative future coal development patterns,
each the product of a special set of policies, in
some instances expressed as model constraints.
The comparisons should be done under consistent
ground rules that the solution is always least-
cost. In effect, the optimizing model specifies
that the economy is as efficient as possible in
carrying out whatever set of policies is being
analyzed, given the specified constraints which
are not policy-related.
After trial runs of the model to work out
technicalities, including a run with constraints
and policy factors to duplicate actual coal mining,
transportation and usage for 1975, a run will then
be made to determine a hypothetical 1975 least cost
solution. These runs will provide both an actual
and a least cost base for 1975, against which least
cost projections for future years can be measured.
In other words, each new projection or new analysis
of a set of policy alternatives and economic con-
straints involves a new run of the model.
The model for the interregional analysis of
coal development is being constructed incrementally
beginning with the coal production areas of the
Northern Great Plains (NGP). The model for the
NGP will be a prototype for the models to follow.
The NGP will be modeled in a fashion similar to the
way in which the national situation will be modeled
at the completion of the project time frame. Data
are currently being placed in the NGP model. The
Rocky Mountain States situation will be modeled
263
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next, and data are being assembled.
Then the Northern Great Plains and Rocky
Mountain States will be combined into a Western
States model. Concurrently, data are being obtain-
ed for the Interior region, the Appalachian region,
and the Gulf region, and models for these will also
be constructed. Each of these models can be used
individually or in combination with the models for
other regions to form the National Interregional
Coal Analysis Model. Scenarios will be developed
which are region-specific or national in scope and
the locational, quantity, and cost impacts of
these scenarios will be evaluated using the models.
Data Requirements
The data requirements for an analysis of this
magnitude are extensive. Information must be
gathered for all of the various components of the
model for each Coal Production Area (CPA) of the
United States. !_/ We are first developing the
coal supply information necessary for each region.
The CPA's have been defined and resource, reserve,
and production information for each of these areas
is being collected. (Ref. 2) The effort is
complete for the NGP and the Mountain regions, and
is progressing rapidly for the Interior and
Appalachian regions. Land use information for
each of these regions, including agricultural
aspects, is also supplied.
Many of the inputs necessary for the model
are being generated under contract at Colorado
State, North Dakota State, and West Virginia
Universities. Coefficients and other information
for the water situation in the Western States
are being developed.
Data on mined-land reclamation for the
Western States, such as costs, are also being
obtained. National-regional coal demand estimates
are being generated. Existing econometric
studies will be utilized to provide region-
specific demand estimates.
During the past several months, we have
placed primary emphasis on completing and build-
ing a data base for specific mines in the Northern
Great Plains and for power plants nationwide. The
mine information for the Northern Great Plains
is essentially complete with just a few minor
corrections to be made in the data base. The
data for the electrical generating plants in the
United States have given us substantial problems.
These problems are essentially solved now, how-
ever.
We have data on 291 power generating plants
of 100 megawatt capacity or larger; these 291
_!/ Coal Production Areas are special sub-regions
defined for this project and consist of one or
several counties. For example, we define that
there are 13 Coal Production Areas in the NGP.
plants account for about 97 percent of coal-fire(j
electrical generation in the U.S. We have been
working with FPC Form 423 data for 1975 on the kind
and source of coal and combustion results for each
of these plants and will incorporate it into our
electrical generation data bank. We have information
from Research Triangle Park, EPA, and are incorpo-
rating that into the data bank. The FPC Form 67
data on air and water quality for 1975 will not
be available until late this summer but will be
incorporated in the data base at that time.
North Dakota State University is specifying
transportation options for western coal, narrowing
the possible options for movement of western coal
to Interior and Eastern markets. They are currently
developing transportation cost and capacity co-
efficients. They are looking at railroad, barge,
pipeline, and transmission alternatives and will
select an efficient subset of all possible modes.
They will optimize in a very limited sense, that
is, examining all possible alternatives judge-
mentally and selecting the three or four which seem
to be the most feasible. Then these three or four
will be entered into our model and our model will
optimize among them. Otherwise, the inclusion of
all possible transportation alternatives in our
model would create a data overflow problem. As
it is, the linear program will be manipulating
about 90,000 bits of data.
Improvements Over Other Models
Since there have been other interregional
coal analysis models developed at various sources,
one might logically ask what another model of this
type being developed by USDA can add to the liter-
ature already available. We are attempting to build
into our model a level of detail adequate to
answer the impact questions being asked by specific
rural communities, by environmentalists, Indian
tribes, farmers, ranchers, and local, State, and
national policymakers. To do this we are looking
at the relatively small Coal Production Areas as
described above and defining reserves and pro-
duction capabilities for these Areas. We are
aggregating individual mine data to the Coal
Production Area level.
At the other end of the coal supply
trajectory, as noted, we are looking at coal
demand in individual power plants 100 megawatts in
size or larger. Looking at the supply-demand
situation at this level of disaggregation is a
clear improvement over previous models of this type.
This level of disaggregation is virtually nec-
essary to answer the local level impact questions
being asked within USDA and by EPA.
Scenarios To Be Examined
Policy scenarios to be formulated and
evaluated using the Interregional Coal Analysis
Model may be region-specific or national in scope.
Virtually every aspect of coal supply or electrical
generation can be altered through the assumptions
of a long-run scenario.
Specifically, each scenario to be developed
264
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will include a different combination of several
policy and economic factors. Some of these
factors will affect the projected level of total
coal demand, or the projected regional pattern of
demand. Other factors will be constraints in the
linear program as it determines the locational
pattern of coal supply. Among the policy factors
may be federal switching-to-coal orders for both
electrical utilities and industrial coal burning
facilities, or federal loan guarantees for coal
gasification and liquefaction plants. New sulfur
dioxide emission standards, non-degradation rules,
and State air-quality implementation plans may be
analyzed in another scenario under certain water
supply and land reclamation constraints. In add-
ition, State, local and national taxation
policies could be evaluated. Transportation
policies and constraints may be assessed in
another scenario, or combined with some of the
above.
Coordination with Other Assessment Work
This regional-national analysis is being
coordinated with the other work being conducted
under EPA's integrated assessment program. As
already noted, ERS is also making an assessment
of rural community impacts resulting from coal
development. That work includes alternatives on
coal taxation and other State and local policies.
(Ref. 4)
In addition, we are coordinating our work
with integrated assessment work being done out-
side the USDA at the University of Oklahoma.
Several conversations and/or meetings have been
held with the Oklahoma team to ensure that the
data which they are generating and the scenarios
which they are evaluating will be compatible with
ERS work. In a similar vein, we are coordinating
our efforts with the work being done at the
Denver Research Institute (DRI) on communities.
The work being done at DRI is compatible with work
being done by ERS. Every effort is being made to
avoid duplication of work.
COORDINATION WITH EPA AND USDA PROGRAMS
We hope to remain as flexible as possible
concerning the use of this interregional model.
We want this model to have continuing utility
not only within the USDA but for ongoing EPA
programs. During EPA's continuing evaluation
of individual electrical generation and industrial
coal-using sites, we hope a way can be found to
use the outputs of this model in conjunction with
other models, such as those of airsheds and
pollution sources. The impact of changes in
individual regulations or the granting of variances
could be evaluated using our model.
Within the USDA, we would hope that this
model will be useful for evaluating the impact
of mining on the productive capability of agri-
culture. Various assumptions concerning" the
desirability of mining on alluvial valley floors
or highly productive agricultural land could be
evaluated. The impacts of various reclamation
control assumptions could also be evaluated. The
impact of reclamation practices on the cost of
supplying coal to users as well as the impact on
agricultural production and the utilization of
labor in rural communities could be assessed.
SUMMARY
The project "Economic and Social Consequences
of Coal and Oil Shale Development" assesses the
effects of alternative public policies toward coal
on the future locational patterns of coal mining,
transportation, and usage throughout the U.S. and
the specific flows of coal involved. Also assessed
are the use of land and water and economic activity
such as agriculture, as related to coal develop-
ment patterns.
A large linear programming model using about
90,000 bits of data is the integrating mechanism.
Although it is an optimizing model, it does not
seek some theoretical "best" pattern of coal develop-
ment. Rather, the objective is to compare many
public policy alternatives toward coal development
and usage, given physical and economic constraints.
These alternatives are to be compared under common
ground rules that the economy is as efficient as
possible in carrying out each hypothetical
alternative; hence the optimizing model.
Each run of the model will yield a dis-
tinctive pattern and level of coal activity by
location in some future year for each alternative
policy scenario and set of constraints, given some
projected level of total demand for coal. Suc-
cessive model runs under alternative scenarios will
yield other patterns. Then, by comparing these
different patterns, certain effects can be
attributed to a policy alternative.
The Western States regional model will be
running in the fall of 1977, with Interior,
Appalachian, and Gulf regional models to follow
before the national model is put together. Alter-
native policies to be assessed will concern such
variables as sulfur dioxide emission standards,
reclamation requirements, and switching-to-coal
orders, as well as others.
Through consultation with EPA and other
agencies, as well as within USDA, we will assure
that alternative policy scenarios to be assessed
are as realistic as possible.
REFERENCES CITED
1. Bender, Lloyd D. and George Temple.
"Integrated Systems Simulation of Local
Community Impacts in the Northern Great
Plains", paper prepared for 1977 EPA 2nd
National Conference on the Interagency
Energy/Environment R and D Program.
2. Northern Great Plains Resources and Coal
Development. Unpublished working paper,
April 1977, prepared by Economic Research
Service, USDA under interagency agreement
with EPA as part of EPA's Energy/Environ-
ment R and D Program. Forthcoming as a
publication following internal review.
265
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3. Schaub, John R., Joseph R. Barse, and
Lloyd D. Bender. "Research Program on
the Economic and Social Consequences of
Coal and Oil Shale Development," in Health,
Environmental Effects, and Control Techno-
logy of Energy Use, Proceedings of EPA
Conference, 1976, EPA Report 600/7-76-002.
4. Stinson, Thomas F. State Taxation of
Mineral Deposits and Production. Prepared
under interagency agreement between Economic
Research Service, USDA and EPA as part of
EPA's Energy/Environment R and D Program.
EPA Report 600/7-77-008, January 1977.
5. U. S. Congress, Office of Technology Assess-
ment. Technology Assessment in Business
and Government, Summary and Analysis of
Hearings held by the Technology Assessment
Board, June 1976. Published January 1977.
266
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State of the Arts
INTEGRATED SYSTEMS SIMULATION OF LOCAL
COMMUNITY IMPACTS IN THE
NORTHERN GREAT PLAINS
Lloyd D. Bender
Economic Development Division
Economic Research Service
U.S. Department of Agriculture
George S. Temple
Montana State University
Bozeman, Montana
INTRODUCTION
This report is a summary of the purpose,
objectives, and accomplishments of the energy im-
pact research of the Economic Development Division,
Economic Research Service, of the U.S. Department
of Agriculture. _!/ The immediate application is
to local community impacts of coal development
within the Northern Great Plains.
The on-going research of the EDO, ERS, USDA
concerns the changing economic and social condi-
tions in the nonmetropolitan areas of the Nation.
This project complements that effort. The re-
search and its application is enhanced by the
cooperative research agreements that EDD, ERS,
USDA has maintained with Montana State University,
North Dakota State University, and the University
of Minnesota as a part of its continuing program.
Purpose
The specific purpose of the project at this
stage is to develop methodologies for estimating
the components of local impacts stemming from
resource development. The impact components
which are most important at the local level are
employment, population, wage levels, tax revenues,
and government expenditures. Each of these ele-
ments is a part of an integrated impact simula-
tion system. The research strategy serves several
functions. First, the methodologies for estimat-
ing each impact element can be used by others for
impact and policy analyses since the components
can be estimated independently. Second, others
can evaluate and improve the methodology research
due to the early interaction with the technical
research community. Third, the fundamental func-
tion is to improve on the current state-of-the-
art of impact estimation.
A frequent criticism of impact analyses is
that estimating techniques and integrative ap-
proaches are not refined. _2/ Current estimating
procedures frequently involve unrealistic assump-
tions with respect to multipliers, migration and
labor force responses, and tax analyses. Employ-
ment multipliers often are assumed to be the same
for every geographic site and for every industry
as well; that is, it makes no difference whether
a new industry is located close to a metropolitan
area or in an isolated area where services are not
developed.
Interrelationships between the labor force
required, migration, and wage levels seldom are
considered. The typical assumption is that an un-
limited supply of labor is available through migra-
tion at prevailing wage rates.
Finally, the cost of local government ser-
vices are calculated without regard for the anti-
cipated degree of local wage inflation despite the
observed experience in boom towns.
The caveat is simply that methodologies for
estimating these components of an impact at a
local level are inadequate.
COMPONENTS AND INTERRELATIONSHIPS OF A COMMUNITY
IMPACT MODEL
The major components of the integrated com-
munity impact simulation system are presented in
Figure 1. The model takes as given the size, type,
and location of a coal mine or conversion plant.
The increase in local employment is calculated
once the employment requirements of the energy
project are known.
Figure 1. Relations among elements of local
impacts of coal mining development.
!_/ Environmental Protection Agency, interagency
agreement EPA-IAG-D6-E766, Social and
Economic Consequences of Coal and Oil Shale
Development, initiated late 1975. Another
part within the ERS is performed by the
Natural Resource Economics Division.
7j Office of Technology Assessment, "A Review
of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Environmental Research Outlook FY 1976 through
FY 1980," pt. VI. Socio-economic Research,
United States Congress, p. 98.
267
-------
A larger labor supply is required in the
community. This is accomplished in the system
through changes in migration streams into and
out of the area. Wages and other local economic
conditions are the mediating influences between
labor demand and supply. Wages are bid up. The
results of these interrelationships are a larger
population and higher incomes after development
of a project. Thus, the dollar cost of community
services rises with population increases and local
wage inflation.
The other side of the picture is that local
tax revenues are affected little by changes in
income except through real property taxes.
Revenues from severance, sales, and income
taxes usually go to the state. Some are re-
turned to the locality as state aids. But
state aids to local governments vary greatly
from state to state.
RESEARCH ACCOMPLISHMENTS
The first phase of research has been com-
pleted on estimating employment, migration, and
wage interrelationships and state and local
government revenue flows. The criteria for
judging the results are twofold. First, the
results are tests of theoretical relationships;
that is, whether the relationships are exhibited
in the data. Second, the results are to be pre-
dictive. Theoretically sound relationships may
be validated with statistical results but at the
same time an acceptable confidence interval for
a predicted value may not have been achieved.
Accomplishments at this time are expressed in
terms of the first criterion.
Estimating Employment
Ancillary employment in a county is a func-
tion of the type and location of an industry, the
size of activities in neighboring counties, and
the location of the county in economic space
(4_, _6, _7). _3/ Each industry will have a differ-
ent multiplier due to both the quantity of goods
and services used in production and whether the
services are purchased (and competitively fur-
nished) locally. Furthermore, the multiplier
varies with the distance the county is from a
trade center (Table 1). The local multiplier
will be smaller if goods and services are sup-
plied by expansion of an existing regional trade
center, depending upon how far away it is.
A spillover to neighboring towns which are
not trade centers also is demonstrated by the
statistical results. (These are shown by each
industry and town size ratio interaction in
appendix Table 2.) The amount of the spillover
from a county of direct impact to a neighboring
county is a function of the relative size of
towns in each county and size of the basic in-
dustry. Trade will tend to move toward large
TABLE 1. EMPLOYMENT MULTIPLIERS BY INDUSTRY AND
DISTANCE TO A MAJOR TRADE CENTER,
COUNTIES IN THE NORTHERN GREAT PLAINS,
1970.
Industry
Miles distance
Agriculture : Mining :Manufacturin~
0
50
100
Values at means 11
Maximum (minimum) value
.48
.77
.91
.88
.93
2.58
1. 14
.79
.79
(.77)
• — n _
3.61
3.10
3.22
3.11
3.07
_3/ Bracketed numbers refer to publications and
studies in progress.
JY Average distance is 83.4. Average employment is 744 for agricul-
ture, 62 for mining, and 212 for manufacturing in the 181 nonmetropolitan
Plains counties.
adjoining towns. A small neighboring town will
be a very small recipient of any spillover.
This part of the model predicts the service
employment derived from an increase in basic
employment. Basic industry sectors are those
which generate a flow of funds into a community.
These are defined as agriculture, mining, manu-
facturing, and a calculated portion of transpor-
tation. Ancillary or service employment is that
portion which services the basic industry and
individual consumers. Each basic sector employ-
ment is entered in the model as a cross product
relationship with distance in a quadratic form.
Other variables in the equation are intended to
measure local anomalies in the economic base
such as the presence of a college, institution,
or concentrations of government employment.
Finally, the variables representing basic acti-
vities in adjacent counties and the expected
flow of trade are represented as interactive
cross products.
The data are cross section employment by
sector from the 1970 census of population. The
technique is multiple regression analysis with
results shown in Table 2. The problems associated
with predicting from cross section analyses are
treated in the next phase of research. Techniques
allowing the use of combined cross section and
temporal data for small areas are being tested
(6_, 7) .
Migration and Wage Interrelationships
The direct and induced employment demands
of an energy project in a rural area can be
greater than that supplied by the indigenous
labor force. Migration streams must be altered
in order to fulfill the labor demand of employers.
It is realistic that net migration of the magni-
tude needed is unlikely to take place without
economic inducements. Furthermore, the respon-
siveness of migration streams depends on the
source of in-migrants and destination of out-migrants
(Figure 2). Less financial inducement likely is
required to induce people to move within the
region. Migration is affected by site
268
-------
TABLE 2. ESTIMATED COEFFICIENTS AND STATISTICS OF THE ECONOMIC BASE MODEL FOR
THE NORTHERN GREAT PLAINS REGION, 1970
Variables and classifications
Primary basic sectors and distance
to a major trade center.
Agricultural employment & distance
AGR
AGRDIS
AGRDISQ
Mining employment & distance
MIN
HINDIS
MINDISQ
Manufacturing employment & distance
MAN
MANDIS
MANDISQ
Transportation employment & dist. I/
TRN ~
TRNDIS
TRNDISQ
Scale of basic activities in adj./co's
ADJ AGR & town sizes 2/
ADJ MIN & town sizes 2/
ADJ MAN & town sizes 2/
Other variables
Income
Institutional population
Students in group quarters
Local government I/
Constant
Statistics
R2
Standard error
Observations
F statistic
Regression :
coefficient :
0.48387
0.00717
-0.00003
2.57544**
-0.03966*
0. 00022*
3.60842**
-0.01666*
0.00013
5.69776**
-0.03587
-0.00032
0. 27981**
0.38374**
0.09199
0. 09667
1. 53791**
1. 08617**
1.24263
-530. 638
728
181
235
!_/ Calculated as amounts above regional proportions.
— (Xik) (T/T.) where k is the adjacent county with
Standard
error
0.25335
0.00398
0.00002
0.92924
0.01992
0. 00011
0. 29988
0.00787
0.00006
0.58195
0.03569
0.00032
0.03794
0.07739
0.10233
0.05903
0.30266
0. 16499
1.48242
.9652
.6383
.0230
the largest
: F 37
: statistic
3.6476
3. 2415
3.7740
7.6814
3.9659
4.0987
144. 7927
4.4730
3.8341
95.8595
1.0099
0.9864
54.3831
24.5810
0.8080
2.6820
25.8191
43.3387
0.7027
employment
in i, T is the largest town in the observation county, and T- is the largest
town in any adjacent county j.
_3/ The F statistic is produced as part of the SPSS computer package. Signif-
icance represented by * for 0.95 and ** for 0.99 confidence levels.
-------
iooo noo i:oo
CHANGE IN ANNUAL EARNINGS, 1965-70
NET
MIGRATION
110.000
+ 5.000
0
5,000
10.000
IOOO 1100 1200
CHANGE IN ANNUAL EARNINGS, 1965-702
'MIGRATION TO OR FROM ADJACENT STATE ECONOMIC AREAS
ZCHANGE IN ANNUAL AVERAGE NONAGRICULTURAL EARNINGS PER
WORKER 1965-70 UNADJUSTED FOR COST OF LIVING
Figure 2. Migration responses to earnings changes
Montana SEA-4, 1965-70.
amenities (including human capital values) which
are not lost in a short distance move.
The heart of the labor supply component is
a set of simultaneous relationships which demon-
strate that economic incentives (notably wages)
alter migration streams. Migration is the major
source of population change in rapid growth areas.
Out-migration declines and in-migration increases
in order to produce a population change as wages
are bid up. Population and wage levels are the
major determinants of the cost of local govern-
ment services.
Three migration equations are estimated
(5_) . One describes movements from and another
movements to State Economic Areas (SEA's) of the
Northern Great Plains and the states in the rest
of the nation. The third equation considers all
streams among the SEA's of the Northern Great
Plains. A migration stream is the number of
people moving from place i to place j from 1965
to 1970, and is the dependent variable. By
using gross migration streams as the dependent
variable, economic conditions at origins and
destinations can be isolated.
The models are a simultaneous system since
migration can be expected to influence wage
rates (by altering the supply of labor) as well
as be influenced by wage rates. It is for this
reason that two-stage least squares techniques
were used to estimate the parameters of the
models. The results are presented in Table 3.
Three categories of variables are shown: control
variables, and economic conditions both at the
origin and the destination. The coefficients re-
flect the fact that all variables are transformed
into logs prior to estimation, and are interpreted
as elasticities.
This research demonstrates statistically
significant relationships between migration and
local economic conditions. The results are not
accurate enough to forecast migration to rapid
growth energy towns. The population and wage
components are so fundamental to local impact
analyses that additional basic research is
appropriate. The second phase of research will
consist of labor market modelling using annual
data series. It will concentrate upon labor's
responses to wages in local labor markets but
will abstract completely from the source of the
labor.
Local and State Tax Revenues
The state and local revenue systems have
been computerized for Montana, Wyoming, North
Dakota, and South Dakota in a routine called
ENGYTX. Revenues and intergovernmental trans-
fers are calculated by source, type of tax, and
level and type of government in ten summary
tables (J3). Taxes can be derived for three
different sized strip mines and a thermal conver-
sion plant during a production year for the mine
and its primary employees. ENGYTX requires that
the type of project, its site, and millage rates
be provided. In addition, specific information
such as the number of operating employees, con-
struction and operation costs, and the income
distribution of employees is needed.
The value of ENGYTX in the simulation model
is that revenue flows to local governments are
specified as a source of funds for expansion and
operation. These can be compared to expenditure
requirements and budgeted needs. But ENGYTX can
be used by itself or by others as a source of
information for environmental impact statements,
evaluations of the complete tax system and changes
in it, and policy analyses of both firms and local
governments. _4/
A summary of results of ENGYTX is presented
in Table 4. The data illustrate the type of de-
tail gained, the complexity of each tax structure,
and differences in tax systems. An illustration
is the support levels for schools. School levies
in Wyoming remain in the district while the state-
wide levy in Montana flows into the state equal-
ization fund once county foundation levels are
met. Another example is the fact that much of
the local government revenue in North Dakota con-
sists of State aid. The effect of a change in
one tax must be evaluated in the context of the
whole system due to these complex relationships.
kj Background information for ENGYTX and is
contained in (3, _9> 10).
270
-------
TABLE 3. INTRA- AND INTER-REGIONAL MIGRATION MODELS, 1965-70, NORTHERN GREAT PLAINS STATE ECONOMIC AREAS I/
items ana
independent variables
Controls
Population 3/
Distance, origin to destination
Town sizes, destination/origin
Median age at origin, 1970
Distance, largest adj. town/observed 4/
Town sizes, largest adj . /observed 4/
Past migrants at destination, 1970
Economic conditions at destination
Employment change, 1965-70
Wage change, 1965-70
Wage in 1965
Sub employment, 1970
Economic conditions at origin
Employment change, 1965-70
Wage change, 1965-70
Sub employment , 1970
Intercept
Exp. : Intraregiona
sign : model
+ 1.22
-1.46
+ 0.19
-
+ 0.25
-0.26
+ 0.41
+
+ 1.68
+ 3.13
-2.03
-
-0.35
+
-16. 17
1 : Interregic
: In-tnigration
n -F f n +- O /
1.05
0.32
0.94
-0.32
0.66
3.13
3.70
-1.22
-1.11
0.23
-24.09
)nal models
: Out-migration
1.66
-3.89
0.76
0. 16
-0.13
-0.87
0.89
-1.31
l_l Results are from 2SLS regression. Models correspond to those reported as final models in appendix
tables 6, 9, and 12.
_2/ Coefficients are interpreted elasticities since data are in double logarithmic form.
_3/ Reported as at origin for interregional out-migration and intraregional migration, and at destination
for the interregional in-migration model.
47 Reported as ratio of origin town for interregional out-migration and intraregional migration, and at
destination town for interegional in-migration model.
A second computer tax model is called
MINETX (2). It differs from ENGYTX in several
important ways. First, it calculates the taxes
that specific mines pay during a production year;
that is, the taxes of the firm alone. Second,
the program is communicative so that the opera-
tor can vary the characteristics of the tax
system to discover what difference would be made
in the taxes of a firm if laws were changed.
Third, MINETX is operational for any state.
A third accomplishment of the tax work is a
current summary of minerals tax systems of every
major mineral producing state (_!_) . A brief
analysis of types of taxes is provided and the
highlight of special impact taxes in the Northern
Great Plains is included.
Phase two of the revenue and expenditure
components of the simulation model involve an
extension (a) to a wider geographic coverage,
(b) to incorporate the effect of service employ-
ees in ENGYTX, and (c) to estimate local govern-
ment expenditures in relation to population size
and wage levels.
PROGRAM DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
The research is designed to extend the
state-of-the-art consistent with a goal of
remaining applied. The various components of
a simulation model are to be estimated in a
straightforward way. The estimation techniques
are constrained to use data series which are
available nationally and preferably on an
annual basis.
Each component of the model is designed to
stand alone. This means that the results can
be adopted by others quickly, and that no one
component will forestall application of other
components. The overall model can be expanded
or contracted as needed without destroying the
key structure. Furthermore, the research of
others can be integrated into the procedure.
The general estimating approaches are meant
to be exportable to other regions and impacts.
Use of secondary data facilitates this goal.
Nothing in the estimating techniques restricts
them to coal development or the Northern Great
Plains.
271
-------
TABLE 4. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY STATE AND LOCAL REVENUES, ONE PRODUCTION YEAR, 9.2 MTY STRIP
MINE AND PRIMARY EMPLOYEES SELECTED SITES, MONTANA, WYOMING, NORTH DAKOTA, AND
SOUTH DAKOTA. I/ 2/
Government and revenue
Montana :
State
Wyoming :
North :
Dakota :
South
Dakota
- dollars per production year -
State and local revenue, total
Local government,
School district,
Tax revenue
State aid
City, total
Tax revenue
State aid
County, total
Tax revenue
State aid
State government,
General fund
Earmarked 3/ 4/
Direct transfers
total
total
total
to govt. 's
I/ Prices, operating costs,
in
the Bureau of Mines Circular
Rosebud, Campbell, Mercer, and
2/ Includes 213 primary mine
3/ Includes state
county foundation is
11,680
1^170
334
144
189
52
45
7
783
393
390
10j509
5,080
5,428
5/ (587
,554
,858
,238
,402
,836
,969
,531
,438
,651
,312
,339
^696
,713
,983
,613)
li
1,
1,
1,
2,
1,
891,
890,
320,
299,
20,
32^
7,
24,
537,
456,
81,
001,
570,
431,
(126,
and characteristics
8703. Assessment
Harding counties
workers .
school equalization
deducted.
of
and
levied
387 5
026
321
861
460
192
835
357
513
035
478
361 4
088 1
273 3
295)
,392,
543,
226,
48,
178,
3JL
23,
8,
285,
28,
257,
,848,
,738,
,109,
(444,
this mine are
millage
in 1975
from state wide levy
4/ Includes various impact funds not allocated
5/ Shown as state
aid above
and not included
in
rates
515
947
221
349
272
634
317
317
691
073
618
568
968
600
208)
867,
371^
243,
218,
25,
17,
12,
4,
109,
103,
6,
496,
496,
—
(36,
990
095
709
499
210
459
584
875
926
877
049
896
896
-
134)
those reflected
are
remaining
those
after
of
by formula.
state total.
Experimental work such as this frequently
raises questions of theory, technique and appli-
cation which have not been addressed by others.
This can be invaluable to an on-going research
program. The questions which need additional
research are highlighted and the expertise and
experience is maintained within the project.
PUBLICATIONS
1. Stinson, Thomas F., "State Taxation of
Mineral Deposits and Production," EDO, ERS ,
USDA. Working Paper No. 7606, Dec. 1976,
and OEMI, EPA publication No. 60017-77-008,
Jan. 1977.
Summarizes mineral tax laws of all major
producing states, gives an overview of
special laws of Northern Great Plains
States, and provides a brief analysis of
all mineral -tax laws.
2. Stinson, Thomas F., "An Introduction to
MINETX," EDD, ERS, USDA. Working Paper
No. 7704, March 1977 in cooperation with
OEMI, EPA.
MINETX is a computer - assisted aid for
the simulation of the effects of any state
tax system on the taxes paid by coal min-
ing companies. A brief description of the
computer program and examples of operating
commands and output are given.
3. Voelker, Stanley W., Fred R. Taylor and
Thomas K. Ostenson, "The Taxation and Revenue
System of State and Local Governments in
North Dakota," North Dakota State University
Agricultural Economics Report No. 117, Dec.
1976 in cooperation with EDD, ERS, USDA and
OEMI, EPA.
Describes in detail the state and local tax
system of North Dakota with special emphasis
on coal mining and processing.
STUDIES IN PROCESS
4. Bender, Lloyd D. , George Temple, Bernard Ries,
272
-------
"Estimating Employment Multipliers for the
Northern Great Plains," EDO, ERS, USDA in
cooperation with OEMI, EPA.
Uses cross section census data in a dis-
aggregated industry employment estimating
model for the Northern Great Plains. Mult-
ipliers vary by industry, the location, and
the activities in economic space.
5, Bender, Lloyd D., George Temple, and David
O'Meara, "Responsiveness of Migration Streams
to Local Economic Conditions in the Northern
Great Plains," EDD, ERS, USDA in cooperation
with OEMI, EPA.
Reports on econometric analysis of migra-
tion to and from State Economic Areas in
the Northern Great Plains in a simultan-
eous system of equations with wages and
other local economic conditions. Shows
1965-70 migration streams in NGP SEA's to
be significantly responsive to wages but
different for short and long distances.
6. Conopask, Jeff V. , "Estimating Energy
Employment Multipliers Using Temporal Cross
Section Data," EDD, ERS, USDA in cooperation
with OEMI, EPA.
Uses advanced econometric techniques to
test an employment multiplier model of
NGP counties for time lags in the adjust-
ment process. Uses annual Bureau of Econ-
omic Analysis employment series for basic
sectors across selected NGP coal impact
counties 1970-74. A one-year adjustment
lag to mining employment is statistically
significant.
7. Conopask, Jeff V., "A Time Series-Cross
Section Approach to Secondary Employment
Estimation," EDD, ERS, USDA in cooperation
with OEMI, EPA.
A journal article demonstrating the rea-
sons for and efficacy of using selected
econometric techniques in analyzing cross-
section time-series data as applied to
employment multipliers in 15 NGP coal
producing counties 1970-74.
8. Stinson, Thomas F. , and Stanley W. Voelker,
State and Local Revenue Flows from Coal
Mines and Conversion Facilities in the NGP,"
EDD, ERS, USDA in cooperation with OEMI, EPA.
Demonstrates differences in tax revenues,
intergovernmental transfers and disposition
of revenue for state and local governments
for mines in Montana, Wyoming, North Dakota,
and South Dakota.
9. Thompson, Layton, "The Taxation and Revenue
System of State and Local Governments in
Montana," EDD, ERS, USDA in cooperation
with OEMI, EPA and Montana State University.
Describes in detail the state and local
tax system of Montana with special emphasis
on coal mining and processing.
10. Thompson, Layton, "The Taxation and Revenue
System of State and Local Governments in
Wyoming," EDD, ERS, USDA in cooperation with
OEMI, EPA and Montana State University.
Describes in detail the state and local
tax system of Wyoming with special emphasis
on coal mining and processing.
11. Myers, Paul A., Jeff V. Conopask and Fred K.
Hines, "A Social and Economic Profile of
47 Coal Impact Counties in the Northern
Great Plains," EDD, ERS, USDA in cooperation
with OEMI, EPA.
Describes baseline population, employment,
settlement patterns and social conditions
which will influence the impact of coal
development in 47 counties in the NGP.
Data are from census of population and
Bureau of Economic Analysis.
273
-------
METHODOLOGY FOR THE ANALYSIS OF THE IMPACTS
OF ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION IN THE WEST
Coordinating Council (WSCC). This plan describes
the locations, completion dates, fuel types, and
sizes of power plants to be completed in the WSCC
service area by 1985. [1]
Andrew Ford and H. W. Lorber
University of California
Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory
Energy Research and Development Administration
Los Alamos, New Mexico
INTRODUCTION
Overview
During the year 1976, a multi-disciplinary
team of scientists was organized to investigate the
impacts of electric power production in the West.
This team has developed and exercised a quantita-
tive mathematical model for simulating the develop-
ment of additional electrical power capacity in the
western states and estimating the associated pri-
mary and secondary costs. This paper describes in
summary form the organization of the project, its
accomplishments so far, and its future course.
The general purpose of the project is to de-
velop a cost-analysis methodology for electric-
power capacity that is suited to the unique charac-
teristics of the coal- and uranium—rich, but
sparsely populated, pristine, and arid West. (See
Table 1.)
TABLE 1. ROCKY MOUNTAIN STATES
FEW PEOPLE -
4% POPULATION VS 26% LAND AREA
CLEAN AIR & SCENIC-
75 MILE VISIBILITY (SW) &
40-50% OF NATIONAL PARKS AND MONUMENTS
ARID-
15 INCHES RAINFALL (SW)
VS
50 INCHES RAINFALL (EAST)
The members of the WSCC propose to generate
electricity from a variety of sources, but we have
limited the study to nuclear plants and plants fired
by coal, oil, or gas. The locations of the larger
plants to be operating in the region by 1985 are
shown in Fig. 2. In this figure, the letters des-
ignate the types of plants, and the sizes of the
letters correspond to the sizes of the plants
(small, 500-999 MWe; medium, 1000-1999 MWe; and
large, 2000 MWe and larger). The squares in the
Los Angeles and San Francisco regions indicate oil-
fired plants too densely located to represent
individually.
Our selection of the utilities' expansion plan
does not mean that we consider their projections to
be the best prediction of future capacity. Utili-
ties may err in their forecasts of growth in demand
or in their assessments of community acceptance of
their plants. Indeed, one of the most controver-
sial plants shown in Fig. 2—the Kaiparowits plant
in southern Utah—has already been cancelled. To
emphasize the view that the WSCC report describes
but one set of possible input conditions, we have
not removed the Kaiparowits plant from the initial
scenario.
Project Team
The team, assembled to accomplish the broad
purposes discussed above, consists of a professional
staff with training in statistics, economics, law,
engineering, systems analysis, sociology, and
anthropology. The project is coordinated by staff
members from the Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory
(LASL) in Los Alamos, New Mexico. Individual pro-
jects are being conducted by analysts from LASL as
well as from Battelle Pacific Northwest Laboratory
(PNL), Hanford, Washington; the University of South-
ern California (USC), Los Angeles, California;
Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona;
and the University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada.
A list of separate reports being prepared b)^ members
of the team is given in Table 3.
TECHNICAL DISCUSSION
Illustrative Results
_Plan of the First Year's Effort
During the first year of the project, the team
developed or adapted five submodels for the simula-
tion of power development impacts on the West and
its inhabitants and four submodels for evaluating
the cost of these effects. The interconnections
among these submodels are shown in Fig. 1 and Table
2.
For definition, we based the first year's
calculation on the expansion plan proposed by the
electric utilities belonging to the Western Systems
We are now able to present preliminary esti-
mates of the major internal and external costs of
building and operating the plants proposed in the
WSCC plan. In exercising the submodels shown in
Fig. 1, two impacts were found to yield large dollar
costs:
1. the boom town impact (manifested in part
in lowered productivity of the construction
work force), and
2. the impact of reduced atmospheric
visibility.
275
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SIMULATION SUBMODELS
(SCIENTIFIC FINDINGS)
EVALUATION SUBMODELS
(SOCIAL VALUE JUDGEMtNTS)
Figure 1.
Interconnections
among submodels.
Symbol in
Fig. 1
A
B
C
D
E
F
s
u
Description of Information
Shortages and surpluses of public and private
services shown in Table V.
Ambient concentration of total suspended parti
culates (TSP) and S02. (Could not be used in
initial effort; total TSP emissions were used
instead.)
Geographic distribution of the change in age-
specific mortality, changes in expectation in
life, and the changes in morbidity.
Number of man days lost and number of fatalities
due to accidents during construction and operation.
Geographic distribution of the average annual
ambient concentration of S02 and TSP about the
fossil fuel plants.
Decline in the productivity of construction work-
ers at the peak of the boom due to adverse boom
town conditions.
Final outputs are given in dollars in the initial
calculation.
Multi-attribute utility measurement (MAUM) has been
used to evaluate alternative boom town scenarios.
MAUM output is expressed in utility units (utils),
which are not directly comparable to dollars.
TABLE 2.
INFORMATION FLOW
AMONG SUBMODELS
276
-------
Figure 2. WSCC plant sizes, types, and
locations planned for 1985.
N - NUCLEAR
C - COAL
0 - OIL
SIZE OF LETTERS N, C, 0
INDICATES SIZE OF PLANTS.
1. Andrew Ford, Ed., "Methodology for the Analysis of the Impacts of Electric
Power Production in the West: First Annual Report," LASL. (Documentation
of model used in the first year.)
2- Lee Erickson, "An Approach to Valuing Visual Pollution From Western Electricity
Production," BNWL-2103 (Feb 1977). (Discussion of visibility costs component.)
3. Andrew Ford, "Summary Description of the BOOM1 Model," LASL report
LA-6424-MS (June 1976). (Short report on the boom town simulation model.)
4. Andrew Ford, "User's Guide to the BOOM1 Model," LASL report LA-6396-MS
(June 1976). (Detailed documentation of the boom town simulation model.)
5. John Wood, "Mobility Plans of Newcomer Construction Workers in Boom Towns:
The Case of Rock Springs, Wyoming," Northern Arizona University.
(Statistical analysis of the Construction Worker Profile data on Rock
Springs, Wyoming.)
6. Steven Schulte, "Power Plant Construction—Productivity and Construction
Duration," PNL. (Results of interviews with construction supervisors on
the boom town problem.)
7. Peter Gardiner and Andrew Ford, "Which Run Is Best, And Who Says So?,"
USC and LASL preprint, submitted to Management Science. (Discussion of
the merger of dynamic simulation modeling and multi-attribute utility meas-
urement, with case-study experience.)
TABLE 3.
ADDITIONAL
REPORTS
277
-------
Figure 3 shows an example of these and other
cost estimates for the coal-fired power plant to be
located in the northwest corner of Colorado near
the small town of Craig. This plant will generate
1070 MW of power when it is completed in 1982.
Since Fig. 3 displays costs which differ by two
orders of magnitude, the costs are plotted on a
logarithmic scale. The illustrative cost estimates
shown in Fig. 3 were obtained as follows:
Capital Cost. The estimate of $370 million is
based on a calculated unit cost of $343 per kilowatt
of capacity. This estimate includes the cost of SC"2
removal equipment and is based on a 7% annual rate
of inflation in the cost of labor and materials. If
more recent information on labor and materials costs
were used, the estimate would be significantly high-
er than $343 per kilowatt.
Boom Town Cost. The $100 million cost in Fig.
3 is an estimate of the cost overrun that could
occur at the Craig plant due to adverse boom town
conditions. This estimate is based on a projection
that construction worker productivity could decline
by as much as 65% at the peak of the boom in the
small town of Craig if preventative action were not
taken to avoid the shortages of public and private
services that can occur under conditions of rapid
population growth. The boom town simulation model
(submodel 1 in Fig. 1) is used to make the projec-^
tion of construction worker productivity during the
construction interval. The key assumptions leading
to such a large estimate of productivity decline
are described in Reports 1, 3, and 4 of Table 3.
In addition to projecting the change in con-
struction worker productivity, the boom town simula-
tion model projects changes in a variety of other
variables of concern to local citizens. These in-
clude changes in the local tax burden, shortages and
surpluses of housing, public facilities, and retail
and service facilities, and the number of "newcomers"
in the community, Assigning a dollar cost to the
changes in these variables proved extremely difficult
Thus, the team turned to an alternative technique for'
evaluation called Multi-Attribute Utility Measurement
(MAUM) . The use of a MAUM evaluation model coupled
with the boom town simulation model to evaluate
alternative boom town conditions is described in
detail in Report 7 of Table 3.
Visibility Cost. The visibility submodel is
based on the work of Randall et al. [2], who used a
specially designed bidding game to determine how
much local residents and visiting recreationists
would be willing to pay for partial and full abate-
ment of visible particulate emissions from the Four
Corners power plant near Farmington, New Mexico,
When the Randall results are applied to the air
quality control region of northwest Colorado, one
obtains a total cost of $6.6 million over the entire
life of the plant. About 70% of this total, undis-
counted cost is attributed to the recreational
visitors to northwest Colorado. Specific details
on the visibility calculations are provided in
Reports 1 and 2 of Table 3.
Occupational Safety Cost. We project a total
undiscounted cost of $.9 million due to fatal and
non-fatal accidents occurring during the construc-
tion and operation of the Craig power plant. The
cost per man-day lost has been assumed to be $50,
with 6000 man-days assumed lost per fatality.
Public Health Cost: The estimate of the public
health cost was obtained by performing a series of
three calculations. First, a climatological dis-
persion model developed by the EPA was used to
simulate the diffusion of SC>2 and total suspended
particulates. The dispersion model employs common
CONSTANT 1975 $
1 BILLION -r
100 MILLION ..
10 MILLION --
1 MILLION --
370 MILLION
100 MILLION
6.6 MILLION
0.9 MILLION
0.09 MILLION
Figure 3.
Preliminary internal and exter-
nal cost estimates for the Craig
plant. With respect to Figure 1,
the boom town cost estimate is
the difference between the
internal cost of power calcu-
lated with and without boom town
effects reducing construction
worker productivity.
# 1 CAPITAL COST
#2 BOOM TOWN COST
#3 VISIBILITY COST
& 4 OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY COST
#5 PUBLIC HEALTH COST
278
-------
assumptions about the physical characteristics of
the plant (such as stack height and exit velocity)
and ignores the terrain of the surrounding area.
Second, the increase in the average annual concentra-
tion of the two pollutants in each of the cells
surrounding the plant are used to calculate changes
in mortality and morbidity of the exposed population.
Morality is measured in terms of the reduction in life
expectancy; morbidity is described by the shift in
the distribution of population health status (with
health status characterized on a continuum running
from satisfactory to hospitalized).
The final calculation is performed in the public
health costs submodel (No. 9 in Fig. 1) which assumes
a fixed cost of $50 per day of reduced life expectancy
for mortality costs. Morbidity costs consist of
direct costs (medical, pharmaceutical, and hospital-
TABLE 4. SUBMODEL SYNOPSIS
ization) and indirect costs (productivity losses).
These costs are estimated across the spectrum of
health status and are summed with weights that de-
scribe the change in health status of the population
subjected to changes in annual average pollution
levels.
As Fig. 3 indicates, the final result of perform-
ing this set of three calculations for the Craig
plant is a total, undiscounted cost of only $90,000
over the entire life of the power plant.
Submodel Synopsis
Table 4 provides a synopsis of the submodels
used in the first year's calculation. The first
column of the table indicates those "new" submodels
that were developed by the project team during the
SUBMODEL
TYPE
STRONG POINTS
WEAK POINTS
Boom Town Effects
(BTE)
(new)
Dynamic simulation model,
coupled feedback loops
with nonlinearities and
delays
Socio-economic mechanisms
are visible. Model is well
suited for testing alter-
native policies.
Ignores certain important
factors such as energy
development other than
power plants.
"Air Dispersion of
Fossil-Fuel Pollu-
tants (old)
Expected-value, static
flow model; linear in
emissions
Model is well tested and
documented with visible
representation of physical
and chemical processes.
Very sensitive to site
characteristics. Needs
better meteorological
data.
Health Effects and
Costs of Fossil-
Fuel Pollutants
(modified)
Analytic, static model;
linear in concentration
of pollutants
Covers all morbidit)' and
mortality effects in a
unified manner - a major
advantage
Needs better data and
minor analytical improve-
ments .
Occupational Health
and Safety Effects
and Costs
(old)
Algebraic formula, lin-
ear in plant size
Clear and simple repre-
sentation of accidents
from construction and
operation
Neglects effects of de-
cline in morale (from ad-
verse boom town conditions)
which may affect safety
Internal Cost of
Power (ICP)
(old)
Algebraic, capital cost
model; discounted cash
flow model of cost of
power
Model is well tested and
documented with visible
representation of impor-
tant variables.
Not applicable for plants
smaller than 500 MW or
larger than 1500 MW. Under-
estimates costs due to ob-
solete data on labor,
materials, and methods.
Risk of Nuclear
.Accident
(modified)
Algebraic, expected
value model
Extends the general ap-
plicability of the
Rasmussen estimates in
a simple, straightfor-
ward manner.
Wind speeds are not con-
sidered and various types
of damages are aggregated
together.
Boom Town Costs
(new)
Construction cost overrun
estimated from BTE and
ICP. Other effects eval-
uated with MAUM (multi-
attribute utility theory).
Merger of MAUM with dy-
namic simulation model
is a useful advance in
methodology.
MAUM evaluation is in units
other than the dollars used
in other submodels.
Visibility Costs
(modified)
Algebraic model; non-
linear in emissions;
based on a bidding game
Model extended to a
multiplicity of sites in
a straightforward manner
Model does not consider
background pollution, size
distribution of particulate
emissions, and differing
visual opportunities and
socioeconomic conditions.
279
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Los Alamos
Tularosa
Basin
( 3)
1
no use
of
models
U. of
Oklahoma
Western
Energy
Development
(4)
1
limited
use of
models
U. of
New Mexico
Southwest
Under
Stress
(5)
L
model
as
SRI Teknekron
Synthetic Electric
Liquids Utilities
(6) (7)
1—
model used
as
centerpiece integrative
device
Los Alamos
Electric
Power
in West
_J
predominate
use of
models
Figure 4.
Emphasis on formal
modeling techniques
in assessments of
energy development.
first year. Subcalculations performed with exist-
ing computer codes are designated as "old" sub-
models in Table 4. The third designation in Table
4, "modified," refers to the submodels that were
developed by adapting work done elsewhere to the
purposes of the project.
PROGRAM DISCUSSION
Comparison With Related Studies
In Fig. 4 several related studies of energy
development are ordered with respect to the empha-
sis placed on formal modeling techniques. The
studies on the left place little emphasis on formal
quantitative methods; studies on the right make
strong use of such methods. The Los Alamos study
of western electricity summarized in this report
is located to the far right of the spectrum since
we have placed total emphasis on formal methods in
pursuit of the goal to develop &_ methodology for
the analysis of the costs of electric power produc-
tion in the West.
Usefulness of Results
Although the submodels have been constructed
to fit together as indicated in Fig. 1, the more
immediate usefulness of the research may well be
in exercising some of the submodels on their own.
The boom town simulation model, for example, can
be used to test the effectiveness of a variety of
proposals such as loan guarantees and direct grants
designed to help towns deal with the "front end"
financing problem. At this point in time, five
groups outside of Los Alamos have implemented and
exercised the boom town model on their own com-
puter system. According to their individual needs,
each group is working to expand a particular sector
of the model. Analysts at the Commerce Department,
for example, are expanding the energy sector to
deal with boom town impacts from off-shore energy
projects such as deep water ports and oil platforms.
The Multi-Attribute Utility Measurement (MAUM)
technique used in the boom town evaluation model
also has the potential to be immediately useful in
helping decision making groups to resolve value
oriented disputes. We have discussed the applica-
bility of the MAUM procedures with decision makers
concerned with assorted areas ranging from the
selection of a geothermal test site to the evalua-
tion of research proposals. Moreover, the merger
of a dynamic simulation model to calculate boom
town effects with the MAUM model to evaluate those
effects constitutes a novel and useful methodologi-
cal development. The specific models merged in
this project are now being used to resolve some of
the key issues concerning boom town problems associ-
ated with the development of coal resources in the
Rocky Mountain States [8] . Other submodels devel-
oped in the first year of the project are finding
immediate application as well. The health effects
and health costs submodels (numbers 3 and 9 in Fig.
1), for example, are being used as part of the
national coal utilization assessment [9].
CONCLUSIONS
Several improvements and expansions are planned
for the remainder of the project. Weaknesses in
existing submodels are being corrected, and addi-
tional submodels are being constructed to cover the
impacts from the mining and milling phases of the
electric fuel cycle. A water component is being
added to represent the effects of diverting water
away from western agriculture to cool the electric
power plants proposed in the WSCC plan. And finally,
a careful study of the relative advantages of using
dollar quantification or Multi-Attribute Utility
Measurement is being conducted.
After these improvements have been completed,
the team will turn to the calculation of the costs
associated with a scenario other than the WSCC plan
portrayed in Fig. 2.
REFERENCES
1. Reliability and Adequacy of Service, Reply to
the Federal Power Commission, Docket R-362,
from the Western Systems Co-ordinating Council,
Denver, Colorado, April, 1976.
280
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2. A. Randall, B. Ives, and C. Eastman, "Bidding
Games for Valuation of Aesthetic Environmental
Improvements," Journal of Environmental Econ-
omics and Management _1, 132-149 (1974).
3. W. Gertsch, et al., Analysis of the Tularosa
Basin, New Mexico, As the Site For A Regional
Energy Center, Executive Summary, Los Alamos
Scientific Laboratory, April, 1976.
4. I. White, et al., First Year Work Plan for a
Technology Assessment of Western Energy Re-
source Development, EPA report 600/5-76-001,
March, 1976.
5. A Kneese, Status Report, Southwest Region Under
Stress, Department of Economics, University of
New Mexico, Autumn, 1976.
6. E. Dickson, et al., Synthetic Liquid Fuels De-
velopment: Assessment of Critical Factors,
ERDA report 76-129/1, 1976.
7. Teknekron, Inc., An Integrated Technology
Assessment of Electric Utility Energy Systems,
under preparation on EPA contract No. 68-01-1921.
8. "Socio-economic Impacts," Chapter 11, Impacts
of Coal Development in the Rocky Mountain West,
Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, forthcoming.
-9. "Health and Safety Impacts," Chapter 10, Im-
: pacts of Coal Development in the Rocky Mountain
West, Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory,
forthcoming.
281
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health effects
CHAPTER 6
I
-------
CHAPTER CONTENTS
health effects
SUMMARY
William L. Wagner, HEW
Kenneth Bridbord, M.D., HEW 287
QUESTIONS & ANSWERS 293
TECHNICAL DISCUSSION 299
DETECTION AND EVALUATION OF
POTENTIAL HEALTH EFFECTS ASSOCIATED WITH
HAZARDOUS AGENTS FROM ALTERNATE SOURCES OF ENERGY
Stephen Nesnow, EPA
Michael D. Waters, EPA
Heinrich V. Mailing, HEW 301
INTERAGENCY ENERGY/ENVIRONMENTAL PROGRAMS ON
ANIMAL TOXICOLOGY
David L. Coffin, EPA
Robert L. Dixon, HEW 307
METABOLISM, DAMAGE, AND REPAIR OF DAMAGE OF
ENERGY-RELATED CHEMICAL AGENTS
Murray Schulman, ERDA
George E. Stapleton, ERDA 311
CLINICAL RESEARCH RELATED TO ENERGY
John H. Knelson, EPA 313
CURRENT STATUS OF EXTRAPOLATION RESEARCH
Michael D. Hogan, HEW
William C. Nelson, EPA 315
-------
HEALTH EFFECTS
William L. Wagner
Director
National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health
U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare
Kenneth Bridbord, M.D.
Office of Extramural Coordination and Special Projects
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare
DEVELOPING SAFE
ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES
PUBLISHABLE RESULTS
SPARGE
DEVELOPING TECHNOLOGIES
DIFFICULT TO STUDY
We are sure that everyone attending this Conference is aware of the tremendous
challenge that confronts our country, and indeed all countries, to safely produce the
energy necessary for a quality standard of living; energy that is, indeed, vital for our
survival. It is obvious that new sources of energy, energy conversion processes, and
energy conservation measures must be developed within just a few years. These new
technologies will be complex and will inevitably pose potential risks to human health
and the environment. The challenge to produce an increasing supply of energy from
new sources is considerably complicated by this risk, and dictates that the technology
developers and the health scientists work cooperatively to develop energy production
facilities which are efficient, safe for the workers, and environmentally acceptable.
For the health scientists, the ultimate objective is to provide the energy scientists
with timely information to guide the development of technologies so as to minimize or
eliminate potential hazards. To accomplish this it is essential to maintain close
cooperative interaction between the engineers and other scientists concerned with
energy technology development and the scientists concerned with protecting the public
health and welfare. One notable result of the Interagency Energy/Environment
Research and Development Program has been the progress made in achieving this
interaction. There is still progress to be made, and this type of program
accomplishment is difficult to document, but continuing progress in developing such
interaction will eventually provide great dividends as our nation proceeds in a major
technological assault on the energy problem.
When we were reviewing the papers submitted for this session, it became obvious
that extensive publishable results in the health effects area are not available at this
time.
This statement is not meant to criticize. The situation was to be expected, since
several years are usually required to complete health studies. Investigation of the
potential health hazards associated with developing and existing energy technologies is
a task of enormous scope, requiring coordinated effort beyond the capabilities of any
single agency. It has been a time-consuming task to make preliminary assessments, to
develop interagency coordination and agreements, to re-examine program priorities and
previous commitments, in some cases to rearrange entire research programs, to develop
contracts, and to reallocate resources. This extensive preparation was required so that
the energy-associated health problems could be researched in a responsive, logical, and
fiscally sound manner. Much of the initial years of the Interagency Program was spent
in this effort.
As actual research projects got underway, the life scientists discovered that the
study of developing technologies posed considerably more problems than the study of
existing industries. The processes within a technology were quite varied, and there was
no certainty that the process would maintain the same operational characteristics from
pilot plant to commercial plant. There was, and still is, a problem in obtaining suitable
test substances. Pilot plants frequently have unpredictable operating schedules, are
usually able to achieve steady-state operation only for short durations (and samples
taken at other times are practically useless for biological testing), and the populations
available for epidemiological studies are quite small.
287
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REDIRECTION OF
HEALTH RESEARCH PROGRAMS
IN VITRO AND IN VIVO
TEST SYSTEMS
The point of mentioning all this—and I have only touched on a few problems-is
that it has taken a lot of effort and time to redirect extensive health research
programs in order to respond to a complex major national issue; and to bring these
programs to a point where substantial results are starting to come in. Most projects are
only on the threshold of producing extensive tangible, i.e., publishable, results. By this
time next year, a considerable body of new knowledge will have been reported
Though publishable results are sparse at this time, concrete achievements have been
made as a result of the Interagency Energy/Environment R&D Program.
In the detection and evaluation of potential health effects, important accomplish-
ments have included the establishment of information systems and a repository for
chemical substances at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory. A data information and
retrieval service has been established to compile past and present literature on the
mutagenic potential of environmental agents. The Environmental Mutagen Information
Center has recently compiled information based on the potential mutagenic activity of
petroleum refinery stream effluents and on the toxicity of coal liquefaction products.
A computerized information system for teratology, the Environmental Teratology
Information Center, has also been established at Oak Ridge. This system will meet the
needs of governmental agencies and scientists for knowledge of the teratogenic
potential of environmental pollutants. During the past year, over 7,500 references have
been introduced into this system.
Another important research support facility is the chemical repository for
energy-related materials at Oak Ridge. This repository was created to receive, store,
and disseminate specimens of substances derived from coal gasification and liquefaction,
shale-oil production, and effluents from a number of other energy processes.
Drs. Nesnow, Waters, and Mailing of EPA and NIEHS have reported on the use of
in vitro and in vivo test systems to detect and evaluate potential health effects
associated with hazardous agents from alternate sources of energy. In vitro or
nonwhole animal tests are invaluable as prescreens for identifying potential mutagens,
cytotoxic agents, and carcinogens.
288
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The Salmonella typhimurium histidine reversion assay of Ames is currently being
used as a screen for the identification of hazardous agents from both alternate energy
sources and the urine of rats treated with carcinogens. A number of investigators are
using the system to evaluate both ambient air pollutants and coal and oil-shale
conversion products. Preliminary evidence suggests that the most active components
appear to be neutral and basic compounds. Mammalian cells in culture are being used
in addition to the microbial system for detecting gene mutations. The metabolites
identified as being highly mutagenic are 7,8-dihydro-7,8 dihydroxybenzo(a)pyrene and
benzol a) pyrene-4,5-oxide.
Effects of various energy-related compounds on DNA binding, damage, and repair
systems are also being evaluated. 7,l2-dimethylbenz(a)anthracene inhibited 50 percent
of the thymidine incorporation into DNA after 24 hours' incubation. Inhibition of
phage replication was used as an indicator of carcinogenic activity of 12 polycylic
aromatic hydrocarbons. The results suggest that some hydrocarbons may directly
inhibit phage replication, whereas others may be converted to some other form,
presumably within the cell, before demonstrating an inhibitory effect.
|N VIVO
SCREENING SYSTEMS
In vivo screening systems are also being used to assess mutagenic activity. Sulfur
dioxide, benzo(a)pyrene and 7,12-dimethylbenz(a)anthracene are currently under
evaluation as mutagens using the specific locus method in mice. A dominant-lethal
study in male mice using benzo(a)pyrene at the maximum tolerated dose has been
completed. There is an indication that this carcinogen induces dominant-lethal
mutations in spermatozoa. Female mice treated with benzo(a)pyrene or
7,12-dimethylbenz(a)anthracene have shown reduced productivity capacity.
COLLECTIVE EFFORTS
A number of agents are currently under evaluation as teratogens in a variety of
test systems. Mice are being treated with X-rays, sulfur dioxide, sulfuric acid, and
benzo(a)pyrene; rats are being treated with heavy metals such as lead, and the
offspring are being examined for teratogenic effects. A novel approach involves the
treatment of mouse and rabbit embryos with SOx and NOX in culture, followed by
implantation of the cultured embryos in utero. Subsequent effects on the
developmental process will be noted and compared to animals exposed by inhalation.
As evidenced by the foregoing discussion, significant progress has been made in
our collective efforts to detect and evaluate potential health effects associated with
hazardous agents from alternate sources of energy. In the future it will be essential to
achieve an effective integration of the various bioanalytical methods that have been
developed. Increased emphasis on the following areas is needed.
1. Computer-assisted identification (based on known physiochemical, biochemical,
and biological structure-activity relationships) of potential genetoxic agents or
potentially genotoxic metabolites of the agents in question would be a worthwhile
addition to the arsenal of prescreens.
2. A number of the new systems previously described need to be carefully
validated with known standards, and quantitative relationships should be established.
Methods must be developed to permit existing bioassays to accept crude mixtures and
effluents without prior purification. Systems must be designed and implemented that
are genetically and metabolically similar to man. In vivo test systems, in which a
number of parameters such as cytotoxicity, DNA damage and repair, metabolism,
mutagenesis, and neoplastic transformation could be measured concurrently, would be a
valuable addition to the screening systems available. More emphasis in the area of
monitoring the human population for increases in mutations, cancers, and terata is
desirable. Further investigation of multiple-agent effects on toxicity, mutagenesis,
teratogenesis, and carcinogenesis is essential.
3. The interagency program for in vivo animal toxicology was established to
evaluate the toxicological hazards of effluents, waste streams, and products of
extraction, conversion, and utilization from the various energy technologies by acute
and chronic exposure of whole-animal models, using appropriate exposure regimens.
Drs. Coffin and Dixon point out that the program involves not only the actual
testing of hazardous materials to establish dose-response relationships under a variety of
exposure conditions, but also to identify particular animal strains which, based on their
sensitivity to selected pollutants, can be used to model those human organs, systems,
or individuals which are most susceptible to that particular stress.
289
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PROGRAM'S PRIME FOCUS
GENERAL PROGRESS OF
PROGRAMS
EPA CLINICAL STUDIES-
PHASES I AND II
The program focuses primarily on pollutants released during the coal fuel cycle
especially during combustion and/or conversion, and to a lesser extent on pollutants
resulting from other synthetic fuels and energy-conservation activities. The program is
oriented toward defining dose-response resulting from inhalation exposures, which
represent the primary route of exposure to environmental pollutants for a majority of
the population. However, the program is placing increasing emphasis on other routes of
exposure-e.g., ingestion and dermal absorption, and particularly multiple exposure
routes, such as inhalation/ingestion—and their relative contributions to an individual's
total body burden, and through interaction study concerning toxicants from other
sources, biological interaction with infectious agents, etc.
EPA, ERDA, and NIEHS carry out more than 70 separate research projects in the
in vivo aspects of toxicology in the Interagency Program. In addition, many similar
experiments pertaining to energy are being performed in the base programs of the
respective agencies. Many of the projects in these programs are closely interlinked so
that much more work in this field is progressing than testing under the Interagency
Program indicates.
It is patently impossible in this review to discuss the programs beyond citing
some general progress. According to Drs. Coffin and Dixon, progress during the past
year has been accomplished on three fronts. First, a normal development of projects
with time and an increase of data collection as they get underway can be expected.
Second, increased information sharing between the various investigators through
conferences and inter-scientific communication has occurred. And third, collection and
dissemination, across agency lines, of information relative to developing process
availability of specimens for biological testing, which have relevance to the technologies
involved, has been accomplished.
The major objectives of the research in metabolism and mechanisms in biological
systems are threefold: (1) to improve the capabilities of extrapolated dose-effect,
experimentally derived, information to predict critical results of health in man; (2) to
provide mechanically, data that can transcend species variation by establishment of
generalized mechanisms of damage and repair at the cellular and molecular level; (3) to
develop the biological and biochemical methods and systems needed to accomplish
these objectives. Underlying these objectives is the need to define the patterns of
deposition, distribution, and metabolism which determine chemical dose at the cellular
level of critical organic, biological, and physical factors influencing toxicity.
Effects involve all of the major classes of fossil energy-related pollutants
(polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, aliphatics, and alicyclics), gases, particulates, and
trace metals.
Since the thrust of this portion of the program is developmental in nature and
highly diversified in terms of methodology, it is at present difficult to summarize in
terms of the ultimate objective, namely, improvement of capability to predict health
risk to man.
Nevertheless, Drs. Schulman and Stapleton report some highlights: (1) It is clear
that carcinogenic hydrocarbons (polynuclear aromatics) bind to DNA, and cells that
have produced repair enzymes can partially counteract the damage. (2) It is possible to
evaluate repair in vivo in critical organs as well as in vitro cell cultures. And (3) Data
are becoming available that suggest similar types of molecular damage and repair are
involved, leading to mutagenesis and carcinogenesis.
Human health research is largely confined to clinical studies conducted by EPA
and occupational safety and health studies conducted by NIOSH.
Dr. Knelson reports in his paper that the clinical studies in EPA have evolved in
two parallel phases. Phase I is the establishment and maintenance of a clinical studies
research facility and the development of new techniques with which environmental
conditions can be simulated and their effects assessed. This developmental activity is
necessary because of the paucity of prior work in clinical environmental research. EPA
has assumed a leading role in this investigation. Phase II is the actual use of those
resources in conducting studies. The energy R&D effort figures in both phases of the
EMA's clinical studies program. In Phase I the energy program provides the data
quality assurance for components of the research system. Phase II consists of the
actual use of the resources developed in Phase I for conducting the clinical studies.
EPA also supports outside, independent studies similar to those being conducted
in-houss.
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SULFATE RESEARCH
HIGHLIGHTS OF NIOSH
ENERGY RELATED PROGRAM
energy
environment II
The environmental clinical studies within EPA center on the Clinical Laboratory
Evaluation and Assessment of Noxious Substance (CLEANS) facility at the University
of North Carolina, Chapel Hill. A product of several years of design and development,
this facility is now completed and will shortly begin to test energy-related pollutants.
Studies are in progress to determine the effects of sulfuric acid aerosol on healthy
subjects. Depending on the results of this research, other studies will be designed to
assess the effects of ammonium bisulfate and ammonium sulfate. The sulfate research,
just beginning, is especially important and timely. Many forms of sulfates result either
directly or indirectly from all fossil fuel-fired combustion sources. Research is in
progress to evaluate effects of carbon monoxide, oxidants, and sulfates. New studies
will address nitrogen oxides and other aerosols, such as nitrates. These studies will be
an important feature of the Nation's energy program.
Despite the high level of effort associated with CLEANS, it is absolutely necessary
that independent studies also be conducted outside of EPA. Such supplemental studies
help verify the results of CLEANS and add to a data base broad enough to assess for
regulatory purposes the effect of sulfate aerosols on human health. EPA is funding two
independent studies of the effects of sulfuric acid exposure, one by the University of
Maryland School of Medicine, the other by the University of California.
The EPA Health Effects Research Program will continue to pursue a broad-based,
multidisciplinary research program, a large part of which will identify and quantify
health consequences of changing energy-production technology. It is clear that tighter
homes and a shift to more coal combustion are occurring in this country. Therefore, a
larger clinical studies program addressing sulfur oxides, heavy metals, organics, and
indoor pollution is indispensable.
The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health is pursuing a broad
program of industrial hygiene and epidemiological investigations which includes the
development of improved environmental sampling and analytical chemistry techniques.
We will not discuss the analytical chemistry and instrumentation development projects,
even though exciting progress has been made in this area. The projects will be
presented in detail later today.
The industrial hygiene and epidemiology studies are directed at a number of
energy processes. NIOSH and TVA have completed a joint preliminary feasibility study
and are initiating, through interagency agreement, a study of worker exposure at
coal-fired steam electric generating plants utilizing negative and positive draft boilers,
and a retrospective mortality study of about 6,000 employees who worked in
coal-fired plants between 1955 and 1972.
Because of the concern for human exposure to asbestos and other fibrous
materials, and in anticipation of an accelerated national effort to conserve energy
through increased use of insulation, NIOSH has been studying workers exposed to
mineral wool fibers. A report on a retrospective mortality study and associated
industrial hygiene surveys is expected to be completed later this year.
Research has also been expanded on the effects of the recirculation of indoor air.
A seminar is tentatively scheduled for this September to discuss the results of the
present contract.
Industrial hygiene investigations of high Btu gasification pilot plants have been
performed under contract and were well underway earlier this year. The contract is
being expanded to include both low and high Btu gasification processes.
A contract for the study of coal liquefaction processes will be awarded within a
few months.
NIOSH is also developing occupational safety and health guideline documents for
coal conversion plants. A document on coal gasification pilot plants, now being
reviewed by several Federal agencies, will be finalized and transmitted to OSHA and
ERDA later this year. Work has begun on a second document to develop safety and
health criteria for coal gasification scale-up facilities. Later this fiscal year, a contract
will be awarded for similar documents related to coal liquefaction.
Morbidity and mortality studies of former oil-shale workers are ongoing. Most of
the cohort members have now been located and their vital status determined. The
cohort is quite small, however (600 persons), and the industry is not sufficiently
developed to provide very meaningful industrial hygiene investigations. NIOSH is,
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therefore, making a preliminary study of the oil-shale industry in the Soviet Union to
determine whether the Estonian experience is similar enough to be used as a predictor
of potential future problems in the United States.
Although I have not mentioned a number of projects, these are some of the
highlights of the NIOSH energy-related program. I expect that a number of significant
results, reports, and documents will be forthcoming within this next year.
CURRENT STATUS OF Drs. Hogan and Nelson reported on the current status of extrapolating results of
STUDIES IN ANIMALS studies in animals, often conducted at high dose levels, to the human exposure
situation, usually occurring at much lower dose levels. Most of the tested carcinogens
appear to behave in a linear dose response fashion at low dose levels, even if they
exhibit a nonlinear response in the experimental dose range. Tight confidence limits for
the point-estimate of risk at low dose levels can usually be established for compounds
that exhibit a strong linear trend in the experimental dose range.
In conclusion, let me say that the interagency R&D health research program in
energy shows promise of making a substantive contribution to our Nation's efforts to
provide safe and environmentally acceptable energy sources.
WILLIAM L. WAGNER
B.S., Civil Engineering, M.S., Sanitary Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute;
M.S., Radiological Hygiene, University of North Carolina. As Coordinator for Energy
and Mining Research, NIOSH, directed research in energy technologies and metal and
nonmetallic mining. Experience as radiation physicist for Alaska Department of Health
and Social Services on control of ionizing and nonionizing radiation. Extensive
involvement in protective plans for radiation related emergencies; developed character-
ization techniques for radioactive particles, and monitored environmental radionuclide
concentrations from fallout from nuclear testing. Currently, Director for Environmental
and Energy Research, NIOSH, Morgantown, WV.
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questions
CK answers
Mr. Kesh S. Murthy
Battelle-Columbus Laboratories
Dr. Herbert Lorber
Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory-ERDA
Dr. Harrison R. Hickey
Tennessee Valley Authority
Mr. Alex Green
University of Florida
Dr. Edward S. Rubin
Carnegie-Mellon University
QUESTION:
Dr. Friberg, could you repeat the name of the
journal the risk assessment report will be published in?
RESPONSE: Dr. Lars Friberg (Karolinski Institute)
QUESTION:
The Environmental Health Perspectives given out
from the National Institute of Environmental Health
Sciences.
With regard to the linear versus nonlinear debate, Dr.
Friberg gives the impression that in the absence of firm
data the symposium decided to take a prudent, easy, and
practical course, assuming a linear behavior with zero
threshold. However, I got the impression from the
rapporteur's summary that there is perhaps some evidence
to support the linear hypothesis. Would someone please
elaborate on this?
RESPONSE: Dr. Friberg
There is no doubt that there are data which support
such linear hypothesis. However, the conclusion was a
more general one, meaning that, as there is evidence for
certain chemicals of this linear relationship, it was best to
use a linear hypothesis generally if there was no evidence
to the contrary. This would be in agreement with what is
used in radiation protection.
COMMENT: Dr. George E. Stapleton (ERDA)
Dr. Friberg would probably agree that the best
evidence for linearity comes from polynuclear aromatic
hydrocarbons that are complete carcinogens. Not all of
the known agents are complete carcinogens; that is, they
do not serve as an initiator as well as a promoter.
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There may be other evidence for what we now
classify as incomplete carcinogens where the dose response
is not linear. From recent experiments, the initiation
process which shows linear kinetics is most interesting,
but the requirement in some cases is for a promoting
agent.
I would also like to indicate that the regulated
compounds are not promoters. It may turn out to be
very important in the future that some of the
hydrocarbon-type compounds need to be assessed in their
role as promoters as well as carcinogens. The possibility is
being created by the very programs that were talked
about today, to actually develop inexpensive and perhaps
rapid screens to indicate what compounds serve as
promoters. We know only a few now, but there are many
compounds that could be promoters, especially the
organic compounds.
COMMENT: Mr. Gerald Rausa (EPA)
COMMENT: Dr. Friberg
QUESTION:
I am substituting for Mike Hogan from NIEHS who
was to address the question of risk extrapolation. I have
recently returned from an NIEHS symposium where Mike
Hogan and Dr. David Hull have been doing a lot of
modeling. There is some evidence which indicates that it
is most appropriate to use the linear, nonthreshold
hypothesis for several agents.
Dr. Hull's papers on that subject will be available in
the not too distant future. That does not mean that all
agents exhibit this relationship, but there is indeed some
evidence that, as Dr. Stapleton indicated, some agents do.
I think it is important to realize that for several of
these compounds for example, benzo-A-pyrene, if there is
not an addition, let us say from a power plant, we
always have a fairly high background level; so we are
basically not down at the very zero dose.
I wondered what the implications are to the
selection of alternative systems in control technology of
this linear hypothesis, as opposed to having a threshold
below which presumably we can enjoy a healthy
environment. Does this mean that we will be driven by
that hypothesis in the direction of the as
low-as-practicable-approach that has been used for the
nuclear industry?
RESPONSE: Mr. William Wagner (NIOSH)
The Occupational Safety and Health Act was meant
to be a technology-forcing act. As carcinogens and
hazards are identified, the controls in the plants will have
to be designed to bring these exposures to a minimum.
Would somebody like to comment on the environmental
aspects?
RESPONSE: Mr. Rausa
The question really is what is an acceptable risk, and
of course, it turns out that what is an acceptable risk to
one person may not be an acceptable risk to another. As
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a consequence, that particular question
addressed to the decision makers themselves.
should be
Those in the research business are trying to estimate
the greatest amount of reliability—what that dose response
relationship is and under what circumstances the linear
hypothesis is appropriate. The question of acceptability of
risk is not necessarily what should be asked of these
individuals but rather of the decision makers.
QUESTION:
RESPONSE: Mr. Rausa
I was wondering about the significance of the linear
hypothesis itself, assuming that you mean linearity all the
way back to zero. That says that there is not a threshold,
that one molecule is too much. Am I reading that
correctly? Is that what the linear hypothesis means?
There are two types of linear hypotheses. One is
linear nonthreshold and the other is linear with threshold.
As a matter of fact, there are a number of different
kinds of models. Linear nonthreshold essentially means a
one hit situation without taking into account the
possibility for reparative processes. But on the basis of
the data that exist at the present time, there is no doubt
that under some circumstances linear nonthreshold is an
appropriate approach to use. EPA's cancer assessment
group is headed by Dr. Roy Albert, who just recently
said that, as far as he is concerned, this is the particular
approach that will be used for making recommendations
for a number of agents.
QUESTION:
There are several papers published that question the
general applicability of a linear hypothesis. A number of
years ago a paper introduced a concept of drug potency
where things went as Dn times the mean age to 50
percent incidence.
I have done work in the ultraviolet radiation skin
cancer, nonmelanoma skin cancer, which suggests
age-adjusted rates go as exponentially with dose or
approximately as D^ or D3, in that neighborhood. The
National Cancer Institute gets the same type of result.
I have recently heard that a specialized conference
on ionizing radiation dose response curves began to
question some of what are regarded as the standard tenets
of ionizing radiation dose response work. In particular,
the impact of repair mechanisms seems to throw some of
these tenets into question.
Perhaps a better model than ionizing radiation would
be nonionizing radiation such as ultraviolet, where damage
is less violent than in ionizing radiation. I would like
your comments on that.
RESPONSE: Dr. Friberg
This was discussed in much detail. For example, we
say it has become more likely on micro-dosimetric and
theoretical grounds than in the mathematical formulation
of the dose response relationship. The frequency of many
harmful effects is likely to be represented up to rather
high doses by the sum of three terms-one being the
background frequency, the second varying with the dose,
and the third varying with the square of the dose.
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QUESTION:
RESPONSE: Mr. Wagner
Dr. Wagner, you started off your talk pointing out
that one of the benefits of the interagency program has
been to get health scientists and technologists talking to
one another; yet, health scientists on this panel, the ones
I hear, talk most frequently about carcinogens, mutagens,
and things that are generally not regulated in terms of
the day-to-day business of the EPA. Today we hear about
carcinogens and mutagens. Yesterday we heard about
sulfur dioxide, particulate matter, NOX the same old
stuff.
Are the health scientists getting the point across to
those who are developing control technology that in
addition to characterizing effluents from processes, as
they may exist in a crude or raw state, we ought to be
trying to characterize the effect of different control
technologies on these somewhat esoteric sorts of
compounds and species?
I think that we all recognize the ultimate goal of
our research is to develop the control technology that
will allow us to use some of the energy sources and
conversion processes that are being developed; in other
words, this is the bottom line of the interagency energy
R&D program.
In NIOSH we have a control technology group who,
under the auspices of this funding, will be pursuing a
number of different research projects and who will be
working with our epidemiologists and industrial hygienists.
We are also talking to the technologists, for instance, in
the fossil energy group in ERDA, and to those who are
actually developing the technologies. In other words, we
are trying to identify the raw substances, the by-products,
the end products, the waste materials, and the fugutive
emissions to determine their human risk, and to identify
the points of human contact and then find the controls
necessary to minimize or eliminate this contact.
QUESTION:
RESPONSE: Mr. Wagner
How is it arrived at that carcinogenesis and
mutagenesis were the main threats of fossil fuel
combustion? Yesterday, we heard that control technology
stresses minimizing sulfur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, and
particles. Among the existing control technologies, do any
of them lower the carcinogenic, mutagenic hydrocarbons
in the air?
It is not my opinion that the general thrust of the
interagency health effects research program is in
carcinogenesis and mutagenesis. This is just one aspect of
human health effects.
I briefly alluded to a problem in my overview speech
about exposure to mixtures of materials. I do not know
and would not want to get into a discussion of what
materials are promoters or co-carcinogens; it is a very
knotty problem.
I think it is important to realize that, when we get
into mixtures, we have a number of insults on the human
body, and the effects are possibly going to be quite
different, perhaps more severe than when we test systems
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RESPONSE: Mr. Rausa
to the pure substances. There is a great deal of work that
needs to be done in this area, particularly in just trying
to design the test systems. For instance, how does one
collect a fugitive emission and keep it intact in terms of
its relative proportions of materials and then expose a
bacteria or some cell tissue or cell culture test system to
this material. There is a lot of work that needs to be
done here, and I think in this area we need to do more
work and look at the exposure to mixtures as opposed to
pure substances.
It is inappropriate to conclude that one only keys
on carcinogenesis or mutagenesis as the end points. There
are other end points of major concern. It just so happens
that in the risk extrapolation business, the mathematical
analysis that has gone on has addressed that particular
question. We do the things we can do, and we can do
the arithmetic easier with carcinogenesis and mutagenesis
than we can with systems, essentially dysfunctions.
The other techniques that are being used in risk
assessment as it pertains to other end points is essentially
the gathering together of ad hoc groups to decide the
appropriate dose response relationship based on the
totality of information which is available, from animal
toxicology, epidemiology, and the clinical studies, and
how to extrapolate that. You should not go away from
here thinking that carcinogenesis and mutagenesis are the
only end points of concern.
RESPONSE: Dr. Friberg
RESPONSE: Dr. Stapleton
I would strongly agree with that. One reason that we
have researched this in so much detail in Sweden is that
we wanted to have an effect that could be compared
with the effects that are thought to be the cause of
ionizing radiation. For example, we took the
concentrations of benzo-A-pyrene and made some
calculations using a linear dose response relationship. The
number of cancers to be expected, even with such a
conservative approach, from one single coal power plant is
very trivial. At the same time, if we take another
carcinogenic substance that is emitted in the stack gases
such as arsenic, we also end up with a trivial number of
cancers. The main problem arises in connection with the
emission of coal or stack gases from power plants. We
have no idea whatsoever what the carcinogenic potential
of the total emission is.
In the ERDA program there is almost a complete
balance, say, between studies that have to do with
mutagenesis, carcinogenesis, and what we call systems
toxicology. But I must admit that most of the effort in
carcinogenesis and mutagenesis is based on the fact that
most of the criteria for standards are not based on late
effects, and this is one of the large gaps in information
for criteria for the future. It is the real gap of
information, say, so far as health hazards.
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COMMENT: Dr. Stephen J. Gage (EPA)
After the last session was over one of the things that
struck me from the discussion is the mix of present and
future problems and technologies. I think Dr. Stapleton
put it very well by saying that there is a considerable
amount of emphasis on carcinogenic and mutagenic
research in the health effects area because these are latent
problems that have very, very long time constants. If we
do have problems—say, cancers caused by the combustion
products from coal-fired plants—we ought to know about
this as soon as possible.
And probably as important, we should not launch
new technologies without taking the greatest precaution in
identifying any latent effects that might be associated
with those technologies. That is the reason for the
combination of studies which are related to the toxic
effects, as well as the carcinogenic and mutagenic effects.
And that is why we study coal combustion products
along with the products and by-products of the advanced
processes such as coal liquefaction and coal gasification.
I thought this short word of explanation might help
put that previous session in a little better perspective.
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technical
discussion
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DETECTION AND EVALUATION OF POTENTIAL HEALTH
EFFECTS ASSOCIATED WITH HAZARDOUS AGENTS
FROM ALTERNATE SOURCES OF ENERGY
Stephen Nesnow and Michael D. Waters
Health Effects Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Heinrich V. Mailing
Laboratory of Environmental Mutagenesis
National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences
U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
INTRODUCTION
An integral part of health effects related
research is the development and utilization of
methods that facilitate the detection and evalua-
tion of potential health effects associated with
hazardous agents from alternate sources of energy.
The final Report of the Interagency Working Group
on Health and Environmental Effects of Energy Use
(King-Muir Report, November 1974) defined five
objective areas for study, three of which are:
Objective area No 1: To identify hazardous agents
associated with energy technologies; Objective area
No 2: To develop more rapid and sensitive biologi-
cal methods to evaluate dose and damage to man, and
Objective area No 5: To determine the processes of
damage, repair, recovery, protection and ameliora-
tion in biological systems exposed to hazardous
agents.
These objective areas encompass an overall
program of research and development of technologies
associated with the identification of hazardous
agents from environmental effluents and the deter-
mination of their effect on human health. The
Interagency Health Effects Related R & D program
has provided support for these areas of investiga-
tion. This report summarizes the technological
advances that have been made.
A distinction can be made within the human
population in regard to levels of exposure to
effluents from alternate energy sources. Those
individuals who reside or work near energy produc-
tion facilities may be exposed to high concentra-
tions of effluents. Although this subpopulation
represents a small fraction of the total popula-
tion, it wculd be highly desirable to routinely
monitor this subpopulation for increases in possi-
ble toxic and genotoxic effects (i.e., those effects
that result from damage to DNA). It might also be
advantageous to identify high risk individuals
within this subpopulation. The remainder of the
overall population is exposed to low or background
levels of effluents. These individuals are insul-
ted with chronic subtoxic doses of those agents
that have diffused from high concentration areas.
Constant monitoring of both high concentration and
low concentration areas for the appearance of cyto-
toxic and genotoxic agents and a continuing program
of risk assessment is necessary for the protection
of the ecosphere. This monitoring can employ
rapid, short-term, sensitive tests organized into
tiered or hierarchial levels. The incorporation of
redundant test systems is desirable to increase the
range and sensitivity of the overall test matrix.
The problem of false negatives can be overcome by
using a battery of tests, while false positives can
be further evaluated by higher-order test systems.
In vitro_ or non-whole animal tests are inval-
uable as prescreens for identifying potential
mutagens, cytotoxic agents and carcinogens in the
environment because they are rapid, sensitive, and
low in cost.
IN VITRO TEST SYSTEMS
Mutagenesis Systems Utilizing Gene Mutations in
Prokaryotic Microorganisms and Somatic Cells in
Culture
The Salmonella typhimurium histidine reversion
assay of Ames is one of the most thoroughly devel-
oped systems for detecting mutagens. This system
is currently being used as a screen for the identi-
fication of hazardous agents from both alternate
energy sources and the urine of rats treated with
carcinogens. A number of investigators are using
the system to direct the fractionation of both amb-
ient air pollutants and coal and oil shale conver-
sion products. The goal of these investigations is
to isolate, identify and evaluate the mutagenic and
potentially carcinogenic effects associated with
specific hazardous agents found in complex mixtures.
Using liquid extraction procedures, preliminary
evidence indicates that the most active components
appear to be neutral and basic compounds. Further
developmental work with the Salmonella typhimurium
system is underway using a number of derivatives of
fluorene. Structure-activity relationships, dose-
response curves, and the binding of these compounds
(or their metabolites) to cells or macromolecules
is being evaluated.
Mammalian cells in culture are being used, in
addition to the microbial system, for detecting
gene mutations. Detection of these events in
Chinese hamster ovary cells is through the use of
multiple drug-resistance markers such as oubain
resistance, 8-azaguanine resistance, and 8-aza-
denine resistance. A similar approach is being
used with Syrian hamster embryo cells. Both cell
systems are being further developed and validated
with standard mutagens and energy-relevant hydro-
carbons. Chinese hamster ovary cells are also
being evaluated for use in a point mutation assay
using 6-thioguanine resistance as the marker and
metabolites of benzo(a)pyrene, an environmental
carcinogen, as the test agents. To date the meta-
bolites that have been identified as highly muta-
genic are: 7,8-dihydro—7,8-dihydroxybenzo(a)pyrene
and benzo(a)pyrene-4-5-oxide.
Mammalian lymphoid cell culture systems (both
human and murine) are being investigated as indi-
cator lines using point mutations at the hypo—
xanthine-guanine phosphoribosyl transferase and
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argininosuccinic acid synthetase loci (human) and
the induction of altered immunoglobulin (murine).
Chromosomal breakage using banding techniques and
activity in bacterial test systems are also being
studied for correlative activity.
A different approach to detecting mutations is
being evaluated using multiple loci screening by
electrophoretic methods. In Chinese hamster ovary
cells, the products of 51 structural enzyme loci
have been electrophoretically characterized and
electrophoretic shifts following treatment with
mutagens have been recorded. This technique
avoids many problems associated with single selec-
tive systems using recessive mutations and offers
theoretical advantages.
A data information and retrieval service has
been established to compile past and present
literature on the mutagenesis of environmental
agents. The Environmental Mutagen Information
Center (EMIC), located at Oak Ridge National
Laboratory, has recently compiled information bases
on the potential mutagenic activity of petroleum
refinery stream effluents and on the toxicity of
coal liquefaction products.
Screening Systems for Chromosomal Aberrations in
Mammalian Cells in Culture
Chromosomal aberrations, chromosomal breaks,
and sister chromatid exchange are being used as end
points to measure the genotoxic effects of environ-
mental mutagens in cell lines derived from the
Chinese hamster, Indian muntjac, and deer mouse.
The effects of energy-related agents on karyotypic
changes in Chinese hamster cells are being studied.
Chromosomal aberrations and mitotic disjunctions
are being scored in stained preparations. This
assay will be extended to human fibroblasts and
lymphocyte cell preparations as a potential screen
in primary human material.
A host-mediated assay is being developed with
human lymphoid cells as target cells. The induc-
tion of chromosome damage will be determined after
the cells are inoculated into heterologous hosts
and the hosts treated with test agents.
Carcinogenesis and Co-Carcinogenesis Malignant
Transformation Systems
The carcinogenic activity of selected air
pollutants is being evaluated using the C3H10T^ and
BALB/3T3 neoplastic transformation bioassays.
Metabolic activation systems are presently being
coupled to these cell systems to enhance their
sensitivity. The CSHIOT^ mouse embryo fibroblastic
cell line is being further developed by attempting
to incorporate biochemical and biological end
points for carcinogenesis in addition to morpho-
logical transformation; these modifications will
help to shorten the assay times. Permanent cell
lines of epithelial origin (including human) are
currently being established that will be trans-
formable by chemical carcinogens. Since most human
tumors are derived from epithelial tissues, these
cell lines will be highly relevant as screens for
these agents. Syrian hamster embryo cells are
being used as a test system for the identification
of chemical carcinogens. These cells, unlike the
BALB/3T3 or C3H10T%, are diploid and have high
levels of metabolic enzymes necessary for con-
verting procarcinogens into their active forms.
The activity of agents, obtained from coal and
oil shale processes, that enhance carcinogensis
(co-carcinogens) is being investigated using x-rays
as the primary insult. Initially, rodent lines
were utilized until it was observed that these
lines processed DNA lesions induced by alkylating
agents in a different manner and to a different
extent than did human cells. Caution must be
exercised in transposing DNA repair data derived
from rodent cell tissue culture to the possible
effects of the test agents on human cells.
DNA Binding, Damage and Repair Systems
An investigation will be underway to compare
the qualitative and quantitative aspects of a
variety of systems to convert benzo(a)pyrene to
DNA-bound benzo(a)pyrene covalent adducts. This
comparative study will examine differences between
cell lines derived from different tissues (in-
cluding those of human origin) as well as compare
in vitro systems with in vivo ones.
DNA repair processes using unscheduled DNA
synthesis are being implemented as a screen using
primary rat hepatocytes. A number of standard
carcinogens have been screened for their effect on
DNA repair activity. In permanent hepatocellular
lines, these same agents will be screened for their
ability to induce point mutations.
DNA damage in Chinese hamster ovary cells is
being studied using alkaline sucrose gradients. A
number of methods are being employed for the
detection of the DNA in the gradient: use of
ethidium bromide and fluorometric detection; post-
labelling the DNA with 125I; and use of a high-
speed flow system using propidium iodide staining.
The combined properties of ultraviolet light
or near ultraviolet light (simulating sunlight) and
carcinogens on DNA damage, mutations, and trans-
formation is currently being studied. These two
types of radiation differ qualitatively with re-
spect to cell killing in V-79, HeLa, and C3H10T^
cells; and with respect to DNA damage and repair in
V-79 and HeLa cells. Consequently, projections
made from UV effects to effects expected from
sunlight cannot be made with complete confidence.
The effects of metals found in coal fly ash on
enzymatic DNA replication using DNA polymerase I
(from M. luteus) are being studied. Divalent
cations inhibit DNA synthesis (as measured by
changes in T value) and induce error-prone DNA
synthesis in the system.
The inhibitory effect of 7,12-dimethylbenz-
(a)anthracene on DNA synthesis and its possible
modification by the hormones diethylstilbestrol and
progesterone has been studied using primary cells
derived from the uteri of young rabbits and cul-
tured in the presence of radioactive thymidine.
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7,12-Dimethylbenz(a)anthracene inhibited 50% of the
thyniidine incorporation after 24 hours incubation.
Progesterone showed a protective effect (about
30%); diethylstilbestrol did not reverse the in-
hibitory effect of dimethylhenz(a)anthracene.
Correlative Tests for Genotoxic Activity
Inhibition of phage replication was used as an
indicator of the carcinogenic activity of 12 poly-
cyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. QB RNA and 0X174
DNA, isolated from the respective phages, were used
as infective nucleic acids. When mixed with E.
coli spheroplasts, the infectious nucleic acids
were absorbed by the spheroplast and initiated
production of new phage particles. The results
suggest that some hydrocarbons may directly inhibit
phage replication, whereas others must be converted
to some other form, presumably within the cell,
before demonstrating an inhibitory effect.
Cytochemical markers for cell transformation
and carcinogenesis are being examined using micro-
fluorometry and flow system analysis and sorting.
Cellular proteases and esterases are being measured
in Chinese hamster ovary, Syrian hamster embryo,
and human lung fibroblast cells. Significant
differences have been observed between cell types.
In WI-38 cells (normal vs viral-transformed),
differences in levels of cathepsin Bl and alkaline
phosphatase can be used to distinguish the two cell
states.
The alteration in cell cycle kinetics and
chromatin structure, upon treatment of cells with
hazardous agents, is being examined by use of auto-
radiography and flow microfluorometry. Alterations
of certain regulatory processes in cells in culture
are being investigated as an indicator of cell
damage. The test system used is the inducible
tyrosine aminotransferase enzyme in cultured rat
hepatoma cells. Regulation of transcription by
glucocorticoids and of translation by insulin and
cyclic nucleotides, as well as the metabolic
turnover of tyrosine aminotransferase and its mRNA
can be readily analyzed. The hydrocarbons (benzo-
(a)pyrene and 7,12-dimethylbenz(a)anthracene) and
with Al+3 have shown little effect on the regula-
tion of the enzymes under study.
Cellular Toxicity Assay Systems and Organ Culture
Toxicity Test Systems
Studies of cellular toxicity using the alveolar
macrophage are of interest because the macrophage
is one of the first cells to interact with inhaled
Pollutants. Crude ambient air samples, samples
derived from alternate energy sources and metallic
ions are being tested using rabbit alveolar macro-
Phages in culture. Cell viability, cell number,
ATP content, phagocytic activity, and enzymatic
parameters are being used as measures of cyto-
toxicity. The effect of metallic oxide coated and
uncoated fly ash on rabbit alveolar macrophage via-
ability and function is currently being determined.
Scanning electron microscopic examination is being
conducted to map the elemental distribution within
the cells.
Heavy metals such as lead and cadmium have
been applied to cell cultures derived from nervous
tissue, liver, and muscle. The effects of these
metals on general growth parameters, on the in-
duction of binding proteins, and on the develop-
mental expression of differentiated functions are
being studied. Lead has been found to concomit-
antly modulate the levels of A-aminolevulinate
synthetase and A-aminolevulinate dehydratase
(enzymes involved in the heme pathway), and induce
mitochondria! damage in cultured liver cells.
The effects of cadmium as a pulmonary toxicant
are being studied using the guinea pig alveolar
macrophage. Cadmium transport, its intracellular
distribution and accumulation, its effect on the
release of lysosomal enzymes, on phagocytic activity
and endogenous respiration are being measured.
Tracheal rings from hamsters have been exposed
to oxides of manganese. The effects of these
metallic oxides on mucociliary beating frequency,
tracheal morphology, and ATP content after exposure
have been determined.
In Vitro Metabolism, Metabolic Activation, and
Detoxification Systems
Using highly sophisticated analytical techni-
ques, the metabolism of a number of hydrocarbons
(including benzo(a)pyrene) is being studied in a
number of cell lines derived from fetal epithelial
(intestinal, foreskin) tissues. Particular em-
phasis is being placed on establishing the existence
of the ultimate carcinogenic metabolites of these
hydrocarbons. Enzymatic kinetics and qualitative
variations in carcinogen metabolism between these
embryonic cells and rodent cell lines are being
compared.
JEN VIVO SCREENING SYSTEMS
Mutagenesis S)rstems Utilizing Gene Mutations in
Mamma1s
Sulfur dioxide, benzo(a)pyrene and 7,12-
dimethylbenz (a) anthracene are currently under
evaluation as mutagens using the specific locus
method in mice. This test system evaluates trans-
mitted gene mutations in mammals.
A new mouse strain is being developed to
maximize the sensitivity of a point mutation
assay. Inbread strains of mice containing specific
variants are being backcrossed to the C57B/6J
mouse. Starch gel electrophoresis is used to
identify up to nine loci and to follow them through-
out the course of the genetic experiments. A
polygenic assay for induced point mutations in mice
is being developed, DBA/2J mice will be treated
with triethylenemelamine, and eight phenotypic
traits will be measured.
Electrophoretic methodologies for detecting a
variety of point mutations are currently being
employed by a number of investigators. Characteri-
zation of esterases from plasma, red blood cells,
and kidneys of C57B/6J and DBA/2J mice and their F
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offspring, using two dimensional analysis, is cur-
rently underway. The isoelectric point of each
esterase band will be determined. Another approach
is to develop a simple mammalian test system where
differences in electrophoretic mobility and inactive
enzyme changes will be detected at the same loci.
Using two inbred mouse strains, which differ with
respect to nine enzyme loci, tissue samples of F^
offspring will be analyzed.
Histochemical methods are being developed to
detect point mutations in mouse sperm for the
following enzymes: a-glycerophosphate dehydro-
genase, lactate dehydrogenase, and succinate dehy-
drogenase. Using standard staining procedures and
specific enzyme inhibitors, it should be possible
to detect active site mutations in these sperma-
tozoal enzymes. These mutations will be estab-
lished by counting stained and unstained cells
using computer-assisted microscopy.
Genetic Analysis of Chromosomal Damage in Mammals
and Plants
The induction of chromosomal aberrations in
mouse germ cells is being studied with two carcino-
gens. A dominant-lethal study in male mice using
benzo(a)pyrene at the maximum tolerated dose has
been completed. There is an indication that this
carcinogen induces dominant-lethal mutations in
spermatozoa. The association between dominant-
lethal and heritable translocations is being in-
vestigated. Female mice treated with benzo(a)-
pyrene or 7,12-dimethylbenz(a)anthracene have shown
reduced reproductive capacity.
An applicable system for in situ screening of
the ambient environment is the Tradescantia assay.
This plant mutation system is quite sensitive to
airborne mutagens and ionizing radiation. The
further development of this assay towards increased
sensitivity and lower background through crossing
and selection is underway. A vehicle for environ-
mental screening equipped with Tradescantia
growth chambers and auxiliary air monitoring equip-
ment has been constructed and is presently under-
going field trials.
Carcinogenesis and Co-Carcinogenesis Systems
Pulmonary carcinogenesis studies using BALB/c
and C57B/6J mice, strains having different inci-
dences of spontaneous tumor formation, are in
progress. The objectives are to obtain information
on the mechanisms of spontaneous tumor formation
and to determine whether pulmonary carcinogens act
additively or synergistically.
In a liver tumor system, the effects of dietary
benz(a)anthracene on rats previously treated with
2-acetylaminofluorene is being evaluated. Previous
studies have shown that phenobarbital, DDT, and
butylated hydroxytoluene have enhanced hepato-
cellular tumor formation induced by 2-acetylamino-
fluorene. Preliminary data reveals that 0.025%
dietary benz(a)anthracene exhibits little or no
tumor enhancing activity.
A unique approach to carcinogenesis bioassay
involves the use of the fish, P_. formosa. In a
host-mediated approach, cells from these fish are
treated with an agent, injected into recipient
fish, and tumors scored one to two years later,
Alternatively, the fish are exposed directly with
the agent. The carcinogens 7 ,12-dimethylbenz(a)-
anthracene and 7 ,12-dimethylbenz (a) anthracene-5 6-
oxide are being tested in this system.
