Automobile Emission Control -
The Current Status and Development Trends
As of March 1976
A Report to the Administrator,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Prepared by
Technology Assessment and Evaluation Branch
Emission Control Technology Division
Office of Mobile Source Air Pollution Control
April 1976
-------
Automobile Emission Control -
The Current Status and Development Trends
As of March 1976
A Report to the Administrator,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Prepared by
Technology Assessment and Evaluation Branch
Emission Control Technology Division
Office of Mobile Source Air Pollution Control
April 1976
-------
Table of Contents
1. Introduction 1-1
2. Conclusions and Summary 2-1
2.1 Conclusions 2-1
2.2 Discussion of Conclusions 2-3
2.3 Significant Development and Trends 2-8
3. Allocation of the Benefits of Improved Technology
Among Different Objectives 3-1
3.1 Why All Vehicles are not the same 3-1
3.2 How Emphasis on Selected Parameters Can Influence the
Final Product 3-2
3.3 Some Examples of Differences in Emphasis ....... 3-3
3.4 Summary ...... ; • 3-13
4. Fuel Economy and Cost 4-1
4.1 Introduction 4-1
4.2 Fuel Economy Potential of the 1977 Models. 4-1
4.3 Update of the 75/76 Fuel Economy Performance 4-5
4.4 Fuel Economy Projections for the Stringent Emission
Standards 4-7
4.5 Cost Ranges 4-17
5. The Impacts of Permitting or Not Permitting Service of
Catalytic Converters Once During 50,000 Durability Mileage
Accumulation Schedule 5-1
5.1 Background 5-1
5.2 Catalyst Service Without a Catalyst Change ...... 5-2
5.3 Catalyst Service via Catalyst Replacement. 5-4
5.4 Fuel Economy and Cost Impacts of a Catalyst Change . . 5-9
5.5 Summary 5-14
6. Industry Status 6-1
6.1 Industry Status - 1977 Model Year . 6-1
6.2 Industry Status - Post-1977 Model Year 6-2
7. Individual Manufacturers Reviews 7-1
7.1.1 American Motors (AMC). . 7-1
I 7.1.2 Chrj^fer , 7-12
i 7.1.3 Ford ........'. 7-31
7.1.4 General Motors (GM). 7-44
-------
Table of Contents (con't)
7.2 Independent Developers 7-67
7.2.1 Dresser 7-67
7.2.2 Ethyl 7-73
7.2.3 Gould 7-82
7.2.4 Yamaha 7-88
7.2..5 Questor 7-91
7.3 Foreign Manufacturers 7-96
7.3.1 BMW i' 7-96
7.3.2 British Leyland . 7-98
7.3.3 Citroen 7-102
7.3.4 Daimler-Benz 7-104
7.3.5 Fiat 7-112
7.3.6 Fuji Heavy Industries (Subaru). ....... 7-116
7.3.7 Honda 7-119
7.3.8 Mitsubishi 7-123
7.3.9 Nissan (Datsun) ....... 7-135
7.3.10 Peugeot . . . 7-139
7.3.11 Porsche . . . . . 7-142
7.3.12 Renault . 7-148
7.3.13 Rolls-Royce . 7-150
7.3.14 Saab 7-153
7.3.15 Toyo Kogyo (Mazda) 7-157
7.3.16 Toyota 7-162
7.3.17 Volkswagen (VW) 7-167
7.3.18 Volvo , . 7-173
Appendixes
Appendix 1 Al-1
Appendix 2 A2-1
ii
-------
SECTION 1
INTRODUCTION
This report is a summary of the current technical status and development
trends in the automobile emission control field. This report has been
prepared for the Administrator of the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) to inform the Administrator and other interested parties of
the current status in the emission control technology area.
This report contains a summary and evaluation of the development pro-
grams of automobile manufacturers and other organizations involved in
the development of automobile emission control technology.
The period of time of interest for this report is the 1977 model year
and post-1977 (1978-1980) time period. The post-1977 time period is
considered as a range related to the current deliberations by Congress
on the Clean Air Act.
Most of the information in this report came from manufacturers' re-
nt
sponses to a request from EPA. Most of the responses from the manu-
facturers were received during December 1975 to February 1976, so the
information pertains to the period of time around the end of calendar
year 1975. The specification of the time to which the data relate is
important in an area like emission control technology, in which progress
is continually being made.
Copies of the responses submitted by the manufacturers are available for
public inspection at the EPA Freedom of Information Center at the EPA
Headquarters Building, 401 M. Street, S.W., Washington, D.C. A copy of
the letter request from EPA and the date of the responses are included
in Appendix 1.
-------
Other data used In the preparation of this report were: a) 1975 and
1976 certification results, b) 1977 Part I applications for certifica-
tion, and c) the technical literature.
This report is the fifth in a series of reports on the same subject.
The earlier reports were:
Automobile Emission Control - A Technology Assessment as of December 1971.
Automobile Emission Control - The State of the Art as of December 1972.
Automobile Emission Control - The Development Status as of April 1974.
Automobile Emission Control - The Technical Status and Outlook as of
December 1974.
The nomenclature used in this report for emission test results and
standards is a triplet abbreviation. In this shorthand notation for
example, the 1975 Federal standards of 1.5 grams per mile hydrocarbons, '
15.0 grams per mile carbon monoxide and 3.1 grams per mile oxides of
nitrogen are abbreviated 1.5 HC, 15.0 CO, 3.1 NOx with the understanding
that the dimensions are grams per mile. Similarly, a vehicle that
achieved 0.2 grams per mile hydrocarbons, 2.2 grams per mile carbon
monoxide and 0.22 grams per mile oxides of nitrogen on a given test
would be said to achieve the levels of 0.2 HC, 2.2 CO, 0.22 NOx.
The current emissions standards are thus:
1975/76 Federal; 1.5 HC, 15.0 CO, 3.1 NOx
1975/76 California; 0.9 HC, 9.0 CO, 2.0 NOx
1977 California; 0.41 HC, 9.0 CO, 1.5 NOx
1977 Federal; 1.5 HC, 15.0 CO, 2.0 NOx
1978 50-State; 0.41 HC, 3.4 CO, 0.4 NOx
1-2
-------
SECTION 2
CONCLUSIONS AND SUMMARY
2.1 Conclusions
The conclusions listed below apply to the time this report was being
prepared, March 1976. In a technical area like emission control tech-
nology, in which the rate of change can potentially be rapid, new develop-
ments may require modifications of conclusions that were made previously.
The major conclusions of the report are:
1. The passage of the Energy Policy and Conservation Act, PL 94-163,
has created a new set of requirements for the industry that have im-
pacted and will continue to impact on the development of future emission
control systems. Mandated fuel 'economy goals will require that fuel
economy become a high priority design constraint. Because of time,
budget and manpower limitations, this may stretch out the development
period for advanced emission control systems.
2. Development of Emission Control Technology has slowed down during
the past year compared to the rate of technological progress reported in
the status reports of the previous years.
3. The earliest that the statutory standards, 0.41 HC, 3.4 CO, 0.4 NOx
could be met is model year 1980. It just might be possible to meet 0.41
HC, 3.4 CO, 1.0 NOx in 1979 on a limited number of vehicles if the
industry started now an expanded effort with high emphasis on emission
control technology development. Given the current slow pace of develop-
ment, it will probably take the industry longer.
-------
4. The technical feasibility of meeting emission standards for model
year 1977 down to 0.9 HC, 9.0 CO, 2.0 NOx is unquestioned. The stan-
dards of 0.41 HC, 9.0 CO, 1.5 NOx are also feasible, at least in Cali-
fornia where recent differences between Federal and California protocols
for determining the compliance of 50,000 mile durability vehicles may
make the California requirements less stringent than a numerically
equivalent Federal standard. The differences between the California and
Federal protocols means that a given standard which is met in California,
for California, may not be able to be met nationwide with the same
technology in the same year or even one year later.
5. In the 1978-79 timeframe meeting standards of 0.41 HC, 3.4 CO, 2.0
NOx nationwide can be projected for about 47-80% of the population
without a catalyst change and 64-100% with a catalyst change. At standards
as low as 0.41 HC, 3.4 CO, 1.0 NOx and 0.41 HC, 3.4 CO, 0.4 NOx a catalyst
change is much more likely since the catalyst change approach may be
more attractive from the standpoint of fuel economy or may be the only
ft
viable technology available for some manufacturers.
However, from the standpoint of emission performance in the field, the
question of whether or not catalysts will actually be changed for in-use
vehicles overshadows the technically related design and certification
issues. Not permitting catalyst replacement or service during the
50,000 mile useful life will generally delay the time at which most
manufacturers will be able to meet future stringent standards.
6. Hydrocarbon (HC) control continues to be the most common emission
.control-problem for most manufacturers at any future emission level.
This is considered to be a serious problem in terms of meeting future HC
standards, especially 0.41 HC because unless manufacturers improve or
modify the emission control systems in use today spark timing recalibra-
tions to control HC levels may degrade fuel economy.
2-2
-------
2.2 Discussion of Conclusions
1. Impact of PL 94-163
The passage of the Energy Policy and Conservation Act set sales-weighted
fuel economy standards of 18 miles per gallon (mpg) for 1978, 19 mpg for
1979 and 20 mpg for 1980. The standard for 1985 is 27.5 mpg, the stan-
dards for the years 1981-1984 are to be set by the Secretary of the
Department of Transportation, DOT. This new legislative requirement has
several impacts:
a. Up until the legislation was passed, the manufacturers were
working toward a voluntary 40% improvement in fuel economy by
1980 with the assumption that a 5-year freeze in the emission
standards would be granted. As of the writing of this report
Congress is still considering changes to the Clean Air Act
that may influence the 5-year freeze assumption, but the
concrete fact that the manufacturers now know is that instead
of a voluntary program their fuel economy is now subject to
mandatory controls.
b. The requirement to meet fuel economy standards has dramat-
ically increased the desirability for the manufacturer of
selecting emission control systems with emission control
potential that is better than just needed to meet a given set
of emission standards. The oxidation catalyst system is an
example of a system that was more technology than was just
barely needed to meet the 1975/76 standards of 1.5 HC, 15.0
CO, 3.1 NOx, but that had potential to be calibrated at that
standard for improved fuel economy. Oxidation catalyst systems
were originally developed to meet much lower HC and CO stan-
dards and thus had the "cushion" to be recalibrated for optimum
fuel economy. Systems that have a similar emission control
2-3
-------
cushion at even lower emission standards are very attractive
1 if they can be calibrated for improved fuel economy as were
the 1975 oxidation catalyst systems. Work is just beginning
on such advanced systems. Systems that employ a combination
of thermal and catalytic emission control along with improved
engine modifications, currently look promising for both good
fuel economy and emissions control.
2. Slowdown in Development of Technology
Development of emission control technology has slowed down from last
year's pace for several reasons. Passage of the Energy Policy and
Conservation Act and uncertainty in the future emission standards are
the most important ones. The effects of the fuel economy legislation
are threefold. First, meeting any standard (for anything) may require a
stretch out in the research, development, design and production re-
quirement so that the new standard can be designed to be met. Secondly,
even if the standard requires no development at all in order to meet it,
time, effort and expense are required to demonstrate that it is met. For
example, consider an automobile performance standard of a zero to 30
miles per hour acceleration time of 40 seconds. Everybody in the tech-
nical community will agree that such a standard could be met by all cars
right now. However, proving that every car meets it would take time,
manpower and dollars that could otherwise be devoted to development.
Third, and perhaps most important, the manufacturer's primary emphasis
now is on fuel economy, not solely on emissions. The manufacturers have
to apportion their technical effort where they feel that it will do them
the most good. With fixed total:resources, effort that was directed
toward achieving more stringent emission control is bound to lose out to
work toward improving fuel economy, especially since the same engineer-
ing staffs are generally involved.
2-4
-------
The uncertainty as to what the emission standards will ultimately be has
been stated by the manufacturers to be a problem for a long time, and
was stated in last year's EPA report on this subject as a reason why the
development progress was not as rapid as desirable. With the Congress still
deliberating changes to the Clean Air Act as this report is being written,
it is clear that the manufacturers are delaying decisions to see what
happens. Because of the demand on their manpower caused by the fuel
economy legislation, and the fact that they cannot commit the resources
to fully develop emission control systems for all of their models for
every possible future standard, manufacturers have not been able to put
concentrated effort into designing and developing the fleets of vehicles
needed to determine how to meet any given future standard.
Additional reasons that development progress has slowed down could
involve new regulatory requirements. The possibility of an as yet
undetermined sulfuric acid emission standard has impacted on the rate of
development progress. Also, EPA has proposed that the manufacturers
meet new SHED evaporative emission standards, and assembly line test
requirements. Further, EPA has proposed that those manufacturers that
produce Light Duty Trucks (LDT), meet more stringent LOT standards for
an expanded vehicle class that includes for the first time trucks with
gross vehicle weights in the 6000-8500 pound GVW range. All of these
new regulations will require expanded development and testing to insure
compliance. The same engineering staffs are generally involved in all
of these activities.
3. Feasibility of Meeting Statutory Standards by Some Date
1980 is the earliest that 0.41 HC, 3.4 CO, 0.4 NOx could be met because
the required development efforts have not been done. Most manufacturers
have just a few cars on test when they really need fleets of vehicles to
investigate the systems. This estimate of 1980 is based on the running
of two vehicle fleets in series, both fleets somewhat larger than the
2-5
-------
usual pre-certification fleets. These fleets would include a repre-
sentative model or models of each type, since different catalysts and
control approaches have to be screened. Time required for running these
fleets, analyzing the results and getting certified indicate that model
year 1980 is the earliest date. Meeting these standards in 1980 would
require that the development be expanded greatly starting now. If the
effort is not expanded until later, it will of course, take longer. If
the current low level of effort continues, it will be later than 1980.
Standards of .41 HC, 3.4 CO, 1.0 NOx could only be met in model year
1979 on a limited number of vehicles. But even this would entail a high
risk effort for the manufacturers, since there is now only enough time
to run one development fleet. It is estimated that the manufacturer
would pick a prime system using a 3-way catalyst plus a carbureted
feedback control, and possibly an oxidation catalyst back-up system and
go with those, because the time is too short to do much more development
before commencing durability testing. If a manufacturer were required
to meet 0.41 HC, 3.4 CO, 1.0 NOx on less than 100 percent of his production
he could do it two ways: 1) he could concentrate on a given model or
models or 2) he could try to get a fraction of all his models equipped
with the system needed, as is done currently for California.
The above estimates of feasible timing for meeting emission standards
are based on the assumption that the manufacturers' development efforts
are increased over what is being done now, and that the increased effort
is directed primarily toward emission control technology. If a manu-
facturer places greater emphasis in his development effort on fuel
economy than emissions, the lead time for meeting the statutory stan-
dards will be stretched out, possibly by one to three years with the
best estimate being two years for nationwide introduction. This suggests
that 1981 and 1982 are considered to be a reasonable earliest estimate
of when 1.0 and 0.4 NOx respectively could be met.
2-6
-------
4. Direct Comparison of Federal to California Standards is no Longer
Feasible
Because of evolving differences between California and Federal certifica-
tion protocols, a Federal standard of 0.41 HC may be more stringent than
a California standard of 0.41 HC. In accordance with currently allow-
able California protocol, a durability car may be allowed to exceed the
standards during the mileage accumulation. This is not permitted by
Federal certification protocol. What this means is that the vehicles
that meet given standards for California may not be able to meet the
same standards on a nationwide basis. Therefore, caution should be
exercised in extrapolating California certification experience to
nationwide application.
*
Another aspect of certification protocol involves the issue of methane
versus non-methane HC emission standards. Both California and EPA are
currently evaluating this issue and may reach different conclusions.
This can impact on the relative stringency of nominally identical
numerical values.
5. The catalyst change issue is discussed in Section 5.
6. HC Control Problem
HC control is a problem common at all potential emission standard levels.
Down to control levels of 0.41 HC, 3.4 CO, 2.0 NOx or 0.41 HC, 9.0 CO,
1.5 NOx, control of HC is the biggest problem. This is due to the
technology projected for use down to these levels, the oxidation catalyst
plus EGR system.
Because HC is so significant an emission control problem the proportionally
large reduction from the current Federal standards of 1.5 HC to the 0.41
HC levels may be too great to be accomplished in one step. Solely from
2-7
-------
a technical standpoint a potentially more attractive schedule might be
to have Federal standards of about 0.90 to 0.60 HC (and CO from about
9.0 to 6.0) as an intermediate step before 0.41 HC was required. This
approach may be desirable from a technical standpoint, because implemen-
tation of emission controls in production vehicles is better achieved oil
an incremental basis than in major steps.
At emission levels of 0.41 HC, 3.4 CO, 1.0 NOx or 0.41 HC, 9.0 CO,
1.0 NOx, control of all three pollutants presents major problems. This
again is due to the technology projected as likely to be used at these
levels, i.e. systems employing a 3-way catalyst. For oxidation catalyst
systems it can roughly be said that if one can achieve the HC control
needed, the CO control is almost assured. With the 3-way catalyst
approach, however, the lack of excess air makes CO control as much of a
problem as HC control. NOx control is also a problem of equal magnitude
at these levels.
At levels below 1.0 NOx, like 0.41 HC, 3.4 CO, 0.4 NOx, control of all
three pollutants remains a major problem. The dual catalyst system
considered most likely to be used at this level has always had NOx
control problems, and since oxidation catalysts are part of the system,
HC problem remains the same as at other levels. The engine calibrations
required for this system may cause the engine-out emissions for HC and
CO to be somewhat higher than for other systems, thus further increasing
the difficulty of controlling HC and CO with this system.
2.3 Significant Developments and Trends
The 3-Way Catalyst - New Emphasis
Systems using a 3-way catalyst now appear to be in the forefront of
emission control technology development to meet NOx levels of 1.5 and
below. There are several reasons for this:
2-8
-------
a. Most manufacturers may be assuming that the long-range NOx
standard will be about 1.0 NOx. At 1.0 NOx the 3-way catalyst
system looks somewhat more attractive than the dual catalyst
system, while at 0.4 NOx the roles are reversed.
b. Concern over a possible sulfuric acid emission standard has
led to higher priority being given to systems like the 3-way
catalyst which use little or no excess air. Indications are
that both catalyst formulation and the low 0~ levels are
responsible for the low sulfuric acid emissions from systems
using a 3-way catalyst.
c. The recent changes* in the lead and phosphorus specifications
for certification fuel may greatly enhance the conversion
efficiency of 3-way catalysts at high mileage. How much the
NOx efficiency will be improved has not yet been determined.
The HC and CO effect should be similar to the beneficial
effect seen for oxidation catalysts.
d. Packaging may be easier for the 3-way catalyst than for the
dual catalyst system since only one catalytic unit is generally
needed.
e. In general, progress has been more rapid in the last year or
so in the 3-way catalyst area, compared to the separate NOx
reducing catalyst used in the dual catalyst system.
* For model year 1977 certification, EPA revised the minimum requirements
for lead and phosphorus content in the unleaded durability fuel because
extensive field surveys of nationwide commercial fuel showed that actual
lead and phosphorus content in commercial fuels was below the levels
previously specified for durability test fuel. Thus the current specifica-
tion more correctly reflects the characteristics of commercially avail-
able fuel.
2-9
-------
f. Recent work, reported primarily by Ford, on the oxygen storage
and release on 3-way catalysts may have significant ramifica-
tions. The rate of oxygen storage and release on 3-way catalysts
apparently can influence the width of the window where high
HC, CO, and NOx conversion is obtained, if the air fuel ratio
fluctuates. The results may be interpreted in the following
way: If air/fuel ratio transients of a given type are not
detrimental to the operation of a 3-way catalyst (they appear
to help), then the very precise control of input air/fuel
ratio thought necessary for successful 3-way catalyst opera-
tion may not be required. This means that carbureted systems
may be adequate. This has important control technology, cost,
and leadtime implications. Expensive fuel injection systems
which would take a long lead time to introduce may not be
needed to make the 3-way approach work. This subject, how-
ever, is somewhat speculative, since the work reported to date
has concentrated on air/fuel variations that are controlled in
both frequency and amplitude. It is not known now if the
presumably more random air/fuel fluctuations (in both frequency
and amplitude) of a carburetor approach will be good enough to
provide the desired high conversion efficiency for all three
pollutants. It is, however, a promising area.
NOx Catalysts - Some Progress, Some Problems
Despite the limited amount of vehicle testing, some progress has been
made in the development of some NOx catalysts. Other NOx catalysts that
appeared to be attractive last year look less attractive now.
Chrysler may now have one of the most attractive metallic NOx catalysts.
Their comprehensive in-house development program for this type catalyst
appears to be bearing fruit. A vehicle test showed NOx levels as low as
2-10
-------
0.20 NOx at approximately 20,000 miles, the most impressive combination
of low NOx and high mileage reported to date. However, the catalyst
failed shortly thereafter. The reasons for the catalyst failure are not
known at this time, although it is generally conceded that metallic NOx
catalysts are more prone to being harmed by engine malfunctions. Analyzing
failed metallic NOx catalysts to determine the cause of failure is also
much more difficult than for ceramic/noble metal catalysts, so this is
another problem in discovering the reason or reasons for the failure.
However, the Chrysler results are sufficiently positive, on balance, to
rate Chrysler as one of, if not the, current leader in NOx catalyst
development and demonstration.
Gulf may have also developed a promising NOx catalyst. Engine dynamo-
meter tests at GM indicated a 92% NOx conversion efficiency at the end
of the simulated 50,000 mile durability test. Although vehicle tests to
substantiate these results have still not yet been reported, this appears
\ ,
to be an attractive candidate. There may be a drawback to this catalyst,
as there was with the attractive Nippon Denso catalyst (also tested by
GM) in that the level of active material may be too high to be deemed
commercially feasible.
The perovskite catalyst, developed by DuPont may also be an attractive
NOx catalyst, especially if the lattice structure can be used to sta-
bilize ruthenium. Testing of perovskite NOx catalysts has just started,
however.
International Nickel has also reported the development of promising NOx
catalysts, based on Copper, Chromium, and Nickel.* Alloys labeled IN-
1013 and IN-1050 are the most recent versions. Net NOx conversion
efficiencies in the 70 to 80 percent range were measured after dynamo-
* Copper-Chromium-Nickel Alloys for NOx Reduction Automotive Emission
Control Catalysts, by P. D. Goodell, et. al., SAE Paper 760318, presented
at the Automotive Engineering Congress and Exposition, Detroit, MI
February, 1976.
2-11
-------
meter testing which simulated 25,000 miles. The catalyst IN-1013 is
also said to be sulfur tolerant, but more detailed characterization of
the emissions is required to more properly assess the particulate emis-
sions. The same phenomenon noted in the above discussion of the 3-way
catalyst, the potential benefits of air/fuel ratio cycling, was also
noted in this work.
As long as fuel sulfur levels remain at the level of 0.03 percent by
weight (typical of today's fuels) the attractiveness of the catalyst
GEM-68 developed by Gould, Inc. is less than it was one year ago. The
catalyst GEM 68 is physically attacked by sulfur and cannot be used with
0.03 percent by weight sulfur fuel. Because of this setback, and be-
cause other systems have advanced, the Gould system can no longer be
considered as the leading system in NOx catalyst development. Gould is
working on a sulfur tolerant catalyst, GEM 69, which may re-establish
the viability of their system, but it is too early to make definite
conclusions.
Revised Certification Fuel Specifications
For model year 1977 EPA has adjusted its lead and phosphorus fuel con-
taminant specifications for durability fuels to reflect the contaminant
composition of fuels commercially available.* This has resulted in
significantly reduced lead and phosphorus concentration in the current
certification fuel. This has a significant, beneficial, effect on the
performance of vehicles equipped with catalysts.
Based on preliminary results with oxidation catalyst systems, the effect
on deterioration factor, DF, is shown below in Table 2-1.
* For model year 1977 certification, EPA revised the minimum requirements
for lead and phosphorus content in the unleaded durability fuel because
extensive field surveys of nationwide commercial fuel showed that actual
lead and phosphorus content in commercial fuels was below the levels
previously specified for durability test fuel. Thus the current specifica-
tion more correctly reflects the characteristics of commercially avail-
able fuels.
2-12
-------
Table 2-1
Effect of Revised Certification Fuel Specifications
on Deterioration
Difference
(DF old-DF
Average
0.468
0.441
-0.011
new)
S.D.*
0.466
0.561
0.191
Factor
Ratio
(DF new/DF old)
Average S.D.*
0.742 0.255
0.767 0.385
1.027 0.166
Pollutant
HC
CO
NOx
* S.D. - Standard deviation
The DF's are reduced by about 25 percent for HC and CO, while the NOx is
up about 3 percent. Since the average NOx DF for oxidation in catalyst
systems is less than 1.0 usually, the slight increase is not considered
a major problem.
Since the fuel contaminants primarily affect the high mileage emission
values it is probably reasonable to assume that the 50,000 mile values
for HC and CO would also be reduced by about 25 percent since the 4,000
mile values would be little affected by the reduced fuel contaminant
levels. This significantly increases the chances of successfully certify-
ing at low HC and CO levels.
The DF effect alone, if translated into a fuel economy improvement,
would be about 5 to 9 percent.
The effect of the change in certification fuel on other catalyst types
has yet to be quantified, but it is believed that the 3-way catalyst
will also benefit substantially.
2-13
-------
Electronic Controls
The vehicles of the future may feature all-electronic control systems.
The trend is in that direction, and acceleration is predicted.
Components that can be classified as electronic are used on some vehicles
today. Primarily used in the ignition systems, today, this type of
component was first given wide use by Chrysler. Another current use of
electronic components today is in the Electronic Fuel Injection (EFI)
systems found on some foreign and a few domestic automobiles.
This current use of electronics in automobiles is only the start of a
trend that is likely to lead to all-electronic control of engine para-
meters. Some vehicles have electronic spark timing control for model
year 1976, the Chrysler "ESA Lean Burn" vehicles. These vehicles are
more important for their electronic spark timing than for their lean
calibrations, since other vehicles have operated as lean in the past.
The trend to electronic spark timing will accelerate in 1977 as other
manufacturers, GM among them, introduce their versions of electronic
spark timing.
Control of the spark timing electronically is only one type of elec-
tronic control. Systems are now under development that will control
spark timing, spark duration, (possibly even spark energy and the number
of spark plug firings), EGR rate, air/fuel ratio, etc.
These systems may use sensors and feedback loops to adjust the para-
meters to the desired values. 'Systems to control air/fuel ratio, for
/* •
example, are under development for use with 3-way catalysts.
Future systems will involve three basic parts'; sensors, an electronic
control unit (ECU), and servos or actuators.
2-14
-------
The devices that act as sensors could sense a multitude of parameters.
Among these parameters are ambient temperature, coolant temperature, oil
temperature, engine speed, throttle position, intake manifold pressure,
driveshaft torque, ambient humidity, ambient pressure, engine air/fuel
ratio, spark knock intensity, vehicle speed, vehicle acceleration, time
since "key-on", EGR rate, engine air flow, engine fuel flow, catalyst
temperature, road grade etc., etc., etc. The rates of change of these
parameters with time could also be sensed.
The ECU will probably take the form of a small specialized computer,
which will take the information from the sensors, process it, and pro-
vide the signals to the servos. The ECU could also act as a diagnostic
tool, via plug into a computer programmed to detect malfunctions.
Maintenance could be improved.
The servos or actuators will control one or more of several parameters.
Some of the parameters could be: transmission gear ratio, torque con-
verter lock-up clutches, engine fuel flow, engine air/fuel ratio, EGR
rate, cold enrichment, acceleration enrichment, spark timing, spark
duration, other ignition system parameters, valve timing, exhaust system
valves (EFE and/or start catalyst valves), etc. All of the control
could be done dynamically, with the controlled parameters varying con-
tinually as the vehicle is in operation.
Each of the three parts of the system, sensors, ECU, and servos is
currently under development. The problems with the sensors and servos
are to find inexpensive, precise units that will withstand the auto-
mobile environment. The major problem with the ECU is not the device
itself, but "telling it what to do",i.e. programming it. Since the
electronic control parameters offer more flexibility than has been
heretofore available, (spark timing computed from many input signals
instead of just spark timing dictated by engine speed and manifold
2-15
-------
vacuum, for example) developers are rethinking the problem of "optimum"*
calibrations and controls all over again, in light of this new control
flexibility. Much work remains ahead to determine what the desired
control functions should be.
Improved Warm-Up Control and Heat Conservation
Improved warm-up emission control devices are being explored more now.
The improvements are being made both in terms of start-up fuel metering
(vaporizing chokes, EFE, etc.) and in catalytic systems, start catalysts
for example. Significant benefits are possible, since for catalyst
systems, about 45% to 50% of the HC, and about 65% of the CO are emitted
during the cold transient (Bag 1) phase of the test. Technology used to
reduce cold-start HC emissions may have beneficial fuel economy impacts,
since compared to the case of using spark retard all of the time, more
control of the cold-start emissions may permit more nearly optimum
calibrations.
In addition to improved warm-up work, more emphasis is being placed now
on heat conservation techniques. The primary benefits of heat conserva-
tion techniques, such as port liners, low conductivity coatings, and/or
thermal reactors, is that they help maintain higher exhaust gas tempera-
tures in the exhaust systems and promote additional oxidation in the
exhaust system. The effects in reducing HC by this method could yield
fuel economy benefits. Side benefits in reduced heat rejection to the
coolant also are possible.
The effects of systems that incorporate both heat conservation techniques
and improved warm-up control remain to be quantified, although the
benefits are considered to be substantial.
* What the "optimum" is, that is, which of the several desirable attributes
of a vehicle are to be enhanced can mean different things to different
people. This report considers that emissions should be optimized. This
subject is discussed further in Section 3.
2-16
-------
Advanced Fuel Metering - High Emphasis
More precise and controllable fuel metering systems are a key element of
almost every future emission control system. Activity is underway to
develop and test a multitude of approaches.
Advanced fuel metering includes systems other than fuel injection.
Electronic fuel injection systems and mechanical fuel injection systems
like Bosch's L-Jetronic and K-Jetronic systems, respectively, have
received a great deal of attention from foreign manufacturers, and some
interest from the domestic manufacturers. Carbureted systems now under
development may prove to be as good or better than today's multiple-
point fuel injection systems. The advanced carbureted systems include
vaporizing chokes and carburetors, sonic carburetors, single point fuel
injection systems, improved conventional carburetors and variable venturi
carburetors. These advanced systems are all being investigated for
their feedback control potential, and have promise to be integrated into
electronic fuel metering systems for the future.
Another potential advance in the general area of air/fuel preparation
but not specifically fuel metering has to do with air/fuel mixture
mixing. A recent report in the automotive press* indicates that Ford of
Europe has under development a sonic air/fuel mixing device that ap-
parently may provide some improvements. The mixing device apparently is
placed between the carburetor and the intake valve. NOx reductions of
80 percent, HC reductions of 17 percent and the "virtual elimination" of
CO were reported. Fuel economy was also said to be improved. Unfor-
tunately, the baseline and the test procedure were not reported. In
addition, technology that may be considered "advanced" in Europe some-
times is not so advanced when compared to domestic technology. Never-
theless, this approach is an example of the benefits that could be
* Automotive News, March 22, 1976.
2-17
-------
derived from improved air/fuel mixture dispersion and distribution.
This approach may also have benefits in systems that use EGR, to improve
the EGR distribution, and hence, EGR tolerance.
An additional advantage of any advanced fuel metering technique when
used with feedback control is that the systems tend to be self com-
pensating for barometric pressure fluctuations. This has high altitude
emission control benefit implications. Automatic compensation for
barometric pressure changes also seems to be a technique superior to the
recalibration changes that most manufacturers have chosen for high al-
titude compensation. When cars calibrated to meet the emission stan-
dards at high altitude are driven at low altitude some systems may be
operating too lean with undesirable driveability, performance, and
emission characteristics. True barometric pressure compensation would
solve this problem.
The range over which barometric pressure changes can affect emissions
may also be less than the range from sea level to Denver, for systems
meeting low CO levels. As the CO emissions become lower, more subtle
changes in barometric pressure may influence CO emissions. At least one
manufacturer believes that this may be the case, and if it is, baro-
metric compensation might be needed to control emissions to the desired
levels even at low altitude, because the day-to-day barometric pressure
fluctuations might influence the emissions. EPA is studying this issue
to determine if it is a true effect or due to lab-to-lab correlation
problems.
If systems can be developed that do not obsolete much of the current
production tooling, the lead time and cost implications for early
production introduction are favorable. Also, lower cost systems could
be available sooner. If fuel injection is used the lead time will be
longer. Reports in the news media* indicate that Bendix is building a
* The Ann Arbor News, February 4, 1976.
2-18
-------
new facility to build injectors. This facility is planned to be on
stream in mid-1977, and will eventually produce 2.4 million injectors
per year. Assuming an average of six injectors per vehicle, this im-
plies only about 400,000 vehicles could be supplied from this new source,
probably only for the 1978 model year. Of course, there are other
injector plants overseas, but their production may not be available for
use in domestic automobiles.
A Lead-Tolerant Catalyst?
DuPont has developed a catalyst which appears to be somewhat resistant
to poisoning by lead. Briefly, the catalyst is a perovskite-based
catalyst in which some of the active materials are held in a lattice in
such a way that lead cannot easily poison them. The catalyst can be
formulated as an oxidation, reduction, or 3-way catalyst. Some of the
positive points of this catalyst type are said to be its thermal sta-
bility at high temperatures, high activity, and resistance to poisoning.
However, they need to be run somewhat hotter than more conventional
oxidation catalysts, and tests run to date (by Chrysler, for example)
show relatively low HC efficiency.
Although such catalysts have been investigated to permit the use of
leaded fuels some uses of this catalyst type that are compatible for
both leaded and unleaded fuel are worthy of mention. First, if the
temperature capabilities are significantly better than current catalysts
they could be used as start catalysts or as a manifold-mounted (inside
the exhaust manifold) oxidation catalyst. Good resistance to high
temperatures and poisoning is required of this type of system which has
great potential for helping solve the HC warm-up problem. Second, this
catalyst type could be used as a 3-way or a NOx catalyst. In fact, if
the stabilizing properties of the lattice are good enough to prevent
ruthenium (Ru) from being lost, this could be a significant advance in
NOx catalyst technology, because Ru is an excellent NOx catalyst material
2-19
-------
that has defied successful stabilization in an active form to date. (It
tends to form a volatile and toxic oxide.) NOx catalysts also need high
temperature stability, so the perovskite catalyst may find its best
application as a NOx catalyst. Of course, more testing is needed to
more properly assess the potential of this promising new technology.
Because of potential industry interest in lead-tolerant catalysts,data
from two automobile manufacturers on the effect of lead on HC emissions
should be mentioned. GM and Honda reported data on the effects of
leaded fuel on HC emissions at no accumulated mileage. That is, the
results reported were not a durability effect, they are a combustion
effect. The results are shown in Table 2-2.
Table 2-2
Effect of Leaded Fuel
on HC Emissions
(no accumulated miles)
Source Fuels % Reduction in HC '
GM 1.5 gr/gal leaded 28
1.0 gr/gal leaded 23
0.5 gr/gal leaded 9
Honda 3.15 gr/gal leaded 20
(1) % reduction in HC attributable to removal of lead from fuel.
According to GM, the lead acts as an HC oxidation inhibitor. This data
along with the now recognized* lack of improvement in fuel economy as
compression ratio is raised, if emissions are held constant, might
suggest less manufacturer interest in lead-tolerant catalysts.
* Emission Control with Lean Mixtures by J. E. Schweikert et. al., SAE
Paper 760226, presented at the Automotive Engineering Congress and
Exposition, Detroit, Michigan, February 1976.
2-20
-------
Also, more interest is being directed toward Ethyl's MMT (methylcyclo-
pentadienyl manganese tricarbonyl) additive, which also has antiknock
properties. Because of its not yet precisely defined effect on catalyst
HC conversion efficiency (CO activity does not appear to be harmed),but
more because it is not yet absolutely certain that this manganese
compound and its combustion products are benign, it is difficult to make
projections for widespread MMT use, although it probably is a tempting
octane booster for those refiners lacking a little bit of octane to get
to 91 RON, or for those who desire to increase their octane to increase
customer satisfaction.
More Interest in Diesels
The Diesel engine for light duty use has received increased interest and
emphasis in the last year.
Two manufacturers, Daimler-Benz and Peugeot, currently market Diesel
engined passenger automobiles in this country. However, the significant
trend is that other manufacturers are exploring the possibility of light
duty Diesel:use, with the potential that the number of Diesel powered
light duty (automobile and/or light duty truck) applications may increase.
Important work is being conducted by Volkswagen and GM. Toyota, Nissan,
Isuzu, Fia^t, Ford, Chrysler, Hino, Mitsubishi, Yamaha and others* are
also investigating Diesel technology for light duty applications.
Most of the work being conducted to date has been the application of
current Diesel technology to the light duty vehicle applications, and/or
making minor modifications to existing technology. While this approach
is a first step, the real work that needs to be done on Diesels, i.e.
advanced NOx, smoke, HC, CO, and odor control concurrent with improved
specific power output, is not being pursued vigorously.
* Opel is not included since, according to published reports, Opel
automobiles will not be imported by GM after model year 1976.
2-21
-------
There has been much debate over the potential of the Diesel to meet low
emission standards, especially low NOx standards. Some of the data in
Diesels at NOx levels around 1.0 NOx is shown in Table 2-3.
Table 2-3 indicates that Diesel vehicle tests results at or below 1.0
NOx have been achieved. In most cases, HC levels were over the 0.41 HC
level. It should be pointed out that some of the vehicles were es-
sentially uncontrolled for HC, CO and NOx. There are no vehicles in
Table 2-3 that had inertia weight greater than 4000 Ib. Because DF's
for Diesels are typically low (about 1.0 or lower) the data in Table 2-3
indicate that Diesels could meet 0.41 HC, 3.4 CO, 1.0 NOx standards in
vehicles at least as heavy as 4000 pounds inertia weight.
The issue of achieving NOx levels lower than 1.0 for the Diesel is one
of the most controversial areas in the Diesel vehicle emission control
field. Extensive emission control work is needed to resolve this issue.
Certainly more work on advanced EGR systems is going to be required as a
first step. Daimler-Benz's tests below the 0.41 HC, 3.4 CO, 0.4 NOx
levels, reported in 1973, were obtained with EGR, so this is a logical
step. The EGR systems will probably have to be sophisticated recir-
culating EGR modulated as a function of speed and load. Controls as
sophisticated as feedback control of EGR may be needed, and are not
impossible with the advances made recently in measuring exhaust gas 0?
levels in lean regimes*. Concurrent with the EGR work, of course,
should go more work on HC control, since HC emissions tend to be in-
creased with EGR. Improved injection systems are the obvious first step
here. The same heat conservation technology that is being investigated
for gasoline engines, i.e., low conductivity coatings, may have ap-
plicability to Diesels too. Spraying the combustion chamber with a
* CoO Sensors for Measurement and Control of Exhaust from Lean Burn
Engines, by G. L. Beaudoin, et. al., SAE Paper 760312, presented at
the Automotive Engineering Congress and Exposition, Detroit, Michigan,
February, 1976.
2-22
-------
Table 2-3
Recent Test Data From Diesel Vehicles
Vehicle
Peugeot 504
Peugeot 504
Peugeot 504
Peugeot 504
Peugeot 204
w VW Diesel
Rabbit
VW Diesel
Rabbit
Wilcap Pinto
Toyota Land
Cruiser
\. Inertia
Weight
.3500
3500
3500
3500
2500
2250
2250
2750
4000
With NOx levels About 1.0 NOx
Urban "Highway"
HC CO NOx MPG MPG
0.42 1.43 0.95 27.1 35.2
0.61 1.60 0.95 26.4 34.1
0.43 1.55 1.01 27.1 35.4
0.60 1.47 1.16 26.7 33.4
1.60 2.75 0.69 33.0 40.9
0.19 0.98 1.19 37.2 48.2
0.13 0.64 0.94 43.0 60.2
0.54 1.13 0.75 46.1 60.2
0.3-0.4 1.5-2.0 0.9-1.0 25-27 N.A.
Fuel Comments
ID 1976 Official Certification re-
sults, including DF.
ID
ID
ID
2D Low mileage EPA test of vehicle
not imported into the U.S. Emis-
sions essentially uncontrolled.
2D Low mileage EPA tests of a
prototype vehicle
N.A. Results from VW status report
from a test with an unspecified
injection system. Low mileage
is assumed.
2D EPA tests of a Nissan CN-4-33 ret;
fitted into a 1971 Ford Pinto.
"Highway" fuel economy values w/o
overdrive. Vehicle essentially ui
controlled for emissions.
Japanese Prototype vehicle. Low mileage
Industrial tests. Engine modifications cali-
Standard brations and gear ratio changes.
Fuel economy is 18% better than
the production version at 3.5
to 4.5 NOx.
-------
coating might help HC emissions, smoke control, and ignition delay.
Spraying the inside of a swirl chamber or a prechamber might addition-
ally help the divided chamber (or indirect injection, IDI) engine used
in light duty applications more nearly approach the fuel consumption
characteristics of a direct injection (DI) engine.* Potential benefits
in reduced heat rejection to the coolant are also possible.
Other areas that need to be investigated more thoroughly include low and
variable compression ratio approaches.
In summary, the capability of Diesel engined vehicles above 4000 pounds
IW to meet NOx levels of 1.0, and the capability of any Diesel engined
vehicle to meet 0.4 NOx, cannot be defined at this time. Much work re-
mains to be done to meet low NOx levels, particularly for the heavier
vehicles. Much of the current controversy over the Diesel is likely due
to the contentions of those Who want the low NOx standards deferred on
basis of the argument that the Diesel will be eliminated at low NOx
levels and it's fuel economy benefits lost. However, the purported NOx
level that will "foreclose" the Diesel has varied in the past, starting
at about 2.0 NOx or higher for all cars, then going.to 1.5 NOx, now it
is closer to or at 1.0 NOx for 4000 pound and., below vehicles.**
. * ' •'.•', •
Nevertheless meeting 0.4 NOx, especially in heavier Diesel vehicles,
will be a difficult task, if it is at all possible. It is premature to
* The gap in BSFC between IDI and DI engines is not as wide as some
might think. DI proponents rarely compare the BSFC's on a constant
emissions basis. On this basis the IDl is closer. Reducing heat trans-
fer out of the prechamber will close this gap even further. Pumping
losses in and out of the prechamber still remain, so it is not known if
the BSFC or fuel economy will be greater for the IDI engine or not, at
constant emissions.
** Approaches to Low emission Levels to Light-Duty Diesel Vehicles
by M. Amano, et. al, SAE Paper 760211 presented at the Automotive
Engineering Congress and Exposition, Detroit, MI, February, 1976.
2-24
-------
make strong conclusions one way or another since making these conclu-
sions would be based on old or contemporary technology or on a lack of
effort in important R&D areas.
It must also be noted that while NOx control is a difficult task for the
Diesel, it may not be the major problem area. Especially at low NOx
levels, improvement of smoke, odor, starting and performance charac-
teristics may be as great a development problem.*
Another potential emission control problem that could be tougher than
NOx to solve is particulates, including but not limited to, sulfuric
acid. So long as there remain uncertainties regarding the need for
control of all kinds of particulate emissions from mobile sources from a
health effects point of view, manufacturers may be reluctant to expend
effort on Light-Duty Diesels.
NOx Reduction Without a NOx Catalyst?
Under the correct conditions NOx and HC can chemically react with each
other in the gas phase to reduce NOx without a NOx catalyst being present.
Significant NOx control, well over 80% in some modes, has been reported**.***
The work done to date has centered around the addition of a hydrocarbon ,
material to the exhaust gases to promote the reactions. The tempera-
tures needed for high NOx conversion efficiencies are higher than most
* Although the Diesel Rabbit is a good example of what can be done by
adapting well-known existing Diesel technology.
** The Reduction of Nitric Oxide in Simulated Combustion Effluents by
Hydrocarbon-Oxygen Mixtures by A. L. Meyerson, Reprinted from the
Fifteenth Symposium (international) on Combustion at the Toshi Center
Hall, Tokyo, Japan, August, 1974.
*** Exhaust-Port Fuel Injection for Chemical Reduction of Nitric Oxide
by D. J. Pozniak, SAE Paper 750173, presented at Cobo Hall, Detroit, MI
February, 1975.
2-25
-------
catalysts operate at now. Under some conditions HCN may be formed, but
as indicated,in the GM Status Report, oxidation catalysts are effective
in controlling HCN. An oxidation catalyst or thermal reactor would be
needed downstream of the gas-phase NOx reduction chamber (which could be
like a thermal reactor). The oxidation catalyst (or a 3-way catalyst)
would be needed to oxidize HC and CO.
This type of approach may have promise as an attractive NOx control
technique.
One way in which this might be done is by dumping fuel into the exhaust
manifold, a somewhat less than desirable approach. However the hydro-
carbon needed could also be provided by the engine, i.e. it may be
possible to calibrate the engine for the appropriate amount of hydro-
carbon emissions (engine-out) which could correspond to a desirable fuel
economy calibration for some engines.
The major problem that is foreseen for a system that uses the homo-
geneous gas phase reduction of NOx is operating temperature. The re-
sults reported to date have been performed at temperatures somewhat in
excess of those common in conventional exhaust manifolds, and spark
retard was used in one case to obtain the exhaust gas temperatures
needed. Spark retard is counter to the desire for improved fuel economy.
It appears that extensive heat conservation techniques may be required
to make the approach attractive from the standpoint of fuel economy.
The reducing agents that are thought to produce the NOx reduction may
also be produced in engines operating with lower exhaust gas tempera-
tures, but to date there has been little reported that would indicate
the extent of the NOx reductions possible with a system on a vehicle,
with heat conservation techniques, the use of engine-out HC as the
source of HC, and post-reactor oxidation control.
2-26
-------
SECTION 3
ALLOCATION OF THE BENEFITS OF IMPROVED TECHNOLOGY
AMONG DIFFERENT OBJECTIVES
3.1 Why All Vehicles are not the Same
Vehicles sold today are of many different types, with widely varying
characteristics. The reason is, of course, that manufacturers see a
market demand for a variety of vehicles.
There are many design and performance parameters that are important for
vehicle design. Some of these are listed below in Table 3-1.
Table 3-1
Some Vehicle Design and
Performance Characteristics
Cost
Styling
Convenience features
Roominess
Safety performance
Stopping performance
Ride Comfort
Reliability/maintainability
Fuel compatibility
Manufacturability
Use of critical materials
Fuel economy
Performance
Driveability
Exhaust emissions
Engine durability
Durability/corrosion resistance
Handling performance
Ease of entry/exit
Noise/vibration/harshness
Passenger carrying capacity
Luggage/load carrying capacity
These parameters must all be balanced against one another to arrive at
the final vehicle design. The relative importance placed on the various
parameters determine what the resulting design will be like.
-------
The vehicle will reflect the emphasis put on the design and performance
parameters. It will be a better performer in the areas to which high
priority has been given, and perhaps less so in the areas given less
priority.
3.2 How Emphasis on Selected Parameters Can Influence the final Product
The emphasis given to the various parameters is determined partially by
the automobile companies and partly by the Government regulations.
Safety, emissions, and more recently, fuel economy are requirements for
which Federal standards exist.
Looking at today's vehicles, it is obvious that although they all meet
the safety and emission standards, they represent a wide range of vehicle
types with different characteristics in the other areas. These differ-
ences are not just happenstance. They result from different emphasis
given to the various items listed in Table 3-1. This emphasis is deter-
mined by the automobile manufacturers. They choose the types of vehicles
to market and give different emphasis to different vehicles in their
model lines in a manner calculated to maximize income and profits,
usually but not always, by maximizing sales.