DNA Binding, Damage, and Repair
In vivo DNA repair tests are being developed
to measure the effect of the exposure of hazardous
agents on the repair of DNA damage in various
organs and tissues. These results are being cor-
related with measurements of cytogenetic aberrations,
Benzo (a)pyrene and 7 ,12-dimethylbenz (a) anthra-
cene are being studied for their ability to induce
unscheduled DNA synthesis in sperm of C3H mice. An
increase in unscheduled DNA synthesis was detected
in sperm of males treated with 7,12-dimethylbenz(a)-
anthracene. A slight, though not statistically
significant, increase in incorporation of radio-
active-thymidine into the germ cells of benzo(a)-
pyrene-treated mice was noted.
Teratogenesis Bioassay Systems
A number of agents are currently under evalua-
tion as teratogens in a variety of test systems.
Mice are being treated with x-rays, asbestos, sul-
fur dioxide, sulfuric acid, and benzo(a)pyrene;
rats are being treated with heavy metals such as
lead, and the off-spring are being examined for
teratogenic effects. A novel approach involves the
treatment of mouse and rabbit embryos with SO and
NO in culture followed by implantation of the
cultured embryos in utero. Subsequent effects on
the developmental process will be noted and compared
to animals exposed by inhalation.
A computerized information system for tera-
tology, the Environmental Teratology Information
Center (ETIC), is being established at the Oak
Ridge National Laboratory. This system will meet
the needs of governmental agencies and scientists
for knowledge of the teratogenic potential of
environmental pollutants.
Toxicology Systems
An inhalation study is directed towards deter-
mining the qualitative and quantitative biochemical
changes in lungs of animals exposed to pollutants
derived from energy sources. It has been observed
that oxidant pollutants including ozone, nitrogen
oxides, sulfur oxides, sulfates, and sulfuric acid
generally depress lung enzymatic activities at
acute exposures. At less toxic concentrations, an
elevation occurs after an initial depression.
Reversion to control levels appears within 20 days
of exposure.
In another investigation, specific bioindi-
cators of exposure to nitrogen dioxide and sulfur
dioxide are being sought from rats after inhala-
tion. Changes in circulating plasma neutral
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lip id, alterations in the immunoglobulin fraction
of serum proteins, and hormonal-induced changes in
biogenic amine levels in both brain and plasma have
been observed in rats treated with sulfur dioxide.
Studying early changes in lung cell cytology
by flow system analysis techniques offers a rapid
and wide-ranging method for determining cytotoxi-
cological effects. Lung cells from controls and
Syrian hamsters exposed to physical and chemical
agents associated with energy technologies are
being processed with a multiparameter cell sepa-
rator and multiangle light scatter system. Using
this method and staining techniques, the following
parameters have been measured: DNA content, total
protein, esterase activity, cell size, and nuclear
and cytoplasmic diameters. Differences in these
parameters are being correlated with the exposure
to toxic agents.
Pulmonary alveolar macrophages exposed to
sulfur dioxide in vivo are being studied for mem-
brane lesions using spin label techniques. This
investigation has been designed to correlate the
formation of membrane lesions with lysosomal activity,
cAMP, DNA/RNA synthesis, respiratory capacity, and
membrane-bound enzyme activity.
A mouse oocyte system is being developed as a
measure of chemical toxicity of teratogens, cyto-
toxic heavy metals and hydrocarbon pollutants,
which are administered to the pregnant mother
- during gestation and to offspring postnatally.
- Quantitative dosimetry is provided by biochemical
and chemical assays. Surviving oocytes are enumer-
ated in ovaries after exposure and compared to
unexposed controls.
In Vivo Metabolism, Metabolic Activation, and
Detoxification Systems
The lungs of rabbits exposed to acid mists and
particulates are being used in an isolated per-
fusion model to measure the metabolism of benzo(a)-
- pyrene. Individual benzo(a)pyrene metabolites are
being separated and quantitated by chromatographic
techniques. The effects of inducers of microsomal
-enzyme activity administered to the whole animal,
as well as the effects of benzo(a)pyrene adsorbed
on particulates, are being examined.
Tests Involving the Immune Surveillance Systems
The influence of effluents from alternate
energy sources on alterations in the mouse immune
system, particularly the respiratory immune system,
is being evaluated. Cell-mediated immunity, the
effect on killer cells, and mitogen-induced trans-
formation will be tested using mixed lymphocyte
cultured. Humoral immunity will be tested using
mitogen-induced transformation, antibody production
by lymphocytes, and antibody titers. In another
study the effect of environmental agents on the
development of the immune response in mice is being
examined. Mice are injected with hazardous agents
at key stages in their immunological development,
and specific humoral and cell-mediated immunologic
responses are assayed. Dose-response relationships
using standard carcinogens are being established.
Large doses of 3-methylcholanthrene affect the
production of antibody-forming cells more than the
cell-mediated response.
Rabbits will be exposed to effluents from
alternate energy sources (coated fly ash, crude
effluent particles) by inhalation, and the follow-
ing parameters assayed: morphology, viability,
phagocytosis, respiration, numbers, response to
macrophage migration inhibition factor, bacterio-
cidal activity, lysosomal enzymes, and AHH activity;
induction of autoimmunity directed against lung
tissue; nucleic acid synthesis in alveolar macro-
phages; and cAMP levels in pulmonary tissue.
Combined Protocols and Correlative Tests
A combined testing protocol is being developed
to carry out the following studies in a single
animal test: DNA repair in germinal cells; micro-
nuclei test; metaphase analysis of bone marrow; DNA
repair in somatic cells; spermatocyte tests; and
analysis for active metabolites in blood and urine.
Standard mutagens and environmental agents will be
used to validate and calibrate these seven tests.
Sperm morphology, as an indicator of exposure
to hazardous agents, is under scrutiny as a viable,
rapid, and quantitative test system. The sperm
from mice and hamsters receiving subacute or chronic
exposures by various application routes of test
agents will be examined for abnormal morphology,
and these results related to dosage and time after
exposure. Preliminary results indicate that both
species have similar qualitative responses. The
development of automated scoring of these abnor-
malities by fluorescent dye uptake is progressing.
An extremely important support facility for
these and other kinds of research is the establish-
ment of a chemical repository for alternate energy
source materials. This repository is located at
Oak Ridge National Laboratory and receives, stores,
and disseminates specimens of materials derived
from coal gasification, shale oil development
contractors, and particulate effluents from a
number of sources.
Tests to Identify Humans Exposed to Hazardous Agents
Screening of the human population for changes
in mutation rates is the goal of the following
project. Antibodies to each of two types of fetal
hemoglobin are being produced and will be used to
search for individual mutant cells within a popu-
lation of cells. Some monospecific antibodies to
variant human hemoglobin have been acquired and
purified using affinity chromatography. These
antibodies will be used in developing tests for
detecting human mutation rates.
The development of tests to screen the human
population for exposure to trace and heavy metals
is currently underway. The levels of a number of
these metals will be analyzed by chemical means
from human tooth enamel, and the results subjected
to statistical pattern recognition analysis.
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Future Emphasis
As evidenced by the foregoing discussion,
significant progress has been made in our col-
lective efforts to detect and evaluate potential
health effects associated with hazardous agents
from ultimate sources of energy. In the future it
will be essential to achieve an effective inte-
gration of the various bioanalytical methods that
have been developed. Increased emphasis on the
following areas is needed.
Computer-assisted identification (based on
known physiochemical, biochemical, and biological
structure-activity relationships) of potential
genotoxic agents or potentially genotoxic metab-
olites of the agents in question would be a worth-
while addition to the arsenal of prescreens.
A number of the new systems previously des-
cribed need to be carefully validated with known
standards, and quantitative relationships should be
established. Methods must be developed to permit
existing bioassays to accept crude mixtures and
effluents without prior purification. Systems must
be designed and implemented that are genetically
and metabolically similar to man. In vivo test
systems, in which a number of parameters such as
cytotoxicity, DNA damage and repair, metabolism,
mutagenesis, and neoplastic transformation could be
measured concurrently, would be a valuable addition
to the screening systems available. More emphasis
in the area of monitoring the human population for
increases in mutations, cancers, and terata is
desirable. Further investigation in the area of
multiple agent effects on toxicity, mutagenesis,
teratogenesis, and carcinogenesis is essential.
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INTERAGENCY ENERGY/ENVIRONMENTAL PROGRAMS
ON ANIMAL TOXICOLOGY
David L. Coffin
Health Effects Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Robert L. Oixon
National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences
U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
The nation faces great changes in sources of
energy due to problems associated with petroleum.
Future projections call for increased use of coal
by direct combustion and the development and appli-
cation of new or alternate technologies. Health
problems associated with increased coal use are
those of increased effluents by virtue of the in-
creased total combustion; the balance of studies
must be made between total increased combustion and
greater use of control devices, the effect of bene-
ficiation processes to remove sulfates, and the
development of alternate combustion methods. In
addition, it is projected that coal will be uti-
lized to produce the so-called syn fuels by gasifi-
cation and liquefaction. These processes pose new
toxicological problems. Synthetic fuels production
from such non-petroleum sources of combustible
hydrocarbon as oil shale and tar sands also are
under study.
These problems pose a great challenge to toxi-
cologists because it appears possible for the dis-
cipline of toxicology to have an input into these
technologies by working hand in hand with the pro-
cess people to develop new, safe, clean technolo-
gies for the production of energy.
In order to accomplish these ends, an enormous
effort is required that is beyond the accomplish-
ment of any single agency in manpower, facilities,
or budget. Furthermore, in order to be successful,
a number of variant viewpoints are essential to
adequately protect the health of the population
while at the same time proceeding with all possible
speed to meet this urgent goal. For these reasons
an interagency toxicological program of consider-
able size has been mounted that is designed to
cover extraction, modification, conversion, and
combustion of coal and its synthetic products and
the extraction, refining and combustion of new
sources of hydrocarbon fuel. Included in the pro-
gram also is the study of various mineral fibers
that is geared to the expressed needs of the con-
servation of energy via insulation and the expo-
sure of workers and the population at large to
mineral fibers during extraction processes. Health
risks are being evaluated from the standpoint of
occupational risk to miners and workers in other
extraction processes, and during conversion to the
finished combustion product. The processes are
also being considered from the standpoint of point
sources for risk to the general population through
escape of airborne or waterborne effluents or
wastes, and risk to the population at large through
contribution of combustion and conversion effluents
to the total ambient mix in air or water.
The animal toxicological program has the fol-
lowing objectives: to provide information on gener-
al toxic hazards through acute or chronic exposure
by appropriate routes; to determine the effects in
interacting systems such as combined pollutants
or presence of biological agents such as carcino-
gens from other sources or infectious diseases;
and to validate data from chemical or in vitro
biological tests. The Environmental Protection
Agency is heavily involved in defining animal
dose-response relationships for numerous air
pollutants to provide support for their regula-
tory activities. In cooperation with ERDA, EPA
is incorporating in vivo systems to quantify
those potential hazards associated with emerging
energy technologies such as coal conversion and
shale oil development, so that pollution abate-
ment or control activities can be initiated dur-
ing the development stages of a particular pro-
cess rather than an expensive retro-fit appli-
cation. In ERDA's program, in addition to the
influence of chemical effluents, the effects of
nuclear energy pollutants and non-ionizing radia-
tion on intact organisms are addressed. NIEHS
provides basic research work in the areas of tar-
get organ toxicity, mutagenesis effects on germi-
nal cell development (oogenesis, spermatogenesis),
teratological studies, and inhalation modeling.
NIEHS performs studies relevant to the protection
of the health of industrial workers.
The whole-animal testing program provides sev-
eral direct and indirect benefits. By coupling the
animal testing program with the bioscreening and
cellular toxicologic efforts, a cost-effective,
comprehensive basis is developed for predictions of
adverse human health impacts from energy related
pollutants. As more definitive dose-response re-
lationships are developed, technology development
as well as regulatory activities can concentrate
their efforts as needed. Documentation addressing
pollutant specific, process specific, or biological
testing protocols will be developed as appropriate.
In addition to the primary benefits of the
program, several secondary benefits arise. The
bioassay program provides data to direct any sub-
sequent whole-animal testing, and in return re-
ceives information that is used in the validation
of the testing protocols. In addition, whole-ani-
mal studies provide insight into target organ toxi-
cities for use in the cellular toxicology program
and in the clinical and epidemiological programs.
Although there is a noteworthy effort using
whole-animal studies (coupled with in vitro pro-
grams) to define the hazards associated with pol-
lutant exposures, several areas have been singled
out as requiring more emphasis. There is an urgent
need to have available more testing methods that
reliably indicate subtle organ or system dysfunc-
tion prior to the onset of irreversible damage.
The effects of energy related pollutants on the
reproductive function of populations chronically
exposed at low levels must be clearly defined.
Current interest focuses on gross indications of
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reproductive damage (e.g., birth defects), but
must also address the more subtle impacts on
population fertility and fecundity. In addition,
the possible interactive effects from multiple
pollutant exposures must be better defined, and
should not be restricted to combinations of only
energy-related pollutants or sources. Further work
to specify toxicologic manifestations of inhalation
exposures, especially in stressed or susceptible
populations, is needed, as is better definition
of multiple exposure pathways in relation to the
total body burden concept.
The program involves not only the actual test-
ing of hazardous materials to establish dose-
response relationships (under a variety of exposure
conditions) but also the identification of particu-
lar animal strains which, based on their sensitiv-
ity to selected pollutants, can be used to model
those human organs, systems, or individuals which
are most susceptible to that particular stress.
The emphasis of the animal toxicology program is on
developing dose-response relationships for adverse
pulmonary effects (e.g., dysfunction, carcinogene-
sis) caused by air pollutants from coal conversion
or combustion, shale oil extraction and combustion,
and near term energy conservation technologies.
That portion of the interagency health ef-
fects-related R&D program involving animal toxico-
logical studies can be described in terms of sev-
eral parameters, as is evident in Table 1. The
program is intended to provide quantitative data
describing pollutant effects on whole animal sys-
tems (in vivo) to complement those areas where
in vitro bioscreening or cellular toxicology ef-
forts are being applied, since the validity of all
these methods is at this time uncertain. In vivo
studies defining the long-term, low-level pollu-
tant exposure hazards from single as well as multi-
ple exposure pathways (e.g., inhalation/ingestion),
and teratogenicity testing on selected materials
are progressing. The program also addresses those
non-lethal aspects of pollutant exposures that
reduce an organism's life-span, or produce decre-
ments of functional activity in a particular sys-
tem of sufficient magnitude to make the host more
susceptible to damage from other stresses.
A large portion of the animal toxicology pro-
gram is devoted to the elucidation of various pol-
lutants' effects on mammalian pulmonary systems
under a variety of exposure conditions. Physio-
logical effect resulting from localized deposition
and/or retention of pollutants, a loss of func-
tional integrity in the entire system, a reduction
in immune response capacity, and various metabolic
and biochemical and pathologic alterations are
being considered. To a large extent, the program
addresses the impacts on pulmonary effect of
criteria pollutants (including their atmospheric
progeny), and in particular SO , NO , and respir-
able particles. Parametric studies are under way
to define the inter-relationships between pollutant
combinations that can result in significant inter-
active effects (e.g., synergism).
TABLE 1. ANIMAL TOXICOLOGY TEST PROGRAM
HEALTH END POINTS
Carcinogenicity
Mutagenicity
Teratogenicity
Toxicity
Physiological damage
(e.g., Deposition/retention,
functional capacity, metabolic
or biochemical changes)
TARGET ORGANS/SYSTEMS
Pulmonary
Cardiovascular
Reproductive
Central Nervous System
Immune
Various Isolated Organs
(e.g., liver, kidney, etc.)
AGENTS OF CONCERN
Aerosols (including fibrous amphiboles and
other mineral fibers, and secondary
formation products)
Criteria Pollutants (i.e., SO , NO , oxidants,
suspended particulate matter, Hydro-
carbons, and carbon monoxide and their
atmospheric progeny)
Electromagnetic and Corpuscular Radiation
(ionizing and non-ionizing)
Organic Compounds
(esp. polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons)
Trace Metals
(e.g., Pb, Cd)
Reproductive, CNS, and immune systems response
to various pollutant exposures (including electro-
magnetic and corpuscular radiation) are being de-
scribed by whole-animal studies. In vivo germinal
cell studies (mutagenic potential, viability), and
teratogeny studies for a number of pollutants in-
cluding S02, selected polynuclear aromatic hydro-
carbons, and tritium, are under way, as are studies
to define CNS effects from trace metal exposures,^
organic compounds, and non-ionizing electromagnetic
radiation. Immune system response (in particular,
pulmonary immune systems) to pollutant stressors
are being defined so that indirect effects on
whole-animal infectivity resulting from pollutant
exposures can be determined.
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The animal toxicology program focuses primar-
ily on pollutants released during the coal fuel
cycle, especially during combustion and/or conver-
sion, and to a lesser extent on pollutants result-
ing from other syn fuels and energy conservation
activities. The program is oriented toward defin-
ing dose-response resulting from inhalation expo-
sures, which represents the primary route of ex-
posure to environmental pollutants for a majority
of the population. However, the program is placing
increasing emphasis on other routes of exposure
(e.g., ingestion, dermal absorption) and particu-
larly multiple exposure routes, such as inhalation/
. ingestion, and their relative contributions to an
individual's total body burden and through inter-
action study concerning toxicants from other
sources and biological interaction with infectious
agents, etc.
EPA, ERDA, and NIEHS make major contributions
to the animal toxicology program, with each re-
flecting their legislative mandate. Progress dur-
ing the past year has been accomplished on three
fronts. The first, a normal development of pro-
jects with time and increase of data collection as
they get under way. The second is increased cross-
fertilization between the various investigators and
those involved through conferences and interscien-
tific communication along these respective lines
of interest. And third, through the collection and
dissemination across agency lines of information
relative to developing process availability of
specimens for biological testing which have rele-
vance to the technologies involved. An interagency
program between ERDA and EPA has been undertaken to
assure that investigators have available character-
ized material from the various technologies through
the establishment of an energy materials repository.
The bottom line for toxicity testing is its
feedback to the technology. The ultimate function
of toxicology is to detect potential hazards in a
particular technology with the end in view of guid-
ance of the process to eliminate the hazard without
obstructing its development. In order to accom-
plish these ends it is essential that there be
close interaction between engineers and other sci-
entists concerned with the technologies involved,
and with the biologists and other scientists
concerned with animal toxicology. Progress is
being made on this front.
PROGRAMMATIC EXAMPLES
More than seventy separate research projects
are being carried out in the in vivo aspects of
toxicology in the interagency program. In addi-
tion, many similar experiments pertaining to
energy are being performed in the base programs of
the respective agencies. Many of the projects in
these programs are closely interlinked so that
much more work in their field is progressing than
the interagency testing indicates.
It is patently impossible in this review to
discuss any details of the programs beyond citing
a few examples of work in progress. For instance,
the wide ranging NIEHS program, attention is
given to the influence of heavy metals on
the functional integrity of the cardiovascular
system in which exposure of rats to cadmium shows
a direct relationship between the intake of cad-
mium chloride and changes in renin, a component of
the blood pressure regulating mechanism.
Another interesting component of the NIEHS
program relates to the metabolism and disposition
of selected radio-labeled hydrocarbons and some
of their chemically reactive epoxides in the
isolated rabbit lung, and by reconstituted pul-
monary biotransformation systems. These (as
others of the NIEHS program) are basic studies
which may ultimately contribute better ways to
study the toxicology of the energy problem.
In the ERDA program, among other things, a
great deal of attention is being given to carcino-
genesis. One project is testing the carcino-
genicity of shale oil, synthetic fuels from coal
conversion, and petroleum crude by mouse skin
bioassay. In these studies, quantitative com-
parisons are being made between the polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbon fraction of these fuels in
order to determine the role of this fraction in
the totality of the carcinogenic potential. Gene-
tic experiments such as specific locus studies
and bacterial mutagenesis tests are being applied
to these same fuels. Another series of experi-
ments in the ERDA program is concerned with exam-
ining the influence of oil shale and spent retort
material on the lungs of experimental animals both
by intratracheal instillation and inhalation ex-
posures .
The EPA program is aimed at obtaining data
that will be useful for the application of con-
trol measures and the setting of emission stand-
ards for both criteria and non-criteria pollu-
tants. Studies are underway to evaluate the
health hazards associated with coal burning in
power stations by exposure of animals to recon-
stituted particulate emissions. Among the para-
meters studied in these experiments are those
concerned with the defense of the lung against
exogenous insults such as other chemicals and
bacterial infection.
Another project of EPA is to examine the can-
cer producing potential of nonorganic substances.
These experiments are to determine the onco-
genesis of mineral fibers released during extrac-
tion and beneficiation of minerals directly and
with added cofactors. Comparisons are being made
to asbestos and other minerals on the basis of the
chemical and physical properties of the fibers and
their interaction with organic substances.
DISCUSSION
This short review of the animal toxicology
connected with the interagency program has dealt
with principles and overall objectives rather than
a detailed discussion of the individual projects.
The thrust of this program is to establish dose-
response relationship between energy-related ex-
posures and effects so that an estimate may be
made of acute or chronic exposure from which
extrapolation to humans may be made. Animal ex-
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posure of this kind is capable of producing im-
portant information for correlation with observed
effects on human beings by community, occupation-
al, or experimental exposure. By such correla-
tion, better information can be developed con-
cerning such factors as mechanism, dose-response,
and interaction with other agents.
In those cases in which the potentially haz-
ardous influence is newly introduced into the en-
vironment, no observation or spontaneous human
exposures will be available. Experimental ex-
posure of human volunteers has limited potential
because of obvious restrictions on the application
of this method to seriously toxic materials.
Therefore, whole-animal toxicology must be relied
upon to provide a great deal of the human risk
development information for the energy program.
Another important aspect of the animal toxi-
cology program is that of verification of the
in vitro screening systems. These methods have
enormous potential utility in toxicology. How-
ever, despite a very large effort, such methods
account for too little definite information re-
garding their potential in accurately predicting
toxicological hazard.
In vitro screening and whole-animal toxico-
logy is being carried on in an unprecedented
volume in the energy program. This program offers
an unique opportunity to match these two methods
by performing controlled correlative tests on
identical materials and chemicals. Information
of this type will be of great benefit not only to
the energy toxicological program, but a valuable
spin-off for the science of toxicology in gen-
eral.
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METABOLISM, DAMAGE, AND REPAIR OF DAMAGE
OF ENERGY-RELATED CHEMICAL AGENTS
Murray Schulman and George E. Stapleton
Division of Biomedical and Environmental Research
U.S. Energy Research and Development Administration
Washington, D.C.
INTRODUCTION
It is two years after the first meeting on
the interagency energy-environment research and
development program. That meeting which laid
the plans for the multiagency-multidisciplinary
program was a relatively simplistic coverage of
plans, strategies, and the various philosophies
and responsibilities of the involved agencies.
Since that time a number of events have
happened in the health effects area. In ERDA
the energy-related program has grown from the
original 2.6 million in pass-through funds to
about 17 million in biological studies related
to energy technologies other than nuclear energy.
Almost all of the research efforts covered
in the two segments to be reported were objec-
tives 3 and 5 of the original "King-Muir" plan
namely "Metabolism of Hazardous Agents" and
"Damage Repair and Recovery Processes" have
been transferred to the ERDA program and budget.
In addition, the rather simplistic subdivision
of objectives may or may not have anticipated the
amount of interaction that would occur among
objectives or the amount of support both meta-
bolism and mechanism studies would provide to the
other objectives.
PROGRAM ORGANIZATION AND PROGRESS
This segment of the health effects program
in ERDA's base program is developmental in nature
and at present is categorized as part of the
"supporting research'1 program which includes the
following objectives:
• A. To develop useful short-term cellular
and molecular screening methods for
mutagenesis, carcinogenesis and systems
damage.
• B. To develop useful early indicators of
damage and methodology for their appli-
cation for monitoring cytological and
biochemical changes in exposed experi-
mental animals and humans.
• C. To improve knowledge of normal organ,
tissue and cell structure and function
to better recognize damage.
• D. To define the basic mechanisms of pollu-
tant interaction with key subcellular
and molecular structures that are common
to all species and to define the repair
capability for such damage.
A. To Develop Useful Short-Term Screens
A large number of potential screens are under
development which require not only cellular and
molecular systems but also the necessary method-
ology and instrumentation to make them useful for
their specific application. For example, it would
be ideal to use human cells, and human chromatin
rather than DNA for this purpose. Moreover it
would be most advantageous to use "normal" human
cells rather than a number of available estab-
lished cell lines which are easy to grow perhaps
because they are "abnormal" in some respects.
Some progress has been made in developing human
lymphocyte-lymphoblast and fibroblast cultures
for mutagenesis and oncogenic transformation.
Some claims are made for success in isolating and
culturing mouse alveolar cells and attempts are
being made to obtain the human counterpart.
Of equal importance is development of organ,
tissue and cell cultures from those experimental
animals presently used for dose-effect studies.
Two examples are skin tissue cultures and out-
growth cell cultures, and the tracheal explant
cultures and outgrowth cells, presently in use in
another health effects program reported at this
meeting.
There is a need to extend the lifetime of
such cultures and to shorten the time between
the exposure and observable expression of mutation
and malignant transformation. Progress has been
made in both areas.
In addition, there is an established need for
perfecting the use of fast flow fluorometry for
not only handling large numbers of cells, but also
sorting of various classes of normal cells and
fluorescent indicators of altered damaged cells.
Such methods are under development in several
NIEHS and ERDA laboratories.
B. To Develop Useful Indicators of Damage
The major efforts in this program relate to
organs or tissues at highest risk for exposure,
namely the respiratory tract and the skin. Minor
efforts involve liver and the gastrointestinal
tract. The development work on the lung and skin
overlaps all aspects of organ toxicology and
carcinogenesis and ranges from whole animal to
organ and tissue culture and cell cultures
derived from these systems.
Indicators of respiratory tract damage
emphasize two primary cell systems, the macrophage
because of its involvement in lung clearance and
immune response, lung epithelial cells in terms
of irritation and resulting enhanced cell turnover
and its role as a prime target cell in cancer.
Methods are available or under development to
sample these cell types for cell turnover and loss
or change in function as indicators of early
damage and progression to latent diseases includ-
ing cancer. Efforts in many laboratories are
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devoted to non-destructive indicators of impaired
physiological function in whole animals.
The research with skin and liver is primarily
devoted at present to detection of cytological and
biochemical changes that correlate in time with
promotion and progression of cancer.
The work on the gastrointestinal tract is
aimed at detection of changes in absorption and
excretion caused by toxic metals. While these
studies have as their chief objectivemeasurements
of damage, they also involve work on retention
and distribution of toxic metals in key organ
systems and thereby serve a double function.
C. To Improve Knowledge of Normal Organ, Tissue
and Cell Structure and Function
The emphasis in this part of the program is
on better understanding of the organ systems
established or suspect as critical in terms of
(1) route of entry upon exposure or (2) need for
rapid cell renewal for integrity. The research
this relates to basic biochemical function of
lung surface cells, lung surfactants and mem-
branes. The hematopoietic and immune systems
are suspect as critical because of the potential
sensitivity of the stem cell populations.
Principal efforts are devoted to understanding
the molecular mechanisms which regulate the
differentiation of the various classes of leuko-
cytes and the factors which interfere with the
regulation in diseases including leukemias.
In terms of methodology efforts are under
way to (1) culture hematopoietic stem cells in
semipermeable membrane chambers and (2) to
fractionate and sort various types of keukocytes
based on size, shape, biochemical and immune
function. Reasonable success has been obtained
in both types of efforts.
D. To Define the Basic Mechanisms of Pollutant
Interaction with Important Subcellular and
Macromolecular Structures
A large number of efforts in both the ERDA
and NIEHS base and pass-through programs are
covered by this objective. The need for such
work is at least two-fold (1) to evaluate basic
mechanisms of damage at a level that may trans-
cend mammalian species as an aid in extrapolation
of information from experimental animals to man
and (2) to suggest possible protection or thera-
py against damage.
The research on molecular repair has a
solid foundation based on the detailed infor-
mation on radiation damage and its repair.
Heaviest emphasis in most projects is on
mutagenic and carcinogenic hydrocarbons on DNA
and good progress has been made for a few known
agents. For example, it is now known that
carcinogenic polynuclear hydrocarbons in the
activated state bind to DNA and show first order
kinetics of binding in terms of exposure level.
Similar kinetics have been shown for gene mutation
for several hydrocarbons. Likewise, similar
kinetics have been shown for the initiation phase
of carcinogenesis and progress is being made in
these programs and those of the National Cancer
Institute in defining the specific binding and
damage site(s). Far less is known about the sites
of action in cancer promotion as compared to the
initiation process.
Although some progress has been made in
studies of repair in procaryotic organisms there
is a need for much more work in mammalian cells
and especially human cells. Such work is just
beginning and is hampered by the lack of repair-
deficient mutants except for cells derived from
humans with xeroderma-pigmentosum. Efforts are
underway to select such mutants using novel
methods.
By far the most interesting prospects in
much of this work is the likelihood of demon-
stration that gene mutations and initiation of
carcinogenesis have the same molecular mechanism.
Coupled with this is the interesting hypothesis
that "error prone" post-replication repair is
involved in the mechanism. The program described
as well as that sponsored by other agencies is
providing the tools to accelerate the test of
these hypotheses.
Work is far less advanced in defining the
molecular basis for the promotion and progression
stages of carcinogenesis. Several projects are
exploring the prospects of simple short-term
in-vivo and in-vitro screens for this process.
It is not unlikely that some of the hydrocarbons
involved in a number of synthetic fuel processes
may be efficient promoters and mixtures contain
both types of agents.
Again, as mentioned earlier, new method-
ologies and instruments are important components
in the research described.
SUMMARY
This segment of the interagency energy health
effects program is developmental in nature and is
not easily adapted to the same type of progress
analysis as do the more applied segments. The
diversity of efforts, likewise, present difficul-
ties in summarization.
Our view is that this is a development pro-
gram with systems, methods and instrumentation on
its way to application for most of the other seg-
ments of the overall program.
Judged in those terms, it appears that
reasonable progress is being made.
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CLINICAL RESEARCH RELATED TO ENERGY
John H. Knelson
Health Effects Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this paper is to highlight the
supplemental support which the Interagency Energy
R&D Program is providing to EPA's Clinical Studies.
The energy health program began in FY 1974. It
has enhanced the Agency's base research effort by
. focusing more clearly on health effects created by
.alternate or modified energy sources.
Overall, the energy program has been designed
to (1) determine the nature of pollutants emitted
from alternate energy technology, (2) develop
health intelligence suitable for developing
regulatory policy and (3) assist in identifying
new energy-producing technology having fewest
threats to public health. The classes of pollu-
tants addressed in the energy related research
.are those which are most frequently emitted from
fossil fuel fired sources. The pollutants empha-
sized are those which can be classified as sulfur
oxides, nitrogen oxides, organics, and partic-
ulates. Basic toxicology and population studies
as well as clinical research involving human
subjects all play important roles in the develop-
ment of the basis for environmental standards.
The following discussion focuses on the contri-
bution of clinical studies, however.
Clinical studies in EPA have evolved in two
parallel phases. Phase I is the establishment and
maintenance of a clinical studies research facil-
ity and the development of new techniques with
which environmental conditions can be simulated
and their effects assessed. This developmental
activity is necessary because of the relative lack
of prior work in Clinical Environmental Research.
EPA has assumed a leading role in developing this
area of investigation. Phase II is the actual use
of those resources in conducting studies. The
energy R&D effort has a role to play in both
phases of the EPA's clinical studies program. In
Phase I the energy program provides the data qual-
ity assurance for components of the research
system. In Phase II it funds outside independent
studies similar to those being conducted in-house
by EPA.
EPA CLINICAL STUDIES
The Environmental Clinical Studies within
EPA centers on the Clinical Laboratory Eval-
uation and Assessment of Noxious Substance
(CLEANS) facility located at the University of
North Carolina in Chapel Hill. A product of
several years of design and development, this
facility is now complete, and testing of energy
related pollutants will begin shortly. In addi-
tion to the CLEANS facility, two mobile phy-
siology laboratories using the same data acquisi-
tion system are available to conduct studies in
populations exposed to effluents of alternate
energy production. Finally, a prototype Controlled
Environmental Laboratory equipped for producing
atmospheres containing ozone, nitrogen dioxide,
carbon monoxide, and sulfuric acid aerosol has
been in use since July 1974.
The CLEANS project includes an on-line com-
puterized physiologic data acquisition system
serving two Controlled Environment Laboratories
(CEL's). Because of the complexity of instrumen-
tation associated with CLEANS, as well as the
large amount of data which can be acquired, most
measurement is under computer control. In the
CEL's human subjects are exposed for extended
periods of time to similar pollution levels found
in urban areas or areas adjacent to energy sources.
The CLEANS laboratories allow researchers to per-
form experiments addressing a wide range of phy-
siological responses. Especially important in
each GEL are the instruments for measuring the
functioning of heart and lungs before, during, and
after exercise. In addition to evaluation of
cardiopulmonary status, studies of immune mech-
anisms , hematologic and metabolic parameters, and
neurobehavioral function are conducted in these
subjects.
Studies are now in progress to determine the
effects of sulfuric acid aerosol on healthy sub-
jects. Depending on the results of this research,
other studies will be designed to assess the
effects of ammonium bisulfate and ammonium sulfate.
The sulfate research, just beginning, is especially
important and timely. Many forms of sulfates re-
sult either directly or indirectly from all fossil
fuel fired combustion sources. For example, EPA
currently estimates that the peak atmospheric bur-
den of sulfuric acid aerosol is in the range of
20 ug/m3. The widespread increase of coal com-
bustion, necessitated by our national energy policy
along with the increased use of oxidative catalytic
converters on automobiles, may result in atmospheric
sulfate levels four times higher than those mea-
sured now.
DATA QUALITY ASSURANCE
In Phase I support of EPA's Clinical Studies
of I^SOij, the energy program is currently providing
independent audits of atmospheres generated in the
CLEANS system. The CEL's have technically complex
computer controlled systems for simulating a
polluted environment. The most complicated com-
ponent of the CEL's environmental control system is
the aerosol generating and measurement equipment.
This equipment must be continuously calibrated and
monitored for accuracy in order to assure the in-
tegrity of the research as well as the safety of
the human subjects.
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Adequate definition of the relationship
between aerosol exposure and the various measure-
ments of health status depends on many factors in
the experimental setting. Most important among
these are provisions for continuous production of
well characterized aerosol atmospheres using a
variety of specific chemical compounds over a
range of mass concentrations and droplet sizes.
These conditions must be predictably created at
various combinations of temperature and relative
humidity and in the presence of various gaseous
pollutants as well as in clean air. Finally,
these atmospheres must be generated in a con-
trolled laboratory large enough to accommodate the
human subjects and the physiology instrumentation
for long periods of time. Assembly of the aerosol
generating and control equipment to accomplish a
task of this magnitude and complexity has never
before been attempted. The engineering design
and development for this program has been done and
construction of the aerosol facility is now in
progress. Throughout all phases of this project,
the Energy R&D Program has contributed support in
a maj or way.
IN-HOUSE AND EXTRAMURAL STUDIES
At present there is no standard for sulfates
or for acid aerosols. With the anticipated
increased use of coal, the need for such a stan-
dard is now even more pressing than before. Sul-
furic acid aerosol studies in the range of 50-200
yg/m with particle size in the range of 0.1 to
0.5 microns now being conducted are essential
first steps in providing a data base which is
necessary for the development of a regulatory
strategy for all sulfur oxide aerosols. The
CLEANS studies on effects of I^SOif aerosol in-
halation in humans involves three parallel efforts,
two by grantees and one in-house. The energy
program is providing supplemental support to the
CLEANS study of l^SOi^. by providing the two
independent studies.
The protocol for EPA's in-house program
calls for the evaluation of healthy young men
between the ages of 19 and 30. After entrance to
the exposure chamber a subject will be exposed
to H^SOi, for 2 hours. The initial study will
focus on a concentration of 100 yg/m3 and par-
ticle size of 0.05 to 0.5 microns. In order to
assess the possible immediate effects, tidal
volumes will be measured every five minutes
initially and complete pulmonary function testing
every 15 minutes. There are two 15-minute periods
of moderate exercise during the exposure to
simulate a reasonable level of activity. In addi-
tion to the pulmonary function tests, a standard
battery of blood chemistry analyses, evaluation
of immune mechanisms, karyotyping, and assessment
of olfactory perception will also be done.
Despite the level of effort associated with
CLEANS, it is absolutely necessary that independ-
ent studies also be conducted outside of EPA.
Such supplemental studies help verify the results
of CLEANS and add to a data base broad enough to
assess the effect on human health of sulfate
aerosols for regulatory purposes.
The first study provided for under the
energy program is being conducted by the Univer-
sity of Maryland, School of Medicine. During the
first year the Maryland group plans to study 30
normal healthy males utilizing a double blind
3-day protocol. The study will use a one 4-hour
exposure to 100 yg/m3 of acid aerosol with a par-
ticle size of 0.1 to 0.3 microns. Pulmonary
function will be evaluated before exposure, at the
end of 2 hours of exposure, at the end of 4 hours
of exposure, 2 hours after completing exposure,
and 20 hours after completing exposure. The
Maryland work augments, especially through the
use of different exposure times, experiments being
conducted by EPA.
The second project supported by a grant from
the Energy R&D Program is also examining the
effects of exposure to l^SO^ aerosols in humans.
This work, to be conducted at the University of
California, considers other important factors
affecting toxicity, such as temperature, humidity,
and duration of exposure. In this study subjects
will be exposed in an environmental chamber to
either filtered air, 400 ug/m3 or 800 yg/m3 of
H2SOL, under four conditions of temperature and
humidity. They are 18°C-45%RH; 35°C-85%RH;
35°C-45%RH; and 35°C-88%RH. Particle sizes will
be approximately 0.3 microns. Subjects will
exercise intermittently at 25% of their maximum
capacity during the exposure period. Pulmonary
function tests will be performed before, during,
and after exposure. Cardiovascular performance
will be assessed during the exposure and exercise
periods.
CONCLUSION
EPA Health Effects Research Program will
continue to pursue a broad based, multidiscipli-
nary research program, a large part of which will
identify and quantify health consequences of
changing energy production technology. It is
clear that tighter homes and a shift to more coal
combustion is occurring in this country. There-
fore a larger clinical studies program addressing
sulfur oxides, heavy metals, organics, and indoor
pollution is indispensable.
The completion of the CLEANS facility has
provided health researchers with an important
resource for assessing human exposures more
accurately and for longer durations than in the
past. Research is in progress to evaluate effects
of carbon monoxide, oxidants, and sulfates. New
studies will address nitrogen oxides and other
aerosols such as nitrates. These studies will be
an important feature of the Nation's energy program.
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the various issues cited above that have been
totally or partially initiated under the Inter-
agency Energy/Environment R & D Program.
LOW-DOSE EXTRAPOLATION
CURRENT STATUS OF EXTRAPOLATION RESEARCH
Michael D. Hogan
National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences
Department of Health, Education, and Welfare
William C. Nelson
Health Effects Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
INTRODUCTION
Since relevant human data on the carcinogenic
potential of various chemicals found in man's
environment are generally not available, society
is being forced to place increasing reliance on
animal experimentations for establishing guide-
lines by which human risk can be estimated. In
estimating human risk from data generated in a
laboratory setting, two major problems must be
confronted. The first involves the extrapolation
of effects observed at high, often maximum toler-
ated dose levels typically employed in laboratory
experiments to the low environmental levels to
which man is exposed. Then, when this extrapola-
tion has be completed, there is the equally diffi-
cult problem of the conversion of the risk esti-
mates for animals at environmental exposure levels
to corresponding estimates for man.
One of the first attempts to address the
issue of low dose extrapolation was a probit-type
model proposed by Mantel and Bryan in 1961. Al-
though it has been used in the regulatory decision
making process, it suffers from the drawback of
being generated on an empirical basis and of lack-
ing a strong biological justification. During
this same period a number of mathematical models
relating time-to-tumor occurrence rather than
tumor incidence to dose were introduced. Un-
fortunately, technical complications arising in
the estimation of unknown parameters have often
prevented the widespread usage of these various
models. In 1975 a HEW Subcommittee on Estimation
of Risks of Irreversible, Delayed Toxicity recom-
mended the adoption of a linear extrapolation
model as an interim procedure for risk estimation.
The question of species-to-species extrapola-
tion possibly has been even more frustrating to
researchers than the question of low dose extrapo-
lation. Extrapolations from animal test systems to
man have generally tended to ignore quantitative
aspects of species differences in absorption,
metabolism, and excretion. At best, some sort of
attempt is usually made to establish species equiva-
lency in the administered dose levels, and an addi-
tional safety factor reminiscent of standard toxi-
city testing may also be employed.
This paper attempts to summarize some of the
results that have been obtained from research on
Guess and Crump have developed a new statisti-
cal model for predicting the risk associated with
continuous exposure to a direct-acting carcinogen
(i.e., a carcinogen effecting cellular DNA
directly) at low, environmental levels using high
dose level animal data. The model, which is based
on Doll and Armitage's multistage representation of
the carcinogenesis process, is general enough to re-
flect both linear responses associated with the one-
hit model as well as the non-linear responses
characterized, e.g., by the probit-type models.
Using this model Guess and Crump analyzed a variety
of data sets generated from animal experiments that
had previously established the carcinogenicity of
such compounds as dimethylnitrosamine, vinyl chlor-
ide, and chloroform. By combining the results of
these analyses with those obtained from various
simulation studies the two investigators were able
to reach several conclusions that have important
bearing on the general issue of low-dose extrapola-
tion.
According to Guess and Crump most of the
tested carcinogens appear to behave in a linear (or
nearly linear) fashion at low dose levels, even if
they exhibited a non-linear response in the experi-
mental dose range. They also demonstrated that
tight confidence limits for the point estimate of
risk at low dose levels can usually be established
for compounds that exhibit a strong linear trend in
the experimental dose range. Finally, it seems
that if there is a non-zero background incidence of
the specific cancer of interest in the animal test
system under investigation, even a very large-scale
animal study is unlikely to be able to establish a
no effect or threshold region in the low dose range.
One of the most important implications of these
findings is that for many direct-acting carcinogens
there may be little likelihood of establishing a
human exposure level that will have,an estimated
risk as low as (or lower than) 10 and, at the
same time, will enable the compound to be usable as
a food additive from the point of view of economic
feasibility.
In a related work, Jerzy Neyman has focused on
the specific problem of estimating the public
health hazards associated with electricity-producing
nuclear generators. Neyman notes that much of the
current effort to estimate the carcinogenic risk
associated with environmental level exposures is
based on extrapolations from high dose level animal
experiments and/or historical human data such as
those obtained from the various investigations of
the Nagasaki and Hiroshima survivors. He seriously
questions the utility of these types of extrapola-
tions, since he feels that the results are often
confounded by failure to properly account for com-
peting risks, dose-rate (as opposed to dose) depen-
dencies, and species differences in the case of
laboratory based extrapolations. As an alternative
he advocates the use of large scale epidemiological
studies conducted in a variety of different geo-
315
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graphic settings for establishing estimates of
human risk. While the objections which Neyman has
raised to extrapolations using laboratory animal
data certainly need to be given careful consider-
ation, it does not seem practical to abandon these
calculations solely in favor of the epidemiological
studies he is advocating. In many instances such
studies would not be feasible. Even when they can
be performed it is not immediately obvious that
they will always be able to generate data that is
sufficiently sensitive to establish "acceptable" or
"safe" irradiation exposure levels. The more
realistic strategy may be to use both types of
studies whenever possible in the decision making
process, while continuing to attempt to improve the
methodology associated with each.
SPECIES-TO-SPECIES EXTRAPOLATION
While investigations of the species-to-species
extrapolation issue have also been sponsored under
the Interagency Energy Agreement, most of the work
is still in progress and relatively few results
have been obtained to date. A contract for re-
viewing the published carcinogenesis literature in
order to establish a data base of chemicals that
have displayed positive responses in at least two
species has been initiated. The major goal of this
contract is to use this data base to make quantita-
tive extrapolations between species for which re-
liable cancer data exists. In the extrapolation
process attempts will be made to account for
factors modifying the effect of dose in cases where
substantial differences exist. The literature re-
view of the various compounds known to be carcino-
genic in man as well as one or more animal species
has been completed, and the analysis of the afla-
toxin data is in its final stage.
In addition to the literature based study
cited above, partial funding is also being provided
to a large scale study of the pulmonary effects of
environmental oxidant pollutants. While the main
focus of the grant is on the mechanisms underlying
the harmful effects of exposure to high ambient
levels of ozone and the adaption process following
this exposure, comparison of the effects observed
among different rodent species and nonhuman
primates should provide insight into ways of im-
proving extrapolations of potential long-term,
deleterious effects of photochemical smog on man.
During the current year studies in various animal
species of adaption to acute and subchronic ozone
exposures were instituted, and the usefulness of
expired ethane and pentane as indices of lipid
peroxidative damage were conducted.
Although almost all of the emphasis in species-
to-species extrapolation research has been on car-
cinogenesis, other disease endpoints are beginning
to receive long overdue attention. As part of this
effect, support has been given to the creation of a
computerized reference system for teratological
literature. This Environmental Teratology Informa-
tion Center (ETIC), which is being developed by Dr.
Robert Staples of NIEHS, is located at the Oak
Ridge National Laboratories. During the past year
over 7500 references have been introduced into the
system. Attempts to construct a Teratology Data
Bank have also been instituted. Eventually these
two computer information systems may provide the
vehicle by which the question of species different
in response to teratogenic exposures can be system-
atically evaluated.
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atmospheric
transport and fate
CHAPTER 7
A*.
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CHAPTER CONTENTS
atmospheric transport and fate
SUMMARY
William E. Wilson, Jr., Ph.D., EPA 321
QUESTIONS & ANSWERS 335
TECHNICAL DISCUSSION 341
PROJECT MISTT-MIDWEST INTERSTATE
SULFUR TRANSFORMATION AND TRANSPORT
William E. Wilson, EPA 343
CLOUD NUCLEI GENERATION BY A SULFUR GAS-TO-PARTICLE
CONVERSION PROCESS
Rudolf F Pueschel, DOC 351
TRANSPORT AND TRANSFORMATION OF SULFUR OXIDES IN
THE TENNESSEE VALLEY REGION
James F Meagher, TVA
Vinaya Sharma, TVA 361
SULFATE REGIONAL EXPERIMENT OF
ELECTRIC POWER RESEARCH INSTITUTE
Ralph M. Perhac, Electric Power Research Institute 365
THE MULTISTATE ATMOSPHERIC POWER PRODUCTION
POLLUTION PROGRAM
Michae! C. MacCracken, University of California 3T 1
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ATMOSPHERIC TRANSPORT
AND FATE
William E. Wilson, Jr., Ph.D.
Chief, Aerosol Research Branch
Environmental Science Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
INTRODUCTION
FOUR TYPES OF RESULTS
Figure 1.
Labadie plume, well mixed
Figure 2.
Labadie plume, not well mixed
I am serving as both author of a paper on Project MISTT (Midwest Interstate
Sulfur Transformation and Transport) and rapporteur.
I do not need to say much about the reasons for concern with sulfate. The
possible health effects and numerous ecological effects will be discussed throughout
this meeting.
The technical approach of the project MISTT study is to investigate the
transformations of S02 to sulfate in polluted air masses undergoing transport. Our
original plan was to study power plant plumes and urban plumes. During the program,
we became aware of the stagnating anticyclone, another air mass that undergoes
transport and in which transformations occur. In stagnant air masses, pollutants build
up and are then transported as the weather system moves.
In this symposium we are expected to emphasize results. Project MISTT produced
four types of results —those relating to (1) reaction rates and mechanisms, (2) plume
study techniques, in which we have made some advances, (3) transport distances over
which pollutants can move, and (4) development of models. My MISTT paper is
followed by a bibliography of 15 published scientific articles on Project MISTT; 15
presentations to national and international scientific meetings, which will ultimately be
published; and 20 papers that will be presented in Dubrovnik, Yugoslavia, in
September at the International Symposium on Sulfates in the Atmosphere. Although
we are just entering the third year of Project MISTT, we do have some results to
report. I am going to move rapidly through a series of slides to give you an
appreciation and a flavor of the program and of the results we are obtaining. I do not
expect you to absorb all the details of these figures.
The Labadie Power Plant plume outside St. Louis is our favorite case study
(Figure 1). In the middle of the day the plume rapidly dilutes and mixes with ambient
air. When we first started this program, we decided to follow plumes for 60
kilometers. Some very noted scientists and meteorologists laughed at us and said, "No
way can you follow a plume for 60 kilometers." But sometimes we can follow them
much farther.
Figure 2 shows Labadie early in the morning. The plume does not mix rapidly
with the atmosphere because of the stable atmospheric conditions that normally exist
at night.
321
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Figure 3.
Labadie plume, farther back
Figure 3 shows Labadie farther back. Although there is some expansion of the
plume immediately after it leaves the power plant, it does not expand much more as
it goes downwind. We followed this plume for 300 kilometers, and it was still going
strong when we ran low on gas. At 300 kilometers it was not much wider than at 25
or 30 kilometers.
Figure 4 shows the type of measurements that are made. We fly a sampling
airplane back and forth through the plume, obtaining profiles of a large variety of
pollutants within the plume. We also measure a vertical profile by spiraling down
through the plume, thus obtaining a three-dimensional cross section of the pollutant
concentrations. We use pilot balloons to measure wind direction and speed as a
function of altitude. With this information we can construct the mass flow rates of
pollutants along a plane through the plume. Using mass flow rates is an improvement
over earlier work using S02-to-sulfate ratios because we can better account for removal
of S02 by the ground and leakage of SC>2 through the inversion layer.
Figure 5 shows the results we got. Note the location of St. Louis and the various
power plants and refineries. Profiles of S02 at various distances downwind were
measured by our instrumented aircraft. As we start out, the plume is very narrow. As
we move downwind, it broadens out. This plume was followed out to 140 kilometers
during 14 hours of flight time.
Figure 4.
Plume mapping program
Figure 5.
Sulfate measurements
INSTRUMENTED
AIRCRAFT
Cli.y^l Qlil =//cl>,M UWdyd;
PLUME
PROJECT MISTT, 1976
July 5-6. 1976 IMRII
140 km 1020003001
TRAVERSES SHOWN CORRESPOND TO PLANES OF
MAXIMUM S02 HORIZONTAL BURDEN
322
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SULFATE MEASUREMENTS
Figure 6.
Aerosol volume calculated
HOMOGENEOUS AND
HETEROGENEOUS REACTIONS
Sulfate measurements were also made. The squares, in Figure 5, indicate the
sulfate integrated over a flight segment. A new supersensitive technique for sulfate was
developed for aircraft use in this program. This technique enabled us to collect enough
sulfate in one pass through a plume to get a valid sulfate measurement. We very often
see this type of plume coming from St. Louis.
We also measured the detailed size distribution and calculated the aerosol volume.
Figure 6 plots the aerosol volume flow rate for several different studies as a function
of the age of the plume, out to only 2 hours. We found differences depending on the
time of day and the distance. Our 1974 work showed a rate increase as we moved
farther down the plume. This may be due to more sunshine, more mixing, or both.
The reaction rates in the plume vary greatly from day to day and from point to
point. One problem is to untangle the parameters which control these rates.
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
'FV AEROSOL VOLUME FLOW, LABADIE 14 AUGUST 74
|FV AEROSOL VOLUME FLOW, LABADIE 5 AUGUST 74
AITKEN NUCLEI FLOW, LABADIE 14 AUGUST 74
i bSCAT INTEGRAL OVER PLUME CROSS SECTION, LABADIE 14 AUGUST 1974
dIKml
Solar radiation is important in determining the amount and rate of conversion of
S02 to sulfate. For two runs we plotted for 2 days the percent of S02 removal.
We show the loss to the ground of S02, and the conversion of S02 to sulfate.
Sunlight is clearly an important parameter. Earlier work on conversion of S02 to
sulfate in power plant plumes utilized the cohesive plume that exists early in the
morning or late at night. This was partly because it was necessary to collect large
amounts of S02 and sulfate in order to make measurements. As a result, most workers
obtained very low conversion rates, partly because there was less sunlight early in the
morning and late in the afternoon, and less mixing with the background air that brings
in ozone and other reactive species to augment the reaction.
Our results suggest the existence of both homogeneous and heterogeneous
reactions. Homogeneous reactions, which probably involve the hydroxyl radical,
predominate in dry daylight conditions. The rates vary from 1/2 to 5 percent per
hour, depending on sunlight intensity, water vapor concentration, ozone concentration
in the background air, background pollution levels in general, and the extent of mixing
of the plume with background air. Homogeneous reactions and rates are similar to
those found in smog chambers. We have a good understanding of homogeneous
reactions.
Heterogeneous reactions involving liquid droplets may predominate during high
relative humidity, at night, and in clouds. These rates may be much higher than the
1/2 to 5 percent for homogeneous reactions. We do not have good quantitative data
on this yet, but we know that with very high sulfate and very high conversion rates,
we have liquid droplets. Either clouds are present, or relative humidity is high at night.
The key parameters are ozone in the background layer, ammonia which
neutralizes sulfuric acid in the droplets, thus keeping the reaction going, catalytic
species, water vapor, and mixing with background air. We are concerned with the
reaction mechanisms because they will determine the amount of control needed,
according to Dr. Perhac's EPRI paper.
323
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USE OF AIRBORNE LIDAR
Figure 7.
Labadie plume at Wood River
The homogeneous reactions are first order in SO2; for example, if we want 80
percent reduction in sulfate, we think in terms of 80 percent reduction in S02. The
heterogeneous reactions are not first order in S02. The order is lower; in some cases
perhaps even zero order. Let us assume, as some sort of average, that 10 percent of
S02 is converted to sulfate. If we want an 80 percent decrease in sulfate and the
mechanism is zero order, we would have to reduce S02 emissions by 98 percent. The
chemical mechanism, then, can make a big difference in the amount of control needed
We are, therefore, devoting substantial effort to determining reaction mechanisms.
Because we expect heterogeneous reactions at night, we studied plumes at night.
We had difficulty finding the plume in our 1975 summer work. In 1976 we had
LIDAR facilities help us locate the plume to learn about its shape and structure, both
at nighttime and daytime.
Figure 7 shows a shot of the general area where we have a LIDAR vehicle driving
back and forth under the Labadie Power Plant plume, about 35 miles from the plant.
In the middle of the night the plume is very small and cohesive; as we go back and
forth, it shifts around but does not get very big. In the morning as the sunlight warms
the ground, mixing begins, and at 9 a.m. to 10 a.m. there is a breakup of the
inversion. At this time the plume spreads out a great deal. EPA Las Vegas used an
early version of an airborne LIDAR to help locate the plume and vector the sampling
airplane into the plume.
IMPROVED TECHNIQUES FOR
PLUME STUDY
Figure 8 shows how plume shapes differ. These shots were all taken late in the
evening. The largest plume was emitted at 1 p.m. about 50 kilometers downwind. A
few hours later the plume emitted at 7 p.m. It is much narrower. At the same time
we found the much smaller plume emitted at 9:30, which had caught up with the
7:00 p.m. plume. This is due to the nocturnal jet. A much higher air flow that picked
up the plume late in the evening carried it along faster than the plume emitted earlier.
Let me summarize the improved techniques for studying plumes. We have
mentioned how plume structure influences reaction because of the mixing of
background air, the importance of measuring mass flow rates instead of concentration
ratios, the importance of making direct measurements of sulfate on as fine a time
resolution as possible, and the importance of measuring aerosol size distribution. Last
week we tried a new technique in a cooperative study with EPRI and ERDA. We are
making continuous sulfate measurements in conjunction with continuous tracer
measurements. We hope this will prove to be a very useful new technique. As an
example of cooperative study, an ERDA national laboratory, Battelle Northwest, under
contract to EPRI, is flying plume studies jointly with an EPA contract airplane. We
are cooperating very well in this case.
Plumes come not only from power plants but also from large urban areas. The
Wood River refinery is north of St. Louis. We can see a very nice plume coming out
from St. Louis.
324
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Figure 8 shows the Labadie plume going along next to the plume from Wood
River and St. Louis. We can also see that the plume from Portage de Sault power
plant gets mixed with the urban plumes and they all go out towards Chicago. We
followed this plume about 300 kilometers toward Chicago and had to stop because we
got into the Chicago air traffic control district. In this case the Labadie plume is
mixed with part of the St. Louis urban plume. This is one of the few cases in which
we have seen an ozone bulge in a power plant plume. We do see this occasionally, but
only when the power plant plume is mixing with background air that we might expect
to be rich in hydrocarbons.
Figure 9 is another example of the plume going out from St. Louis. The darker
portion is the light-scattering measured by an integrating nephelometer. The lighter
portion is ozone. As we start from St. Louis, the ozone is all below 50 ppb. As we
move out, the light scattering increases, due largely to the formation of sulfate aerosol.
As we move downwind, the plume does not change greatly in width, but there is an
increase in both light scattering and ozone.
Figure 10 graphs measurements of the sulfate at different vertical passes through
the plume and at different distances downwind. From this we can integrate and obtain
the mass flow rate of paniculate sulfur, light scattering, and ozone (Figure 11). These
mass flow profiles look very much like the concentration profiles seen in smog
chamber studies.
Figure 8.
Plume to Chicago
Figure 9.
Light-scattering and ozone measurements
PROJECT MISTT, 1976
CEDAR
RAPIDS
IOWA
flOLU
ALL TRAVERSES SHOWN ARE AT 2000 FT msl
SCALE, kilometers
200 s
ILLINOIS
A POWER PLANT
a REFINERY
OZONE
&SCAT
325
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Figure 10.
Sulfate measurement
at different passes
Figure 11.
Mass flow rates
St. Louis urban plume
1000
600
400
200
ST. LOUIS URBAN PLUME
JULY 18, 1975
DISTANCE FROM SOURCE
28 km
66 km
I
92 km
_L_
2345
PARTICULATE SULFUR CONCENTRATION (
TIME, HR
2
2500 2.51—A OZONE
I PARTICULATE SULFUR
i- bSCAT
2000 g 2.0
jE 1500 = 15
1000 S 1.0
500 05
20D
150
1DD
90
DISTANCE, km
135
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN
SURFACE AND ELEVATED
PLUMES
We have also developed models of several levels of complexity. These describe the
formation of secondary pollutants in power plant and urban plumes and include
mixing, dry deposition, and chemical reaction.
Figure 12 is a simple model showing the difference between a surface plume and
an elevated plume. Because the surface plume results in high ground concentrations
early in its history, there is more S02 loss by ground deposition. A tall power plant
plume allows the S02 to stay around longer to form sulfate.
The time and distance over which an air mass maintains its integrity will depend
on its initial size and on the meteorological conditions. The primary determinant is the
amount of wind shear. We have tracked power plant and urban plumes for at least
300 kilometers, and the "blob", or hazy air mass associated with a stagnating
anticyclone, has been tracked for hundreds of kilometers.
Figure 13 is a satellite photograph. The light, hazy area, or blob, is due to air
pollution rather than clouds.
We can also study blobs by using visibility isopleths taken from the National
Weather Service. The next several figures are isopleths of noonday, human-observer,
visibility distances. These have been plotted in scattering or extinction, but they
represent visibilities of less than 3 miles, 3 to 4 miles, and 4 to 6 miles.
326
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Figure 12.
Surface and elevated plumes
Figure 13.
Satellite picture
PRINCIPALS IN
PROJECT MISTT
a) SURFACE PLUME
b) ELEVATED PLUME
16
24
32
40
8 16 24 32
CONCENTRATION PROFILES
16
24
32
40
ISOPLETHS
SURFACE
SOURCE
AEROSOL'
8 16
ISOPLETHS
ELEVATED SOURCE
CONVERSION RATE
CONSTANT, ALPHA
16 24 32 40 0
16 24 32 40
Figure 14 is a satellite shot of a low visibility region building up in the central
Ohio Valley area. The next day it intensified. As we watched, it began to move; this
particular anticyclone broke up, with one part going toward Canada, another coming
down toward the TVA area. It slowed down and broadened out, then moved over
across St. Louis and started up again. The shape is in agreement with the shape of the
hazy blob from the satellite. This moved on up toward Minneapolis and broke up
again. One part went toward Canada, another part came back across the Great Lakes,
moved on, and then the winds start blowing it south. It comes down, crosses
Birmingham, and then goes out to sea over Jacksonville. So some of the pollution in
Jacksonville, Florida, started out 2 weeks earlier in the Ohio River Valley and moved
around the country before arriving in Jacksonville. This is borne out by long-range air
mass trajectories. In Figure 15 we started with a box around St. Louis and looked at
the backward and forward trajectories. This agrees well with the visual expectation
from just looking at the various slides of the visibility profiles.
In addition to the scientific results, we have some policy results that are at least
worth consideration. Sulfate, generated from S02 and power plant and urban plumes,
and ozone, generated from hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides in urban plumes, may be
transported at least hundreds of kilometers and cause air pollution far from the source.
Air pollution resulting from long-range transport of secondary pollutants cannot
be controlled by the political entity where the air pollution impact actually occurs.
Therefore, our current concept of an air quality control region must be changed in
order to take account of the long-range transport of secondary air pollutants.
The future work is aimed toward understanding heterogeneous conversion
processes, the dynamics of the blob, and obtaining more statistical information on
rates, mechanisms, and plume behavior. We also want to expand our coverage to
include gaseous and particulate nitrates and organic material, as well as sulfates and
ozone.
The principals in Project MISTT have been Stephen Gage, who coordinates the
Energy/Environment R&D Program: myself, as Project Director for MISTT; Rudolph
Husar of Washington University, who serves as Field Director and Data Manager;
Donald Blumenthal of Meteorology Research, Inc., who is responsible for most of the
aircraft operations; and Kenneth Whitby of the University of Minnesota, responsible for
aerosol measurements and data interpretation. Another 15 organizational units
participate in project MISTT.
327
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Figure 14.
Ohio Valley anticyclone
CLOUD CONDENSATION
NUCLEI
Through the Interagency Program, work is supported at two other agencies. One
is an agreement with NOAA to study cloud condensation nuclei formation in western
power plant plumes. Rudolph Pueschel is the principal investigator; David McNeils is
the EPA project coordinator.
We are interested in changes in cloud condensation nuclei (CCN), because these
can lead to changes in many weather situations—frequency of cloud formation, cloud
stability, and rainfall frequency, intensity, and acidity.
Some of the older power plants have visible plumes. In these cases, the fly ash
which escapes the control devices will become coated with sulfuric acid and act as
CCN's. The newer plants, with more efficient controls, emit very small amounts of fly
ash and have nearly invisible plumes. In these cases, the S02 which is in the plume
will undergo gas-to-particle conversion and form cloud condensation nuclei.
Figure 15.
St. Louis long range
air mass trajectories
JUNE-JULY 1975
7/1
328
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PLOT OF DATA RECEIVED
Figure 16.
S02 and CCN flux calculations
Figure 16 is one plot of the type of data that Mr. Pueschel has gotten. The light
scattering falls off, but the CCN count is increasing, up to four or five times
background; and in the area impacted by the plumes, the power plant will contribute
the same order of magnitude as the natural environment, so this may have an
influence on weather and climate. These measurements were made in morning flights.
The plume probably still contained NO, since the ozone concentration did not get
back up to background level. If the plume had been followed longer or observed later
in the day, an even larger increase in CCN might have been observed.
In addition, there is interagency agreement with the Tennessee Valley Authority
to study the transport and transformation of sulfur oxides in the Tennessee Valley
region. J. F Meagher and Vinaya Sharma are the principal investigators; I am the
project coordinator. The TVA program has three parts. Plume studies similar to those
innn
a
^. inn
CD
cc
CD
^
C_D
-------
Figure 17.
TVA power plants
SULFATE DATA COLLECTED
Figure 18.
High sulfate episode
LABADIE.'/ST. LOUIS |L
PETERSBURG \ /
• GALLAGHER^-'. LOUISVILLE
BALDWIN EVAN&VILLL. NEWBURttHv;'LOUISVILLE o LEXINGTON
V. . CARBONDAE-^ -.V'HftVteVILLE • COOPER
•KANAWHA
CHARLESTON
LA
TREATS
LEGEND:
• TVA STEAM PLANT
• MAJOR NOT-TVA STEAM
PLANT
describes the Sulfate Regional Experiment (SURE), a very large project funded by the
Electric Power Research Institute. Its two primary purposes are to define ambient
sulfate in terms of local S02 emissions and to assess the contribution of the electric
power industry to regional sulfate levels. The main subdivisions of the SURE program
are an extensive ground-level measurement network, aircraft measurements of vertical
pollutant profiles in the neighborhood of the ground station, modeling to relate S02
emissions to regional sulfate concentrations, and a detailed emissions inventory. Both
ERDA and EPA are counting on EPRI to provide the emission inventory for our
large-scale models.
Before the large SURE program was started, there was a design phase in which a
year's worth of sulfate data were collected at 12 stations running across the
northeastern part of the U.S. This program found that the sulfate concentrations were
more variable than the S02 concentrations, that sulfate tended to be high in the
summer while S02 tended to be high in the winter. It was found that high sulfate
concentrations correlated with temperature, dew point, and high-pressure air masses,
especially maritime tropical air flows, and that high sulfate concentrations did not
correlate with local S02 emissions or with continental polar air masses.
Figure 18 is one of the episodes from July of 1974. The various days are plotted
on the vertical axis and the ground stations, running from Illinois to New York, on
DAILY AVERAGE S04(ug/mJ
JULY EPISODE CASE
330
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the horizontal. We have isopleths of sulfate concentration. In two instances, sulfate got
to 80 micrograms per cubic meter (24-hour-average sulfate) in Wheeling, West Virginia,
and another episode when it got up to 70 ug/m3 We have analyzed this episode at
EPA. It appears that the high sulfate levels resulted from transport of sulfates from
high emission areas upwind rather than increased local emissions due to stagnation. So
this appeared to be a long-range transport episode. I would like to thank EPRI for
making these data available to EPA very promptly.
Figure 19 shows the SURE stations. The crosses represent class 1 stations, which
will measure a large variety of pollutants year-round. The circles represent class 2
stations, which are part of the regular utility network. These will make additional
measurements during intensives, which will take place four times a year.
Figure 19.
Sulfate Regional Experiment
ground stations
-ft SURE Class I Stations
• SURE Class II Stations
SURE Class I Stations
SURE Class II Stations
100 A
102
103A
104B
106
107
109
111A
112
Montague, MA
Scranton, PA
Indian River, DE
Philo, OH
Rockport, IN
Giles City, TN
Chapel Hill, NC
Roanoke, IN
Lewisburg, WV
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
E. Beverly, MA
Fall River, IVIA
Albany, NY
Oswego, NY
Dunkirk, NY
Roseton, NY
Allegheny, PA
Lewisville, PA
Brush Valley, PA
Gettysburg, PA
Delmarva, DE
Gavin, OH
Clifty Creek, OH
Big Sandy, OH
Breed, IN
Munroe, Ml
Port Huron, Ml
Kincaid, IL
Collins, IL
Picway, OH
Jay, ME
Toronto, Ont
Huntington, NY
Ml
24 Loves Mill, VA
25 Hytop, AL
26 Giles City, TN
27 Paradise, KY
28 Memphis, TN
29 Hanover, NH
30 Benton Harbor,
31 St. Louis, MO
33 Niles, OH
35 Madison, Wl
36 Galesburg, IL
37 Mount Storm, WV
38 Chesterfield, VA
39 Yorktown, VA
40 Riverbend, NC
41 Weatherspoon, NC
42 Atlanta, GA
43 (Upstate New York)
46 Columbia, SC
47 Cayuga, NY
48 Dan River, NC (?)
49 Lafayette, IN
331
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EPRI NETWORK
MAP3S TEN TASKS
EPA was perhaps fortunate in being able to move their Regional Air Pollution
Monitoring Stations (RAMS) from St. Louis into the EPRI network. These stations will
benefit the general public by being utilized again, and EPA will have access to the
data. EPRI has also kindly let us install a special sampler developed by Florida State
University (FSU) which will provide 2-hour measurements of sulfate. To get some idea
of the dynamics of the blobs, FSU set up a 14-station network and ran it for 1 year
We are closing that network down now and moving the samplers to the EPRI network
With the FSU samplers, we can collect very cheaply; analyzing is more expensive. We
will collect all year and make analysis for a few of the most interesting weeks. It
appears that in order to do good modeling, we will need some data with a finer time
resolution than 24 hours. EPRI will make 24-hour sulfate measurements year-round
but 3-hour sulfate measurements will be made only during the intensives.
The final paper of this session is by Dr. Michael MacCracken, Director of the
Multi-State Atmospheric Power Production Pollution Study (MAP^S), the ERDA
sulfate program. The goal of MAP-^S is to improve simulation capability for use in
evaluating present and future effects due to power production emissions. Their
interests are in air quality, precipitation chemistry, and atmospheric behavior.
Emphasis is on sulfur oxides from coal combustion in the northeastern United
States. The MAP-^S program draws on the experience and expertise of several ERDA
national laboratories. ERDA also utilizes other scientific organizations via grant and
contract funds. There is cooperation and coordination with EPA and other
government agencies, with the Electric Power Research Institute, and with the
Atmospheric Environment Service of Canada, because there is, of course, transport in
both directions across the northern border.
The MAP^S program is divided into 10 tasks: (1) power plant emissions and (2)
other related emissions. These two are fairly small, because we are depending on EPRI
for this. (3) A study of pollutant characteristics. ERDA has measurements to
determine whether the sulfate is sulfuric acid, ammonium bisulfate, or ammonium
sulfate. (4) Pollutant distribution. Aircraft will be flown back and forth across the
northeastern U.S. to obtain information on the pollutant distribution. (5) Vertical and
long-range transport and (6) pollutant transformation. The rates and mechanism are
important. Some of the early work, which demonstrated that the major path for
conversion of S02 to sulfate is the homogeneous path, involves the hydroxyl radical.
The initial rates came, I believe from Castleman's work at Brookhaven.
Let me go back to the EPRI program briefly. Only the SURE program was
discussed in the paper, but EPRI does sponsor a number of other studies related to
the sulfate problem, including buogenic emissions. They have made, under contract to
Doug Davis, the first measurement of the hydroxyl radical in the atmosphere. So we
all have programs looking at pollutant transformation processes.
332
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PROGRAMS COORDINATED
Because of EPDA's past experience with radioactive pollutant transport and
removal, they have expertise and interest in both (7) dry deposition and (8) wet
deposition and are making the major contribution in the sulfate program to the
deposition processes. (9) Weather and climatic effects and (10) numerical modeling. In
terms of long-range transport, ERDA has provided the leadership for development of
the long-range trajectory models, which will be very useful in this program. In MAP3S,
ERDA is interested in the large-scale modeling of the whole northeast area. Some of
the modeling results are shown in Dr. MacCracken's paper.
The ERDA program will support a number of aircraft measurements in
cooperation with the SURE program. EPRI will do vertical traverses over two class 1
stations. ERDA will fly horizonal paths between several SURE stations during the
intensives. Other flight paths will be flown during other times by the ERDA program.
It may have been obvious during my talk that these programs are coordinated. We
do not feel that any individual program provides a complete answer to the sulfate
problem, but all put together, they provide a very good national program on the
transport and fate of sulfates. As director of MISTT, I have served as the EPA
coordinator. The coordination of this program has been a pleasure, partly because each
group has chosen an emphasis which is different from the others and is based on their
special interests and capabilities. I hope we will be seeing many more results from this
program.
WILLIAM E. WILSON, JR.
B.A., Natural Science, Hendrix College; Ph.D. Physical Chemistry, Purdue
University. Fulbright Fellow, Institute of Technology, Munich, Germany, research
molecular spectroscopy of metal carbonyl compounds. Assistant professor, Department
of Environmental Science and Engineering, School of Public Health, University of
North Carolina, instructor of Chemistry, Wisconsin State College; various research and
teaching appointments, Purdue University. Associate Fellow and Senior Chemist in
atmospheric chemistry and air pollution at Battelle Memorial Institute. Held many
supervisory level positions with EPA with experience in planning, and research in
atmospheric sciences, chemical kinetics, combustion and molecular spectroscopy.
Currently, Chief of Aerosol Research Branch, Environmental Sciences Research
Laboratory, EPA, Research Triangle Park, NC, conducting national program of aerosol
research on chemical and physical properties of aerosol particles and mechanisms of
formation and removal.
333
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questions
CK answers
QUESTION:
Mr. Joseph A. Consiglio
Solva-Tek Associates
Dr. Arvid Ek
Allegeny County Bureau of Air Pollution Control
Mr. John Hawley
New York State Environmental Conservation
Mr. John Kintz
National Capitol Interstate Planning Committee
Dr. Edward S. Rubin
Carnegie-Mellon University
On one of the slides, a reference was made to high
episodes of 70 to 80 micrograms of sulfate
concentrations, and the comment "not attributable or
correctable with local S02 concentrations" was made. My
question is what does correlate with it, if anything, at
this point?
RESPONSE: Dr. William E. Wilson (EPA)
QUESTION:
RESPONSE: Dr. Wilson
The correlations for the whole year were showing
high sulfate in the summer and high SO2 in the winter.
Consequently, there was no correlation. I do not
remember what the SO2 values were during this episode;
but as the sulfate built up, the air mass trajectories
moved from over general farm country to over river
valleys with high S02 emissions. In this case, the
correlation was with high S02 emissions 1 or 2 days
upwind of the area. So we would attribute it to
transformation during transport.
Are sulfate emissions related to the trace elements
present in the plume? Are you studying that aspect?
Different coals have different amounts of trace elements,
so the sulfate buildup in the plume downstream should
be related to the trace element composition of the coal.
Is that being studied also?
We looked at oil-fired power plumes as distinct from
coal-fired power plumes. We found an increase in the
initial S03 or sulfate in high vanadium oils. There have
been suggestions that there is more rapid reaction in the
downwind plume; however, this has not been borne out
by subsequent studies. As to whether the catalytic metal
content will influence reactions in the plume is still an
open question. It does influence the initial S03 in the
stack, but we are not sure of its effect in the downwind
plume.
335
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QUESTION:
There has been much discussion of the possibility of
artifact sulfate formation; that is, when high volume
filters are used for sulfate eliminations, part of the sulfate
is actually produced by perhaps catalytic conversion of
sulfur dioxide on the filter surface.
What means do you have of eliminating such
artifacts in some of these measurements, both in your
studies, Dr. Wilson, and in the SURE studies?
RESPONSE: Dr. Wilson
The filters used in my studies are coarse filters. We
have checked for filter conversions by using double filters.
We find no sulfate on the second filter. However, if we
use Glass Fiber Hi Vol, we find some sulfate on the
second filter.
In the EPRI program there will be a special filter,
probably teflon-coated glass, which also does not have a
surface conversion. This matter of conversion on the filter
has been studied quite extensively. For the last few years
the glass fiber filters that have been used have generally
been neutral rather than basic, and so the sulfate anomaly
is very small. So, if we measured 1 or 2 micrograms per
cubic meter, we might be concerned, but where we are
up 10, 20, or 30 micrograms, it is no longer significant.
Using teflon filters and Nucleopore filters in the newer
studies, we do not have that problem.
There has also been talk about the possibility of
conversion on particles on the filter. This has not been
put completely to rest, but apparently is not a major
problem.
RESPONSE Dr. Ralph Perhac (EPRI)
RESPONSE: Dr. Wilson
Let me add just one thing. We did support a study
at Radian Corporation and found that on glass fiber
filters for short periods of time, in other words, short air
flows, the problem can be serious. Also for low sulfate
levels the problem can be serious. However, with long
periods of time and high levels, it is not a bad problem.
It can also be corrected by pretreating the filter or by, as
Dr. Wilson pointed out, use of teflon-coated filters. It is
the latter which we will probably use in the SURE
program.
It is true that if we do 1- or 2-hour measurements
with high volume filters, we can run into serious
problems due to the sulfate conversion on the filter.
QUESTION:
Please clarify your study on regional SO4
concentrations with an emphasis on local emissions. In
what way are you relating this to local emissions?
RESPONSE: Dr. Perhac
We would like to know the effect of changing the
local emission of S02 on some other region on the
ambient sulfate distribution.
336
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RESPONSE: Dr. Wilson
RESPONSE: Dr. Perhac
I think Dr. Perhac is correct to say that by local we
do not mean the emissions in the immediate vicinity of
the sampling station, but the relationship between
emissions at any point in the network and regional
sulfate.
Yes. If we put in another 5,000 megawatts in the
Ohio Valley, for example, what will be the effect in
Pennsylvania or Washington?
QUESTION:
I have a question for Dr. Perhac. In the slide that
Dr. Wilson showed, the class one SURE stations are
widely dispersed in the eastern United States. Aligning
them more in a northeast-southwest fashion, as indicated
in phase one of the program, might be the maximum
impact orientation because of the alignment of the power
plants and the prevailing weather conditions. Why was
this done?
RESPONSE: Dr. Perhac
Two reasons. The first one is very simple, money.
There just was not enough money to put the stations any
closer. We hope to correct that in part by the very
extensive network of class two stations which will operate
only four times a year. That will separate the class one
which will operate every day.
In answer to the second part of your question, why
not line them up along the Ohio Valley, that goes back
to my comment about wanting random data without a
geographic bias. There is no question that by lining them
up along the Ohio Valley, we introduce a geographic bias
immediately. If there is a trend coming up the Ohio
Valley, we will certainly catch it with stations lined up
that way; but if there are air flows from other areas, we
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will miss them. Consequently, we attempted to locate the
stations more randomly to eliminate the geographic bias.
Admittedly it is a tradeoff, but we felt it was worth it
from that standpoint.
QUESTION:
I wonder if one of you gentlemen would discuss the
policy implications for those of us who are involved in
developing state implementation plans, alert strategies, and
so forth. From one of your slides, it seemed that we may
not be able to control the air masses that affect us in
terms of health and in terms of economics for control
strategies. I wondered if someone would discuss the
policy implications of the results of your studies to date.
Do we in the northeast secede, and say that TVA closed
us down?
RESPONSE: Dr. Wilson
Certainly not. The point that I was making
essentially involved primary pollutants which have limited
lifetimes. We could choose a local region tens of miles or
hundreds of miles away and by controlling pollution
sources in that area, we would control the area's ambient
pollution. When we were concerned with secondary
pollutants that have atmospheric lifetimes of days to
weeks, our pollution is widely distributed throughout the
nation. We are going to have to look on a larger area
basis, and we are going to have to think in terms of air
quality regions which are much, much larger.
I think the policy people need to be aware of these
programmatic results which indicate the long-range
movement of pollutants and the type of weather
conditions which produce them.
RESPONSE: Dr. Michael C. MacCracken (ERDA)
Let me just add that the intent of the modeling
program of ERDA is to look at these large-range policy
options. We are trying to focus on options that are well
beyond the local scale as opposed to looking at the
impact of an individual power plant or several individual
power plants.
QUESTION:
The emphasis yesterday morning was based on NOX.
The question is whether any of that is being followed up
in terms of modeling studies comparable to what we are
seeing for sulfates, particularly for eastern areas?
RESPONSE: Dr. Wilson
I know that all of us are interested in both the
gaseous and particulate nitrates. One reason we have not
done nitrates is that, .until recently, we have not had
techniques that were sufficiently sensitive to use in
aircraft monitoring for measuring them. We now have a
new technique which is sufficiently sensitive for nitrate.
At the cooperative study a couple weeks ago, samples
were taken on which we will try to do nitrates. We are
also looking forward to the next go-around of these field
studies in which EPA will have a new acronym called
STATE for the study of nitrates as well as organics.
And I might mention that there has been a problem
in the past with the formation of sulfate on filters. The
338
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formation of nitrate on filters is going to be even worse,
but it may be that what we are measuring is gaseous
nitrate absorbed on the filter rather than particulate
nitrate. It is nitrate that we are measuring, but we are
not sure how much is particulate and how much is
vapor-based.
So the problem here has not been a lack of interest
or concern but a lack of adequate instrumentation.
RESPONSE: Dr. Rudolf F. Pueschel (NOAA)
RESPONSE: Dr. MacCracken
As far as cloud nuclei formation is concerned, is it
necessary for sulfur dioxide to be present? There are
other candidates such as nitrogen oxides that could just
as well be responsible for this phenomenon.
In the SURE program the emissions inventory does
include NOx and also the field measurements will include
nitrate measurements, not as extensively as sulfates, but it
will include a number of them.
339
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technical
discussion
-------
Plume Mapping Program
PROJECT MISTT
MIDWEST INTERSTATE SULFUR TRANSFORMATION
AND TRANSPORT
William E. Wilson
Office of Research and Development
Environmental Sciences Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
INTRODUCTION
Sulfate aerosols have been implicated in a
variety of adverse ecological and human health
effects. The known adverse health effects of
sulfur dioxide (S02) led to the control of this
pollutant (PHS, 1969). However, reductions in
urban S02 emissions and concentrations, which were
produced by the mandatory use of low-sulfur fuels,
were not accompanied by a proportional decrease in
urban sulfate (EPA, 1975) . This observation may be
explained by the transformation-transport theory.
Reductions in urban S02 emissions have been accom-
panied by increases in rural S02 emissions from
new power plants located outside cities. Sulfur
dioxide from these power plants may be transformed
to sulfate in the atmosphere and transported over
long distances to urban areas. Interest by the
U.S.E.P.A. in the transformation-transport theory
led to a major expansion of existing studies by
establishing Project MISTT (Midwest Interstate
Sulfur Transformation and Transport) . The tech-
nical approach of Project MISTT is to study the
transformations of SC>2 to sulfate in polluted air
masses undergoing transport. The intent is to
measure pertinent chemical and meteorological
parameters with sufficient accuracy so that they
may be used with physical and mathematical models
to derive rate parameters which characterize the
transformation processes. This research should
also give insight into transformation mechanisms
and serve as a guide for related laboratory
studies. Both power plant and urban plumes are
being studied.
TECHNICAL DISCUSSION
EPA Plume Studies
Information on the rate of conversion of S02
to sulfate in power plant plumes was needed to
quantify the contributions of power plants to
atmospheric sulfates. A critical review of plume
studies (Wilson, 1977) revealed no reliable in-
formation on conversion rates, and only two
studies provided information on the amount of S02
converted to sulfate. To obtain a better under-
standing of the physical and chemical processes
occurring in power plant plumes, extensive studies
involving three-dimensional mapping of large
plumes were carried out in the St. Louis area as
part of the Project MISTT.
Two instrumented aircraft, an instrumented
van, and three mobile single-theodolite pilot-
balloon units were used in a coordinated measure-
ment program. The primary sampling platform was
a single-engine aircraft equipped to continuously
monitor (1) gaseous pollutants (03, NO, NOX, S02)
(2) three aerosol parameters (condensation-nuclei
count, light-scattering coefficient, and aerosol
charge acceptance), (3) several meteorological
variables (temperature, relative humidity, dew
point, and turbulent dissipation), and (4) nav-
igational parameters. Particulate sulfur samples
were collected by a sequential filter-tape sampler
equipped with a respirable-particle size separator
(Husar et al., 1976a). An optical counter and an
electrical-mobility analyzer provided details of
the in situ particle-size distribution of grab
samples (White et al., 1976a). The flight pattern
of the primary aircraft was designed to enable
characterization of the plume at discrete
distances downwind from the source. At each dis-
tance, horizontal traverses were made in the plume
perpendicular to the plume axis at three or more
elevations. These were supplemented by vertical
spirals inside and outside the plume. The in-
struments continuously monitored the distribution
of pollutants along each pass. From the three-
dimensional pollutant concentration field obtained
in this manner, together with the vertical profiles
of wind velocity measured every half-hour by the
three pilot balloons units, the horizontal flow
rates of pollutants at each downwind distance were
directly calculated. From the change in flow rate
with distance, it is possible to calculate trans-
formation and removal rates for individual pollu-
tants (Husar, et al, 1976a).
The Urban Plume
The techniques just described were used to
map the three-dimensional flow of aerosols and
trace gases in power plant plumes and in the air
leaving the St. Louis area. It was found that
under certain summer, daytime, meteorological
conditions, the aggregate pollutant emissions
from metropolitan St. Louis often formed a co-
hesive, well-defined "urban plume" downwind of
the city (Husar et al., 1976b; White et al.,
1976b). As shown in Figure 1 the 18 July 1975
urban plume was mapped to 180 km northeast of St.
Louis. Flow rates within the mixing layer are
shown in Figure 2 for 63, sulfate, and light
scattering aerosols. The width of the plume,
approximately 40 km, did not change much along
the 150-km-distance over which it was obtained.
The amount of plume spreading is less than pre-
dicted by Gaussian plume models and is probably
controlled by the amount of wind shear within the
well-mixed layer. It appears likely that the
elevated ozone concentrations in this plume and
the reduced visibility caused by the plume were
exported well beyond 180 km.
343
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SCALE KILOMETERS
I— 200
1-150
SPRINGFIELD
•MOO
1-50
ILLINOIS
A POWER PLANT
• REFINERY
OZONE
bSCAT
Figure 1. Ozone concentration and
aerosol light-scattering
coefficient (bscat) down-
wind of St. Louis on 18
July 1975. Data are taken
from horizontal traverses
by instrumented aircraft
at altitudes between 460
and 760 m msl. Sampling
paths are along graph
baselines; note that base-
line concentrations are
not zero (White et al.,
1976b).
HOURS I
Figure 2'. Flow rates and related data for the St. Louis
plume on 18 July 1975. Values are plotted
against distance downwind of the St. Louis
Gateway Arch, with equivalent travel times
for a constant mean wind speed of 45 km/hr
shown for comparison. The mass flow rate of
ozone and particulate and the flow rate of
the aerosol light-scattering coefficient
(bscat) are shown. Maximum values and units
are 2.5 kg/sec for particulate sulfur, 2.5 x
1Q2 tons/hr for ozone, and 2.5 x 103 bscat
units (lO-^m"1)(km3/hr).
344
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During a number of experiments in 1974 and
1975, the St. Louis plume was observed to signifi-
cantly degrade the air quality of communities more
than 200 km from the city. The most conspicious
components of the St. Louis plume 50 km or more
downwind of the city were the reaction products
formed along the way. Unlike the primary pollu-
tants NO and S02> ozone and light-scattering aero-
sols attained their maximum concentrations well
downwind of St. Louis and their flow rate increased
with distance from the city.
PROGRAM DISCUSSION
Reaction Rates and Mechanisms
In the power plant plumes that have been
completely analyzed, the rate of conversion of S02
to sulfate varied from 1/2% to 5% per hour. Con-
densation nuclei counts and aerosol size distri-
bution profiles indicate that the major pathway is
a homogeneous reaction, first order in S02, and
probably involving the OH radical. The reaction
rate certainly depends on sunlight intensity
(Durham et al. , 1977) and appears to also depend
on water vapor concentration, background ozone
levels, and the extent to which the plume has
mixed with background air. The pollutant profiles,
in both power plant and urban plumes, resemble
those observed in chamber studies and suggest
that the current kinetic models can be used to
calculate sulfate formation.
Heterogeneous reactions may be important at
night, in clouds, or other conditions during
which high water vapor content and high relative
humidity may lead to the existence of liquid drop-
lets. Attempts to make nighttime measurements
during the summer of 1975 were frustrated by diffi-
culties in locating the plume. The use of lidar
during the summer of 1976 allowed us to locate the
plume but unusually dry conditions led to night-
time relative humidities substantially lower than
normal. Therefore, the data analyzed to date do
not allow any conclusions regarding hetero-
geneous reactions. There are, however, several
qualitative indications suggesting that under
proper conditions heterogeneous reactions may be
important and may lead to rates significantly
greater than the 5% per hour maximum found for
homogeneous reactions. The key parameters govern-
ing heterogeneous reactions, in addition to high
relative humidities and high water vapor content,
are thought to be ozone and ammonia concentrations,
concentrations of catalytic species in aerosol form,
and the extent of mixing with background air.
Plume Study Techniques
One of the most important advances has been
the realization that a plume measurement must be
treated as a multi-dimensional problem. In addi-
tion to the extent of the plume in the horizontal
and vertical direction and the downwind distance,
we must consider time as a fourth dimension. We
must be concerned not only with the time at which
the plume is measured but also the time at which
the plume was emitted and the subsequent history
°f the plume. For example, it may have been a
cohesive plume prior to measurement or it may
have been highly diluted with background air;
it may have been isolated above the mixing
layer or it may have been well mixed to the
ground; it may have traveled at night, under
cloud cover, or in bright sunlight. Much of
the early work on plumes has yielded mislead-
ing values because the measurements were made
only in cohesive plumes early in the morning
or late in the evening.
The EPA plume studies differed from earlier
ones in that (1) more gas and aerosol parameters
were measured, (2) horizontal and vertical profiles
were measured, (3) data were interpreted in terms
of mass flows instead of concentration ratios,
(4) the background air mixing with the plume was
characterized, (5) the chemical composition and
size distribution of the aerosols in the plume
were determined, and (6) measurements were made at
the same distance downwind as the plume shape and
structure changed with changes in meteorological
conditions.
The use of mass flow rate measurements, in
addition to S02/sulfate ratio measurements,
permits a determination of the loss of S02 by
ground deposition. This technique makes it
possible to determine rates during periods when
the plume is well mixed to the ground and the
S02/sulfate ratio measurements alone would yield
erroneously high rates. The development of a sul-
fate analytical technique with sufficient sensiti-
vity for a measurement integrated over one pass
through a plume made possible the calculation of
sulfate mass flows. On the basis of size dis-
tribution profiles, aerosol volume flows were
calculated and the results compared. The com-
parisons gave insight into the type of reaction
mechanism.
Transport Distances
The time and distance over which an air mass
maintains its integrity depend on its initial
size and the meteorological conditions. Power
plant and urban plumes have been tracked for 300
km. These plumes maintain their integrity and
high pollutant concentrations for much longer
times and farther distances than originally ex-
pected. During stable nighttime conditions,
the cohesive plume is frequently caught in a
nocturnal jet which carries it along at as much
as twice the normal wind speed. Gaussian plume
models are satisfactory for the first few 10's
of km, but beyond that wind shear seems to play
the dominant role in determining dilution. In
urban plumes, wind shear is clearly the determining
factor.
Models
Models, of several levels of complexity, have
been developed for calculating secondary pollutant
concentrations in power plant and urban plumes.
These include a multi-step chemical kinetic model
and a reacting plume model with relatively simple
mixing parameters but with provisions for aerosol
formation, coagulation, and growth. In addition,
345
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a model has been developed using a sulfate forma-
tion rate that is a function of sunlight intensity
and that has more sophisticated meteorological
terms including multi-layers for vertical diffu-
sion and dry deposition.
Publications and Presentations
Results of Project MISTT have been presented
at several national meetings and published in
scientific journals. Additional papers will be
given at the International Symposium on Sulfates
in the Atmosphere to be held in Dubrovnik,
Yugoslavia, in September, 1977. The Dubrovnik
conference papers will be submitted for publication
in Atmospheric Environment. Project MISTT publi-
cations and presentations are listed in the Bib-
liography.
CONCLUSIONS
Power Plant and urban plumes have been sampled
out to 300 km from their sources. Sampling at
these distances revealed that sulfate, generated
from S02 in power plant plumes, and ozone, gene-
rated from hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides in
urban plumes, may be transported at least hundreds
of kilometers and may cause air pollution episodes
far from the source of pollution. Air pollution,
caused by secondary pollutants, such as sulfates
and ozone, cannot be controlled by the government
entity where the air pollution impact actually
occurs. Therefore, current concepts of air
quality control regions must be revised to take
into account the long range transport of
secondary pollutants.
The present study has concentrated mainly on
sulfate, ozone, and light scattering. Plans call
for extending the EPA plume studies to include
measurements of organic aerosols and vapors, and
nitrate aerosols and vapors such as nitric acid.
To determine the importance of heterogeneous re-
actions, more work is needed under conditions of
high relative humidity and high water vapor
content, which are conducive to heterogeneous
reactions. In general, more information is
needed to provide better statistics on the para-
meters than influence reaction rates in power
plant and urban plumes.
REFERENCES
Durham, J.L., W.E. Wilson, V.P. Aneja, J.M.
Overton, Jr., D.L. Blumenthal, J.A. Anderson, S.
Frisella, W. Dannevik, L. Hull, and R. Woodford.
Sulfate Aerosol Formation Rate in an Oil Fired
Power Plant Plume. AIChE 83rd National Meeting,
Houston, Texas, March 1977.
Position Paper on Regulation of Atmospheric Sul-
fates. EPA-450/2-75-007, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, N.C.
1975. 108 pp.
Husar, R.B., J.D. Husar, N.V. Gillani, S.B. Fuller,
W.H. White, J.A. Anderson, W.M. Vaughan and W.E.
Wilson. Pollutant Flow Rate Measurement in Large
Plumes: Sulfur Budget in Power Plant and Area
Source Plumes in the St. Louis Region. In:
Proceedings of the 171st National ACS Meeting, Div,
of Environ. Chem., New York, N.Y., April 1976.
Husar, J.D., R.B. Husar, E.S. Macias, W.E. Wilson,
J.L. Durham, W.K. Shepherd and J.A. Anderson.
Particulate Sulfur Analysis: Application to High
Time Resolution Aircraft Sampling in Plumes.
Atmos. Environ., 10:591-595, 1976.
Air Quality Criteria for Sulfur Oxides. Publication
No. AP-50, U.S. Department of Health, Education and
Welfare, Public Health Service, Washington, D.C.,
1969.
White, W.H., J.A. Anderson, W.R. Knuth, D.L.
Blumenthal, J.C. Hsiung and R.B. Husar. Midwest
Interstate Sulfur Transformation and Transport
Project: Aerial Measurements of Urban and Power
Plant Plumes, Summer 1974. EPA-600/3-76-110, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle
Park, N.C. 1976. 125 pp.
White, W.H., J.A. Anderson, D.L. Blumenthal, R.B.
Husar, N.V. Gillani, J.D. Husar and W.E. Wilson, Jr.
Formation and Transport of Secondary Air Pollutants:
Ozone and Aerosols in the St. Louis Urban Plume.
Science 194:187-189, 1976.
Wilson, W.E. Sulfate Formation in Power Plant Plumes
A Critical Review. Submitted for publication.
MISTT PRESENTATION
68th Annual Meeting, APCA, Boston, MA, June
1975
1. Vaughan, W.M., R. Sperling, N.V. Gillani and
R.B. Husar. Horizontal S02 Mass Flow Rate
Measurements in Plumes: A Comparison of Cor-
relation Spectrometer Data with A Dispersion
and Removal Model.
2. Blumenthal, D.L. and W.H. White. The Stability
and Long Range Transport of Ozone or Ozone
Precursors.
171st National ACS Meeting, New York, NY,
April 1976.
3. Husar, R.B., N.V. Gillani, J.D. Husar, S.B.
Fuller, W.H. White, J.A. Anderson, W.M. Vaughan
and W. E. Wilson, Jr. Pollutant Flow Rate Mea-
surement in Large Plumes: Sulfur Budget in
Power Plant and Area Source Plumes in the St.
Louis Region. In: Pro. Div. Environ. Chem.
4. Wilson, W.E. Jr., R.B. Husar, K.T. Whitby,
D.B. Kettleson, W.H. White. Chemical Reactions
in Power Plant Plumes. In: Proc. of the Div.
Environ. Chem.
5. White, W.H., J.A. Anderson, D.L. Blumenthal,
R.B. Husar, N.V. Gillani, S.B. Fuller, K.T.
Whitby and W.E. Wilson, Jr. Formation of
Ozone and Light-Scattering Aerosols in the
St. Louis Urban Plume. In: Proc. of the Div.
Environ. Chem.
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6. Whitby, K.T., B.K Cantrell, R.B. Husar, N.V.
Gillani, J.A. Anderson, D.L. Blumenthal and
W.E. Wilson, Jr. Aersol Formation in a Coal-
Fired Power Plant Plume. In: Proc. of the
Div. Environ. Chem.
7. Draftz, R.G. Microscopical Analysis of Aero-
sols Transported from St. Louis.
8. Draftz, R.G. Comparison of Elemental and
Microscopical Analyses of Atmospheric Aerosols.
69th Annual Meeting, APCA, Portland, OR,
June 1976
9. Draftz, R.G. Aircraft Collection and Micro-
scopical Analysis of Ambient Aerosols from
Urban Atmospheres.
Symp. on Radiation in the Atm., Garmisch-
Partenkirchen, Germany, August 1976_.
(Proceedings to be issued)
10. Husar, R.B., N.V. Gillani, J.D. Husar, C.C.
Paley. Large Scale Haziness over Midwestern
and Eastern U.S.
11. Husar, R.B. Determination of Ambient H2SO,/(
and its Ammonium Salts by in situ Aerosol
Thermal Analysis.
12. White, W.H., D.L. Blumenthal, J.A. Anderson,
R.B. Husar, and W.E. Wilson, Jr. Formation
and Transport of Light-Scattering Aerosols in
the St. Louis Urban Plume.
International Conference on Stable Isotopes,
August 4-6, 1976, Lower Hutt, New Zealand.
13. Holt, B.D., P.T. Cunningham and A.G. Engel-
kemeir. Application of Oxygen-18 Analysis to
the Study of Atmospheric Sulfate Formation.
In Press.
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Meeting of AIChE, Atlantic City, NJ September
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14. Husar, R.B., N.V. Gillani and J.D. Husar.
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Urban, and Regional Plumes.
15. Whitby, K.T. and B.K. Cantrell. Size Dis-
tribution and Concentration of Atmospheric
Aerosol.
NATO/CCMS 7th Tech. Meeting on Air Pollution
Modeling and its Applications. Airlie, VA,
September 1976 (Proc. to be issued).
16. Gillani, N.V. and R.B. Husar. Analytical-
Numerical Model for Mesoscale Transport,
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17. Husar, R.B., N.V. Gillani, J.D. Husar. A Study
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servations, Trajectory Analysis and Local Air
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Dual Tracer Study for Validation of Models with
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Amer. Met. Soc., Raleigh, NC, October 1976.
19. Dannevik, W., S. Frisella, L. Granat and R.B.
Husar. S02 Deposition Measurements in the St.
Louis Region.
20. Gillani, N.V. and R.B. Husar. Mesoscale Model
for Pollutant Transport, Transformation, and
Ground Removal.
21. Husar, R.B., N.V. Gillani, J.D. Husar, C.C.
Paley, P.N. Turcu. Long Range Transport of
Pollutants Observed Through Visibility Contour
Maps, Weather Maps, and Trajectory Analysis.
22. Wilson, W.E., Jr., R.B. Husar, N.V. Gillani,
S.B. Fuller, W.H. White, J.A. Anderson and
D.L. Blumenthal. Characterization of Urban
Plumes.
"Non-Urban Tropospheric Composition."
Symposium, Miami Beach, Fl, November 10-12, 1976.
23. Rasmussen, R.A., R.B. Chatfield and M.W. Holden.
Transport of Hydrocarbon and Oxidant Chemistries
Observed at a Rural Mid-West Site.
24. Brass, G.W., M.H. Thiemens, J.O. Pilotte, D.R.
Lawson, R.J. Ferek, L.E. Wangen, J.W. Winchester,
and J.W. Nelson, Sulfur and Trace Metal Relation-
ships with Particle Size in Aerosols of Nonurban
Continental U.S.A.
International Symposium on Sulfur in the At-
mosphere, Dubrovnik, Yugoslavia, September 1977.
Invited Papers
25. Charlson, R.J. Chemical Properties of Sulfur
Aerosols
26. Whitby, K.T. Physical Properties of Sulfur
Aerosols
27. Wilson, W.E. Midwest Interstate Sulfur Trans-
formation and Transport Study (MISTT): Summary.
28. Husar, R.B. Project MISTT - Sulfur Budget in
Large Plumes
29. Gallani, N.V. Project MISTT - Plume Model for
Dispersion, Transformation, and Removal of
S02 for 10 Hours of Transport.
Contributed Papers
30. Cobourn, G., R.B. Husar, J.D. Husar. Monitor-
ing of Ambient H2SOlt and its Ammonium Salts
by in situ Aerosol Thermal Analysis.
31. Liu, B.Y.H., D.Y.H. Pui, K.T. Kittelson, D.B.
Kousada, Y. Kousada, and R.L, McKenzie. The
Aerosol Mobility Chromatograph: A New Detec-
tor for Sulfuric Acid Aerosols.
347
-------
32. Kittelson, D.B, M. Veermersch, B.Y.H. Liu,
D.Y.H. Pui, K.T. Whitby and R.L. McKenzie.
Total Sulfur Aerosol Detection with an Electro-
statically Pulsed Flame Photometric Detector
System.
33. Lyons, W.A., E.M. Rubin, K.T. Whitby Satel-
lite Detection of Long Range Pollution Trans-
port and Sulfate Aerosol Hazes.
34. Whitby, K.T., B.K. Cantrell, D.B. Kittelson
Nuclei Formation Rates in a Coal Fired Power
Plant Plume.
35. Cantrell, B.K. and K.T. Whitby Aerosol Size
Distributions and Aerosol Volume Formation
Rates for Coal-Fired Power Plants.
36. Gillani, N.V., R.B. Husar, J.D. Husar, D.E.
Patterson. Project MISTT: Kinetics of Partic-
ulate Sulfur Formation in a Power Plant Plume
out to 300 km.
37. Leslie, A.C.D., M.S. Ahlberg, J.W. Winchester
and J.W. Nelson. Aerosol Characterization for
Sulfur Oxide Health Effects Assessment.
38. Blumenthal, D.L., J.A. Orgren, and J.A. Ander-
son. Airborne Sampling System for Project
MISTT.
39. Smith, T.B., D.L. Blumenthal, J.A. Anderson,
A.H. Vanderpol, and R.B. Husar. Long Range
Transport of S02 in Power Plant Plumes.
American Nuclear Society Topical Symposium,
Las Vegas, Nevada, March 1977.
40. Markson, Ralph, D. Blumenthal, and Jan Sedlacek,
Atmospheric Electrical Plume Detection: Theory
and Field Measurements.
Fifth National Symposium of Air Pollution
Control Division for the Amer. Soc. of Me-
chanical Engineers, Pittsburgh, PA, May 11-12,
1977.
Third International Conference in Nuclear
Methods in Environmental and Energy Research
University of MO, Columbia, 1977.
41.
42,
Blumenthal, D.L., and W.H. White. Transport
of Oxidant Precursors.
Symposium on Atmospheric Sulfur Compounds,
Formation and Removal Processes, AIChE,
November 1977.
44. Winchester, J.W. Atmospheric Aerosol Chemistry
of Sulfur: Nuclear Accelerator Methods in
Energy-related Research.
MISTT PUBLICATIONS
1. Berg, W.W., R. Vie Le Sage, K. Sato, J.O.
Pilotte, S.L. Cohn, J.W. Winchester, and J.W.
Nelson. Time Variation of Aerosol Composition
in the Great Lakes Basin, Submitted to Journal
of Great/Lakes Research, 1977.
2. Fondario, D.A. (William E. Wilson and Harvey
Jeffries). An Analysis of a High Sulfate
Episode at Wheeling, West Virginia. M.S.
Thesis, U. North Carolina, August 1976.
3. Gillani, N.V., R.B. Husar. Mathematical
Modeling of Air Pollution - A Parametric Study.
1976 Proc. Proc. 2nd Federal Conference on the
Great Lakes. Argonne, 111. March 25-29 1976.
4. Gillani, N.V. and R.B. Husar. Synoptic Haziness
Over the Eastern U.S. and its Long Range Trans-
port. Proceedings of 4th National Conf. on
Fire and Forest Meteorology, Soc. Amer.
Foresters/Amer, April, 1977.
5. Lau, N-C and R.J. Charlson. , "An Estimation of
the Background Atmospheric Ammonia Gas Con-
centration over the Continental United States,"
Atmospheric Environment, in press (1977).
6. Rasmussen, R.A., and R. Chatfield. Hydrocarbon
and Oxidant Chemistry Observed at a Site Near
St. Louis. 1977. EPA-600/7-77-056.
7. Vanderpol, A.H., F.D. Carsey, D.S. Covert, R. J.
Charlson, and A.P. Waggoner. Aerosol Chemical
Parameters and Air Mass Character in the St.
Louis Region," Science, 170, 570 (1975).
8. Vie le Sage, R., K. Sato, W.W. Berg, and
J.W. Nelson. Aerosol Composition in the North
American Midcontinent. An application of pro-
ton induced X-ray emission analysis, Proceedings
of the Colloque International sur les Methodes
Analytiques par Rayonnements X, Strasbourg,
France, (In press 1977).
Berg, W.W., R. Vie Le Sage, K. Sato, J.O. Pilotte,
S.L. Cohn, J.W. Winchester, and J.W. Nelson. Time
Variation of Aerosol Composition in the Great Lakes
Basin, Submitted to Journal of Great Lakes
Research, 1977. 10-
3rd International Conference in Ion Beam
Analysis, Washington, D. C., 1977.
43. Ahlberg, M.S., A.C.D. Leslie, and J.W. Winchester,
The Chemical State of Particulate Sulfur in
Ambient Aerosols Determined by PIXE Analysis.
348
9. Waggoner, A.P., A.H. Vanderpol, R.J. Charlson,
S. Larsen, L. Grant, and C. Tragard.
"Sulphate-light Scattering Ratio as an Index ^
of the Role of Sulfur in Tropospheric Optics,
Nature, 261 120-122 (1976).
Weiss, R.E., A.P. Waggoner, R.J. Charlson,
and N.C. Ahlquist. "Sulfate Aerosol: Its
Geographical Extent in the Midwestern and
Southern United States," Science 195, 979-98
(1977) .
11. Wesely, M.L., B.B. Hicks, W.P. Dannevik, S.
Frisella, and R.B. Husar. An Eddy-Correlation
Measurement of Particulate Deposition from the
Atmosphere. Atmos. Environ., In press.
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12. White, W.H., D.L. Blumenthal, J.A. Anderson,
R.B. Husar, and W.E. Wilson, Jr. Ozone
Formation in the St. Louis Urban Plume. 1977.
Int. Conf. on Photochemical Oxidant Pollution
and Its Control Proceedings. EPA-600/3-7-
OOla, p. 237.
13. White, W.H. Photochemistry in Power Plant
Plumes: A Comparison of Theory with Obser-
vation. Environ. Sci. and Tech., In Press.
14. Wilson, W.E. Sulfate Formation on Power Plant
Plumes: A Critical Review. 1977. EPA-600/00.
15. Wilson, W.E, Jr., R.J. Charlson, R.B. Husar,
K.T. Whitby and D.L. Blumenthal Sulfates in
the Atmosphere 1977. EPA 600/7-77-021.
16. Winchester, J.W. Sulfur and Trace Metal Re-
lationships in Nonurban and Marine and Methods,
142, 85-90, 1977.
349
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CLOUD NUCLEI GENERATION BY A SULFUR
GAS-TO-PARTICLE CONVERSION PROCESS
Rudolf F. Pueschel
Environmental Research Laboratories
Atmospheric Physics and Chemistry Laboratory
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
U.S. Department of Commerce
Boulder, Colorado
INTRODUCTION
It is now recognized that sulfur dioxide (SOz),
as a man-made pollutant, may have effects hundreds
of kilometers away from its source, either by
acidifying rainfall or, when oxidized to particu-
late sulfate, by influencing cloud formation and
short-wave radiation. According to projections
made by the Environmental Protection Agency in
its recent Northern Great Plains Resource Program
(NGPEP), coal production in the northern Great
Plains will rise from 50,000,000 tons in 1975 to
over 350,000,000 tons by the year 2000. Part of
the fuel development in this area includes utili-
zation of the coal for power generation at mine
mouth or at sites providing easy access to the
coal supplies. Accordingly, a proportionately
larger amount of aerosols and gases will be emitted
into the atmosphere. Because of their hygroscopic
nature, sulfur aerosols act as centers around which
cloud drops form already at relative humidities
less than 100%. The measurements reported in this
paper reflect the number of cloud droplets that
form at 101% relative humidity. This is about the
upper limit of humidity encountered in clouds. An
increase in the numbers of cloud condensation
nuclei (CCN) can lead to a change in the frequency
with which clouds form, a different colloidal
stability of the clouds, and a difference in the
frequency and/or intensity of rainfall.
The economic impact of changes in rainfall
can be assessed from the results of previous
studies which consider the benefits to be derived
from enhancement of precipitation through deliber-
ate weather modification. The change in agricul-
tural production from one inch of incremental
rainfall has been estimated at several bushels of
grain or several hundred pounds of forage per acre
(Special Studies Team, 1973; Johnson, 1972; Bauer,
1972). These figures demonstrate the importance
of small changes in amounts of rainfall for agri-
culture in a semi-arid region. Any such changes
in precipitation due to inadvertent effects of
energy developments would lead to modification of
the High Plains economy, whether such changes are
positive or negative.
In the following discussion we show that a
climatologically significant aerosol is found
among the particulate effluents of a coal-fired
powerplant. CCN, efficient at 1.0% supersatura-
tion are formed in the plume at a rate of 1015 to
10 per second at distances up to 150 km from the
source. By relating the aerosol formation rate to
a SOa depletion rate due to chemical reaction, a
gas (802) to particle (SOif) conversion process has
been isolated as one mechanism by which these nuclei
are formed.
TECHNICAL DISCUSSION
The data on cloud nuclei formation that we
present here result from investigations that have
been conducted since summer 1975 in the plume of
the Four Corners Powerplant near Farmington, New
Mexico. The plant consists of five pulverized-
coal-burning generating units. Two 175 megawatt
(Mw) units (ratings nominal) began operating in
May and June, 1963. Unit 3, rated at 225 Mw
commenced operation in August of 1964. Units 4 and
5, with ratings of 800 Mw were placed in operation
in July 1969 and 1970. At full load with all five
units in operation, a maximum 25,082 metric tons
per day of coal is being used. However, the opera-
ting factor is only about 73% and coal consumption
is averaging about 18,000 metric tons per day. The
coal is classified as sub-bituminous with an average
ash content.of 22%, and an average sulfur content
of 0.7%.
Flue gases from Units 1, 2, and 3 pass through
Venturi scrubbers which use cooling lake water to
remove particulate matter and sulfur dioxide. The
flue gas passes through the scrubber before it is
exhausted to the atmosphere at a temperature of
about 52°C through chimneys 76.2 m high. Flue
gases from units 4 and 5 are passed through
electrostatic precipitators before exhausting to
the atmosphere at a temperature of approximately
121°C through chimneys 91.4 m high. Figure 1 shows
the appearance of the plume downwind to about 8
kilometers. Table 1 gives information on emission
rates (Environmental Report, 1975).
The sampling platform for aerosols and gases
has been a Cessna 206 instrumented aircraft.
Table 2 lists parameters and the recording methods,
precision, and accuracy that the aircraft systems
package is capable of producing. In this paper
only information on CCN and S02 concentrations is
provided and discussed.
Cloud condensation nuclei are measured with a
portable thermal diffussion chamber. It was de-
signed and built in-house by Allee (1970) and is
based on the one described by Twomey (1963). The
cylindrical chamber consists of two plates, 7.62 cm
in diameter and mounted parallel 2.54 cm apart.
All walls are lined with blotter paper that is wet
during chamber operation. A modest (up to 5°C)
temperature difference is maintained between the
two parallel wet surfaces. Water vapor is distri-
buted through the chamber by mixing and diffusion.
Provided there is no heat loss through the side
walls, the water vapor pressure will be related
linearly to its temperature. However, since the
saturation vapor pressure of water is exponentially
related to its temperature, the mixing and diffusion
leads to a supersaturated condition. The maximum
supersaturation is found roughly mid-way between
the surfaces and for small temperature differences
is approximately proportional to the square of the
351
-------
Figure 1. Visual appearance of the Four Corners Powerplant plume. The distance between plant and Hogback
Mountains is 4.3 km.
TABLE 1. ESTIMATED CALCULATED PRESENT EMISSIONS AT MAXIMUM RATING
S02 kg/day (X103)
% Removal (Approx)
N0x kg/day (XIO3)
% Removal
Participates kg/day (X103)
% Removal (Approx)
Net Electrical Output, Mw
Energy Input at Full Load (106 joules/sec)
Emission Temperature, °C
Stack Height, m
Stack Diameter, m
Exit Volume, m3/sec (Actual)
Exit Velocity, m/sec
1 & 2
39.9
30
33.5
0
1.9
99.2
350
1002
51.7
76.2
5.6
536
21.3
3
25.4
30
20.8
0
1.2
99.2
225
621
51.7
76.2
4.6
331
20.1
UNIT NO.
4
127
0
69.1
0
38.4
97
800
2066
121.1
91.4
8.7
1359
22.9
5
127
0
69.1
0
38.4
97
800
2066
121.1
91.4
8.7
1359
22.9
Total
319.3
192.3
79.8
2175
352
-------
PARAMETER
Cloud Conden-
sation Nuclei
Aitken Nuclei
Ice Nuclei
METHOD OF
UNITS RECORDING
m * Photography
m~* Strip Chart
m"3 Visual
Crystal
Counts
FREQUENCY OF
RECORDING
Preselected
Times
Continuous
Preselected
Times
INSTRUMENT
Thermal Diffusion
Chamber
Expansion Chamber
Thermal Diffusion
Chamber
PRECISION SENSITIVITY
± 5% 2
± 10% 1
± 50% 1.
x 10"6
x 10""
,0 x 10""
Light Scattering m
Coefficient
Aerosol Size m
Distribution
Aerosol Elemental
Composition
Temperature C
Relative Humidity %
Ozone ppb
Nitrogen Oxide ppb
Sulfur Dioxide ppb
Strip Chart Continuous MRI Integrating
Nephelometer
Visual Count Preselected Transmission EM
Log Times
Visual Count Preselected Scanning EM X-ray
Log Times Energy Spectrometry
Mag Tape
Strip Chart Continuous Thermistor
Strip Chart Continuous Hygrometer
Strip Chart Continuous ML Chemiluminescence
Strip Chart Continuous ML Chemiluminescence
Strip Chart Continuous ML Chemiluminescence
± 2%
.15 x 10"1*
± 10%
0.25
0.5
5.0
5.0
10.0
TABLE 2.
PARAMETERS MEASURED
BY AIRCRAFT DURING
THE FOUR CORNERS
POWER PLANT STUDY
temperature difference. The center portion of the
chamber is illuminated with a collimated beam of
light. After taking in a sample by ram air in the
aircraft the chamber is closed, the nucleating drops
are given time to grow to visible sizes, and a
photograph of the cloud is taken for subsequent
counting of the drops after the film has been
developed. The number of drops recorded on the
film is identical to the number of cloud nuclei
in the illuminated chamber volume that are
active at the supersaturation that is preselected
by the temperature differential between the hori-
zontal walls of the chamber. Figure 2 shows the
experimental arrangement of the thermal diffusion
chamber.
The analysis for atmospheric sulfur dioxide
is accomplished with the Theta Sensors, Inc.
polarographic instrument. It utilizes a semi-
permeable membrane that permits S02 to diffuse
into the reaction chamber where it undergoes a
redox reaction at an electrode. The current
generated is proportional to the quantity of
gas present. In operation, the lower limit of
sensitivity is about 50 ppb (131 Pgrn"3). Accuracy
is ±5% in the range 260 to 1300 ygnT3, and re-
sponse time is 20 to 25 sec. Interfering gases
are H2S and NO; these produce spurious signals
equal to 0.1 and 0.01, respectively, of the re-
sponse from an equivalent quantity of S02.
During the early field operation periods in
1975 and 1976 airborne S02 measurements were done
with the Meloy Laboratories, Inc. flame photo-
metric sulfur gas analyzer. Measurement of
sulfur (S) compounds in the flame photometric
detector depends upon the Chemiluminescence of S
in a hydrogen-rich flame. The intensity of
emission when activated S reverts to a lower energy
state is directly proportional to a power slightly
less than the square of the S concentration. The
emission occurs over a broad spectral band with
maximum intensity at 394 nm. The intensity of
light passing a 394 nm narrow band-pass filter is
measured by a photomultiplier tube. The minimum
detection level under field operating conditions
is about 10 ppb (26 Vg m ) of S in air. Pre-
cision and accuracy are approximately 10 ppb.
Instrument lag time to 90% of full response is 25
to 30 seconds. The flame photometric detector
responds to any gaseous S compound; because S02 is
the predominant gaseous species under atmospheric
conditions encountered in this project, the in-
strument response is reported as SOz.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Figure 3 shows the variation in the plume
axis of S02, the light scattering coefficient
(b ), Ozone (Os) and CCN as a function of
scat
distance L from the stacks. Plotted in Fig. 3 is
the ratio of the concentrations measured in the
plume axis to the concentrations measured outside
of the plume. Typical background concentrations
are given in Table 3.
For the subsequent discussion it is to be
noted that the decrease with distance of S02 in
Fig. 3 is opposed to a slight increase of the
concentration of CCN. If we fit the data of Fig.
to a power curve, we find relationships between
constituent ratio C and distance L of the kind
C = Co x LK. The case illustrated in Fig. 3
results in values Co for S02 of 7.58 x 10 , and
for CCN of 1.34. The value of K that determines
the change of constituent ratio with distance is
-1.42 for S02 and 0.18 for CCN. It can be seen
that a relativelv strong decrease of S02 with
353
-------
Figure 2. Assembly of the
thermal diffusion
chamber used in
the airborne mea-
surements .
Figure 3. Schematic of the plume model
employed in the SO. and
CCN flux calculations.
TABLE 3. TYPICAL BACKGROUND CONCENTRATIONS OF
ATMOSPHERE PARAMETERS AROUND FARMINGTOH»
NEW MEXICO
IUUU
inn
Background
c
3 C
J5 IU
o!
g
5 in
Constituent F
3 —
- C
U.I
nni
— 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 -
— Four Corners Power Plant —
- k Febl2,l976
-S02\^ 0650-0923 MST"
— bscat ^^-^..^ —
\ ^^^
1= N =
— \ —
1 CCN
;
io3 ,^"""' i
^ i i i i i
PAFiAMETER SYMBOL CONCENTFiATION
Sulfur Dioxide S02 5 = 10 ppb
Ozone 0 25-40 ppb
Light Scattering
Coefficient bscat 1.7 x 10~5nf!
Cloud Nuclei
Concentration
r-F-ffSf-Mua a4- IV
Supersaturation CCN 500 - 1000 cm"3
•
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Km Downwind
354
-------
distance is opposed by a virtual independence of
CCN with distance. Such a result was found during
each experiment that was conducted during five
measurement periods between July 1975 and October
1976o The values of the parameters Co and K for
S02 and CCN are shown in Table 4 for each experi-
ment.
Figure 4 illustrates the model that we assume
for calculation of losses of constituents due to
diffusion, deposition, and reaction. The plume is
assumed to be emitted at height Z above the ground
and travels in the direction L with velocity u. In
time ti = Li/u, it will pass cross-section 1, and
at a later time t2 = L2/U2 it will pass cross-
section 2. The contribution of diffusion, deposi-
tion and reaction to the measured change of S02
concentration per unit time, i.e.
MEAS
DIF
DEP
REAC
(1)
can be calculated if the plume dimensions at cross-
sections one and two, the wind velocities at times
ti and t2, and the vertical and horizontal SOa
concentration gradients are known. Since all of
these parameters are amenable to measurement, the
change of S02, with time, due to chemical reaction
can be estimated quite accurately.
REAC
In a first approximation and in occasional agree-
ment with observations, we assume that the plume
travels in a thin layer downwind to about 8 km from
the stacks; at this point it becomes mixed homo-
geneously in the space between ground and the temp-
erature inversion layer.
Table 5 gives the pertinent plume data for
some measurements that were performed in October
1976. The first column in Table 5 shows the date.
The second column shows the distances, L, in km at
which the measurements were The third
and fourth columns, respectively, show the horizon-
tal, H (km), and vertical, Z (m) , extents of the
plume at distances L. Columns five and six give
the vertical, Av (m2), and horizontal, AH (m )
cross-sectional extents of the plume. Wind speed,
temperature and relative humidity are given in
columns seven to nine. Table 6 gives the measured
mean SOa concentration in column three, and the S02
flux through the plume cross-sections in column
four. The eddy diffusion coefficient, D, given in
column five is defined by
D = uk (z + b) (2)
(Junge, 1963) where u is the wind speed at the
surface, k is Karman's constant, Z is altitude and
b is the roughness parameter of the surface. The
settling velocity, VG of S02 molecules to the
ground in column six is calculated as
VG = D (ms02- mair)
(3)
kt
TABLE 4. POWER CURVE FIT CL = Co x LK BETWEEN CONSTITUENT C MEASURED IN THE PLUME AXIS AT DISTANCE
L FROM THE STACKS AND L. r2 IS THE COEFFICIENT OF DETERMINATION
DATE
7-29-75
7-30-75
8-01-75
10-14-75
10-16-75
10-17-75
2-11-76
2-11-76
2-12-76
2-13-76
6-25-76
6-26-76
6-27-76
10-8-76
10-9-76
10-10-76
10-11-76
S02
Co (ppm) K r2
36.61
40.94
26.05
50.57
23.35
8.11
63.5
6.72
19.0
2.26*
24.99*
9.31*
45.10*
-1.43
-1.53
-1.13
-1.49
-0.98
-1.13
-1.75
-1.14
-1.46
-1.50
-1.39
-1.14
-1.59
1.0
0.92
0.96
1.00
0.99
0.88
0.96
0.94
1.00
1.00
1.0
0.96
1.0
1.0
CCN
Co (cm"3) K r2
1461*
3745*
4475*
3358*
5228*
8077*
8078**
6288**
1740
20631**
237
824
638
2187*
8546*
5009*
7212*
-0.07
-0.35
-0.16
-0.01
-0.02
-0.18
-0.09
-0.02
+0.23
-0.38
+0.45
+0.03
+0.28
-0.07
-0.48
-0.28
-0.28
0.04
0.92
1.00
1.00
0.78
0.89
0.50
0.31
0.81
0.93
0.01
1.00
0.28
0.54
1.00
1.00
*RH < 20%
**RH > 50%
355
-------
Figure 4. Variations with distance L from the stacks of SC^i bgcat, CCN and Oj
TABLE 5. RELEVANT PLUME PARAMETERS
DATE
10-8-76
10-9-76
10-10-76
10-11-76
L (km)
8
32
8
80
8
32
80
8
32
H (km)
12.
17.8
3.1
28.4
11.6
20.0
26.7
2.7
9.8
Z (m)
163
163
240
152
229
193
200
224
183
Ay (m2)
1.96 x 106
2.90 x 106
7.44 x 105
4.32 x 106
2.65 x 106
3.86 x 106
5.34 x 106
6.04 x 10s
1.79 x 106
AH (m2)
4.80 x 107
2.84 x 108
1.24 x 107
1.14 x 109
4.64 x 107
3.20 x 108
1.07 x 109
1.08 x 107
1.56 x 108
u (m sec'1)
1.7
1.7
1.5
1.5
2.8
2.5
3.2
7.0
6.0
T (°C)
7.8
5.6
12.2
12.2
14.4
14.4
12.2
16.7
RH (%)
20
17
12
10
12
12
10
8
356
-------
TABLE 6. SULFUR DIOXIDE FLUXES AND RATES OF CONVERSION
DATE
10-8-76
10-9-76
10-10-76
10-11-76
L (km)
8
32
8
80
8
32
80
8
32
S02 (yg m"3)
2.1 x 103
5.24 x 102
4.19 x 103
1.38 x 102
2.20 x 103
7.58 x 102
1.05 x 102
3.67 x 103
7.86 x 102
FL (yg sec"1)
7.0 x 109
2.58 x 109
4.68 x 109
8.49 x 10°
1.63 x 1010
7.58 x 109
1.79 x 109
1.55 x 1010
8.44 x 109
D (m2 sec"1)
1.11 x 102
1.11 x 102
1.44 x 102
1.44 x 102
2.56 x 102
1.93 x 102
2.56 x 102
7.02 x 102
4.39 x 102
Vp (m sec"1)
1.52 x 10"2
1.52 x 10"2
1.97 x 10"2
1.97 x 10"2
3.51 x 10"2
2.64 x 10"2
3.51 x 10"2
9.62 x 10"2
6.01 x 10"2
FG (yg sec"1)
1.53 x 109
1.87 x 109
1.03 x 109
3.06 x 109
3.58 x 109
6.64 x 109
3.94 x 109
4.35 x 109
4.91 x 108
nOU2/KLML V.H1-
At
5.46 x 10"2
8.24 x 10"3
1.91 x 10"2
1.77 x 10"'
2.08 x 10"2
where mgo2 is the mass of the S02 molecule, ma;j_r is
the mass of air molecules, g is acceleration due
to gravity, k is Boltzmann's constant, and T is
temperature. The vertical flux, FG in column seven,
follows as
FG =
VG
AH
(4)
where Vg is settling velocity, (802) is S02
concentration and AJJ is horizontal plume area.
The net change of SO 2 concentration due to
chemical reaction is
302
REAC
(5)
i.e. , the differences of S02 fluxes through the
plume cross-sections at Li, L2 and the ground.
The relative S02 uptake by chemical reaction per
hour is shown in column eight.
The rate of change of CCN with time is
ACCN
At
ACCN
MEAS
At
ACCN
COAG
At
ACCN
DIF
At
DEP
ACCN
At
REAC.
(6)
The diffusion and deposition terms are negative,
that is, they represent losses of fine particles,
whereas the positive coagulation and reaction
terms indicate the formation of CCN. The dif-
fusion and deposition losses for CCN can be
calculated similarly to those for S02 with the
proper settling velocity in Equ. 3 (Fuchs, 1964).
Table 7 summarizes the results of the CCN
measurements. The dates in column one correspond
to the dates in Tables 5 and 6. Column 2 lists
the distances from the stacks at which the experi-
ments were performed. Column 3 shows the cloud
nuclei concentration per cubic meter. Column 4
gives the flux through vertical plume cross-
sections at distances L. Column 5 gives the flux
of cloud nuclei to the ground as calculated by
Equ. 3 with a settling velocity VQ = 2.2 x 10~6
m sec corresponding to sulfuric acid (H2SOit)
droplets of size r = 10~ cm. The net increase of
CCN per unit time in column 6 is the flux out of
the box of Figure 2, minus the flux going into the
box, i.e. ,
ACCN
At
.2 + FG-FLi
The size range of cloud nuclei that are of
interest in this discussion is 10~6cm
-------
DATE
10-8-76
10-9-76
L (km)
8
32
8
80
CCN (m~3)
2.
2.
4.
1.
0 x
0 x
0 x
5 x
109
109
109
109
FL
6.
9.
4.
9.
(
7
9
5
7
CCN\
vseC/)
x 1015
x 1015
x 1015
x 101S
P /CCN\ ACCN (r-rc-i]
1.0 x 1012 3.2 x 1015
3.7 x 1012 5.2 x 1015
10-10-76
10-11-76
32
32
2.0 x 109 1.5 x 1016
1.9 x 109 1.9 x 1016
1.1 x 101
4.0 x 109 1.7 x 10 16
2.7 x 109 2.9 x 10 16
8.8 x 1011
4.0 x 101
1.2 x 101
TABLE 7. CLOUD CONDENSATION
NUCLEI FLUXES AND
RATES OF FORMATION
deposition fluxes, since in reality a smaller
portion of the plume has contact with the ground
than has been assumed in the model. This is com-
pensated for in part by the assumption that the
lower S02 concentration at distance L2 prevails
over the overall distance Li
-------
that preferential adsorption of sulfur gas into
large, easily collected particles of a heat-
stable molecular sieve entrained with the feed air
may offer a solution to the excessive emission of
S02 to the atmosphere during coal combustion.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
It is a pleasure to acknowledge the valuable
contributions to the investigation of S. Fisher
of Western Flight Training, Boulder and of
R. Proulx, C. Van Valin and D. W=llnan of KOAA.
Station, South Dakota State University,
Brookings, S. D.
Squires, An Estimate of the Anthropogenic
Production of Cloud Nuclei, J. Rech. Atmos.
J3, 297-308, 1966.
Twomey, Measurements of Natural Cloud Nuclei,
J. Rech. Atmos., 1, 101-107, 19630
N
J
REFERENCES
P. A. Allee, A Description of the ESSA-APCL
Portable Thermal Diffusion Cloud Chamber, The
2nd International Workshop on Condensation
and Ice Nuclei, Ft. Collins, Co0 , 1970, pg»
39-40.
A. Bauer, Effect of water supply and seasonal
distribution on spring wheat yields. North
Dakota State University, Agricultural
Experiment Station Bulletin 490, Fargo, N. D. ,
1972
Environmental Report, Four Corners power generating
plant and Navajo coal mine, Arizona Public
Service Co., Phoenix, Az«, 1975.
EPA-NGPRP, Effects of coal development in the
northern Great Plains. A review of major
issues and consequences at different rates
of development. Northern Great Plains
Resources Program, U0 S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Region VIII, Denver, Co.,
1975.
A. Fuchs, The Mechanics of Aerosols, Pergamon
Press, New York, 1964
E. Johnson, A comprehensive evaluation of the
effects of rainfall during the growing season
in North Dakota. Interium report to the
Division of Atmospheric Water Resources
Management by North Dakota State University,
Fargo, N. D. , 1972.
C. E. Junge and E. McLaren, Relationship of Cloud
Nuclei Spectra to Aeroscl Size Distribution
and Composition, J. Atmos. Sci. 28, 382-390,
1971.
C. E. Junge, Air Chemistry and Radioactivity,
Academic Press, New York, 1963.
R. F. Pueschel, Aerosol Formation during Coal
Combustion: Condensation of Sulfates and
Chlorides on Flyash0 Geophys. Res. Let.,
1, 651-653, 1976.
L. F. Radke and P0 V. Hobbs, Cloud Condensation
Nuclei on the Atlantic Seaboard of the U.S.,
Science 193, 999-1002, 1976.
D. Scott and P0 B. Hobbs, The Formation of
Sulfates in Water Droplets, J. Atmos. Sci.
2^, 54-57. 1967.
Special Studies Team, Effects of additional
precipitation on agricultural production,
the environment, the economy, and human
society in South Dakota. Fiscal report to
the Division of Atmospheric Water Resources
Management by the Agricultural Experiment
W
359
-------
TRANSPORT AND TRANSFORMATION OF SULFUR OXIDES
IN THE TENNESSEE VALLEY REGION
James F. Meagher and Vinaya Sharma
Air Quality Research Section
Division of Environmental Planning
Tennessee Valley Authority
Muscle Shoals, Alabama
INTRODUCTION
The Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) is
studying the transport and transformation of
pollutants from coal-fired power plants in the
Tennessee Valley region. Existing meteorological
and aerometric networks afford a unique opportunity
to obtain detailed information on these processes
with a minimum of additional expense.
Two kinds of pollutants may result from any
emission source. Primary pollutants are emitted
through stacks directly into the atmosphere. Once
entrained into a moving airmass, the primary
pollutants may react with other components of the
airmass, typically by oxidation processes, to
produce secondary pollutants. Many of the higher
oxides are reported to be more toxic than their
precursors. Because secondary pollutants are
formed during transport, there is concern that
their impact may be experienced hundreds or
thousands of kilometers downwind from the source.
Although data are being collected on nitrogen
oxides, hydrocarbons, and ozone, research is
emphasizing gaseous and aerosol sulfur oxides.
An understanding of (1) the mechanism by
which secondary pollutants are formed in the
atmosphere and of (2) the influence of meteorolog-
ical and plant operating variables on the rate at
which they are formed is essential to the most
effective application of control technology.
TECHNICAL DISCUSSION
TVA is using two regimes of time and distance
in its studies. In the first regime, rates of
conversion of primary pollutants to secondary
pollutants are measured within the plume of a
single power plant that is isolated from other
significant sources of air pollutants. These mea-
surements generally correspond to reaction times
in the atmosphere of a few hours or less and
usually are made within 100 km of the power plant.
The second regime uses a large section of the TVA
system, encompassing several large power plants,
as an area source for mass balance measurements
for a box-shaped model region measuring several
hundred kilometers on each side. These studies
indicate the pollutant loading imposed by the
system as a whole on an airmass that traverses the
region.
Instrumented aircraft have been used to
determine the rate of sulfate (SO^) production in
the plume of a 2600-MW coal-fired power plant.
Measurements made 10 to 105 km downwind during the
fall and winter months showed that 1 to 2 percent
of the sulfur in the plume is in the form of
sulfate aerosol. The measurements indicated no
increase in the percentage of sulfate aerosol in
the airmass as it moves away from the power plant
(Figure 1). However, the fraction of sulfur in
the form of sulfate aerosol in samples taken from
the plume was larger than that in samples collec-
ted at the base of the stack. This would indicate
that a small amount (about 1 percent) of the
sulfur dioxide (802) is converted to SO^ in the
immediate vicinity of the power plant after which
the conversion rate is immeasurably slow (less
than 2 percent per hour).
X-ray fluorescence analyses have been per-
formed on individual particles collected within
the plume. The lack of correlation found between
the amount of sulfur in these particles and dis-
tance traveled supports the results described
above. However, a strong correlation has been
found between particle size and sulfur content;
particles less than 1 um in diameter contain much
more sulfur than the larger particles. These
small particles can be transported long distances
and can penetrate deep into the human respiratory
tract.
Nitric oxide (NO) is converted to nitrogen
dioxide (NO^) much more rapidly than S02 is con-
verted to SOiT.. Typically, 50 percent of the NO
has reacted by the time it has moved 30 km down-
wind from the plant. Near the plant, ambient
ozone is almost totally consumed within the plume
boundaries. Ozone is almost certainly responsible
for the oxidation, because the amount of ozone
removed approximately equals the amount of NO
converted to N0£• Davis found that ozone concen-
trations increase downwind from a power plant (1).
However, a series of ozone profiles for two coal-
fired power plants in the TVA system during
summer, fall, and winter months evidenced no
excess ozone. Therefore, ozone production should
be considered a phenomenon that exists only for a
specific set of circumstances.
A photochemical reaction chamber is being
constructed for detailed studies of the mechanisms
of plume transformation. The conversion that
occurs in synthetic gas mixtures and in stack
gases from an operating power plant will be
studied under controlled conditions in this
chamber. Experiments are expected to begin in the
fall of 1977.
An 800- by 500-km rectangular area in the
Tennessee Valley (Figure 2) was chosen for study-
ing the regional transport of emissions. A
smaller area (shown with dashed lines in Figure
2), 300 km on a side, was selected for a field
study during February and March of 1976. About 50
percent of all S02 emissions within the Tennessee
Valley region originate in this area, and it
contains one of the most complete aerometric and
meteorological networks in the country--13
361
-------
O <
O t
u Z
a: <
AVERAGE OF ALL PLUME SAMPLES = 1.4% SULFATE
_ £ j. AVERAGE OF ALL STACK SAMPLES = 0.25% SULFATE
40 50 60
DISTANCE FROM PLANT [km]
Figure 1.
Percentage of airborne
sulfur as sulfate aerosol at
various distances downwind
from a 2600-MW coal-fired
power plant. Data collected
on eight sampling days
were averaged for various
distances downwind.
aerometric stations and 20 meteorological sites.
The ground-level monitoring system was supplemen-
ted with sampling from an airplane.
Total gaseous sulfur, hydrocarbons, and ozone
were measured continuously, and particulates were
collected on filters for measurements of SOi^
concentrations. Temperature, dew point, and
altitude were also recorded. The experiment was
restricted to days on which the winds were from
the south or southwest sector, which is the general
direction of prevailing winds during February and
March. Filters exposed at eight ground-level
sampling sites were analyzed for nitrates, ammonium,
SOif, and total suspended particulates. The TVA
Meteorological Forecast Center at Muscle Shoals
provided forecasts of air parcel trajectories,
data concerning upper air wind, and other informa-
tion as needed.
Preliminary results indicate that, on days
when Lagrangian measurements of air parcels were
made, the average SO^ flux into the area was 31
yg m see" and out of the area was 47 iig m
sec"1. Comparison of data from filters from high-
volume samplers at ground level near the entry and
exit boundaries of the_study area indicate a 25-
percent increase in S0i± concentrations and a 36-
percent increase in total suspended particulate
concentrations. Additional studies planned for
the summer of 1977 must be completed before
generalized conclusions can be drawn from these
results.
To describe diurnal inversion conditions,
measurements were made on four mornings within and
above radiation inversions. The results indicated
average SO^ concentrations of 3.9 yg/m3 within the
inversion and 1.2 yg/m above it. Concentrations
within the inversion differed from those above it
by a factor of at least two in all four cases.
PROGRAM DISCUSSION
The ambient levels of primary and secondary
pollutants downwind from a single coal-fired power
plant or a system of such plants depend on the
relative importance of transport, conversion, and
removal processes competing for these species.
Any method for predicting these concentrations
will require that these processes be quantified.
The measurements described in this study will be
used for this purpose. The effects of wider
variety of meteorological and plant operation
conditions need to be investigated before general
conclusions can be made. Studies are planned to
investigate the effects of photochemical pro-
cesses, temperature and relative humidity, and
mass loading: (1) Day and night flights will be
conducted during the summer to investigate the
contribution of photochemical processes to the
conversion rate; (2) winter and summer data will
be compared to test for correlations with tempera-
ture and relative humidity; and (3) electrostatic
precipitators will be operated at various effi-
ciencies to determine the effect of particle
concentrations on the production of SO^.
The field study conducted in 1976 provided
valuable insight into the scope of the problem of
regional transport of emissions from coal-fired
power plants. It is believed to have been the
first measurement program in which Lagrangian and
Eulerian measurements of airmasses were made for a
362
-------
LABADIE"
[SALEM
ILLINOIS
,11 BALDWIN
CARBONDALE
ea- f'- • PETERSBURG
GALLAGHER f"
C INDIANA /»©LOUISV1LLE
rs" i LOUISVILLE
EVABSVILLE^ m NEWBURGH r *-, ,^ Q LEXINGTON
£ 1 "'"5 ' X -^ WAWESVlLLE • COOPER
' f-'
OCHARLESTON
WESTVIRGINIA
M I S SOU
ARKANSAS
NORT CAROLINA
ASHEVILLE
•BELMON
SOUTH CAROLINA
© 34
COLUMBIA
TREATS
TVA STEAM PLANT
MAJOR NON-TVA STEAM PLANT
50 100 150
1^
MILES
Figure 2. Tennessee Regional Atmosphere Transport Study area. The solid rectangle (800 x 500 km) is the area for which
a regional model is being developed, and the dotted square (300 x 300 km) shows the area in which the 1976
spring field study was conducted.
CO
en
w
-------
study of the transport of S02 and SO^ over an area
measuring several hundred kilometers on each side.
The formation and transport of SO^ could
possibly be measured more accurately if measure-
ments were made simultaneously at the entry and
exit boundaries of the study area. Use of two air-
craft would permit sampling of the same airmass as
it entered the Valley and as it left. Comparison
of such measurements would yield better estimates
of the contribution of Tennessee Valley sources to
the S02-S0^ complex.
CONCLUSIONS
Although more experiments and data are re-
quired before the questions that initiated this
research can be fully answered, a few general
conclusions are suggested by the results obtained
to date:
1. Under fall and winter conditions—fairly low
temperatures and low moisture content—the
oxidation of S02 to SO^ appears to be very
slow except in the immediate vicinity of the
power plant.
2. The conversion of NO to N02 is fairly rapid
and presumably occurs by reaction of NO with
ambient ozone.
3. Under none of the conditions investigated was
any evidence found of a net production of
ozone in the plumes of coal-fired power
plants.
4. Ground-level measurements near the entry and
exit boundaries of the study area indicate
that SOij concentrations increase 25 percent
and total suspended particulate concentra-
tions increase 36 percent.
5. Measurements made from aircraft indicate that
the S0i4 flux in airmasses leaving the study
area is 16 yg m 2 sec"1 greater than that in
airmasses entering the study area.
REFERENCE
1. Davis, D. D., G. Smith, and G. Klauber. 1974.
"Trace Gas Analysis of Power Plant Plumes via
Aircraft Measurement: 03, NO , and S02
Chemistry." Science 186:733.X
364
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SULFATE REGIONAL EXPERIMENT OF ELECTRIC POWER
RESEARCH INSTITUTE
Ralph M. Perhac
Environmental Assessment Department
Electric Power Research Institute
Palo Alto, California
INTRODUCTION
The Sulfate Regional Experiment (SURE) comprises
an extensive program of measuring atmospheric pollu-
tants throughout the northeastern United States.
This $5-l/2-million project, funded by the Electric
Power Research Institute (EPRI), is aimed primarily
at defining the regional, ambient concentrations of
secondary pollutants (e.g., sulfates) in terms of
local emissions of primary precursors (e.g., S0£)•
Emphasis, of course, is on sulfates; however, other
pollutants will also be measured. Of particular
concern is the contribution of the electric power
industry to regional sulf ate levels . The basic
elements of SURE are: (1) a ground- and air^based
measurement program; (2) an emissions inventory;
and (3) development of a model to predict regional
concentrations as a function of local emissions.
EPRI's concern with sulfur pollution arises
from the anticipated tremendous increase in coal
burning during the next few decades. Almost cer-
tainly, an increased use of coal will be a major
means of satisfying the nation's energy needs. And
even with extensive use of low-sulfur coals from
the West, a marked increase in sulfur loading of
the atmosphere can be expected. A number of in-
halation toxicology studies have already shown that
sulfur aerosols produce respiratory difficulties.
And EPA has implicated sulfates as potential health
hazards. The extent to which sulfur-species aerosols
affect man and the exact nature (ch'emical speciation)
of such aerosols is far from known; nevertheless ,
concern is sufficiently widespread so that EPRI has
as a major program the physical chemistry of sulfur
in the atmosphere, as well as the health effects
of sulfur compounds.
A major concern of the electric power industry
centers on the possibility that an ambient sulfate
standard may be promulgated. The impact of such a
standard on the power industry would be severe. The
Sierra Club has already brought suit against EPA to
impose such a standard - probably at a level of
±10 ug/m^. Most sulfate is formed in the atmosphere
by chemical conversion from a precursor (862). The
amount of sulfate produced by direct combustion is
email - probably not more than a few percent of the
total emitted sulfur. For this reason, the only way
to meet an ambient sulfate standard seems to be by
control of S02 emissions. Unfortunately, we have no
evidence to suggest that any sort of direct relation
exists between emitted S02 and ambient sulfate, hence
reducing S02 by some factor may really have little
bearing on sulfate levels. Some evidence suggests
quite the contrary (Altshuller, 1976). In a number
of cities, for example, S02 emissions have been re-
duced considerably over the past few years, yet sul-
fate levels have remained nearly constant. And
throughout much of the Northeast, sulfate levels
reach maxima in summer whereas S02 emissions are
highest in winter. Of course, eliminating all S02
would almost certainly reduce sulfate levels but
total elimination of S02 emissions is drastic and
unattainable. With our present knowledge, we have
no way of knowing how much to reduce S02 emissions
in order to effect a specific reduction in ambient
sulfate concentrations. And we will not know until
a firm relation between emissions and ambient con-
centrations is established hence SURE.
BACKGROUND
A number of studies, among them those of Lioy
et al. (1976), certainly suggest that the sulfate
problem (i.e. formation of sulfates in the atmosphere)
is a regional one which may be intimately related to
atmospheric transport phenomena and chemical reactions
occurring over distances of hundreds of kilometers.
Evidence for the regional nature of the problem comes
from a number of sources. What few kinetic data are
available (EPA, 1976; Halstead et al, 1977) suggest
transformation rates (S02 to sulfate) of 1 or 2 per-
cent/hour, hence considerable distances would be in-
volved in generating significant quantities of sul-
fates. Analysis of the abundant data from the U.S.
National Air Surveillance Network also supports the
idea that great distances are involved in sulfate
formation. Evidence is also drawn from the regional
extent of visibility reduction and the occurrence of
acid rain, both of which phenomena may be related, in
part, to atmospheric sulfate particles (Galloway et
al., 1976; Cass, 1976) .
Within the United States, the highest sulfate
levels occur in the Northeast (Hakkarinen and Hidy,
1976). Concentrations ranging from 5-25 ug/m3 are
typical. (During "episodes" values up to 80 ug/m3
have been recorded.) This is in marked contrast to the
3-4 ug/m commonly measured in the West. Because of
the high Northeast values, EPRI, decided to initiate a
regional sulfate study - focusing the effort on the
populous Northeast.
Before embarking on a major project, EPRI first
supported a 1-year planning study at a cost of about
$250,000 (EPRI, 1976). The goal of the study (which
was carried out by Environmental Research and Tech-
nology - ERT) was to evaluate if, in fact, the sul-
fate problem is regional and what sort of measure-
ment program might resolve the issue. The study in-
volved mainly the use of existing data - meteorological,
emissions, and S02 concentrations. In addition, over
3000 existing filters (which had been stored) from
northeastern monitoring stations were analyzed for
sulfate content.
The planning study yielded four principal find-
ings relative to the Northeast:
1. Sulfate levels differ more widely (in space and
time) than do those for S02.
2. The summer sulfate highs do not co-relate with
S02 highs which occur in winter.
365
-------
3. High sulfate concentrations seem to correlate
with both temperature and dew point and with
high pressure air masses (maritime tropical
airflows).
4. High sulfate concentrations are not correla-
tive with local S02 emissions or with contin-
ental polar air masses.
These findings do suggest that an extensive re-
gional study aimed at measuring both chemical and
meteorological parameters is a means of resolving
the Northeast sulfate questions. Again, the real
question is: what is the electrical power industry's
contribution to ambient sulfate levels?
THE SURE PROGRAM
SURE comprises four distinct, yet interwoven
elements: an extensive ground-level measurement
program, a more limited aircraft program; a detailed
emissions inventory, and a modeling effort. The
program, which is currently funded at a total level
of $5.5 million, began late in 1976 and will be com-
pleted early in 1980.
Ground Network
The heart of SURE is a network of 54 ground
stations distributed somewhat randomly (geographi-
cally) throughout the northeastern United States
(Figure 1). Nine of the stations are designated
as Class I stations, the remaining 44 as Class II.
These classes of stations differ both in the type
of measurements made and in the frequency of samp-
ling. (See Appendix A for details of and quality
control for the parameters to be measured.) In
general, the Class I stations will operate every
day for a period of 19 months. The parameters to
be measured are listed in Appendix A. The specific
Class I sites were selected so as to be representa-
tive of rural concentrations and to be uninfluenced
by a single major source. The Class II stations
will operate only four months out of each year; the
four months corresponding to the middle months of
each season: January, April, July, October.
During these so-called intensive periods, the Class
II stations will gather data daily (Appendix A) .
Inasmuch as the SURE program will operate for 19
months, the Class II stations will function during
six intensives . The Class II stations were selected
in such a way as to give random representation and
also to take advantage of existing monitoring sites.
An attempt was also made to use sites which are not
influenced unduly ay a single source, but not every
station necessarily meets this last qualification.
SURE
100A
102
103A
104B
106
SURE
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
Class 1 Stations
Montague, MA
Scranton, PA
Indian River, DE
Philo, OH
Rockport, IN
Class II Stations
E. Beverly, MA
Fall River, MA
Albany, NY
Oswego, NY
Dunkirk, NY
Roseton, NY
Allegheny, PA
Lewisville, PA
Brush Valley, PA
Gettysburg, PA
Delmarva, DE
Gavin, OH
Clifty Creek, IN
Big Sandy, OH
Breed, IN
Munroe, Ml
Port Huron, Ml
Kincaid, IL
Collins, IL
Picway, OH
Jay, ME
Toronto, Ont
Huntington, NY
107
109
111A
112
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
33
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
46
47
48
49
^
1 /
} / I ^~t\
Giles City, TN . r^"~\ ,f'!/ '• \
Chapel Hill, NC "^=^>">.'<; '^--..^ J ) X^
Roanoke, IN / _/^ ^.^ ^ ,/' ...--A «2 V" '
Lewisburg, WV • '^-- ^^-^^^^ ^-=-* {""\ S"
(J"""°'"" ~"Vl' //^'X ^-^ 22 =r,^/"'Cv3\ T29^
! *25 •'': l" //M' £j-S^*^ 3«\.ir^r-rioo.-
' A / \ 30 *••''' ~-r^5 ^7V.^6 .V"'^*?
Loves Mill, VA I \ r^s \ o /_ l^'-i^^'V'"^?,, lv)2 /"'I'" 23
Hytop, AL \ ) ' r."°'ri '°"°2^35 \ .S8 .lojnj
Giles City, TN \ i -b ^P 111A • T)\-'P^f-'"7°\i7
Paradise, KY _^o-.T—V ^ , \ ]_ 2 .j^^j* U-t J-^°3A ^
Memphis, TN T, N *^ 1^-5 f^S— -J /"' %V,'.1 -£fr
Hanover, NH *!! \J^f 1^ \IM'? 5s=:^«39 ''(
Benton Harbor, Ml \ fc=^^- / ^ ^V ~__ _,.-•_-— " "vi--S%
St. Louis, MO V"^ lj-C-? ^"C-'T~°»^ T ;'-/"1'
Niles, OH hr.r.-,,T,r jfk™--™ 26.'''" _._ 109^V
Madison, Wl i 7,28 ^^'a^^'^^}-
Galesburg, IL | /'•""''""a* \ "\ '^fi./
Mount Storm, WV J / \ «^2 \^ J'
Chesterfield, VA ^ i V V
Yorktown, VA ^°"n""" J } (
Riverbend, NC \ / J^ ^-3
Weatherspoon, NC \ ' 1 J,^^^, —. '\
Atlanta, GA j =^V~ " "V""~ X, \
(Upstate New York) '^ ^~^^* I \
Columbia, SC -/' v? \ ^\
Cayuga, NY J SURE Class I Station V \ " -\
Dan River, NC (?) . S(JRE ^ |( ^.^ V_^ i ^
Lafayette, IN -— ; /J>, ^>
\) c==<^
Figure 1. Ground stations throughout the northeastern United States.
366
-------
Aircraft Program
SURE, for budget reasons, depends mainly on
ground-based stations. Such a program has obvious
disadvantages in that the third dimensional
(vertical) component is missing. Transformation
from SC>2 to sulfate occurs above ground level, hence
SURE must have data from above the ground. The air-
craft program is a compromise. Its goal is to give
a 3-dimensional component to the ground measurements
and yet stay within a fixed budget. The program will
not solve the upper atmospheric question of chemical
transformation. It should, however, define the
vertical profile of pollutants at selected stations.
Two airplanes will be used, each at a Class I
station, during each of the intensive periods, i.e.,
four times a year. Each plane will fly three ver-
tical spirals (from about 500 feet above ground
level to 10,000 feet), one spiral at the Class I
station, one 15 km upwind of the station, and one
15 km downwind. The three spirals will be flown
both morning and afternoon. This program of two
flights per day (for each plane) will be repeated
six days during an intensive period with the res-
triction that no flights be made on successive days .
The program is not aimed at flying during specific
episodes or at tracking air masses. Its goal is
routine measurement at Class I sites . Sites have
not yet been selected nor has a decision been made
as to the possibility of changing sites during the
program. Basically the airplane program (Appendix
' A) will involve the same measurements as those made
on the ground.
Emissions Inventory
Critical to the fundamental objective of SURE
is an adequate emissions inventory. Inventories
will be prepared for four pollutants: (1) oxides
of sulfur, (2) oxides of nitrogen, (3) total emitted
particulate matter, and (4) non-methane hydrocarbons.
Sources will include: (1) fossil-fueled electric
power plants, (2) other major industries, (3) non-
manufacturing and business (commercial), (4) homes,
and (5) surface transportation. All source inven-
tories will be presented as seasonal averages (e.g.,
June-August) for each of the eight 3-hour periods
during a day. For example, SO emissions calculated
from an individual power plant during summer will
yield eight numbers for that plant, the eight repre-
senting the average emissions from midnight to 3 AM,
3 AM to 6 AM, and so on. The basic inventory will
be for sources in existence in July 1977. Calcula-
tions will be updated for July 1978 sources.
The measurements part of SURE will provide basic
data on the distribution of pollutants. It will not,
however, explain the formation and variation of
pollutant levels in terms of source contribution and
meteorological variabilities. In order to achieve
this interpretative step, SURE also includes a
modeling program which really comprises data analysis
and simulation modeling. Data analysis and simula-
tion modeling are inextricably intertwined but they
can be broadly distinguished by considering data
analyses as the development and testing of hypo-
theses regarding the component parts of, for example,
the sulfate formation system. Simulation modeling
attempts to integrate the component parts into a
physical-mathematical representation which mimics
the real world of sulfate formation. It should be
apparent, from the general discussion of SURE, that
some key elements (component parts) are missing if
a realistic model is to be developed, namely the bio-
genie contribution to atmospheric sulfur levels, the
chemistry of the S0£- sulfate transformation, and
the removal of sulfur species through dry deposition.
Other programs supported by EPRI are aimed at eluci-
dating some aspects of these key elements. Specific-
ally , one project t~> measure biogenic emissions is
already underway. A program of sulfur chemistry in
plumes will begin in summer 1977. And plans are
being formulated for a major study of dry deposi-
tion - to begin in 1978. The modeling effort will
also take advantage of findings from non-EPRI pro-
jects, viz., the ERDA MAP3S program. Close coor-
dination is being maintained between EPRI and a
number of federal and state agencies.
Expected Results
Firstly, and most importantly, SURE will pro-
vide a vast amount of routine data on pollutant
levels over a large part of the United States. The
data will be carefully defined in terms of precision
and overall quality control (Appendix A). They
should be useful, therefore, for a number of in-
dependent studies for years to come. If nothing
else were to develop from SURE, the data bank will
be valuable as a contribution to the scientific
community. It will contain numbers whose reliability
can be specified. Secondly, SURE will yield a high-
quality emissions inventory for the Northeast.
Finally, a predictive model will be generated - a
model which predicts the impact of emissions of a
precursor on the ambient concentrations of a sec-
ondary pollutant. Admittedly, at this stage, we
cannot judge what sort of error the estimate from
the model will have but SURE will be developing a
key model which looks at the important question of
emissions and regional concentrations. We envision
the SURE study as being important for: (1) answer-
ing, in part, the question of S02 control to meet
ambient sulfate standards, (2) possibly re-evaluat-
ing use of supplemental control systems, and (3)
serving as a guide to improved health-effects stud-
ies .
APPENDIX A
Data Recovery Criteria
Priority A essential for the objective of SURE.
90% of the data must be recovered with
a precision of ±10%.
Priority B - necessary for the objectives of SURE.
90% of the data must be recovered with
a precision of ±10%.
Priority C - desirable for the objectives of SURE.
80% of the data must be recovered with
a precision of ±10%.
Priority D - exploratory within the objectives of
SURE. Recovery rate and precision to
be specified individually when measure-
ment program is approved.
367
-------
Data recovery rate is defined as the percentage of
the total number of possible observations which are
actually recovered, and these must be within the
precision limits.
Example: S02, a Priority A parameter, is to
be measured for each consecutive 3-
hour period for the duration of the
SURE measurements program at Class I
stations.
July 1, 1977 through March 31, 1979 =
639 days = 5112 3-hr periods
0.90 x 5112 - 4600 required observa-
tions/Class I station
Precision is defined as the percentage depar-
ture of a measurement from either its "true" value
or from that of a primary standard when the measured
value is greater than 10 times the threshold of
detectability. When the measured value of the
parameter is less than 10 times the measurement
threshold, acceptable precision is defined by a
linear decrease from 100% at the threshold value
to the prescribed precision at ten times the thres-
hold value.
Example: the threshold of detectability of
S02 is 4 ppb. When 4 ppb are measured, the true
value should lie between zero and 8 ppb. 'When 1.20
ppb are observed, the precision should be 52.8%,
or the true value should lie between 9.4 and 30.6
ppb. When the observed value is 4.0 ppb, the true
value should lie between 36 and 44 ppb. (+10%)
Any or all of the following techniques are to
be used to assure the appropriate measures of data
recovery and precision.
1. Detailed logs of instrument or analyses
systems malfunctions and down-time for
repair, calibration, or replacement.
2. Calibration of instruments or analyses
systems against primary standards at
suitable intervals of time.
3. Replicate in situ sampling and comparative
analyses in sufficient numbers and ranges
of conditions (parameter values) to assure
statistical significance.
MEASUREMENTS AT SURE GROUND STATIONS
Parameter
SO2
(Gas Analyzer)
N0/N02
(Gas Analyzer)
S0=
(Hi-vol)
S°4
(Seq. Sampler)
NO"
(Hi-vol)
N0~
(Seq. Sampler)
TSP
(Hi-vol)
°3
(Gas Analyzer)
HC (C2-C12)
(Cannister grab
sample)
Class I
Priority A
Continuous measurement.
Averaging time 3 hours
Priority A
Continuous measurement.
Averaging time 3 hrs
Priority A
Continuous measurement.
Averaging time 24 hrs
Priority A
Continuous during intensives.
Priority A
Continuous measurement.
Averaging time 24 hrs
Priority A
8 days during intensives.
Averaging time 3 hrs
Priority A
Continuous measurement.
Averaging time 24 hrs.
Priority B
Continuous measurement.
Averaging time 3 hrs
Priority B
Continuous during intensives.
Averaging time 3 hrs
Continuous during non-intensives.
Averaging time 24 hrs
Class II
Priority A
Continuous during intensives.
Averaging time 24 hrs.
Not measured
Priority A
Continuous during intensives.
Averaging time 24 hrs.
Not measured
Priority A
8 days during intensives.
Averaging time 24 hrs
Not measured
Priority A
Continuous during intensives.
Averaging time 24 hrs
Not measured
Not measured
368
-------
MEASUREMENTS AT SURE GROUND STATIONS (cont.)
Parameter Class I
Class II
SO,
RSP (<2ym)
Dew Point
Air temperature
PB, Fe, V
and Mn
NH+, Cl
(Hi-vol)
Priority D
3 days during first intensive
only. Averaging time 3 hrs
Priority B
Continuous during intensives.
Averaging time 3 hrs
Priority B
Continuous measurement.
Averaging time 1 hr
Priority B
Continuous measurement.
Averaging time 1 hr
Priority C
3 days during intensives
Priority C
Continuous measurement.
Averaging time 24 hrs
Not measured
Not measured
Priority B
Continuous measurement.
Averaging time 1 hr
Priority B
Continuous measurement.
Averaging time 1 hr
Not measured
Priority C
3 days during each intensive
Averaging time 24 hrs
(also includes NCC)
NH,
CL
H
NCC (non-
carbonate carbon)
(Seq. sampler)
Priority C
3 days during intensives.
Averaging time 3 hrs
Not measured
SURE AIRCRAFT MEASUREMENTS
Parameter
SO
(Gas Analyzer)
Requirements
Priority A
Continuous measurement.
Averaging height: 50 ft. Sfc 5000, 100 ft.
5-10,000 ft.
SO,
(Filter)
N0/N02
(Gas Analyzer)
TSP
(dichotomous)
(Gas Analyzer)
HC(C2-C12)
(Cannister)
Bscat, Bext
(Nephelometer)
Priority A
Continuous measurement.
Averaging heights: Sfc-5000, 5-10,000 ft.
Priority A
Continuous measurement.
Averaging height: 50 ft. Sfc - 5000, 100 ft., 5-10,000 ft.
Priority A
Continuous measurement.
Averaging heights: Sfc 5000, 5-10,000 ft.
Priority B
Continuous measurement.
Averaging height: 50 ft. Sfc 5000, 100 ft.
5-10,000 ft.
Priority B
Grab sample
Averaging heights: Sfc-5000, 5000-10,000 ft.
Priority B
Continuous measurement
Averaging height: 100 ft. Sfc 5000, 200 ft.
5-10,000 ft.
369
-------
SURE AIRCRAFT MEASUREMENTS (cont.)
Parameter
Requirements
CN
T, RH, q
Priority C
Continuous measurement.
Averaging heights: Sfo 5000, 5-10,000 ft.
Priority A
Continuous measurement.
Averaging height: 50 ft., Sfc 5000, 100 ft.
5,000-10,000 ft.
Altitude, Airspeed
Location, Time/Date
NWS
Rawinsonde
6-hr Airway Obs
Priority A
Continuous measurement.
Time checks corresponding to height
intervals of averaging for other parameters
Data to be archived
All available stations east of Mississippi
River Two per day for 2 years
All available stations east of Mississippi
River. Four per day for 2 years.
Hourly WxOB
Special Obs
All available stations east of Mississippi
River during seven intensive measurements periods.
Upper air winds or aircraft measurements of wind, temp,
and RH as available from ERDA program or others.
WORKS CITED
Altshuller, A.P., 1976, Regional transport and
transformation of sulfur dioxide to sulfates in
the U.S.: Jour. Air Poll. Contr. Assoc., v.
26, p. 318-324.
Cass, G.R., 1976, The relationship between sulfate
air quality and visibility at Los Angeles:
Calif. Inst. Tech., EQL Memorandum 18, 39 p.
EPA, 1976, SC>2 oxidation in plumes: A review and
assessment of relevant mechanistic and rate
studies: U.S. Envrn. Protection Agency Publ.
EPA-450/3-76-022, 96 p.
EPRI, 1976, Design of the sulfate regional experi-
ment: Elec. Power Res. Inst. Rpt. EPRI EC-
125, v. 1.
Galloway, J.N., E.G. Likens, E.S. Edgerton, 1976,
Acid precipitation in the northeastern United
States: pH and acidity: Science, v. 194, p.
722-723.
Hakkarinen, C. and G.M. Hidy, 1976 Atmospheric sulf-
ates in the Ohio Valley: Results of the sulfate
regional experiment planning study: Am. Power
Conf. Proc., v. 38, p. 825-829.
Halstead, H., T.V. Larson and P.V. Hobbs, 1977, Oxi-
dation of sulfur dioxide in the atmosphere: A
review: Proc. Symposium on Aerial Techniques
for Environmental Monitoring (U.S. Energy Res.
& Develop. Admin.), Las Vegas, March 1977, 7 p.
Lioy, P.J., G.T. Wolff, J.S. Czachor, P.E. Coffey,
W.N. Stasiuk and D. Romano, 1976, Evidence of
high concentrations of sulfates detected at
rural sites in the Northeast; paper presented
at Am. Chem. Soc. Albany, NY meeting, Aug. 1976,
370
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and numerical models will be made available for use
in regional studies and assessments.
THE MULTI-STATE ATMOSPHERIC POWER
PRODUCTION POLLUTION PROGRAM
Michael C. MacCracken
Lawrence Livermore Laboratory
University of California
Livermore, California
The Multi-State Atmospheric Power Production
Pollution Study (MAP3S) is a major atmospheric
research program of ERDA's Division of Biomedical
and Environmental Research (Fig. 1). The MAP3S
program is one of several environmental programs
being pursued under the Assistant Administrator for
Environment and Safety, the activities of which
were described in the First National Conference on
the Interagency Energy/Environment R & D Program by
Dr. James Liverman. MAP3S will ultimately provide
improved capability to such programs as ERDA's
National Coal Utilization Assessment, which is
using present technical capabilities to assess the
impact of future coal use.
Figure 1. Multi-state Atmospheric
Power Production
Pollution Study.
The goal of the MAP3S program is to develop
and demonstrate an improved, verified capability to
simulate the present and potential future changes
in pollutant concentration, atmospheric behavior
and precipitation chemistry as a result of pollu-
tant releases to the atmosphere from large-scale
power production processes, primarily coal combus-
tion (Fig. 2). A major motivation of this program
is to be able to provide those agencies charged
with the task of meeting the nation's energy needs
with the knowledge required to assess alternative
strategies for generating power while ensuring
ample protection of human health and adequate pre-
servation of the natural environment. Since coal
is the most abundant domestic fossil-fuel resource
and since electric power production is a major and
growing sector of our energy economy, this study
focuses on the effects of emissions from coal-fired
electric power plants, particularly in the high
Population, energy intensive northeastern quadrant
°f the United States. The improved capabilities
Improved simulation capability (model)
• Develop
• Verify
• Demonstrate
For use in evaluating present and future effects
• Air quality
• Precipitation chemistry
• Atmospheric behavior (visibility, etc)
Due to power production emissions
• Primarily coal combustion
• Primarily sulfur oxides
• Northeastern United States
Figure 2. MAP3S goal.
MAP3S participating organizations (Fig. 3)
will focus their research efforts on providing
understanding of the atmosphere's effect on pollu-
tants. In recognition of the widespread interest
in and research on these pollutants, our program
will coordinate with the major ongoing and proposed
programs of EPRI, EPA and other organizations in
order to ensure a comprehensive national program.
Through such coordination, we hope to achieve
greater understanding of how coal can be used to
meet the nation's energy needs while maintaining
environmental quality and protecting human health.
Experience and expertise
ERDA national laboratories
• Argonne
• Battelle Pacific Northwest
• Brookhaven
• Health and Safety Laboratory
• Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory
Other Organizations
• Illinois State Water Survey
• Universities (SUNY , Cornell, PSU, U. VA., BYU, etc)
Cooperation and coordination
EPA and other U.S. government agencies
Electric Power Research Institute
Atmospheric Environment Service (Canada)
Figure 3. MAP3S resources and capabilities.
The charge to the MAP3S program encompasses the
entire spectrum of atmospheric pollutants that may
be ascribed to fossil-fuel electric power produc-
tion, including:
Sulfur dioxide, sulfites, sulfates, and
other sulfur oxides.
Nitrogen oxides and their secondary reaction
products, including oxidants.
371
-------
Hydrocarbons, including polycyclic organic
matter.
Trace inorganic elements.
Participates, which may contain any or all
of the above substances as well as elemental
carbon or soot.
However, in view of this wide range of pollu-
tants and the many associated atmospheric processes
and recognizing resource constraints, a number of
reasons have led to assigning priority to the study
of sulfur oxides and their associated cations during
the present phase of the MAP3S program. These
reasons include:
Sulfur oxides are a major pollutant from
coal, the use of which will increase.
Potential health and environmental conse-
quences of sulfur oxides are of present
concern.
Anticipation that an ambient air quality
standard for sulfate will be set in several
years.
Coordination with other sulfur-oriented
programs.
Techniques developed for simulating the
sulfur cycle should be transferable to study
of other compounds.
Need to focus research efforts.
Building on experience of previous research.
MAP3S RESEARCH PROGRAM
Development of the assessment (i.e., numerical
modeling) capability needed for accurate assessment
of the human health and biological implications
(e.g., dose-to-man and dose-to-ecosystems) of sulfur
oxides requires an understanding of the source,
transport, transformation and sink processes. Thus,
the MAP3S research program has been divided into the
ten interrelated program elements, or tasks, des-
cribed below. Each task focuses attention on an
area of significant uncertainty.
The core budget for the MAP3S program in FY-77
totals approximately $3,000,000. An approximate
percentage breakdown of the $3 M by MAP3S task is
given in Fig. 4. The major efforts are seen to be
characterization of the region and its pollutants;
studies of transport, transformation and precipita-
tion chemistry/scavenging; and numerical modeling.
The research emphasis for the next several years is
expected to remain nearly the same, although spe-
cific research activities will continue to evolve
to address the most uncertain program elements.
Task 1 :
Task 2:
Task 3:
Task 4:
Task 5:
Task 6:
Task 7:
Task 8:
Task 9:
Task 10:
(~ $3M, FY-77)
Power plant emissions >
Other related emissions '
Pollutant characteristics
Pollutant distribution
Vertical and long-range transport
Pollutant transformation
Dry deposition
Pollutants and precipitation
Weather and climate effects
Numerical modeling
2.5%
10.0%
15.0%
10.0%
20.0%
2.5%
15.0%
10.0%
15.0%
Host of the funding for Task 9 is for completing
METROMEX analysis and will be transferred to Task
8 in FY-78 for precipitation chemistry analysis
around Chicago.
Figure A. MAP3S research program.
We are also striving to interface with the
health, ecology, and assessment studies within EKDA
funding for which is additional to the figure given
above. These studies include toxicology studies at
the Inhalation Toxicology Research Institute, Oak
Ridge, and Battelle Northwest, among others. The
ecological effects of acid rain on crops, ferns
and tree seedlings are being studied at Argonne,
Brookhaven and Oak Ridge.
MAP3S RESEARCH TASKS
Task 1: Specification and quantification of the
emissions of atmospheric, energy-related
(AER) pollutants resulting from present
power production processes and considera-
tion of the spectrum of pollutants that
may be emitted as a result of introduction
of new processes.
The Brookhaven National Laboratory (BNL) under
both ERDA Regional Energy Studies and MAP3S funding
has used existing FPC, NEDS and state emission
inventories to develop an emissions data base
including nearly 500 point sources (not all of which
are power plants) in the eastern United States.
The inventory includes sulfur and nitrogen oxides,
hydrocarbons and particulates. Considerable cross-
checking of information is now underway and inclu-
sion of sources in the province of Ontario will be
started in the near future. Comparison of this
inventory with other emissions data bases is
encouraged.
Task 2: Identification and quantification of
sources of AER pollutants that do not
result directly from power production and
of other substances that may affect the
concentration, distribution, transforma-
tion and fate of AER pollutants.
The BNL effort discussed in Task 1 is also
developing an area source inventory, since studies
in urban plumes indicate sulfate formation can be
intensified in the presence of other pollutants.
An inventory of other emissions in the eastern
United States is underway; presently about 10,000
small point sources are aggregated into elements,
each roughly 30 by 30 km. Emissions from the bio-
sphere are not included, although efforts are
underway to identify potential source regions (e.g.)
372
-------
marshlands) by identifying land types. Work in
this area by EPA and EPRI will be followed.
Task 3: Characterization of the physical and chem-
ical properties of AER pollutants, in-
cluding particle size, oxidation state,
derivative compounds, molecular form, etc.,
which are commonly found in the atmosphere
on a regional scale.
In order to both understand atmospheric trans-
formation mechanisms and to provide needed informa-
tion for health studies, a number of approaches are
being pursued to identify properties of atmospheric
compounds (Fig. 5). ANL has already located Lundgren
impactors at Penn State University, the University
of Virginia, and BNL and will field at least one
more in order to determine regional patterns of
particle acidity by infrared spectroscopy (four hour
samples are being taken, every fifth one being
routinely analyzed). Method intercomparison studies
for particulate sulfur analysis are underway between
Gran titration, thermometric titration, infrared
spectroscopy, XRF, and others. We have been parti-
cipating in a field intercomparison study involving
ERDA and EPA in Charleston, West Virginia.
(MAP3S program)
Ion chromatography
X-ray fluorescence
Methyl-thymol blue
Silver-110 (110Ag) precipitate
Gran titration
Infrared spectroscopy
Benzaldehyde extraction
Thermochemical titration
Photo-electron spectroscopy
Figure 5. Particulate sulfur analysis
techniques.
Task 4: Determination of the spatial and temporal
distribution of AER pollutants under both
average and extreme conditions.
MAP3S will rely largely on the SURE network for
information on surface pollutant concentrations. An
initial quality assurance program is being planned
by the Health and Safety Laboratory (HASL) in order
to intercompare analysis methods and assure sample
integrity. Major MAP3S effort will be devoted to
using aircraft to determine the distribution of
pollutants above the surface. MAP3S will be commit-
ting two aircraft to taking such measurements during
the first SURE intensive period (planned for early
August). Further meetings between SURE and MAP3S
project participants are being planned to lay out
flight plans, schedules, and needed coordination.
Task 5_: Determination of the processes and param-
eters governing the vertical and horizontal
transport of AER pollutants.
Because sulfates remain in the atmosphere for
several days, they become involved in both the
diurnal cycle of the surface mixed layer and the
movement of the air over long distances. Building
on ANL's studies in Sangamon County, Illinois, a
"box budget" experiment is being planned for this
fall to determine the fluxes and transformation of
atmospheric sulfur compounds in aged, polluted air.
Aircraft and surface measurements, and possibly a
tracer experiment, are being planned in order to
follow the vertical mixing through the daily cycle,
dry deposition at the surface, and horizontal trans-
port.
Studies of long distance horizontal transport
require use of inert tracers which can be detected
at very low concentrations. A joint ARL, HASL,
LASL, and BNL field experiment (out to 90 km) was
recently completed in Idaho Falls to intercompare
five tracers (SFg, two deuterated methanes and two
perfluorocarbons) and to field test the new perfluor-
ocarbon detection instruments developed by J.
.Lovelock. Analysis is now underway and future plans
for use of these tracers in MAP3S are being evalu-
ated.
Task 6: Identification of the chemical and physi-
cal transformation processes affecting AER
pollutants and determination of the rates
and mechanisms controlling these processes.
The MAP3S program is focusing on field measure-
ments of reacting point source and urban plumes in
order to deduce the rates and mechanisms of chemi-
cal transformation. BNL has recently sampled the
AnClote (Florida) power plant plume by aircraft
while EPA made stack emission measurements and MRI
(for EPA) sampled by aircraft. Comparison of
results should help resolve discrepancies that have
arisen in previous studies concerning S02 transfor-
mation rates. PNL will also be undertaking plume
studies for EPRI in the coming year.
Results from last August's study of the
Milwaukee urban plume are now being analyzed (Fi<*.
6). Three methods for determining sulfate and two
for S02 were on board the PNL aircraft and inter-
comparisons are underway. Other measurements of
the molecular character of the particles, hydro-
carbon composition (by EPA), and other pollutants
(by a NASA aircraft) are being assembled. Early
results indicate that ozone and sulfate are forming
as the ai-r mass ages (Fig. 7), while S02, NO, and
N02 are decreasing. Layers of increased sulfate
concentration were also found at about 3000 m on
days when the wind was from the northeast, perhaps
indicative of long range transport. Further
experiments are being planned for this summer in
the same region, the Milwaukee plume being parti-
cularly interesting because of its isolation from
other sources and the stable layer that isolates
it from the lake surface.
Direct mechanistic studies have also begun at
ANL in which determination of the oxygen isotope
ratio in S02 and sulfates is used to determine the
chemical paths that occurred during transformation
processes. Laboratory testing of the technique has
been augmented by analysis of field samples.
373
-------
Figure 6. DC-3 aircraft flight routes for Milwau-
kee urban plume study.
ft
a
o"
ISU
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
O/1O
8/21
8/23
8/24
8/27
8/28
8/30
XX-""
/s
;x'^"""
-- ' ' .- •".'
-Aji~ """
•
Figure 7.
Averages of
ozone concen-
trations in
the Milwaukee
urban plume.
12345
Time after first pass, hr
Task 7: Determination of the rates of physical and
biochemical mechanisms governing the
removal of AER pollutants from the atmo-
sphere at the earth's surface (dry deposi-
tion) .
ANL is leading a cooperative ERDA-EPA program
to use eddy-correlation techniques and fast-
response pollutant instrumentation to measure
directly the dry deposition of pollutants over
various types of terrain. Tested originally over
soybean and corn fields (Fig. 8), the experiment
this summer will move to a forested area near
Research Triangle Park, N. C. and then to areas
with other vegetation and terrain characteristics
Figure 8.
Meteorological instrumentation for
planetary boundary layer study.
Task 8: Identification of the mechanisms and rates
governing the removal of AER pollutants
by precipitation scavenging (washout) and
by in-cloud processes (rainout) and deter-
mination of the effects of AER pollutants
on trace material balances and precipita-
tion chemistry, specifically including
the acid-base relationships.
Determination of the chemical characteristics
of present precipitation in the Northeast is being
investigated by establishment of a regional pre-
cipitation chemistry sampling network. Stations
have been established near Whiteface Mountain
(N. Y.), Cornell, Penn State, and the University of
Virginia. Results from about four months of sampl-
ing are now available. Sites for four to eight
additional samplers are being considered and should
be operational by mid-summer (Fig. 9). Results
from HASL (bucket) and PNL (funnel) samplers are
being compared, especially for concentrations of
trace metals. If comparisons are favorable (as
expected), the HASL samplers (which may not be
accurate for volatile compounds) may be switched to
a weekly basis rather than a storm event basis in
order to allow calibration with the proposed USDA
regional network. Rain collected by a finer scale
374
-------
network being established around Chicago and lower
Lake Michigan by the Illinois State Water Survey
(for NSF, Illinois and the City of Chicago) will be
analyzed for chemical properties beginning in early
1978 in order to identify metropolitan effects on
precipitation.
3.96-5.0
3.96-4.3
3.80-4.71
4.05-4.52
D Existing sites
0 Areas under consideration for future sites
3.96-5 Range of pH at station from Oct 1976 through
February 1977
Figure 9. MAP3S precipitation chemistry
network.
The second aspect of the program involves study
of the precipitation mechanism by measuring various
quantities in and around storm systems. An explora-
tory field program this March investigated station-
ary lake effects storms downwind of Lake Michigan.
Data were collected by aircraft during two storm
days and at the surface during seven storm days.
Additional clear air flights and snow core collec-
tion also took place. This coming winter an
expanded experiment using PNL' s DC-3 and an NCAR
aircraft is being planned to look at the scavenging
of pollutants in snow storms.
Task 9: Determination of the effects of AER pollu-
tants upon weather and climate, including
effects on visibility, radiation transport,
and the amount and extent of precipitation.
We are hopeful NSF programs will carry most of
the research load in this area. The MAP3S effort
is now limited to the establishment of a regional
pyranometer network and the completion of analysis
of METROMEX results. Presently nine of eleven
pyranometer stations are operational, the final two
expected to be on-line in early summer. By measure-
ment of the direct and diffuse components of radia-
tion, we anticipate being able to provide some of
the fundamental information needed to determine if
pollutants are significantly affecting the energy
balances of the surface and lower atmosphere.
Igjk 10: Development, verification, and demonstra-
tion of methods (numerical models) which
will make possible accurate assessment of
the atmospheric transport and transforma-
tion of AER pollutants and of various
strategies for generation of energy while
minimizing atmospheric pollution.
MAP3S is supporting development of both trajec-
tory and grid models in order that the advantages of
each technique can be fully pursued. Trajectory
model research includes that at NOAA-ARL on provid-
ing vertical resolution in such models; at PNL (Fig
10) in evaluating the sensitivity of model results
to data input (e.g., height of wind use, episodic
versus average precipitation, etc.) and parameteri-
zation techniques; and at ANL on use of statisti-
cally averaged trajectories for use in calculating
time averaged pollutant concentrations. ANL is
also developing a grid model, focusing their atten-
tion on representation of changes in the depth of
the mixed layer. At BNL, in addition to a trajec-
tory model, a particle-in-cell model is being used
to simulate regional sulfate levels based on the
emission inventory described earlier (Fig. 11).
The wind field and mixing parameters for the model
are coming from a variational analysis model which
accounts for the complex terrain in the northeast.
A centralized data base for the MAP3S program is
being established at BNL to support the modeling
efforts and to provide data to other interested
groups.
Q 102 - 102-5 ng/m2
H 1Q2.5 1Q.2 Mg/m2
m 10.3 . 103.5 ^2
H Id3-5 104 MO/m2
Figure 10. Sulfate deposition by dry
and wet deposition.
375
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OCT. 1974
SO,
OCT 1974
C2 4 = 0.02/hr
Pollution from power production is an impor-
tant research topic, especially in view of the
planned increased reliance on coal. Through
research sponsored by ERDA and other organizations
we anticipate that the necessary knowledge will be
provided to those agencies charged with meeting the
nation's energy needs to allow assessment of alter-
native strategies for generating power while ensur-
ing ample protection of human health and adequate
preservation of the natural environment.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This work was performed under the auspices of
the U. S. Energy Research and Development Adminis-
tration under Contract No. W-7405-Eng-48.
Figure 11. BNL trajectory model simula-
tion of sulfate concentra-
tions.
CONCLUSIONS
While the range of activities sponsored by the
MAP3S research program is quite broad, the problem
of sulfur oxides in the atmosphere is very complex.
The research needed to provide the knowledge and
understanding necessary to develop effective regu-
lations will require the efforts of more than just
ERDA, just EPA, or just EPRI. By coordinating our
research activities and those of other organiza-
tions, particularly with regard to the very expen-
sive monitoring, characterization and field pro-
grams, we are hopeful that a comprehensive scien-
tific effort can be pursued that will allow each
organization to have sufficient information to
undertake assessment and interpretive studies.
Discussions between ERDA, EPA and EPRI have
already borne fruit; joint planning and joint fund-
ing are taking place on some projects; EPA and
ERDA are commenting on each other's plans; and an
international symposium this fall is being co-spon-
sored by EPRI, EPA and ERDA. Contacts with the
Atmospheric Environment Service of Canada indicate
that the border need not hinder scientific cooper-
ation. To assist'in keeping others up-to-date on
MAP3S activities, a quarterly newsletter is being
sent to over 300 interested organizations and
individuals.
376
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measurement
and monitoring
ri1..1
CHAPTER 8
I
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CHAPTER CONTENTS
measurement and monitoring
SUMMARY
George B. Morgan, EPA 383
QUESTIONS & ANSWERS 395
TECHNICAL DISCUSSION 397
AIR AND WATER QUALITY DATA INTEGRATION IN
THE WESTERN ENERGY RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT AREA
David N. McNeils, EPA
WATER MONITORING IN ENERGY DEVELOPING AREAS
Frederick A. Kilpatrick, DOI 403
WESTERN COAL AND OIL SHALE GROUNDWATER QUALITY MONITORING
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
Leslie G. McMillion, EPA
WESTERN ENERGY-RELATED OVERHEAD MONITORING PROJECT
Edward Lee Tilton, III, NASA
Robert W. Landers, Jr., EPA
REMOTE SENSING OF
SULFUR DIOXIDE EFFECTS ON VEGETATION
C. Daniel Sapp, TVA
Herbert C. Jones, TVA
POLLUTANT MEASUREMENT METHODS DEVELOPMENT
SUPPORTED BY ENERGY FUNDS
Andrew E. O'Keeffe, EPA
MEASUREMENT STANDARDS FOR AIR POLLUTION MONITORING AND
CONTROL ASSOCIATED WITH ENERGY PRODUCTION
William H. Kirchhoff, DOC
-------
ENERGY-RELATED RESEARCH IN AIR MONITORING METHOD
Paul A. Baron, HEW
Laurence J. Doemeny, HEW 427
CHARACTERIZATION, MEASUREMENT, AND
MONITORING PROGRAM
Robert W. Wood, ERDA 431
DEVELOPMENT AND EVALUATION OF
IMPROVED RADIOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT CAPABILITIES
Larry G. Kanipe, TVA
Phillip H. Jenkins, TVA
Dale W. Nix, TVA
Richard L. Doty, TVA 439
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS FOUND IN WASTES FROM
COAL CONVERSION AND OIL SHALE PROCESSING
Ann L. Alford, EPA
William T. Donaldson, EPA 443
MEASUREMENT STANDARDS FOR WATER MONITORING
ASSOCIATED WITH ENERGY PRODUCTION AND USE
William H. Kirchhoff, DOC 449
DEVELOPMENT OF WATER-RELATED TECHNIQUES AND
INSTRUMENTATION: U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
Phillip E. Greeson, DOI 453
STANDARDIZATION AND INTERCALIBRATION TECHNIQUES FOR
MARINE MONITORING
Michael A. Basileo, DOC 457
EPA/NASA ENERGY RELATED REMOTE AND IN SITU
SENSING INSTRUMENT DEVELOPMENT
John P Mugler, Jr., NASA 459
LIDAR TECHNIQUES FOR ANALYZING AND TRACING
PARTICULATE POLLUTANTS FROM ENERGY PRODUCTION
Vernon E. Derr, DOC 467
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DOPPLER LIDAR FOR MEASUREMENT OF
POLLUTANT TRANSPORT
Ronald L. Schwiesow, DOC
Madison J. Post, DOC 469
AIRBORNE ACTIVE REMOTE SENSING OF POLLUTANTS
John A. Eckert, EPA
Michael P F Bristow, EPA 473
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MEASUREMENT AND
MONITORING
George B. Morgan
Director
Environmental Monitoring and Support Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
INTRODUCTION
MONITORING
energy
environment II
Adequate control must be imposed upon energy resource development so that
environmental pollutants can be kept to an acceptable level. The objective of
environmental pollution control is to prevent the adverse effects of pollutants. To
achieve this objective, we need several types of information. First, we must establish
the relationship between exposure of the critical receptor to and effects from the
pollutants. Second, we must know the relationship of the total exposure to which the
receptors are subjected and the sources. And finally, once controls are implemented,
we must evaluate their effectiveness in maintaining the exposure levels at an acceptable
concentration.
To determine the types of information necessary, monitoring and measurement
systems and techniques are essential. The information presented in this paper
summarizes 18 papers from 9 different Federal agencies. It is truly a multimedia,
interdisciplinary approach toward evaluating the total effects of energy development
upon our environment. Through such an interagency effort, it is possible to develop a
compatible data base to determine the source, transport, and fate of environmental
pollutants. Only from such a compatible data base can logical decisions be made as to
types and strategies for energy resource development.
The Western Air Quality Monitoring and Western Water Quality Data Integration
Projects conducted by EPA are designed to provide integrated and validated monitoring
data (baseline and trend) and assessment reports for the western areas of the United
States which are, or will be, the most seriously impacted by present or projected
energy-related development activities. In the air monitoring area, emphasis is placed on
fine participates, NOX, SOX, reactive hydrocarbons, toxic substances, and visibility. The
geographical coverage of studies to be conducted under this project includes the
Northern Great Plains, the Four Corners area, oil shale areas of Colorado and Utah,
the Black Mesa area of Arizona, and areas of New Mexico. It is quite obvious that
continued and accelerated development of the various energy resources in the West
potentially impact the environmental quality of these regions.
The air quality monitoring network in the Western Energy Resource Development
Area (WERDA) now consists of 474 stations. Depending on the analysis desired, these
stations are categorized according to the surveillance classifications of the sampling
site—that is, population, source, or background. Less than half of these stations are
located in rural areas and related to background monitoring sites.
Under the Interagency Energy Program, significant progress has been made to
identify and expand the air quality monitoring networks. For example, 77 sites have
been added throughout the 8-state region for sulfate and nitrate analyses. The Ute
Research Laboratory network is also being used to collect samples for trace element
analysis—that is, iron, cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, cobalt, manganese, nickel, and
molybdenum.
Visibility deterioration, probably the first observable impact on air quality from
energy development and related activities, is not presently being quantitatively
measured. We are proposing a network of visibility monitoring stations. Tentative sites
for these stations have been selected.
A major advancement, following the air quality monitoring data to be used for
the legional scale assessments, has been made through the initiation of a quality
assurance program. Seventeen participating laboratories, including Federal, State,
private, and contractor, are involved in a uniformly applied, audited, cross-check
program that permits all data to be entered into the Soroad data base.
383
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EPA WATER QUALITY
PROGRAM
The accelerated energy development in WERDA is in direct competition with
other users for the limited available water resources. Extraction of raw materials, fuel
refinement, transport, utilization, and the accompanying demographic changes will place
additional demands on available water. Loss of water through evaporation, absorption
into process waste streams, and exportation to other regions is only one area where
water resources may be affected by increased development activities.
In response to the need for baseline data by which to assess the impact of energy
development activities, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has initiated a water
quality data integration program. Participating with the EPA are elements of the U.S.
Geological Survey. Several other Federal, State, and local agencies are also cooperating
in the study.
The specific objective of the program is to establish a base of biological, chemical,
and physical information which will serve (1) as a baseline upon which alterations to
water quality can be assessed, (2) as a basis for relating pollutants and/or effects to
specific activities, and (3) to provide input to the energy and environmental planning
process.
Information on energy resource development and data regarding existing facilities,
together with existing and anticipated pollutant speciation, locations, and concentra-
tions data, were used to identify a network of water quality monitoring stations in the
WERDA. Over 200 currently active, data-rich (25 or more parameters monitored fora
period of at least 2 years) surface-water monitoring stations were selected for this
network. Other stations and those of special studies are incorporated as necessary to
fill specific data gaps. Data gathered are coded into STORET, EPA's water quality data
base, and are retrieved for statistical analyses, listings, and summarizations. Also, a
quality assurance program has recently been initiated which includes site visits to
participating laboratories and performance audits using periodic check samples.
USGS WATER QUALITY
PROJECTS
There is a problem with the relatively large amount of data to be reviewed and
assessed. This problem is compounded by the ephemeral nature of the Western water
resources. Many streams to the major waterways are seasonally intermittent; flow in
others is intermittently surface and subsurface.
The Water Resources Division of the U.S. Geological Survey operates a network
of 6,200 water quality monitoring stations nationwide. Of these, 590 are in the Rocky
Mountains and Northern Great Plains States of Colorado, Montana, North Dakota, New
Mexico, Utah, and Wyoming, of which 73 are funded partially from EPA funds. EPA
funds provide for collection and analysis of a broader set of water quality parameters
than that normally obtained by the USGS. These data are used to establish baseline
water quality, sediment, and flow conditions against which future assessments of
impact can be made. The report submitted by USGS includes reports obtained from 3
of the 22 projects involved in the interagency program.
384
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DETERMINATION OF
WATER QUALITY
One of the projects is to determine the quality of water in the Chaco River Basin
of New Mexico. In this area is located the Four Corners Power Plant and its associated
Navajo Coal Mines, as well as the San Juan Power Plant. Both are considering
expansion. The Western Gasification Company's proposed gasification plant and the El
Paso Company's proposed gasification plants will also operate in this area. The major
water users will derive their water supplies from the San Juan River system. As much
as 500,000 acre feet of the annual average total of 1.6 million acre feet, as measured
on the San Juan River at Shiprock, may be diverted for these projects. Available data
on the quantity and quality of the water resource in the Chaco River Basin are very
sparse. The impact of energy development, particularly on water quality in the Chaco
Basin and ultimately downstream in the San Juan River and Colorado River, must be
assessed. Data collected to date represent baseline and present water quality conditions
of both surface and ground water resources. This will help to determine the effects of
proposed energy development in the area. Both sources of water are extremely hard,
with the hardness derived from calcium sulfate.
MINING IMPACTS ON
GROUND WATER QUALITY
Another USGS project is studying the effects of acid mine drainage in
southeastern Ohio. The first phase of this study was a reconnaissance of water quality
at 162 sites to document the severity of the acid mine drainage problem and to
pinpoint affected streams. The second phase involves a more comprehensive water
quality sampling program. Phase II objectives include determination of source and
chemical quality of water in each tributary, evaluation of influence of tributary
conditions on mainstream water quality, and determination of material loading of
streams and tributaries. Data to date indicate a noticeable contrast in the data for an
area of abandoned mines and an area where reclamation had been practiced. The
absence of acid drainage from reclaimed and working strip -mines emphasizes the
importance of rapid reclamation in the prevention of acid drainage.
A third USGS project is to determine water quality in the oil shale areas of
western Colorado. The latest developments in oil shale industry indicate increased
interest in the modified in situ approach. The objective of the basic data collection
program is to obtain water quality data needed to define predevelopment conditions
and to monitor the effects of construction and operation of oil shale mines, retorts,
and spent shale disposal areas. Data have been collected and summarized from 22 wells
penetrating the 3 geological units likely to be involved in any in situ development.
An important concern of the EPA is impact of western coal and oil shale
developments on ground water quality and the manner in which these impacts should
be monitored. An EPA project to provide these answers is currently underway. The
areas for study were selected where extensive development was being projected—that is,
Campbell County, Wyoming, and the oil shale tracts UA and UB in northeastern Utah.
Ground water availability and usage can usually be determined without much
385
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POLLUTANT SOURCE
PRIORITIZATION REPORT
NASA AND EPA 5-YEAR
PROGRAM
SO2 EFFECTS ON
VEGETATION
difficulty. Impacts on ground water quality from mining, however, are much more
difficult to assess. A typical misconception is that the baseline or background
monitoring systems can also be used to assess the impact of man's various activities on
ground water quality. This is not true in most cases of subsurface pollution. Many
years and even decades may pass before change in ground water quality is observed
Once degradation of the subsurface regime has taken place, it is extremely difficult
and costly to remedy. The EPA approach to this problem is to systematically monitor
potential sources of pollutants before they enter the subsurface or the less accessible
water itself. EPA has developed a predictive methodology for monitoring ground water
quality. Over the next year, we plan to collect, organize, and interpret the background
data for each potential pollution source.
At the end of the first year, a pollutant source prioritization report will be
completed for each project area to identify the pollution sources needing the most
detailed monitoring. Also at the end of the first year, another report will be
completed, detailing oil shale mining approaches—Keregen recovery processes and
hydrogeneration processes. Following this report by 3 to 6 months will be a
monitoring program designed for the coal mining aspects. A similar monitoring program
design for the oil shale mining and processing operations is expected in 18 to 24
months. We expect to have operational monitoring networks established for both oil
and coal within 24 to 30 months.
An additional research need concerning the oil shale aspect of the project has
been identified. The oil companies operating in tract CA, which is near tract CB in
Colorado, have announced plans for oil shale development. Also, oil companies in tract
CB have announced that they have developed an in situ process for the processing of
oil shale. Monitoring for potential ground water quality impact associated with in situ
oil shale development will be difficult. A proposal for expanding the monitoring
method has been prepared and is awaiting approval and funding by EPA.
In the summer of 1975, NASA and EPA entered into a 5-year program entitled
"Western Energy Related Overhead Monitoring Project" for the purpose of transferring
hardware and software techniques for processing remotely sensed digital data. The
project has been divided into three phases. Phase I was an 18-month period during
which NASA capabilities were applied to processing digital data acquired by both
Landsat and aircraft over coal strip mines in the Western United States. Following
evaluation of the hardware and software for this capability, a data processing system
was developed, assembled, and transferred to EPA/EMSL-LV in January 1977. The
system has been installed and key EPA personnel were trairred in the use of the data
processing system during November and December 1976.
Recommended analysis procedures and multispectral data applications were
documented in the NASA/ERL Report entitled "Western Energy-Related Overhead
Monitoring Project Phase I: Summary of Activities July 1, 1975, through December
31, 1976." The report is presently being reviewed by EPA to determine the
application and effectiveness of the suggested procedures. During Phase II of the
project, recommended procedures will be applied, verified, and evaluated using current
data sets as well as future data sets made available through an intensive field program
now underway. Research and development activities continue, in parallel with
evaluation of new procedures for solving complexities associated with data processing
of strip mining activities. These procedures, which are now being tested by pilot
studies, will result in state-of-the-art procedures converging into a final set of
recommendations and future requirements.
A project underway in the Air Quality Branch of the TVA is entitled "Remote
Sensing of Sulfur Dioxide Effects on Vegetation." The objective of this project is to
test, refine, and develop remote sensing instrumentation and techniques for surveillance
of S02 effects on vegetation in the vicinity of power plants. The work involves
gathering and analyzing spectral reflectance data using imaging and nonimaging sensors
and an array of instrument platforms, including cherry pickers, helicopters, and
airplanes. Progress to date has been primarily in establishing procedures based upon
past experimentation and determining plant damage following S02 exposure. During
1977, selected crops and trees will be subjected to fumigation of S02 under controlled
conditions. These plants will be examined by photographic recording and image
analysis, spectroradiometry, and image acquisition from airborne sensors and cherry
pickers, with subsequent image analysis. The laboratory fumigation and photography of
the affected plants are presently in process. The field spectroradiometer operations and
overflights will occur in mid-summer 1977 when crops and trees are most susceptible
to the effects of S02. Work during the post-1977 period will concentrate upon remote
sensing, using satellite data. Currently available satellite imagery does not show promise
336
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INSTRUMENTATION
AIR MEASUREMENT METHODS
R&D
STANDARD
REFERENCE MATERIALS-
AIR POLLUTION
PARTICULATE PROJECTS
for detecting subtle S02 effects on vegetation because of the limitation in image
resolution. It is too soon to draw conclusions on the value of ongoing laboratory
fumigation, chamber photographic experiments, color image enhancements, and
spectroradiometric measurements. By late 1977, these experiments should be completed
and several remote sensing overflights should have been conducted.