Designers strive to obtain the best rating for their vehicles in all of
the Table 3-1 categories. However some of the desirable properties are
difficult to achieve simultaneously. For example if the highest priority
is given to making the vehicle carry a large number of passengers (say
up to 12) and/or carry large, bulky cargo, the vehicle could wind up
being a van-type vehicle. Such a vehicle may not be the most desirable
one from the stylist's standpoint. This is one example of a tradeoff
where in order to meet a criterion given high priority, some compromises
in other areas must be made.
3-2
-------
These tradeoffs occur during the entire concept, design, development and
testing process that leads up to actually producing the vehicle. The
emphasis in given areas can change during the development process, in
order to meet perceived or predicted production and market pressures.
The relationship between exhaust emissions and fuel economy is one area
in which discussion has been extensive and one in which much apparent
controversy exists.
*
In a previous report the relationship was discussed at length. The
salient points were, and remain:
1. For a fixed technology and cost, at a given point in time, a re-
lationship exists between exhaust emissions and fuel economy.
2. Improved technology, which takes time and effort to develop, and may
be more costly, can change the relationship from what had existed in the
past.
3, Based on 1 and 2 above there is no fundamental relationship between
exhaust emissions and fuel economy.
This is a special case of the relationship between two of the perfor-
mance parameters in Table 3-1.
3.3 Some Examples of Difference in Emphasis
For illustration it is useful to include only those parameters from
Table 3-1 that are affected to any great degree by emission controls.
These areas are:
* Automobile Emission Control - The Technical Status and Outlooks As of
December 1974.
3-3
-------
Table 3-2
Areas Influenced by Emission Control
1. Cost (emission control system cost)
2. Performance
3. Driveability
4. Exhaust Emissions
5. Fuel Economy (due to engine effects)
6. Maintainability
7. Manufacturability
8. Use of Critical Materials
9. Fuel Compatability
In the following examples the discussion centers on the various ways in
which improved technology could be used.
Example 1 - Oxidation Catalysts
This example is the most well-known. The use of oxidation catalyst
technology in model years 1975 and 1976 permitted the benefits of this
technology to be traded between the emission control and fuel economy
areas. By far most of the benefits were taken in fuel economy. Non-
catalytic systems could have been used at the 1.5 HC, 15 CO, 3.1 NOx
levels. The oxidation catalyst systems, originally developed to meet
the old (original) 0.41 HC, 3.4 CO, 3.1 NOx 1975 standards, had the
capability to be recalibrated for the less stringent levels with the
benefits taken in the improved fuel economy shown by the 1975 and 1976
models.
Example 1 is history, showing how the benefits of an improvement in
technology were used by the industry. Other technological improvements,
now in the research and/or development stage, may have benefits that
could be used in several areas. Some of these technological improve-
ments are discussed in the following examples.
3-4
-------
Example 2 - Improved Oxidation Catalysts
Improved oxidation catalysts are used here as an example of improved
aftertreatment efficiency, which could be thermal, catalytic or a com-
bination of both. The oxidation catalysts used for model year 1975 had
a 50,000 mile conversion efficiency of about 50 percent for HC and CO.
Improved oxidation catalysts, which were being developed for the now-
suspended 0.41 HC, 3.4 CO, 2.0 NOx 1977 standards, and are continually
being developed further, showed 70 percent conversion efficiencies for
HC and CO. How could the benefits of this improvement be used?
a. With no changes in calibrations, emission levels of about 40%
lower HC and CO could be attained, with no change in fuel
economy.
b. Emission levels between the levels obtainable with the 1975
catalyst and the levels discussed in a) above could be attained
• • • t
with improved fuel economy, if the calibrations for HC control
on the 1975 models with the 1975 catalysts was not optimum.
c. At the same emission levels that the 1975 models met, further
recalibration beyond that of case b) above might be possible,
if other problems such as octane requirement do not arise.
d. Part-throttle fuel metering might be enriched for better
driveability at the same emission level. Performance could
also be enhanced by this.technique, along with ignition
system recalibrations.
e. Cost might be reduced due to the deletion of auxiliary devices
such as transmission controlled spark (TCS). If the catalyst
improvement involved better dispersion a lesser amount of
active material might be used with cost reduction and critical
material use benefits.
3-5
-------
f. If a manufacturer needed a catalyst change to meet the 1975/
1976 standards, the use of the improved catalyst might lead to
not needing one, with benefits in maintainability and service
cost.
Example 3 - Fuel Injection
Fuel injection is used here as an example of improved fuel metering
which could be improved carburetion, single point fuel injection or the
more conventional electronic or mechanical fuel injection systems. Fuel
injection can provide better cylinder-to-cylinder fuel distribution and
offers promise for more precise fuel metering. It is a key element in
many advanced control concepts, especially those that use 3-way catalysts,
although carburetor development is underway to reduce the advantages
that fuel injection has. How could the benefits of fuel injection be
used?
a. Vehicle performance might be improved. This is the route that
was taken by the domestic manufacturers in the
1950's when Chrysler, GM and AMC used fuel injection
on a small number of models. This is the approach
*
taken by GM on the 500 cid Cadillac currently.
Torque is up from 360 to 400 ft-lb, and power was
increased from 190 to 215 HP.
b. Driveability, especially in the cold start, warm-up, and
response areas, might be improved by the use of fuel injec-
tion. This is apparently the major benefit seen for fuel
*
injection currently.
c. Fuel economy might be improved. The fuel injection benefits
as used on the Seville are reported to be improved fuel economy.*
* "Cadillac's Electronic Fuel Injection" by Larry Givens, in Automotive
Engineering, February 1976.
3-6
-------
d. Exhaust emissions might be lowered. HC benefits are possible
with fuel shutoff on deceleration, CO benefits may accrue due
to better cylinder-to-cylinder control. The leanest cylinder
on conventional systems determines the air/fuel ratio, and on
many systems the other cylinders are running too rich. NOx
benefits are possible since fuel injected engineTmay have J\.
higher EGR tolerance.
Fuel injection's precise fuel metering, when incorporated into L^
a feedback control system may permit use of the 3-way catalyst,
considered an attractive future control system.
e. The requirements on the fuel used in terms of starting and
other characteristics may be less stringent with fuel injection.
Example 4 - Improved Warm-up Systems
One of, if not the most important areas of investigation for improved
emission control is during the "cold start" (Bag 1) phase of the emis-
sion test. Most of the emissions of HC and CO come from this part of
the test. Systems have been and are under development to improve warm-
up. These include EFE and super EFE, start catalysts, improved insula-
tion (port liners, insulated manifolds, etc.) heated fuel injection
nozzles, new chokes, (for example, electric vaporizing chokes) and lower
thermal inertia main catalysts, e.g. a switch from a pellet to a mono-
lith. All of the approaches improve warm-up characteristics. How could
this benefit be used?
* "Cadillac's Electronic Fuel Injection" by Larry Givens, in Automotive
Engineering) February 1976.
3-7
-------
a. Vehicle driveabllity after start-up and during warm-up could
be improved. GM, for example, has always maintained that
their EFE system is a driveability improvement device.
b. Lower HC and CO emissions could be obtained. If the choke,can
r ' -
be remoyed sooner and the fuel metering can attain its warmed-
up air/fuel:ratio more quickly, some HC and CO benefits can be
expected.
c. If the approach results in much improved emissions, cost
reductions in some other areas of the emission control system
may be achieved.
d. If the system without the improved warm-up characteristics
used less than optimum calibrations from the fuel economy
standpoint (e.g. massive retard to get the catalyst to light-
off quickly), some fuel economy benefits, over and above those
attendant with running with less cold enrichment, may be
possible.
e. If the system can warm-up the inducted air/fuel mixture well
enough some of the volatility demands on the fuel might be
reduced.
Example 5 - Electronic Controls
Systems to electronically control spark-timing, EGR, air/fuel ratio,
transmission shift points and other engine parameters are now under
active development. The control of the engine parameters will be
provided by an electronic control unit which may receive input from
several on-board sensors. The controls may be more precise, faster, and
sophisticated than current systems. For example the spark timing could
be whatever is desired, not subject to the limitations of current mechanical
and vacuum advance systems. How could these potential benefits be used?
3-8
-------
a. Fuel economy could be improved, by allowing engine calibra-
tions to more closely approach the optimum on a transient
basis.
b. Emission control performance could possibly be improved via an
optimization strategy similar to that of a) above in which
emissions are given consideration.
c. Performance and driveability could be improved through better
and faster air/fuel ratio control, especially in transients.
d. Maintainability could' be improved, since such systems could be
compatible with electronic diagnostic techniques which offer
the potential for quicker and more accurate problem diagnosis
and solution identification.
'i;
Example 6 - Improved EGR Systems
As more has been learned about NOx control through EGR and its impacts
on driveability and HC emissions, .the desirability of a sophisticated
EGR system that would modulate the flow of EGR in a way better than even
the best current systems has increased. Although this sytem could be a
part of the Electronic Control System, Example 5, this EGR is treated
separately, since the potential benefits serve as a good example, and
the approach need not be electronic. How could these benefits be used?
a. Improved NOx control (i.e. lower NOx) could be achieved by
controlling NOx well in those modes where it is a problem. HC
benefits could also result.
b. Vehicle driveability could be improved by adjusting the NOx
control to provide the EGR rate needed to keep NOx constant
with improved driveability.
3-9
-------
c. If the NOx control can be achieved with the advanced system at
the same NOx level that the less sophisticated system had, and
there is an HC benefit the spark control might be recalibrated
for better fuel economy.
Example 7 - Improved Transmissions
Transmissions have been used in the past as part of the emission control
system by having the transmission gear control the amount of spark
advance. Similar systems may be used to control the air pump for sulfuric
acid control. The major new effort now in transmissions is toward more
gear ratios and lock-up of the torque converter for conventional transmissions,
and research and development into continuously variable transmissions
(CVT's) which may offer even more potential to allow the engine to run
closer to the desired condition. How could the benefits of this type of
technology be used?
a. Improved fuel economy might result from engine operation at
higher BMEP and lower speed, compared to today's practice.
b. Performance may be improved if the torque-speed character-
istics of the improved transmissions are superior to those of
current types.
c. There may be some potential for reduced exhaust emissions.
Computer projections (not vehicle data) indicate that, given
the addition of an extra gear (3 speed to 4 speed) in an
automatic transmission and torque converter lockup at a speed
ratio of unity or lower, predicted NOx emissions were lower by
about 30 percent. The predicted effect on fuel economy was a
gain of 15 percent.
* Simulated Sensitivities of Auto Fuel Economy, Performance and Emissions
SAE Paper 760157 by A. C. Mallarias, et. al., presented at the SAE Congress
Detroit, Michigan, February 1976.
3-10
-------
Example 8 - Weight Reduction
The domestic automobile manufacturers are now embarked on ambitious
weight reduction programs that are expected to result in vehicles being
produced in the near future that are significantly lighter for the same
room inside than are today's vehicles. How could this improvement be
used?
a. Fuel economy could be improved. Vehicle weight is an im-
portant parameter in determining a vehicle's fuel economy and
reductions in weight can be expected to improve fuel economy.
Since, in general, heavier vehicles are more difficult to
control for mass emissions due to their greater exhaust volumes
per mile, engine recalibrations may permit additional fuel
economy gains at the same emission level with the same control
systems.
\
b. Because of the reduction in exhaust volumes, emission control
may be improved, especially for NOx.
c. Given a lighter weight vehicle, if the installed horsepower is
not changed, performance would be expected to improve.
d. Depending on the rate at which the new tooling is amortized,
and on the extent of more costly materials used on the lighter
weight vehicles, some cost reduction may be possible, since
the vehicles will require less raw materials. The partial
easing of the emission control burden may permit additional
costs to be taken out of the emission control system, at
constant emissions.
3-11
-------
Example 9 - Improved Ignition Systems
Improved ignition systems, some of which are under development, and some
of which are in production, can provide more positive ignition of diluted
mixtures via increased sparH energy and longer spark duration, and may
have beneficial implications in spark plug life. How can these benefits
be used? .
a. If the dilute mixture is a leaner one, some fuel economy
benefits may be possible, through extension of the lean limit.
b. Spark plug life, (especially with unleaded fuel) may be
lengthened, with an improvement in maintainability. In
addition benefits accure from elimination of points and con-
denser maintenance for some systems.
c. Emissions may be improved due to the ability to increase the
lean limit, and the capability to fire mixtures diluted with
EGR, not excess air, may also be improved.
Example 10 - Reduced Contaminant Fuels
Fuels available for the 1975 and 1976 vehicles have low lead and phos-
phorus levels. The levels in the field are low enough that EPA has-
reduced the fuel contaminant levels permitted in certification mileage
accumulation fuel to levels even lower than those permitted in the
unleaded fuels for model year 1975 certification. How could this poten-
tial benefit be used?
a. Improved emission control, especially for HC may be achieved,
comparing leaded fuel to unleaded fuel. This is because HC
performance on a given test and the HC DF, even in a non
catalyst system, are somewhat better when unleaded fuel is
3-12
-------
used. The new certification fuel could result in lower HC and CO emissions
compared to the earlier unleaded fuel all by itself with no system
changes.
b. Fuel economy might be improved with either unleaded compared
to leaded fuel (at the same compression ratio), or with the
new certification fuel compared to the older fuel if any HC
benefit is used to permit more spark advance.
c. Unleaded fuel may result in longer spark plug life and reduced
EGR system maintenance, which could translate into maintain-
ability and service cost benefits.
d. The new certification unleaded fuel compared to the older
unleaded fuel may permit some cost to be taken out of the
control system (e.g. lower noble metal loadings) at constant
emissions, with cost and critical material usage benefits.
Other Examples
There are other examples not covered in the above discussion, such as
variable valve timing (potential benefits possible in performance, or
fuel economy, or emissions (controlled internal EGR)) and turbocharging
(potential benefits in performance or fuel economy at constant performance),
In fact, almost every area in which engine and emission research and
development work is being conducted could be used as examples.
3.4 Summary
The point to the above examples is that there are usually several ways
in which the benefits of advanced technology can be allocated among dif-
ferent goals. Benefits taken in some of the areas may reduce the benefits
possible in other areas while some areas may benefit together.
3-13
-------
Usually, not all of the entire benefit is taken in one area, but rather
apportioned to meet the specific goals and design targets of the manufacturer.
The areas in Table 3-2 (fuel economy, driveability, etc.) are traded off
both among themselves.and against the areas in Table 3-1 (vehicle-
related areas) to arrive at the final product.
The manufacturers determine, ''to the largest degree, how the benefits are
to be apportioned, "their major goal must be to sell automobiles. Of
all of the, areas listed in Table 3-2, improvements in every area save
one may be expected to increase the sales potential of vehicles. The
only area in which improved performance does not increase sales potential
is in exhaust emissions, primarily because improved emissions performance
is not of immediate interest to most individual car buyers.
A primary reason for the current controversy over the relationship of
exhaust emissions standards to fuel economy is that fuel economy helps
sell cars, whereas low exhaust emissions' do not. Most manufacturers
would like to be able to take the benefits of improved technology for
purposes other than lower emissions. That is why manufacturers, classify
some examples of improved technology as "fuel economy devices" or "drive-
• ~ i
ability improvers". Since they have made the decision to take the
benefits in this area. For example, GM originally did not submit any
data in their Status Report on the emissions performance of vehicles
equipped with electronic spark timing, because, according to GM, it is a
fuel economy device that has nothing to do with emissions.
The EPA's analytic approach is somewhat different. EPA has in the past
pointed out the potential benefits that could be attained if the
benefits are taken with the emphasis directed toward improved exhaust
3-14
-------
emission performance.and good fuel economy. It is this basic difference
in analytic approach that gives rise to controversy concerning the effects
of emission controls on future vehicles, especially in the areas of
driveability and fuel economy.
3-15
-------
SECTION 4
FUEL ECONOMY AND COST
4.1 Introduction
This section discusses fuel economy and cost, with the emphasis on those
aspects of fuel economy and cost that are the most directly related to
emission controls.
The potential fuel economy of the 1977 models based upon preliminary
data and directional trends is discussed first, then some aspects of the
fuel economy performance of 1975 and 1976 cars is discussed and then the
fuel economy of future vehicles is discussed, followed by the cost
section.
4.2 Fuel Economy Potential of the 1977 Models
A precise description of the fuel economy performance of the 1977 models
cannot be available until 1977 certification is complete in late summer,
;
1976. However, there are some directional trends that influence the
fuel economy of the 1977 models positively. This discussion will focus
on potential fuel economy and should not be interpreted to represent a
prediction because, as was pointed out in Section 3, the emphasis that
the manufacturers give to areas other than fuel economy or emissions can
influence the results.
Of the many influences the most important are the revised certification
fuel specifications, the emission standards, improvements in emission
control systems, and new vehicle technology.
The revised certification fuel specifications will allow benefits in
reduced DF which can be translated into a fuel economy benefit. New
vehicle technology which will first appear in model year 1977 is re-
flected in the redesign of some models by some manufacturers. These new
-------
body designs are expected to be lighter in weight with concommitant
favorable fuel economy and emission control implications.
For the Federal 1977 vehicles, the emission standards for HC and CO are
unchanged, but the NOx standard is reduced from 3.1 NOx to 2.0 NOx.
This change need not have a negative impact on fuel economy. Some
negative impact on fuel economy could be expected if spark retard were
resorted to as the only or primary means of reducing NOx but with the
more widespread use of proportional EGR systems and larger and/or
improved catalysts planned for use by many manufacturers the change in
NOx can be made without resorting to massive spark retard. The control
of NOx with EGR would be expected to raise HC levels if the older-type
non-proportional systems were used, but the better EGR systems should
reduce this effect. Even if there is some increase in engine-out HC,
most manufacturers who use oxidation catalysts have sufficient cushion
at the current 1.5 HC level that they should encounter no difficulty.
On balance, the directionally positive fuel economy trends for the 1977
Federal vehicles lead to the conclusion that there is every reason to
expect that the 1977 Federal vehicles could be as good or better than
the 1976 Federal vehicles in fuel economy.
For the 1977 California vehicles the standards change from 0.9 HC, 9.0
CO, 2.0 NOx to 0.41 HC, 9.0 CO, 1.5 NOx. In their status reports to
EPA, the domestic manufacturers made the fuel economy estimates for
their 1977 California vehicles as shown in Table 4-1.
Subsequent to the presentation of the above estimates to EPA, a public
meeting was held by the California Air Resources Board (GARB) to discuss
the estimated fuel economy performance of the 1977 California models.
In addition to the exhaust emission standards, California at that time
was considering adjusting their assembly line test procedure and allowing
a methane allowance for hydrocarbon emissions. The estigates made by
°iv *'•**'• ••
the manufacturers to CARS on February 20, 1976 are summarized below in
Table 4.2.
. 4-2
-------
Table 4-1
Fuel Economy Impacts of the
1977 California Emission Standards
(Manufacturer's Estimates Made to EPA)
Manufacturer
Fuel Economy Impact
Base
AMC
Chrysler
Ford
GM
No specific estimate (1)
16 percent loss
No specific estimate (2)
20-30 percent loss
1976 Federal
"What otherwise
could be accomplished
at the 1975-76 Federal
standards"
(1) AMC was not sure that they could meet the emission standards.
(2) Ford earlier reported to EPA (January 14, 1975) that a conventional
oxidation catalyst system would be about 23% worse in fuel economy
at 0.41 HC, 3.4 CO, 2.0 NOx than the same system at 1.5 HC, 15.0
CO, 3.1 NOx.
Table 4-2
Fuel Economy Impacts of the
1977 California Emission Standards
(Manufacturer's Estimates Made to GARB)
Manufacturer
Percent Change in
going from 0.9 HC,
9.0 CO, 2.0 NOx to
0.41 HC, 9.0 CO,
1.5 NOx only
Percent change due
to all changes
77 vs 76
Base
AMC
Ford
Chrysler
GM
5 to 7 percent loss
0 to 4 percent loss
7to 8 percent loss
3 to 5 percent gain 76 Cal
0 to 4 percent loss 76 Cal
3 percent gain 76 Cal
4-3
-------
There are several possible explanations for the discrepancy in the
Tables. The fuel economy bases for comparison are different. The
estimates made earlier to EPA could also have been based on older
assumptions about the details of the California regulations that since
may have changed.
The actual fuel economy performance of the 1977 California vehicles will
depend to a great extent on the emission control systems actually used.
Currently some manufacturers are certifying more than one type of system
for 1977 California. As has always been the case, not all of the systems
are carried through to final.certification by a manufacturer, and even
then, if more than one system is certified, the manufacturer can use one
or more of the certified configurations at his discretion. For some
manufacturers the California market may not be large enough to justify
the development and building completely different systems, and thus the
manufacturer may try to meet the California standards with just a
recalibrated Federal system. The development, and production costs
would tend to be lower even though the fuel economy might tend to be
worse. Other manufacturers may have incentive to have an attractive
vehicle for California in 1977, and thus use improved systems that were
under development for the original 1977 0.41 HC, 3.4 CO, 2.0 NOx Federal
standards*.
As of the time of this writing what is happening appears to be a combination
of both approaches. Chrysler and AMC appear to be concentrating on the
improved systems approach, GM seems to be leaning toward the recalibration
approach, and Ford seems to be somewhere in between.
* These standards were suspended for one year by the EPA Administrator
on March 5, 1975. The current 1977 Federal Standards are 1.5 HC, .-
15,CO, 2.0 NOx.
4-4
-------
4.3 Update of the 75/76 Fuel Economy Performance
The latest estimates for the sales-weighted fuel economy of most of the
manufacturers in 1975 and 1976 are shown below in Table 4-3.
These estimates, based on projected sales, can be compared to the fuel
economy standards recently exacted. This is shown on Table 4-4.
Table 4-4
Manufacturers Not Now
Meeting Fuel Economy Standards
Set for Future Years
Year
. Miles per Gallon Standard
Manufacturers Who Fall Below
that Standard in 1976
1978
1979
1980
1985
18.0
19.0
20.0
27.5
GM, Ford, Chrysler, Bricklin,
Rolls-Royce, Checker
The above plus AMC,
Daimler-Benz, BMW
The above plus Volvo
All manufacturers except
Fuji and Honda
Most of the gains in fuel economy by those companies that must make
the greatest improvements from current levels will probably be obtained by the
introduction of new smaller and lighter weight vehicles and/or lighter
weight vehicles that are the same size as today's models, as is illustrated
by the following case. If one computes the sales-weighted fuel economy
from a production mix typical of manufacturers whose sales are dominated
by heavier automobiles using typical 1975 fuel economy values the resultant
composite sales-weighted fuel economy is about 15.5 miles per gallon.
If the production mix were shifted around to be the mirror image of what
4-5
-------
Manufacturer
Table 4-3
Fuel Economy for Various Manufacturers
1974 1975 1976 Manufacturer
1974 1975 1976
GM
Ford
Chrysler
AMC
VW
Toyota
Nissan
Volvo
Audi
Fiat
Triumph (BLMI)
Saab
Fuji
Daimler-Benz
Honda
Toyo Kogyo
Urban 10.
Non-Urban 14 .
Composite 12.
12.
18.
14.
11.
17.
13.
14.
19.
16.
22.
35.
26.
19.
28.
22.
20.
30.
24.
16.
.24.
19.
19.
29.
22.
18.
27.
21.
19.
27.
22.
18.
21.
19.
22.
31.
25.
13.
18.
15.
26.
36.
31.
11.
17.
13.
54
55
03
67
62
80
89
00
75
46
52
37
61
05
91
19
59
52
69
00
05
55
66
42
14
67
78
89
01
85
3
7
3
41
91
84
5
0
7
30
76
30
05
99
11
69
07
62
13.49
18.67
15.41
11.64
17.11
13.60
13.45
19.20
15.54
16.77
22.57
18.96
23.04
35.62
27.39
18.92
28.17
22.17
21.46
31.09
24.94
16.35
24.42
19.21
20.33
31.58
24.21
19.00
27.12
21.96
20.35
29.22
23.57
21.15
25.23
22.81
23.20
32.11
26.51
15.03
21.25
17.35
27.16
38.36
31.27
14.36
20.97
16.73
14.
20.
16.
15.
20.
17.
14.
20.
16.
16.
21.
18.
22.
34.
26.
21.
31.
24.
22.
31.
25.
16.
24.
19.
21.
30.
25.
19.
29.
23.
20.
29.
23.
20.
27.
22.
26.
35.
29.
16.
22.
18.
28.
39.
32.
18.
27.
21.
50
28
64
19
96
34
27
03
39
15
83
29
95
38
98
19
87
95
46
87
90
45
75
37
89
83
17
45
78
05
83
44
98
00
59
82
46
02
73
32
52
63
47
69
62
93
19
93
Urban
Porsche Non-Urban
Composite
Bricklin
R.R.
A. Romeo
Jaguar (BLMI)
Renault
Peugeot
BMW
Austin-MG(BLMI)
Checker
BLMI
All companies combined
17
27
20
8
10
9
20
26
23
9
13
11
19
26
22
16
23
18
16
24
19
21
30
24
17
24
20
.5
.3
.9
-
.2
.9
.2
.6
.8
.0
.4
.9
.0
.6
.9
.3
.58
.05
.98
.69
.79
.54
.6
.2
.8
.3
.8
.1
16.
25.
19.
12.
16.
13.
9.
12.
10.
19.
25.
21.
10.
16.
12.
23.
32.
26.
19.
27.
22.
15.
22.
18.
20.
28.
23.
14.
19.
16.
18.
26.
21.
56
89
76
28
62
92
03
03
17
44
26
69
95
18
81
52
33
81
98
51
79
45
93
11
37
60
40
90
49
70
48
50
39
17.14
26.90
20.48
13.39
17.77
15.06
10.03
13.22
11.25
19.48
26.90
22.24
10.83
15.57
12.55
19.73
26.23
22.21
16.52
22.94
18.90
18.42
31.87
22.74
15.70
20.36
17.50
18.16
27.40
21.41
Production sales values used for 1974 whenever possible,
1975 and 1976 estimates based on estimated sales
4-6
-------
happened in 1975, i.e., the production mix dominated by lighter weight
vehicles, the sales-weighted fuel economy would be about 21 mpg. Such
fleet-wide improvement would be achieved even without the individual
vehicle improvement in fuel economy that was demonstrated in 1976 over
the 1975 models.
This example shows the degree of improvement obtainable in sales-weighted
fuel economy due to altering the production mix toward lighter weight
automobiles. The trends in the industry in the design and development
of new vehicles and new, more efficient, body designs for existing
vehicles are all in the direction that should result in the production
mix being significantly altered in the near term.
Another way to improve fuel economy is with development time and effort.
Using the same production mix, the 1976 California vehicles are 4.6
percent better in fuel economy than the 1975 Federal vehicles. This
shows that significant progress can be made in fuel economy even in only
one year, even though the California vehicles meet more stringent emission
standards.
4.4 Fuel Economy Projections for the Stringent Emission Standards
The projection of fuel economy for vehicles at more stringent emission
standards involves the estimation of actual performance of advanced
.'
systems that have not yet been tested. Typical development vehicles
tested to date have not had all of the components of what was termed in
the past EPA reports to be a "full effort" system. A full effort system
is defined as a system integrating most or all of the advanced components
under development.
4-7
-------
The methodology utilized in past EPA studies and reports to project the
performance of "full effort" or reasonably selected technology has been
to reduce the emissions of vehicles with less than full effort systems
by a series of numerical factors. These factors reflect the emission
reduction that has been demonstrated with the subsystems or components
on engine dynamometer or on vehicles. The use of these adjustment
factors by EPA in the past has been.disputed by the automotive industry.
However, the same approach will be taken in this fuel economy section.
For the most part factors that reflect the use of technology that reduces
HC emissions will be used. This is because HC is the single most important
problem when one has to meet low emissions with good fuel economy.
The approach followed involves two basic steps: (1) estimating engine
out HC emissions with the engine "optimized" for fuel economy and then
(2) estimating the emission levels to which the HC emissions could be
reduced by the application of emission control technology.
»
6
At this point a degression to discuss optimization and modeling is
necessary.
As pointed out earlier in the discussion of all-electronic engine control,
the biggest problem with the application of this technology is to determine
just what the optimum calibrations really are. The flexibility inherent
in the future electronically-controlled systems offers degrees of freedom
not considered possible by engineers before, because of limitations of
yesterday's and today's technology, but the full scope of the impact on
fuel economy remains to be quantified.
Many have turned to computer modeling in an attempt to quantify the
optimum calibrations. These models in general, rely on brake specific
emission and fuel consumption data determined by engine dynamometer
tests. These data are combined with the. calculated engine demands
4-8
-------
during the test to predict what the fuel economy and emissions would be
on the EPA urban and/or non-urban test cycles. There are several basic
deficiencies with this approach. The engine data are usually from hot
(warmed-up) engines, operating at steady state conditions. Neither of
these conditions is present on the emission test. The test cycle involves
thermal transients and speed and load transients not comprehended by the
models. This is important because the first few minutes of operation on
EPA's cold start emission test may determine whether or not the vehicle
will pass or fail, especially for HC and CO, and for any pollutant
catalytically controlled. Thus this modeling approach can often lead to
false or misleading fuel economy relationship.
In this report an effort has been made to rely as much as possible on
vehicle results. The trends are clear. For the conventional engine,
engine-out HC emissions at good fuel economy calibrations are higher
than the 0.41 HC standard. Also, based on limited data obtained with
current technology, HC emissions go up as NOx is lowered with EGR while
retaining good fuel economy. The term good fuel economy rather than
optimum fuel economy has been used since nobody really knows what the
optimum fuel economy is.
A range is given on the HC values estimated below. This is because the
details of the engine design that influence HC emissions from gasoline
engines vary from engine to engine.
All of the variables that go into determining combustion chamber design,
e,
inlet and in-cylinder air flow, homogeneity and character of the air/fuel
charge, and the details of the ignition system will influence the
4-9
-------
relationship. The estimates for engine-out HC emissions are presented
below. Note that they are stated as "good" fuel economy calibrations
not "optimum" fuel economy calibrations. The true optimum values could
be higher or lower than those shown below.
Table 4-5
Engine-Out HC Emissions
for Good Fuel Economy
with No HC Emission Control
NOx Level HC Level (range)
grams per mile grams per mile
Totally uncontrolled 1.6 to 3.3
1.2 to 1.7 (1) 1.8 to 3.8
about 1.0 (2) 2.0 to 4.1
^ ' Needed to meet standards of 1.5 to 2.0 NOx.
Needed to meet standards of 1.0 or 0.4 NOx with additional
NOx control via a catalyst.
As can be seen from Table 4-5 meeting 0.41 HC with good fuel economy
presents the vehicle and engine designer with a significant challenge-
,Technical approaches for HC control considered by EPA to be reasonable
are discussed below.
Improved oxidation catalysts and adjustments for the revised certification
fuel specifications are the first steps. Oxidation catalysts with 70
percent HC efficiency at 50,000 miles have been demonstrated, using the
previously specified certification fuel. The effect from the revised
fuels specifications discussed in an earlier section is a reduction in
50,000 mile HC and CO emissions by factors of 0.742 and 0.767 respectively.
Adjusting for the revised fuel and the improved catalysts yields 50,000
mile conversion efficiencies for HC and CO respectively of 78 and 80
percent. The combined factors, then are shown below.
4-10
-------
Table 4-6
New Certification Fuel
Plus Improved Catalyst Factors
HC CO NOx
.22 .20 1.03
Future systems will have additional control technology. One of the more
I
attractive techniques is heat conservation. Data on full heat conservation
systems, such as, port liners, well insulated exhaust manifolds, and
exhaust pipes with an oxidation catalyst are not available. However,' as
a surrogate to a full heat conservation system we have quantified the
effect of exhaust port liners. '
The effects of exhaust port liners can be found in the literature .
These data are shown below.
Table 4-7
Exhaust Port Liner Effect
System HC CO NOx
without port liners 1.30 7.43 2.23
with port liners 0.52 6.79 1.85
Indicated Factor 0.40 0.91 , 0.83
without port liners 1.26 9.19 2.34
with port liners 0.98 7.10 2.20
Indicated Factor 0.78 0.77 0.94
Average of Factors 0.59 0.84 0.89
Undoubtedly the effect of-port liners will vary from engine to engine
due to differences in exhaust port area and length. EPA concludes that
* Emissions, Fuel Economy and Durability of Lean Burn Systems by
W.E. Adams, et. al., SAE Paper 760227, presented at the Automotive
Engineering Congress and Exposition, Detroit, Michigan, February 1976.
4-11
-------
using the average of the factors is a good estimate of the effect.
As indicated earlier in the report the use of thermal and catalytic
aftertreatment would be an attractive system for controlling emissions
to low levels that may permit good fuel economy calibrations. Thermal
reactors are one such thermal aftertreatment system.
The effect of a thermal reactor can be found in the above referenced
paper (SAE 760227). This is shown in Table 4-8 as case 1. Other data
was reported in the Ford Status Report. This is shown as case 2 in the
table. The Ford results include the effect of port liners. Additional
data.can be found in the literature , and is shown as case 3. In this
case, two similar, but not identical vehicles are compared.
••, --y ' • • . . '
V;.?_.'.-,. Table 4-8
Thermal Reactor Effect
Case 1 HC CO NOx
without reactor 1.26 9.19 2.34
with reactor 0.85 9.15 2.25
JŁ^ndicated Factor 0.67 1.00 0.96
Case 2
without reactor 2.10 16.90 2.40
with port liners
plus reactor 1.14 13.40 1.74
Indicated Factor 0.54 0.79 0.73
Case 3
without reactor 1.3 7.8 2.0
with reactor 0.62 4.8 1.7
Indicated Factor ' 0.48 0.62 . 0.85
* Emission Control with Lean Mixtures by J.E. Schweikert, et. al., SAE
Paper 760226, presented at the Automotive Engineering Congress and
Exposition, Detroit, Michigan, February 1976.
4-12
-------
Table 4-8 indicates i that thermal reactor performance varies with
design, particularly, if port liners are used; The average of the
factors indicated, above for the two systems with thermal reactors only
were used to develop the thermal reactor factor. Case 2 was used to
develop the same factor including also port liners. The results are
shown in Table 4-9.
Table 4-9
Effect of a Thermal
Reactor and a Thermal
Reactor plus Port Liners
System Factors
HC CO NOx
Thermal Reactor 0.58 0.81 0.91
Thermal Reactor
Plus Port Liners 0.54 0.79 0.73
The thermal reactor effect is considered conservative. There are at
least two other recent examples in the literature that indicate that
thermal reactor systems can be quite effective in controlling emissions.
The first paper (SAE paper 760319) shows the dramatic effect of insulating
a thermal reactor. Insulation had the same, or greater, effect on HC
control than spark retard did. This suggests that thermal insulation
can essentially eliminate the need for spark retard, with its attendant
fuel economy penalties. The second paper (SAE Paper 760255) presented
test results from a 2500 pound vehicle with a 200 cubic inch engine with
a thermal reactor. The best fuel economy calibrations obtainable with
this vehicle (20.2 mpg urban) yielded emissions of 0.40 HC, 3.0 CO, 1.5
NOx. No catalyst was used.
* Lean Thermal Reactor Performance - A Screening Study by R.J. Herrin,
SAE Paper 760319, presented at the Automotive Engineering Congress and
Exposition, Detroit, Michigan, February 1976.
A Spark Ignition, Lean Homogeneous Combustion Engine Emission Control
System for a Small Vehicle, by D.J. Pozniak SAE Paper 760225 presented
at the Automotive Engineering Congress and Exposition, Detroit, Michigan,
February 1976.
4-13
-------
Use of a switched out start catalyst was the next technology investigated.
Earlier work by EPA yielded the results shown on Table 4-10 as "Earlier
Work". More recent data from the GM Status Report and also the literature
are included with the low mileage results of non-switched out start
catalysts being used to approximate the effect of a switched-out start
catalyst.
It should be noted that the referenced paper used 2 start catalysts that
were 3 inches in diameter and only 3/4 of an inch long. Total platinum
loading was 0.0035 troy ounces. At a retail price of $150.00 per troy
ounce this works out to 53 cents worth of platinum. It is estimated by
EPA that the whole system would cost the customer less than 25 dollars.
Table 4-10
Switched-out
Start Catalyst Effect
Switched-Out
System Start Catalyst Factor
Earlier work
Earlier work
Earlier work
Literature
Recent data
Recent data
Average Factor 0.61 0.61 1.02
HC
0.48
0.62
0.70
0.60
0.57
0.68
CO
0.36
0.45
0.66
1.01
0.46
0.72
NOx
1.01
1.00
1.00
0.98
0.90
1.20
* A Guard System to Limit Catalytic Converter Temperature by J.R. Mondt,
SAE Paper 760320, presented at the Automotive Engineering Congress
and Exposition, Detroit, Michigan, February 1976.
4-14
-------
Improved EGR systems were the next technological improvement considered.
If a system could be found that controlled NOx without as much of a
deleterious effect on HC as even today's best production system, HC
benefits could be obtained. Ford possibly tested such a system. Ford's
status report includes test results of a "sonic" EGR system from two
nominally identical vehicles except for the use of sonic EGR on one
vehicle. Both systems had oxidation catalysts, air injection and the
same model carburetor. Best effort results were presented by Ford and
are shown in Table 4-11.
Table 4-11
Sonic EGR Effect
3 test averages in each case
System HC CO NOx
Backpressure EGR 0.55 3.00 0.77
Sonic EGR 0.21 1.58 0.74
Indicated Factor 0.38 0.53 0.96
It was also reported that the sonic EGR cat had better fuel economy than
did the other, higher emitting, vehicle.
Other improvements such as improved ignition systems have been reported
*
in the literature . However, their HC control benefits, shown on engine
dynamometer tests, could not be quantified, since 1975 cold-start FTP
results were not reported. While it is clear that these improvements
* The Ferroresonant Capacitor Discharge Ignition (FCDI) System; _A Multiple
Firing CD Ignition with Spark Discharge Sustaining Between Firings by
J.R. Asik, et. at., SAE Paper 760266, presented at the Automotive Engineering
Congress and Exposition, Detroit, Michigan, February 1976.
The Performance of a Multigap Spark Plug Designed for Automotive Applications,
by W.G. Rado, et. al., SAE Paper 760264, presented at the Automotive
Engineering Congress and Exposition, Detroit, Michigan, February 1976.
4-15
-------
*
along with improvements in fuel atomization have benefits they remain
to be quantified.
The above discussion shows that much emission control technology remains
to be fully integrated and tested to obtain good fuel economy at or
below 0.41 HC. In this study estimates of emissions reductions were
made for systems that are combinations of the subsystems described
above. These combined system have been applied to the highest HC emis-
sion value reported earlier as being one that resulted from a good (some
might say optimum) fuel economy calibration. The highest value for
engine-out HC was 4.1 grams per mile.
System 1 Improved Catalyst, Revised Certification Fuel, Sonic EGR.
Engine out 4.1 HC, predicted 50,000 mile tailpipe, 0.34 HC.
System 2 Improved Catalyst, Revised Certification Fuel, Port Liners
Switched-Out Start Catalyst. Engine out 4.1 HC, predicted
50,000 mile tailpipe, 0.32 HC
These are only two of the many systems that could be considered to make
the good fuel economy engine calibrations achieve HC levels low enough
to have high confidence of certifying at a 0.41 HC standard.
Systems like sonic carburetion (which tend to have engine-out emissions
much lower than 4.1 HC at best fuel economy) coupled with the other
systems discussed above could be configured. Other systems like on-
board fuel distillation (factors of 0.48 and 0.54 for HC and CO), and
cold storage of HC by means of charcoal (an HC factor of 0.47, 75' FTP
basis) could also be considered.
* Effects of the Degree of Fuel Atomization on Single-Cylinder Engine
Performance, by W.R. Matthes, et. al., SAE Paper 760117, presented at the
Automotive Engineering Congress and Exposition, Detroit, Michigan,
February 1976.
4-16
-------
In summary, there are many technological approaches that need to be
explored since advanced systems could allow the most stringent emissions
standards to be achieved at best fuel economy levels.
4.5 Cost Ranges
The issue of control technology costs has been examined in somewhat more
.detail than in previous years. Unfortunately, as has been the case in
the past, the responses on cost from most manufacturers were not wholly
responsive to the request from EPA on cost information. Some manufacturers
submitted nothing, most submitted inadequately substantiated information,
and only one manufacturer, Mitsubishi, made a real attempt to submit
cost information in the desired format.
Some rough estimates of costs based on EPA calculations were made. Much
of the information on the costing methodology was taken from a NAS
*
report and the values shown in Table 4-12 were used to compute the
costs.
* Manufacturability and Costs of Proposed Low-Emissions Automotive
Systems, Consultant Report to the Committee on Motor Vehicle Emissions,
Commission on Sociotechnical systems, National Research Council, Sept. 1974.
4-17
-------
Table 4-12
Costing Information
Item
Value or Range of
Numerical Values
Manufactured cost divided by
material cost
Corporate profit
Corporate GNA
Tooling
Dealer margin
Ratio of selling price to
material cost
Ratio of replacement part cost
to material cost
Catalyst active material
Stainless steel
Mild Steel
Rubber
Plastic
Charcoal
Cast Iron
0 to 10 percent of selling price
10 percent of selling price
2 percent of selling price
22 percent of selling price
4.6 to 5.4 (depends on corporate
profit)
$100.00 to $150.00 per troy ounce
$0.50 to $1.50 per pound
$0.06 to $0.20 per pound
$0.38 per pound
$0.70 to $0.80 per pound
$0.10 to $0.15 per pound
$0.05 to $0.20 per pound
Table 4-13 gives the costs of various components and subsystems that
go into making up emission control systems. Costs are given as a
range, because there are ranges on the input parameters.
4-18
-------
Table 4-13
Ranges of Cost Estimates
(1)
Item/Component/Subsystem
PCV valve
Evap control
TCS/OSAC
Anti-Dieseling Solenoid
Hardened valve seals
Air injection system
Air switching system
Reed valve AIR system
EGR system (all types)
Pelleted ox cat (each)
Monolithic ox cat (each)
Start catalyst system
Pelleted NOx cat (each)
Monolithic NOx cat (each)
Metallic NOx cat (each)
Monolithic 3-way cat (each)
0_ sensor
New, advanced, fuel metering
system
Thermal reactor (each)
Port Liners (per cylinder)
Quick heat manifold
SEFE
Electric choke
HEI
Improved exhaust system
Insulated manifold/exhaust pipe
Carburetor modifications for
altitude compensation and
feedback
Electronic control unit
Range of Manufacturers
Estimates, Dollars
2 to 3
5 to 18
6 to 10
2 to 6
2
25 to 140
15 to 30
15
11 to 53
35 to 118
66 to 153
75 to 100
72 to 150
90 to 157
100
100 to 105
5 to 23
N.R.
4 to 86
1
N.R.
N.R.
4 to 9
27 to 116
30 to 40
Range of EPA
Estimates, Dollars
N.R.
N.R.
105-125
2
7
to 3
to 9
2 to 3
2 to 3
10 to 20
1 to 4
2 to 6
1 to 2
96 to 113
44 to 52
41 to 48
101 to 118
49 to 57
47 to 55
46 to 54
5 to 10
10 to 20
14 to 26
over std. manifold
.50 to .60
8 to 10
12 to 15
5 to 10
15 to 25
20 to 30
over old system
15 to 20
6 to 10
50 to 60
(1)
N.R. means not reported
Of more interest, perhaps, are the estimated cost ranges to meet current
and future emission standards. These cost ranges are shown in Table
4-14.
4-19
-------
Table 4-14
Emission Control System Costs
to Meet Various Standards
Range of Manufacturer
Estimates
Emissions Standards
HC/CO/NOx (year)
3.4/39/3.0 ('74)(1)
1.5/15/3.1 ('75-'76
Fed)
1.5/15/2.0 ('77 Fed)
0.9/9.0/2.0 ('75-'76
Cal)
0.9/9.0/2.0 ('75-'76
Cal)
0.41/9.0/1.5 ('77 Cal)
0.41/9.0/1.5 ('77 Cal)
0.41/9.0/1.5 ('77 Cal)
0.41/3.4/2.0
0.41/3.4/1.0
0.41/3.4/0.4
0.41/3.4/0.4
Dollars
N.R.
(2)
136
0 to 173.20
33 to 133
257
-? to 110.30
25 to 205
254 to 291
22 to 193
147 to 360
35 to 482.86
346 to 381
Base Year
UC
'75-'76 Fed
'75-'76 Fed
Range of EPA
Estimates
Dollars
32 to 95
32 to 125
32 to 125
Base Year
UC
(3)
UC
UC
UC
1
1
1
1
t
1
1
75-'
75-'
74
75-'
75-'
75-'
74
76
76
76
76
76
Cal
Fed
Fed
Fed
Fed
70
175
175
175
277
to
to
to
to
to
141
216
216
218
321
UC
UC
UC
UC
UC
(1) 1972 FTP; all other emissions on 1975 FTP.
(2) N.R. means not reported.
(3) UC means uncontrolled.
Table 4-14 indicates that the base year for the manufacturer's cost
estimates was not always the same.
The reason for the wide range in the EPA cost estimates is that it was considered
necessary to treat two different cases to determine the range. One end
of the range was determined by estimating the cost for a system to
just meet the standards with no consideration whatsoever given to fuel
4-20
-------
economy. The other end of the range was determined by estimating the
cost for a system to meet the standards, but with reasonable or good
fuel economy.
Another reason for the range in cost is that there is a range in control
system costs,for different vehicles, with lighter weight vehicles
generally having less expensive emission control systems. EPA estimates
reflect the cost for an average car.
It is probably most appropriate to allocate to emission control a dollar
figure near to the lower bound cost estimates, and to allocate to fuel
economy improvements the difference between the higher and lower cost
estimates.
As a final note regarding the cost estimates, it should be noted that
the costs for controlling pollutants were not separated for each pollutant.
This is because an emission control system controls all of the pollutants
to the degree needed. There is currently no accepted method for allocating
the costs of an emission control system among individual pollutants.
4-21
-------
SECTION 5
THE IMPACTS OF PERMITTING OR NOT PERMITTING
CATALYTIC CONVERTER SERVICE ONCE DURING
THE 50.000 DURABILITY MILEAGE ACCUMULATION SCHEDULE
5.1 Background
Section 86.077-25(a)(2)(IV) of the emission regulations covering auto-
mobiles permits service of the catalytic converter once during the
50,000 mile certification durability test mileage accumulation.
Some foreign manufacturers have used this provision to replace the
catalyst (taking the old one off and putting on a new one) once. The
change has typically been made at about 25,000 to 30,000 miles.
Most of the vehicles that certified in the past with a catalyst change
were intended for sale in California. Late in 1975 the California
regulations that apply to catalyst change were revised in a manner that
made it unattractive for a manufacturer .to use the catalyst change
option. Briefly, the California regulations require the manufacturer to
provide full warranty coverage (parts, labor, taxes) for the catalyst
change, require the installation of a catalyst change reminder service
in the car, require the manufacturer to install a doorpost sticker, a
window sticker and a notice in the owner's manual advising the car owner
of the need for a catalyst change, and require the manufacturer to
notify the owner by first class mail when a catalyst change is needed.
Also the manufacturer must establish a policy to reimburse the dealers,
and must report to the California Air Resources Board the number of
catalyst changes made. Finally the dealer has to make a catalyst change
on vehicles that need it, the owner permitting.
-------
As a result some of the manufacturers undertook to re-certify without
using a catalyst change. Since most of the manufacturers that had used
a catalyst change had also been successful in running without a catalyst
change, the question arises as to why they did not certify all of their
cars without a catalyst change. There could be at least two reasons for
/
this. First, the manufacturers could have been uncertain of this new
catalytic technology as applied to their vehicles, and they wanted to
make their chances of certifying as high as possible by using the catalyst
change option. Second, the manufacturers may have wanted to reduce
system first cost by allocating catalyst replacement cost to the main-
tenance cost of the owner, and also to profit from retail sales of
catalysts.