EPA is conducting a project to develop pollutant measurement methods. The
primary concern of this project is those pollutants associated with the burning of coal,
including sulfur oxides, or more specifically sulfur dioxide, sulfation, and free sulfuric
acid. The organic products of coal combustion that may be described as carcinogens
or, more broadly, materials of high physiologic impact are included. Existing methods
for measurement of sulfates in airborne particulates have long been known to be
subject to interference.
Sulfuric acid is known to be extremely reactive. Therefore, its successful
measurement must be accomplished in something approaching real time. Collection on
a highly inert filter, followed by rapid analysis, has been selected as the potentially
feasible approach. Separation, identification, and eventual quantification of desired
individual compounds from the incredibly complex mixture of organic materials
generated by the combustion of coal is being attempted by combining in a synergistic
fashion the separative resolution of gas chromotography, the analytic capability of mass
spectrometry, and the recognitive skills of the computer. This appears the only feasible
technique in today's state-of-the-art measurement.
One aspect of the ongoing research is leading toward development of a
hypersensitive S02 instrument with a sensitivity of approximately 0.1 ppb. This flame
photometric analyzer, capable of operating aboard a small aircraft, is expected to be
available by January 1978. A method developed for microdetermination of sulfate and
of strong acid has been modified and further improved.
A technique has been developed for collecting small particles on a fluorocarbon
membrane filter, followed by analysis by X-ray fluorescence spectrometry. This method
has the advantage that it maintains separation of sulfuric acid from other particulate
matter, therefore permitting selective analysis.
Tenax GC, a thermostable porous polymer, has been demonstrated to be capable
of retaining the vapors of nonpolar substances very efficiently and of releasing them
upon heating. This has become the favored method of sampling for organic vapors in
the atmosphere. Samples collected by this method are thermally transferred to a gas
chromatography column and the column effluent is passed into a mass spectrometer
for resolution.
The National Bureau of Standards (NBS) project entitled "Standard Reference
Materials, Instrumentation and Methods for Energy Related Air Pollution Monitoring"
is directed toward providing standard reference materials concerning gaseous pollutants
and airborne particulates arising from fossil fuel combustion and from chemical
extraction of fuels and raw materials. In addition, a project has been initiated to
develop a method of distinguishing specific sulfur compounds in particulates derived
from gaseous sulfur compounds.
Four standard reference materials for source monitoring have been issued. These
consist of gas blends of S02 in nitrogen concentrations ranging from 500 ppm to
2,500 ppm. Other standard reference materials currently under development are N02
in air at concentrations ranging from 250 ppm to 2,500 ppm, oxygen in nitrogen, and
hydrogen sulfide in a hydrocarbon gas blend. Other standards being developed for
ambient air monitoring are carbon monoxide in air and gas blends of S02 and N02 in
nitrogen. These standards are being investigated as alternatives to the NBS permeation
tubes.
Because of the chronic effect of particulates on health, several particulate
methodology projects are underway. Prototype standard reference materials for X-ray
florescence analysis of particulates have been developed. These standards are developed
by thermally evaporating thin metallic films onto polycarbonate filters and by
sputtering glasses containing known quantities of trace elements with an argon ion
beam onto polycarbonate filters. Another approach is to use fully characterized glass
microbeads to simulate real particles.
Two instruments have been developed for particulate monitoring. The first is for
measuring the size distribution of particles of known density. This instrument will be
used to characterize aerosol generators. The second is for measurement of sulfur in
387
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NIOSH ENERGY RELATED
RESEARCH
particulate matter. The principle of operation is the combination of an electrostatic
precipitator with a flame photometric detector. Another method is being developed to
distinguish the sulfur compounds in particulates by thermally evaporating the
compounds. This procedure takes advantage of the fact that different compounds
vaporize at different temperatures. Work is underway to provide standard reference
materials for elemental analysis of fuels and raw materials, for example, Western and
Eastern coal.
The Measurement Systems Section of the National Institute of Occupational
Safety and Health (NIOSH) is presently conducting a project entitled "Energy Related
Research Program in the Measurements Research Branch." There are six areas in this
energy project.
1. A portable, battery-operated, fibrous aerosol monitor has been successfully
developed. This instrument counts individual fibers of asbestos or fibrous glass in real
time and gives the concentration of fibers per cubic centimeter in less than 3 minutes.
The instrument is presently undergoing laboratory and field testing.
2. A miniature gas chromatograph has been greatly improved. Column gas
handling valves and detector are etched onto the surface of a silicon wafer. The size of
the entire gas chromatograph assembly makes it compatible with the data-handling
integrated circuitry so that the entire gas chromatographic instrument can be packaged
in a volume not much larger than a pocket calculator. Some of the improvements that
have been made on this system include (a) chemical bonding of the polyethylene
glycol and Apiezon L lining material to the capillary column surface, (b) development
of a thermistor detector compatible with the column size and volume, and (c)
development of miniature solenoid valves with nickel parylene membranes for carrier
gas and sample gas handling. Sensitivity of previous versions of this GC at room
temperature with a 1-microliter-per-second carrier gas-flow rate and a sample volume
of about 25 nanoliters has been about 50 parts per million with good separation of
peaks.
3. Work has begun on developing a portable microwave spectrometric analyzer.
No significant progress has been made yet.
388
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IMPROVEMENT OF
RADIOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT
WATER MEASUREMENT METHODS
R&D
4. Design criteria for an automated, personal-sample fiber counter have been
received and evaluated. This instrument will be based on light-scattering principles and
is intended to complement the fibrous aerosol monitor mentioned above. It will be
capable of counting fibers of asbestos and fibrous glass that have been collected on
filters. This obviates the need for the tedious human counting presently required by
the regulations.
5. Commercially available personal-sampling devices for cold environments have
been evaluated for their performance at temperatures down to -50°C. Various aspects
of low temperature use have been considered, such as battery type, lubricant
properties, and physical damage. The results thus far indicate that the primary
limitation in all the pumps is the battery.
6. Work is currently underway to develop a specific personal-sampling and
analytical method for hydrogen sulfide, H2S, using a solid sorbent.
A study being conducted by TVA, entitled "Development and Evaluation of
Improved Radiological Assessment Capabilities," is designed to improve radiological
surveillance procedures regarding both sampling and radiochemical analyses of samples.
This project is to develop guideline information for the nuclear power industry and to
evaluate and refine the models used to predict the radiological impact of releases to
the atmosphere from nuclear power plants. The primary objective of the project is to
develop an optimum radiological monitoring program. Studies leading to the attainment
of this objective have been divided into three major subareas:
1. Development of a model intraorganization quality assurance program for
radiological surveillance which will include all TVA environmental and nuclear plant
laboratories
2. Improvement of radiological monitoring techniques with emphasis on gamma
spectroscopy methodologies, which are among the most frequently employed analytical
tools
3. Evaluation of presently used environmental radiological surveillance programs.
The end product will be a surveillance program capable of meeting required analytical
sensitivities and providing adequate assessment information in a cost-effective manner.
A quality assurance program is being developed to assist in demonstrating the
accuracy and reliability of output empirical data and to serve as a model for the
nuclear industry. It is envisioned that a manual entitled "Handbook for Analytical
Quality Control in Radiological Laboratories for TVA Laboratories" will be prepared
during this fiscal year and distributed nationwide.
Another report forthcoming from this project will result from the studies of
gamma spectroscopy methodologies. Interested organizations will have documented
information regarding the resolution of complex gamma spectra and the assignment of
lower levels of detection.
To supplement the ongoing work, additional studies should be performed in two
areas.
1. Environmental radiological surveillance programs. Field testing of surveillance
programs proposed in the ongoing study and evaluation of exposure pathways not
considered in detail in the present study should be conducted to ensure proper
measurement of environmental impact.
2. Analytical model refinement. Additional work will be necessary regarding the
collection of specific radionuclides data around large nuclear facilities.
The EPA supervises a contract to determine the composition of effluents from
coal and oil shale gasification projects. More specifically, the objective of this project is
to identify and measure chemical constituents in liquid and solid waste from several
energy-related industries. Coal conversion and oil shale processes are the first being
studied. To avoid or minimize unnecessary duplication, all pertinent scientific and
governmental literature in this area has been reviewed. The investigators have identified
information gaps, sampled effluents at appropriate energy projects presently in
operation, and performed chemical analyses for chemical elements and volatile organic
compounds. This report covers the six types of energy activities and produces tables of
all elements and all organic compounds identified in the reports reviewed; for example,
41 chemical elements and 61 organic compounds were found in effluents from coal
389
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BIOMEDICAL AND
ENVIRONMENTAL R&D
SPECIFIC PROJECTS
conversion and oil shale processing. This report also covers the methods for elemental
and organic analyses.
Forty-five samples have been analyzed from in situ coal gasification at Hannah
and Gillette, Wyoming; from a low Btu coal gasification plant at Morgantown, West
Virginia; and from an in situ oil shale gasification project at DeBeque, Colorado, and
Laramie, Wyoming. Examples of reported data illustrate the complexity of some of the
samples. More than 74 elements and 200 organic compounds were reported for some
samples. These analyses provide specific information that was not previously available
for these energy processes.
Another EPA contract recently awarded will provide analogous information about
effluents from several energy activities, including coal gasification and liquefication, oil
shale processing, coal mining, copper, and coal-fired power plant operations.
The objective of ERDA's Division of Biomedical and Environmental Research
program is to provide information on potentially troublesome effluents or emissions,
information that would be useful in guiding control technology considerations and is
needed to develop a comprehensive assessment of environmental and health effects.
The specific projects within this program are as follows.
1. Argonne National Laboratory is developing methods for chemical char-
acterization and analysis of airborne particulate material as a function of paniculate
size and time. This technique is based on infrared spectroscopic analysis of particulate
samples. Samples are collected with a Lundgren impactor. The extract of these samples
is then analyzed using infrared spectroscopy. During August and September 1975 a
field study comparing the Lundgren impactors and the EPA sampling was conducted in
the St. Louis region. As expected, sulfates were found in the fine fraction. Overall
good agreement between the two methods was found.
2. Brookhaven National Laboratory is conducting a project to determine the
primary emissions of sulfate species from various types of fossil-fueled combustion
sources and to relate the magnitude of these emissions to variables affecting the
combustion and emission control processes. This study also includes collection and
analysis of sulfuric acid.
3. Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory is conducting a project to develop an elemental
sulfur monitor. The first prototype of this sulfur monitor is in the final stages of
construction and should be available for field testing by the time of the Symposium.
Another Lawrence Berkeley project is to develop a beta particle attenuation method
for large-scale measurement of total particulate mass of samples collected on membrane
filter.
4. A Lawrence Livermore Laboratory project is to determine a satisfactory
method for extending the sensitivity of the microwave ammonia monitor by
preconcentration. The objective is to select a preconcentration method so that
ammonia can be measured quantitatively down to 1 part per billion by a field-usable
instrument.
5. Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory is evaluating the present EPA particulate-
sampling method (Method 5) and developing improved methods for extracting
particulate samples from stacks. Over the last 18 months, this project has been
evaluating glass-fiber sampling filters operated at 120°C and 10.3 cm/s air velocity. So
far, efficiency for such filters has exceeded 99.9 percent for particle sizes above 1 Mm
and approximately 99.6 percent for smaller particles.
6. Oak Ridge National Laboratory is developing instrumentation and methods for
characterizing aqueous effluents from oil shale, oil refining, and geothermal sources.
One feature of this research is to limit the application of analytical techniques
presently available for routine analysis. These researchers are not only using
instrumentation methods but are also developing bioassay techniques and incorporating
them into the characterization scheme.
7. Lovelace Biomedical and Environmental Research Institute is improving the
methods available for chemical and physical characterization of aerosols from processes
utilizing fossil fuels, particularly coal. Methods for identification and quantification of
potential toxic organic emissions are being developed, as are in vitro methods to
predict the solubility of particles in the lung following inhalation. Reliable aerosol
impactors have been developed for laboratory use.
390
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STANDARD
REFERENCE MATERIALS-
WATER POLLUTION
MEASURING WATER &
WATER-RELATED CONSTITUENTS
ENVIRONMENTAL DATA
MEASUREMENT UNCERTAINTIES
8. An Ames Laboratory project is developing the basic sciences, the investigative
methods, and the hardware so that the demanding analytical requirements for
characterization and quantification of heavy-weight organic pollutants and effluents
from oil shale and oil refining operations can be met in a viable, practicable manner.
In addition, this project is developing methods in hardware so that trace element
impurities in geothermal effluents in brines can be determined quantitatively,
simultaneously, and with adequate sensitivity.
The National Bureau of Standards is developing measurement methods and
standard reference materials for monitoring water pollution associated with energy
production and use. Three areas are covered in its program.
First is the energy-related water-pollution analysis instrumentation, which is
coordinated with the EPA Environmental Research Laboratory at Athens, Georgia.
Projects currently underway in this area deal primarily with the measurement of
organic species and of toxic elements. This involves the coupling of electrochemical
detection to liquid chromatography.
Second is the development of standard reference materials for monitoring water
pollution resulting from energy production and use. During the first year of this
program, workshops were held to determine the standard reference material needs for
analysis of the various effluents associated with offshore petroleum, oil shale, coal
gasification, power plant operation, mine drainage, etc. Also, a method has been
developed which may be used to generate known concentrations of organic
compounds. Such concentrations of compounds are coated on glass beads packed in a
column for subsequent aqueous elution.
The third area encompasses quality assurance standards for measurement of
radiological pollutant. This effort is aimed at providing a series of standards for
measurement of radionuclides, with emphasis on alpha emitters. To date, SRMs for
P0210/ mixed gamma solution, and mancos shale (Ra226 anc! Ra228) have been
delivered to EPA.
A U.S. Geological Survey project is primarily in the area of development, testing,
and application of methods, techniques, and instruments for measuring water and
water-related constituents and characteristics. The four areas of this project are
specifically: (1) development of methods for characterizing and monitoring levels of
chronic toxicity, (2) development of instrumentation for high-volume analysis of
petrochemicals and associated compounds, (3) development of bedload samplers for
measuring stream sediments, and (4) development of flumes, weirs, and other devices
and techniques for measuring sediment-laden stream flows. A major contribution of
this study has been the development of methods permitting elucidation of the role of
physicochemical factors on bioavailability of sediment-bound trace metals.
To meet the requirement for the large amount of data, this project is also
developing criteria by which laboratory managers can determine the most effective
methods and best instruments for analyzing large volumes of samples from
petrochemicals and associated compounds.
This project is developing one or more samplers for accurately measuring the
discharge of bedload in natural streams. This will be done by testing and calibrating
existing samplers to define the operating characteristics and efficiencies in sampling
different sizes of sediment under various hydraulic conditions. On the basis of this
information, sampler designs will be modified and new bedload samplers will be
designed.
Investigations are underway into alternative techniques of measuring stream flow
in open channels. Presently, three methods of measuring discharge or velocity are being
considered, all of which require little or no contact with the water: (1) fluorometric,
(2) photometric or video, and (3) microwave.
The Office of Marine Technology of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Association (NOAA) has a program for developing appropriate mechanisms to define
and control within prescribed limits the measurement uncertainties associated with
environmental data. These data quality provisions, when applied to environmental
monitoring programs, result in qualified data, that is, data with known error bands and
a defined relation to accepted standards. Development of standards is presently
underway in the following areas.
1. Development of a laboratory dissolved-oxygen standard is currently in progress.
391
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SUBTASKS INCOMPLETE
This standard will substitute for the Winkler method currently used as a reference
method for calibration of dissolved-oxygen measurements systems. The standard will
operate in a test bath over a range of -2°C to 35°C and from 0 to 40 parts per
thousand in salinity. The dissolved-oxygen range will span 0 to 15 parts per million.
2. Development of a dynamic test apparatus for laboratory testing of flow
sensors is nearing completion. This apparatus will generate controlled dynamics
superimposed on steady flows to determine measurement capabilities of flow sensors in
a nonsteady flow environment. The apparatus is being designed and fabricated by the
Naval Ship Research and Development Center (NSRDC). The capability to simulate
field conditions will provide more realistic definition of sensor characteristics and
limitations.
3. Transfer standards are utilized to assess the comparability of results obtained
from different laboratories performing similar calibrations. A conductivity/
temperature/depth system has been selected as one of the development areas. This
system is undergoing laboratory evaluation over a 6-month period to verify its
measurement capability. Subsequently the system will be shipped to another laboratory
for calibration. The uncertainty goal for this calibration technique is ±0.01 percent of
the reading.
At present none of the subtasks have reached completion; thus statements of
success or failure are somewhat premature. For those areas discussed, however, progress
to date has been favorable and indications are that the objectives will be met.
ELECTRO-OPTICAL
TECHNIQUE
A joint EPA/NASA project is being carried out to develop and apply an advanced
electro-optical technique to the measurement and characterization of power plants and
other effluent sources. There are five tasks in this project.
1. The first task is to evaluate Raman lidar for remote measurement of the
concentration of SO2 at power plant stack exits. Raman optical lidar systems have
been developed at NASA and successfully applied in the measurement of water vapor
and density profiles in the earth's atmosphere. More recently, the Raman technique has
been used with some success to detect S02 in power plant stack plumes.
An existing system at NASA Langley has been modified and improved and is now
being calibrated. Preliminary results show that at a range of 500 meters and night
background light levels, the Raman lidar system can measure S02 concentrations of
1,000 parts per million within 10 percent.
2. Task 2 is to apply aerosol scattering lidar techniques to the study of plume
dispersion under various atmospheric conditions. This involves modifying an existing
lidar technique developed by NASA for dispersion studies of plumes from rocket
launches. The task was originally scheduled for completion in 1976; however, no funds
392
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LI&AR TECHNIQUES-
PAJRTICULATE POLLUTANTS
were allocated during the second year because of severe budget constraints. Funds have
been allocated during the third year and work will be resumed subject to approval by
the EPA Project Officer.
3. Task 3 is to develop and apply the tunable infrared (IR) differential
absorption lidar technique to remote measurement of molecular plume effluents. It
employs the principle of differential absorption technique where sequential measure-
ments are made first on an absorption line and then at a nearby wavelength off the
absorption line, thereby providing information on range-resolved data for particular
gases. The contract has been let for tunable IR laser, which is to be delivered in late
1977. This task is scheduled for completion in late calendar year 1978.
4. Task 4 is to develop the use of a laser heterodyne detector to increase the
sensitivity of long-path continuous-wave absorption measurements using diffuse
deflectors. The infrared heterodyne radiometer is scheduled for completion in
December 1977, at which time a technical report on evaluation of this system will be
furnished to EPA.
5. Task 5 is to develop and deliver to EPA an improved in situ HC1
chemiluminescent monitor evaluated at concentrations as low as 5 ppb of HC1 in
ambient and polluted air. The instrument has been evaluated in the laboratory to
determine the operational characteristics.
The Wave Propagation Laboratory, NOAA, is investigating lidar techniques for
analyzing and tracing particulate pollutants from energy production. Improvement of
lidar techniques is required to increase accuracy of identification and measurement of
size distribution, shape factors, and concentration. Two steps have been taken to
improve remote detection and measuring methods for particular pollutants. The
depolarization technique has proven useful in studying plume dispersion in impact
assessment programs and in distinguishing plumes from natural background aerosols.
Preliminary results on two wavelength techniques have indicated potential for improved
identification of particles. Theoretical studies have resulted in improved application of
mathematical inversion algorithms to deduce the properties of particles from their
electromagnetic signatures. The depolarization technique in impact assessment studies
has been successfully employed at Colstrip, Montana. Initial tests of the dual
wavelength system for estimating mean particle sizes are encouraging. In the immediate
future, field tests will be conducted on the depolarization technique and the two
wavelength techniques. Plans are being formulated for the study of differential
absorption and inelastic scatter techniques.
The Wave Propagation Laboratory is also carrying out a project entitled "Doppler
Lidar for Measurements of Pollutant Transport." Doppler lidar measures the small-scale.
V
393
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AIRBORNE ACTIVE
REMOTE SENSING
boundary-layer wind field by frequency-analyzing the signal backscattered from
aerosols, The purpose of this research program is to develop and test operational
techniques for the high-resolution measurement of atmospheric wind, turbulence, and
aerosol backscatter aspects of pollutant transport. Results to date include both
technique refinement and field measurements, such as wind profiles, to a range of 1
kilometer and a height of 200 meters, velocity spectra of vortices, FM-CW lidar
ranging, three-component velocity measurements, and plume backscatter. Planned
research includes aerosol profiling, range extension, and more efficient data processing
The research task is 2 years into a 5-year program. Milestones are on schedule.
An EPA study is evaluating airborne active remote sensing of pollutants associated
with energy production. All of the systems utilize lasers to produce the interrogating
signal, and all of the systems operate in a downward mode from airborne platforms.
The first system is a downward-looking lidar which ranges aerosol scattering in the
atmosphere below the plane. An operational system has been tested which features a
real-time display of lidar return signals.
Ground and flight testing of a prototype earth-reflected differential absorption
system for ozone monitoring has been completed and promises great utility in studying
long-range oxidant transport problems. A system for-monitoring sulfur dioxide is being
designed, and a computer simulation model has been created to optimize component-
selection-system response and display options.
Laser fluorosensing techniques are being evaluated for use in monitoring the
presence or effects of environmental pollutants in water. Concentration of surface
water chlorophyll a in algae is presently being monitored using the helicopterborne
laser fluorosensor. A similar system is also being designed to map and quantify surface
water total organic carbons.
energy
environment II
GEORGE B. MORGAN
B.S., Chemistry, Valdosta State College, GA; M.S., Bioanalytical Chemistry,
University of Florida; additional graduate work at New York University. Member of
delegation to United Nations Environmental Program Working Group, joint effort by
U.S./U.S.S.R. in air pollution monitoring methodology. Was an associate professor of
radiological health and later Director, Phelp's Laboratory for Bioenvironmental
Engineering Research, University of Florida. Held many key positions in the health and
ecological field-U.S. Public Health Service Laboratory, Cincinnati, OH; Chief of
Laboratory Services and Director of the Air Quality and Emissions Data Division;
Director of Division of Atmospheric Surveillance, National Air Pollution Control
Administration and Director of the Quality Assurance Division, EPA. Currently,
Director, Environmental Monitoring and Support Laboratory, EPA, Las Vegas, NV.
394
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questions
CK answers
QUESTION:
Mr. Chris Timm
USEPA
Mr. Vernon J. Laverty
Hydronautics Inc.
Mr. David E. Kidd
University of New Mexico
One of the slides showed measurement and organic
measurement. Was there a distinction between paniculate
organics and nonparticulate organics?
RESPONSE: Mr. Andrew E. O'Keeffe (EPA)
We are presently collecting the organics in the vapor
phase. It is a matter of convenience. We realize that
particulate organics are equally as important, if not more
so, but we are still trying to master nonparticulate
organics.
*
QUESTION:
I am interested in knowing whether the filters or
personal evaluation filters, which were mentioned with
regard to asbestos, are available now?
RESPONSE: Dr. Paul Baron (NIOSH)
It is not a filter technique. It is actually a portable
monitor that detects light scattering from asbestos fibers
and counts them. It is an instrument that will probably
be commercially available some time next year. We are
presently evaluating it at the moment.
QUESTION:
Could you tell us more about the miniaturized GC?
RESPONSE: Dr. Baron
The miniaturized GC represents a contract with the
Stanford University Electronics Laboratory. They have
built a gas chromatograph by etching the column on a
3-meter column, 20 microns by 200 microns diameter, on
a silicon wafer about 2 inch by 2 inch; and they have
included on this wafer the valving detector. We think this
is an exciting technique and may be a generalized
detector for a number of other processes. At present it is
simply a feasibility study, but they have developed the
instruments further.
395
-------
QUESTION:
You mentioned the laser fluoro-sensing technique,
relating it to the concentration of surface water,
chlorophyll A, and algae.
Since chlorophyll A is a biomass measurement, do
you get a good relationship and good graph in regard to
sensing the amount of chlorophyll A present, hence the
biomass of algae?
RESPONSE: Mr. John A. Eckert (EPA)
Our tests using the helicopter are made on Lake
Mead and up a stream leading into Lake Mead with an
increasing gradient in chlorophyll A concentration; the
correlation is quite good.
QUESTION:
Have you tried Lake Powell?
RESPONSE: Mr. Eckert
No. We have only made our tests on Lake Mead,
which has the unique feature of having almost no
chlorophyll in the center of the lake and a rather
extreme gradient up the Las Vegas wash.
396
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technical
discussion
-------
AIR AND WATER QUALITY DATA INTEGRATION IN THE
WESTERN ENERGY RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT AREA
David N. McNeils
Environmental Monitoring and Support Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Las Vegas, Nevada
Concern about environmental impact of the
energy development activities underway and under
consideration in the western United States is
apparent in both the executive and legislative
branches of our Government. Policy statements,
legislative proposals and research mandates are
appearing with increasing frequency and most
relate either directly or indirectly to the re-
sources existing in the Western Energy Resource
Development Area (WERDA) . Historically, the West
has been an area with a relatively low population
density and correspondingly low industrial de-
velopment. Because of these factors, it contains
several so-called pristine areas generally not
impacted by anthropogenic activities. A general
deterioration, however, in the air quality over
the whole region, particularly with respect to
visibility, over the last several years is widely
acknowledged and concern over any additional deg-
radation is mounting. The magnitude of the
problem as viewed by the Government is demonstra-
ted by the proposed legislation dealing with the
prevention of significant deterioration and the
designation of Federal lands (national and inter-
national parks, national wilderness and primitive
areas, and national preserves and memorial areas)
as areas where essentially no deterioration is
permitted.
Also of concern in the West is the potential
impact on water quality and supply. Water is
already in short supply in the semiarid West.
The accelerated energy developments in these areas
are in direct competition with other uses for the
limited available water resources. The extraction
of raw materials, fuel refinement, transport and
utilization, and the accompanying demographic
changes will place additional demands on available
water. Tne water quality stands to be degraded
as both the consumptive and non-consumptive use
increases and as major hydrographic changes are
made as a result of diversion of water to use
sites.
Abundant in the West are vast resources of
low-sulfur coal, uranium, oil shale and geo-
therms. Coal, once the major resource consumed
for conversion into electrical power, now sup-
plies less than 20 percent of our current energy
demands. The size and availability of the
western coal reserves dictate that the acceler-
ated use of coal can be reevaluated. Coal is
also being considered for conversion into clean-
turning synthetic fuels, and demonstration pro-
jects are already under development. The
Green River Formation of Utah, Colorado, and
Wyoming contains approximately 80 percent of the
identified oil-shale resources in the United
States. The West also contains the majority of
this country's uranium deposits.
Most of the coal produced during the next
two decades will be utilized in steam boilers
for the production of electrical power. Several
such facilities exist in the West, some of which
will be expanded. In addition, several new
plants are scheduled for construction. Figure 1
shows the status of these facilities on a map
encompassing the WERDA.
E
COLSTfliP
E
NAUGHTON
E EBRIOGER DLARAMIE RIVER
COAL CREEK |
CRAIG
D
D
INAVAJOT]SAN JUAN
FOUR CORNERS
E
CHOLLA
E
• EXISTING POWER PLANT
E EXPANDING POWER PLANT
n PROPOSED POWER PLANT
(NAMED PLANTS- CAPACITY GREATER THAN 1000 MW|
Figure 1. Fossil fueled power plants greater than
300MW.
The continued and accelerated development
of the various energy resources in the West
potentially will impact the environmental quality
of this region in other ways as well. Air and
water quality degradation from extractive pro-
cesses and refining and energy conversion
operations needs to be predicted, assessed, and
included in the planning of energy resource
development and environmental quality.
Long-term measurements of air and water
quality parameters are essential to develop the
accurate data base to serve as a foundation for
the planning processes. Meso- and macro-scale
data regarding pollutant concentrations and the
alterations in concentration, pollutant mix and
related parameters resulting from development
activities are critical to the responsible study
and decision process.
This paper describes the initial results of
399
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a major interagency program directed at inte-
grating air and water quality monitoring data in
the WEKDA. Participating with the U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency are elements of the
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
and the U.S. Geological Survey. Several other
agencies of the Federal and State governments
are cooperating in the study.
The map in Figure 2 shows the particulate
monitoring network used in the WEKDA which con-
sists of over 400 stations. Depending on the
analysis desired, these stations are stratified
according to the surveillance classification of
the sampling site, i.e., population, source or
background. Less than half of these stations
are located in rural areas and related to the
last category of background monitoring sites.
These are the stations which are most useful to
a regional assessment of ambient air quality and
associated energy inpacts. The surveillance
classification of the network is being reviewed
to assure uniform application of the stratifi-
cation criteria. A high-volume air sampler is
used at nearly all of the sites. The filter is
weighed and the mass of the total suspended par-
ticulate (tsp) concentration is determined.
Trace element, sulfate, nitrate, sulfur dioxide
and nitrogen dioxide analyses, however, are
performed on samples from less than 40 percent
of the monitoring stations, while ozone, carbon
monoxide and hydrocarbons are monitored at only a
few sites.
HI-VOL-TSP.
SULFATE, NITRATE
Figure 2. Particulate sampling in WERDA.
Ideally, for this study, the parameters
being monitored should be related to a character-
istic of the energy development activities in the
geographic region under investigation. Because
of the emphasis on coal extraction and combustion
for energy production, sulfate analyses become of
increased significance. Also, the measurement of
total-suspended particulates, while of interest
is perhaps not the most sensitive aerosol analy-
sis related to fossil fuel combustion. Most of
the mass collected on a filter is associated with
a size fraction produced by comminution processes
while the fine particles produced as a result of
gas-phase reactions and condensation and coagu-
lation phenomena in a power plant stack and plume
account for little total mass. Finally, visi-
bility, which is a function of the fine particu-
late loading of the atmosphere, is not being
measured in any network. Only recently the first
attempts at monitoring visibility and visibility-
related parameters are being conducted at a few
selected sites.
Under the interagency energy program,
significant progress has been made to identify
and expand a network of air quality monitoring
stations with which an environmental baseline can
be established and the contribution of energy
development and related activities assessed. In
addition, the analyses are being extended or
otherwise modified to make them more sensitive
to identify and quantify energy-related impacts.
A regional sulfate-nitrate network has been
established which incorporates the existing
State-operated sulfate monitoring stations
(generally one or two stations per State) and
added 77 sites throughout the eight-State region.
Almost half of these were added via grants
through the EPA Region VIII Office to the States
and the balance via an existing contract with
the Ute Research Laboratory. The Ute network
of 29 sites is now included in the regional net-
work. Filters from Utah and Wyoming are also
being analyzed at that Laboratory. The regional
network became fully operational in May 1977.
Figure 2 shows the distribution of the sulfate-
nitrate monitoring stations prior to 1977 and
Figure 3 shows the distribution of the recently
added sites which were integrated into the net-
work.
The network of the Ute Research Laboratory
is also being used to collect samples for trace
element analyses (Fe, Cd, Cr, Co, Pb, Cu, Mn, Ni
and Mo) and total-suspended particulate determi-
nations . The network is located in the Four
Corners area of Colorado, Utah, New Mexico and
Arizona and has stations strategically placed
downwind of several major existing and proposed
power plants and mining sites. Multi-stage
cascade impactors are being evaluated at a few of
the stations to determine the utility of detailed
size and elemental analyses as a means of de-
veloping signatures for specific energy pro-
duction/development facilities. The size fractions
selected should distinguish the fine particulates,
which degrade visibility and are respirable,
physiologically significant, and produced in, or
result from, combustion processes, from the rel-
atively coarse particulates of natural origin or
fugitive dust.
400
-------
Figure 3. Sulfate - nitrate monitoring
sites added during 1977.
A major advancement allowing air-quality
monitoring data to be used for regional-scale
assessments has been made through the initiation
of a quality assurance program. Seventeen par-
• ticipating laboratories, including Federal, State
and private, are involved in a uniformly applied
• audit and cross-check program that permits data
from all of the long-term monitoring stations in
the WERDA to be entered into SAROAD, the national
air quality data base, with assurance of their
relatability. To implement this program, each
of the laboratories and many of the field sites
were visited and the analytical technology re-
viewed. A written evaluation was prepared for
each facility and follow-up assistance is being
provided. Quarterly performance audits for mass
determinations, flow measurements and NC^, SC^,
CO and non-methane hydrocarbons have also been
initiated. This phase of the program has only
recently commenced for the final phase, i.e.,
that of providing consulting services and dynamic
calibration for continuous monitors, will be
provided as necessary.
Visibility deterioration, probably the first
observable impact on air quality from energy
development and related activities, is not being
quantitavely measured in the WERDA. However,
there are a few initiatives in this region where
prototype instrumentation and technology are
being evaluated. Visibility is defined with
respect to a measure of contrast which changes
as a function of light-source position and the
position of object and observer with respect to
each other. It is not a direct measure of the
particulate loading of the atmosphere and,
therefore, is not the light "extinction potential"
°f an airspace. A prototype monitoring station
is now being established near a national park in
Utah to evaluate and develop visibility and visi-
bility-related measurement instrumentation and to
develop correlations among the data of the various
methods. Meteorological data will be analyzed and
particulate chemical and physical characterizations
will be conducted simultaneously to further cor-
relate these data and, if possible, to identify
the sources of the pollutants.
A network of visibility monitoring stations
is also proposed which will be operated at nation-
al parks in cooperation with the National Park
Service. Tentative sites are shown in Figure 4.
Data from this network will serve to provide a
baseline for visibility over a geographical area
of great national significance for its scenic
vistas.
( AT NATIONAL PARKS. NATIONAL MONUMENTS AND NATIONAL RECREATION AREAS )
BADLANDS MT RUSHMORE
BRYCE CANYJJN* ~
LAKE MEAD* 3 CANYON
GRAND CANYON
'.•_MESAJ/EBDE
• CHACO CANYON
Figure 4. Proposed visibility monitoring sites.
Finally, two other projects are being con-
ducted which will provide data directly related
to the regional aspects of the energy program.
Wide-area monitoring is being conducted using an
air-quality monitoring aircraft. This aircraft
system is being subjected to the same quality
assurance program previously described and is
being used to assess the regional impacts and long-
range transport of energy-related pollutants.
Regional scale models have also been reviewed and
selected for their application in predicting im-
pacts of present and proposed power plant devel-
opments in the WERDA.
Energy resource development scenario in-
formation and data regarding exisiting facilities,
401
-------
existing and anticipated pollutant specification,
locations and concentrations were also used to
identify a network of water quality monitoring
stations in the WERDA. Over 200 currently active,
data-rich (25 or more parameters monitored for a
period of at least 2 years) surface-water monitor-
ing stations were selected for this network.
Other stations and those of special studies are
incorporated when and as necessary to fill spe-
cific data gaps. Data gathered are coded into
STORET, EPA's water quality data base, and are
retrieved for statistical analyses, listings, and
summarizations.
In contrast to the air-quality data inte-
gration effort where a paucity of relevant data
and parametric coverage by monitoring stations
exists, there are many water-quality monitoring
stations, sampling several parameters of interest
and dispersed over an area to provide a synoptic
perspective to the status of water quality. The
problem is associated with the relatively large
amount of data to be reviewed and assessed. This
problem is compounded by the ephemeral nature of
the Western water resources. Many tributary
streams to the major waterways are seasonally
intermittent.
The publication of the Western Energy/
Environment Monitoring Atlas with its Air, Water
and Remote Monitoring Appendices presents the
initial findings of this multi-media, interagency
program. It presents the status of environmental
quality and monitoring networks, along with an
assessment of environmental impacts from energy
developments and related activities. These
findings are usable by planners at the local,
regional and national levels in providing for the
environmentally acceptable development of western
energy resources.
402
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WATER MONITORING IN ENERGY DEVELOPING AREAS
Frederick A. Kilpatrick
Geological Survey
U.S. Department of Interior
Reston, Virginia
Presently the Water Resources Division of
the U.S. Geological Survey operates a network of
6200 water quality monitoring stations nation-
wide. Of these, 590 are in the Rocky Mountain
and Northern Great Plains States of Colorado,
Montana, North Dakota, New Mexico, Utah and
Wyoming. Of these 73 are funded partially via
EPA funds. Funding also comes from the USGS,
BLM, and State Coop programs.
Figure 1 illustrates the type, number, and
locations of projects being supported by EPA.
For most of these projects EPA funds provide for
the collection and analysis of a broader suite
of water quality parameters than that normally
obtained by the USGS. Many represent the routine
operation of water monitoring stations to estab-
lish baseline water quality, sediment, and flow
conditions against which future assessments of
impacts can be made. Other studies are not only
baseline monitoring projects, but feature inter-
pretative analyses of the effects of mining and
reclamation. This report gives results obtained
by 3 of the 22 projects involved in the Inter-
agency Energy/Environment R&D Program with the
USGS as described in this paper.
QUALITY OF WATER MONITORING IN THE CHACO RIVER
BASIN, NEW MEXICO
Introduction
The demand for energy has stimulated the
development of energy resources in northeastern
New Mexico (Figure 2). The existing Four
Corner's powerplant and its associated Navajo
Coal Mine as well as the newer San Juan power-
plant are planning for expansion. Through its
subsidiary, Western Coal Co., the San Juan power-
plant may strip-mine coal from areas south of
its current powerplant-mining complex. The pro-
posed Western Gasification Company's (WESCO)
gasification plant and the proposed El Paso
Company's gasification plant will convert coals
that are mined adjacent to the plants into pipe-
line fuel gas.
Peabody Coal Company's Star Lake Mine will
begin strip-mining coal in 1978 and ship it via
the Santa Fe Railroad to the Coronado powerplant
Alaska; SW-C=1
Symbols
GW...Ground-water
SW...Surface-water
OS...ON Shale
C...Coal
Figure 1. Type and number of energy R&D projects being undertaken by the USGS for the EPA.
403
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109°
108°
COLORADO
NEW MEXICO
SAN JUAN
POWER PLANT
FRUITLAND
COAL MINE
NAVAJO
RESERVOIR
FOUR
CORNERS
POWER:
PLANT:-
NAVAJO COAL MINE
EXPANSION 8
URANIUM
EXPLORATION
NAVAJO INDIAN IRRIGATION
PROJECT
WESTERN
COAL
COMPANY
EXPANSION
AREAS
STAR
LAKE
AREA
EL PASO AND WESCO
GASIFICATION AND
COAL MINING AREA
A SW recording gage
V QW site
CHACO
CANYON
NATIONAL
MONUMENT
HEADQUARTERS
URANIUM EXPLORATION
Figure 2.
Map of Chaco
River area,
109'
Approximate Scale
404
-------
in eastern Arizona. El Paso Natural Gas Co. is
intensifying their petroleum drilling and pro-
duction program in this area. Exxon Corp. has
negotiated an agreement with the Navajo Tribe to
explore for uranium on the Navajo Reservation.
The western and southern parts of the Chaco River
basin are potential uranium mining areas.
Compounding these energy developments will
be the Federally-funded NIIP (Navajo Indian Irri-
gation Project) which is to provide irrigation
for over 110,000 acres of Indian land east of the
energy areas .
Discussion
Within the above developments the major
water users are deriving or will derive their
water supplies from the San Juan River system.
As much as 500,000 acre-feet of the annual
average total of '1,600,000 acre-feet as measured
on the San Juan River at Shiprock may be diverted
for these projects. Smaller supplies will be
developed and pumped locally from deep under-
ground sources. Unconsumed portions of these
supplies will return to the San Juan River via
the Chaco River system.
The Chaco River is a tributary to the San
Juan River, and all or parts of the above
developments lie within the Chaco River drainage
basin. The Chaco River and its tributaries are
arroyos except for a small reach of the Chaco
River near its mouth which recently has developed
a small perennial flow downstream from the Four
Corner's powerplant. Runoffs in the Chaco River
system occur sporadically during summer and early
autumn as the result of localized, short dura-
tion, high intensity rainstorms. The arroyos are
usually dry the remainder of the year. The Chaco
River follows the strippable coal deposits in the
Kirtland Shale-Fruitland Formation along the
western and southern margins of the San Juan
structural basin. Many of the arroyos overlie
the strippable coal. Potential uranium develop-
ment areas are within the western and southern
parts of the Chaco River basin. Uranium mine
drainage may be pumped into the Chaco River
system. A portion of the NIIP area is in the
eastern part of the Chaco basin. Irrigation
drainage may flow to the Chaco River, but only
after traversing the strippable coal areas.
While the Chaco River system may presently be dry
on the durface, a component of flow may be moving
towards the San Juan River underground within the
alluvial bed of the arroyo trough.
Available data on the quantity and quality
of the water resource in the Chaco River basin
are very sparse. The impact of the energy
development, particularly on water quality, in
the Chaco basin and ultimately downstream in the
San Juan River and Colorado River must be asses-
sed. The U.S. Geological Survey's Water
Resources Division is establishing a monitoring
network for collecting hydrologic information in
the energy development areas of the Chaco River
basin which will be complementary and supple-
mentary to current investigations with BLM and
the State of New Mexico. Figure 2 indicates the
scale of development anticipated in northwest New
Mexico and the water monitoring stations in oper-
ation in the Chaco River basin. Table 1 shows
representative water quality data at 3 stations
for 3 conditions of flow. Table 2 shows rep-
resentative quality data for water from the shal-
low ground water wells in the alluvium of the
lower Chaco River. This data represents baseline
or present water quality conditions of both sur-
face- and ground-water resources which will help
determine the effects of proposed energy develop-
ments in the area.
TABLE 1. SELECTED REPRESENTATIVE WATER QUALITY
VALUES FOUND IN THE CHACO RIVER BASIN
IN NORTHWESTERN NEW MEXICO'S ENERGY
DEVELOPMENT AREA. MAY 1976 -
APRIL 1977
Surface Water Sites
PARAMETER
DISCHARGE, CFS
SPECIFIC CONDUCTANCE, PMHO/CM
pH, STANDARD UNITS
WATER TEMPERATURE, °C
* Following Concentrations in MG/L
SILICA (SiO )
CALCIUM (CaJ
MAGNESIUM (Mg)
SODIUM (Na)
POTASSIUM (K)
BICARBONATE (HCO )
CARBONATE (CO,)
SULFATE (SO )
CHLORIDE (CI)
FLUORIDE (F)
NITRITE 6 NITRATE (N)
ORTHOPHOSPHATE (P)
DISSOLVED SOLIDS, SUM
TOTAL HARDNESS (CaCO )
NON-CARBONATE HARDNESS (CaCOj)
CARBON, TOTAL ORGANIC (C)
NITROGEN, TOTAL (N)
PHOSPHOROUS, TOTAL (P)
NITROGEN, TOTAL AMMONIA (N)
SUSPENDED SEDIMENT CONCENTRATION
PARTICLE SIZE IN SILT-CLAY RANGE %
** Following Concentrations in pG/L
ALUMINUM, DISSOLVED
ALUMINUM, TOTAL
ARSENIC, DISSOLVED
ARSENIC, TOTAL
BARIUM, DISSOLVED
BARIUM, TOTAL
BORON, DISSOLVED
BORON, TOTAL
CADMIUM, DISSOLVED
CADMIUM, TOTAL
CHROMIUM, DISSOLVED
CHROMIUM, TOTAL
COBALT, DISSOLVED
COBALT, TOTAL
COPPER, DISSOLVED
COPPER, TOTAL
IRON, DISSOLVED
IRON, TOTAL
LEAD, DISSOLVED
LEAD, TOTAL
LITHIUM, DISSOLVED
LITHIUM, TOTAL
MANGANESE, DISSOLVED
MANGANESE, TOTAL
MECURY, DISSOLVED
MECURY, TOTAL
SELENIUM, DISSOLVED
SELENIUM, TOTAL
STRONTIUM, DISSOLVED
STRONTIUM, TOTAL
VANADIUM, DISSOLVED
ZINC, DISSOLVED
ZINC, TOTAL
MOLYBDENUM, TOTAL
SITE NO.
1
SNOW MELT
5.0
270
7.8
3.5
5.4
9.8
1.4
47
2.3
110
0
30
2.9
0.5
1.8
0.05
162
30
0
22
2.0
0.83
0.06
3700
1.00
1
34
40
250
0
•=10
0
30
1
^50
6
70
60
72000
2
100
0
70
10
730
0.0
0.2
1
2
130
530
8.0
0
300
7
SUMMER
STORM
100-1500
900
7.1
19
69
5.8
170
5.9
403
0
200
19
0.8
0.09
0.14
689
200
0
262
---
53,600 to
86,800
80 to 90
540,000
500
9300
80
250
20
250
30
420,000
800
30
520
23000
2.7
0
0
5900
0.4
20
10
BASE"
FLOW
20
2700
8.3
3.0
11
290
67
270
8.0
108
0
200
140
7.4
4.1
0.02
280
100
950
6.4
4.4
0.43
0.08
500
100
3
9
7600
7600
0
10
0
20
0
<50
2
30
230
21000
2
<100
160
20
260
0.0
0.2
30
30
2000
0.4
40
80
0
405
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TABLE 2. SELECTED REPRESENTATIVE WATER QUALITY
VALUES FOUND IN THE SHALLOW
GROUNDWATER OF THE CHACO RIVER BASIN
MAY 1976 - APRIL 1977
PARAMETER
ALK, TOT (AS CAC03)
ARSENIC TOTAL
BICARBONATE
BORON DISSOLVED
CALCIUM DISS
CARBONATE
CHLORIDE DISS
DEPTH BELOW LSD (FT)
DEPTH OF WELL IN FT.
FLUORIDE DISS
HARDNESS NONCARB
HARDNESS TOTAL
IRON DISSOLVED
MAGNESIUM DISS
MERCURY TOTAL
N02+N03 AS N DISS
PH FIELD
PHOS ORTHO DIS AS P
PHOSPHATE DIS ORT1IO
POTASSIUM DISS
RESIDUE DIS CALC SUM
RESIDUE DIS TON/AFT
SAR
SELENIUM TOTAL
SILICA DISSOLVED
SODIUM DISS
SODIUM PERCENT
SP. CONDUCTANCE FLD
SP. CONDUCTANCE LAB
SULFATE DISS
WATER TEMP (DEG C)
MG/L
pG/L
MG/L
pG/L
MG/L
MG/L
MG/L
MG/L
MG/L
MG/L
pG/L
MG/L
pG/L
MG/L
MG/L
MG/L
MG/L
MG/L
pG/L
MG/L
MG/L
MG/L
CONC
294
2
359
70
370
0
17
3.
5.
0.
800
1100
60
41
0.
1.
7.
0.
0.
11
2510
3
5
3
12
380
43
3200
3170
1500
7
0
0
6
1
0
3
02
06
41
0
5
As can be seen from the base flow and well
data, very hard calcium-sulfate water exists
naturally. Furthermore, even very low flows as
well as storm runoff produces high suspended sedi-
ment loads reflected in the high aluminum, iron,
and other metal concentrations.
ACID MINE DRAINAGE IN SOUTHEASTERN OHIO
Introduction
The eastern third of Ohio contains exten-
sive bituminous coal deposits which have been
mined since the early 1800's. These coals are
found in strata of the Pennsylvanian and Permian
systems. The strata represent a fluvial-deltaic
depositional environment and are characterized by
alternating sandstones, shales, mudstones, coals,
and marine, brackish, and freshwater limestones.
Mining has ranged from small, hand-dug workings
to underground and surface operations encompas-
sing several square miles and utilizing mammoth
equipment. All of these operations have had some
degree of impact upon the environment. The
objective of this project is to study in two
phases the impact of coal mining on the water
quality in eastern Ohio.
Discussion
The first phase of the study, a reconnais-
sance of water quality at 162 sites, was conducted
to document the severity of the acid mine drainage
problem and to pinpoint affected streams. Results
of the reconnaissance phase are summarized in
Table 3.
Conditions
Upstream from
Sampling
Site
Abandoned
Underground
Abandoned
Strip
Working
Underground
Working
Strip
Reclaimed
Strip
No Evident
Mining
Abandoned Dumps,
Tailings Piles,
Etc.
Greater than
pH 6.5
6
1
2
8
26
28
1
Less than
pH 6.5
32
6
3
1
0
0
5
804
less than
250 mg/1
11
0
1
2
6
23
0
S04
greater than
250 mg/1
27
7
4
7
20
5
6
Specific
conductance
less than
650
11
0
0
1
6
23
0
Specific
conductance
greater than
650
27
7
5
8
20
5
6
TABLE 3.
TYPES OF MINING
VS SELECTED WATER
QUALITY PARAMETERS
(119 SAMPLING SITES
REPRESENTED)
406
-------
The second phase of the investigation
involves a more comprehensive water quality samp-
ling program in the following basins:
Location
Drainage Category
Area-Sq. Mi.
A. Huff Run: Tuscar- 13.95
awas-Carroll
Counties, flows
west towards Min-
eral city
South Fork, Short 14.42
Creek: Harrison
County, flows east
toward Adena
C. Spencer Creek: Bel- 13.6
mont County, flows
northeast toward
Morristown
D. Snow Fork: Hocking- 27.29
Athens Counties flows
so. through Murray City
Abandoned Strip
Mine
Reclaimed Strip
Mine
Reclaimed Strip
Mine within the
last year or
still active
Abandoned Under-
ground Mine
Location of the individual watersheds is shown in
figure 3. Phase two objectives include deter-
mination of source and chemical quality of water
in each tributary, evaluation of the influence of
tributary conditions on mainstream water quality,
and determination of material loading of streams
and tributaries. Results of the phase two sampling
program are illustrated in Figures 4 and 5 for two
of the basins. The contrast in the data for an
area of abandoned mining and one where reclamation
has been practiced is noticeable. The data from
the first phase of this investigation seem to indi-
cate that abandoned underground and strip mines
are the sources of most acid drainage. Tailings
piles, mine dumps, and pumpage from working under-
ground mines also contribute acid drainage in
several locations. The studies of the Snow Fork
and Huff Run basins, in which sources of acid
drainage were definitely identified, support the
findings from the first phase.
The absence of acid drainage from reclaimed
and working strip mines, noted in both phases of
the investigation, emphasizes the importance of
rapid reclamation in the prevention of acid drain-
age. When the sulfur-bearing materials associated
with coals are exposed to chemical weathering,
acid drainage occurs; when they are not exposed,
acid drainage is prevented.
LAKE ERIE
Figure 3.
Basins studied in phase 2 (clockwise
from north: A. Huff Run, B. South
Fork Short Creek, C. Spencer Creek
and D. Snow Fork).
100 MILES
407
-------
EXPLANATION
Q
PH
S04
Fe
discharge, in cfs
pH, as measured in field
sulfate, in mg/l
iron, in ,ug/l
Figure 4. South Fork Creek and tributaries - reclaimed strip mine area.
WATER QUALITY IN THE OIL SHALE AREAS OF WESTERN
COLORADO
Introduction
Latest developments in the oil shale industry
indicate increased interest in a modified in-situ
approach. This would involve initial underground
mining, followed by rubblization, and in-situ
retorting. In Colorado the modified in-situ method
will most likely be utilized to produce the shale
oil in the Parachute Creek Member of the Green
River Formation. The Parachute Creek Member con-
sists of an upper and lower unit separated by the
kerogen rich Mahogany Zone. The Uinta Formation
conformably overlies the Green River Formation.
Discussion
The objective of the basic-data collection
program is to obtain water quality data needed to
define predevelopment conditions and to monitor
the effects of construction and operation of oil-
shale mines, retorts, and spent-shale disposal
areas.
Table 4 summarizes baseline water quality
data taken from 22 wells penetrating the 3 geolo-
gic units likely to be involved in any in-situ
development. Noteworthy are the high values for
the constituents in the Lower Parachute Creek Mem-
ber .
Groundwater withdrawals and the disturbance
of the aquifer systems will impact the surface
water systems. Table 5 indicates the range of
baseline water quality values to be found at 3
stream monitoring stations in the area. As can be
seen from the data, baseline water quality is
relatively good.
Program Discussion
Impending energy developments require that
baseline water quality data be obtained prior to
such development if the impacts are to be
assessed. The impacts of development can be pre-
vented or minimized if correct mining and reclama-
tion techniques are utilized. Therefore existing
baseline conditions and conditions in existing
and former mining areas must be evaluated.
408
-------
2 MILES
EXPLANATION
0
pH
S04
Fe
discharge, in cfs
pH, as measured in field
sulfate, in mg/l
iron, in >U)/I
Figure 5. Snow Fork and tributaries - abandoned underground mining area.
409
-------
Constituents
Dissolved
Solids
Ca
Mg
Na+K
HCO
Cl
(All Data in MG/L)
d .
Max
Min
Ave
b.
Max
Min
Ave
Max
Min
Ave
Uinta Formation
1720
470
909
Upper Parachute
2220
510
828
Lower Parachute
33,300
650
3,460
110
8.7
38
Creek
75
1.1
18
Creek
21
4.2
10
160
15
53
Member
90
.6
32
Member
23
2.8
10
321
111
217
860
150
309
14,079
251
1,436
780
332
536
1930
367
723
29,400
600
3,102
72
5.7
18
260
5
32
2,400
5
211
so4
880
34
292
450
11
153
200
4.8
66
F
3
1
18
0
7
5
19
14
8
2
1
5
2
TABLE 4.
AVERAGE CONCENTRATIONS OF MAJOR
DISSOLVED CONSTITUENTS, TOTAL
DISSOLVED SOLIDS, AND DISSOLVED
FLUORIDE IN WATER SAMPLES COLLECTED
FROM TEST HOLES PENETRATING THE
A) UINTA FORMATION;
B) THE UPPER PARACHUTE CREEK MEMBER
C) THE LOWER PARACHUTE CREEK MEMBER
Parameter
Discharge cfs
Temp °C
PH
Spec. Cond.-MMHO/CM
^Following Concentrations in
Dis. Oxygen
Silica
Calcium
Magnesium
Sodium
Potassium
Bicarbonate
Sulfate
Chloride
Fluoride
Total Nitrogen (N)
Total Organic Nitrogen fN)
Total Ammonia (N)
Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen
Total NO and NO (NJ
Total Phosphate t?J
Total Organic Carbon CCJ
Dissolved Solids
Hardness
k*Following Concentrations in
Boron
Dissolved Iron
Dissolved Manganese
Dissolved Arsenic
Dissolx-ed Cadmium
Dissolved Chromium
Dissolved Copper
Dissolved Lead
Dissolxed Manganese
Dissolved Strontium
Dissolved \anadiuin
Dissolved Zinc
Dissolved Selenium
Dissolved Mercurv
Parachute Ck
near Grand
Valley
1.6-128
0-15.5
7.2-8.7
520-890
*VL
8.3-13.0
15-18
47-62
22-41
33-66
1.2-2.7
287-388
52-130
2. 1-7.8
.3-. 7
.65-1.7
.13-. 93
.00-. 04
.13-. 96
.47-1.3
.00-. 20
2.4-18
315-519
210-320
uG/L
30-120
0-70
0-1C
2-5
0-1
0-10
0-10
0-<10
0-10
90-1400
6.4-11
0-20
0-2
. 0- . 1
White River
below
Meeker
252-3890
0-20.5
7.1-8.6
220-740
6.9-11.6
10-16
39-80
8.7-24
7.7-39
1.3-2.3
116-174
38-180
5.7-38
.2-. 3
.18-. 64
.10-. 48
.00-. 07
.12-. 48
.00-. 20
.00-. 22
1.6-8.6
171-477
130-300
30-50
50-60
20-26
2
0-<3
3-10
1-2
l-<3
20-26
.9-<2.0
0-<3
1
.0
White River
above
Rangely
291-2650
0-24
8.3-8.4
210-790
6.0-7.5
12-15
66-92
20-26
55-81
2.1-5.3
199-238
150-280
27-28
.2-. 4
.38-20
.39-19
.00-. 00
.38-19
.00-1.1
.03-1.3
9.8-71
460-618
270-310
80-440
60-80
5-10
2
0-<4
4-10
4-5
l-<4
5-10
1 . 1 - < 2 . 0
0-<4
2
.0
TABLE 5.
THE RANGE IN WATER QUALITY VALUES FOUND
AT THREE SURFACE WATER STATIONS IN THE
OIL SHALE AREA OF WESTERN COLORADO
410
-------
WESTERN COAL AND OIL SHALE GROUNOWATER
QUALITY MONITORING
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
Leslie G. McMillion
Environmental Monitoring and Support Laboratory
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Las Vegas, Nevada
INTRODUCTION
A part of the national goal to reduce dependance
on foreign oil is to be met by increased production
and use of fossil fuels. A critical evaluation of the
consequences of an accelerated attempt at this objec-
tive is necessary since serious environmental impacts
may result from extraction and processing of fossil
fuels. These impacts should be anticipated and avoid-
ed to the extent possible. Any decision to accept
environmental damage, such as a reduction in ground-
water quality, should be a conscious one based on the
best information and analysis available.
Western low sulfur coal and oil shale constitute
two of the nation's most abundant energy resources.
Surface mining of Western coal is accelerating rapidly.
In 1972, production was about 28 million tons. By
1980, annual production is expected to be 176 million
tons.
1
About 17,000 square miles (11 million acres) in
Colorado, Utah, and Wyoming are believed to contain
oil shale of potential value for commercial develop-
ment in the foreseeable future.- Development of oil
shale in the United States has taken place only on an
experimental scale because crude petroleum has been
available at lower development costs. The nation's
projected future energy needs are so large, however,
that it is necessary to examine the possibility of
supplementing the conventional domestic oil and gas
'deposits with fuels from oil shale.
The mining of Western coal and oil shale is ex-
pected to have widespread effects on topography,
drainage patterns, recharge areas, and groundwater
flow patterns. Impacts on groundwater quality will
result from use of water, leaching of spent shale, in-
jection of mine water and upward movement and surface
discharge of saline waters. Impacts may also be
caused by accidental releases of low quality mine
water, including failure of evaporation ponds, subsi-
dence due to collapse of retort chambers, and any
accidental spillage of processing effluents, chemicals,
and waste products.
In association with the growth of these two in-
dustries it is anticipated that there will be scatter-
ed, uncontrolled point sources of sewage that could
lead to bacterial problems and that industrial wastes
containing toxic materials, chemicals, oil and grease,
heavy metals, and odorous substances will be released.
Passage of the Federal Water Pollution Control
Act Amendments of 1972 (P.L. 92-500), together with
the recently enacted Safe Drinking Water Act (P.L. 93-
523), provides EPA with the responsibilit)' to initiate
effective programs to deal with groundwater pollution.
P.L. 92-500 directs, in Sections 102(a), 104(a), and
106(e), that programs be developed to improve, maintain
and monitor groundwater quality. Part C of P.L. 93-523
provides for the protection of groundwater quality.
PROJECT AREAS - DESCRIPTION AND SIGNIFICANCE
To determine the impact of Western coal and oil
shale development on groundwater quality and to de-
scribe and field test the most appropriate monitoring
system, two areas were selected for study. The project
is being conducted under a research contract with
General Electric-TEMPO. The areas were selected where
extensive development was being projected - Campbell
County, Wyoming and oil shale tracts U-a and U-b in
northeastern Utah.
Campbell County is reported to contain 50.4 per-
cent of Wyoming's coal resources and 84 percent of its
known strippable coal. More than 69 billion tons of
coal underlie Campbell County at depths of up to 3,000
feet. At least 20 billion tons lie within 200 feet of
the surface and therefore recoverable by strip mining
methods.
Demand for low sulfur coal frcm Campbell County is
increasing at unparalleled rates. 83^ 1978, Campbell
County will undoubtedly be the largest coal-producing
county in Wyoming. Production estimates range from 62
to 77 million tons per year bv 1980 and 84 to 152 mil-
- Q -
lion tons per year by 1985. Initially, almost all
this coal will be exported to electrical power plants
in as many as 13 states as far east as Indiana and as
far south as Texas and Louisiana.
In related
plant is under c
completed, this
plans to build c
1980 and one of
Campbell County.
pipelines, power
tion plants are
in-state activity, one coal-tired power
onstruction east of Gillette. When
330-megawatt plant will have announced
oal gasification plants in Wyoming by
these is planned to be built in
Forecasts of other mines, slurry-
plants, and gasification and liquefac-
rumored, but not confirmed.
Some of the richest oil shale deposits are located
in northeastern Utah. It is estimated that the average
thickness of the oil shale sequence that averages 30
gallons of shale oil per ton is about 45 feet in Tract
U-a and 50 feet in Tract U-b. The oil recoverable from
Tract U-a by underground mining methods is estimated to
be 244.4 million barrels, and 265.8 million barrels for
Tract U-b. Overburden above the principal oil shale
beds ranges from 300 to 1,250 feet.^
Groundwater usage in coal strip mining varies with
the stage of development. The principal uses of water
in the coal mining operations are: dust control on
access and haul roads, revegetation of spoils dumps,
and dewatering where the coal seam is an aquifer or be-
low the water table.
If the mining operation is planned to eventually
include coal conversion plants, increased amounts of
water will be required for such purposes as feedwater
411
-------
to high-pressure boilers for steam generation, cooling
tower makeup water, and demineralizer and softener
regeneration water. Associated with coal conversion
plants will be the creation of new industrial bases.
The water requirements for oil shale development
and processing can be divided into two categories
process water and domestic water. Process requirements
will involve water for mining and crushing, retorting,
shale oil upgrading, spent shale disposal, power re-
quirements, revegetation, and sanitary use.
The demand for water for a 'unit' 50,000 barrel-
per-day underground mine followed by surface processing
is expected to range from 6,800 to 10,600 acre-feet
per year.^
TECHNICAL APPROACH AND PROJECT OBJECTIVES
Monitoring Methodology
Groundwater availability and usage can usually be
determined without much difficulty. Impacts on
groundwater quality from mining are much more diffi-
cult to assess. A typical misconception is that base-
line or background monitoring systems can also be used
to assess the impact of man's various activities on
groundwater quality. This philosophy has been adopted
by many because in certain situations, e.g., air and
surface water quality monitoring, the time lag
discharge of the potential pollutants into the envi-
ronment and a measureable response is small, a few
hours or days. This is not true in most cases of sub-
surface pollution. Many years or even decades may
pass before a change in groundwater quality is ob-
served. Once degradation of the subsurface regime has
taken place, it is extremely difficult and often
impossible to remedy.
The reasonable approach to this problem should be
to monitor potential sources of pollutants before they
enter the subsurface or the less accessible ground-
water itself.
Under a previous EPA contract, General Electric-
TEMPO developed a predictive methodology for monitor-
ing groundwater quality. The methodology as it per-
tains to the coal and oil shale study areas is sum-
marized as follows:
(1) inventory and prioritize the potential
sources and causes of groundwater pollution'within a
given project area;
(2) carefully examine and interpret the back-
ground information and data on groundwater flow and
groundwater quality;
(3) evaluate the mobilities of pollutants from
the identified potential sources of pollution and
points of discharge into the groundwater system;
(4) assess the gaps and needs of the existing
groundwater quality monitoring program;
(5) design a monitoring program based on the
identification of the existing program deficiences
and/or the inventory of potential sources and causes
of groundwater pollution;
(6) implement the monitoring program at the field
level and monitor its operation until it is function-
ing smoothly enough to be turned over to the desig-
nated monitoring agency; and
(7) prepare a final report on the results of the
research and monitoring efforts which will serve as a
guide in the design and operation of groundwater
quality monitoring programs for other similar coal or
oil shale mining locations.
Progress to Date
The first major task is to collect, organize, and1
interpret the background data. Scheduled time for
this task is approximately one year. At the time this1
paper was written, much of the existing background
data had been collected, but only partially inter-
preted. The interpretation is proceeding as pre-
scribed by the monitoring methodology, i.e., with the
potential groundwater pollution source inventory. The
background data have been carefully reviewed to iden-
tify potential pollution sources, and then each mine
within the project areas will be visited to see if
these sources could be identified and if the methods
of waste disposal prescribed in the Environmental
Impact Statements (EIS) were actually in use.
As a general statement, most of the mine opera-
tors appear to be sincere about meeting their obliga-
tions in dealing with the potential pollution sources.
However, only a few have an adequate staff or know-
ledge to deal with these problems. Breakdowns in the
chain of responsibility at several mines were apparent
in a number of instances, such as not recording the
number of trips made by water trucks controlling dust,
and no attempt being made to segregate potential toxic
materials as was called for in the EIS.
Potential sources of pollution and methods of
waste disposal for coal mining can be divided into two;
major categories those directly related to the min-
ing can be grouped into nine categories: (1) hydro-
logic modification; (2) construction; (3) solid waste
disposal; (4) settling and evaporation ponds;
(5) dust control; (6) blasting; (7) stockpiling;
(8) sanitary wastes; and (9) miscellaneous related
activities.
Important non-mining pollution sources fall into
four categories: (1) solid waste disposal and sewage
treatment; (2) sanitary wastes from other small urban
areas; (3) oilfield wastes; and (4) agricultural
sources, including fertilizers and animal wastes.
Hydrologic modifications are likely to become one
of the major sources of pollution on the mine sites
and can be divided into (a) changes in streams and
lakes; and (b) changes in earth materials.
A potentially significant source of groundwater
pollution is blasting. All of the mines plan to
blast either coal or overburden, and large amounts of
ammonium nitrate will be used. In a study at the
Decker Mine in Montana, it was found that samples of
mine effluent occasionally contained very high con-
centrations of nitrate, probably due to blasting.
Potential pollution sources related to oil shale
mining and processing can be grouped as (1) disposal
of solid wastes; (2) waste water; (3) construction-
related pollution and (4) accident-related pollution
potential. By far the largest and most important
single possible groundwater pollution source appears
to be the spent shale. The spent shale will have a
412
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pH of 10.7 - 11.8 and will contain from 0.6 percent to
20 percent soluble salts. The mining operation pro-
posed in the Detailed Development Plan indicates the
processed shale will be moisturized to about 10 per-
cent by weight and moved by conveyor belt to the dis-
posal site. The spent shale generated in the 50,000
barrel-per-day operation is supposed to be disposed of
in a 130-acre area with the ultimate depth of spent
shale being about 100 feet for a 20-year operation.
Large quantities of industrial waste may be gener-
ated by the processes of recovering and treating the
shale oil. These wastes are scheduled to be hauled to
the spent shale pile, moisturized, spread, and covered
with spent shale. The most significant of these
wastes from the standpoint of pollution potential are
the spent catalysts and activated carbon and diatoma-
ceous earth filters which have become clogged. These
wastes will total about 1,700 tons per year. Along
with the filters and catalysts, about 700 tons per
year of rather inert wastes will be buried.
Near-Term Objectives
At the end of the first year, a pollutant-source
prioritization report to identify the pollution
sources needing the most detailed monitoring will be
completed for each project area. As a first criteri-
on, the sources of largest waste volume, longest
persistence, highest toxicity, and concentration of
specific pollutants will be identified.
The second criterion will be based on the mobili-
ty of the pollutants as they migrate downward through
the soil and through the aquifer toward eventual
points of discharge or water usage. The mobility of
the pollutants will be dependent upon the method of
waste disposal, the waste loading, and the sorption
and chemical reactions taking place in the soil and
saturated portions of the aquifer.
The last criterion in the prioritization scheme
will be a function of the known or anticipated harm to
the users of the groundwater. Based on the knowledge
of pollutant mobility, it will be possible to estimate
the impact of the identified sources of pollution in
the project areas at specific points of usage at vary-
ing distances from the sources. This third criterion
is thus based on the quality of water that may be
pumped from wells for various uses in the area.
At the end of the first year, a report will be
completed which details oil shale mining approaches,
kerogen recovery processes, and hydrogenation pro-
cesses. Since the processes for oil shale extraction
have not been formalized, a summary of the existing
alternative processes and the research done on defin-
ing the anticipated organic and inorganic pollutants
from each of these processes must be done in conjunc-
tion with the evaluation of the existing groundwater
monitoring approaches for test and small-scale oil
extraction sites.
At the end of fifteen months, a monitoring pro-
gram design for the coal aspect will be submitted for
review. The design will be based on the prioritiza-
tion report and the observed data and information gaps
in the existing monitoring programs within the project
area. Eighteen months into the study, a monitoring
program design for the oil shale mining and process-
ing operations will be submitted.
Long-Term Objectives
Once there is an approved monitoring program,
field monitoring activities will be implemented. A
field office in Gillette, Wyoming, will be manned by
full-time personnel whose responsibilities will be to
insure that the monitoring activities are conducted on
schedule and that professional techniques are main-
tained in the field activities.
After the implementation of the monitoring pro-
grams, it will be necessary to establish procedures to
organize and interpret the current monitoring data so
as to define quality trends, new pollution problems,
regions of improvement, and effectiveness of pollution
control activities with regard to groundwater quality.
The result of the monitoring program will be the
providing of information on groundwater quality. Con-
sequently, a final task will be to disseminate the
information gained as guidelines for monitoring
groundwater to agencies and organizations concerned
with making management decisions.
An important by-product of the project will be
the alerting of action and enforcement agencies on
critical problems and situations discovered withing
the project area. These may involve, for example, de-
tection of hazardous or toxic pollutants which could
imminently affect a nearby drinking water supply.
Prompt reporting and specialized follow-up monitoring
efforts for controlling emergency situations will be
essential.
It is anticipated that at the conclusion of the
project the monitoring programs will be integrated in-
to the monitoring activities of the locally
designated monitoring agencies. This activity will
tie into the main goal of the project which is the
development of a manual to show how groundwater qual-
ity monitoring programs for similar coal strip mining
and oil shale extraction sites can be designed.
IDENTIFIED RESEARCH NEED: GROUNDWATER MONITORING
OF JEN SITU DEVELOPMENT OF OIL SHALE
An additional research need which concerns the
oil shale aspect of the project has been identified.
At the time of the contract execution for this pro-
ject, it appeared oil shale would be developed by
conventional mining methods followed by surface re-
torting; therefore, the study area was selected on
this basis. However, industry plans for surface re-
torting of oil shale were delayed in September 1976,
when the holders of the Federal leases in both Utah
and Colorado were granted a one-year suspension by the
U.S. Geological Survey on the lease agreements con-
cerning development lease fees. A few weeks later,
Occidental Petroleum Corporation formally joined with
Ashland Oil Corporation in the lease agreement for
Oil Shale Tract C-b (located in the Piceance Basin of
northwest Colorado), and the two companies announced
that they intended to develop the oil shale in the
tract by use of a modified in situ process. Since the
process had been tested extensively in another loca-
tion, the companies stated that it was feasible for
413
-------
them to develop oil shale by this method on a commer-
cial scale. The initiation of the operation in Tract
C-b has resulted in a modification of the already
accepted Detailed Development Plan; the modification
was submitted to the U.S. Geological Survey in
March 1977.
The operating companies in Tract C-a, which is
near Tract C-b in Colorado, have also announced plans
for in situ oil shale development. There are no
similar plans for the Utah tracts and thus, in situ
development there appears unlikely in the near future.
Monitoring for potential groundwater quality im-
pacts associated with in situ oil shale development
will be difficult. Retort waters produced by small-
scale in situ operations have resulted in the identi-
fication of a large variety of potential pollutants.
Research to date indicates that many of these pollu-
tants have only recently been classified, while others
are still under investigation. It is not clear
whether the quality of the retort waters from small-
scale in situ retorting will be similar to those
waters produced by large-scale commercial in situ
retorts.7
The proposed "modified" in situ processes will re-
quire mining of perhaps 20 to 25 percent of the retort
block in order to create adequate porosity for in situ
retorting. Current plans for Tract C-b call for mined
raw shale from in situ retort blocks to be brought
to the surface and stored indefinitely in Sorghum
Gulch.
Modified in situ retorting operations in northwest
Colorado may have impacts on groundwater due to de-
watering during mine development and operation; even-
tual reinvasion of the exhausted retort chambers by
the groundwaters; consumptive use of water; possible
reinjection of mine water and upward movement and
surface discharge of saline waters; accidental release
of low-quality mine and retort waters, including
failure of surface holding reservoirs; and any acci-
dental spillage of processing effluents, chemicals,
and waste products. Storage of the raw shale at the
surface may have widespread effects on the topography,
recharge areas, and drainage patterns, due to grading
and removal of vegetation, and leaching and weathering
of the raw shale. Groundwaters may be further affect-
ed by subsidence after retort development resulting in
aquifer displacement and/or disruption.
First, the planned in situ developments are in north-
west Colorado instead of in Utah where the study are
is established by contract terms. Secondly, the cost
for studying groundwater effects and monitoring
methods related to in situ processes will be higher
than the amounts provided in the project for study of
oil shale. The contractor was asked to submit a pro-
posal to show the options for modifying the project
This proposal has been prepared and is now being con-
sidered by EPA.
REFERENCES
1. Glass, G. B. , "Recent Surface Mining Developments
in the Western States", Mining Congress Journal
September 1974.
2. Weaver, G. D., "Possible Impacts of Oil Shale
Development on Land Resources:, Journal of Soil
and Water Conservation, March-April 1974.
3. Breckenridge, R. M. , et al. , "Campbell County,
Wyoming Geologic Map Atlas and Summary of Land,
Water and Mineral Resources", County Resource
Series, No. 3, The Geological Survey of Wyoming,
Laramie. December 1975.
4. U.S. Department of the Interior, Final Environ-
mental Statement for the Prototype Oil Shale
Leasing Program, 1973.
5. Van Voast, Wayne A., And R. B. Hedges, "Hydrologic
Aspects of Existing and Proposed Strip Coal Mines
Near Decker, Southeastern Montana, Montana Bureau
of Mines and Geology Bull. 97, 31 pp. 1975.
6. White River Shale Project, White River Shale Pro-
ject Detailed Development Plan (Federal Lease
Tracts U-a and U-b). July 1976.
7. Everett, Lome G. , General Electric-TEMPO,
Santa Barbara, CA, Personal communication,
May 10, 1977.
To monitor the groundwater quality changes result-
ing from these conditions will no doubt be more costly
and difficult than the monitoring that would be needed
for operations (such as those proposed for the Federal
Tracts in the subject project) involving subsurface
mining of oil shale with surface facilities for re-
torting the shale. Major costs can be anticipated in
the monitoring of the water quality effects in the
subsurface vicinity of the retorting chambers and in
the zones where subsidence could be expected to occur.
Shortly after plans for in situ developments of
oil shale were announced, EPA headquarters suggested
modifying the subject project to include research
monitoring of the groundwater quality impacts of the
in situ developments. Close examination of the pro-
ject revealed that two conditions are apparent:
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WESTERN ENERGY-RELATED OVERHEAD
MONITORING PROJECT
Edward Lee Tilton, III
Earth Resources Laboratory
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
Slidell, Louisiana
Robert W. Landers, Jr.
Environmental Monitoring and Support Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Las Vegas, Nevada
The technology of remote sensing has ad-
vanced considerably over the last 10 years. The
most significant step has been the development of
automated computer processing techniques which
use data acquired from overhead multispectral
scanners and spectral pattern recognition al-
gorithms to classify surface materials on the
ground. Although the techniques vary and cannot
be discussed in depth here it has been demon-
strated that these techniques can be used to
classify surface materials and to determine sur-
face acreage of the material with accuracies
generally between 80 and 95 percent. Because
this accuracy is comparable to accuracies ob-
tained using conventional methods and because
remote sensing techniques offer uniform and
standardized data handling methods, speed in
analysis, reduced data-acquisition time, re-
duced site visitation costs, and data and in-
formation formats which can be systematically
integrated with data and information from other
sources using digital techniques, operational
procedures can be developed and applied to
energy extraction problems in a cost-effective
manner.
In particular, the capability to classify
surface vegetation from aircraft and satellite
data in densely vegetated areas such as the
Eastern United States allows the assessment of
many environmental parameters since vegetation
is a sensitive indicator of its environment.
In some areas of the Western United States where
vegetation is sparse, new techniques are being
developed under this project to determine the
extent to which vegetation may be classified
with varying percentages of vegetation cover.
In addition, classification techniques using air-
craft-acquired data have proven very successful in
identifying various conditions of soil such as
topsoil, scraped soil or piled overburden at
strip mine sites.
Data from other aircraft sensors such as the
Laser Terrain Profiler have shown high potential
for measuring such parameters as terrain rough-
ness and slope as indicators of rehabilitation.
Future activities under this project will pursue
the continued development of such techniques.
Techniques employing multispectral scanners
on aircraft for data acquisition are most suited
for site specific problems such as monitoring and
evaluating coal strip mine rehabilitation efforts.
The reason is that the data may be acquired at
high resolution for investigating such parameters
as individual species in revegetated areas and
vegetation densities in sparsely vegetated areas
such as the Western Great Plains. The use of air-
craft-acquired data, however, does require
additional processing effort over satellite-
acquired data because the scanner mounted in the
aircraft is subjected to normal aerodynamic motions.
This reduces the utility of aircraft data in
applications requiring precise geometric regis-
tration of data to a map base. In addition, the
large volume of data resulting from the high
resolution makes it undesirable to acquire air-
craft data over large geographic areas.
Techniques employing multispectral scanners
on satellites (Landsat) for data acquisition are
presently most suited for regional applications
such as large area land use planning or determin-
ing rehabilitation potential for strip-mined
lands. Because of the repetitive coverage and the
geometric location and pointing stability of the
spacecraft, the scanner data can be rectified
and geographically referenced to the surface of
the Earth. This allows the data to be easily
integrated with data from other sources and allows
the detection of surface changes from one data set
to the next on a point-by-point basis. This can
be done very rapidly and precisely using computer-
implemented techniques. Using these techniques,
a data base and information system can be con-
structed for specifying environmental baselines
and determining the changes thereafter. A present
limitation of the Landsat system is that its
resolution allows surface cover identification
down to 1-acre areas. Near-future satellite
systems will provide identification down to
1/4-acre areas which will have practical poten-
tial for application to site specific problems
such as strip mine rehabilitation.
During the summer of 1975, the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) entered
into a 5 year project with the Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA). The purpose of this in-
teragency project, funded by EPA, was to transfer
hardware and software techniques for processing
remotely sensed digital data from NASA to EPA,
so that EPA would be capable of establishing
and maintaining a fully operational energy related
overhead monitoring system. This system would not
only incorporate maximum utilization of EPA's
present aircraft capabilities, but would allow for
the integration of currently available (Landsat)
and proposed satellite multispectral scanner data.
Personnel skills necessary to implement such a
highly technical system would also be transferred
during the project.
Both agencies have designated laboratories
through which the 5 year plan will be im-
plemented. NASA/Earth Resources Laboratory located
in Slidell, La., and the EPA/Environmental Monitor-
ing and Support Laboratory in Las Vegas, Nev., are
415
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the two agency laboratories involved.
The entire project has been divided into
three phases. Phase I was an 18 month project
segment, during which time existing NASA remotely
sensed data acquisition, data analysis, and in-
formation producing capabilities were applied to
digital data acquired by both Landsat and aircraft
systems over coal strip mines in the western
United States. A data processing system was de-
fined, assembled, and transferred to EPA in
January 1977. Key EPA personnel also received
training in the use of a similar data processing
system during November/December 1976 at NASA.
The Low Cost Data 'mini-computer" Analysis System,
(EPA-LCDAS) assembled for EPA, is composed of a
mini-computer, associated rotating memory (disc
memory), interactive image processing system
(e.g., color cathode ray tube display device with
hardline connection to the computer), tape drives,
line printer, electrostatic plotter, and color
strip film recorder (stand alone version). This
system is capable of processing Landsat and air-
craft acquired multispectral scanner data as well
as data from currently defined future multi-
spectral scanner systems.
In addition to the EPA-LCDAS assembled at
NASA for subsequent transfer to EPA, an airborne
multispectral scanner system was also defined.
The scanner system, delivered and installed into
an EPA aircraft and integrated with data proc-
essing/analysis components, is providing EPA with
the total capability to collect and process
digital data entirely on its own system, thus
accomplishing the major goal of Phase I of the
project.
Phase II of the project began January 1, 1977
and will last for 18 months. During this phase,
the EPA will use the system for monitoring pur-
poses, with NASA assistance should any technical
problems arise. Also during this time, NASA
would investigate problems specifically defined
by EPA for additional research. Such problems
would be associated with coal strip mine, mine-
mouth power plant, oil shale, and geothermal
energy related activities. New techniques
developed to solve these problems would be trans-
ferred to the EPA at the end of this phase.
Phase III will be a 2-year project, during
which time EPA will test the system in a fully
operational mode. NASA will provide continued
assistance in the use of the system and any
additional capabilities as developed during
Phase II. It is anticipated that Landsat follow-
on data will be available during this phase,
providing satellite data of better resolution
and spectral selectivity than presently avail-
able. Processing capabilities for such data will
be developed and transferred during this time
period, if such data become available.
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REMOTE SENSING OF SULFUR DIOXIDE EFFECTS
ON VEGETATION
C. Daniel Sapp and Herbert C. Jones
Air Quality Branch
Division of Environmental Planning
Air Quality Research Section
Tennessee Valley Authority
Muscle Shoals, Alabama
INTRODUCTION
The Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) is
studying the effects of sulfur dioxide (802)
emissions from large coal-burning power plants on
vegetation by remote sensing, that is, by studying
the phenomenon from a distance with no direct
contact.
The objective of the project is to test,
refine, and develop instruments and techniques for
remotely sensing the effects of S02 on vegetation
in the vicinity of power plants. The work involves
gathering and analyzing spectral reflectance data
by using imaging and nonimaging sensors and an
array of instrument platforms, including cherry
pickers, helicopters, and airplanes.
Before 1975, very little information was
published on remote sensing of the effects of air
pollution on vegetation. Many of the applicable
studies deal with the use of infrared color photo-
graphy for mapping and for detecting disease in
crops and trees. Miller et al. (1) studied the
effects of ozone on forest species, and Heller (2)
and Wert (3), using color film, studied the
effects of oxidant air pollution on the foliage of
Ponderosa pine in the vicinity of Los Angeles,
California. The best combination of films and
scales for detecting air pollution effects on
trees is reported to be Anscochrome Daylight 200
color film with a didymium filter and a large
scale (1:1600).
In 1971, Zealer et al. (4) reported the
feasibility of using aerial color photography to
detect and evaluate foliar S02 effects on timber
stands near a coal-fired steam plant in north-
eastern Alabama. TVA cooperated with the U.S.
Forest Service in this study. The authors con-
cluded that very large scales (1:800 to 1:1584)
and normal color film were the best combination
for the task. A follow up study with photography
or multispectral scanning to detect timber species
affected by S02 would be desirable.
Several published reports describe attempts
to use satellite data to detect damage and alter-
ation to vegetation caused by emissions from a
zinc smelter. Fritz and Pennypacker (5) were
unable to differentiate between an affected stand
of eastern white pine and a healthy one, although
Wiegand (6) earlier had successfully used satel-
lite data to differentiate between chlorotic
(iron-deficient) and normal grain sorghum plants.
Affected areas as small as 1.1 hectares could be
detected by digital techniques. More study is
required to resolve the contradictory results of
using satellite platforms to detect the effects of
SC>2 on vegetation. Limits of detection must be
determined and defined. Murtha (7) describes a
method for evaluating 862 damage to forest lands
in Canada from flying heights as great as 12,200 m
and image scales as small as 1:160,000. However,
the successful application did not include zones
of "light injury."
German scientists have used aerial, infrared
color photography to detect injury to trees caused
by air pollution. Large image scales on the order
of 1:5000 seem to be favored over medium or small
scales (8).
TECHNICAL DISCUSSION
In 1975, TVA began a series of remote-sensing
overflights in the vicinity of Shawnee Steam Plant
in western Kentucky. The Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) Region IV helped TVA arrange an
overflight for multispectral scanning out of Bay
St. Louis, Mississippi; the plane, equipment, and
image analysis assistance were provided by the
Earth Resources Laboratory at the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)
Johnson Space Center. This overflight and a
series of overflights for aerial photography were
made by TVA after vegetation was exposed to S02 in
July 1975. Results of TVA's interpretation of the
photographs and NASA's digital analysis of the
scanner imagery were negative. More than a week
elapsed between the S02 exposure and the over-
flights, and it is probable that the visual effects
of the injury to vegetation were masked by new
growth. An extensive collection of field data
resulted in an excellent description of the pat-
terns of vegetation injury that did exist.
Work during 1976 and 1977 has been organized
around certain species of plants and three princi-
pal tasks. The species being studied are soybeans
[Glycine max (L.) Merr.], cotton (Gossypium
hirsatim), winter wheat (Triticum aestiuum),
Virginia pine (Pinus virginiana), loblolly pine
(Pinus taeda), white pine (Pinus strobus), short-
leaf pine (Pinus echinata), hickory (Carya sp.),
and red oak [Quercus rubra (L.), (}. falcata] .
This list of crops and trees is subject to revi-
sion as work progresses. The trees will be studied
only under natural conditions, but the crops will
be grown and studied under both natural and con-
trolled conditions (prepared field plots and
greenhouses).
The principal tasks of the project are (I)
photographic recording and image analysis for
plants fumigated in the laboratory under con-
trolled conditions, (2) spectroradiometry, and (3)
collection and analysis of images from airborne
sensors and cherry pickers.
Present work on this project involves Widows
417
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Creek and Shawnee steam plants (figures 1 and 2).
Activities scheduled for the 1977 growing season
include (1) detailed laboratory work involving
short-range remote sensing and image analysis, (2)
field measurements of reflectance under controlled
and natural conditions, and (3) remote sensing
from aircraft at low and medium altitudes. Satel-
lite (Landsat) data will be analyzed after 1977.
The activities for 1977 are detailed below.
1. Closeup photographs will be taken of plants
fumigated in a laboratory chamber under
controlled conditions. The photographs will
be enhanced with a Spatial Data Systems Color
Image Analyzer (figure 3), which will help in
the interpretation of data extracted from the
photographs.
2. The Gamma Scientific Scanning Spectroradio-
meter (figure 4) mounted on a cherry picker
or ladder truck and in a Bell helicopter will
be used to gather data on spectral reflec-
tance that pertain to healthy and affected
crops and trees. A series of spectral curves
for soybeans is shown in figure 5.
3. TVA will make a series of overflights of
Shawnee and Widows Creek steam plants after
an S02 exposure, should one occur, to obtain
aerial true-color and infrared color photo-
graphs .
4. A series of overflights will be made of the
same areas with a multispectral scanner—in
this case, a Daedelus model 1260 scanner
owned by EPA's National Environmental
Research Center (NERC) and mounted in an
aircraft contracted by EPA. This work has
been arranged by TVA on a suborder basis and
is tentatively scheduled for August 1977.
Laboratory fumigations and photography of the
affected plants are in progress. Field operations
with the scanning spectroradiometer and over-
flights will take place in midsummer 1977, when
crops and trees are most susceptible to the
effects of S02. The purpose of all phases of this
work is to support image analysis.
Work after 1977 will concentrate on remote
sensing with satellite data. Satellite imagery
now available does not show promise for detecting
subtle effects of SC>9 exposure on vegetation be-
cause of limitations in image resolution at 80 m.
PROGRAM DISCUSSION
Although all project phases are underway,
little can be said about results until late 1977.
If a particular task shows unusual promise, pro-
portionately more emphasis will be given to it at
the expense of other tasks. For example, spectro-
radiometry now appears to be the most promising
Figure 1.
Shawnee Steam Plant
and vicinity,
western Kentucky
and southern
Illinois.
418
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Figure 2. Widows Creek Steam Plant
and vicinity, northeast-
ern Alabama.
Figure 3. Spatial Data Systems Color Image
Analyzer (color densitometer), at
NASA Marshall Space Flight Center
Figure 4. NASA's Gamma Scientific
Scanning Spectroradiometer,
showing telescopic head
with control unit, x-y
recorder, and battery
power pack behind tripod.
419
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70 i-
60
50
40
30
20
10
HEALTHY GREEN LEAFLET
INTERMEDIATE CHLOROSIS
ADVANCED CHLOROSIS
Figure 5.
Changes in reflectance of
a soybean leaflet in vari-
ous stages of stress.
Measurements obtained with
Gamma Scientific Scanning
Spectroradiometer.
400
450
500 550
WAVELENGTH, NANOMETERS
600
650
technique, but later work (after 1977) will concen-
trate on remote sensing from satellite platforms
and digital analysis of the data. Landsat-C will
be launched in September 1977 and is expected to
be more useful than earlier satellites because its
sensors are better than those of Landsat-1 and -2.
Once the limits of detection for patterns of
effects of SC>2 exposure on vegetation are known,
an operational system can be organized so that
routine overflights by aircraft and satellites can
be used to monitor the injury. This information
will enable corrective action. A system that
would allow nearly real-time response may be
possible, perhaps in the mid-1980s. There is a
great potential for saving manpower if the tasks
of manually mapping the boundaries of areas
affected by SC>2 could be augmented by overflights
for aerial remote sensing. Images obtained during
aerial missions using multispectral scanners,
combined with (1) information from spectroradio-
metric measurements and (2) reflectance data from
plants fumigated with S02 in controlled chambers
may provide the key for successfully detecting
patterns of injury from a distance.
To date, TVA's only successful aerial detec-
tion of the effects of S02 on vegetation has been
with oblique true-color photographs made in 1975
with a hand-held camera over a pine forest near a
steam plant (Figure 6). A color enhancement of
the image area apparently affected by S02, produced
on the Spatial Data Systems Color Image Analyzer,
is shown in black and white below the normal,
oblique-angle photograph. The failure to date to
obtain vertical aerial images that show the
boundaries of areas affected by SC>2 could be the
result of poor timing or inappropriate flying
height. The experiments to be conducted during
the summer of 1977 should resolve these questions.
CONCLUSIONS
From a comparison of extensive ground-truth
field data with the results of multispectral scans
and conventional photographs made during a series
of overflights in the vicinity of Shawnee Steam
Plant in 1975, the principal investigator has
drawn several tentative conclusions that will be
applied to future studies of remote sensing:
1. Timeliness is critical; overflights should
normally occur within about seven days after
an exposure, but the exact limits are control-
led by the weather because rapid plant growth
obscures the injury caused by S02 •
2. Incomplete plant canopy cover creates problems
because of the interference of soil background
in the scene being interpreted from the
image. This problem is particularly apparent
in images of row crops. Therefore, future
overflights should be conducted late in the
growing season when crops are mature and the
canopy is continuous.
3. A variety of flying heights should be used
over selected sites to determine the optimum
image scale for detecting the effects of SC>2
exposure. A number of sensors and combina-
tions of films and filters should be used.
4. The collection of ground-truth field data in
1975 was entirely adequate to support the
project. Future exercises should be conducted
similarly and could be restricted to a smaller
area without affecting the results of the
remote sensing program.
It is too soon to draw conclusions on the
value of laboratory experiments involving photo-
420
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Figure 6. Oblique aerial photograph
(top) taken at low altitude
of a pine forest affected
by SC>2 from a nearby steam
plant and electronic
enhancement (bottom)
of the same scene.
Light tones on enhancement
indicated affected trees.
Photos taken in 1975.
Originals in color.
graphic recording of the results of experiments in
fumigation chambers, enhancements of color images,
and spectroradiometric measurements. By late
1977, these experiments should be completed, and
several remote-sensing overflights should have
been conducted. The combined information should
yield some firm conclusions concerning the detect-
ability of areas affected by S02 by remote sensing.
REFERENCES
I. Miller, P. R., J. R. Parameter, Jr., B. H.
Flick, and C. W. Martinez. Ozone Dosage
Response of Ponderosa Pine Seedlings. Air
Pollut. Control Assoc. J., 19:435-438, 1969.
2. Heller, R. C. Large-Scale Color Photo
Assessment of Smog-Damaged Pines. In:
Proceedings of the American Society of
Photogrammetry and the Society of Photo-
graphic Science and Engineering, New York,
1969. pp. 85-98.
3. Wert, S. L. A System for Using Remote
Sensing Techniques' to Detect and Evaluate Air
Pollution Effects on Forest Stands. In:
Proceedings of the 6th International Sympo-
sium on Remote Sensing of Environment, Ann
Arbor, Michigan, 1969. pp. 1169-1178.
*.. Zealer, K. A., R. C. Heller, N. X. Norick,
and M. Wilkes. The Feasibility of Using
Color Aerial Photography to Detect and Eval-
uate Sulphur Dioxide Injury to Timber Stands.
U.S. Forest Service, Berkeley, California,
November 1971.
Fritz, E. L., and S. P. Pennypacker.
Attempts to Use Satellite Data to Detect
Vegetative Damage and Alteration Caused by
Air and Soil Pollutants. Phytopathology,
65(10):1056-1060, 1975.
Wiegand, C. L. Reflectance of Vegetation,
Soil, and Water. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture,
Agr. Res. Serv., Progress Report Type II,
E74-10265. Weslaco, Texas, February 1974.
59 pp.
Murtha, P. A. S02 Forest Damage Delineation
on High-Altitude Photographs. In: Proceed-
ings of the First Canadian Symposium on
Remote Sensing, Canada Centre for Remote
Sensing, Ottawa, Canada, 1972. pp. 71-82.
Reeves, R. G., A. Anson, and D. Landen.
Manual of Remote Sensing (2). American
Society of Photogrammetry, Falls Church,
Virginia, 1975. p. 1407.
421
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POLLUTANT MEASUREMENT METHODS DEVELOPMENT
SUPPORTED BY ENERGY FUNDS
Andrew E. O'Keeffe
Environmental Sciences Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
INTRODUCTION
It is just as true today as it was when
Kelvin said it 85 years ago: "When 37ou can measure
what you are speaking about, and express it in
numbers, you know something about it..." Stated
in cybernetic terms, this becomes "Feedback is an
essential element of the control loop." Control —
defined as an operation whose objective is the
maintenance of some parameter at a predetermined
value — cannot conceivably be a rational process
without means for measuring the deviation of
controlled parameter from its target value.
The above considerations dictate that any
attempt to control air pollution contains an
absolute requirement that measurement technology
be available for the pollutants of interest.
This concept is the foundation-stone of ESRL's
methods development program.
For the near-term future (which extends
indefinitely, pending a major breakthrough in
energy conversion), a major portion of America's
resolution of its energy crisis will involve
large-scale substitution of coal for liquid and
gaseous fuels. In the first years of this reversion
of previous trends, this will call for an order-
of-magnitude increase in the need for technology
designed to minimize emissions of coal-generated
pollutants to the atmosphere. Without such
control technology, energy-environment trade-offs
are likely to be unduly weighted — in view of
the crisis situation — to the detriment of the
environment. And, as we have seen, this needed
technology can neither be optimally developed nor
efficiently operated in the absence of measurement
capability.
It is axiomatic that methods-development
research supported by Energy funds will be princi-
pally concerned with those pollutants associated
with the burning of coal. These include sulfur
oxides ("SO ") or, more specifically, sulfur
dioxide, sulfate ion, and free sulfuric acid;
also those organic products of coal combustion
that may be described as "potential carcinogens,"
or more broadly "materials of high physiologic
impact."
TECHNICAL DISCUSSION
The doctrine of non-degradation of air
quality imposed a need, intensified by the
energy-oriented proliferation of coal-burning
power sources, to quantify atmospheric concen-
trations of sulfur dioxide well below those
measurable with 1975 instrumentation. A pre-
existing but dormant ESRL project was judged to
offer the best approach to satisfying this need.
Its aim was to optimize operation of the flame
photometric sulfur detector.
Existing methods for the measurement of
sulfate in airborne particles were known to be
subject to interference, largely from artifact
sulfate generated by oxidation of SO daring the
sample-collection process. The selected approach
to correction of this defect consisted of evaluating
alternate filter media, in combination with
materially increasing analytical sensitivity in
order to permit shorter sampling periods, thus
inhibiting artifact formation.
Sulfuric acid mist is one of the oldest
known air pollutants, yet its measurement at
ambient levels was unknown in 1975. The extreme
reactivity of sulfuric acid dictated that its
successful measurement must be accomplished in
something approaching real time, else it would be
destroyed by reaction with either the filter
medium or co-collected particles, or both.
Collection on a highly inert filter, followed by
rapid analysis was selected as a potentially
feasible approach.
The separation, identification, and eventual
quantification of individual compounds from the
incredibly complex mixture of organic materials
generated by the combustion of coal presents the
ultimate challenge to the analytical chemist.
Consideration of the analytical approach to this
problem inevitably leads to the selection of a
single strategy, combining in synergistic fashion
the separative resolution of gas chromatography,
the analytic capability of mass spectrometry, and
the recognitive skills of the computer. There is
today no other technique or combination of techni-
ques that can hope to compete for the assignment.
It has long been recognized that measure-
ments of total suspended particles (TSP) can
seriously perturb, by the random inclusion of a
small number of large particles, any attempt to
correlate particulate pollution with adverse
health effects, since the latter must necessarily
correlate (if at all) with the respirable fraction
of the particle population. As a first approach
to the problem, an arbitrary decision was made
establishing a dichomotous classification of
particles as respirable (<3.5u m) or non-respirable
(>3.5y m). The practice of some earlier workers
of constructing histograms showing size distribution
with finer resolution was discarded as contributing
little to an understanding of health-effect
problems.
PROGRAM DISCUSSION
Sulfur Dioxide
The ongoing program leading toward a hyper-
sensitive SO instrument has as its starting
423
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point an improved version of the Meloy flame
photometric analyser, Model 285, in which the
manufacturer has optimized the burner housing,
improved the electronics, and placed burner and
flow controls in a thermostated block. The
effect of these changes has been to provide 0.5
ppb sensitivity and to eliminate drift due to
changes in ambient temperature. Planned improvement,
consisting of a microprocessor that will compensate
for effects of changes in barometric pressure
upon the flow control system, is presently on
course. The final product, a device sensitive to
0.1 ppb and capable of operation aboard small
aircraft, is expected to be delivered by 1/1/78.