The 1975 and 1976 certification experience clearly indicates that it is
not necessary to use a catalyst change to certify at either the 1.5 HC,
15 CO, 3.1 NOx or the 0.9 HC, 9.0 CO, 2.0 NOx standards. However, an
important question is the impact of allowing or not allowing a catalyst
service on the industry's capability to meet future emission standards.
5.2 Catalyst Service Without a Catalyst Change
Catalyst service could include procedures other than just replacing the
catalyst. The use of the service provisions of the regulations to date
has been replacement, but there may be other avenues for catalyst ser-
vice that are not replacement with a new catalyst.
Catalyst regeneration is an approach that could potentially be used.
Some catalysts used in the oil industry are routinely regenerated in
situ. However in many cases this involves treatment with a reducing gas
like CO at high temperature, possibly with the addition of special
additives. This approach may be too sophisticated for the average
5-2
-------
dealer or garage due to equipment needs. Also, process catalysts
generally see a more controlled history than automobile catalysts do.
One of the reasons regeneration works is that poisons are removed from
the catalyst. Therefore, if poisons could be removed from automobile
catalysts while they remain on the vehicle this type of catalyst service
may be attractive. Two approaches could be tried, one in which an
additive was put into the fuel/air mixture, in a manner similar to
today's carburetor cleaners. Another approach, mentioned by GM, is to
pour something in the exhaust pipe that would remove the catalyst poisons,
tilt the car and have the solvent go into the catalyst, and then remove
the catalyst poison-laden solvent.
Another technique would require that the catalyst be removed, recon-
ditioned and then replaced. Catalyst regeneration work has been reported*
using acetic acid and ammonium acetate. Laboratory results showed good
post-regeneration efficiency but more extensive regeneration (two 3-hour
treatments at 195 F with ultrasonic agitation, compared to washing at
room temperature for one-half hour) was required to return the rate of
activity loss after regeneration to what the original catalyst demon-
strated. If facilities and equipment were available, a new service
industry could be created. For example, an industry exists today to
rebuild engines, carburetors, electrical components, etc. It is not
impossible to conceive of a catalyst reconditioning industry. The
customer would take his car (or catalyst) in and get a credit for the
old catalyst, and get a "rebuilt" put in. This assumes that his old
catalyst could not be regenerated in a short time.
The major problem with the regeneration approach, either on the car or
as an off-the-car reconditioning, is that the vehicle results with
* "Rejuvenation of Lead-Poisoned Noble Metal Catalyst" by Walter C. Roths-
child, SAE Paper 760321, presented at the Automotive Engineering Congress
and Exposition, Detroit, Michigan, February 23-27, 1976.
5-3
-------
catalysts that have been regenerated have shown poor post-regeneration
efficiency with accumulated mileage. The newly-regenerated catalyst can
have good, near fresh, efficiency, but in the vehicle tests run to date
the efficiency has been quickly lost, more quickly than the original
catalyst lost its efficiency before the regeneration. The reasons are
not well understood."
One catalyst deterioration mechanism that does not appear to be amenable
to regeneration is thermal degradation; This could put an upper limit
to the effectiveness of this approach.
Thus that catalyst regeneration is potentially a viable concept, it
cannot be relied on;now as an equally effective alternative to replace-
ment of a catalyst with a new one.
5.3 Catalyst Service via Catalyst Replacement
Catalyst replacement is the most effective service technique at this
time. Some manufacturers are considering this option, at least as a
backup, for the 1977 California standards of 0.41 HC, 9.0 CO, 1.5 NOx.
The other consideration related to the catalyst change and future stan-
dards was made by EPA in the Technical Appendix to the Administrator^
Decisions on the Suspension of the 1977 Auto Exhaust Emission Standards.
The standards under consideration were 0.41 HC, 3.4 CO, 2.0 NOx. The
impact of the use of a catalyst change at these levels is shown in Table
5-1.
-------
Table 5-1
Effect of Using a Catalyst
Change on Certification
Capability - as of March, 1975
(Standards; 0.41 HC. 3.4 CO. 2.0 NOx)
Percent of the Market Projected to Certify Successfully
Without Catalyst Change With Catalyst Change
0 100% of domestic production
For this report, the same case was re-examined. The analysis has been
modified somewhat. When the catalyst-change portion of the EPA Monte
Carlo analysis was originally developed a catalyst-change was simulated
by considering the new catalyst emissions as an after-maintenance test
point at the catalyst-change point, and replacing the data beyond the
catalyst-change point by the data before the catalyst-change.. Thus, if
the catalyst change was simulated at 30,000 miles, the actual 30,000
mile point was used as the before maintenance point, and the zero-mile
data point was used as the after maintenance point. The new 35,000 mile
point was the 5,000 mile point, and so on. Because no actual catalyst
change data existed then, an adjustment factor of 1.1 was put on HC and
CO emissions to simulate engine-out deterioration. This was conserva-
tive, since it built-in more deterioration.
Now there are actual certification catalyst change data to study. The
actual catalyst change data was compared to the results predicted by the
methodology. For the vehicles studied the adjustment factor was then
varied until the difference between the average actual DF and the
average DF projected by the methodology was driven to zero. The results
are shown on Table 5-2.
5-5
-------
Table 5-2
Adjustment Factors
to Simulate a Catalyst Change
Factors to Make Difference
in Average Projected and
Average .Actual Values Vanish
Old Factors
DF
50K extrapolated
emissions
New Factors
HC
CO
NOx(A)*
NOx(B)*
1.1
1.0
1.Q7
0.95
-------
Table 5-3
Standards Examined
HC CO NOx
2.0
1.5
1.0*
0.4
*Two cases were considered, one in which NOx is not catalytically con-
trolled, the other in which NOx is catalytically controlled. The vari-
ances in car-to-car, test-to-test, and DF were the same as for HC for
the catalytic control of NOx use.
0.41
0.41
0.41
0.41
3.4
9.0
3.4
3.4
5-7
-------
Table 5-4
Effect of a Catalyst Change
at Different Standards
Confidence
Level
(1)
(1)
(2)
(2)
(1)
(1)
(2)
(2)
Catalyst
Change (cc)
or no
Catalyst
Change
(No cc)
No cc
cc
No cc
cc
No cc*
cc*
No cc*
cc*
No. of % that Passed
Vehicles .41 HC, 3.4 CO,
Studied 0.4 NOx
2 0
2 0
2 100
2 100
-
-
-
— —
No. of
Vehicles
Studied
6
6
6
6
-
-
-
—
% that Passed
.41 HC, 3.4 CO
1.0 NOx
0
33
33
50
•
-
•
—
No. of
Vehicles
Studied
80
85
80
85
80
85
80
85
% that Passed
.41 HC, 3.4 CO
2.0 NOx
18
56
44
74
41
74
74
92
No. of
Vehicles
Studied
8
10
8
10
8
10
8
10
% that Passed
.41 HC, 9.0 CO
1.5 NOx
0
0
13
2
0
0
25
30
* Case includes factors
(1) Had greater than 80 percent probability of successfully certifying
(2) Did not line cross, i.e. "met" the standards, but the probability of certifying is less than 80 percent.
-------
Table 5-4 is conservative because not many vehicles were available with
full systems targeted toward 0.4 or 1.0 NOx.
Also, only partial data were available on systems targeted toward the
1977 California standards of 0.41 HC, 9.0 CO, 1.5 NOx. Also some
vehicles had to be considered at standards other than those for which
they were targeted, i.e., 0.4 NOx cars at 1.0 NOx.
5.4 Fuel Economy and Cost Impacts of a Catalyst Change
The range of fuel economy effect due to a catalyst change is shown in
Table 5-5. Most of the benefit is due to lower DF, and only a slight
benefit is due to reduced DF variability.
The cost of a catalyst change is one important part of the study of the
catalyst change. The subject of catalyst change costs is discussed
below.
Table 5-6 lists the catalyst change costs provided by the manufacturers.
Table 5-5
Effect of a Catalyst Change
on Fuel Economy
Emission Range of Fuel
Standards Economy Effect,
HC/CO/NOx Percent
0.41/3.4/2.0 +4 to +8
0.41/9.0/1.5 +1 to +2
0.41/3.4/1.0* +3 to +6
* NOx is catalytically controlled
5-9
-------
Table 5-6
Catalyst Change Costs
(per catalyst)
Catalyst .Type
Range of Manufacturer
Estimates
Average Manufacturer
Estimates
Pelleted oxidation
Monolithic oxidation
Pelleted reduction
(A) $60.00 to $70.00
(B) $69.95 to $173.79
(C) $30.90 to $49.80
(A) $169.60
(B) $395.00 to over $1000.00
(C) $97.00
(A) $70.30 to $128.60
Nonpelleted reduction (A) $107.20
(B) $285fOO
(C) $106.60 to $190.10
$53.62 to $97.86
$220.53 to 455.53
$70.30 to $128.60
$166.23 to $194.10
3-Way
Start
(A) $162.00
(B) $100.00
(C) $150.00
(A) $107.20
$137.34
$107.20
Sensor
(A) $9.20 to $19.20
(B) $30.00
(C) $20.00
$19.74 to $23.08
5-10
-------
As can be seen from the above table, the cost estimates for a catalyst
change vary widely. This could be because there is a range on all of
the costs that go into making up the total cost, i.e. materials, OEM
versus replacement part costing, labor, etc.
EPA has developed catalyst change cost estimates based on Table 5-7. The
amounts are listed as ranges to allow for system differences and the
uncertainty of the estimate. Note that the catalytically active material
costs are given as platinum equivalents, except for the metallic NOx
catalyst. The range on platinum costs is from the quoted price of
$150.00 per troy ounce down to $100.00 per troy ounce. The lower bound
for the range is given because the large volume customer typically gets
a discount and platinum should be no different.
The cost estimates are shown in Table 5-8.
5-11
-------
Table 5-7
Ranges of Items that Affect
Catalyst Change Costs
Item
Catalyst loading . .
Active material cost-noble metal
-non-noble metal
Stainless steel
Converter housing weight
Substrate cost
Substrate weight
Metallic NOx catalyst weight
Labor cost
Catalyst replacement labor time
Ratio of material cost to OEM cost
Ratio of material cost to
replacement cost
0.02 to 0.20 troy ounces per catalyst
$100.00 to $150.00 per troy ounce
$0.50 to $1.50 per pound
$0.50 to $1.50 per pound
3 to 20 pounds (pelleted) 2 to 5
pounds (monolithic)
$0.25 to $2.00 per pound
4 to 6.5 pounds''(pelleted)
1 to 4 pounds (monolithic)
3 to 6 pounds
$11.00 to $17.50 per hour
0.5 to 1.5 hours
4.6 - 5.4*
9 to 12
* Manufacturability and Costs of Proposed Low-Emissions Automotive
Engine Systems, National Research Council, September 1974 and Report
by the Committee on Motor Vehicle Emissions, National Academy of Sciences,
February 1973.
5-12
-------
Table 5-8
Catalyst Change Costs
(per catalyst)
Catalyst Type
Cost Estimate
Lowest Estimate Highest Estimate
Range of
Report Estimate
Pelleted oxidation
Monolithic oxidation
Pelleted Reduction
Monolithic Reduction
Metallic Reduction
Monolithic 3-Way
Monolithic Start
(A)
(B)
(A)
(B)
(A)
(B)
(A)
(B)
(A)
(B)
(A)
(B)
(A)
(B)
$15.70
$24.50
$16.85
$26.75
$15.70
$24.50
$16.85
$26.75
$18.00
$29.00
$16.85
$26.75
$16.85
$26.75
$258.40
$413.20
$271.90
$435.70
$258.40
$413.20
, $271.90
$435.70
$115.30
$174.70
$271.90
$435.70
$215.20
$341.20
$38-44
$68
$52-50
$95
$43-49
$77
$57-66
$104
$53-63
$100
$55-63
$98
$31-38
$48
(A) Cost for the replacement catalyst the same as OEM part, as if
the replacement price were included in the vehicle's first cost.
(B) Cost for the replacement catalyst based on the estimated cost, as
if the catalyst cost was like other replacement parts.
5-13
-------
Table 5-8 indicates that a major effect on the cost of a catalyst change
is whether or not the price of the catalyst is considered as an OEM part
or as a replacement (retail) part. Both estimates are presented, since
the cost of the catalyst change would be much closer to the lower figure
if actions were taken that would tend to include the cost in the first
purchase cost of the automobile.
5.5 Summary
Use of a catalyst change is not necessary ataemission levels down to 0.9
HC, 9.0 CO, 2.0 NOx. To meet Federal standards of 0.41 HC, 3.4 to 9 CO,
and NOx standards of 1.5 NOx to 2.0 NOx would require a catalyst change
if the technology used is the same as that for.1977 model year. HC is
the problem. At 0.41 HC, 3.4 to 9 CO, and a NOx standard of 1.0 NOx,
improvements in technology are also needed before a catalyst change
becomes unnecessary. The same is even more true for the 0.41 HC, 3.4
CO, 0.4 NOx case. This is summarized in Table 5-9.
Table 5-9 indicates that not allowing a catalyst change tends to stretch
out the time at which future stringent emission standards can be met and
that more emission control technology improvements will be needed to meet
lower standards.
It was estimated in this study that the per catalyst cost of a catalyst
change is about $35.00, if the cost is included in the purchase price of
the automobile, and about $85.00 if the replacement catalyst is treated
as a conventional replacement part. The cost differential is attribut-
able to differences between warranty parts and labor cost schedules
versus retail trade levels.
-------
Table 5-9
Impact of a Catalyst Change
on the Ability to Meet Various Standards
Federal
Emission
Standard
HC/CO/NOx
1.5/15.0/3.1
0.9/9.0/2.0
0.41/9.0/1.5
0.41/3.4/2.0
0.41/3.4/2.0
0.41/3.4/1.0
Is
to
a Catalyst Change Required
meet the Federal Standards?
No
No
Yes(1)
Yes
No
Technology
Used
1975/1976
Production
1975/1976
Production
1977(2)
Production
1977
Production
1977 Produc-
Earliest
Model
Applicable
1975
1975
1978 (Fed)
1978 (Fed)
1979
tion + im-
provements
(3)
Yes
3-Way+Ox.Cat(.,1980-83(Fed)
(carbureted) w
0.41/3.4/1.0 No
0.41/3.4/0.4 Yes
0.41/3.4/0.4 No
3-way (Car-
bureted im-7c\
provements
Dual Cat.(6)
or 3-way
Dual Cat. '
or 3-way
1981-84
1981-1985
1981-1985
(1) Based on preliminary 1977 certification results, (2) The technology
being run for certification for 1977 California production, (3) These
improvements have already been demonstrated, (4) This technology is in
development durability testing now. (5) Known improvements, yet to be
durability tested. (6) Includes 3-way + ox. cat. Little testing is
being done. (7) Requires catalyst technology improvements not yet
durability tested.
5-15
-------
The above discussion presents some information that may bear on the
issue of whether catalyst- change should be permitted. However, it
should be pointed out that the major question that impacts on the catalyst
change is sue;', is: Will the catalysts be changed in the field? The
answer to this question is not a technical one. However, given current
maintenance practices and the problems encountered in implementing
inspection and maintenance, it is concluded that the percent of catalysts
that will get changed in the field is likely to be substantially below
100 percent.
5-16
-------
SECTION 6
INDUSTRY STATUS
6.1 Industry Status - 1977 Model Year
As far as the meeting 1977 Federal Standards are concerned, there appears
to be no major problems at this point in time. Most manufacturers will
use systems much like the 1976 Federal systems, with more widespread use
of better EGR systems. Although some manufacturers will use improved
catalysts, the revised certification fuel probably makes this less than
absolutely necessary. Because the 1977 Federal standard for NOx is
different.(2.0 NOx in 1977 versus 3.1 NOx in 1976) recertification of
some models is necessary. However, most manufacturers are recertifying
most models possibly to take advantage of the revised certification
fuel. The lower DF's with the revised fuel should have benefits which
can be taken in improved fuel economy.
From a technological standpoint, the 1977 California systems are of the
most interest. Some manufacturers may use systems which could be fore-
runners of the improved technology needed to meet future standards that
may be mandated nationwide. However, California has adopted easier to
meet ground rules for demonstrating compliance with emission standards.
This means that, while meeting 0.41 HC may be feasible in California
the capability to meet 0.41 HC on a Federal basis has not been proven
for all cars by the results of the 1977 California cars.
There will be some use of start catalyst systems (AMC, Chrysler, pos-
sibly GM), and some use of 3-way catalysts (Volvo, Saab). There may
also be used, by at least one manufacturer, systems that use reduction
and oxidation.catalysts (three way plus oxidation catalyst and dual
catalyst systems). '
-------
These systems are considered to be a promising first step in the develop-
ment of future systems, but only a first step. The lead time has been
too short to develop fully optimized systems. In addition, the California
market may be too small to justify the development of the better systems
that could have been introduced for California.
Finally, the gap between the Federal and the California standards is
quite large for 1977. The manufacturers may not be planning full effort
systems for California for 1977 if standards of similar stringency will
not be required on a Federal basis for many years.
6.2 Industry Status - Post - 1977 Model Year
Although development work is underway on a variety of projects at most
manufacturers, the definite impression is that most of the industry is
waiting to see what happens to the Clean Air Act amendments now under
consideration by Congress. The manufacturers' desire not to expend
limited resources on what they do not have to do, coupled with the drain
on technical manpower for high priority fuel economy programs, has
slowed down development programs, especially those targeted for low NOx
levels.
For the post-1977 timeframe, there is much work going on in the develop-
ment of subsystems that could become a part of future emission control
systems. Some of these areas were discussed in Section 2 under signifi-
cant development trends. The development of some other subsystems may
be considered as fuel economy development by a few manufacturers, and
may not have been reported to EPA.
Assembling full effort systems, optimizing them, and operating the
extensive development durability fleets that are required to fully
investigate the capability to meet future standards is a lengthy,
costly effort. This effort significantly lags the development of the
6-2
-------
subsystems. Some estimates of how long this process of putting together
the systems and running the required development and certification
vehicle fleets has been made. These estimates are shown on Figures
6-1, and 6-2.
Figure 6-1 is for meeting 0.41 HC, 3.4 CO and 0.4 NOx. The emission
control system to be used was assumed to be a dual catalyst system using
a metallic NOx catalyst, for the purpose of estimating lead time. Two
pre-certification development fleets are needed to fully test, evaluate
and pick the best system. Doing the development testing and preparing
the production facilities will take the time indicated on the upper
chart, which results in model year 1980 as the earliest date at which
compliance with the 0.41 HC, 3.4 CO, 0.4 NOx standards can be estimated.
This scenario is based on expanded effort compared to the level of
effort seen today.
Figure 6-2 is a chart for an effort that would result in some fraction
(say 10%) of a manufacturer's production meeting standards of 0.41 HC,
3.4 CO, 1.0 NOx. This estimate is a higher risk one for the manufacturers
since only one development fleet is projected. The emission control
system was assumed to be a 3-way catalyst with a feedback carburetor.
The lead time for a fuel injected system would be longer. With this
high effort, high risk schedule meeting 0.41 HC, 3.4 CO, 1.0 NOx in 1979
may be possible for a limited number of vehicles, less than 100% of
production.
It must be emphasized that the estimates made in Figures 6-1 and 6-2 assume
an expanded level of effort over and above what exists today, and that
such expanded effort must start now. If these assumptions are not met,
meeting the standards at the dates indicated may not be possible. EPA
evaluation of the current emphasis given by manufacturers on emissions
control development is that existing programs would have to be sub-
stantially accelerated to meet the schedules in both figures.
6-3
-------
Figure 6-1
Lead Time Schedule for Meeting 0.41 HC, 3.4 CO, 0.4 NOx
MY77 MY78 MY79 MY80
176 \|/ . ^77 xj/ '78 \|/ '79 \|/ ,
Event M A M J J A S 0 N Dl J F~M A M J J A S ONDTJFMAMjJA SONDfJFMAMJJA SON'
Build Fleet 1 I ~1
•50K Mi. Dura. ' I
Anal. Data | |
Build Fleet 2 | |
50K Mi. Dura. I I Submit Part I
Analyze Data ( I
Prep. Part I ' ' '
Pick Fleet (EPA) CD
Build Fleet I 1
50K Mi. Dura. C
Certificate
Run Data Veh. CZl
Comp. PtII
Plant Go Ahead Job
===
Install Tooling I
-------
Figure 6-2
Lead Time Schedule for Meeting 0.41 HC, 3.4 CO, 1.0 NOx
on a Less than Full Production Basis
Event
MY77
MY78
MY79
MY80
'.- Nk M ^ * *K 12 Nk »K 12 \J/ —
M A. M J J A S 0 N D|j F M A M J J A S 0 N Dl J F M A M J J A S 0 N Dlj F M A M J A S 0 N
Build Fleet C
50K Mi. Dura.
Anal. Data
Prep. Pt. I
Pick Fleet
Build Fleet
5OK Mi. Dura.
Run Data Veh.
Comp. Pt. II
Build New Plant
Install Tooling
Submit Part I
a
„.. Certificate
1 Job 1
-------
SECTION 7
INDIVIDUAL MANUFACTURER REVIEWS
7.1 Domestic Manufacturers
7.1.1 American Motors
7.1.1.1 Systems to be Used
Systems to be Used - 1977 Model Year
The 1977 AMC systems will be a refinement of the 1976 systems plus the
additional application of catalytic converters. The 49 state vehicles
will include a newer combustion chamber shape, backpressure regulated
EGR, transmission controlled spark on vehicles sold at altitude, EFE,
and a pellet type oxidation catalyst. A summary of the 49 engine
families can be found in Table AMC-1. For the California vehicles refer
to Table AMC-2. The principal difference between these vehicles will be
the use of a start catalyst. Other differences for 1977 will be the
lack of availability of some engine families at altitude and the 4
cylinder engine unavailability in California.
AMC will continue to use the pelleted catalyst supplied by AC Spark Plug
division of General Motors. Their start catalyst will be Engelhard
monoliths, two of which are used for eight cylinder engines and one of
which is used for a six cylinder engine.
AMC projects that, there .will be a minimal fuel economy penalty.to a
slight fuel economy gain for the 1977 model year versus the 1976 model
year. AMC speculates that only half of their present models will be
able to receive California certification since their precertification
fleets have not provided an acceptable emission control margin for
compliance.
-------
Table AMC-1
AMERICAN MOTORS EMISSION CONTROL SYSTEMS
1977 .MODEL YEAR LIGHT DUTY VEHICLES (49 STATEo) '
nrciN" i CASH. VENTURI
.•'COO, «• TIvA'SMISSION
GUCRIC SYSTEM
E:;GE3 TYPE & DISPLACEMENT
CCX3CSTION CHAMBER TYPE
ixTr'jKE SYSTO:
EXiLMST PORT & yATERIAL
IGNITION SYSTEM '
2GR
-MH INJECTION
T-iEKMAL REACTOR
CYT.M,YŁT
TCS
rV2L
SUFFIX LEGEND:
4 Cyl. 2V (Z)
40 A & M
EGR + G'ii'
S.I. Recip.
4 Stroke
121 C.I.D.
Flat- low quench
Water heated
AluTJ-nusa-OIIC
Conv. Cast Iron
Breaker Point
B/P Reg. EG.*
None
None
One CEddizing
None
Lead Free
6 Cyl. IV (X)
(01-60-4C) (A)
EGR + AIR
S.I. Recip.
4 Stroke
232/258 C.I.D.
New
•76 EFE C/O
'76 C/O
Breaker less
VP Reg. EGR
19 C.I.D. Purtp
None
None
Yes
Lead Free
6 Cyl. IV
(01-60-40) (M)
EGR+AIR+CAT
S.I. Recip.
4 Stroke
232/258 C.I.D.
New
'76 EFE C/O
'76 C/O
Breakerless
B/P Reg. EGR
19 C.I.D. Pump
None
One Oxidizing
None
Lead Free
6 Cyl. IV (?)
10 (A)
EGR+AIR+CAT
S.I. Recip.
4 Stroke
258 C.I.D.
New
'76 EFE C/O
'76 C/O
Breakerless
B/P Reg. EGR
•76 C/O
None
One Oxidizing
Yes
Lead Free
6 Cyl. 2V (Z)
(40-60-01) (A)
EGR + AIR
S. I. Recip.
4 Stroke
258 C.I.D.
New
New + EFE
'70 C/O
Breakerless
B/P Reg. BGR
19 C.I.D. Punp
None
None
None
Lead Free
8 Cyl. 2V (Z)
01-10-80
EGR+AIR+CAT
S.I. Recip.
4 Stroke
304 C.I.D.
•76 C/O
'76 C/O
'76 C/O
Breakerless
B/P. Reg. EGR
'76 C/O
None
One Oxidizing
None
Lead Free
8 Ql. 2V
10- 80
EGst+AIR+CAT
S.I. Recip.
4 Stroke
360 C.I.D.
'76 C/O
'76 C/O
•76 C/O
Breakerless
B/P Reg. EGR
•76 C/O
None
One Oxidizing
None
Lead Free
(M) Manual Transmission MODEL DESIGNATION LEGEND: 01 Honwt
(A) Autoratlc
Transmission
40 Gremlin
(C/O) Carryover
(X) Catalytic
Converter added for
Alt. Reg.
(7.) Not Available at Altitude
60 Pacer
10 Matador Coupe
Rf) Matador 4-Door and Wagon
-------
Table AMC-2
AMERICAN MOTORS EMISSION CONTROL SYSTEMS
ENGINE & CARS. VENTURI
MODEL
GENERIC SYSTEM
ENGINE TYPE & DISPLACEMENT
COMBUSTION CHAMBER TYPE
INTAKE SYSTEM
EXHAUST. PORT & MATERIAL
IGNITION SYSTEM
EGR
AIR INJECTION
THERMAL REACTOR
CATALYST
TCS
FUEL
1977
6 Cyl. IV
40-01-60
EGR + AIR -t- CAT
S.I. Recip.
4 Stroke
232/258 C.I.D.
New
'76 EFE
'76 C/0
Breakerless
with Recalibration
•76 Calif. C/O
with Recalibration
'76 C/O
None
Two Oxidizing
Yes
Lead Free
MODEL YEAR LIGHT DUTY VEHICLES
6 Cyl. 2 V
40-01-60
EGR + AIR + CAT
S. I. Recip.
4 Stroke
258 C.I.D.
New
New
'76 C/O
Breakerless
with Recalibration
•76 Calif. C/O
with Recalibration
•76 C/O
None
Two Oxidizing
Yes
Lead Free
(CALIFOHNIA)
8 Cyl. 2V
01-40-10-80
EGR + AIR * CAT
S. I. Recip.
4 Stroke
304 C.I.D.
'76 C/C
•76 C/O
'76 C/O
Breakerless
with Recalibration
•76 Calif. C/O
with Recalibration
•76 C/O
None
Four Oxidizing
Yes
Lead Free
3 Cyl. 2V
10-30
EGR + AIR + CAT
S. I. Recip.
4 Stroke
360 C.I.D.
'76 C/O
•76 C/O
•76 C/O
Breakerless
with Recalibration
'76 Calif. C/O
with Recalibration
•76 C/O
None
Four Oxidizing
Yes
Lead Free
MODEL DESIGNATION LEGEND:
01 Hornet
40 Gremlin
60 Pacer
10 Matador Coupe
80 Matador 4-Door and Wagon
-------
The AMC projected first cost of the 1977 California system over the 1976
California system, dictated by the start catalyst, will be an increase
of 56.00 dollars for the 6 cylinder engine families and 110.00 dollars
for the V-8 families. These costs are somewhat higher than other
manufacturer cost estimates. No projected catalyst change data was
provided due to lack of system definition.
Systems to be Used - Post 1977 Model Year
.41 HC, 3.4 CO, 1.0 NOx*
AMC stated that these standards have never been actively considered by
their corporation. They did provide the information found in Table AMC-
3 which summarizes AMC's speculation regarding these levels. They did
not provide any fuel economy or cost data for these levels. Notice the
inconsistency for the Diesel, the minimum NOx potential is said to be
2.0 but "All" vehicles are apparently under consideration with the
Diesel as a 1.0 NOx candidate.
0.4 HC, 3.4 CO, 0.4 NOx
AMC continues to believe that the Gould reducing converter is the only
available system having a remote possibility of achieving 0.4 NOx. They
have indicated that they have increased their developmental efforts to
achieve the desired emissions levels. The systems considered by AMC for
1978 model year are shown in Table AMC-4. These systems consist^ of a
dual catalyst system with backpressure EGR, switching AlR, TCS and the
improved '77 combustion chamber. Four and six cylinders models will use
one reduction catalyst while eight cylinder models will use two.
The low mileage fuel economies are shown in Table AMC75.
Hypothetical
7-4
-------
Table AMC-3
1.0 VS, 0.4 NOx SYSTEM COMPARISONS
SYSTEM
HIM. NOx
POTENTIAL *
SYSTEM
CONSIDERED
FOR 0.4 NOx
SYSTEM
CONSIDERED
FOR 1.0 NOx
REASONS FOR 1.0 NOx CON- .
SIDERATION AND OTHER IMPACTS
1. EGR and Spark
Retard
2. Three Way
Catalyst + EGR
3. Red. Conv.
(Gould)
4. Red. Conv. + EGR
5. Diesel
6. Stratified
Charge 3-Valve
7. Rotary + EGR
1.5 for 6 & V8
1.0 for 4 cyl.
No
4 cyl. engine
1.0 for 6 & V8
Slightly lower for
4-cylinder
1.5 for 6 & V8
1.0 for 4 cyl.
.6 for 6 & V8
May be lower for 4-
cylinder
2.0
2.0 for 4, 6, V8
cylinder engines
1.0
* This does not impl
certification marg
for a production f
No
All
NO
NO
NO
No
No
4 cyl. engine
All
All
No
No
• or represent knowledge
n or Selective Enforcement
:asible system.
of the required
Audit'margin needed
Production units exist with no
packaging problems. Drive-
ability uncertain. Fuel economy
loss. Low cost and maintenance.
requirements. Restricted to
light weight vehicles only at
standard listed.
Technology exists but is
limited, unknown durability
and complex fuel/air control
required.' Limited fuel
economy potential. No in-house systera
test data available at this d*_
Complex packaging, limited
development, unknown dura-
bility, reduced fuel economy.
Same as (3)
Improved fuel economy and
potential particulate, odor,
noise and sulfate problems.
High initial investment. In-
creased powerplant weight.
Fuel economy potential uncer-
tain and no 4-cylinder engine
experience to date.
Fuel economy considered
inferior.
-------
Table AMC-4
AMERICAN MOTORS EMISSION CONTROL SYSTEMS
1978 MODEL YEAR LIGHT DUTY VEHICLES (50 STATES)
EJGIXE & GARB. VENTORI
I-DDCL
GENERIC SYSTEM
ENGINE TYPE & DISPLACEMENT
CO>2i;STION CHAMBER TYPE
L'.TAKE SYSTEM
EXilYJST POST.
IGNITION SYSTEM
EGR
AIR INJECTION
THERMAL REACTOR
CATALYST
TCS
FUEL
* Reducing converter
may be packaged in
4 Cyl. 2V
40-01
EGR + AIR + CAT
'77 C/0
'77 C/0
Modified Intake
Manifold
'77 C/0
•77 C/0
'77 C/O
Kith Recalibration
Plixji'diuifcsd to Switch
from Oxid. to Red.
None
O.ie Oxidizing +
One Reducing *
Yes
Lead Free
will utilize a small oxidizer
6 Cyl. IV
01-40-60-10
EGR + AIR + CAT
'77 C/0
'77 C/0
Modified Intake
Manifold
'77 C/0
'77 C/0
'77 C/0
With Recalibration
Programmed to Switch
from Oxid. to Red.
None
One Oxidizing +
One Reducing *
Yes
Lead Free
ahead of it, which MODEL
the sane canister with the reducing element.
6 Cyl. 2V
01-40-60-10
EGR + AIR + CAT
'77 C/0
'77 C/0
Modified Intake
Manifold
•77 C/0
'77 C/0
'77 C/0
With Recalibration
Progranroed to Switch
from Oxid. to Red.
None
One Oxidizing +
One Reducing *
Yes
Lead Free
DESIGNATION LEGEND: 01
40
60
10
80
8 Cyl. 2V
10-80
EGR + AIR + CAT
'77 C/0
T77 C/0
•77 C/0
'77 C/0
•77 C/0
•77 C/O
With Recalibration
P"yyy«»" JiltiyyJ +-f\ Qhri V<-4-»
mjx. cuuicu to swi ten
from Oxid. to Red.
None
Two Oxidizing +
Two Reducing *
Yes
Lead Free
Hornet
Gremlin
Pacer
Matador Coupe
Matador 4-Door and Wagon
-------
Table AMC-5
Fuel Economy Comparisons of AMC Models
Eng
232
258
258
258
9";«
Trans
A3
A3
A3
A3
AT
IW
3500
4000
4000
4000
Annn
75/76 Fed
5000 mi
VIN MPG
D51-13K
D51-13K
.D51-13K
nsi-l iv
14.4
14.4
14.4
1A A
Dur Veh 75/76 Cal Dur Veh Prototype
Range 5000 mi Range Target 5000 mi
4K-50K VIN MPG 5K-50K VIN Std MPG
1 f. 0 I C Q
1 /. o_i co
1 A q_ 1 C Q
i A T_i =. ft — —
13.8-17.0 D44-9L*
__ cnurm ^
QHHTH9
**
— _ _ cnurnA
1
4
4
1
i
14.8
17.4
16.8
12.1
i <; o
% Change % Change
From Fed From Cal Range
+20
+11
-15
-LI n
.8 —
.7
i
13.2-15.2
14.9-17.4
14.7-17.4
11.1-15.0
Note: Target Standard Code: 1.5/15/2.0 = 6
0.9/9.0/2.0 = 5
.41/9.0/1.5 = 4
.41/3.4/2.0 = 3
.41/3.4/1.0 = 2
.41/3.4/0.4 = 1
**
At 6200 miles .54 HC, 5.94 CO, 4.0 NOx Gould catalyst system + AP
Three-way catalyst + AP + OC @ 8000 miles
Gould system + AP + OC @ 8000 miles
-------
Other Systems
AMC indicated that all development and design worl^ was stopped on the
rotary engine early in 1975. With the exception of the following test
results, AMC had little comment on their rotary engine program.
Table AMC-6
RC2-60 Rotary Engine
Emissions (grams/mile) Fuel Econ. Urb.
System HC CO NOx MPG
Lean Carb * 260 in3 Ox. Cat. 1.66 7.26 1.85 13.5
Start Cat + Ox. Cat. .80 2.72 1.78 15.3
7.1.1.2 Durability Testing Programs
Durability Testing Program - 1977 Model Year
AMC conducted durability testing on six vehicles at the 1977 49-state
and California emission levels. The objective of the two 49-state
vehicles was to assess the effects of air injection while accumulating
durability and fuel economy data on the proj.ect 1977 system. The four
California vehicles were used to assess the durability of the start
catalyst system at two HC and CO levels. Two vehicles have finished
50,000 miles while the remainder have completed 30,000 miles plus.
Durability Testing Program - Post-1977 Model Year
AMC continues to work on the Gould reducing converter system. Over the
last ten months, AMC has tested to 23,000 miles a Gould system on a 6
cylinder 232 CID, 3500 Ib IW automatic transmission vehicle (D44-9L).
The vehicle was terminated due to a combination of exhaust system material
failures and engine malfunctions. Subsequently, two additional vehicles
7-8
-------
were constructed to not only evaluate the Gould system but ;also the
difference in light-off time of a monolith (D50-4L(K)) versus pelleted
oxidation catalyst (D50-2L(K)). The vehicle with the pelleted .catalyst
is now undergoing tests while the other vehicle is being tested by EPA
for unregulated emissions.
AMC also ran a SOHIO fleet of four vehicles to provide durability in-
formation on systems that were targeted near the 1978 levels. The
engine calibrations for these vehicle utilized the same calibration
specifications with the only system differences occurring in either the
utilization of a Gould reducing converter or an Engelhard three way
preconverter ahead of the AC Model 160 pelletized underfloor oxidizing
converter. Air switching from the oxidizing converter inlet to the
cylinder head exhaust manifold parts was used on all vehicle for oxida-
tion of HC and CO control purposes during a cold start. After the
coolant reached 115 F the air would be switched to the inlet of the
underfloor oxidizing converter. The test results are tabulated in Table
\
AMC-7. Extensive maintenance was performed during these tests.
7.1.1.3 Progress and Problem Areas
Progress and Problem Areas - 1977 Model Year
AMC anticipates that both a recalibration of EGR and use of TCS will
allow some of their automatic transmission six cylinder models to meet
the 1977 Federal standards and a recalibration only of EGR for the
remaining six and eight cylinder models will accomplish certification.
Further they anticipate no problems with certification pf^their new four
•:* |ji .
cylinder engine for 49 states. AMC is pessimistic on their manual
s • ' •
transmission 49-state vehicles for meeting the 2.0 NOx levels with good
.. t( ;.*
HC control. The data presented to BPA Indicates that AMG should be able
to certify their 49-states vehicles and retain a competitive level of
fuel economy. The single vehicle data presented for the manual trans-
mission vehicles indicates that AMC has tried to improve fuel economy
and driveability by reducing EGR ratio resulting in their low confidence
7-9
-------
Table AMC-7
Gould Reduction Catalyst and TWC Results
Vehicle ID System Engine Trans. IW
D44-SH? Gould 3500
D50-4L
DSO-21
i
M
O
SOHIO 4
SOHIO 1
**
SOHIO 2
**
Gould
Gould
Gould
3500
3500
4000
Gould
4000
TWC
TWC
4000
4000
Mileage
0
3,550
14,380
20,000
0
Emission Results Fuel Economy
HC CO NOx MPG
334
8,032
16,000
23,880
31,883
31,969
34,853
40,292
356
1,146
9,442
16,098
492
8,326
16,304
330
8,107
.43
.51
.83
.54
.69
. 25-
.33
.26
.27
.56
.49
.62
.45
.42
.63
.29
.32
.37
.54
.26
.31
.42
.30
.36
6.4
3.89
18.6
3.0
7.7
1.4
3.1
4.4
10.5
11.6
17.0
7.8
20.8
13.4
8.8
12.6
4.0
4.1
4.3
5.1
11.54
10.32
12.08
6.54
4.77
.500
.453
.366
.467
.863
.71
.51
1.59
.36
.46
.74
5.94
.99
1.38
.56
.77
.53
.52
.77
2.92
1.42
2.12
2.22
1.36
2.07
14.4
15.1
13.1
13.2
15.2
15.4
14.5
13.7
12.1
12.1
12.1
12.2
11.1
12.8
14.0
15.0
15.9
15.4
17.4
16.2
16.8
Remarks
Zero mile GEM 68
Tighten AP belt
New Ox Cat
Average of 2 tests
No spark Adv. till 160°F
coolant
Baseline, no reduction
catalyst installed
New EGR valve
New Gould converter
Test terminated
w/o Gould converter
* Targeted at 1978 Statutory
** Targeted at 1977 California
-------
in meeting the Federal Standards. ;The four cylinder data presented
would indicate that close control over the EGR rates will be necessary
to keep NOx levels below 2.0 NOx.
AMC stated that "we (AMC) are left with little confidence in projecting
compliance of any of our 1977 California packages with the certification
requirements within sufficient margin to meet the assembly line quality
audit requirements". Analysis of the 1977 pre-certification data by EPA
during the preparation of this report would indicate that those California
systems reported by AMC could have a HC and/or NOx control problems
which would necessitate AMC obtaining California's permission for DF
line crossing and non-methane standards. Preliminary 1977 certification
data also show the same trends.
Additionally, AMC reported that their limited SHED evaporative test data
indicates that the 1977 six cylinder vehicles are in the 12+2 gram
range while the eight cylinders vehicles are twice these values. AMC
will have to do considerable work to lower these values.
Progress and Problems - Post 1977 Model Year
AMC has continued their development work on both the Gould catalyst and
three way catalyst systems. AMC also has shown interest in charac-
terizing the sulfuric acid emission levels of their vehicles. However,
AMC has confounded their test results from the 1978 durability fleet
with investigation of fuels, lubricants and fuel additive packages, and
two different air injection configurations while assessing the dur-
ability of the advanced catalyst systems. Hence, the true capability of
AMC to meet the 0.41 HC, 3.4 CO, 0;4 NOx emission levels may not be
assessable due to the differences from the true certification procedure.
These tests should, however, enable AMC to narrow the acceptable systems
* "w '• V '. '
:1. 8 • .*.{*.'.
and engine -calibration parameters for feheir next low NOx fleets*
7-11
-------
AMC did not report much in the nature of advanced fuel metering or other
sophisticated emission control subsystems that could be adapted to their
future development vehicles. This is understandable when one considers
the fact that AMC buys most of their components from others. The lead
time for new technology tends to be somewhat longer when it is not
developed in-house.
7-12
-------
7.1.2. Chrysler Corporation
7.1.2.1. Systems to be used
Systems to be Used - 1977 Model Year
The Chrysler Corporation will again be recertifying almost all of their
engine families in 1977 in order to improve fuel economy over the 1976
models while lowering the NOx emissions to the 1977 levels.
The Chrysler systems for 1977 are described in table Chrysler-1.
Chrysler designates their engines families with a prefix of ]? for 49-
state vehicles and a prefix of C_ for California vehicles. The 49-state
vehicles will continue to use oxidation catalyst and EGR as their main
methods of emission control. It is understood that Chrysler will try to
introduce Electronic Spark Advance (ESA) in every engine family produced
in 1977. They have begun by concentrating on ESA Lean Burn on their
larger cubic inch displacement engines in some 1976 models.
Chrysler usually uses the terminology of Electronic Spark Advance (ESA)
and Electronic Lean Burn (LB) together, called by Chrysler the "ESA Lean
Burn" system.
The term "Lean Burn" has been misunderstood by some in the past and
considered as a different engine type. This is not the case. EPA
considers the term "Lean Burn" engines to mean conventional homogeneous
Otto-cycle engines calibrated to run leaner than stoichiometric.
The ESA part of Chrysler's ESA-Lean Burn is most important, possibly keeping
Chrysler a bit ahead of the competition in the introduction of elec-
tronics in production automobiles.
7-12
-------
Table Chrysler - 1
1977 Chrysler Control Systems
Family
FI>-225-l-A
FD-225-1-C
FD-225-2-A
FD-318-2-C
+FB-318-2-CE
FD-360-2-C
FB-360-4-CE
+FB-400-4-CE
~*"FB-440-4ST-CE
+FB-440-4HP-DE
CD-225-1-EP
^CD-318-2-GP
0CD-360-4-GP
^CD-440-4HP-FP
*
Main Oxidation Start Oxidation
Catalyst Catalyst
No. & Size (cu. in.) No. & Size (cu. in.)
1-45
1-90
1-45
1-90
1-90
1-90
1-90
1-90
1-90
2-90
1-90 1-22
1-152 1-22
1-152 1-22
2-90 1-22
ESA AIR Aspirator
X
X
X
X
X X
X
X X
X X
X X
X
X
X
X
X
All main catalysts have a loading of .01365 gms/cu. in. and start catalyst a loading of .04092 gm/cu. in.
No EGR
0
Power Heat Valve
-------
Through the use of ESA, Chrysler has taken a first step toward electronic
control of engine operational parameters. The ESA system is intended to
replace the existing mechanical and vacuum spark advance control. Spark
timing control via a vacuum diaphragm and a centrifugal governor is
common on most vehicles today. The ESA is an attempt to tailor the
spark advance needed for low emissions and improved fuel economy by
sensing various engine operational parameters, including engine speed,
engine start, intake manifold vacuum, throttle position, rate of throttle
position change, inlet air temperatures, and coolant temperature.
Through the use of sensors, the ESA system ascertains the aforementioned
operational parameters, and processes the sensor signals with an on-
board electronic microprocessor referred to as the Spark Control Com-
puter (SCC). The SCC in turn retards or advances the ignition timing
for optimum emission or fuel economy control. The SCC is claimed by
Chrysler to be able to discriminate between highway driving (advanced
spark for fuel economy) versus city driving (less advanced spark for
emission control). The submission from Chrysler did not indicate spark
timing conditions at other than the Federal Test Procedures ambient
testing conditions.
For the California vehicles, Chrysler will be incorporating a start
catalyst to meet the California standards of .41 HC, 9.0 CO, 1.5 NOx.
A Power Heat Valve (PHV) to switch the total exhaust flow through the
start catalyst on startup will also be used. The system also includes
an air pump, air switching for air injection to the exhaust ports at
coolant temperatures less than 98°F, and air injection of 90% of the
total flow to the downstream location (exhaust manifold f.iange area) and
10% to exhaust port area at temperatures above 98°F. Additionally,
Chrysler California cars have an insulated manifold and.upgraded thermal
protection to shield the power steering pump from catalyst heat loads.
California cars will use EGR and Orifice Spark Advance Control, (OSAC)
used last year, plus a new vapor return system for improved fuel evapor-
• - ^ '' '?'
ative emission control. This new vapor system.uses a fuel return' line
connecting the fuel filter and the fuel tank thereby maintaining a
s< •' . ' • •
small, constant fuel flow through the fuel pump and tank.
7-14
-------
Universal Oil Products (UOP) continues to supply Chrysler with all of
- '?'•
their catalysts. Chrysler has reduced the total amount of noble metal
used in the main catalysts. The start catalysts have a loading of .029
troy ounces of platinum. Chrysler .has dropped the use of palladium for
the 1977 model year catalysts, but has indicated they may use ruthenium
in some of their start catalysts.
Chrysler projects that the costs for the 1977 Chrysler Federal vehicles
will average fifty dollars more than comparable 1976 vehicles. The
California vehicles will average 205 dollars due to the production
introduction of start catalysts and lower emissions standards. Chrysler
projects a fuel economy loss of seven percent from the 1976 model year
for Federal vehicles .and a sixteen percent loss in fuel economy for the
California vehicles. 'Fuel economy of the 1976 models is compared to
other year models in table Chrysler-7. Chrysler estimates If a start
catalyst replacement at 25,000 miles on the California vehicles is
necessary, the replacement will cost $276.80 for replacement of all
catalysts with the labor cost split between'$7.20 for start catalyst
labor and $100.00 materials costs; and $9.60 labor costs for main
• ' •• . ' "*• ' ,. i ' '-..'.,'. <
oxidation catalyst and $160.00, main catalyst materials costs.
..-.-• 'i l
Systems to be used - Po|t 1977 Moder Year '*'•
.41 HC. 3.4 CO. 1.0 NOx*
In the Chrysler status report, the discussion of systems targeted specif-
ically to 1.0 gm/mile NOx was relatively limited. Chrysler did state
however, that a number of systems which are targeted for .40 gm/mile NOx
would also be considered as potential candidates for 1.0 NOx. These
systems include dual bed catalyst using a base metal NOx catalyst with
or possibly without insulated exhaust manifolds and port liners; the
Gould catalyst system, three-way catalyst as a NOx reducer plus EGR;
*Hypothetical
7-15
-------
noble metal on ceramic monolith NOx catalyst plus EGR; three-way catalyst
system with EFI or EFM with closed loop control plus EGR, and the Questor
i ' **'
Reverter system. These sys terns, ;^ill be covered in detail In the next
'.i •
section. '
t; •.-.;',.'
Chrysler did project costs and' fuel economy estimates for a typical 1977
Federal V-8 engine targeted for this level based on partial system
development and incomplete durability information. They estimate a 360
dollar Increase over,.a comparable 1976 vehicle. The fuel^economy
• •' ''.'.. . '' ,\
penalties are estimated at 12 to 20 percent, relative to 1976.
Systems to be used - 0.41 HC, 3.4 CO, 0.4 NOx
As stated previously, Chrysler reported that all systems targeted toward
the 1978 levels would be considered also at the 1.0 NOx level. The
principal difference between 1.0'and .4 NOx is apparently exhaust mani-
fold insulation and port liners. Chrysler continues to test and evaluate
component systems and has not assembled a full engine system targeted at
the 1978 levels. Systems tested to date have generally not been equipped
with either the Electronic Fuel Metering, the vaporizing choke, or the
Electronic EGR systems which are under parallel development. Chrysler
is concerned about model year 1978 because of the uncertainties sur-
rounding the revisions to the Clean Air Act. Chrysler indicated that a
decision due to lead time considerations had to be forthcoming soon on
what system would be needed in the modefi year 1978 vehicles.
Low mileage test results of potential components for a 1978 vehicle
system begin with table Chrysler-2 which,summarizes Chrysler's effort on
air switching. Table Chrysler-3 shows the results of other low mileage
tests for other potential systems.
7-16
-------
Chrysler projected a cost of 445 dollars more than the base 1976 com-
parable vehicles price. They estimated' that the fuel economy penalty
would be in the range of 12 to 20 percent. They estimated a maintenance
cost of 384 dollars for a catalyst change, at 25,000 miles for both the
1.0 and 0.4 NOx cases. These costs reflect 24 dollars labor, 160 dollars
for downstream oxidation catalyst, and 200 dollars for replacement of
both NOx catalysts.
Other Systems
Chrysler has undertaken development on a number of other control systems
at various levels of efforts. They continue to try to improve their
oxidation catalyst by evaluating bther types of wash coat or substrates,
changes in metal load or composition (substitution of rhodium for some
of the platinum), or using lead - resistant combinations (perovskites).
With the exception of some preliminary encouraging test results on the
perovskite catalysts, Chrysler reports no improvement over their pire^
sent catalyst for the other techniques tested,.
Chrysler continues to work on improved'fuel metering or improved engine
carburetion. They reported earlier attempts to electronically control
the amount of air bled into the main and idle systems thereby lowering
the vacuum depression and reducing,the fuel flow for the float bowl.
Limited testing was reported but no vehicle data was supplied. Chrysler
reports that they have continued their work on a Chrysler Electronic
Fuel Metering (EFM) system, the results of which, in combination with
ESA, can be seen in Table Chrysler - 3. They indicated that this system
was a strong candidate for 1978.
7-17
-------
Table Chrysler-2
*t
Low Mileage Air Switching System Results '•
Engine Sygtem
HC CO NOx
225 CID 1976 California development , .35 2.1 1.90 all air to ports
.33 1.2 1.55 90rlO split*
6 43 18 % .'reduction
318 CID 1977 start catalyst
developments
.31 1.5 2.31 all air to ports
.35 1.7 1.90 90-10 split
-13 -12 18 % reduction
360 CID 1977 start catalyst
Q 45,000 miles
.35 4.2 1.25 all air to ports
.52 5.6 1.11 90-10 split
-49 -25 11 % reduction
*10% of the air to exhaust ports and 90% of the air downstream before catalyst
7-18
-------
Table Chrysler-3
Low Mileage Potential 1978 Components Test Results
Urban "Highway"
Engine
225-A3
440-A3
System
*
3-way - no air, '75 EGR
3-way - no air, no EGR
3-way - air 120 sees.
75 EGR, lean choke
Baseline same vehicles
EFM/ESA+
EFM/ESA/OC+
EFM/ESA/OC/SC"*"
HC
.69
.53
.33
1.40
.96
.29
.29
CO
10.2
7.5
5.0
14,3
8.3
2.3
2.1
NOx
.93
2.56
1.53
3.17
1.70
1.60
1.25
MPG
18.2
18.2
18.2
18.5
9.43
9.90
9.90
MPG
17.7
18.1
17.8
318-A3 cold start electrical 1.01 gms 2.56 gms
fuel vaporizer^
standard 1976 (Fed)
standard 1976 (@al)
360-A3 dual catalyst w/EFM
same as above w/Chrysler
metallic NOx cat.
substituted for DuPont
cat.
360-A3 dual catalyst w/dual .24 3.60
parallel, insulated
oxidizer
dual catalyst w/single .32 3.93
oxidizer
1.79 gms
.56 gms
.41
.37
.40
23.6 gms
8.^3 gms
2.62
' 1 . 79
2.20
:::
.48
.44
•64
.90
.85
11.60
11.1
11.3
**
Targeted at .41 HC, 1.5 NOx
DuPont Perovskite Ruthenium Reduction Catalyst
No EGR
W/ESA, port liners, Test results for first 32 sees, after start,
7-19
-------
One feature of the EFM system is a new air measurement technique which
Chrysler claims to be more accurate than other known methods of inlet
air measurement, including the laminar flow elements used in research
and development work. The principle incorporates a vortex precessor and
measures current in a sensor to precisely measure air flow. A com-
parator is used to measure and compare both fuel and air flow for close
control of the air/fuel ratio. The details of the system were not
reported. .Similar devices have been reported in the literature.*
Chrysler has tested the Dresserator vs. standard and advanced carburetors
during the past year. The Dresserator system shows a range of 3 to 26%
average reduction in BSHC, an average 14 to 22% reduction of BSNOx, and
an average 4 to 16% reduction in BSFC. Based on these promising engine
dynamometer tests, Chrysler will continue evaluation of the Dresserator
system.
Although some test results of the vaporizing choke were reported (see
Table Chrysler-3), test results with this potentially attractive sub-
system incorporated into a complete emission control system, targeted
for low levels, have not been reported. Such tests are planned for the
future.
Single-cylinder experiments were conducted to investigate the effect of
insulation on the inside of the combustion chamber. The purpose of the
insulatioxn is to reduce the transfer of heat from the cylinder wall and
hence reduce the quenching of hydrocarbons at or near the cylinder wall.
Two insulating materials were tried; flame sprayed zirconia and a
polymide resin made by DuPont. The resin failed after 29 hours of
single cylinder operation with the exception of that on the intake valve
surface1 but did reduce hydrocarbon emissions by 25%. The zirconia
insulated engine produced a 30-40% reduction of hydrocarbons with
*Promising Newcomers for Tough Flow Measurements, by Gilbert Kivenson
in Machine Design, January 8, 1976 page 80.
7-20
-------
good durability. Chrysler plans to conduct multicylinder testing of
both the zirconia coated surfaces and intake valve only coated with the
polymide coating. The principal interest in the polymide is lower cost,
plus ease of application. Zirconia plasma spraying is considered an
expensive process, according to Chrysler.
Chrysler will introduce in 1977 a two piece aluminum intake manifold not
so much for emission reduction but for weight reduction.
There continues to be activity at Chrysler to develop input devices for
sensing engine parameters and changes in parameters which eventually
could be controlled by a central computer processor. Devices which have
been researched or tested include: an electronic choke control for more
rapid choke removal to reduce cold start emission levels and improve
cold driveability; a series of low cost exhaust gas sensors, both vendor
supplied and Chrysler developed with the objective of low OEM cost
(under 3 dollars), closed loop feedback engine controls, and 0_ sensors,
though they did state 0? sensors were not a prime candidate for 1978.
Chrysler is also looking at automatic idle speed control to provide
constant idle speed regardless of engine load. Work in the above areas
is apparently in the early stages, since no vehicle data were reported.
Further testing to evaluate various NOx catalyst and NOx catalyst
materials was reported by Chrysler. They have tried to stabilize
various ruthenium catalysts. One vehicle in durability testing showed a
factor of two increase of NOx emissions after 16,000 miles of durability.
Chrysler has returned this catalyst to the laboratory for further
developments. However, zero hour testing of a DuPont ruthenium perov-
skite NOx catalyst looks promising and has been scheduled for vehicle
testing shortly.
Chrysler reported continued research and evaluation of their improved
NOx metallic catalysts. .They were able to improve the performance of
7-21
-------
the metallic catalysts by increasing the temperature. The results from
a vehicle equipped with this catalyst (MR23AC1) is reported in Table
Chrysler-4 at zero miles to 20,000 miles. The system failed after
20,000 miles, and Chrysler is unable to determine the cause of failure.
They will start a new vehicle on durability shortly.
Work has been temporarily suspended at Chrysler on the Gould system
vehicle after an unacceptable increase in pressure drop across the NOx
catalyst resulting in an increase of emissions after 15,000 durability
miles. Gould has inspected the vehicle and plans are underway to return
the vehicle to test. The mileage results are noted in the table Chy^Ler-
5.
Table Chrysler-4
Dual Bed Catalyst System with Metallic NOx Catalyst
360 CID, 5000 IWi Port Liners, No EGR,
. ' • ' • ' *
Insulated Exhaust Manifolds-, Automatic Trans, Air Switching
Mileage HC CO NOx C00 Urban MPG
""" " ' " Ł. ----TT--
Baseline .28 4.4 ..30 804 10.93
5000 .33 2.4 .34 781^ 11.29
10,000 .27 1.2 .20 736 12.02
15,000 .33 2.2 .26 776 11.36,
20,000 .68 4.1 .20 741 11.84
20,000 .32 2.5 .36 741 11.90
**
Comparable vehicle - - - - 10.1 to 11.4
" " - . _ _ _ io.l to 12.9
" " - ' - ' 11.6 to 13.4
" " - 10.5 to 11.6
* 63.2 mg/mile H-SO, on the sulfate emissions cycle, fuel sulfur level
unreported.
**1976 durability certification vehicle
7-22
-------
.22
.45
.45
.51
3. 2
."' 6.1
16.6*
3.4
.91
.95
.89
1.31
10.20
10.80
10.50
11.30 ,
Table Chrysler-5
Dual Catalyst System with Gould Metallic NOx Catalyst
360 CID, 5000 IW, '19 CID Air Pump, GEM 68
0_ Getter, Chrysler (70/30) Oxidation Catalyst
"' Ł
Mileage HC ''. :>. CO , ' NOx Urban MPG
Baseline
5,000
10,000
15»000
Comparable vehicle** - - - 10.1 to 11.4
" " - - - 10.1 to 12.9
" - 11.6 to 13.4
" " - - - 10.5 to 11.6
*Possible Air Pump Failure, results after air pump reinstallation .31
HC, 2.1 CO, .88 NOx, 10.70 F.E.
**1976 certification durability vehicle.
The target levels of .41 HC, 9.0 CO, and 1.5 NOx were used to evaluate
various 'dual catalyst system candidates. The first combination tested
was a mini-NOx dual catalyst set-up. This was a 20 cu. in. oxidation
catalyst coupled to a 45 cu. in. metallic reducing catalyst followed by
a 90 cu. in. oxidation catalyst. These are the first results listed
below the baseline numbers in Table Chrysler-6.
This system'was replaced with a Chrysler metallic NOx reducer oiily, and
finally the system was modified to incorporate EGR and a 58 cu. in.
close coupled NOx catalyst. Testing continues on these systems.
7-23
-------
Table Chrysler-6
Mini NOx Dual Catalyst System
Systems HC CO NOx F.E.
Baseline 75 Cal. .41 4.0 1.65 15.1
Mini-Ox Nox .25 4.1 1.74 17.0
90 in3 (Chrysler) .29 3.3 1.13 15.7
20 in3 DuPont perovskite .32 3.4 .85 14.3
3
+ 38 in 200/0 Ft ox. cat.
Work on the Questor system has been suspended while a new third genera-
tion system is being prepared for Chrysler by the AP Parts Co.
Chrysler continues to evaluate various EGR systems for application at a
level of 1.0'NOx. They have tested the Bendix Flow Control System and
reported no improvement over the venturi-vacuum amplified system they
presently use, either for emissions or driveability. They also report
that the exhaust back pressure EGR systems they have tried are not
superior to their own system. They did comment that they are trying to
improve and reduce cost in their present EGR system, and are working on
an electronic, programmable, EGR prototype system which has not been
tried on a vehicle yet.
They have tested the Ethyl Turbulent Flow Manifold and port
liners. They reported that while there was an improvement in emission
levels during the initial acceleration of the LA-4 driving trace, in-
dicating better warm-up, there was a modest reduction in overall emis-
sion levels for HC, CO and a corresponding increase in NOx. They further
feel that EGR must be added to this system to reach full potential.
Chrysler's efforts on Honda type stratified charge engines has ceased as
a consequence of the economic cutbacks of November 1974. They have also
abandoned their cooperative efforts with the Texaco Corporation using
7-24
-------
the TCCS stratified charge engine. Chrysler mentioned that no attempt
was made to see if the Army funded work on the TCCS system was of any
potential for passenger car evaluation.
Chrysler is Dieselizing a 225 cu. in. engine for evaluation for a pas-
senger application. They have a consulting contract with Ricardo for
this study. The first engine will be built in May, 1976.
An investigation sponsored by ERDA continues into improving the gas
turbine for vehicle application. Work also goes on with both rich and
lean thermal reactor systems, but Chrysler indicates that they feel
neither of these systems have potential for meeting 1978 standards in
1978.
Chrysler places great emphasis on the vehicle weight reduction for
primarily fuel economy and some limited emissions improvements. The
weight reduction program cuts across all corporate levels, and is an
example of extra effort and cooperation needed to meet government man-
dates, in this case primarily for fuel economy.
7.1.2.2. Durability Testing Programs
Durability Testing Programs - 1977 Model Year
Chrysler is now partially through 1977 certification with the Federal
cars experiencing no major problems. Some of the California cars ap-
parently are going to line cross, especially on HC. Preliminary data
v
show that fuel economy for the durability, cars is about the same as the
'76 cars.
_•*
Durability Testing Programs - 0.41 HC, 3.4 CO, 1.0 NOx
For the .41 HC, 3.4 CO, 1.0 NOx level, Chrysler has not assembled a
7-25
-------
fleet. The only fleet testing reported was a start catalyst sort fleet
of six cars for 1977 start catalyst selections and a small aspirator
design and test fleet for Federal 1977 model year vehicles.
Durability Testing Program - 0.41 HC, 3.4 CO, 0.4 NOx
At levels below 1.5 NOx Chrysler reported modest progress on evaluation
of reduction catalysts. They have increased the number of systems under
evaluation, but have not reported any substantial durability mileage
accumulation with the exception of the metallic base reduction catalyst
which ran 20,000 miles before failure. Chrysler has plans to initiate
vehicle durability test programs on only those system which present the
most promise.
7.1.2.3. Progress and Problem Areas
Progress and Problems - 1977 Model Year
Chrysler will be introducing two major new emission control techniques
in their 1977 model year lines. These system will be the Electronic
4
Spark Advance system plus aspirator for .the larger cubic inch displace-
ment Federal vehicles. The system may also be included on other, mddels,
except the 225 cu. in. engine families. The start catalyst system for
vehicles is the major addition for California vehicles. "
After initial start catalyst sort fleet testing, it was decided to go
into the certification cycle without durability testing of the most
promising start catalyst. The ESA system has undergone durability
testing for a late certification on a 1976 vehicle which is proposed for
1977 carry over. There should be relatively few problems encountered
with the ESA vehicles during 1977 certification process. The addition
of the aspirator system to 1977 Federal vehicles may have been the
result of Chrysler's problems in passing idle inspection tests conducted
7-26
-------
in several cities in various Air Quality Regions. The inclusion of an
aspirator could help reduce idle CO emission levels.
Progress and Problems - Post-1977 Model Year
The major problem which remains both at the hypothetical level of 1;0
NOx and the 0.4 NOx emissions levels, has been the lack of total system
testing aimed at either of these goals. While Chrysler has performed
advanced component testing, they have not tested complete systems with
these components Integrated. Chrysler has maintained that the un-
certainties as to the emission control standard for the post-1977 model
year and the lead time to develop and assemble all of the com-
ponents of a full system has prevented them from testing fully inte-
grated systems.
/
The work reported by Chrysler on the electronic control of the engine,
engine sensors, and metallic reduction catalysts shows that they are one
of the leaders in those areas. The durability, cost reduction, and
maintainability of these systems remains to be proven in the field.
Chrysler has made further progress in the areas of catalyst screening
both reduction and oxidation, use of perovskite catalyst materials,
electronic controls of engine parameters, and heat retention techniques
for increasing catalyst efficiencies.
Chrysler's view of the progress being made toward meeting low emission
levels in the near term was generally somewhat gloomy, especially with
respect to the fuel economy impacts.
7-27
-------
Considering a longer lead time, however, Chrysler's statements are
somewhat different. Commenting on the JPL report*, they stated the
following:
"The internal combustion engine has become the proven
workhorse for vehicular propulsion for over seven decades
and a great deal of effort and money is going to be re-
quired to develop a successor that can match or exceed its
capabilities, particularly in light of probable future
improvements. In this regard we agree that given adequate
time for development, cars equipped with Otto engines can
be improved to meet J.P.L.fs assumptions for emission
requirements and also provide Improvements in fuel economy.
(J.P.L.'s emission requirement assumptions are 0.4, 3.4,
2.0 nationally and 0.4, 3.4, 0.4 for the L.A. basin only)".
"The J.P.L. report refers to the standard spark ignition
engine as the U.C. Otto. Their Mature version of this
engine is presumed to be of a reciprocating configura-
tion, either 4 cylinder in line, V6 or V8 depending on
engine size, J.P.L. assumes that this engine will be
capable of 5% lower BSFC than the best of the 1975 engines
through improvements in the induction system, and more
over capable of meeting the .4g/mile NOx level using only
a 3-way catalyst regardless of vehicle size.
Based upon Chrysler's experience to date, this latter
assumption is overly presumptive and could lead to
*CHRYSLER CORPORATION COMMENTS ON THE JPL EVALUATION OF ALTERNATIVE
AUTOMOTIVE POWER SYSTEMS, the attachment to a letter from Mr. S. L. Terry,
Vice President, Public Responsibility and Consumer Affairs, Chrysler
Corporation, to Mr. N. E. Stoney, Department of Transportation, October 16,
1975, (quotes from pages 1 and 5 of the attachment).
7-28
-------
erroneous conclusions regarding future develop-
ments because at this time we know of no system,
including the 3-way catalyst that is capable of
meeting these standards. We agree that the low
emissions target will eventually be met, but the
exact nature of the system and the time to develop
it are still unknown." '
Fuel Economy Analysis
Analysis of Table Chrysler-7 would seem to indicate that the Chrysler
projected fuel economy penalties may be very pessimistic compared to the
75/76 low mileage durability vehicles. There appears to be no indica-
tion of the large fuel economy penalties that were projected. Chrysler
apparently reported to CARB that they do not expect major fuel economy
penalties for the California vehicles. EPA concludes that there will be
no fuel economy penalty for the Chrysler vehicles in 1977 model year.
7-29
-------
Table Chrysler-7
Fuel Economy Comparison of Chrysler Models
75/76 Fed Dur. Veh.
75/76 Cal Dur. Veh.
Prototype
Model Eng Trans IW
A-body 225 A3 3500
225 A3 4000
B-body 318 A3 4500
C-body - 360-4 A3 5000
360-4 A3 4500
360-4 A3 4000
C-body 440 A3 5500
Note: Target Standard Code
5000 ml Range
VIN MPG 4K-50K
5000
VIN MPG
mi Range
4K-50K
4008 15.0 14.1-16.2
4001
4018
2024
4019
4020
4023
2016
4005
1.5/15/2.
0.9/9.0/2
.41/9.0/1
.41/3.4/2
.41/3.4/1
.41/3.4/0
14.
15.
10.
13.
11.
11.
11.
9.
0 -
.0
.5
.0
.0
.4
5 14.4-15.8
1 14.0-15.8
6 9.7-10.9
0 12.4-13.8
0 10.7-12.4
7 10.5-12.0
2 10.5-12.2
9 . 9.1-10.5
6
= 5
= 4
= 3
= 2
= 1
4020 11.0
2003 10.2
4010 11.1
2031 9.2
2031 9.2
*
Start
10.6-12.4
10.1-11.4
10.5-11.6
8.9- 9.3
8.9- 9.3
Target 5000 mi
VIN Std. MPG
140*
158*
623**
623**
623**
377*
633**
633**
633**
666*
545+
178^
748*
4
5
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
1
1
4
14.9
13.7
17.0
15.7
14.3
12.8
12.1
13.0
11.7
10.5
11.3
11.1
9.1
% Change
from Fed
+0.6
-7.4
+14.9
+6.0
-3.4
+10.0
+5.1
+13.0
+1.5
-8.1
% Change
from Cal
— — «
+16.3
+10.0
+18.2
+5.3
-3.6
+3.6
+2.7
-3.3
Range
14.2-15.0
13.7-15.0
___
— —
11.1-13.3
10.3-11.2
10.9-13.2
10.5-11.4
8.4-9.7
catalyst follow-up fleet
NOx catalyst vehicle
OL
' Gould
** Dual
(MR-23AC1)
catalyst vehicle (did not
catalyst system
meet target)
- low mileage
results
1. with MR-23AC' replacing NOx cat and ox.cat.
2. EGR + pervoskite NOx catalyst and ox. cat.
3. MR-23AC' catalyst both sides.
4. No. 3 plus leaner idle.
~H~ Electronic Lean Burn - 76 California used for 77 Federal
-------
7.1.3 Ford
7.1.3.1 Systems to be Used
Systems to be Used - 1977 Model Year
Ford Is fielding an exceptionally large durability fleet for 1977.
Compared to 29 engine families for 1976, Ford is now accumulating dur-
ability mileage on 110 family systems for 1977* The nine basic engine
displacement sizes all have a multitude of variations. While the entire
line of 1977 systems include oxidation catalysts and EGR, Ford is run-
ning all of engine displacement sizes with AIR and non AIR systems.
Seven different catalyst volumes are featured, ranging from 80 to 190
cubic inches. Ford uses monolithic catalysts exclusively. The majority
of the 49 state systems will include exhaust backpressure modulated EGR
for 1977 as opposed to the ported and venturi vacuum amplified types
formerly used. Ford reports that the catalyst formulation is also
improved. California systems will feature larger catalyst volumes, high
energy ignition and backpressure EGR exclusively to meet the .41 HC, 9.0
CO, 1.5 NOx level for 1977. Nine different engine family systems are
calibrated for high altitude certification. The carburetors, EGR and
transmission selections for these cars are tailored for high altitude.
Ford is not using systems such as aneroid carburetors that automatically
compensate for altitude. Ford estimates that the retail cost increase
for the 1977 models over the 1976 models to be $15 to $25 for the 49
state system and $100 to $150 for the California system.
A brief review was made of the preliminary emission and fuel economy
results for Ford's 1977 certification durability vehicles. Only those
cars that had completed their 50,000 miles were reviewed. Ford did not
specifically identify which cars were Federal models and which cars were
California models, but this could be generally determined from the emis-
7-31
-------
sion results. The emissions of the 1977 California systems showed
frequent line crossing for HC and NOx, which in the future may be
permitted by California regulations. The fuel economy of the 1977
California durability vehicles was generally equivalent or superior to
comparable 1976 California durability vehicles for the vehicles studied.
Systems to be used - Post-1977 Model Year
Ford has identified the following components as prime constitutents of
systems intended for the .41 HC, 3.4 CO, 0.4 NOx level in the 1978 time
frame:
a. Conventionally controlled ignition and EGR (probably high
energy and exhaust backpressure modulated, respectively).
b. Three-way catalyst with programmed secondary air and oxidation
catalyst.
c. Mini warm-up catalyst for some engine applications.
d. Improved carburetion (better A/F control).
e. EGR cooler (some applications).
f. Larger exhaust manifolds.
The additional cost of the 1978 system is estimated by Ford to be ap-
proximately $260 to $360. Ford cautions that this price would rise if a
catalyst change proved to be necessary.
Ford emphasizes that meeting the statutory levels (0.41 HC, 3.4 CO, 0.4
NOx) in 1978 will preclude them from using several preferred systems
7-32
-------
now under development. These preferred systems are integrated elec-
tronic controls for spark advance and EGR, along with feedback controlled
carburetion.
The best emission results presented by Ford with a system closely re-
sembling their prime 1978 system were 0.28 HC, 0.94 CO and 0.59 NOx at
4,000 miles on a 3500 Ib. inertia weight vehicle with a 302 CID engine.
This car was reported to have been calibrated for 1.0 NOx rather than
0.4 NOx. The only three-way catalyst testing reported:by Ford that was
actually calibrated for 0.4 NOx involved 2.3 liter Pinto engines
equipped with Bosch L-Jetronic electronic fuel injection and closed loop
feedback control of A/F ratio. Five different three-way catalysts were
dynamometer aged and periodically installed on a slave vehicle for CVS
testing. The best results were with a Degussa catalyst and are shown in
Table Ford-1.
Table Ford-1
Dynamometer
Hours
Equivalent
AMA Miles
Fuel Economy
mpg urban
30
200
3,750
4,000
25,000
0.24 3.01 0.09
0.16 2.28 0.17
0.25 2.10 0.25
21.2
21.4
21.3
As a comparison, Ford ran two 3000 pound IW 2.3 liter Pintos for 1976
certification durability. At 25,000 miles their urban fuel economy
values determined by a least squares fit were 17.6 MPG and 16.7 mpg.
This least square fit is considered more representative than the actual
data, since the actual data for one of the cars, was probably an outlier
on the low side at 14.1 mpg. This does not necessarily mean that there
is going to be a 21 to 28 percent improvement in fuel economy with systems
7-33
-------
targeted for 0.4 NOx, because there are confounding effects i.e. slave
vehicle, non AMA durability, less than 50,000 miles, etc. However it is
safe to conclude that the large fuel economy losses predicted by some
manufacturers for this emission control level may vanish with continued
development.
Systems to be used - Alternate Levels
Ford has begun a development program targeted at the .41 HC, 3.4 CO, 1.0
NOx level. Two approaches are being evaluated on 3500 Ib. inertia
weight vehicles using 302 cu. in. engines. The first, called the HC/CO
system controls HC and CO with oxidation catalysts and controls NOx with
a relatively sophisticated EGR and spark control system. The HC/CO
system includes cooled EGR and secondary air. The second system is a
three-way catalyst system which employs an oxidation catalyst downstream
of the three-way catalyst for supplemental HC and CO control. Back-
pressure EGR and secondary air ahead of the oxidation catalyst are also
included. Three HC/CO systems and two three-way catalyst systems have
been built arid run on durability for 4,000 miles. Table Ford-2 shows
the best performing cars for each system.
Table Ford-2
System HC CO NOx Urban F.E. Highway F.E.
17.0
HC/CO
Three-Way
0.21
0.30
1.58
2.10
0.74
0.51
.11.5
15.4
Three comparative 1976 durability cars are available for comparison.
Their 5000 mile urban fuel economy values were 9.2 mpg, 12.5 mpg and
10.4 mpg. The other 1.0 NOx development cars had urban fuel economy
values of 10.5 mpg, 11.8 mpg and 15.0 mpg. On balance, the lower emis-
sion vehicles showed superior fuel economy.
7-34
-------
The above test data suggest that the engine calibrations used on the
HC/CO system utilizes engine calibrations that result in an urban fuel
economy penalty, compared to the 3-way car.
Other Systems
Ford reports both vehicle and engine dynamometer testing of the Gould
GEM 68 Getter system. The emphasis was on the dynamometer testing, with
Ford pursuing an extensive evaluation effort to determine the funda-
mental relationships of conversion efficiency with exhaust gas tempera-
ture, air to fuel ratio, exhaust gas flow rate, etc. Ford concluded
from this evaluation that: the NOx conversion efficiency of the Gould
system is low at temperatures below 1100 F; the NOx catalyst is sus-
ceptible to sulfur poisoning; and the NOx conversion efficiency decreases
with decreasing NOx concentration. These temperature results conflict
with Gould's in-house testing and Gould and Ford have discussed the
details of Ford's testing technique. Further evaluation testing will be
performed by Ford.
The vehicle portion of Ford's testing has not made much progress. The
Gould system is installed on a 1975 LTD with the 400 cu. in. engine at
5000 IW and a single 95 cu. in. Englehard PTX IIB oxidation catalyst
downstream of the NOx catalysts following the exhaust pipe Y. This
oxidation catalyst installation appears less than optimum for emissions
control since on their 1977 certification fleet, Ford is running two
oxidation catalysts on all of their 5000 IW 400 cu. in. engined vehicles.
Depending on the particular engine family calibration, these catalysts
range from 132 cu. in. to 190 cu. in. each. Also, the PTX IIB has been
succeeded by the PTX IIC which has significantly improved performance
and was run by Ford in their Fleet B testing. The non-optimal nature of
this installation is evident in Ford's test results. The most recent
1975 FTP's (two test average) showed 1.07 HC, 9.0 CO, 0.47 NOx with 10.3
urban miles per gallon. Ford's two 1975/76 durability cars at the same
7-35
-------
IW with the same displacement engine had 9.0 mpg and 9.3 mpg urban fuel
economy values at 5000 miles. Their HC and CO levels were lower than
the dual catalyst car and their NOx values were 3 to 4 times higher.
Ford reported further testing of the 2.3 liter Pinto equipped with the
Questor emission control system. This car demonstrated .06 HC, 2.36 CO
and 0.22 NOx in early testing but emissions rose sharply in the first
400 miles due to insufficient secondary air supply. Questor improved
the air supply and switched to a higher temperature alloy for the reverter.
Testing at Questor of the modified system gave emission figures of 0.11
HC, 2.74 CO and 0.32 NOx with 18.4 mpg. Subsequent Ford testing showed
a three test average of 0.11 HC, 3.24 CO, 0.44 NOx and a fuel economy of
17.66 mpg. Ford points out that a 1976 2.3 liter Pinto achieved 22.4
mpg during EPA certification. However, their durability cars at 5000
miles were 17.3 and 16.9 mpg. Further durability testing was conducted
but at approximately 5000 miles weld failures were experienced in the
reverter causing CO and NOx control to deteriorate, f •
Ford reports development progress on several promising components and
systems. For the most part these systems, discussed below, will not be
available until after the 1978 model year, according t:b Ford.
Computer Controlled Timing (CCT) is a sophisticated ignition control
system which in theory can provide near optimum spark timing strategies.
This is accomplished by monitoring pertinent engine, vehicle and atmos-
pheric variables with electrical transducers. This information is fed
to an on-board computer which determines the optimum spark timing based
upon its programmed logic. Successfully applied, this concept can
improve fuel economy and performance while reducing emissions. In
addition, there is the potential for combining CCT with electronic EGR
and fuel metering control. Ford reports that they are now working out
timing strategies for CCT through engine mapping studies and pushing
forward development of the necessary hardware and sensors. The major
7-36
-------
hurdle to be overcome is the development of accurate, reliable and
inexpensive transducers, according to Ford.
Ford is pursuing the development of three different sonic carburetors.
Along with the Model III Dresserator, Ford is developing two configura-
tions of its own. The Dresserator and one of the Ford versions are the
sliding jaw variety. The other Ford is a hinged jaw. The significant
feature of the Ford versions is the fact that both employ electronic
fuel metering (EFM). The hinged jaw version employs injectors which
spray into the air section. The Ford sliding jaw configuration retains
the more conventional nozzle bar of the Dresserator carburetor for
introducing fuel into the air section. In addition to more precise fuel
metering and the resultant improvement in fuel air ratio control, EFM
can be integrated into Ford's electronic spark and EGR controls. Closed
loop exhaust gas sensor control is also a possibility, which would lend
itself to a three-way catalyst system. Ford reported that the emissions
of a 4500 Ib. inertia weight Torino equipped with Ford's sliding jaw
sonic carburetor were 1.4 HC, 5.1 CO, 1.8 NOx with an urban cycle fuel
economy of 11.2 mpg. This was without EGR, catalyst, or AIR. Because
of required further development and anticipated retooling time, Ford
estimates that their hinged jaw and sliding jaw versions could not be
introduced before 1979 and 1980-1981, respectively.
Another approach reported by Ford that is aimed at improving fuel dis-
tribution and vaporization is the vapor carburetor. Still in the early
research phase, this concept utilizes exhaust gas heat to vaporize the
fuel and accomplishes metering through a differential pressure regulator.
Cold start fuel vaporization uses electrical heating of the fuel.
Ford's information on this concept was rather sketchy, but they did
project data showing emissions equivalent to those obtained with electronic
fuel injection, with improved fuel economy.
Ford reported the initiation of a lean burn engine development program.
Their work to date has been aimed at determining the potential improve-
7-37
-------
ments in emission control, fuel economy and driveability that could
result from this approach. Their engine displacement/inertia weight
families have been modified with lean burn components and tested at
different emission level targets. The engine families involved were
the 2.3 liter Pinto, the 250 cu. in. Granada and the 400 cu. in. Torino.
The components consisted of modified intake manifolds with improved
distribution and increased intake charge heating, exhaust port liners
for exhaust heat conservation and larger exhaust manifolds or exhaust
reactors to promote after reaction oxidation of HC and CO. The engines
were then leaned out to 17-18:1 A/F ratio. Oxidation catalysts and EGR
were included in the systems depending on the emission levels sought.
The vehicles were then calibrated for emission levels ranging from .4
HC, 3.4 CO, 2.0 NOx to 1.5 HC, 15 CO, 3.1 NOx.
Limited test results were reported but one of the better performing
installations was a 2.3 liter Pinto which was equipped with port liners,
exhaust reactor and no catalyst or EGR. This vehicle was targeted for
.9 HC, 9 CO, 2.0 NOx and it achieved .43 HC, 4.98 CO, 1.5 NOx at low
mileage. This program is an example of good emission control technology
via engine modifications not being incorporated into a "full effort"
system. While it is realized that the purpose of the program was to
investigate "lean burn" technology, and the systems were probably considered
by Ford to be non-catalyst alternates at higher emission levels, it
would have been valuable to learn the capability of this system combined
with oxidation catalysts. Nevertheless the system demonstrated potential
for achieving low emissions and should be integrated into the type of
full effort system the manufacturers' will require for optimization of
both fuel economy and emissions.
Other vehicle development activity is underway at Ford and, for example,
they reported 0.37 HC, 1.84 CO, and 1.37 NOx for a 2000 Ib inertia
weight vehicle with 26.3 urban fuel economy and 36.3 highway fuel
economy.
7-38
-------
Some relatively promising development progress was reported for the
PROCO (Programmed Combustion) engine, Ford's stratified charge engine.
Ford has been experimenting with faster injection rates, and based upon
preliminary work, forecasts that a 50% reduction in NOx is achievable.
This was stated in Ford's critique of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory
report "Should We Have A New Engine". Ford indicates that this results
in a predicted 20 to 25% fuel economy advantage for the PROCO over a
controlled uniform-charge Otto engine (conventional spark ignition
engine) at the .41 HC, 3.4 CO, 0.4 NOx level. Work to date on the fast
injection rate has been limited to single cylinder engine testing. Fuel
distribution and injection system durability problems may be encountered
in more complex multi-cylinder installations. Ford also reported investiga-
tive work on torch ignition, improved fuel spray atomization and com-
bustion chamber studies to reduce HC.
Ford reported emission and fuel economy performance for three 400 CID
PROCO vehicles targeted at specific emission levels. This data is shown
in Table Ford-3. Urban cycle fuel economy of comparable 1976 conven-
tional Ford models is approximately 10-12 mpg.
With respect to their "fast burn" engine development program Ford reports
disappointing results. Ford's objective was to achieve a 100% increase
in the speed of combustion. In theory, the higher combustion speed should
have resulted in lower octane requirements, increased EGR tolerance,
lower NOx levels and better lean mixture tolerance. Instead of a 100%
increase, Ford actually achieved only a 25% increase in the rate of
combustion and the NOx control has been less than expected. The
octane requirement actually increased. However, Ford appears to have
confidence that they have diagnosed the problems and are embarking on a
test program to verify their proposed fixes.
7-39
-------
Table Ford-3
400 cu. in. PROCO without Catalysts 5000 Ib I.W.
HC CO NOx HC CO NOx HC CO NOx
Calibration
level .9 9 2.0 .4 3.4 2.0 .4 3.4 1.5
Feedgas
objectives 2.2 40 1.6 1.1 14 1.6 1.1 14 1.2
Actual 1.9 12.5 1.2 1.2 13.3 1.5 1.7. 19.2 1.2
Fuel Econ. (MPG)
Urban 14.4 12.7 13.3
Highway 19.0 18.8 18.8
Fuel Economy
Ford supplied very little information on programs aimed specifically at
improving fuel economy. Ford explained that this information "need not
be discussed in detail in an emission control status report".
The only specific fuel economy improvement programs described by Ford
were lower numerical rear axle ratio and lower power to weight ratio
studies. Ford reported that as the numerical axle ratio is lowered 0.25
the average highway fuel economy is improved by approximately 1.0 mpg
and the average urban fuel economy is improved by about 0.1 mpg. How-
ever this axle ratio change increases HC and NOx by approximately 8% and
3%, respectively. CO was reduced by about 2%. This degradation of HC
and NOx control along with worsened driveability may limit the use of
this technique.
Reduced power to weight ratio was reported to result in a 0.8 and 1.0
mpg improvement in city and highway fuel economy respectively. Ford
explains that the limiting factor on the utilization of this technique
is the increase in NOx that is experienced as BMEP goes up. The negative
implications of this technique can be improved somewhat by properly
tailored EGR.
7-40
-------
Durability Testing Programs
Durability Testing Programs - 1977 Model Year
Ford ^completed mileage on their 1977 Improved Catalyst Technology Fleet
B in June 1975. These cars were calibrated to comply with a .41 HC. 3.4
CO, 2.0 NOx level. Nine different substrate/noble metal formulations
were tested on a total of 35 vehicles. Fifteen vehicles completed the
target of 50,000 miles. The vehicles received periodic servicing to
maintain exhaust feedgas levels which is not allowed under EPA certifica-
tion procedures. The best performance in terms of 50,000 mile HC con-
version efficiency was a 268 cubic inch Englehard IIC formulation on a
Grace 400 substrate. This catalyst showed HC and CO conversion ef-
ficiencies of approximately 77% and 86% respectively, at 50,000 miles.
The Fleet B testing was done with fuel complying with the minimum con-
taminant levels formerly specified by EPA.
Ford has indicated that with the revised certification fuel, the Fleet
B-type oxidation catalysts would have had improved conversion efficiency.
They indicated that a 70% efficient catalyst using the old fuel might
be improved to 75 to 77%, with the new fuel. Considering the best Fleet B
catalysts, it is concluded that catalyst efficiencies of at least 80% for
HC at 50,000 miles are likely to be obtained in the near future with
continued development.
Table Ford-4 lists and compares the urban fuel economies of the Fleet B
cars and comparable 1976 models. The data for the 1976 models comes
from the official certification durability cars. The Fleet B results
for the 5000 mile fuel economy are averaged for each model. The
Fleet B vehicles have poorer fuel economy than the 1976 certification
durability cars.
7-41
-------
Model/Displacement
Pinto 2.1 liter
Mustang 2.8 liter
Maverick 250
Maverick 302
Torino 351
Ford 400
Mercury 460
Table Ford-4
Urban Fuel Economy of Fleet B and
Comparable 1976 Models
IW
3000
3500
3500
4000
4500
5000
5500
5K
16.2
13.2
14.0
10.1
9.1
9.2
9.9
FE Range
Low
14.8
12.8
12.4
8.8
9.0
8.1
8.5
for 50K
High
17.9
15.5
17.1
11.6
10.1
13.9
12.5
Type
Cal.
Cal.
Cal.
Fed.
Fed.
Cal.
Fed
5K
17.2
14.7
14.8
10.4
10.2
9.0
8.8
Percent Change
FE Range for 50K in 5K F.E. from
Low
17.0
13.6
13.5
7.8
9.3
8.2
7.8
High 1976 to Fleet ,Bv
18.1
16.3
15.4
11.0
11.3
9.2
10.8
-6.2
-10.2
-5.4
-2.9
-2.2
+2^2
+12.5
-------
Durability Testing - Post 1977 Model Year
Ford has started six vehicles calibrated at .41 HC, 3.4 CO, 1.0 NOx on a
50,000 mile durability test. All of the cars are equipped with three-
way catalysts with supplemental oxidation catalysts downstream of the
three-way catalysts. The systems include conventional (non-feedback)
2150 carburetors which have been calibrated at stoichiometry. The cars
are also equipped with backpressure EGR and secondary air for the
oxidation catalyst. The cars are 3500 Ib inertia weight vehicles using
the improved 1977 model 302 engine. Three of the cars will receive
periodic maintenance in an attempt to partially simulate feedback
air/fuel ratio control. The car with the highest reported mileage
(15,000) at time of Ford's report was measured at .31 HC, 2.00 CO and
0.39 NOx with a fuel economy of 15.1 mpg.
Progress and Problems - 1977 Model Year
Going into certification for the 1977 model year, Ford is well prepared
with system selection and testing well established. All models will
have full catalytic treatment of the exhaust gas and Ford now has it's
high energy ignition and backpressure EGR in production. Improved
catalyst technology, however, is where Ford stands out. Larger catalyst
volumes may also be used on some models.
Progress and Problems - 1978 Model Year
Fords designation of the three-way catalyst plus oxidation catalyst
approach as their prime system to meet the .41, 3.4 CO, 0.4 NOx standard
in 1978 illustrates their preference for the 3-way approach. Three-way
plus oxidation catalyst type systems may be considered inferior by some
in the near term to dual catalyst systems in meeting the .41 HC, 3.4 CO,
0.4 NOx level, but Ford is more bullish on the 3-way than others. Ford
can now be considered to have one of the most aggressive 3-way catalyst
development programs in the industry.
7-43
-------
7.1.4. General Motors
7.1.4.1. Systems to be Used - 1977 Model Year
Ths General Motors (GM) systems for 1977 Federal certification vehicles
will use a variety of technical options as shown in table GM-1. Early
fuel evaporation (EFE) will be used to varying degrees by all divisions
except Oldsmobile. Buick, Cadillac, and Oldsmobile will almost ex-
clusively use the backpressure (BP) exhaust gas recirculation (EGR)
system. Chevrolet and Pontiac will retain the ported (P) EGR system.
The only Federal vehicles to use conventional air injection (AIR)
systems will be the fuel injected models. The 140 CID models will use
the reed valve (R) AIR system which GM calls "Pulse Air". Oldsmobile
apparently will certify some models with both mechanical/vacuum (M/V)
spark control and electronic (E) spark control. The 160 and 260 cubic
inch, pelleted, oxidation catalysts will again be used, though many 260
converters will have their noble metal loadings increased from .05
(formerly used for both the 160 and 260) to .08 troy ounces of 71%
platinum/29% palladium. GM apparently will later attempt to certify at
least one family at a .04 troy ounce loading.
These systems are much like the 1976 system with the major changes being
the use of BP EGR, the use higher catalyst loadings, and system recali-
brations. The EPA analysis of the GM cost estimates (GM did not provide
cost estimates to EPA at either the 1977 Federal or California emission
levels) indicates that there could be a maximum initial cost increase to
the consumer of about $8.50 over the 1975 systems if no cost saving
measures are taken. This maximum figure includes $4 for the BP
EGR and $4.50 for the increased noble metal loading. Recent GM testi-
mony to the California Air Resources Board suggests that cost saving
measures will be taken and that initial cost to the consumer will not
increase. Generally, there should be little change in maintenance
costs, though GM failed to comment on this. GM did estimate that there
7-44
-------
Table GM-1
1977 Federal Emission Control
Division
Buick
Buick
Buick
Buick
Buick
Buick
Cadillac
Cadillac
Chevrolet
Chevrolet
Chevrolet
Chevrolet
Chevrolet
Chevrolet
Chevrolet
Chevrolet
Chevrolet
Chevrolet
Chevrolet
Chevrolet
Chevrolet
Oldsmobile
Oldsmobile
Oldsmobile
Oldsmobile
Pontiac
Pontiac
Pontiac
*
Family
740E2
740E2U
740J2
740J2U
740J4
740J4U
760JO
760V4U
710C1
710C1U
710C2
710C2T
710C2U
710C2W*
710F1
710F1U
710F1Y
710G2
710G2U
710J4
710W1
730H2
730H2U
730M4
730M4U
720K4
72052U
720X2U
CID
231
231
350
350
350
350
350 FI
425
140
140
140
140
140
140
250
250
250
262/305
262/305
350
1.41/1.6A
260
260
350/403
350/403
350/400
302
151
EFE EGR
X BP
X BP
X BP
X BP
X P
X BP
BP
X P
P
P
P
P
P
P
X P
X P
X P
X P
X P
X P
P
BP
BP
BP
BP
X P
P
X P
Spark
AIR Advance
M-V
M-V
M-V
M-V
M-V
M-V
1.02 M-V
M-V
R M-V
R M-V
R M-V
R M-V
R M-V
R M-V
M-V
M-V
M-V
M-V
M-V
M-V
M-V
M-V
M-V.E
M-V.E
M-V
M-V
M-V
Main
Catalyst
**
260
260**
260**
**
260
**
260
**
260
**
260
**
260
160
160
160
160
160
160
**
260
**
260
260
**
260
**
260
**
260
160
**
260
**
260
**
260
**
260
**
260
**
260
160
Catalyst change vehicle
**
.08 troy oz.
R = reed valve
7-45
-------
Table GM-2
1977 California Emission Control Systems
Division
Buick
Cadillac
Cadillac
Cadillac
Chevrolet
Chevrolet
Chevrolet
Chevrolet
Chevrolet
Chevrolet
Chevrolet
Chevrolet
Chevrolet
Chevrolet
Chevrolet
Chevrolet
Chevrolet
Oldsmobile
Oldsmobile
*
Family
740E25U
760JOU
760VOU
*
760V4UW
*
710C2WZ
710F1C
it
710F1SWMU
*
710F1SWU
it
710G2LW
*
710G2VW
*
710J4KW
*
710J4SW
710W1P
710W1PU
*
710W1PW
710W1V
711BO
it
730M4AUW
*
730M4UW
CID EEE
231 X
FI
350
FI
425 1
425 X
140
250 X
250 X
250 X
262/305 X
262/305 X
350 X
350 X
1.6Ł
1.64
1.6A
1.44/1.64
FT
122*1
350/403
350/403
EGR
BP
BP
BP
BP
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
BP
BP
AIR
X
1.02
1.2
1.2
R
1.15
1.15
1.15
X
X
1.32
1.32
R
R
R
0.88
R
1.25
Spark
Advance
M-V
M-V
M-V
M-V
M-V
M-V
M-V
M-V
M-V
M-V
M-V
M-V
M-V
M-V
M-V
M-V
M
M-V,E
M-V.E
Main Start *
Catalyst Catalyst
**
260
**
260
**
260
**
260
it*
260
**
260
**
260 60
**
260
**
260
**
260
**
260
**
260
160
160
160
160
**
260
**
260
**
260
Catalyst change vehicle
** «0
.08 troy oz.
R = reed valve
7-46-
-------
would be a 5% reduction in fuel economy compared to what could be ac-
complished in 197,7 if the NOx level were 3.1. According to GM, only
about half of that fuel penalty will result when compared to 1976 models.
The EPA analysis of the changes in fuel economy of GM prototype and
certification durability vehicles is presented in table GM-3. A preliminary
EPA analysis of the 1977 GM certification vehicles at high mileage
indicates fuel economy losses for only the lightest vehicles, when
compared to their 1976 counterparts. The heavier vehicles generally
showed improved fuel economy. Consideration of the weight reductions
planned by GM should yield an overall fuel economy improvement for GM in
1977.
As indicated in table GM-2, the 1977 GM systems for California will
generally be similar to the Federal vehicles with the addition of either
v.
the conventional AIR system or the reed valve (R) AIR system. A start
catalyst will be used on one of three Chevrolet families for California
with 250 cubic inch engines.