Sulfate
An elegant method developed by Brosset
(Environmental Agency of Swaden) for the microdeter-
mination of sulfate and of strong acid (surrogate
for sulfuric acid) was adopted and further improved.
Using a Thorin titration for the determination of
sulfate and a Gran plot for determination of
strong acid, this has been an invaluable aid in
studies of particles collected in a variety of
atmospheric studies.
Publication of the initial article on Ion
Chromatography in 1975 offered, for the first
time, a sulfate method that did not depend upon
barium precipitation for its operation. ESRL
scientists immediately realised the value of this
new method, and adopted it as an important tool
in studies involving particulate sulfate. It has
since been taken up enthusiastically by other EPA
laboratories. One important purpose that it is
serving is that of distinguishing unequivocally
between sulfate and sulfite. A small but important
modification of the procedure by which particulate
samples are extracted prior to analysis prevents
the oxidation of sulfite during sample preparation,
and has been used to demonstrate for the first
time that airborne particles seldom if ever
contain appreciable quantities of sulfite. This
is important in that it validates the assumption
that total sulfur in a particulate sample is
precisely equivalent to sulfate, thus permitting
the use of rapid and convenient x-ray fluorescence
analysis for total sulfur as a valid measure of
sulfate.
Sulfuric Acid
Sulfuric acid mist is efficiently collected on a
fluorocarbon membrane filter. Subsequent warming
of the filter in a bone-dry stream of air serves
to convey the acid to a flame-photometric sulfur
detector for readout. In addition to being
inert, the fluorocarbon filter material has the
further advantage of being difficultly wettable,
thus inhibiting the coalescence and consequent
interaction of acid droplets with neighboring
droplets of other substances collected simultan-
eously. It is planned to evaluate the effect of
co-collected organic material upon acid recovery,
by observing the decay (if any) of acid as a
function of the time during which the two kinds
of particles coexist on a filter.
Organic Pollutants
The extreme sensitivity (parts-per-trillion
or beyond) demanded of any scheme for the measure-
ment of combustion-source organic pollutants
immediately mandates a sampling procedure that is
integrated over some period of time.
Tenax GC, a thermostable porous polymer, has
been demonstrated to be capable of retaining the
vapors of non-polar substances very efficiently,
and of releasing them upon heating. This has
become the favored method of sampling -:or organic
vapors in the atmosphere. It is recognized that
substances having critical temperatures below
150° are less efficiently captured, and that
opportunities for artifact formation exist with
some reactive substances; carbon adsorption is
used as an alternate trapping medium in such
cases. Studies are continuing toward better
resolution of the collection problem.
Samples collected as outlined above are
thermally transferred to a gas chromatography
column containing a stationary phase judged
appropriate for those substances thought to be
present (usually after preliminary examination
using a general purpose column), and fractionation
is performed thereon. Column effluent is passed
to the inlet of a mass spectrometer, which performs
rapid mass scans and records its results on a
computer. Subsequently, these scans are compared
with computer-stored reference spectra to provide
compound identifications.
Fine Particles
Suspended particles represent an area of air
pollution measurement that has long been difficult
and imprecise. Such particles are not chemically
definable, but are categorized solely on the basis
of a combination of physical characteristics:
their size, shape, and weight are such that they
can remain suspended in air for an appreciable
(but not defined!) length of time. Some improvement
over the time-honored Hi-Vol Sampler method of
collecting particles for measurement has been
needed. One approach to this has been ESRL's
development of the dichotomous sampler. This has
led to the production (now under way) of two
models — manual and automated — that have been
carefully designed to permit their being offered
to the control-agency community at prices that
will hopefully encourage their evaluation on a
broad scale. When these become available —
1978 — it is hoped that their manifest advantages
of improved precision and sensitivity, together
with their ability to segregate those particles
whose size, decrees possible effects upon health,
will overcome the tendency to remain locked to an
older and far less meaningful technique, simply
because "It's always been done that way."
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MEASUREMENT STANDARDS FOR AIR POLLUTION
MONITORING AND CONTROL ASSOCIATED WITH
ENERGY PRODUCTION
William H. Kirchhoff
Office of Air and Water Measurement
National Bureau of Standards
U.S. Department of Commerce
Washington, D.C.
This paper describes those activities of
the National Bureau of Standards related to
standards needs associated with energy-related
air pollution monitoring. This effort is an
extension of the NBS base program in air pollution
measurement standards and some of the projects
described have been supported in part by the NBS
base program. The mission of the National
Bureau of Standards is to provide standards of
measurement and means for allowing measurements
to be made compatible with these standards. The
task falls to NBS of addressing those problems
of greatest national concern. In 1970, NBS
initiated its air pollution measurement program.
With the implementation of the recommendations
of the King Report, the NBS air pollution program
has expanded to include the provision of Standard
Reference Materials (SRMs) for gaseous pollutants
and airborne particulates arising from fossil
fuel combustion and for the chemical characteriza-
tion of fuels and raw materials. In addition,
an instrument has been developed to distinguish
sulfur compounds in particulates from gaseous
sulfur compounds.
Four SRM's have been issued which consist
of gas blends of sulfur dioxide in nitrogen in
concentrations ranging from approximately 500
ppm to 2500 ppm. Other SRM's currently under
development are NO in air at concentrations
ranging from 250 ppm to 2500 ppm; oxygen in
nitrogen and hydrogen sulfide in a hydrocarbon
gas blend. These SRM's are applicable to the
testing of methods for measuring source concen-
trations of pollutants. Standards are also
being developed for ambient air monitoring.
Three SRM's consisting of carbon monoxide in air
(to complement the existing carbon monoxide in
nitrogen SRM's) at concentrations of 9.5 ppm,
18.0 ppm and 42.7 ppm have been completed. Gas
blends of S02 and NO in nitrogen at ppb concen-
trations are presently being investigated as
alternatives to the NBS permeation tubes for
ambient air monitoring.
Recognizing that particulates may be the
most serious pollutants in regard to long term
chronic health effects, several projects are
underway in particulate metrology. Because X-
ray fluorescence analysis provides a rapid
method for the analysis of the elemental compo-
sition of particulates collected on filter
Papers and impactors, potential SRM's for the
calibration of X-ray fluorescence instruments
are being investigated. Test samples have been
prepared by thermally evaporating thin metallic
films onto polycarbonate filters. Test samples
have also been prepared by sputtering glasses
containing known quantities of trace elements
with an argon ion beam onto polycarbonate filters.
Both of these methods of preparation are attrac-
tive because of the ruggedness of the prepared
samples. Yet another approach is the manufacture
of glass microbeads from a well characterized
bulk glass. The microbeads are intended to
simulate real particulates but their composition
and size can be controlled so that a series of
standards of varying size and composition could
be prepared. In all three approaches, samples
have been successfully prepared and methods for
performing certification analyses (necessary for
the certification of the SRM) are being developed.
Two measurement methods have been developed
for particulate monitoring. The first is an
instrument for measuring the size distribution
of particles of known density. The principle of
operation is the relation between the Doppler
shift of laser light scattered from a moving
particle in a gravitational field and the mass
of the particle. The primary use of such an
instrument will be to characterize aerosol
generators which are used to calibrate other
particulate sizing equipment. The instrument
has been built and has been demonstrated to have
a size resolution of 0.05 micrometers at a parti-
cle size of 6 micrometers and an accuracy of 1%
in determining the size of a 6 micrometer parti-
cle. The ultimate range of the instrument now
appears to be 0.5 micrometers to 20 micrometers.
Accuracy and resolution over this entire range
are yet to be tested.
The second instrument developed is for the
measurement of sulfur in particulate matter.
The principle of operation is the combination of
an electrostatic precipitator with a flame
photometric detector specific for sulfur. The
electrosatatic precipitator is turned on and off
rapidly, thus developing an AC signal in the
flame photometric detector corresponding to the
amount of sulfur contained in the particles
captured by the precipitator. The instrument
has been field tested and the detection limit
so far achieved is 2 micrograms per cubic meter.
However, problems of systematic errors introduced
by a background of sulfur dioxide and long
response times (on the order of a minute) need
to be solved.
A method to distinguish the sulfur compounds
in particles by thermally evaporating the compounds
is presently being investigated. Different
compounds vaporize at different temperatures and
it may be possible to use this technique to dif-
ferentiate between the different compounds.
Finally, work is underway to provide SRM's
for elemental analysis of fuels and raw materials.
Samples of Western and Eastern coal have been
prepared. Homogeneity tests on the Western coal
have been completed. Both coals will eventually
425
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be certified for their trace element composition.
Two oil shale materials have been prepared for
possible certification but work on these materials
has been suspended pending re-evaluation of the
potential of oil shale development.
This has been a very brief summary of work
in progress in the development of measurement
standards for air pollution monitoring as part
of the Interagency Energy/Environment R&D Program.
Details of the work are described in semiannual
reports from NBS to the EPA Office of Energy,
Minerals and Industry.
426
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sampling methods.
ENERGY-RELATED RESEARCH IN AIR MONITORING METHODS
Paul A. Baron and Laurence J. Doemeny
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare
Cincinnati, Ohio
The third monitoring method is area monitor-
ing. This includes less portable instrumentation
that has continuous monitoring and recording capa-
bilities to determine contaminant level variation
at any time over an extended period of time at a
given location. Additional possibilities for such
monitors include triggering warning devices in
case of dangerous contaminant levels and activat-
ing engineering and process controls that may be
used to keep contaminant levels below the pre-
scribed threshold.
INTRODUCTION
The National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health (NIOSH) is committed to the
protection of the worker from harmful materials
and conditions in the working environment. The
Measurements Research Program in the Measurements
Research Branch aids in accomplishing this goal by
investigating methods and instrumentation used to
collect and measure harmful chemical and physical
agents in the workplace air. Three different
levels of methods and instrumentation are used to
effectively monitor the workplace air: personal
monitors, survey instruments, and area monitors.
The Federal Occupational Safety and Health
Standards1 require the determination of worker
exposure to air contaminants. The exposure is
determined at ceiling levels or at 8-hour, time-
weighted average levels. Industrial hygiene prac-
tice over the years has indicated that the optimum
method for determining exposure is to obtain
breathing zone samples which can be analyzed for
specific contaminants. The breathing zone is an
area near the worker's face that contains air that
is representative of air inhaled by the worker.
To obtain these personal samples, sampling systems
have been devised that consist of a light-weight,
self-contained pump, and a sampling head that con-
tains an efficient collection medium for the
specific type of air contaminant of concern. The
sampling head is attached to the worker's clothing
within the breathing zone. Air is drawn through
the sampling medium at a measured rate and for a
measured length of time. The sampling medium is
then sent to an analytical laboratory for analysis
to determine the worker exposure. The sampling
medium typically consists of a filter for parti-
culates and a solid sorbent tube or liquid sorbent
systems (impinger or bubbler) for gases, vapors,
and particulates.
To assess areas of contamination in the work-
place, it is very useful to have portable survey
instrumentation that is light-weight, accurate,
agent-specific, and capable of rapid measurement
of contaminant levels. These survey instruments
are used by Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA) inspectors to pinpoint areas
of possible noncompliance for further investigation;
by the employer to monitor contaminant levels and
target areas to be subjected to engineering con-
trols; and by NIOSH to evaluate problem areas,
bearing on the accuracy and collection of epidemi-
ological data, and the effectiveness of personal
The increased emphasis on energy technology
in recent years has impacted on the occupational
health area by increasing, in many instances, the
number and concentration of air contaminant num-
bers. For this reason, versatile and specific
multiagent monitoring systems have been one of the
goals under this program.
Another impact is in energy conservation
where insulating materials such as asbestos and
fibrous glass and other fibrous minerals play an
important role. Exposures to these fibrous
materials have traditionally been measured by
sample collection of filters and subsequent
analysis by manual counting of individual fibers.2
Improvements in the precision and speed with which
these measurements can be made has been another
goal under this program.
TECHNICAL DISCUSSION
The six projects that are underway in this
interagency program include:
(1) Evaluation of Personal Sampling Devices
in Cold Environments
(2) Development of a Fibrous Aerosol Survey
Monitor
(3) Development of a Miniature Gas Chromatograph
(4) Development of a Portable Microwave Spectro-
metric Analyzer
(5) Development of a Personal Filter Sample
Fiber Counter; and
(6) Development of a Personal Sampling and
Analytical Method for H2S.
These projects are in various stages of completion
and the results indicated to date are described
below:
Project 1
The evaluation of reliability of sampling
devices in cold environments has been carried out
under NIOSH contract by Research Triangle Insti-
tute and is nearly complete. The investigation
has yielded information on the physical limita-
tions to commercially available battery operated,
personal sampling pumps being used at low tempera-
tures. The testing protocol included temperatures
from 25°C to -50°C. Various aspects of pump
427
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operation were considered, including battery type,
lubricant properties, physical damage, and service
life. Preliminary evaluations of the data
indicate that the primary limitations of the
pumps are due to battery characteristics. The
typically used rechargeable nickel/cadmium
batteries can supply power to the pumps adequately
down to -20°C. Alkali cells have a similar temp-
erature limitation. Some pumps contain a mer-
cury reference cell in addition to the nickel/
cadmium batteries to improve the time dependent
flow characteristics. The mercury cells suffer
breakdown at -10°C. Virtually all of the pumps
operated successfully down to -50°C when an
external power supply was employed. Subsequent
operation of these same pumps at room temper-
atures indicated that there was no significant
wear or change in the normal operating
characteristics.
Project 2
The development of a fibrous aerosol monitor
by the GCA Corporation under NIOSH contract has
proceeded satisfactorily and is in the final
stages of instrument testing. The prototype
instrument is a completely portable, battery
operated device with a volume of 1.5 cubic feet
(0.04 cubic meters) and a weight of approx-
imately 30 Ibs (14 kg). The instrument detects
and counts individual aerosol fibers in real time
and gives an indication of concentration in
fibers/cm averaged over periods of 1, 10, 100,
and 1000 minutes. The principle of detection
involves alignment of the fibers by an electro-
static field and detection of the fibers by
light scattering from a HeNe laser beam. The
alignment process effectively discriminates
against non-fibrous particles. The light
scattering signal gives information that is in-
directly related to fiber dimensions. Therefore,
calibration against the light microscopy method is
necessary.
The instrument will undergo further field and
laboratory testing to determine its full capabil-
ities and limitations. The initial goal of test-
ing is to ensure that the instrument will count
fibers in a manner and sensitivity that is the
equivalent of the method required by the Federal
standard for asbestos, namely, the filter collec-
tion/light microscopy counting technique. Beyond
this phase of the investigation, the fibrous
aerosol monitor shows potential for more detailed
investigation of the epidemiology of exposure to
asbestos and other fibrous aerosols, because it
gives more precise and rapid fiber concentration
data and it has fiber sizing potential as well.
Project 3
Increased versatility and capability in mon-
itoring the workplace air for various gaseous
contaminants has been one of the goals in this
project. The miniaturization of a gas chromato-
graph to the point where it is not much larger
than a pocket calculator has been studied by
Stanford University Electronics Laboratory under
NIOSH contract. Capillary GC columns of 0.5 to
3 meters long have been fabricated on the surface
of a silicon wafer about 4 cm square. Column lin-
ings such as polyethylene glycol and Apiezon L
have been coated onto the 20 ym x 200 pm cross-
section column. Investigations of various detec-
tors and gas handling valves that are mounted on
the source silicon wafer have also been made.
Currently, the most compatible detector seems to
be a custom made miniature thermistor detector.
This detector promises to give a sensitivity on
the order of 50 ppm. Both pneumatic and solenoid
valves have been constructed. The pneumatically
operated valves require bulky, external gas
sources and excessive power, which is incompatible
with the final design concept. Miniature solenoid
valves have been constructed that have acceptable
performance. Because of the very high tolerances
and fast valve action required, the success rate
in valve construction has not been very high and
this has limited the number of complete systems
available for testing.
Software for microcomputer control of the
entire GC is being investigated. Relatively
simple algorithms will be developed for data
extraction and for compensation for external vari-
ables such as temperature and pressure. The
development is progressing satisfactorily and the
entire concept looks promising. Previous versions
of this GC have produced chromatograms with good
separation of a mixture of isobutanol, acetone,
and ethanol in one minute at room temperature with
a column flow rate of 1 yl/sec and a 25 nl sample
volume.3
Project 4
Lack of specificity has been a common problem with
many monitoring instruments. For this reason, and
to provide multiagent capability in an air
monitoring instrument, a microwave spectrometric
analyzer is being developed at the Lawrence Liver-
more Laboratory. Microwave spectroscopy provides
very high specificity with minimum likelihood of
interferences. To increase the sensitivity of the
instrument, semipermeable membranes will be used
to enhance the concentration of polar compounds
in the detection cell. The instrument will be
set up to measure the concentrations of ten
compounds at concentrations one fifth the Federal
standard for workplace air. The compounds to be
measured include:
acetonitrile
acetaldehyde
acetone
carbonyl sulfide
ethanol
ethylene oxide
iso-propanol
methanol
propylene oxide
sulfur dioxide
Previous versions of the microwave spectrometric
analyzer have been built for single contaminants
including formaldehyde and ammonia. The present
instrument will be capable of being switched to any
of the above compounds. Because of high power and
vacuum requirements, the instrument will be
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operated on AC line power, but will be sufficiently
portable for evaluation of various areas during
field evaluation of air contaminants.
Project 5
In addition to survey measurement of exposure
to asbestos and other fibrous aerosols, it is nec-
essary to measure time-weighted average personal
exposures in order to comply with the Federal
standard for asbestos.2 To accomplish this, an
automated fiber counter is to be constructed that
will be capable of providing rapid and precise
evaluation of fiber concentrations collected on
filters. The present procedure for determining
exposure to asbestos involves filter collection
of personal samples of air to which the worker is
exposed, and analysis of the filter samples by
light microscopy. The optical counting of these
filter samples is tedious and yields air concentra-
tion estimates of relatively poor precision primar-
ily because of the limitations of human counters.
The automation of this procedure will free up
technical expertise for other laboratory proced-
ures and improve the reliability of the exposure
measurements. Light scattering from fibers
produces distinctive patterns which can be
analyzed by instrumental means. These scattering
patterns will be the basis on which the instrument
will be developed.
Project 6
The current NIOSH recommended method for
personal sampling of H2S utilizes collection by
midget impinger and colorimetric analysis. The
midget impinger is an undesirable device to use as
a personal sampler because of its size and its
glass construction. The liquid sorbent material
is prone to spillage and contamination in the
field. A number of solid sorbent materials are
being investigated for their use in a collection
device for H2S. The ideal sorbent material would
have: 1) 100% collection efficiency; 2) 100%
desorption capability for analysis; 3) low sus-
ceptibility to humidity effects; 4) minimal
collection of interfering analytes; and 5) no
storage losses of collected samples.
INTERAGENCY PARTICIPATION
The majority of the energy related research in
the Measurements Research Program is being funded
through interagency agreement allocations from EPA.
The fibrous aerosol monitor development is par-
tially funded by the Bureau of Mines. NIOSH is
providing one man-year of effort during FY-77 for
this energy related research.
REFERENCES
1. Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and
Health Standards, 29 CFR 1910.1000, Federal
Register, January 1, 1976.
2. Ibid, 1910.1001.
3. Terry, S.C., "A Gas Chromatography System
Fabricated on a Silicon Wafer Using
Integrated Circuit Technology." NASA Techni-
cal Report No. 4603-1 (1975).
PROJECTIONS
The instruments and methods presently being
developed under NIOSH direction will need to under-
go laboratory and field testing to determine their
utility as industrial hygiene tools. The miniature
gas chromatograph will require more development and
investigation before a field usable prototype can
be constructed and evaluated.
Apart from the specific projects that have been
discussed, the general goals under the present NIOSH
program are to: 1) achieve expanded versatility in
coping with the wide range of organic compounds
simultaneously present in industries closely tied
to energy production, and 2) to provide improved
measurement capability for specific compounds
important in energy intensive industries.
429
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CHARACTERIZATION, MEASUREMENT,
AND MONITORING PROGRAM
Robert W. Wood
Division of Biomedical and Environmental Research
Energy Research and Development Administration
Washington, D.C.
INTRODUCTION
The Division of Biomedical and Environmental
Research's (BER) analytical characterization pro-
gram is conducted in association with several
high priority energy technology process develop-
ments. The objective is to provide information on
potentially troublesome effluents or emissions
which would be useful in guiding control technology
considerations and which is needed in order to
develop a comprehensive assessment of environment
and health effects. This program includes, when
required, preoperational baseline studies on the
natural levels of elemental, chemical, particulate
and other potential pollutants prior to start-up
of a specific energy technology process. Proceed-
ing to the operational activities, a sample
collection and field measurement program is
conducted to identify effluents or emissions
characteristic of the specific operational
facility.
An impartant aspect of this program is the
preparation of selected material fractions which
are provided to appropriate biological testing
groups for screening studies. It is important
to underscore this interrelationship. The
sampling and characterization program is not an
isolated activity but operates as an integral
component of a comprehensive environmental and
biomedical program.
BER's measurement and monitoring research
program is concerned with the development of im-
proved instrumentation, methodology and procedures
for the detection of energy technology-related
pollutants and the determination of exposure to
these insults. This activity ranges from pre-
liminary investigations into new concepts and
novel approaches for measurement, through develop-
ment of laboratory units in order to demonstrate
feasibility, to field evaluation of prototype
systems to determine performance capability.
The relationship of this measurement program
to other aspects of energy development is depicted
schematically in Figure 1. In this figure, pro-
grams dedicated to the development of individual
energy technologies, such as coal conversion, geo-
thermal, oil shale, etc., are shown at the top.
Studies to establish the environmental and health
impacts of the energy technologies are shown as
circles. These include the programs of effluent
characterization, evaluation of harmful effects of
effluent components, investigation of atmospheric,
aquatic and terrestrial transport mechanisms of
pollutants, etc. The success of these programs
depends critically on the ability to make measure-
ments on a wide variety of parameters. Thus, the
availability of adequate instrumentation to make
these measurements is essential. Some of the
instrumentation needed for these programs already
exists and is commercially available. Some of it
DEVELOPMENT OF
INDIVIDUAL ENERGY
TECHNOLOGIES
v^
^ ^
1 i
INSTRUMENTS
AND TECHNIQUES
\
\
^ ^
INSTRUMENTAL
NEEDS
r
ENVIRONMENTAL
IMPACT STUDY
PROGRAMS
INSTRUMENTATION
DEVELOPMENT
Figure 1.
Illustrating
the hierarchy
of support
functions that
relates instrumen-
tation development
to the development
of energy
technologies.
431
-------
is now under development in the instrumentation
laboratory and will become available to the
scientific community. In other cases, the need
for new forces of instrumentation is now being
recognized. Some essential measurement programs
cannot be completed until new types of instrumen-
tation are developed.
The role of the Measurement Technology pro-
gram, as depicted in Figure 1, is to facilitate
the energy impact study programs by developing
the necessary, but presently unavailable, measure-
ment tools.
The specific projects within this program
category, which are supported through the Inter-
agency Energy/Environment R&D Program, are
discussed in detail below.
DISCUSSION
Optical Absorption Properties of Sulfate Aerosols—
P. Cunningham, Argonne National Laboratory
The Chemical Engineering Division at Argonne
National Laboratory (ANL) has developed methods
for the chemical characterization and analysis of
airborne particulate material as a function of
particulate size and time. This technique, which
is based on the infrared spectroscopic analysis of
particulate samples, has been used to show that
there are, indeed, significant variations in the
chemistry of airborne particulate with size and
that within a specific size range the chemistry
changes with time. Of particular significance
has been the identification of ammonium sulfate
as the predominant constituent of submicrometer
particles and the observation that the degree of
acidity of this sulfate is highly variable with
time. This work has been directed toward the
further development of the infrared spectroscopic
method and toward more detailed characterization
and analysis of atmospheric neutral and acidic
sulfates.
Airborne particulate matter is commonly
collected by a wide variety of filtration and
impaction methods, each having its advantages and
disadvantages. To supply samples for analysis by
infrared spectroscopy, sample collection with a
Lundgren impactor facilitated sample handling and
supplied the necessary time- and size-resolution.
The use of the impaction principle, however,
limited the sample to particles above ca. 0.1 urn
in diameter. A procedure has now been developed
which quantitatively recovers water soluble
sulfate from filter samples while maintaining the
acidity of the sample. The procedure, although
specifically developed to prevent neutralization
of acidic sulfate, may also minimize other
chemical modifications during extraction.
The filter extraction procedure starts with
the extraction of the water-soluble material
from the filter by ultrasonic agitation of the
filter with distilled, C02-free water. The filter
is removed, a weighed amount of potassium bromide
is dissolved in the extract, and the solution is
immediately frozen. The sample is freeze-dried
and a pellet pressed in the standard way for sub-
sequent infrared spectroscopic examination. The
acidity of the sulfate is maintained throughout
the procedure without any neutralization or
reaction with the KBr.
During August and September of 1975, a field
comparison study was conducted in the St. Louis
region in coordination with the Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA). The ANL samples
were collected with time- and size-resolution
using Lundgren impactors simultaneously with the
samples collected by the EPA and by other
participants.
The EPA samples were collected using a
dichotomous sampler which divides the particles
into fine (less than 3.5 um) and coarse (greater
that 3.5 um) size fractions. Each fraction is
collected on a separate 37mm Fluoropore (Teflon)
filter. A set of thirty filters was received from
the EPA and included samples from both size
fractions.
Appreciable sulfate was found only on state
IV of the Lundgren impactor, and on the fine filter
of the dichotomous sampler. The stage IV samples
(nominal 50% cut point of 0.3 um diameter) had a
greater percent sulfate concentration in the
particles collected than the filters; however,
the filters had greater total sulfate (expressed
as ug/m^ of air) than did the impactor samples.
This indicates that sulfates are more concentrated
in the size fraction ^ 0.3 to 1 um, than in the
overall aerosol, but that there are also signifi-
cant quantities of sulfates in particles below
^ 0.3 um in diameter. These results are
consistent with current concepts of particulate
matter in the air.
In addition to the infrared method developed
at ANL, light scattering techniques developed at
the University of Washington, Seattle, and
Washington University, St. Louis, permit
time-resolved (1-hr) detection of acidic sulfate
aerosol. The three methods make use of quite
different physical characteristics of the particles.
A side-by-side comparison of these procedures was
made in a two-week field study at Tyson, Missouri.
Time- and size-resolved samples were collected
continuously using the Lundgren impactor, with
concurrent aerosol analysis by the light scatter-
ing techniques. Good agreement was found in the
results from the three techniques.
A new method is being investigated for the
measurement of the acidity of a particulate
sample collected on a filter. The new method is
based on an indirect measurement of the acidic
hydrogen in the sample by means of an acid-specific
vapor-phase reagent of suitable characteristics.
The compound resulting from the titration is
then measured to determine the acidity of the
sample on the filter.
Sulfate Emissions from Fossil Fueled Combustion
Sources--L. Newman, Brookhaven National Laboratory
The purpose of this study is to determine
the primary emissions of sulfate species from
432
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various types of fossil fueled combustion sources
and relate the magnitude of these emissions to
variables affecting the combustion and emission
control processes.
Flue gas composition was shown to consist
, of primarily N2 (71 to 75%) , C0£ (12 to 13%) ,
water (9 to 15%) , excess 02 (1 to 4%) , and S02
(250 to 1500 ppm). The sampling technique must
not only determine the oxides of sulfur but also
several of the other constituents (e.g., water
and 02) in order to verify that representative
samples are being quantitatively obtained and
analyzed.
Both of the principal sulfuric acid sampling
techniques controlled condensation and isopropyl
alcohol impinger collection - were described and
the experiences of other investigators with these
methods were discussed.
Theoretical aspects governing the formation
and collection of sulfuric acid aerosol were
considered. In typical flue gas, acid particu-
late size during the removal process in a conden-
sation coil was estimated to be between 1.1 to
1.6 urn when water vapor content varies between
9 to 15% by volume. A 20-turn condensation coil
was calculated to have better than 90% efficiency
for removal of acid aerosol at flue gas sampling
rates from 5 to greater than 20 H/min.
Apparatus for the controlled condensation
technique was designed and fabricated. Basically
the equipment consisted of an acid aerosol
condensation coil and glass wool plug maintained
at 140°F followed by an ice water cooled water
vapor condenser and collector for quantitative
determination of flue gas water content. This was
followed by an evacuated bottle for 02 and CO
measurements and then H202 impingers for
collection of S02.
Preliminary results with laboratory tests
showed excellent recovery of added water
vapor ranging from 84 to 107% with an overall
average recovery of 96%. For sulfuric acid, when
the entire sampling apparatus from the probe to
the water condensate was checked for acid,
recoveries ranged from 64 to 74%. Losses are
suspected to have occurred in the sulfuric acid
volatilizer and are not related to the efficiency
of the collection apparatus.
Two field runs were performed at a 380 MW
power plant unit. In the second run, recovery of
both water vapor (10.25%) and sulfur dioxide
(1336 ppm) was within 1% of the expected concen-
trations, 10.35% H20 and 1332 ppm S02, respective-
ly, based on fuel composition and furnace excess
oxygen.
Detailed laboratory tests and field experi-
ments with the controlled condensation technique
will continue in the next report period.
Preparation for similar evaluation of the isopropyl
alcohol methods, EPA Methods 6 and 8, is underway.
Beta Guage and XRF Analysis for Aerosol Sampling
Studies—F. S. Goulding, Lawrence Berkeley
Laboratory
Development of an Elemental Sulfur Monitor.
The current activities represent the final stages
of a two year research and development program.
The first prototype sulfur monitor is in the
final stages of construction and should be avail-
able for field testing by May 1, 1977. Follow-
ing these tests final modifications will be made
and a prototype will be delivered to EPA for
their evaluation.
3-Guage Development. We have previously
demonstrated the use of the g-particle
attenuation method for the large scale measure-
ment of total particulate mass of samples collect-
ed on membrane filters. Our present program in-
volves the development of a 3-guage system using
a room temperature Si(Li) detector and a micro-
processor for data acquisition and reduction.
The detector for the proposed system has been
fabricated and tested. It is now being integrated
into the complete electronic/mechanical setup for
more detailed evaluation. The mechanical hardware
for the automatic sample handling has been con-
structed. The microprocessor controller will be
similar to the one used for the Sulfur Monitor
and thus awaits the completion of that project
before proceeding.
Consultation on the Design of an Air
Sampler. Our contributions to the development of
an improved dichotomous sampler will be in the
areas of defining the design parameters of the
air inlets and evaluating the final instrument
when it becomes available from the EPA subcontractor.
We will then test the final instrument to ensure
that the goals have been realized.
Development of Ultra Sensitive Ammonia Monitor—
L. W. Hrubesh, C. J. Morris and V. C. Barton,
Lawrence Livermore Laboratory
Our objective of this project is to determine
a satisfactory method for extending the sensitivity
of a microwave ammonia monitor by preconcentration.
This study is to result in the selection of a
preconcentration method which can satisfy the
following requirements: 1) Extend the detection
limit of microwave instrumentation to 1 part per
billion in air; 2) Operate in an automatic mode;
and 3) Be field usable.
Prior work has shown that a chomatographic
packing material, chromosorb 104, is useful as an
efficient trapping material for ammonia with an
additional property of liberating the trapped
gas at a modest temperature. Our following work
has been to determine the quantitative reproduca-
bility of the trapping and heating cycle at sub-
par t-per million levels of ammonia in air, and
to determine the operating characteristics of
the trap in combination with the microwave ammonia
monitor for reliable measurements of ammonia in
the measurements of ammonia in the 1 to 10 part
per billion concentration range. Laboratory tests
have demonstrated reproducible detectability within
433
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that range for a trapping greater than 15 minutes.
We have also established calibration procedures
for the instrument during this time period.
Our next objective is to field test this
instrumentation. Arrangements are being made
to include this instrumentation in a mobile unit
which will be based in the Imperial Valley of
Southern California. During the remainder of the
FY 1977 we will be evaluating the microwave/precon-
centrator combination in actual field operation.
We will prepare a summary report, detailing the
enzyme study and its results by October 1977.
Our studies have disclosed two problem areas
associated with this technique for ammonia monitor-
ing; a short usable lifetime of trapping material
for reproducible low level detection, and effects
of water vapor during the measurement.
We have found that the trapping capacity of
the chromosorb material changes slightly with each
successive cycle. The capacity changes are more
pronounced when higher flashing temperatures are
used. Since a high temperature (^140°C) is
required to efficiently drive-off the trapped
ammonia, the usable trap lifetime is considerably
reduced. We have found it necessary to change the
trap material after each full day of operation.
Unfortunately, each change of trap material
requires recalibration. This is a definite
limitation of the technique for long term
ambient monitoring.
Water vapor has been found to effectively
displace ammonia that is chemically or physically
absorbed on surfaces. For example, surfaces of
teflon tubing used to deliver samples to the
trap absorb ammonia molecules which eventually
passivate the surface against further absorption.
When a carrier with as little as 0.01% water
vapor is used to flush the tubing, much of the
trapped ammonia is liberated and is readily de-
tected by the microwave instrument. Since the
effect manifests itself as changes in measured
ammonia due to changes in humidity for ambient
monitoring, it is a potential problem for using
this or any similar technique for air monitoring
low levels of ammonia vapor.
Our field studies will determine the effects
of these limitations in actual ambient monitoring
conditions. We will be comparing our measurements
with wet chemical ammonia analysis.
Optimize Filters and Stack Probe for Aerosol Source
Sampling—J. C. Elder, M. I. Tillery, Los Alamos
Scientific Laboratory
This EPA/BER program to evaluate the present
EPA particulate sampling method (Method 5) and
develop improved methods of extracting particulate
samples from stacks has been in progress for
approximagely 18 months. Since the last letter
annual report to EPA in June 1976, experimental
activities have been directed primarily at
evaluation of glass fiber sampling filters operated
at 120°C and 10.3 cm/s air velocity. The filters
were tested against monodisperse dye aerosols,
generated by a vibrating orifice aerosol generator
in the size range 0.6 to 4.4 ym geometric diameter
(Dp) dioctyl phthalate aerosol. The 1106 BH
and GF/A are commonly supplied with commercial
stack sampling use. Physical characteristics
of these four filters are similar, varying only
in the range of fiber sizes and filter thicknesses.
Efficiency of all four filters at 120oc and
10.3 cm/s exceeded 99/9% for particle sizes above
1.0 urn (Dp). The smallest particle size (0.6um)
was collected with poorer efficiency, generally
between 99.6 and 99.8%. A decreasing collection
by impaction, but as other studies have shown,
efficiency of fibrous filters does reach a
minimum and increases again as the diffusion
mechanism of collection becomes effective in
collecting particles near 0.1 urn. Further testing
with smaller aerosols is in progress to assure
that the minimum efficiency does not fall below
acceptable limits. These tests utilize poly-
disperse dye aerosols generated in the range
0.07 to 0.2 m (Dp) from compressed air
nebulizers.
Efficiencies of these filters operated at
half-flow (5.2 cm/s and 120°C were greater than
99.8% for aerosols larger than 1 pm and between
99.4 and 99.7% for the 0.6 pm aerosol. Significant
difference between half-flow and full-flow
results was not noted.
Results of the program will be presented
in June 1977 at the Air Pollution Control
Association annual meeting in Toronto, Canada.
The paper is entitled, "Evaluation of EPA Method 5
Probe Deposition and Filter Media Efficiency." A
formal report is being prepared and should be
published before the end of FY 1977. This report
will cover our quantitation of probe deposition
losses (summarized in our June 1976, letter report
to EPA) and the filter efficiency studies briefly
summarized in this letter.
Following discussions with EPA representatives
at Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, program
direction has been changed from development of a
multistage size classifying sampler to an improved
extractive sampler capable of determining total
suspended particulate with less expense than the
Method 5 sampler, greater accuracy, physically
greater convenience, and less susceptability to
formation of so-called "false" particulate. We
will design, construct, and test a prototype parti-
culate sampling train with features differing
from the existing Method 6 train as follows:
(1) higher sampling flow (above 100£/min);
(2) electronic flow and moisture content instru-
mentation; (3) in-stack filter for low-moisture
conditions (existing out-of-stack filter would
be retained for high-moisture conditions), and
(4) reduction of cation sources within the train
which lead to formation of "false" particulates.
Although the train will not be designed for stack
temperatures above approximately 320°C, which may
limit its universality somewhat, it will be
applicable to a wide variety of particulate sources,
This program change is aimed at satisfying the
434
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current priorities indicated by EPA.
Development of Instrumentation and Methods for
characterizing Aqueous Effluents from Oil Shale,
Oil Refining and Geothermal Sources—B . R. Clark
and M. R. Guerin, Oak Ridge National Laboratory
In the course of developing methods for
characterizing the aqueous effluents from various
energy technologies, we chose to emphasize methods
of rapid analyses for chemical classes of organic
components and the development of bioassay methods
for evaluating aqueous wastes for biological
activities. Since a number of good methods al-
ready exist for the characterization of inorganic
components in aqueous samples, we have limited the
research activity in this area to the application
of analytical techniques which are available for
routine analysis, e.g., spark source mass spectro-
metry.
A review of the literature dealing with the
analysis of organic substances in water leads one
quickly to the conclusion that no general method
is available which can be applied to total content.
All preconcentration steps, i.e., freeze drying,
adsorption or solvent extraction methods, are
selective toward certain compound types. We de-
cided that a reasonable approach to the chemical
characterization of organics was to develop
some simple, reasonably direct methods for
analyses of specific compound class type since
this is the greatest concern when looking at
possible health and/or environmental hazards in
the effluents. This approach, in conjunction with
bioassay screening, provides a rather economical
route to the characterization and evaluation of
effluents compared to exhaustive chemical analyses.
Early work in this project area involved some de-
tailed characterization of a by-product water
from oil shale retorting. This material was used
to evaluate the compound type selectives of
several different adsorption and extraction methods.
Polar compounds are not easily analyzed using any
of the standard methods and there are serious diffi-
culties with quantitation. To circumvent this
problem to some extent, we developed a gas chroma-
tographic method to analyze these effluents for
polar compounds using direct injection of aqueous
samples onto a Tenax-GC packed column. This
method is rapid and gives quantitative results
for major polar components. Minor components are
detectable down to about Ippm. Table 1 shows
Concentration (yg/ml )
Peak
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
Compound
acetic acid
propanoic acid
n-butanoic acid
acetamide
n-pentanoic acid
propionamide
n-hexanoic acid
butyramide
phenol
n-heptanoic acid
o-cresol
m & p-cresols
n-octanoic acid
2,6-dimethyphenol
o-ethyl phenol
2, 5-dimethyl phenol
3, 5-dimethyl phenol
2, 3-dimethyl phenol
n-nonanoic acid
3 ,4-dimethyl phenol
n-decanoic acid
a-naphthol
B-naphthol
Oil Shale
Retorting
600
210
130
230
200
50
250
10
10
260
30
20
250
--
--
--
--
--
100
--
50
--
--
Synthane Coal
Gasification
620
60
20
--
10
--
20
--
2100
--
670
1800
--
40
30
250
230
30
--
100
--
10
30
COED Coal
Liquefaction
600
90
40
--
30
--
30
--
2100
--
650
1800
--
30
30
220
240
30
--
900
--
--
--
TABLE 1.
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS DETER-
MINED IN BY-PRODUCT WATERS
FROM FOSSIL FUEL CONVER-
SION PROCESSES
435
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data for shale oil-by-product water and two coal
conversion by-product waters. Note the homologous
series of carboxylic acids in the shale oil
by-product water. Also, note the large phenolic
content of the coal waters. Non-polar components
offer less difficulty and can be analyzed as
aliphatic or aromatic classes with minimal effort.
We have developed a simple, direct method for
aliphatics and have applied that to aqueous
effluents from shale oil retorting, petroleum
refining, coal conversion and a geothermal brine.
The method is a solvent extraction with benzene
or hexanes followed by an alumina column elution
step. A method was also developed for the direct
isolation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
(PAH) and data have been obtained on shale oil and
coal conversion by-product, aqueous effluents.
Perhaps the most important part of this
project revolves around the development and
incorporation of bioassay techniques into the
characterization scheme. Application of the Ames
mutagenicity test (L. L. Epler, Biology Division,
work partially sponsored by EPA-ERDA "Pass-Thru")
to aqueous systems of this sort is quite new and
has, thus far, provided a valuable complement
to chemical data. Effluents have been tested
in whole and as chemical class subfractions
generated by an acid-base-neutral fractionation
scheme. This has pointed to biological activities
in certain fractions which implicate specific
compound classes, e.g., ether soluble bases in
shale oil by-product water. The earlier work with
this material has led to broader application to a
number of aqueous effluents, including several
coal conversion effluents. In addition to muta-
genesis testing, acute toxicity studies have been
performed by members of the Biology Division, using
other biota.
Currently, we are engaged in the characteri-
zation of petroleum refining effluents with respect
to PAH and aliphatic hydrocarbon content. We are
also pursuing liquid chromatographic methods for
analyzing amines in aqueous samples. The use of
radio-immunoassay procedures for specific samples
offers an interesting possibility and is being
investigated.
Instrumentation and Methods to Identify, Measure
and Analyze Energy-Related Aerosols and Particu-
lates in Relation to their Direct Effects on
Health—R. L. Carpenter, Inhalation Toxicology
Research Institute/Lovelace Biomedical and En-
vironmental Research Institute
This project is directed toward improving the
methods available for chemical and physical char-
acterization of aerosols from processes utilizing
fossil fuels, particularly coal. Virtual aerosol
impactors are being designed and tested to provide
improved instrumentation for obtaining size selective
aerosol samples from these sources. Work is also
underway to couple analytical instruments to the
impactors to provide methods for in situ chemical
analysis of samples. Methods for identification and
quantitation of potential toxic organic emissions
are being developed as are in vitro methods to
predict the solubility of particles in the lung
following inhalation.
Recent developments have made the design of
reliable, low-loss laboratory aerosol impactors
relatively straightforward. However, the adapt-
ation of these devices for use in field studies
has not been well developed. The need still exists
for size-selective samplers which operate at high
temperatures and pressures, sample gas streams
whose composition differs from air, and can
sample high volumes. Virtual impactors offer
several advantages which make them potentially
useful in these situations. Virtual impactors can
collect large samples which may be brought out of
the impactor without opening it, thus providing a
capability for process stream sampling at high
temperatures and pressures. A prototype round-jet
virtual impactor has been constructed and is under-
going laboratory and field tests. The device con-
sists of five stages and a final filter. It will
collect particles from 0.3 to 10 y in aerodynamic
diameter. Samples may be either internally or
externally collected. Two prototype slit-jet
virtual samplers have been constructed and are
currently being studied to ascertain their operation
characteristics. These may be designed to sample
at & wide range of flows. It is anticipated that
the same basic design will suffice for both high
and low volume samplers.
The capability of virtual impactors to
present a sample external to the impactor offers
the possibility of in situ sample analysis.
Initial efforts are centered on combining
photo-ionization and flame ionization detectors
with virtual impactors. The resulting instru-
ments may be used to detect organic species as
a function of particle size.
Methods to identify and quantitate organic
compounds, particularly polynuclear aromatic
hydrocarbons, are of great interest. Recent
studies at the Inhalation Toxicology Research
Institute have concentrated on using extraction
techniques followed by high performance liquid
chromatography (HPLC) to identify organic
materials. These studies are using the HPLC
in a stopped-flow mode and analyzing eluted
peaks using a spectrofluorimeter as a detector.
In this mode, a fluorescent spectrum of each
material in a mixture is obtained. Results show
that, for example, mixtures of napthalene, anthra-
cene, chrysene and triphenylbenzene may be separated
and identified.
Additional studies of methods for organic
materials found in coal combustion have employed
gas chromatography alone and in combination with
mass spectroscopy. Techniques have been develop-
ed to separate organic materials derived from coal
and ash by either extraction or by pryolysis.
Fly ash samples from coal combustion are being
evaluated, in vitro, to predict their solubility in
the lung following inhalation. Using dissolution
cells, the solubility of field-collected materials
is being determined. Analysis of organic materials
is being carried out by the methods described
earlier. Neutron activation of the samples prior
to the start of solubility studies provides an
analytical method for a number of elements. In
436
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vitro solubility half-times are being determined
forThe composite ash material as well as for
selected elements.
Instrumentation and Methods—V. A. Fassel, Ames
Laboratory
Instrumentation and Methods for Oil Shale
Related Effluents and Oil Refining Related
Effluents. The broad objectives of these studies
Ire to develop the basic sciences, the investigative
methods, and the hardware so that the demanding
analytical requirements associated with the
characterization and quantitations of heavy weight
organic pollutants in effluents from oil shale and
oil refining operatings can be met in a viable
practical manner. Special attention is being placed
on the class of compounds known as polynuclear
aromatic hydrocarbons, many of which are known
carcinogens. The specific thrusts of the present
studies are to identify the ambiguities in the
analytical results obtained by various analysts
when activated carbon or macroreticular resins are
employed to isolate the organic compounds from the
water sample. The experimental approach is based
on comparing critically the sorption and desorption
characteristics of the two isolation schemes on
the same samples of aqueous effluents.
Sorption and recovery (S and R) efficiency
comparisons of activated carbon (Calgon filter
sorb 400) and macroreticular resin (Rohm and
Haas XAD-2) for one hundred model organic com-
pounds added to water at the 100 yg/1 and 13 com-
pounds added at the one ug/1 levels have been
completed. The classes of compounds tested in-
cluded alkanes, esters, alcohols, phenols, chlori-
nated alkanes and alkenes, aromatic compounds,
chlorinated aromatic compounds, aldehydes, ketones,
amines, carboxylic acid, sulfonic acids, pesticides
and flame retardants. The S and R efficiency of the
XAD-2 resin is clearly superior to that of carbon
for esters, alcohols, phenols, aromatic compounds,
chlorinated aromatic compounds, aldehydes, ketones,
amines and pesticides, whereas carbon is marginally
superior in the case of chlorinated alkanes and
alkenes. In the cases of alkanes and carboxylic
acids, neither sorbent is very effective. It is
clear however that both resin and carbon are quite
effective sorbents but recovery of sorbed compounds
from carbon is difficult and inefficient. Better
recovery methods for releasing sorbed compounds
from carbon need to be developed. Of the two
sorbents, it is clearly easier to clean up the
resin, thereby achieving a lower blank for analyti-
cal applications.
A combined Carbon-Resin Organic Compound
Accumulator (CROCA) is now ready for testing at
oil shales or oil refinery field conditions.
Analytical characterization of the accumulated
organic compounds will be performed in the Ames
Laboratory.
instrumentation and Methods for Geothermal
Source Related Effluents. The broad objectives
°f this study are to develop the basic science,
the investigative methods, and the hardware so
that trace elemental impurities occurring in geo-
thermal effluents and brines can be determined
quantitatively, simultaneously, and with adequate
sensitivity. One of the most attractive techniques
for performing the analyses is the inductively-
coupled plasma-atomic emission spectroscopic tech-
nique. Unfortunately, even the excellent powers
of detection achieved by this technique are
occasionally inadequate if the effluents are
analyzed directly. Stray and scattered light
effects arising from changing concentrations or
certain elements, such as Ca or Mg, in the geo-
thermal effluents may arise to subtle background
interference effects. The latter may give rise to
significant errors, especially when quantitative
determinations are made near detection limit
concentrations.
Two related studies are supported under this
project. One is focused on the development of
innovative methods for preseparating the ultra-
trace metals from geothermal effluents. New chelat-
ing resins with macroreticular oganic matrices are
now being developed for this purpose. The other
project is focused on identifying the origin of
the stray and scattered light effects and on
devising means of reducing their magnitude to
negligible or correctible proportions.
A new chelating resin has been synthesized
which contains a propylenediaminetetraacetic acid
(PDTA) functional group attached to a macroreticu-
lar DVB resin via a carboxylic acid ester linkage.
The new resin has two major advantages over the
Chelex 100 chelating resin that has been used to
concentrate trace metal ions from saline waters:
(1) The PDTA functional group complexes metal
ions more strongly than the iminodiacetic acid
group (IDA) on Chelex 100, (2) The kinetics of the
new resin for complexing metal ions are more
favorable. Recovery of 16 trace metal ions added
to saline water in 0.5 ppm concentration each
showed excellent recovery at pH 6. Quantitative
recovery of most of the metal ions was obtained
anywhere within a range of pH 3 to 8.
Aluminium (III) and manganese (II) were tested
as carriers for isolation of trace metal ions
from sea water because they have fewer atomic
spectral lines than iron (III). However, iron
proved to be a more efficient carrier than the
others.
Stray and scattered light levels in commercial
spectrometers have been reduced to detection limit
levels or less for most elements through the use
of state-of-the art gratings (especially holo-
graphically deposited gratings) and by the
elimination of as many scattering or reflecting
surfaces inside the spectrometer as possible.
Empirical correction factors based on the
concentration of the element (concomitant) that
causes the stray light have been successful over
a limited concentration range. It has been shown
that narrow bandpass interference filters reduce
the far scatter stray light arising from Ca con-
centrations as high as 2000 ppm down to negligible
proportions. These filters reduce the Mg far
scatter stray light as well, but not as much as
predicted by the percent transmission of the filter
437
-------
The nature of the background shift caused by Mg
is now under study.
Our key to the solution of the matrix-related
background changes is first, the elimination of as
much of the problem as possible (e.g. the reductions
in stray light already accomplished) and second, the
development of methods capable of either compen-
sating for any remaining matrix related background
shifts, or measuring the shifts directly by
simultaneous multichannel techniques now under
study by an ERDA supported project. No insur-
mountable problems are foreseen in developing
viable approaches based on the most effective ways
of eliminating or correcting these subtle back-
ground effects.
438
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DEVELOPMENT AND EVALUATION OF IMPROVED
RADIOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT CAPABILITIES
Larry G. Kanipe, Phillip H. Jenkins,
Dale W. Nix, and Richard L. Doty
Division of Environmental Planning
Tennessee Valley Authority
Muscle Shoals, Alabama
INTRODUCTION
Assessments of the radiological impact of a
nuclear power plant are conducted before and
during plant construction to conform with require-
ments related to granting a construction permit
and an operating license. Similar assessments
are conducted during plant operation to conform
with requirements related to preparing reports on
operation and environmental monitoring. Empirical
data and analytical models are used for these
assessments.
Mathematical models, in the form of computer
programs with theoretical or empirical data, are
used to predict the radiological impact of re-
leases from a nuclear power plant. The models
contain many variables, each of which has a range
of uncertainty associated with it. Generally,
conservative values are used for these variables
unless the use of more realistic values can be
justified. The magnitude of the impact predicted
by these models can influence the cost of con-
structing and operating a nuclear power plant.
Revision of the models is critically needed to
permit production of more accurate, realistic
assessments of the impact of the facility and to
facilitate the economic development of nuclear
power.
To assess the impact of an operating plant
accurately, appropriate personnel must combine
data regarding plant releases with data from en-
vironmental surveys. All such data should be ob-
tained from effective radiological surveillance
programs at the specific power facility. Data
concerning the release of effluents and the en-
vironment must be accurate and reliable to assess
properly the environmental impact of a specific
facility. Refinement and testing of the analyti-
cal models for calculating potential movement of
radionuclides from a plant to its environs and
the associated impacts of that movement depend on
the comparability of in-plant and environmental
data. Likewise, the assessment of regional and
national effects of nuclear power production de-
pends on the comparability of empirical data gen-
erated throughout the nuclear power industry.
A primary objective of this project is to
provide guideline information to the nuclear power
industry for developing an optimum radiological
monitoring program. Our studies have been divided
into three major subareas: (1) development of a
model intraorganization program of quality as-
surance for radiological surveillance that will
include all TVA environmental and nuclear plant
laboratories; (2) improvement of radiological moni-
toring techniques with emphasis on gamma spectros-
copy methodologies, which are among the most
frequently employed analytical tools; and (3)
evaluation of existing environmental radiological
surveillance programs. The end product will be a
surveillance program capable of meeting required
analytical sensitivities and providing adequate
information for assessment in a cost-effective
manner.
This project is further designed to evaluate
and refine the models used to predict the radiolog-
ical impact of atmospheric releases from nuclear
power plants. Gamma-radiation exposure rates
measured at various locations in the vicinity of
an operating plant are compared with values pre-
dicted by the models. Direct radiation from
radioactive materials confined within the plant
will contribute to the exposure rates measured at
some locations; therefore, models for assessing
exposure to direct radiation also will be evalu-
ated and refined.
TECHNICAL DISCUSSION
Quality Control
A quality assurance program is being devel-
oped to (1) help demonstrate the accuracy and re-
liability of output empirical data and (2) serve
as a model for the nuclear industry. The Radio-
analytical Laboratory at Muscle Shoals, the Browns
Ferry Nuclear Plant (BFNP) laboratory, and the
Sequoyah Nuclear Plant (SNP) laboratory are par-
ticipating in this program. We anticipate parti-
cipation from all future nuclear plant and
environmental laboratories developed within TVA.
The Analytical Quality Control Program will
provide each participant with (1) information on
quality control, (2) a single source of calibrated
radioactive materials and custom calibration stan-
dards, (3) an analytical cross-check program, and
(4) assistance in developing new capabilities. A
part of the quality control work has been to write
a Handbook for Analytical Quality Control in
Radioanalytical Laboratories for TVA laboratories.
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has
suggested that project staff modify and expand the
manual so that a larger audience can adapt the
information to its particular needs. The manual
will be prepared for publication during this
fiscal year. The manual provides guidelines for
established laboratories and for new laboratories
with little or no radiological experience. Adher-
ence to the guidelines should enable new labora-
tories to meet the requirements of the new
regulations for drinking water proposed by EPA.
The quality control laboratory is stocking
and supplying calibrated radioactive material and
providing custom calibration standards to all par-
ticipating laboratories. Custom sources prepared
from multinuclide radioactive solutions calibrated
by the National Bureau of Standards are prepared
439
-------
tor the environmental laboratory at Muscle Shoals
and the BFNP laboratory. These standards are used
to calibrate germanium detector systems at both
laboratories. Cross-check standards for tritium
in water, multinuclide gamma sources in water, and
strontium in wastewater are being prepared.
Seminars on liquid scintillation counting
have been presented by project staff at each par-
ticipating laboratory. Similar seminars may be
presented to new laboratories as they are staffed.
As another part of the quality control program, we
helped the Radioanalytical Laboratory at Muscle
Shoals to assemble and calibrate a new beta-gamma
coincidence system for iodine determination in
milk and a radon counting system for environmental
samples.
Gamma Spectroscopy
Certain widely used analytical methods are
being investigated. Gamma spectroscopy is a power-
ful technique for identifying and quantifying ra-
dionuclides. Cost per analysis is quite low because
costly chemical separations are not required. The
proper application of thallium-activated sodium-
iodide [NaI(T£)] detectors and germanium detectors
to gamma spectroscopy is the subject of controversy
since each detector has its own particular merits
and drawbacks. The advantages of the Nal(TJ-) de-
tector systems are high efficiency and low capital
cost, whereas the advantages of the germanium de-
tector systems are high resolution and ease of
calibration. Thus, a radiological program may use
either detector, or use each in the task for which
it is best suited. The detailed comparison of the
two types of detector systems that is planned for
this project will assist in the selection of the
best detector for a particular application.
The most effective method for extracting
quantitative data from NaI(T£.) spectra is a least-
squares analysis program. Several least-squares
programs exist, but none have been tested at en-
vironmental levels of activity. The report
"Least-Squares Resolution of Gamma-Ray Spectra in
Environmental Monitoring," prepared by project
staff, evaluates the program ALPHA-M for envi-
ronmental monitoring. The report provides docu-
mentation for the program and gives specific
descriptions of (1) the best processing options,
(2) the lower levels of detection obtainable,
(3) experiments to verify the lower levels of de-
tection, (4) guidelines for establishing the pro-
gram performance from the standards library
selected, (5) methods for predicting the perfor-
mance of a given library, and (6) methods for per-
forming some simple statistical tests to evaluate
the routine data produced by ALPHA-M.
A study of the applicability of germanium de-
tectors to environmental monitoring will be com-
pleted soon. This study focuses on (1) providing
a set of tested quality control procedures for
germanium detector systems; (2) investigating
practical optimum counting geometries; (3) deter-
mining the practical lower limits of detection for
certain nuclides using these optimum geometries;
and (4) preparing a comparison of Nal(TJl) crystals
and germanium detectors that considers sensitivity
system cost, calibration requirements, and mainte-
nance.
Optimum counting geometries have been deter-
mined for gamma spectroscopy systems using certain
practical considerations as selection criteria—
for example, the difficulty of collecting and
transporting large volumes or masses of potentially
perishable samples. This problem and others of a
pragmatic nature were considered when the counting
geometries were determined. In the design of opti-
mum monitoring programs, these data can supply the
scientist with a reliable measure of the detection
capability of certain gamma spectroscopy systems.
Environmental Monitoring
The third objective in optimizing programs
for environmental radiological surveillance for
nuclear power plants has two parts: (1) to
critically evaluate existing environmental
radiological surveillance programs and (2) to
design an optimized, cost-effective program for
environmental radiological surveillance. This
objective is being addressed by research and base
program personnel within TVA. A historical data
base is being developed to include data from all
facilities in operation or under construction as
part of TVA's nuclear activities. The data base
is being set up on the IBM system, using COBOL as
the basic programming language and FORTRAN IV as
the accessory language for data analyses. Other
utilities, agencies, or institutions should be
able to develop similar data base systems with
only minor programming modifications.
An extensive statistical analysis of the
available data has been initiated (some simple
analyses have been performed on the limited data
now in the base). Because better information re-
garding analytical sensitivities is available as a
result of the study of ALPHA-M performed in this
research project and because data now being added
to the base include estimates of uncertainties, a
better data set than others have had is available.
Consequently, the worth of present monitoring pro-
grams similar to TVA's program can be evaluated.
The actual optimization phase of the study is
in its infancy. Information provided by the envi-
ronmental surveillance review committee of the
Radiological Hygiene Branch, established to ensure
that TVA's radiological surveillance program meets
applicable regulatory requirements at minimum cost,
will be used. Data on monitoring systems used by
other utilities, agencies, and institutions will
also be gathered. Consideration will be given to
vectors or exposure pathways to be monitored, moni-
toring site selection, sampling methodologies, and
sampling frequencies.
We anticipate the development of alternative.
designs for radiological surveillance programs.
Using statistical and cost-effectiveness analyses,
we will gather data for refining the various al-
ternatives. After these alternative designs are
evaluated, a specific surveillance program will be
recommended. To the extent possible, we will col-
440
-------
lect field data to evaluate the worth of the
recommended program.
Analytical Model Refinement
The refinement and evaluation of analytical
models involve (1) collection of empirical data
with which to test the currently available models
and (2) studies to test the sensitivity of the
models. Pressurized ionization chamber (PIC) sys-
tems are being used to measure rates of exposure
to gamma radiation in the vicinity of BFNP. Dur-
ing the period that the plant was shut down for
repairs, distributions of background or nonopera-
tional exposure rates were characterized at about
83 locations on or near the plant site.
Data collected since BFNP resumed power pro-
duction in September 1976 have not been fully
evaluated. A cursory examination of the data in-
dicates that (1) increases in exposure rate caused
by radioactive materials confined within the
plant are easily identifiable at several locations
close to the plant and (2) increases in exposure
rate caused by radioactivity in gaseous effluents
may be difficult to identify or quantify.
Increases in the measured exposure rates
caused by gaseous effluents from BFNP are expected
to be small in comparison with background and may
not be readily distinguished from fluctuations in
the background exposure rates. Therefore, methods
of identifying a contribution from a plume were
investigated. One method is based on the observa-
tion that the presence of a plume causes the expo-
sure rate to fluctuate more rapidly than is ob-
served when background alone is measured. This
fluctuation causes (1) an increase in the standard
deviation associated with the mean of the set of
measurements and (2) a change in a log-normal plot
of the measurements from a similar plot of mea-
surements of background alone. Preliminary in-
vestigations of this method using data collected
since operations resumed at BFNP indicate that
the effects of the gaseous effluent plume on the
exposure rate can be observed, but that quantifi-
cation of the effects may not be possible in all
cases. Another method of detecting and quantify-
ing the effect of a plume is based on a Latin-
square experimental design. These and other
methods are being or will be applied to data col-
lected during plant operation. Further develop-
ment of methods for detecting and quantifying the
effect of the gaseous effluent may be necessary to
complete the comparison of the observed increases
in exposure rate with the values calculated for
exposure rate caused by the gaseous effluent.
A study of the assessment models will be
performed to determine ranges or combinations of
values for variables to which the models are par-
ticularly sensitive. This information will be
helpful in determining the areas in which the
most benefit will be derived from refinement of
the models and values assigned to the variables
within the models.
In addition to characterizing the levels of
background radiation in the vicinity of BFNP, the
data collected to date have provided information
regarding the performance of PIC systems used in
this study. The data showed that, although the
instruments were in close agreement with one anoth-
er, small, but statistically significant, differ-
ences were observed. Similarly, small discrepan-
cies between the two modes of instrument operation,
the integral mode and the rate mode, were observed
in some instruments. The discrepancies are be-
lieved to be caused by small errors in the calibra-
tion of the PIC systems. Experiments are being
planned to quantify these discrepancies accurately.
Persons using PIC systems for studies requiring
accuracy and precision should consider rigorous
calibration of all instruments.
CONCLUSIONS
Results of this study are being used and are
expected to be used in the near future by Federal,
state, local, and private agencies and organiza-
tions. The quality assurance handbook prepared in
this study will be the first comprehensive, widely
distributed document to discuss quality control in
radioanalytical laboratories. With the promulga-
tion of regulations on drinking water and the con-
sequent increase in the number of laboratories
performing radiological analyses, distribution of
the document may provide the means to assure data
comparability among all environmental laborator-
ies, established or new.
The multiple-laboratory, intraorganization
program for quality control is providing and will
provide valuable information regarding (1) mainte-
nance of such a program and (2) assurance of com-
parability of data between environmental and nu-
clear power plant laboratories. The study will
also provide information for use by organizations
such as EPA that are responsible for interorganiza-
tion programs for quality control.
As a result of the methodologies for gamma
spectroscopy, interested organizations have and
will have documented information regarding the
resolution of complex gamma spectra and the as-
signment of lower levels of detection. Informa-
tion suitable for comparing NaI(T£) and germanium
detector systems is also being provided.
The study of environmental radiological sur-
veillance programs is expected to provide essential
information for establishing cost-effective sur-
veillance programs of high worth. This part of
the program will be emphasized in the upcoming
years of the project.
In evaluating the analytical models used for
impact assessment, project staff are (1) develop-
ing methodologies for effluent plume detection and
quantification and (2) obtaining information re-
garding the use of PIC systems in studies requir-
ing accuracy and precision. Results of the study
are expected to include (1) development of refined
analytical models capable of providing realistic
assessments of radiological impact and (2) guide-
lines for establishment of environmental surveil-
lance programs.
441
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To supplement the ongoing work, additional
studies should be performed in two areas:
1. Environmental radiological surveillance
programs. Field testing of surveil-
lance programs proposed in the ongoing
study and evaluation of exposure path-
ways not considered in detail in the
present study should be conducted to
assure proper measurement of environ-
mental impact.
2. Analytical model refinement. Additional
work is necessary regarding the collec-
tion of radionuclide-specific data
around large nuclear facilities. Availa-
bility of these data may be necessary to
formulate a defensible series of models
for assessing radiological impact.
The combination of the ongoing work and the pro-
posed work will provide the means for realistical-
ly assessing the predicted and actual impact of
electrical generation by nuclear power plants.
442
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CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS FOUND IN WASTES FROM COAL
CONVERSION AND OIL SHALE PROCESSING
Ann L. Alford and William T. Donaldson
Environmental Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Athens, Georgia
INTRODUCTION
Experience has taught us that a thorough
knowledge of the chemical constituents in waste
effluents from industrial plants is invaluable
in determining whether a chemical monitoring
method is needed for the discharge. The first
step, therefore, in developing methods for mon-
itoring wastes from energy-related industries
should be a comprehensive chemical analysis of
the effluents of concern. In addition, the de-
veloped information should be valuable in devis-
ing pollution control strategies and in planning
studies to determine the environmental impact of
these energy-related industries.
In November 1975, the Environmental Protec-
tion Agency awarded a 1-year contract (contract
no. 68-03-2368) to the Research Triangle Insti-
tute (RTI), Research Triangle Park, NC, to iden-
tify and measure chemical constituents in liquid
and solid wastes from several energy-related in-
dustries, with coal conversion and oil shale pro-
cesses the first to be studied. At the same time
this project began, a considerable number of pro-
jects to assess human health effects of pollut-
ants and to develop control technology for energy
related activities were beginning or in progress.
To minimize unnecessary duplication of effort,
RTI was required to first review pertinent scien-
tific and governmental literature to take advan-
tage of all acceptable information that had al-
ready been or would likely be developed by other
projects.
After this review was completed, RTI inves-
tigators identified information gaps, sampled
appropriate energy projects presently in opera-
tion, and performed chemical analyses of efflu-
ent for chemical elements and volatile organic
compounds (those that will pass through a gas
chromatograph without decomposing). This paper
describes the information that will be provided
in greater detail in the final project report,
which is in preparation.
REVIEW OF TECHNICAL REPORTS AND CURRENT PROJECTS
As expected, collection of information on
completed or ongoing projects was difficult be-
cause very little of the chemical characteriza-
tion had been completed and because most of the
completed work was not reported in the open lit-
erature. These factors indicated the need for
the review to be updated continually throughout
the project. Examples of the information for
technical reports and current projects that will
be presented in RTI's final report are given in
Figures 1 and 2. To date, the review lists 6 tech-
nical reports and 3 current projects that con-
cerned environmental effects of oil shale processing
along with 51 technical reports and 5 current pro-
jects involving coal conversion. In general, el-
emental analysis was more comprehensive than anal-
ysis for organic compounds. In fact, most analy-
ses of materials for organic components reported
in the literature were limited to one or two classes
of compounds and usually were performed without
the benefit of a mass spectrometer or other highly
specific detector. Two notable exceptions were
reports by the Bureau of Mines on the Synthane
process for coal gasification (1, 2). Even in
these reports, however, the authors indicated a
need for further characterization.
Title: Comparison of Pitch Resins from
Different Sources by Combined
Pyrolysis and Gas-Liquid
Chroma tography
Authors: C. Karr, Jr., J. R. Comberiati
and W. C. Warner
Performing Organization: Morgantown Coal
Research Center,
Morgantown, WV
Sponsoring Agency: Bureau of Mines, U.S.
Dept. Interior,
Morgantown, WV
Report No./Journal
NTIS/GPO No.: NA
Anal. Chem., 35, 441
(1963)
Type of Repor t :
Publication
Figure 1. Example of Technical Reports.
Title of Project: Slagging Fixed Bed Coal
Gasification
Principal Investigator: R. C. Ellman
Performing Agency: U.S. ERDA, Grand Forks
Energy Research Center,
Grand Forks, ND 58202
Supporting Agency: U.S. ERDA
Agency's Number(s): Unknown
Project Period: 7/1/74 - 6/30/80
Funds: FY75 $180,000
FY76 - $600,000
Figure 2. Example of Current Project Reports.
443
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For six types of energy activities, RTI tab-
ulated all elements and all organic compounds
identified in the reports reviewed: 41 chemical
elements and 61 organic compounds were found in
effluents from coal conversion or oil shale pro-
cessing.
CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
Methods for Elemental Analysis
Elemental analysis was performed by spark
source mass spectrometry under a sub-contract to
Commercial Testing and Engineering Company,
Golden, CO. Spark source mass spectrometry can
identify and measure all of the chemical elements
except the ten that occur naturally as gases and
may be lost during sample preparation. Sensitiv-
ity is approximately the same for all elements,
1 mg/kg for solids and 10 y/1 for liquids. Be-
cause of its volatility, mercury was determined by
the cold-vapor atomic absorption technique.
Methods for Organic Analysis
Purgeable compounds were separated by purg-
ing an aliquot of the sample with helium and
collecting the compounds on Tenax resin. The
trapped compounds were recovered by thermal des-
orption and analyzed by glass capillary -gas
chromatography-mass spectrometry.
Non-purgeable volatile compounds were ex-
tracted at three different pH levels with freon.
The extracts were concentrated in a Kuderna-
Danish apparatus, and the concentrates were ana-
lyzed by gas chromatography with flame ionization
and mass spectrometric detectors. Identification
of resolved components was achieved by comparing
the mass fragmentation patterns of the unknown
with mass spectra of known compounds. Quantitation
was performed by relating the mass spectrometer
ion current monitor response for identified com-
pounds to the response for internal reference com-
pounds whose relative responses had previously
been related to the sample compound (either spe-
cifically or by class). The extraction, concen-
tration, and analytical procedures used were
designed to permit identification and quantita-
tion of organic compounds present in the samples
at concentrations of 1 ug/1 or greater.
Forty-five samples have been analyzed from
in situ coal gasification plants at Hanna and
Gillette, WY; from a low-BTU coal gasification
pilot plant at Morgantown, WV; and from in situ
oil shale gasification projects at DeBeque, CO,
and Laramie, WY. Analyzed samples included coal
seam water, product water, product tar, ground
water and liquid condensate from coal gasification,
oil shale formation water, discarded cavern oil
shale, and boiler blow-down water from oil shale
operations.
Reported Data
Two examples of reported data will illustrate
the complexity of some of the analyzed samples.
In some samples, more than 200 organic compounds
were reported. Although specific isomers of
some components were not distinguishable (such as
C^-alky! benzenes, TABLE 1), these analyses pro-
vide specific information that was previously
unavailable for these particular energy processes.
TABLE 1. VOLATILE ORGANICS IN PRODUCT WATER
SAMPLE //I DURING WELL 5-6 IN SITU
COAL GASIFICATION
Chroma to
graphic
Peak No.
3
4
5
8
9
10
11
13
16
17
18A
19
20
21
22
23
25
27
28
30
31
32
33
34
34A
34B
35
36
37
38
41
42
43
44
45
45A
46
- Elution
Temp. Compound ppb
59-61
62-6
66
72
75
77
79
83-5
90
92
99
99-100
101
104
105
107
112
115
116
118
120
122
123
124
124-132
124
126
127
129
133
140
141
142
144
147
148
149
acetaldehyde 34+5
acetone 9330 + 100
methyl cyanide 17.0+15
CS2 NQ
n-pr opylamine 17.0+2
(tent . )
CgH... isomer NQ
propane nitrile 2000+55
methyl ethyl 5000+0
ket one
2-methylpropane 100+2
nitrile +
unknown
perfluorotoluene
(eS)
methyl isopropyl trace
ketone
benzene 6670+70
thiophene 67+18
n-butyronitr ile 117±0
2-pentanone 4700+800
3-pentanone 2330+500
a-me thylbutyro- 17+8
nitrile
sulfur compound NQ
N-me thy Ipyr role 33+.16
4-methyl-2- 67+7
pentanone
2-methyl-3- 83+21
pentanone
pyrrole 5000±500
n-pentane nitrile 133+33
toluene 5000+100
pyridine trace
2-methyl thiophene trace
3-methylthiophene 330+28
+ 3-hexanone
2-hexanone 670+55
cyclopentanone 167±35
CfiH fi isomer 33+21
3-me?hylpyrrole 1667+170
2-methylcyclo- 670+225
pentanone +
3-methylpyridine
2-methylpyrrole 1660+1100
4-methylpyr idine 33il7
ethylbenzene 1660+10
CRH isomer trace
p.-xyiene 2670+25
(continued),
444
-------
TABLE 1 (continued)
TABLE 1 (continued)
Chromato-
graphic
Peak No .
47
48
49
49A
50
51
51A
52
52A
52B
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
60A
61
62
63
63A
63B
63C
64
65
66
67
67A
68
68A
69
70
71
^
Elution
Temp .
(°C)
151
152
154
154
155
157
158
159
160
161
162
164
167
169
170
171
173
174
174
175
176
176
177
178
179
180
182
183
186
187
188
188-195
190
191
192
Compound
2 , 5-dimethyl-
thiophene +
aniline
2-hep tanone
styrene
CnH, , isomer
O la
o-xy lene
dimethylpyridine
isomer
C H isomer
dimethylpyrrole
isomer
dimethylpyridine
isomer
dimethylpyrrole
isomer
isopropylbenzene
+ dimethyl-
methylpyridine
isomer
ethyl pyrrole
(tent . )
methylpyridine
isomer
n.-propylbenzene
m-ethyltoluene
p_-e thy 1 toluene
2-isopr opyl-
thiophene (tent .
cy anobenzene
trimethylpyridine
(tent. )
o-ethyltoluene
C- _H0^ isomer +
10 20,
methyl-
ethylpyr idine
isomer
a-methylstyrene
1 , 2 ,4-trimethyl-
benzene
benzofuran +
n-decane
ethyl pyrazine
(tent. )
trimethyl
thiophene isomer
C.-alkyl benzene
isomer
1,2, 3-trimethyl-
benzene
dimethylaniline
isomer
trimethylpyridine
isomer
indane
phenol
indene
C, -alkyl benzene
isomer
methylcyano-
benzene isomer
ppb
67+15
17+8
100+50
13001210
trace
1300+333
1670+945
trace
1000+250
trace
trace
33 + 17
NQ
NQ
167125
33001334
2.67+1
16. 7 + 5
)
2670+352
trace
20001299
300+206
25001271
6670+491
1330+826
NQ
1330+279
167138
26701811
58 + 40
t rac e
1000+210
6700+3990
10001675
340145
8301800
Chroma to-
graphic
Peak No.
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
81A
82
83
84
84A
84B
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
91A
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
Elution
Temp .
(°C)
193
195
196
197
198
199
201
202
204
205
206
207
208
209
210
210
211
212
214
215
216
218
219
220
221
222
223
224
225
226
227
228
229
Compound ppb
cioH2o + Valkyl 23±4
Benzene isomers
C -alkyl benzene 500+25
isomer
ClnH10 isomer 840+98
If) 10
o^cresol 1730+1110
methylindane trace
isomer
n-undecane 187191
methylbenzof uran 3000+117
isomer
2-ethylphenol 10001177
C, -alkyl benzene 670+392
isomer
methyl indane trace
isomer +
C -alkyl benzene trace
isomer
dimethy lindane trace
is omer
£-cresol 16601778
C -alkyl benzene 0.0610
isomer
methylindane 00.310
isomer
methylindene trace
isomer
C H isomer 1 . 0+1
C^-aIEyl benzene 1.511.5
Isomer
m-cresol + 20001670
C -alkyl benzene
isomer
3-ethylphenol 5000+1200
C H isomer NQ
275-dimethyl- 533011555
phenol
n-dodecane 40001100
naphthalene 13340+134
dimethylindane 1340+888
isomer +
benzothiophene
C, -alkyl benzene trace
q
1 somer
4,7-dimethyl- 10001700
benzofuran
dimethy Iphenol trace
isomer
5 , 6-dimethyl- trace
benzofuran
Cft-alkyl benzene trace
isomer
C.-alkyl benzene trace
isomer
C -alkyl benzene 1000+970
+ C.-alkyl phenol
isomer
dimethylindene 16601170
isomer
dimethylindane 10001170
isomer
(continued)
445
-------
Table 1 (continued)
Chromato- Elution
graphic Temp. Compound ppb
Peak No. (°C)
100 229
101 230
102 232
103 233
104 235
236
106 237
107 239
107A 240
108 isothermal
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
118A 240
119
120
121
122 isothermal
123
124
125
128
129
130
131
135
137
138
1-phenyl hexane 67+15
methyl dihydro- 670176
naphthalene isomer
methyl dihydro- 8001136
napthalene isomer
+ C, -alkyl indane
isomer
1-tridecene 900+376
n-tridecane 50001500
tr imethylindane NQ
isomer
C -alkyl phenol 8001475
isomer
a-methyl- 2830+284
nap thalene
2-isopropyl- trace
benzimidazole
isomer
3-methyl- 20001100
napthalene
C. 0H1 , isomer 68134
HenL)
C H isomer 100152
C .H isomer 117+27
C -alRyl benzene 150175
isomer
C H isomer 6701300
1-tetradecene 1000+277
biphenyl 53301534
ri-tetradecane 23301460
C13H18 isomer trace
C13H18 isomer trace
ethyinaphthalene 16701710
isomer
C12H14 isomer trace
dimethyl- 200011120
naphthalene isomer
dimethyl- 6701300
naphthalene isomer
dimethyl- 13301710
naphthalene isomer
C H , isomer 167149
dimethyl- 1601130
naphthalene isomer
biphenylene + 17001491
ethylnaphthalene
isomer
C. .-H,,- isomer trace
15 30 ,
n_-pentadecane trace
acenaphthalene 16901170
isopropyl NQ
naphthalene isomer
C.-alkyl trace
naphthalene isomer
tetramethyl trace
indane ( tent . )
trimethyl- NQ
naphthalene isomer
C H isomer 17001170
n_-Rexadecane 26601271
The chemical elements present were reported
in alphabetical lists of detected elements accom-
panied by concentration data (TABLE 2). Seventy-
four elements were considered routinely.
Table 2. ELEMENTAL CONCENTRATIONS IN LIQUID
CONDENSATE #5 FROM ROSEBUD COAL
DURING LOW BTU COAL GASIFICATION
Element
ppm
Aluminum
Antimony
Arsenic
Barium
Beryllium
Bismuth
Boron
Bromine
Cadmium
Calcium
Cer ium
Cesium
Chlorine
Chromium
Cobalt
Copper
Dyspro s ium
Erbium
Europium
Fluorine
Gadolinium
Gallium
Germanium
Gold
Hafnium
Holmium
Indium
Iodine
Iridium
Iron
Lanthanum
Lead
Lithium
Lutet ium
Magnesium
Manganese
Mercury^1
Molybdenum
Neodymium
Nickel
Niobium
Osmium
Palladium
Phosphorus
Plat inum
Potass ium
Praseodymi
Rhenium
Rhodium
Rubidium
Ruthenium
Samarium
Scandium
0.5 ± .
0.06 + .
1 + 0
0.025 1
<0.02
<0.02
0.4 1
0.02 ±
<0. 02
2.4 +
<0.02
0.01 +
0.23 +
0.06 +
0.008 ±
0.2 ±
<0.02
<0.02
<0. 02
0.6 +
<0.02
<0.02
<0. 02
<0.02
<0. 02
<0.02
S
<0.02
<0.02
2.5 ±
<0. 02
0.1 i
0.020 +
<0.02
0.7 +
0.04 +
<0.001
<0.02
<0. 02
0.85 ±
<0.02
<0. 02
<0.02
0.07 +
<0.02
0.23 1
urn <0 . 02
<0.02
<0.02
0.05 1
<0.02
<0. 02
0.02 +
45
02
.005
. 2
0
1.7
0
.17
. 01
. 002
.1
.4
1.5
0
. 015
.4
.02
.05
.02
.17
.04
.015
(continued)
446
-------
TABLE 2 (continued)
Element
ppm
Selenium 0.04 ± 0
Silicon
Silver
Sodium
Strontium 0
Sulfur
Tantalum
Tellurium
Terbium
Thallium
Thorium
Thulium
Tin
Titanium
Tungsten
Uranium
Vanadium 0
Ytterbium
Yttrium
Zinc
Zirconium
Detection
^Determined
2.0 ± 1.1
<0.02
1.0 ± .9
.015 ± .005
MC
0.3 ± .3
<0.02
<0.02
<0.02
<0.02
<0.02
<0.02
0.1 + 0
0.07 ± .07
<0.02
.033 ± .027
<0. 02
<0.02
0.25 ± .2
0.02 + .02
limit was <0.02
by flameless AA .
2. Schmidt, C. E., A. G. Sharkey, Jr., and
R. A. Friedel. Mass Spectrometric Analysis of
Product Water from Coal Gasification. U. S.
Bureau of Mines, Pittsburgh, PA. TRP-86.
SIGNIFICANCE
Any discussion of the environmental signifi-
cance of the results reported in this project is
beyond the scope of this paper; however, because
of the importance assigned recently to the con-
sent decree priority pollutants, it is of inter-
est that 7 of the 13 consent decree elements
were reported at concentrations ranging from 0.04
to 1.0 ppm (Table 2) and that 6 of the 108 con-
sent decree organic compounds are reported at
concentrations ranging from 1,660 to 13,340 ppb
.(Table 1) .
FUTURE PLANS
*
Another EPA contract, which was recently
awarded to Gulf South Research Institute, will
provide analogous information about effluents
from several energy activities, including coal
gasification and liquefaction, oil shale process-
ing, coal mining, and coal-fired power plant
operations. Sampling will continue at some sites
mentioned in this paper, and the review of rela-
ted projects will continue to be updated period-
ically.
REFERENCES
1. Forney, A. J., W. B. Hanes, S. J. Gasion,
G. E. Johnson and A. G. Sharkey, Jr. Analy-
sis of Tars, Chars, Gases and Waters Found
in Effluents from the Synthane Process.
D. S. Bureau of Mines, Pittsburgh, PA.
TPR-76. January 1974.
447
-------
MEASUREMENT STANDARDS FOR WATER MONITORING
ASSOCIATED WITH ENERGY PRODUCTION AND USE
William H. Kirchhoff
Office of Air and Water Measurement
National Bureau of Standards
U.S. Department of Commerce
Washington, D.C.
This paper presents a summary of work being
performed by the National Bureau of Standards on
the development of measurement methods and stan-
dards for water monitoring associated with energy
production and use. In a separate paper presented
at this symposium, the corresponding air pollution
measurement standards work of NBS is described.
The first area of work to be described is the
development of Standard Reference Materials for
the analysis of energy related water pollutants.
Standard Reference Materials (SRM's) are materials
with accurately characterized properties and are
designed to test the accuracy and reliability of
measurement methods. SRM's can also serve as a
point of comparison for measurements made at
different times on different locations by different
analysts. Comparability is achieved through a
carefully documented series of comparisons of
SRM's with quality control samples, working stan-
dards and calibration standards. SRM's are sold
by NBS at a cost sufficient to recover production
expenses and are accompanied by a certificate
which not only gives the certified values for the
properties of interest but also contains the name
of the scientist who had responsibility for the
certification and additional information on the
preparation and use of the SRM. The SRM program
at NBS has been reviewed recently by Cali [1].
The SRM development activities are coordi-
nated with the Environmental Monitoring and
Support Laboratory of EPA in Cincinnati except for
radioactivity standards which are coordinated with
the Environmental Monitoring and Support Laboratory
of EPA in Las Vegas.
During the first year of this program, work-
shops were held to determine the SRM needs for the
analysis of effluents associated with various
industrial operations. These included: Off-Shore
Petroleum Production, Oil-Shale Processing, Coal
Gasification and Liquefaction, Coal Desulfurization,
Power Plant Operation, Mine Drainage, Uranium
Mining and Geothermal Energy Production. The
Proceedings of these workshops are in pre-
paration but the SRM needs in priority order are
available and are presented in Table 1.
TABLE 1. STANDARD REFERENCE MATERIALS NEEDED FOR ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING ASSOCIATED WITH ENERGY PRODUCTION
AND USE
Technology Area
Material
Certified Properties
Off-Shore Petroleum Production
Oil Shale Production
Coal Gasification and Liquefaction
1. Sediment
2. Biological Tissue
3. Synthetic Mixture of Pure
Organic Compounds
4. Reference Crude Oil
5. Sea Water
1. Raw Oil Shale Containing
Approximately 100 Liters/
Metric Ton, <_ 200 mesh
2. Spent Shale
3. Shale Oil
4. Process Water
1. Western Sub-bituminous Coal
2. Product Oil
3. Bottom Ashb
4. Aqueous Effluent Containing
Organic Fraction
5. Gas Blends of H2S, COS, Thiophenes
and Mercaptans in Methane and
Carbon Dioxide
Char (from Lurgi Process)
Eastern Coalc
6.
7.
8. Fly Ashc
Trace Elements and Hydro-
carbons
ti ti ii
Concentrations of Individual
Compounds
Homogeneity
Trace Elements and Hydro-
carbons
Homogeneity
Trace Elements and Hydro-
carbons
Trace Elements
Homogeneity
Trace Elements
Homogeneity
Concentration
Homogeneity
Trace Elements
(continued)
449
-------
TABLE 1 (continued)
Technology Area
Material
Certified Properties
Coal Desulfurization
Power Plant Operation
Mine Drainage
Uranium Mining
Geothermal Energy Production
1. Eastern Coal and Fly Ash
2. Fly Ash
3. Bottom Ash
4. H-Coal Product
5. Western Coal and Coal Fly Ashd
6. Gas Blend of H2S in Nitrogen
7. H2S Permeation Tube
8. Scrubber Sludge
9. Fly Ash Pond Effluent
1. Particle Standard
2. Surface Thickness Standard
3. Vinyl Chloride in Air
4. Water
5. Air Particulates on Filters
(Fly Ash and Ambient)
6. Coal and Fly Ash
7. Fly Ash Leachate
8. Air Particulates
9. Water
1. Unpolluted, Fresh Water
Sediment
2. Effluent Water
3. Polluted Water
4. Unpolluted Marine Sediment
5. Powdered Spoil Material
1. Uranium Ore, 21% High Barium
Content, Secular Equilibrium
For Nuclides
2. Uranium Ore Raffinate
3. Uranium Ore
4. "Blank" Soil (Dunnite)
5. Thorium Ore
6. Water
7. Soil
1. H2S in Blend of 50% C02 and
50% Air
2. Geothermal Water
3. Cooling Tower Sludge
Listed in order of decreasing priority.
If substantially different in composition from fly ash.
"Reissuance of NBS SRM's
If substantially different in composition from Eastern coal and fly ash.
Inorganic and Organic Sulfur,
Additional Trace Elements
Polynuclear Aromatic Hydro-
carbons
Sulfur and Trace Elements
Tl M
Trace Elements
Concentration
Permeation Rate
Trace Elements
Trace Elements
Size Distribution in .01
to 100 ym range
Pb on 50 pm Particles
Concentration
Oil and Grease, 10 to 50 mg/
Liter
Trace Elements
Additional Trace Elements
Trace Elements
Polynuclear Aromatic
Hydrocarbons
As+3; As+5, CH3As, Sb+3,
Sb+5, CHiSb, Hg+2, CH3Hg,
Cr+3, Cr"™, Organic Cr
Trace Elements
Elements
Trace Elements
Trace Elements
Homogeneity
Pb-210, Th-230, Ra-226,
U, Pa-231, Po-210
Radionuclides
Trace Elements
Trace Elements and
Radionuclides
Thorium and Ra-228
Pb-210,
U, Th-230, Ra-226, Po-210,
Pb-210
Concentration
Trace Elements
Trace Elements
450
-------
Support under this program has been used to
accelerate the development of a trace element in
water SRM, issuance of which is expected in August
1977. The SKM will consists of 16 certified trace
elements in concentrations ranging from 2 ppb to
100 ppb and four "matrix elements" (Na, K, Ca, and
Mg) in the low ppm range.
A method has been developed which may be used
to generate known concentrations of organic com-
pounds in water. The compound of interest is
coated on glass beads packed in a column. When
water is flowed through the column, the effluent
contains a saturated solution of the compounds.
Experiments to date have demonstrated that the
concentration is a reproducible function of
temperature and, following a conditioning period,
independent of flow rate. Future efforts will
determine the suitability of this device as a
standard reference material.
The development of radioactivity standards is
mostly directed at the measurement of alpha
particle emitting radionuclides. To date a --^Po
standard, a mixed gamma ray solution standard and
a mancos shale standard certified for 226Ra and
228Ra have been completed.
The second area of work is the development of
energy related water pollution analysis instrumen-
tation and is coordinated with the EPA Environ-
mental Research Laboratory in Athens, Georgia.
This effort is directed toward the determination
of organic and organo-metallic compounds likely to
result from coal gasification and liquefaction
plants, from coal fired power plants and from oil
shale production.
In order to develop a method to determine the
concentration and identification of chemical forms
of particular elements three projects have been
initiated. In the first, a combination of liquid
chromatography with electrochemical detection is
being studied for the determination of organic
complexes of cadmium, lead, copper and mercury. A
second method, selective dissolution for the
separate determination of As-Ill and As-V, proved
to be unreliable, but did lead to an improved
method for total arsenic. The third method, dual
plasma spectrometry, is based on heating an
environmental sample and examining the vapor above
the sample as a function of temperature. The
vapor is directed into a plasma flame and the
element of interest is determined by atomic
emission spectroscopy. Distinct species of mercury
in water, sea water and orchard leaves, chromium
in yeast and lead in air, orchard leaves and steel
have been detected though not identified.
chromatographic separation methods for polar
organic compounds. In order to assess the method,
specific hydroxylated polynuclear aromatic hydro-
carbons are being prepared. Two detection methods,
cerium oxidation and electrochemical, will be
evaluated for use in the determination of hydroxy-
lated polynuclear aromatic compounds. Finally,
instrumentation is being assembled to allow
coupling of mass spectroscopic detection with
liquid chromatography.
Details of the projects described in this
summary are contained in the semiannual reports
submitted by NBS to EPA.
REFERENCE
[1] Call, J. P., Anal. Chem, 48, 802a, (1976).
Work is now beginning on method development
for the measurement of trace organic compounds
in water. Marker compounds will be selected and
incorporated into analytical procedures in order
to quantify organic compounds detected using gas
chromatographic methods. A marker compound is
an internal standard added as a spike when a
water sample is collected and which behaves in a
similar way the compounds to be determined. Work
is also in progress on the development of liquid
451
-------
DEVELOPMENT OF WATER-RELATED TECHNIQUES AND
INSTRUMENTATION: U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
Phillip E. Greeson
Geological Survey
U.S. Department of Interior
Reston, Virginia
INTRODUCTION
The U.S. Geological Survey has been
active in environmental monitoring for many
years and has furnished assistance in this
area to numerous Federal, State, and local
agencies. The Survey is a research and
hydrologic-data-oriented organization based
on strong in-house capability. As part of
its monitoring activities, the Survey has
taken a lead role in the development, testing,
and application of methods, techniques, and
instruments for measuring water and water-
related constituents and characteristics.
The development of fossil fuel resources
in the arid and semi-arid lands of the West
has placed new emphasis on improving available
measuring techniques and equipment for monitoring
water quality and quantity. Indeed, there is
probably no area in which it is more difficult
to accurately measure the various water-
quality and streamflow characteristics for
assessing the impacts of mining and related
industries. Research to support the monitoring
program is concerned with the development of
instrumentation for sampling, measuring, and
monitoring water pollutants associated with
energy-related developments, particularly
petrochemicals, toxic substances and sediment,
and sediment-laden flows.
This paper summarizes the results and
program accomplishments by the U.S. Geological
Survey since the inception in 1975 of the
Interagency Energy/Environment R&D Program.
Activities under the program have been
concentrated in four project elements including
(1) development of methods for characterizing
and monitoring levels of chronic toxicity,
(2) development of instrumentation for high-
volume analysis of petrochemicals and associated
compounds, (3) development of bedload samplers
for measuring stream sediment, and (4) develop-
ment of flumes and weirs and other devices
and techniques for measuring sediment-laden
stream flows.
PROGRAM DISCUSSION
Development of Methods for Characterizing
and Monitoring Levels of Chronic Toxicity
Measurements of response of individual
organisms or aquatic communities to potentially
toxic substances or mixtures can be used to
monitor compliance with standards for protection
of aquatic life or to assess changes in
quality of natural waters. Transfer of
information gained from laboratory bioassays
to field situations requires that processes
such as equilibration, degradation, and
sorption which affect solute concentration of
non-conservative toxicants also be evaluated.
For example, trace metals tend to adsorb on
solid phases in natural waters and thus are
distributed differently than dissolved pollutants.
In the present study, reservoirs of trace
metals for bioaccumulation and physicochemical
factors influencing solute metal availability
and toxicity are examined. Methods of measuring
responses of aquatic organisms and communities
to trace contaminants that are applicable to
water quality assessment are being developed.
This activity has contributed significant
information on distribution and cycling of
trace metals in natural aquatic ecosystems.
Distributions of solute chromium, copper,
iron, lead, manganese and zinc during stratifi-
cation of a large, oligotrophic lake (Lake
Michigan) were examined. Coprecipitation of
trace metals with calcium carbonate, adsorption
on suspended particulates, such as clays and
hydrous metal oxides, and association with
organic species are apparently important
factors limiting concentration of trace
metals in solution. Uptake by plankton in
oligotrophic Lake Michigan does not significantly
limit solute metal concentration, except in
some nearshore areas of high productivity.
Factor analysis, a statistical method that
takes the explained variance in a correlation
matrix and redistributes it among a set of
factors to reveal underlying linear combinations
of the original variables, is very useful in
characterizing physicochemical and biological
controls on solute metal concentration.
Seasonal and storm-related variations in
solute concentrations of lead, bicarbonate,
nitrate, phosphate, and dissolved solids in a
small, eutrophic river draining predominately
agricultural land were studied. Non-point-
source loadings of these constituents associated
with individual storm hydrographs can be
estimated using a model for predicting
unsteady state two-dimensional distributions
of solute concentration in natural channels.
Solute lead and phosphate concentrations in
the river are regulated primarily by sorption
to suspended solids,
A major contribution of this study was
the development of methods permitting elucidation
of the role of physicochemical factors on
bioavailability of sediment-bound trace
metals. Variations in availability of sediment-
bound trace metals to the deposit-feeding,
estuarine clam Macoma balthica were quantitatively
measured for cadmium, cobalt, silver, and
zinc. Bioavailability appears to be an
inverse function of the strength of metal-
sediment binding. Concentrations of zinc in
clams (M. balthica; Tapes japonica) and
453
-------
polychaetes (Neanthes succinea; Marphysa
sanguinea) from San Francisco Bay are controlled
by concentration and physicochemical form of
zinc in surface sediments which the animals
ingest for food and by species-specific
physiological factors. Chemical extraction
methods were developed for estimating bioavail-
ability of copper and zinc from natural
sediments. Extractions involving complexation
and/or mild dissolution procedures best
estimate bioavailability. Uptake of zinc by
clams increases where iron concentration
increases relative to concentrations of other
chemical sinks in the surface sediments (that
is, as more zinc is partitioned to iron oxide
by mass balance effects).
Studies were initiated on the use of
embryo-larval, early juvenile bioassays with
rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) to determine
concentrations of trace metals singly and in
combination that affect growth and reproduction,
the most critical components of population
survival. Assays have been conducted with
copper, zinc, copper plus zinc, and lead.
Zinc and copper are more toxic to late embryonic
stages and newly-hatched fry than to early
embryonic stages or to juveniles. In contrast,
arrest of embryonic development by lead
occurs in early embryonic stages. The pattern
of toxicity to embryoes may vary significantly
between essential and non-essential trace
metals.
Development of Instrumentation for
High-Volume Analysis of Petrochemicals
and Associated Compounds
The upsurge in energy-related activities
in recent years has resulted in rapidly
intensified water-quality data-gathering
activities. The vast numbers of samples
collected under these activities have strained
the capability of analyzing laboratories,
both in terms of meeting the demands and in
maintaining acceptable quality of results.
The purpose of this project element is to
develop the criteria by which laboratory
managers can determine the most effective
methods and best instruments for analyzing
large volumes of samples for petrochemicals
and associated compounds.
The approaches are designed to increase
instrument output, improve accuracy and
precision of analytical results, conserve
analytical time, reduce clerical time and
errors, and reduce tedium. Specific steps
include:
1. Project the distribution of analytical
work load. Examine present equipment
and work space, and inventory available
equipment for automation.
2. Design automated equipment that would
maintain or reduce the standard error
of estimate on analytical data, double
analytical output, and reduce manpower
requirements by 25 percent in comparison
to that presently required.
3. Define the needed compatibility between
command software, input-output of instruments,
and data-management procedures for a
computer-based control system.
4. Initiate individual contracts to acquire
equipment, computer software, and a
management system. Initiate contracts
for automation of wet chemical extractions,
concentration steps, dilution steps, and
automatic injectors.
With the contract advice of Lawrence
Livermore Laboratory (LLL) , it was decided to
begin with software and hardware specifications
developed for the Central Regional Laboratory,
EPA Region V, as well as with other software
developed by LLL for other analytical instruments.
This would be followed by incorporation into
the design of the overall system of sophisticated,
computer-integrated instruments now owned by
the Geological Survey or commercially available.
Data-handling systems for gas chromatography
have been acquired and installed in the
Central Laboratories of the Geological Survey.
These automated systems inherently are more
precise and cover a broader range of concentra-
tions than did former systems. Two gas
chromatograph-mass spectrometers (GC-MS) have
been purchased and two additional units are
planned for acquisition as further automation
of organic determinations proceeds. High-
pressure liquid chromatography equipment also
was purchased and installed. The instrumental
capability to perform complex, more sophisticated
tests will have been achieved when this
equipment and other supplemental equipment
is totally operational.
In the final design, two large minicomputers
will perform instrumental data acquistion
and real time computations, as well as instru-
mental control. A third minicomputer will
process and manage the data accumulated
either by the two large minicomputers, from
on-line terminals, or from minicomputers
dedicated to other analytical instruments,
including gas chromatographic spectrometers,
gas chromatograph-mass spectrometers, and
inductively coupled plasma-jet emission
spectrometers. The data management minicomputer,
with its on-line terminals, will provide a
multi-user time-sharing environment that will
provide several computer language capabilities
including machine assemblage, BASIC, COBAL,
and FORTRAN.