Based on the recent GM testimony and the GM cost estimates at .41 HC,
3.4 CO, 2.0 NOx (not .41 HC, 9.0 CO, 1.5 NOx), we determined that the
initial cost increase to be from $33 to $129 compared to 1975 Federal
models if cost saving measures are taken. The $33 represents the ad-
dition of AIRi ?BP EGR, an electric choke, and a catalyst change re-
minder system, and the higher catalyst loading. The $129 includes the
items plus a start catalyst system. These are basically the systems
which will be used in California. The average initial cost increase
should be near the $33 figure as only one start catalyst family is
o
present in the 19 California families. Compared to the cost /Lf. 1976
model California vehicles, no initial cost increase will occur. GM
estimated that maintenance costs could increase by $60-70 if catalyst
changes are needed during the 50,000 mile durability. GM apparently
will try to certify without catalyst change and use the catalyst change
option only if necessary. The estimate of about $100 for a start catalyst
system may be rather pessimistic. It is estimated that a 60 CID start
7-47
-------
Table GM-3
Urban Fuel Economy Comparisons of GM Durability Vehicles
'76 Federal Durability '76 California
Vehicle Durability Vehicle
5K Range 5K Range
Mfr. Eng. Trans IW VIN MPG MPG VIN MPG MPG VIN
Cadillac 350-FI A3 4500 604 12.8 12.8-14.7 604 12.8 12.8-14.7 PF
Chevrolet 140-2 A3 3000 102 21.5 17.2-21.7 118 18.1 16.4-18.6 PF
64375
PF
250-1 A3 4000 142 14.8 14.7-16.7 143 15.3 11.9-16.6 PF
PF
77102'
77104'
350-2 A3 4500 132 12.7 11.9-13.9 77101
77103
350-4 A3 4500 136 12.2 11.6-12.8 136 12.2 11.6-12.8 65383
PF'
77111
Oldsmobile 260-2 A3 4000 319 13.6 12.9-13.8 319 13.6 12.9-13.8 77304'
77305
350-4 A3 4500 303 14.4 12.7-14.4 305 13.1 12.5-13.1 77307
77308
77309
Pontiac 400-4 A3 4500 202 11.8 11.6-12.6 218 10.8 10.5-11.8 77202'
Prototype Vehicle
Target
Standard
.41,
.41,
.41,
.41,
.41,
.41,
.41,
.41,
.41,
-41,
.41,
.41,
.41,
.41,
.41,
•41,
.41,
.41,
•41,
9
9
3
9
9
9
3
3
3
3
3
9
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
, 1.
, 1.
-4,
, I-
, 1.
, I-
• 4,
• 4,
.4,
• 4,
.4,
, 1.
.4,
.4,
.4,
.4,
.4,
.4,
•V
5
5
.4
5
5
5
2.
2.
2.
2.
2.
5
2.
2.
2.
2.
2.
2.
2.
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
5K
MPG
12.2
18.3
17.7
17.3
14.2
12.0
14.9
14.6
10.5
9.6
12.6
12.9
12.1
12.3
12.9
11.3
11.5
11.0
11.1
% Change
from
-4.
-14.
-17.
-19.
-4.
-18.
+0.
-1.
-17.
-24.
+3.
+5.
-0.
-9.
-5.
-21.
-20.
-23.
-5.
Fed
7
9
7
5
0
9
6
4
3
4
2
7
8
6
1
5
1
6
9
% Change
from
-4
+1
-2
-4
-7
-21
-2
-4
+3
+5
-0
-9
-5
+2
Cal
.7
.1
.2
.4
.2
.6
.6
.5
.2
.7
.8
.6
.1
.8
Range
12. 0-13. 2'
16.5-18.3
17.1-18.1
16.2-18.5.
14.2-15.2
12.0-14.6
14.8-16.6'
14.6-16.6;
10. 5-12. 4i
8.9-11.4.
12.1-12.9'
12.9-13.4
12.1-13.4
11.5-13.2
12.3-13.8
11.3-12.5
11.5-12.6
10.8-12.2.
10.9-13.1
PF = Practice Fleet
-------
catalyst should cost about $50 or less. GM estimated that the fuel
economy penalty of the California models would be 20-30% compared to
what could be accomplished in 1977 at 1.5 HC, 15. CO, 3.1 NOx. This
estimate included an additional fuel penalty to meet California end-of-
line requirements. This fuel penalty has also been revised by GM to be
a 7-8% loss compared to 1976 California to reflect the non-methane hydro-
carbon standard. Including weight reductions, this will represent about
a 3% overall improvement in fuel economy over 1976 California models,
according to GM. The EPA analysis of eleven high mileage durability
vehicles for California in 1977 reveals an 8% loss for only one vehicle
compared to its 1976 counterpart. The average fuel economies of the
eleven vehicles analyzed were comparable (+0.4%) to the 1976 California
models. Only vehicles of the same inertia weight in 1977 and 1976
were compared.
Systems to be Used - 1978 Model Year and Beyond
The GM systems for .41 HC, 3.4 CO, 2.0 NOx apparently would be very
similar to those discussed for the 1977 California emission levels with
possibly more dependence upon start catalysts. Another potential system
under consideration is lean burn plus thermal reactors (TR) plus oxida-
tion catalysts (OC). GM feels that this system may offer fuel economy
advantages over more conventional systems. This advantage may become
negligible if exhaust heat conservation techniques are applied to
conventional systems.
The cost estimates in the previous section are also applicable here.
GM estimates that there would be a 15-20% loss in fuel economy in 1982
at these emission levels assuming current technology. EPA estimates
that with improved technology (switched out start catlaysts added to
current systems or closed loop 3-way catalyst systems) there would be no
fuel economy penalty, or even a gain, when compared to 1976 models.
7^49
-------
The developmental GM systems which have been targeted toward .41 HC, 3.4
CO, .4 NOx include dual catalyst systems, 3-way catalyst systems, and 3-
way plus oxidation catalyst systems. Two of three 3-way catalyst ve-
hicles i^which-^ere reported, had closed, loop electronic fuel injection
(EF1)il' The tnlScd vehicle had closed loop-carburetion. " The carbureted
vehicle (65344) is a 350 Nova with EFE, BP EGR, and a pelleted, Engel-
hard catalyst. Emissions of .35 HC, 4.2 CO, .31 NOx were reported at
zero miles. The other two 3-way catalyst vehicles will be discussed in
the durability section.
One 3-way plus oxidation catalyst vehicle was reported. It was a 305
Nova with BP EGR, switching AIR, closed loop carburetion, an unidentified
3-way catalyst, and a production 260 oxidation catalyst. The results of
two,low mileage tests were reported to be .55 HC, 3.6 CO, .37 NOx and
.26 HC, 1.16 CO, .43 NOx.
No emission results were reported for two of four dual catalyst vehicles.
One of these vehicles will use closed loop carburetion and Gould reduction
catalysts. A closed loop carburetor is being used to assist in reducing
ammonia formation in the Gould converter. The second vehicle will be
like the 3-way plus oxidation catalyst vehicle except that it has a 350
engine and will use a Gulf monolithic reduction catalyst. Engine dyno
testing has shown the Gulf catalyst to have about 92% net NOx conversion
efficiency at 1,000 dynamometer test hours, which simulated a 50,000
mile durability test but GM indicates that its loading of .032 troy
ounces of ruthenium may be too high to be practical for production. The
other two dual catalyst vehicles will be discussed in the durability
section.
Though no Questor vehicles have been tested recently at GM, GM indicated
that they were entering into adjoint design and development program with
Questor. v
GM 'estimated the initial cost of 3-way catalyst systems to be $147 more
than the 1975 system. Most of this $147 is for the closed loop fuel
metering system. The dual catalyst system would cost about $337 more .
than "the 1975"system, according to GM. Most of this cost is for'closed
7-50
-------
loop fuel metering and the reduction catalyst. Neither cost estimate
includes costs for catalyst change should they be necessary. GM estimated
that a 5 to 30% fuel economy loss would be incurred in 1978 compared to
what could be obtained at 1.5 HC, 15 CO, 3.1 NOx levels.
GM has not specifically developed vehicles for .41 HC, 3.4 CO, 1.0 NOx,
but they indicated that the emission control systems and costs would be
like those at .41 HC, 3.4 CO, .4 NOx. In a recent submission to the
U.S. Department of Transportation, GM indicated that lean burn vehicles
equipped with EGR, thermal reactors, and oxidation catalysts may also
have the potential to certify at the .41 HC, 3.4 CO, 1.0 NOx levels.
The GM estimate of the capability to achieve these levels is based on
relatively large engines in relatively small cars (i.e., a 350 or 400
CID engine in a 3500 Ib. car). This submission was quite important as
it indicates that the lower level of NOx capability with homogeneous
(not stratified charge) lean burn systems may be considerably lower than
indicated by other industry sources.
Other Systems
There has been serious consideration given to lean burn systems at GM
for various'emission levels. At the 1977 California levels, EGR and
oxidation catalysts would be required, and it may be desirable to add a
thermal reactor for fuel economy considerations. Table GM-4 shows some
of the GM efforts. The vehicles with CCS operate lean (about 16:1 A/F)
though not as lean as the other vehicles. Vehicles ES 65357 and ES
65383 are particularly impressive. Both data points for ES 65383 with
high CO are either the result of a malfunction or are of questionable
accuracy, according to GM.
The GM work with start catalysts was disappointing as no switched out
start catalyst data or super EFE plus start catalyst data was obtained
as yet. GM did note that start catalysts which were not switched,-out
. "„ ' •
could provide advantages in passing end-of-llne audit requirements. EPA
concludes that by switching out the start catalyst, similar emissions
7-51
-------
Table GN-4
Lean Burn Vehicles
VIN
E594313/
77602
E565337
E565366
E565353
E594332
Ł564379
65314
Model
Chevelle
Chevelle
Chevelle
Chevelle
Chevelle
Chevelle
Chevelle
CID
400
350
350
350
400
400
350
E565357
E565383
Chevelle*
Monte Carlo
E565382
E565328
65305
Monte Carlo
Monte Carlo
Vega
CID
400
350
350
350
400
400
350
350
350
350
350
Control
System
LB
LB/TR/EFE
LB/TR/EFE
LB/EFE/OC
LB/OC
CCS/EFE/EGR/AIR/OC
LB/EFE/EGR/TR
LB/EFE/EGR/TR/OC
LB/EFE/EGR/TR/OC
LB/EFE/EGR/TR/OC
LB/EFE/EGR/TR/OC
Miles
5,000
25,000
4,000
4,000
5,000
2,000
2,000
low
low
low
low
4,000
0
5,000
10,000
15,000
20,000
25,000
0
5,000
10,000
15,000
0
5,000
10,000
HC
CO
NOx MPG,
u
5,000
25,000
4,000
4,000
5,000
2,000
2,000
low
low
low
low
4,000
0
5,000
10,000
15,000
20,000
25,000
0
5,000
10,000
15,000
0
5,000
10,000
1.3
1.6
.95
.79
.48
.20
.13
.77
.65
.63
.62
.17
.20
.19
.24
.25
.30
.22
.20
.18
.22
.29
.14
.10
.15
7.8
7.6
6.0
4.4
0.7
1.0
1.0
8.8
11.3
5.6
4.9
1.2
1.35
1.60
3.2
2.1
4.5
1.2
1.18
.99
1.7
1.7
.95
i.s'o
2.06
2.0
2.1
1.4
1.5
1.4
1.5
1.5
1.74
1.60
1.6
1.5
1.0
1.49
1.36
1.50
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.47
1.33
1.20
1.6
1.66
1.4
1.33
11.9
12.3
12.3
12.6
13.4
11.5
10.9
12.1
12.4
11.3
11.5
12.7
12.0
12.6
12.4
12.6
12.1
12.9
12.2
12.1
12.3
12.5
11.0
11.5
11.7
18.5
16.8
17.4
19.0
17.3
18.8
140 CCS/EGR/TR/OC
500
.31 4.8 1.7 17.5 23.4
CCS., current calibration.
7-52
-------
benefits can be seen over the entire 50,000 miles of durability without
the large increases in HC and CO deterioration factors associated with
start catalyst systems that are not switched out. Catalyst descriptions
were not provided for prototype main catalysts, thus the CM progress in
developing the pelleted oxidation catalysts could not be evaluated.
Alternate Engines
The GM light duty Diesel, scheduled for introduction in 1977 or 1978, is
a 350 CID, 4-stroke model developed by Oldsmobile. The emission and
;
fuel economy results in Table GM-5 were reported for this engine.
Table GM-5
The Oldsmobile Diesel
4500 Ibs. Inertia Weight
Emissions
Vehicle
52532
52364
52535
(gm/mi)
HC
0.7
1.6
1.4
0.6
1.3
0.5
0.3
0.2
0.2
CO
4.1
2.8
2.1
1.8
2.3
1.1
1.1
1.3
1.2
NOx
1.6
1.6
1.8
4.3
2.0
2.3
3.7
3.0
3.3
Fuel
EPA (urb.)
18.9
19.6
20.4
18.8
18.3
19.1
16.9
20.4
18.8
Economy (mi/gal.)
EPA (hwy.)
21.4
24.7
28.2
25.2
24.5
24.5
21.5
25.2
23.7
55/45
20.0
21.6
23.3
21.2
20.7
21.2
18.7
22.3
20.7
7-53
-------
The results in Table GM-6 were reported for a 350 CID jet ignition
stratified charge (SC) vehicle. Data from a conventional lean burn
vehicle was also presented for comparison. Apparently this CVCC-type
Table GM-6
The Jet Ignition Stratified Charge Vehicle
(4500 Ib. IW)
System
SC+OC
SC+TR
LB+OC
HC
.25
.35
.27
CO
.55
3.38
.94
NOx
1.50
1.35
1.57
MPGU
12.2
10.0
12.8
A/F
19:1
19:1
19:1
vehicle was not tested with both the thermal reactors and oxidation
catalyst. Based on this vehicle and another series of testing with
Honda vehicles GM has concluded that:
o "Some conventional homogeneous charge chamber designs are
better than others.
o Some stratified charge designs are better than cithers.
o Stratifying poor conventional combustion chambers improves
their performance to near that of the best conventional'
designs.
o Stratifying good combustion chambers does not significantly
improve their performance.
o Running a good stratified charge design with a homogeneous
' • • • • j • '< ' ' •
mixture gives essentially the same performance. This points
/
toward the importance of chamber design rather than stratifica-
tion as the dominant factor."
7-54
-------
Thus it does not appear that GM will do further work with this concept.
It should be noted that the GM conclusions were drawn from studies at
NOx levels between 1.3 and 2.0. These conclusions may be considerably
different at the 1.0 or 0.4 NOx levels for which the CVCC could potentially
be calibrated, using EGR.
The Texaco Controlled Combustion System (TCCS) Cricket was tested with
mixtures of gasoline and Diesel fuel. GM concluded that its fuel
economy was no better than a conventional engine and that HC emissions
were unacceptably high. The FTP results*were 1.3 HC, .77 CO, 2.1 NOx
and 25 mpg with a 50/50 blend of gasoline and Diesel fuel..
The GM turbine work is being directed toward fuel economy improvements.
The best fuel economies reported were 8.7 for the FTP and 16.0 for the
highway test in a 4500 pound inertia weight vehicle. No emission re-
sults were reported.
The conventional rotary engine was reported to now have engine-out HC
emissions reduced to about 4-8 gm/mi. But until further reductions of
HC and improvements in fuel economy are achieved, the rotary apparently
will not be considered for production.by GM. Developmental efforts were
reported on both stratified charge and Diesel rotaries, but no emission
data was reported for either concept.
Durability Testing Program - 1977 Model Year
The California Division of Highways Fleet has continued to operate
twenty-five Oldsmobiles with EGR, EFE, and oxidation catalysts which
were targeted toward .41 HC, 3.4 CO, 2.0 NOx. Thirteen of the vehicles
have no AIR and twelve have AIR. Three no AIR vehicles have now com-
pleted 50,000 miles and the remaining ten have accumulated at least
39,000 miles. All of the AIR vehicles were reported to be between
31,000 and 36,000 miles. The GM analysis of the twenty-five 455 CID
vehicles is found in Tables GM-7 and GM-8.
7-55
-------
Table GM-7
California Division of Highways Fleet
Oldsmobiles Without Air Pumps (5000 Ib. IW)
( -•-*-"•---
HC CO NOx
Projected Emissions at 50,000
miles (g/mi)
Avg. 0.33 4.97 1.93
Range 0.21-0.66 3.54-7.43 1.70-2.44
Deterioration Factor
Avg. 1.63 2.77 1.04
Range 1.00-2.3.6 1.30-7.87 1.00-1.25
Percent of vehicles meeting
individual constituent targets
ofO.41 HC, 3.4 CO and 2.0 NOx 85% 0% 61%
Percent of vehicles meeting
combined targets of 0.41 HC,
3.4 CO and 2.0 NOx — 0%
7-56
-------
Table GM-8
California Division of Highways Fleet
Oldsmoblles With Air Pumps (5000 Ib. IW)
Projected Emissions at 50,000
miles (g/mi)
HC
CO
NOx
Avg. 0.43 2.58 1.74
Range 0.17-0.93 0.79r7.03 1.51-2.17
Deterioration Factor
Avg. 1.52 2.96 1.03
Range 1.00-4.89 1.00-8.57 1.00-1.38
Percent of vehicles meeting
Individual constituent targets
of 0.41 HC,;3.4 CO and 2.0 NOx
58%
83%
92%
Percent of vehicles meeting
combined targets of 0.41 HC,
3.4 CO and 2.0 NOx
42%
7-57
-------
The Corporate Durability Fleet consisted of thirty-six vehicles designed
to meet .41-HC, 3.4 CO, 2.0 NOx. Twenty-four of the vehicles were
terminated before the completion of 50,000 miles, and twelve of the
vehicles completed the 50,000 miles'. Three vehicles were start catalyst
vehicles (not switched out, but half flow after warm up). Two of the
start catalyst vehicles completed 50,000 miles. One was terminated at
35,000 miles. GM predicted that all three would fail HC emissions. The
vehicle with the largest start catalyst (60 CID) was closest to passing.
It should also be noted that none of the start catalysts were changed
over the mileage accumulation. Five vehicles, including one start
catalyst vehicle, had the main catalyst changes at 30,000 miles. One
vehicle of the five was projected to meet the target emission levels.
The other four were projected to fail HC. Seventeen of the vehicles had
1976 production Pt/Pd catalysts (HN-2300). Eleven had an experimental
all Pt catalyst (HN-2478). Comparisons for the two converters were
presented by GM in figures GM-1 and GM-2. The HN-2478 was an improved
converter on the 350 family, but was less favorable for CO control on
the 250 family. Three vehicles had other experimental converters.
Vehicle 77207 was particularly impressive until 22,500 miles. After
that scheduled maintenance point, the engine out emissions, tailpipe
emissions, and fuel economy changed significantly. Neither the reasons
for these changes nor the reasons for removing the vehicle from the
corporate durability fleet were explained by GM.
The GM analysis of the Corporate Durability Fleet is found in Table GM-
9. Some vehicles were not considered in this analysis because of evapora-
tive interaction problems'.
The remaining five vehicles in the Corporate Durability Fleet included
two 3-way catalyst cars, one lean burn plus oxidation catalyst car, one
lean burn only vehicle, and one stratified charge plus oxidation catalyst
vehicle. Both 3-way vehicles were terminated within 5000 miles. One
was failing HC and CO and the other had a mechanical problem with the
7-58
-------
\oo
Figure GM-1
Experimental Converter
Production Vs Experimental Converter
HC Conversion Efficiency vs lliles
Engine Family C 35012
CO Conversion Efficiency vs Miles
_
• i _r^_i '• • ; ; _; . : j
7-59
-------
IOO
Figure GM-2
Experimental Converter
HC Conversion Efficiency vs Miles
Engine Family C 250/1
Convtr Che @ 30_ Miles
R
<&—6
i.. r
-woo
:— H-i-pf—!•—T-:— CO Conversion Efficiency vs Miles
\! :.
' ' . t ~"
10
Zo
7-60
4o
-------
Table GM-9
Corporate Durability Fleet
Engine Family
C 250/1
C 350/2
C 350/400/4
' • ,"-.')
P 350/400/4
0 260/2
0 350/4
0 403/4
B 350/2
Ca 425/4
Number of
Cars Run
5 \
3
4
1
2
1
Number of
Cars Passing
; o
"l, , '-• •
0
0
1
1 projected to pass
0
0
0
Totals:
8, Families
Represented
24
3 (1 was projected
to pass)
7-61
-------
engine. The lean burn plus oxidation catalyst vehicle was failing HC
and was terminated at 30,000, miles. The lean burn only vehicle was
terminated at 25,000 miles. This was vehicle 77602 in Table ,GM-4. The
stratified charge vehicle remained within the program targets until
38,000 miles. At this point a prechamber valve failed and the vehicle
was terminated. Some of the durability results for this vehicle are
presented in Table GM-10.
Table GM-10
Durability Results of the Jet Ignition
Stratified Charge Plus Oxidation Catalyst Vehicle
(350 CID. 4500 Ib. IW)
Mileage HC CO NOx MPG,. MPGT,
0
5,000
10,000
15,000
20,000
25,000
30,000
35,000
.14
.23
.22
.21
.28
.34
.36
.27
.40
.55
.32
.38
.37
.49
.87
1.06
1.34
1.62
1.67
1.59
1.63
i;38
1.97
1.77
10.76
10.87
10.69
10.97
10.57
10.71.
10.86
10.32
—
15.16
15.4:3
15.89
15.42
Another fleet called the Practice Durability Fleet is now running at the
1977..Federal and California levels. HC emissions appear to be improved
on this fleet, but still higher than GM may desire. The CO emissions
from vehicles targeted for the 9 CO level seem to provide a very favorable
CO cushion for certification. The catalyst change vehicles also are
showing reduced deterioration for HC. One vehicle has an HC DF of about
one.
Durability Testing Programs - 1978 Model Year
The level of effort currently being expended on durability testing of
1978 systems for .41 HC, 3.4 CO, .4 NOx indicate that GM will not be
7-62
-------
able to certify vehicles in 1978 at those emission levels. GM maintains
that emission control systems for achieving those levels are still not
developed. There are two 3-way catalyst vehicles which have accumulated
mileage. Both are 140 CID Vegas at 3000 Ib. IW with BP EGR, closed loop
electronic fuel injection, and underfloor catalysts. Vehicle 64384 is
using an Engelhard, monolithic catalyst, and vehicle 65375 is using a
pelleted DeGussa catalyst. Their emission results to date are reported
in Table GM-11. Vehicle 65375 showed some of the best durability
results with a 3-way catalyst
Vehicle
64384
65375
Table GM-11
3-Way Catalyst Durability Testing
Mileage
0
0
5,000
5,000
10,000
10,000*
0
0
5,000
10,000**
15,000
15,000***
20,000
HC
.26
.24
.22
.21
.21
.29
.18
.19
.26
.17
.20
.18
.22 '
CO
1.69
2.54
1.82
2.14
2.19
4.60
2.42
2.36
3.81
2.35
3.49
3.18
2.82
NOx
.16
.29
.43
.71
.76
.41
.21
.36
.39
.37
.38
•27
.32
MPGTJ
17.3
20.2
21.0
21.7
21.6
21.1
16.9
17.6
17.7
17.1
18.1
17.9
17.7
MPG,
23.5
* richer A/F ratio
** EGR valve replaced
*** Oxygen sensor replaced
7-63
-------
vehicle that has been reported to EPA. The achievement of the statutory
emission levels at 20,000 miles with a 3-way catalyst vehicle is con-
sidered an important technological accomplishment. The reasons for
differences in fuel economy between the two vehicles was not explained
by GM. There is essentially no fuel economy penalty for 64.384, though
both vehicles had compression ratios of 9:1 and probably would not
operate on 91 RON fuel. If the compression ratio were lowered, HC and
NOx would probably be lowered. Mileage accumulation is continuing on
both vehicles.
Two dual catalyst vehicles have been tested. Both are 350 CID vehicles
at 4500 Ib. IW with BP EGR, EFE, switched AIR, and production oxidation
catalysts. Vehicle 65336 uses the Gould reduction catalyst with an
oxygen getter, and vehicle 6330X uses a TDK, pelleted reduction catalyst.
Their test results are shown in Table GM-12.
Table GM-12
Dual Catalyst Durability Results
Vehicle Mileage HC CO NOx MPG,T MPG,
Mileage
\
0
5,000
10,000
12,000
-
15,000
15,000
0
5,000
10,000
_
HC
.33
.42
.48
.58
.43
.53
.52
.29
.33
.35
.35
CO
1.3
3.3
3.3
4.3
1.6
3.2
3.7
2.8
4.4
5.4
6.5
NOx
.27
.47
.38
.56
.38
.47
.46
.33
.50
.85
.54
65336 0 .33 1.3 .27 9.9
10.5
10.4
9.9
10.2
10.3
10.6
6330X 0 .29 2.8 .33 10.0
10.7
10.7
10.6
No durability testing was reported at the .41 HC, 3.4 CO, 1.0 NOx levels.
7-64
-------
7.1.4.3 Progress and Problem Areas
Progress and Problems - 1977 Model Year
If early certification results are representative, GM will do a con-
siderable amount of HC and NOx "line crossing" in California. The HC
problem suggests that GM is either having fuel metering problems or
catalyst problems. The catalyst problem may be the relatively slow
light off of the GM converters. Their non-switched out start catalysts
may not help as they will reduce low mileage HC emissions, but could
increase the DF. GM reported that the catalyst change option had not
provided the expected DF benefits on the Corporate Durability Fleet, but
catalyst change results on the more recent Practice Durability Fleet
reflect the expected improvements. The catalyst change option may be
used for some engine families, though others will not now need it because
of improved deterioration factors for 1977. The main reason for the im-
proved DF's in table GM-13 is the reduced lead and phosphorus levels in
the revised certification fuel for 1979.
Table GM-13
Changes in DF between 1976 and 1977
Durability Vehicles
Average Change in DF
HC -0.47
CO -0.44 .
NOx +0.01
GM has made considerable progress on lean burn plus thermal reactor plus
oxidation catalyst systems. These systems have initially shown the
potential to minimize fuel economy losses projected by GM at the .41 HC,
,7-65
-------
9 CO, 1.5 NOx levels. Progress on the GM light duty Diesel which may be
introduced in 1977 also has been good. HC emissions of the Diesel may
be a little high yet, but are expected to improve as more work is done.
The vehicle weight reduction program will begin in 1977 with initial
changes starting with the heaviest end of the GM model line.
Progress and Problems - 1978 Model Year
A big problem for GM and; others in the industry in 1978 is that the
emissions standard is still mandated at the statutory levels. Since GM
maintains that the required technology does not exist to comply with the
statutory levels in 1978, apparently no orders have been placed for the
catalysts. Thus GM may be forced into calibration changes of current-
type systems for 1978.
According to GM, catalyst durability remains a problem for both 3-way
catalyst and dual catalyst systems, and fuel metering may be a problem
for the 3-way catalyst systems. This could be a bigger problem for GM
than for other manufacturers who are working on fuel metering systems
which have feedback capability and are more sophisticated than carburetion,
but less sophisticated (and expensive) than fuel injection. Other
remaining problems with 3-way catalyst systems, according,to GM, are
sensor drift, window size, and window drift. However, the completion of
''.' • ' ' ' '.,'; I
20,000 miles on a 3-way catalyst vehicle at statutory emission levels
•demonstrates' considerable progress.
7-66
-------
7.2 Independent Developers
7.2.1 Dresser
Dresser Industries is a multi-divisional company which produces a variety
of products including, gas station pumps, tools, safety valves, and oil
drilling equipment. Since 1970 Dresser has been involved in the develop-
ment of a sonic carburetor known .as the "Dresaerator". Dresser felt the
potential for the carburetor system, which was formerly under development
at Stanford Research Institute, was sufficient to allow them to eventually
obtain licensing fees from the automobile industry for its use.
The Dresser, concept is to achieve fine fuel atomization over a wide
range of operating conditions by maintaining a choked flow condition
in the carburetor throat and metering fuel upstream of the throat
so that it must pass through the shock wave that occurs when the flow
goes sub-sonic in the diffuser which is located downstream of the
throat. The extremely fine droplet sizes reportedly created by the
Dresserator (10 micron diameter) allow uniform air/fuel ratios (A/F)
to be achieved during warm-up and transient conditions that cause
A/F variability problems with conventional carburetors. The wall wetting
that occurs with conventional carburetors is less of a problem for the
Dresserator. The coarser droplet size and heavier wall wetting that is
characteristic of a conventional carburetor results in significant
variations in air fuel ratio from cylinder to cylinder and from one
cycle to the next cycle (successive intake charges for the same cylinder).
To prevent lean misfire in a conventionally carbureted engine, this is
counteracted by richening up the overall mixture so that the lean
cylinders are not too lean. This has prevented the achievement in
practice of the theoretical benefits of lean (18-19:1 A/F) operation.
The achievement of sonic flow in a carburetor is not a new accomplish-
ment. Conventional carburetors experience sonic conditions at idle and
extremely light load operation where the ratio of manifold to ambient
7-67
-------
pressure is less than .528. The Dresser carburetor, however, maintains
sonic conditions over most of the engines operating range including
modes where intake manifold pressure approaches ambient pressure. This
is accomplished by the variable area, converging-diverging geometry of
the Dresserator. Figure Dresser-1 is a schematic of the Dresserator
geometry. Movement of a slider between two fixed jaws accomplishes the
throat area changes necessary as the engines air requirement changes.
Previous versions of the Dresserator have employed moveable jaws without
a slider and annular geometry with a vertically moveable cone to vary
throat area. Figure Dresser-2 is a prototype Dresserator completely
assembled.
Emission Performance
Dresser equipped vehicles tested by EPA and others have demonstrated
that the level of "untreated" emissions necessary to achieve the 1977
California Standards (.41, 9.0, 1.5) with a catalytic aftertreatment
system can be achieved with excellent fuel economy. In order to achieve
the 1977 California levels the pre-catalyst emission levels need to be:
HC = .41 T (1-.7) - 1.37
CO - - 9.0 4- (1-.8) =45
NOx - 1.5 4- (1-0) -1.5
Levels lower than these have been demonstrated by Dresser on several
vehicles. Even without catalysts Dresser test vehicles have approached
or equalled the 1977 California standard when some spark retard is used
to reduce HC. The use of catalysts will allow Dresser equipped vehicles
to simultaneously achieve fuel economy that is superior to the economy
achieved by typical vehicles in any previous model years, including
uncontrolled. Typical non-catalyst emission levels for Dresser equipped
vehicles are shown in Table Dresser-1.
7-68
-------
Incoming Air
Figure Dresser-1
Fuel/Air Mixture
to Engine
Figure Dresser-2
-------
Table Dresser-tl
Dresser Test Results
jLViNo Catalysts ;,
Vehicle
Inertia '75 FTP Emissions FTP
Weight HC CO NOX MPG
Typical
Uncontrolled
Car of Same
Weight, MPG
Ford 351 CID
w/Dresser Carb
and large ex-
haust manifold 4500
.41
4.7
1.30
11.3
12.2
Chevrolet 350
CID w/Dresser
carb and std.
manifolds
4500
,88
4.7
1.70
12.9
12.2
Capri 2600 cc
w/Dresser Carb
and large ex-
haust manifolds 2750
.77
5.62
1.98
19.9
16.1
Levels needed
to certify at
.41, 9.0, 1.5
with catalysts
1.37
45
1.5
7-70
-------
Auto Manufacturer's Cooperation
Cooperative studies have been carried out by Dresser with Ford, GM, and
Chrysler with Ford showing the most interest. Ford and Holley Carburetor
have signed licensing agreements so far. No manufacturer is showing a
level of effort that is indicative of a commitment to mass produce the
system.
Progress and Problem Areas
Dresser reports that over the past year they have changed their method
of fuel metering from a pressure regulated system to more conventional
vacuum metering (float) with an air bleed technique for compensation.
Dresser Claims that their current Model III unit (fixed jaw with slider)
is a "bolt on" unit which can be used to retrofit a standard carburetor.
Since one of Dresser's major problems up to this time has been the
automobile manufacturers unwillingness to adopt such an unorthodox
design with its attendant retooling expense, these changes should
enhance the carburetors appeal. Other problem areas with the carburetor
have been cold starting,, insufficient power enrichment, and throttle
feel. Dresser reported work on these problem areas.
No significant efforts have been made to adapt the Dresser carburetor
to non-lean burn approaches such as 3-way catalyst or dual catalyst
systems. Its precise air fuel ratio control would be valuable to both
of these systems. 3-way catalysts systems might be helped, since the
Dresser carburetor might eliminate the requirement for feedback air/fuel
ratio control.
Holly Carburetor Division of Colt Industries is a licensee of Dresser.
Working under an EPA contract, Holley is outfitting a 1975 Dodge Dart
with a modified Model III Dresser carburetor. The Dart which is equipped
with the 225 cu. in. six cylinder engine, will also have back pressure
EGR, high energy ignition and a catalyst. The goal of the contract is
. 7-71
-------
to demonstrate the .41 HC, 3.4 CO, 2.0 NOx level with improved fuel
economy over the baseline car. EPA will evaluate the car for a period
of time following Holley's preparation and testing of it and may at that
time equip the car with a 3-way catalyst or some other promising system
for further evaluation.
7-72
-------
7.2.2 Ethyl Corporation
Recent news media coverage prompted EPA to solicit the development status
of the Ethyl Corporation Turbulent Flow System (TFS). It has been Ethyl's
desire to produce an all mechanical emission control system and reduce
the dependence on catalytic aftertreatment control for emission reduc-
tion. Of course, by not using a catalytic converter the Ethyl Corpora-
tion would hope to demonstrate an emission control system not requiring
lead-free fuel.
The essential features of the TFS are the long mixing tube below the
primary venturi, the change of flow direction in the mixing box, and the
secondary venturi bypass. The long mixing tube allows the fuel-air
mixture downstream of the throttle to become more uniform. Changing the
flow direction increases turbulence which improves the mixture quality
and causes large fuel droplets to fall onto the mixing box floor, where
they are vaporized before reentering the stream. The secondary flow
bypasses the mixing box to minimize pumping losses, thus minimizing
losses in volumetric efficiency. The intake manifold (Figures Ethyl-1
and-2) is a Dodge intake manifold. Exhaust port liners were installed
in the heads and lean thermal reactor manifolds replaced the original
exhaust manifolds.
The significance of the TFS is not in the operation of the engine with
lean calibration but in the use of heat conservation and lean reactor
techniques. Lean calibration techniques have been used by all major
manufacturers as have early fuel evaporation for better fuel mixing and
distribution. The use of port liners has been limited to foreign manu-
facturers who have concentrated on lean reactors. It is felt that the
increase in exhaust gas temperatures by use of port liners will aid the
control of HC and ease the load on the catalytic converter plus aid in
rapid light off of the catalyst. A catalytic converter combined with
the TFS could prove to be very effective in meeting future emission
levels.
7-73
-------
TURBULENT FLOW MANIFOLD
Mixing Tube
Primary Metering
System
Manifold
Runners
Heating Media
Conditioning
Chamber
Chamber
Exit
Figure Ethyl-1 Turbulent Flow Manifold
7-74
-------
Secondary
Venturi
Primary Venturi
Air-Fuel Mixture
Coolant
Jacket
//////////////////////////////////z.
Standard Manifold
P
Ve
rimary I /
.Bturi &,(
Adapter
Plate
Primary
Mixing
Tube
Secondary Venturi
Mixing Box Exit
Conditioning
Chamber
Coolant Jacket
Conditioning Chamber
Covei-
Coolant Jacket Cover
Turbulent Flow Manifold
Figure Ethyl-2 Comparison of Turbulent Flow Manifold
with Standard Intake Manifold
7-75
-------
Ethyl in their submission detailed their studies involving the use of
port liners, air-fuel ratio optimization, EGR distribution, and the
effect of increased compression ratio. With the exception of the
comprehensive results concerning port liners, much of the details
reported were comparable to data reported by other manufacturers utilizing
lean calibrations. Engine dynamometer testing of the exhaust port
liners for this engine showed temperature increases ranging from 40 F to
90°F at^the operating air-fuel ratios of 16 to 17. HC reductions of 20%
to 50% a're found with the port liners when used with the standard exhaust
manifold^ but CO reduction is negligible. When the thermal reactor is
used, the HC reductions are virtually the same with or without the port
liners. The efficiency of CO conversion in the thermal reactor is more
dependent on the use of port liners, since the CO reaction rate is
slower than that of HC and is more temperature dependent, especially at
the low concentrations entering the reactor. CO reductions with the
thermal reactor ranged from 0% to 60% with no port liners. However,
reductions ranging from 38% to 86% at an A/F of 17:1 were found when the
port liners were installed. The effect of port liners and the TFS on
fuel economy can be seen in the following table, Ethyl-1.
Table Ethyl-1
1975 CVS Emissions Urban Fuel Economy
HC
1.84
1.24
.52
g/mile
CO
19.06
7.31
6.79
NOx
1.55
2.03
1.85
mpg
9.7
10.4
10.4
As received
TFS
TFS+Port Liners
Ethyl has conducted durability testing of the TFS system for over 50,000
miles the results of this durability are seen in Table Ethyl-2. The
fuel used during these tests contained 2.2g Pb/gallon as Motor Mix.
7-76
-------
Table Ethyl-2
Emission Data
Car #857 - 360-CID V-8
With TFS, Exhaust Port Liners, Reactor Manifold
'75 CVS
HC
0.22
0.24
0.30
0.35
0.34
0.43
0.49
0.41
0.48
0.37
0.41
0.43
1.28
.18
.38
gram/mile
CO
3.33
4.29
4.61
5.05
4.93
4.66
6.33
5.77
5.70
5.06
5.95
6.07
1.25
2.49
5.43
NOx
1.26
1.66
1.83
1.77
2.13
2.02
1.78
1.79
1.97
1.75
1.82
1.93
1.00
2.59
1.64
MPG
10.4
10.6
11.3
11.1
10.7
11.3
11.1
11.3
11.9
11.1
11.2
11.3
18.4
12.5
Test
Mileage
0
3,000
5,000
10,000
15,000
20,000
25,000
30,000
35,000
40,000
45,000
50,000
D.F.
50,028
52,000*
52,000*
* EPA Test Report No. 76-6
**Milligrams per mile
The durability vehicle received manufacturer's recommended main-
tenance at all specified intervals. The failure and wear rates of the
emission control hardware were nominal according to Ethyl.
18.4 Highway Driving Cycle
Sulfate Procedure Emissions
36
06
10
6.88
1.43
2.89
1.80
2.48
1.83
11.8
20.1
17.0
17.6 FTP
6.2 Hwy Cycle
5.9 Sulfate
7-77
-------
Additionally during the durability testing a dual inlet tangential
anchored vortex trap was used to control particulate emissions. Two
duty cycles were used, the durability route cycle and a severe-duty
route consisting of five W.O.T. accelerations from 20 to 50 mpg and one
freeway entry acceleration from 20 to 60 mph. The results of these
tests are in Table Ethyl-3.
Table Ethyl-3
Particulate Emissions Comparison
Standard Vehicle
Car 857
% Reduction
Durability Route
Miles
32,000
50,000
Total*
0.088
0.042
59
%Pb*>
54.8
13.1
76
Severe Duty
Total %Pb
0.339
0.164
52
408.3
69.1
* Includes lead and non-lead particulate, grams per mile data
**% of input fuel lead exhausted
Ethyl reported that work continues on further developing the lead-
compatible emission control system. They also reported cooperative
efforts with the domestic and foreign automotive companies component
companies and with various government agencies. They did not provide
any cost data for the system.
While Ethyl's efforts to achieve low emission results with non-catalytic
V
methods have been good, additional efforts could improve the system.
Other manufacturers report that up to .10 gram/mile HC reduction can be
obtained by removal of lead from the motor fuel. This reduction plus
the use of a catalytic converter will allow reoptimization for improved
fuel economy and lower NOx levels from increased EGR rates. Similar
combinations of lean calibration, thermal reactors, and oxidation catalysts
7-78
-------
have shown promise in obtaining low emission levels with good fuel
economy. However, the driveability of lean calibration vehicles such as
the TFS system must be explored. Ethyl provided no details on drive-
ability.
Ethyl has been experimenting with Methylcyclopentadienyl manganese
tricarbonyl (MMT) as an antiknock additive since 1957. With the removal
of TEL from gasoline, the substitution of low concentrations of MMT (up
to 0.125 gm/gallon) has become more economically attractive. Ethyl
provided extensive data regarding the effects of MMT on vehicle opera-
tion, catalyst durability, emissions performance and other engine re-
lated phenomena. A synopsis of these results follows. Use of MMT in
typical 91-RON unleaded gasoline at a concentration of 0.125 gm/gallon
provides, on the average, about 1.5 to 2.3 road octane numbers increase.
There appeared to be no exhaust valve durability problems at either
extended or increased severity engine dynamometer or -road durability
testing with MMT. Ethyl reports no spark plug problems, while other
manufacturers report that MMT effects spark plug fouling opposite to the
way lead does, i.e. the hotter the plug, the more fouling that occurs.
Therefore more attention to spark plug ranges will have to be given by
the manufacturers. Ethyl reported reduced engine wear or no more than
normal engine wear. MMT effects on both exhaust emissions and catalyst
life were indicated by Ethyl as not detrimental. The average emissions
over extended durability appear to be no effect on HC, a beneficial
effect on CO, and a slightly negative affect on NOx. Refer to Table
Ethyl-4. The immediate effect of MMT can be seen in Table Ethyl-5.
There appears to be little or no benefit for emission reduction from MMT
addition. However, further work is necessary to quantify these results
independent of this submission.
Catalyst plugging using MMT was reported by a vehicle manufacturer.
Accelerated tests by Ethyl using twice the normal concentration revealed
7-79
-------
TABLE Ethyl-4
Fleet Emission Summary
1975 California Cars
Base Fuel: 91-RON Unleaded
MMT: 0.125gMn/gallon
Average Emissions, g/mile
Test
Miles
5,000
10,000
15,000
20,000
25,000
30,000
35,000
40,000
45,000
50,000
Deterioration
Factor
HC
0.46
0.53
0.54
0.61
0.61
0.70
0.80
0.66
0.73
0.75
1.59
Base Fuel (8 Cars)
CO f
4.79 1
5.53
5.82
7.24
6.36
6.70
7.65
7.85
9.31
9.05
1.84
JOX
.84
.67
.73
.68
.87
.82
.73
.75
.73
.83
.01
HC
0.52
0.66
0.60
0.73
0.73
0.78
0.74
0.81
0.89
0.92
1.61
MMT (14 Cars)
CO
4.24
5.64
4.97
5.73
5.97
5.19
6.09
6.42
6.58
7.26
1.48
IMOX
1.79
1.69
1.66
1.58
1.67
1.72
1.71
1.78*
1.88f
1.85f
1.10
*13Cars 112 Cars
TABLE Ethyl-5
Immediate Effect of MMT on Vehicle Emission Level
1975 CVS Test Procedure
Base Fuel
Car
1972 Make R
"'1972 Make R
1972 Make F
197 2 Make B
1973 Make D
197 2 Make D
197 2 Make D
1972 Make B
1972 Make A
1971 Make A*
1970 Make BD
Average
HC
3.89
3.54
3.14
2.60
1 .48
1.51
2.61
2.30
2.15
0.33
11.28
3.17
Base Fuel
CO
25.44
23.72
46.62
11.41
25.75
27.54
37.66
1S.58
26.34
4.70
125.19
33.90
+ 0.125 g Mn/gallon
NOX
3.90
3.16
3.68
6.10
1.74
3.79
3.77
3.15
6.40
2.1
0.80
3.51
HC
4.13
3.58
3.27
2!'65
1.44
1.71
2.6S
2.31
2.09
0.34
10.84f
3.18
% Change 0
CO
24.28
22.0-1
46.07
12.48
22.13
30.63
33.55
20.35
25.25
4.90
121.93f
33.06
-2
N°x
3.72
2.90
3.64
6.59
I.7S
3.91
3.4!
2.82
5.94
2.0
0.65t
3.40
-3
*With Ethyl Lean Reactor
tTestci! r 0 " <: Mii/pllon
7-80
-------
there was no catalyst plugging below 1500 F and is a function of catalyst
support and location of catalyst relative to exhaust port. Further work
is needed in this area.
Ethyl reported no difference between the base fuel and MMT additive fuel
on particulate, sulfate or aldehyde emissions. Both these unregulated
emissions and the health effects of manganese need further study.
7-81
-------
7.2.3 Gould
Gould, Inc., a multi-divisional organization with headquarters in Chicago,
has been involved in the development of metallic NOx catalysts for
several years. Gould's interest in catalyst development was precipitated
by materials requests made of Gould's "Clevite" bearing division by Ford
and Chrysler. The auto industry was familiar with Gould as an OEM
supplier of components. Other Gould products include; copper foil (for
circuit boards), dry cell batteries, small electric motors, torpedoes,
powdered metal products, rubber suspension components, air filters and
oil filters.
5
The Gould catalysts are designated af "GEM" (Gould Emission Material)
followed by a number (e.g., GEM 45, GEM 67, GEM 68) to designate specific
versions of the catalyst. Gould's catalyst, a monel based metallic
catalyst deposited on a metallic wire mesh, demonstrated very high
efficiency on several test vehicles (most built by Gould) but the dur-
ability aspects were questionable. Several automobile manufacturers
reported catastrophic catalyst failures at low mileage. Even the best
data, accumulated by Gould, showed rapidly decreasing efficiency be-
ginning at around 20,000 miles. It appears that the lack of sophis-
ticated fuel metering systems and air metering systems on the prototype
vehicles was responsible for much of the poor durability performance.
Gould has also theorized that the durability problems were due to poor
metering and they felt the amount of catalyst deterioration was pro-
portional to the frequency of lean excursions (too much air entering the
engine per unit of fuel).
Gould continued to invest in NOx catalyst development with efforts
devoted to finding a way to solve the poor metering induced problems
without actually improving fuel metering. Instead of relying on outside
sources to develop a fuel metering system that would keep oxygen spikes
7-82
-------
(as occur on lean excursions) from reaching the NOx catalyst, Gould has
developed a triple bed catalyst system to solve the problem. In front
of the usual two beds (NOx catalyst and oxidation catalyst) is a small
oxidation catalyst that functions as an oxygen remover. With this
system installed lean excursions no longer affect the NOx catalyst
because the 0~ remover, or "Getter", eliminates the oxygen before it
reaches the NOx catalyst. A schematic of Gould Getter system is shown
in Figure Gould-1.
EPA has previously reported vehicle durability testing results for GEM
68 systems. Table Gould-1 shows 25,000 mile results for three cars.
Table Gould-1
25,000 Durability Results
Gould Getter System Test Cars
75 FTP 1975
Vehicle HC CO NOx MPG Counterpart
4500 IW. 351 CID with .47 2.5 .33 12.3 11
EGR (3 test avg.)
4500 IW. Chevrolet 350 CID .42 3.4 .38 13.7 13
with EGR (4 test avg.)
4500 IW. Chevrolet 350 CID .76 4.7 .27 12.9 13
with EGR (2 test avg.)
These results are impressive in light of the fact that no advanced HC
control techniques were used and the EGR systems were nonproportional
units. However, an important factor which has been discovered within
this past year clouds the picture on these and other Gould results.
This is the deleterious effect of fuel sulfur on GEM 68. Testing has
7-83
-------
GOULD GETTER SYSTEM
-vl
I
oo
• DISTRIBUTOR
- 1970 HI-PERFORMANCE
- 10° RETARD FOR INITIAL 45 SEC.
OF COLD START OPERATION
njiA/vrv
• CARBURETOR
-SLIGHTLY RICH (~I.5%CO)
-90-120 SEC. ELECTRIC CHOKE WITH
1800 RPM (N) COLD START IDLE
SPEED
EXHAUST GAS
RECIRCULATION
o HC/CO OXIDATION
CATALYST
(PTX H-B)
oNOx REDUCTION
CATALYST
(GEM 68)
OXYGEN REMOVAL CATALYST
(1/2 PTXH-B)
AIR PUMP
\
12V SOLENOID
FOR PORT AIR
CONTROL
Figure Gould-1
AIR INJECTION SCHEME
COLD START
120 SECOND PORT INJECTION
2-3% RESIDUAL 02 AT CATALYST
HOT START
45 SECOND PORT INJECTION
CONTINUOUS SECONDARY
INJECTION TO OXIDATION CATALYST
-------
revealed that significant nickel emissions resulted from operation on
fuel containing .03% sulfur (the current national average). Subsequent
analysis revealed that fuel sulfur depletes the nickel crystal structure
by combining with the nickel at the grain boundaries and thus eroding
away the nickel a grain at a time. The resultant particulate sizes
appear to be large in diameter.
The reason that this sulfur deterioration had not been discovered earlier
was that Gould has done all of its testing using a fuel known as Amoco
Super Premium. This fuel is a high octane, unleaded fuel available
locally to the Gould laboratory in Cleveland. Unfortunately for the
purposes of the test program this fuel has a very low sulfur level which
distorted the test results. Subsequent testing revealed that 25,000
miles of operation on .02% sulfur fuel resulted in a depletion of 22% of
the catalyst material. The corresponding decrease in conversion ef-
ficiency was greater than 22%.
Gould had embarked upon an intensive development program to produce a
sulfur tolerant catalyst. Drawing upon gas turbine metallurgical
techniques, Gould reports success in stabilizing the nickel through an
alloying procedure. This new formulation has been designated GEM 69.
Preliminary data has shown an order of magnitude improvement in resis-
tance to sulfur depletion with a slight decrease in conversion efficiency.
A critical factor in the efficiency of Gould's catalyst is exhaust gas
temperature. Ford reported steady state dynamometer test data showing
low conversion efficiencies at temperatures below about 1000 F. This
could be a serious drawback for NOx control during the warm up period.
Gould disputes Ford's claims with regard to the severity of the ef-
ficiency decrease at lower temperatures by pointing out errors in Ford's
test techniques. However, Gould acknowledges the strong temperature
dependence of their catalyst. Toward this end, Gould is studying engine
7-85
-------
systems which conserve exhaust gas heat. The base metal NOx catalyst
work reported by Chrysler included the tailoring of the engine for
exhaust heat conservation via insulated exhaust passage. Unfortunately,
Gould does not have ready access to advanced engine systems of this
type. This problem is a general one which has hampered the non auto-
mobile manufacturers from the very beginning.
Gould has continued its work with the major domestic automobile manu-
facturers over this past year. These efforts have been discussed in the
sections dealing with the individual manufacturers. The results of
these evaluations have been disappointing. A good deal of the problem
seems to be related to the need of the GEM 68 system for an engine
system that is well tailored to its individual requirements. Parti-
cularly important are fuel metering and exhaust gas temperature. In the
area of fuel metering the Gould system needs a slightly rich,mixture
with minimal lean excursions under transient conditions. Exhaust gas
heat conservation, utilizing devices such as exhaust port liners, is
important to maximize the GEM 68's conversion efficiency. To date the
manufacturers have not been successful in putting together systems which
satisfy these requirements.
EPA entered into a contractual relationship with Gould in May of 1975
for the purpose of demonstrating catalytic control of NOx. This con-
tract resulted from a competitive procurement which was not constrained
to the dual catalyst approach. Under the terms of the contract Gould is
to build up three cars with their GEM 68 system and accumulate 50,000
miles of AMA testing on each car. Initial delays were experienced due
to difficulties with hardware procurement and vehicle calibration. More
recently the emergence of the sulfur tolerant formulation, GEM 69, has
resulted in a temporary suspension of activity.
7-86
-------
Progress and Problem Areas
Gould experienced a major setback with the discovery of the sulfur
deterioration of GEM 68. However, it appears that Gould has surmounted
this problem with the development of GEM 69. However, vehicle tests to
substantiate the degree of the improvement have not yet been run.
A major problem for Gould has been their inability to secure fully
optimized engine systems that are tailored to the special needs of their
catalyst. The full recognition of some of these needs such as exhaust
gas heat conservation has come only recently. The logical solution to
this problem would be a dedicated effort on the part of the automobile
industry to provide well optimized, full effort systems.
Indications are that unless a 1.0 NOx standard or below is instituted at
least in California by 1979 or 1980, Gould will not wish to continue
further investments in the NOx catalyst.
7-87
-------
7.2.4 Yamaha
Since the issuance of the last status report, Yamaha has continued
developments of the Yamaha Lean Combustion Engine System. The Yamaha
system is a combination of engine modifications consisting of a lean
carburetor coupled with intake manifold and cylinder head modifications
and an air gap insulated exhaust manifold for post-cylinder oxidation
reactions to facilitate low emissions. The first EPA test results
obtained last year while impressively low, were not able to meet the
1977 emission levels with good fuel economy as shown by the first three
data points of Table Yamaha-1. It was apparent that much of the poor
fuel economy performance was due to the fact Yamaha attempted to achieve
1977 standards without catalytic aftertreatment and had to resort to
spark retard to control emissions.
Subsequently Yamaha reported the improved data on line four of Table
Yamaha-1 and EPA again ran confirmatory testing of the system. These
results are shown by the third series of data (lines five, six and seven
of Table Yamaha-1). The fuel economy results of the first set of data
were lower than comparable 1974 Corolla results, while the second EPA
series showed fuel economy results comparable to vehicles of the same
inertia weight class.
The latest two-page Yamaha submission, which was brief, incomplete, and
not responsive to EPA's request, provided the results of two additional
vehicles which use the YLCS in combination with catalysts. The brevity
of the submission precluded analysis or technical understanding of what
control technologies were indeed developed. It is unclear, for example,
if the data on the 2.3 liter engine reported as "catalyst & EGR" also
included the post-cylinder thermal reactor manifold integral to the
Yamaha system. EPA views heat conservation techniques coupled with
exhaust aftertreatment as an effective approach to achieving future
7-88
-------
standards while retaining good fuel economy. Because of the nature of
their approach the Yamaha system cannot be truly assessed for its potential,
since practically nothing of use was submitted.
Yamaha did report that they were continuing effort to reduce NOx levels
and improve fuel economy. Additionally, they are studying the costs and
vehicle performance of both the catalytic converter and the lean reactor.
It is concluded that the 2.3 liter and 2.0 liter engine as reported
would have a good chance of attaining certification if the YLCS were
installed in a durability vehicle. Further work is needed by Yamaha to
show the true potential of their approach.
7-89
-------
Table Yamaharl
Yamaha Lean Combustion Engine System
75 FTP grams/mile Fuel Economy
Vehicle
*
Corolla,
Celica^
Celica
**
Corolla
0
Corolla^
Corolla^
Corolla
**
Unspecified
2.3Ł - 4M trans
2.31 - 4M trans
2.3& - 4M tjajis
Inertia
Weight
2250
2500
4000
2250
2250
2250
2250
3000
3000
3000
HC
.36
.34
.46
.28
.39
.31
.33
.33
.26
.21
CO
3.80
2.95
6.87
2.87
3.29
2.87
2.85
3.00
1.20
.90
NOx
1.18
2.95
2.32
1.87
1.45
1.48
1.40
1.8
1.7
1.0
MPG
16.0
14.5
14.7
22.3
23.1
23.8
23.9
20.2
22.8
22.7
MPG
28.7
23.6
19.4
34.1
35.3
36.0
37.5
28.5
32.8
33.2
Remarks
No catalysts
No .catalysts
No catalysts
No catalysts
No catalysts
No catalysts
No catalysts
Thermal reactor
and EGR
Catalyst & EGR
Catalyst & EGR
Unspecified
2.0Ł - 5M trans
2750
,05 0.9 1.4
18.3 30.1
Thermal reactor
and EGR
**
Data Source: EPA Test Report 75-8.
Data Source: Yamaha submission to Status Report Team.
Data Source: EPA Test Report 75-16.
7-90
-------
7.2.5 Questor
Questor is another multi-divisional company with experience in supplying
componetry (exhaust systems) to the auto industry. The emission control
system being developed by Questor Inc.,called the "Reverter" System, is
basically a rich thermal reactor, followed by a metallic NOx catalyst,
followed by another thermal reactor. No oxidation catalyst is used, and
the system is lead tolerant. A schematic of the system appears in
Figure Questor-1.
Three years ago, the Reverter system was evaluated by the report team as
having at least as much, if not more, potential for attaining the .41
HC, 3.4 CO, 0.4 NOx level as any system that the automobile manufacturers
were developing, but that the manufacturers were apparently not in-
terested in the system since it was not compatible with their 1975
oxidation catalyst systems.
Three years ago Questor was actively working on improvements to the
Reverter system. One of the drawbacks to some of the early generation
Questor systems was their relatively poor fuel economy, which resulted
from the rich operation required to keep the reactors and the catalyst
hot enough to work efficiently. Typical idle CO values for these early
prototypes were 7 to 9 percent, with a resulting fuel economy penalty
of up to 20 percent compared to current vehicles. Questor has worked
to improve the fuel economy of the system by using a third generation
packaging configuration that reduces the heat loss, and by running
leaner. This has allowed Questor to reduce the CO level down to
between 1 1/2 and 3%. In order to keep the NOx levels down, Questor
worked with metal suppliers to develop improved NOx catalysts that are
more active. Questor estimated that with the latest systems the .41
HC, 3.4 CO, 0.4 NOx levels could be met with no fuel economy penalty
over 1974 vehicles.
7-91
-------
Exhaust Valve
Exhaust Port
Piston
Air Injection
Air Injection
Limited Oxidation Zone
Metallic Nox
Catalyst
— Reduction Zone
Final Oxidation Zone
Figure. Questor-ri
Questor Reverter System
7-92
-------
The best emission and fuel economy results achieved to date are reported
in Table Questor-1. Note that the EPA Certification fuel economy figures
are for the baseline cars (1974 Pinto and 1973 Datsun). The 1976 Certifica-
tion fuel economy figures for corresponding models would be higher.
Table Questor-1
Questor Reverter System
Emissions Fuel Economy % Change
Vehicle HC CO NOx Questor EPA Cert. Cert, to Questor
1974 Pinto
3000 IW, 2.3Ł 0.11 2.74 0.32 18.4 17.1 +7.6
1973 Datsun
2750 IW 0.13 2.6 .21 20.1 18.6 +8.7
The most significant durability testing reported for the Questor system
over this past year was done by Nissan Motor Company. Table shows the
reported data. The Reverter failed somewhere between 20,000 and 25,000
miles due to a weld failure. Questor claims that they have corrected
this type of failure on succeeding units.
Cooperative Programs
Questor reports that starting in July 1975 the interest levels of all
of the domestic automobile manufacturers have shown a significant increase.
Programs are reportedly being developed at each manufacturer for joint
development.
Progress and Problems
Questor's major problems have not been the achievement of the required
emission levels, which they have successfully demonstrated time and
again.
7-93
-------
Table Questor-2
Questor Durability
1973 Datsun, 1.8 liter
Mileage HC CO NOx MPG
5,000
5,000
10,000
10,000
15,000
15,000
20,000
20,000
25,000
25,000
0.29
0.20
0.28
0.19
0.27
0.22
0.28
0.21
0.37
0.76
4.70
2.60
4.48
3.13
3.87
3.33
5.77
3.58
5.98
15.50
0.53
0.31
0.25
0.21
0.17
0.20
0.24
0.23
3.55
0.14
19.0
17.9
15.9
15.8
16.6
17.8
16.6
17.3
19.4
16.3
Questor's problems have been fuel economy and system durability. As
previously explained the fuel economy problem has been alleviated somewhat
by the reduction in the required CO level. A decrease in system tem-
perature of approximately 200 F was tied into the CO level decrease.
This temperature decrease should help alleviate Questor's other major
problem - durability. Questor has been plagued with Revertor weld
failures. Another durability problem has been air pump failures. The
higher air flow needs of the Questor system have compelled Questor to
spin the standard pumps at higher speeds than they were designed for.
This is an area where the cooperative development programs with industry
can help Questor by providing higher capacity pumps. Questor also needs
improvement in the control and management of the secondary air. Both
improved air scheduling and component durability are needed. Help is
also needed in the engine optimization area. A critical factor in NOx
7-94
-------
reduction efficiency is the minimization of the 0™ passing through the
NOx reduction catalyst bed. This becomes a problem during off-idle and
acceleration modes when enleanment occurs causing both higher NOx pro-
duction and reduced Reverter efficiency because of 0- in the NOx catalyst
bed. Industry help in reducing these transient enleanment conditions is
needed.
Questor presented an analytic discussion in their status report showing
that based upon chemical equilibrium relationships, there should be very
low SO,, production in their Reverter. Testing of a Questor equipped
Pinto at Southwest Research Institute verified this analysis by showing
a H-SO, production rate of only .3 milligrams per mile on the 75 FTP and
6.2 milligrams per mile on the highway fuel economy test. This is
comparable to uncontrolled cars.
7-95
-------
7.3 Foreign Manufacturers
7.3.1 BMW
BMW did not submit a status report. They did, however, submit a pre-
liminary Part I application, on which this discussion is primarily
based.
Systems to be Used - 1977 Model Year
BMW will continue to have two basic engines for 1977. The 4-cylinder
(family 120.9) and the 6-cylinder (family 130.8).
The systems to be used are shown below in Table BMW-1.
Table BMW-1
Systems to be Used
1977 Model Year
Engine Family (Model) 1977 Federal 1977 California
*
120.9 EM + K Jetronic + not reported
EGR + Air Injection
130.8/530jL/630C5i L-Jetronic + EGR L-Jetronic + EGR
+ Thermal Reactor + + Thermal Reactor
Air Injection + Air Injection
*
EM = Engine Modifications.
The emission control system for the 4-cylinder engine has not reported,
but if the system used on the 6-cylinder engine is any indication, the
use of a thermal reactor appears to be the approach likely to be taken
by BMW. A thermal reactor was used on some earlier 4-cylinder models
with certification results as low as 0.4 HC, 5.4 CO, 1.4 NOx.
7-96
-------
The only difference between the 1977 Federal and California systems is a
different distributor for the California version with a slower cen-
trifugal curve and more vacuum retard. Thermal reactor maintenance is
planned at 25,000 miles, but the type of maintenance is unspecified.
Systems to be Used - Post-1977 Model Year
Since BMW did not submit a status report, their program to meet future
emission levels is difficult to discuss. Their earlier status reports
indicated that they were working on dual catalyst, 3-way catalyst and
stratified charge engine approaches. Since BMW already will use fuel
injection for both of their models', the 3-way catalyst route appears to
/f
be a logical area for them to explore.
Progress and Problems
BMW is only in the early stages of 1977 certification but there appear
to be no major problems for them for the model year 1977 Federal or
California standards in the 6-cyllnder engine. For the 4-cylinder
engine they still apparently have not decided on a control system for
California.
As far as future standards go, BMW's capability is impossible to determine.
7-97
-------
Systems to be Used - 1977 Model Year
BL reports that their 1977 model year systems will be comprised of AIR,
EGR and oxidation catalysts. BL is determined to eliminate the use of
catalyst change for 1977 models. Five of BL's eight engine families for
1976 relied on catalyst changes. All of these families were certified
for California and as a result BL was compelled to pay the cost of the
catalyst changes. BL is counting on improved catalyst technology e.g.,
formulation/washcoat/substrate, to provide sufficient durability to go
50,000 miles without a change.
Aside from improved catalysts, the only other emission control develop-
ment applicable to the 1977 model year described by BL is a new carburetor
developed by Zenith. Called the fully automatic start device (FASD),
the carburetor does not have to be triggered i.e., depressing the
accelerator to engage the cold start circuitry. BL also indicates that
this carburetor uses a very high flow and achieves better metering over
the range of engine speeds and ambient conditions. This device will be
fitted to one Triumph model for 1977. BL did not provide cost or fuel
economy data for the 1977 model year.
Systems to be Used - 1978 Model Year
BL has stayed with the dual catalyst approach as for the .41 HC, 3.4 CO,
0.4 NOx level. BL indicates that "work is less intensive than previously"
and states further that it has been difficult to obtain improved reduction
catalysts to test because catalyst manufacturers are concentrating on
three way catalyst development.
7-98
-------
BL's system for this level also includes proportional EGR. Their proto-
type systems have insulating material applied to the exhaust manifolds.
BL reports work on three way catalyst systems and describes these systems
as candidates for the .41 HC, 3.4 CO, 1.0 NOx level. Their best results
at zero miles have reportedly been .29 HC, 3.4 CO, 1.0 NOx. BL did not
provide any description of the vehicle or system with which these values
were obtained.
BL has resurrected a manifold catalyst program based upon the promise of
higher temperature tolerant catalysts. Some test results were presented
showing significant HC reductions compared to a conventional catalyst
installation. Table BL-1 shows these results.
Table BL-1
Manifold Catalyst System
TR7 V8
hot 505 second portion of FTP
HC - CO NOx
Manifold Catalyst
Conventional Catalyst
0.18
0.12
0.29
0.23
1.17
1.10
0.84
1.54
0.75
0.74
1-57
1.7
BL reports that work is continuing on the Shell Vapipe system. This
system uses a heat pipe to transfer heat from the exhaust gas to intake
air fuel mixture. No new data was reported. The Vapipe has not shown
much promise to date principally because it is slow in warming up.
7-99
-------
More work was reported on BL's stratified charge engine program. A new
110 cu. in. engine has reportedly been built that is based upon a gaso-
line engine.
The description was sketchy but it appears to be a carbureted three
valve per cylinder type. No data was reported but BL indicates that the
specific output is higher than their former stratified charge engine, a
reworked diesel.
Thermal reactor work has continued at BL "at a low level of priority".
Only one 75 FTP test was reported with the results showing a small
decrease in HC. BL claims that to effectively reduce emissions a rich
mixture corresponding to a 15% fuel economy penalty must be used.
Durabiltiy Testing Programs
Durability Testing Programs - 1977 Model Year
BL is expected to run durability on both catalyst change vehicles and
50,000 mile catalyst vehicles. This will insure their ability to certify
cars for California even if the 50,000 mile catalyst vehicles do not
make it.
Durability Testing Programs - 1978 Model Year
Durability testing on a two dual catalyst systems was repor.ted for this
past year. Both used noble metal 1CI reduction catalysts. A 1.8 liter
Marina accumulated 27,400 miles before being terminated due to loss of
HC and CO control. NOx control on this car was .36 gpm at time of
termination. The second dual catlayst system completed 18,797 miles but
was stopped for a catalyst change because of loss of HC and CO control.
NOx control was .31 gpm at this mileage.
7-100
-------
A Jaguar XJ6 finished 50,000 miles of durability with a GKN thermal
reactor. Emissions at 50,000 miles were .32 HC, 6.37 CO, and 1.13 NOx.
Progress and Problems
Progress and Problems - 1977 Model Year
BL's major concern is certifying without a catalyst change. Progress
has been -made in catalyst technology.
Progress and Problems - 1978 Model Year
\
BL's major problems at the .41 HC, 3.4 CO, 0.4 NOx level is a lack of
effort. Dual catalyst and three way systems are receiving little
attention. The underlying problem may be BL's financial conditions
although BL did not state this.
7-101
-------
7.3.3 Citroen
Citroen has not marketed vehicles in the United States since the 1974
model year. They did however respond to the EPA request for information
regarding Citroen's development status and progress toward meeting the
1977 and 1978 emission standards. Because of the brievity of the re-
port, it is difficult to determine what systems could be introduced in
the post-1977 model year time frame. Citroen did note that they are not
actively marketing new vehicles in the U.S. at present and it was con-
cluded that they have no intention of marketing 1977 or 1978 models.
Also missing from their status report submissions was any discussion of
their Diesel engine program. Their report did not include any dur-
ability data, fuel economy, cost, nor any oxides of nitrogen data.
Systems Considered - 1977 Model Year
At levels of 1.5 HC, 15.0 CO, 2.0 NOx, Citroen considers three systems,
namely air injection, oxidation catalyst without air injection, and the
lean thermal reactor. EGR was used in all cases. The latter two were
rejected because of poor driveability. The prefered systems will be
used on a 4 cylinder, 9 to 1 compression ratio, 2 barrel carburetor, 2.2
litre engine with an air pump. EGR is venturi vacuum controlled. The
reported emissions results were 1 g/mile HC and 10 g/mile CO. No fuel
economy nor NOx levels were reported. Citroen feels that this system
would be adequate for several reasons which include; use of high com-
pression ratios for better fuel economy, no safety hazard associated
with use of a catalyst, engine calibration optimization, and system non-
.;
deterioration and reliability.
For the 1977 California levels two systems for the same engine as the
49-state version were considered; a rich thermal reactor plus EGR, and
oxidation catalyst, air injection and EGR. Citroen added a high idle
speed at cold start, 2000 rpm engine speed for 20 seconds after hot
7-102
-------
start, and retarded ignition timing to the rich reactor concept so it
may meet the 3.4 CO standard. They reported a 13.4 mpg urban fuel
economy for this concept. No emission results were given. Citroen
feels a 10% fuel economy benefit will be achieved by only attaining 9.0
CO. For the catalyst concept, they lowered the compression ratio to 8
to 1, used a 2/3 Pt, 1/3 Pd noble metal loaded catalyst and port air
injection. They reported poor light-off initially, and by using an
improved exhaust manifold experienced lower output power and higher fuel
consumption. Work continues to improve catalyst life. They presently
predict a catalyst change, at unspecified mileage, improved fuel economy,
and increased air injection rates.
Durability Testing Programs
Citroen did not report any durability data in their status report.; They
did report the deterioration factors and catalyst .efficiencies for the
oxidation catalyst concept previously mentioned. The DF's were 1.63 for
HC and 1.20 for CO. The efficiencies were 62% for HC and 63% for CO at
25,000 miles and 53% for HC and 59% for CO at 50,000 miles. No NOx
results were given. Fuel consumption was reported to be approximately
18 mpg, with the vehicle unspecified.
Progress and Problem Areas
The question of progress and problems may be a moot question for Citroen
since they apparently are not planning to market vehicles in the U.S.
However, it would seem from their brief discussion of systems that
considerable work will be necessary to attain the California levels.
If difficulties are apparently encountered at .41 HC, 3.4 CO, the
ability to meet the statutory 1978 levels are seriously doubted. It
is concluded that the Citroen emission control status would effectively
limit introduction of Citroen vehicles to America. If their capabilities
are otherwise, it was impossible to judge so from their status report.
For example, no tests were reported with their Diesel engine which may
have led to this negative conclusion.
7-103
-------
7.3.4 Daimler-Benz
7.3.4.1 Systems to be Used
Systems to be Used - 1977 Model Year
The 1977 Daimler-Benz (DB) systems will be as shown in Table D'B-1. All
gasoline engine families except the inline 4-cylinder (L-4) will use the
Bosch "K-Jetronic", mechanical fuel injection system. The 4.5 liter V-8
will use a reed valve (R) air injection system. Both the Federal L-4
Table DB-1
1977 Emission Control Systems
Family
Standards
Otto or
Diesel Cycle
AIR EGR Ox. Cat.
Dual Bed
Cat.
M115(L-4)
M110(L-6)
M110(L-6)
M117(V-8/4.5)
M117(V-8/4.5)
M100(V-8/6.9)
OM-616(L-4)
OM-617(L-5)
50 State
Federal
California
Federal
California
50 State
50 State
50 State
Otto
Otto
Otto
Otto
Otto
Otto
Diesel
Diesel
X
X
X
R
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
and California L-6 gasoline models will use what DB calls a "dual bed"
catalyst. Actually the L-4 uses two monolithic catalysts in a single
container with air injected between the two monoliths. The first mono-
lith performs the reducing function and second performs the oxidizing
function. The L-6 uses three monolithic catalysts in three separate
containers. The first, two are relatively small and are located just
7-104
-------
behind the split exhaust manifolds. These two perform the reduction
function. They are followed by a larger oxidizing converter. The
reduction catalysts for the L-6 were called "selective" or 3-way
catalysts. They apparently are 3-way catalysts operating on the rich
side of stiochiometry. The reducing unit for the L-4 was not fully
described and could be either a catalyst which performs only reduction
after warm up or also a rich biased 3-way catalyst which could perform
reduction and some oxidation after warm-up. The AIR systems on the dual
bed catalyst vehicles will be switched from the exhaust port to between
the catalysts after warm up.
The Diesel engines are still essentially uncontrolled, and use only
reverse flow damping valves (check valves), in the injection lines for
HC control.
Daimler-Benz did not revise their cost estimates from last year. So
assuming the cost estimates for .41 HC, 3.4 CO, 2.0 NOx to be appropriate
for the 1977 California levels, the initial cost increase of the DB
gasoline models for California will be about $22 for the L-4, $193 for
the L-6, and $63 for V-8/4.5 The V-8/6.9 will be a new addition for
1977 and cannot be compared to 1976. For the L-6, $140 of the $193
increase will be for the change over from carburetion to fuel injection.
Maintenance cost is not expected to change when compared to the 1976
models. The cost of altitude compensation for the Diesels was said to
be about $18. No costs were given for attitude compensation on the
gasoline models. The respective fuel economies of 1976 model year
durability vehicles and 1977 prototype durability vehicles are presented
in Table DB-2. It can be seen that both 1977 Federal and California
vehicles have fuel economies similar to the 1976 certification vehicles,
except for the L-4 gasoline engine which is down slightly. No percent
changes in fuel economy were calculated as DB has stated that
7-105
-------
DB- 2
Fuel Economy Comparisons
'76 Federal Durability
'77 Federal Prototype
'77 California
Otto or Diesel Vehicles
Engine Cycle Engines No. of tests Avg. MPGu
L-4 Otto . 15 16.11
L-6 Otto 15 13.01
V-8/4.5 Otto 15 10.84
.
•'" '""' "-". ' '.
L-4 Diesel 15 24.30
L-5 Diesel 15 23.34
,-
No. of
19
22
21
24
44
28
25
13
18*
19*
12*
5
14
Vehicles
tests Avg. MPGu
16.07
14.39
15.29
13.26
10.66
10.70
11.27
10.73
24.64
26.22
26.09
23.35
23.05
23.77
No. of
Tests
7
9
7
5
11
21
18*
Prototype Vehicles
Avg. MPGu
13.95
15.01
12.83
13.08
10.82
11.36
23.9
*Research vehicle, not durability vehicle
-------
fuel economy optimization at the 1977 levels has not been completed, and
that the main objective for the durability vehicles was to achieve the
given emission levels.
Systems to be Used - 1978 Model Year and Beyond
DB reported that their first choice system for all their 1978 gasoline-
fueled vehicles would be EGR, AIR, and dual bed catalysts. They in-
dicated that 0.4 NOx had been very difficult to achieve even at low
mileage. Since DB did not report emission control system changes between
individual tests on their vehicles, their emission stability problems
could not be evaluated.
Despite the emission results in Table DB-3 which were reported by DB to
EPA in 1973, DB maintains that the Diesel probably cannot achieve
Table DB-3 -... ...
Diesel Data Reported by DB in February. 1973
Date of Test VIN HC CO NOx Test Cycle
11/09/72
11/09/72
12/12/72
4/27/72
4/27/72
D89
D89
D89
D141
D141
.37
.29
.20
.04
.08
2.52
2. '24
2.16
0.55
0.55
0. 32
0.23
0.49
0.50
0.45
Hot FTP
Hot FTP
Hot FTP
Hot FTP
NOx emission levels much below 1.5 gin/mi. Hot test results can be com-
pared to cold-start results for NOx for Diesels, according to DB. The
1973 report also included at least 15 other data points where NOx emis-
sions were between 0.5 and 1.0. The data shown in Table DB-4 were
reported this year. The average fuel economy of a comparable 1976 certi-
fication durability car was 24.3 MPG.
7-107
-------
Table DB-4
More Recent Diesel Test Results
Date of Test VIN
4/10/75
7/9/75
7/10/75
9/2/75
9/5/75
9/11/75
9/12/75
W115-D24-140
it
W115-D24-184
HC
CO
NOx
MPG,
U
Test Cycle
.131
.194
.220
.172
.225
.196
.234
1.605
2.381
2.355
2.341
2.332
1.747
1.610
.811
.775
.767
.899
.892
.788
.866
27.90
25.58
26.36
26.74
25.20
25.42
25.82
Hot FTP
Hot FTP
Hot FTP
Hot FTP
'75 FTP
Hot FTP
Hot FTP
The initial cost increases for the 1978 gasoline modesl were also not
revised, but range from $198 to $430 over the 1976 models. The fuel
economies of prototype DB vehicles which achieved the statutory emission
levels shown in Table DB-5.
Table DB-5
Low NOx Testing of Gasoline Powered Vehicles
VIN
Engine
HC
CO
NOx
MPG
W116E28-165
W116E45-62
L-6
L-6
V-8/4.5
.37
.37
.26
.22
.33
.37
.37
.30
.15
.23
2.64
2.52
1.49
2.49
1.11
1.27
1.36
2.50
.76
.85
.39
.32
.19
.18
.22
.38
.39
.24
.31
.32
14.20
14.75
9.84
11.07
9.64
9.84
10.25
10.65
10.40
10.35
7-108
-------
Other Systems
DB reported work on backpressure EGR and lead tolerant catalysts. No
data was presented using the EGR systems. Some lead tolerant catalyst
data was presented, but the catalysts deteriorated rapidly.
Data was presented for a vehicle using a four cylinder, stratified
charge engine. The engine and emission control system were not de-
scribed. Some of the better data for this vehicle are presented in
Table DB-6.
Table DB-6
The DB Stratified Charge Vehicle
HC CO NOx MPG
.45
.44
.53
.36
.654
1.24
.64
.52
1.132
1.180
.85
1.35
16.14
16.07
15.17
22.75
A significant amount of data was also presented for turbocharged Diesels.
Some of the data for a 5 cylinder model at 4000 Ib. IW are shown in
Table DB-7.
A vehicle with the Comprex, pressure wave supercharger was tested at EPA
over the past year. The emission results are found in Table DB-8. The
vehicle was equipped with a 134 CID engine and had 0-60 mph acceleration
performance of about 18 seconds. The supercharger had some problems,
including noise, but it had the advantage of being able to provide EGR
without the addition of any more hardware. DB apparently has dis-
continued work on the Comprex in favor of conventional turbochargers.
No further work on the V-8 Diesel, the 450D, was reported by DB.
7-109
-------
Table DB-7
Turbocharged Diesel Results
Mileage
HC
CO
NOx
Table DB-8
Comprex Vehicle Test Results
MPG,
U
4232
6494
7005
8648
12726
15573
18587
.26
.16
.17
.14
.23
.10
.16
1.14
1.08
0.96
1.26
1.15
.9.5
1.13
1.69
1.31
1.49
1.11
1.10
1.35
1.55
24.18
28.91
28.79
29.11
30.01
27.10
25.72
HC
.23
.29
CO
1.35
1.34
NOx
1.39
1.39
24.8
25.1
MPGR
34.8
33.8
7.3.4.2 Durability Testing Programs
Durability Testing - 1977 Model Year
DB has operated thirteen gas and four Diesel durability vehicles. Be-
cause mileage points were not given for the majority of durability tests
reported, it is difficult to assess DB's capability to certify in 1977.
For those gasoline vehicles which did have specified mileage points, DB
appeared to be having problems meeting .41 HC and 1.5 NOx simultaneously.
All of the Diesels were targeted for 2.0 NOx, though some were near 1.5
consistently. Emissions of HC and CO for the Diesels were generally
well below .41 HC and 3.4 CO.
7-110
-------
7.3.4.3 Progress and Problem Areas
Progress and Problems - 1977 Model Year
DB should have few problems for 1977 Federal certification. Perhaps the
biggest question mark is the durability of the new dual bed catalyst
system for the L-4 gasoline family. If their 1977 California durability
cars are no better than the durability vehicles reported, DB gas models
may do a considerable amount of line crossing. Optimistic data is
absent for vehicles equipped with both the oxidation and dual bed catalyst
systems. The Diesels will probably be easier for DB to certify at both
the Federal and California levels.
The use of fuel injection and dual bed catalysts plus the testing of
closed loop fuel injection systems indicate that DB may be headed for
closed loop 3-way plus oxidation catalyst systems in the future. The
1977 dual bed systems may be only an interim step. While many organiza-
tions are optimistic about closed loop 3-way control, not many are yet
gambling on open loop 3-way control.
Progress and Problems - 1978 Model Year
The lack of durability testing continues to be a problem for DB in 1978.
This not uncommon as most manufacturers are counting on a revision of
the 1978 emission standards. DB has done considerable low mileage
testing of their dual bed catalyst systems. Assuming that their closed
loop fuel metering systems progress as expected and that their dual bed
catalysts prove durable, DB could soon be in a good position to meet
future emission standards.
DB has historically been the leader in Diesel engine emission control
for light duty vehicles but until recently few manufacturers were in-
terested in Diesels. DB's position of leadership may be challenged by
the manufacturers like VW who are currently, aggressively developing
Diesels.
7-111
-------
7.3.5 Fiat
7.3.5.1 Systems to be Used
Systems to be Used - 1977 Model Year
The 1977 Fiat control systems will remain virtually unchanged from their
1975-76 systems. The 49-states systems include AIR, spark delay valves,
decel modulation, and vacuum modulated EGR. The California system will
use the UOP supplied pellet-type oxidation catalyst with an increased
loading to .04 troy ounces of platinum from last year's loading of .03
troy ounces. Fiat indicates that there will be no catalyst change for
the 1977 models. Fiat retained the catalyst warning system.
Fiat did not provide any cost or fuel economy estimates for their 1977
model year vehicles. However, a review of the 1976 durability vehicles
indicates that the increase catalyst will allow Fiat to optimize for
better fuel economy in 1976. The 1976 durability vehicles indicated
Fiat had vehicles in 1976 which could meet the Federal 1977 levels,
while the increase volume catalyst superimposed on the 1976 California
vehicles will enable them to meet the 1977 California levels.
Systems to be Used - 1978 Model Year
To meet the 0.41 HC, 3.4 CO, 0.4 NOx levels, Fiat plans to use a dual
catalyst system with secondary AIR in conjunction with the basic 1976
California system. Additionally, Fiat is experimenting with three way
catalysts and improved EGR systems. From the limited durability data
presented by"Fiat, it is concluded that Fiat has had limited success
with the latter systems. Possibly the development of more sophisticated
systems will allow Fiat to close the apparent technology gap with their
competitors. Fiat has started basic research into exhaust gas sensors,
7-112
-------
low thermal inertia exhaust a manifolds, screening test program for
various reducing catalysts, and air metering concepts for use with
experimental fuel metering systems. Work continues at the research and
pre-production stages of these programs. Fiat provided no cost or fuel
economy information regarding their potential 1978 systems.
Other Systems
Fiat has continued their efforts on developing pre-chamber stratified
charge, Diesel, and gas turbine engines. With the exception of the gas
turbine engine, Fiat now has vehicular emission data for these engines.
Fiat also reports 17 prototype 2.0 and 2.4 liter Diesel engine accumulating
durability. The pre-chamber stratified charge engine single cylinder
work has been virtually completed for both the types of engines concepts
considered. These concepts are the large, 70% of total combustion
chamber volume, pre-chamber engine and the carbureted, 2 valve "torch"
combustion engine with a pre-chamber volume of 10% of main chamber
volume. The latter concept, installed in a 2 liter engine in a 2500
inertia weight vehicle, produced CVS results of 2.5 to 3 g/mile HC, 7
g/mile CO, and 1.7 g/mile NOx without any other emissions control tech-
nique. The former concept is still under consideration but needs work
to strengthen engine structrual deficiencies. Fiat's work on the Diesel
engine centers on a pre-chamber 4 cylinder 2.4 liter engine which pro-
duced emission levels of 0.57 g/mile HC, 2.05 g/mi CO, and 1.45 g/mile
NOx with urban cycle fuel consumption of 29.9 mpg in a 2750 pound
inertia weight vehicle. Durability on ,two similar engine/vehicle com-
'fv
binations have accumulated 36,000 and 65,000 miles respectively. Fiat
also has accumulated 1000 engine dynamometer durability hours on this
prototype engine. Work continues, somewhat more slowly on the 2 liter
engine. No work other than turbocharging on Diesel engines was re-
" * • t-
ported. The gas turbine program continues with a vehicle installation
7-113
-------
and component durability testing. Some consideration is being given to
using a Rankine cycle topper with the gas turbine. No emissions or fuel
economy data were reported.
7.3.5.2 Durability Testing Program
Durability Testing - 1977 Model Year
Fiat reported durability data from eight vehicles although it was not
apparent what the target emission levels were. Fiat should have no
trouble meeting the 1977 Federal levels. Fiat is still experiencing HC
and CO control problems at the 0.41 HC, and 9.0 CO levels. Additionally,
Fiat reported catalyst durability problems on the test vehicles with
over 50 percent loss of catalyst materials from most of the test vehicles.
-1
Durability Testing - 1978 Model Year
., i :-Y
The dual catalyst vehicle was unable to meet the 1978 emission levels at
zero mileage and subsequently sustained a container failure at 5,000
miles. This vehicle had palletized reduction and oxidizing noble metal
catalysts with EGR.
7.3.5.3 Progress and Problem Areas
Progress and Problem Areas - 1977 Model Year
It is difficult to assess the progress Fiat has made since the last
status report due to the sketchiness of the Fiat status report. The
report submit consists of a series of enclosures, previously submitted
to CARB, attached to a brief cover letter.. However, from the data pre-
sented it would seem that Fiat will be able to market vehicles which
7-114
-------
meet the 1977 Federal levels. The California vehicles will take ad-
ditional work. The severity of the catalyst material losses must be
characterized and remedied to assure Fiat will not have to have a
catalyst change before 50,000 miles. Fiat indicates there will be no
catalyst change for 1977. Preliminary indications are that the fuel
economy for the 1977 Fiats will be as good as 1976 model year.
Progress and Problem Areas - 1978 Model Year
Fiat still has had problems meeting the 1978 emission levels at low
mileage and has not investigated good NOx reduction techniques. Due to
lead time it may be impossible for Fiat to have a competetive system for
these emission levels. Especially, difficult to determine is the cor-
porate commitment to meeting post 1977 emission levels. Fiat's con-
tinuing work on the Diesel engine is encouraging.
7-115
-------
7.3.6 Fuji Heavy Industries (Subaru)
7.3.6.1 Systems to be Used
Systems to be Used - 1977 Model Year
As in past years Fuji in replying on AIR injection and ported EGR for
both 49-State and California models. For "77 Fuji has added exhaust
port liners and switched from an air pump to an aspirator air injection
system similar to the GM Pulsair system. Fuji has led the industry in
the utilization of heat conservation techniques for emission control.
The exhaust systems of Fuji's vehicles are insulated all the way from
the connection with the cylinder head to the muffler. The addition of
port liners for 1977 extends this insulation all the way to the exhaust
valve. The exhaust port liner installation is shown in Figure Fuji-1.
Fuel economy and emission figures for Fuji's 1977 systems are shown in
Table Fuji-1.
Table Fuji-1
Emissions and Fuel Economy
for 1977 and 1978 Systems
System
1977 Models
49-State
Man . Trans .
49-State
Auto. Trans.
California
Man . Trans .
California
Auto. Trans.
1978 Systems
HC
1.1
1.2
0.3
0.35
0.30
0.32
CO
12
12
5.9
6.2
2.9
3.1
NOx
1.7
1.8
1.1
1.3
0.72
0.63
Fuel 'Ecom
26
23
21
20
19.2
18.6
7-116
-------
Figure Euji-t
Exhaust Port Liner
Cylinder Head
Port Liner
-Air Layer
Exhaust Port
;•'.»' "?'.'/;•'.' / / / *> •' • ••<•' ' y.'-?i
jŁ:M^'iL// / / ^^ii
:;;^''•':'.>•^:;^.^l^•:o:;•^••^•^^
to Exhaust
Manifold
Exhaust Valve
Air Suction Hole
^l-. ,-, , :-r,r~,
.-.-:
vi•;• =.rtrT7^7^r-t..'. -.v..-•*•:.•.-.x.-j
.•;:•.;•;.;••::.;.••.•;•.•;-..-;•. •-•.v./,-:.v:*.-x .• .•.^V.-.i-jX
I
7-117
-------
Systems to be Used - 1978 Model Year
Fuji's systems for 1978 are also AIR and EGR. To lower the emissions
using these same systems Fuji has resorted to engine recalibration
techniques which have significantly compromised fuel economy.. Table
Fuji-1 contains data for 1978 systems. The fuel economy penalties shown
by the 1978 systems illustrate the fact that for every fixed technology
system there is a relationship between fuel economy and emissions. The
fuel economy penalties experienced by Fuji at the 1978 emission levels
could be reduced or eliminated by augmenting their system with catalytic
aftertreatment.
7.3.6.2 Durability Testing Programs
Durability Testing Programs - 1977^1978 Model Year
No durability testing was reported by Fuji.
7.3.6.3 Progress and Problems
Progress and Problems - 1977 Model Year
Fuji's adoption of the exhaust port liners for 1977 completes their
exhaust heat conservation package and reconfirms their status as the
industry leader in this technology. However, the fuel economy penalties
shown for 1977 indicate that Fuji may be pushing this system beyond its
optimum fuel economy calibration capability.
Progress and Problems - 1978 Model Year
With the addition of catalytic aftertreatments and proportional EGR,
Fuji's systems should be well suited to emission standards down to about
the .41 HC, 3.4 CD, 1.0 NOx level. Control to the 0.4 NOx level will
probably require either dual catalyst or three way catalyst technology.
7-118
-------
7.3.7 Honda
7.3.7.1 Systems to be Used
Systems to be Used - 1977 Model Year
The 1977 Federal Honda systems will be basically the same as the 1976
systems. The 1.2 liter(Ł) conventional engine will again use only air
injection. The 1.5P CVCC will retain exhaust port liners and a lean
thermal reactor wth air gap insulation. A 1.6)1 CVCC engine will be
added for use in the heavier 2250 Ib. IW sedans. The emission control
systems for the 1.6X- and 1.5Ł CVCC engines are nearly identical. The
conventional engine will be recalibrated and "auxiliary control devices"
will be added. Honda did not say what all the auxiliary devices were;
however, they will include a vehicle speed sensor and a spark delay
valve. The CVCC engines will incorporate carburetors with improved fuel
atomization and manifolds with improved fuel vaporization. Honda an-
ticipates that the fuel economy and emissions of the 1.2 and 1.5&, 2000
Ib. vehicles to be as in Table HO-1.
-..
Table HO-1
Honda's 1977 Federal Vehicles* '
Vehicle HC CO NOx MPGIT MPGU
U ri
1.5A CVCC, 4M 0.8 4.2 1.7 31-32 40-41
1.2Ł, 4M 1.0 11.5 ;' 1.7 26-27 40-41
* From Honda
7-119
-------
The expected results for the vehicles with 1.64 engines were not re-
ported. The fuel economy numbers for the similar 1976 certification
data vehicles were 31.88 MPGtT and 41.80 MFG.. with the 1.54 engine and
U ri
27.55 MPGTT and 40.52 MPGuwith the 1.24 engine. The respective changes
U n
in urban fuel economies are +0.3 to -5.9 and -2.0 to -5.6. The respective
changes in highway fuel economies are -1.9 to -4.3 and +1.1 to -1.3.
The differences in urban fuel economy between the 1.54 CVCC and the 1.24
conventional engine probably reflect the use of spark retard instead of
EGR for NOx control on the conventional engine. Honda stated that the
initial cost increases over 1976 would be about $10 for the 1.24 and
about $25 for the CVCC. Altitude compensation would cost about $40 and
$50 respectively for the bellows controlled systems. Other than a
potentially slight increase in fuel cost, no other maintenance cost in-
creases are expected.
The 1977 California models will utilize only the 1.5 4 and 1.64
CVCC engines. Their new hardware will be identical to that of the
Federal vehicles. Also different calibrations will be used to achieve
the expected results in Table HO-2 for the 2000 Ib. 1.54 vehicles.
Again data for the 1.64 vehicles was not reported. The expected fuel
economy numbers for the vehicles with 1.54 engines represent fuel economy
losses of 5.9% for MPGT7 and 6.7% for MPG,, when compared to the similar
. U n
1976 Federal vehicles. The initial cost increase and maintenance cost
increases for the California vehicles will be similar to those increases
for the Federal CVCC vehicles.
Table HO-2
Honda's 1977 California Vehicles*
Vehicle HC CO NOx MPGIT MPGU
U n
4M 0.3 3.5 1.3 30 39
* From Honda
7-120
-------
Systems to be Used - 1978 Model Year and Beyond
Honda reaffirmed their capability to achieve .41 HC, 3.4 CO, 0.4 NOx
with the prototype 2.OX. engine. No additional testing was reported with
the 2.OK, engine, but work has started on the 1.5& engine. Improved
transient A/F ratio control, improved mixture distribution in the intake
manifold, and improved fuel vaporization in the manifold have been
reported. Hot start FTP results were reported to be 0.04 HC, 0.83 CO,
0.42 NOx, and 22.8 MPGy. Cold start NOx was 0.45 and MPGy was 21.6.
This is a 32.2% fuel penalty over the 1976 CVCC. Honda has indicated
that their fuel economy goal is to achieve at least 25 MPGTJ. To help
achieve that goal, Honda is studying many parameters, including the use
of EGR and oxidation catalysts on the CVCC. If this program is care-
fully conducted, the NOx and fuel economy capabilities of the CVCC
versus conventional engines may be more fully understood.
Sulfuric acid test results from a CVCC with unspecified calibrations
were reported to average 0.34 rag/mi over the sulfate cycle-7 (SC-7).
The standard deviation of the five SC-7's was 0.11 mg/mi.
7.3.7.2 Durability Testing Programs
No durability testing was reported in the Honda submission. Previous
testing has shown the CVCC to have deterioration factors of less than
1.1 Assuming no great surprises, durability testing will present few
problems to Honda at any currently legislated emission level.
7.3.7.3 Progress and Problem Areas
Progress and Problems - 1977 Model Year
Honda is expected to have few problems in certifying Federal and Cali-
fornia vehicles in 1977. The biggest question mark is the capability of
the new 1.6 liter engine.
7-121
-------
The fuel economy of the 1.5 litre CVCC for California shows considerable
progress over the 10% fuel economy penalty predicted by Honda last year
for the .41 HC, 3.4 CO, 2.0 NOx levels.
Progress and Problems - 1978 Model.Year and Beyond
Honda, with its 2.0 liter prototype engine, appears to be the only
manufacturer with the capability to achieve the 1978 emission levels
(.41 HC, 3.4 CO, 0.4 NOx) in 1978. If the 1.5 litre development program
is also successful, it will more firmly entrench Honda as the industry
leader in achieving the statutory emission levels. Also if the EGR or
oxidation catalyst programs are successful, they could assist in solving
the fuel economy problem of the CVCC at these emission levels. Honda
has stated that the fuel economy problem becomes most difficult at NOx
levels less than 1.0 gm/mi. Driveability was mentioned as a potential
problem at the statutory emission levels, but no specific problems were
reported.
7-122
-------
7.3.8 Mitsubishi
7.3.8.1 Systems to be Used
Systems to be Used - 1977 Model Year
The 1977 Mitsubishi (manufacturers of the Dodge "Celeste" and Plymouth
Arrow") system for the 49-States will use increased rate non-proportional
EGR, plus a reed valve air injection system which was introduced on their
1976 model year vehicles. (See Figure Mitsubishi-1). The .engine configura-
tion, combustion chamber shape, carburetor, choke and choke control, and
ignition system will be retained from 1976 model year vehicles. The
intake manifold and intake port will have additional coolant circulated
past them for better fuel atomization and distribution. No catalysts or
thermal reactors will be used.
The 1977 California vehicles will be equipped with an improved carburetor
which provides for leaner mixtures through the use of a Mixture Control
Valve (MCV). The MVC serves to supply extra air below the throttle
during the deceleration mode. The vehicles are also equipped with sub-
stantially the same lean thermal reactor with which the 1976 California
vehicles were. Air injection will not be used, but exhaust port liners
will be. Mitsubishi reported that the spark timing and EGR rates were
not finalized yet.
The initial cost increase to the consumer can be found in Table Mit-
subishi-1 which was supplied by Mitsubishi. They did not provide any
maintance costs for 1977 systems, but they are expected to remain the
same as the 1976 model year's.