A reassessment of the projected analytical
workload distribution indicated that increments
of additional analytical support for determining
organics in water would be needed in each of
the next several years. Definition of the
ambient level of petrochemicals found in
streams and ground waters and the character
of those petrochemicals, particularly those
454
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chemicals mentioned in the Toxic Substances Act,
should be given priority for improved analytical
methodology. For the remaining part of this
project activity, emphasis will be on automating
sample extractions, phase separations, sample
concentrations, and serial dilutions. Requests
for bids on contracts to further automate con-
tinous extraction procedures and serial dilutions
have been issued, and further studies of auto-
mation procedures to characterize organics are
being conducted.
As the above capabilities are brought on
line, the need for a fully automated character-
ization of organic compounds or compound classes
in water samples can be addressed. Attainment
of this goal will require several more years,
cooperation among many researchers and disci-
plines, and the continued environmental concern
of the public. Assuming that this concern will
continue, several fully automated laboratories
capable of supplying needed data are now within
sight.
Development of Bedload Samplers for
Measuring Stream Sediment
Virtually all physical processes involving
the removal of mineral resources from the earth's
surface, or from underground, disturb the soil
mantle, which, in turn, results in changes in
surface erosional patterns. At many sites where
resources will be mined for energy development,
production processes and associated construction
very likely will result in increased erosion and
delivery of sediment to existing stream channels.
The additional sediment burden will significantly
affect stream morphology, water quality, and
stream ecology. Much of the sediment will be
transported in essentially continous contact with
the stream bed as bedload. In order to predict
the response of the channel and its carrying
capacity to changes in the sediment supply so
that remedial action can be undertaken to rectify
adverse conditions, information must be available
on the quantities of sediment transport, particu-
larly the quantities of bedload.
Although a wide variety of direct- and
indirect-measuring apparatus has been developed,
no sampler or device exists that is universally
satisfactory for quantifying bedload transport.
The primary deficiency of most apparatus is
that sampling efficiencies vary significantly
and unpredictably with hydraulic and sedimento-
logic conditions. Hence, the accuracy of
measured data is unknown.
The intent of the research reported herein
is to develop one or more samplers for accurate-
ly measuring the discharge of bedload in natural
streams. This will be done by testing and cal-
ibrating existing samplers to define their
operating characteristics and efficiencies in
sampling different sizes of sediment under
various hydraulic conditions. Based on this
information, sampler designs will be modified
or new samplers will be designed, as required,
to provide one or more samplers having stable
and predictable sampling efficiencies.
In order to provide the most meaningful
results, testing and calibrating will be
conducted with full-scale prototype samplers in
a 9-foot wide by 6-foot deep laboratory flume
capable of conveying discharges up to at least
280 cubic feet per second (7.93 m3/S) . Asso-
ciated with the flume is a sediment-handling
system which has been designed to permit part-
icles, that range in size from about 2 to 64
millimeters and transported as bedload, to be
continuously circulated at rates up to approx-
imately 5 pounds per second per foot of width
[7.45 (kg/m)/s]. In the calibration facility,
sediment moving along the bottom as bedload
drops through a slot that extends across the
width of the flume at the lower end and falls
into one of seven equally spaced weighing pans
which are suspended beneath the slot by load
cells. When accumulating particles fill a pan,
the sediment is dumped through the bottom into a
hopper. A screw feed continuously carries the
material from the hopper to a solids-handling
pump that conveys the water and sediment through
piping to the head of the channel and discharges
the slurry back into the flow. The load cells
that suspend the weight pans are continually mon-
itored as sediment accumulates and the weight of
each pan is recorded periodically to permit
accurate and essentially continous determination
of the bedload"transport rate. The monitoring
and recording system is entirely automated to
permit data processing by computer. The cal-
ibration facility is under construction at
the University of Minnesota's St. Anthony Falls
Hydraulic Laboratory.
A detailed experimental plan for testing an
initial complement of samplers has been de-
veloped to optimize the number of sampler
variations that can be studied during each hy-
draulic and sedimentologic condition, and to
identify as rapidly as possible those sampler
features that contribute to stable sampling
efficiencies. For the calibrations, the average
bedload transport rate obtained from repetitive
sampling with a specific sampler will be compared
with the long-term transport rate through the
width of the flume occupied by the sampler, to
define the sampling efficiency for a given
sampler configuration.
Initially, versions of the Helley-Smith
sampler, which is a pressure-difference
sampler in current use, will be tested to de-
termine the effects of various exit-entrance
area ratios, width-height entrance ratios,
degrees of filling, sample-bag mesh sizes,
sample-bag shapes, and sample-bag bottom
materials. In addition, the standard VUV
sampler, another type of pressure-difference
sampler, will be tested as a part of the same
series. A bed material mixture having a median
particle size of about 10 millimeters will be
used in the initial tests. In subsequent tests,
the performance of composite samplers incor-
porating the best features of previously tested
samplers will be studied using finer and coarser
bed material mixtures.
Ultimately, results from the study will
455
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permit the accurate measurement of bedload dis-
charges under the wide range of conditions en-
countered in nature, and the availability of
such data will facilitate assessments of channel
response to the effects of energy-resource
developments.
Development of Flumes and Weirs for
Measuring Sediment-Laden Streamflow
Conventional methods of measuring Streamflow
exhibit limited success in the alluvial-channel
streams located in the arid west where oil shale
and coal development are imminent. Flashy
sediment-laden flows of western streams pose
extreme measurement and gaging problems. En-
vironmental impacts on surface-water quality of
these basins must be based on an accurate and
continuous measurement of stream discharge.
Present methodology of stream gaging is based on
the establishment of a stable stage-discharge
relation. At many sites, an artificial control
is constructed in the stream channel to provide
relatively stable conditions. Artificial controls
are of limited usefulness in alluvial channels
for the following reasons:
1.
2.
3.
Deposition of sediment upstream from
control makes accurate measurements of
stage difficult.
The non-rigid boundary and movable beds of
alluvial channels make it difficult to
construct an artificial control structure
which will remain in place.
The relationship between stage and
discharge is unstable because of changing
approach conditions.
Unique artificial controls have been in-
stalled, for field evaluation, at gage sites
in alluvial channels in Arizona, Colorado,
Kentucky, Utah, and Wyoming. The controls are
of five types: (1) dual weirs, (2) super-
critical-flow flumes (3) critical-depth flumes,
(4) rock-gabion controls, and (5) rock-channel
stabilization controls. Each is designed to
eliminate sediment deposition in the vincinity
of the gage and to provide a relatively stable
stage-discharge relation. Data collection under
a range of flow conditions will be necessary to
assess the effectiveness of the various controls.
Investigation is underway into alternative
techniques of measuring Streamflow in open
channels. Presently three methods of measuring
discharge or velocity are being considered, all
of which require little or no contact with the
water: (1) fluorometric, (2) photographic or
video, and (3) microwave.
Fluorometric techniques of Streamflow
measurement are well established. However,
field application of continuous measurement of
discharge is limited because of the high-power
requirements of presently available fluorometers.
Contract negotiations are underway for devel-
ment of a low-power, sensitive, self-contained
fluorometer which can be used for field
applications.
The U.S. Geological Survey is preparing a
comprehensive report on the feasibility of using
photographs or videotape techniques to determine
Streamflow. The report will include approaches,
equipment requirements, techniques for automatic
analysis, and recommendations.
Negotiations are underway for a contract to
investigate the feasibility of using reflected
microwaves to determine surface velocities and
stage.
CONCLUSIONS
The U.S. Geological Survey through its
participation in the Interagency Energy/Environ-
ment R&D Program and other energy-related programs
will continue to develop methods, techniques, and
instruments for obtaining more accurate water
data in energy-resource areas of the Nation.
While emphasis has been placed on the arid and
semi-arid regions of the West, the developed
methodologies will have application in all
important energy-resource areas. Due to the
nature of the continuing research, final results
still are inconclusive but advances in the
state-of-the-technology are being made, and
improved methodologies will be available in the
near future.
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STANDARDIZATION AND INTERCALIBRATION TECHNIQUES
FOR MARINE MONITORING
Michael A. Basileo
National Ocean Survey
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
U.S. Department of Commerce
Rockville, Maryland
INTRODUCTION
The elements of this project are directed to-
wards developing a capability to define the uncer-
tainties or error boundaries associated with data
obtained from environmental measurement systems.
The project is composed of two major tasks: Stand-
ards Development and Investigations.
Standards development is presently underway
in the following specific subtasks: dissolved
oxygen laboratory standard; dynamic test apparatus
for flow sensors; test specifications for environ-
mental sensors; intercalibration techniques for
conductivity/temperature/depth (CTD) and precision
pressure sensors; field verification standard for
CTD sensors; and a users' guide for underwater op-
tical instrumentation.
Investigations are currently in progress to
compare methods for salt water chemical analyses;
to compare standards used for in-situ chemical
instrumentation to existing analytical standards;
and to compare measurement results obtained from
water quality "test kits" and specific ion elec-
trodes to results obtained from accepted analyti-
cal methods. While all of these tasks are cur-
rently active, subsequent discussion will center
on those which are nearing completion.
TECHNICAL DISCUSSION
Development of a laboratory dissolved oxygen
standard is currently in progress. This standard
will serve as a substitute for the Winkler method
which is currently used as the reference in the
test and calibration of dissolved oxygen measure-
ment systems. The standard will operate in a
test bath over a range of -2 to 35 degrees Celsius
in temperature and 0 to 40 parts/thousand in sa-
linity. The dissolved oxygen range will span 0 to
15 parts/million with a measurement uncertainty
goal of +0.03 parts/million. By using a submerged
sensor, it will be possible to directly monitor
oxygen concentration in the test bath. The sen-
sor is similar to the polarographic membrane sen-
sors presently utilized in field instruments ex-
cept that it is operated in a pulsed mode. With
the sensor "off", oxygen crosses the membrane un-
til concentration within the sensor electrolyte
equals that of the test bath. The application of
a voltage pulse causes oxygen depletion in the
electrolyte; the resultant current/time waveform
is a function of initial oxygen concentration.
The voltage pulse is sufficiently narrow so that
the measurement is acquired before oxygen is de-
pleted in the vicinity of the membrane. This re-
sults in no oxygen transport across the membrane
during the measurement, and, consequently, the un-
certainties of the membrane transport characteris-
tics do not affect the oxygen concentration mea-
surement .
The development of a dynamic test apparatus
for laboratory testing of flow sensors is nearing
completion. The apparatus will generate controlled
dynamics superimposed on steady flows to determine
measurement capabilities of flow sensors in a non-
steady flow environment. The test apparatus is
being designed and fabricated by the Naval Ship Re-
search and Development Center, and will be utilized
on one of their tow carriages. It will be capable
of two degrees of freedom and provide three modes
of nearly sinusoidal dynamics: horizontal, verti-
cal, and circular in a vertical plane. The peak-
to-peak amplitudes can be varied from 0.4 to 1.2
meters; the period is adjustable over the range of
2.5 to 12 seconds. The apparatus can accomodate
current sensors to a maximum length of 1.8 meters,
weighing up to 80 kg. Inducing these motions on
the current sensor while the tow carriage is under-
way provides a simulation of steady current with
superimposed fluctuations. This combination of
static and dynamic water currents is typical of
field conditions where flow sensors are attached as
part of a buoyed array. The capability to simulate
field conditions will provide more realistic defin-
ition of sensor characteristics and limitations.
Transfer standards are utilized to assess the
comparability of results obtained between different
laboratories performing similar calibrations. A
conductivity/temperature/depth (CTD) system has
been selected as one of the transfer standard de-
velopment areas. These three parameters are rele-
vant to most environmental monitoring programs and
the calibration process is fairly complex; a capa-
bility to perform comparisons is therefore desir-
able. The measurement goals of the transfer stand-
ard are 0.5 to 65 millisiemens/cm in conductivity
with an uncertainty of ±5 microsiemens/cm; -3 to 30
degrees Celsius with a +5 millikelvin uncertainty;
and 0 to 1500 decibars in pressure with a ±0.75
decibar uncertainty. An off-shelf CTD system was
procured which showed potential for having the high
stability required in a transfer standard. Initial
measurements have confirmed this stability. The
system is presently undergoing a laboratory evalua-
tion over a six month time interval to verify its
measurement capabilities. Subsequently, the system
will be shipped to another lab for calibration. It
will then be returned to the Test and Evaluation
Laboratory for final calibration and data analysis.
High accuracy pressure sensors is another area in
which intercalibration techniques and transfer
standards are currently under development. These
sensors are now being employed in tide measuring
systems and have an accuracy approaching that of
the available standards. Pressure sensors have
been procured for use as transfer standards and are
presently undergoing laboratory testing. Pressure
ranges were selected which cover the expected
"worst case" measurement areas in the laboratory
measurement process. The uncertainty goal for the
457
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intercalibration technique is +0.01% of reading.
As with the CTD intercalibration, the pressure
transfer standards will be calibrated at a second
laboratory, then returned for final calibration
and data analysis. The end result for both ef-
forts will be reports which define the transfer
standard capabilities and the procedures utilized
for performing intercalibration. The measurement
results obtained at the two laboratories will be
presented as an example of a typical intercalibra-
tion experiment.
PROGRAM DISCUSSION
The primary result of all efforts ongoing
within the project will be an increased capability
to define the quality of environmental data. En-
ergy-related monitoring efforts are decision ori-
ented; these decisions will affect energy explora-
tion and production based on assessment of poten-
tial environmental impact. Assessments based on
monitoring specific locations over an extended
time period or monitoring several locatio'ns to de-
velop correlations or models for a larger area re-
quire assurance that the measurements can be
traced to a common set of standards. There is po-
tential for the environmental data to be treated
as evidence in legal actions where environmental
damage has been indicated. In this case the data
must be defendable—i.e., it must be shown that
the measurement process was valid and that the
data can be related to accepted standards within
defined error boundaries.
The Winkler titration (or a variation there-
of) is currently used as a standard in test and
calibration of dissolved oxygen sensing systems.
The method, however, has demonstrated shortcomings.
Simplified, the measurement process consists of
sample withdrawal, sample preservation and subse-
quent titration. Each of these steps is extremely
operator-sensitive; it is thus difficult to obtain
repeatable data within a lab and extremely diffi-
cult to obtain satisfactory agreement between dif-
ferent laboratories performing the same measure-
ments. Past attempts at intercomparison of re-
sults have shown variations as high as 20% when a
group of well-trained operators each analyzed
water samples from a common supply. The approach
in developing the dissolved oxygen standard has
been to reduce the degree of operator intervention
in the measurement process. This will result in a
more reproducible measurement process and thus the
relation between field measurement of oxygen con-
centration and the laboratory reference can be de-
fined with more precision.
Measurement of water flow is basic in the de-
velopment of circulation models which are used to
predict transport of energy related pollutants
(oil spills, offshore drilling wastes, etc.).
Present methods of calibrating water current sen-
sors by determining their output over a range of
steady state speeds yield little information on the
sensor performance under dynamic conditions. Dy-
namic conditions, however, represent real-world
conditions in the marine environment when the sen-
sor is subjected to motions induced by moorings,
turbulence, and wave-generated*water motions.
These conditions are especially significant in near
shore measurements in relatively shallow water,
Some initial efforts in the dynamic testing area
have indicated that dynamic-induced errors can
range from 20% to well over 100%. In attempting to
assess the uncertainty levels associated with cur-
rent measurements, it is therefore necessary to
have some knowledge of the dynamic response charac-
teristics of the sensing system.
Calibration of environmental sensors is an
area in which standardized procedures have not yet
been fully developed. As a consequence, the cali-
bration process tends to vary from one laboratory
to another. Even when a common process is gener-
ally followed, variations in application tend to a-
rise which have the potential of causing errors in
the final result which would vary from lab to lab.
In defining the uncertainty of a sensor calibration,
which is a component of the overall field data un-
certainty, it is necessary to evaluate the total
calibration process. This can be accomplished by
several laboratories calibrating the same transfer
standard - i.e., a known, highly stable sensor
and comparing results to expected values. Two
types of problems are addressed in the intercali-
bration techniques development areas previously
discussed. In the CTD area, the calibration pro-
cess is comparatively lengthy and complex; in addi-
tion, results are affected by the adequacy of cali-
bration facilities. The pressure work is directed
at a type of sensor whose accuracy approaches that
of the available standards. In this case, calibra-
tion results are very much dependent on technique.
In both areas, the results of the interlaboratory
calibrations can be used to evaluate the effect of
variations in calibration process and also can be
used as a periodic check to verify that the labora-
tories in question remain in some constant relation
to one another.
CONCLUSIONS
At present, none of the subtasks have reached
completion; thus, statements of success or failure
are somewhat premature. For those areas discussed,
however, progress to date has been favorable and
indications are that the objectives will be met.
The remaining subtasks have not indicated any po-
tential problem areas. Present expectations are
that these tasks will be completed without major
technical problems arising.
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EPA/NASA ENERGY RELATED REMOTE AND IN SITU
SENSING INSTRUMENT DEVELOPMENT
John P. Mugler, Jr.
Langley Research Center
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
Hampton, Virginia
INTRODUCTION
This project was established under the Energy
Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) between EPA and
NASA dated May 2, 1975, to develop advanced and
improved instrument techniques for measuring envi-
ronmental parameters associated with the generation
of electrical energy and other pollution sources.
As a result of the Clean Air Act, many of the
large powerplants have been required to burn low
sulfur fuels. These fuels are becoming increas-
ingly expensive and more difficult to obtain, and
consideration is being given to reverting to fuels
with higher sulfur content if the environmental
impact is acceptable. Thus, it is important to
better characterize the effects of fuel quality
(sulfur and ash content) on the local environment.
This characterization must include a better
understanding of effluent composition, dispersion
processes, chemical reactions, and the influence
of local meteorology and topography to guide
decisions regarding fuel grade acceptability and
plant siting, and thus minimize the impact of
environmental regulations on our national
resources. To achieve this understanding,
improved remote and in situ measurement techniques
are urgently needed for proper study of stack
effluent composition and dispersion processes. In
addition to stack effluent measurements, tech-
niques are needed which will be applicable to the
measurement of emissions from other types of
stationary and mobile sources.
Because of the complexity of the plume
characterization problem and the cost of develop-
ing advanced remote sensing instrumentation, this
cooperative EPA/NASA project consisting of five
tasks has been mutually developed to assist in the
timely development of the instruments and tech-
nology needed in the area of energy-related
environmental problems.
OBJECTIVE
The objective of this project is to develop
and apply advanced electro-optical techniques to
the measurement and characterization of powerplant
and other source effluents.
DESCRIPTION OF WORK
To meet the project objectives, five tasks
have been identified where additional funding
would both complement the NASA research programs
and meet specific needs of EPA. A description of
each task is given below.
Task 1 - Raman Lidar
The objective of this task is to evaluate
Raman lidar for remote measurement of the concen-
tration of S02 at a powerplant stack exit.
Raman optical radar systems have been developed at
NASA and successfully applied in the measurement
of water vapor and density profiles in the Earth's
atmosphere (ref. 1). More recently, field tests
have been conducted wherein the Raman technique
was used to detect 862 in powerplant stack plumes
(ref. 2). Additional modifications and calibration
of the lidar system were necessary to make quanti-
tative measurements of S02• The modifications
included reassembly of the lidar system of refer-
ence 2 using a more compact telescope, improvements
to the detection and data acquisition systems, and
reformulation of data analysis programs (ref. 3).
A photograph of the modified system is shown in
Figure 1. Also a calibration facility was con-
structed to calibrate the Raman lidar system for
S02 and other gases . A schematic and photograph
of this facility are shown in Figures 2 and 3,
respectively. The 2-meter diameter, 20-meter long
calibration tank is charged with the calibration
gas which is mixed with air in the tank to a known
concentration. Raman lidar measurements are then
made through a known volume and concentration of
calibration gas. Calibration of the lidar system
for S02 has been completed, and typical results
are shown in Figure 4. The numbers at each point
in Figure 4 are the number of laser firings needed
to obtain that point with its corresponding preci-
sion. Performance of an improved Raman S02 lidar
is summarized in Table 1. The simulations show
that, at a range of 500 meters and night background
light levels, a Raman lidar system could measure
S02 concentrations of 1,000 ppm to within 10 per-
cent with a 1.6-minute measurement time. Complete
results from this task are reported in reference 3.
TABLE 1. PERFORMANCE OF IMPROVED RAMAN S02 LIDAR
Concentration S02
Range
Stack Width
Laser
1000 ppm
500 m
10 m
1 J, 1 pps, 1 mrad
Quantum Efficiency 20 percent
Night Operation
Receiver Diameter Precision Sample Time
8 inches 10 percent 1.6 min
8 inches 1 percent 2.6 hr
24 inches 10 percent 10 sec
24 inches 1 percent 16 min
459
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I
Figure 1.
Photograph of
Raman lidar
system.
FILTER
DETECTOR
SO2. CO. CO2, NO, MONITORS
Figure 2.
Schematic of
lidar calibration
facility.
460
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Figure 3.
Photograph of
lidar calibration
facility.
E
Q.
Q.
2
Raman lidar measurements
with in situ gas analysis
461
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Task 2 - Plume Dispersion Studies^
The objective of this task is to apply aerosol
scattering lidar techniques to the study of plume
dispersion under various atmospheric conditions.
NASA has developed lidar techniques for atmospheric
measurements and for dispersion studies of plumes
from rocket launches (ref. 4). EPA has developed
plume dispersion analytical models to be used in
studies relative to siting fossil fuel powerplants,
and lidar techniques can assist in the experimental
validation of these models. Under this task, it
was planned that an NASA lidar system suitable for
plume dispersion measurements would be assembled on
a mobile platform (see Figure 5). With this sys-
tem, the laser backscatter from particles in the
plume would be recorded and displayed to show
three-dimensional profiles of the return signal.
By averaging the returns over various time scales,
the instantaneous and Gaussian aerosol profiles of
the plume could be determined as a function of
downwind range from the stack. After system check-
out and calibration, the system would be used in a
joint EPA/NASA field test to study powerplant plume
dispersion under various atmospheric conditions,
and experimental results would be compared to model
predictions. This task was originally scheduled
for completion in October 1976; however, no funds
were allocated to this task during the second year
because of severe budget constraints and work on
this task was stopped. F.Y. 1977 funds have been
allocated and will be applied to this task, subject
to approval by the EPA Project Officer.
Task 3 - IR DIAL
The objective of this task is to develop and
apply the tunable infrared (IR) differential
Absorption ]_idar (DIAL) technique to the remote
measurement of molecular plume effluents. A large
number of molecules have absorption lines in the
infrared portion of the spectrum. Also, the dif-
ferential absorption technique, in which a sequen-
tial measurement is made first on an absorption
line and then at a nearby wavelength off the ab-
sorption line (see Figure 6), can provide range-
resolved date for particular gases. Thus, the IR
DIAL technique has the potential for providing
range-resolved concentrations for a wide variety
of pollutant species. This task will apply laser
technology developed under NSF, ARPA, and NASA
sponsorship to construct a DIAL system using a
tunable IR laser. A contract has been let for the
tunable IR laser, with delivery scheduled for
October 1977. After delivery, the laser will be
integrated with the IR telescope, detector, and
data processor to construct a mobile lidar system.
The system will be calibrated using the calibra-
tion system described in task 1 and evaluated in
joint EPA/NASA field tests at powerplant plumes
selected by EPA. This task is scheduled for com-
pletion early in C.Y. 1979.
Task 4 - Laser Heterodyne Detector
The objective of this task is to evaluate the
use of the laser heterodyne detector technique as
a means to increase the sensitivity of long-path,
continuous wave absorption measurements using
diffuse reflectors. Optical heterodyne techniques
have been developed by NASA and successfully
applied in solar radiometry and laser communica-
tions (refs. 5 and 6). More recently, optical
heterodyne techniques have been studied by NASA
for atmospheric pollution monitoring from aircraft
and satellites in both active and passive modes.
These studies show that the use of laser hetero-
dyne detection offers advantages of high spectral
resolution, high sensitivity, reduced interference
from other pollutants or atmospheric constituents,
and vertical resolution of pollutant species (ref.
7). EPA has developed long-path (approx. 600
meters) laser pollution monitoring systems which
utilize mirrored reflectors and direct detection
of the reflected signal. These systems could have
wider application if diffuse reflectors such as
mountains or buildings could be used in place of
retroreflectors. However, when diffuse reflectors
are used in existing systems, the weaker return
signal coupled with the relatively low sensitivity
of the detector degrades system performance to
unacceptable levels. The use of a laser hetero-
dyne detector in the long-path laser monitoring
system with diffuse reflectors shows promise of
improving performance to levels equal to or better
than for a system with mirrored retroreflectors.
The purpose of this task is to evaluate the use of
a laser heterodyne detector in systems of this
type. The evaluation will consist of theoretical
studies and laboratory and/or field tests with an
NASA-developed laser heterodyne detector such as
that shown in Figure 7. An important area of study
will be the effects of speckle on the signal-to-
noise ratio of the receiver. This task is sched-
uled for completion in December 1977, at which time
a technical report on the evaluation of the laser
heterodyne detector will be furnished to EPA.
Task 5 - HC1 Monitor
The objective of this task is to develop and
deliver to EPA an improved in situ HC1 chemi-
luminescent monitor evaluated at concentrations as
low as 5 ppb HC1 in ambient and polluted air.
In support of its launch vehicle monitoring pro-
gram, NASA has developed a chemiluminescent HC1
monitor which can detect HC1 concentrations from
50 ppb to 100 ppm. A photograph of this monitor
is shown in Figure 8, and the instrument is
described in reference 8. In October 1974, at
EPA's request, NASA used this instrument in the
Gulf of Mexico to monitor HC1 concentrations
downwind of an incinerator ship burning chlori-
nated hydrocarbon waste (ref. 9). Based on the
performance of the instrument in measuring HC1
concentrations in a combustion plume, EPA felt
that, with some refinements, the instrument could
provide a much needed technique for measuring
ambient HC1 levels (>5 ppb). The necessary re-
finements have been conducted under this task.
A laboratory evaluation was conducted of the
following parameters of the monitor: accuracy,
lower detection limit, response time, lifetime of
critical components, and interference (other pollu-
tants) effects. The detector's response to 90 per-
cent of signal ranges from less than a second at
50 parts-per-million to 10 seconds at 1 part-per-
million (see response time results in Table 2).
462
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RECEIVER LASER
EARTH'S SURFACE
Figure 5.
Photograph of plume
dispersion lidar system.
Figure 6.
Differential absorption lidar
concept.
463
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ELECTRONICS BLACKBODY
AND CONTROL REFERENCE BB MIRROR AND LENS
OPTICAL
DUAL MODE
DICKIE-SWITCH
PHOTOMIXER
INPUT APERTURE .ENS
SLO MIRRORS AND IRIS
LOCAL OSCILLATOR LASER
MOUNTING PLATFORM
Figure 7.
Photograph of
laser heterodyne
detector.
48"-
INLET TUBE
Figure 8.
Photograph of
hydrogen chloride
monitor.
464
-------
Below about 50 parts-per-billion, the response is
somewhat slower, of the order of several minutes.
Several procedures have been developed to improve
response time at concentrations below 50 parts-per-
billion. These procedures, while inproving
response time, result in degradation of other
instrument characteristics, and trade-off studies
are recommended before these procedures are used.
Due to the lack of specificity of the detector,
being sensitive to other acid gases, the detector
is most suited to studies where hydrogen chloride
is the dominant pollutant as compared to the in-
terfering species. The HC1 monitor was also
evaluated in a variety of field environments, and
a liquid HC1 calibration procedure was developed
for field use. The detector has been in use since
1974 and has been found to be highly portable,
rugged, and stable under extreme environmental
conditions ranging from aircraft and seacraft
operations to desert operations at temperatures
above 35°C. All laboratory and field evaluations
of the detector have been completed, and the
results are reported in reference 10. An improved
instrument will be delivered to EPA by the end of
F.Y. 1977.
TABLE 2. RESPONSE TIME RESULTS
HC1 Concentration
50 ppm
20 ppm
10 ppm
5 ppm
1 ppm
500 ppb
100 ppb
50 ppb
10 ppb
5 ppb
CONCLUDING REMARKS
Response to
90 Percent Signal
0.5 sec
1.5 sec
3.0 sec
5.0 sec
10.0 sec
15.0 sec
20.0 sec
30.0 sec
approx 10.0 min
approx 12.0 min
This paper summarizes the work being done by
NASA under the Project Plan for EPA/NASA Energy
Related Remote and In Situ Instrument Development.
Through this and similar cooperative programs in
other fields, a broad range of space technology is
being applied to assist in achieving our national
goal of energy self-sufficiency with acceptable
impact on environmental quality.
REFERENCES
1. McCormick, M. P. and Fuller, W. H., Jr.:
Lidar Applications to Pollution Studies.
Joint Conference on Sensing of Environmental
Pollutants, Palo Alto, California, November
8-10, 1971.
2. Melfi, S. H.; Brumfield, M. L.; and Storey,
R. W., Jr.: Observation of Raman Scattering
by S02 in a Generating Plant Stack Plume.
Applied Physics Letters, vol. 22, no. 8,
April 1973, pp. 402-403.
3. Poultney, S. K.; Brumfield, M. L.; and Siviter,
J. S.: A Theroretical/Experimental Program
to Develop Active Optical Pollution Sensors :
Quantitative Remote Raman Lidar Measurements
of Pollutants from Stationary Sources. NASA
TM X-72887, October 31, 1975.
4. McCormick, M. Patrick; Melfi, S. Harvey;
Olsson, Lars E.; Tuft, Wesley L.; Elliott,
William P.; and Egami, Richard: Mixing-Height
Measurements by Lidar, Particle Counter, and
Rawinsonde in the Willimette Valley, Oregon.
NASA TN D-7103, December 1972.
5. McElroy, J. H.: Infrared Heterodyne Solar
Radiometry. Applied Optics, vol. 11, July
1972, pp. 1619-1622.
6. Peyton, B. J., et al.: High Sensitivity
Receiver for Infrared Laser Communication.
IEEE Journal of Quantum Electronics, QE-8,
February 1972, pp. 252-263.
7. Allario, Frank; Seals, R. K.; Brockman,
Phillip; and Hess, R. V.: Tunable Semicon-
ductor Lasers and Their Application to
Environmental Sensing. Tenth Anniversary
Meeting of the Society of Engineering Science,
November 5-7, 1973.
8. Gregory, Gerald L.; Hudgins, Charles H.; and
Emerson, Burt R., Jr.: Evaluation of a
Chemiluminescent Hydrogen Chloride and a NDIR
Carbon Monoxide Detector for Environmental
Monitoring. 1974 JANAF Propulsion Meeting,
October 22-24, 1974.
9. Wastler, T. A.; Offutt, Carolyn K.; Fitzsimmons,
Charles K.; and Des Rosiers, Paul E.: Disposal
of Organochlorine Wastes by Incineration at Sea.
EPA Report EPA-430/9-75-014, July 1975.
10. Gregory, Gerald L.: Measurement Techniques
Investigated for Detection of Hydrogen
Chloride Gas in Ambient Air. NASA TN D-8352,
December 1976.
465
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LIDAR TECHNIQUES FOR ANALYZING AND TRACING
PARTICIPATE POLLUTANTS FROM ENERGY
PRODUCTION
Vernon E. Derr
Wave Propagation Laboratory
Environmental Research Laboratories
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
U.S. Department of Commerce
Boulder, Colorado
INTRODUCTION
Particulate pollutants from energy-related
sources disperse and mix with natural aerosols.
Both remote sensing and in-situ identification,
measurement and tracing techniques are required
for impact assessment, prediction of climate
variation and estimation of the character, con-
centration and dispersion of particulate pollu-
tants arising from man's activities. In-situ
sampling may provide specific identification,
concentration estimates and size-distributions,
but ground and aircraft vehicles cannot economi-
cally establish correct average measurements over
large periods of time, are impractical for the
study of drift, and unfeasible for the measure-
ments of fluctuations. Lidar remote sensors, on
the other hand, may be developed, with somewhat
diminished accuracy, to identify, measure con-
centrations and size distributions, and are the
economical instrument of choice to measure these
quantities and their fluctuations over large
volumes and extended time periods. Improvement
of lidar techniques is required to increase
accuracy of identification, and measurement of
size-distribution, shape factors and concentra-
tion. Theoretical and experimental investigations
of depolarization effects, multi-spectral back-
scatter and absorption, and inelastic scatter are
the most promising technique to achieve the
required improvement for measurements from ground
and aircraft. The first phase of depolarization
field studies and the expansion of the lidar
capabilities to two wavelengths have been complet-
ed. The depolarization technique has been used
in the impact assessment program at Colstrip,
Montana to distinguish stack emission from dust
newly risen from strip coal mines.
TECHNICAL DISCUSSION
Unique identification of atmospheric aerosols
may come from Raman spectra or (broad band)
absorption and backscatter spectra, to be investi-
gated later in the study. Severe technical limi-
tations prevent immediate application of these
techniques. Identification algorithms, under
construction, will use impact data of many kinds
to obtain the greatest precision. Identifiers
including depolarization effects and multiple-
frequency measurements are the first of the more
complete series to be used finally.
Radiation backscattered from spherical
particles is polarized in the same way as the
incident radiation. Depolarization of the back-
scattered beam can only occur when the scattering
particles are non-spherical or when multiple
scattering occurs. Thus depolarization is an
indicator of departure from sphericity of par-
ticles .
The lidar system shown in Figure 1 has been
carefully revised to provide accurate measurement
of the depolarization of the backscattered radiance.
The lidar transmitter, by means of addition polar-
izing elements inside the cavity, transmits a beam
vertically polarized within a few percent. The
dual polarization receiver has been constructed
to provide the ratio of intensities, to within a
few percent, in channels polarized parallel and
perpendicular to the transmitted polarization.
1R Rudiomctcr
Detector
Laser Output Window
Lasers
Control and Data Processing
Figure 1. Cut-away view of remote sensing facility.
467
-------
The revised polarization-sensitive lidar
system has been employed in three major field
experiments, examining the depolarization from
many kinds of atmospheric particles. As a
general rule, with a few exceptions, it has been
found that particles from hot sources such as
power plants, kilns, and automobiles, are gener-
ally spherical, producing very small depolariza-
tion. Invariably the non-sphericity of newly-
risen dust is indicated by large (> 25%) de-
polarization. This technique has been employed
to separate backscatter from the plume of stack
emission in the impact assessment program at
Colstrip, Montana, from the backscatter due to
dust from the coal mines. This separation per-
mits tracing of the plume without confusion with
other sources. Figure 2 shows typical unprocessed
data from a single lidar shot with mine dust at
6.8 km from the lidar, and stack emission from
the Colstrip power plant at 11 km.
To proceed further in development of par-
ticle identifiers, a dual wavelength (.694 and
.347 ym) lidar transmitter and detector have been
constructed. Theorectical studies have shown that
estimates of mean particle diameters may be de-
duced from multiple wavelength information. The
two wavelength system will permit development of
field and analytical techniques and the determi-
nation of optimum wavelengths and the number of
channels required. Particle size estimates and
depolarization ratios are powerful identifiers.
The ultraviolet wavelength should extend the
sensitivity of the system to particle diameters
less than .05 ym
PROGRAM DISCUSSION
Two steps have been taken to improve
remote detection and measuring methods for
particulate pollutants. The first, depolarization
techniques, has proven useful in studying plume
dispersion in impact assessment programs and in
distinguishing plumes from natural background
aerosols. Preliminary results on two wavelength
techniques have indicated potential for improved
identification of particles. Theoretical studies
have resulted in improved application of mathe-
matical inversion algorithms to deduce the
properties of particles from their electromagnetic
signatures.
CONCLUSIONS
The effort to improve particle identification
and determination of characteristics has success-
fully employed depolarization techniques in impact
assessment studies at Colstrip, Montana. Initial
tests of the dual wavelength system are encourag-
ing for more accurate depolarization, and multiple
wavelength studies are now complete. Theoretical
studies have supported and directed the evolving
techniques.
The immediate future will be occupied with
field tests of the depolarization technique and
the two wavelength technique. Plans are being
formulated for the study of differential absorption
and inelastic scatter techniques.
LIDAR BACKSCATTER
PARALLEL POLARIZATION
STACK EMISSION-
(NO DEPOLARIZED )
COMPONENT) J
BLANKED
I
liV^M^W
PERPENDICULAR POLARIZATION
DUST-
(HIGHLY DEPOLARIZED)
"•^W^W^MA
FILE 46 RECORD-14 AZ-319.3 EL- 21 FLT-0.00 JUNE 6,1976
0 . . 13.7
Figure 2. Depolarization of smoke-
stack particulates and mine
dust.
RANGE(km)
468
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DOPPLER LIDAR FOR MEASUREMENT
OF POLLUTANT TRANSPORT
Ronald L. Schwiesow and Madison J. Post
Wave Propagation Laboratory
Environmental Research Laboratories
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
U.S. Department of Commerce
Boulder, Colorado
INTRODUCTION
There are a number of environmental air
quality problems for which Doppler lidar velocity
sensing is a useful tool. As introductory mate-
rial, we will first review operational character-
istics of Doppler lidars, typified by the WPL
mobile units used in this joint energy research.
A brief summary of four problem areas that are
being attacked using Doppler lidar measurements
will serve to focus the more detailed discussions
of progress and applications to follow.
This remote-sensing velocity measurement
capability is being applied to four classes of
problems in the research program discussed here.
In the area of atmospheric diffusion, the lidar is
being used to study the profile of mean wind and
turbulent intensity at scales smaller than the
resolution volume for various meteorological
conditions and terrain configurations. For this
application, the Doppler system acts as a mobile,
high instrumentation tower for wind measurement.
Wind characterization is an important part of
diffusion experiments if the experimental results
are to be applied to other topographic and atmos-
pheric situations.
For measurements of the urban ventilation
factor, the wind profile and the height of the
mixed layer over the center of the urban area must
be frequently measured. Here again the wind tower
function of the Doppler lidar to heights of at
least 300 m is important. The depth of the m:Lxed
layer as revealed by the height at which the con-
centration of large (>2ym diameter) particles
falls off is under study for CC>2 lidar measurement.
In addition to pollutant concentrations, the
stack effluent velocity from a stationary source
is used to determine the total mass loading of the
source. Doppler lidar appears promising for this
application, and preliminary checks have been made.
Critical energy installations are subject to
a Structural wind loading from localized vortex
phenomena, such as dust devils, waterspouts, and
tornadoes, as well as from the more commonly con-
sidered straight-line winds. This project is also
involved in a study of dust devils to determine if
they provide a wind-loading threat to structures.
The Doppler lidar state-of-the-art in appli-
cations before this project is represented by
one-time trials of basically laboratory gear. Law-
rence et al. (1972) reported on single-point wind
measurements at a range of 30 m. Abshire et al.
(1974) made similar measurements from hydrometeor
targets. Other application tests have not been
reported in the open literature, although work
tracking aircraft wake vortices has been done on
an in-house basis by NASA, and EPA has observed
some stack returns using a C0£ Doppler laser lidar.
Work emphasizing lidar development, rather than ap-
plications, has been reported in the literature,
but it is not relevant to our purpose in this paper.
RESEARCH PROGRESS
Technique Development
Guided by project applications, the infrared
Doppler lidar technique is being refined for this
research. The technique development is integrated
with NOAA's own efforts in the Wave Propagation
Laboratory. At this point we are using a compact,
mobile Doppler lidar system mounted in a small
camper shell on a pickup truck. With a towed,
small generator, the unit is completely self-
contained and can obtain data while underway. A
similar unit has been installed aboard a single-
engine Cessna. Its successful operation emphasizes
the ruggedness and utility of the basic approach.
The laser, processing optics, and a 30 cm New-
tonian transmit-receive telescope are fixed with
respect to each other. Appropriate flat mirrors
steer the beam anywhere within a full hemisphere
in azimuth and elevation, although most work is
done between -5° and +18° elevation or at 90° ele-
vation. The range resolution element is determined
by the focus of the telescope and is a roughly cy-
lindrical volume less than 0,2 mrad in azimuth and
elevation but with a length along the line-of-sight
of 10 m at 100 m range. This length increases with
the square of the range out to a range where essen-
tially no ranging information is available.
Actual velocity information comes from the
line-of-sight component of the motion of aerosol
scatterers in the sensing volume. This tracer
motion results in a Doppler shift of the back-
scattered radiation, which is directly interpreta-
ble as a velocity using the frequency to velocity
conversion of 189 kHz per ms"1 velocity component.
Since the scatterers are not in general in uniform
motion, a frequency (velocity) spectrum is recorded
as often as every 16 ms on magnetic tape. From the
recorded spectrum, the relative total backscattered
energy (Otn moment), mean velocity (1st moment),
and velocity spread (2nd moment) may be analyzed
from each spectrum.
Part of the project is to determine the oper-
ating limitations of the system. Work on aerosol
statistics (Post and Schwiesow, 1976) has revealed
that approximately 5000 scatterers m of diameter
2um and larger are required for a range of 200 m.
This corresponds to a typical rural environment
with 50 km visibility. The operating range of the
lidar in typical urban environments is 1 km because
of the enhanced backscatter over rural areas. The
clearest environments, such as atop 4250 m Mt.
469
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Evans, lead to a 50% signal dropout rate at 200 m
range.
We have established concepts for system im-
provements to be made during the remaining 3 years
of the program. These improvements include offset
local oscillator, pulse ranging, and further dif-
ferential Doppler work. Details of these efforts
are given under future plans.
Measurement to Date
Profiles. One- and two-dimensional, single-
component wind profiles have been measured for
various locations. For these measurements the
lidar is either scanned in range for a fixed eleva-
tion angle or is scanned in elevation (e.g. 0° to
18°) for a fixed range. Negligible vertical veloc-
ity is assumed to allow conversion from line-of-
sight to horizontal wind component. This assump-
tion on vertical velocity is weaker at higher
elevation angles, so we have operationally limited
the elevation to 18°.
We have measured a Seabreeze situation with
profiles 200 m over the water and 200 m inland
using a variable elevation scan. Analysis of the
terrain-induced wind modification is underway. A
desert wind profile was determined using a fixed
elevation scan, which shows an interesting mid-
layer shear, as does a. fixed elevation scan taken
in Denver. Other profiles, using both fixed ele-
vation and fixed range have been taken in a prairie
environment under convective conditions, and in
various locations near Boulder.
Conclusions from the profile measurements to
date include the fact that operational wind pro-
files are available using a proven field lidar
system (although not yet with real-time processing
for resulting velocity). Feasibility is demon-
strated. This field Doppler lidar unit in its
present configuration measures velocity spectra to
a range of 1 km and a usable height of 300 m using
naturally-occurring aerosols. In contrast to
towers, the setup time for a measurement is less
than 1 minute. The measurement time for 10-point
height resolution is approximately 5 minutes.
Vortices. We have measured the velocity
spectra for dust devils, a measurement listed in
the project plan, and for waterspouts, which repre-
sents additional benefit to this project from other
related work. Both phenomena are representative
of localized wind phenomena.
Although apparently vigorous because of the
unusually large (for the atmosphere) radial accel-
erations involved, the largest dust devil velocity
observed in a two-state field program was 22 ms~^ in
the horizontal plane (Schwiesow and Cupp, 1976).
Waterspout maximum velocities are still under analy-
sis, but the observed spectra are generally similar
to dust devil observations.
FM-CW Ranging. Frequency modulation of the
continuous-wave C02 laser (FM-CW) allows one to
determine range to a target by measuring the
homodyne frequency difference between the instan-
taneous transmitted and received signal. We have
performed such an experiment, ranging from a hard
target (hillside) .
A range of 6.8 km gave an easily observed sig-
nal with the FM-CW lidar in a breadboard stage.
Although this experiment satisfied a project goal
the form of the observed signal spectrum was far
from ideal. Rather than occurring at a single
frequency, the return from fixed targets is spread
significantly in frequency space. This means that
it would be difficult, at best, to determine the
profile of a distributed (e.g., aerosol) target.
The conclusion of this study is that it is
more desirable for operational aerosol profiling
purposes to explore some other type of modification
to the Doppler lidar. Also, it has proven analy-
tically difficult to separate range and velocity
information from an infrared FM-CW return from a
moving target. We are therefore pursuing a co-
herent pulsed lidar technique at 10.6 pm for this
continuing project effort.
Three-Component Measurements. We have demon-
strated a technique for measuring three components
of atmospheric velocity at a single, remote point
(Schwiesow et al. , 1977). The experiment used two
pairs of closely-spaced beams in a time-shared mode
and a hard target at 30 m range.
This project on pollutant transport includes
the goal of measuring profiles of all three com-
ponents of the wind. The significance of the dif-
ferential Doppler technique mentioned above is
that a new, more effective way of determining all
three components of the atmospheric velocity vector
is potentially available. The comparative, con-
ventional approach is based on some variation of
an azimuth-scanning technique. Azimuth scanning
involves an inherent assumption of horizontal
homogeneity of the wind field and therefore repre-
sents an area average with departures from homo-
geneity as noise. The differential Doppler ap-
proach avoids the need for a homogeneity assumption,
It can produce an area average by range and azimuth
scanning or by averaging a time history. In the
latter case, no mechanical scanning is required to
measure all three components.
The present status of the study is that the
theoretical analysis of the technique is complete.
System design parameters for increased range have
been established. Tests on aerosol targets at
longer ranges are planned.
Stack and Cooling Tower Plumes. To establish
the basic feasibility of stack and cooling tower
plume measurements, Doppler lidar tests using the
mobile system were performed on actual plumes.
The question of signal return is important because
liquid water is strongly absorbing at 10.6 \im.
The results of measurements on power plant
plumes showed signal-to-noise ratios of 15 db and
greater at a range of 500 ±100 m. Signal inten-
sity from the stack varied by more than 10 db over
time periods of a few minutes, presumably because
of varying burner loads or tube cleaning. These
results may not apply to all stacks since the
470
-------
infrared lidar is more sensitive to larger parti-
cles (greater than 2 y diameter) than are the
visual aspects of the plume.
APPLICATIONS OF RESULTS
Atmospheric Diffusion
As a result of this study, we have demon-
strated that wind and turbulence profiles are meas-
urable using a rapidly-deployed remote sensing sys-
tem. Knowledge of the boundary-layer wind field
allows testing of diffusion models and transfer of
results under one set of conditions to another.
With respect to pibal wind measurement, the
floppier lidar should allow increased cost-
effectiveness for obtaining micromet wind data
for input to diffusion models. This is especially
true for problems that require detailed coverage
in time and/or area. The lidar provides essen-
tially continuous time coverage of a fixed, rather
than drifting, point. With respect to wind-sensing
tower instrumentation, the lidar provides greater
profile height capability, portability, and cost-
effectiveness. As part of this project we have
made detailed comparisons between tower and lidar
wind measurements, which show correlations greater
than .998 for 1 minute averages of the data.
An immediate application of lidar wind data
could be to help provide a data base for extension
of Pasquill-Gifford type curves for elevated
sources and certain types of uneven terrain. Ob-
served wind shear and upper boundary layer accel-
eration in change-of-terrain Seabreeze situations,
for example, should allow pollutant transport pre-
dictions to be made.
Urban Ventilation
FM-CW (frequency-modulated, continuous-wave)
ranging from a hard target with resolution to 10 m
has been demonstrated by using a simple modifica-
tion of NOAA's Doppler lidar system. This approach
is potentially applicable to determinations of the
aerosol pollution mixing depth.
The infrared lidar is expected to have in-
creased accuracy and cost-effectiveness over air-
borne in-situ aerosol mixed layer sensing methods
because of the general economic advantage of
ground-based systems over airborne platforms. Be-
cause a lidar measures aerosol profiles directly,
it gives the pollution mixing depth rather than the
thermal mixed layer inferred from acoustic sounder
data. With respect to pulsed visible lidars, the
infrared approach offers increased eye safety,
freedom from background light, and economy because
the same basic unit is also applicable to wind
sensing. The infrared depends on the less-numerous
larger particles (typically 1-5 ym diameter) for
backscatter.
We have demonstrated the ability to measure
one-component wind profiles along the mean wind in
an urban environment to 1 km range and 200 m
height. By increasing the elevation angle from
12° to 18°, the demonstration would be valid for
300 m height if a sufficient aerosol density
existed to that height.
In the urban environment, where principal
interest is in the lowest part of the atmosphere,
the lidar should provide increased height resolu-
tion and cost-effectiveness over labor-intensive
radiosonde measurements of boundary layer winds.
Furthermore, the lidar makes possible increased
time frequency coverage of wind profiles with
little increase in cost over measurements made a
few times daily. Possible effects of severe
weather on lidar penetration are not significant
for this problem, since under severe weather con-
ditions urban ventilation is not a concern.
Stack Effluent Velocity
We have analyzed the expected Doppler lidar
spectrum from a small mean velocity component in
the presence of large turbulence for a homodyne
(local oscillator frequency equal to the transmitter
frequency) system. Because homodyne detection does
not reveal the sign of the velocity component,
isotropic turbulence folds into a spectrum that
obscures a small mean velocity spectral shift.
This effect must be considered in interpretation
of homodyne lidar results from stacks.
It is obvious that for low elevation angles
(small line-of-sight stack velocity component) and
large turbulence values, an offset local oscilla-
tor or heterodyne lidar is essential to properly
interpret the return signal. For cases where the
ambient wind is not zero, the sign information from
heterodyne processing is extremely helpful in
separating ambient and stack velocity effects.
Field experimental stack returns using the
present mobile homodyne system have demonstrated
the feasibility of stack velocity monitoring with
a C02 Doppler lidar. This suggests that further
study would be profitable.
Vortex Structural Loads
The largest observed dust devil velocities in
the experiments Jiscussed in the measurements sec-
tion of this summary were 22 ms . It is fairly
obvious without detailed engineering analysis that
such winds pose negligible threat to energy-related
structures designed for higher straight-line winds.
Although the dust devil measurements represent
the conclusion of vortex studies for this joint
agency project, studies on waterspouts are continu-
ing under other sponsorship. Should experiments
reveal potentially damaging winds in these vortices,
the results could be important to the design of
energy-related structures. The subvortex struc-
tural details inferred from the dust devil data may
provide helpful information for tornado models,
since photographic evidence of subvortex structure
in tornadoes has been suggested by other observers.
STATUS
This research task is two years into a five-
year program. Milestones are on schedule. We
471
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have made goal revisions, based on research results
to date, in two areas. First, new concepts in
optical signal processing (differential Doppler)
allow transverse wind component measuring research
to be an effective replacement for azimuth scanning
geometries for the purpose of 3-component wind pro-
filing. Differential Doppler is also applicable
to low-elevation-angle stack velocity measurements.
Second, FM-CW ranging has been found difficult to
apply to aerosol targets in practice. Progress in
digital data handling of high-frequency signals,
done elsewhere, suggests that C02 laser pulse tech-
niques with coherent detection are a viable method
for obtaining aerosol profiles.
By using two existing Doppler lidar systems,
we will be able to explore the extension of 3-
component velocity sensing by differential Doppler
to aerosol targets and longer ranges. Attempts
will be made to determine the limiting angular
beam separation required for operation and to
relate observed signal-to-noise values obtained in
the differential case to those seen in the normal
pure backscatter geometry. Applications in dif-
fusion, urban ventilation factor determination,
and stack effluent velocity sensing should all
benefit from progress in this area.
Work on heterodyne Doppler signal processing
is designed to give the sign of the line-of-sight
velocity component measured by the lidar. This
capability is related to diffusion studies, espe-
cially vertical velocity measurements, and stack
effluent velocity applications.
Various types of digital data processing, be-
ginning with a high-speed clipped correlator, will
be studied in an attempt to increase the signal-
to-noise and therefore effective range of the
system in low-signal conditions. Chances of suc-
cess in this exploratory research are uncertain.
Coherently detected pulse ranging, without ex-
tracting Doppler information, will be attempted for
aerosol profile measurements. This work is related
to the urban ventilation factor application.
Studies of coherently detected, pulsed Doppler
lidar, if successful, would lead to increased range
resolution at ranges beyond approximately 500 m.
A low duty cycle, pulsed return also opens the
possibility of other types of signal processing
than we now use. However, within the resource con-
straints and operational orientation of the proj-
ect, successful pulsed Doppler experiments are not
presented as a working objective.
Field experiments using the Doppler lidar are
the basic part of the project. We will continue
appropriate feasibility studies to apply our im-
proved understanding and techniques to the measure-
ment of wind profiles for atmospheric diffusion,
urban ventilation factor profiles of wind and
aerosol loading, and stack effluent velocity
profiles.
REFERENCES
Abshire, N. L., R. L. Schwiesow and V. E. Derr,
1974: Doppler lidar observations of hydrom-
eteors. J. Appl. Meteor., 13, 951-953.
Lawrence, T. R., D. J. Wilson, E. E. Craven, I. p.
Jones, R. M. Huffaker and J. A. L. Thomson,
1972: A laser velocimeter for remote sensing,
Rev. Sci. Instr., 43, 512-518.
Post, M. J. and R. L. Schwiesow, 1976: Temporal- an
spatial-frequency spectra for atmospheric aero-
sols. In Atmospheric Aerosols, NASA Report
NASA CP-2004, Dec. 13-15, 1976, TuC9-l
TuC9-4.
Schwiesow, R. L. and R. E. Cupp, 1976: Remote
Doppler velocity measurements of dust devil
vortices. Appl. Opt., 15, 1-2.
Schwiesow, R. L., R. E. Cupp, M. J. Post, and R. F.
Calfee, 1977: Coherent differential Doppler
measurements of transverse velocity at a re-
mote point. Appl. Opt. , 16, Ixxx-lxxx.
472
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AIRBORNE ACTIVE REMOTE SENSING
OF POLLUTANTS
John A. Eckert and Michael P. F. Bristow
Environmental Monitoring and Support Laboratory
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Las Vegas, Nevada
INTRODUCTION
Remote sensing methods appear most desirable
in monitoring situations requiring the collection
of data over large areas in fairly restrictive
time frames. Many applications also arise from
difficulties in obtaining access to a particular
pollutant. Aerial photography, combined with dig-
ital multispectral techniques, remains the main-
stay of remote sensing techniques. However, many
monitoring problems occur where passive sensing
techniques do not provide the degree of specifi-
city needed. Active systems utilizing laser pul-
ses as interrogating probes are being investigated
by several groups in the country. Research at the
Environmental Monitoring and Support Laboratory
(EMSL) in Las Vegas is centered on airborne down-
looking active systems.
Three general types of systems are being con-
structed and evaluated. These are: downward
looking LIDARs, devices which range aerosol scat-
tering in the atmosphere; earth-reflected differ-
ential absorption devices, used for obtaining con-
centrations of selected gaseous pollutants; and
laserfluorosensors, used for mapping selected wa-
ter pollutants.
DIFFERENTIAL ABSORPTION DEVICES
One of the goals of many researchers working
throughout the country has been that of developing
pollutant specific remote monitoring instrumenta-
tion. Active systems, those using an interroga-
ting signal, use some sort of differential meas-
urements between laser frequencies. Two different
basic classes of instruments are those instruments
which use retroflectors and those which use topo-
graphic targets or aerosols as reflectors.
A device under study at EMSL-Las Vegas is a
system designed to measure ozone from an airborne
platform which uses the ground as a reflector.
The system has been designed and constructed by
EPA and has undergone preliminary flight testing.
The operational principles are straightforward.
Two lasers are fired sequentially about 15 micro-
seconds (usecs) apart toward the earth. The short
period between the separate laser pulses ensures
that the beams hit essentially the same spot on
the ground and traverse the same path through the
air- The lasers operate in the 10 micron infrared
(IR) region with one frequency located on an ab-
sorption band of ozone and one just off. Both re-
flected signals are received with a common tele-
scope and detector, and both lasers are monitored
for output power. If the return signals are nor-
malized against their respective power output val-
ues, the only essential difference in the return
signal will be due to ozone absorption. Note that
the device monitors the total amount of ozone be-
neath the aircraft. To obtain concentrations, some
knowledge of the spatial distribution of the ozone
is necessary. Results of ground tests confirm a
predicted sensitivity of 8 parts/billion ozone con-
centration over a one kilometer column with little
interference from other gases.
The earth-reflected differential absorption
device can be used for studies of oxidant and oxi-
dant precursor transport over large areas, measure-
ments which can only be approximated by other meth-
ods. The ozone monitoring system can, with several
small design changes, be used to monitor selected
tracer gases. For example, data collected from a
simulated point source plume using a tracer gas
could be used as model input information prior to
the actual construction of an industrial or power
generating complex. Absorption characteristics
have been determined in the laboratory. A report
is being prepared on the results of the laboratory
measurements and the feasibility of using this
technique as a viable monitoring method.
The earth-reflected differential absorption
techniques can also be used to measure sulfur diox-
ide (S02)• The current device would require a very
exotic mixture of gases for use in the lasers and
thus appears not economically feasible. Ultra-
violet (UV) ground-based prototype differential ab-
sorption devices have been studied by other groups,
and the adaptation to an airborne format seems
feasible. A preliminary design for such a device
is being completed, and a computer-based model has
been constructed for design optimization. The mod-
el uses Gaussian plume dispersion parameters and
variable device parameters to yield simulated de-
vice returns. The output can then be used as in-
put to the various data handling configurations
being considered.
AIRBORNE DOWNLOOKING LIDAR
The second type of air pollution monitoring
device being developed at EMSL-Las Vegas is the
downward looking LIDAR. These devices range aero-
sol scattering in the atmosphere beneath the plane.
They have particular utility in determining plume
dispersion characteristics. A prototype system was
tested starting in 1974, and test results were used
to design and construct an operational system. The
operational system uses a flashlamp-pumped dye la-
ser to produce a short pulse of light directed to-
ward the ground. The beam is scattered by mole-
cules within the atmosphere and aerosols and even-
tually is reflected from the ground itself. A
small amount of the reflected and scattered light
is received by a telescope/receiver system on board
the aircraft and is recorded on digital magnetic
tape. In addition, supplemental information in-
cluding time of day, navigational information, and
sequential shot number is recorded on a leader to
the LIDAR digital record. The device, together
473
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with its real time graphic display capabilities,
can be used to measure vertical and horizontal
plume dispersion coefficients, plume centerline
height, and points of maximum ground-level impact.
These parameters, particularly the dispersion co-
efficients, are usually estimated for modeling
purposes, raising the possibility of large errors.
Actual measurement of these parameters can consid-
erably improve model accuracy.
A third generation downward looking LIDAR
system is currently being assembled. This device
will utilize two laser frequencies and be able to
differentiate between plumes with different parti-
cle size distributions. The device also has much
better resolution characteristics than the current
dye system. Like the dye system, the two-frequen-
cy LIDAR will display the accumulated soundings in
real time. The device relies heavily on microcom-
puter technology, and system component design will
allow subsystem utilization in future devices.
Preliminary studies are being made to inves-
tigate the feasibility of construction of a down-
looking LIDAR that will simultaneously record the
scattering from aerosols and nitrogen Raman scat-
tering. The aerosol return will be normalized
against the nitrogen Raman return to give a quan-
titative and reproducible sounding. The device
could be used to produce a historical data base on
fine particulates in the atmosphere. Routine map-
pings of the western United States could reveal
long-term trends in fine particulate atmospheric
burdens.
LASERFLUOROSENSING
Laserfluorosensors are active sensing devices
employing UV or visible pulsed lasers to induce
fluorescence emission in remote targets, such as
pollutants in surface waters. The fluorescence
emission is collected by a telescope which is fo-
cused on the fluorescent target and then projected
by a dispersing system onto a multichannel detec-
tor. The resultant signal, which is displayed in
real time and is also recorded, can be used either
to measure the concentration of a known fluores-
cent substance or to identify or characterize
fluorescent substances of unknown type or origin.
A laserfluorosensor system is currently being
evaluated at EMSL-Las Vegas as a means for remote-
ly monitoring the concentration of surface water
chlorophyll. The system, presently installed in
an EPA Huey helicopter, employs a downlooking
pulsed laser operating at 440 nanometers (nm) to
excite fluorescence in the chlorophyll-bearing al-
gae present in varying concentrations in all nat-
ural surface waters. A small fraction of this
fluorescence emission at 685 nm is collected by a
telescope receiver which is focused on the laser
excitation spot on the water surface. The signal
is displayed on a cathode ray tube (CRT), digi-
tized, and recorded on magnetic tape for later
analysis. The system has been successfully opera-
ted over Lake Mead under full daylight conditions
at heights of 1,000 feet. With an average ground
speed of 80 feet/second and a laser repetition
rate of 1 pulse/second, a profile of 10-foot diam-
eter sampling points is produced approximately 80
feet apart below the aircraft path. By making re-
peated passes over a chosen body of water, a con-
tour map can be produced corresponding to surface
water chlorophyll concentration. For the above-
described conditions the system is capable of re-
solving with good sensitivity surface water chlo-
rophyll concentrations down to 0.1 microgram/liter
in the presence of a high solar background.
Concurrent with the airborne measurements, di-
rect sampling measurements of chlorophyll concen-
tration are made by the Department of Biology at
the University of Nevada with the purpose of eval-
uating the performance of the airborne laserfluo-
rosensor, particularly in regions containing large
chlorophyll gradients, such as the Las Vegas Bay
region of Lake Mead. Good agreement between the
relative trends in the airborne and ground truth
data has been observed. Presently, investigations
of a number of potential interferences, especially
those environmental factors affecting the chloro-
phyll fluorescence quantum efficiency and the ef-
fects of changes in transmission of surface waters
on the laser excitation and chlorophyll fluores-
cence emission, are being made.
A second laserfluorosensing program is being
conducted with the purpose of developing an air-
borne sensor able to provide an overall indication
of organic pollution in surface waters. A feasi-
bility study has established that a strong cor-
relation exists between Total Organic Carbon (TOC)
in surface waters and the intensity of fluorescence
emission induced in the same sample by near-ultra-
violet radiation. Samples are exposed to UV light
and the fluorescence emission monitored using a
scanning monochromator-detector combination. The
fluorescence arises from trace concentrations of
particulate and dissolved organic materials, both
man-made and natural in origin, rather than from
the water itself, which does not fluoresce. In
addition, the water molecule emits an intense Ra-
man band of constant amplitude, which is employed
as an internal reference standard with which to
normalize the concurrent fluorescence emission.
Data from this study will be used to develop an
airborne laserfluorosensor capable of mapping sur-
face water total organics. This device will employ
a pulsed UV laser to excite fluorescence in surface
waters in which the emitted fluorescence and Raman
signals will be measured using a telescope coupled
by a dispersing system to a multichannel detector
and converted to an equivalent surface water TOC
value.
CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE OBJECTIVES
Problem areas encountered during development
of the above-mentioned systems have characteris-
tically centered on adapting the commercial lasers
for use aboard aircraft. Operating the infrared
lasers has been especially difficult, and the
structural configuration of these instruments is
being changed to produce better isolation between
the transmitting laser and the receiver.
Two technical approaches which seem to be
yielding greater benefits than anticipated are
474
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the potential use of a standard optical mechanical
receiver assembly and the incorporation of micro-
processor techniques into electronic subsystems.
At the present time, it appears that duplicate re-
ceiver assemblies to the one developed for the
two-frequency LIDAR system will also be used in:
1) an advanced laser fluorosensor system, 2) a
proposed UV earth differential absorption system,
and 3) a proposed LIDAR system to obtain ratios
between molecular and aerosol scattering. The in-
corporation of a standard receiver into future de-
signs will represent a real savings in resources,
development time in particular. A microprocessor
development system has evolved over the past two
years that now has the capability of programming
microcomputer subsystems used in remote sensing
devices. Two important advantages of the micro-
processor approach to design are: 1) the ability
to design systems controllers with very great com-
plexity, and 2) the ability to change design con-
figurations in software as opposed to rewiring
subsystems.
The activity in remote sensing instrumenta-
tion development at EMSL-Las Vegas can best be
described as applied research. Basic research
needed for designing the types of devices de-
scribed within this paper comes for the most part
from other organizations, and the devices, when-
ever feasible, use commercially available compo-
nents. Operating in this mode requires much sup-
portive research and development from other groups.
The strongest reliance on basic research is placed
on the many related programs being conducted by
NASA.
Future objectives in the design and implemen-
tation of remote sensing devices include designs
for: 1) an operational downlooking S02 monitor,
2) a downlooking LIDAR. with limited scan capabili-
ty, and 3) a LIDAR which simultaneously monitors
both aerosol scattering and the Raman return from
nitrogen (N2) molecules, thus yielding quantita-
tive and reproducible scattering measurements.
Although the current inventory of active remote
sensing instruments is small, applied research
programs are responding to the need for this im-
portant class of monitoring instrumentation.
Oxidant and Its Control, Raleigh, NC, September
12-17, 1976.
Eckert, J. A., D. H. Bundy, and J. L. Peacock,
"Development of a Two Frequency Downward
Looking Airborne LIDAR System," published in
the proceedings of the 8th Materials Research
Symposium Methods and Standards for Environ-
mental Measurement, Gaithersburg, MD, September
20-24, 1976.
REFERENCES
1. Eckert, J. A., J. L. McElroy, D. H. Bundy,
J. L. Guagliardo, and S. H. Melfi, "Airborne
LIDAR RAPS Studies, February 1974," EPA-600/4-
76-028, June 1976.
2. Eckert, J. A., J. L. McElroy, D. H. Bundy,
J. L. Guagliardo, and S. H. Melfi, "Down-
looking Airborne LIDAR Studies - August 1975,"
published in the proceedings of the Inter-
national Conference on Environmental Sensing
and Assessment, EMSL-LV, Las Vegas, NV, Sep-
tember 1975.
3. Siple, G. W., R. B. Evans, et.al., "Long-Range
Airborne Measurements of Ozone off the Coast of
the Northeastern United States," presented at
the International Conference on Photochemical
475
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F)
ecological effects
V
CHAPTER 9
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CHAPTER CONTENTS
ecological effects
SUMMARY
Allan Hirsch, Ph.D., DOI 481
QUESTIONS & ANSWERS 487
TECHNICAL DISCUSSION 493
XENOBIOTIC METABOLISM IN MARINE SPECIES
EXPOSED TO HYDROCARBONS
Margaret 0. James, HEW
John R. Bend, HEW 4S5
CHEMICAL CHARACTERIZATION AND AQUATIC BIOASSAYS OF
ENERGY DEVELOPMENT PROCESS EFFLUENTS
Rodney K. Skogerboe, Colorado State University
Davis F S. Natusch, Colorado State University
Rosemary C. Russo, Montana State University
Robert V. Thurston, Montana State University 503
EFFECTS OF CHEMICALS USED IN
OFFSHORE WELL-DRILLING OPERATIONS
Norman L. Richards, EPA
INVESTIGATION OF EFFECTS AND FATES OF POLLUTANTS
Michael E. Q. Pilson, University of Rhode Island
Gabriel A. Vargo, University of Rhode Island
Patrick Gearing, University of Rhode Island
Juanita N. Gearing, University of Rhode Island
EFFECTS OF COAL-FIRED POWER PLANT EMISSIONS ON
TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS
James M. Kelly, TVA
Norman L. LaCasse, TVA
JC Noggle, TVA
Herbert C. Jones, TVA
-------
EFFECTS OF PRUDHOE CRUDE OIL SPILLS ON
COASTAL TUNDRA PONDS
Michael C. Miller, University of Cincinnati
J. Robie Vestal, University of Cincinnati
Samuel Mozley, University of Michigan
Malcolm Butler, University of Michigan
John E. Hobbie, Ecosystems Center 521
MECHANISMS OF SULFUR DIOXIDE RESISTANCE IN
GREEN PLANTS
Philip Filner, Michigan State University 531
METHODS DEVELOPMENT, FIELD ASSESSMENT, AND
TROPHIC RELATIONSHIPS OF BIOLOGICAL COMMUNITIES IN
FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEMS
John S. Grossman, TVA
William L. Barr, TVA
Roger Betson, TVA
Doye B. Cox, TVA
Donald L. Dycus, TVA
Charles Gooch, TVA
Billy G. Isom, TVA
Eugene Pickard, TVA
Kenneth J. Tennessen, TVA
Thomas W. Toole, TVA
Richard D. Urban, TVA
James R. Wright, Jr., TVA 535
ECOSYSTEM CHARACTERIZATION - AN APPROACH TO
COASTAL NATURAL RESOURCE PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT
A. William Palmisano, DOI 543
ASSESSMENT OF INSTREAM FLOW NEEDS
Robert P Hayden, DOI 549
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ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS
Allan Hirsch, Ph.D.
Chief Officer, Biological Sciences
Fish and Wildlife Service
U.S. Department of Interior
^PRODUCTION
ISSUES UNDERLYING
[ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
STATEMENTS
The Interagency Energy/Environment Research and Development Program supports
a wide-ranging effort to improve understanding of the ecological impacts of energy
development. It encompasses over 50 research projects managed by 6 Federal
departments or agencies. It addresses the impacts of various energy technologies as
reflected in marine, terrestrial, and freshwater ecosystems. It includes studies as far
flung and diverse as those of the impact of an oil spill in the Strait of Magellan, the
effects of trace elements from coal utilization in the arid West, and the effects of
atmospheric emissions on soybeans and other crops in the Southeastern United States.
Results of many of these individual studies are now beginning to emerge and will
provide contributions to our scientific understanding. But, in the final analysis, the
more difficult and significant question is, How do we apply these findings to improve
decisionmaking— that is, to make more meaningful environmental impact assessments,
better environmental standards and regulations, and more informed decisions where
environmental/energy trade-offs are involved? We hope to address that question in our
discussions this afternoon.
The question is always a difficult one to answer with respect to any research
program, particularly in its early stages. Key participants in the ecological effects
component of the Interagency Energy-Environment Research and Development Program
have maintained a continuing effort to address these questions as a basis for program
planning and management. In this regard, I invite attention to the workshop entitled
"Environmental Effects of Energy" held in Savannah, Georgia, in December 1976.
Research managers and principal investigators reviewed the overall status of their work
in relation to many o~ the issues ;o be discussed here today. The published
Proceedings will soon be available.
Today's panel will discuss some of the basic environmental effects of energy
development in terms of the results of selected studies funded through the Program.
The 10 papers selected for presentation represent a wide range of agencies,
technologies, ecosystems, and research approaches. These papers run the gamut from
tightly controlled physiological experiments, through efforts to simulate and understand
entire ecosystems, to development and application of improved impact assessment
methods. At first, they may seem to encompass a bewildering range of subject matter.
But combined, they provide an excellent perspective from which to address some
underlying issues in environmental analysis.
There is widespread dissatisfaction with the use of ecological information in
decisionmaking and with the current state-of-the-art of impact assessment, or at least
the way in which it is practiced. There has been much criticism both of the content
of environmental impact statements and of many of the large-scale environmental
assessment studies currently underway in response to NEPA requirements and to other
legislation. Most recently, the President, in his Environmental Message, has called for
more effective environmental impact statements.
These concerns raise two basic questions: (1) How good is our information about
ecological effects? (2) How well are we putting existing information into practice? For
purposes of today's discussion, I have attempted to identify three issues which underlie
these questions.
1. How can we relate the findings of laboratory experimentation, in which the
variables can be closely controlled, to actual experience in nature, where many more
variables are involved? How, for example, can we base environmental criteria or
standards on the results of laboratory toxicity studies?
481
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CHEMICALS IN
OFFSHORE WELL DRILLING
2. How can we detect and measure environmental change actually occurring in
the field, and how can we determine whether it is related to the particular energy
development under study? This problem stems from the dynamism and complexity of
natural ecosystems and from the fact that they are frequently adjusting to both
natural and man-induced stresses. Involved are such difficulties as separating impacts
from natural variability, relating observed changes to causes, and assessing the
significance of change in terms of major or irreversible ecosystem damage. The
problems involved in establishing meaningful environmental baseline and monitoring
programs are an example.
3. How can we make the results of ecological research directly useful to the
decisionmaker? This involves transfer of technology and conversion of research findings
into methodologies and guidelines that can be applied operationally.
We propose to address these three issues as follows: I will summarize very briefly
the contents of the papers submitted. Each of these papers will, however, be published
in full in the Proceedings of this conference. Next, individual panelists will serve as
discussion leaders to address each of the three issues. We hope to stimulate a
discussion among all panel members concerning how their work relates to these issues.
In brief, then, the contents of the papers submitted for today's panel are as
follows.
1. The first paper, by Dr. Margaret James and Dr. John Bend, is entitled
"Xenobiotic Metabolism in Marine Species Exposed to Hydrocarbons" and represents
the basic physiological research that provides a fundamental underpinning for more
applied efforts to understand the impact of oil pollution on marine ecosystems. It has
been demonstrated that most fish species bioconcentrate pollutants, including
hydrocarbons, from their environment. The authors have been studying metabolic and
toxic effects stemming from uptake of selected components of crude oil in a number
of marine species. They have been studying the interactions between enzyme systems
and hydrocarbons in ways which may shed light on the question of bioaccumulation
of hydrocarbons by marine organisms—a key issue in assessing the effects of oil
pollution.
2. The second paper, "Chemical Characterization and Aquatic Bioassays of
Energy Development Process Effluents," by Dr. Rodney Skogerboe and his associates,
represents another approach to determination of toxic effects of energy development,
in this case working with coal, oil-shale, and phosphate developments. Process effluents
from energy development programs are frequently complex mixtures of chemical
constituents which individually or collectively may be toxic to aquatic biota. Thus,
assessment of these effluents in terms of toxicity, identification of the toxic principals,
delineation of environmental stability characteristics of these entities, and ultimate
development of quantitative impact predictions are complicated research problems of
major importance.
To characterize the potential impacts of energy development processes, the present
program has utilized chemical and biological assessment methods in a coordinated,
feedback mode of operation. Bioassays run on effluents and separated fractions thereof
have been used to focus chemical analysis on those of most consequence. Chemical
characterization of the toxic fractions has subsequently permitted design of further
bioassay experiments indicative of which constituents are the primary toxicants. As
chemical and biological assessments of each effluent are completed, the results are used
in combination with field evaluation data to develop impact predictions and/or
appropriate control strategies.
3. Dr. Norman Richards has been studying "Effects of Chemicals Used in
Offshore Well-Drilling Operations." This project is to provide research results which can
help guide regulatory decisions related to offshore drilling in the Gulf of Mexico.
Literature concerning the effects on marine organisms of the use of chemicals in
offshore well-drilling operations is very limited. A research program on drilling-fluid
constituents has been initiated to provide information on the relative hazard of
alternative drilling mud constituents and to develop more relevant laboratory methods.
Dr. Richards' evaluation paper discusses the hierarchically arranged methodology used
for testing the effects of selected chemicals. Tiered screening processes were used for
sequential testing of compounds. From the initial set of compounds, two were selected
for further study. Static toxicity tests were conducted with larval stages of three
marine/estuarine species: eastern oyster, grass shrimp, and pinfish in a laboratory
environment. Bioconcentration effects up to 80 times that measured in the exposure
water were observed.
482
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MARINE ECOSYSTEMS
4. Dr. Michael Pilson's paper, "The Marine Ecosystems Research Laboratory: A
Facility for the Investigation of Effects and Fates of Pollutants," describes an effort to
bridge the gap between traditional laboratory experiments and experience in natural
systems. At the University of Rhode Island Marine Ecosystems Research Laboratory, a
series of tanks simulates environmental conditions typical of coastal ecosystems in the
Northeastern United States. Biological (in phytoplankton abundance and species
composition) and chemical behavior of these microcosms is similar to that of
Narragansett Bay, Rhode Island. Experiments using oil as a pollutant within the tanks
are now underway to obtain quantitative information on the effects of low chronic
levels of oil on phytoplankton, zooplankton, and benthos.
TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS
FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEMS
5. In their paper on "Effects of Coal-Fired Power Plant Emissions on Terrestrial
Ecosystems," Dr. James Kelly and his colleagues point out that research needed to
provide knowledge of ecological effects and impacts of atmospheric emissions should
be approached on three levels—the species, the community, and the ecosystem. The
objective of research on species is to determine the impact of simulated ground-level
concentrations of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide on the productivity of plants. At
the community level, studies will determine effects of emissions from coal-fired power
plants on food and fiber crops of economic importance in the Southeastern United
States. These efforts will measure the amount of sulfur transferred from the
atmosphere to agro-ecosystems and evaluate the economic significance of atmospheric
sulfur on crop production. At the ecosystem level small experimental watersheds on
the Cumberland Plateau have been chosen because their soil and vegetation complex
allows easier detection of positive or negative impact due to the infertile and
unbuffered nature of the soil. Ecological data, when combined with economic and
sociological considerations, will provide an insight into environmental perturbation.
6. Dr. Philip Filner, in his paper on "Mechanisms of Resistance to Sulfur Dioxide
in Green Plants," addresses the potential of reduced agricultural productivity stemming
from increased sulfur dioxide levels from a different standpoint. Although green plants
are sensitive to acute exposure to sulfur dioxide, the mechanism by which injuries
occur is unknown. Using members of the cucumber family as experimental plant
species, the mechanisms of injury and resistance to sulfur dioxide were explored. It
was found that there are at least two mechanisms by which resistance to acute injury
from sulfur dioxide can be achieved. The first is genetically or phylogenetically
determined. The second is developmentally controlled resistance which allows young
leaves to absorb sulfur dioxide without injury. Dr. Filner's work represents an example
of basic physiological and biochemical research with potential application for
developing plant strains resistant to air pollution.
7. In a paper on "Methods Development, Field Assessment, and Trophic
Relationships of Biological Communities in Freshwater Ecosystems," Dr. John
Grossman and his associates present a broad overview of studies being conducted by
TVA on the environmental impacts of energy-related technologies on the aquatic
environment. Areas of interest include the impact of thermal discharges of power
plants on important fish food organisms, concentrating on insect embryo tolerance to
483
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thermal shock; models for planning development of surface mines, considering effect of
reclamation on the quality and quantity of local streams, biological impacts of surface
mining, and cumulative effects of pollutants from multiple mines; environmental
impacts of byproducts from coal combustion and nuclear fission, especially trace metal
or radionuclide bioaccumulation in mussels; determination of whether specific design,
siting, and operation of intake structures can mitigate effects on zooplankton by
reducing the numbers of organisms entrained in the condenser cooling water systems of
steam-electric power stations; and development of a computerized information system
to accommodate biological data and perform a variety of analytical procedures.
OIL SPILLS ON
COASTAL TUNDRA PONDS
8. The paper by Dr. John Hobbie and others on "Effects of Prudhoe Crude Oil
Spills on Coastal Tundra Ponds" describes studies on the ecological effects of and
recovery from controlled crude oil spills. These show marked changes in species
composition and slow recovery to prespill conditions. The rate of oil degradation is
slow near the frozen Arctic Ocean, which may increase the exposure time of pond
organisms to soluble compounds. In addition, invertebrates living on the surface or
emergent vegetation were caught mechanically in the floating oil scum. Multiyear life
cycles of arctic macro-organisms near Barrow, Alaska, mean that potential accidents
with crude oil could leave long-lasting effects.
ECOSYSTEM CHARACTERIZATION
energy
environment II
9. In his paper, "Ecosystem Characterization—An Approach to Coastal Natural
Resource Planning and Management," Dr. William Palmisano discusses a technique for
providing information on the structure and function of large-scale coastal ecosystems,
for use in decisionmaking. Ecosystem characterization is a description of the important
components and processes comprised in an ecosystem and an understanding of their
important functional relationships. Emphasis is placed on systems understanding
through structured integration of information from various physical and biological
sciences. The ecosystem characterization involves delineation of the physical boundary
of the system, preparation of a conceptual ecosystem model, information synthesis and
analysis using the model as a "blueprint," and preparation of a characterization report.
Four such coastal ecosystem characterization studies are currently underway—two on
the Atlantic coast, one on the Gulf, and one on the Pacific coast.
10. Mr. Robert Hayden, in his paper on "Assessment of Instream Flow Needs,"
discusses development of improved impact assessment methodology and means of
assuring its use in decisionmaking. It has been forecast that energy developments will
make extensive demands on water supplies that currently provide habitat for fish and
wildlife, including endangered species. There is an important need to improve the
capability to predict the quantity of water that must remain in streams to maintain
their dependent natural systems. A Cooperative Instream Flow Service Group has been
established by the Fish and Wildlife Service to furnish support and assistance to
Federal and State agencies developing, testing, and applying methodologies for
determining in-stream flow needs. A simulation model that predicts the effects of
484
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SUMMARY
altered stream flows has recently been developed. This will be a useful tool for
alternative site selection and trade-off evaluation.
In summary, the information presented in these 10 papers presents an excellent
basis for discussing the 3 broad issues raised previously: how to relate laboratory
results to natural ecosystems, how to detect and measure environmental change, and
how to convert research findings into information that can be used by the
decisionmaker. We will now turn to the panelists for a discussion of these issues.
ALLAN HIRSCH
B.S. and M.S., Zoology, Ph.D., Conservation, Michigan State University. As a
Fulbright Scholar, went to New Zealand and worked as a pollution officer. Experience
includes water resource planning and field studies of water supply and pollution. Has
held high positions within EPA, NOAA, and the Federal Water Pollution Control
Administration. Presently, Senior Ecologist and Chief, Office of Biological Services,
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, DOI, Washington, DC.
485
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questions
oc answers
Dr. Harrison R. Mickey
Tennessee Valley Authority
Mr. Grant Davis
U.S. Forest Service
Mr. Randy Freed
Versar, Inc.
Mr. John Finn
University of Georgia
COMMENT: Dr. Harrison R. Hickey (TVA)
I am going to make an unauthorized comment here.
TVA is thinking of having a conference next spring, and
what I am hearing this afternoon is so relevant to the
theme we are suggesting for this conference, that I think
I would have no better opportunity to mention it to the
people I hope would be involved. The theme will be
environmental effects research used to implement energy
systems.
We collectively have to think about packaging this
kind of work better so that it gets through to the
decision makers involved in supporting programs. There
has to be a stronger link between the water-oriented
ecological research, particularly freshwater and marine.
Part of the reason for the relative absence of water
programs in the control technology portion of this effort
is probably the domination of air research. As air is the
direct contact with humans and human health, perhaps
this is justified. However, it does make the linkage
between low profile efforts such as aquatic research,
ecological research, and related actions that cost a lot of
money more difficult. For example, I have read that 3
years of the Alaskan pipeline delay during which costs
escalated from $900 million to $8 billion was attributable
to debate over the environmental issues involved. How
much of that could have been avoided with a good
background in ecological effects research, I do not know.
But, if some portion of the escalation could have been
headed off, it might have been worthwhile.
We think that research on a fish, like a snail darter,
might be purely academic until it becomes the key point
in whether or not a $100 million dam is built. Delay
itself is extremely costly. When we have a nuclear plant
scheduled, for instance, we adhere to that schedule like
to the Bible because each day's delay costs rather large
amounts.
During this coming year I hope we will develop
stronger justifications for the relevance of ecological
487
-------
effects research for the purpose of building energy
systems more expediently and in a manner compatible
with the environment.
COMMENT: Mr. Grant Davis (USDA)
Now a few comments on transferring laboratory
work into field experiments. One of our major problems,
especially in this energy area, is the difficulty in
accurately measuring natural changes in the population.
For instance, Piceance Basin has a 5,000 acre tract which
may be 1 percent of the basin. This could be destroyed
completely without anyone noticing an effect on, let us
say, the deer population because the deer population
cannot be measured to I or 5 percent.
We probably should be talking about measuring some
of the changes in the habitat potential. We can say that 1
percent of the area was destroyed. Even though this may
not be a likely situation, it is a measurable one.
Consequently, it may be better to look at habitat
potential rather than population changes.
When we talk about chronic changes, we run into an
even more difficult problem. A change in the number and
in the population of the plant species can be very slow.
It is difficult to assess even this impact on the habitat
potential of an area. As a result, we may have to fall
back on observing the genetic variability of the species of
interest. Over a period of time there may be very little
effect to those that are adaptable. Some of the mobile
populations or even some of the static populations of
animals or fish, like deer, the coyote, and the catfish that
are very adaptable may be able to adjust over a period of
time with the chronic changes; whereas those that have
little adaptability, like a trout that has very narrow
habitat requirements, may not be able to adjust to the
chronic changes.
So, whether we are talking about land or aquatic
systems, when we move from the laboratory, where we
can control these factors, into the field, we have some
difficulty in measuring these changes in the species
of interest.
488
-------
QUESTION:
As we have heard today, there are parameters that
we can measure when assessing ecological effects. When
conveying information to decision makers, what sort of
indices do you feel are most synoptic or indicative of
changes in ecosystems? Do you think diversity indices
would be most synoptic or what?
RESPONSE: Dr. A. William Palmisano (FWS)
The components of ecosystems vary from
microscopic organisms all the way up to vertebrates. They
are grouped into an assemblage of plants and animals and
have functional roles. So, it is the structure related to the
function factor in ecosystems which is important.
From the standpoint of the characterizations that we
are working on in the Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS),
we are looking at conceptual modeling of these systems,
stressing those components of systems that are, first, of
importance to man directly, such as migratory birds to
the FWS fishery resources. Whether it be shellfish or fin
fish or other types of natural living resources, such as
endangered species or non-game bird populations, the
primary criteria is the importance and interest to man.
The second criteria that we are using to look at the
components of the system are ecosystem function. What
is the function of particular organisms? In this case, I am
talking primarily about the biological components of the
system—what is the function of these components of the
system either in (1) causing the maintenance and
perpetuation of the natural system, or (2) as they
indirectly or directly affect the living resources that man
has a particular interest in.
We may put emphasis on the conceptual model and
on the characterization itself on a particular organism, for
instance a mollusk in a system, because it indicates
certain things about nutrient cycling in that system. Or,
we may stress the primary productivity of emergent
vegetation because we can link that back to ultimate
productivity in a system.
489
-------
This second category of components could be
indicators of environmental processes, or could be
important support components for higher levels of
organisms that we have provided an emphasis. So the
deck, so to speak, in a conceptual model is loaded
towards those components and processes which we feel
are of vital interest to man.
COMMENT: Dr. Allan Hirsch (FWS)
I would like to comment on what to do when the
administrator asks you for an anwser. It seems to me that
we have the ability to reduce uncertainty, even though
we do not have the ability to answer some of these
questions in a very specific and certain way. We are
dealing with partial knowledge and with uncertain events,
and I think it begs the issue to say it is your neck; you
are asking for the unanswerable. The researchers who are
490
-------
engaged in this area, if not the individual researcher,
certainly the research managers, have to be willing to
extend themselves at least in the area of reducing the
uncertainty with which a lot of these decisions are made.
I know that some of these decisions are made with
information that is far less than what is available at the
state-of-the-art. But; it is not enough to throw up our
hands and say that there are many things we cannot
answer.
The portion of our work that has been described
here this afternoon can already help reduce uncertainty
somewhat, and I think that is what we need to do.
QUESTION:
We have the problem of building models that will
answer different types of questions; for example, when
we start drilling oil, we release toxicants, we build
pipelines, we do a lot of different things to the
ecosystem. In your ecological characterization, how can
you develop a model that will adequately handle all the
different types of impacts that oil and gas development,
for instance, will have on a coastal area?
RESPONSE: Dr. Palmisano
You are tangling apples and oranges. The suggestion
I made was for us to build natural system models so that
we do not focus on an action program, such as, Outer
Continental Shelf (OCS) development or setting water
quality standards, but focus on natural systems. We
develop the boundaries of the system. We develop a
conceptual model, at least the state-of-the-art, in
interrelating the components of the system. We can use
energy flow diagrams to build a model.
But, the point is what is being built? We are
building ecosystem models rather than some impact
model. We are also building impact models, but those are
a specific action program, so we are looking at, for
instance, the phases of OCS development, the actions
associated with these phases, and then trying to determine
what each action has on the resources in the natural
systems' characterization.
One model cannot do the whole job; no one data
system can do the whole job. My recommendation is that
we build modules, system modules, impact modules, data
base modules, and that these modules should fit together.
No one module will fill the bill.
491
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technical
discussion
-------
XENOBIOTIC METABOLISM IN MARINE SPECIES EXPOSED
TO HYDROCARBONS
Margaret 0. James and John R. Bend
National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences
U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare
St. Augustine, Florida and
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
INTRODUCTION
In the past few decades, contamination of our
oceans with chemical pollutants, including petro-
leum hydrocarbons, has become a major environmental
problem, the latter correlating with increased
shipping and drilling operations. Until recently,
there have been few studies concerning the uptake,
metabolism, distribution, and excretion of foreign
chemicals (xenobiotics) in marine species and the
possibility of chemical contamination of this im-
portant source of human food.
The work of Lee _e_t al (1972a and 1972b) and
later Corner et_ al_ (1976) , Korn et_ al_ (1976) ,
Statham et_ al_ (1976), and others showed that
marine fish, Crustacea, mollusca, and zooplankton
accumulated hydrocarbons from polluted water,
which they could slowly depurate when transferred
to clean water. However, few published studies
described the metabolism of xenobiotics in any
marine species. Since metabolism of a xenobiotic
is often a crucial factor in relation to its
biological effect and its half life in the animal,
we feel it is important to study pathways of xeno-
biotic metabolism in marine species. We are
especially interested in the polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons, since metabolites of these compounds
are known human carcinogens (Heidelburger, 1976).
In mammals, hydrocarbons are initially oxidized to
alkene or arene oxides in a reaction catalysed by
the cytochrome P-450 dependent mono-oxygenases.
The alkene or arene oxide may react enzymatically
with glutathione, or water, in reactions catalysed
by the GSH S-transferases and epoxide hydrase, or
may bind to cell macromolecules, or be rearranged
non-enzymatically to the alcohol or phenol (Jerina
and Daly, 1974). We first determined whether
similar pathways of xenobiotic metabolism are used
in mammals and in marine species. We then studied
the effect of chemical pretreatment of some warm
and cold water fish species on the activities of
the hepatic enzymes involved in hydrocarbon me-
tabolism, paying particular attention to the poly-
cyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.
TECHNICAL DISCUSSION
Our laboratories are located at the Mount
Desert Island Biological Laboratory in Maine and
at the Whitney Marine Research Laboratory, Univer-
sity of Florida, St. Augustine. The species used
in these studies at each location were caught lo-
cally and maintained in fresh flowing seawater
until used. They were fed shrimp or small pieces
of fish about twice a week. An exception was the
spiny lobster, which was shipped from South Florida
and maintained in our laboratory for at least 2
weeks before use.
Subcellular fractions of liver, hepatopancreas
or extrahepatic organs were prepared as described
by Pohl ejL al_ (1974). The washed microsomes were
resuspended to protein concentrations of about 20
ing/ml and used in assays for cytochrome P-450 con-
tent, benzpyrene hydroxylase, benzphetamine N-de-
methylase, and 7-ethoxycoumarin 0-deethylase
activities as described in Pohl et_ al_ (1974).
Microsomal epoxide hydrase and cytosol fraction
GSH S-transferase activities were measured
essentially as described by James et al (1976).
In Maine the optimal conditions for in vitro assay
were determined using hepatic microsomes from the
little skate, Raja erinacea, and in Florida the
optimal conditions were determined using hepatic
microsomes from the sheepshead, Archosargus
probatocephalus, and the stingray, Dasyatis sabina.
Table 1 shows that cytochrome P-450 was present
in liver or hepatopancreas of all marine fish and
Crustacea studied. However, NADPH-dependent
benzpyrene hydroxylase (AHH), benzphetamine N-
demethylase, and 7-ethoxycoumarin 0-deethylase
activities were routinely detected in vitro only
in hepatic microsomes from fish species. These
NADPH-dependent activities were undetectable or
present at the limits of sensitivity of the assays
used, in the case of Crustacea.
This correlates with what is known of the rate
of oxidation of xenobiotics in vivo in fish com-
pared with Crustacea. We also found (Table 2)
that epoxide metabolizing enzymes were present in
liver or hepatopancreas as well as some extrahepatic
organs in most of the species studied. Styrene
oxide was used as substrate to obtain the results
shown in Table 2, but activity towards octene
1, 2-oxide and benzpyrene 4,5-oxide was also meas-
ured in most cases (Bend et al 1977). Of special
interest was the high epoxide hydrase activity
found in hepatopancreas of the crustacean species
studied. Since the NADPH dependent oxidation of
xenobiotics in these species was low or undetectable
by our in vitro assays, we were surprised to find
that the products of oxidation were well metabolized
by crustacea.
Because they have easily measurable oxidative
activities, are readily available and easily main-
tained, the little skate was used in Maine, and
the sheepshead and stingray in Florida to study
the effects of chemical pretreatment on xenobiotic
metabolizing enzymes. Chemical pretreatment of
fish was usually accomplished by i.p. injection of
a corn oil suspension or solution of the appropriate
xenobiotic, though sometimes the oral route was
used. Control fish were treated with corn oil or
the solvent vehicle. The day of injection was
taken as day one of the experiment.
Table 3 shows the effect of several hydrocar-
bons and related chemicals on cytochrome P-450
495
-------
TABLE 1. CYTOCHROME P-450 CONTENT AND MIXED-FUNCTION OXIDASE ACTIVITIES IN HEPATIC MICROSOMES FROM
SEVERAL MARINE SPECIES
SPECIES
4
Atlantic Stingray
(Dasyatis sabina)
Large Skate
(Raja ocellata)
Little Skate6
(Raja erinacea)
4
Bluntnose Stingray
(Dasyatis sayi )
Dogfish Shark
(Squalus acanthias)
4
Sheepshead
(Archosargus probatocephalus)
Mangrove Snapper '
(Lutjanus griseus)
Winter Flounder
(Pseudopleuronectes americanus)
4
Black Drum
(Pogonias cromis)
Spiny Lobster
(Panulirus argus)
Lobster
(Homarus americanus)
Blue Crab
(Callinectes sapillus)
Nmoles cytochrome P-450/mg protein.
2
Fluorescence units/mi n/mg protein.
0.1 N sulfuric acid (excitation 400
Nmoles product formed/mi n/mg protei
4
Florida species.
5Mean ± S.D. (N); range when N 2;
Maine species.
N.D. means no activity detected.
o
Pools of livers from up to 15 fish
g
Data from Elmamlouk, T. H., Gessner
Not assayed.
CYTOCHROME P-450
CONTENT!
0.43 ± 0.07 (8)5
0.36 0.41
0.32 ± 0.08 (4)
0.32 ± 0.12 (3)
0.23 0.29
0.29 ± 0.12 (13)
0.25 ± 0.05 (3)
0.17 + 0.01 (3)
0.14 ± 0.03 (4)
0.88 + 0.52 (15)
0.04 0.13 (7)9
N.D. to 0.29 (4)
One unit equals
nm, emission 525
n.
single value when
were required to
, T. , and Brownie
BENZPYRENE
HYDROXYLASE
ACTIVITY2
0.86 ± 0.36 (27) 0
0.30 ± 0.09 (3) 1
0.17 ± 0.10 (10) 1
0.17 ± 0.05 (3) 0
0 07 + 0.02 (3) 0
1.38 ± 0.47 (9) 1
6.64 ± 0.48 (3) 0
2.54 ± 1.67 (7) 0
1 .62 + 1 .91 (11 ) 0
BENZPHETAMINE
DEMETHYLASE
ACTIVITY3
.98 ± 0.75 (16)
.49 ± 0.41 (3)
.07 ± 0.19 (9)
.23 ± 0.11 (3)
.15 + 0.05 (3)
.10 ± 0.42 (9)
.88 2.50
.59 ± 0.13 (3)
.45 + 0.09 (5)
3 N.D. to 0.04 (15)7 0.05 ± 0.05 (4)
N.D. (3)
N.D. to 0.01 (4)
the fluorescence intensity of 3 pg quinine
nm) .
N 1 .
obtain enough microsomal protein for assay
, A. C. 1974. Comp. Biochem. Physiol . 48B:
7-ETHOXYCOUMARIN
DEETHYLASE
ACTIVITY3
0.05 ± 0.02 (14)
0.47 ± 0.08 (3)
0.32 ± 0.14 (11)
0.01, N.D., N.D. (3)7
0.08 ± 0.02 (3)
0 05 +• 0 03 (9)
0.16 ± 0.02 (3)
0.32 + 0.25 (6)
0.06
N.D. (6)
N.D. (3)
___10
sul fate/ml in
419-425.
content and AHH activity of hepatic microsomes.
In general, chemicals with polyaromatic ring
structure induced AHH activity between 5- and 15-
fold but there was little effect on the overall
cytochrome P-450 content of liver. In many cases,
induced fish had higher P-450 content than controls,
but differences were not statistically significant
and did not correlate with the extent of induction.
Other oxygenase activities studied were 7-ethoxy-
coumarin 0-deethylase, which followed the same in-
duction pattern as AHH activity, and benzphetamine
N-demethylase activity which was not induced by
treatment with the chemicals studied.
The effect of various doses of 3-methylcholan-
threne on AHH activity in sheepshead is shown in
Figure 1. Doses as low as 1 mg/kg induced AHH
activity in hepatic microsomes. Figure 2 shows
that induction with a single dose of 3-methylcho-
lanthrene of 20 mg/kg caused hepatic microsomeal
AHH activity to be elevated for at least 63 days
after injection. We are currently studying the
duration of the induction effect.
Another in vitro test which discriminated
between control and polyaromatic chemical induced
fish was assaying for AHH activity in the presence
496
-------
ACTIVITY (nmoles product/min/mg protein)
SPECIES1
Teleosts
Sheepshead
Black Drum
Winter Flounder
Eel
(Anquilla rostrata)
Mangrove Snapper
Southern Flounder
(Paralichthys lethostigma)
Elastnobranchs
Atlantic Stingray
Dogfish Shark
Little Skate
Noose Shark
(Ginglymostoma cirratum)
Crustacean
Spiny Lobster
Blue Crab
Rock Crab
(Cancer ittorus)
Lobster
Invertebrates
Clam
(Mya arenaria)
Quahaug
(Mercenaria campechienius)
Mussel
(Mytilus edulis)
EPOXIDE HYDRASE'
6.1 ± 2.6 (16)
4.7 ± 2.0 (13)
2.0 ± 1.4 (4)
1 .4
2.5, 1.6
1.5
5
2.'