7-123
-------
Air Cleaner
•Carburetor
. Cylinder head
Reed valve
jCylinder head (4G32 )
[Chain case (4G52 )
Figure Mitsubishi I
Sc-'.condary Air Supply System
7-124
-------
Table Mitsubishi 1
Estimated First Cost of 1977 Systems (shown as increase over 1976 system)
Configuration
Thermal Reactor
Exhaust Port Liner
-
System
•49-
State
•
_
Carburetor i Ł)
Distributor
Intake Manifold
End of Line Test
Quality Audit Test
Others
O
o
o
o
o
Calif
O
o
o
o
0
0
0
0
*1
Value Added
,
5
2
6
1
1
0.7
1
3
Tooling *2
Amortization
•
1
0.5
•*•
0.2
0.8
0
0.05
0.5
*3
List Price
9.0
3.7
10.5
1.8
2.7
1.0
1.6
5.2
*4
Sticker Price
t
9.4 I
3.9 '
11.0
1.9
2.8
1.1
1.7
5.5
Total 49-State System : $24.0
California System : $37.3
Notes
*1 Value of hardware cost, including material, labor, general overhead costs.
*2 Tooling and equipment amortized over three years.
*3- List price includes dealer margin and profit, which are 22% of sticker price
and 10% of list price respectively.
*4 Sticker price includes 5% tax.
-------
Mitsubishi projects that prior to system optimization, their 49-States
vehicle would suffer a fuel economy penalty of 3% on the 1975 FTP and 2%
on the Highway Fuel Economy Test (HFET). The figures for the California
vehicles are a 7% penalty on the FTP and 2% penalty on the HFET. Mit-
subishi claims that they are still optimizing their 1977 systems before
certification with a target of no loss on the certification test to a 2%
gain for the 49-States vehicles.
Systems to be Used - 0.41 HC, 3.4 CO, 1.0 NOx
At the .41 HC, 3.4 CO, 1.0 NOx levels, Mitsubishi indicated that they
would abandon their attempts, to be described later, to use the dual
catalyst system and replace it with a system package consisting of an
oxidation catalyst plus air injection plus EGR. In an effort to define
this proposed system, Mitsubishi has developed a 2 diaphragm EGR control
valve, (the control parameters are inlet manifold vacuum and port vacuum)
to optimize EGR rates to engine speed and load and retain driveability.
No emissions levels were reported for this system.
System to be Used - 1978 Model Year
Mitsubishi's first choice system for use in 1978 model year consists of
a dual catalytic converter plus EGR plus a secondary air system. They
will be using the same basic engine configuration as 1976 with the
following exceptions. The carburetor will be calibrated slightly rich
to prevent lean excursions and it will encompass high altitude com-
pensation (system unspecified). Mitsubishi is looking at electronic
fuel metering but reported no emissions or fuel economy data. The choke
will be an oval cam, automatic system which uses a wax filled actuator
to prevent converter overheat and quick engine warm-up. The EGR rate
will be increased. They plan to use spark retard for both HC and NOx
control and are looking at an electronic ignition system which incorporates
spark advance control.
7-126
-------
The secondary air system consists of a Saginaw type air pump, a split
air system to supply some secondary air ahead of the NOx catalyst and
the remainder of the air to the oxidation catalyst; an air switching
valve to control secondary air during catalyst warm-up and an air
control valve to relieve and modulate secondary air. The system can be
seen in Figure Mitsubishi-2. An overtemperature protection device which
dumps secondary air and lights a warning light will also be incorporated
in the 1978 system.
Two methods of improving evaporative control have been tried by Mit-
subishi in an attempt to meet the proposed 6g/test standard for the SHED
test. The results are listed below in Table Mitsubishi-2.
Table Mitsubishi-2
Evaporative Emissions Proposed 1978
Technique
Diurnal Breathing Running Hot Soak
Loss Loss Loss
1. Increase purge
air flow -
Mean:
Range:
0.7
0.5-0.9
0
0
3.9
2.9-4.6
4.6
3.4~5.7
Increase cannister
from 41.4 cu. in.
to 58.8 cu. in. -
Mean:
Range:
1.0
0.8-1.1
0
0
3.9
2.9-4.6
4.9
3.7-5.7
The cost of the proposed 1978 system is detailed in Table Mitsubishi-3,
the maintenance cost in Table Mitsubishi-4, and the catalyst replacement
costs (unspecified mileage) in Table Mitsubishi-5.
7-127
-------
Control uni,t
Temperature sensor
.
! i
n canste
•Thsrrr.o valvo
Vapor-Liquid
separator
S'te Peerless ic-r.itio.-i
Figure Mitsubishi 2
Schematic Illustration of 1978 System (Dual Converter )
-------
Table Mitsubishi 3' '•
Estimated First Cost of Candidate 1978 System (shown as increase over 1976 system)
Configuration
HC/CO Converter for pellet
HC/CO Catalyst
NOX Converter for Pellet
for Monolithic
NOX Catalyst for Pellet
for Monolithic
.
Air Injection System
•
Ignition System
Engine Modification
•
Evaporative Emission ControJL .
Other Modifications not related
with Emission Control
Exhaust System Changes
Heat Insulation Plates
System Controls
Assembly Line Changes
End of Line Changes
Quality Audit Test
Others
Value
Added*!
10 — 13
11 ~ 22
10 ~ 13
13 — 17
36—72
43 ~ 86
59
22
10
3
7
25
10 ~ 15
20
0.1
2.5
1.5
3
Tooling *2
Amortization
. _
1 — 2
1-- 2
1-2
1 ~2
1—2
3~8
1
1
1
0.1
0.1
0.5
1
1
0.5
0.05
0.05
0.5
List*3
Price
16. 5 ~ 22. 5
18.0-36.0
16.5-22.5
21.0-28.5
55.5-111.0
69.6—141.0
89.8
34.4
16.5
4.6
10.6
-
38.3
16.5—24.0
31.5 '
0.9
3.8
2.3
5.3
*4
Sticker Pride
17.3 — 23.6
-
. 18.9 — 37.8
17.3-23.6
22.1-30.0
58.3~116.6
72.5 -^ 148.1
94.5
36.2
17.3
4.9
11.2
40.2
,.
17.3^25.2
33.1
0.9
4.0
2.4
5.3
Total
373.3—507.0
Notes
*1
*2
*3
*4
Value of hardware cost, including material labor general overhead costs.
Tooling and equipment amortized over three years.
List price includes dealer margin and profit, which are 22% of sticker price
and 10% of list price respectively.
Sticker price includes 5% tax.
-------
Table Mitsubishi 4
Estimated Maintenance Cost Penalty by 1978 Emission Control
(Excluding Catalyst Replacement)
Item
Description of
Maintenance
Service
Interval
(Mile)
Labor
(hr)
Total*
cost
($US)
Air Pump Drive Belt
Check and adjust belt
: tension, replace if
i necessary.
r
Air Pump
Emission Check
! Check air delivery by
flowmeter.
I Measure emission levels
I at exhaust tail end.
Adj: every 15,000 0.6 (0.3x2) 12 1
Rep: every 30,000 0.5 (0.5x1)'
Belt I 2.5
every 30,000- 0.2 (0.2x1) 2.2
Air Switching Valve
Air Control Valve
Spark timing Control
| Check valve motion by
i vacuum.
ditto
Check timing control
in warm phase
every 15,000 j 1.5 (0.5x3): 16.5
I
Piping & Wiring, Engine ! Visual inspection
Room Heat Insulation j if there is any damage
Plates i or irregularity
every 15,000
1.2 (0.4x3) ! 13.2
t
I
every 30,000 i 0.3 (0.3x1) : 3.3
Evaporative
Control System
Canister
Check and clean
as required
! Replace
every 15,000 i 0.6 (0.2x3) I 6.6
every 30,000 ; 0.2 (0.2x1) 2.2
Canister ! 6.6
Total : 65.2
-------
Table Mitsubishi 5
Catalyst Replacement Cost
($US)
' — — - — - Catalyst shape
Item "~— —
' . ~"*~~
Material Cost :
Reducing Catalysts
Oxidizing Catalysts
Reducing Container
Gaskets
Labor Cost
-.---.- 7 - ' '
Pelleted Monolithic
•
58.3 ^- 116.6 i 72.5 ^ 148.. l;u
• -5-
18.9 ~ 37.8 j (18.9 ~ 37.8)
! Pellet
! 22.1 ~ 30.0
j,
1.0 1.0
22.0 (2 hr) 13.2 (1.2 hr)
^. .-•- - " ' . \
Total
100.2
230.1
-------
7.3.8.2 Durability Testing Programs
Durability Testing Programs - 1977 Model Year
Mitsubishi did not submit any durability data from their candidate 1977
systems targetTto meet either the Federal or California standards.
Since Mitsubishi had little difficulty in meeting the standards for 1976
and had some California vehicles below .41 HC. The 1976 California
vehicles were certified very close to 1.5 NOx and therefore, the systems
proposed should allow them to certify in 1977 while allowing room to
improve driveability and fuel economy. The systems to be used for the
1977 Federal vehicles should allow them to certify since the 1976 vehicles
certified slightly over 2.0 NOx. These vehicles may suffer a slight
fuel economy penalty. .:
Durability test Programs - 1978 Model Year
Mitsubishi continues to evaluate both base metal and base metal plus
noble metal reducing catalyst in monolith or pelleted forms. They are
also evaluating platinum and palladium or platinum only pelleted oxida-
tion catalysts. These catalyst?are tested in a furnace, on the engine
A
dynamometer, and finally in a vehicle. Other programs are underway on
evaluation of the close tolerance fuel metering carburetor, secondary
air control, and converter over temperature components of the 1978
system. No data were supplied for the component tests.
Full 1978 system durability testing is being or was conducted on three
2750 pounds IW, 97.5 CID, manual transmission vehicles. The results
reported to date are found in Table Mitsubishi-6.
7^132
-------
Car 118
Table Mitsubishi-6
Mileage
HC
CO
NOx
F.E.
Comments
0
7,196
12,909
22,866
.31
.82
1.00
.92
4.03
8.72
10.55
11.32
.23
.43
.63
.50
24.46
Test suspended
due to increasing
emission levels
Car 205
0
666
11,452
20,609
26,219
.45
.36
.27
.29
.30
2.76
2.43
2.74
1.56
1.79
.58
.49
.58
.45
.57
22.09
Car 206
.22
2.09
.77
21.94
7.3.8.3 Progress and Problem Areas
Progress and Problems - 1977 Model Year
Mitsubishi is concerned with improving on or at least maintaining, 1976
fuel economy levels while meeting 1977 emission standards. 'Since, much
of the systems proposed for 1977 is now in exlstance or is carryover
from 1976, Mitsubishi should have no trouble meeting the 1977 levels.
7-133
-------
Progress and Problems - 1978 Model Year
For 1978 Mitsubishi continues to cite as problems: (1) unsatisfactory
performance of NOx catalysts regarding low temperature operation, (2)
ammonia formation, (3) poor durability of NOx catalysts, (4) overtempera-
ture problems of catalysts due to engine malfunctions, (5) cost, (6) loss of
usable interior space due to size of the catalysts. Completion of the
electronic fuel metering carburetor and EGR optimization studies should
help alleviate some of the catalyst's problems. Aggressiveness in
improving NOx catalysts through component testing could solve the re-
maining NOx .catalyst problems.
7-134
-------
7.3.9 Nissan (Datsun)
7.3.9.1 Systems to be Used
Systems to be Used - 1977 Model Year
Nissan will introduce backpressure modulated EGR on both the 49 state
and California models for 1977 to meet the lower NOx levels. AIR will
be used on all four cylinder engines. The six cylinder engines will
have the Bosch L-Jetronic electronic fuel injection (EFI). The 49
state and California models differ principally in the fact that all
California vehicles will have catalysts and the 49 state cars will not.
The catalysts will have larger volumes than 76 California catalysts.
For additional HC control the larger four cylinder engine, 119 cu. in.
and the six cylinder engine in the 280Z will have exhaust port liners
for all 50 states. The large four is also shifting over to a water
heated intake manifold riser instead of an exhaust gas heated one.
Table Nissan-1 shows the principal elements of these systems.
Table Nissan-1
Nissan Emission Control Systems
Engine Disp.
CID >;..
Inertia
Weight
System
Ignition
49 State
85 119
2250
2750
AIR EGR AIR EGR
EPL
Breaker Breaker
Pts. Pta.
168
3000
EFI-EGR
EPL
HEI
Calif, and High Altitude
85 119 168
2250
AIR EGR
CAT
HEI
2750
AIR EGR
CAT*
EPL
HEI
3000
EFI-EGR
CAT*
EPL
HEI
Exhaust port liners.
7-
135
-------
X
Nissan's high altitude cars will have the California emission control
systems. In addition the 85 and 119 cu. in. engines will have a manually
switched control which will change the air fuel ratio by switching in an
additional air bleed for the secondary circuit. The 168 cu. in. six
will have an aeneroid bellows operated on/off switch which will signal
the EFI to enlean the mixture at high altitude.
Nissan estimated the cost of the 1977 49 state systems at 10 to 50
dollars over 1976 systems. The California systems were estimated to
cost 60 to 100 dollars over 1976 California systems. Nissan did not
provide estimates of the fuel economy effects of these systems.
Systems to be Used - 1978 Model Year
Nissan is considering four systems for .41 HC, 3.4 CO, 0.4 NOx level.
5 ' ' ' ' •
There are:
1. Three way catalyst system
2. Dual catalyst system
3. Prechamber torch ignition engine
4. Rich-lean reactor system
Two types of three way catalyst systems with feedback control are under
study: an EFI system and an electronically controlled computer system/
O. '
EGR would also be used. The carbureted system woifld have cost advan-
tages over the EFI.
For the dual catalyst system Nissan specifies a monolithic substrate NOx
catalyst and proportional EGR. This sytem has been receiving less
(
attention over the past year.
The prechamber engine (NVCC) is a divided chamber stratified charge
engine similar to the Honda CVCC. The engine includes EGR and a thermal
reactor.
7-136
-------
The rich-lean reactor system has two separate induction systems. Half of
the cylinders receive an overly rich mixture and the other half receive
an overly lean mixture. All cylinders exhaust into a common thermal
reactor. NOx emissions are low because the very rich and very lean
mixtures will not generate much NOx. The poor driveability of the lean
cylinders are offset by the rich mixtures. The high HC and CO of the
rich mixture is consumed by the thermal reactor.
7.3.9.2 Durability Testing Programs
Durability Testing Programs - 1977-1978 Model Year
No durability test results were reported for 1977 model year systems.
Nissan's highest reported durability test mileage with their three way
EFI system is 33,800 miles. At 30,000 miles the emission levels were
0.39 HC, 1.96 CO, 0.37 NOx with a fuel economy of 17.2 mpg. Detailed
information on the system and vehicle were not provided. HC and NOx
control deteriorated after 30,000 miles.
Nissan has not performed vehicle durability testing on the NVCC engine
but low mileage test results were .38 HC, 3.11 CO, 1.01 NOx with urban
fuel economy at 21.5 mpg. Nissan did not report details of the system
tested.
Nissan accumulated 25,000 miles of vehicle durability testing on a third
generation Questor system. A reverter weld failure caused emissions to
increase at some point between 20,000 and 25,000 miles and testing was
terminated at 25,000 miles. Emissions and fuel economy at 20,000 miles
were .21 HC, 3.58 CO, .23 NOx and 17.3 mpg.
No data was reported for the rich-lean system.
7-137
-------
7".'3.9.3 Progress and Problems
Progress and Problems - 1977 Model Year
Nissan's change from ported EGR to back pressure modulated is encouraging.
Also, Nissan's adoption of switch operated high altitude compensation
fuel metering systems is a welcome feature. In contrast, most other
manufacturers' systems require recalibrations to adjust for altitude
changes.
Progress and Problems - 1978 Model Year
Nissan has not made much progress at the 0.4 NOx level. This reflects a
low level of development activity. None of the five systems specified
by Nissan are being pursued in earnest. The three way system is probably
receiving the most attention, but still only one test vehicle was reported
7-138
-------
7.3.10 Peugeot
7.3.10.1 Systems to be Used
Systems to be Used - 1977 Model Year
At the time that this report was written, Peugeot had not submitted any
information concerning the status of their gasoline engine programs.
They did however submit information regarding the status of their Diesel
engine program and the remainder of this section will detail the results
of this program.
Peugeot will offer for all 50 states the improved XD2 Diesel engine to
power the 504 series vehicles. The engine improvements center on a new
fuel injection'system to reduce secondary injections. The engine is
also bored larger for total engine displacement of 141 cubic inches. The
504 Diesel uses the high swirl Ricardo Comet V prechamber combustion
system which is an indirect injection system. The engine uses no emis-
sion control techniques other than retarded ignition timing to attain
their demonstrated low emission levels. Peugeot reports that the pre-
certification emission levels range from .35 to .6 HC,1.1 to 1.3
CO, and from 1 to 1.3 NOx. The fuel economy reported for the manual
transmission vehicle will be 27 mpg for the urban cycle and 33 mpg for
the highway cycle, and 25 and 30 miles per gallon respectively for the
automatic transmission vehicles.
Systems to be Used - 1978 Model Year
Peugeot plans to use the same engine for 1978 as will be used in 1977.
They are concentrating on improving combustion noise at idle, apparently
j/Jjejceived by Peugeot as being unacceptable to their customers, and
lowering the NOx levels to the statutory levels. The prototype system
7-139
-------
results are shown in Table Peugeot-1.
Table Peugeot-1
Prototype Emission Control System
HC CO NOx MPGu
Without System .38 1.1 .95 26
With System .39 1.8 .52 26
Peugeot contends however, that even with these results the 1978 statutory
levels are difficult to meet. They state "Assuming a NOx level between
1.5 to 2 g/mile, it seems to us (Peugeot) that, contrary to some opinion
published, it will be difficult to meet only the 0.41 g/nŁle for HC's
<>^c*/-i-»-<-<
with our Ricardo Comet V high swirl chamber engine, rgninc jso the
safety margin necessary for taking into account production dispersion
and eventual in-time deterioration which may occur during certification
tests with durability vehicles." It is significant that Peugeot finds
that HC control rather than NOx is the difficult obstacle for the Diesel
engine to overcome.
7.3.10.2 Durability Testing Programs
Durability Testing Programs
Peugeot did not report any Diesel engine durability testing at either
the 1.5 HC, 15 CO, 2.0 NOx or the .41 HC, 3.4 CO, .4 NOx levels.
7.3.10.3 Progress and Problem Areas
Progress and Problems - 1977 Model Year
Peugeot should not experience any difficulties obtaining certification
for the Diesel engine in relation to the 1977 Federal levels. For the
7-140
-------
California levels of .41 HC, this engine may line cross although pre-
liminary indications are it will meet the California standards with a
slightly improved fuel economy. Peugeot has undertaken a program to
characterize unregulated emission, expecially sulfates, from the XD2
engine.
Progress and Problems - 1978 Model Year
While Peugeot feels that .41 HC will be a difficult level to meet, they
have instituted investigations into possible solutions to both the HC
and NOx problems of the XD2 engine. Other programs include a program to
reduce piston/cylinder head distance reducing swirl chamber volume for
,HC reduction, another to thermally insulate the pre-chamber, another
program to reduce secondary injections, and a program for better air
utilization of the combustion chamber volume. Preliminary results of
the thermally insulated pre-chamber indicate HC levels one-half of
present HC levels are achievable.
The status report from Peugeot was incomplete and brief, yet.their
attempts at heat conservation and NOx reduction from Diesel engines was
significant. Peugeot may be able to introduce a Diesel engine which
could meet the present 1979 statutory levels for exhaust emissions, with
further development.
7-141
-------
7.3.11 Porsche
This is the first year that Porsche was asked for a status report.
The request was based on the desire for additional information con-
cerning the new Porsche developed stratified charge engine. Porsche
replied in the cover letter to their status report that they knew of no
emission control system which could comply with the 1978 emission stan-
dards. In their opinion, the only possible solutions at those levels
were the closed loop catalytic after treatment Otto cycle engines, the
stratified charge plus EGR plus af tertreatment engine, or the Diesel
engine with EGR. Porsche feels that these systems are sure to realize
values of 1.0 NOx and for that reason are potential solutions for the
value range of .4 to 1.0 NOx. One further alternative was proposed by
Porsche at the 1.0 NOx level that of the Otto cycle engine with a lean
mixture and exhaust af tertreatment. Their status report focused on the
j
feedback Otto cycle, the stratified charge engine, and the lean air fuel
mixture Otto cycle engine.
While the data presented by Porsche lack sufficient details to assess
their various approaches for meeting future standards, data was sub-
mitted on preliminary CVS test results, preliminary hardware costs, and
fuel economy levels. Little or no durability data was presented for any
of the systems proposed for development. No mention was given to what
systems will be utilized for either California or 49-states in 1977. No
Part I's were submitted. The three systems under active development are
outlined below.
Closed-loop plus Oxidation Catalyst System
This system consists of the basic 911 engine modified with an air intake
sensor for the K-Jetronic fuel injection system enabling the injection
7-142
-------
system to remain near the stoichiometric air-fuel ratio; a zirconium
oxygen sensor (Lambda sensor), and an oxidation catalyst made by either
Degussa or Johnson Matthey. There will be no EGR, AIR, or thermal
reactor devices used with this system. The low mileage emission results,
fuel economy, and costs can be found in Tables Porsche-1 and Porsche-2.
Porsche reports that limited durability testing was done with the system
and cold engine driveability was poor. Porsche anticipates that a
catalyst change at 25,000 miles will be necessary with this system.
Porsche Stratified Charge Chamber System (SKS)
The difference between the SKS engine and the conventional engine is in
the combustion chamber design where the SKS design is not a single
chamber but is divided into a main chamber, precombustion area, and
ignition chamber. The main combustion chamber is provided with a lean
mixture via the usual intake valve. This chamber is situated between
the piston top and cylinder head (Figure Porsche-1). The main chamber
is connected to a small auxiliary chamber by means of an orifice. The
mixture in the auxiliary chamber is enriched by means of an injection
nozzle. The auxiliary chamber further consists of a small ignition
chamber which serves to assure optimum conditions for the ignition and
formation of a stable flame source. The engine presently uses no EGR
system or air injection. Both thermal reactors and oxidation catalysts
have been used to reduce the high hydrocarbon emissions from this engine.
This engine system is still in the research phase with no vehicle dur-
ability reported at this time. The engine is basically a lean mixture-
main combustion chamber engine which employs a fuel injected, rich
mixture to the prechamber to ignite the lean main chamber. This principle
has been employed before by other types of stratified charge engines.
While Porsche did supply information relative to the optimization of
7-143
-------
various engine operating and physical parameters, the real worth of the
engine will be determined by durability and emissions performance of
pre-production vehicles. Porsche confirms that this system has lower
power output and poorer performance than their production type engine.
The emissions and fuel economy results would tend to bear out lowered
performance of the SKS engine.
However, the achievement of relatively low NOx results could indicate
the potential for this system when coupled with heat conservation
techniques and/or chemical or thermal aftertreatment. Care will have to
be exercised to prevent excessive formation of H-SO, since the exhaust
of the SKS engine contains 1 to 4% excess oxygen. This system may hold
potential for inherently low NOx emissions.
Lean Concept 911 with Catalytic Converter System
This system incorporates into basic 2.7 liter 911 six cylinder engine,
increased compression ratio, combustion chamber changes, lean biased K-
Jetronic fuel injection and an oxidation catalyst. There is no EGR or
AIR injection used.
Porsche has tried various engine parameteric changes on the engine
dynamometer to optimize the system for overall lean operation. Vehicular
operation indicate both cold and warm driveability problems. They also
reported that a catalyst change could be necessary at 25,000 miles.
Because of the limited data and system description submitted by Porsche,
it is difficult to assess Porsche's ability to certify for 1977 and
1978. Apparently they tend to favor lean biased engines for control of
emissions. Because of the lack of durability data, it is hard to deter-
mine if their approaches will be successful. Lean calibration could
7-144
-------
offer good emission control potential, but only in combination with heat
CjOnservation and catalytic treatment. Porsche reported no development
work on other techniques, i.e., 3-way, advanced fuel metering, NOx
catalysts, and it can only be concluded that Porsche will have a dif-
ficult time in reaching .41 HC with lean calibration and oxidation
catalysts. Their closed loop system has shown promise at very low
mileage and may be used if durability testing is successful.
Table Porsche-1
Low Mileage Emission Results
(g/mile)
System HC CO NOx MPGT7
Closed loop (Lambda Probe)
+ Ox. Cat. .15 4.2 .37 17.3-18.5
Porsche SKS 0.8-2.0 3.0-7.0 .3-.8 13.2-16.6
Lean 911 w/Ox-Cat. 0.7 1.5 1.1 18.4
Lean 911 w/thermal reactor 1.2 6.0 1.2 16.6
1976 Durability Vehicles
2.7 liter w/TR, EGR, AIR, FI .30-.79 4.8-8.1 1.1-1.7 14.1-17.5
2.7 liter w/AIR, FI 1.1-1.3 9.0-15.8 2.1-2.8 16.5-19.0
7-145
-------
Table Porsche-2
Cost Information
System: Closed loop (lambda probe) plus Ox. Cat
Converter $100 to 150
Lambda probe 8 to 18
Regulating
Electronics ? (Vendor supplied)
Extended K-Jetronic ? (Vendor supplied)
System: Porsche SKS
6-cylinder head w/pre-chambers $16.00
1-Prechamber injection pump $40.00
6-Injection nozzles $13.00
Aftertreatment
2-Thermal reactors $115.00
or 1-Catalytic converter $ 45.00
$69.00-184.00
System: Lean 911 w/catalytic converter
Catalytic converter $73.00.
7-146
-------
Inlet manifold injection nozzle lnt?ke volve
nozzle
Spark plug
Auxiliary combustion \
Main combustion chamber chamber Ignition chamber
Porsche 5KS-engine
principal arrangement
Figure Porsche-1
-------
7.3.12 Renault
7.3.12.1 Systems to be Used
Systems to be Used - 1976 Model Year
Renault did not provide EPA with a status report detailing their efforts
and progress toward complying with emission control regulations. In-
spite of a specific request for such from EPA, Renault furnished merely
a copy of their Part I document with a label attached reading "EPA
Status Report". Due to the absence of current information on Renault,
this year's review of their status will be brief.
Renault's systems for the 1977 model year are described in Table Renault-1.
Table Renault-1
1977 Model Year Systems
Engine
Family
843M
843R
843FI
810
843RC
810RC
Disp.
cu . in .
100
100
100
78
100
78
49-State or
California
49s
49s
49s
49s
Cal.
Cal.
Fuel
System
carb.
carb.
EFI*
carb.
carb.
carb.
AIR
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
EGR
no
yes
no
no
yes
yes
Ox.
no
no
no
no
yes
yes
* Bosch L-Jetronic
7.3.11.2 Durability Testing
No information provided by Renault.
7^148
-------
7.3.12.3 Progress and Problems
No information provided by Renault.
7-149
-------
7.3.13 Rolls-Royce (RR)
7.3.13.1 Systems to be Used
Systems to be Used - 1977 Model Year
It has been RR's practice in previous years to produce only one emission
control system specification for both 49-state and California usage.
This was due to their relatively low sales volume. For 1977 RR plans to
break with that policy because of claimed driveability and fuel economy
penalties experienced at the 1977 California levels with their 5500 IW
vehicles. The 49-state and California versions will differ in car-
buretor, ignition and EGR calibrations. In addition, the California
system will include air injection. The essential elements of both
systems are:
1. Aluminum V-8 engine, 412 cu. in.
2. Twin SU H1F7 carburetors with RR "mixture weakening device".
3. Lucas Opus high energy ignition.
4. AIR, Saginaw pump (California only).
5. Dual Rochester backpressure modulated EGR valves.
6. Oxidation catalysts (Johnson Matthey 23G).
7. PCV and Evap. systems.
RR had planned to introduce a 444 cu. in. engine for 1977 which would
have had lower brake mean effective pressure (bmep) and slipper type
pistons to reduce friction. RR feels that both changes would reduce
emissions, particularly NOx. .An improved combustion chamber shape was
to have reduced HC. Unfortunately, lead time delays will prevent in-
troduction in 1977.
7-150
-------
The "mixture weakening device" described by RR is supposed to improve
high ambient temperature operation. RR is vague as to how this is
accomplished but it sounds like a temperature compensation device such
as an air bleed.
The EGR system will feature two Rochester integral transducer back-
pressure modulated EGR valves operating in parallel.
Each of the two oxidation catalysts has two 6" x 4" oval monolithic
blocks. Catalyst volume has increased by 30% for 1977.
RR reports that the fuel economy of their 49-state systems for 1977 will
be equivalent to the 50-state 1976 system, 10 mpg urban and 13 mpg non-
urban. Fuel economy for 1977 California is predicted to be 8 mpg urban
and 11 mpg non-urban.
Systems to be Used 1978 Model Year
RRs first choice system for standards of 1.0 NOx and below will be Bosch
K-Jetronic fuel injection with feedback air/fuel ratio control used in
conjunction with a three way catalyst. Proportional EGR will be in-
cluded on this system. RR reports low mileage emission results of .25
HC, 7.0 CO and .75 NOx with such a system.
RR reports work on modulated air injection as an alternative approach to
feedback control of the exhaust gas chemistry for three way catalysts.
RR is working with Deutsche Vergaser Geselschaft (DVG) on this system
which would use a nominally rich engine calibration. The advantage of
this system would be lower initial cost 'because the fuel injection
system would not be required. Fuel economy would possibly suffer re-
lative to a fuel injection system beca^use p|Łthe rich air fuel cali-
bration.
7-151
-------
Another system being considered by RR is the Mobil Low Emission Fuel
(LEF) system. This system distills and stores the light fractions of
the fuel for use in cold starts. RR reports that the LEF system re-
sulted in a 20% reduction in CO emissions during the cold transient
phase (bag 1) of the 75 FTP. The HC effect was not reported. RR in-
dicates that they would not be willing to accept the cost and complexity
penalties of this system except as a last resort.
7.3.13.2 Durability Testing
RR did not report any durability test results for their 1977 or 1978
systems.
7.3.13.3 Progress and Problems
Progress and Problems -. 1977 Model Year
System selection for 1977 seems to have ..been well done. As in years
past, however, RR has not done much durability testing.
Progress and Problems - 1978 Model Year
RR has made some progress in system selection for 1978. RR received a
setback last year when Bosch informed them that their L-Jetronic fuel
injection would not be available for the RR V-8 engine. RR has ap-
parently been successful in switching over to the K-Jetronic for use
with their three way catalyst systems.
7-152
-------
7.3.14 Saab
7.3.14.1 Systems to be Used - 1977 Model Year
Saab's 49-State systems for 1977 will feature Bosch K-Jetronic fuel
injection, proportional EGR and a Pulsair type air injection. This
system is similar to the 1976 California system except for the change
from an air pump to the Pulsair system.
The California system for 1977 will feature the Bosch K-Jetronic fuel
injection in conjunction with a three way catalyst and feedback control
of the air-fuel ratio. The feedback control will employ an exhaust gas
oxygen sensor to maintain a stoichiometric air-fuel ratio for optimum
conversion efficiency of HC, CO and NOx. EGR will not be required.
Saab reports an expected fuel economy and driveability improvement
(versus 76 California systems) for this system.
The Bosch K-Jetronic system is a continuous injection (as opposed to a
timed injection) mechanical system. The rate of injection is regulated
by an air measuring valve which senses air flow.
Saab estimates that the actual added costs for the above 49-State and
California systems are $68 and $194, respectively. The corresponding
sticker price increases were estimated to be $92 and $291.
Table Saab-1 compares Saab's reported fuel economies for their 1977
Federal and California systems with their corresponding 1976 system
results.
7-153
-------
Table Saab-1
System
Trans.
1976 F.E.
Urban Highway
1977 F.E.
Urban Highway
Change 1976 to 1977
Urban Highway
Federal
Federal
Calif.
Calif.
Man.
Auto.
Man.
Auto.
23.1
19.3
20.9
16.7
27.8
22.1
24.2
18.6
23
19.5
21.5
20.75
29.6
26.8
22
-0.4
+1.0
+2.9
+24.2
+6.5
+21.3
+18.3
*A11 data supplied by Saab.
Saab reports that work has been stopped on their Low Emission Fuel LEF
system which consisted of an on-board distiller for generating and
storing the more volatile portions of the fuel to be used in cold
starts. Work has also been halted on the electrically heated fuel
nozzles which had previously shcrtm impressive HC reductions during cold
starts. Saab explained that the complexity of these systems along with
i
some initial problems had caused them to discontinue them. Saab also
stated candidly that at. the 1.5 NOx level, no supplemental systems were
needed.
Systems to be Used - 1978 Model Year
Saab's first choice system for the .41 HC, 3.4 CO, 0.4 NOx level will be
the K-Jetronic with feedback controlled air-fuel ratio. Proportional
EGR will also be used for additional NOx control. As a second choice
Saab would attempt to use a dual catalyst system which would include AIR
and proportional EGR.
Saab estimates that the actual added costs of their first and second
choice system would be $231 and $254, respectively. The sticker price
increases were estimated to be $346 and $381.
7-154
-------
Saab indicated that at the .41 HC, 3.4 CO, 1.0 NOx level, their first
choice system would be a 3-way catalyst system with feedback control of
air fuel ratio and with proportional EGR.
7.3.14.2 Durability Testing - 1977 Model Year
*~ '
Saab reports durability testing of four three way catalyst systems
tailored to 'the 1977 California emission levels. Seven additional cars
are undergoing durability testing to confirm the reliability and dur-
ability of catalysts'--and other emission control1 hardware.
One of the 1977 California systems has completed 50,000 miles. This
vehicle was below the 0.41 HC, 9.0 CO, 1.5 NOx level. The rest of these
three way systems have accumulated less than 15,000 miles. One of the
systems features AIR and an oxidation catalyst in addition to the three
way system.
Durability Testing - 1978 Model Year
Saab did not report any durability testing on systems calibrated for the
.41 HC, 3.4 CO, 0.4 NOx level.
7.3.14.3 Progress and Problem Areas
Progress and Problems - 1977 Model Year
Because of their low inertia weight model line and technical foresight,
Saab is in an enviable position for meeting the 1977 California stan-
dards. Their three way catalyst system with feedback control may show
the combined benefits of improved performance, better driveability and
increased fuel economy. This system was originally intended for intro-
duction in 1978 but will be introduced earlier because of faster than
expected development .progress and changed standards. An important
factor in Saab's* choice of the.'-three ways* system is the fact that they
V, , •
have already^accepted the cost penalty-of 'fuel injection.
c •
7-155
-------
Progress and Problems - 1978 Model Year
Saab has not shown any dual catalyst or three way catalyst system data
on systems targeted at the .41 HC, 3.4 CO, 0.4 NOx level. Saab has
apparently relaxed their efforts at this level because of the uncertainty
of this standard.
7-156
-------
7.3.15 Toyo Kogyo (Mazda)
7.3.15 Systems to be Used
Systems to be Used - 1977 Model Year
Toyo Kogyo (TK) will continue to'market both rotary and reciprocating
engines for 1977. TK scored a 31 percent fuel economy improvement
(combined city/highway) between the 1975 and 1976 models.
TK will further refine their Lean Combustion System (LCS) for the 1977
rotary engines. This system succeeeded the rich thermal reactor system
used on 1975 and earlier model years. For 1977 the LCS will have an
improved intake system and thermal reactor. TK reports that the 1977
rotary engine will also feature acceleration enrichment to reduce NOx
during accelerations. TK claims that it can meet the 1977 California
standards on its rotary engines with practically no fuel economy or
performance penalties. They also indicate that the increase in cost is
negligible. Aside from system calibrations, the only difference between
the 1977 49-State and 1977 California vehicles will be the addition of
proportional EGR on the California automatic transmission vehicles. TK
indicated that it has been working on the ROSCO (Rotary Stratified
Combustion) in parallel with the LCS-II for the 1977. The good fuel
economy demonstrated by the LCS-II at 1977 emission levels and higher
cost of the ROSCO resulted in the decision to stay with the LCS-II for
1977.
TK will equip their 96.8 cu.-in. reciprocating engine with air injection
to meet the 49 State 1977 levels. TK is planning on using proportional
EGR and an oxidation catalyst on their 49 State 77.6 reciprocating
engine. All reciprocating engines to be sold in California in 1977 will
7-157
-------
have air injection, oxidation catalyst and proportional EGR. TK esti-
mates a $30 per unit increase for all 1977 reciprocating engines. The
fuel economy, performance and driveability will be about the same as in
1976, according to TK. ,
Systems to be Used - 1978 Model Year
At the .41 HC, 3.,4 CO and 0.4 NOx level TK is pursuing the development
of two alternative rotary engine systems. One such system is called the
ROSCO. The ROSCO employs fuel injection in conjunction with the naturally
occurring intake charge swirl to achieve charge stratification. The
ROSCO also includes air injection, thermal ractor, and proportional EGR.
TK reports that they have achieved the 0.4 NOx level "in the laboratory."
To overcome the expense of fuel injection TK is developing a system
called CISC (Compound Induction Step Control System). CISC is novel
system which employs two intake ports, a main port on the side and an
auxiliary port on the periphery of the trochoid surface. The auxiliary
peripheral port provides the leading side of the combustion chamber with
a stratified mixture. Both ports are fed by the same carburetor
and apparently receive the same air-fuel ratio. The system also in-
cludes air injection, thermal reactor and proportional -EGR. TK claims
that the CISC system controls both the rate and distribution of EGR flow
and this in conjunction with charge stratification achieves stable
combustion at leaner air-fuel ratios. This sytem is reportedly in the
basic research stage at this time. TK reports that the SCP (Stationary
Combustion Process) which showed a lot of promise previously has been
dropped because of problems with durability and output. This engine
featured a divided construction with a rotating main chamber and a
stationary prechamber.
7-158
-------
TK estimates that the CISC and ROSCO would suffer a 10 percent fuel
economy penalty .(compared with 1976 rotary engines) in meeting the .41
HC, 3.4 CO, and 0.4 NOx standard. Performance and driveability are
!•-, *
estimated to be relatively unchanged at this emission level. The in-
crease in system cost is estimated to be $250. • ,
i f * •
For their reciprocating engines at the .41 HC, 3.4 CO, 0.4 NOx level, TK
reports that,, two alternative systems are being developed. These are a
dual catalyst system and a system called DISC (Divided Chamber Stratified
Charge System). The DISC is similar in principle to the Honda CVCC.
The dual catalyst system will employ proportional EGR in addition to the
oxidizing and reducing catalysts and air injection. The DISC system
features a rich operating prechamber and a lean main chamber. The spark
plug ignites the prechamber which in turn provides torch ignition to the
main chamber. The carburetor provides the two chambers with their
individual air-fuel mixtures via separate intake valves. The main chamber
receives proportional EGR.
TK reports that progress has been made in the development of the NOx
catalyst for their dual catalyst system. However, no details were
furnished regarding its formulation or substrate. The dual catalyst
system is estimated by TK to result in a $100 price increase. The fuel
economy and performance are reported to be "almost the same" as 1976
models.
The DISC engine is also reported to cost an additional $100 over 1976
engines. TK estimates fuel economy and performance to be "almost the
same" but indicates that the displacement would have to be increased to
offset the lower specific output (hp/unit of displacement). Driveability
is claimed to be equivalent to 1976 models.
7-159
-------
7.3.15.2 Durability Testing Program
Durability Testing Programs - 1977 Model Year
TK's durability testing for the 1977 model year is concentrated on the
California emission requirements (.41 HC, 9 CO, 1.5 NOx). Five dur-
ability cars were reported, four with reciprocating engines and one with
a rotary. The reciprocating engines were equipped with an oxidation
catalyst, air injection and EGR. The rotary engine was equipped with a
thermal reactor and air injection. The cars were reported at mileages
ranging from 12,000 to 50,000. One car had exceeded the 1977 California
levels. This was a reciprocating engine car which exceeded the NOx
level at 50,000 miles.
Durability Testing Programs - 1978 Model Year
TK did not report any durability testing with 1978 rotary engine systems.
Seven reciprocating engined cars with 1978 systems were durability
tested. These were all apparently equipped with dual catalysts, air
injection and EGR (TK's system descriptions were not sufficiently clear).
The highest mileage achieved was 30,000. The cars all generally exceeded
the .41 HC, 3.4 CO and 0.4 NOx level at fairly low mileage. CO control
was particularly lacking.
7.3.15.3 Progress and Problem Areas
Progress and Problem Areas - 1977 Model Year
TK is not expected to encounter serious difficulties in meeting the 1977
California Standards (.41 HC, 9.0 CO, 1.5 NOx). Fuel economy is expected
to hold the line or drop slightly at these emission levels. The fact
that TK reported only one 1977 California rotary system on durability is
7-160
-------
a cause for concern but this may be due to a high level of confidence at
TK. This confidence probably also explains why no durability testing of
1977 49-State systems (1.5 HC, 15 CO, 2.0 NOx) was reported.
Progress and Problem Areas - 1978 Model Year
TK has a positive/ attitude toward meeting fuel economy goals and emis-
sion requirements. TK's planned systems for 1978 are technically in-
novative and ambitious. This is particularly true of their rotary
engine systems; The ROSCO system appears to be their primary approach
to achieving the .41 HC, 3.4 CO, 0.4 NOx level. TK has not reported
actual emission data to date but a well optimized stratified charge
rotary engine in a low inertia weight classification should do very
well. The CISC engine, if it works out, will be a major stride forward
in achieving the advantages of stratified charge/lean burn in a rotary
engine without incurring the complexity and expense of fuel injection.
TK's reciprocating engine systems for 1978, while not embodying the same
degree of technical innovation that their rotaries do, nevertheless,
are sound approaches for the .41 HC, 3.4 CO and 0.4 NOx level. The DISC
system will need a good deal of optimization, particularly in regard to
making the best use of EGR. The dual catalyst systems are showing
disappointing durability and CO control at this time.
7-161
-------
7.3.16 Toyota
7.3.16.1 Systems to be Used
Systems to be Used - 1977 Model Year
Toyota will use AIR, ported EGR and engine modifications to meet the
1977 49-State standards. The California system for 1977 will consist of
engine modifications, AIR, backpressure modulated EGR and a pelleted
oxidation catalyst.
Toyota is using exhaust heat conservation techniques on the California
systems to promote the after reaction of HC and CO. An exhaust manifold
insulating heat shroud and double wall exhaust pipe will be used.
Toyota reported that for reasons of safety they have implemented several
measures to avoid catalyst overtemperature conditions. These include an
electrically heated choke, and reduction of air injection flow -during
(1) high speed cruise, (2) on cold start, (3) under heavy load and (4)
when the catalytic bed exceeds a predetermined temperature. Tpyota did
\ . '
not present data showing the effect of these measures. Other manufacturers
^"^adopted measures of this type for reasons of safety.
/" V
/
d
Toyota cost estimates for 1977 and 1978 systems are shown in Table
Toyota-1.
Table Toyota-1
Year System Cost Increase($)
1977 EM+AIR+EGR
EMfAIR+EGR+Oxcat 30-130
1978 P3, P6, P7 200-300
7-162
-------
Toyota estimated that the 1977 standards would not result in any fuel
economy penalties.
Systems to be Used - 1978 Model Year
Toyota is looking at three alternative systems for the .41 HC, 3.4 CO,
0.4 NOx level. The first system, designated P3, will consist of AIR,
proportional EGR, a thermal reactor and an oxidation catalyst. This
system will utilize a rich mixture along with EGR to control NOx. The
thermal reactor is needed in addition to the oxidation catalyst to
control the HC and CO emissions resulting from the rich mixture. The P3
system is judged by Toyota to be less expensive and more durable than
the two following systems but it will have a significant fuel economy
penalty.
System P6 is a dual catalyst system which includes EGR and a thermal
reactor. Toyota has specified the Bosch L-Jetronic fuel injection for
this system along with the Gould GEM 68 reduction catalyst. Additional
NOx control is obtained through EGR and a rich mixture.- The thermal
reactor is used, according to Toyota, to warm up the reduction catalyst
in addition to controlling HC and CO from the rich mixture. Toyota
reports problems with reduction catalyst durability. System P6 should
be capable of better N0x_control than system P3 but fuel economy may be
a problem if Toyota relies on a rich mixture for NOx control.
System P7 is a three way catalyst system. Bosch;L-Jetronic electronic
fuel injection with feedback is used to closely control the air fuel
ratio for simultaneous HC, CO and NOx reduction. EGR would also be
provided with this system. The Bosch L-Jetronic and feedback control
will make this system more expensive but the fuel economy may be signifi-
cantly better than the other systems because of its leaner calibration.
7-163
-------
Toyota appears to favor system P3 because of its lower initial cost and
more proven durability at this time. This system, however, for NOx
levels much below 1.0 may result in too high a fuel economy penalty.
This coupled with recent industry progress with three way catalyst
systems may make Toyota's choice of system P3 look unattractive.
Two new Toyota engine/emission systems, designated TTC-V and TTC-L, have
v
been described recently in the popular press. Inexplicably these engines
were not described in Toyota's most recent Status Report to EPA, dated
December 1975. I
As described in the February 15 issue of Automotive Industries both the
TTC-V and TTC-L engines feature a turbulence generation pot (TCP) located
between the spark plug and intake valve. These engines are shown in
Figure Toyota-1. In the TTC-L system the entire fuel air charge is
lean. The spark plug is located at the mouth of TCP and when the plug
fires the outrushing of gas from the TCP increases turbulence in the
main chamber which reportedly enhances complete combustion and allows
more retarded spark timing. The more retarded timing can be used to
control NOx. The TTC-L system also features exhaust port liners.
exhaust manifold
TCP
combustion ~
chamber
heat-resistant material
Figure Toyota-1
7-164
-------
The TTfr-V system is similar to the Honda CVCC system in that it'employs
an additional inlet valve for the TCP which admits a richer charge than
is input to the main chamber. Here again the spark plug ignites the
rich chamber which provides a torch ignition to the lean main chamber.
It is presumed that the TTC-V engine will run at a leaner overall air/fuel
ratio than the TTC-L.
7.3.16.2 Durability Testing Program
;>u Durability Testing - 1977 Model Year
Toyota was well prepared for the 1977 California standard. Toyota has
extensive experience at the .41 HC, 3.4 CO, 1.5 NOx level because of an
earlier self-imposed goal of achieving this level in 1975. Toyota
reported durability test results for two vehicles with 1977 49-state
systems and 13 vehicles with 1977 California systems. The emission test
data showed Toyota complying with the 1977 standards by reasonable
margins with the cars showing consistent results and low deterioration
factors.
Durability Testing Programs - 1978 Model Year
r
Toyota reported testing on eleven systems targeted for 1.0 NOx and
below. Five of these were the P7 system (three way catalyst), four were
equipped with the dual catalyst P6 system and two had the P3 system
(thermal reactor plus oxidation catalyst). The emission results were
not too impressive except for some of the systems that had just started
to accumulate mileage. The fuel economies and emissions for the lowest
emission vehicles are shown in Table Toyota-2.
7-165
-------
1.3
.29
.34
10
2.38
1.56
2.4
.23
.22
24
19.2
19.3
31
24.0
26.4
Table Toyota-2
Emissions and Fuel Economy of 1978 Systems
97 cu. in. 2500 IW
System HC CO NOx Urban(mpg) High.Qnpg)
1976 Model (49s)
1977 Dual Cat.
1977 Three Way
7.3.16.3 Progress and Problems
Progress and Problems - 1977 Model Year
Toyota has done a good job of system selection and optimization which
should fulfill Toyota's prediction that complying with the 1977 standards
will result in no fuel economy penalties.