2.7
5.8 ± 2.3 (10)
7.6 ± 2.4 (4)
0.14 ± 0.06 (3)
7.5 ± 2.8 (3)
23.4 ± 4.4 (8)
7.5 ± 3.2 (3)
3.2 ± 2.3 (5)
21.9 ± 2.4 (4)
10.0'
0.1'
0.3'
GLUTATHIONE ^-TRANSFERASEC
25.5 ± 7.7 (16)
16.1 ± 5.2 (13)
4.9 ± 0.7 (3)
14.6 15.0
4.2 ± 0.8 (4 pools)6
2.6 6.6
5.1 ± 1.6 (8)
14.6 ± 4.1 (3)
2.4 ± 0.5 (17)
6.0 12.1
1.1 ± 0.3 (8)
0.4 ± 0.3 (3)
0.3 t 0.1 (3)
1.7 + 1.1 (3)
0.6'
0.7'
0.7'
2
Where generic names are not given, see Table 1.
Activity of the microsomal fraction, assayed using 1 mM styrene oxide.
Activity of the cytosol fraction (176,000g_ supernatant), assayed using 1 mM styrene oxide
and 10 mM glutathione.
4
Mean ± S.D. (n): range where n 2 single value when rate was determined from a single
tissue pool.
Pools of livers from 12 and 15 snappers were required to obtain sufficient microsomal
protein for assay.
Pools of livers from 6 to 8 snappers were used.
The mean (containing digestive tract and egg masses) from 12 mussels, clams, or quahaugs
was pooled prior to homogenization.
5
TABLE 2.
EPOXIDE HYDRASE
AND GLUTATHIONE
S-TRANSFERASE
ACTIVITIES TOWARDS
STYRENE OXIDE IN
LIVER OR HEPATO-
PANCREAS OF
SEVERAL MARINE
SPECIES
497
-------
TABLE 3. HEPATIC OXIDATIVE ENZYMES OF SOME MARINE FISH AFTER PRETREATMENT WITH HYDROCARBONS AND
RELATED CHEMICALS
FISH SPECIES BENZPYRENE HYDROXYLASE ACTIVITY
(Dose, Route) (F.U./min/mg protein)
CHEMICAL
3-Methylcholanthrene
Dibenz( a, h) anthracene
5,6-Benzoflavone
Hexadecane
Arochlor 1254
TCDD
Activities shown are mean ±
2
Archosargus probatocephalus
Dasyatis sabina
4
Raja erinacea
Sheepshead
(20 nig/ kg, i.p.)
Stingray
(3 x 20 mg/kg, i.p.)
Little skate
(2 x 50 mg/kg, oral)
Sheepshead
(2 x 10 mg/kg, i.p.)
Sheepshead
(50 mg/kg, i.p.)
Sheepshead
(2 x 20 mg/kg, i.p.)
Sheepshead
(100 mg/kg, i.p.)
Little skate
(2 x 4.5 pg/kg, i.p.)
S.D. for (n) individual
CONTROL
1.4 ± 0.52
(9)
0.6 ± 0.2
(9)
0.8 ± 0.3
(6)
1.1 ± 0.3
(3)
2.9 ± 1.1
(3)
1.8 ± 1.1
(5)
3.3 ± 1.5
(4)
1.2 ± 0.4
(6)
fish.
TREATED
10.5 ± 3.0
(6)
0.6 ± 0.1
(6)
6.5 ± 0.2
(6)
13.4 ± 1.6
(5)
14.4 ± 6.6
(5)
2.3 ± 1.6
(5)
18.1 ± 5.0
(4)
22.7 ± 11.0
(3)
CYTOCHROME P-450 CONTENT
(nmole/mg protein)
CONTROL
0.23 ± 0.12
(9)
0.43 ± 0.07
(9)
0.24 ± 0.04
(6)
0.23 ± 0.06
(3)
0.36 ± 0.14
(3)
0.21 ± 0.06
(5)
0.22 ± 0.07
(4)
0.24 ± 0.04
(6)
TREATED
0.20 ± 0.09
(6)
0.34 ± 0.06
(6)
0.25 ± 0.06
(6)
0.27 ± 0.03
(6)
0.28 ± 0.07
(5)
0.15 ± 0.09
(5)
0.42 ± 0.19
(4)
0.34 ± 0.14
(3)
a
•3
Is
o
1
£4
.t
>
0
X2
5
T ?
1
T 1
1
- 1
T
-4
1
i i i i
5 10 IS 20
3-MC mg/kg
Figure 1. Dose-response of AHH induction in sheeps-
head. AHH activity (F.U./min/mg pro-
tein) was measured in hepatic microsomes
from sheepshead which had been injected
i.p. on day 1 with a single dose of 3-
methylcholanthrene (3-MC) in corn oil
at the doses indicated, and sacrificed
on day 8. Controls received equivalent
volumes of corn oil. Values shown are
mean ± S.D. (n = 3 to 8 individuals).
498
-------
30 -
25
i*
10 20 30 40
Days after dose
50
60
Figure 2. Time course of 3-MC Induction in
Sheepshead Liver
• Sheepshead were injected i.p. with a
single dose of 3-methylcholanthrene
(3-MC) in corn oil on day 1 and sacri-
ficed in groups of 3 to 5 at the times
shown. AHH activities (F.U./min/mg
protein) were measured in hepatic mi-
cro somes. Results are mean ± S.D.
• Sheepshead were injected i.p. with
corn oil on day 1 to serve as controls.
and absence of 7,8-benzoflavone (Weibel and Gel-
boin, 1975). AHH activity in microsomes from in-
duced fish was supressed by addition of 7,8-ben-
zof lavone to the incubation tube, whereas AHH
activity in microsomes from control fish was stim-
ulated by in vitro addition of 7,8-benzoflavone,
(Table 4). Using this test we have found that a
few fish caught near St. Augustine, FL, had in-
duced microsomal AHH activity, presumably due to
environmental exposure to inducing agents.
Induction of AHH activity is a measure of
the capacity for increased production of arene
oxides after exposure to aromatic hydrocarbons.
Thus the effect of chemicals which induce AHH
activity on the epoxide metabolizing enzymes may
influence the overall toxicity of the hydrocarbons
or related chemical. Table 5 shows that none of
the chemicals studied so far had any effect on
epoxide hydrase or glutathione S-transferase in
the sheepshead, stingray, or skate.
Some in vivo studies have been undertaken
by Dr. R. Weatherby in our laboratory to deter-
mine the persistence of some of the hydrocarbon
components of crude oil in marine species. We
have found that octane and hexadecane are store
in the hepatopancreas of the spiny lobster for
several weeks after a single intravascular dos
of 10 mg/kg (Table 6) . The slow elimination o::
these chemicals in the lobster correlates with the
very low rate of oxidative metabolism as measured
in vitro. Similar results were found with Maine
lobsters dosed with hexadecane (Foweman et al
1976).
PROGRAM DISCUSSION
It is apparent from the data in Tables 1 to 5
and Figures 1 and 2 that considerable individual
variation is found in the activities of xenobiotic
metabolizing enzymes in the "wild" species studied.
CONCENTRATION OF
a-NAPHTHOFLAVONE
IN INCUBATION TUBE
-5
10
BENZPYRENE HYDROXYLASE ACTIVITY
(F.U./min/mg protein)
SHEEPSHEAD
SKATE
CONTROL
1.373
1.68
1 .72
2.66
5.05
6.05
3-MC TREATED
22.6
22.1
24.1
19.8
8.6
8.3
CONTROL
0.23
0.23
0.24
0.21
0.73
0.64
DBA TREATED^
5.23
5.08
3.88
3.30
1 .16
0.79
Sheepshead were injected i.p. with a corn oil suspension of 3-methylcholanthrene
(20 mg/kg) on day 1 and sacrificed on day 9.
Skates were injected i.p. with a corn oil suspension of dibenz(a,h)anthracene on
days 1, 2, and 3 and sacrificed on day 10.
Results shown are from single experiments for each species. The experiments
were repeated three times with similar results.
TABLE 4.
EFFECT OF IN VITRO ADDITION OF
a-NAPHTHOFLAVONE ON HEPATIC
MICROSOMAL BENZPYRENE HYDROXYLASE
ACTIVITY IN INDUCED AND NON-
INDUCED FISH
499
-------
TABLE 5. EFFECT OF CHEMICAL TREATMENT OF SOME MARINE FISH ON THEIR HEPATIC EPOXIDE-
METABOLIZING ENZYMES
EPOXIDE HYDRASE ACTIVITY1
nmoles/min/mg protein
SPECIES CHEMICAL
Sheepshead 3-Methylcholanthrene
(2 x 20 mg/kg, i.p.)
days 1 and 3, sacrificed day 6
Dibenz( a, h) anthracene
(2 x 10 mg/kg, i.p.)
days 1 and 3, sacrificed day 6
5,6-Benzoflavone
(100 mg/kg, i .p)
day 1, sacrificed day 5
Arochlor 1254
(100 mg/kg, i.p.)
day 1 , sacrificed day 7
Hexadecane
(2 x 20 mg/kg, i.p.)
days 1 and 3, sacrificed day 5
Stingray 3-Methylcholanthrene
(3 x 20 mg/kg, i.p.)
days 1, 4 and 8, sacrificed
day 18
Skate TCDD
(2 x 4.5 yg/kg, i.p.)
days 1 and 3, sacrificed day 12
Assayed in microsomes: 1 mM styrene oxide substrate.
Assayed in cytosol fraction: 1 mM styrene oxide and 10
3Mean ± S.D. (n).
I
CONTROL
6.5 ± 4.03
(9)
6.6 ± 1 .9
(7)
3.7 ± 1.2
(5)
3.8 ± 1.8
(6)
2.9 ± 0.5
(3)
5.8 ± 2.3
(7)
0.30 ± 0.12
(6)
mM glutathione
TREATED
5.8 ± 2.2
(6)
4.7 ± 1 .3
(9)
4.2 ± 1 .8
(5)
4.9 ± 1.6
(8)
3.0 ± 0.4
(5)
4.5 ± 0.5
(4)
0.36 ± 0.14
(5)
substrates.
GSH S-TRANSFERASE ACTIVITY2
nmoles/min/mg protein
CONTROL
34.3 ± 8.3
(9)
15.5 ± 0.8
(7)
19.3 ± 5.4
(5)
18.8 ± 2.8
(6)
15.3 + 3.5
(3)
6.7 ± 1.5
(9)
2.84 ± 0.23
(6)
TREATED
27.5 ± 8
(6)
14.8 ± 2
(9)
20.0 ± 2
(5)
.2
.5
2
20.3 ± 4.0
(8)
14.0 ± 2
(5)
5.7 ± 0
(5)
2.68 ± 0.
(5)
5
6
12
DAYS AFTER
ADMINISTRATION
1
2
3
8
14
21
28
56
OCTANE1
HEPATOPANCREAS TOTAL
73.4 ± 18.1 83.8 ±
40.2 + 26.0 51.9 ±
39.0 ± 11.5 47.2 ±
__4
18.5 ± 12.6 23.5 ±
--
7.4 ± 2.0 11 .0 ±
--
C] REMAINING
RECOVERY2
19.0 (5)3
24.0 (5)
9.8 (4)
13.6 (6)
2.9 (3)
IN SPINY LOBSTER
HEXADECANE1
HEPATOPANCREAS TOTAL RECOVERY2
53.6 ± 9.9
62.8 ± 6.1
58.5 ± 9.3
48.9 ± 3.2
--
33.1 ± 5.3
--
16.2 ± 8.7
68.0 ± 9.1 (4)
75.5 ± 6.0 (4)
69.5 ± 8.2 (3)
58.7 ± 3.2 (4)
--
43.2 t 3.7 (3)
—
20.7 i 9.1 (3)
An Emulphor solution of octane or hexadecane containing 10 mg/kg + 10 yCi/kg was injected into
the pericardial sinus of each animal.
Other tissues counted were: green gland, tail muscle, stomach, intestine, intestinal contents,
plasma, gonads, brain.
Results shown are mean + S.D. (n)
This time point
was not studied.
TABLE 6.
PERSISTENCE OF [14C]-HEXADE-
CANE AND [14c]-OCTANE IN
HEPATOPANCREAS OF THE SPINY
LOBSTER, Panulirus argus,
AFTER INTRAVASCULAR
ADMINISTRATION
500
-------
Hie influence of factors in the physical environ-
ment, such as temperature, salinity, and water
flow rate, on xenobiotic metabolism has not yet
been established, but may be expected to play
an important role.
We have demonstrated that exposure to certain
chemicals has a long-lasting influence on AHH ac-
tivity in the sheepshead, and it is probable that
the effects of chemicals may be further influenced
by the physical factors mentioned. The long term
effects of induction of hepatic xenobiotic meta-
bolizing enzymes in fish species (or humans) is as
yet undetermined. We do not know whether toxic
metabolites of hydrocarbons and related chemicals
are stored in edible fish, but it is clear that
exposure of certain fish to these chemicals has a
biological effect long after the fish has been
transferred to clean water.
The in vitro addition of 7,8-benzoflavone has
proved a valuable tool in determining whether a
fish has previously been exposed to pollutants
and may be useful in deciding the extent of pollu-
tion after an oil spill or accidental chemical
pollution. We plan further studies of the in
vivo metabolism of hydrocarbons in several marine
species and hope to develop a pharmacokinetic
model for predicting how long different chemicals
will persist in a variety of species.
Our studies on the factors affecting induc-
tion by chemicals and the mechanism of induction
of xenobiotic metabolizing enzymes in marine fish
will further our understanding of how biological
factors in the animal mediate the toxic and car-
cinogenic actions of many environmental pollutants.
CONCLUSIONS
Our results, and those of others, have shown
that aquatic species are affected by chemical pol-
lutants and may be more sensitive than mammals to
the acute lethal effects of a variety of chemicals.
In addition, aquatic species may exhibit the bio-
logical effects of nonlethal exposure to chemicals
more quickly, or at lower doses, than mammals. If
this is so, fish would be useful model species for
studying the teratogenicity, mutagenicity, or
carcinogenicity of certain environmental chemicals.
This has already been done in the case of aflatoxin,
using the freshwater rainbow trout (Sinnhuber et
al 1968).
In the past 2 years we have gained a better
understanding of how some marine species metabo-
lize foreign chemicals. This should be of predic-
tive value in determining which marine species are
most likely to accumulate toxic chemicals and which
species are capable of converting chemicals to more
toxic substances.
Marine species are an important part of the
diets of many people, either directly or in the
food chain, and greater knowledge of the inter-
actions between marine species and pollutants is
now needed in view of the increasing chemical con-
tent of our oceans (Kraybill 1976).
REFERENCES
Bend, J.R.; James, M.O.; and Dansette, P.
(1977). Annals N.Y. Acad. Sci. in press Proceed-
ings of Conference on Aquatic Pollutants and Bio-
logical Effects with Emphasis on Neoplasia.
Corner, E.D.S.; Harris, R.P.; Kilvington,
C.C.; and O'Hara, S.C.M. (1976). J. Mar. Biol.
Ass. UK _56, pp. 121-133.
Foweman, G.L.; Hall, P.; and Bend, J.R. (1976)
Bull. Mt. Desert Island Biol Lab., in press.
Heidelburger C. (1976) in Carcinogenesis :
Volume 1. Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons,
Chemistry, Metabolism and Carcinogenesis. Raven
Press, pp 1-8.
James, M.O.; Fouts, J.R.; and Bend, J.R. (1976)
Biochem. Pharmacol. 25, pp 187-193.
Jerina, D.M. and Daly, J.W. (1974) Science,
185, pp 573-582.
Kraybill, H.F. 1976 Prog. exp. Tuma Res. 20,
pp 3-34.
Korn, S.; Hirsch, N.; and Struhsaher, J.W.
(1976). Fish. Bull. M_,.pp 545-551.
Lee, R.F.; Sauerheber, R.; and Dobbs, G.H.
(1972) Mar. Biol. 17_, pp 201-208.
Pohl, R.J.; Bend, J.R.; Guarino, A.M.; and
Fouts, J.R. (1974) Drug Metab. Disp 2_, pp. 545-555.
Sinnhuber, R.O.; Wales, J.H.; Ayres, J.L.;
Engebrecht, R.H ; and Amend, D.L. (1968) J. Natl
Cancer Inst. 41, pp. 711-718.
Statham, C.N.; Melancon, M.J.; and Lech,
J.J. (1976) Science 193, pp 680-681.
Weibel, F.J. and Gelboin, H.U. (1975) Biochem.
Pharmacol. 24, pp 1511-1515.
501
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CHEMICAL CHARACTERIZATION AND AQUATIC
BIOASSAYS OF ENERGY DEVELOPMENT
PROCESS EFFLUENTS
Rodney K. Skogerboe and Davis F. S. Natusch
Department of Chemistry
Colorado State University
Fort Collins, Colorado
Rosemary C. Russo and Robert V. Thurston
Fisheries Bioassay Laboratory
Montana State University
Bozeman, Montana
INTRODUCTION
In 1975 a research program was jointly
undertaken by Montana State and Colorado State
Universities to assess the potential effects on
the aquatic biota of pollutants resulting from
energy development programs in the Rocky Mountain
Region. The research is supported by EPA-WQO
Research Grant No. R-803950. The program has
focused on four areas of energy development:
coal mining, coal combustion, coal conversion, and
oil shale mining and processing. The major
project objectives have been:
1. To establish chemical and biological data
bases on potentially impacted streams to serve as
reference information for evaluating the ultimate
possible effects on water resources and ecosystems
due to potential toxicants from associated energy
development projects.
2. To determine acute and chronic toxicities
to aquatic organisms caused by contaminants
resulting from energy development.
3. To identify any toxicants associated
with the products and byproducts of energy
development processes.
4. To determine the routes of transport of
the toxicants from their sources to the aquatic
systems and define the mechanistic parameters
which define these routes and control the rates
of transfer.
5. To synthesize the information from this
and other investigations so that estimates of
impacts can be made and/or necessary control
strategies formulated.
This is clearly a comprehensive and complex
undertaking involving research in several areas.
A complete discussion of the findings to date or
a projection of future research plans is well
beyond what can be cogently discussed in the
present report. Consequently, a summary of what
has been established to date in selected areas of
investigation is presented below without
emphasizing details. Before doing so, however,
it is appropriate to describe the conceptual
approaches embodied in the present program and
to provide background information on the geolog-
ical and hydrologic characteristics of the
research region.
The effluents from most energy development
programs are generally complex mixtures of
numerous chemical constituents. To determine the
identities of all constituents present, measure
their respective concentrations, and attempt to
use this information to predict impacts on the
aquatic biota would, in most instances, be
partially if not monumentally nonproductive. Thus,
the approach which was originally formulated and
which has been proven successful has been that of
utilizing aquatic biota as analytical or screening
tools. In essence, acute and chronic bioassays are
run on the aqueous effluents and the aqueous
extracts of solid products using Daphnia and/or
Fathead Minnows. The results of these bioassays
are used initially to qualitatively focus on those
process effluents or extracts containing toxic
constituents which are individually or manifestly
operative. Due to the compositional complexity of
the majority of such effluents, it has generally
been found necessary to subject them to simple,
nondestructive separation procedures. The frac-
tions obtained from such separations are of
generally simpler compositions and are also
subjected to the bioassay screening process to
further simplify the chemical identification
problem as well as the ultimate assessment of the
cause and effect relationships. The utilization of
these approaches will be illustrated in following
sections. Before proceeding, the general geologi-
cal characteristics of the Rocky Mountain energy
development region, the effects that these have on
surface and ground water quality parameters in the
area, and how these relate to certain energy
development programs deserve discussion.
TECHNICAL DISCUSSION
Large portions of the western coal development
region include general stratigraphic features
associated with the Upper Cretaceous and Early
Tertiary Periods. These formations generally
consist of interbedded sandstone, sandy shale,
and coal beds of marine brackish water and fresh
water origin. The soils, except in alluvial flood
plains, are usually thin and poorly developed. The
natural vegetation of the region is generally
sparse. Because of the geological history of the
area, soils and the strata disrupted during strip
mining operations are usually quite basic and
include fairly large quantities of salts such as
gypsum and epsomite. Ground waters in the area
are typically quite basic (pH = 7.4-8.2),
alkaline (alkalinity 100-1000 mg CaC03/l), and
exhibit fairly high levels of sulfate (100-1000
mg/L) due to the dissolution of soluble salts.
Surface waters reflect these same characteristics;
the extensive use of irrigation degrades the water
quality of a pristine mountain stream rather
rapidly. In effect, the general water quality
parameters of the region are such that they exert
profound influences on the equilibria associated
with the leaching of various normally soluble
503
-------
constituents from mine overburden, retorted oil
shale, and other energy development products and
byproducts.
Coal Mining
The basic nature of the ground waters of the
region coupled with their carbonate/bicarbonate
buffer capacities are such that very few mine
effluents exhibit acidity (pH less than 7.0).
These conclusions are based on results of the
present investigation involving three different
strip coal mines in Colorado and Montana as well
as reports by several other agencies and groups.
Further, Temple and Kimble (1) have carried out
leaching studies on Southeastern Montana core
samples which were innoculated with chemoauto-
trophic bacteria. Although the presence of these
bacteria in easily recoverable numbers indicated
that they were producing acid, only a small
percentage of the core strata studied developed
low pH on leaching. The failure to develop
acidity even in the presence of the bacteria and
the appropriate sulfide minerals was directly
associated with the neutralizing capacities of the
carbonate minerals present.
In addition, the present studies as well as
an extensive examination of water quality data for
the region indicate that heavy metal concentra-
tions are typically quite low in comparison to the
levels often reported for the acid conditions
typical of the Appalachian coal regions. Again,
this can be largely attributed to the influence
that the hydroxide and carbonate have on the
precipitation of several heavy metals. Among
the metals having solubilities controlled by these
precipitation processes are: Cd, Cu, Fe, Pb, and
Zn. In essence, the geological characteristics
of the region coupled with the resultant effects
on thegeneral water quality parameters are
manifested in terms of "benevolent" suppression
of the solubilities of several heavy metals which
might otherwise prove toxic to the aquatic biota.
Although this is a definitely favorable circum-
stance, it must be emphasized that certain types
of processes may have constituents present that
enhance the solubilities through complexation,
for example, and that several constituents, even
though present at low concentrations, may operate
synergistically to cause mortalities among the
aquatic biota. Thus, the present program has
carried out both field and laboratory based
studies to evaluate these possibilities.
Field studies on Trout Creek, Colorado, and
the Tongue River, Montana, to date have failed to
indicate impacts on the aquatic biota due to coal
mining that cannot be accounted for by other
factors. The field evaluations have shown that
the mining operations generally have direct
impacts on the gross water quality characteristics
of the receiving streams. A general overview of
this may be obtained by examination of Figure 1
showing the results of total dissolved solids
(TDS) measurements for Trout Creek above and
below the mining operation. The TDS levels tend
to be fairly low and constant above the mine
except during precipitation or thawing periods.
The increased TDS levels due to mine drainage
may be deduced by comparison of the two curves in
Figure 1. During the July-October period, the
primary input from the mine is via ground water
seepage which approximately doubles the TDS of
the stream. The effects of surface runoff and
aquifer flushing is indicated by the increases
during runoff periods, i.e., a thaw period in
December and the spring runoff during March-June.
It should be noted that the major spring impact
occurred even though the stream flow increased
dramatically; dilution did not compensate for the
surface and aquifer flushing effect. The field
studies have shown that the most significant
change in water quality attributable to surface
mining is an increase in TDS. The ions making
the largest contributions to the dissolved solids
content in both mine drainage and receiving waters
are calcium, magnesium, sodium, bicarbonate, and
sulfate. The compositions of mine drainage and
receiving waters are very similar. More than 99
percent of the total load of dissolved solids
contributed by the disturbed ground at Trout Creek
is accounted for by ground-water runoff. It has
been estimated by McWhorter et al. (2) that 2.9
million kilograms of dissolved solids per year are
contributed to the stream by the mine which
constitutes 17% of the total watershed; this
amounts to 54% of the total stream load per year.
Of the 15 trace metals studied, only manganese
and selenium were observed at levels consistently
above those recommended for public consumption.
Experiments are now in progress to define whether
the higher levels of these elements are signifi-
cant from either the long term toxicity or
bioaccumulation standpoints.
Figure 1. Monthly total dissolved solids
(TDS) above and below the mine
on Trout Creek.
504
-------
Leaching studies have been carried out on mine
overburden to: a. obtain information on the
lechanistic aspects of the leaching process; b.
provide data supportive of the general conclu-
sions given above; and c. prepare leachates under
controlled conditions for bioassay evaluations.
Although such studies are subject to experimental
problems as will be discussed below, they have
provided bases for the following general conclu-
sions.
1. The alkaline nature(s) of the overburden
materials and associated ground waters definitely
play major roles in controlling the solubilities
of several potentially toxic trace metals.
2. The amount of organic material removed
from the overburden by leaching is typically less
than 5-10 mg organic carbon per liter. The
compounds involved are primarily of the humic and
fulvic acid types; these also limit the solubili-
ties of several heavy metals.
3. Large quantities of water are required to
leach the alkaline and saline constituents from
the overburden. McWhorter et al. (2 ) have
combined the knowledge of the leaching behavior
with the hydrology and meteorology of the region
to estimate that several centuries will be
required to reduce the alkaline-saline contribu-
tions of a typical mine overburden deposit to a
nonalkaline, nonsaline condition. Thus, these
contributions to the aqueous systems due to the
disruption of the strata overlying the coal will
be long term.
4. Overburden leachates have been demonstrated
to cause "mild" acute toxicities once the majority
of the alkaline constituents have been removed via
the leaching process. Although a particular
constituent has not been identified as responsible
for this, it appears most likely at present that
the effect is due to the combined presence of
several constituents at very low concentrations.
The evaluation of this in terms of chronic effects
is in progress.
Coal Combustion
To determine the impacts of coal combustion
on the aquatic biota, the study area selected has
been the power plant at Colstrip, Montana. The
research has included chemical analyses of the
coal being burned, the fly ash produced, the
aqueous effluents, and the principal water course
draining the plume impact region, i.e. Rosebud
Creek. Fish and macroinvertebrate distributions
in that stream have been determined and bioassays
have been run on fly ash leachates as well as
waters from the fly ash, scrubber water, and
cooling water settling ponds. Based on the
studies to date, the following generalizations can
be drawn:
1. Fly ash leachates are acutely toxic to
Daphnia even at high dilution levels. The
results superficially suggest that the toxicity
may be related primarily to the alkaline and
saline parameters of the leachates. However, when
the prevalent chemical equilibria are taken into
account, the effects that these parameters have on
the concentrations as well as the chemical forms of
trace metals such as copper and zinc serve as the
basis for this observation. This will be
discussed further below.
2. Results to date indicate no correlative
data between fish or invertebrate distributions
and water chemistry changes in the plume impact
area. Although this suggests that the aerial
emissions are not significantly impacting the
biota, the plant has been in operation for less
than two years. Thus, possible longer term
impacts cannot be evaluated yet.
3. Mercury concentrations in the plume
impact stream rise rather sharply during periods
of surface runoff such as the spring thaw.
Computations indicate that the mercury emission
level at the power plant stack should approximate
1 yg/tn3. Limited measurements have indicated that
the atmospheric mercury concentration along the
plume centerline in a 2 m/sec wind was 80 ng/m3
at a distance of 1.8 km and was diluted to a
level of 25 ng/m3 along the same centerline at
a distance of 2.4 km. Moreover, analyses of
snow samples indicate mercury levels approxi-
mating 0.02-0.2 ug Hg per gm snow in the plume
impact direction compared to levels one to two
orders of magnitude lower for control samples.
Thus, a plume scavenging-watershed flushing
phenomenon is being investigated as the possible
cause of the stream impact.
4. Chronic bioassays run on settling pond
waters suggest low levels of toxicity to Fathead
Minnows. Further tests are required, however, to
validate this possibility.
Oil Shale Development
Field work associated with this phase of the
program has concentrated on the characterization of
the preoperational biological and chemical charac-
teristics of Piceance Creek which drains the C-b
Federal Lease Site. This data is being summarized
for reference pending the development of oil shale
mining and processing in the area.
Preliminary laboratory studies have also been
carried out to characterize the leaching behaviors
of retorted oil shales and to assess the possible
toxicities of the leachates and fractions thereof.
These efforts have shown that retorted shale
leachates are acutely toxic to Daphnia under cer-
tain conditions. Further experimental work will
be required to delineate the factors controlling
the chemistry of the leaching process and define
the constituents responsible for the toxicity.
Coal Conversion
The aqueous condensates derived from coal
gasification and liquefaction processes constitute
primary effluents. Analyses for the organics
contained in the condensates obtained from three
different gasification processes have indicated
that major components are phenols and cresols
with lesser amounts of several lower molecular
505
-------
weight carboxylic acids (3) The condensates
from the three different processes show a fairly
high degree of similarity in terms of the concen-
trations of the various compounds present.
Although these samples have not been subjected to
the types of pollution control procedures that
would likely be associated with commercial scale
operations, the studies carried out in the
present program should prove useful in defining
the possible toxicants and in formulating neces-
sary control procedures.
It has been determined that the gasification
condensates are toxic to Daphnia even when highly
diluted. After separation of these waters into
several fractions via a simple polarity separation
procedure, the toxic entities are restricted to a
few fractions. Verifications of the cause and
effect relationships, quantification of the actual
amounts and toxicities of the compounds present,
and evaluations of the environmental behaviors of
the compounds are in progress.
The above summaries are indicative of the
status of progress of the present program and of
the work yet to be completed. A comprehensive
report on the evaluations of the coal mining
impacts is scheduled for completion later this
year. A similar report on the coal combustion
phase of the program is planned for completion in
early 1978. The experimental emphases of the
program for FY '78 will be in the areas of coal
conversion and oil shale processing. The presen-
tation above has been general for the purpose of
brevity. There are, however, experimental aspects
of the program which deserve specific discussion
as a means of emphasizing the complexities of
certain problems.
Leaching Behavior
Leaching studies are being used extensively
by numerous investigators for a variety of
characterization purposes. In the summary above
it has been pointed out that leachates of certain
materials were found to be toxic under certain
conditions. Such observations are due to the fact
that several experimental factors can prominently
affect the leaching process and the associated
bioassay results. Leaching behavior depends
primarily on three factors: a) the solubilities
of the chemical species present in the material
studied, b) the accessibility of the chemical
species within the matrix to the solvent, and
c) the solution equilibria which limit or enhance
the solubilities of the species of interest.
Consequently, when the leaching procedure main-
tains the material to be leached in contact with
the leaching solution, all of these factors are
operative in determining the final solution
composition. This is illustrated in Figure 2
which presents example data obtained when fly ash
from coal combustion was leached on a continuous
recycle basis. Leaching in this manner resulted
in a continual rise in the pH clue to dissolution
of alkaline materials. The hydroxide alkalinity
developed reduced the soluble concentration of
iron initially leached from the fly ash due to
precipitation of iron hydroxide and simultaneously
increased the amount of zinc dissolved via
formation of soluble hydroxy complexes. Such
discrepancies make it difficult to rationalize
that the final bulk leachate is truly representa-
tive .
1 12 16
LEACHING TIME, HOURS
Figure 2. The attainment of equilibrium in a
continuous recycle leaching
experiment.
The prominence of the control of the solution
equilibria also indicates that the solution volume
used per unit mass of the material being leached
is important. Table 1 summarizes evidence for
this obtained by continuous recycle leaching of
samples of the same fly ash using various
volume-to-mass ratios. Again, the suppression
of the solubilities of various elements when the
pH of the leachate solutions and their alkalini-
ties are high is readily apparent.
TABLE 1. DEPENDENCE OF ELEMENTAL EXTRACTION
ON DILUTION (ML H20/G FLY ASH)
FOR 24 HR CONTINUOUS RECYCLE
LEACHING*
Element
Ca
Cd
Cu
Cr
Fe
Mg
Mn
Pb
Sr
Zn
pH
Dilution, ml/g
100
11 ,200
0.014
0.52
0.84
0. 15
0.6
0.05
0.15
380
0.05
11.5
1000
22,500
0.05
1.0
4.6
2.3
500
1.3
1 .0
620
2.0
8.5
10,000
169,000
0.6
2.0
7.0
12.7
1900
7.0
7.5
2900
11.2
8.2
"Values given are concentrations expressed
as micrograms of element extracted per gm
ciF fly ash.
506
-------
The advantages of using a leaching approach
in which the leachate solution is replaced by
fresh water periodically to simulate environmental
conditions more closely may be deduced from the
example data given in Figure 3 where the solution
was changed at each time interval plotted. The
changes shown reflect the control of the solution
equilibria on the solubilities within each time
increment. The shifts seen following each
solution change indicate removal of that control
such that the effects of matrix composition and
elemental accessibility to the solution can be
inferred. Again, the suppression of solubilities
during the early stages of leaching can be seen
followed by enhancements in the removal rates
later in the cycle due to decreased solution
equilibria control. The dropoffs observed for
TIME. HOURS
Figure 3.
Attainment of equilibrium in a
replacement recycle leaching
experiment.
zinc and cadmium in the later stages reflect the
depletion of the soluble forms available in the
fly ash. In essence, this approach permits the
separation of the different effects which influence
leaching behavior and the accumulation of infor-
mation regarding the prevalent equilibria and the
compound types and accessibilities. Such knowledge
is essential to gaining a rational understanding
of the leaching process, the development of the
ability to reproducibly prepare leachates for
bioassays, and the interpretation of the bioassay
results.
The necessity for understanding the leaching
behavior and the importance of the chemical
equilibria operative is further illustrated by
consideration of bioassay results.
Interpretation of Bioassay Results
Numerous acute bioassays have been run, for
example, on leachates of fly ash prepared by the
method illustrated in Figure 3. The mortality
results were correlated with the concentrations of
the various chemical parameters to obtain first
approximations of the entities that might play
significant roles. The results summarized in
Table 2 suggest that a dozen chemical parameters
correlate with mortality. Examination of this
list, taking concentrations into account,
indicated, however, that most of the parameters
judged to be significant were not likely to be
directly responsible for the toxicity. Further
evaluations also indicated that some other
constituents leached from fly ash might also be
important but other factors affected the ability
to detect this based on the correlation analyses.
This is illustrated in the example data of
Figure 4 where the mortalities observed are shown
to be correlated to the copper concentrations in
the bioassay dilutions of several fly ash leachates
from different periods of the leaching cycle.
TABLE 2. CORRELATIONS BETWEEN CHEMICAL
PARAMETER CONCENTRATIONS AND DAPHNIA
MORTALITY FOR FLY ASH LEACHATES
Chemical Parameters for which Correlation Coefficients
Were:
Significant at
0.01% level
alkalinity
conductivity
bicarbonate
carbonate
barium
calcium
strontium
Significant at
0.05% level
orthophosphate
lithium
magnesium
nickel
Not Significant
dissolved solids
chloride
cadmium
chromium
copper
iron
potassium
manganese
sodium
lead
zinc
9 so -
o
A
O
05 1.0 2.0
COPPER CONCENTRATION, mg/1
Figure 4. Apparent effects of copper on mortalities
in different fly ash leachates.
These results distinctly imply that individual
LCso values can be defined for copper for each of
these leachate fractions studied. The same is
507
-------
true for zinc and, possibly, lead nickel and
chromium. The interpretations are complicated by
the fact that, as the general leachate composition
changes, the concentrations and chemical forms
of several elements change simultaneously. The
copper LC5Q results also correlate nicely with
the alkalinity levels in each fraction. It is
possible that this is due to eqiulibrium control
in which the amount of copper present as the
dihydroxy complex (Cu(OH)2) increases with
increasing alkalinity. The amount of copper
required to cause death increases accordingly due
to this change in the primary form of dissolved
copper. Similar postulates involving such
equilibria apply to other elements. As a result,
the assignment of cause and effect relationships
in mixed constituent systems of this type must be
carefully based on rather complete chemical
analyses so that the chemical equilibria which
may affect the toxicity question can be taken into
account.
Coal Gasification Waters and Tars
A list of the compounds identified in the
steam condensates for gasification has been
published by Ho et al. (3). These include
primarily phenols and cresols as well as carboxylic
acids. Analyses of waters from three different
processes in the present program agree very well
with this report. Analyses of the water soluble
constituents of tars derived from a single process
indicate the presence of essentially the same
compounds. Some example analysis results are
summarized in Table 3. Bioassays run on these
materials have demonstrated toxicity even when
they are highly diluted. Column separations
based on polarity have further shown that the
toxicity is primarily associated with those
fractions containing the phenols and cresols.
Finally, it has been determined that the ultra-
violet absorption at 270 nm which is a measure of
the phenol plus cresol concentrations is linearly
related to the degree of toxicity. Again, the
importance of the chemical equilibria must be
emphasized. These compounds are weak acids. As a
result the pH of the recipient waters may well
have an effect on the manifestation of the toxic
effects. Moreover, these compounds can form
chelates with metals present in the aqueous phase,
thereby changing the functionality and/or the
degree of toxicity for either the compounds or the
metals involved.
Conclusions
The majority of the conclusions have been
outlined in previous sections. Although many
of these must be regarded as tentative, the
program is rapidly reaching a stage where they can
be finalized. Perhaps, the conclusion that should
receive most emphasis is simply that the careful
coordination of the chemical and biological
investigations is essential to: a) the delinea-
tion of the potential impacts on the aquatic
biota, and b) the development of sufficient
understanding of the systems investigated to
permit prediction of long range impacts or the
development of required control strategies.
LITERATURE CITED
1. K. L. Temple and F. Kimble, in "Toxic Effects
on Aquatic Biota from Coal and Oil Shale Develop-
ment," Progress Report—Year 1, Colorado .State
University and Montana State University, Sept.
1976.
2. D. B. McWhorter et al., "Surface and
Subsurface Water Quality Hydrology in Surface Mine
Watersheds," Industrial Environmental Research
Laboratory, Office of Research and Development,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati,
Ohio 45268.
3. C. H. Ho, B. R. Clack, and M. R. Guerin, J.
Environ. Sci. Health, 7, 481-489 (1976).
TABLE 3. EXAMPLE ANALYSES OF COAL-GASIFICATION
PRODUCTS
S amp1e
Concentrations, mg/1
steam
condensate
A
B
C
phenol
5.7
4. 1
1.8
o-cresol
0.7
0.5
0.3
M&P cresol total
2.3 8.7
1.7 6.3
1.0 3.1
water soluble
functions of
tars
24.8
20.0
9.3
10.7
11.8
7.5
36.0
38.6
24.0
71.5
70.4
40-8
508
-------
EFFECTS OF CHEMICALS USED IN OFFSHORE
WELL-DRILLING OPERATIONS
Norman L. Richards
Environmental Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Gulf Breeze, Florida
INTRODUCTION
Recent environmental impact statements on oil
and gas lease sales in the Gulf of Mexico have
devoted proportionately little discussion to the
environmental aspects of chemical use in well-
drilling operations. This may reflect the fact
that few studies have been done on effects and
most tests utilize acute static bioassays which
have little relevance to environmental conditions
in which drilling and discharges occur. Of those
acute bioassays published in the literature, few
have reported severe adverse effects of drilling
fluids or their components. In addition, obser-
vations of divers and fisherman reveal a variety of
marine life in the vicinity of drilling rigs.
Further, it is generally assumed that fluids
would either have only a limited local effect near
the plume discharge point or would rapidly be
diluted and dispersed in the field.
Research on the effects of drilling muds is
further impeded by the chemical complexity of
muds. Additives contain: pH control products,
bactericides, calcium removers, corrosion inhibi-
tors, defoamers, emulsifiers, filtrate reducers,
flocculants, foaming agents, lost circulation
materials, lubricants, shale-control inhibitors,
surface-active agents, thinners, dispersants,
viscosifiers, and weighting agents. Analyses of
potential effects of chemicals used in well-
drilling operations must take into account the
variation in mud and cutting composition due to
the type of substrate drilled, well depth, avail-
ability of mud components, temperatures generated,
relative cost of components, operator experience,
etc.
The "King-Muir" report included the follow-
ing gas and oil environmental effects objective
and project as a national need:
"Objective A: Determine the fate and
effects in marine and
estuarine ecosystems of
pollutants of oil and gas
extraction activities . ..
...Project 2: Determine the ecological
effects on marine and
estuarine organisms of
pollutants from oil and
gas extraction."
A rigorous biological assessment of potential
environment effects of chemicals used in well-
drilling operations has many technical diffi-
culties and is extremely resource intensive.
Because of these considerations, a limited pro-
gram to study the effects of drilling mud compon-
ents was undertaken at the EPA Environmental
Research Laboratory at Gulf Breeze. There are
many areas in which a thorough understanding of the
effects of drilling muds in the Gulf of Mexico is
lacking:
(1) estimates of the distance that active rigs
should be located from coral reefs and
other biological resources to minimize
potential effects from emissions;
(2) effects of mud on resident rig marine life;
(3) advisability of aquaculture on or near
platforms;
(4) recommended distance from rigs for seafood
harvesting;
(5) advantages and disadvantages of shunting
drilling muds.
A better understanding of the effects of drilling
fluids will provide a more substantial basis for
policy regarding mud discharges and the content
of lease stipulations.
TECHNICAL DISCUSSION
Our approach to an assessment of the effects
of chemicals used in well-drilling operations is
represented by the pyramid-shaped diagram shown in
Figure 1. The experimental design follows a tiered
screening sequence beginning at the base of the
pyramid. Progressively more complex and time-
consuming tests are run on fewer compounds as the
testing sequence progresses upward. Xenobiotics
are selected from lists of drilling mud components
in current environmental impact statements, with
emphasis on those characterized by heavy usage
patterns or having suspect toxicity.
EFFECTS OF COMMUNITY STRUCTURE
AND FUNCTION
ACUTE STATIC BIOASSAYS
CHEMICALS SELECTED FOR STUDY
Figure 1. Effects Assessment of chemicals used in
well-drilling.
509
-------
Preliminary screening of selected compounds—
the second ascending tier of the pyramid— is
accomplished by acute 96-hour bioassays. They are
conducted with drilling fluid constituents by using
laboratory-reared sheepshead minnows (Cyprinodon
variegatus) and grass shrimp (Palaemonetes pugio).
These range-finding tests are helpful in selecting
toxicant concentrations for subsequent flowing sea-
water bioassays for each compound, component, or
mixture of interest. This is represented by the
next ascending progression in the pyramid.
Flow-through toxicity methods were selected
for a second tier of testing because they more
nearly approximate in situ conditions. In contrast
to static tests, metabolic products and excreta
are removed while oxygenated seawater and toxicants
are continuously supplied. Data obtained from
flow-through toxicity tests are generally prefer-
able over static tests as the more precise measure
of toxicity and bioaccumulation. A few compounds
are selected from flow-through experiments for the
next tier of testing: the composition and
functions of estuarine communities.
The effect of selected xenobiotics on colon-
ization of planktonic larvae and microorganisms is
analyzed by means of the apparatus developed at the
Gulf Breeze Laboratory. The apparatus used in
these studies uses unfiltered seawater with its
natural component of plankton and microorganisms
pumped from the estuary adjacent to the laboratory
into the primary constant head box. Xenobiotics
are continuously metered into water after they are
siphoned from the primary to the secondary constant
head box. The control apparatus receives the same
flow of water. Water then flows from the secondary
constant head box to each of the 10 adjacent
aquaria — 10 replicates for each treatment,
including controls. At the end of a nine-week ex-
posure period microflora, macrofauna, and meiofauna
are sampled. To determine the effect of the xeno-
biotic after each treatment, numbers and species of
microflora, meifauna, and macrofauna are compared
in control and exposed aquaria. Concentrations of
xenobiotics in test water and sediments are deter-
mined. Samples of water from the constant head
boxes are taken twice a week and sediment cores
from aquaria are taken from each apparatus at the
end of the exposure.
RESULTS
Two compounds were selected for further study
from those screened in acute bioassays. Barium
sulfate was chosen because "...barite discharged
with drilling muds is a nontoxic substance."
Pentachlorophenol was chosen because it is a
"...potentially hazardous" drilling mud constit-
uent, according to a recent EIS.
Static toxicity tests with sodium pentachloro-
phenate have been conducted with larval stages of
three marine/estuarine species. The species, the
LCso values obtained, and the respective exposure
period were: eastern oyster, <100yg/£, 48-hr;
grass shrimp, 649pgM, 96-hr; and pinfish, 38yg/£,
96-hr. A similar study with Dowicide G (79% PCP)
and pinlish larvae resulted in a 96-hour LC
50
of
66yg/£. A bioconcentration study with oysters ex-
posed to sodium pentachlorophenate in flowing sea-
water for 28 days demonstrated the bioconcentration
of 80 times that measured in the exposure water.
Similar exposure experiments have been done with
barium sulfate. Grass shrimp (Palaemonetes pugio)
were observed ingesting barite.
Effects of pentachlorophenol on development
of estuarine settling communities were determined
by using the apparatus devised by Hansen and des-
cribed under the technical discussion section.
The analyses of macrofauna from a 9-week exposure
revealed that individuals and species of the num-
erically dominant phyla (Annelida, Arthropoda and
Mollusca) decreased as concentration increased.
Sensitivity differed among species of the same
phylum. For example, the population of the
annelid Haploscoloplos was reduced by exposure to
96yg/8, PCP, but not Capitella capitata. Molluscs
markedly decreased at 7yg/£; annelids and arthro-
pods at 76yg/£. Few macrofauna occurred at
622yg/£. Total number of animals and species were
significantly less (°= = 0.01) in aquaria exposed
to 76yg/fc than in those unexposed or exposed to
7yg/£. Therefore, pentachlorophenol altered the
structure of experimental macrofauna communities
that developed during exposure by changing the
relative abundance of animals by species and
phylum.
Meiofauna community structures were harvested
from the same tanks as the macrofauna. Although
there were structural changes in the community,
this is not shown by any of the species diversity
indices used. However, there was a shift in nema-
tode feeding types as a function of pentachloro-
phenol concentration. An analysis of the species
revealed that the meiofauna population shifted to
predominately detritis feeders in 622yg/£ of penta-
chlorophenol. Therefore, the shift of meiofauna
functional types is correlated with PCP concentra-
tion. This experiment indicates that utilizing
metazoans as an effects indicator in the test
system described may have distinct advantages.
They have relatively short life cycles, adults
normally will reproduce prolifically, and they
invade the system rapidly. Therefore, structure
and functions of meiofaunal communities can be
determined. The number of cultivatable micro-
organisms was significantly lowered in aquaria
with high pentachlorophenol concentrations.
PROGRAM DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
Literature on the effects of chemical use in
offshore well-drilling operations on marine organ-
isms is very limited. Policy decisions are cur-
rently based on static, 96-hour LC5Q determinations,
observations of divers, and theoretical models of
pollutant dispersion. A limited research program
on drilling-fluid constituants has been initiated
at the Gulf Breeze Laboratory to provide a better
data base as one component in the prediction of
the relative hazard of using alternative drilling
mud constituents and to develop more relevant lab-
oratory methods for xenobiotic evaluation. Penta-
chlorophenol and barium sulfate were used as ref-
erence compounds to evaluate the applicability of
our methods for determining effects of whole
510
-------
drilling muds in our assessment program. It is
obvious that the methods ultimately used for an
assessment of the effects of chemicals used in
offshore drilling operations should use a variety
of muds from different depths and locations.
Testing protocols should include effects on the
structure and function of communities, indirect
effects of pollutants, bioaccumulation potential,
toxicity of mixtures to organisms indigenous to
lease areas, attraction of marine species to
chemicals used in well-drilling operations, and
mechanism of action in toxicants. In this way,
choices between the multitude of alternative chemi-
cals available for well-drilling operations can be
based on better toxicological information. Hard
data on effects might also eliminate unjustified
concern about the effects of certain chemicals,
which may in fact be safely used in well-drilling
operations.
STUDY ELEMENT
Planning Workshop
Chemical Analysis
n ii
Statistical Analysis
Atomic Adsorption Spectro.
Static Acute Toxicity
n ii
ii i '
Flowthrough Toxicity
M II
Macrof auna
n n
n u
Me io fauna
Microbiology
Biochemistry
Physiology
" "
Photography, Illustrations
INVESTIGATOR
Dr.
Mr.
Mr.
Dr.
Ms.
Mr.
Mr.
Mr.
Mr.
Mr.
Mr.
Mr.
Mr.
Mr.
Ms.
Dr.
Dr.
Dr.
Mr.
Max Summers
James Moore
Al Wilson
Jerry Ogelsby
Anita Brennan
Patrick Borthwick
Stephen Schimmel
James Patrick
Stephen Schimmel
James Patrick
Marlin Tagatz
Joel Ivey
Michael Tobia
Frank Cantalmo
Eva Suarez
Ferris Fox
Rang a Rao
Angelia Cantalmo
Steven Foss
AFFILIATION
U. of
EPA,
1 1
U. of
1!
EPA,
1 1
It
II
1 1
1 1
11
1 '
U. of
ii
"
IT
11
EPA,
Texas
Gulf Breeze
"
West Fla.
"
Gulf Breeze
n
n
"
11
ti
1 '
' '
West Fla.
II
U
"
II
Gulf Breeze
TABLE I.
LIST OF STUDY ELEMENTS,
PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATORS,
AND GRANTEES DURING
THE FIRST YEAR OF
RESEARCH ON CHEMICAL
USE IN OFFSHORE WELL-
DRILLING ACTIVITIES
511
-------
INVESTIGATION OF EFFECTS AND FATES
OF POLLUTANTS
Michael E. Q. Pilson, Gabriel A. Vargo,
Patrick Gearing, and Juanita N. Gearing
Graduate School of Oceanography
University of Rhode Island
Kingston, Rhode Island
INTRODUCTION
Most of our information on the effects of
pollutants in marine systems comes from experi-
ments to determine concentrations which are lethal
or physiologically and behaviorally effective for
various species maintained in laboratory aquaria,
or from observations of unhealthy conditions in
grossly polluted areas. Most of our information
on the fate of pollutants in marine systems comes
from observations in natural systems.
One difficulty with observations of the type
described is that for the purpose of examining
biological effects it is never possible to
examine more than a small fraction of the numerous
species present in any natural ecosystem, and
there is always the suspicion that critical but
sensitive species may be missed, or that sensitive
life stages of species which are examined may be
missed. It is also possible that organisms main-
tained in laboratory aquaria may be subject to
sufficient stress that they become more sensitive
to various pollutants. In any case, experiments
with isolated species may require supplemental
information in order to provide convincing results.
As for observations of the fates of various
pollutants, there is a dearth of controlled experi-
ments. Most observations of the inadvertent
introduction of various pollutants into natural
systems suffer because of frequent multiple
pollutant effects, lack of replication, lack of
the possibility of budgetary control of amounts
of materials involved, or lack of control over the
various environmental parameters that may be of
importance. In many cases, therefore, we are not
able to make quantitative predictions about the
pathways followed by a substance introduced into
the marine environment, nor about its ultimate
fate.
Accordingly, it seemed highly desirable to
make the attempt to set up microcosms of the
marine environment in which experiments could be
carried out in replicate, under controlled condi-
tions, and in which both the effects and fates of
various pollutants could be investigated.
Previous and current experience with such ap-
proaches (Abbott 1966; Davies et al. 1975; Odum
et al. 1963; Smetacek et al. 1976; Takahashi et
al. 1975)suggested that marine microcosms would
replicate poorly and be difficult to maintain for
any length of time, and would be costly and
involve considerable technical or engineering
difficulty. Nevertheless, the potential value of
the approach encouraged us to continue.
The marine environment of the northeast coast
of the United States, both estuarine and on the
continental shelf, may be characterized broadly
as consisting of communities in which most of the
photosynthetic activity is carried out in the
water column by phytoplankton, and in which there
is a significant chemical and biological coupling
with the bottom. The benthic animals filter out
some phytoplankton, and there is a rain of organic
debris which is metabolized on the bottom. The
benthic return of nutrients may be a significant
factor in the overall cycling.
Accordingly, the microcosms set up at MERL
are designed to be coupled planktonic-benthic
systems. Our first task was to evaluate the
biological and chemical behaviour and replica-
bility of these systems, and their utility in
studies which seek to provide quantitative in-
formation on the effects and fates of low concen-
trations of pollutants.
DESCRIPTION OF FACILITY
Tanks
Twelve fiberglass tanks (Fig. 1) are set up
outdoors on concrete pads ranged alongside a
"dock" structure which provides access to each
tank. The tanks are 5.5 m high and 1.8 m in
diameter. The walls are smooth and white, and
backed by insulation to prevent excessive heat
transfer through the walls. Each tank has
several fittings for adding or draining water.
Glass heat exchangers (not shown) allow heating
or cooling each tank sufficiently to maintain
their temperature up to 10° different from am-
bient.
Water
Each tank contains about 13 m^ (13 tons) of
water from Narragansett Bay. The water is
supplied, from about 30 m offshore along the GSO
dock, by a diaphragm pump that appears to be non-
destructive to at least the smaller forms of
plankton. The water is delivered through fiber-
glass and PVC pipes to a fiberglass header tank,
from which it flows by gravity to each of the 12
microcosms. Each microcosm tank has a flow
control regulating the water input. The tanks
have been run so far in two modes: batch (no
flow-through), or slow-flow with an input rate of
300 ml per minute (432 liters per day) resulting
in a turnover time of water in the tanks of
about 30 days.
Sediments
A sediment container in the bottom of each
tank contains sediment collected from a selected
area N.W. of Conanicut Island, Narragansett Bay.
This region has a depth of about 8 m, and the
bottom is a fine silty mud supporting a community
characterized by the presence of Nucula and
513
-------
Nephythys. The sediments were collected by grab
and placed in the containers (on board a boat)
using as much care as possible to keep the material
in its original orientation, although considerable
mixing took place. The containers were then
returned to land, placed in the tanks, and water
run in to cover them. Each container has about
one ton of sediment, which fills it to a depth
of about 30 cm. The biological community living
in the sediments in the tanks has remained
similar to that in the source area.
It was thought essential to provide some
turbulence in the tanks. A considerable tidal
stirring of Narragansett Bay occurs, a process
which resuspends lighter materials from the
bottom. The stirring regime in the tanks was
designed to provide an input of turbulent energy
across the bottom sufficient to achieve resuspen-
sion of lighter particles. This is accomplished
by the plunger shown in Figure 1, which moves up
and down, directing the major turbulent energy to
the bottom. The introduced turbulence also pro-
vides a general mixing of the water column in the
tanks. The mixer has normally been run on a cycle
of 2 hours on and 4 hours off or ^ hour on and 1%
hours off. All tanks are mixed synchronously.
5-5 m
n
I.83m -\
Figure 1.
Diagram of one of the MERL tanks. Each
fiberglass tank is insulated and has
three flanged ports on the side and one
drainage port. The sediment container,
also of fiberglass, contains about 30
cm of sediment. The tanks are filled
through a port on the side and during
slow flow operation, water exits from
about 1 m below the surface through a
level control stand pipe. The depth
of water is about 5m. The mixer moves
vertically through an excursion of
about 60 cm with a frequency which is
variable but is now set at about 5
cycles per minute.
Cleaning
A stainless steel ring bearing a series of
brushes is lowered and raised in each tank at
necessary intervals to remove growth from the
walls. This is carried out twice weekly in the
summer and less frequently in the winter, and
has been effective in preventing growths of
attached plants and animals. Occasional supple-
mentary hand cleaning has also been necessary.
Initial Operations
Nine of the MERL microcosms were loaded with
sediment, filled with water, and set in operation
during August of 1976. During the first four
months of operation all tanks were run in as
similar a way as possible, although some variations
occurred as operations were modified and experi-
ence was gained. In December an experiment on
the addition of oil was carried out. A water-
accommodated fraction of No. 2 fuel oil was pre-
pared by shaking the oil with water from the
tanks and allowing the resulting suspension to
stabilize for one-half hour. The aqueous phase,
containing oil in solution and as small droplets
in suspension was added to three tanks by teflon
delivery tube about one meter below the surface
during mixing, so that it was well distributed
within the tanks. After addition, the concen-
tration was about 150 pg per liter. The
temperature of the water at that time was about
5°C. The concentration of hydrocarbon was
monitored until it dropped to background levels
(about 3 yg per liter). In late December an
unusually cold period occurred and some of the
seawater delivery lines froze. From 28 Dec.
until 14 Feb. all tanks were operated in batch
mode; i.e. no seawater flowed through. In the
middle of February six tanks were returned to
flow-through operation and three kept with no
flow-through in order to examine the effect of
the two types of operation. Additional oil
experiments are also being carried out.
INITIAL OBSERVATIONS AND RESULTS
Biological
Regular monthly counts have been made on the
benthic animals, and weekly counts of zooplankton
and phytoplankton. Weekly measurements of nutrient
concentrations, phytoplankton productivity, and a.
number of other observations have also been made.
Much of this information is still being prepared.
Here we present only the averaged data for the
concentration of chlorophyll _§_, a measure of the
standing stock of phytoplankton. Figure 2a shows
the mean concentration of chl a_ in the nine tanks,
along with the highest and lowest concentrations
observed each week. Figure 2b shows the concentra-
tions of chl a. in weekly samples of water from
the GSO dock, near the intake for the seawater
supply system.
A striking feature of these graphs is the
similar timing of the various blooms and decreases
in phytoplankton abundance in the tanks and in the
514
-------
MERL Tanks
32f" Mean and Range
ua\ zso ZBO lool 320 MO IIKII ;o | « S5
1UG ' SEPT ' OCT ' MOV DEC I JAN ' FE3 MAR
Figure 2 (a). Mean and range of weekly measure-
ments of the concentration of chlorophyll
a_ in nine MERL tanks
(b) concentration of chlorophyll a_ in
water from the GSO dock near the intake
for the MERL system. After 15 Feb. only
eight tanks were included in the average,
as additional treatments were applied to
one of the tanks.
bay. The tanks were filled towards the end of a
bloom in the bay, and the decrease in the bay had
its counterpart in the tanks. Each tank followed
a similar course; however, the timing of the
chlorophyll maxima or minima differed between
tanks by one to three weeks. Generally the major
features found in the bay were found in the tanks.
From late December until the middle of February
there was no flow through the tanks, and for two
or three weeks in January there was an ice cover
on the tanks. Nevertheless a bloom occurred in
the tanks as it did in the bay, although here the
average concentrations of chl _a were distinctly
lower. This indicates that even though there has
been considerable variability from tank to tank,
the overall behavior has been remarkably similar
to that in Narragansett Bay. The phytoplankton
species composition has varied from tank to tank
and from time to time, but all species which have
been dominant during blooms are normally found in
Narragansett Bay.
300-
100-
!oss from washout
100
200 300
HOURS
400
oCC
SOO
700
Figure 3.
Change of hydrocarbon concentration
with time after addition of a water
accommodated fraction of No. 2 fuel oil
to MERL tanks. Mean and range of
measurements in three tanks. Tanks
operated on slow flow-through mode;
half-life of water in the tanks about
500 hours. Half-life of oil about
120 hours.
Oil
In the first oil experiment (Figure 3) the loss
of oil was exponential; the half-life of the oil
was about five days. The initial concentrations
had little effect on numbers of phytoplankton or
on productivity. There may have been some tempo-
rary effect of the oil on the zooplankton, but the
oil did not remain long enough to find out for
sure. At the present time we don't know where the
oil went. Not more than 5% of the added oil
reached the surface sediments, and none could be
detected after one month. Some may have been
metabolized, and some lost as vapor to the atmo-
sphere. Further experiments are now underway to
evaluate the various paths by which oil may be
lost from the water.
DISCUSSION
Having run the MERL microcosms during late
summer, fall, the most adverse winter weather and
into the spring we feel relatively confident that
they can be run for a year or more, or perhaps
indefinitely. The chief limitation at the present
time is the amount of sediment in the tanks. This
is depleted slowly by the taking of samples for
analysis, and eventually will have to be replaced.
515
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The causes of blooms, species succession and
declines in abundance of phytoplankton in Narra-
gansett Bay are only partially understood.
Factors thought to be important are nutrient
limitation, nutrient regeneration, and grazing
(Smayda 1973; Vargo 1976). The similar behavior
between the tanks and the bay, in bloom dynamics
and species succession, suggests that similar
control mechanisms were operative. It was
surprising to find the overall behavior showing
such a parallel with Narragansett Bay, and it
will be interesting to observe the future be-
havior in this regard. In order to establish
that the MERL microcosms are a sufficiently
realistic approximation to nature that the re-
sults will be meaningful it would probably be
sufficient for the tanks to show approximately
the same statistical behavior, similarities in
bloom dynamics and to have most of the important
species the same. It appears that the MERL tanks
may be a useful experimental setting within which
to investigate the causes of phytoplankton blooms,
succession and decreases.
The results of the first oil experiment were
also surprising. The conventional wisdom would
have it that oil in the water column would enter
the sediments where it would remain. Some re-
suspension of sediments occurs in the tanks, which
should help to remove the oil. However, oil was
not found in the sediments to any significant
degree, and it has either been metabolized or
escaped to the atmosphere. Currently we are
evaluating the rates of both these processes.
Since the amount of oil put in the tanks is known,
and also the amount washed out, it should be
possible eventually to provide quantitative esti-
mates of the magnitudes of the various pathways
by which hydrocarbons are lost from the systems.
Detailed descriptions of the physical,
chemical and biological behavior of ttte systems
are in progress and will shed additional light
on the functioning of the microcosms and on
their utility in ecological experimentation.
CONCLUSIONS
1) While the experience gained to date is
confined to only a portion of one year, it does
seem likely that it will be possible to run
coupled planktonic-benthic microcosms of the type
established at MERL through at least one annual
cycle, with a chemical and biological behavior
that approximates to the behavior of analogous
natural systems.
2) These microcosms should be useful tools
with which to provide quantitative information on
the effects of various organic, inorganic, or
radioactive pollutants on the lower trophic
levels of marine ecosystems. It should also be
possible to provide quantitative estimates of the
pathways followed, operative equilibria between
sediments, water and organisms, and the fates of
pollutants and other substances that may be
added.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work is supported by Grant R803902020
from the Environmental Protection Agency. Many
people have contributed to the development of the
MERL facility, either in concept or execution,
including Eric Schneider, Scott Nixon, James
Griffin, John Knauss, Michael Bender, Wallace
Broecker, Diego Alonso, Andrew Staley, Theodore
Smayda, Eric Klos, and others.
REFERENCES
Abbott, Walter. 1966.
estuarine waters.
microcosms. Jour.
39: 258-270.
Microcosm studies on
1. The replicability of
Water Poll. Contr. Fed.
Davies, J. M., J. C. Gamble and J. H. Steele.
1975. Preliminary studies with a large plas-
tic enclosure. In: L. E. Cronin, (ed.)
Estuarine Research, Vol. I. p. 251-264.
Odum, Howard T., Walter L. Siler, Robert J. Beyers,
and Neal Armstrong. 1963. Experiments with
engineering of marine ecosystems. Contrib.
in Mar. Sci. 9_: 373-403.
Smayda, T. J. 1973. The growth of Skeletonema
costatum during a winter-spring bloom in
Narragansett Bay, Rhode Island. Nor. J. Bot.
2£: 219-247.
Smetacek, V., B. von Bodungen, K. von Brockel and
B. Zeitzschel. 1976. The plankton tower.
II. Release of nutrients from sediments due
to changes in the density of bottom water.
Mar. Biol. 34: 373-378.
Takahashi, M., W. H. Thomas, D. L. R. Seibert,
J. Beers, P. Koeller, and T. R. Parsons.
1975. The replication of biological events
in enclosed water columns. Arch. Hydrobiol.
T6_: 5-23.
Vargo, G. A. 1976. The influence of grazing and
nutrient excretion by zooplankton on the
growth and production of the marine diatom
Skeletonema costatum (Greville) Cleve, in
Narragansett Bay. Ph. D. dissertation,
Univ. of Rhode Island. 162 pp.
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EFFECTS OF COAL-FIRED POWER PLANT EMISSIONS
ON TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS
James M. Kelly, Norman L. LaCasse, JC Noggle, and Herbert C. Jones
Air Quality Research Section
Division of Environmental Planning
Tennessee Valley Authority
Muscle Shoals, Alabama
INTRODUCTION
In recent decades, human activities have
greatly increased total emissions of substances to
the atmosphere and their subsequent deposition
from the atmosphere mainly through increases in
combustion of fossil fuels; use of fertilizers and
other chemicals in intensive agriculture and other
forms of land management; and disposal of indus-
trial, urban, and agricultural wastes. Atmospheric
pollutants are imported, transported, exported,
accumulated, and often changed before they are
deposited. The effects of deposition of pollutants
may be beneficial, detrimental, or both. They may
be immediate, acute, and apparent, or they may be
delayed, chronic or accumulative, and subtle.
State and Federal agencies concerned with the
environment need information that will give them a
basis for effective action for dealing with envi-
ronmental crises when they occur and, more impor-
tantly, to prevent the occurrence of such crises,
which frequently are quite costly, both economi-
cally and ecologically. Both general and specific
information about the state, structure, and
function of the terrestrial environment is essen-
tial for determining the extent of the changes
that are induced by man's activities and that can
be controlled.
Efforts to prevent or solve environmental
problems are more likely to succeed if they are
based upon a thorough knowledge of the processes
that occur in the ecosystem and if this knowledge
can be integrated with other factors that affect
the environment, including economic, technolog-
ical, and sociological considerations. The
research needed to provide this required knowledge
of the ecological effects and impacts of atmos-
pheric emissions should be approached on three
levels—the species, the community, and the
ecosystem—and then the results of studies on
these levels should be synthesized into an inte-
grated approach. Study at each level increases
understanding of environmental response on that
level and, when integrated with the results from
investigations on the next level of complexity,
adds to our understanding of response at the more
complex level as well.
Studies at the species level may include work
at the tissue, cellular, or subcellular levels,
but they generally deal with one or two species,
are conducted under highly controlled conditions
in which only the condition being studied is
varied, and measure instantaneous or short-term
responses by individual specimens. Studies on
this level generally provide insight into the
physiological response of individuals and aid in
the determination of the actual response mechanism.
Although research conducted at the species
level provides excellent opportunities for studying
the mechanisms of response, it cannot be assumed
that the kind or extent of the response observed
would be the same under less controlled conditions.
Studies of a community, an aggregation of living
organisms with relationships among themselves and
with their environment, tend to approximate actual
environmental responses more closely than do
studies of individual plants. Many of the re-
sponses studied at the species level can also be
studied at the community level, and greater gener-
alization is possible because these responses can
be evaluated in terms of the collective response
of the community. However, much less control of
experimental variables is possible in studies on
the community level because of (1) the increased
importance of interacting factors, (2) competition
among individuals and species, and (3) in many
cases, the introduction of a greater number of
variables in the naturally occurring physical
environment. Community-level studies generally
require more time than species-level studies.
They may deal with mixed stands or monocultures
with relatively small aggregates of organisms
(such as field plots or microcosms) or rather
extensive aggregates (such as forest stands or
agricultural crops).
Most environmental problems are evaluated on
the ecosystem level. By strict definition, a
community usually constitutes an ecosystem because
it includes living organisms and nonliving sub-
stances interacting to produce an exchange of
materials. A more widely accepted concept,
however, is that an ecosystem consists of a group
of communities, which together provide a much
greater variety of biological expression and
physical features than any one community. The
concept of the ecosystem is somewhat artificial
because it separates a continuum into distinct
units for the convenience of man's understanding.
Nevertheless, response at the ecosystem level is
probably the least understood of all levels and
the one in greatest need of quantification. The
response observed at the ecosystem level is an
integrated one because of the differences in
response within and between species and communi-
ties and because of the interaction of system
processes, mechanisms, and transfers. The in-
creased complexity and associated variability of
work under essentially uncontrolled conditions
require several years of constant observation and
comparative studies at several locations for a
realistic evaluation of the many facets of system
response.
It is at the final level of complexity, the
synthesis level, that information obtained on the
other three levels is combined with information on
the physical and sociological environment so that
a predictive and evaluative capability can be
517
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developed for the total environment.
DISCUSSION
Species Level
Key Factors in Studies of Individual Effects.
Studies at the species (whole-organism) level are
conducted under precisely controlled conditions to
isolate and characterize the effects of interact-
ing variables. Effects on plant productivity,
physiological and morphological effects, changes
in a plant's susceptibility to insects and disease,
genetic effects, and nutrient content are most
frequently studied. The complexity and sophisti-
cation of experiments increase as knowledge is
accrued until a model that encompasses all compo-
nents of a system can be constructed to explain a
particular relationship of cause and effect.
Effects on productivity, which may be quali-
tative or quantitative, may include vegetative or
reproductive components or such components as fats
and oils. Physiological and morphological effects
include effects on photosynthesis, respiration,
enzymatic and hormonal action, fruit set, abscis-
sion of plant parts, or alteration of growth and
development characteristics. Changes in a plant's
susceptibility to insects and disease involve
qualitative and quantitative and direct and
indirect effects of the potential of plants for
resistance or susceptibility. The study of genet-
ic effects includes somatic manifestations induced
in affected plants and changes transmitted to sub-
sequent generations through effects on reproduc-
tive systems. Effects on reproductive systems may
be important in studies of pollutants with muta-
genic potential. The effects on the nutrient
content of plants exposed to pollutants include
changes in the food quality of edible plants or
plant parts, accumulation of toxic chemicals, and
biochemical accumulation in the food chain.
Although the foregoing discussion does not
necessarily represent all factors that should be
considered in studies of the effects of a pol-
lutant on a species, it includes the most impor-
tant ones for a complete research program.
Research in Progress. Present efforts at the
species level include controlled exposure studies
of the effects of power plant emissions on culti-
vated and forest crop species of economic impor-
tance in the southeastern United States. The
chief objective of the project is to determine the
impact of simulated ground-level concentrations of
sulfur dioxide (802) and nitrogen dioxide on the
productivity of plants. The differential sensi-
tivity of plant species and cultivars will also be
characterized by using this type of exposure
system.
In previous research on the effects of 862
on plants, the plants have been exposed to a
constant, average concentration over the entire
time; unfortunately, such exposures do not reflect
the rapid changes in concentrations of pollutants
that are encountered in the field near coal-fired
power plants. Response of a plant to a steady
exposure may differ significantly from response to
exposures of fluctuating concentrations.
For this project, a system capable of repro-
ducing under controlled conditions the fluctuating
concentrations of pollutants typical of field
exposures was developed and tested. The system
operates on the principle of feedback control by
comparing the S02 concentration of the program
with the actual concentration within the chamber
to determine the volume of S02 to be injected into
the chamber. Input and output signals are pro-
cessed by a controller that continuously compares
the two signals and activates flow valves that
meter the S02 into the chamber. Air is sampled
continuously from that chamber and analyzed to
produce an output signal. A capacitive probe on
the programmer follows the program line drawn on
the conductive surface of a revolving chart.
An exposure cabinet large enough to accommo-
• date plants of moderate height and maturity was
designed, constructed, and tested. Air is cir-
culated within the cabinet by two air blowers; one
forces air into the cabinet, and one pulls air
from the cabinet. A slight positive pressure is
maintained. The cabinet consists of two compart-
ments, one for exposure of plants and one for
control.
Community Level
Key Factors in Studies of Community Effects.
Studies at the community level are conducted under
field conditions to duplicate communal relation-
ships among plant species. The degree to which
this level is manipulated depends on the species
under study: intense manipulation as in an agro-
ecosystem, moderate manipulation as in a managed
forest, or no manipulation (a completely undis-
turbed system) as in an unmanaged forest. Some
factors studied at the species level can also be
studied at the community level although the same
level of control of interacting variables and
environmental factors that influence plant growth
and development is not possible at the community
level. However, certain factors that cannot be
measured at the species level can be measured at
the community level. These include nutrient
cycling from one trophic level to another, species
composition, population dynamics, and insect and
disease interactions among plant species. Nutri-
ent cycling includes leachates from aerial organs,
root excretions, decomposition by various trophic
levels, and nitrogen fixation. Species composi-
tion includes succession and competition for
nutrients and light. Population dynamics include
interactions with site factors and competition
among plant species, including competition for the
same site. Insect and disease interactions
include changes in susceptibility, species pref-
erence, and transmission of infectious agents
among host plants by insects.
Research in Progress. Work in progress at
the community level includes development and use
of a new field system for studying the effects of
emissions from coal-fired power plants on food and
fiber crops of economic importance in the south-
518
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eastern United States. The system, called an air-
exclusion system, consists of a large air blower
that blows purified air below the canopy of plants
grown in 0.004-hectare (0.01-acre) plots. The
blower is activated by an S02 monitor and operates
only when the S02 concentration exceeds 262 yg/m3
(0.1 ppm) . Thirty air-exclusion units were in-
stalled at five sites in 1976. Crops studied to
date include soybeans, cotton, winter wheat, white
pine, and Virginia pine. The air-exclusion system
is used in lieu of field chambers. The principal
advantages of the air-exclusion system over field
chambers are that (1) air does not need to be
circulated continuously because no enclosures are
used and (2) the system operates only under expo-
sure conditions so that plants are undisturbed
except during exposures.
Research is in progress to measure the amount
of sulfur that is transferred from the atmosphere
to agro-ecosystems and to evaluate the economic
significance of atmospheric sulfur on crop pro-
duction. Deposition of atmospheric sulfur may be
beneficial to crop production in areas in which
the soil supply of sulfur is not sufficient to
maintain optimum yields.
The concentration of sulfur varies in soils
that have different organic matter contents and
that have experienced different management prac-
tices. Supplemental sulfur must be added if the
soil supply is too low to maintain optimum yields.
For atmospheric sulfur to have economic signifi-
cance on crop production, a need for supplemental
sulfur must exist and the amount of sulfur that is
transferred from the atmosphere must make up a
relatively large proportion of the supplemental
needs. Sulfur supply in representative soils of
the Tennessee Valley is being evaluated and will
be compared with the sulfur requirements of vari-
ous crops to establish supplemental sulfur needs.
The transfer of sulfur from the atmosphere to
plants and soils by deposition of dry particulates
and rainfall can be measured directly. Develop-
ment of a technique for measuring the sorption of
gaseous SC>2 by plants and soil under field condi-
tions is another part of this investigation. One
promising method is to label the sulfur in the
soil with radioactive sulfur and measure the
dilution in specific activity within the plant
that results from accumulation of sulfur from the
atmosphere.
Another study underway at the community level
involves a microcosm approach to the evaluation of
the effects of acid precipitation on plants and
soils. Specially constructed microcosms are
exposed to the ambient environmenc except during
periods of naturally occurring precipitation.
Artificial precipitation, adjusted to four pH
treatments, is applied to the microcosms. Compa-
rison of plant and soil response to each treatment
will provide insights into the short- and long-
term effects of acid precipitation.
Ecosystem Level
Key Factors in Studies of Ecosystem Effects.
The definition of an ecosystem given earlier
emphasizes the inseparable nature of organisms and
their environment, which together form a physical
system. This concept of the ecosystem is somewhat
artificial in that it tends to segregate overlap-
ping and interacting systems into isolated units
for convenient study. The definition places
little restriction on the area or spatial volume
to be included in delineating an ecosystem; never-
theless, carrying this definition to extremes in
either direction entails the risk of over-
generalization or disconnected finiteness. The
problem, then, is to choose a realistic experimen-
tal unit whose integrated systematic response has
practical importance in solving ecological
problems.
A watershed defines a practical ecosystem
that (1) reacts to inputs from the atmosphere, (2)
depends largely on the regolith for nutrition, and
(3) is subject to irreversible losses, but resists
such losses by constant recycling and biosynthesis.
Effects of perturbations in the ecosystem can be
observed by monitoring the system (watershed)
outputs (water, nutrients, and energy) in much the
same manner as community responses are evaluated.
The ecosystem response can only be measured as an
integration of the different responses within and
among various species and communities and of the
interactions of system processes, mechanisms, and
transfers. The increased complexity and associa-
ted variability of work under uncontrolled condi-
tions require several years of constant obser-
vation, and comparative studies at several
locations for a realistic evaluation of the many
facets of system response.
Research in Progress
Little has been done to characterize the fate
of air pollutants, such as sulfur and nitrogen
oxides, in forest ecosystems. Small experimental
watersheds provide a means for studying the
effects of atmospheric pollutants on internal
nutrient cycles and water quality. Camp Branch
and Cross Creek experimental watersheds, located
95 and 19 km, respectively, from the Widows Creek
Steam Plant, are being established to provide
comparative data (not yet available) on (1) the
elemental composition of wet and dry atmospheric
input, (2) the ability of forest canopies to
scavenge airborne pollutants and the fate of these
pollutants once scavenged, (3) the influence of
air pollutants on the general fertility of the
soil and the ability of the soil to act as a long-
term sink for air pollutants, and (4) the deter-
mination of allowable changes in system processes
and transfers as a function of air quality. The
soils and vegetation complex on the Cumberland
Plateau are ideally suited to this type of study
because any positive or negative impact should be
easier to detect because of the relatively infer-
tile and unbuffered nature of the soil.
During the past year, much of the time was
spent selecting study sites and developing physical
facilities. During the construction phase, cer-
tain parts of the program not dependent on the
full development of the physical facilities were
initiated: (1) Vegetation and soil surveys were
519
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completed at Camp Branch, and soil samples were
collected for chemical analysis; (2) intensive
study plots were established and described quan-
titatively; (3) litter traps and throughfall
collectors were installed; (4) routine collections
of litterfall were begun; (5) a study of litter
decomposition was begun; and (6) 60 whole trees
were harvested to aid in the development stand
biomass estimates at both sites.
Construction and development of physical
facilities and instrumentation are continuing, and
operation is expected to begin in early May at
Cross Creek and early November at Camp Branch.
Synthesis Level
The synthesis level carries environmental
research to a fourth and final level of complex-
ity, which integrates ecological considerations
with economic and sociological data to evaluate
the total environmental complex. To provide
relevant information on the complexities of eco-
systems and the observed or anticipated responses
of ecosystems to environmental perturbations, a
balanced approach must be taken to the research
hierarchy discussed previously. Because most
energy enters ecosystems and is fixed by photo-
synthetic plants, any perturbation that alters
this response either directly or indirectly will
affect all other organisms in the system. Al-
though understanding plant response to pertur-
bation on the level of the species or individual
plant is important, the magnitude or even the
response should not be assumed to be the same
under the more varied conditions of the natural
environment. Consequently, information obtained
at the species level must be evaluated and used in
the design and conduct of research programs at the
community level. Likewise, the same rationale
should be used in evaluations at the ecosystem
level. Using this approach means that ecological
data, when combined with economic and sociological
considerations, will provide a better insight into
the total consequences and costs of an environ-
mental perturbation.
Much of the funding for environmental pro-
tection is spent on research, during crises and
after the fact, to evaluate the effects of activ-
ities on the environment. A systematic research
program that anticipates possible crises could
reduce future environmental problems and costs,
including after-the-fact research.
520
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EFFECTS OF PRUDHOE CRUDE OIL SPILLS ON
COASTAL TUNDRA PONDS
eral life stages, and follow the recovery of a
pond biota following a spill. Further, the rate
and degree of oil degradation and weathering of
crude oil under arctic summer conditions have been
followed.
Michael C. Miller and J. Robie Vestal
Department of Biological Sciences
University of Cincinnati
Cincinnati, Ohio
Samuel Mozley and Malcolm Butler
Great Lakes Research Institute
University of Michigan
Ann Arbor, Michigan
John E. Hobbie
Marine Biological Laboratory
Ecosystems Center
Woods Hole, Massachusetts
INTRODUCTION
The discovery of 10 billion barrels of oil at
Prudhoe Bay and the completion of the Alaska pipe-
line later this year will initiate large scale ex-
traction and movement of crude oil across the Arc-
tic North Slope of the Brooks Range. In massive
projects of this kind, small errors can result in
large spills. Large spills of gasoline or diesel
fuel have occurred in Barrow, Alaska and in Aly-
eska camps at Happy Valley, Galbraith Lake and
Prudhoe Bay during the past two years. A break in
the pipeline which drained only one mile of pipe
between cut-off valves could release as much as
1878 m3 of oil if valves were closed immediately.
Additionally, renewed exploration for oil is going
on across the old Naval Petroleum Reserve No. 4
and offshore in Prudhoe Bay and spills are almost
certain to occur there as well. Until recently
we have had no experimental evidence of what eco-
logical effects oil spills might have. Much early
work in Arctic Alaska involved the effects of oil
on terrestrial vegetation and permafrost documen-
ting the delicate balance between the two. A
small aquatic oil spill evaluation project was be-
gun by the U.S. International Biological Program,
Tundra Biome in 1970. It is from that experience
that the present project funded by Energy Re-
sources Development Administration was begun in
1975.
Several problems have hampered evaluation of
oil spill effects on natural aquatic ecosystems.
First, the studies have been too brief to document
recovery. Secondly, the species present and their
life histories were almost unknown, except for the
phytoplankton and zooplankton (Hobbie 1973). Fol-
lowing the IBP studies, it was impossible to pre-
dict the recolonization potential for most inver-
tebrates if mortality did occur. The present
studies have allowed us to describe the many spe-
cies and their life histories, resolve the problem
of initial toxicity, determine sensitivity of sev-
TECHNICAL DISCUSSION
Prior to the ERDA program on freshwater eco-
systems, most of the data available from experi-
ments in the arctic evaluated the effects of crude
oil leakage on marine systems, e.g., in Cook Inlet
or the Gulf of Alaska (Kinney, Button, and Schell,
1969; Robertson et al., 1973; Button et al., 1973;
Moore et al., 1974). Only a few studies had exam-
ined effects of oil in arctic freshwaters (Arhelger
and Button, 1972; Barsdate, Alexander and Benoit,
1973; Atlas, 1973). Much of the work documenting
the effects of oil spills on arctic and subarctic
lakes was completed by Environment Canada and others
(Dickman, 1971, Brunskill et al., 1973; Snow and
Scott, 1975; Snow and Rosenberg, 1975A; 1975B;
Roeder et al., 1975; Snow and Brunskill, 1975).
Some similarities exist between the effects of
Canadian Pembina and Norman Wells crude oils from
the MacKenzie Delta and the effects of Purdhoe
crude oil, but significant differences also exist.
The differences in response were presumably caused
by difference in composition of the oil, in lat-
itude of experimental sites, and in type of aquatic
ecosystems.
In the Canadian subarctic spills, observations
of the effects on aquatic biota in a range of doses
from 0.03 to 9.1 ml/liter have lead to several gen-
eralizations :
1) Rapid volatization resulted in the loss of toxic
compounds within hours, e.g., 30-40% loss of volume
of crude oil in the first day (Snow and Rosenberg,
1975B). 2) Primary productivity of algae often
showed immediate inhibition in the first two days,
with reductions lasting no longer than the first
summer. 3) Phytoplankton and periphyton biomass
increased in oiled sections of lakes in the North-
west Territories. 4) Species composition changes
as blue-green algae became dominant especially in
the periphyton which grew profusely. 5) Large
numbers of invertebrates and small fish were
trapped and killed in floating oil scum.
We will show how oil weathers and its effect
on the components of the biota of two small shallow
(0.2 m) polygonal thaw ponds located at 71° N. Lat.
near Barrow, Alaska. The ponds are very similar
to the ponds near Prudhoe Bay in which the prob-
ability of an accidential crude oil spill is much
higher. About 10 liters of oil/in were experi-
mentally applied to Pond E in July 1970; 0.24
liters/m were applied to Pond Omega in July 1975.
The present program has followed the recovery of
the older spill, the immediate toxicity and re-
covery of the smaller spill, and included experi-
mental analysis of the solubility, weathering and
toxicity of crude oil.
521
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PROGRAM DISCUSSION
Weathering of Crude Oil
Oil degradation was measured by loss of freon
or hexane extractable materials from a series of
cores suspended in Pond Omega, each of which had
an equivalent of 420 ml/1 (1.2 ml/1) of Prudhoe
crude oil. During the first day 10% of the oil
disappeared. Subsequently, extractable oil de-
graded at a rate of 3.1% per day during the first
40 days. Although there was some difference be-
tween the loss of oil in HgCl2-killed and experi-
mental cores (6% after 40 days), by the second
summer 58% of the initial inoculum was recovered
and no difference existed between Hg-killed and
experimental cores. No significant differences in
class composition in the saturate fraction, aro-
matic fraction, benzene-soluble asphaltene frac-
tion, benezene-insoluble asphaltenes, and nitro-
gen-, sulfur-, or oxygen containing fractions
(Jobson et al., 1972) could be seen between fresh
oil, 13 day old, 1 year old and 5 year old weath-
ered oil from the ponds. In the saturate fraction
after 45 days no alkanes shorter than C^ remained;
after one year no alkanes shorter than C15 re-
mained. Bacterial induction to use complex hydro-
carbons was long under ambient summer arctic tem-
peratures . It took 125 hours before any minerali-
zation of hexadecane could be detected by" 1'*C02
release. The presence of crude oil appeared to
inhibit mineralization of C-hexadecane even more.
Thus the degradation of crude oil is a slow pro-
cess in the arctic proceeding as much by abiotic
weathering as by bacterial mineralization. All
types of compounds in crude oil appeared to disap-
pear at the same rate so that the composition of the
residual did not vary significantly with time
(Miller et al., In Press).
Toxicity to Phytoplankton and Primary Production
Reduction of 14C-production was monitored in
bottles after adding oil onto the surface of the
enclosed water, with and without violent mixing of
the oil and water. Unmixed, complete inhibition
of photosynthesis of pond algae did not occur un-
til 80 yl of oil/liter of pond water had been added;
however, with mixing only 30 yl/liter was 100%
inhibitory. Mixing increased the measured solu-
bility Prudhoe crude oil about 10-fold at any
temperature.
In a whole pond application of oil on Pond
Omega (240 ml/1 or 1.2 ml/1.), primary production
was inhibited for 6 days compared to a control
Pond C (Figure 1). However, during those 6 days
the algal biomass increased to greater than that
in the control pond and remained higher on six of
seven dates during the next 46 days.
In a set of 18-liter subponds filled with
Pond C water on June 25 four treatments were set
up: treatment 1 was the control with normal zoo-
plankton densities (2 Daphnia middendorfiana and
1 Branchionecta paludosa per liter); treatment 2
lacked zooplankton; treatment 3 received normal
zooplankton and crude oil at 1 ml/1.; and treat-
ment 4 lacked zooplankton and received crude at
1 ml/1. Within five days several key species had
been eliminated or reduced by over 90% in density
in oil treated subponds (Table 1). They were
PJiodomonas sp., Ochromonas sp. and Mallomonas sp.
Some very short-term effect of the oil greater
than the effect of eliminating zooplankton graz-
ing pressure must have caused the changed composi-
tion, presumably a toxicity of the oil.
control
Figure 1. I.E.P. Tundra Biome
study site, Aquatic
Program.
Effect on Emergent Vegetation
The dominant sedge surrounding the ponds was
Carex aquatilus, which formed thick beds in the
littoral zone. Floating oil became lodged in the
dead water between the fronds on the downwind side
of the ponds following whole pond spills. Few
quantitative studies on macrovegetation were done;
however, the data show no decrease in plant biomass
even in the zones of the heaviest oil tar accumula-
tion. Since the sedges grow from a central meri-
stem with the older leaves located on the exterior,
the fronds quickly grew above the water level in
early summer leaving the old leaves at the base
blackened with oil. Only in our heaviest spill on
Pond E (10 1/m ) did the depth of the residual oil
tar on the downwind shore prevent shoot emergence.
Although subtle effects may have occurred, they
were not evaluated and the littoral zone remained
intact.
Toxicity to Zooplankton
Following the 1970 spill in Pond E all zoo-
plankton were eliminated and no successful repro-
duction of zooplankton took place until five years
522
-------
TABLE 1: PARTIAL PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION BY DENSITY OF PHYTOPLANKTON GENERA WHICH INCREASED OR WERE ELIM-
INATED IN SUBPOND EXPERIMENTS, POND C, SUMMER, 1976.
Genus Subpond Pond C
Date day 0
Mamydamonas spp . ( C . ) 0 . 16
Rhodomonas sp . ( Cryp . ) 61* . 1
Oahrononas spp . ( Chr . )
Uallomonas sp. (Chr.) 3.1
Vroglena spp. (Chr. )
Dinobpyon sp . ( Chr . ) —
Treatment 1 Treatment 2 Treatment 3
5 15 kl 5 15 l+i 5 15 l+i
2.2 1.1* ll*.8 6.3 2.9 0.5 7.9 2.1* 2k. 1
1*8.3 1*8.0 1.9 35-2 9-9 — 6.5 2.1 0.3
2.8 1.1* 5-5 7-1* 7.9 3.7 — 21.1* 10.3
l*.l l.k 13-0 1+.3 2.0 — — 1.6 —
2.1 — — 12.9
2 1 .y
3-J
Treatment 1* Pond C
5 15 1*1 kl
9.5 9-1 20.9 7-7
8.3 — — present
— 31.8 -
0.9 2.0
2k. 3
<— i • y
Other species of Chrysophyta (Chpomulina spp. and Chrysoccoccus spp.) and Cryptophyta (Chryptomonas sp. were present
in all treatments through the experimental period and were frequently the dominants. Only the species which arose
or were eliminated are presented in the preceeding table.
Abbreviations :
C = Chlorophyta, Cryp. = Cryptophyta, Chr.
— = none detected.
Chrysophyta, Cyan. Cyanophta, and Bug. = Euglenophyta,
had passed. Following the oil spill in Pond Omega
in 1975, mortality again occurred. The sequence
in which the species died exactly followed the re-
sponse of the several species in separate aquarium
exposures to the same doses of oil. The zooplank-
ton were placed in cages at the bottom of the aqua-
rium so that no chance of physical contact could
have occurred except by soluble products (con-
ducted by J. O'Brien, Kansas State Univ.). The
most sensitive species was Branchionecta, the fairy
shrimp; then Daphnia middendorfiana and least, the
copepods (Figure 2). Following a controlled spill
10 July, fairy shrimps were reintroduced into Pond
Omega and Pond C control 6 days and 14 days after
the spill in netting-ended containers, all died by
7 days. After 14 days post spill, Heterocope
survived the same 4 days exposure which killed
Daphnia. Thus the soluble fraction, composed most
likely of aromatic compounds, was toxic to zoo-
plankton in aquarium experiments and two whole
pond applications.
Retesting these animals in a similar set of
experimental chambers with a different batch of
crude oil showed no toxicity a year later. Appar-
ently, different wells in the Prudhoe oil field
produce oil of varying toxicities. Or the prac-
tice of extracting naphtha and diesel by distilla-
tion and reinjecting the heavier nonvolatile com-
ponents back into the well may have changed the
apparent toxicity of the oil.
Toxicity to Invertebrates
Invertebrates which were near the surface of
the water became trapped by the floating oil scum
and mechanically retained. Groups like the sur-
face mating chironomids (Diptera) and all insect
larvae which lived or fed on the emergent sedges
in the littoral zone were likely to be exposed if
0 24 48 72 96 120 144
HOURS
Figure 2. Survival of fairy shrimp
Branchionecta paludosa
and Daphnia middendorfiana
bottom to oil at dose
1/5 x, 1 x, and 5 x the
dose in Pond Omega.
523
-------
the wind blew the floating oil on them. After the
massive 1970 experimental spill, many fourth in-
star chironomid larvae were noticed dead on the
bottom of the pond. However, no obvious larval
mortality was observed in the 1975 spill on Pond
Omega at 1/40 the dose rate.
Laboratory experiments on oil toxicity were
conducted in glass or plastic cages placed at the
bottom of aquaria containing 14 liters of pond
water on which was floated crude oil at three dose
rates, with unoiled controls. Twelve to fifteen
day observations were made on Nemoura (stonefly),
Limnephilus (caddisfly), Turbellaria (flatworm),
Physa (snail), Agabus (Beetle), Micrasema (caddis-
fly) , and four genera of midge larvae (Trichotan-
ypus, Procladius, Chironomus, and Tanytarsus). In
most cases, mortality in control aquaria was equal
to or greater than mortality in oil-treated aquaria.
Control mortality was often high caused in part by
disruption of normal environmental conditions for
the species during the test. Several of the kinds
of insects tested metamorphosed in the field during
the toxicity testing period. In no case was there
rapid or complete mortality.
Field Experiments—Phytoplankton-Zooplankton
In the series of 18 liter subponds placed in
Pond C set up with treatments of plus and minus zoo-
plankton and plus and minus oil at 1 ml/1., the
zooplankton all died within five days in all oil
treatments. The thaw ponds and, initially, the
subponds were dominated by phytoplankton composed
of Rhodomonas, a crytophyte, by Chromulina, Chry-
sococcus, both chrysophytes and by Chlamydomonas,
a chlorophyte (Table 1). After the 1970 spill on
Pond E and after the 1975 spill on Pond Omega, the
phytoplankton became dominated by a new Chrysophyte,
Uroglena, not normally found in these ponds (Miller
et al., In Press).
Because the zooplankton grazers were killed
within 5-6 days following the spill or applica-
tion of oil on the ponds or subponds, the question
was to what extent the change in algal composition
was caused by oil toxicity or to the elimination
of grazing pressure. In the series of subponds,
Rhodomonas sp. was reduced by 90% in the oil
treated subponds after five days; however, in
treatment 2 lacking zooplankton it was reduced
50% compared to the control in 15 days. Thus the
immediate oil-related treatment contributed direct-
ly to the elimination of Rhodomonas. However, the
elimination of the zooplankton in treatment 2 led
to the elimination of that key species after 41
days. At that time in the control subponds, treat-
ment 1, the phytoplankton were dominated by the
chrysophytes, Chromulina, Chrysococcus and Ochro-
monas; however no new species had become common and
no species present initially had been eliminated
completely (Table 1). In oil treated subponds
dominants included Chlamydomonas, Uroglena and a
non-heterocystous blue-green algae, Oscillatoria.
In the zooplankton-free subponds, treatment 2, a
Dinobryon sp., chrysophyta, became the dominant
(83% by number).
Following the application of oil the algal
biomass increased dramatically in zooplankton-free,
treatment 2. As the inhibition of primary pro-
duction by oil lessened, the algal biomass in those
subponds treated with oil increased to the same
level as that in treatment 2 after 41 days. Thus
the effect of oil in eliminating the zooplankton
allowed the phytoplankton to increase in biomass,
incorporating all available nutrients into cell
bodies. The reduction in grazing pressure changed
the composition of the phytoplankton including the
elimination of Rhodomonas (Figure 3) . The addi-
tion of oil changed the dominants in subponds,
allowing a filamentous, non-heterocystous blue-
green algae to become common, similar to what the
Canadians found in subarctic lakes (Table 1).
No filamentous blue-green algae were found in
the thaw ponds receiving whole pond application of
oil at the same rate. The algal biomass did in-
crease in 1975 following the spill on Pond Omega,
but not nearly as much as in the subponds. The
bottom sediments in these tundra ponds reversibly
absorb reactive phosphorus maintaining the concen-
tration less than 3 ug P/l on the average (Prentki
1975) . Thus even following the death of the zoo-
plankton in the oil-treated thaw ponds, nutrients
in solution were bound into the sediments. In the
subponds receiving oil, nutrients maintained in
solution by the grazing and excretion by zooplank-
ton became locked into algal biomass. Apparently,
no nutrients in excess of those already in the
water and in the seston when the subponds were
filled were available because the algal biomass
became equivalent in the zooplankton-free and oil-
treated subponds. The apparent resistance of thaw
ponds to the eutrophication-like effects from oil
spills is primarily caused by the sorbtion-equili-
brium of phosphate with the iron-rich surface sed-
iments. Most of the changes in algal composition
observed were in part caused by the elimination of
grazing pressure and by the selectivity of the oil.
Field Experiments—Pond Benthos
Observations on the 1970 experimental spill
on Pond E and the 1975 spill on Pond Omega showed
changes in larval species composition and changes
in the proportion of 4th instars emerging follow-
ing the spills compared to control Pond J and G
(Figure 1, Table 2). Changes in composition per-
sisted to some degree for at least 6 years after
the 1970 spill. Pond E yielded about as many a-
dult midges per unit area as the adjacent Pond J,
both at relatively high concentrations. However,
the species emerging were different. The largest
qualitative differences between Pond E'in compari-
son to J and G in the open bottom were the small
number of Tanytarsus gregarius (Tanytarsini) and
the large numbers of Psectorocladius psilopterus-
gr. spp. (Orthocladiinae), collected in Pond E emer-
gence traps. Pond E also had larger populations
of Tanypodinae and Chironomus than untreated ponds.
Similarly, Pond E had fewer Paratanytarsus, Tany-
tarsus and Constempellina (Tanytarsini) and more
Cricotopus (Orthocladiinae) and Trichotanypus
CPodonominae) in traps than the two untreated
ponds. Larval samples from open bottom in the
early summer in 1975 and 1976 (Table 3) showed the
same high relative density of Orthocladiinae and
lesser densities of Tanytarsini in Pond E compared
524
-------
100'
75-
0
a.
0 50-|
h
ILJ
u
C
LLI
°- 25-
PY
CHL-
Y/SSS.
CH
U 1,1,1
234
DAY 5
SUBPONDS
2 3
DAY 15
Figure 3. Percentage composition of algal phyla by algal volume in Pond C and subponds at 5 and 15 days
following the application of oil. Treatment 1 included natural zooplankton, treatment 2 lacked
zooplankton, treatment 3 included zooplankton initially and was dosed with oil (1ml /I.), and
treatment 4 lacked zooplankton and was dosed with oil.
TABLE 2: CHIRONOMIDAE EMERGING FROM TWO HABITATS IN FOUR PONDS IN 1976, ARRANGED IN ORDER OF DECREASING
NUMBER PER UNIT AREA.
HaMtat
Pond
Omega
Open Corynonevi'o. spp.
Bottom Par-atony tarsus
Tonytars-us gregarius-gr.
Chironomus pilicomis-late
C. pilicor-fiis-ea.T'Lj
Stictochironomus
Procladius sp.
Procladi-us gratis
Derotanypus aslines
Psectroaladius sp. 1
Psectroclad-ius sp. 2
Tanytarsus inaequatis
Co'fynoneura spp.
Procladius sp.
Trichotanypus
Chironomus p-ilicorn-is-late
Cr-icotopus tib-ialis
Tony tarsus gregarius-gr.
Tanytarsus inaequatis
Para, tony tarsus
Cons tempel Una
Tanytarsus gregarius-gr.
Cladotanytarsus
Corynoneura
Chironomus piZieomis-early
C. piZ-icornts-late
Tanytarsus inaequalis
Corynoneura spp.
Cladotany tarsus
Chirnonmus pilioornis-early
Cons tempe I Una
Trichotanypus
Proala.dius gretis
C. piZicornis-late
Carex Corynoneura spp.
Proe~lo.dius gretis
Tony tarsus gregarius-gr.
Paratanytarsus
Derotanypus aclines
Procladius sp.
Chironomus (Camptochironomus)
C. pilicornis-e&r^j
C. vilicornis-1-B.te
Trichotanypus
Psectrooladius sp. 2
Criaotopus tibialis
Corynoneura spp.
Criootopus perniger
Derotanypus alaskensis
Procladius gretis
Cricotopus sp. 3
Para tony tarsus
Corynoneura. spp.
Tanytarsus gregarius-gr.
Tanytarsus inaequalis
Derotanypus alaskensis
Cons tempe T, Una
Trichotanypus
Pseatrocladius sp. 2
Corynoneura spp.
Para tony tarsus
Trichotanypus
Derotanypus alaskensis
Procladius gretis
Cladotanytarsus
Tanytarsus inaequalis
Cons tempe I Una
525
-------
Taxon
Chironomidae
Ch-ironomus spp.
St-ictochiromonus
Tanytarsus spp.
Paratcmy tarsus
Cladotany tarsus
Proclad-ius spp.
Derotanypus spp.
Tvichotanypus
Pseotroaladi-us spp.
Cricotopus spp .
Corynoneura
Other Orthocladiinae
Oligochaeta
Enchytraeidae
Tubificidae
J
1975
17,1+00
0
17,800
l.Ol+O
2,1+60
1,890
93
0
0
0
0
190
378
3,210
1976
7,690
0
11,500
1,730
1,51*0
96l
0
0
0
0
0
0
192
769
Pond
E
1975 1976
2,1*00 It, 800
0 0
179 386
356 1,1*1*0
267 98
981 671*
1*1* 190
0
i*,ioo 1*78
535 0
88 o
179 98
267 98
1*1*7 2,590
Omega
1975
1,1*30
1*1+7
l+,l+6o 1*
802
0
88
0
88
179
0
0
88
267
267
1976
767
0
,230
98
98
963
0
0
0
0
0
190
98
576
TABLE 3:
BENTHIC FAUNAL COMPOSITION
IN OPEN BOTTOM AREAS OF
THREE TUNDRA THAW PONDS
NEAR BARROW IN 1975 AND
1976, EXPRESSED AS NUMBER
PER SQUARE METER. SAMPLES
WERE COLLECTED BEFORE MOST
SPECIES HAD BEGUN TO EMERGE
IN EARLY SUMMER.
Total
Mac roiri vertebrates
1*1*,500 2l*,l*00
10,200 10,900
3,120
7,020
to Pond J. Densities of Oligochaetes were not de-
tectably different between the ponds. In contrast,
the ratio of adults emerging to larval densities
of Procladius (Tanypodinae) and Chironomus and the
total number of adults were higher in Pond E than
in Pond J (Figure 4, Table 2). Recovery in Pond E
appears to be well advanced, but natural species
balances have yet to be established.
Qualitative sweep samples from the Carex
habitat in the oil-treated ponds and two untreated
ponds suggested other qualitative differences be-
tween Pond E and untreated ponds. In particular
Trichoptera (caddisflies) and Plecoptera (stone-
flies) were abundant in samples from untreated
ponds, but rare or absent in Ponds E and Omega.
Instead, Pond E yielded large numbers of Tricho-
tanypus larvae and the Pond Omega sample essenti-
ally lacked larger insects in 1976, one year after
the spill (Table 4).
Emergence in Pond Omega was quite small
(Figure 4). All species were suppressed, but
Chironomus_ appeared to be less affected than other
midges, and consequently accounted for a larger
proportion of total emergence (Table 2). In con-
trast benthic samples indicated that little over-
all change took place between pre-spill populations
(1975) and post-spill ones (Table 3). The number
of samples which have been processed is not yet
sufficient to determine whether apparent reduc-
tions in Paratanytarsus and S_tictochironomus were
real. Still, it is obvious that Tanytarsus larval
populations were not diminished. If the response
of Pond Omega to the spill follow those of Pond E,
changes in composition may take another year or
two to become evident in larval populations. Some
suppression of recruitment of Tanytarsus in 1975
was suggested by a low proportion of early instars
in June, 1975 (19% instar II) as compared to June,
1975 (58% instar II) (Table 3). The experimental
spill in 1975 was conducted after emergence of one
of the Tanytarsus species .
The effects of oil on benthos vary with taxa
and habitat. Among the Carex shoots, a large
amount of biomass due to the nondipteran insects
appears to be removed by a mixture of entrapment
in floating oil, oil adhering to the vegetation,
and perhaps toxicity to older and newly hatched
larvae. In Pond E, some of this biomass seems to
be replaced by Trichotanypus. a midge larva. The
success of Trichotanypus may be due to reduced
competition from other scraping and grazing in-
sects, reduced predation or changes in the epi-
flora of the macrophytes.
In the open bottom, direct toxicity is appar-
ently negligible, but reproduction and recruit-
ment of the midges is hampered at metamorphosis,
and perhaps just after the larvae hatch. Prelim-
inary examination of egg trap results suggested
that an overwhelming majority of egg masses of
all species are laid or rafted to the downwind
shore. Repopulation of the center must depend on
larval movements. Since the oil scum in the treated
526
-------
OPEN BOTTOM
Figure 4.
CAREX BED
@Tanytarsini
E^Chironomus
QTanypodinae
E30rthocladiinae
IHHTrichotanvpus
1000
—i
No. /m
Quantity and composition of
Chironomidae emerging from
the two principal habitats
in four ponds in 1976.
n i
c -
J =
U ::'
! 0
0
::::-:;:-/.::^::':v;^-::;:::;-'-::vvX' •::•:•;:•• X °
- - o
5000
Pond
Omega
Wemoura
Paratany tarsus
limephilus
Micrasema
Procladius
Physa
Agabus ( Larvae )
lebertia
Enchytraeidae
Micvasema
flenoura
Para t an y tars us
Linrnephilus
Agabus (Larvae &
adults)
Procladius
Chrionomus
Tony tarsus
Enchytraeidae
Trichotani/pus
Faratany tarsus
Derotanypus
Procla.di.us
Enchytraeidae
Lebsrtia
Para tony tars us
Procladius
Lebertia
Agabus ( Larvae &
adults )
TABLE A:
BENTHIC FAUNA FROM QUALITA-
TIVE SWEEP-NETTING IN FOUR
PONDS IN MID-JULY 1976,
LISTED IN ORDER OF DECREAS-
ING ABUNDANCE.
ponds also moved to the downwind shore, a large
proportion of newly hatched larvae are exposed
to relatively high oil concentrations and many
may die before dispersing. It should be noted that
at least half of oil-treated egg masses produced
larvae which behaved normally in the laboratory.
Direct field observation showed that the oil scum
did not prevent emergence of pupae when they
reached the surface; however, larval metamorphosis
in Pond Omega in 1976 was suppressed. It is now
clear that both surface-mating and aerially mating
iiidges are suppressed at metamorphosis before mating
can occur.
The critical phase then is recovery of midge
populations, which is most directly related to
dispersal capability of the different species.
Recovery of larval populations in Pond E appeared
to correspond to the ability of the females of
each species present to fly to ponds other than
their home pond.
A consequence of the long life cycles of midge
larvae (2-7 years) and this new hypothesis is that
spills of oil over large areas of tundra could
have catastrophic and long-lasting effects on
midge populations in the ponds. If there were no
unexposed local reservoir populations to recolo-
nize the oil-affected ponds, recolonization of
flightless and weak flying species must occur
527
-------
gradually from much farther away and would there-
fore be slower. Adult midges live only a few days,
and the period after mating and before death is
even shorter, constricting still more the poten-
tial for recolonization from a distance. The oil-
treated ponds in the Barrow area are virtually sur-
rounded by unaffected populations, and therefore
do not provide an accurate representation of the
effects of more extensive spills.
CONCLUSIONS
Having followed the initial changes that occur
at several trophic levels in tundra pond ecosys-
tems after an oil spill with Prudhoe crude and
their recovery over the next 6 years, we are be-
ginning to understand the implications of oil on
the biota in these ubiquitous ponds. Most impor-
tant is the fact that the compositional changes
are profound and long-lasting. After 6 years, the
zooplankton (Daphnia) had just been observed to
survive through the entire summer and reproduce.
Similarly Rhodomonas, a phytoplankter, was also
observed in Pond E for the first time since the
spill, presumably in response to the reestablish-
ment of populations of grazers. This food chain
dependent maintenance of the algal composition
considered "normal" for these ponds is a documen-
tation of the interrelatedness between trophic
levels. The long-term effects of the oil seemed
to have been upon the survival and reproduction of
the zooplankton in these ponds.
The species composition in the chironomids and
other insects similarly remained altered for years.
Although total densities were high, the total
emergence of adults was very low for two years, at
least. How the oil acts in this effect and in sur-
vival of zooplankton is not known, but since
mechanical contact with floating oil was not
involved, it must be an effect of soluble products
or of oil transferred into the sediments.
Thus the examination of the classical toxicity
of the component species as in bioassays, would
predict the effects of the oil to be short-lived.
Two groups of animals, the zooplankton and the
chironomids, showed an apparent sublethal effect
which stopped reproduction or maturation to sex-
ual maturity. Our preliminary analysis based on
the bioassays similar to those used in preparing
impact statements, would not have predicted the
long recovery times of species composition observed.
The rates of algal primary productivity and
epibenthic algal production (Stanley 1976), ben-
thic respiration (Miller and Reed 1975) , bacterial
density and activity and total secondary benthic
production returned to near normal levels long
before the species composition had been reestab-
lished. The long, multi-year life cycles for the
chironomids in the arctic (5-7 years) is in part
responsible for the slow recovery. A single par-
thenogenic reproduction per year in the common
Daphnia similarly meant that these populations were
not capable of rapid recovery. Thus, although the
pond carbon dynamics and nutrient chemistry appeared
to have recovered quickly, marked species composi-
tional changes remained. Alteration of the species
composition at the several trophic levels was de-
termined by the species life history, sensitivity
to the oil, and alteration in the trophic level
above the one of concern.
Since the nutrient equilibria and permafrost
relations of these shallow ponds is dependent upon
the mud water interface, the best treatment for
small spills might be a low disturbance cleaning
such as soaking up thick scum before it becomes
tar-like. Physical damage to the shore, vegetation
and pond bottom during the ice-free season would
cause as much damage ecologically as leaving the
spill untreated. Certainly detergents, dispersants
and coagulants might have worse potential effects
than the oil.
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ronmental Chemistry and Cycling Processes. Nat.
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Moore, S.F., G.R. Chirlin, D.J. Puccia and B.P.
Schrader. 1974. "Potential Biological Effects
of Hypothetical Oil Discharges in the Atlantic
Coast and Gulf of Alaska." Rept. MITSG 74-119,
Mass. Inst. of Tech. Sea Grant Program Publica-
tion, Cambridge, Mass.
Prentki, R.T. 1976. "Phosphorous Cycling in Tundra
Ponds." Ph.D. Thesis. Inst. Marine Science,
Univ. of Alaska. 275 pp.
Robertson, B., S. Arhelger, R.A.T. Law, and O.K.
Button. 1973. "Hydrocarbon Biodegradation in
Port Valdes." In Port Valdes Environmental
Studies. Institute of Marine Science, Univ. of
Alaska, Fairbanks.
Roeder, D.R., G.H. Crum, D.M. Rosenbert and N.B.
Snow. 1975. "Effects of Norman Wells Crude Oil
on Periphyton in Selected Lakes and Rivers in the
Northwest Territories." Tech. Rept. 552, Environ-
ment Can ad a.
Snow, N.B. and G.J. Brunskill. 1975. "Crude Oil
and Nutrient Enrichment Studies in a MacKenzie
Delta Lake." Technical Rept. No. 533. Environ-
ment Canada.
Snow, N.B., D.M. Rosenberg. 1975a. "Experimental
Oil Spills on MacKenzie Delta Lakes. I. Effect
of Norman Wells Crude Oil on Lake 4." Technical
Rept. No. 548. Environment Canada.
Snow, N.B., D.M. Rosenberg, 1975b. "Experimental
Oil Spills on MacKenzie Lakes. II. Effects of
Two Types of Crude Oil on Lakes 4C and 8." Tech-
nical Rept. No. 549. Environment Canada.
Snow, N.B. and B.F. Scott. 1975. "The Effect and
Fate of Crude Oil Spill on Two Arctic Lakes."
In_ Conference on Prevention and Control of Oil
Pollution. Am. Petroleum Inst. Wash., D.C.
Stanley, D.W. 1976. "Productivity of Epipelic
Algae in Tundra Ponds and a Lake near Barrow,
Alaska. Ecology 57:1015-1024.
529
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MECHANISMS OF SULFUR DIOXIDE RESISTANCE
IN GREEN PLANTS
Philip Filner
Energy Research and Development Administration
Plant Research Laboratory
Michigan State University
East Lansing, Michigan
INTRODUCTION
Green plants are more sensitive to acute
exposure to S02 than are mammals, including
people. While 1-5 ppm S02 elicits only the
most subtle of effects in mammals, even after
repeated exposure (1) , many plant species will
sustain massive damage in the form of necrotic
lesions covering a substantial percentage of the
leaf area, following a single relatively brief
exposure in the same concentration range (2) .
Since S02 reduces crop yield in proportion to
the leaf area destroyed (2), the most serious
potential consequence of an elevation of atmos-
pheric SC>2 may be the impact on agricultural
productivity, especially in areas near large
concentrations of coal burning facilities.
The mechanism by which S02 injures plants
is unknown. Because of the reactivity of SC>2,
there is no shortage of hypothetical targets.
Sulfite or bisulfite, the ions formed when S02
dissolves in water, reacts with aldehydes and
ketones of sugars, with the disulfide bonds of
proteins, and with groups in nucleic acids as
well (3) . Presumably in this vast array of
potential targets there is a most sensitive
essential molecule, the reaction of which
precipitates the chain of events culminating
in injury. Numerous enzymes are known to be
sensitive to S02, but none has yet been shown
to be causally related to injury. In addition
to such biologically abnormal reactions being
candidates for the injury mechanism, it is
possible that injury is a consequence of the
fact that sulfite in a bound form is a normal
intermediate in the pathway of sulfate assimila-
tion in plants (4). Furthermore, plants contain
enzymes which catalyze the reduction of free
or bound sulfite to free or bound hydrosulfide,
respectively, and either form of hydrosulfide
can be used in the synthesis of the two sulfur-
containing amino acids, L-cysteine and L-
methionine. Perhaps the damage done by 862
results from overloading the normal sulfur
pathway.
It has been well known for more than 50
years that there is about a 10-fold range of
differences in sensitivity to acute exposure to
S02 among plant species (5). Just as the
mechanism of injury is unknown, the mechanisms
of resistance are also unknown. It is con-
venient to divide possible resistance mechanisms
into two classes: resistance due to a lower rate
of S02 absorption, and resistance due to a lower
rate of occurrence of the biochemical lesion
after the S02 has been absorbed by the plant.
Because SC>2 is a gas, and gases are known to
enter plants largely through the thousands of
adjustable pores called stomates which exist on
the surface of each leaf, it has long been
hypothesized that genetically or phylogenetically
determined resistance differences are probably
due to uptake differences which in turn would
be expected to reflect differences in stomatal
behavior or number (2). This hypothesis,
however, has not been tested experimentally.
About eighteen months ago, my colleagues,
Ray A. Bressan and Lloyd G. Wilson, and I began
a search for new clues to the mechanisms of
injury by S02 and resistance to SC>2 in plants.
We reasoned that such clues should turn up in
studies of the comparative physiology and bio-
chemistry of genetically or phylogenetically
related plants which differed in resistance to
S02. We elected to concentrate our efforts on
the Cucurbitaceae (cucumbers, squashes, melons,
etc.) for several reasons: 1) a wide range of
sensitivity to S02 was evident within this
family in the old surveys (5), 2) these plants
grow rapidly and have large leaves, which makes
them convenient for growing, fumigating and
assessing injury, 3) because they have been
cultivated and bred throughout the globe, a
large pool of genetic variation exists, and
4) a cucumber breeder on the MSU faculty agreed
to provide advice and to collaborate in genetic
studies.
TECHNICAL DISCUSSION
Our first objective was to identify within
a species if possible, pairs of cultivars which
differed in sensitivity to S02, and to dis-
tinguish those cases in which the resistant
member of such pairs has lower rates of S02
absorption than the sensitive member, from
those cases in which there was no apparent
difference in absorption rate. We intended to
do comparative biochemical studies on pairs with
equal S02 absorption rates. In order to perform
these studies, an apparatus was constructed
around a Monitor Labs Model 8450 Sulfur Analyzer.
In the apparatus, air containing S02 was diluted
to the desired concentration with S02~free air
and was passed through a plexiglas fumigation
chamber big enough to hold several plants. The
air stream after suitable dilution was monitored
by the sulfur analyzer alternately before and
after the fumigation chamber. The rate of S02
absorption was calculated from the difference
in S02 concentration before and after the chamber
at near-steady state. At the end of the fumiga-
tion, the leaf areas were traced, and the
tracings were cut out, weighed, and the leaf area
was calculated. Twenty four hours later, the
percent of leaf area which had become necrotic
was estimated. In a typical experiment, air
containing 2 ppm S02 flowed at 9 L min through
the 125 L fumigation chamber, which contained
1 plant with 8 leaves having a total surface
531
-------
area of about 400 cn^. A typical plant would
absorb about 15% of the 502 from the flowing
air. This corresponds to an absorption rate
of about 250 pinoles min"1 cm"2. Up to a few
ppm S02, the absorption rate was approximately
proportional to S02 concentration, as expected
for a diffusion-limited process. The apparatus
could detect a change of 20 pmoles min"1 cm~2
within seconds and measure it within 7 minutes.
Before returning the air to the ambient atmos-
phere, S02 was removed by bubbling the air
stream through water. The apparatus has been
remarkably trouble-free and dependable, so that
it has been possible to run experiments around
the clock week after week, the only down time
being that required to change the plants in
the fumigation chamber.
Two cultivars of Cucumis sativus
(cucumber) and two cultivars of Cucurbita
pepo (squash and pumpkin) were found to differ
from each other in sensitivity to S02 when
compared on the basis of the concentration of
S02 to which they were exposed (Fig. 1). The
most resistant cultivar (pumpkin) required
about a 5-fold higher exposure than the most
sensitive cultivar (cucumber SC 25) for
equivalent injury. However, all four cultivars
had about the same sensitivity when compared
on the basis of how much S02 they had absorbed.
The amount of injury sustained by each of these
cultivars at a certain exposure concentration
of S02 varied approximately in proportion to
the rate of S02 absorbtion by the
cultivar (Table 1). I
believe that this is the first demonstration
that species and varietal differences in
sensitivity to S02 can largely be accounted for
by their SC>2 absorption rates.
Previous workers have noted that the young
leaves of many plants are more resistant to
injury by S02 than are the mature leaves (2).
We also encountered this phenomenon, and so
we asked the question: are young leaves re-
sistant because they absorb S02 at a lower
rate than mature leaves? Fumigations were
performed on plants with either the upper
or the lower 50% of the leaves intact, and
both S02 absorption and degree of injury were
determined. Young leaves were far less injured
than mature leaves that had absorbed a compar-
able amount of S02 (Fig. 2). The pattern
was the same for the four cultivars studied,
and young leaves were more alike, regardless
of cultivar, than were young and mature leaves
of the same cultivar. Since the young leaves
absorb the S02 but are not severely injured
by it, there must exist a biochemical difference
between young and mature leaves that minimizes
the opportunity for at least one of the reac-
tions leading to injury. I believe that this
is the first indication that plants possess
a resistance mechanism that can operate after
the S02 has been absorbed.
The discovery several years ago by de Cormis
that plants exposed to injurious concentrations
of S02 emitted H2S (6), raised the question of
whether or not H2S was causally related to injury
due to S02. In the course of studying this
phenomenon, we discovered that plants fed sulfate
also emit t^S. By mechanically injuring the
roots, or feeding detached leaves through the cut
petiole, it is possible to induce leaves in
bright light to emit H2S in response to sulfate
at rates comparable to or exceeding those from
leaves treated with bisulfite in dim light.
While the leaves treated with bisulfite developed
the injury symptoms characteristic of exposure
to S02, those treated with sulfate did not.
Therefore, H2S is not causally related to injury
from S02 exposure. H2S emission reached maximal
rates of the order of 50 pmoles min"1 cm""2 j an(j
continued for several hours. At that rate, a
50 cm cucurbit leaf could generate 1 ppm H2S
in 60 ml air every minute. These observations
lead me to suggest that terrestrial plants may
be a previously unappreciated source of atmos-
pheric sulfur. The origin of about half of
atmospheric sulfur is unknown, although it has
been thought likely to originate as H£S from
decaying biological material (7).
PROGRAM DISCUSSION
One way to minimize the impact of S02
pollution on crop productivity would be to plant
resistant cultivars- nearest a source. Needless
to say, resistant cultivars of agriculturally
important crops are a prerequisite to this
approach. Although a few such cultivars are
known (8), it is probably a good idea to begin
to breed for resistance to S02 in sensitive
species now, in order to have a sufficient
collection of resistant cultivars if and when
they are needed in the future. Our results
suggest that there is a high probability that
the outcome of a simple screen for S02 resis-
tance is very likely to be selection of cultivars
which take up less S02 than their sensitive
relatives. However, if S02 absorption rate is
altered by altering stomates, there is the
danger that fixation of C02 and transpiration
of water, which are mediated by the stomates,
will be disturbed in an unfavorable way in such
cultivars. Is it possible to have cultivars
with a reduced rate of S02 absorption, but with
normal rates of C02 fixation and water trans-
piration? If such a combination proves to be
impossible, then screens should be set up for
cultivars with resistance that comes into play
after the S02 has been absorbed. Might it not
be possible to breed plants in which a higher
percentage of the leaves retain the biochemical
resistance characteristic of young leaves?
We hope to explore all of these questions
in the cucurbits. We are beginning to study
the relationships between S02 absorption, C02
absorption and water loss. We are also begin-
ning some genetic analysis of S02 resistance.
Cucumber SC 25 shares germ plasm with cucumbers
that are grown in the southern United States
(L. Baker, personal communication). The re-
sistant cultivar of cucumber has germ plasm
that is grown in the northern United States.
We are investigating whether greater sensitivity
532
-------
90
£60
w
0
C
o
01
z
30
O
I
CUCUMBER SC 25 _
O
O s' ° CUCUMBER NAT. PICKLING
4 8
[S02] EXTERNAL (//I/I.)
Figure 1. Dependence of injury of
four cultivars on concen-
tration of S02 in air
during fumigation.
Each point is the mean of
4 or 5 plants having a
total of about 40 leaves.
Each leaf was scored
separately. Fumigations
were normalized to 1000
minutes.
TABLE 1. CORRELATION OF INJURY FROM SO AND ABSORPTION OF S02 IN THE CUCURBITACEAE
I
Cultivar
Cucumber
SC 25
National
Pickling
Cucumber
Prolific
Straightneck
Squash
Small
Sugar
Pumpkin
II
Mean Exposure
yl S02 liter l
3.6
3.5
3.6
3.6
III
Mean Percent
Necrosis
52.8
32.9
21.3
17.6
IV
Mean Absorption
nmoles SO? cm~2
342
204
159
141
V
Mean Exposure
Mean Percent
Necrosis
0.068
0.106
0.369
0.205
VI
Mean Absorption
Mean Percent
Necrosis
6.5
6.2
7.5
9.5
VII
Number of
Experiments
17
14
11
8
533
-------
Figure 2. Dependence of injury of
young leaves and mature
leaves on the amount of
S02 absorbed. Each point
is the mean of 4 or 5
plants from which the
upper (open symbols) or
lower (filled symbols)
50% of the leaves were
removed prior to fumiga-
tion. Circles: cucumber
SC 25; squares: cucum-
ber National Pickling;
pyramids: squash; inverted
pyramids: pumpkin.
2 4
SO2 ABSORBED, (NMOLES '
dO'2)
to SC>2 is a common property of cucumber culti—
vars developed in the South. We are also deter-
mining the pattern of inheritance of this
character, to see if the S02 resistance charac-
ter of cultivars developed in the North can be
transferred into the Southern cultivars.
Although our concern is with the problem
of injury of plants by S02, it may be worth
pointing out that plants might be useful for
removing S02 from air. For example, several
cucurbit plants in series probably would be
sufficient to clean air at 10 L min"1. Could
there possibly be some application of several
glass houses in series, containing thousands
of plants with a high degree of biochemical
resistance rather than uptake resistance,
through which thousands of liters of air,
containing S02 diluted to a subtoxic level,
could be passed per minute and thereby
cleansed of SC>2? It seems only fair that,
since there is now reason to suspect that
plants may contribute appreciable amounts
of sulfur to the air as H2S, they should be
called upon to help remove some sulfur in
the form of SC>2.
CONCLUSIONS
In cultivars of the Cucurbitaceae, and pro-
bably in most other flowering plants, there
are at least two mechanisms by which resis-
tance to acute injury from S02 can be achieved.
The first mechanism is genetically or phylo-
genetically determined resistance to absorp-
tion of S02. The second mechanism is develop-
mentally controlled, and enables young leaves
to absorb S02 x-7ithout injury. It is presumed
to be a consequence of a ubiquitous but un-
known biochemical difference between young
and mature leaves.
The emission of H2S from plants exposed
to S02 (bisulfite) is not causally related to
injury. Under certain conditions, plants fed
their normal sulfur source, sulfate, will also
emit H2S, at rates sufficiently high to raise
the possibility that plants may contribute
appreciably to atmospheric sulfur.
REFERENCES
1. Rail, D. P., Environ. Health Perspect.
_8, 97 (1974).
2. Thomas, M. D., Ann. Rev. PI. Physiol.
2_, 293 (1951) .
3. Mudd, J. B., in Response of Plants to Air
Pollution,J. B. Mudd and T. T. Kozlowski,
eds., Acad. Press, New York, 1975, p. 9.
4. Schmidt, A., W. R. Abrams and J. A. Schiff,
Eur. J. Biochem. 47, 423 (1974).
5. Thomas, M. D. and R. H. Hendricks, in Air
Pollution Handbook, P. L. McGill,
F. R. Holden and C. Ackley, eds., McGraw-Hill,
New York, 1956, p. 9.1.
6. de Cormis, L., C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris
266 D, 683 (1968).
7. Rasmussen, K. H., M. Taheri and R. L. Kabel,
Water, Air and Soil Pollution 4_, 65 (1975).
8. Miller, V. L., R. K. Howell, B. E. Caldwell,
J. Environ. Qual. 3_, 35 (1974).
534
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METHODS DEVELOPMENT, FIELD ASSESSMENT, AND
TROPHIC RELATIONSHIPS OF BIOLOGICAL
COMMUNITIES IN FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEMS
John S. Crossman, William L. Barr,
Roger Betson, Doye B. Cox, Donald L. Dycus,
Charles Gooch, Billy G. Isom, Eugene Pickard,
Kenneth J. Tennessen, Thomas W. Toole,
Richard D. Urban, and James R. Wright, Jr.
Water Quality and Ecology Branch
Division of Environmental Planning
Tennessee Valley Authority
Muscle Shoals, Alabama
INTRODUCTION
A basic factor in the economic growth of the
Nation has been the availability of an abundant
supply of energy. Recently, however, usable
energy resources have become more and more limit-
ed. This decrease in supply has led to a national
program aimed at developing new, more efficient
energy systems. In developing these systems, an
equally high priority has been placed on identify-
ing, evaluating, and predicting the environmental
consequences of energy-related technologies.
Legislation pertaining to these concerns includes
the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, the Clean
Air Act, and legislation on strip mining.
As part of the Federal interagency energy
research program, the Water Quality and Ecology
Branch, Division of Environmental Planning, TVA,
is participating in the environmental effects
research program being coordinated by the Office
of Energy, Minerals, and Industry of the Environ-
mental Protection Agency (EPA). The research
discussed in this paper deals with five topics
that emphasize the environmental impacts of
energy-related technologies on the aquatic envi-
ronment. These projects have been grouped accord-
ing to five areas of concern: (1) thermal effects,
(2) strip mining, (3) biomonitoring of energy
technologies, (4) evaluation of power plant intake
structures to minimize entrainment of biological
organisms, and (5) development of information
systems.
THERMAL EFFECTS
To determine the impact of thermal discharges
on important fish food organisms, selected studies
were conducted at the Johnsonville Steam Plant in
western Tennessee. Monthly temperature profiles
indicated that the thermal plume from this plant
extended from the surface of the discharge channel
to the bottom during most of the winter months.
As a result, the immature stages of the mayfly
Igxagenia bilineata (Say) and the midges (Chirono-
midae) inhabiting the discharge channel sediment
were exposed to a changing thermal environment.
The higher thermal regime [temperature differen-
tials (ATs) up to 6.5 C] appeared to have increased
the growth rate of H_. bilineata nymphs in the
discharge channel, as compared with the growth
rate of nymphs at the ambient station (Figure 1).
Ambient 7= 1.77mm
Discharge 5T =1.95 mm
28-
26-
24
22
20-
CO
o 18-
3
1 16
T3
- '4
0 |2.
0>
1 10
3. 8-
1
4
2-
r
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o
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en
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F1
~
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-
-
r-
-]
rn
T" I —
: I.
! \ I n
0,M^-(DooQIM^-j*
O^^ — — '— c\jcvJ(McvJcJrC>
Head Width (mm)
Figure 1. Size of Hexagenia bilineata nymphs in
control (strippled bars) and discharge
(clear bars) stations at Johnsonville
Steam Plant, March 31, 1977.
In testing the tolerance of H_. bilineata and
the midge Coelotanypus tricolor (Loew) to thermal
shock, immatures were exposed for three hours to
a series of ATs (10, 20, and 30°C) after acclima-
tion for one week at 15°C. No significant mortali-
ty occurred at a AT of 10 or 20 C, but 100 percent
mortality resulted at a AT of 30 C (Figure 2).
These results indicate that immatures of these
species can survive a sudden rise in temperature
similar to that experienced at Johnsonville Steam
Plant (AT of 6.5°C).
Another important stage in the insect life
cycle, the egg, may also be exposed to thermal
stress. Therefore, baseline data on egg hatching
were obtained to determine the range of tempera-
tures at which hatching would occur and the opti-
mal temperature for hatching. Eggs of H..
bilineata hatched in 12 to 13 days at temperatures
between 25 and 30 C, which was considered the
optimal range. These data are now being used to
design experiments on embryonic tolerance to
thermal shock.
535
-------
% mortality
100 •-
75
50
25
0
Thermal Shock
Hexagenia/
..•* Coelotanypus
10 20
A! (3 hrs. exposure)
Figure 2. Mortality in Hexagenia and Coelotanypus
when exposed to various direct thermal
shocks.
used. These nonpoint source models can also be
used to predict the response from larger mined
watersheds and unmined areas. The quantity and
quality of streamflow generated by the first-order
stream models will be used to provide input to the
aquatic biota model.
OVERBURDEN ANALYSIS
LAND COVER AND CORE DRILL NG
WATERSHED CHARACTERISTICS /"T"^
| ( PYRITE s^ WEATHERING
LAND COVER PHYSICAL CHAR IDENTIFICATION \ EXPERIMENTS
STREAM ASSOC CHAR. CHEM. ANALYSIS
+ t
STRIP
PHYSICAL C
FIRST ORDER STREAM HYDROLOGY MODEL FIRST ORDER STREAM WATER QUAL
CONTINUOUS STORM SUSPENDED PHYSICAL
STREAMFLOW MODEL HYDROGRAPH MATERIALS MEASURES f.
\^ /
WATER QUALITY/QUANTITY ROUTING MODEL
CONSERVATIVE NON CONSERVATIVE
^^^^^^^
TTY
RESOURCE
EL
1
STRIP MINE CHARACTERISTICS
TECHNIQUES
DISSOLVED
MATERIALS
STRIP MINING
As noted in the President's comprehensive
energy plan, coal is the principal energy resource
to be exploited in the United States in the
foreseeable future. Historically, coal has been
extracted by deep mining, but increased demand has
fostered more and more strip or open-pit mining.
In Appalachia alone, over 65,000 acres of land are
mined each year with 8,000 acres of that total
occurring in the Tennessee Valley. As a result,
more than 1,500,000 acres have been mined or
affected by mining operations in the 11-state
Appalachian region. Not only are the environmental
consequences of uncontrolled strip mining aestheti-
cally unacceptable, but they also disrupt the
natural productivity and assimilative capacity of
the terrestrial-aquatic ecosystem.
With the increased emphasis on strip mining,
a research project has been identified in conjunc-
tion with the interagency energy program to develop
a model that can be used for planning development
of surface mines. The model considers the (1)
potential effect of various techniques for reclama-
tion on the quality and quantity of local streams,
(2) biological impacts of surface mining, and
(3) cumulative effects of pollutants from multiple
A schematic of the model, which is compart-
mentalized to simplify modification and improve-
ment of each major component, is presented in
Figure 3. The top three blocks of the diagram
illustrate the types of site information being
collected for the models.
First-order models of stream hydrology and
water quality are being used to predict informa-
tion on transport of water quality constituents
based on the characteristics of the watershed,
techniques employed, and reclamation measures
Figure 3. Schematic diagram of model components.
A flow diagram of the generalized biological
model, in which three different levels of inter-
action are noted, is presented in Figure 4. The
source level refers to those components that serve
as food. The reactors consist of two basic mod-
ules, a zoomacrobenthic and a fisheries module,
which are indicated by the two groups in the
diagram. The groups are identified according to
their functional role in the stream ecosystem,
thereby making it possible to use this model for
other systems. The lowest level of interaction is
the sink, which refers to those resources lost
from the stream through insect emergence, passive
losses, or stream drift.
SOURCES
Figure 4. Generalized biological model, Jamestown
area streams.
536
-------
In the field work associated with this proj-
ect, twelve study sites in east-central Tennessee
have been selected for developing baseline infor-
mation. Six of the sites are in contour-mined
areas, and the other six are in area-mined regions.
The land cover and watershed characteristics of
each site have been documented through aerial
photography, topographic mapping, and site inspec-
tions .
Because water quality is influenced by the
characteristics of the soil covering the coal,
overburden samples are being analyzed for neutral-
ization potential, acid production potential, and
other direct measures of pyrite reactivity. These
samples are also being subjected to laboratory
leaching studies to determine leachable acidity,
alkalinity, and specific metals.
Two models developed by TVA - a daily stream-
flow model and a storm hydrograph model - have
been applied using data collected at other sites
and compared with observed data. Significant
progress has also been made toward modeling con-
centrations of suspended solids in mine drainage
by using a modification of the universal soil loss
equation. A temperature model has also been
calibrated for use on sites in the Cumberland
Plateau.
A separate, unique project also associated
with strip mining deals with the production of
arthropod pests and vectors in pools formed by
strip mining and is being coordinated with TVA's
vector control program. Monthly biological sam-
ples have been collected from nine study ponds
(selected on the basis of age) and likely sites
for oviposition near the ponds. Seven species of
mosquitoes, five of which actively feed on man,
have been found. Anopheles punctipennis and Culex
erraticus have been the most prevalent species,
and Anopheles quadrimaculatus, the malaria vector,
was found in significant numbers.
In addition to mosquito larvae, a total of 72
other taxa were collected. Larvae of the midge
family Chironomidae (Genus Procladius) were dis-
covered with deformed mouthparts (Figures 5 and
6). Preliminary data indicate that the age of the
strip mine ponds may be an important factor in the
incidence of the mouthpart anomalies. A study to
determine the causes of the abnormalities has been
initiated by an agreement between EPA and TVA.
Figure 5. The typical number and configuration of labial teeth for the midge larvae Procladius sp.
537
-------
7 nB
-
•-
Figure 6. Abnormal configuration of labial teeth for the midge larvae Procladius sp.
538
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BIOMONITORING OF ENERGY TECHNOLOGY
Although most of the research tasks described
thus far have dealt with energy extraction, the
environmental impacts of by-products from coal
combustion and nuclear fission have not been
overlooked. Studies of trace metals and radio-
nuclides are being conducted at the Bull Run Steam
Plant on the Clinch River and the Browns Ferry
Nuclear Plant on the Tennessee River. Mussels are
being used as indicators of bioaccumulation because
they have relatively long life cycles (up to 30
years or more), feed on suspended particulate
matter, and live in one general area throughout
their life.
Because there are several potential avenues
for contaminant cycling, special analytical proce-
dures have been developed or refined during this
first year of study. The techniques that have
been identified and are subsequently being evalu-
ated are atomic absorption, anodic stripping
voltammetry, and atomic emission spectroscopy.
These procedures are now helping establish concen-
trations of heavy metals in the extrapallial
fluids and tissues of freshwater mussels from both
natural undisturbed areas and power plant sites.
EVALUATION OF POWER PLANT INTAKE STRUCTURES TO
MINIMIZE ENTRAINMENT OF BIOLOGICAL ORGANISMS
Power plants have a variety of influences on
a body of water, depending on such factors as the
type of cooling system used, quantity of river
flow diverted for cooling, temperature rise above
ambient, proximity to other plants, and design of
intake and discharge structures. The objective of
this task is to determine whether the specific
design, siting, and operation of intake structures
can mitigate the effects on zooplankton by reduc-
ing the numbers of organisms entrained in the
condenser cooling water systems of steam-electric
power stations.
The zooplankton are an assemblage of micro-
scopic animals suspended in the water column that
are capable of swimming short distances and avoid-
ing weak currents. The freshwater zooplankton are
dominated by planktonic species of three major
groups: the Rotifera and two subclasses of the
Crustacea, the Cladocera and Copepoda. Generally,
zooplankton function as primary consumers. This
energy transfer is important in the aquatic food
web because it makes the solar energy captured by
the phytoplankton available to the higher trophic
levels—larger invertebrates, small fish, large.
fish, and other vertebrates. Although few adult
fish feed directly on plankton, most depend direct-
ly on plankto as food while they are in the
larval and po:tlarval stages.
Figure 7 shows four types of intakes to be
evaluated. Intake "A" has a skimmer wall, long
intake canal, and relatively shallow depth (less
than 20 ft). Intake "B" is similar to "A" but is
deeper (greater than 20 ft). Intake "C" has a
short intake canal and no skimmer wall, and intake
"D" is situated directly on the shoreline. These
types of intakes exist at various TVA power plants.
Skimmer
Wall
Pump
House
B
ME HE HE.
HE HE. HE
HE I!EIIEIIEXN
HE HE HE L
IIE HE !1E HE !)E HE
Figure 7. Types of intakes at various TVA power plants.
539
-------
During the first year of study, two different
situations were examined—one involving an intake
with a deep skimmer wall (intake "B") and the
other involving a bend of a river. Results for
the studies at the skimmer wall indicate that
total numbers of zooplankton were 69 to 72 percent
less than those from comparable samples collected
outside the skimmer wall. These numbers were
found to depend directly on the numerically domi-
nant zooplankton group, Rotifera, found during the
study. The Calanoida, like the Rotifera, were
less numerous inside the skimmer wall (intake
canal) than at stations outside the skimmer wall.
However, the Cladocera and Cyclopoida were more
numerous (up to 91 and 506 percent, respectively)
in the intake canal than at comparable depths in
the reservoir. These results indicate that the
Rotifera and Calanoida predominated in the upper
strata of the water column, whereas the Cladocera
and Cyclopoida were more numerous in the deeper
strata. Consequently, the latter two groups were
selectively pulled under the deep skimmer wall
into the intake canal.
For studies at the river bend, two different
sites were selected on the basis of their flow
velocities. Distribution patterns for the site
with very little current showed the inner and
outer banks to have similar numbers or the outer
bank to have slightly greater numbers, depending
on the zooplankton group. The site with high
water velocities showed the numbers of total
zooplankton, Rotifera, and Calanoida to be similar
along the inner and outer banks, but the Cladocera
and Cyclopoida were 50 to 100 percent more numer-
ous along the outer bank.
DEVELOPMENT OF INFORMATION SYSTEMS
When the Water Quality and Ecology Branch
initiated the energy effects research program, one
project was identified for developing the capa-
bility to measure and predict the impact of energy
technologies on important biotic assemblages. To
accomplish this task, the first priority was to
develop a computerized information system to
accommodate biological data. The general design
criteria for the system were that it must be
(1) compatible with EPA1s STORET/BIO-STORET sys-
tems, (2) inexpensive and user oriented, (3) adapt-
able for use with both routine monitoring and
research programs, and (4) able to perform a
variety of analytical procedures.
Using these criteria, we combined three
systems to form one data management/information
system (DM/IS). A hierarchical flow diagram
showing the interrelationship between the systems
is presented in Figure 8. In its present stage of
development, the DM/IS uses the statistical analy-
sis system (Barr et al. 1976) for its routine day-
to-day operations such as creating and manipulating
data sets; printing, sorting, and ranking data;
and performing routine statistical procedures. As
noted in Figure 8, the DM/IS is also used with
other software packages to compute more sophisticat-
ed analytical procedures.
SYSTEM
SUBSYSTEMS (3)
OPERATIONS (2)
ANALYTICAL
PACKAGES (5)
DATA FILES (48)
|NTSYS|
ABS-DM/IS
[ STATISTICAL ANALYSIS SYSTEM | [BIOSTORET"| [STORET
OUTPUT DATA SET
MANIPULATION
HUT-SNAP
I USER-WRITTEN ] etc.
BULL RUN] [JOHN SEVIER) [GALIATIN[ etc.
DATA RECORDS (5) | PHYTOPLANKTON | | PRODUCTIVITY | | BENTHOS | etc.
DATA ELEMENTS (19) [ HABITAT TYPE[ j SPECIES I.D.[ etc.
Figure 8. A flow diagram of the data management/information system used by the Tennessee Valley Authority's
Water Quality and Ecology Branch.
540
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To store and manipulate the large volume of
information collected by TVA, a series of numeric
and alphanumeric codes was developed. These codes
allowed for (1) easier storage and retrieval of
biological data; (2) savings in time and money
each time the data were sorted, compiled, and
analyzed; and (3) centralization of the data to
make writing environmental reports easier. The
coding scheme used and subsequently expanded was
developed under the direction of Dr. Cornelius
Weber, EPA, for use with BIO-STORET, the national
data storage and retrieval system for biological
data. The classification system consists of seven
data fields, which make accommodation of data at
any level of taxonomic distinction possible. The
maximum number of digits that can be assigned any
species is 16, which can be broken down into the
following taxonomic groups:
Taxonomic group Digits in Numeric
(data field) data field values
Phylum or division 2 01-99
Class 2 01-99
Order 2 01-99
Family 2 01-99
Genus 3 001-999
Species 3 001-999
Variety, form, authority _2_ 00-99
Total 16
data analysis and the selection of representative
important species for culturing. One analytical
procedure being tested is the clustering subrou-
tine contained in the numerical taxonomy system
(NTSYS). Using this subroutine, we have been able
to determine the similarity of selected river
sites on the basis of the biotic assemblages
present and to identify unique biological communi-
ties or species assemblages.
Another method being tested is an ordination
technique called nonmetric multidimensional scal-
ing, which allows us to examine the information in
a scatter diagram without first having to assume
that the data form clusters. Ordination, there-
fore, served as both an alternative to cluster
analysis and as a check to determine whether
species actually form distinct assemblages or
whether the assemblages are the result of the
clustering procedure.
REFERENCE
1. Barr, A. J., J. H. Goodnight, J. P. Sail, and
J. T. Helwig. A User's Guide to SAS-76.
Sparks Press, Raleigh, NC, July 1976. 329 pp.
A typical 16-unit species code would be
1701010300100100. In this example, the organism
was identified to the taxonomic level of species
and the authority specified. When broken down
further, the following information can be obtained:
17 Phylum: Annelida
1701 Class: Oligochaeta
170101 Order: Plesiopora
17010103 Family: Aeolosomatidae
17010103001 Genus: Aeolosoma
17010103001001
1701010300100100
Species: hemprichi
Authority: Ehrenberg
This hierarchical code has made possible the
accommodation of biological data at any level of
taxonomic distinction while limiting the space
requirements to just 16 units. Another feature
that has been built into the DM/IS is quality
control. For example, if an erroneous or unique
data entry is found, the computer prints out one
of the following error messages:
Invalid scientific name - contact J. Grossman,
Water Quality and Ecology Branch, Ext. 727.
Geographic distribution does not include the
Tennessee Valley.
Geographic distribution does not include the
southeastern United States.
Geographic distribution does not include North
America.
Listed on rare and endangered species list.
Scientific name has been changed to
With completion of the initial phase of the
DM/IS, emphasis has been placed on exploratory
541
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ECOSYSTEM CHARACTERIZATION - AN APPROACH TO
COASTAL NATURAL RESOURCE
PLANNING AMD MANAGEMENT
A. William Palmisano
Office of Biological Services
Fish and Wildlife Service
U.S. Department of the Interior
Washington, D.C.
INTRODUCTION
We are at a crossroads in our technological
evolution. Having successfully passed through
stages of empirical and scientific approaches to
progress, we are at the threshold of a new age
which will mould our future through the integra-
tion of knowledge acquired in many diverse disci-
plines. Problems we face today are so complex and
wide-ranging that solutions require a holistic
approach. The principal strands of the new web of
understanding are supported by three disciplines:
technology, sociology, and bio/ecology. Together
they comprise our environment (Figure 1).
TECHNOLOGICAL
SOCIO-ECONOMIC
\
BIO-ECOLOGICAL
Figure 1. Information web required for compre-
hensive natural resource management.
Bio/ecological components alone can range in
scope from systems as small as the gene to those
as large as the biosphere. This paper suggests a
midlevel, ecosystem approach to synthesizing eco-
logical information which will provide immediate
benefits to researchers, decision-makers, and plan-
ners and serve as a module readily adaptable to
future holistic systems.
Coastal ecosystems offer a particularly com-
plex challenge requiring the integration of infor-
mation dealing with air, land, marine, estuarine,
and fresh water systems. Concentrated human pop-
ulations and diverse development activities have
likewise focused on these continental fringes. It
is against this background that the ecosystem char-
acterization process described in this paper has
been developed.
Definition and Purpose
The concept of ecosystem characterization is
not very profound nor complicated. A useful def-
inition is a description of the important compon-
ents and processes comprising an ecosystem and an
understanding of their important functional rela-
tionships. Strong emphasis is placed on systems
understanding through structured integration of
information from the diverse physical and biolog-
ical sciences. Key elements of the concept are
outlined below:
Ecosystem Characterization - Definition.
Related to a specific ecosystem
Provides a basic perspective of the
state of knowledge for the given
system
Provides a description of the impor-
tant ecosystem components and func-
tional processes
Provides a mechanism for ecosystems
understanding through the integration
of components and functional processes.
Ecosystem Characterization Purposes.
Provide an understanding of ecosystems
to assist in:
Integration of complex ecological in-
formation
Identification of information defic-
iencies
Establishing research priorities
Comprehensive Planning
Assessment and prediction of environ-
mental impacts
Developing mitigation procedures and
alternatives for minimizing environ-
mental impacts.
APPROACH
Ecosystem characterization is guided by a
structured approach to the synthesis of diverse
environmental information. To be effective, each
step of the process must be followed secmentially
as outlined in Figure 2.
Ecosystem Description and Boundaries
The ecosystem, as a basic unit for describing
natural systems, has come to be a widely accepted
term to scientists as well as resource managers.
Inherent in the concept are:
o Functional relationships between organisms
and their physical environment.
o Composed of plant and animal assemblages
which are relatively homogenous response
units often referred to as communities.
o Ecosystems are open systems through which
energy and matter are continually ex-
changed.
543
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This latter principle has made it difficult
to delineate the precise boundaries of a given
system. (Evans, F.C. 1956. Science 123:1127-1128).
Coastal ecosystems are more easily envision-
ed than described. The rocky coast of Maine, the
extensive low lying wetlands and bayous of
Louisiana, the mangrove/coral systems of tropical
Florida and the barrier island coast of Texas can
each be conceived as unique ecosystems in spite of
the fact that they are open to the ocean, inland
riverine and terrestrial systems, and to adjacent
coastal systems.
Forces moulding the structure of the system
include meteorological phenomena, wave energy,
sediment transport, and long-term processes of
subsidence and climatic and geologic change. These
physical processes result in the establishment of
the environment and substratum upon which biolog-
ical communities develop. In turn, the communities
influence the continued evolution of the system.
The Chenier Plain ecosystem, for example, is
considered a transition zone between the active
Mississippi River delta to the East and the rela-
tively stable barrier island system to the West.
Fluctuations of sediment availability from the
Mississippi River over the past 5,COO years have
resulted in the accretion of a vast coastal system
composed of emergent wetlands, lakes, ponds, estu-
aries, tidal channels, and slightly elevated strand-
ed beach ridges. Like similar extensive estuaries,
the Chenier Plain owes its existence to the rel-
Examme Data Re.:
Applicability to Char-
acterization of System
OUTPUT
1) Conceptual Model
2) Ecosystem Characterization
Report
3) Computer Data Base
4) Data Source Appendix
Figure 2. Ecosystem characterization approach.
544
-------
ative stability of sea level over the past several
millennia and the abundant sediment supply of a
major river. Ecosystem boundaries, although
defendable, have been somewhat arbitrarily estab-
lished and reflect the functional differences be-
tween adjacent systems.
With this natural background plus a 30 year
history of onshore and offshore oil and gas and
other development activities, the Chenier Plain
provides an ideal setting for piloting the im-
plementation of the ecosystem characterization
concept.
Conceptual Ecosystem Model
Once the boundaries of the system have been
established, the next step is the development of
a conceptual ecosystem model. The model provides
the framework for identifying important natural
resource components of the system and the func-
tional processes which affect their survival and
productivity.
Modeling the Chenier Plain involves a three
level analysis of the system. A broad regional
model considers the entire ecosystem emphasizing
geomorphology and the geologic processes respon-
sible for the origin and long term system changes.
Most natural changes at the ecosystem level occur
on the order of thousands of years and it is
difficult to incorporate the information into plan-
ning and impact analysis procedures. The frame-
work is useful, however, for providing a proper
perspective to the other components of the system
(Figure 3).
Time Scale of
Natural Change
Ecosystem
Hydrologicllnit
Community
c
^alcasie
Basin
j
Open Water
\
Salt Marsh
1000 + Years
1-100 Years
.01-10 Years
Figure 3. Stratified organization of conceptual
model of chenier plain ecosystem.
The Chenier Plain ecosystem was subdivided
and modeled as six subsystems generally represent-
ing different drainage basins or hydrologic units.
Hydrologic processes dominate basin function and
provide a mechanism for integrating basin compon-
ents. Natural change is on the order of one to
several hundred years, a useful scale for plan-
ning and impact analysis.
The third level of resolution is a relative-
ly homogenous unit which variously might be termed
communities, associations or habitats. Basins,
therefore, emerge as spatially heterogeneous areas
composed of a number of interacting communities.
At the community level change is constant, seasons
come and go, plants and animals live and die and
man's impact on the environment is most apparent.
It is the community or habitat which is altered
by dredging, polluted by oil spills or drained for
agricultural, urban or industrial development.
Since this level results in the most obvious envir-
onmental changes, it is the level that has received
most of the attention regarding impact analyses.
The challenge of the conceptual model is to iden-
tify functional relationships between communities
which would permit planning and cumulative impact
analysis at the basin level.
Modeling diagrams, interaction matrices and
narrative accounts are used to highlight important
resource components and processes. A "blueprint"
for guiding future data collection synthesis and
analysis is then prepared as the final stage of
the conceptual model.
Information synthesis and analysis
Once the priorities for ecosystem information
needs have been established by the conceptual model,
the arduous task of data compilation is initiated.
Fundamental to ecosystem characterization is the
structured accumulation of all existing information
identified by the model as being significant. This
phase of the process reauires the identification of
all published material as well as information
stored in files, unpublished reports, and in the
heads of individuals familiar with the area's eco-
logy.
The conceptual model also assists in making
full use of the available information by establish-
ing the boundaries of transferability. Site-speci-
fic information from a single estuary, for example,
might be applicable to other estuaries within the
same hydrologic unit but data from outside the
system would have to be carefully screened to es-
tablish relevance. In this way maximum use is made
of all available information.
Data is accumulated into two reference sys-
tems; literature cited and a data source appendix.
Material referenced in the literature cited section
would be available in major libraries within the
geographic area of the characterization study.
Standard sources (books, journals, monographs,
theses and dissertations, etc.) would be included
in the literature cited. The data source appendix
contains information compiled from unpublished
sources which are generally unavailable to users.
The products of the data synthesis and anal-
ysis phase include:
o The Ecosystem Characterization Peport
describing the system and highlighting im-
portant natural resources and the process-
es which affect their distribution and
productivity. The report is designed pri-
marily to provide an understanding of the
system through sufficient narratives,
graphs, maps, tables, and illustrations.
It does not represent the primary data
545
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source although a comprehensive literature
cited is part of the report.
o Data Source Appendix forms the major data
base developed during the course of the
study. This massive document contains
tables, graphs, maps, and associated
narratives. Together with the published
literature, it represents a primary source
of information on the environment of the
ecosystem. Steps are being taken to de-
velop a standardized automated system to
locate, access and transfer the informa-
tion.
Scheduling
An important aspect of the characterization
approach to planning environmental study programs
is that useful information can be developed early
in the program. Approximately 20 months are re-
quired to complete the process. The first activi-
ty is a general survey of user needs focusing on
federal and state agency interests followed within
3 months by a draft of the conceptual model. A
pilot characterization area is selected and an
intensive data acquisition phase is undertaken.
The purpose of the pilot, usually a basin within
the ecosystem, is to develop and present the data
format which will be used in the final character-
ization report and data source appendix. The user
group will have the opportunity to review the
pilot six months after work begins, providing ample
time to incorporate necessary changes in the final
reports. Once the format and content of the pilot
have been established, the ecosystem characteriza-
tion can then proceed rapidly to completion.
USER RELATIONSHIPS
The test of an information system is its
value when applied to solving real life problems.
To effectively meet user needs their guidance
must be sought and incorporated into the planning
and development of all phases of the process.
Ecosystem characterization will not provide
solutions to all environmental problems arising
in the coastal zone. However, it does provide a
base of ecological information which will have
application to most situations. Activities in the
coastal zone range from comprehensive planning,
requiring a broad base of information, to site-
specific disturbances. To meet these needs, the
information base must contain general information
highlighting the resources and processes com-
prising the system as well as specific information
on the distribution of fish, wildlife and their
essential habitats. The stratified approach pre-
sented in the Chenier Plain conceptual model des-
cribes a mechanism for structuring information
which will address this broad range of needs.
Program specific information is required in
addition to the ecosystems data. Figure A is a
schematic depicting some of the action programs
which could use the ecosystem data base. In each
case supplemental information must also be avail-
able. Agencies responsible for managing action
programs usually have resources available to
develop program specific information. The outer
continental shelf leasing program, for example, is
managed by the Bureau of Land Management. As part
of the program, the bureau has underway environ-
mental studies to assess the long term impacts of
OCS development and to minimize detrimental envir-
onmental impacts. Specific kinds of information
are being developed in the lease areas to meet the
needs of the leasing program. A broad base of eco-
logical data could complement the OCS environmental
studies program and assist in the preparation of
resource assessments, impact statements and in
determining the data requirements of the environ-
mental studies program.
The Fish and Wildlife Service, as mandated
under the Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act of
1958 and the Water Pollution Control Act of 1972,
has responsibility for the review of applications
to permit development and discharge activities in
the wetlands and aquatic systems of the United
States. Decisions to issue permits is the respon-
sibility of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers or the
Environmental Protection Agency, Dredging and
other wetland alterations in the coastal zone may
be very site-specific and result in localized
change. Information required to adequately assess
the impacts of such activities differs substantial-
ly from that required for OCS leasing. Ecosystem
characterizations, however, could provide informa-
tion on the distribution and value of wetlands and
fish and wildlife resources in the vicinity of the
proposed development. Much of the basic site-
specific information will be contained in the data
source appendix. Furthermore, the ecosystem char-
acterization report would assist in assessing im-
pacts on the important natural functional processes
of the system, e.g., alteration of salinities and
currents, effects on primary and secondary pro-
ductivity, sediment transport processes, etc. In-
formation regarding the effects and mitigation pro-
cedures specifically associated with dredging must
be provided from supplemental sources such as the
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Dredge Material
Research Program.
The ecosystems characterization should be
regarded as one of a number of tools required to
protect and manage living resources. To be ef-
fective, other more specialized tools will also be
required. It is important that users recognize
the tools available to them and the purpose for
which they were designed.
PROJECT STATUS
To date four coastal ecosystems are being
characterized using the approach described. The
Chenier Plain study of southwestern Louisiana and
Texas was initiated in April 1976 and is scheduled
for completion in July 1977. The other three sys-
tems were started in February 1977. They include
the coasts of South Carolina/Georgia, the rocky
coast of Maine and the Pacific coast from Cape
Mendocino, California to Cape Flattery, Washington.
Two studies are due for completion in the fall of
1978 and one in February 1979. Funding has been
provided through the Federal Interagency Energy/
546
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Environment Research and Development Program admin-
istered by the Environmental Protection Agency. The
Fish and Wildlife Service has been responsible for
the design and management of the characterization
contracts. There are approximately 15 coastal eco-
systems fringing the 48 contiguous States. The
FIE/ER&D program has provided a mechanism to rap-
idly advance our understanding of a significant
portion of our coastal zone and it is hoped that
the techniques developed in this program will have
"broad application by other agencies to other areas.
CONCLUSION
Decisions facing natural resource management
become increasingly complex as knowledge advances
and interactions are better understood. Improved
methods of data integration will become more es-
sential to the application of existing information.
Until holistic systems analysis becomes more ef-
fective, we will have to rely on modular compon-
ents to integrate information. Such modules,
especially regarding natural systems, can readily
be adapted to more comprehensive programs if
properly designed.
The characterization process, as outlined,
addresses an important functional unit of the
environment--the ecosystem. The approach involves
the delineation of the physical boundaries of the
system, preparation of a functional conceptual
ecosystem model, synthesis and analysis of exist-
ing information using the model as a "blueprint1',
the preparation of an interim pilot characteriza-
tion report which, after review by the user group,
will permit the effective production of the final
ecosystem characterization report. During the
process most of the relevant information about
the system will be brought together in a data
source appendix, Guidance throughout the project
is provided by a user committee to assure that the
information will meet action program needs.
The current energy dilemma may be the first
true test of our nation's ability to marshal the
diverse knowledge we have accumulated over the
past few centuries into a program which assures
our survival and strives to maintain cultural stand-
ards to which we have become accustomed. Ecosystem
characterization can provide an important ecological
foundation from which to plan and manage for the
future of our natural resources.
Figure 4. Relationship of ecosystem characterization information to supplemental data require-
ments and selected Fish and Wildlife Service related action programs in the
coastal zone.
547
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ASSESSMENT OF INSTREAM FLOW NEEDS
Robert P. Hayden
Office of Biological Services
Fish and Wildlife Service
U.S. Department of the Interior
Sacramento, California
INTRODUCTION
An adequate volume of water flowing in streams
is essential to the life support systems of many
species of fish and wildlife. Adequate supplies of
freshwater are also essential for energy develop-
ment and production. The projected levels of out
of stream water use for extraction, conversion,
and production of energy sources have signaled the
need for careful planning on the part of water re-
source managers to reduce potential conflicts
between these two water uses.
Accurate and timely prediction of the quantity
of water which must remain in streams to maintain
their dependent natural systems is a prerequisite
to improved planning processes which adequately
consider fish, wildlife, and other environmental
values. At the present time, a credible instream
flow field study costs close to $100,000 on the
average and requires 1 to 2 or more years to com-
plete. This cost and time frame is generally un-
acceptable to planners and decisionmakers who
need more immediate answers and operate on limited
budgets. Since other disciplines have extensive
data banks and better methodologies, they are able
to make their input to the planning process with
information taken "off the shelf" or they can
develop the information within the required time
frame. This difference between the state-of-the-
art of biological assessment and the other disci-
plines involved in the planning process has lead
to frustration for all participants and frequently
resulted in the dewatering of streams and the loss
of their dependent fishery resources .
To increase the effectiveness of the biolog-
ical disciplines in water resource planning, the
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service initiated an In-
stream Flow Program in FY 75 and has been supported
in this effort with funding through the Federal
Interagency Energy/Environmental Research and
Development Program.
The assessment of instream flow needs is a
complex and difficult task. It includes not only
a diverse range of species, habitats, climatic
types and geographic areas, but it also involves
the responsibilities and interests of a large
number of agencies, organizations, and groups. A
recent evaluation of the scope and magnitude of
the instream flow problem estimated that $123
million carefully programmed over a 10- to 20-year
period would be required to adequately address the
problem.
After considering the magnitude of the problem,
the limited resources currently available, and the
relatively short time frame within which many
energy related decisions will occur, we decided
that for the highest probability of success we
should concentrate our activity in the area of
greatest past experience and largest body of know-
ledge. We have called this area the "river reach"
which refers to stream sections only and excludes
other interrelated areas such as upland habitats,
wetlands, lakes, reservoirs, flood planes, deltas,
and estuaries. Attention can be focused on these
areas as additional funds become available and we
successfully complete the needs in the river reach
area.
The Instream Flow Program has three components:
a methodology development component, a data base
component, and an institutional component to im-
prove our ability to implement the results of our
research. Each component is supportive of the
others with feedback among components a major
consideration in designing the program. This is
part of a larger Fish and Wildlife Service program
of research and development focused on the critical
problems associated with energy development.
Portions of the larger program and the Instream
Flow Program are interrelated. This paper is
limited to reporting the major accomplishments of
the Instream Flow Program to date and indicating
its future directions.
TECHNICAL DISCUSSION
Development of Improved Methodologies
As a first step toward improvement of our
assessment methods, the Service contracted with
Utah State University to conduct a state-of-the-
art study. The final report, entitled "Methodol-
ogies for the Determination of Stream Resource
Flow Requirements: An Assessment," evaluates the
adequacy of existing methodologies for determining
the necessary stream flows for fish, wildlife,
water quality, recreation, aesthetics and other
instream uses and recommends needed research and
development in each area.
Our overall conclusions were:
1. The many individuals, groups, and agen-
cies involved in predicting altered in-
stream flow effects are seldom aware of
the full range of methodologies potenti-
ally applicable to their specific situation.
2 . Development of most methodologies has taken
place in response to a particular problem
and in geographic and/or disciplinary
isolation.
3. There has been little comparative testing
of methodologies.
At the same time the state-of-the-art study
was being conducted, surveys were made in the
Pacific Northwest, the Rocky Mountains, and
California to determine the actual effects on fish
and wildlife of altered stream flow characteristics
549
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below dams and diversions. In each geographic
area, representative samples of habitat types,
project purposes, and sponsoring agencies were
examined. The results in all three areas indicated
the difficulty in prediction, the unequal applica-
tion of methodologies and procedures available, the
frequent failure of the responsible agency to in-
clude the features recommended to minimize the ad-
verse effects, and the significantly modified habi-
tats resulting from the projects.
Based on the state-of-the-art study and the
surveys of actual field conditions, we concluded
that a number of instream flow methodologies were
ready for refinement and testing for widespread
application, a concerted effort was needed, and a
mechanism to share information among practitioners
was essential. To provide the necessary focus for
the multitude of divergent activities ongoing in
this field and to take action based on our conclu-
sions, a Cooperative Instream Flow Services Group
(IFG) was established in Ft. Collins, Colorado.
The IFG is truly a multiagency and multidis-
ciplinary team. The Group members were recruited
from a variety of agencies at both the state and
federal levels, and they brought to the Group
expertise in the fields of hydrology, hydraulic
engineering, recreation, electronic data processing,
water law and decisionmaking, as well as biology.
We have been particularly careful in staffing the
Group to ensure that a balance was struck between
the physical, biological, and legal/institutional
aspects of the instream flow problem. Consideration
of all aspects is essential to ensure useful and
broadly acceptable improved methodologies.
Identification of Basic Data Needs
Concurrent with the consideration of method-
ology, we began to identify specific potential
problems which would need to be addressed if the
adverse effects of energy development on fresh-
water were to be minimized. To maximize the re-
turn, we again focused our investigations.
This time we limited our considerations to the
Upper Missouri and Upper Colorado River Basins
which had been identified as the geographic areas
where water for energy development was in shortest
supply and most critical.
In the Upper Colorado River Basin, the extreme
shortage of unused water and the over allocation
of the existing water supplies dominate all other
considerations. Direct conflicts are anticipated
regardless of when or how energy is developed. In
the Upper Missouri, however, consideration of al-
ternative sites and water supplies appears to offer
very real opportunities for minimizing adverse
environmental effects. In both areas, the lack of
basic data needed for planning and evaluation was
readily apparent.
Identified top priority research needs and
recommendations included the following:
1. The available knowledge on the current
range and habitat requirements of en-
dangered and threatened species in both
Basins should be compiled and summarized
in readily accessible form.
2. A stream classification system should be
developed based on flow characteristics,
water quality and temperature, aquatic
ecotypes, fish populations, and scenic
and recreational potential.
3. Fish and wildlife agencies should develop
priorities as to what is of critical im-
portance to fish and wildlife, what is
important but subject to compromise, and
what is unimportant and becomes more
active in planning functions which design
alternatives.
4. An interdisciplinary research effort should
be undertaken, aimed at building systems
models for simulating aquatic ecosystems
and exploring the sensitivity of certain
components (species) of those systems to
variations in level and duration of stream
flows. Field studies on a variety of
types and sizes of streams will be required
to test the adequacy of the model.
5. Immediate steps should be taken to improve
methods of identifying and mapping areas
of special sensitivity in terms of fish
and wildlife habitat.
We also found that the problem of identifying
potential freshwater effects is compounded by the
inability of engineers and planners to predict the
most likely future energy development scenario,
the mix of future energy sources, or the range of
future energy technologies. To adequately respond
under these conditions of uncertainty, it is
necessary to guard against restricted thinking and
confining considerations to watersheds immediately
adjacent to energy sources currently proposed for
development.
Development of Instream Flow Information System
In order to ensure that the need for identified
basic data can be met, an Instream Flow Information
System has been developed. Although the information
in the system will be primarily from the Western
states, it can be easily expanded to cover any de-
sired area of the country and will accommodate all
needed stream-related data. At the present time,
we are assessing available data bases and supple-
menting these with studies responding to the needs
we have identified. Specifically, the studies in-
clude endangered species, stream evaluation, and
determination of instream flow needs on critical
streams.
The purpose of the Endangered Species Study is
to determine the distribution of endangered and
threatened species in the Upper Colorado and Upper
Missouri River Basins and to determine the stream
flow required at specific points for each species'
maintenance.
The Stream Evaluation Project is determining
550
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the current status of stream fisheries in 15
Western states and evaluating their existing and
potential value in fish and wildlife terms. This
is a cooperative federal/state activity with the
states classifying stream sections as critical,
high-priority, substantial, or limited fishery
value, using a number of mutually agreed upon
criteria. Some states have already completed their
portions of the project, while others are just
beginning. When all the evaluations have been
completed, we will publish a series of maps de-
picting the relative value of each stream section
and a number of reports which document the basis
for classification.
A second phase of the stream evaluation pro-
ject has two major objectives:
1. Quantifying the stream flows required to
maintain the characteristics which caused
the state to designate the stream sections
as highly valued resources.
2. Testing and comparing the efficiency and
effectiveness of the various methodologies
for making field determinations.
These two objectives are closely related be-
cause the broad range of geographic, climatic, and
hydrologic conditions which will be encountered
in meeting the first objective will provide an
excellent laboratory for testing methodologies.
In the light of our current level of funding,
we will be required to limit our water quantity
determinations at this time to the 10% of the
critical stream sections where existing hydrologic
information is available for our field-limited
methodologies. The methodology testing will be
conducted by the Instream Flow Group in coopera-
tion with the states. About half a dozen of the
most promising field-intensive methodologies and
approaches have been selected for extensive test-
ing and will be used on two to six streams in each
state. As the quantification task proceeds,
continual feedback in an interactive process among
the groups participating will refine the methodol-
ogies, improve the skills of the participants,
and upgrade the accuracy of the water quantity
determinations .
Development of a New Simulation Model
The most exciting outcome of the Instream
Flow Program to date is a simulation model re-
cently developed by the Instream Flow Group.
The model uses Riverine Analysis Areas
(RAA's), a representative reach concept, target
fish species, survival and electivity curves, and
simulation modeling techniques. Its objective
is to alert decisionmakers to the nature and
relative impact of the water requirements for new
energy technologies on a range of stream sizes in
alternative RAA's or of two or more technologies
within the same RAA.
Although the model was designed for regional
analysis and evaluation of alternatives, it can
be readily adapted to any specific stream, and
appears to have the potential for making meaning-
ful incremental analyses of the environmental
effects of removing various percentages of water
flowing in streams. During the last few weeks,
we have been expanding the model to handle the
level of detail required for these site specific
and incremental analyses and are planning to test
its adaptability during Phase II as described
ab ov e.
When adapted to site specific analysis, the
model predicts, through simulation, the change
in the standing crop of each fish species in the
stream at any average reduction in flow, seasonal
variation, or other altered stream flow character-
istic. Populations of the various species are
shown to go up or down in absolute and relative
terms depending on how their particular needs are
affected by the changes in flow.
A technical Advisory Panel assisted us in de-
veloping the model and also in identifying streams
throughout the conterminous United States with
nationally important fishery values. A map show-
ing these stream reaches is currently being re-
produced. It is intended that these Nationally
Significant Stream Reaches serve as an initial set
of fish and wildlife priorities for water resource
planners until the Instream Flow Information System
can be expanded to the remainder of the country.
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PROGRAM TO ENERGY
DECISIONMAKING
The Instream Flow Program expects to benefit
energy decisionmaking by encouraging sound plan-
ning, research, and implementation of technologies
using domestic energy resources. It directly
responds to management needs, since it is aimed
at alternative site selection and trade-off
evaluation which occur during the planning and
design phases of energy development. In addition,
to this major thrust, we are responding to the
needs of decisionmakers at a number of levels for
various types of information. For example, our
information can be used in establishing broad
national policy and allocating resources for
research and development among competing energy
technologies. At the local level, our improved
methodologies can determine in a credible and
more acceptable manner the flow which must be
maintained in any specific stream to support the
natural ecosystem.
More specifically, the methodologies improved
as a result of our Instream Flow Program have the
following effects:
1. Improved capability of environmental
scientists and energy engineers to create,
define, and/or develop alternatives that
reconcile the two conflicting national
objectives of energy development and
protection of environmental values.
2. Less disruption to the energy research
and development program through more
accurate assessment of environmental needs
551
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and early identification of alternatives
which minimize conflicts with environmen-
tal protection.
3. Reduced possibility of serious setbacks in
meeting time schedules due to litigation
during construction and plant implemen-
tation phases.
The maps to be published as part of the Stream
Evaluation Project will depict the relative value
of stream fisheries in 15 Western States. These
will be distributed to state and local governments,
federal development agencies, industrial users,
the environmental community, and the public. It
is expected that this information will be used by
the recipients to direct development away from
highly valued fishery resources. The four value
classifications further define the appropriate
future action regarding streams in each classifi-
cation. Streams placed in Value Classification I
represent the highest-valued resources in the state,
and alteration of these streams is considered in-
tolerable by the states. Streams placed in Value
Classification IV represent the lowest-valued re-
sources in the state, and if water resource de-
velopments are to occur, it is recommended that
such development be on these streams. Projects
affecting streams placed in Value Classifications
II and III would require site-specific studies,
and proposed mitigation measures would have to be
agreed upon by the developer before the fish and
wildlife agencies could look favorably on their
development.
The Nationally Significant Stream Reaches
identified with the assistance of the Technical
Advisory Panel will provide decisionmakers with
information in the remainder of the country
which will enable them to avoid siting develop-
ments on or near these streams. Such early input
can reduce study time costs and delays caused by
the environmentally unacceptable siting of
developments.
The simulation model was developed for the
Water Resources Council as part of the Water for
Energy Assessment Program and will assess the in-
stream impact of proposed new energy technologies,
such as coal gasification and oil shale conver-
sion. With this methodology, the relative impacts
of these technologies upon fish in stream reaches
located in different areas of the country can be
evaluated without the delay of obtaining site-
specific data. Such a methodological approach
conforms to the requirements of Section 13(a) of
the Federal Nonnuclear Research and Development
Act of 1973.
If we are successful in adapting this
methodology to the local level, we will have broken
three major barriers to the assessment of instream
flow needs related to time, cost, and incremental
analysis. In short, we will have provided a quick
and inexpensive tool which will permit a decision-
maker to choose the level of a fishery he wishes
to maintain as he balances environmental water
needs against other uses.
CONCLUSIONS
The Instream Flow Program is aimed at im-
proved methodologies for determining instream flow
needs, providing access to study results completed
in the past, and providing planners and decision-
makers with information on fish and wildlife
priorities for specific streams and an indication
of the volume of stream flow necessary to sustain
these resources.
Priority stream sections are being identified
in the Western states and we are beginning to
assess the stream flow needs of these highly valued
stream sections. Through this process, we are
developing improved methodologies and increasing
the ability of planners to consider the ecological
effects of out of stream water uses.
Significant progress has been made in the last
2 years, but this must be considered as only the
first step toward adequately addressing the total
instream flow problem. If additional funds were
made available, the Program could quickly expand
into any or all of the following areas:
1. Determining the instream flow needs for
all the critical and/or high priority
streams in the Western states.
2. Classifying streams in the remainder of
the country in terms of environmental
values.
3. Determining the instream flows required
to maintain the values identified.
A. Addressing other areas of the instream
flow problem such as the instream flows
needed to maintain estuaries and upland
habitat alteration effects.
552
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in
AVP)/
conclusion
CHAPTER 10
--
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in conclusion
Stephen J. Gage, Ph.D.
Acting Assistant Administrator
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environment Protection Agency
The comments that I have received to date indicate that this, our Second
Interagency Program conference, was a gratifying success. There were some
constructive criticisms, and I will touch on those later.
The conference did communicate the sense of where the program is, and where
the program is going. It also conveyed a good sense of where we stand in this country
on energy and environmental policy. Our thanks to excellent presentations by John
O'Leary and Douglas Costle for putting our efforts into the context of overall national
policy. The appearance of Dr. Friberg, who spoke on the latest Swedish findings on
energy-related carcinogens, added a sense of the international scope of
energy/environmental problems.
One very important message came through in the presentations: our energy futures
are less constrained than our environmental futures. Both Administrators O'Leary and
Costle stressed the notion that environmental resources are indeed limited and must be
managed, and that energy and environmental conflicts are often false conflicts. Very
often other issues are at stake but are obscured by the rhetoric of an
environmental/energy clash.
That idea was tied to the concept that our nation take a more conservative
approach to exploring our resources. The environment, minerals, and energy are not in
infinite supply. Our very social, political, and economic structure must inexorably
begin to operate on the assumption that our environmental and mineral resources are
limited, and that substitutability itself can cause considerable havoc with our social
system.
One of the emerging issues broached at the conference concerns the pollutant
nitrogen oxide and its derivatives. Nitrogen oxides represent a very important
challenge to our experts working on health effects, atmospheric transport and
transformation and control technology. This is a subject that we will be emphasizing
in our mid-course corrections.
We see in this particular subject a very acute coupling between politics and
science and technology. Administrator Costle, in his appearances on the Hill recently,
has been questioned very sharply on the nitrogen oxides issue by one astute
Congressman who made a very clear political point with respect to nitrogen oxides. He
asked the question, how many fewer tons of coal are you going to be able to burn
under President Carter's conversion plan because of the delay in nitrogen oxides
control on automobiles? That may or may not be a precise statement of the problem,
but it does demonstrate how politics comes into play in bringing about alternative
environmental strategies. A thought to ponder: where would we be today in
attempting to move rapidly towards coal combustion without electro-static precipitators
and scrubbers to control particles and sulfur oxides?
Another challenging concept, or at least one which strikes me as exceedingly
challenging: What kind of a task do we really have ahead in studying the potential
health and environmental threat of the 500, 1,000, or more chemicals which may be
present in the products or by-products of fossil fuel processing? It is a fairly staggering
thought. The Clean Air Act identified six pollutants as regulated or "criteria"
pollutants, and we are still wrestling with those pollutants and their derivatives in the
environment. What about the 100 to 1,000 that we now have on the suspect list?
555
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The conference has appropriately, if somewhat diffusely, captured the state of
flux in environmental protection today. A very important shift is occurring - a
shift from the old criteria pollutants in the air, for instance, to new pollutants. This
shift is seen in the reference to benzo-alpha-pyrene and the potential health impacts
of that substance, for example, and the change in the emphasis on what types of
effects are being addressed, such as carcinogenic effects as opposed to the increased
enhancement of asthma and of other respiratory diseases.
We are also seeing a shift from old technologies, such as conventional power
plants, to new technologies, such as oil shale and coal liquefaction. We are beginning
to see a very important and yet clearly targeted shift away from the local to the
regional impacts of pollutants. The atmospheric transport and transformation session
put the sulfur dioxide and sulfates question in its starkest form.
This year's conference has identified much progress on specific engineering
projects — scrubbers, coal cleaning plants, mobile pollutant test rigs, pollutant
identification, and fluidized bed combustors to name a few. In addition, the program's
progress on a number of specific scientific efforts — mutagenic screening,
bioaccumulation in ecosystems, and transport and transformation of atmospheric
pollution on a subcontinental range — is becoming apparent and what we see is
encouraging.
Among the comments I received was one on scientific and technical information.
How do we give a program overview — a sense of what is happening, a sense of the
wholeness and the interconnectedness of the various activities — and still present
technical and scientific information? It is a tough nut to crack.
We had pressure to let more of the technical experts running the program's
600-plus separate projects present more of their own work rather than having it
summarized. We will be looking at this question very carefully and may have
simultaneous sessions next year. Perhaps we will retain the present format and leave
the communication of the scientific and technical results in their full detail to
professional meetings and professional journals. We do not have an answer to this, and
we would appreicate any additional comments that you might have. Outside the
conference format, however, we have taken a major initiative to improve
communications. We have inaugurated our Energy/Environment R&D Decision Series of
special publications to highlight developing scientific issues and to present the latest
technical information. This effort is the key to our goal of informing policy and
decision-makers and the interested public on matters which will impact the way all of
us live.
In closing, I would like to recall something that happened on the first morning of
the conference. As I slipped past Peanuts and Doonesbury in my newspaper (my major
source of views on the world), my eye caught the horoscopes. It was a good
commentary for the entire conference; "Libra: state your finest ideas to associates and
gain their cooperation to put them across. Try to improve your environment."
I could not think of a better thought to leave you with.
556
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AUTHORS' INDEX
Abbott, James H
EPA/I ERL
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
919/541-2925
Page 123
Alford, Ann L Page 443
EPA/ERL
College Station Road
Athens, GA 30601
404/546-3186
Babb, Malcolm C Page 253
TVA
Div. of Environmental Planning
401 Chestnut St., Room 262
Chattanooga, TN 37401
615/755-3155
Baron, Dr. Paul A Page 427
HEW/NIOSH
Robert A. Taft Lab
4676 Columbia Parkway
Cincinnati, OH 45226
513/684-2591
Barr, William L. ... . Page 535
TVA
Forestry, Fisheries & Wildlife Div.
Norris, TN 37828
615/632-4411
Barse, Joseph R. Page 263
USDA/ERS
500 12th St., SW
Washington, DC 20250
202/447-2667
Barth, Dr. Delbert S Page 27
EPA/ORD/OHEE
401 M St., SW
Washington, DC 20460
202/755-0820
Basileo, Michael A. . . Page 457
DOC/NOAA/NOS/Test &
Evaluation Lab
Bldg. 160, Room 300, WYNA
Rockville, MD 20852
202/426-9080
Bend, Dr. John R Page 495
HEW/NIEHS
P.O.Box 12233
Research Triangle Park, NC 27709
919/541-3422
Bender, Dr. Lloyd D Page 267
USDA/ERS
Montana State University
Bozeman, MT 59715
406/994-3701
Bennett, Dr. Orus L Page 195
USDA/ARS
Plant Sciences Division
West Va. State University
Morgantown, WV 26506
304/293-2795
Betson, Roger .... .... Page 535
TVA
Div. of Environmental Planning
Muscle Shoals, AL 35660
205/383-4631
Bowen, Jr., Dr. Joshua S Page 129
EPA/IERL
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
919/541-2470
Bridbord, Dr. Kenneth Page 287
HEW/NIOSH
5600 Fishers Lane
Rockville, MD 20857
201/443-6437
Bristow, Dr. Michael P. F. . Page 473
EPA/EMSL
P.O. Box 15027
Las Vegas, NV 89114
702/736-2969 x295
Brna, Theodore G
EPA/IERL
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
919/541-2915
Page 137
Butler, Malcolm Page 521
Great Lake Research Div.
University of Michigan
Ann Arbor, Ml 48104
313/764-2420
Coffin, Dr. David L. . . Page 307
EPA/HERL
Research Triangle Park, NC27711
919/541-2585
Costle, Douglas M. . . Page 37
EPA
1404 M St., SW
Washington, DC 20460
202/755-2700
Cox, Doye B. . . Page 535
TVA
Div. of Environmental Planning
246 401 Building
Chattanooga, TN 37401
615/755-3167
557
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Grossman, Dr. John S Page 535
TVA
Div. of Environmental Planning
Muscle Shoals, AL 35660
205/383-4631
Crowe, James L Page 137
TVA
Power Research Branch
1320 Commerce Union Bank Bldg.
Chattanooga, TN 37401
615/755-3381
Davis, Grant Page 191
USDA/FS
145 Grand Avenue
Billings, MT 59102
406/657-6468
Derr, Dr. Vernon E Page 467
DOC/NOAA/ERL/WPL
Route 45 x 3
Boulder, CO 80302
303/499-1000
Dixon, Dr. Robert L Page 307
HEW/NIEHS
Box 12233
Research Triangle Park, NC 27709
919/541-3333
Doemeny, Dr. Laurence J. ... Page 427
HEW/NIOSH
Robert A. Taft Lab
4676 Columbia Parkway
Cincinnati, OH 45226
513/684-2591
Donaldson, William T Page 443
EPA/ERL
College Station Park
Athens, GA 30601
404/546-3184
Doty, Dr. Richard L Pae 439
TVA
Div. of Environmental Planning
Muscle Shoals, AL 35660
205/383-4631 x341
Dycus, Donald L Page 535
TVA
Div. of Environmental Planning
Muscle Shoals, AL 35660
205/383-4631
Eckert, John A. . . Page 473
EPA/EMSL
P.O. Box 15027
Las Vegas, NV 89114
702/736-2969 x295
Filner, Dr. Philip Page 531
ERDA Plant Research Lab
Michigan State University
East Lansing, Ml 48824
517/353-7875
Flora, II, Dr. Hollis B. . Page 137
TVA
Power Research Branch
1320 Commerce Union Bank Bldg.
Chattanooga, TN 37401
615/755-3381
Ford, Dr. Andrew Page 275
ERDA
University of California
Los Alamos Scientific Lab
P.O. Box 1663
Los Alamos, NM 87545
505/667-4569
Friberg, Dr. Lars Page 33
Environmental Health Dept.
Karolinski Institute
Stockholm, Sweden
Gage, Dr. Stephen J. . . . Page 15/561
EPA/ORD
401 M St., SW
Washington, DC 20460
202/755-2600
Gearing, Dr. Juanita IM. . . Page 513
University of Rhode Island
Kingston, Rl 02881
401/792-6104
Gearing, Dr. Patrick . . Page 513
University of Rhode Island
Kingston, Rl 02881
401/792-6104
Gooch, Charles . . Page 535
TVA
Div. of Environmental Planning
Muscle Shoals, AL 35660
205/383-4631
Green, Dr. John W . Page 263
USDA/ERS
c/o Dept. of Economics
Colorado State University
Ft. Collins, CO 80523
303/482-9279
Greeson, Phillip E. Page 453
DOI/USGS
412 National Center
Reston, VA 22092
703/860-6834
Harmon, Dale L Page 123
EPA/IE RL
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
919/541-2111
Harris, Eugene F Page 73/173
EPA/IERL
Cincinnati, OH 45268
513/684-4417
558
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Hayden, Robert P page 549
DOI/FWS
2800 Cottage Way, Room W2527
Sacramento, CA 95825
9l6/484-4516
Henschel, D. Bruce Page 63
EPA/IERL
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
919/541-2825
Mickey, Jr., Dr. H. Russell . . Page 253
TVA
Div. Environmental Planning
401 Chestnut Street, Room 264
Chattanooga, TN 37401
615/755-3155
Hinote, Hubert Page 253
TVA
Div. of Navigation Development
and Regional Studies
270K Liberty Building
415 Walnut Street
Knoxville, TN 37902
615/632-4860
Hirsch, Dr. Allan . .... Page 481
DOI/FWS
Washington, DC 20240
202/634-4900
Hobbie, Dr. John E Page 521
Ecosystem Center
Marine Biological Laboratory
Woods Hole, MA 02543
617/540-3204
Hogan, Dr. Michael D Page 315
HEW/NIEHS
P.O. Box 12233
Research Triangle Park, NC 27709
919/541-3433
Hucko, Richard E Page 183
DOI/BOM
4800 Forbes Ave.
Pittsburgh, PA 15213
412/892-2400 x545
Huffman, George L Page 83
EPA/IERL
Cincinnati, OH 45268
513/684-4363
Isom, Billy G Page 535
TVA
Div. of Environmental Planning
Muscle Shoals, AL 35660
205/383-4631 x727
James, Dr. Margaret 0. ... Page 495
HEW/NIEHS
University of Florida
RR # 1, Box 121
St. Augustine, FL 32084
904/824-8366
Jenkins, Dr. Phillip H Page 439
TVA
Div. of Environmental Planning
Muscle Shoals, AL 35660
205/383-4631
Jones, Julian W
EPA/IERL (MD-61)
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
919/541-2915
Page 137
Jones III, Dr. Herbert C. Page 417/517
TVA
Div. of Environmental Planning
E&D Building
Muscle Shoals, AL 35660
205/383-4631 x341
Kanipe, Dr. Larry G. .
TVA
Div. of Environmental Planning
Muscle Shoals, AL 35660
205/383-4631
Page 439
Kelly, Dr. James M Page 517
TVA
Div. of Environmental Planning
E&D Building
Muscle Shoals, AL 35660
205/383-4631
Kilgroe, James D. Page 177
EPA/IERL
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
919/541-2851
Kilpatrick, Frederick A Page 403
DOI/USGS
407 National Center
Reston, VA 22092
703/860-6848
Kirchhoff, Dr. William H.
DOC/NBS
Gaithersburg, MD 20760
301/921-3775
Page 425/449
Knelson, Dr. John H Page 313
EPA/HERL
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
919/541-2281
LaCasse, Dr. Norman L. . Page 517
TVA
Div. of Environmental Planning
Muscle Shoals, AL 35660
205/383-4631
Landers, Robert W. . . ... Page 415
EPA/EMSL
P.O. Box 15027
Las Vegas, NV 89114
702/736-2969 x336
559
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Lorber, Dr. H. W Page 275
ERDA
University of California
Los Alamos Scientific Lab
P.O. Box 1663
Los Alamos NM 87545
505/667-7596
MacCracken, Dr. Michael C. . . Page 371
University of California
Lawrence Livermore Lab
P.O. Box 808
Livermore, CA 94550
415/447-1100 x3481
Mailing, Dr. Heinrich V Page 301
HEW/NIEHS
P.O. Box 12233
Research Triangle Park, NC 27709
919/541-3378
Martin, George Blair Page 129
EPA/IERL
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
919/541-2235
Martin, John F. Page 173
EPA/IERL
RDG Building, Rm 422
Cincinnati, OH 45268
513/684-4417
Maxwell, Michael A. ... Page 113
EPA/IERL
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
919/541-2915
McGlamery, Gerald G Page 113
TVA
Chemical Development
Muscle Shoals, AL 35660
205/383-4631
McMillion, Leslie G Page 411
EPA/EMSL
P.O. Box 15027
Las Vegas, NV 89114
702/736-2969 x241
McNelis, Dr. David N Page 399
EPA/EMSL
P.O. Box 15027
Las Vegas, NV 89114
702/736-2969 x342
Meagher, Dr. James F. . Page 361
TVA
Div. of Environmental Planning
E&D Building
Muscle Shoals, AL 35660
205/383-4631 x788
Miller, Dr. Michael C Page 521
University of Cincinnati
Dept. of Biological Sciences
Cincinnati, OH 45221
513/475-6672
Mobley, J. David
EPA/IERL
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
919/541-2915
Morgan, George B. ...
EPA/EMSL
P.O. Box 15027
Las Veas, NV 89114
702/736-2969 x201
Page 129
Page 383
Page 521
Mozley, Dr. Samuel . . .
Great Lakes Research Div.
University of Michigan
Ann Arbor, Ml 48104
313/764-2420
Mugler, Jr., John P Page 459
NASA
Environmental Quality Program Off.
Langley Research Center
Hampton, VA 23665
804/827-2717
Natusch, Dr. David F. S. ... Page 503
Chemistry Dept.
Colorado State University
Ft. Collins, CO 80523
303/491-1101
Nelson, Dr. William C. Page 315
EPA/HERL
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
919/541-2330
Nesnow, Dr. Stephen . . . . Page 301
EPA/HERL
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
919/541-2537
Nix, Dr. Dale W Page 439
TVA
Div. of Environmental Planning
Muscle Shoals, AL 35660
205/383-4631
Noggle, Dr. JC Page 517
TVA
Div. of Environmental Planning
Muscle Shoals. AL 35660
205/383-4631
O'Keeffe, Andrew E Page 423
EPA/ESRL
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
919/541-2408
O'Leary, John F Page 5
FEA
1200 Pennsylvania Ave., NW
Room 3400
Washington, DC 20461
202/566-9222
560
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Olexsey, Robert A.
EPA/IERL
Cincinnati, OH 45268
513/684-4363
Palmisano, Dr. A. William
DOI/FWS
Washington, DC 20240
202/634-4913
Perhac, Dr. Ralph M
Elect. Power Res. Institute
P.O. Box 10412
Palo Alto, CA 94303
415/493-4800
Pickard, Eugene .
TVA
Div. of Environmental Planning
Muscle Shoals, AL 35660
205/383-4631
Pilson, Dr. Michael E. Q. ...
Graduate School of Oceanography
University of Rhode Island
Kingston, Rl 02881
401/792-6104
Plotkin, Steven E
EPA/ORD/OEMI
401 M Street, SW
Washington, DC 20460
202/755-0646
. Page 83
Page 543
Page 365
Page 535
Page 513
Page 227
Post, Madison J Page 469
DOC/NOAA/ERL/WPL
Route 45 X3
Boulder, CO 80302
303/499-1000
Power, Dr. James F. ... Page 195
USDA/ARS
Northern Great Plains Research Center
P.O. Box 459
Mandan, ND 5554
701/663-6448
Powers, Thomas J.
EPA/IERL
Cincinnati, OH 45268
513/684-4363
Princiotta, Frank T.
EPA/ORD/OEMI
401 M Street, SW
Washington, DC 20460
202/755-2737
Pueschel, Dr. Rudolf F.
DOC/NOAA
Boulder, CO 80302
303/499-1000
Page 73
Page 93
. . Page 351
Ray, Shirley S Page 137
TVA
Power Research Branch
1320 Commerce Union Bank Bldg.
Chattanooga, TN 37401
615/755-8411
Reznek, Dr. Steven R. . . . Page 207
EPA/ORD/OEMI
401 M Street, SW
Washington, DC 20460
202/755-4858
Rhodes, William J Page 77
EPA/IERL
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
919/541-2851
Richards, Dr. Norman L.
EPA/ERL
Sabine Island
Gulf Breeze, FL 32561
904/932-5311
. . Page 509
Russo, Dr. Rosemary C Page 503
Fisheries Bioassay Laboratory
Montana State University
Bozeman, MT 59715
405/994-3371
Sapp, C. Daniel Page 417
TVA
Div. of Environmental Planning
Muscle Shoals, AL 35660
205/383-4631
Schulman, Dr. Murray . . . Page 311
ERDA
Div. of Biomedical & Envir. Res.
Washington, DC 20545
301/353-3681
Schwiesow, Dr. Ronald L. Page 469
DOC/NOAA/ERL/WPL
Route 45 X3
Boulder, CO 80302
303/499-1000
Sharma, Dr. Vinaya Page 361
TVA
Div. of Environmental Planning
Muscle Shoals, AL 35660
205/383-4631
Singer, Marvin I
ERDA
Office of Fossil Energy
20 Massachusetts Ave., NW
Washington, DC 20545
202/376-9086
Skogerboe, Dr. Rodney K.
Chemistry Dept.
Colorado State University
Ft. Collins, CO 80523
303/491-1101 x6226
Smith, Lowell . .
EPA/ORD/OEMI
401 M Street, SW
Washington, DC 20460
202/755-2737
Page 49
. Page 503
Page 233/243
561
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Stapleton, Dr. George E. . .
ERDA
Div. of Biomedical & Envir. Res.
Washington, DC 20545
301/353-5039
Page 311
Stephan, Dr. David G.
EPA/IERL
Cincinnati, OH 45268
513/684-4402
Page 153
Stern, Richard D Page 113/129
EPA/IERL
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
919/541-2915
Temple, George S Page 267
Montana State University
Bozeman, MT 59715
406/994-3701
Tennessen, Dr. Kenneth J. . Page 535
TVA
Div. of Environmental Planning
Muscle Shoals, AL 35660
205/383-4631
Thurston, Dr. Robert V. ... Page 503
Fisheries Bioassay Laboratory
Montana State University
Bozeman, MT 59715
406/994-3371
Tilton, III, Edward Lee Page 415
DOC/NOAA
Earth Resources Lab
Slidell, LA 70458
504/255-6511
Toole, Thomas W Page 535
TVA
Div. of Environmental Planning
Muscle Shoals, AL 35660
205/383-4631
Urban, Dr. Richard D
TVA
Div. of Environmental Planning
Muscle Shoals, AL 35660
205/383-4631
Page 535
Vargo, Dr. Gabriel A Page 513
University of Rhode Island
Kingston, Rl 02881
401/792-6104
Vestal, Dr. J. Robie Page 521
University of Cincinnati
Dept. of Biological Sciences
Cincinnati, OH 45221
513/475-2980
Wagner, William L Page 287
HEW/NIOSH
Environmental Investigations Branch
944 Chestnut Ridge Road
Morgantown, WV 26505
304/599-7421
Walters, Dr. Douglas H Page 253
TVA
Div. of Power Resource Planning
216 Power Bldg.
Chattanooga, TN 37401
615/755-2381
Waters, Dr. Michael D Page 301
EPA/HERL
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
919/541-2537
Wilson, Dr. William E. . Page 321/343
EPA/ESRL
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
919/541-2181
Wood, Dr. Robert W Page 431
ERDA
Div. of Biomedical & Envir. Res.
Germantown, MD 20767
301/353-3213
Wright, Jr., Dr. James R Page 535
TVA
Div. of Environmental Planning
Muscle Shoals, AL 35660
205/383-4631
562
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FEDERAL AGENCY ACRONYMS
DOC U.S. Department of Commerce
NBS National Bureau of Standards
NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
OEA Office of Environmental Affairs
DOE U.S. Department of Energy
DOI U.S. Department of Interior
BOM Bureau of Mines
FWS Fish and Wildlife Service
USGS Geological Survey
EPA U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
EMSL Environmental Monitoring and Support Laboratory
ERL Environmental Research Laboratory
ESRL Environmental Science Research Laboratory
HERL Health Effects Research Laboratory
IERL Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
OEMI Office of Energy, Minerals and Industry
ERDA Energy Research and Development Administration
FEA Federal Energy Administration
FPC Federal Power Commission
HEW U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare
NIEHS National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences
NIOSH National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health
HUD U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development
NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration
TVA Tennessee Valley Authority
USDA U.S. Department of Agriculture
ARS Agricultural Research Service
CSRS Cooperative State Research Service
ERS Economic Research Service
FS Forest Service
SCS Soil Conservation Service
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