Progress and Problems - 1978 Model Year
Toyota is making progress on low NOx systems. Toyota appears to be more
cost conscious than other manufacturers which will likely mean that
system first cost may dictate their ultimate choice. The promise shown
by the unreported to EPA TTC-L and TTC-V engines will likely increase
Toyota's ability to comply with more stringent standards t#an suggested
in their status report. '
7-166
-------
7.3.17 Volkswagen (VW)
7.3.17.1 Systems to be Used
Systems to be Used - 1977 Model Year
The Volkswagen emission control systems will vary with the standards
(Federal vs. California) and type of engine (air cooled vs. water
cooled). For air-cooled engines, VW will use the L-Jetronic fuel
injection system (electronic, timed injection system), mechanically
controlled EGR, and an improved combustion chamber design. The air-
cooled California vehicles will include all of the above plus modified
oxidation catalysts. The modification includes the strengthening of the
catalyst substrate plus increasing cell structure from 200 cells to 300
cells per square inch. For the carbureted water-cooled engines, VW will
use the modified oxidation catalyst, pulsair secondary air injection,
and EGR. Basically, the pulsair system utilizes the exhaust gas pul-
sations, which create momentary exhaust system vacuum to induce air to
the area of the exhaust valve seat to oxidize HC and CO.
The water-cooled carbureted California vehicles will have the modified
oxidation catalyst, an air pump, and pressure controlled EGR system. On
the fuel injected, water-cooled engines the 49-state vehicles will have
vacuum amplified EGR systems, the K-Jetronic fuel injection system (a
mechanical, continuous injection system); while the California vehicles
will also incorporate the modified oxidation catalyst. The EGR system
will use a 15,000 mile warning device to signal EGR maintenance.
VW predicts that the fuel economy of their 1977 models will be as good
as 1976 vehicles. VW provided no information concerning NOx control at
the 1.0 NOx level.
7-167
-------
Other Systems
VW continues to conduct investigations into use of the PCI stratified
charge engine, a methanol fueled engine, and the Diesel engine. To date,
VW has developed and tested both an air-cooled and water-cooled version
of a 1600 cc prechamber injection stratified charge engine. A typical
schematic of this chamber can be seen in Figure VW-1.
Figure VW>-1
The results of emission tests, shown in Table VW-1, indicate that while
the air-cooled PCI had inherent low NOx emissions it was high in HC
emissions. The water-cooled version using a lean thermal reactor was
able to achieve reduced HC emissions but NOx emissions were increased.
Fuel economy from these engines remained competitive with present pro-
duction engines.
On behalf of the West German government, VW continues to do research in
the use of methanol for fueling engines. The results from emissions
testing is summarized in Table VW-1. Work continues on both of these
engines.
7-168
-------
The most promising system reported by VW was their light-duty Diesel
engine. As seen in Table VW-1, the basic Diesel engine has extremely
low HC and CO emissions and NOx levels slightly over 1.0 gram/mile.
However, the best data presented by VW indicates that this NOx level
could be under 1.0. These results are significant from two aspects.
First it shows that at least a small displacement, uncontrolled Diesel
engine can achieve levels below 1.0 NOx with good fuel economy. Secondly,
this engine could potentially achieve .4 NOx with presently available
emission control techniques. These techniques could be as simple as
retarded timing and EGR.
Systems to be Used - 1978 Model Year
VW reported three concepts under consideration for model year 1978. For
their air-cooled engines they are investigating L-Jetronic fuel injec-
tion with an 0~ sensor, 3-way catalyst plus EGR system. For the water-
cooled engines, VW is investigating closed loop K-Jetronic fuel injec-
tion or carburetion with the 3-way catalyst plus EGR system. The
carbureted version will use the 0- sensor to control air injection
rather than the fuel as with the fuel injected engine. In this concept,
the engine would run rich and the closed loop sensor would assure that
sufficient air was injected ahead of the 3-way catalyst to maintain a
stoichiometric mixture necessary for 3-way catalyst operation. VW pre-
sented no cost information regarding these concepts but did stipulate
that there would be a 10% fuel economy penalty. No estimates were given
on system driveability.
7.3.17.2 Durability Testing Programs
Volkswagen's latest status report included a limited amount of pre-
certification durability test data with most of the vehicles having
accumulated in excess of 40,000 miles. From the durability data
7-169
-------
System
Table VW-1
Alternative Engines Studied by VW
75-CVS
(gms/mile)
IW HC CO NOx
MPGu
PCI air cooled
1600cc
2250
2.1-2.5 4.4-8.0 .75-.96 22-26
PCI water cooled
1600cc 2500
i
w/Lean Reactor
.6-.9 3.0-6.0 1.2-1.6 21-24
Methanol fueled
1600cc
2.5
9.5
1.9
Diesel Rabbit
ISOOcc
2250
2250
2250
.19
.11
-
.98
.74
.69
1.19
1.12
1.19
MPG
37.2* 48.2
36.3** 48.4
39.4*** 50.3
"Best" VW Data
2250
.13
,64
.94
43.0
60.2
* #2 Diesel Fuel
** #1 Diesel Fuel
*** VW type 2D Fuel
0 EPA Report No. 76-6 AW . •...•;.
00 yw Data submission to Report ;Team, unspecified fuel injection pump.
7-170
-------
presented, it could be concluded that VW has potential difficulties in
i
meeting the 49-state standards with their air-cooled engine with high
NOx emissions from the lower inertia weight vehicles and high HC emis-
sions from the 3500 IW vehicles. VW should have no problem certifying
their water-cooled engines at the 49-state standards! For the air-
cooled California vehicles, the data indicates the durability vehicles
were not able to meet the .41 HC levels. With the larger vehicles there
exists a potential also for high CO values. VW will have to do further
work to lower these levels.
On the carbureted, water-cooled engine (Rabbit), the average NOx levels
of the durability vehicles exceed 1.5 NOx but there appear to be no
problems at low mileage for the fuel injected water-cooled engine families.
The durability data presented for model year 1978 emission control
concepts indicate that of all the durability vehicles tested so far only
one vehicle with K-Jetronic fuel injection approaches .4 NOx levels.
However, none of these vehicles used EGR. Further work with these
systems is warranted using EGR. Insufficient durability mileage has
been accumulated on the 1978 concept. No costs or fuel economy data
were supplied on these concepts.
7.3.17.3 Progress and Problem Areas
Progress.and Problem - 1977 Model Year
VW continues to conduct research into methods of reducing exhaust emis-
sions while improving fuel economy. Much of their investigation has
been applied to their 1977 model year vehicles, including improved
catalysts, better Bag 1 HC control, improved air injection components,
and improved fuel injection and carburetion. Additional research is
aimed at components like the 0~ sensor and three-way catalysts which
will be utilized for model year 1978. Much of the research conducted by
VW parallels work done by the major domestic manufacturers and indicates
essentially the same results. Although, preliminary pre-certification
7-171
-------
the same results. Although, preliminary pre-certification durability
data would indicate that the air-cooled VW engine could potentially have
difficulty certifying to the 1977 standards, it is concluded that VW
possesses sufficient information and technical knowledge to resolve
their difficulties. However, for the California vehicles they may have
to request a California waiver for line crossing.
Progress and Problems - 1978 Model Year
VW has now conducted durability testing and basic research on three-way
catalyst systems. The limited data to date indicates further work is
necessary to improve catalyst and CL sensor durability. Probably in-
sufficient effort has been devoted to this concept to assure its intro-
duction by model year 1978 because of lead time constraints.
7-172
-------
7.3.18 Volvo
7.3.18.1 Systems to be Used
Systems.to be Used - 1977 Model Year
Volvo markets two engine models, a 130 cu. in. four cylinder and a 163
cu. in. V-6. For their 1977 49-State cars, Volvo's first choice systems
for both the four cylinder and the V-6 will include the Bosch K Jetronic
continuous fuel injection system, breakerless ignition, an oxidation
catalyst and proportional EGR (venturi vacuum amplified). Their second
choice system is identical except for the addition of air injection for
better HC and CO control.
For the 1977 California levels Volvo's first choice system for their
four cylinder will be a three way catalyst system with feedback control
of air-fuel ratio. The Bosch K Jetronic will be modified with a vacuum
actuated servo mechanism which adjusts the air-fuel ratio in response to
an exhaust gas oxygen sensor. In case this system is not sufficiently
perfected in time for certification, Volvo .will use a more conventional
system consisting of a recalibrated 49-sŁat$-;liy8tem. Their V-$. engine
will have a recalibrated 49-state system for, California in 1977. The V-
6 engine presents some installation complications for the three way
system which caused Volvo to delay its transition to the three way
system.
Systems to be Used - 1978 Model Year
For both the four cylinder and V-6 engines at the .41 HC, 3.4 CO, 0.4
NOx level, Volvo will recalibrate their 1977 California three way
7-173
-------
system and -add proportional EGR. As a second choice, Volvo has selected
a dual catalyst system. Table Volvo-1 shows the control systems, fuel
economies and costs as estimated by Volvo for the various emission
levels.
Table Volvo-1
Emission
Level
HC CO NOx
1.5 15 3.1
Control
System
Air, Ox cat.
ported EGR
Price
Increase($)
Fuel Economy Percent
Change from 1976
136
1.5 15 2;0
AIR, Ox cat.
prop. EGR
192
+4
.41 9 1.5
1) Three way' 272
2) AIR, Ox cat "265
prop. EGR yi-
+5
-2
.41 3.4 0.4
1) Three way, Prop.. 422
EGR, Mod. spark.
advance
Other Systems
2) Dual Cat. AIR
Prop. EGR
Volvo has previously reported work on a combined lean choke and
acceleration enrichment system. This system was tailored to a three way
catalyst with feedback system and held promise of holding down cold
start enrichment to the bare minimum. The theory behind this concept
7-174
-------
was to augment the lean choke curve on the Bosch K Jetronic fuel injection
with a short duration pulse of increased fuel flow. This system worked
satisfactorily in early CVS testing but Volvo claims that low temperature
testing revealed unacceptable driveability. Volvo is doing further work
to refine the system.
7.3.18.2 Durability Testing
Durability Testing - 1977 Model Year
Volvo reports durability testing on 15 vehicles equipped with three way
catalysts and feedback air-fuel'ratio control. Five of these have
completed 50,000 miles. The principal purpose of this testing is the
evaluation of the available catalyst formulations, feedback control
system modifications and oxygen sensors. Emission results showed mixed
results with HC control being a problem, along with oxygen sensor durability.
None of the cars that completed 50,000 miles remained below their emission
targets for the full mileage. Durability testing was also reported for
the customary emission control systems.
Volvo is also starting a 20 car fleet of three way system vehicles on
customer usage type mileage.
Durability Testing - 1978 Model Year
Volvo did not report any durability test results for systems calibrated
to the .41 HC, 3.4 CO, 0.4 NOx level.
7.3.18.3 Progress and Problems
Progress and Problems - 1977 Model Year
Volvo remains one of the leaders in three way catalyst technology. In-
spite of their relatively low volume of U.S. sales, Volvo has mounted a
major development and testing program for the t&ree way system which
1 •/. .''... • *.
holds good promise of achieving'stable catalysts-conversion efficiencies
7-175
-------
and sensor durability. As insurance, however, Volvo is also wellbacked
' -V
up with recalibrated 1976 systems in case the three way is not workable
for 1977.
Progress and Problems - 1978 Model Year
Aside from laying out the general approaches envisioned at the .41 HC,
3.4 CO, 0.4 NOx level, Volvo has accomplished little in the way of
development progress. This is probably attributable to the uncertainty
surrounding this standard.
7-176
-------
APPENDIXES
-------
Appendix 1
A copy of the letter sent to the manufacturers, along with the
outline of the information requested, is shown below:
Dear Sir:
As part of its continuing overview of the industry's efforts, and
to implement sections 202(b)(4) and 202(b)(5) of the Clean Air Act, as
amended, the Environmental Protection Agency needs current information
on efforts by automobile manufacturers to meet the 1977, 1978, and
future model year light duty motor vehicle emission standards. Accord-
ingly, pursuant to section 307(a)(l) of the Clean Air Act, you are
requested to provide us with information regarding your development
status and progress toward meeting these standards. This information is
similar to and will update the information which your company has pro-
vided in the past in response to similar requests.
I had mentioned this request for information in my letter to you of
August 5, 1975 in which EPA requested information about sulfuric acid
emission control technology.
The desired information, which is described in the enclosed out-
line, is divided into five main areas: a) information describing the
design of your emission control system, b) information describing your
test and development programs, c) emission data covering both regulated
and non-regulated pollutants, d) fuel economy, and e) cost information.
Additionally, there may be specific questions that apply only to your
company, attached to the enclosed outline.
The information provided by your company should, in general,
follow the enclosed outline. You may limit the information supplied in
response to this request to that information which has not previously
been supplied to EPA. However, if portions of the desired information
have already been supplied to EPA and you wish not to resubmit these,
please indicate the appropriate documents by specific reference.
Al-1
-------
Three copies of your response should be submitted to EPA no later
than November 1, 1975. Responses should be addressed to:
Director, Emission Control Technology Division
Attention: Status Report Team
Environmental Protection Agency
Motor Vehicle Emission Laboratory
2565 Plymouth Road
Ann Arbor, Michigan 48105, USA
We realize that much of the information requested on the 1977 model
year systems may be included in your company's 1977 Part I certification
application. That document, however, is needed by the Certification
Branch, and cannot be made as available to the Status Report Team as is
necessary for the purpose of this report. Therefore, we request that you
include two copies of that document with your response to this letter,
in addition to the other information requested in the outline, and that
wherever appropriate in responding to the outline you reference the
relevant sections of your Part I application for the 1977 model year.
Questions concerning the data requested should be addressed to
Mr. John DeKany, Director of the Emission Control Technology Division,
whose Division has primary responsibility within EPA for acquiring and
analyzing data on the status of technology for automotive emission
control. Also, staff from that Division may contact you for additional
information or explanations, and such requests should be deemed by you
as an integral part of the request for data made by this letter.
Your cooperation in ensuring that the Environmental Protection
Agency receives clear, detailed, and understandable information describing
the efforts of your company in the design, development and testing of
1977, 1978, and future model year emission control systems will contribute
materially to assuring a sound decisionmaking process related to the
implementation of the Clean Air Act.
Sincerely yours,
Roger Strelow
Assistant Administrator
for Air and Waste Management
Enclosure
Al-2
-------
OUTLINE FOR EMISSION CONTROL STATES REPORT
The following outline should be followed in submitting the re-
quested information. Any information not identified in the outline
or the discussion of the outline that you feel is necessary for an
accurate and complete description of the emission control technical
effort of your company may also:be included.
I. Emission Control Systems
A. Identification and description of the entire emission control
system
B. Discussion of system optimization
C. Description of system operation
II. Development and Testing Program
A. Description of test program and organization
B. Test program basis and rationale
C. Test vehicle description
D. Test program status
III. Experimental Data
A. Vehicle data
B. Non-vehicle data
IV. Fuel Economy
A. On the 1975 test procedure ("city" cycle) and on theJEPA
non-metropolitan ("highway") cycle
B. Fuel economy on other cycles
V. Coat Information
A. First Cost
B. . Operating Cost
VI. Confidentiality of Trade Secret Information
Al-3
-------
DISCUSSION OF OUTLINE
Please provide the following information for the applicable model
years and standards discussed below:
Model Year HC CO NOx
1. 1977 49-states 1.5 15.0 2.0
1977 California 0.41 9.0 1.5
/
2. 1978 50-states .41 3.4 0.4
A separate discussion of the outline topics for each of the sets
is requested.
The Agency realizes that no Federally legislated standard for
NOx exists between 2.0 NOx and 0.4 NOx. However, because.of interest
in the NOx level of 1.0 grams per mile, the Agency wishes to receive
from your company a discussion of the 0.41 HC, 3.4 CO, 1.0 NOx levels
in conjunction with your response concerning your development programs
targeted toward 0.41 HC, 3.4 CO, 0.4 NOx.
Answers to the following questions should be included in the
discussion of the 0.41 HC, 3.4 CO, 0.4 NOx development programs.
1. Which systems,\currently under consideration for 0.4 NOx
would also be considered attractive at 1.0 NOx? Please
give the reasons.
2. Which systems currently under consideration for 0.4 NOx
would not be considered attractive at 1..0 NOx? Please
give your reasons.
3. Which systems not under consideration for 0.4 NOx would become
candidates at 1.0 NOx? Again, please give your reasons.
4. What impacts, other than system choice, do you consider
would be attendant with the change to 1.0 NOx from 0.4 NOx?
Consider especially fuel economy, first cost, and maintenance
cost.
Al-4
-------
I. EMISSION CONTROL SYSTEMS
You may recall that last year the Agency specifically requested
information about your efforts in the area of Advanced HC Control
Techniques, and that that section is not included in this year's out-
line. This does not mean that the Agency is not interested in Advanced
HC Control Techniques, however. It was clear from last year's responses
that most manufacturers felt that discussion of such systems or tech-
niques more properly belonged in the section discussing the entire
emission control system. Accordingly, you are requested to provide the
information discussed below for Advanced HC Control Techniques in con-
junction with your identification description of the entire emission
control system. Such techniques include but are not limited to:
improved combustion chamber design; optimization or air injection
systems (including feedback control); improved quick-heat intake mani-
folds; start catalysts; improved catalysts; cold-start HC traps,
on-board fuel preparation systems, such as a still for producing light
ends for starting; and special catalyst light-off techniques.
A. Identification and Description of the Engine Emission Control
System
This should include both a generic and specific description of each
system (first choice and all backup systems) under consideration for the
model year under discussion. If any feature of the emission control
system differs between model lines it should be treated as a different
system. An example might be the emission control systems for a 2000 Ib.
IW vehicle as contrasted to the emission control system for a 5000 Ib.
IW vehicle. An example of a generic model year 1976 emission control
system is engine modifications, EGR, and an oxidation catalyst. The
detailed description should include enough information about the system
to distinguish it from other systems in the same generic category. The
description should be accompanied by engineering drawings and pictures
when appropriate to more fully identify and describe the system or
subsystem. At least the following topics should be discussed and fully
identified.
1. Engine type - reciprocating 4-stroke, rotary, etc.
2. Engine modifications - compression ratio, combustion chamber
shape, valve timing, bore/stroke ratio, spark plug location, etc.
3. Intake system - detailed description of carburetor(s), fuel
injection system, choke and choke control, intake manifold and intake
port.
4. Exhaust port and manifold description.
Al-5
-------
5. Ignition system.
6. EGR system - flow rate as a function of engine speed and load,
type of control, take-off location, introduction location, type of
cooling (if cooled).
7. Air injection - type of pump, supplier, flow rate vs. engine
speed and load, modulation and switching control, location and type of
air injection nozzles.
8. Thermal reactor - type (lean/rich), configuration, materials,
internal flow geometry. "'••...•'•
9. Catalysts - type (reducing/oxidizing), active material
(general) class or specific, (if known), loading and total weight of
each catalyst material and the total in troy ounces per vehicle,, substrate
structure type (monolith/pellet),, substrate composition washcoat com-
position, total surface area of the washcoat, surface area;per displace-
ment of the washcoat, catalyst location, shape and size, geometry,
manufacturer and manufacturer's identification number, nominal space
velocity and space velocity range. .
10. Evaporative emission control system - general description
including degree of use of air cleaner/horn as storage volume, type of
storage material, volume of storage material, purge and fill tube routing,
purge rate, purge controls, and location and design of purge vapor inlet
to the air cleaner/carburetor/exhaust system.
B. Discussion of System Optimization
1. This should include a discussion of the design constraints
within which each system was optimized for emissions. Examples of such
constraints are, fuel economy, safety, cost, driveability, packaging,
maintenance, and performance. Quantitative values should be identified
for all of the constraints for which your company has determined such
quantitative values. Others should be discussed in the manner in which
they were set down for the design engineer.
2. This should provide a discussion of all designs that were not
successful in surviving the optimization studies that your company
performed, giving the criteria by which they failed.
Al-6
-------
3. Of the systems that are under consideration for the model year
being discussed, identify and explain any trade-offs that have been made
within the emission control system. Quantify any examples by including
design calculations or engineering reports. An example might be catalyst
location, where one emission control related trade-off could be the
trade-off between a location close to the exhaust port for fast light-
off vs. a more remote location that might provide a longer catalyst life.
Another tradeoff might be the interaction between increased mechanical
octane (to permit operation on 91 RON fuel at higher compression ratio,
for improved fuel economy) and the desire to reduce engine-out HC
emissions.
4. The Agency considers that there are two primary areas in which
the design and/or'operation of the emission control system might influence
vehicle safety. These areas refer to fuel system/evaporative emission
control design and/or operation and catalyst temperature. To allow the
Agency to understand the emissions/safety interrelationships, please
answer the following questions.
a. At what stage in the research, design, development and testing
phase are the safety aspects of emission control systems
and/or devices considered?
b. What sort of testing and analysis is performed to evaluate the
designs for their likely safety-related performance? Please
give specific examples.
c. List and discuss all changes made to the exhaust and evaporative
emission control systems developed by your company, that were
made because of safety considerations. Include both changes
made during the development process and changes made after the
systems were in production.
5. The discussion of system optimization should also include
discussion of evaporative emission control, with special emphasis on the
interactions between the evaporative and exhaust emission control system.
The Agency knows that there can be interactions between the evaporative
and exhaust emission control systems, and considers the subject area to
be a more important one. for the future, especially at low HC and CO
levels with more effective evaporative emission control systems. More
effective evaporative emission control systems may be required for the
1978 California 6 gram SHED standard, and as you know, EPA has also
indicated its desire to use the SHED procedure in the future.
Al-7
-------
Therefore, you are requested to discuss the optimization of the
entire emission control system, including the evaporative emission
control system. The discussion shall include listing of all tests run
to determine the interactions and a listing of all test results, in-
cluding all SHED tests run on your vehicles with developmental emission
control systems.
6. Discuss any trade-offs or emission control system modifica-
tions that may have been made to improve sulfuric acid emissions.
C. Description of System Operation
1. The sequence of operations of the entire emission control
system during the 1975 Federal Test Procedure should be discussed in
detail, with special attention given to those parameters which vary
during the cycle, for example, spark timing, the choke position, air
injection (if modulated or switched), EGR flow rate, and evaporative
system purge.
As backup information to the general description of how the emission
control system works during the emission test, please provide the following
quantitative information as a function of time during the 1975 CVS-CH
test, starting with "key-on".
a. engine exhaust flow rate in SCFM
b. engine air flow rate in SCFM
c. spark timing-vacuum and centrifugal separately, plus total
spark timing.
d. exhaust gas recirculation rate as a percentage of fresh
inlet air flow.
e. air injection flow rate into the exhaust manifold or pipe.
f. nominal engine air/fuel ratio, as determined upstream of any
aftertreatment device, for example a catalyst or thermal
reactor.
g. exhaust gas temperature before and after any aftertreatment
device.
h. catalyst temperature (if a catalyst is used). The information
may be presented graphically, for example, superimposed on the
speed vs. time trace of the emission test, or in tabular
form, on a second-by-second basis.
Al-8
-------
i. exhaust gas CL level before and after any attertreatment
device.
j. evaporative system condition and purge rate.
The above information is requested for each engine family/emission
control system. If more than one control system behaves the same during
the test, that may be noted. However, control systems with markedly
different characteristics; i.e., proportional vs. non-proportional EGR
or different carburetor metering principles, should not be deleted.
2. The way in which the system operates under the following other
conditions should be discussed; the emissions under such conditions
should be. quantified in III-A below.
a. Operation in low (less than 60 degrees F) or high (greater
than 86 degrees F) temperature ambient conditions.
b. Operation under conditions of speed and/or load which do
not occur during the 1975 Federal Test Procedure.
c. Operation at low barometric pressure, for example, at
elevations significantly higher than sea level.
II. DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING PROGRAM
A. Description of Test Programs
1. This should include a general description of the type of
laboratory or bench scale testing carried out on emission control subsystems
or components.
2. This should include a description of any catalyst screening
tests and the basis for selecting/rejecting catalysts.
3. This should include a discussion of any tests made for optimization
purposes described in I-B above, a general description of the variables
that were changed, the range over which they were varied, and the inferences
drawn from the system optimization tests.
B. Test Program Basis and Rationale
1. This should include general discussion of the use of vehicles
for component testing and trade-off studies, especially as it affects
system optimization. Distinction should be made between vehicles used
for component testing vs. complete system tests.
Al-9
-------
2. This should include a complete description of all vehicle
emission test programs for the model year under discussion, including
the number and type of vehicles, the reasons for choosing the vehicle
mix, the mileage accumulation schedule for each vehicle and the number
of emission tests at each mileage point.
C. Test Vehicle Description
This should include an identification of the vehicle; car line,teat
weight, transmission type, axle ratio and an identification of the
emission control system as outlined in I-A.
D. Test Program Status
This should include a discussion of the current status of each
emission durability vehicle and a comparison of its status with respect
to the original planning. Significant problem areas, if they exist,
should be identified.
III. EXPERIMENTAL DATA
A. Vehicle Data
1. Include 1975 FTP data on all durability fleet vehicles described
in II-B above.
2. Include a description of the reasons for any vehicle not
completing the full scheduled durability mileage.
3. Include a discussion of the driveability and performance of
the test vehicles, again with quantitative data and with quantitative
comparisons to current model year vehicles.
B. Non-Vehicle Data
1. This should include the results from any catalyst screening
tests, with a description of test methodology, and must include the test
results from the catalysts that were selected for the durability vehicles.
2. Include any other non-vehicle data considered important,
such as engine dynamometer studies on the effect of fuel contaminant.s on
catalyst durability.
C. Unregulated Pollutant Emissions
All data developed by your company on the emissions of platinum^
other particulates, and other unregulated pollutants emitted from future
Al-10
-------
emission control systems, and from current vehicles, should be presented.
This includes all data from bench, engine dynamometer and vehicle tests.
A full description of the measurement methods (driving schedule,
sampling and analytical techniques) used to obtain the above information
should be provided.
IV. FUEL ECONOMY'
A. On the 1975 Test Procedure
Provide the weighted 1975 fuel economy for all tests run oh advanced
emission control systems. Use the following formulae for fuel economy
and fuel consumption:
2423
fuel economy in miles per gallon = .866 HC+.429 CO+.272 CXL
Where HC, CO and C0? are the weighted exhaust constituents in grams per
mile for the entire 1975 test, with the same .437.57 cold start/ hot
start weighting as applied to the HC and CO values for the 1975 test
also applied to the (XL values.
235.2
fuel consumption in litres per 100 kilometres =
B. On the EPA Non-metropolitan Driving Cycle
Provide the fuel economy and fuel consumption data for all tests
run using the EPA Non-metropolitan ("Highway") Driving Cycle. Use the
formulae in IV-A, above except that the HC, CO and CO- values in grams
per mile are, of course, not weighted. . ' '
C. Fuel Economy on Other Cycles
If you possess fuel economy data using a different procedure, you
may also submit that data. The test procedure should be specified in
detail, if that information has not been previously/-submit ted to EPA.
V. COST INFORMATION
A. First Cost
1. The cost breakdown should be in the same form as that used by
the National Academy of Sciences Committee on Motor Vehicle Emissions in
Al-11
-------
Table 5-2 of their February 15 j 1973, report to the EPA. This should
also be specific as to what fraction of the various product lines will
require specific devices.
B. Operating Costs
This should include expected extra costs to the.customer over the
vehicle lifetime (assume 50,000 miles) due to:
•1. Fuel and lubricant cost, specifying the miles per gallon fuel
economy assumed for each engine family and a comparison to 1974 model
year vehicles of the same class.
2. Maintenance cost other than catalyst replacement. Such
estimates should break out parts and labor cost separately, providing
the ratios of parts cost for OEM vs. replacement cost. The estimate
should also indicate the expected level of required maintenance on each
major emission control component which results in such costs.
3. Catalyst replacement cost. This estimate should separate
labor and material costs and should give the estimated life of the
catalyst. Material costs should break out catalyst and container costs.
VI CONFIDENTIALITY OF TRADE SECRET INFORMATION
A. Information submitted in response to the request which accompanies
this outline will be deemed to have been obtained pursuant to section
307(a)(l) of the Clean Air Act.
B. This means that only information which "...would divulge trade
secrets or secret processes" will be kept in confidence. (Even this
information will not be kept confidential in two situations: (1) when
the information is emission data, or (2) if and when the information
becomes "relevant" to any proceeding under the Act. See, in particular,
paragraph D.) In order to assure that such information will be kept
confidential prior to any proceeding, you must clearly identify the
data you regard as likely to "...divulge trade secrets or secret processes"
if disclosed, and you must present information to substantiate such
claims. Such claims and supporting information must be submitted at the
time of submission of the requested information or such claims will be
deemed to be waived.
Al-12
-------
C. If the Administrator determines that a satisfactory showing
has not been made that the information would disclose trade secrets or
secret processes, you will be notified by certified mail. No sooner
than 30 days following the mailing of such notice, any information with
respect to which trade secret status has not been established will be
placed in a public docket. Any information as to which the Administrator
determines that a, satisfactory showing has been made will be held
confidential in the period prior to commencement of any suspension
proceeding.
D. As in the case of the previous suspension proceeding, if any
trade secret information becomes pertinent to the issues raised in a new
proceeding on an .application for suspension, it may be disclosed by the
Administrator. In order to retain confidential treatment of such information,
you must show to the satisfaction of the Administrator, that non-disclosure
of such information is justified by "...exceptional considerations", as
that phrase was defined in the course of the previous suspension proceeding.
The showing that must be made is that the information is of such slight
probative value in resolving the issue being considered by comparison to
the harm likely to result from disclosure that public release of the
information is not justified. If the Administrator determines that a
satisfactory showing has not been made, you will be notified by certified
mail. No sooner than 10 days following the mailing of such notice and
telephone notice to a representative of your General Counsel's office,
such information will be placed in a public docket. Any information as
to which the Administrator determines that a satisfactory showing has
been made will be held confidential and will not be considered by the
Administrator in deciding whether to grant or deny a pending application
for suspension.
The date of the responses received from the respective manufacturers
is shown in Table Al-1.
In general, most of the status reports were received later than the
requested date, and not one status report fully complied with all of the
details of the outline, as has been the case in the past.
Al-13
-------
Table Al-1
Date of Receipt of Status
Reports from Manufacturers
(Requested Date December 1, 1976)
Date
Nov. 21, 1975
Dec. 1, 1975
Dec. 2, 1975
Dec..4, 1975
Dec. 8, 1975
Dec. 10, 1975
Dec. 11, 1975
Dec. 11, 1975
Dec. 15, 1975
Dec. 17, 1975
Dec. 18, 1976
Dec. 23, 1975
Jan. 7, 1976
Jan. 13, 1976
Jan. 16, 1976
Jan 23, 1976
Jan. 29, 1976
Feb. 18, 1976
Feb. 24, 1976
April 1, 1976
Report Received from
Jensen
Chrysler
Dresser
Questor
Toyo Kogyo
Honda
Fiat
Yamaha
Volvo
VW
Renault
Ford
Gould
Mitsubishi
GM
Toyota
Nissan
Ethyl
Peugeot
Citroen
Saab
Daimler-Benz
BMW
Rolls-Royce
American Motors
British Leyland
Porsche
Peugeot Diesel SR
Fuji Heavy Industries
Al-14
Comment
Early
Only major one
received on time
1 day late
3 days late
7 days late
9 days late
10 days late
11 days late
14 days late
16 days late
17 days late
Pt. I only submitted
22 days late
37 days late
43 days late
Part I submitted
Status Report not
submitted - delayed
46 days late
53 days late
59 days late
78 days late
84 days late
123 days late
-------
APPENDIX 2
AN ESTIMATE OF THE POTENTIAL BENEFITS OF
IMPROVING COLD-START EMISSION PERFORMANCE
The use of oxidation catalysts in providing control of hydrocarbons (HC)
and carbon monoxide (CO) has been effective. One limit on the use-
fulness of the catalyst is the time immediately after a cold start
during which time the catalyst is below operating temperature. This
problem is accentuated, on the emission test because at this point in
the cycle, the engine-out HC and CO emissions are high, due to cold
start enrichment. That point at which the catalyst reaches operating
temperature is known as "light-off".* If the catalyst would, or could
be made to, light-off sooner than current systems reductions could be
made in HC and CO emissions. A way this could be demonstrated is by a
series of experiments on a representative sampling of automobiles.
Such data are not available. However, an estimate of the reduction in
emissions can and has been made using 1976 Certification results. What
has been done is to investigate the Bag 1 and Bag 3 emissions, primarily.
Various ratios of Bag 1 to Bag 3 and.Bag 1 to total emissions have been
studied to obtain an idea of the importance of quick light-off perform-
ance of the system. Additionally, studies of the DF's for Bag 1 and Bag
3 have been made. These DF studies indicate deterioration in light-off
(Bag 1) and in warmed-up efficiency (Bag 3).
As a surrogate to improved cold-start emission performance, Bag 1 was
replaced by Bag 3 in the calculation of the total test emissions. This
was done to estimate the potential benefits due to improved cold-start
emission control. Whether or not the absolute benefits can be achieved
* Typically the temperature at which 50% conversion efficiency is reached
for HC and CO at a given space velocity for oxidation catalysts.
A2-1
-------
or exceeded is conjectural at this time, but the analysis can indicate
about how much of an emission control benefit may be there.
In the interest of including the greatest number of vehicles possible
vehicles meeting Federal and/or California standards are included.
Because the results are considered on a percent improvement basis any
effects of interaction due to difference in emission level tend to be
minimized. •.
The Federal Emission Test consists of a series of vehicle operating
modes encompassing those most generally experienced during a typical
driving schedule. After suitable preparation, the vehicle is .operated
on a chassis dynamometer for 1372 seconds which is equivalent to 7.5
miles under the dynamometer operating conditions. The first 505 seconds
of operation is termed the "cold transient" portion, the remaining 867
second portion is called the "hot stabilized" portion of the test. The
vehicle is allowed to stand with engine off (soak) for ten minutes and
the vehicle is again operated as in the first 505 seconds of the preceding
test. This is termed the "hot transient" portion. Exhaust gas samples
are taken during the "cold transient" (Bag 1), "cold stabilized" (Bag
2), and "hot transient" (Bag 3) portion of the test. These samples are
tf
indicative of the exhaust gas composition of a vehicle during warm-up
after a cold start (cold transient), operation in a warmed-up condition
(cold stabilized), and operation after a start-up in a warmed-up condition
(hot transient).
The emission results are computed by an equation which is weighted to
take account of proportion of each mode in the operation of typical
vehicles.* The transient mode is representative of operation after a
start-up, either cold or hot, for a distance of 3.59 miles in 505 seconds.
* CFR 86.075-26.
A2-2
-------
The stabilized mode is representative of operation during 3.59 miles in
867 seconds after the transient (hot or cold) mode. Vehicles in repre-
sentative consumer use are considered to be represented by weighting
Bag 1 by 0.43 and Bag 3 by 0.57.
Comparison of cold transient bag analysis (Bag 1) to hot transient bag
analysis (Bag 3) can be used to evaluate exhaust emissions when the
catalyst is at operating temperature earlier in the transient portion of
the test cycle. In all cases studied the Bag 3 values were considerably
lower than the corresponding Bag 1 counterparts for HC and CO. There
was little effect on NOx. However, all of the credit for the lower
Bag 3 values cannot be attributed to the catalyst. This is due to a
warm start-up and this effect must be taken account of in evaluating the
possible benefits of earlier catalyst light-off based on these data.
The next step in the study was to calculate mass emissions as per the
Federal Procedure but using the hot transient (Bag 3) values instead of
using the cold transient (Bag 1) values. These were termed "old com-
posite" (FTP) and "new composite" (using Bag 3). The changes in HC, CO,
and NOx were then computed as "percent reduction" based on the "old
composite". The percent reduction in emissions calculated from sub-
stituting Bag 3 for Bag 1 is shown in Table A2-1.
: i.
The results from the calculations are 'shown 6n the following tables.
For the sake of brevity,the only specific manufacturers mentioned are
GM, Ford and Chrysler. However the "all" category includes all manu-
facturers for which there were data available, with the exception of
Daimler-Benz and Peugeot. Those results were deleted due to the pre-
sence of Diesel data. In passing, it should be noted that Diesels do
not have much of a "cold start" problem.
A2-3
-------
Table A2-1
Percent Reduction in Emissipns Calculated
From Substituting Bag 3 for Bag 1 Emissions
Percent Reduction
Actual Composite - Fabricated Composite
Manufacturer
or System Type
Chrysler
Chrysler
Dodge
Plymouth
Ford
Ford
Mercury
General Motors
Buick
Cadillac
Chevrolet
Oldsmobile
Pontiac
Number Actual Composite
of Vehicles HC CO NOx
22
37
24
94
33
23
10
82
44
18
31.4
26.1
27.4
11.9
20.3
43.1
44.3
37.7
49.2
49.2
59.4
43.9
45.9
44.1
32.4
45.6
80.5
51.1
60.7
70.1
-0.6
0.7
3.6
-0.6
2.9
11.1
5.5
3.7
3.4
-1.3
All non-catalyst 192
All catalyst-no
AIR 174
All catalyst+AIR 265
All catalyst 439
All Vehicles 631
13.2
21.2
1.8
42.0
28.4
33.8
27.5
49.9
54.7
52.8
43.2
3.7
1.4
2.3
2.2
Bar charts of the individual manufacturer results are shown as Figure
A2-1 at the end of this Appendix.
A2-4
-------
Table A2-2
Cold Start to Total Emissions Ratios
Manufacturer
or System Type
Chrysler
Ford
General Motors
All non-catalyst
All catalyst-
no AIR
All catalyst+AIR
0.43 Bag 1 Emissions
Number of
Vehicles
109
330
251
268
244
551
HC
0.49
0.39
0.58
0.34
0.59
0.46
Total Emissions
CO
0.64
0.61
0.68
0.38
0.65
0.67
NOx
0.26
0.23
0.28
0.27
0.28
0.25
Table A2-3
DF's for Bag 1 and Bag 3 Separately
Manufacturer
or System Type
Number of
Vehicles
DF Bag 1
HC CO NOx
DF Bag 3
HC CO NOx
Chrysler
General Motors
All
7
3
10
0.99 0.77 1.00
1.06 0.83 1.01
1.01 0.79 1.00
1.20 1.08 0.99
2.22 1.59 0.93
1.51 1.23 0.97
Only a few data points per vehicle were available, since bag data from
manufacturer tests of durability cars is not reported.
A2-5
-------
Summary
Table A2-1 clearly indicates that benefits are obtainable from better
cold start emission performance. Table A2-2 indicates that for current
systems Bag 1 accounts for about 50 percent of the HC and about 65
percent of the CO of the entire test, depending on the system.
Tables A2-1 and A2-2 can be interpreted to indicate that pelleted catalysts
like GM's have poorer light-off characteristics than some monoliths,
like Ford's. This may be why GM has considered using a start catalyst
and Ford has resisted it.
Table A2-3 can be interpreted in this manner. The DF for Bag 1 can be
thought of as deterioration primarily due to catalyst light-off tempera-
ture increase. The DF for Bag 3 can be thought of as the deterioration
in warmed up catalyst efficiency.
Table A2-3 indicates that the deterioration in warmed-up catalyst
efficiency is greater than the deterioration in light-off performance.
This implies that gains in catalyst hot efficiency are to be desired.
Even though the DF for Bag 1 emissions is low, this does not mean that
improved light-off techniques, like heat conservation, will not help
emissions. Getting the catalyst to warm up quicker has benefits as
indicated in Table A2-1. More data is needed before hard conclusions
can be made about Bag 1 and Bag 3 DF's. Having only a few vehicles and
a limited number of data points as a function of mileage may have af-
fected the results.
Figures A2-2 through A2-4 show that lighter weight vehicles have not
used oxidation catalysts as much as have the heavier vehicles. This is
interpreted this to mean that light weight vehicles have an easier time
in controlling emissions.
A2-6
-------
Figure A2-1
f.'.FAN 3ERCFNT Ph'.'JUCTI'ONS BY- MANUFACTURER"
AMERICAN MOTORS
XXXXXXXXXXXX.XXXXXXXX HC 19. «
nts CO 44.1
NOX -0.0
(CHRYS) CHRYSLER
I
IXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX HC 31.4
\un#tltititt*#ttattHtttl#ttt,tinttH#t>n»tittauntt#nttttttttvtitittKttUUtttttoautta CO 43.9
I« NOX 0.7
I .
I (CHRYS) PLYMOUTH
i
IXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX HC 87.4
I##0#0###0###0*#ff##*#atttf0#**0*«#**0**##*#i>tt0tf*ti CO 45.9
!«««« NOX 3.6
I
I (FO MO CO) FORD
IXXXXXXXXXXXX HC ll.o
l#H#tttt#ttHn.#t>atttl1tttttuaa»tt*avttattttt>ttt:tittunnaat>nnt>tt CO 44.1
»i'NOX --0.6
I
I (FO MO CO) MERCURY
I
IXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX MC ?0.3
I#####0ft#####*tf##*#0#*att«8rftf####a CO 32.4
!««« NOX 2.9
I
I (GM)' BUICK
I
IXXXXXXXXXXXXUXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX HC 43.1
lt,ttt>##n##ttatt$tiatititititttia{tt>ttatiatiBtttitti>ltt>t NOX 11.1
I
I (GM) CADILLAC
I
IXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX riC 44.3
ltltt#nt!tttit>4ttt>titttiktttit>titiBtttifttit;tttti>atfatltittittttilttilia CO 80.5
j oooooo NQX 5>5
I
I (GM) CHEVROLET
I
IXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXX*X"
-------
Figure A2-1 (con't)
MEAN PERCENT REDUCTIONS BY MANUFACTURER
I
I (GM) OLDSMOSILE
I '
ixxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx HC 49.a
I«#00#fM0####«##ft**0####**0«ft#0«etti>iM##ft/>0tttt!ittatltttt*ttttttttttii<*»<'!ttttiVtrttttHttttttttttt,anitttnttttttttit«tttttt1itttttitttittlttttttt CO 82.3
I»«n» NOX 2.7
I . . •
I' ALFA ROMEO
I
IXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX HC 39.7
I###*#######0#########0####«#***#«ft# CO 34.5
I»« NOX 1.9 : •
I
I AVANTI
I
IXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX HC 30.n
UHtlHHHt#1tiHtiHti!iHt#1HHHI1tlHHHI*1t*tHI##»int»tiitttttilll*ltit**» CO 48.1
I»««»«.» NOX 5.8
I
I AUST.IN MORRIS (BLMC)
I
IXXXX HC 4.0
.!########### CO 10.5
I» NOX 1.2
I ,
I BMW
I
IXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX HC 27.7
t###«##*#«#«*###*##tt##« CO 22.3
!««« .NOX 3.2
I
- I BRICKLIN
I-""-.''--
IXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX HC 39.8
ltt»ttnnutttfat,ti»ntt«ttvn't«n#anntt>ianan'(tt#ft«nfi#ttftaattnttnttntHta^ttt>na#itnitn CO 82.4
I«» NOX 2.1
I
I CHECKER
I
IXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX HC 44.3
.ff(»«ri###»##«(«»i»»«# CO *4.3
7.0
-------
V
Figure A2-1 (con't)
PERCENT DEDUCTIONS er MANUFACTURER
i
I MERCEDES 8ENZ
I
IXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX MC 23.4
ltttttttt#ttilttttaUttiittt>tiatiZy3t>uittin«t>nhnBaaaai*uKsttU*a CO 43.9
!»»» NOX . 3.3
I
I FIAT
I
IXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX HC 32.6
•I«##0»####0#««#######tf>l*#0«i> CO 27.1
I«« NOX 1.9
I
I HONDA
i
IXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX HC 16.9
lUttfttiltttttttattttttattttttatiati CO 20.1
»I NOX -1.2
I
I ISUZU
I
IXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXA HC 25.4
\n#ttttit#>ttntaitftttttt»fttaa#att>taaut>rtaua#ttttanttttaaaattaaai CO 46. H
I»» NOX 2.4
l
I JAGUAR (8LMC)
I
IXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX*XXXXXXXXXXXXXX,«XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX MC 51.2
\tt#nn#ntttitt#t»i4tiattatsHttaaa#aTtviimiaittmttittti>ttt:attt>tttttiattn#attttntio»ut>tt'it>p CO 62.5
T«« NOX 2.1
I
I LOTUS
I
IXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX HC 56.7
l#tttttttttttttt#tttit»titiit*ttttUttauti!tai}ittttit!utsaU3an.it!ettttttttijattti#t>att*tttttttttittt>titintttttt CO 65.5
I»«o»».NOX 5.2
I
I NISSAN
I
IXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX HC 19.5
I*#0##00#.<*P##4##*#*0*###0##««<*tt<>*0# CO 33.8
I» NOX 1.4
I
I PEUGEOT
I
IXX HC 2.0
I#0####0*# CO 9.2
I« NOX 3.4
I
I PORSCHE
I
IXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXfff>#*>«>d CO 22.1
!««« NOX 2.9
-------
• Figure A2-1 (con't)
PKHCFMT PH.OJCTIO'MS riY MANUFACTURER
I
I RENAULT
I
IXXXXX HC 4.8
I NOx -0.<»
I
I ROLLS-ROYCK
I
IXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX HC 2fi.7
I" NOX 1.4
I
I SAAB
I
IXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX HC ?0.3
J I«»«» NOX 4.4 '•'
V I
Ł I SS AUTOMOBILE
I
IXXXXXXXA HP r.<*
I»« NOX 1.6 •• • • .
I
I TRIUMPH (HLMO
I
IXXXXXXXXXXXXXX hC 14;3-
I##«i>##0####ft**#i»«###f*«## CO P3.6
I* NOX 0.7
I
I STUTZ
I
XXXXXXXXXXXXXI HC -1?.H
9.1
I
I TOYO KOGYO
I
IXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX HC ?0.7
I*o»»« MOX 4.6
I
I TOYOTA
I
IXXXAXXXXXX/X
-------
Figure A2-1 (con't)
I
I VOLKSWAGEN
I
"tXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX HC 31.8
ltHltttttttitHII>tHit>ttt>#tttttftttttt###ttt>ttt>e*tt*«ttrt!>attat CO 40.2
I
I VOLVO
I
IXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX HC ?5.8
I«» NOX ?.4
I
I AUDI
I
ixx.xxxx,xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx HC es.3
!«»« NOX 2'.8
-I
. -I FUJI HEAVY-INO.
' I
IXXXXXXXXXXXXXX HC , 14.3
'•««I NOX -3.5
-------
Figure A2-2
SCATTER PLOT *»«»»« * FAMILIES w/d CaTatYST >/S T.NFPTIA WKIOHT ALL VEHICLES *»«««»
MS 13 ,)UT Or 1.1 ?.PCTF-«L VS. l.II-J^^WT
PCTFML
i.oono » »
.77778 »
.66667 *
.55556 *
.33333 *
.11111 *
0 .
*«
i??o.n
1750.0
.i??n.o 4250.0 saso.o
??C0.0 375'U 0 4750.0 S750.0
-------
Figure A2-3
SCATTFO PLOT »»«»o« 91 FAMILIES W/0 CATAlYST V^ INERTIA wKJ.'HT ^'3-5TA If (FEDERAL) VEHICLES ««««»«
•>!= 11 OUT OF 13 Z.PCTFML VS. 1.INERWT
PCTFML
1.0000 * »
.88889
.77778 *
.66667
.55556 »
.33333
.32222 *
.11111
0. « « «
1250.0 2250.0 32SO.O 42SO.O 5250.0 INERWT
1750.0 2750.0 37*1.0 47SO.O 5750.0
-------
Figure A2-4
SCATTFR PLOT «««««« * FAMILIES W/0 CfiTA|_YST VS IMF.RTIA WEIGHT CALIFORNIA VEHICLES «««»«»
N= 13 OUT OF 13 2.PCTFMI. VS. l.I
PCTFML
l.ooon » »
.88839 »
.77778 *
.66667 «
.55556 *
.33333 *
.11111 »
0.
* » «
« »
17SO.O
2750.0
4250.0 5250.0
3750.0 4750.0 5750.0
------- |